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THE 


ANIMAL KINGDOM, 


Arranged after its Organijatinn, 


FORMING A NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS, 


AND 


AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


BY THE LATE 


BARON GEORGES CUVIER, 


COUNCILLOR OF FRANCE, AND MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, 


TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF SCIENCE. 


THE MAMMALIA, BIRDS, AND REPTILES, THE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS, 
BY EDWABD BLYTH. BY GEORGE JOHNSTON, M.D. 
THE FISHES AND RADIATA, THE ARTICULATED ANIMALS, 
BY ROBERT MUDIE. 


BY J. 0. WESTWOOD, F.L.S. 


A NEW EDITION, 


WITH ADDITIONS BY W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., AND J. 0. WESTWOOD, F.L.S. 


Eliustratey bo Three Hundred Engravings on ood and Thirty-four on Steel. 


LONDON: 
WM. S. ORR AND C©O., AMEN CORNER, PATERNOSTER ROW. 


MDCCCXLIX. 


G. BEARD, PRINTER; 


5, GREYSTOKE-PLACE, FETTER’-LANE, HOLBORN: 


PREFACE. 


PERHAPS no book was ever so soon, so generally, and with so little envy, 
admitted to take its place at the head of that department of knowledge to 
which it belongs, as the Reane Animat of the illustrious Baron Cuvier. 
This is a high, but a just tribute, both to the work and the author ; for it at 
once showed that the former is what had long been required, and that the 
latter was as much beloved for the kindness and urbanity of his manners, as 
he was admired for the comprehensive range and unprecedented accuracy of 
his views. ; 

It must, indeed, be admitted, that, until Cuvier’s great work made its 
appearance, we had no modern systematic arrangement of animals which 
applied equally to all the Classes, Orders, and Families ;—which brought the 
extinct species into their proper situations in the living catalogue, and enabled 
every discoverer of a new animal, or part of an animal, instantly to connect 
it with its proper tribe or family. Important, however, as are the labours of 
this great naturalist, they could not possibly extend beyond the limits of what 
was known; and as Cuvier was no speculative theorist, but a rigid adherent 
to nature and fact, he kept his system considerably within the limits of those 
who were more speculative, and consequently less accurate. 

For students, no work is equal to that of Cuvier, for it is at once compre- 
hensive and concise ; and though the student may choose a particular de- 
partment, and require books more in detail with reference to that department, 
he must still have the Recnz AnrMaAt to point out to him the general analo- 
gies of the living creation. The present work is a complete Cuvier, as re- 
gards the essential part of the arrangement; and it is not a mere translation, 
but in some respects a new book, embodying the original one. ‘Throughout 
the whole of it, there will be found original remarks; but these are always 
distinguished from that which belongs to Cuvier, by being inclosed within 


brackets. This mode of arrangement was thought to be much better than 


| [Se eee eee 


PREFACE 


the appending of notes, which always divide the attention of the reader, and 
weaken the interest of the subject. Many of the classes and orders have 
been reinvestigated, and many new species added. ‘This is most extensively 
done in the departments which were intrusted to Mr. Biyru and Mr. Wusr- 
woop; but it runs more or less throughout the whole; and the publishers 
flatter themselves that this will be of great service to all students of this 
highly interesting branch of knowledge. ‘The different sizes of type, which 
bear some proportion to the comparative importance of the subject, will 
enable the reader to glean an outline of the system ;—to obtain something 
more than a bare outline, he must read the entire work. 

To these remarks which were appended in 1846 to the first edition, the 
publishers may be permitted to add a few words respecting the present re- 
print. It was not considered desirable to disturb the illustrious author’s 
arrangement by the introduction of a more modern system, nor was it 
thought proper to overlook altogether, in a work professing to give a com- 
plete view of Animated Nature, the results of modern investigation. The 
publishers have, therefore, added supplementary articles to such branches 
as seemed to require it; Dr. Carprenrer kindly supplying what was 
wanting to the Mollusca and Fishes, and Mr. Wesrwoop performing the 
same to his own department of the work. 

In addition to these improvements, the work is now illustrated by thirty 
plates of Animals, etched by Mr. THomas LanpsExEr, and four plates re- 
presenting the different races of Mankind; and the publishers present it in 
its present form in the belief that it will merit public approbation. 


AMEN CORNER, PATERNOSTER Row. 


ee 


$$$ sheer fetter 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION . 
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND 
EDITION ; : . 
INTRODUCTION 
Of Natural History, and of Systema pene: 
rally 
Of living Beings, and of Organization in 
general = 
Division of Organized Beings into ‘Animal 
and Vegetable 
Of the Forms peculiar to the Organic Ele- 
ments of the Animal Body, and of the 
principal Combinations of its Chemical 
Elements 
Of the Forces which act in thie inecanad Body 
Summary idea of the Functions and Organs 
of the Bodies of Animals, and of their 
various degrees of complication 5 
Of the Intellectual Functions of Animals 
Of Method, as applied to the Animal King- 
dom 6 A 
General Distribution of the Animal King- 
dom into four great Divisions—Vertebrate 
Animals, Molluscous Animals, Articulate 
Animals, Radiate Animals 5 
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS 
Subdivision into four Classes 
MAMMALIA . 
Division into Orders 
BIMANA, or MAN 
Peculiar Conformation of Man : 
Physical and Moral ean of 
Man : 
Varieties of the Biuman Species | 
QUADRUMANA 
Monkey-like Animals 
Monkeys of America : 
CARNARIA ¢ ‘ . C 
Cheiroptera 
Insectivora 
Carnivora 
MARSUPIATA 
RODENTIA 
EDENTATA 
Ordinary Edentata 
Monotremata 
PACHYDERMATA 
Proboscidea 5 
Ordinary Pachydermata 
Solidungula é A 


RUMINANTIA 
Without horns ; a . 
With horns : A . 
CETACEA 
Herbivora , ; = 
Ordinaria 3 > 
ANALOGIES OF THE Teer OF Me 
MALIA 
OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATES IN GENE- 
RAL 
AVES 6 
Division into Griecs 
ACCIPITRES O 
Diurnal Birds of Prey 
Nocturnal Birds of Prey 
PASSERINE 
Dentirostres 
Fissirostres 
Conirostres 
Tenuirostres : 
Syndactyli X é 
ScANSORES 
AFFINITIES OF THE THREE PRECEDING 
ORDERS C ° : Q 
GALLINE 
GRALLZ 5 é . 
Brevipennes : ° : 
Pressirostres 
Cultrirostres 
Longirostres : 
Macrodactyli 
PALMIPEDES 4 5 
Brachypteres A : 
Longipennes > < = 
Totipalmati 4 5 A 
Lamellirostres z ‘ 
REPTILIA : n : 
CHELONIA 
SAURIA ° 
The Crocodiles 
The Lizards 
The Iguanas 
The Geckotians : 
The Chameleons a 
The Scindoidiens 
OPHIDIA 
The Orvets 
The True Serpents 
The Naked Serpents 
BATRACHIA . 


Page 
134 
135 
136 
144 
145 
145 


150 


153 
154 
162 
163 
163 
172 
177 
178 
194 
196 
206 
209 
211 


220 
223 
231 
232 
234 
237 
242 
247 
251 
251 
255 
259 
261 
267 
269 
272 
272 
274 
275 
277 
278 
278 
280 
280 
280 
285 
285 


vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Page 

PISCES = . : 3 c 289 
ACANTHOPTERYGII : 6 292 
Percide & c 293 
Fishes with hard checest . 6 294 
Scienide 5 A : - 295 
Sparide - . : 296 
Menidez A 5 A é 296 
Squamipennes : F é 296 
Scomberidz 4 4 ; F 298 
Tenide . A - 302 
Theutyes . . 303 
Labyrinthiform Pharyngeals : : 303 
Mugilide : . 5 304 
Gobiode : 3 3 5 305 
Pectorales pedunculati ° C 308 
Labride . 4 5 . C 309 
Fistularide : * 5 311 
MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINATES : 312 
Cyprinide : . - : 313 
Esocide . Z : : : 314 
Siluride . . . C F 316 
Salmonide c ; : : 318 
Clupeide 0 6 0 320 
MALACOPTERYGII SUBBRACHIATI ¢ 321 
Gadide . A C : 5 322 
Pleuronectide . ; c 4 323 
Discoboli . : c 3 324 
MALACOPTERYGIi APODA : < 325 
LOPHOBRANCHII . ; : iS 326 
PLECTOGNATHI - 5 c A 327 
Gymnodontes 6 5 0 6 327 
Sclerodermi 5 5 328 
CHONDROPTERYGII BAN GETe sents 330 
CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIs 331 
Selachii . f 5 : 4 331 
Cyclostomata : : . . 333 
MOLLUSCA é 6 5 : $ 335 
Division into Classes . 5 ; : 337 
CEPHALOPODES . : > : 337 
PTEROPODES : c 3 . 343 
GASTEROPODES . - A : 344 
PULMONEA 5 5 5 A 347 
NUDIBRANCHIATA : 5 351 
INFEROBRANCHIATA 5 3 353 
TECTIBRANCHIATA Q 6 5 353 
HETEROPODA : ' O : 356 
PECTINIBRANCHIATA 5 A cC 357 
Trochoides . 5 A C 358 
Capuloides ° Cc 5 361 
Buccinoides ; A . ; 362 
TUPULIBRANCHIATA ° c : 367 
ScuTIBRANCHIATA 0 . 5 368 
CyYCLOBRANCHIATA ; O 369 
ACEPHALES S 6 ° C 369 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA s : : 370 
The Oysters : 5 “ c 371 
Mytilacee ° . ° : 375 
Camacea . c 0 C : 376 
Cardiacea é é . g 377 
Inclusa : ; : : 379 
ACEPHALA NUDA : 5 382 
Segregata . : 5 : 382 
Aggregata . . : 383 
BRACHIOPODES . 5 ; 384 
CIRRHOPODES ; ; F ; 385 
ARTICULATED ANIMALS 5 i 387 
Division into Classes 5 a 5 388 
ANNELIDES ‘ . zi 5 389 
Division into Orders 5 . . 389 
TUBICOLR 5 ° 5 5 391 


DoRSIBRANCHIATA 
Abranchia 
Setigera 
Asetigera 


ARTICULATED ANIMALS | WITH ARTICU- 


LATED FEET 
Introduction, by Latreille 
Divided into Classes . 
CRUSTACEA MALACOSTRACA 
A. Eyes placed on a footstalk 
DECAPODA 2 
Brachyura 
Macrura 
STOMAPODA S 
Unipeltata ‘5 . 
Bipeltata 
B. Eyes sessile and Ten Oy eats 
AMPHIPODA 
LZ=MODIPODA 
TsoPpOoDA 
CRUSTACEA ENTOMOSTRACA 
BRANCHIOPODA 
Lophyropa 
Phyllopa 
Peecilopoda 
Xyphosura 
Siphonostoma 
TRILOBITES 
ARACHNIDA 
PULMONARIA 
The Spiders . 
The Pedipalpi : ° 
TRACHEARIZ c 
The Pseudo-Scorpiones 
The Pycnogonides 
The Holetra 


INSECTA C ; 
MyYRIAPODA e 5 
Chilognatha 2 . 
Chilopoda < . 
THYSANOURA : ° 
Lepismene fs ° 
Podurelle 
PARASITA : 5 
SucTORIA : c 
COLEOPTERA 
PENTAMERA 
Carnivora C 
Brachelytra 
Serricornes 
Clavicornes 
Palpicornes 


Lamellicornes 
HETEROMERA 

Melasoma : = 

Taxicornes 5 

Stenelytra 5 : 

Trachelides 
TETRAMERA 

The Weevils 

Xylophagi 

Platysoma 

Longicornes 

Eupoda 

Cyclica 

Clavipalpi 
TRIMERA 

Fungicole 

Aphidiphagi 

Pselaphi 


ORTHOPTERA 5 . 
Cursoria 
Saltatoria , 5 
HEMIPTERA ; 5 5 
HETEROPTERA 
Geocorise 
Hydrocorise 
HoMOPTERA 
Cicadarie 
Aphidii 
Gallinsecta 
NEUROPTERA 
Subulicornes 
Planipennes 
Plicipennes . C 
HYMENOPTERA : : 
TEREBRANTIA : 5 
Securifera : : : 
Pupivora : . . 
ACULEATA 5 : C 
Heterogyna : . 
Fossores : 6 o 
Diploptera é - ° 
Mellifera : 6 C 
LEPIDOPTERA 
Diurna C c : 
Crepuscularia ; 5 ° 
Nocturna 
RHIPIPTERA 
DIPTERA 
Nemocera - 
Tanystoma ¢ 


Page 
PISCES.—Professors Agassiz and Miiller’s Clas- 


sification of Fishes 
GANOIDEANS . - 
PLACOIDEANS . 
CTENOIDEANS . 
CYCLOIDEANS . 
MOLLUSCA 
CEPHALOPODA 
TUNICATA 
CRUSTACEA 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
Page 
556 Tabanides 
557 Notacantha 
560 Athericera 
562 Pupipara 
563 RADIATA : : 
563 ECHINODERMATA 
566 PEDICELLATA 
567 Asterias 
567 Echinus 
570 Holothuria 
572 APODA 
573 ENTOZOA 
574 NEMATOIDEA 
577 PARENCHYMATA 
580 Acanthocephala 
581 | Tremadotea 
582 Tenioidea 
582 Cestoidea 
585 ACALEPHA 
591 SIMPLICIA 
2 591 Hydrostatica 
: 593 POLYPI 
596 CARNOSI 
598 GELATINOSI 
603 COoRALLIFERI 
605 Tubularia 
608 Cellularia 
609 Corticati 
614 INFUSORIA 
615 ROTIFERA 
617 HoMOGENEA 
621 
APPENDIX. 
ARACHNIDA 
661 | INSECTA 
661 | RADIATA 
66L ECHINODERMATA 
661 ACALEPH& 
661 BRYOZOA 
665 ANTHOZOA 
667 INFUSIORIA 
669 HOMOGENEA 


673 


vii 


Page 
674 
675 
691 
691 
695 
698 
700 


705 


707 


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PORTRAIT OF CUVIER—Vignette. 


Plate I. — GIRAFFE . 


II. — CAUCASIAN RACE 


III. — MONGOLIAN RACE 


Iv. — AMERICAN RACE 


Vv. — NEGRO RACE . 


VI. — MONKEYS 


Vu. — BABOONS. . 


VIII. — LEMURS . 


IX. — BEARS . . 


X.— DOGS . . 


XI. — ICHNEUMONS ° 


XII. — CATS 


LIST OF PLATES. 


XIII. — AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS 


XIV. — HIPPOPOTAMUS 


XV. — RHINOCEROS 


XVI. — HORSES 


XVII. — CAMELS . 


XVIII. — DEER . 


Frontispiece. 


Page 49 


50 


51 


52 


57 


59 


63 


. 83 


90 


. 93 


95 


. 98 


130 


. 131 


133 


. 135 


Plate. 
XIX. 


XX. 


XXI. 


XXII. 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 


XXV. 


XXVI. 


XXVII. 


XXVIII. 


XXIX. 


XXX. 


XXXI. 


XXXII. 


XXXII. 


— ANTELOPES 


— GOATS 


— SHEEP 


— BRAHMIN BULL 


— VULTURES 


— EAGLES 


— OWLS 


— HUMMING BIRDS 


— PARROTS 


— OSTRICH 


— DUCKS 


— REPTILES 


— BEETLES . 


— ORTHOPTEROUS 


— BUTTERFLIES © 


LIST OF PLATES. 


INSECTS 


Amel Mio Ao TL ok tdeNe Gi) c@» Mi. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


Havine been devoted, from my earliest youth, to the study of comparative anatomy, 
that is to say of the laws of the organization of animals, and of the modifications 
which this organization undergoes in the various species, and having, for nearly thirty 
years past, consecrated to that science every moment of which my duties allowed me 
to dispose, the constant aim of my labours has been to reduce it to general rules, and 
to propositions that should contain their most simple expression. My first essays soon led 
me to perceive that I could only attain this object in proportion as the animals, whose 
structure I should have to elucidate, were arranged in conformity with that structure, 
so that under one single name, of class, order, genus, &c., might be embraced all those 
species which, in their internal as well as exterior conformation, present accordancies 
either more general or more particular. Now this is what the greater number of 
naturalists of that epoch had never sought to effect, and what but few of them could 
have achieved, even had they been willing to try; since a parallel arrangement presup- 
poses a very extensive knowledge of the structures, of which it ought, in some measure, 
to be the representation. 

It is true that Daubenton and Camper had supplied facts,—that Pallas had indicated 
views ; but the ideas of these well-informed men had not yet exercised upon their 
contemporaries the influence which they merited. The only general catalogue of 
animals then in existence, and the only one we possess even now,—the system of 
Linnxus,—had just been disfigured by an unfortunate editor, who did not so much as 
take the trouble to comprehend the principles of that ingenious classifier, and who, 
wherever he found any disorder, seems to have tried to render it more inextricable. 

It is also true that there were very extensive works upon particular classes, which 
had made known a vast number of new species; but their authors barely con- 
sidered the external relations of those species, and no one had employed himself 
in co-arranging the classes and orders according to their entire structure: the cha- 
racters of several classes remained false or incomplete, even in justly celebrated 
anatomical works; some of the orders were arbitrary; and in scarcely any of these 
divisions were the genera approximated conformably to nature. 


bo 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 


I was necessitated then,— and the task occupied considerable time,— I was com- 
pelled to make anatomy and zoology, dissection and classification, proceed beforehand ; 
to seek, in my first remarks on organization, for better principles of distribution ; 
to employ these, in order to arrive at new remarks ; and in their turn the latter, to 
carry the principles of distribution to perfection: in fine, to elicit from the mutual 
reaction of the two sciences upon each other, a system of zoology adapted to serve as 
an introduction and a guide in anatomical researches, and a body of anatomical doctrine 
fitted to develope and explain the zoological system. 

The first results of this double labour appeared in 1795, in a special memoir upon a 
new division of the white-blooded animals. A sketch of their application to genera, 
and to the division of these into sub-genera, formed the object of my Tableau 
Elémentaire des Animauz, printed in 1798, and I improved this work, with the assistance 
of M. Dumeril, in the tables annexed to the first volume of my Lecons d’ Anatomie 
Comparée, in 1800. 

I should, perhaps, have contented myself with perfecting these tables, and proceeded 
immediately to the publication of my great work on anatomy, if, in the course of my 
researches, I had not been frequently struck with another defect of the greater number 
of the general or partial systems of zoology ; I mean, the confusion in which the want 
of critical precision had left a vast number of species, and even many genera. 

Not only were the classes and orders not sufficiently conformed to the intrinsical 
nature of animals, to serve conveniently as the basis to a treatise on comparative 
anatomy, but the genera themselves, though ordinarily better constituted, offered but 
inadequate resources in their nomenclature, on account of the species not having 
been arranged under each of them, conformably to their characters. ‘Thus, in placing 
the Manati in the genus Morse, the Siren in that of the Eels, Gmelin had rendered any 
general proposition rejative to the organization of these genera impossible ; just as by 
approximating in the same class and in the same order, and placing side by side, the 
Cuttle and the fresh-water Polypus, he had made it impossible to predicate anything 
generally of the class and order which comprised such incongruous beings. 

I select the above examples from among the most prominent; but there existed 
an infinitude of such mistakes, less obvious at the first glance, which occasioned incon- 
veniences not less real. 

It was not sufficient, then, to have imagined a new distribution of the classes and 
orders, and to have properly placed the genera; it was also necessary to examine all 
the species, in order to be assured that they really belonged to the genera in which 
they had been placed. 

Having come to this, I found not only species grouped or dispersed contrary to all rea- 
son, but I remarked that many had not been established in a positive manner, either 
by the characters which had been assigned to them, or by their figures and descriptions. 

Here one of them, by means of synonymes, represents several under a single name, 
and often so different that they should not rank in the same genus: there a single 
one is doubled, tripled, and successively reappears in several sub-genera, genera, and 
sometimes different orders. 

What can be said, for example, of the Trichechus manatus of Gmelin, which, under 
a single specific name, comprehends three species and two genera,—two genera differing 
in almost everything ¢ By what name shall we speak of the Velella, which figures 


DS 
<=) f 
ame’ 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 3 


twice among the Meduse and once among the Holothurieé ? How are we to reassemble 
the Biphore, of which some are there called Dagysa, the greater number Salpa, while 
several are ranged among the Holothurie ? 

It did not therefore suffice, in order completely to attain the object aimed at, to 
review the species: it was necessary to examine their synonymes; or, in other words, 
to re-model the system of animals. 

Such an enterprize, from the prodigious developement of the science of late years, 
could not have been executed completely by any one individual, even granting him 
the longest life, and no other occupation. Had I been constrained to depend upon 
myself alone, I should not have been able to prepare even the simple sketch which 
I now give; but the resources of my position seemed to me to supply what I 
wanted both of time and talent. Living in the midst of so many able naturalists, 
drawing from their works as fast as they appeared, freely enjoying the use of the 
collections they had made, and having myself formed a very considerable one, ex- 
pressly appropriated to my object, a great part of my labour consisted merely in the 
employment of so many rich materials. It was not possible, for instance, that much 
remained for me to do on shells, studied by M. de Lamarck, nor on quadrupeds, described 
by M. Geoffroy. The numerous and new affinities described by M. de Lacepéde, were 
so many data for my system of fishes. M. Levaillant, among so many beautiful birds 
collected from all parts, perceived details of organization which I immediately adapted 
to my plan. My own researches, employed and fructified by other naturalists, yielded 
results to me which, in my hands alone, they would not all have produced. So, also, 
M. de Blainville and M. Oppel, in examining the cabinet which I had formed of 
anatomical preparations on which I designed to found my divisions of reptiles, anti- 
cipated—and perhaps better than I should have done—results of which as yet I had 
but a glimpse, &c., &c. 

Encouraged by these reflections, I determined to precede my Treatise on Com- 
parative Anatomy by a kind of abridged system of animals, in which I should present 
their divisions and subdivisions of all degrees, established in a parallel manner upon 
their structure, both internal and external ; where I would give the indication of well- 
authenticated species that belonged, with certainty, to each of the subdivisions ; and 
where, to create more interest, I would enter into some details upon such of the 
species as, from their abundance in our country, the services which they render 
us, the damage which they occasion to us, the singularity of their manners and economy, 
their extraordinary forms, their beauty, or their magnitude, are the most remarkable. 

I hoped by so doing to prove useful to young naturalists, who, for the most part, 
have but little idea of the confusion and errors of criticism in which the most accredited 
works abound, and who, particularly in foreign countries, do not sufficiently attend to 
the study of the true relations of the conformation of beings: I considered myself as 
rendering a more direct service to those anatomists, who require to know beforehand 
to which orders they should direct their researches, when they wish to solve by com- 
parative anatomy some problem of human anatomy or physiology, but whose ordinary 
occupations do not sufficiently prepare them for fulfilling this condition, which is essen- 
tial to their success. 

Nevertheless, I have not professed to extend this twofold view equally to all classes 


of the animal kingdom ; and the vertebrated animals, as in every sense the most in- 
Bio 


= ey 
———— 


4 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


teresting, claimed to have the preference. Among the Invertebrata, I have had more 
particularly to study the naked mollusks and the great zoophytes ; but the innumerable 
variations of the external forms of shells and corals, the microscopic animals, and the 
other families which perform a less obvious office in the economy of nature, or whose 
organization affords but little room for the exercise of the scalpel, did not require to 
be treated with the same detail. Independently of which, so far as the shells and 
corals are concerned, I could depend on a work just published by M. de Lamarck, in 
which will be found all that the most ardent desire for information can require. 

With respect to insects, so interesting by their external forms, their organization, 
habits, and by their influence on all living nature, I have had the good fortune to find as- 
sistance which, in rendering my work infinitely more perfect than it could have been had 
it emanated solely from my pen, has, at the same time, greatly accelerated its publica- 
tion. My colleague and friend, M. Latreille, who has studied these animals more 
profoundly than any other man in Europe, has kindly consented to give, in a single 
volume, and nearly in the order adopted for the other parts, a summary of his immense 
researches, and an abridged description of those innumerable genera which entomolo- 
gists are continually establishing. 

As for the rest, if in some instances I have given less extent to the exposition of 
sub-genera and species, this inequality has not occurred in aught that concerns the 
superior divisions and the indications of affinities, which I have every where founded on 
equally solid bases, established by equally assiduous researches. 

I have examined, one by one, all the species of which I could procure specimens ; I 
have approximated those which merely differed from each other in size, colour, or in 
the number of some less important parts, and have formed them into what I designate 
a sub-genus, 

Whenever it was possible, I have dissected at least one species of each sub-genus ; 
and if those be excepted to which the scalpel cannot be applied, there exists in my 
work but very few groups of this degree, of which I cannot produce some considerable 
portion of the organs. 

After having determined the names of the species which I had examined, and which 
had previously been either well figured or well described, I placed in the same sub- 
genera those which I had not seen, but whose exact figures, or descriptions, sufficiently 
precise to leave no doubt of their natural relations, I found in authors; but I have 
passed over in silence that great number of vague indications, on which, in my opinion, 
naturalists have been too eager to establish species, the adoption of which has mainly 
contributed to introduce into the catalogue of beings, that confusion which deprives it 
of so much of its utility. 

I could have added, almost every where, a vast number of new species; but as I 
could not refer to figures, it would have been incumbent on me to extend their descrip- 
tions beyond what space permitted: I have, therefore, preferred depriving my work of 
this ornament, and have only indicated those, the peculiar conformation of which gives 
rise to new sub-genera. 

My sub-genera once established on positive relations, and composed of well-authen- 
ticated species, it remained only to construct this great scaffolding of genera, tribes, 


families, orders, classes, and primary divisions, which constitute the entire animal 
kingdom. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 5 


In this I have proceeded, partly by ascending from the inferior to the superior divi- 
sions, by means of approximation and comparison ; and partly also by descending from 
the superior to the inferior groups, on the principle of the subordination of characters ; 
comparing carefully the results of the two methods, verifying one by the other, and 
always sedulously establishing the correspondence of external and internal structure, 
which, the one as well as the other, are integral parts of the essence of each animal. 

Such has been my procedure whenever it was necessary and possible to introduce 
new arrangements ; but I need not observe that, in very many places, the results to 
which it would have conducted me had already been so satisfactorily obtained, that I 
had only to follow the track of my predecessors. Notwithstanding which, even in 
those cases where no alteration was required, I have verified and confirmed, by new 
observations, what was previously acknowledged, and what I did not adont until it had 
been subjected to a rigorous scrutiny. 

The public may form some idea of this mode of examination, from the memoirs on the 
anatomy of mollusks, which have appeared in the Annales du Museum, and of which I 
am now preparing a separate and augmented collection. I venture to assure the reader 
that I have bestowed quite as extensive labour upon the vertebrated animals, the anne- 
lides, the zoophytes, and on many of the insects and crustaceans. I have not deemed it 
necessary to publish it with the same detail; but all my preparations are exposed in 
the Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy in the Jardin du Roi, and will serve hereafter 
for my treatise on anatomy. 

Another very considerable labour, but the details of which cannot be so readily 
authenticated, is the critical examination of ‘species. I have verified all the figures 
alleged by different authors, and as often as possible referred each to its true species, 
previously to selecting those which I have indicated: it is entirely from this verifica- 
tion, and never from the classification of preceding systematists, that I have referred to 
my sub-genera the species that belong to them. Such is the reason why no astonish- 
ment should be experienced on finding that such and such a genus of Gmelin is now 
divided, and distributed even in different classes and still higher divisions ; that nume- 
rous nominal species are reduced to a single one, and that popular names are very 
differently applied. There is not one of these changes which I am not prepared to 
justify, and of which the reader himself may not obtain the proof, by recurring to the 
sources which I have indicated. 

In order to lessen his trouble, I have been careful to select for each class a principal 
author, generally the richest in good original figures; and I quoted secondary works 
only where the former are deficient, or where it was useful to establish some com- 
parison, for the sake of confirming synonymes. 

My subject could have been made to fill many volumes; but I considered it my 
duty to condense it, by imagining abridged means of expression. These I have 
obtained by graduated generalities. By never repeating for a species that which might 
be said of an entire sub-genus, nor for a genus what might be applied to a whole 
order, and so on, we arrive at the greatest economy of words. To this my endeavours 
have been, above all, particularly directed, inasmuch as it was the principal end of 
my work. It may be remarked, however, that I have not employed many technical 
terms, and that I have endeavoured to communicate my ideas without that barbarous 
array of fictitious words, which, in the works of so many modern naturalists, prove 


6 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


so very repulsive. I cannot perceive, however, that I have thereby lost any thing in 
precision or clearness. 

I have been compelled, unfortunately, to introduce many new names, although I 
have endeavoured, as far as possible, to preserve those of my predecessors; but the 
numerous sub-genera I have established required these denominations ; for in things 
so various, the memory is not satisfied with numerical indications. I have selected 
them, so as either to convey some character, or among the common names which I 
have latinized, or lastly, after the example of Linneus, from among those of mytho- 
logy, which are generally agreeable to the ear, and which we are far from having 
exhausted. 

In naming species, however, I would nevertheless recommend employing the sub- 
stantive of the genus, and the trivial name only. The names of the sub-genera are 
designed merely as a relief to the memory, when we would indicate these sub- 
divisions in particular. Otherwise, as the sub-genera, already very numerous, will in 
the end become greatly multiplied, in consequence of having substantives continually 
to retain, we shall be in danger of losing the advantages of that binary nomenclature 
so happily imagined by Linneeus. 

It is the better to preserve it that I have dismembered as little as possible the great 
genera of that illustrious reformer of science. Whenever the sub-genera into which 
I divide them were not to be translated into different families, I have left them together 
under their former generic appellation. This was not only due to the memory of 
Linnzeus, but was necessary in order to preserve the mutual intelligence of the 
naturalists of different countries. 

To facilitate still more the study of this work,—for it is to be studied more than to be 
glanced over,—I have employed different-sized types in the printing of it, to correspond 
to the different grades of generalization of the statements contained in it. * * * 
Thus the eye will distinguish beforehand the relative importance of each group, and the 
order of each successive idea ; and the printer will second the author with every con- 
trivance which his art supplies, that may conduce to assist the memory. 

The habit, necessarily acquired in the study of natural history, of mentally classify- 
ing a great number of ideas, is one of the advantages of this science, which is seldom 
spoken of, and which, when it shall have been generally introduced into the system of 
common education, will perhaps become the principal one: it exercises the student in 
that part of logic which is termed method, as the study of geometry does in that 
which is called syllogism, because natural history is the science which requires the 
most precise methods, as geometry is that which demands the most rigorous reason- 
ing. Now this art of method, when once well acquired, may be applied with infinite 
advantage to studies the most foreign to natural history. Every discussion which sup- 
poses a classification of facts, every research which requires a distribution of matters, 
is performed after the same manner; and he who had cultivated this science merely 
for amusement, 1s surprised at the facilities it affords for disentangling all kinds of 
affairs. 

It is not less useful in solitude. Sufficiently extens:ve to satisfy the most powerful 
mind, sufficiently various and interesting to calm the most agitated soul, it consoles 
the unhappy, and tends to allay enmity and hatred. Once elevated to the contem- 
plation of that harmony of Nature irresistibly regulated by Providence, how weak and 


ipennl ed) ae 2 ee SS 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 7 


trivial appear those causes which it has been pleased to leave dependent on the will of 
man! How astonishing to behold so many fine minds, consuming themselves, so 
uselessly for their own happiness and that of others, in the pursuit of vain combina- 
tions, the very traces of which a few years suffice to obliterate ! 

I avow it proudly, these ideas have been always present to my mind,—the companions 
of my labours; and if I have endeavoured by every means in my power to advance 
this peaceful study, it is because, in my opinion, it is more capable than any other of 
supplying that want of occupation, which has so largely contributed to the troubles of 
our age ;—but I must return to my subject. 

There yet remains the task of accounting for the principal changes I have effected 
in the latest received methods, and to acknowledge the amount of obligation to those 
naturalists, whose works have furnished or suggested a part of them. 

To anticipate a remark which will naturally occur to many, I must observe that I 
have neither pretended nor desired to class animals so as to form a single line, or 
as to mark their relative superiority. I even consider every attempt of this kind im- 
practicable. Thus, I do not mean that the mammalia or birds which come last, are 
the most imperfect of their class; still less do I intend that the last of mammalia 
are more perfect than the first of birds, or the last of mollusks more perfect than the 
first of the annelides, or zoophytes ; even restricting the meaning of this vague word 
perfect to that of ‘most completely organized.” I regard my divisions and subdivisions 
as the merely graduated expression of the resemblance of the beings which enter into 
each of them; and although in some we observe a sort of passage or gradation from 
one species into another, which cannot be denied, this disposition is far from being 
general. The pretended chain of beings, as applied to the whole creation, is but an 
erroneous application of those partial observations, which are only true when confined 
to the limits within which they were made; and, in my opinion, it has proved more 
detrimental to the progress of natural history in modern times, than is easy to 
imagine. 

It is in conformity with these views, that I have established my four principal 
divisions, which have already been made known in a separate memoir. I still think 
that it expresses the real relations of animals more exactly than the old arrangement of 
Vertebrata and Invertebrata, for the simple reason, that the former animals have a much 
greater mutual resemblance than the latter, and that it was necessary to mark this 
difference in the extent of their relations. 

M. Virey, in an article of the Nouveau Dictionnaire d Histoire Naturelle, had 
already discerned in part the basis of the division, and principally that which reposes 
on the nervous system. 

The particular approximation of oviparous Vertebrata, inter se, originated from the 
curious observations of M. Geoffroy on the composition of bony heads, and from those 
which I have added to them relative to the rest of the skeleton, and to the muscles. 

In the class of Mammalia, I have brought back the Solipedes to the Pachydermata, 
and have divided the latter into families on a new plan; the Ruminantia I have placed 
at the end of the quadrupeds; and the Manati near the Cetacea. ‘The distribution of 
the Carnaria I have somewhat altered; the Oustitis have been wholly separated from 
the Monkeys, and a sort of parallelism indicated between the Marsupiata and other 
digitated quadrupeds, the whole from my own anatomical researches. All that I have 


——— at 


8 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


given on the Quadrumana ana the Bats is based on the recent and profound labours of 
my friend and colleague M. Geoffroy de St. Hilaire. The researches of my brother, 
M. Frederic Cuvier, on the teeth of the Curnaria and Rodentia, have proved highly 
useful to me in forming the sub-genera of these two orders. Notwithstanding the 
genera of the late M. Illiger are but the results of these same studies, and of those of 
some foreign naturalists, I have adopted his names whenever his genera corresponded 
with my sub-genera. M. de Lacepéde has also discerned and indicated many excellent 
divisions of this degree, which I have been equally compelled to adopt; but the cha- 
racters of all the degrees and all the indications of species have been taken from nature, 
either in the Cabinet of Anatomy or in the galleries of the Museum. 

The same plan was pursued with respect to the Birds. I have examined with the 
closest attention more than four thousand individuals in the Museum ; I arranged them 
according to my views in the public gallery more than five years ago, and all that is 
said of this class has been drawn from that source. Thus, any resemblance which my 
sub-divisions may bear to some recent descriptions, is on my part purely accidental.* 

Naturalists, I hope, will approve of the numerous sub-genera which I have deemed 
it necessary to make among the birds of prey, the Passerine, and the Shore-birds ; 
they appear to me to have completely elucidated genera hitherto involved in much 
confusion. I have marked, as exactly as I could, the accordance of these subdivisions 
with the genera of MM. de Lacepéde, Meyer, Wolf, Temminck, and Savigny, and 
have referred to each of them all the species of which I could obtain a very positive 
knowledge. This laborious work will prove of value to those who may hereafter 
attempt a true history of birds. ‘The splendid works on Ornithology published within 
a few years, and those chiefly of M. le Vaillant, which are filled with so many 
interesting observations, together with M. Vieillot’s, have been of much assistance to 
me in designating the species which they represent. 

The general division of this class remains as | published it in 1798, in my Tableau 
Elémentaire.} 

I have thought proper to preserve for the Reptiles, the general division of my friend 
M. Brongniart ; but I have prosecuted very extensive anatomical investigations to arrive 
at the ulterior subdivisions. M. Oppel, as I have already stated, has partly taken 
advantage of these preparatory labours ; and whenever my genera finally agreed with 
his, I have noticed the fact. The work of Daudin, indifferent as it is, has been useful 
to me for indications of details ; but the particular divisions which I have given in the 
genera of Monitors and Geckos, are the product of my own observations on a great 
number of Reptiles recently brought to the Museum by MM. Péron and Geoffroy. 

My labours on the Fishes will probably be found to exceed those which I have 
bestowed on the other vertebrated animals. Our Museum having received a vast 
number of Fishes since the celebrated work of M. de Lacepéde was published, I have been 
enabled to add many subdivisions to those of that learned naturalist, also to combine 
several species differently, and to multiply anatomical observations. I have also had 


* This observation not having been sufficiently understood abroad, 1816. Four volumes are not printed so quickly as a pamphlet of a few 
I am obliged to repeat it here, and openly to declare a fact witnessed pages. I say no more. (Note to Edit. 1829), 
by thousands in Paris; it is this, that all the birds in the gallery of } Lonly mention this because an estimable naturalist, M. Vieillot, 


the Museum were named and arranged according to my system, in | has, in a recent work, attributed to himself the union of the Pice and 
1811. Those even of my subdivisions to which I had not yet given | Passeres. I had printed it in 1798, together with my other arrange- 
names, were marked by particular signs. This is my date. Inde- | ments, so as to render them public in the Museum since 1811] and 1813 
pendeutly of this, my first volume was printed in the beginning of | 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 9 


better means of verifying the species of Commerson, and of some of other travellers ; 
and, upon this point, 1am much indebted to a review of the drawings of Commerson, and 
of the dried fishes which he brought with him, by M. Dumeril, but which have only 
been very lately recovered ;—resources to which I have added those presented to 
me in the fishes brought by Péron from the Indian Ocean and Archipelago, those 
which I obtained in the Mediterranean, and the collections made on the coast of 
Coromandel by the late M. Sonnerat, at the Mauritius by M. Matthieu, in the Nile 
and Red Sea, by M. Geoffroy, &c. I was thus enabled to verify most of the species 
of Bloch, Russell, and others, and to prepare the skeletons and viscera of nearly all 
the sub-genera; so that this part of the work will, I presume, offer much that is new 
to Icthyologists. 

As to my division of this class, I confess its inconvenience, but I believe it, never- 
theless, to be more natural than any preceding one. In publishing it some time ago, 
I only offered it for what it is worth ; and if any one should discover a better principle 
of division, and as conformable to the organization, I shall hasten to adopt it. 

It is admitted that all the works on the general division of the invertebrated 
animals, are mere modifications of what I proposed in 1795, in the first of my memoirs ; 
and the time and care which I have devoted to the anatomy of mollusks in general, and 
principally to the naked mollusks, are well known. The determining of this class, as 
well as of its divisions and subdivisions, rests upon my own observations ; the magni- 
ficent work of M. Poli had alone anticipated me by descriptions and anatomical 
researches useful for my design, but confined to bivalves and multivalves only. I have 
verified all the facts furnished by that able anatomist, and I believe that I have more 
justly marked the functions of some organs. Ihave also endeavoured to determine the 
animals to which belong the principal forms of shells, and to arrange the latter from 
that consideration ; but with regard to the ulterior divisions of those shells of which the 
animals resemble each other, I have examined them only so far as to enable me to describe 
briefly those admitted by MM. de Lamarck and de Montfort ; even the small number 
of genera and sub-genera which are properly mine, are principally derived from observa- 
tions on the animals. In citing examples, I have confined myself to a certain number of 
the species of Martini, Chemnitz, Lister, and Soldani; and that only because, the volume 
in which M. Lamarck treats of this portion not having yet appeared, I was compelled 
to fix the attention of my readers on specific objects. But in the choice and determin- 
ing of these species, I lay no claim to the same critical accuracy which I have employed 
for the vertebrated animals and naked mollusks. 

The excellent observations of MM. Savigny, Lesueur, and Desmarest, on the com- 
pound Ascidians, approximate this latter family of mollusks to certain orders of 
zoophytes: this is a curious relation, and a further proof of the impracticability of 
arranging animals in a single line. 

I believe that I have extricated the Annclides,—the establishing of which, although 
not their name, belongs virtually to me,—from the confusion in which they had hitherto 
been involved, among the Mollusks, the Testacea, and the Zoophytes, and have placed 
them in their natural order; even their genera have received some elucidation only 
by my observations, published in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, and else- 
where. 

Of the three classes contained in the third volume, I have nothing to remark. 


nanan 
Nee eee ee eee ee 


10 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


M. Latreille, who, with the exception of some anatomical details, founded on my own 
observations and those of M. Ramdohr, which I have inserted in his text, is its sole 
author, will take upon himself to explain all that is necessary. 

As to the Zoophytes, which terminate the Animal Kingdom, I have availed myself, 
for the Echinoderms, of the recent work of M. de Lamarck; and for the Intestinal 
Worms, of that of M. Rudolphi, intitled Hntozoa ; but I have anatomized all the 
genera, some of which have been determined by me only. There is an excellent 
work by M. Tiédemann, on the anatomy of the Echinoderms, which received the 
prize of the Institute some years ago, and will shortly appear ; it will leave nothing to 
be desired respecting these curious animals. The Corals and the Infusoria, offering 
no field for anatomical investigations*, will be briefly disposed of. The new work of 
M. de Lamarck will supply my deficiencies.t 

With respect to authors, I can only here mention those who have furnished me 
with general views, or who were the origin of such in my own mind.{ There are 
many others to whom I am indebted for particular facts, and whose names I have 
carefully quoted wherever I have made use of them. They will be found on every 
page of my book. Should I have omitted to do justice to any, it must be attributed 
to involuntary forgetfulness, and I ask pardon beforehand: there is no property, in 
my opinion, more sacred than the conceptions of the mind; and the custom, too pre- 
valent among naturalists, of masking plagiarisms by a change of names, has always 
appeared to me a crime. 

The publication of my Comparative Anatomy will now occupy me every moment : 
the materials are ready ; a vast quantity of preparations and drawings are arranged ; 
and I shall be careful in dividing the work into parts, each of which will form a 
whole, so that, should my physical powers prove insufficient for the completion of my 
design, what I have produced will still form entire suites, and the materials I have 
collected be in immediate readiness for those who may undertake the continuation 
of my labours. 


Jardin du Roi, October, 1816. 


ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


Tue preceding preface explains faithfully the condition in which I found the 
history of animals when the first edition of this work was published. During the 
twelve years that have since elapsed, this science has made immense progress, 
not only from the acquisitions of numerous travellers, as well-instructed as courageous, 
who have explored every region of the globe, but by the rich collections which 
various governments have formed and rendered public, and by the learned and 


* The surprising researches of M. Ehrenberg, now publishing from M. de Lamarck. 
time to time, triumphantly refute this allegation.—Ep. 

+ Thave just received L’Histoire des Polypiers correlligencs fleaibles 
of M. Lamouroux, which furnishes an excellent supplement to 


t M. de Blainville has recently published general zoological tables, 
which [ regret came too late for me to profit by, having appeared 
when my book was nearly printed. 


ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 11 


splendid works, wherein new species are described and figured, and of which the 
authors have striven to detect their mutual relations, and to consider them in every 
point of view.* 

I have endeavoured to avail myself of these discoveries, as far as my plan permitted, 
by first studying the innumerable specimens received at the Cabinet du Roi, and com- 
paring them with those which served as the basis of my first edition, in order 
thence to deduce new approximations or subdivisions; and then, by searching in all 
the books I could procure for the genera or sub-genera established by naturalists, 
and the descriptions of species by which they have supported these numerous com- 
binations. 

The determination of synonymes has become much easier now than at the period 
of my first edition. Both French and foreign naturalists appear to have recognized 
the necessity of establishing divisions in the vast genera in which such incongruous 
species were formerly heaped together ; their groups are now precise and well-defined ; 
their descriptions sufficiently detailed; their figures scrupulously exact to the most 
minute characters, and often of the greatest beauty as works of art. Scarcely any 
difficulty remains, therefore, in identifymg their species, and nothing hinders 
them from coming to an understanding with respect to the nomenclature. This, 
unfortunately, has been the most neglected; the names of the same genera, and the 
Same species, are multiplied as often as they are mentioned ; and should this discord 
continue, the same chaos will be produced that previously existed, though arising 
from another cause. 

I have used every effort to compare and approximate these redundancies, and, forget- 
ting even my own trifling interest as an author, have often indicated names which 
seemed to have been imagined only to escape the avowal of having borrowed my divisions. 
But thoroughly to execute this undertaking,—this pina or rectified epitome of the 
animal kingdom, which becomes every day more necessary,—to discuss the proofs and fix 
the definitive nomenclature which should be adopted, by basing it on sufficient figures 
and descriptions, requires more space than I could dispose of, and a time imperatively 
claimed by other works. In the History of Fishes, which I have commenced pub- 
lishing, with the assistance of M. Valenciennes, I purpose to give an idea of what 
appears to me might be effected in all parts of the science. Here, I only profess to 
offer an abridged summary—a simple sketch ;—well satisfied if I succeed in rendering 
this accurate in all its details. 

Various essays of a similar kind have been published on some of the classes, 
and I have carefully studied them with a view to perfect my own. The Mammalogie 
of M. Desmarest, that of M. Lesson, the Treatise on the Teeth of Quadrupeds, by 
M. Frederic Cuvier, the English translation of my first edition, by Mr. Griffith, 
enriched by numerous additions, particularly by Hamilton Smith; the new edition 
of the Manuel d'Ornithologie of M. Temminck, the Ornithological Fragments of 
M. Wagler, the History of Reptiles of the late Merrem, and the Dissertation on the 
same subject by M. Fitsinger, have principally been useful to me for the vertebrated 
animals. The Histoire des Animaux sans Vertibres of M. de Lamarck, the Malacologie 
of M. de Blainville, have also been of great service to me for the mollusks. To 


* See my discourse before the Institute on the Progres de Uhistoire naturelle depuis la paix marit:me, published at the close of the first 


volune of my Eloges. 


as er Oe ee En eee ee es ee, 
a ee ae ee eee, st SE | 


12 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


these I have added the new views and facts contained in the numerous and learned 
writings of MM. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, father and son, Savigny, Temminck, 
Lichtenstein, Kuhl, Wilson, Horsfield, Vigors, Swainson, Gray, Ord, Say, Harlan, 
Charles Bonaparte, Lamouroux, Mitchell, Lesueur, and many other able and studious 
men, whose names will be carefully mentioned when I speak of the subjects on which 
they have treated. 

The fine collections of engravings which have appeared within the last twelve 
years, have enabled me to indicate a greater number of species ; and I have amply 
profited by this facility. I must particularly acknowledge what I owe on this 
score to the Histoire des Mammiferes of MM. Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Frederic 
Cuvier, the Planches coloriées of MM. Temminck and Laugier, the Galerie des Oiseaux 
of M. Vieillot, the new edition of the Birds of Germany, by MM. Nauman, the Birds of 
the United States of Messrs. Wilson, Ord, and Charles Bonaparte*, the great works 
of M. Spix, and of his Highness the Prince Maximilian de Wied, on the Animals of 
Brazil, and to those of M. de Ferussac on the Mollusks. The plates and zoological 
descriptions of the travels of MM. Freycinet and Duperrey, supplied in the first by 
MM. Quoy and Gaymard, in the second by MM. Lesson and Garnot, also present 
many new objects. The same must be said of the Animals of Java, by Dr. Hors- 
field. Though on a smaller scale, new figures of rare species are to be found in the 
Mémoires du Muséum, the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, and other French pemr- 
odicals, in the Zoological Illustrations of Mr. Swainson, and in the Zoological Journal, 
published by able naturalists in London. The Journal of the Lyceum of New York, 
and of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, are not less valuable; but in 
proportion as the taste for natural history becomes extended, and the more numerous 
the countries in which it is cultivated, the number of its acquisitions increases in 
geometrical progression, and it becomes more and more difficult to collect all the 
writings of naturalists, and to complete the table of their results. I rely, therefore, on 
the indulgence of those whose observations may have escaped me, or whose works I 
have not sufficiently consulted. 

My celebrated friend and colleague M. Latreille, having consented, as in the first 
edition, to take upon himself the important and difficult part of the Crustaceans, 
Arachnides, and Insects, will himself explain in an advertisement the plan he has 
followed, so that I need say nothing more on this subject. 


f K * * %* * 
Jardin du Roi, October, 1828. 
* The work of M. Audubon upon the Birds of North America, me till after the whole of that part which treats of Bids was 


which surpasses all others in magnificence, was unknown te printed. 


INTRODUCTEO WN 


OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND OF SYSTEMS GENERALLY. 


As few persons have a just idea of Natural History, it appears necessary to com- 
mence our work by carefully defining the proposed object of this science, and establish- 
ing rigorous limits between it and the contiguous sciences. 

The word Narurg, in our language, and in most others, signifies—sometimes, the 
qualities which a being derives from birth, in opposition to those which it may 
owe to art; at other times, the aggregate of beings which compose the universe; 
and sometimes, again, the laws which govern these beings. It is particularly in 
this latter sense that it has become customary to personify Nature, and to employ 
the name, respectfully, for that of its Author. 

Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treats of the nature of these three relations, and is 
either general or particular. General Physics examines, abstractedly, each of the 
properties of those moveable and extended beings which we call bodies. That depart- 
ment of them styled Dynamics, considers bodies in mass ; and, proceeding from a very 
small number of experiments, determines mathematically the laws of equilibrium, and 
those of motion and of its communication. It comprehends in its different divisions 
the names of Statics, Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, &c., ac- 
cording to the nature of the bodies of which it examines the motions. Optics considers 
the particular motions of light; the phenomena of which, requiring experiments for 
their determination, are becoming more numerous. 

Chemistry, another branch of General Physics, expounds the laws by which the 
elementary molecules of bodies act on each other when in close proximity, the com- 
binations or separations which result from the general tendency of these molecules to 
unite, and the modifications which different circumstances, capable of separating or 
approximating them, produce on that tendency. It is a science almost wholly ex- 
perimental, and which cannot be reduced to calculation. 

The theory of Heat, and that of Electricity, belong almost equally to Dynamics or 
Chemistry, according to the point of view in which they are considered. 

The method which prevails in all the branches of General Physics consists in 
isolating bodies, reducing them to their utmost simplicity, in bringing each of their 
properties separately into action, either mentally or by experiment, in observing or 
calculating the results, in short, in generalizing and correcting the laws of these pro- 


14 INTRODUCTION. 


perties for the purpose of establishing a body of doctrine, and, if possible, of referring the 
whole to one single law, under the universal expression of which all might be resolved. 

Particular Physics, or Natural History,—for these terms are synony 
its object to apply specially the laws recognized by the various branches of General 
Physics, to the numerous and varied beings which exist in nature, in order to explain 
the phenomena which they severally present. 

In this extended sense, it would also include Astronomy ; but that science, suffi- 
ciently elucidated by Mechanics, and completely subjected to its laws, employs methods 
too different from those required by ordinary Natural History, to permit of its cultiva- 
tion by the students of the latter. 

Natural History, then, is confined to objects which do not allow of rigorous 
calculation, or of precise measurement in all their parts. Meteorology, also, is 
subtracted from it, to be ranged under General Physics ; so that, properly speaking, 
it considers only inanimate bodies, called minerals, and the various kinds of living 
beings, in all which we may observe the effects, more or less various, of the laws of 
motion and chemical attraction, and of all the other causes analyzed by General Physics. 

Natural History should, in strictness, employ the same modes of procedure as the 
general sciences; and it does so, in fact, whenever the objects of its study are so 
little complex as to permit of it. But this is very seldom the case. 

An essential difference, in effect, between the general sciences and Natural History 
is, that, in the former, phenomena are examined, the conditions of which are all 
regulated by the examiner, in order, by their analysis, to arrive at general laws ; while 
in the latter, they occur under circumstances beyond the control of him who studies 
them for the purpose of discovering, amid the complication, the effects of general 
laws already known. It is not permitted for him, as in the case of the experimenter, 
to subtract successively from each condition, and so reduce the problem to its 
elements; but he must take it entire, with all its conditions at once, and can analyze 
only in thought. Suppose, for example, we attempt to isolate the numerous pheno- 
mena which compose the life of an animal a little elevated in the scale; a single one 


being suppressed, the life is wholly annihilated. 

Dynamics have thus become a science almost purely of calculation ; Chemistry is 
still a science wholly [chiefly*] of experiment; and Natural History will long remain, 
in a great number of its branches, one of pure observation. 

These three terms sufficiently designate the modes of procedure employed in the 
three branches of the Natural Sciences ; but in establishing between them very different 
degrees of certitude, they at the same time indicate the point to ae the two latter 
should tend, in order to approach perfection. 

Calculation, so to speak, commands Nature; it determines phenomena more exactly 
than observation can make them known: experiment forces her to unveil ; while obser- 
vation watches her when deviating from her normal course, and seeks to surprise her. 

Natural History has, moreover, a principle on which to reason, which is peculiar to 
it, and which it employs advantageously on many occasions ; it is that of the conditions 
of existence, commonly termed final causes. As nothing can exist without the concur- 
rence of those conditions which render its existence possible, the component parts of each 


* The discovery of the atomic theory has reduced many of its phenomena to ealculation.—Ep. 


INTRODUCTION. 15 


must be so arranged as to render possible the whole living being, not only with regard 
to itself, but to its surrounding relations; and the analysis of these conditions fre- 
quently conducts to general laws, as demonstrable as those which are derived from 
calculation or experiment. 

It is only when all the laws of general physics, and those which result from the condi- 
tions of existence, are exhausted, that we are reduced to the simple laws of observation. 

The most effectual mode of observing is by comparison. This consists in suc- 
cessively studying the same bodies in the different positions in which Nature 
places them, or in a comparison of different bodies together, until constant relations 
are recognized between their structures and the phenomena which they manifest. 
These various bodies are kinds of experiments ready prepared by Nature, who adds 
to or subtracts from each of them different parts, just as we might wish to do in our 
laboratories, and shows us herself the results of such additions or retrenchments. 

It is thus that we succeed in establishing certain laws, which govern these relations, 
and which are employed like those that have been determined by the general sciences. 

The incorporation of these laws of observation with the general laws, either directly 
or by the principle of the conditions of existence, would complete the system of the 
natural sciences, in rendering sensible in all its parts the mutual influence of every 
being. This itis to which the efforts of those who cultivate these sciences should tend. 

All researches of this kind, however, presuppose means of distinguishing with certainty, 
and causing others to distinguish, the objects investigated ; otherwise we should be 
incessantly liable to confound the innumerable beings which Nature presents. Natural 
History, then, should be based on what is called a System of Nature, or a great catalogue, 
in which all beings bear acknowledged names, may be recognized by distinctive cha- 
racters, and distributed in divisions and subdivisions themselves named and characterized, 
in which they may be found. 

In order that each being may always be recognized in this catalogue, it should carry 
its character along with it: for which reason the characters should not be taken 
from properties, or from habits the exercise of which is transient, but should be 
drawn from the conformation. 

There is scarcely any being which has a simple character, or can be recognized by 
an isolated feature of its conformation: the combination of many such traits is almost 
always necessary to distinguish a being from the neighbouring ones, which have 
some but not all of them, or have them combined with others of which the first is 
destitute ; and the more numerous the beings to be discriminated, the more must 
these traits accumulate: insomuch that, to distinguish from all others an individual 
being, a complete description of it must enter into its character. 

It is to avoid this inconvenience that divisions and subdivisions have been invented. 
A certain number of neighbouring beings only are compared together, and their par- 
ticular characters need only to express their differences, which, by the supposition itself, 
are the less important parts of their conformation. Such a reunion is termed a genus. 

The same inconvenience would recur in distinguishing genera from each other, were 
it not that the operation is repeated in collecting the neighbouring genera, so as to form 
an order ; the neighbouring orders to form a class, &c. Intermediate subdivisions may 
also be established. 

This scaffolding of divisions, the superior of which contain the inferior, is what is 


Oe ie nS Sk ee 


16 INTRODUCTION 


called a method. It is, in some respects, a sort of dictionary, in which we proceed 
from the properties of things to discover their names ; being the reverse of ordinary dic- 
tionaries, in which we proceed from the names to obtain a knowledge of the properties. 

When the method, however, is good, it does more than teach us names. If thesub- 
divisions have not been established arbitrarily, but are based on the true fundamental 
relations,—on the essential resemblances of beings, the method is the surest means of 
reducing the properties of these beings to general rules, of expressing them in the 
fewest words, and of stamping them on the memory. 

To render it such, an assiduous comparison of beings is employed, directed by the 
principle of the subordination of characters, which is itself derived from that of the 
conditions of existence. All the parts of a being having a mutual correlativeness, some 
traits of conformation exclude others ; while some, on the contrary, necessitate others : 
when, therefore, we perceive such or such traits in a being. we can calculate before- 
hand those which co-exist in it, or those that are incompatible with them. The parts, 
properties, or the traits of conformation, which have the greatest number of these 
relations of incompatibility or of co-existence with others, or, in other words, that 
exercise the most marked influence upon the whole of the being, are what are called 
important characters, dominant characters ; the others are the subordinate characters, 
ali varying, however, in degree. 

This influence of characters is sometimes determined rationally, by considering 
the nature of the organ: when this is impracticable, recourse must be had to simple 
observation; and a sure means of recognizing the important characters, which is 
derived from their own nature, is, that they are more constant; and that in a long 
series of different beings, approximated according to their degrees of similitude, these 
characters are the last to vary. 

From their influence and from their constancy result equally the rule, which should 
be preferred for distinguishing grand divisions, and in proportion as we descend to the 
inferior subdivisions, we can also descend to subordinate and variable characters. 

There can only be one perfect method, which is the natural method. An arrangement 
is thus named in which beings of the same genus are placed nearer to each other than 
to those of all other genera; the genera of the same order nearer than to those of 
other orders, and so in succession. This method is the ideal to which Natural History 
should tend ; for it is evident that, if we can attain it, we shall have the exact and 
complete expression of all nature. In fact, each being is determined by its resem- 
blance to others, and its differences from them; and all these relations would be fully 
given by the arrangement which we have indicated. In a word, the natural method would 
be the whole science, and each step towards it tends to advance the science to perfection. 

Life being the most important of all the properties of beings, and the highest of all 
characters, it is not surprising that it has been made in all ages the most general prin- 


ciple of distinction; and that natural beings have always been separated into two 
immense divisions, the living and the inanimate. 


OF LIVING BEINGS, AND OF ORGANIZATION IN GENERAL. 


If, in order to obtain a just idea of the essence of life, we consider it in those beings 
in which its effects are the most simple, we readily perceive that it consists in the 


{NTRODUCTION. 


faculty which certain corporeal combinations have, of enduring for a time, and under 
a determinate form, by incessantly attracting into their composition a part of sur- 
rounding substances, and rendering to the elements portions of their own proper 
substance. 

Life, then, is a vortex (¢ouwrbillon), more or less rapid, more or less complicated, 
the direction of which is constant, and which always carries along molecules of 
the same kind, but into which individual molecules are Eatenaliyy entering, and 
from which they are constantly departing ; so that the form of a living body is more 
essential to it than its matter. 

As long as this movement subsists, the body in which it takes place is living— 
it lives. When it is permanently arrested, the body dies. After death, the elements 
which compose it, abandoned to the ordinary chemical affinities, are not slow to 
separate, from which, more or less quickly, results the dissolution of the body that 
had been living. It was then by the vital motion that its dissolution was arrested, and 
that the elements of the body were temporarily combined. 

All living bodies die after a time, the extreme limit of which is determined for each 
species; and death appears to be a necessary consequence of life, which, by its own 
action, insensibly alters the structure of the body wherein its functions are exercised, 
so as to render its continuance impossible. 

In fact, the living body undergoes gradual but constant changes during the whole 
term of its existence. It increases first in dimensions, according to the proportions 
and within the limits fixed for each species, and for each of its several parts; then 
it augments in density, in most of its parts :—it is this second kind of change that 
appears to be the cause of natural death. 

On examining the various living bodies more closely, a common structure is 
discerned, which a little reflection soon causes us to adjudge as essential to a vortex, 
such as the vital motion. 

Solids, it is evident, are necessary to these bodies for the maintenance of their 
forms, and fluids for the conservation of motion in them. Their tissue, then, is com- 
posed of interlacement and network, or of fibres and solid laminz, which inclose the 
liquids in their interstices: it is in these liquids that the motion is most continual and 
most extended ; the extraneous substances penetrate the intimate tissue of bodies in 
incorporating with them ; they nourish the solids by interposing their molecules, and 
also detach from them their superfluous molecules: it is in a liquid or gaseous form 
that the matters to be exhaled traverse the pores of the living body; but, in return, it 
is the solids which contain these fluids, and by their contraction communicate to them 
a part of their motion. 

This mutual action of the solids and fluids, this passage of molecules from one to 
the other, necessitated considerable affinity in their chemical composition ; and, accord- 
ingly, the solids of organized bodies are in great part composed of elements easily 
convertible into liquids or gases. 

The motion of the fluids, requiring also a continually repeated action on the 
part of the solids, and communicating one to them, demanded of the latter both 
flexibility and dilatability; and hence we find this character nearly general in all 
organized solids. 


This fundamental structure, common to all living bodies—this areolar tissue, the more 
Cc 


15 INTRODUCTION 


or less flexible fibres or lamine of which intercept fiuids more or less abundant — 
constitutes what is termed the organization ; and, as a consequence of what we have 
said, it follows that only organized bodies can enjoy life. 

Organization, then, results from a great number of dispositions or arrangements, 
which are all conditions of life; and it is easy to conceive that the general move- 
ment of the life would be arrested, if its effect be to alter either of these conditions, 
so as to arrest even one of the partial motions of which it is composed. 

Every organized body, besides the qualities common to its tissue, has one proper 
form, not only in general and externally, but also in the detail of the structure 
of each of its parts ; and it is upon this form, which determines the particular dircction 
of each of the partial movements that take place in it, that depends the complication of 
the general movement of its life, which constitutes its species, and renders it what it 
is. Each part concurs in this general movement by a peculiar action, and experiences 
from it particular effects; so that, im every being, the life is a whole, resulting from 
the mutual action and reaction of all its parts. 

Life, then, in general, presupposes organization in general, and the life proper 
to each being presupposes the organization peculiar to that being, just as the 
movement otf a clock presupposes the clock ; and, accordingly, we behold life only 
in beings that are organized and formed to enjoy it; and all the efforts of philo- 
sophers have not yet been able to discover matter in the act of organization, 
either of itself or by any extrinsic cause. In fact, life exercising upon the elements 
which at every instant form part of the living body, and upon those which it attracts 
to it, an action contrary to that which would be produced without it by the usual 
chemical affinities, it is inconsistent to suppose that it can itself be produced by these 
affinities, and yet we know of no other power in nature capable of reuniting previously 
separated molecules. 

The birth of organized beings is, therefore, the greatest mystery of the organic 
economy and of all nature: we see them developed, but never being formed; nay, 
more, all those of which we can trace the origin, have at first been attached to a 
body of the same form as their own, but which was developed before them ;—in 
one word, to a parent. So long as the offspring has no independent life, but par- 
ticipates in that of its parent, it is called a germ. 

The place to which the germ is attached, and the occasional cause which detaches 
it, and gives it an independent life, vary; but the primitive adherence to a similar 
being is a rule without exception. The separation of the germ is what is designated 
generation. 

All organized beings produce similar ones ; otherwise, death being a necessary con- 
sequence of life, their species would not endure. 

Organized beings have even the faculty of reproducing, in degrees varying with the 
species, certain of their parts of which they may have been deprived. This has been 
named the power of reproduction. 

The developement of organized beings is more or less rapid, and more or less ex- 
tended, according as circumstances are differently favourable. Heat, the supply and 
quality of nourishment, with other causes, exert great influence; and this influence 
may extend to the whole body in general, or to certain organs in particular :— hence 
the similitude of offspring to their parents can never be complete. 


INTRODUCTION. 19 


Differences of this kind, between organized beings, are what are termed varieties. 

There is no proof that all the differences which now distinguish organized beings are 
such as may have been produced by circumstances. All that has been advanced upon 
this subject is hypothetical: experience seems to show, on the contrary, that, in 
the actual state of things, varieties are confined within rather narrow limits; and, 
so far as we can retrace antiquity, we perceive that these limits were the same as at 
present. 

We are then obliged to admit of certain forms, which, since the origin of things, 
have been perpetuated without exceeding these limits ; and all the beings appertaining 
to one of these forms constitute what is termed a species. Varieties are accidental 
subdivisions of species. 

Generation being the only means of ascertaining the limits to which varieties may 
extend, species should be defined the reunion of individuals descended one from the 
other, or from common parents, or from such as resemble them as closely as they 
resemble each other ; but, although this definition is rigorous, it will be seen that its 
application to particular individuals may be very difficult when the necessary experi- 
ments have not been made.* 

To recapitulate,—absorption, assimilation, exhalation, developement, and generation, 
are the functions common to all living beings ; birth and death, the universal limits of 
their existence ; a porous, contractile tissue, containing within its lamine liquids or 
gases in motion, the general essence of their structure; substances almost all 
susceptible of being converted into liquids or gases, and combinations capable of easy 
transformation into one another, the basis of their chemical composition. Fixed 
forms, and which are perpetuated by generation, distinguish their species, determine 
the complication of the secondary functions proper to each of them, and assign to them 
the office they have to fulfil in the grand scheme of the universe. These forms 
neither produce nor change themselves; the life supposes their existence; it can exist 
only in organizations already prepared ; and the most profound meditations, assisted 
by the most delicate observations, can penetrate no further than the mystery of the 


pre-existence of germs. 


DIVISION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS INTO ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 


Living or organized beings have been subdivided, from the earliest times, into ani- 
mate beings, or those possessing sense and motion, and inanimate beings, which enjoy 


* That insurmountable difficulties oppose the rigid determination of 
species, and, consequently, render even the definition of the term 
impossible, except in a very vague und loose manner, will readily 
appear on consideration of some of the phenomena presented. 
The prevalent idea is, that a species consists of the aggregate of 
individuals descended from one original parentage, which alone are 
supposed to be capable of producing offspring that are prolific inter 
se; und that when individuals, not of the same pristine derivation, 
interbreed, the hybrids are necessarily mules, which are either quite 
sterile, or at most can only propagate with individuals of unmixed 
descent. But itso happens, that every possible grade of approxi- 
mation is manifested, from the most diverse races, to those which are 
utterly undistinguishable ; while, even in the latter case, urgent ana- 
logies, notwithstanding, sometimes forcibly indicate a separateness of 
origin ; as when a series of analogous races inhabiting distant regions 
are compared together, some of which are obviously different, others 
doubtfully so, and some apparently identical. And it remains to be 
shown whether such intimately allied races as some of these, even if 
not descended from a common stock, (which of course cannot be 


ascertained), would not produce hybrids capable of transmitting and 
perpetuating the mingled breed. It is true that Cuvier guards 
against this contingency, in the wording of his definition; and that 
most naturalists would concur in regarding such miscible races, how- 
ever dissimilar, as varieties merely of the same; but a question 
arises, whether there be not different degrees of fertility in hybrids, 
corresponding to the amount of affinity, or physiological accordancy, 
subsisting betwixt the parent races; it being only within a certain 
sphere of that affinity that they can be produced at all : besides which, 
as hybrids are seldom exactly intermediate, and in some instances 
(particularly among multiparous races) have been known to resemble 
entirely one or the other parent, it ray be presumed that this circum- 
stance would also materially affect their capability of propagation. 
Experiments are needed to solve this important problem, though there 
is every reason to suspect that the following proposition will eventu- 
ally gain the general assent of naturalists, viz., that while consideraile 
dissimilarity does not of necessity imply specifical diversity, the cun- 
verse equally holds, that absolute resemblance fails of itself to con 

stitute specifical identity.—Epv. 

CZ 


20 INTRODUCTION. 


neither the one nor the other of these faculties, but are reduced to the simple function 
of vegetating. Although many plants retract their leaves when touched, and the roots 
direct themselves constantly towards moisture, the leaves towards air and light, 
and though some parts of vegetables appear even to exhibit oscillations without 
any perceptible external cause, still these various movements bear too little resem- 
blance to those of animals to enable us to recognize in them any proofs of perception 
or of will. 

The spontaneity of the movements of animals required essential modifications, even 
in their simply vegetative organs. Their roots not penetrating the ground, it was 
necessary that they should be able to place within themselves provisions of food, and 
to carry its reservoir along with them. Hence is derived the first character of animals, 
or their alimentary cavity, from which their nutritive fluid penetrates all other parts 
through pores or vessels, which are a sort of internal roots. 

The organization of this cavity and of its appurtenances required varying, according 
to the nature of the aliment, and the operations which it had to undergo before it 
could furnish juices proper for absorption : whilst the atmosphere and the earth supply 
to vegetables only juices ready prepared, and which can be absorbed immediately. 

The animal body, which abounds with functions more numerous and more varied 
than in the plant, required in consequence to have an organization much more com- 
plicated ; besides which, its parts not being capable of preserving a fixed relative posi- 
tion, there were no means by which the motion of their fluids could be produced by 
external causes, as it required to be independent of heat and of the atmosphere: from 
this originates the second character of animals, or their circulatory system, which is 
less essential than the digestive, since it was unnecessary in the more simple animals. 

The animal functions required organic systems, not needed by vegetables, as that 
of the muscles for voluntary motion, and that of the nerves for sensibility ; and these 
two systems, like the rest, acting only through the motions and transformations of the 
fluids, it was necessary that these should be more numerous in animals, and that 
the chemical composition of the animal body should be more complicated than that of 
the plant: and so it is, for an additional substance (azote) enters into it as an essential 
element, while in plants it is a mere accidental junction with the three other general 
elements of organization,— oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. This then is the third 
character of animals. 

The soil and the atmosphere supply to vegetables water for their nutrition, which is 
composed of oxygen and hydrogen, air, which contains oxygen and azote, and car- 
bonic acid, which is a combination of oxygen and carbon. To extract from these 
aliments their proper composition, it was necesary that they should retain the hydrogen 
and carbon, exhale the superfluous oxygen, and absorb little or no azote. Such, then, 
is the process of vegetable life, of which the essential function is the exhalation of 
oxygen, which is effected through the agency of light. 

Animals in addition derive nourishment, more or less immediately, from the vegetable 
itself, of which hydrogen and carbon form the principal constituents. To assimilate 
them to their own composition, they must get rid of the superfluous hydrogen, and 
especially of the superabundant carbon, and accumulate more azote; this it is which 
is performed in respiration, by means of the oxygen of the atmosphere combining with 
the hydrogen and carbon of the blood, and being exhaled with them under the form of 


(eee 


INTRODUCTION. 21 


water and carbonic acid. The azote, whatever part of their body it may penetrate, 
appears to remain there. 

The relations of vegetables and animals with the atmosphere are then inverse; the 
former retain (défont) water and [decompose] carbonic acid, while the latter reproduce 
them. Respiration is the function essential to the constitution of an animal body ; it 
is that which in a manner animalizes it; and we shall see that animals exercise their 
peculiar functions more completely, according as they enjoy greater powers of respira- 
tion. It is in this difference of relations that the fourth character of animals consists. 


OF THE FORMS PECULIAR TO THE ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF THE ANIMAL BODY, AND OF 
THE PRINCIPAL COMBINATIONS OF ITS CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 


An arevlar tissue and three chemical elements are essential to every living body, a 
fourth element being peculiar to that of animals; but this tissue is composed of vari- 
ously formed meshes, and these elements are united in different combinations. 

There are three kinds of organic materials, or forms of tissue,—the cellular membrane, 
the muscular fibre, and the medullary matter; and to each form belongs a peculiar 
combination of chemical elements, together with a particular function. 

The cellular membrane is composed of an infinity of small lamine, fortuitously dis- 
posed, so as to form little ceils that communicate with each other. It is a sort of 
sponge, which has the same form as the entire body, all other parts of which fill or 
traverse it. Its property is to contract indefinitely when the causes which sustain 
its extension cease to operate. It is this force that retains the body in a given form, 
and within determined limits. 

When condensed, this substance forms those more or less extended lamine which 
are called membranes ; the membranes, rolled into cylinders, compose those tubes, more 
or less ramified, which are termed vessels ; the filaments, named fibres, resolve them- 
selves into it; and the bones are nothing but the same, indurated by the accumulation 
of earthy particles. 

The cellular substance consists of that combination [isinglass] which bears the 
name of gelatine, and the character of which is to dissolve in boiling water, and to 
assume the form, when cold, of a trembling jelly. 

The medullary matter has not yet been reduced to its organic molecules: it ap- 
pears to the naked eye as a sort of soft bowillie [pultaceous mass], consisting of exces- 
sively small globules; it is not susceptible of any apparent motion, but in it resides 
the admirable power of transmitting to the me the impressions of the external senses, 
and of conveying to the muscles the mandates of the will. The brain and the spinal 
chord are chiefly composed of it; and the nerves, which are distributed to all the 
sentient organs, are, essentially, but ramifications of the same. 

The fleshy or muscular fibre is a peculiar sort of filament, the distinctive property 
of which, during life, is that of contracting when touched or struck, or when it experi- 
ences, through the medium of the nerves, the action of the will. 

The muscles, immediate organs of voluntary motion, are merely bundles of fleshy 
fibres. All the membranes, all the vessels which need to exercise any compression, are 
furnished with these fibres. They are always intimately connected with nervous 
threads; but those which subserve the purely vegetative functions contract without 


22 INTRODUCTION. 


the knowledge of the mz, so that the will is indeed one means of causing the fibres 
to act, but which is neither general nor exclusive. 

The fleshy fibre has for its base a particular substance termed fibrine, which is 
insoluble in boiling water, and of which the nature appears to be to take of itself this 
filamentous form. 

The nutritive fluid, or the blood, such as we find in the vessels of the circulation, not 
only resolves itself principally into the general elements of the animal body,—carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, but it also contains fibrine and gelatine, all but disposed 
to contract, and to assume the forms of membranes or of filaments peculiar to them ; 
nought being ever acquired for their manifestation but a little repose. The blood pre- 
sents also another combination, which occurs in many animal solids and fluids, namely, 
albumen [or white of egg], the characteristic property of which is to coagulate in 
boiling water. Besides these, the blood contains almost all the elements which may 
enter into the composition of the body of each animal, such as the lime and phosphorus, 
which hardens the bones of vertebrated animals, the iron, which colours the blood itself 
as well as various other parts, the fat or animal oil, which is deposited in the cellular 
substance to maintain it, &c. All the fluids and solids of the animal body are composed 
of chemical elements contained in the blood; and it is only by possessing some ele- 
ments more or less, or in different proportions, that each is severally distinguished ; 
whence it becomes apparent that their formation entirely depends on the subtraction 
of the whole or part of one or more elements of the blood, and, in some few cases, on 
the addition of some element from elsewhere. 

The various operations, by which the blood supplies nourishment to the solid or liquid 
matter of all parts of the body, may take the general name of secretion. This term, 
however, is often exclusively appropriated to the production of liquids, while that of 
nutrition is applied more especially to the production and deposition of the matter 
necessary to the growth and conservation of the solids. 

Every solid organ, as well as fluid, has the composition most appropriate for the office 
which it has to perform, and it preserves it so long as health continues, because the 
blood renews it as fast as it becomes changed. ‘The blood itself, by this continual 
contribution, is altered every moment; but is restored by digestion, which renews its 
matter; by respiration, which sets free the superfluous carbon and hydrogen; and by 
perspiration and various other excretions, that relieve it from other superabundant 
principles. 

These perpetual changes of chemical composition constitute part of the vital vortex, 
not less essential than the visible movements and those of translation: the object, in- 
deed, of these latter is simply to produce the former. 


OF THE FORCES WHICH ACT IN THE ANIMAL BODY. 


The muscular fibre is not only the organ of voluntary motion; we have seen that it 
is also the most powerful of the means employed by nature to effect the move- 
ments of translation necessary to vegetative life. Thus the fibres of the intestines pro- 
duce the peristaltic motion, which causes the aliment to pass onward along this canal; 
the fibres of the heart and arteries are the agents of the circulation, and, through it, of 
all the secretions, &c. 


INTRODUCTION. 23 


The will causes the fibre to contract through the medium of the nerve; and the 
involuntary fibres, such as those we have mentioned, are equally animated by the 
nerves which pervade them ; it is, therefore, probable, that these nerves are the cause 
of their contraction. 

All contraction, and, generally speaking, all change of dimension in nature, is produced 
by a change of chemical composition, though it consists merely in the flowing or ebbing 
of an imponderable *, such as caloric; it is thus also that the most violent of known 
movements are occasioned, as combustions, detonations, &c. 

There is, then, great reason for supposing that it is by an imponderable fluid that 
the nerve acts upon the fibre ; and the more especially, as it is demonstrated that this 
action is not mechanical. 

The medullary matter of the whole nervous system is homogeneous, and must 
exercise, wherever it is found, the functions appertaining to its nature ; all its ramifi- 
cations receive a great abundance of blood-vessels. 

All the animal fluids being derived from the blood by secretion, it cannot be doubted 
that the same holds with the nervous fluid, nor that the medullary matter secretes 
[or evolves] it. 

On the other hand, it is certain that the medullary matter is the sole conductor 
of the nervous fiuid ; and that all the other organic elements serve as non-conductors, 
and arrest it, as glass arrests electricity. 

The external causes which are capable of producing sensations, or of occasioning 
contractions in the fibre, are all chemical agents, capable of effecting decompositions, 
such as light, caloric, the salts, odorous vapours, percussion, compression, &c. 

It would seem, then, that these causes act upon the nervous fluid chemically, and 
by changing its composition: which appears the more likely, as their action becomes 
weakened by continuance, as if the nervous fluid needed to resume its primitive com- 
position in order to be altered anew. 

The external organs of sense may be compared to sieves, which allow nothing to 
pass through to the nerve except the species of agent which should affect it in that 
particular place, but which often accumulates so as to increase the effect. The 
tongue has its spongy papille, which imbibe saline solutions: the ear a gelatinous 
pulp, which is intensely agitated by sonorous vibrations; the eye transparent lenses, 
which concentrate the rays of light, &c. 

It is probable that what are styled irritants, or the agents which occasion the con- 
tractions of the fibre, exert this action by producing on the fibre, by the nerve, the 
same effect which is produced by the will; that is to say, by altering the nervous fluid 
in the manner necessary to change the dimensions of the fibre on which it has influence ; 
but the will has nothing to do in this action; the me is often even without any 
knowledge of it. The muscles separated from the body are still susceptible of irrita- 
tion, so long as the portion of the nerve distributed within them preserves its power of 
acting on them; the will being evidently unconnected with this phenomenon. 

The nervous fluid is altered by muscular irritation, as well as by sensation and 
voluntary motion; and the same necessity occurs for the re-establishment of its primi- 
tive composition. 

The movements of translation necessary to vegetative life are determined by irritants : 


* “ Tmponderable fluid” is the expression in the original.—Ep. 


24 INTRODUCTION. 


the aliment irritates [or excites] the intestine, the blood irritates the heart, &c. These 
movements are all independent of the will, and in general (while health endures) take 
place without the cognizance of the me; the nerves which produce them have even, 
in several parts, a different distribution from that of the nerves affected by sensations 


or subject to the will, and the object of the difference appears to be the securing of 


this independence.* 


The nervous functions, that is to say, sensitiveness and muscular irritability, are so 
much the stronger at every point, in proportion as the exciting cause is more abundant ; 
and as this agent, or the nervous fluid, is produced by secretion [or evolution], its 
abundance must be in proportion to the quantity of medullary or secretory matter, 
and the amount of blood received by the latter. 

In animals that have a circulation, the blood is propelled through the arteries which 
convey it to its destined parts, by means of their irritability and that of the heart. If 
these arteries be irritated, they act more vigorously, and propel a greater quantity of 
blood ; the nervous fluid becomes more abundant, and augments the local sensibility ; 
this, in its turn, increases the irritability of the arteries, so that this mutual action may 

It is termed orgasm, and when it becomes painful and 
The irritation may also originate in the nerve, when it 


be carried to a great extent. 
permanent, inflammation. 
experiences acute sensations. 

This mutual influence of the nerves and fibres, either in the intestinal system, or in 
the arterial system, is the real spring of vegetative life in animals. 

As each external sense is permeable only by particular kinds of sensation, so 
Thus, 
These 


each internal organ may be accessible only to such or such agent of irritation. 
mercury irritates the salivary glands, cantharides excite the bladder, &c. 
agents are what are termed specijics. 

The nervous system being homogeneous and continuous, Joca] sensations and irrita- 
tion debilitate the whole: and each function, carried too far, may enfeeble the others. 
Excess of aliment thus weakens the faculty of thought; while prolonged meditation 
impairs the energy of digestion, &c. 

Excessive local irritation will enfeeble the whole body, as if all the powers of life 
were concentrated on a single point. 

A second irritation produced at another point may diminish, or divert as it is termed, 
the first ; such is the effect of purgatives, blisters, &c. [denominated counter-irritation]. 

All rapid as the foregoing enunciation is, it is sufficient to establish the possibility of 
accounting for all the phenomena of physical life, by the simple admission of a fluid 
such as we have defined, from the properties which it manifests. 


* Jn the above sentence, there are distinctly mentioned the three 
sorts of nerves, the separate functions of which have been con- 
clusively demonstrated by Sir Charles Bell: viz., nerves of volition, 
which transmit the mandates of the will; of sensation, which convey 
to the sensorium the impressions of the senses; and of sympathy, 
or involuntary movement, the reunion of the ramifications of which 
in a plexus of knots, or ganglions, is intimated in the text, those of 
the second class being distinguished by a swelling or ganglion near 
their base.—Ep. 

+ The unceasing chemical changes consequent upon vitality must 
necessarily develope electricity ; and that the nervous fluid is no other 
than the electric, may be considered as proved by the identity of their 
phenomena. Indeed, it has long been known that the transmission 
of voltaic electricity along the nerves of a recently dead animal, 
suffices to produce the most violent muscular action; but the regula- 
tion of that action, its exclusive direction to particular suites of 
muscles, requires the vital impulse. “If the brain,’ remarks Sir 


John Herschel, “ (for which wonderfully constituted organ no other 
mode of action possessing the least probability has ever been devised), 
be an electric pile, constantly in action, it may be conceived to dis- 
charge itself at regular intervals, when the tension of the electricity 
developed reaches a certain point, along the nerves which commnuni- 
cate with the heart, and thus to excite the pulsations of that organ. 
This idea is forcibly suggested by a view of that eleyant apparatus, 
the dry pile of Deluc, in which the successive accumuiations of 
electricity are carried off by a suspended ball, which is kept, by the 
discharges, in a state of regular pulsation for any length of time. We 
have witnessed the action of sucha pile, maintained in this way for 
whole years, in the study of the above-named eminent philosopher. 
The same idea of the cause of the pulsation of the heart appears to 
have occurred to Dr. Arnott, and is mentioned in his useful and ex- 
cellent work on Physics, to which, however, we are not indebted for 
the suggestion, it having occurred to us independently many years 
ago.’'—Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, p. 343.—Ep. 


a a 2 2 | 


INTRODUCTION. 


to 
Or 


SUMMARY IDEA OF THE FUNCTIONS AND ORGANS OF THE BODIES OF ANIMALS, AND OF 
THEIR VARIOUS DEGREES OF COMPLICATION. 


After what we have stated respecting the organic elements of the body, its 
chemical principles, and the forces which act within it, it remains only to give a sum- 
mary idea in detail of the functions of which life is composed, and of their respective 
organs. 

The functions of the animal body are divided into two classes :— 

The animal functions, or those proper to animals,— that is to say, sensibility and 
voluntary motion. 

The vital, vegetative functions, or those common to animals and vegetables; that is 
to say, nutrition and generation. 

Sensibility resides in the nervous system. 

The most general external sense is that of touch ; its seat is in the skin, a mem- 
brane enveloping the whole body, and traversed all over by nerves, of which the 
extreme filaments expand on the surface into papille, and are protected by the epider- 
mis, and by other insensible teguments, such as hairs, scales, &c. Taste and smell 
are merely delicate states of the sense of touch, for which the skin of the tongue and 
nostrils is particularly organized; the former by means of papille more convex and 
spongy; the latter, by its extreme delicacy and the multiplication of its ever humid 
surface. We have already spoken of the eye and ear in general. The organ of gene- 
ration is endowed with a sixth sense, which is seated in its internal skin; that of the 
stomach and intestines declares the state of those viscera by peculiar sensations. In 
fine, sensations more cr less painful may originate in all parts of the body through 
accidents or diseases. 

Many animals have neither ears nor nostrils; several are without eyes, and some are 
reduced to the single sense of touch, which is never absent. 

The action received by the external organs is continued through the nerves to the 
central masses of the nervous system, which, in the higher animals, consists of the 
brain and spinal chord. The more elevated the nature of the animal, the more volumi- 
nous is the brain, and the more the sensitive power is concentrated there ; in propor- 
tion as the animal is placed lower in the scale, the medullary masses are dispersed, and 
in the lowest genera of all, the nervous substance appears to merge altogether, and 
blend in the general matter of the body. 

That part of the body which contains the brain suid the principal organs of sense, is 
called the head. 

When the animal has received a sensation, and which has induced in it an act of 
volition, it is by [particular] nerves also that this volition is transmitted to the muscles. 

The muscles are bundles of fleshy fibres, the contractions of which produce all the 
movements of the animal body. The extensions of the limbs, and all the lengthenings 
of parts, are the effect of muscular contractions, equally with flexions and abbreviations. 
The muscles of each animal are disposed in number and direction according to the 
movements which it has to execute ; and when these movements require to be effected 
with some vigour, the muscles are inserted into hard parts, articulated one over 
another, and may be considered as so many levers. These parts are called bones in 


INTRODUCTION. 


the vertebrated animals, where they are internal, and formed of a gelatinous mass, 
penetrated with molecules of phosphate of lime. In mollusks, crustaceans, and insects, 
where they are external, and composed of a calcareous or corneous substance that 
exudes between the skin and epidermis, they are termed shells, crusts, and scales. 

The fleshy fibres are attached to the hard parts by means of other fibres of a gela- 
tinous nature, which seem to be a continuation of the former, constituting what are 
called tendons. 

The configuration of the articulating surfaces of the hard parts limits their move- 
ments, which are further restrained by cords or envelopes attached to the sides of the 
articulations, and which are termed hgaments. 

It is from the various dispositions of this bony and muscular apparatus, and from 
the form and proportions of the members which result therefrom, that animals are 
capable of executing those innumerable movements which enter into walking, leaping, 
flight, and swimming. 

The muscular fibres appropriated to digestion and circulation are independent of the 
will; they receive nerves, however, but, as we have said, the chief of them exhibit 
subdivisions and enlargements which appear to have for their object the estrangement 
of the empire of the mz. It is only in paroxysms of the passions and other powerful 
mental emotions, which break down these barriers, that the empire of the mE becomes 
perceptible; and even then its effect is almost always to disorder these vegetative 
functions. It is also ina state of sickness only that these functions are accompanied 
by sensations. Digestion is ordinarily performed unconsciously. 

The aliment, divided by the jaws and teeth, or sucked up when liquids con- 
stitute the food, is swallowed by the muscular movements of the back part of the 
mouth and throat, and deposited in the first portion of the alimentary canal, usually 
expanded into one or more stomachs; it there is penetrated with juices proper to dis- 
solve it. Conducted thence along the rest of the canal, it receives other juices destined 
to complete its preparation. The parietes of the canal have pores which extract from 
this alimentary mass its nutritious portion, and the useless residue is rejected as 
excrement. 

The canal in which this first act of nutrition is performed, is a continuation of the 
skin, and is composed of similar layers; even the fibres which encircle it are analogous 
to those which adhere to the internal surface of the skin, called the fleshy pannicle. 
Throughout the whole interior of this canal there is a transudation, which has some 
connexion with the cutaneous perspiration, and which becomes more abundant when 
the latter is suppressed ; the skin even exercises an absorption very analogous to that 
of the intestines. 

It is only in the lowest animals that the excrements are rejected by the mouth, and 
in which the intestine has the form of a sac without issue. 

Among those even in which the intestinal canal has two orifices, there are many in 
which the nutritive juices, absorbed by the coats of the intestine, are immediately 
diifused over the whole spongy substance of the body: this appears to be the case 
with the whole class of insects. 


But, ascending from the arachnides and worms, the nutritive fluids circulate ina 
system of confined vessels, the ultimate ramifications of which alone dispense its molecules 
to the parts that are nourished by it; those particular vessels which convey it are named 


a 


INTRODUCTION. 27 


arteries, and those which bring it back to tne centre of the circulation are termed veins. 
The circulating vortex is sometimes simple, sometimes double, and even triple (includ- 
ing that of the vena porta) ; the rapidity of its movements is often aided by the contrac- 
tions of a certain fleshy apparatus denominated hearts, and which are placed at one or 
the other centres of circulation, and sometimes at both of them. 

In the red-blooded vertebrated animals, the nutritive fluid exudes white or transpa- 
rent from the intestines, and is then termed chyle; it is poured by particular vessels, 
named Jacteals, into the venous system, where it mingles with the blood. Vessels 
resembling these lacteals, and forming with them what is known as the lymphatic 
system, also convey to the venous blood the residue of the nutrition of the parts and 
the products of cutaneous absorption. 

Before the blood is proper to nourish the several parts, it must experience from the 
ambient element, by respiration, the modification of which we have already spoken. In 
animals which have a circulation, a portion of the vessels is destined to carry the blood 
into organs, where they spread over an extensive surface, that the action of the ambient 
element might be increased. When this element [or medium] is the air, the surface is 
hollow, and is called lungs ; when water, it is salient, and termed gills.* There are 
always motive organs disposed for propelling the ambient element into, or upon, the 
respiratory organ. 

In animals which have no circulation, the air is diffused through every part of the 
body by elastic vessels, named trachee; or water acts upon them, either by pene- 
trating through vessels, or by simply bathing the surface of the skin. 

The blood which is respired is qualified for restoring the composition of all the parts, 
and to effect what is properly called nutrition. It is a great marvel that, with this 
facility which it has of becoming decomposed at each point, it should leave precisely 
the species of molecule which is there necessary; but it is this wonder which consti- 
tutes the whole vegetative life. For the nourishment of the solids, we see no other 
arrangement than a great subdivision of the extreme arterial ramifications; but for 
the production of liquids, the apparatus is more complex and various. Sometimes 
the extremities of the vessels simply spread over large surfaces, whence the produced 
fluid exudes; sometimes it oozes from the bottom of little cavities. Very often, before 
these arterial extremities change into veins, they give rise to particular vessels that 
convey this fluid, which appears to proceed from the exact point of union between the 
two kinds of vessels; in this case, the blood-vessels and these latter termed especial, 
form, by their interlacement, the bodies called conglomerate or secretory glands. 

In animals that have no circulation, and particularly insects, the nutritive fluid 
bathes all the parts ; each of them draws from it the molecules necessary for its suste- 
nance : if it be necessary that some liquid be produced, the appropriate vessels float in 
the nutritive fluid, and imbibe from it, by means of their pores, the constituent elements 
of that liquid. 

It is thus that the blood incessantly supports all the parts, and repairs the altera- 
tions which are the continual and necessary consequence of their functions. The 


* It may be remarked here, that, in strictness of language, 10 respiration of animals is, that some breathe the free air, and are sup- 
animals respire water, but the air which is suspended in water, and plied with lungs, and others that diffused in water, and have there- 
which has been ascertained to contain more oxygen than that of the fore gills : but even this difference, however, is more apparent than 
free atmosphere. The elements of water, it should be remembered, are real, as in ull cases the respiratory surface requires to be moist or wet, 
chemically combined, while those of air are only mechanically mixed. | in order to perform its function. Deprive water of its air by builing it, 


To obtain oxygen from the one, therefore, decomposition is required ; | and it cannot support life.—Ep. 


from the other, no disunion. The only distinction, then, in the 


a 

ne a 

| 28 INTRODUCTION. 
general ideas which we form respecting this process are tolerably clear, although we 
have no distinct or detailed notion of what passes at each point; and for want of 
knowing the chemical composition of each part with sufficient precision, we cannot 
render an exact account of the transformations necessary to produce it. 

Besides the glands which separate from the blood those fluids which perform some 
office in the internal economy, there are some which detach others from it that are to 
be totally rejected, either simply as superfluities, such as the urine, which is produced 
by the kidneys, or for some use to the animal, as the ink of the cuttle, and the purple 
matter of various other mollusks, &c. 

With respect to generation, there is one process {Or phenomenon infinitely more 
difficult to conceive than that of the secretions ; it is the production of the germ. We 
have seen even that it may be regarded as little less than incomprehensible; but, the 
existence of the germ once admitted, generation presents no particular difficulty : so 
long as it adheres to the parent, it is nourished as if it were one of its organs*; and 
when it detaches itself, it has its own proper life, which is essentially similar to that 
of the adult. 

The germ, the embryo, the fcetus, and the new-born animal, have in no instance, 
however, precisely the same form as the adult, and the difference is sometimes so great, 
that their assimilation merits the name of metamorphosis. Thus, no one not previously 

-| aware of the fact, would suppose that the caterpillar is to become a butterfly. 

All living beings are more or less metamorphosed in the course of their growth, 
that is to say, they lose certain parts, and develope others. The antenne, wings, and 
all the parts of the butterfly were inclosed within the skin of the caterpillar; this 
skin disappears along with the jaws, feet, and other organs that do not remain in the 
butterfly. The feet of the frog are inclosed by the skin of the tadpole: and the tad- 
pole, to become a frog, loses its tail, mouth, and gills. The infant likewise, at birth, 
loses its placenta and envelope ; at a certain age its thymous gland almost disappears ; 
and it acquires by degrees its hair, teeth, and beard. The relative size of its organs 
alters, and its body increases proportionally more than its head, its head more than its 
internal ear, &c. 

The place where these germs are found, the assemblage of them, is named the ovary ; 
the canal through which, when detached, they are carried forward, the oviduct; the 
cavity in which, in many species, they are obliged to remain for a longer or shorter 
period before birth, the matrix or uterus ; the exterior orifice through which they pass 
into the world, the vulva. When there are sexes, the male sex fecundates; the germs 
appearing m the female. The fecundating liquor is named semen; the glands which 
separate it from the blood, festicles ; and, when it is necessary that it should be intro- 
duced into the body of the female, the intromittent organ is called a penis. 


RAPID EXPOSITION OF THE INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS. 


The impression of external objects on the mx, the production of a sensation, of an 
image, is a mystery impenetrable to our intellect; and materialism an hypothesis, so 
much the more conjectural, as philosophy can furnish no direct proof of the actual 


« Germs have been detected in the ovaria of a human foetus.—Ep. 


INTRODUCTION. vy 


existence of matter. But the naturalist should examine what appear to be the mate- 
rial conditions of sensation’; he should trace the ulterior operations of the mind, ascer- 
tain to what point they reach in each being, and assure himself whether they are not 
subject to conditions of perfection, dependent on the organization of each species, or 
on the momentary state of each individual body. 

For the mr to perceive, there must be an uninterrupted nervous communication 
between the external sense and the central masses of the medullary system. Hence it 
is only when a modification is experienced by these masses that the mz perceives : there 
may also be real sensations, without the external organ being affected, and which 
originate either in the nervous passage, or in the central mass itself; such are dreams 
and visions, or certain accidental sensations. 

By central masses, we mean a part of the nervous system, which is more circum- 
scribed as the animal is more perfect. In man, it consists exclusively of a limited 
portion of the brain; but in reptiles, it includes the brain and the whole of the medulla, 
and each of their parts taken separately; so that the absence of the entire brain does 
not prevent sensation. In the inferior classes this extension is still greater. 

The perception acquired by the mr, produces the image of the sensation ex- 
perienced. We trace to without the cause of that sensation, and thus acquire the idea 
of the object which produces it. By a necessary law of our intelligence, all the ideas 
of material objects are in time and space. 

The modifications experienced by the medullary masses leave impressions there, 
which are reproduced, and recall to mind images and ideas; this is memory, a cor- 
poreal faculty that varies considerably, according to age and health. 

Ideas that are similar, or which have been acquired at the same time, recall each 
other ; this is the association of ideas. The order, extent, and promptitude of this asso- 
ciation constitute the perfection of memory. 

Each object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities, or with all its 
accessory ideas. 

Intellect has the power of separating these accessory ideas of objects, and of com- 
bining those that are alike in several different objects under one general idea, the 
prototype of which nowhere really exists, nor presents itself in an isolated form ; this 
is abstraction. 

Every sensation being more or less agreeable or disagreeable, experience and re- 
peated essays show promptly what movements are required to procure the one and 
avoid the other ; and with respect to this, the intellect abstracts itself from general 
rules to direct the will. 

An agreeable sensation being liable to consequences that are not so, and vice versd, 
the subsequent sensations become associated with the idea of the primitive one, and 
modify the general rules abstracted by the intellect; this is prudence. 

From the application of rules to general ideas, result certain formule, which are 
aiterwards adapted easily to particular cases; this is called reasoning—ratiocination. 

A lively remembrance of primitive and associated sensations, and of the impressions 
of pleasure and pain that attach to them, constitutes imagination. 

One privileged being, Man, has the faculty of associating his general ideas with 
particular images more or less arbitrary, easily impressed upon the memory, and which 
serve to recall the general ideas which they represent. These associated images are 


cece a a er. 


30 INTRODUCTION. 


what are called signs ; their assemblage is a language. When the language is com- 
posed of images that relate to the sense of hearing or sound, it is termed speech. 
When its images relate to that of sight, they are called hieroglyphics. Writing 
is a suite of images that relate to the sense of sight, by which we represent 
elementary sounds; and, in combining them, all the images relative to the sense of 
hearing of which speech is composed: it is, therefore, only a mediate representation 
of ideas. 

This faculty of representing general ideas by particular signs or images associated 
with them, enables us to retain distinctly in the memory, and to recall without con- 
fusion, an immense number, and furnishes to the reasoning faculty and the imagina- 
tion innumerable materials, and to individuals the means of communication, which 
cause the whole species to participate in the experience of each individual; so that no 
bounds seem to be placed to the acquisition of knowledge: this is the distinctive 
character of human intelligence.* 

The most perfect animals are infinitely below man in their intellectual faculties ; but 
it is, nevertheless, certain that their intelligence performs operations of the same kind. 
They move in consequence of sensations received, are susceptible of durable affections, 
and acquire by experience a certain knowledge of things, by which they are governed in- 
dependently of actual pain and pieasure, and by the simple foresight of consequences. 
When domesticated, they feel their subordination, know that the being who punishes 
them may refrain from doing so if he will, and when sensible of having done wrong, or 
behold him angry, they assume a suppliant air. In the society of man they become 
either corrupted or improved, and are susceptible of emulation and jealousy: they 
have among themselves a natural janguage, which, it is true, expresses only 
their momentary sensations; but man teaches them to understand another, much 
more complicated, by which he makes known to them his will, and causes them to 
exccute it. 

In short, we perceive in the higher animals a certain degree of reason, with all its 
consequences, good and bad, and which appears to be about the same as that of chil- 
dren before they have learned to speak. In proportion as we descend to the animals 
more removed from man, these faculties become enfeebled; and, in the lowest classes, 
we find them reduced to signs, at times equivocal only, of sensibility, that is to say, 
to a few slight movements to escape from pain. Between these two extremes, the 
degrees are endless. 

In a great number of animals, however, there exists a different faculty of intelli- 
gence, which is named instinct. This prompts them to certain actions necessary to the 
preservation of the species, but often altogether foreign to the apparent wants of 
individuals ; frequently, also, very complicated, and which, to be ascribed to intelligence, 
would suppose a foresight and knowledge in the species that execute them infinitely 
superior to what can be admitted. These actions, the result of instinct, are not the 
effect of imitation, for the individuals that perform them have often never seen them 
performed by others: they are not proportioned to the ordinary intelligence, but 
become more singular, more wise, more disinterested, in proportion as the animals 
belong to less elevated classes, and are, in all the rest of their actions, more dull and 


* Linnaus defined the human being to be a “ self-knowing animal ;” | bit itis doubtful whether any of them can mentally trace remote 
which is a bold assumption, taken either way.—En, causes, amid the complication of phenomena. It is with man in his 
+ That is to say, they obviously remark coincidences and sequences; | least civilized state that they should be compared.—Ep, 


INTRODUCTION. 31 
stupid. They are so truly the property of the species, that all its individuals perform 
them in the same way, without any improvement. 

Thus the working bees have always constructed very ingenious edifices, agreeably to 
the rules of the highest geometry, and destined to lodge and nourish a posterity not 
even their own. The wasps and the solitary bees also form very complicated nests, in 


which to deposit their eggs. From this egg issues a grub, which has never seen its 


(elo oD 
parent, which is ignorant of the structure of the prison in which it is confined, but 
which, once metamorphosed, constructs another precisely similar. 
In order to have a clear idea of instinct, it is necessary to admit that these animals 
ave innate and perpetual images or sensations in the sensorium, which induce them to 
h te and perpetual images or sensat tl hich induce them t 
act as ordinary and accidental sensations commonly do. 
_ that ever haunts them, and may be considered, in all that relates to instinct, as a 


kind of somnambulism. 


It is a sort of dream or vision 


Instinct has been granted to animals as a supplement for intelligence, to concur with 
it, and with force and fecundity, to the preservation, in a proper degree, of each species. 

There is no visible mark of instinct in the conformation of the animal; but intelli- 
gence, so far as has been observed, is in constant proportion to the relative size of the 
brain, and particularly of its hemispheres.* 


OF METHOD, AS APPLIED TO THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


After what we have said respecting methods in general, there remains to ascertain 
which are the most influential characters of animals, that should serve as the basis of 
their primary divisions. It is evident they should be those which are drawn from the 
“animal functions ; that is to say, from the sensations and movements ; for not only do 


both these make the being an animal, but they establish, in a manner, its degree of 


animality. 


Observation confirms this position, by showing that their degrees of developement 
and complication accord with those of the organs of the vegetative functions. 

The heart and the organs of the circulation form a kind of centre for the vege- 
of the nervous system do for the animal 


tative functions, as the brain and trunk 


* One of the most curious phenomena of instinct is the transmission 
of instilled habits by generation, as in the instance of high-bred 
pointer and setter dogs, often requiring no training to fit them for 
their particular modes of indicating game. Propensities are similarly 
hereditary in the human species; but innate knowledge, as a substi- 
tute for individually acquired experience, is peculiar to brutes, which, 
for the most part, are thrown upon their own resources, before they 
have had time or opportunities to gain the necessary information to 
serve as a guide for the regulation of their conduct. All the higher ani- 
mals, except the human species, appear to recognize their natural foes 
intuitively, to know even where their hidden weapons lie, also where 
they (and likewise themselves) are most vulnerable, and they endea- 
vour to use their own peculiar weapons before these are developed. If 
incapable of resistance, they commonly have recourse to stratagein ; 
thus a brood of newly-hatched partridges willinstantly cower motion- 
less at sight of an object of distrust, the intent of which must be, that 
the close similarity of their colour to that of the surface should cause 
them to be overlooked. Predatory animals, again, which immolate 
victims capable of dangerous resistance, instinctively endeavour always 
to attack a vital part, so as to effect their purpose speedily, and with 
least hazard to themselves ; but those which prey on feeble and de- 
fenceless animals attack indiscriminately. Many astonishing mani- 
festations of the instinctive faculty occur respecting the manner in 
which the food is obtained ; and in the ant and some rodent quadrupeds, 
which store up grain, the embryo of every seed is destroyed, to pre- 
vent germination, 


The seasonal migrative impulse which recurs in some animals is 
among the most incomprehensible of instinctive phenomena, as it is 
shown to be, in various cases, independent of food or temperature ; 
though the latter, in particular, exercises some influence on its de- 
velopement, as does also the state of the sexual organs in spring. The 
guiding principle of migration is equally mysterious,—that which 
enables a bird of passage to return periodically to its former haunts, 
to the same locality (both in winter and summer), which it had pre- 
viously occupied ; and the young also to the place of their nativity. 
This principle is farther evinced in the return of pigeons, &c. to their 
accustomed place of abode from indefinite distances, and by a straighter 
and more direct route than that by which they had been removed. It 
appears, likewise, to be manifested in somnambulism, and, perhaps, in 
some other affections of the human body ; but the sexual and parental 
instincts are those which are chiefly cognizable in civilized man- 
kind. 

One curious fact connected with the migrative propensity is, that 
the same species is sometimes permanently resident in one locality, 
and migratory in another. Thus the robin, which is stationary in 
Britain, leaves Germany in the autumn; which would seem to indi- 
cate that the erratic habit may have originated (in this instance) from 
necessity, and in course of time have become regular and transinis- 
sible, independently of external causes. Migratory animals, how- 
ever, may commouly be distinguished from others of the same genus, 
by their superior structural powers of locomotion.—Ep. 


32 INTRODUCTION. 


functions. Now, we see these two systems degrade and disappear together. In 
the lowest of animals, where the nerves cease to be visible, there are no longer 
distinct fibres, and the organs of digestion are simply excavated in the homogeneous 
mass of the body. In insects, the vascular system disappears even before the nervous 
one ; but, in general, the dispersion of the medullary masses accompanies that of the 
muscular agents: a spinal chord, on which the knots or ganglions represent so 
many brains, corresponds to a body divided into numerous rings, and supported by 
pairs of members distributed along its length, &c. 

This correspondence of general forms, which results from the arrangement of the 
organs of motion, the distribution of the nervous masses, and the energy of the circu- 
lating system, should serve then for the basis of the primary sections to be made in 
the animal kingdom. We will afterwards ascertain, in each of these sections, what . 
characters should succeed immediately to these, and form the basis of the primary 
subdivisions. 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM INTO FOUR GREAT DIVISIONS. 


If the animal kingdom be considered with reference to the principles which we have 
laid down, and, divesting ourselves of the prejudices founded on the divisions 
formerly admitted, we regard only the organization and nature of animals, and not 
their size, utility, the more or less knowledge which we have of them, nor any 
other accessory circumstances, it will be found that there exist four principal forms, 
four general plans, if it may be thus expressed, on which all animals appear to have 
been modelled, and the ulterior divisions of which, under whatever title naturalists 
may have designated them, are merely slight modifications, founded on the develope- 
ment or addition of certain parts, which produce no essential change in the plan itself. 

In the first of these forms, which is that of man, and of the animals which most 
resemble him, the brain and the principal trunk of the nervous system are inclosed in 
a bony envelope, which is formed by the cranium and the vertebre : to the sides of this 
medial column are attached the ribs, and the bones of the limbs, which compose the 
framework of the body: the muscles generally cover the bones, the motions of which 
they produce, and the viscera are contained within the head and trunk. Animals of 
this form we shall denominate 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS (Animalia vertebraia). * 

They have all red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth furnished with two jaws, 
placed one either before or above the other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, smell, 
and taste, situated in the cavities of the face; never more than four limbs; the 
sexes always separated ; and a very similar distribution of the medullary masses, and 
of the principal branches of the nervous system. 

On examining each of the parts of this great series of animals more closely, there 
may always be detected some analogy, even in those species which are most remote 
from one another; and the gradations of one single plan may be traced from man to 
the last of fishes. 


In the second form there is no skeleton ; the muscles are attached only to the skin, 


INTRODUCTION. 33 


which constitutes a soft, contractile envelope, m which, in many species, are formed 
stony plates, called shells, the production and position of which are analogous to that 
of the mucous body; the nervous system is contained within this general envelope, 
together with the viscera, and is composed of several scattered masses, connected by 
nervous filaments, and of which the principal, placed over the cesophagus, bears the 
name of brain. Of the four senses, the organs of those of taste and vision only can be 
distinguished; the latter of which are even frequently wanting. A single family 
alone presents organs of hearing. There is always, however, a complete system of 
circulation, and particular organs for respiration. ‘Those of digestion and of the secre- 
tions are little less complicated than in the vertebrated animals. We will distinguish 
the animals of this second form by the appellation of 


Moxuuscous Animats (Animalia mollusca). 


Although the general plan of their organization is not so uniform, as regards the 
external configuration of the parts, as that of the vertebrates, there is always an equal 
degree of resemblance between them in the essential structure and the functions. 


The third form is that observed in insects, worms, &c. Their nervous system con- 
sists of two long chords running longitudinally through the abdomen, dilated at inter- 
vals into knots or ganglions. The first of these knots, placed over the cesophagus, 
and called brain, is scarcely any larger than those which are along the abdomen, with 
which it communicates by filaments that encircle the cesophagus like a collar. ‘The 
envelope of their trunk is divided by transverse folds into a certain number of rings, of 


‘which the teguments are sometimes hard, sometimes soft, but to the interior of which 


the muscles are always attached. The trunk often bears on its sides articulated 
limbs, but is frequently unfurnished with them. We will bestow on these animals 
the term 


ARTICULATE ANIMALS (Animalia articulata). 


It is among these that the passage is observed ‘from the circulation in closed vessels, 
to nutrition by imbibition, and the corresponding transition from respiration in cir- 
cumscribed organs, to that effected by trachez or air-vessels distributed through the 
body. The organs of taste and vision are the most distinct in them, a single family 
alone presenting that of hearing. Their jaws, when they have any, are always lateral. 


Lastly, the fourth form, which embraces all those animals known under the name of 
Zoophytes, may be designated 


Rapiate Animas (Animalia radiata). 


In all the preceding, the organs of sense and motion are arranged symmetrically on 
the two sides of an axis. There is a posterior and an anterior dissimilar face. In this 
last division, they are disposed as rays round a centre; and this is the case, even when 
they consist of but two series, for then the two faces are alike.* They approximate to 
the homogeneity of plants, having no very distinct nervous system, nor organs of 
particular senses: there can scarcely be perceived, in some of them, the vestiges of a 


* M. Agassiz has expressed a different opinion. See Radiata.—Ep. 


34 INTRODUCTION 


circulation; their respiratory organs are atmost always on the surtace of the body ; 
the greater number have only a sac without issue, for the whole intestine ; and 
the lowest families present only a sort of homogeneous pulp, endowed with motion and 
sensibility.* 

[The necessity,” writes Mr. Owen, “for a dismemberment of the Radiata of Cuvier, which 
Rudolphi justly calls a chaotie groupt, has been felt, and directly or indirectly expressed, by 
most naturalists and comparative anatomists.} It is impossible, indeed, to predicate a com- 
munity of structure in either the locomotive, excretive, digestive, sensitive, or generative 
systems, with respect to this division, as it now stands in the Régne Animal. * * * 

“Taking the nervous system as a guide, the Radiata of Cuvier will be found to resolve them- 
selves into two natural groups, of which the second differs in the absence or obscure traces of 
nervous filaments from the higher division, in which these are always distinctly traceable, 
either radiating from an oral ring, or distributed in a parallel longitudinal direction, according 
to the form of the body. 

“These different conditions of the nervous system are accompanied by corresponding 
modifications of the muscular, digestive, and vascular systems; and a negative character, appli- 
cable to the higher division of Cuvier’s Radiata, may be derived from the generative 
system.’’§ 


It is only in the lower-organized of these divisions, to which the term 


Acrite ANIMALS (Animalia acrita) 


has been applied by Macleay, also that of Protozoa and Oozoa by Carus (from the 
circumstance of its members being analogous to the ova or germs of the higher classes), 
that the alimentary cavity and sanguiferous canals are destitute of proper parietes, 
being simple excavations or passages in the granular pulp of the body: for in the 
Nematoneura (a name applied to the higher division of Cuvier’s Radiata by Owen), the 
digestive organ is provided with a proper muscular tunic, and floats in an abdominal 
cavity: and those classes which manifest a circulating system distinct from the diges- 
tive tube possess vessels with proper parietes, distinguishable into arteries and veins. 

No nematoneurous class presents an example of generation by spontaneous fision or 
gemmation, but these modes of reproduction are common in the acrite division. 
of the latter, however, are oviparous; and in a few the sexes are separate. | 


Some 


* Before my time, modern naturalists divided all invertebrated ani- | these various classes under three grand divisions, each of which is 


inals into two classes, the Insects and Worms. I was the first to attack 
this method, and presented another division,in a Memoir read before the 
Natural History Society of Paris, on the 10th of May, 1795, and printed 
in the Décade Philosophique,in which 1 marked the characters and 
limits of the Mollusks, Crustaceans, Insects, Worms, Echinoderms, 
and Zoophytes. I distinguished the red-blooded worms, or Annelides, 
in a memoir read before the Institute onthe 3lst of December, 1801. | 
And finally, in a Memoir read before the Institute in July, 1812, and | 
printed in the dnnales du Mus. d’Hist. Nat., tom, xix., 1 distributed | 


comparable to that of the vertebrate animals. 

+ Synopsis Entozoorum, p. 572. 

t Lamarck observes :—‘‘ The Apathetic Animals,” (as he terms the 
Acrita,) “have been very improperly called Zoophytes ; as their nature 
is completely animal, and in no respect vegetable. The denomina- 
tion of Rayed Animals is also objectionable, as it applies only toa 
portion of them.—dAnim, sans Vert2bres, i. p. 890. 

§ Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, Art. Acrita; from which 
the succeeding passages are also abridged.—Ep, 


i 


FIRST GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


THE 


Fig. 1. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


Tue bodies and limbs of these being supported by a 
frame-work composed of connected pieces moveable 
upon each other, they have the more precision and 
vigour in their movements: the solidity of this support 
permits of their attaining considerable size, and it is 
among them that the largest animals are found. 

Their more concentrated nervous system, and the 
greater volume of its central portions, impart more 
energy and more stability to their sentiments, whence 
result superior intelligence and perfectibility. 

Their body always consists of a head, trunk, and 
members. 

The head is formed by the cranium, which incloses 
the brain, and by the face, which is composed of the 
two jaws and the receptacles of the organs of sense. 

Their trunk is supported by the spine of tbe back 
and the ribs. 

The spine is composed of vertebrae moveable upon 
each other, of which the first supports the head, and 
which have an annular perforation, forming together a 
canal, wherein is lodged that medullary production 
from which the nerves arise, and which is called the 
spinal marrow. 

The spine, most commonly, is continued into a tail, 
extending beyond the hinder limbs. 


The ribs are semicircles, which protect the sides of the cavity of the trunk: they 
are articulated at one extremity to the vertebre, and are ordinarily attached in front to 
the breast-bone; but sometimes they only partly encircle the trunk, and there are 
genera in which they are hardly visible. 

There are never more than two pairs of limbs; but sometimes one or the other is 
wanting, or even both: their forms vary according to the movements which they have to 


execute. The anterior lmbs 


may be organized as hands, feet, wings, or fins; the 


posterior as feet, or instruments for swimming. 


Diz 


36 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


The blood is always red, and appears to have a composition proper for sustaining that 
energy of sentiment and vigour of muscles, but in different degrees, which correspond 
to the amount of respiration, from which originates the subdivision of the vertebrate 
animals into four classes. 

The external senses are always five in number, and reside in two eyes, two ears, two 
nostrils, the teguments of the tongue, and those of the body generally. Certain species, 
however, have the eyes obliterated. 

The nerves reach the medulla through perforations of the vertebrae, or of the cra- 
nium: they all seem to unite with this medulla, which, after crossing its filaments, 
expands to form the various lobes of which the brain is composed, and terminates in 
the two medullary arches (véufes) termed hemispheres, the volume of which corre- 
sponds to the amount of intelligence. 

There are always two jaws, the principal motion of which is in the lower one, 
which rises and falls; the upper is oftentimes entirely fixed: both of them are almost 
always armed with teeth, excrescences of a peculiar nature, the chemical composition of 
which is very similar to that of bone, but which grows by layers and transudations ; 
one entire class, however, (that of birds,) has the jaws invested with horn*, and the 
group of tortoises, in the class of reptiles, is in the same predicament. 

The intestinal canal is continued from the mouth to the anus, undergoing various 
inflexions, and several enlargements and contractions; having also appendages, and 
receiving solvent fluids, one of which, the saliva, is discharged into the mouth: the 
others, which flow into the intestine only, have various names ; the two principal are 
the juices of the gland called the pancreas [or sweet-bread], and the bile [or gal/], 
which is the product of another very large gland, named the liver. 

While the digested aliment is traversing its canal, that portion of it which is proper 
for nutrition, and is termed the chyle, is absorbed by particular vessels, named lacteals, 
and carried into the veins; the residue of the nutriment of the parts is also carried into 
the veins by vessels analogous to the lacteals, and forming with them one same system, 
designated the /ymphatic system. 

The veins return to the heart the blood which has served to nourish the parts, to- 
gether with the chyle and lymph with which it has been renewed; but this blood is 
obliged to pass, either wholly or in part, into the organ of respiration, to regain its 
arterial nature, previous to being again dispersed over the system by the arteries. In 
the three first classes, this organ of respiration consists of lungs, that is, an assemblage 
of cells into which air penetrates. In fishes only, and in some reptiles while young, it 
consists of gills, or a series of laminz between which water passes. 

In all the vertebrate animals, the blood which furnishes the liver with the materials 
of the bile is venous blood, which has circulated partly in the parietes of the intestines, 
and partly in a peculiar body named the spleen, and which, after being united in a 
trunk called the vena porta, is again subdivided at the liver. 


* M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire has described a structure in the bill of 
birds which presents some approach to a dentary system, Ina foetus of 
a Parroquet nearly ready for hatching, he found that the margins of the 
bill were beset with tubercles arranged in a regular order, and having 
all the exterior appearance of teeth ; these tubercles were not, indeed, 
implanted in the jaw-bones, but formed part of the exterior sheath of 


the bill. Under each tubercle, however, there was a gelatinous pulp, j 


analogous to the puips which secrete tecth, but resting on the edve of 
the maxillary bones, and every pulp was supplied by vessels and nerve s 
traversing a canal in the substance of the bone. These tubercles form 
the first margins of the mandibles, and their remains are indicated by 


canals in the horny sheath, subsequently formed, which contain a 
softer material, and which commence from small foramina in the mar- 
gin of the bone. In certain other birds (as the Mergansers) also, the 
lateral edges of the bill are provided with horny processes or lamin 
secreted by distinct pulps, and analogous in this respect to the whale- 
bone lamina of the Whales, which are toothless Mammalia, as are also 
the ant-eaters and Monotremata: it is further remarkable that the 
rudiments of dentition occur in the fatus of the toothless Whales. 
—Ep. 

+ The lymphatic vessels are also the media of cutaneous transuda- 
tiou.—Kp. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. ay 


All these animals have a particular secretion, which is that of urine, and which is 
elaborated in two large glands attached to the sides of the spine of the back, and called 
kidneys: the liquid which these glands secrete, accumulates most commonly in a 
reservoir named the bladder. 

The sexes are separate, and the female has always one or two ovaries, from which 
the eggs are detached at the instant of conception. The male fecundates them with 
the seminal fluid; but the mode varies greatly. In most of the genera of the three 
first classes, it requires an intromission of the fluid; in some reptiles, and in most of 
the fishes, it takes place after the exit of the eggs. 


SUBDIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS INTO FOUR CLASSES. 


We have seen to what extent vertebrate animals resemble each other: they present, 
however, four great subdivisions or classes, characterized by the kind or power of their 
movements, which depend themselves on the quantity of respiration, inasmuch as it is 
from this respiration that the muscular fibres derive the energy of their irritability. 

The quantity of respiration depends upon two agents: the first is the relative 
quantity of blood which presents itself in the respiratory organ in a given instant of 
time; the second, the relative amount of [free] oxygen which enters into the com- 
position of [or is dispersed through] the ambient fluid. The quantity of the former 
depends upon the disposition of the organs of respiration and of circulation. 

The organs of the circulation may be double, so that all the blood which is brought 
back from the various parts of the body by the veins, is forced to circulate through 
the respiratory organ before returning by the arteries; or they may be simple, so that 
a portion only of the blood is obliged to pass through the respiratory organ, the re- 
mainder returning to the body without having been subjected to respiration. 

The latter is the case with reptiles. The amount of their respiration, and all the 
qualities which depend on it, vary according to the quantity of blood which is thrown 
into the lungs at each pulsation. 

Fishes have a double circulation, but their organ of respiration is formed to execute 
its function through the medium of water; and their blood is only acted upon by that 
small portion of oxygen which is dissolved or mingled in water ; so that the quantity of 
their respiration is, perhaps, less than that of reptiles. 

In mammalians, the circulation is double, and the aérial respiration simple, that is, 
it is performed in the lungs only: their quantity of respiration is, therefore, superior 
to that of reptiles, on account of the form of their respiratory organ, and to that of 
fishes, from the nature of their surrounding medium. 

But the quantity of respiration in birds is even superior to that of quadrupeds, 
since they have not only a double circulation and an aérial respiration, but also 
respire by many other cavities besides the lungs, the air penetrating throughout 
their bodies, and bathing the branches of the aorta, or main artery of the body, as 
well as those of the pulmonary artery.* 

Hence result the four kinds of progression to which the four classes of the vertebrate 
animals are more particularly destined. The quadrupeds, in which the quantity of 


* In Batrachian reptiles (frogs, newts, &c.), respiration is to a) effected by which is needed to develope the requisite nervous or vital 
certain extent performed over the whole outer skin; which, on this | energy, those animals of this group which in the adult state have 
account, requires to be always mvist. Hence, as there can be no | lungs and not gills, but which pass the winter in a torpid state under 


muscular action without previous respiration, the chemical change | water, are enabled to resuscitate in spring.—Ep. 


38 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


respiration is moderate, are generauy tormea to waik and run with precision and 
vigour ; the birds, in which it is greater, have the muscular energy and lightness 
necessary for flight; the reptiles, where it is diminished, are condemned to creep, and 
many of them pass a portion of their life in a state of torpor; the fishes, in fine, 
to execute their movements, require to be supported in a fluid specifically almost as 


heavy as themselves.* 

All the circumstances of organization proper to each of these four classes, and 
especially those which refer to motion and the external senses, have a necessary 
relation with these essential characters. 

The class of mammalians, however, has peculiar characters in its viviparous mode of 
generation, in the manner in which the foetus is nourished in the womb by means of 
the placenta, and in the mamme by which they suckle their young. 


The other classes are, on the contrary, oviparous; and if we place them together, in 
opposition to the first, there will be perceived numerous resemblances which announce, 
on their part, a special plan of organization, subordinate to the great general plan of 
all the vertebrates. 


| THE FIRST CLASS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


MAMMALIA. 


Mammalians require to be placed at the head of the animal kingdom, not only 
because this is the class to which we ourselves belong, but also because it is that which 
enjoys the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sensations, the most varied 
powers of motion, and in which all the different qualities seem together combined to 
produce a more perfect degree of intelligence,—the one most fertile in resources, most 
susceptible of perfection, and least the slave of instinct. 

As their quantity of respiration is moderate, they are in general designed for walking 
on the ground, but with vigorous and continued steps. Consequently, all the articula- 
tions of their skeleton have very precise forms, which rigorously determine their motions. 

Some of them, however, by means of lengthened limbs and extended membranes, 
raise themselves in the air; others have the limbs so shortened, that they can employ 
them with effect only in water; but they do not the more on this account lose the 
general characters of the class. 


* To descend to particular cases, however, it would appear that 
species may be framed on almost every type, even very subordinate 
types, for any particular mode of life. 


groups which they approximate in habit,—nought that can be regarded 
as an intentional or designed representation of them, as has some- 


Thus, to illustrate briefly, the | times been imagined: for it is evident, that if species based on two 


bats, which are true mammalians, are modified for aérial progression 
like birds ; and the whales, other mammalians, have a fish-like exterior, 
being designed to live exclusively in water: so there are birds which 
are utterly incapable of flight; some, as the ostrich, adapted to scour 
the plains, like a quadruped; others, as the penguins, whose only 
sphere of activity isin the water: the pterodactyle affords an ex- 
ample of a genus of flying reptiles, the fossil remains of which only 
have been discovered. Descending to lower groups, we find among 
birds, a genus of thrushes (Cinclus), which seeks its subsistence under 
water; and another of totipalmate water-fowl (Zachypetes), which 
neither swims nor dives. Such deviations, however, from the general ! 


| 
i 
‘ 


character of their allied genera, have no intrinsical relation to the 


different plans of organization are respectively modified to perform 
the same office in the economy of nature, they must necessarily re- 
semble, to a certain extent, superficially, as a consequence of that 
adaptation ; while there are many cases also in each class which can- 
not well be represented in some others, as that of the mole among 
quadrapeds, which has no counterpart or correspondent group in the 
class of birds. Habit, or mode of life, has indeed nothing whatever 


! to do with the physiological relations of organisms, which afford the 


only legitimate basis of classification ; and those special modifications 
to particular habits, which, occurring alike in any class, superinduce 
a resemblance in superficial characters only, constitute what has been 
well distinguished by the term analogy, as opposed to affinity —Ep. 


MAMMALIANS. 39 


They have all the upper jaw fixed to the sxull, and the lower composed of two 
pieces only, articulated by a projecting condyle to a fixed temporal bone; the neck 
consists of seven vertebra, one single species excepted, 
which has nine*; the anterior ribs are attached in 
front, by cartilage, to a sternum formed of a certain 
number of pieces placed in a row; their fore-limb 
commences in a blade-bone, which is not articulated, 
but merely suspended in the flesh, often resting on 
the sternum by means of an intermediate bone, called 
a clavicle. This extremity is continued by an arm, a 
fore-arm, and a hand, the last composed of two ranges 
of small bones, called a wrist or carpus, of another 
range of bones termed metacarpus, and of digits or 
fingers, each of which consists of two or three bones, 
named phalanges. 

Excepting the Cetacea, they have all the first part of 
the hinder extremity fixed to the spine, and forming a 
girdle or pelvis, which, in youth, consists of three pairs 
of bones,— the ilium, which is attached to the spine, 
the pubis, which forms the fore part of the girdle, and the ischium, which constitutes 
the hind part. At the point of union of these three bones is situate the cavity with which 
the thigh is articulated, to which, in its turn, is attached the leg, formed of two bones, 
the tibia and fibula: this extremity is terminated by the foot, which is composed of 


parts analogous to those of the hand, namely, a tarsus, metatarsus, and digits or toes. 


The head of mammalians is always articulated by two condyles upon the atlas, or 
first vertebra. 

Their brain is composed of two hemispheres, united by a medullary layer termed 
the corpus callosum, containing two ventricles, and enveloping the four pairs of tuber- 
cles named the corpora striata, the thalami nervorum opticorum, or beds of the optic 
nerves, and the nates and testes. Between the optic beds is a third ventricle, which 
communicates with a fourth situated under the cerebellum, the crura of which always 
form a transverse prominence under the medulla oblongata, called the pons Varolii. 

Their eye, invariably lodged in its orbit, is protected by two lids and a vestige of a 
third, and has its crystalline fixed by the ciliary process and its simply cellular sclero- 


tica [or white]. 


In their ear, there is always found a cavity named the drum, or tympanum, which 
communicates with the back part of the mouth, by a canal termed the trumpet, or 
Eustachian tube: the cavity itself is closed externally by a membrane called the 
membrana tympani, and contains a chain of four little bones, named the hammer, anvil, 
orbicular, and stirrup bones; a vestibule, on the entrance of which rests the stirrup- 
bone, and which communicates with three semicircular canals; and, finally, a cochlea, 
which terminates by one passage in the drum, and by another in the vestibule. 

Their cranium subdivides into three portions: the anterior is formed by the two 
frontal and the ethmoidal bones ; the middle, by the parietal bones and the sphenoidal ; 


* The sloth is alladed to, in which, however, distinct rudiments of ribs are attached to the cighth and ninth, as shown in the above figure 
(«, 4); so that, in reality, this constitutes no exception to the universal rule-—Ep. 


40 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


and the posterior, by the occipital. Between the occipital, the parietal, and the sphe- 
noidal, are interposed the temporal bones, part of which belong properly to the face. 

In the fcetus, the occipital bone divides into four parts ; the sphenoidal into halves, 
which subdivide into three pairs of lateral wings; the temporal into three, of which 
one serves to complete the cranium, another to close the labyrinth of the ear, and the 
third to form the parietes of its drum, &c. These bony portions [centres of ossifica- 
tion], which are still more numerous in the earliest period of foetal existence, are 
united more or less promptly, according to the species, and the bones themselves be- 
come finally consolidated in the adult.* 

Their face is essentially formed by the two maxillary bones, between which pass the 
nostrils, and which have the two intermaxillaries in front, and the two palate bones 
behind ; between them descends a single lamina of the ethmoidal bone, named the 
vomer ; at the entrance of the nasal canal are the bones proper to the nose ; to its external 
parietes adhere the inferior turbinated bones, which occupy its upper and posterior 
portion, belonging to the ethmoidal. The jugal or cheek bone unites on each side the 
maxillary to the temporal bone, and often to the frontal; lastly, the lachrymal bone 
occupies the inner angle of the orbit, and sometimes a part of the cheek. ‘These bones 
also present more numerous subdivisions in the embryo. 

Their tongue is always fleshy, and attached to a bone termed the hyoidal, which is 


- composed of several pieces, and suspended from the cranium by ligaments. 


Their lungs, two in number, divided into lobes, and composed of an infinitude of 
cells, are always inclosed without adhesion in a cavity formed by the ribs and 
diaphragm, and lined by the pleura; their organ of voice is always at the upper end 
of the windpipe ; a fleshy elongation, called the velum palati, establishes a direct com- 
munication between their larynx and nostrils. 

Their residence on the surface of the earth exposing them less to the alternations of 
heat and cold, their body has only a moderate kind of tegument, the hair or fur, and 
even this is commonly scanty in those of hot climates.}+ 

The cetaceans, which live entirely in water, are the only ones that are altogether 
deprived of it. 

The abdominal cavity is lined with a membrane called the peritoneum; and their 
intestinal canal is suspended to a fold of it, termed the mesentery, which contains 
numerous conglomate glands, in which the lacteal vessels ramify: another production 
of the peritoneeum, named the epiploon, hangs in front of and under the intestines. 

The urine, retained for some time in the bladder, is discharged, in the two sexes, 
with very few exceptions, by orifices in the organs of generation. 

In all mammalians, generation is essentially viviparous; that is to say, the fcetus, 
immediately after conception, descends [gradually] into the matrix, inclosed in its 
envelopes, the exterior of which is named chorion, and the interior amnios ; it fixes 
itself to the parietes of this cavity by one or more plexus of vessels, termed the 
placenta, which establishes a communication between it and the mother, by which it 
receives its nourishment, and probably also its oxygenation ; notwithstanding which, 


* Here it may be remarked that, descending in the series of verte- _ cessively assuming the conditions of this organ in fishes, reptiles, 
brates, the same is observable as in ascending to foetal life in the | birds, the lower and then higher groups of mammalians.—Ep. 
higher groups ; the progress of developement, in this and other re- | + In some monkeys from Sierra Leone, the most torrid reion in the 
spects, being arrested at different stages of advancement, according | world, the hair is much elongated, but thin and coarse, as if designed 
1 


to the class, order, and species: the brain for instance, in man, suc- | to protect them from the solar rays.—Eb, 


MAMMALIA. 41 


the foetus of mammalians, at an early period, has a vessel analogous to that which 
contains the yolk in the oviparous classes, receiving, in like manner, vessels from the 
mesentery. It has also another external bladder named the allantoid, which communi- 
cates with the urinary one by a canal termed the wrachus. 

Conception always requires an effectual coitus, in which the fecundating fluid of the 
male is thrown into the uterus of the female. 

The young are nourished for some time after birth by a fluid peculiar to this class 
(the milk), which is produced by the mamme, at the time of parturition, and for as 
long a period as the young require it. Itis from the mamme that this class derives 
its name, and, being a character peculiar to it, they distinguish it better than any 
other that is external.* . 


DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS. 


The variable characters which establish essential differences among the mammalia 
are taken from the organs of touch, on which depends their degree of ability or 
address, and from the organs of manducation, which determine the nature of their 
food, and are connected together, not only with all that relates to the digestive func- 
tion, but also with a multitude of other differences extending even to their intelligence. 

The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is estimated by the number and the 
mobility of the fingers, and from the greater or less extent to which their extremities 
are enveloped by the nail or the hoof. 

A hoof which envelopes all that portion of the toe which touches the ground, blunts 
its sensibility, and renders the foot incapable of seizing. 

The opposite extreme is where a nail, formed of a single lamina, covers only one 
of the faces of the extremity of the finger, and leaves the other possessed of all its 
delicacy. 

The nature of the food is known by the grinders, to the form of which the articula- 
tion of the jaws universally corresponds. 

For cutting flesh, grinders are required as trenchant as a saw, and jaws fitted like 
se ssors, which have no other motion than a vertical one. 

For bruising grain or roots, flat-crowned grinders are necessary, and jaws that 
have a lateral motion: in order that the crowns of these teeth should always be 
irregular, as in a mill, it is further requisite that their substance should be formed of 
parts of unequal hardness, so that some may wear away faster than others, 

Hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and have flat-crowned grinders, in- 
asmuch as their feet preclude the possibility of their seizing a living prey. 

Animals with unguiculated fingers are susceptible of more variety; their food is of 
all kinds: and, dependently of the form of their grinders, they differ greatly from 
each other in the mobility and delicacy of their fingers. There is one character with 
respect to this, which has immense influence on their dexterity, and greatly multiplies 
its powers ; it is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers for the purpose 
of seizing small objects, constituting what is properly termed a hand; a faculty which 


* We shall find, however, in the sequel some doubts on this sub- to be no nipples, simple pressure alone causing the fluid to exude. 
ject, as regards the family of Monotremata. [These doubts have | In the class of birds, a lacteal fluid is secreted by the crops of the 
since been removed, inasmuch as the lacteal glands have been de parrots and pigeons, which is disgorged into the throats of the young 


tected, with their secretion ; though, as in the cetaceans, there appear | when newly hatched.—Ep.] 


42 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 


is carried to its highest perfection m Man, in whom the wnole anterior extremity is 
free, and capable of prehension. 

These various combinations, which rigidly determine the nature of the different 
mammalians, have given rise to the following orders :— 

Among the unguiculates the first is Man, who, besides being privileged in all other 
respects, has hands to the anterior extremities only ; his hinder limbs support him in 
an erect position. 

In the order next to Man,—that of the Quaprumana, there are hands to the four 
extremities. 

Another order, that of the Carnarta, has not the thumb free and opposable to the 
other fingers. 

These three orders have each the three sorts of teeth, namely, grinders, canines, and 
incisors. 

A fourth, that of the Ropenrra, in which the toes differ little from those of the 
Carnaria, is without the canines, and the incisors are placed in front of the mouth, and 
adapted to a very peculiar sort of manducation. 

Then come those animals whose toes are much cramped, and deeply sunk in large 
nails, which are generally curved; and which have further the imperfection of want- 
ing the incisors. Some of them are also without canines, and there are others which 
have no teeth at all. We comprehend them all under the name EpEnrara. 

This distribution of the unguiculated animals would be perfect, and form a very 
regular series, were it not that New Holland has lately furnished us with a small 
collateral series, composed of the pouched animals [MarsurratTa], the different genera 
of which are connected together by the aggregate of their organization, although m 
their teeth, and in the nature of their regimen, some correspond to the Carnaria, others 
to the Rodentia, and others, again, to the Kdentata. 

The hoofed animals are less numerous, and have likewise fewer irregularities. 

The Ruminant1a compose an order very distinct, which is characterized by its cloven 
feet, by the absence of the incisors to the upper jaw, and by having four stomachs. 

All the other hoofed animals may be left together in a single order, which I shall 
call PacoyperMatTa or JumenTA, the Elephant excepted, which might constitute a 
separate one, having some distant relation to that of Rodentia. 

Lastly, those mammalians remain which have no posterior extremities, and whose 
fish-like form and aquatic mode of life would induce: us to form them into a particular 
class, if it were not that all the rest of their economy is precisely the same as in that 
wherein we leave them. These are the warm-blooded fishes of the ancients, or the 
Crracea, which, uniting to the vigour of the other mammalians the advantage of being 
sustained in the watery element, include among them the most gigantic of all animals. 

{Linneus reduced all mammalians to three great groups, Uneurcutata, Uneunata, 


and Murica ; terms which are at least convenient for their expressiveness, although 


the groups they represent intergrade, and in some instances invade each other, if too 
rigorously accepted. 

His order Primares, as extended to the Bimana, Quadrumana, and Cheiroptera of 
Cuvier, receives the approbation of most naturalists ; few regard the last as subordinate 
to the Carnaria, which is equivalent to Primates. 


Viewing Man zoologically, opinion is divided respecting the propriety of assigning 


. 


MAMMALIA. 43 


him a separate ordinal station ; his rudimental structure according so nearly with that 
of the Quadrumana, of which type he presents the modification for ground habits and 
an upright attitude ; his more highly developed brain is merely a difference in degree. 

Conceding this much, he would require to be admitted into the same particular 
group as all other mammalians based on the same neat general plan of structure 
to that of the entire class; which special type is externally distinguished by pecu- 
liarities in the sexual organs, a system of organs of all others the least subject to be 
influenced by the general modification in reference to habit. 

It is thus that, after being necessarily included among the Mammalia, Man must 
next range with the other handed animals and the Bats, in a particular subdivision, 
which Linneus has named Primates. 

There would appear to be four distinct major groups of Primates :—the Catarrhini, 
composed of the Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons of the eastern hemisphere; the 
Platyrrhini, consisting of the anthropoid animals of America; the Strepsirrhini, or 
Lemurs (including Galeopithecus, and, perhaps, Cheiromys) ; and the Cheiroptera, or 
Bats, which last, varying most essentially in their dentition, according as they are 
frugivorous, sanguivorous, or insectivorous, afford a decisive proof that the dentary 
system alone, like any other single character considered apart from the rest, fails to 
supply an invariable indication of the affinities of an animal (as has sometimes been 
stated). We perceive no sufficient reason why the genus Homo should not range at 
the head of the Catarrhini, though as a distinct family—Hominide, as opposed to 
Simiade ; in accordance wherewith, the Primates present a tolerable series, from the 
summit of the animal kingdom to forms that are rather low in the class of mammalians. 

An analogous gradation is exhibited by the second grand division, which De Blain- 
ville has designated Secundates ; it is the Carnaria of Cuvier divested of the Bats. We 
prefer the latter appellation, as more in unison with the names of the succeeding 
orders ; and for the same reason would substitute Primaria for Primates. 

Our illustrious author, with a view to present some approximation to a linear suc- 
cession, has arranged the present series inversely, commencing with those least elevated 
in the scale, or the Jnsectivora. To this we cannot accede, as virtually implying an 
exploded principle. Considered as a carnivorous group, the Feline animals must be 
selected as the standard—most characteristic example*—of the order; but in its 
totality, without reference to especial modifications, the Dog has better claim to be 
placed at the head. Some curious analogies accordingly present themselves between 
the respectively highest animals of the two first orders. 

As a general, perhaps universal rule obtaining in consecutive groups when sufficiently 
extensive, the summit of the inferior displays a higher organization than the terminal 
members of the superior}; and this sometimes in a very remarkable degree, as shown 
in the present instance. A sort of parallelism may also frequently be observed between 
such members of two different ordinal types as are of a corresponding degree of eleva- 
tion in the scale of being: thus, the Shrews present certain characters of the Rodentia, 
without linking with them. It is on this principle, we suspect, that transitions appear 
eto occur in some instances, from one great type of structure to another; and a key is 
hereby supplied to the proper understanding of much that seems otherwise inexplicable. 


* The word type is often employed in this sense: we useitina } + A proposition which is sanctioned by the acquiescence of Cuvier, 
sumew Sat differcut one. | as shown by his remarks on linear arrangement. Vide preface, p. 7. 


44 MAMMALIA. 


We have seen, in the Primaria, that particular plan of conformation so modified as 
to enable certain species to fly : in the Carnaria, the Seals afford an example of exclusive 
adaptation to aquatic habits. 

It could only have been the desire to maintain a sort of continuous succession, as in the 
former instance, which induced our author to range the Marsupiata next to the Carnaria ; 
for they are unquestionably the lowest-organized vf mammalians, whence their intrusion 
so high in the system of the class furnishes another proof of the impropriety of allowing 
undue importance to particular characters. An order which has a better claim to 
succeed the Carnaria, is that of the fish-like mammalians, or Cetacea; but, divested of 
the herbivorous genera ranged in it by Cuvier, which are strict Pachydermata. (It is 
scarcely necessary to repeat, that modifications which have reference to habit do not 
necessarily affect the essential relations of organisms). 

The Pachydermata follow, which, in their turn, must not be regarded as more nearly 
related to the last, because certain genera of them are analogously adapted for aquatic 
habits only. We feel compelled to reiterate this general principle, in order to preclude 
misconception ; the sound inference seems to be, that a tendency to general modification 
for aquatic habits prevails in this part of the system; which certainly helps to indicate 
what orders should be placed in contiguity, though still not of necessity, even admitting 
that many analogous cases may be cited in corroboration of a vague index being thus 


~ afforded.* 


We prefer to arrange the Ruminantia next to the Pachydermata ; then the Edentata, 
and the Rodentia ; and last of all the Marsupiata, including the Monotremata of Cuvier, 
the formerly doubtful points concerning which are now, with slight reservation, finally 
set at rest. 

It will be perceived that this arrangement is tolerably in accordance with the ordinary 
cerebral developement, and consequent amount of intelligence, of the eight successive 
orders. Passing on to the Birds, we commence with a higher intellect (in the Parrots) 
than is manifested in either of the last three, or, perhaps, four orders ; which agrees 
with the general proposition stated at p. 43.] 


THE FIRST ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. 


BIMANA, OR MAN. 


Man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its order. As his history 
is more directly interesting to ourselves, and forms the standard of comparison to 
which we refer that of other animals, we will treat of it more in detail. 

We will rapidly sketch whatever Man offers, that is peculiar in each of his organic 
systems, amidst all that he has in common with other mammalians; we will describe 
his principal races and their distinctive characters; and finally point out the natural” 
order of the developement of his faculties, both individual and social. 


For an instance in point, see our remarks on certain conformities of structure observable in the two groups of Parrots and Hawks. 


ee 


BIMANA, OR MAN. 45 


PECULIAR CONFORMATION OF MAN. 


The foot of Man is very different from that of Apes: it is large; the leg bears vertically upon 
it; the heel is expanded beneath; his toes are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe, 
longer and larger than the rest, is placed on the same line with and cannot be opposed to 
them. This foot, then, is proper for supporting the body, but cannot be used for seizing or 
climbing*, and as the hands are unfitted for walking, Man is the only animal truly bimanous 
and biped. 

The whole body of Man is modified for the vertical position. His feet, as we have already 
seen, furnish him with a larger base than those of other mammalians; the muscles which re- 
tain the foot and thigh in the state of extension are more vigorous, whence results the swelling 
of the calf and buttock; the flexors of the leg are attached higher up, which permits of com- 
plete extension of the knee, and renders the calf more apparent. The pelvis is larger, which 
separates the thighs and feet, and gives to the trunk that pyramidal form favourable to equi- 
librium : the necks of the thigh-bones form an angle with the body of the bone, which increases 
still more the separation of the feet, and augments the basis of the body. Finally, the head, 
in this vertical position, is in eauilibrinm with the trunk, because its articulation is exactly 
under the middle of its mass. 

Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on all fours: his short and 
nearly inflexible foot, and his long thigh, would bring the knee to the ground; his widely sepa- 
rated shoulders and his arms, too far extended from the median line, would ill support the 
fore-part of his body; the great indented muscle which, in quadrupeds, suspends the trunk 
between the blade-bones as a girth, is smaller in Man than in any one among them; the head 
is heavier, on account of the magnitude of the brain, and the smallness of the sinuses or cavi- 
ties of the bones; and yet the means of supporting it are weaker, for he has neither cervical 
ligament, nor are the vertebra so modified as to prevent their flexure forward; he could 
therefore only maintain his head in the same line with the spine, and then, his eyes and mouth 
bemg directed towards the ground, he could not see before him ; the position of these organs 
is, on the contrary, quite perfect, supposing that he walks erectly. 

The arteries which supply his brain, not being subdivided as im many quadrupeds, and the 
blood requisite for so voluminous an organ being carried to it with too much violence, fre- 
quent apoplexies would be the consequence of a horizontal position. 

Man, then, is designed to be supported by the feet only. He thus preserves the entire use 
of his hands for the arts, while his organs of sense are most favorably situated for observa- 
tion. 

These hands, which derive such advantages from their hberty, receive as many more from 
their structure. Their thumb, longer in proportion than m the apes, increases the facility of 
seizing small objects ; all the fingers, except the annularis [and this to a certain extent], have 
separate movements, which is not the case in any other animal, not even in the apes. The 
nails, covering only one side of the extremities of the fingers, form a support to the touch, 
without in the least depriving it of its delicacy. The arms which support these hands have a 
solid attachment by their large blade-bone, their strong collar bone, &e. 

Man, so highly favoured as to dexterity, is not so with regard to strength. His swiftness 
in running is much inferior to that of other animals of his size; having neither projecting 
jaws, nor salient canine teeth, nor crooked nails, he is destitute of offensive armature; and 
the sides and upper part of his body being naked, unprovided even with hair, he is absolutely 


* It is certain, however, that by much practice from early youth, | with the anterior extremities imperfect, have illustrated this practi- 
the feot has been known to acquire an amount of dexterity in manual | cability the most remarkably. The influence of habit in training even 
operations, which it would not have been supposed capable of by those | the hand to perform its functions, will be appreciated by those who 
whose feet have been enveloped from the time they first walked in | cannot use their left hand with the same freedom as the right.—Ep. 
close investments. Individuals, in particular, who have been born 


46 MAMMALIA. 


without deiensive weapons: lastly, he is of all anima.s taat which is latest to acquire the power 
necessary to provide for himself. é 

But this weakness even has been for him another advantage, in obliging him to have re- 
course to those internal means—to that intelligence which has been awarded to him in so 
high a degree. 

No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and convolutions of the hemispheres of the 
brain, that is to say, of that part of this organ which is the principal instrument of the intel- 
lectual operations; the posterior portion of the same organ extends backwards, so as to form 
a second covering to the cerebellum ; even the form of the cranium announces this great 
size of the brain, as the smallness of the face shows how slightly that portion of the nervous 
system which influences the external senses predommates in him. ; 

These external senses, however, moderate as they all are in Man, are yet extremely delicate 
and well balanced. 

His two eyes are directed forwards; he does not see on two sides at once, like many quadru- 
peds, which produces more unity in the result of his vision, and concentrates his attention 
more closely on objects of this kind. The ball and iris of his eye vary but little, which re- 
strains the activity of his sight to limited distances, and to a determined degree of light. The 
conch of his ear, possessing but little mobility or extent, does not increase the intensity of 
sounds, notwithstanding which, of all animals, he best distinguishes their mtonation. His 
nostrils, more complicated than those of apes, are less so than those of all other genera; and 
yet he appears to be the only animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be affected 
by unpleasant odours. Delicacy of smell must influence that of taste; and Man must have a 
further advantage, in this respect, at least over those animals whose tongues are covered with 
scales. Lastly, the nicety of his touch results, both from the delicacy of his teguments and 
the absence of all insensible parts, as well as from the the form of his hand, which is 
better adapted than that of any other animal for suiting itself to all the small mequalities of 
surfaces. 

Man has a particular pre-eminence in his organ of voice: of all mammalians, he can alone 
articulate sounds; the form of his mouth and the great mobility of his lips being probably 
the cause of this. Hence results his most invaluable mode of communication; for of all the 
signs which can be conveniently employed for the transmission of ideas, variations of sound 
are those which can be perceived at the greatest distance, and in the most varicus directions 
simultaneously. 

It seems that even the position of the heart and of the great vessels bears reference to the 
vertical carriage. The heart is placed obliquely on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to 
the left, thereby occasioning a distribution of the aorta differmg from that of most quadrupeds. 

The natural food of Man, judging from his structure, appears to consist principally of 
the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables. His hands afford every facility for 
gathering them; his short and but moderately strong jaws on the one hand, and his canines 
being equal only in length to the other teeth, together with his tuberculated molars on the 
other, would scarcely permit him either to masticate herbage, or to devour flesh, were these 
condiments not previously prepared by cooking. Once, however, possessed of fire, and those 
arts by which he is aided in seizing animals or killing them at a distance, every living being 
was rendered subservient to his nourishment, thereby giving him the means of an indefinite 
multiplication of his species. 

Mis organs of digestion are in conformity with those of manducation ; his stomach is simple, 
his intestinal canal of mean length, his great intestines well marked, his ececum short and thick, 
and augmented by a small appendage, and his liver divided only into two lobes and one small 
one ; his epiploon hangs in front of the intestines, and extends into the pelvis. 

To complete this abridged statement of the anatomical structure of Man, necessary for this 


a 


BIMANA, OR MAN. 47 


Introduction, we will add, that he has thirty-two vertebrae, of which seven belong to the neck, 
twelve to the back, five to the loins, five to the sacrum, and three to the coceyx. Of his ribs, 
seven pairs are united to the sternum by elongated cartilages, and are called true ribs; the 
five followmg pairs are denominated false ones. His adult cranium consists of eight bones ; 
an occipital (occipito-basilaire) ; two temporal; two parietal; a frontal; an ethmoidal, and a 
sphenoidal. The bones of his face are fourteen in number; namely, two maxillaries; two 
jugals, each of which joins the temporal to the maxillary bone of its own side by a sort of 
handle named the zygomatic arch ; two nasal bones ; two palatimes, behind the palate; a vomer, 
between the nostrils ; two turbimated bones of the nose in the nostrils; two lachrymals in the 
iner angles of the orbits, and the single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw has sixteen teeth: 
four cutting incisors in the middle,two poimted canines at the corners, and ten molars with 
tuberculated crowns, five on each side, in all thirty-two teeth. Huis blade-bone has at the 
extremity of its spine or projecting ridge a tuberosity, named the acromion, to which the 
clavicle or collar-bone is connected, and over its articulation is a poimt termed the coracoid 
process, to which certain muscles are attached. The radius turus completely on the cubitus 
or ulna, owing to the mode of its articulation with the humerus. The wrist has eight bones, 
four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remaining parts of the hand and foot 
may be easily counted by the number of digits. 

Enjoying, by means of his industry, uniform supplies of nourishment, Man is at all times 
inclined to sexual intercourse, without being ever furiously incited. His generative organ is 
not supported by a bony axis; the prepuce does not retain it attached to the abdomen ; but 
it hangs in front of the pubis: numerous and large veins, which effect a rapid transfer of 
the blood of his testes to the general circulation, appear to contribute to the moderation of his 
desires. 

The uterus of woman is a simple oval cavity; her mammz, only two in number, are situated 
on the breast, and correspond with the facility she possesses of supporting her child upon her 


arm. 


PHYSICAL AND MORAL DEVELOPEMENT OF MAN. 


The ordinary produce of the human species is but one child at a birth; for in five hundred 
cases of parturition, there is only one of twins, and more than that number is extremely rare. 
The period of gestation is nine months. A foetus of one month is ordinarily an inch in 
height; at two months, it is two inches and a quarter; at three months, five ches; at five 
months, six or seven inches; at seven months, eleven inches ; and at nine months, eighteen 
inches. Those which are born prior to the seventh month usually die. The first or milk 
teeth begin to appear a few months after birth, commencing with the incisors. The number 
increases in two years to twenty, which are shed successively from about the seventh year, 
to be replaced by others. Of the twelve posterior molars, which are permanent, there are 
four which make their appearance at four years and a half, four at nine years; the last four 
being frequently not cut until the twentieth year. 

The foetus grows more rapidly in proportion as it approaches the time of birth. The infant, 
on the contrary, increases always more and more slowly. It has upwards of a fourth of its 
height when born, attains the half of it at two years anda half, and the three fourths at nine or 
ten years. By the eighteenth year the growth almost entirely ceases. Man rarely exceeds 
six feet, and seldom remains under five. Woman is ordinarily some inches shorter. 

Puberty manifests itself by external signs, from the tenth to the twelfth year in girls, and 
from the twelfth to the sixteenth in boys. It arrives sooner in warm climates. Either sex 
very rarely produces before the epoch of this manifestation. 

Searcely has the body attained its full growth in height, before it commences to 
increase in bulk; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue. The different vessels become 


48 MAMMALIA. 


gradually obstructed ; the solids become rigid; and after a life more or less prolonged, more or 
less agitated, more or less painful, old age arrives, with decrepitude, decay, and death. Man 
rarely lives beyond a hundred years ; and most of the species, either from disease, accidents, 
or merely old age, perish long before that term. 

The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer than her milk, whence results an 
education intellectual as well as physical, and a durable mutual attachment. The nearly equal 
number of individuals of the two sexes, the difficulty of supporting more than one wife, when 
wealth does not supply the want of power, intimate that monogamy is the natural condition 
of our species ; and as, wherever this kind of union exists, the sire participates in the education 
of his offspring, the length of time required for that education allows the birth of others, 
whence the natural perpetuity of the conjugal state. From the long period of infantile weak- 
ness results domestic subordination, and, consequently, the order of society at large, as the 
young persons which compose the new families continue to preserve with their parents those 
tender relations to which they have so long been accustomed. This disposition to mutual 
assistance multiplies to an almost unlimited extent those advantages previously derived by 
isolated Man from his intelligence ; it has assisted him to tame or repulse other animals, to 
defend himself from the effects of climate, and thus enabled him to cover the earth with his 
species. 

In other respects, Man appears to possess nothing resembling instinct, no regular habit of 
industry produced by innate ideas; all his knowledge is the result of his sensations, his 
observations, or of those of his predecessors. Transmitted by speech, increased by meditation, 
applied to his necessities and his enjoyments, they have given rise to all the arts. Language 
and letters, by preserving acquired knowledge, are a source of indefinite perfection to his 
species. It is thus that he has acquired ideas, and made all nature contribute to his wants.* 

There are very different degrees of developement, however, in Man. 

The first hordes, compelled to live by hunting and fishing, or on wild fruits, and being 
obliged to devote all their time to search for the means of subsistence, and not being able to 
multiply greatly, because that would have destroyed the game, advanced but slowly; their 
arts were limited to the construction of huts and canoes, to covering themselves with skins, 
and fabricating arrows and nets; they observed such stars only as served to direct them im 
their journeys, and some natural objects whose properties were of use to them ; they gained the 
dog for a companion, because he had a natural inclination for the same kind of life. When 
they had succeeded in taming the herbivorous animals, they found in the possession of 
nuinerous flocks a never-failing source of subsistence, and some leisure, which they employed 
in extending the sphere of their acquirements. Some industry was then employed in the 
construction of dwellings and the making of clothes; the idea of property was admitted, and, 
consequently, that of barter, together with wealth and difference of conditions, those fruitful 
sources of the noblest emulation and the vilest passions; but the necessity of searching for 
fresh pastures, and of obeying the changes of the seasons, still doomed them to a wandering 
life, and limited their improvement to a very narrow sphere. 

The multiplication of the human species, and its improvement im the arts and sciences, has 


* The numerous structural concurrences, all of which are required , necessary consequence of their imperfect means of communication), 


to promote the intellectual developement of mankind, are worthy of | and we perceive how immeus:, 15 indebted also to these ac- 
serious consideration with reference to the unaided faculties of other , cessories. 
animals. On the other hand, however, a duly deyeluped brain and commensu- 


For example, if the superior intelligence of Man were not secondea | rate intelligence are required to enable Man to avail himself of the 
by his admirable hands (so vastly excelling those of the mankey | advantages of his structure, for otherwise he appears doomed to re- 
tribe), by his efficient vocal organ, &¢., which are obvious to all as | main Stationary like a brute (as in the instance of the New Hol- 
mere physical conformations, indeed, but slight modifications of what | landers), even in the midst of civilization. There are also casualties, 


occur in other animals, —if, in short, he were reduced in these re- | as the general insecurity of life or property arising from situation or 
spects to the condition of the Dog, how effectually would the privation | misgovernment, which ordinarily suffice to repel the efforts of ad- 
operate to prevent that progressive advancement which, under exist- ; Vancement, even of the most intelligent races. 


ing circumstances, is achieved by the human race only. It would accordingly, then, appear, that the characteristic traits 

But, even grant to Man the use of all his organs, yet deprive him of | of human intellect are mainly due to the co-operation of extrinsic 
the accumulated experience of his predecessors, and all mental culture { causes, and to the accessory aids afforded by physical conformation. 
beyond the result of his incidental experience (which in brutes is a | —En. 


ve 


“f 


&e 
Germans 


Cuvier’ Animal Kingham. Bimang. 


HUMAN RAGE—CAUCASIAN, 


Fie. 2.—Crrcassi1an Branen. Portrait of a Circassian in the Suite 


of the Persian Ambassador in 1823, drawn by M. A. Collin. 


Fic. 4.—Scitavoman Brancw. Portrait of the Polish Count 


Lucas de Buin Opalinski. 

Fie. 1.—Inpian Brancu. An Indian Woman of Pondichery, 
after a portrait by M. Germger in “L’Inde Frangais.” 

Fic. 3.—Inpo-Germaneue Brancu. A Hindoo of Bramin Caste, 
Ram Moham Roy, after a portrait painted at Calcutta by M. Belnos. 


Fig. 5.—Skull of the Circassian. 


oe 


BIMANA, OR MAN. 49 


only been carried to a high degree since the invention of agriculture and the division of the 
soil into hereditary possessions. By means of agriculture, the manual labour of a portion 
of society is adequate to the maintenance of the whole, and allows the remainder time 
for less necessary occupations, at the same time that the hope of acquiring, by industry, a 
comfortable subsistence for self and posterity, has given a new spring to emulation. The 
discovery of a representative of property, or a circulating medium, has carried this emulation 
to the highest degree, by facilitating exchanges, and rendering fortunes more independent and 
susceptible of being increased ; but by a necessary consequence, it has also equally increased 
the vices of effeminacy and the furies of ambition. 

In every stage of the developement of society, the natural propensity to reduce all knowledge 
to general principles, and to search for the causes of each phenomenon, has produced reflecting 
men, who have added new ideas to those already accumulated ; nearly all of whom, while know- 
ledge was confined to the few, endeavoured to convert their intellectual superiority mto the 
means of domination, exaggerating their merit in the eyes of others, and disguising the 
poverty of their knowledge by the propagation of superstitious ideas. 

An evil more irremediable, is the abuse of physical power ; now that Man only can injnre 
Man, he affords the only instance of a species continually at war with itself. Savages dispute 
their forests, and herdsmen their pastures; and make irruptions, as often as they can, upon 
the cultivators of the soil, to deprive them of the fruits of their long and painful labours. 
Even civilized nations, far from being satisfied with their enjoyments, carry on war for the 
prerogative of pride, or the monopoly of commerce. Hence the necessity of governments 
to direct the national wars, and to repress or reduce to regular forms the quarrels of 
individuals. 

Circumstances, more or less favourable, have restrained the social condition within limited 
degrees, or have promoted its developement. 

The glacial climates of the north of both contents, and the impenetrable forests of 
America, are still inhabited by the savage hunter or fisherman. The immeise sandy or salt 
plains of Central Asia and Africa are covered with a pastoral people, and innumerable herds : 
these half-civilized hordes assemble at the call of every enthusiastic chief, and overrun the 
cultivated countries that surround them, in which they establish themselves but to become 
enervated, and to be subjected in their turn to the next mvaders. This is the true cause of 
that despotism, which, in every age, has crushed the industry called forth under the fine 
climates of Persia, India, and China. 

Mild climates, soils naturally irrigated and rich in vegetables, are the natural cradle of 
agriculture and civilization ; and when their position is such as to afford shelter from the 
incursions of barbarians, talents of every kind are mutually excited; such were formerly (the 
first in Europe,) Italy and Greece; and such is, at present, nearly all that happy portion of 
the earth’s surface. 

There are, however, certain intrinsic causes which appear to arrest the progress of particular 
races, even though situated amidst the most favourable circumstances. i 


VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 


Although the human species would appear to be single, since the union of any of its members pro- 
duces individuals capable of propagation*, there are, nevertheless, certain hereditary peculiarities of 
conformation observable, which constitute what are termed races. 

Three of these in particular appear eminently distinct: the Caucasian, or white, the Mongolian, or 


yellow, and the Ethiopian, or negro. 
The Caucasian, to which we belong, is distinguished by the beauty of the oval which forms the 


* It is now certain that this circumstance affords no proof of spe- ; which I have just witnessed, in the class of birds, of a brood of ducks, 
cifical identity, inasmuch as many nearly allied but obviously dis- | both parents of which were half mallard and half pintail (mas boschas 
tinct species produce hybrids that are prolific inter se: an instance of } and 4. acuta). See note to p. 19.—Ep. 


50 MAMMALIA. 


head; and it is this one which has given rise to the most civilized nations,—to those which have gene- 
rally held the rest in subjection: it varies in complexion and in the colour of the hair. 

The Mongolian is known by his projecting cheek-bones, flat visage, narrow and oblique eyebrows, 
scanty beard, and olive complexion. Great empires have been established by this race in China and 
Japan, and its conquests have sometimes extended to this side of the Great Desert ; but its civilization 
has always remained stationary. 

The Negro race is confined to the southward of the Atlas chain of mountains: its colour is black, 
its hair crisped, the cranium compressed, and nose flattened. The projecting muzzle and thick lips 
evidently approximate it to the Apes: the hordes of which it is composed have always continued 
barbarous. 

The name Caucasian has been affixed to the race from which we descend, because tradition and the 
filiation of nations seem to refer its origin to that group of mountains situate between the Caspian and 
Black Seas, whence it has apparently extended by radiating all around. The nations of the Caucasus, 
or the Circassians and Georgians, are even now considered as the handsomest on earth. The principal 
ramifications of this race may be distinguished by the analogies of language. The Armenian or 
Syrian branch, spreading southward, produced the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the hitherto untameable 
Arabs, who, after Mahomet, expected to become masters of the world; the Pheenicians, the Jews, the 
Abyssinians, which were Arabian colonies, and most probably the Egyptians. It is from this branch, 
always inclined to mysticism, that have sprung the most widely extended forms of religion. Science 
and literature have sometimes flourished among its nations, but always in a strange disguise and 
figurative style. 

The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch is much more extended, and was much earlier divided: 
notwithstanding which, the most numerous affinities have been recognized between its four principal 
languages—the Sanscrit, the present sacred language of the Hindoos, and the parent of the greater 
number of the dialects of Hindostan; the ancient language of the Pelasgi, common parent of the 
Greek, Latin, many tongues that are extinct, and of all those of the south of Europe; the Gothic or 
Teutonic, from which are derived the languages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the 
German, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and their dialects ; and finally, the Sclavonian, from which 
are descended those of the north-east, the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, and that of the Vandals. 

It is by this great and venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, that philosophy, the arts and 
sciences, have been carried to their present state of advancement; and it has continued to be the 
depository of them for thirty centuries. 

It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, whose tribes, once very numerous, came by the north, and 
are now confined to its most western extremities; and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa 
into Spain, and have become confounded with the many nations whose posterity have intermingled in 
that peninsula. 

The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the Indians, and their descendants still 
present a very close resemblance to the nations of Europe. 

The Scythian and Tartar branch, extending first towards the north and north-east, and always 
wandering over the immense plains of those countries, returned but to devastate the happier abodes of 
their more civilized brethren. The Scythians, who, at so remote a period, made irruptions into Upper 
Asia; the Parthians, who there destroyed the Greek and Roman domination; the Turks, who there 
subverted that of the Arabs, and subjugated in Europe the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian people, 
were all offsets from this branch. The Finlanders and Hungarians are tribes of the same division, 
which have strayed among the Sclavonic and Teutonic nations. Their original country, to the north 
and eastward of the Caspian Sea, still contains inhabitants who have the same origin, and speak 
similar languages; but these are mingled with many other petty nations, variously descended, and of 
different languages. The Tartars remained unmixed longer than the others throughout that extent of 
country included between the mouth of the Danube to beyond the Irtisch, from which they so long 
menaced Russia, and where they have finally been subjugated by her. The Mongoles, however, have 
mingled their blood with that of the nations they conquered, many traces of which may still be found 
among the inhabitants of Lesser Tartary. 

It is to the east of this Tartar branch of the Caucasian race that the Mongolian race begins, whence 
it extends to the eastern ocean. Its branches, the Calmucks and Kalkas, still wandering shepherds, 


a. 


ee. ay ay: * es 


Vr 


“ne Kay Seed 


ann) lad « 
t 


4 « a 
es 
_ 


ie 
; 4 
an Pi 
é 


Spee a WA re 


a 


ot 


‘Si tr e,F a 
Oe lal rien ee eee 


PMNS 
re ie F440 


Cauier’s Animal Ringhom. Biman, 


HUMAN RACE—MONGOLIAN. 


Fic. 1.—Sourn East or Asta Branon. <A Man of the Island 
of Corréa, from a Plate in M. Siebold’s Work on Japan. 


Fie. 2.—Cuinesz. A Chinese of Macao, from a Portrait painted 


by Danloux. 


Fie. 3.—Siamesse. Portrait of one of two Twins, exhibited in 


Kurope in 1830; painted in Paris. 
Fie. 4.—Japanzszs. After a portrait by M. Siebold. 


N 


Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom. Diana. 


HUMAN RACE—AMERICAN. 


Fic. 2-—A Man of the Tribe of the Charrua, inhabiting the 
country between the Parana and the Unuguay, after a portrait by 
M. WERNER. 


Fre. 1.—Portrait of a Young Man of Saliva ‘I'ribe, on the Banks 


of the Sinaruco. 
Fic. 3.—North American Indian Woman. 


Fic. 4.—A North American Indian in his War Paint. 


oo —n—n ks axa — — 


traverse the great desert. Thrice did their ancestors, under Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane, spread 
far the terror of their name. The Chinese are the most anciently civilized branch, not only of this 
race, but of all known nations. Athird branch, the Mantchures, have recently conquered and still 
govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all the hordes which extend to the north-east of 
Siberia, subject to Russia, are also to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race ; 
and such also is deemed to be the fact with regard to the original inhabitants of various islands bordering 
on that archipelago. With the exception of some Chinese literati, the nations of the Mongolian race 
pertain generally to different sects of Buddism, or the religion of Fo. 

The origin of this great race appears to have been in the Altai mountains, as that of ours in the 
Caucasus; but it is impossible to trace with the same certainty the filiation of its different branches. 
The history of these wandering nations is as fugitive as their establishments ; and that of the Chinese, 
confined exclusively to their own empire, furnishes little that is satisfactory with respect to their 
neighbours. The affinities of their languages are also too little known to direct us in this labyrinth. 

The languages of the north of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, as well as that of Thibet, bear some 
relation to the Chinese, at least in their monosyllabic structure ; and the people who speak them are 
not without resemblance to the other Mongoles: but the south of this peninsula is inhabited by 
Malays, whose forms approach them much nearer to the Indians, and whose race and language are 
distributed over the coasts of all the islands of the Indian archipelago. The innumerable small islands 
of the southern ocean are also peopled by a handsome race, who appear to hold a near relation to the 
Indians, and whose language has much affinity with the Malay: but in the interior of the larger islands, 
particularly in the milder portions of them, there exists another race of men with black complexions, 
and negro faces, all extremely barbarous, which are named Alfourous; and on the coasts of New 
Guinea and the neighbouring islands, are other Negroes nearly similar to those of the eastern coast of 
Africa, which are termed Papous; to the latter are generally referred the natives of Van Diemen’s 
Land [now rapidly approaching to extermination], and those of New Holland to the Alfourous.* 

Neither the Malays nor the Papous are easily referable to either of the three great races; but 
can the former be clearly distinguished from their neighbours on both sides, the Caucasian Indians and 
the Mongolian Chinese? We avow that we cannot discern in them sufticient traits for that purpose. 
Are the Papous Negroes, which may formerly have strayed into the Indian Ocean? We possess neither 
figures nor descriptions precise enough to enable us to reply to this question. 

The inhabitants of the north of both continents, the Samoyedes, the Laplanders, and the Esquimaux, 
are derived, according to some, from the Mongolian race: but others regard them as mere degenerate 
offsets from the Scythian and Tartar branches of the Caucasian race. 

The Americans have not yet been referred clearly to either of the races of the eastern continent ; 
nevertheless, they have no precise or constant character, which can entitle them to be considered as 
a particular one. Their copper-coloured complexion is not sufficient: their general black hair and 
scanty beard would induce us to approximate them to the Mongoles, if their defined features, their nose 
as projecting as ours, their large and open eyes, did not oppose such a theory, and correspond with 
the features of the European. Their languages are as numberless as their tribes, and no demonstrative 
analogies have as yet been obtained, either with each other, or with those of the ancient world.f 

[With all deference, I would suggest that naturalists are much too prone to confound resemblance 
with identity; as if any reason existed of necessity, for analogous races to differ in the least 
degree. How many geographical mutual representatives are there, which the analogy of allied 
races forcibly indicates to be distinct, though undistinguishable on minute comparison! How nearly 
also do many acknowledged species resemble! Bearing these facts in mind, does it not appear that 
the Americans have as good a claim to be regarded as a primary race, as the Mongolians have to be 
separated as such from the Caucasians? The arrangement of Blumenbach, who adds the Malayan 
and American races to the three admitted by Cuvier, has been mere generally adopted: but there 
would seem to be quite as good reason for admitting others. Fischer, in his Synopsis Mammalium, 
indicates what he conceives to be seven species of Home (reducing the number that had previously 


* Refer, for the different races which people the islands of the Indian + See, on the subject of the Americans, the travels of M. de Hum- 
and Pacific Oceans, to the dissertation of MM. Lesson and Garnot, in | boldt, so rich in important information, and the dissertations of Vater 
the Zoologie du Voyage de la Coquille, p.1—113. For the languages of | and of Mitchell. 

the Asiatic nations, and their affinities, consult the dsia Polyglotta of | 

M. Klaproth. 3 


BIMANA, OR MAN. 51 


52 MAMMALIA. 


been assigned by Bory St. Vincent): and the numerous divisions and subdivisions of that naturalist 
being tolerably in accordance with the apparent value of the characters presented, whether or not they 
truly represent the real distinctions, or, in some instances, similarity be confounded with identity (a 
problem to which philology seems to offer the only key), the outline of his arrangement may be 
transferred to the present work, where it may chance to prove useful to some observers. His supposed 
species are as follow :— 

1. H. Japeticus, Bory; corresponding to the Caucasian race of Cuvier.—This is distributed under 
three principal varieties, termed Caucasicus, Arabicus, and Indicus: of these the first is arranged into 
five subvarieties, named Caucasicus (Orientalis), Pelagius (Meridionalis), Celticus (Occidentalis), Ger- 
manicus (Borealis), and Sclavonicus (Intermedius), which severally comprehend the Caucasic, Pelasgic, 
Celtic, Teutonic, and Sclavonic (including the Sarmatic) nations; the second into two subvarieties, 
Atlanticus (Occidentalis), and Adamicus (Orientalis), respectively containing the Pheenicians, ancient 
Numidians, and Guanches, or the Punic nations, and the Abyssinians, primitive Egyptians (modern 
Copts), Jews, Armenians, Arabians, &c., or the Coptic and Semitic nations. 

2. H. Neptunianus, Bory.—Ranged under three subdivisions: the first unnamed (Qu. Malayanus ? ) 
allied to — probably much mingled with —the Indian variety of H. Japeticus, and consisting of the 
well-known Malays, which people the coasts only of the peninsula of Malacca, the islands of the 
Indian ocean, Madagascar, &c., never penetrating inland; the second, Occidentalis, comprising the 
New Zealanders, and natives of the Society, Friendly, Sandwich, and other islands scattered over the 
Pacific ocean,—it is suggested, also, (but with due and much required hesitation,) the ancient Mexi- 
cans and Peruvians: the third, Papuensis, composed of certain inhabitants of part of the north coast 
of New Guinea, the shores of the islands Waigou, Salwaty, Gammeu, and a few others, is obviously a 
hybrid race, derived from the intermixture of the Malay and true Papou. Cuvier has remarked the 
affinity of language subsisting between the Malays and South Sea Islanders. 

3. H. Scythicus, Bory.—The first division of this, unnamed (Qu. Mongolensis ?) consists of the 
Calmucks and other Tartars; the second, Sinicus (Homo sinicus of Bory), of the Chinese, Japanese, 
&e.; and the third and last, Hyperboreus (Homo hyperboreus, Bory), of the Esquimaux. It corre- 
sponds to the Mongolian race of Cuvier. : 

4. H. Americanus, Bory.—* Species,” the author writes, “ adhue male cognita, forsan tota vel ex 
parte ad Seythicam reducenda,’”’ of which the latter only is in the least probable. ‘ dutochthones Ame- 
rice meridionalis, in stirpes innumeras distributi; e. g. Omague, Guarani, Coroadi, Atures, Otomaqui, 
Botucudi, Guiace, Cherruce, &c.” * A second division is designated Patagonus, (being the Homo 
Patagonus of Bory,) composed of the large-statured Patagonians. 

5. H. Columbicus, Bory.—The ordinary red Indian of America. 

6. H, dithiopicus, Bory.—Divided into the true Negro, not otherwise named; Caffer, (Homo Caffer, 
Bory,) inhabiting Caffraria, and part of the coast of Madagascar; Melanoides, (Homo melaninus, Bory), 
the Papous or indigenous inhabitants of Madagascar, the shores of New Guinea, the islands of New 
Britain, New Ireland, and many others, also of Van Diemen’s Land; and Hottentotus (Homo Hotten- 
totus, Bory), the Bush and other Hottentots, which, it may be remarked, have not afew analogies with 
the nomadic Mongoles. The last appear to have been much reduced and encroached on, till a remnant 
only is left near the south coast of Africa, just as the Celts are now confined to the exteme west of Europe. 

7. Lastly, H. Polynesius, Fischer (H. australaricus, Bory).—The Alfourous, the lowest in the scale 
of human beings: comprising the inland inhabitants of the Malay peninsula, the islands of the Indian 
Ocean, Madagascar, New Guinea, New Holland, &c. 

Such is the arrangement of an able and accomplished naturalist, published in 1829, or the same 
year in which our author gave to the world his second and last edition of the present work. The 
most recent authority, which is the third edition of Dr. Prichard’s elaborate “ Researches into the 
Physical History of Mankind,” contends strenuously for unity of species in the genus Homo: but it 
may be remarked that much stress is laid on the productiveness of mingled races of mankind, without 
any new or satisfactory evidence being adduced in proof of the comparative sterility of the hybrid 
offspring of the more intimately approximate races which have claim to be ranked as species; such as 

* “A species imperfectly known, probably or in part referable to | species, want of space compels me to refer the reader to the original 


the preceding one. It comprehends numerous tribes of South Ame | work. A cranium of the savage tribe of Botucudi is figured by Spix 
rica,” some of which are above named. For the characters of these | in his work on American Quadrumane, 


vy 


Me i, hie ’ ia 
Mle! Me 


eae 


— ~ 


i 


a eae 


cadet tite) “el Ku uu 


ft MA ORY yen 


x Pibod ae ' 


eee 


n 
im? z 
Uy 
¥ 

hie 


i bare ry tis; A Aa 


a Rd shit 


a 


fae ee me 


Peaks ‘ey ie pay, 
ee Oh vos oe ie Prete 
ch iia. ye - 


LG ae Labor ® 
Mi, ‘ 


Cunier’'s Animal Ringhom, Pimann, 


HUMAN RACE—ETHIOPIAN, OR NEGRO. 


Fie. 1.—Hottentot, after Daniels. 
Fie. 3.—Portrait of a Negro of the neighbourhood of Timbuctoo. 


Fre. 2.—A Young Negro of Benguela, to the south of the kingdom 
of Angola. 


Fic. 4.—A Female of the Congo, from the “ Voyage au Brasil” of 


Maurice Rugendas. 


OO ee 


EEE 


raeLttziz| 


Fis ag 
‘ SG ae 


7 


3 


SIMANA, OR MAN. 53 


the wild bovine and striped equine animals, &c. &c. The following are the leading varieties of Man, 
according to the opinion and arguments of Dr. Prichard. 

“On comparing the principal varieties of form and structure which distinguish the inhabitants of 
different countries, we find that there are seven classes of nations which may be separated from each 
other by strongly marked lines. Among their principal characteristics are peculiar forms of the 
skull, but these are by no means the only difference which require notice and particular description. 
These seven principal classes are, first, those nations which in the form of their skulls and other physi- 
cal characters resemble Europeans, including many nations in Asia and somein Africa; secondly, races 
nearly similar in figure, and in the shape of the head, to the Kalmucks, Mongoles, and Chinese. These 
two first classes of nations will be designated, for reasons to be explained, Iranian and Turanian 
nations, in preference to Caucasian and Mongolian. * * * ‘The third class are the native Ame- 
rican nations, excluding the Esquimaux and some tribes which resemble them more than the majority 
of inhabitants of the New World. The fourth class comprises only the Hottentot and Bushman race. 
A fifth class are the Negroes; the sixth, the Papuas, or woolly-haired nations of Polynesia; the 
seventh, the Alfourou and Australian races. The nations comprised under these departments of maun- 
kind differ so strikingly from each other, that it would be improper to include any two of them in one 
section, and there is no other division of the human family that is by physical traits so strongly cha- 
racterized. There are, indeed, some nations that cannot be considered as falling entirely within either 
of these divisions, but they may be looked upon as approximating to one or another of them.” * 

The same writer affirms, of the Caucasian race of Cuvier, that ‘“‘ there is no truth in the assertion 
that the traditions of all these nations deduce their origin from Caucasus,” and states, of his Indo- 
Atlantic, or Zranian nations, that ‘ complexion does not enter among the characters of this type, since 
it is of all shades, from the white and florid colour of the northern Europeans, to the jet-black of 
many tribes in Lybia, and southward of Mount Atlas. In many races, as we shall hereafter prove, 
the type has degenerated. The ancient Celts appear, for example, to have had by no means the same 
developement of the head as the Greeks, and the Indians display some differences in the configuration 
of the skull,” &e.t 

It appears to be conclusively proved that barbarism and insufficient nourishment tend, in a few 
generations, to deteriorate the physical characters of even the highest races of mankind, by increasing 
the facial angle, &c.§ ; while the reverse induces proportional improvement. Still there is reason to 
suspect that the diversities which are thus occasioned are restrained within moderate limits ; and this 
remarkable fact must be borne in mind (which I believe has not been hitherto stated), that while an 
artificial mode of life would seem to have produced those acknowledged varie¢ies of species which are 
noticeable among such of the lower animals as have been domesticated, we cbserve yery dissimilar races 
of human beings among those whose mannner of living is least artificial of any, and which, further- 
more, in numerous instances, inhabit the same countries, besides being widely diffused ; thus proving 
that climate and locality exert less influence than has been imagined. This most difficult subject of 
inquiry, in fine, is endlessly perplexed, and in several instances rendered quite inextricable, by the 
occasional blending of two or more diverse races, in every degree of proportion. There are also 
decisive proofs (afforded by architectural reliques scattered over Siberia and both Americas) of great 
nations having been utterly exterminated, whose very names have perished: and if civilized, or com- 
paratively civilized, populous nations have thus become so completely sunk in oblivion, that we infer 
their former existence only as that of some lost tribes of animals can be recalled, how very many 
hordes of savages, who erect no memorials, may have been extirpated, and are forgotten irretrievably. 
Hence the extreme and apparently insuperable difficulties which, it is probable, will continue to oppose the 
definitive solution of the intricate and peculiarly interesting problem which we have been considering. | 


* Vol. i. 246-7. + Id. 259 t Id. 262. § Vide id. vol. ii. 349. 


EEE = a 
= 


54 MAMMALIA. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. 


QUADRUMANA. 


Independently of the anatomical details which distinguish it from Man, and which 
we have indicated, this family differs from our species in a very obvious character, 
having the thumbs of the hind feet free and opposable to the other digits, which are 
as long and flexible as those of the hand: in consequence of this, all the species climb 
trees with facility, while it is only with pain and difficulty that they can stand and 
walk upright, their foot then resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis 
being unfavourable to an equilibrium. They all have intestines very similar to those 
of Man*, the eyes directed forward, the mammz on the breast, the penis pendent, the 
brain with three lobes on each side, the posterior of which covers the cerebellum, and 
the temporal fosse separated from the orbit by a bony partition. In every thing else, 
however, they gradually recede from him, in presenting a muzzle more and more 
elongated, a tail anda gait more like that of quadrupeds: nevertheless, the freedom 
of their arms, and the complication of their hands, admit of their performing many of 
the actions of Man, as well as to imitate his gestures. 

They have long been divided into two genera, the Monkeys and the Lemurs, which, 
by the multiplication of secondary forms, have now become two small families, between 
which must be placed a third genus, that of the Ouistitis [or Marmosets], which cannot 
be referred to either of the others. 


THE MonkKEY-LIKE ANIMALS (Simia, Linneus). 


These are all Quadrumana, which have four straight incisors to each jaw, and flat nails to 
all the extremities,—two characters which approximate them more nearly to Man than the sub- 
sequent genera. Their molars have also blunt tubercles like ours, and they subsist mainly upon 
fruits ; but their canmes, being longer than the other teeth, supply them with a weapon which 
we do not possess, and require a vacant space in the opposite jaw to receive them when the 
mouth is closed. 

They may be divided, according to the number of their molars, into two principal sub-genera, 
which again subdivide into numerous others. 

The Monkeys (Singes), properly so called, or those of the ancient continent, 


[CATARRHINI, Geof. ],— 


Have the same number of grinders as Man, but otherwise differ among themselves in the 
characters which give rise to the following subdivisions. 


Tur Ouranes (Simia, Erxl., Pithecus, Geof.),— 


Are the only Apes of the ancient continent which have no callosities on the buttocks; their hyoid 
bone, liver, and ccecum resemble those of Man. Their nose does not project; they have no cheek 
pouches, nor any vestige of a tail. 


Some of them have arms long enough to reach the ground when standing; their legs, on the con- 
trary, are very short. Such are the Ourangs, strictly so called. 


* Here we must except the genus Semnopithecus, and probably also Colobus.—Ep. 


QUADRUMANA. 55 


THE OURANG-OUTANG* (Simia satyrus, Lin.) 


Of all animals, this is reputed to bear the nearest resemblance to Man in the form of its head, the magnitude of 
its forehead, and volume of brain; but the exaggerated descriptions of some authors respecting this similarity 
arise partly from the circumstance of only young individuals having been observed, as there is every reason to 
believe that, with age, the muzzle becomes much more prominent [a fact now ascertained]. The body is covered 
with coarse red hair, the face is bluish, and the hinder thumbs very short compared with the toes. The lips are 
capable of a singular elongationyt, and possess great mobility. Its history has been much confounded with that 
of the other large Apes, and especially of the Chimpanzee; but, after subjecting it to a rigorous analysis, I have 
ascertained that it inhabits only the most eastern countries, such as Malacca, Cochin China, and particularly the 
great island of Borneo, whence it has been sometimes brought by the route of Java, though very rarely. When 
young, and such as it has been seen in Europe, it is a very mild animal, that is easily rendered tame and attached, 
and which, by its conformation, is enabled to imitate many of our actions; but its intelligence appears to be 
lower than has been asserted, not very much surpassing that of the Dog. Camper discovered, and has well dis- 
cribed, two membranous sacs which communicate with the glottis of this animal, and obstruct its voice; but 
he is mistaken in supposing that the nails are always absent from the hinder thumbs. 

There is an ape in Borneo, at present only known by its skeleton, called the Pongo, which so closeiy resembles 
the Ourang-outang in all its parts, and by the arrangement of the cavities and sutures of its head, that notwith- 
standing the great prominence of its muzzle, the smallness of the cranium, and the height of the branches of the 
lower jaw, we are inclined to consider as an adult, if not of this species of Ourang, at least of another very nearly 
allied to it. The length of its arms, and of the apophyses of its cervical vertebra, together with the tuberosity of 
its caleaneum, may enable it to assume the vertical position. It is the largest of known Apes, approaching to the 
size of Man. 

[The Pongo has proved to be asecond species of Ourang, covered with black, relieved with dark red hair, and which 
at present is known only to occur in Borneo, where the Red Ourang has not been ascertained to exist. Both attain 
the same large dimensions, and are distinguished as the Pithecus Wormbii and P. Abelii. They differ somewhat 
in the configuration of the cranium, and considerably in the profile of the face, as seen in the skull. A third 
species, also from Borneo, has more recently been determined by Prof. Owen, of which only a single adult skull has 
been received ; it announces a smaller animal, which has been named P. morio. The adult males of this genus 
have an immense projecting tuberosity on each cheek.t 

These Ourangs do not ordinarily assume the upright attitude, to maintain which they are obliged to raise, and 
throw their long arms backward, in order to preserve a balance ; the outer edges only of their feet are applied to the 
ground, where they commonly progress by resting on the knuckles, and swinging the body forward between the 
arms. Their structure is more designed for traversing the forest boughs ; and they are said to inhabit the upland 
forests of the interior of their native countries. The old males are reported to be savage and solitary, and much 
dreaded by the Alfourou inhabitants of their native region; each appropriating a particular district, into which 
it resents intrusion. There is reason to suspect that they are not exclusively vegetable feeders, but subsist 
in part on the eggs and callow young of birds. They are sedentary and inactive animals, possessed of great 
strength. 

So excessive is the degradation of the adult from the characters which it exhibits in youth, that our author, 
in his first edition, arranged the Pongo next to the Baboons, allowing them the precedence. According 
to M. Geoffroy, “the brain of the young Ourang bears a very close resemblance to that of a child; and the 
skull, also, might be taken, at an early age, for that of the latter, were it not for the developement of the bones 
of the face. But it happens, in consequence of its advance in age, that the brain ceases to enlarge, while its case 
continually increases. The latter becomes thickened, but in an unequal degree ; enormous bony ridges appear, 
and the animal assumes a frightful aspect. When we compare the erfects of age in Man and the Ourang, the difference 
is seen to be, that in the latter there is a super-developement of the osseous, muscular, and tegumentary systems, 
more towards the upper part than the lower, while the developement of the brain is entirely arrested.” It is only 
in the male sex, however, that the cranial ridges appear, the canines, also, of the females being much smaller. 
M. Geoffroy thus describes the skull of the Pongo, before its identity as an Ourang had been ascertained :— 
“© What is most remarkable,” he observes, “is the excessive elongation of the muzzle; and as this con- 
siderable volume of the muzzle cannot be gained but at the expence of the other adjoining parts, we accord- 
ingly find that there is scarcely any apparent forehead, that the bony box which contains the brain is 
uncommonly small, and that the occipital foramen is situated as far as the posterior part of the head. The 
immense muzzle, moreover, is remarkable, not only for the enormous thickness of the gums, but also for the 
extraordinary size of the canine and incisor teeth with which they are provided; the incisors exceed in 
magnitude those of a Lion, and the canines do not differ much in dimensions from those of the same 
animal: the occiput also is elevated at its point, and forms a quadrilateral protuberance, very large and 
thick, where three bony crests are produced, not less apparent nor less solid than those of the Lion. Two of 


* Ourang is a Malay word, signifying rational being, which is , Ourang (P. Wormbii), in the menagerie of the Zoologicai Society, 
applied to Man, the Ourang-outang, and the Elephant. Outeng | which have continued now for several months in a very thriving con- 
dition, and afford reasonable grounds for expectation that they will 
live to attain maturity. Most of those previously imported have been 
weak and sickly. —Ep. 


signifies wild, or of the woods: hence Ourang-outang. 

+ Noticeable, toa certain extent, in the Hottentot race of man- 
kind.—Eb. 

t There is at present (1838) a young male and female of the Black 


56 MAMMALIA. 


these crests are considerably elevated, and extend laterally to the auricular foramina. Another extends across 
the vertex, and then assumes a bifurcal form, as in the Lion, above the forehead in two lateral branches, 
which proceed as far as the external side of the upper edge of the orbits. These little crests are decisively 
marked, and form an equilateral triangle with the upper edge of the orbital foramina. . The head is formed 
like the half of a pyramid, and the auricular foramina are placed so considerably above the palatine bones, 
that a line let down from the former to the internal edge of the ossa palatina, would form, with a horizontal 
line, an angle of twenty-five degrees.”’ It varies to about thirty degrees. 

All the above modifications have immediate reference to the immense size of the canines, which necessitates a 
proportional developement of the jaws, and the high cranial ridges to furnish attachment to muscles of sufficient 
power to work them. The Ourangs do not cut their huge permanent teeth until nearly full grown.*] 


In the other Ourangs, the arms descend only to the knees. They have no forehead, and their 
cranium retreats immediately from the crest of the eyebrow. The name of CuitmpANZEE might be 
exclusively applied to them. 


Sim. troglodytes, Lin. [Troglodytes niger of others].—Covered with black or brown hair, scanty in front; [a 
white marking on the rump]. If the reports of travellers can be relied on, this animal must equal or be superior 
in size to Man. [The skeleton of an adult female in London is considerably smaller.] It inhabits Guinea 
and Congo, lives in troops, constructs huts of branches, arms itself with clubs and stones, and thus repulses 
Man and Elephants ; pursues and abducts, it is said, negro womeny, &c. Naturalists have generally confounded it 
with the Ourang-outang. In domestication it is very docile, and readily learns to walk, sit, and eat like a man. 
[It is much more a ground animal than the Ourangs, and runs on its lower extremities without difficulty, hoiding 
up the arms. Isof a lively and active disposition. The facial angle of the adult about thirty-five degrees. 
By the general consent of living naturalists, the Chimpanzee is placed next to Man in the system, preceding 
the Ourangs, which it exceeds in general approximation to the human form. ] 


From the foregoing groups are now separated 


Tae Giszons (Hylobates, Iliger),— 


Which, together with the long arms of the Ourangs, and the receding forehead of the Chimpanzee, 
possess [all of them] callosities on the buttocks like the true Monkeys; differing, however, from the 
latter in having no tail or cheek-pouches. All of them inhabit the most eastern part of India, and 
its archipelago. 


The Onko Gibbon (Sim. lar, Lin.)—[This name is now by general consent applied to the next species, the 
present one being distinguished asH. Rafflesii, Geof.] Black, with white hairs round the face. 

(The Lar Gibbon of Linneus (HZ. lar, Geof.)—Black, with white hands and feet, and a white circle round the 
face. Is identical with H. albimanus, Vig. and Horsf., and probably with H. variegatus, Kuhl, which seems to 
differ only in colour, being brown where the other is black. 

The Hoolock Gibbon (H. hoolock, Harlan).—Black, marked with white across the forehead. 

The Coromandel Gibbon (H. choromandus, Ogilby).—Of a dingy pale brown, with black hair and whiskers.] 

The Wou-wou Gibbon (S. agilis, Lin.)}—Brown, the circle round the face and lower part of the back, pale 
fulvous [with also some white around the visage]. The young are of a uniform yellowish white. Its agility is 
extreme; it lives in pairs, and its name Wou-wouw is derived from its cry. 

The Gray Gibbon (S. leucisca, Schreb.)—Gray, with dark crown, and white beard and whiskers; the visage 
black. It lives among the reeds, and climbs up the highest stems of the bamboos, where it balances itself by its 
long arms. / 

We might separate from the other Gibbons ‘ 

The Siamang (S. syndactyla, Raffles), which has the second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow 
membrane, the whole length of the first phalanx [a character which now and then occurs in some of the others, 
but in the present species is constant]. It is wholly black, with the chin and eyebrows rufous [and the throat 
bare]; lives in numerous troops, which are conducted by vigilant and courageous chiefs, which, at sunrise and 
sunset, make the forest resound with frightful cries. Its larynx has a membranous sac connected with it. 

[All the above are mild and gentle animals in domestication, of extremely delicate constitutions when brought 
to our climate]. 


The remaining Monkey-like animals of the ancient continent have the liver divided into several 


* It may be remarked generally, that, with the possession of for- 
midable canines, Quadrumana acquire a consciousness of their efficacy 
as weapons, which renders them impatient of that controul, more par- 
ticularly if based on fear, to which they had previously been sub- 
missive. Chastisement then excites their ire rather than affrights 
them; and if they cannot gratify their rage, they will pine and die. 
They require, in short, different treatment. An adult male Mandrill, 
which was long exhibited in London, would perform various feats 
indicative of intelligence, if bribed to do so by the offer of its tavourite 
beverage. The notion that the species with prominent muzzles are 
therefore less intelligent, requires modification. The developement 
of brain, in all the Simie, as compared with that of Man, is arrested 
at a particular stage of advancement; but it does not follow that 


the growth of the other parts—that is, the developement of the other 
systems—should cease simultaneously : on the contrary, this proceeds 
to a variable extent in different species, and the projection of the 
muzzle, with its accompaniments, appears to increase in proportion 
to the stature ultimately attained ; so that the adults of the smaller 
species are, in this respect, analogous to partially developed speci- 
mens of the larger, which correspond in disposition until they acquire 
the strength and armature of which an instinctive knowledye prompts 
them to resent affronts, and renders them so highly dangerous to 
tamper with. The Babvons are even remarkable for penetration and 
quickness of apprehension, however short their temper.—Ep. 
+ Very highly improbable.—Ep 


a se 


) Hi id 
q 
aM 


il 
By 
fit 


Diana Wanderoo Howling Monl 


Capuelian 


a 


QUADRUMANA. 57 


lobes; the ccecum thick, short, [except in Semnopithecus, and perhaps Colebus}, and without any 
appendage: the hyoid bone has the form of a shield. 


Tue Monxeys* (Cercopithecus, Erxl. in part), [Guenons of the French],— 


Have a moderately prominent muzzle (of sixty degrees) ; cheek pouches; tail; callosities on the but- 
tocks ; the last of the inferior molars with four tubercles like the rest. Very numerous species of them, 
of various size and colouring, abound in Africa, living in troops, which do much damage to the gardens 
and cultivated fields. They are easily tamed, [and are lively and active animals. Their hair, unlike 
that of the preceding groups, is of two kinds, the outer commonly annulated aboye with two colours, 
producing a grizzled appearance, which in several imparts a tinge of green. 


More than twenty species have been ascertained, and doubtless many others remain to be discovered. 'They 
vary in the proportional length of the fingers. The larger of them acquire, with their growth, a more projecting 
muzzle, and are the Cercocebi of some naturalists (a term now falling into disuse): these, in a few instances, 
manifest an additional relationship to the Baboons, in exhibiting bright colours on the genitals; as exemplified 
by the Malbrouck Monkey (C. cynosurus), in which the scrotum is vivid ultramarine, and the Vervet (C. pygery- 
thrus), which has the same part green. Many are prettily variegated, as the Diana Monkey (C. Diana), which 
has a crescent-shaped white mark on the forehead, and a slender, pointed, white beard ; the Mona Monkey 
(C. mona), &e. One only is of a red colour, the Patas (C. rubra). A few of the more recently discovered of them 
may be briefly indicated. 

Campbell’s Monkey (C. Campbellii, Waterhouse.)—Hair long, and parted on the back, of a grizzled black and 
yellow colour, nearly uniform blackish grey on the hind parts; beneath, dingy white ; a black line encircling the 
fore part and sides of the crown of the head. From Sierra Leone. 

The Bearded Monkey (C. pogonias, Ben.)—Hair very long; greyish, é.e., grizzled black and yellowish white; a 
spot on each side of the head, another on the crown, and tip of the tail, black; cheeks furnished with an 
immense tuft of pale hair. 

Red-eared Monkey (C. erythrotis, Waterh.)—Grey; the tail red, with a dark line along its upper surface ; 
ears with very long red hairs internally ; throat white; under parts of the body greyish. From Fernando Po. 

Next follows a group of smaller species, of mild and confiding disposition ; consisting of the Talapoin M. 
(C. talapoin, Geof., Sim. melarrhina, F. Cuv.), the Moustache M. (S. cephus, Lin.), the Vaulting M. (S. petaurista, 
Gm.), the Hocheur (S. nictitans, Gm.), &c. A new Monkey appertaining to it is the 

C. Martini, Waterh. —Of a dark grey, the hairs annulated with yellowish white; lower portions of limbs, crown 
of the head, and tail, blackish; hairs near the root of the tail beneath, brown. Inhabits Fernando Po. Several 
of these smaller kinds are very common in Guinea. Allied to them are the larger green Monkeys; and the series 
terminates with the Mangabeys, or dusky-coloured white-eyelid Monkeys (C. ethiops, and C. fuliginosus), which 
display some peculiarities of gait and gesture, and have the most prominent muzzles of any. 


The following occurs as a note in the original work. ‘ Pennant has described certain Guenons’— 
Doucs rather—* without thumbs}, Sim. polycomos and S. ferruginea, of which Illiger has formed his 
genus CoLogus, but I have not been able to see them, and for this reason have not introduced them. 
M. Temminck assures us that the head and teeth resemble those of a Semnopithecus.” This group is 
now well established, and several species have been added to it; all of them, however, peculiar to 
Africa, as the members of the last-named genus are to Asia: they differ chiefly from the Doues 
in possessing cheek-pouches, having the limbs similarly elongated, and only one sort of hair, as in the 
Apes. A small rudiment of a thumb exists in some of them. 

Nine clearly distinct species have been ascertained; and there are probably many others. They resolve 
into two minor groups; the species composing the first are rather large animals, of a black ground-colour, with 
very long hair; those of the second division are smaller, with shorter hair, and rufous ground-colour. ‘Their 
markings readily distinguish them. 

The Black Colobin (C. satanas, Waterh.)—Quite black, with very long shaggy hair, obviously designed to pro- 
tect it from the scorching rays of a vertical sun. This animal is common in Fernando Po, and when captured 
refuses to take sustenance, pining and moaning constantly and very piteously. 

Ursine Colobin (C. ursinus, Ogilby.)—Black, with grey head and white tail. From Sierra Leone. 

White-thighed Colobin? (C.? leucomeros, Ogilby.)—Established on some imperfect skins. The thighs white ; 
head, legs, and tail undetermined. From the Gambia. 

Sim. polycomos, Pennant; termed by him the “‘ Full-bottomed Monkey.’’—Has a long yellowish-white sort of 
mane, compared to a full-bottomed wig, and a white tail. Brought from Sierra Leone. 

C. guereza, Ruppel.—The throat and around the face white; and long flowing white hair on the shoulders 
and along each side of the body, as if a garment were thrown over it ; end of the tail also white, and largely tufted. 
From Abyssinia. 

C. rufoniger, Ogilby.—Black above, deep red beneath; locality unknown. 


* The word Monkey is a diminutive of Man.—Ep. ¢ The thumb is very small in the Doucs.—Ep. 


| 


58 MAMMALIA. 


Sim. ferruginea, Pennant ; called by him the “ Bay Monkey.”—Of a deep bay colour above; cheeks and under- 


parts very bright bay. From Sierra Leone. , 
C. Pennantii, Waterh.—Above blackish; beneath dingy yellow ; the sides yellowish red, and cheeks white. 


From Fernando Po. 
C. Temminckii, Kuhl.—Blackish above ; rusty-red beneath and on the cheeks; the sides yellow. From the 


Gambia. Is identical with C. obscurus, Ogilby. 
The skins of these animals are an article of traffic in Western Africa, but are commonly deprived of the head, 


limbs, and tail. Many Cercopitheci are prepared in the same manner.*] 


Tue Doucs (Semnopithecus, F. Cuv.)— 


Differ from the true Monkeys by having an additional small tubercle on the last of the inferior molars. 
They are the ordinary Monkeys of the East; and their lengthened limbs and extremely elongated tail 
[as in Colobus]| give them a peculiar air. Their muzzle projects very little more than that of the 
Gibbons, and, like them, they have callosities on the buttocks; they appear, likewise, to have no 
cheek-pouches : their larynx is furnished with 
asac. [The stomach (fig. 3) is singularly 
complicated, consisting of three divisions ; 
first, a cardiac pouch, with smooth and simple 
parietes, slightly bifid at the extremity; 
secondly, a middle, very wide and sacculated 
portion; thirdly, a narrow, elongated canal, 
sacculated at its commencement, and of simple 
structure towards its termination: their food, 
accordingly, is supposed to be more herba- 
ceous than that of other Catarrhini, which 
is further intimated by the blunter tubercles 
of their molars, and the elongation of their 
intestines and ceecum. Their hair is of one 
kind only, approaching in character to that of 
the Gibbons. Their movements are staid and 
deliberate, though capable of much agility; and the gravity of their deportment is expressed by 


their systematic name. 


Fourteen or fifteen species have been determined, of which the most extraordinary is] 

The Long-nosed or Proboscis Douc (Sim. nasica, Schr.; Nasalis larvatus, Geof.t) [The S. recurvus, Vig. and 
Horsf., is apparently the young.]—It is of large size, and yellowish colour tinted with red; the nose extremely 
long and projecting, in form of a sloping spatula. This species inhabits Borneo, and lives in great troops, which 
assemble morning and evening on the branches of the great trees on the banks of the rivers; its cry is Kahau. 
Is stated also to occur in Cochin China. 

The Variegated Douc (S. nemeus, Geof.)—Remarkable for its lively and varied colouring: the body and arms 
are grey ; the hands, thighs, and feet black; legs of a lively red; the tail, [fore-arm,] and a large triangular spot 
upon the loins, white; face orange; and there is also a black and red coliar, and tufts of yellow hairs on the sides 
of the head. It inhabits Cochin China. (The genus Lasiopyga of Mliger was founded on a mutilated skin of this 
animal.) 

S. entellus, Dufres. [The species most frequently brought alive to Europe.]—Of a light yellowish grey colour, 
with black hair on the eyebrows and sides of the head, directed forwards. From Upper Bengal, where it is held 
in superstitious reverence. [Some frequent the Pagodas. 

Several are black, dusky, or ash-coloured. S. auratus, Geof., is uniform bright golden yellow, with a black 
patch on each knee. The Simpai (8. melalophus, Cuv.) is of a very lively red; beneath white: its face is blue ; 
and a crest of black hairs reaches from ene ear to the other. Some have the hair of the head turned up, forming 
a sort of crest. All are from the islands of the Indian Ocean, and neighbouring regions of Asia. ] 


Tue Macaques (Macacus, Desm.)— 


Possess, like the Doucs, a fifth tubercle on their last molars, and callosities and cheek-pouches like 
the true Monkeys. Their limbs are shorter and stouter than in the former; their muzzle is more 
elongated, and the superciliary ridge more prominent than in either the one or the other. Though docile 
when young, they become unmanageable with age. They have all a sac which communicates with 


* T have availed myself of this opportunity to give a more complete + The anatomy of this animal is now known to accord with that of 
list of the Colobi than has hitherto been published.—Ep, the other Doucs.—En, 


| 
| 
. 
4 


Leet ney 
y) aa oy , ¥ 


wt i it 


Y} 


A) 

f 
ZL Mii 
MAAN 
Ais \ 


ANI 
RAN 
RUMOR 

SAWN 


——— Magot 


idvill 


pendent, and takes no part in their movements ; [it varies in length from a tubercle to longer than the 
body.] They produce early, but are not completely adult for four or five years. The period of gesta- 
tion is seven months ; during the rutting season the external generative organs of the female become 
excessively distended [as in the Baboons]. Most of them [all] inhabit India [and its Archipelago. 


At least seven species have been ascertained, the most remarkable of which is] 

The Maned Macaque or Wanderoo (Sim. Silenus and leonina, Lin.)—Black, with an ash-coloured mane and 
whitish beard surrounding the head. [Tail moderately long, and slightly tufted.] Inhabits Ceylon. 

(The Bonneted Macaque (M, sinicus), and the Toque (M. radiatus), have the hairs on the top of the head dis- 
posed as radii; these, with the Hare-lipped M. (1. cynomolgus), have long tails. In the Pig-tailed Macaque 
(M. rhesus), this appendage reaches little below the hamstrings: it is shorter, thin, and wrinkled in the Brown 
Macaque (M. nemestrinus); and in the Black M. (M. niger, Ben. ; Cynocephalus niger, Desm., and of Cuvier’s 
last edition), it is reduced to a mere tubercle. The Black Macaque is wholly of that colour, with an erect tuft of 
hair on the top of its head ; its native country Celebes.] 


Tur Macors (Jnuus, Cuv.) 


Mere Macaques, which have a small tubercle in place of a tail. [According to this definition, the 
last-named species should be introduced here: the only known Magot, however, does not well range 
with the others; its cranium is intermediate to those of the Macaci and Cynocephali}. 


The Barbary Magot (Sim. sylvanus, pithecus, and inwus, Lin.)—Completely covered with greenish-brown hair. 
Of all the tribe, this suffers least in our climates. Originally from Barbary, it is said to have become naturalized 
on the Rock of Gibraltar.* [This well-known species, in its wild state, is both lively and remarkably intelligent 
at all ages; but, subjected to the restraint of captivity, becomes sullen and unmanageable as it grows up ; forcibly 
illustrating what has been stated in a note to the Ourangs. ] 


Tur BaBoons (Cynocephalus, Cuv.),— 


Together with the teeth, cheek-pouches, and callosities of the preceding, have an elongated muzzle 
abruptly truncate at the end, where the nostrils are pierced, which gives it a greater resemblance to that 
of a Dog than of other Monkeys ; their tail varies in length. They are generally large, ferocious, and 
dangerous animals, of which the majority [all of them] inhabit Africa. 


{Some haye the tail long and tufted, as the Gelada Baboon (Macacus gelada of Ruppell).—This has the upper 
parts covered with very long hair, of a pale brown on the head, shoulders, and rump, blackish on the back; a 
dark medial line extends backwards from the forehead ; the extremities are black. A native of Abyssinia. 

The others have the hair grizzled or annulated. Such are the Tartarin Baboon (Sim. hamadryas, Lin.), of a 
slightly bluish ash-colour (grizzled black and white); face flesh-coloured: inhabits Arabia and Ethiopia. The 
Chacma B. (Sim. porcaria, Bodd.; 8. wrsina, Penn; S. sphyngiola, Herm.), which is black, with a yellowish or 
greenish glaze, particularly on the forehead ; the face and hands black, and the adult hasa large mane. From the 
Cape of Good Hope. The Anubis B. (C. anubis, F. Cuv.), is another huge Cape species, uniformly grizzled black 
and yellow; the face black, and snout much elongated. The Sphynx B. (Sim. sphyna, Lin., and it would appear . 
from descriptions, also, C. papio, Desm.), is likewise yellowish, more or less tinged with brown; face black; the 
cheek-tufts fulvous: inhabits Guinea. Lastly, the Babouin (Sim. cynocephalus, F. Cuv.), has a shorter tail, 
and coat more inclining to greenish; also whitish cheek-tufts, and flesh-coloured visage. ] 


THE MANDRILLS — 


Are, of all the Monkey tribe, those which have the longest muzzle (thirty degrees +) ; their tail is very short; they 
are also extremely brutal and ferocious ; nose as in the others. 

The Mandrill Baboon (Sim. maimon and mormon, Lin.)—Greyish brown, inclining to olive above; a small 
citron-yellow beard on the chin; cheeks blue and furrowed. The adult males have the nose red, particularly at 
the end, where it is scarlet ; the genital parts and those about the anus, are of the same colour; the buttocks are 
of a fine violet. It is difficult to imagine a more hideous and extraordinary animal. It nearly attains the size of 
a Man, and is a terror to the negroes of Guinea. Many details of its history have been mixed up with that of the 
Chimpanzee, and consequently with that of the Ourang-outang. 

The Drill (Sim. lewcophewa, F. Cuv.)—Yellowish grey, the visage black; in old ones the coat becomes darker ; 
[the white hairs on the belly are much elongated], and the chin is bright red. 

(Hideous as the animals of this genus appear, and disgustingly deformed to those who have only seen them in 
captivity, their adaptation to a peculiar mode of life is of course as exquisite as that of any other animal, and 
requires only to be understood to command an amount of admiration, which must lessen to a considerable 


* Pithecus is the Greek name for Monkeys in general; and the one , species, all that Galen has stated respectiny the anatomy of his 
of which the anatomy is given by Galen was a Magot, although | Pithecus. 
Camper mought it was an Ourang-outang. M. de Blainville perceived + The Ourangs will bear comparison.—Ep. 
this mistake, und I hive proved it by comparing with these two 


| 
QUADRUMANA. 59 
the larynx under the thyroid cartilage, and which fills with air when they cry out. Their tail is 
| 


60 MAMMALIA. 


extent the abhorrence with which we are apt to regard them. It has lately been discovered that they chiefly 
inhabit barren stony places, where they subsist, for the most part, upon scorpions ; to procure which they employ 
their hands to lift up the numerous loose stones, under most of which one or more of these creatures commonly 
lie concealed; their stings they extract with dexterity. Accordingly, we find that the Baboons are expressly 
modified for traversing the ground on all-fours, and are furnished with eflicient hands; their eyes are peculiarly 
placed, directed downwards along the visage. Want of space necessarily prevents us, generally, from noticing 
these highly interesting relations, afforded by the special modifications of structure in reference to habit: but 
we avail ourselves of the present instance (which is little known*) to call attention to them. 


With the Baboons, the series of Cararrurnt (Geof.) terminates; and we may observe that the 
Simiade fall under three principal divisions. First, that of the Apes, (comprising the Chimpanzee, 
Ourangs, and Gibbons), tail-less genera, which have the liver divided as in Man, an appendage 
to the ccecum, &c. Second, the slender-limbed Monkeys, with sacculated stomachs and longer 
intestines (or the Doucs, and most probably the Colobins), ali of which have exceedingly long tails. 
Third, those with shorter and stouter limbs, a simple stomach, and tail varying in length from a 
tubercle to longer than the body. These last (or the true Monkeys, Macaques, Magots, and 
Baboons), are all partly insectivorous ; and the habit mentioned of the Baboons, of turning over stones 
in quest of prey, applies perhaps more or less to all of them, but particularly to the Magot and some 
Monkeys. In the two first divisions, the coat consists of only one sort of hair; in the last of two 
sorts, the longer and coarser of which is mostly annulated with two colours. It is remarkable that 
none of the genera are common to Asia and Africa (one Baboon only extending to Arabia), and, until 
very recently, no remains of any had occurred in a fossil state; but the jaw of one said to be 
allied to the Gibbons has lately been detected in a tertiary deposit, at Sanson, France ; and some bones, 
adjudged to be those of Macaques, in the tertiary ranges of northern India. ] 


Tue MonKEY-LIKE ANIMALS OF THE NEw WorLp, 
[PLATYRRHINI, Geof. |,— 


Have four grinders more than the others, thirty-six in all; the tail [with very few excep- 
tions] long; no cheek-pouches; the buttocks hairy and without callosities ; nostrils opening 
on the sides of the nose, and not underneath ; [the thumbs of the anterior hands no longer 
opposablet.] All the great Quadrumana of America pertain to this division.{ Their large m- 
testines are less inflated, and their coecum longer aud more slender than in the preceding 
divisions. 

The tails of some of them are prehensile, that is to say, their extremity can twist round a 
body with sufficient force to seize it as with a hand.§ Such have been designated Sapasous 
(Cebus, Erxl.) 

At their head may be placed the 

Srentors (Mycetes, Iliger),— 
Or Howling Monkeys { Alouattes of the French], which are distinguished by a pyramidal head, the 
upper jaw of which descends much below the cranium, while the branches of the lower one ascend 
very high, for the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed by a vesicular inflation of the hyoid bone, 
which communicates with their larynx, and imparts to their voice prodigious volume and a most 
frightful sound. Hence the appellations which have been bestowed on them. The prehensile portion 
of their tail is naked beneath. 


[The Rufous Stentor (Sim. seniculus, Buff., Supp. vii. 25), the Ursine Stentor (Stentor ursinus, Geoff.), and 
at least five other species, are now tolerably established. ‘They are shaggy animals, averaging the size of a Fox, 
of different shades of brown or blackish, the females of some being differently coloured from the males; such is 
M. barbatus, Spix, pl. 32, of which the male is black and bearded, the female and young pale yellowish-grey.|| 
They are of an indolent and social disposition, and grave deportment; utter their hideous yells and howling by 
night ; subsist on fruits and foliage, and are deemed good eating. ] 


* For the information communicated, we are indebted to Dr. A. § This organ possessing in an eminent degree the sense of touch, 
Smith, the conductor of the South African expedition from the Cape | where the character is most developed.—Ep. 
colony.—Ep. || Cuvier accordingly suggests, inadvertently, that the 17. stramineus, 
+ They are but slightly so in many of the Simiade.—Ep. Spix, pl. 31, which is entirely of a straw-yellow colour, may be the 


t By this is meant, that the Marmosets and Tamarins (Ouistitis of | female of some other; Spix, however, figures a male.—Ip. 
our author) are excluded from the generalization.—Ep. 


QUADRUMANA. 61 


The Orprnary Sapasous have the head flat, the muzzle but slightly prominent (sixty degrees). 
In some the anterior thumbs are nearly or quite hidden in the skin, and the prehensile portion of 
the tail naked beneath. They constitute the genus 


Coatra (Ateles, Geof.),— 


[Or the Spider Monkeys, as they are commonly termed, in allusion to their long slender limbs, and sprawling 
movements. | 

The first species, the Chamek (A. subpentadactylus, Geof.), has a slight projection of the thumb, though only 
for one phalanx, which has no nail. Another, the Mikiri (Aft. hypowxanthus, Pr. Max.; Brachyteles macrotarsus, 
Spix), has also a very small thumb, and sometimes even a nail. These two species are separated by Spix under 
the name Brachyteles. They connect Ateles with Lagothrix.* 

The others, to which alone Spix applies the name Afeles, have no apparent thumb whatever. [Six have been 
ascertained ; one of them the Sim. paniscus, Lin.] 

All the above are natives of Guiana and Brazil. Their limbs are very long and slender, and their gait slow 
and deliberate. They exhibit some remarkabie resemblances to Man in their muscles, and, of all animals, alone 
have the biceps of the thigh made like his. [Accordingly, they make little use of their fore-hands in progression. 
Their colours are chiefly or wholly black, or fulvous-grey; face black, or flesh-coloured. ‘ihey are gentle and 
confiding, and capable of much attachment. Some attain to as large a stature as the preceding. ] 


Tue GasTRoMARGUES (Lagothrix, Geof. ; Gastromargas, Spix). 


Head round, as in the Coaitas ; the thumb developed, as in the Stentors; and tail partly naked, like 
the one and the other. Such are— 

The Caparo, Humb. (L. Humboldtii, Geof.; G. olivaceus, Spix), and the Grison (ZL. canus, Geof.; G. infumatus, 
Spix.)—Inhabitants of the interior of South America, said to be remarkable gluttons. Their limbs are shorter 
and stouter than in the Coaitas, and they often raise themselves on their hinder extremities : occur in numerous 
bands. 


The other Sapajous, or 
Tue Capucuins (Cebus, Geof.)— 


Have a round head, the thumbs distinct, and the tail entirely hairy, though prehensile. The species 
are still more numerous than those of the Stentors, and almost as difficult to characterize. 


Some have the hair upon the forehead of a uniform length; as the Sajou (Sim. apella, Lin.), and the Capuchin, 
[Auct.] (S. capucina, Lin.): others have the hair of the forehead so disposed as to form aigrettes; as the Horned 
Capuchin (Sim. fatuellus, Gm., which has a tuft of black hairs on each side of the forehead), the C. cirrhifer, 
Geof., and the Cebus of the same name of Pr. Max., but which is different—C. cristatus, F. Cuy. There are nu- 
merous Others ; but we require many observations, made in the places where these animals inhabit, before we can 
hope to establish their species otherwise than in an arbitrary manner. [About sixteen are commonly admitted, 
most of which are of different shades of brown, some very variable. They are of smaller size than the preceding, 
and of mild and gentle disposition ; their motions are quick and light, and they are easily tamed. Several exhale 
a strong odour of musk. | 


In the Sarmrrrf, the tail is depressed, and almost ceases to be prehensile; the head is very much 
flattened ; in the interorbital partition of the cranium there is a membranous space. Only one species 
is known,— 

The Saimiri (Sim. sciwrea, Butt. xv. 10.)—Size of a Squirrel; of a yellowish grey; the fore-arms, legs, and the 
four extremities, of a fulvous-yellow; end of the nose black. [A pretty, vivacious little animal, which subsists 
much on insects, and is also carnivorous. Its tail is sub-prehensile, or capable of coiling slightly throughout its 
length, and so holding in a moderate degree; but its extremity cannot seize a small object: it is often wound 
round the body.] 


The remaining Monkey-like animals of America have the tail not at all prehensile.{ Several have 
that appendage very long and tufted, whence they have been termed Fow-tailed Monkeys: their teeth 
project forwards more than in the others. They are 


THE Sakis (Piihecia, Desm. and Iilig.),— 


[Which are again divisible into three minor groups. Of these, the first is represented by the Yarke Saki (Sim. 
Pithecia, Lin., P. leucocephala), and three or four others: singular-looking animals, with extremely long hair, except 
on the head, where, in most of the genus, it is parted. In the Yarke, the head is whitish, and all the other parts 
brown-black, which adds to the strangeness of its appearance. The Jacket Saki (Sim. sagulata, Traill), illustrates 


* The latter may do so, but certainly not the former, which is in confusion if applied to the latter exclusively, We would suggest, 
therefore, the appellation Samiris, formed out of the yveruacular.—Ep. 


all other respects a characteristic 4teles.—Ep. 
+ Sagoinus (or, what would be preferable, Sugunus,) of some. t It has a propensity to curl in the Marmosets, if not in the Sa 

This name, however, originally proposed by Lacepede for the Sagouins, | gouins.—Ep. 

(Callithriv), among which the Saimiri was included, can only lead to 


62 MAMMALIA. 


the next group, which chiefly differs from the third (Brachyurus, Spix), in possessing a long tail: the hair is 
comparatively short, and in the Jacket Saki of a rich dark brown, except on the head, where it is longer, crisped, 
and deep black, as is also its fine bushy beard. Others would appear intermediate, as the P. satanas, Humb. : 
seemingly allied to which is the Brachyurus israelitus of Spix, and the diminutive P. melanocephala of Humboldt.* 
These last are represented as mainly frugivorous, and the first to be great destroyers both of wild bees and their 
honey. They are said to inhabit the very depth of the forest, and to repose during mid-day ; are moderately 


social, and crepuscular if not nocturnal in their time of action.] 


There are also some, 
Tue Sacourns (Callithrix, Geof.),— 

The tail of which is slender, and the teeth do not project. They were a long time associated with the 
Saimiri, but the head of the Sagouins is much higher, and their canines considerably shorter. Such 
are 

The Masked Sagouin (C. personata, Geof.), the Widow Sagouin (C. Zugens, Humb.), [and several others ; some of 
which have been ascertained to live in pairs, while others, (as the C. melanochir, Pr. Max.), assemble in numerous 
bands, and make a loud and unpleasant yelping about sunrise. They are very carnivorous, though small, and 


spring to a considerable distance on birds and other prey, for which they lie in wait ; are also dexterous in seizing 
flying insects with the hand, They have none of the sprightliness of the Saimiri. ] 


Tur Dovrovcovit (Nocthorus, F. Cuv.; Nyctipithecus, Spix: improperly named Aotus by Iliger),— 
Only differ from the Sagouins by their great nocturnal eyes, and in their ears being partly hidden 


under the hair. 


[Three species are now known, of somewhat Lemur-like appearance, but still having no particular relation- 
ship with the Lemurs. They are almost lethargic by day, which they pass in the darkest recesses of the hollows 
of trees; but at night are all energy and activity, and subsist on small birds and insects, as well as fruit: they 


drink little, and appear to live in pairs.] 
All the foregoing animals are from Guiana or Brazil. 


Tue Ourstiris (Hapale, Illiger),— 


Constitute a small genus, similar to the Sakis, and which was long confounded in the great 
genus Simia. They have, in fact, lke the American Monkey-like animals in general, the 
head round, visage flat, nostrils lateral, the buttocks hairy, no cheek-pouches; and, like the 
latter divisions of them in particular, the tail not prehensile: but they have only twenty 
grinders, like those of the old continent. All their nails are compressed and pointed, except 
those of the hinder thumbs [a character to which the immediately preceding divisions approx- 
imate], and their anterior thumbs are so little separated from the other digits, that we hesi- 
tate to apply the name Quadrumana to them. All are diminutive animals of pleasing forms, 
and are easily tamed. [Their brain is surprisingly low, almost without convolutions. | 


M. Geoffroy distinguishes the Ouéstitis, properly so called, by the name Jacchus. They are the 


Marmosets (Hapale, as restricted) ,— 


Which, for characters, have the inferior incisors pointed, and placed in a curved line, equalling the 
canines. ‘Their tail is annulated, and well covered with hair; and their ears are generally tufted. 


[Seven or eight species are tolerably established, some of which are subject to vary. These pretty little creatures 
are gregarious, and very indiscriminate feeders ; are indeed rapacious, and in confinement will eagerly seize and 
prey on gold fishes, &c. They produce two or three young at a birth.] 

M. Geoffroy designates as 

Tamarins (Midas),— 
Those species which have inferior trenchant incisors placed in an almost straight line, and shorter 
than the canines. Their tail is also more slender, and not annulated. 


[These differ more than the others, and are also somewhat variable in colour. At least seven or eight have been 
ascertained, of which the Pinche (Sim. wdipus, Lin.), is the longest known. Those curious little beings, the 
Silky Tamarin (M. rosalia), and the Leoncito, or Lion Monkey of Humboldt (M. leoninus), fall under this division. 


* It is probable that all but the members of the first should ranye inthe division Brachyurus, Spix, (provided this be separable,) which 
name is consequently ill-chosen.—Ep. 


4 


my 4‘ iy 
Wel ey 
spay h Neat 


Red Lemur 


slow-paced Lemur 


QUADRUMANA. 63 


All are restlessly active, and extremely rapid in their movements; also remarkably short-tempered, bristling 
with fury when enraged, and putting on a most formidable appearance, considering their size. They are so 
cleanly, that any appearance of dirt about their habitations causes them to fret; and are exceedingly sensitive of 
damp: but, if duly attended to, are easily kept in captivity. 

The PLaryRruIni were very properly ranged by Buffon in two great natural divisions, named by 
him Sapasous and Sagourns; to the latter of which the Ouistitis are strictly referable, to judge from 
the aggregate of their conformation. We cannot but think that Cuvier has, in this rare instance, 
attached undue importance to the number of molar teeth, in so decidedly separating the Ouistitis from 
the other small American Quadrumana.] 


Tue Lemurs, (Lemur, Linn.), 
[STREPSIRRHINI, Geof. |,— 


Comprehend, according to Linnzus, all the Quadrumana which have [supposed ] incisors in either 
jaw differing in number from four, or at least otherwise directed than in the Monkeys. This 
negative character could not fail to em- 
brace very different beings, while it did 
not unite those which should range to- 
gether. M. Geoffroy has established 
several better characterized divisions in 
this genus. The four thumbs of these 
aummals are well developed and oppos- 
able, and the first hind finger is armed 
with a raised and pointed claw (fig. 4), 
all the other nails being flat. Their cover- 
ing is woolly; and their teeth begin to 
exhibit sharp tubercles, catching in each 
other, as in the Insectivora. [These 
animals have been described to differ 
from all other Mammalia in the cireum- 
stance of thew upper canines locking 
outside or before the lower: but we have 
just discovered that their true inferior canines have always hitherto been mistaken for ad- 
ditional incisors, which they resemble in genera! aspect and direction; while the sueceeding 
tooth, which from its size and appearance has been supposed to be the lower canine, is in 
reality the first false molar ; (as will readily appear on opposing the successive teeth of both 
jaws). In the genus Tarsius, however, the true canine assumes more of its ordinary form ; 
and the same is observable of the first false molar in Microcebus.* The grinding motion of 


the lower jaw is exceedingly reduced. | 


Fig. 4.—Hand and Foot of Lemur 


Tur Lemurs, properly so called (Lemur, as restricted [Prosimia, Briss.]),— 


Have six [four] lower incisors, compressed, and slanting forwards [as are also the canines]; four in 
the upper jaw, which are straight, those intermediate being separated from each other; trenchant 
‘Lupper] canines; six molars on each side above, and six below}; the ears small. They are very 
nimble animals, and have been designated Fox-nosed Monkeys, from their pointed heads. They 
subsist on fruits. Their species are very numerous, and inhabit only the island of Madagascar, where 
they appear to replace the Monkey-tribe, which, it is said, do not exist there. They differ but slightly 
among themselves, except in colour. 


(Thirteen, at least, have been ascertained definitively; one of the longest known of which is the Macaco of 
Buffon, or the Ring-tailed Lemur (LZ. catta, Lin.), which is ash-grey, the tail annulated black and white. Others 
are black, or rufous, with sometimes white; and one beautiful species, the Ruffed Lemur (L. macaco, Lin.), is 


* An approach to this deviation on the part of the inferior canine is + The latter statement chances to be correct, but, as intended 
noticeable in the adult Mandrill.—Ep. would have been erroncous,—Ep. 


64 MAMMALIA. 


varied with large patches of black on a pure white ground. They average the size of a large Cat, but have longer 
limbs; and have all long tails, which are elevated in a sigmoid form, when in motion, and not trailed after them. 
They are nocturnal or twilight animals, which sleep by day in a ball-like figure, perched ona bough ; are gentle 
in disposition, and easily tamed ; but have much less intelligence than the Monkeys, and are without the prying, 
mischievous propensities of those animals: their ordinary voice is a low grunt, but they often break forth into a 
hoarse abrupt roar, producing a startling effect ; in their native forests they frequently thus roar in concert. ] 


Tue Inorts (Lichanotus, Iliger)— 


Have teeth as in the preceding, except that there are only four [two] lower incisors [the central pro- 
bably soon falling. Their hinder limbs are extremely long; the head broad, muzzle short, and hands 
long. | : 

But one species is known, without tail [this appendage being reduced to a tubercle], three feet in height, black, 
with the face grey, and white behind (Lemur indri, Lin., Indris brevicaudatus, Geof.), which the inhabitants 
of Madagascar tame, and train to the chace like a Dog. The Long-tailed Indri (Lemur laniger, Gm.) needs 
further examination. 

[The latter appears to be very intimately allied to a species, with a naked face, named Propithecus diadema 
by Bennett, (Macromerus typicus, Smith,) the systematic characters of which seem hardly to warrant its separa- 
tion from the Indris. Both are natives of Madagascar, and it is doubtful whether the present genus should not 
precede the last. The Short-tailed Indri is the most human-like of its tribe. 


Tue Macaucos (Microcebus, Geof., Galagoides, Smith) — 


Have the head round; muzzle short and pointed; ears moderate and erect; the fore-limbs small: four 
incisors above, the central larger; also four below, with similar projecting canines, as in Lemur ; the 
upper canines are small and pointed; and the first inferior false molar is scarcely larger than the 
next: the cheek-teeth indicate a partly insectivorous regimen. Their scrotum is disproportionately 
large. 

Two small species are known: the Murine Macauco (Lemur murinus, Pen.), which is Buiton’s Rat of Madagascar ; 
and the Brown Macauco (M. pusillus, Geof. ; also Galago madagascariensis, Geof., G. demidaffii, Fischer, and 
Otolicnus madagascariensis, Schinz). The Lemur cinereus, Geof. and Desm. (Petit Maki, Buff.), may perhaps con- 
stitute a third. These little animals have much the aspect, and also the manners, of a large Dormouse, which they 
further resemble in nestling in the holes of trees, which serve them fora dormitory : during day they sleep rolled 
up in a ball, and only rouse from their torpor on the approach of twilight, but are then extremely agile and lively. 
Of their habits in a state of nature we know little, except that they are arboreal. ] 


Tue Loris (Stenops, Mliger)— 


Have the teeth of the Lemurs, except that the points of their grinders are more acute; the short muzzle 
of a mastiff; body slender; no tail; Jarge approximating eyes; the tongue rough. They subsist on 
insects, occasionally on small birds or quadrupeds, and have an excessively slow gait: their mode of 
life is nocturnal. Sir A. Carlisle has found that the base of the arteries of the limbs is divided into 
small branches, [anastomosing freely with each other,] as in the true Sloths, [the object of which 
appears to be to enable them to sustain a long continuance of muscular contraction. The same cha- 
racter occurs, however, in the Cetacea]. 

Only two species are known, both from the East Indies; the Short-limbed Loris (Lemur tardigradus, Lin.), 
and the Slender Loris (L. gracilis): the former has been made a separate genus of by Geoffroy, who styles it 
Nycticebus ; but he is wrong in asserting that it has only two incisors in the upper jaw: the latter is remarkable 
for the disproportionate elongation of its limbs, and especially of its fore-arms. [These most singular animals 
are eminently tiocturnal and arboreal, being incommoded by daylight ; they are also very susceptible of cold, 
which makes them dull and inanimate. During the day, they sleep clinging to a branch, with the body drawn 
together, and head sunk upon the chest; at night they prowl among the forest boughs in quest of food. 
Nothing can escape the scrutiny of their large glaring orbs : they mark their victim, insect or bird, and cautiously 
and noiselessly make their advances towards it, until it is within the reach of their grasp; they then devour it on 
the spot, previously divesting it, if a bird, of its feathers. When rousing from their diurnal slumbers, they 
delight to clean and lick their full soft fur; and in captivity will then allow themselves to be caressed by those 
accustomed to feed them: they are remarkable for extreme tenacity of grasp. 


Tue Porros (Perodicticus, Bennett)— 


Have comparatively small eyes ; the ears moderate and open: dentition approaching that of the Lemurs ; 
tail moderate ; limbs equal ; the index finger of the anterior hands (fig. 5) little more than rudimentary. 


QUADRUMANA. 


Geoffroy’s Potto (Lemur potto, Lin.; Galago Gruniensis, Desm.; 
P. Geoffroyi, Ben.)—From Sierra Leone; a slow-moving and retiring 
animal, which seldom makes its appearance but in the night-time, 
and feeds on vegetables, chiefly the Cassada.] 


Tue Gaxacos (Ofolicnus, Mlig.)— 


w ; 


A\\ 
\Nan : : : : 
Aw \\\ Have the teeth and insectivorous regimen of the Loris; the 


tarsi elongated, which gives to their hinder limbs a dispro- 
portionate extent ; tail long and tufted; large membranous ears 
[which double down when at rest, as in some Bats]; and 
great eyes, which indicate a nocturnal life. [The index, as well 


tS as the thumb of the anterior hand, inclines in some to be op- 
Ry . 


& 


posable to the other fingers. ] 


Several species are known, all from Africa; as the Great Galago (Galago 
crassicaudatus, Geof.), as large asa Rabbit ; and the Senegal Galago(G. 
Senegalensis, Geof.), the size of a Rat. The latter is known as the Gum 
animal of Senegal, from its feeding much on that production. [These pretty animals have at night all the activity of 
birds, hopping from bough to bough, on their hind limbs only. They watch the insects flitting among the leaves, 
listen to the fluttering of the moth as it darts through the air, lie in wait for it, and spring with the rapidity of an 
arrow, seldom missing their prize, which is caught by the hands. They make nests in the branches of trees, and 
cover a bed with grass and leaves for their little ones : are a favourite article of food in Senegal. A species larger 
than the others has lately been received alive, O. Garnottii of Ogilby.] 


Fig. 5.—Hand of Potto. 


Tue Marmags (Tarsius)— 


Have the tarsi elongated (fig. 6), and all the other details of form as in the preceding; but the interval 
between their molars and incisors is occupied by several shorter teeth [that is, their upper canines are 
very small; and] the middle upper incisors are elongated, and re- 
semble canines. [There are but two permanent lower incisors, and the 
inferior canines present more of the ordinary form and direction.} Their 
muzzle is very short, and their eyes still larger than in any of the fore- 
going. [Tail very long, and almost naked.] Are also nocturnal ani- 
mals, and insectivorous ; inhabiting the Molluccas. 


[Two species are known, 7. spectrum, Geof., (Lemur tarsius, Shaw ; T. fusco- 
manus, Fischer,) and the 7. bancanus of Horsfield. It is observed by Geoffroy 
that although the Malmags have the external ears much less developed than in 
the Galagos, this inferiority is counterbalanced by the far greater volume of the 
auditory bulle of the temporal bones, which are so developed as to touch 
each other; and thus the sense of hearing is, by another mode, rendered 
as acute in the former as in the latter. The Malmag has an aversion to light, 
and retires by day under the roots of trees; feeds chiefly on lizards, and leaps 
about two feet at a spring; is easily tamed, and capable of some attachment ; 
holds its prey in its fore-hands, while it rests on its haunches; produces one 
young at a birth, and lives in pairs. | 


Travellers should search for certain animals figured by Commerson, 
and which Geoffroy has engraved (dun. Mus. xix. 10), under the name of 


Fig. 6.—Foot of the Malmag. 


CHErROGALES (Cheirogaleus). 


These figures seem to announce a new genus or subgenus of Quadrumana. [Three species are re- 
presented in Commerson’s drawing, all of which appear to be now authenticated by specimens. Their 
proportions are those of the Galagos; dentition as in the Malmags, except that they retain all their 
inferior incisors ; the head is round, the nose and muzzle short, lips furnished with whiskers, the eyes 
large and approximate, and the ears short and oval; the nails of the four extremities are compressed 
and somewhat claw-like, and the tail is long, bushy, and regularly cylindrical. 

Three or more species are known, all from the great island of Madagascar. They constitute the division 
Lichanos of Gray. 


The singular genus Cheiromys, also, from the same peculiar locality, which is arranged by the 


author among the Rodentia, would appear to have much better claim to be introduced here, and near 
EF 


a ee 


66 MAMMALIA. 


to the Galagos. Likewise, Galeopithecus, which Cuvier has placed after the Bats, but which is 
Lemurine in all the essential details of its conformation.” ] 


THE THIRD ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— 


CARNARIA F,— 


Consists of an immense and varied assemblage of unguiculated quadrupeds, which pos- 
sess, in common with Man and the Quadrumana, the three sorts of teeth, but have no 
opposable thumb to the fore-feet.{ They all subsist on animal food, [some Bats ex- 
cepted,] and the more exclusively so, as their grinders are more cutting. Such as 
have them wholly or in part tuberculous, take more or less vegetable nourishment, and 
those in which they are studded with conical points live principally upon insects. The 
articulation of their lower jaw, directed crosswise, and clasping like a hinge, allows of 
no lateral motion, but can only open and shut: [the latter, however, had already been 
nearly lost in the Lemurs. | 

Their brain, though still tolerably convoluted, has no third lobe, and does not cover 
the cerebellum, any more than in the following families; the orbit is not separated 
from the temporal fossa in the skeleton §; the skull is narrowed, and the zygomatic 
arches widened and raised, in order to give more strength and volume to the muscles 
Their predominant sense is that of smell, and the pituitary membrane 
is generally spread over numerous bony lamin. The fore-arm is still capable of re- 
volving in nearly all of them, though with less facility than in the Quadrumana. ‘The 
intestines [save in the frugivorous Bats] are less voluminous, on account of the sub- 
stantial nature of the aliment, and to avoid the putrefaction which flesh would undergo 
in a more extended canal: [besides which, the requisite nutriment is more readily ex- 
tracted from it. ] 

As regards the rest, their forms and the details of their organization vary consider- 
ably, and occasion analogous differences in their habits||, msomuch that it is impossible 
to arrange their genera in a single line; and we are obliged to form them into several 
families, which are variously connected by multiplied relations. 


of the jaws. 


* Here, at the end of the Quadrwmana, may be appended some in- , character of wanting a thumb, only, will not constitute a Colobus. 
formation, which unfortunately arrived too late for insertion under | —Ep. 


the generic heads Cercopithecus and Colobus. 

It has just been ascertained, by Mr. Martin, that the MaNGABEYS 
(Cercopithecus athiops and fuliginosus, Auct.) possess the additicnal 
tubercle on the last molar, found in the Macaques, Doucs, &c.; 
whence the name Cercocebus may now be coutinued to them ex- 
clusively, as a definite subordinate group, more nearly related to the 
true Monkeys than to the Macaques, notwithstanding the structural 
character adverted to. Their hair, it may be remarked, is not grizzled 
or annulated, as in both the Macaques and Monkeys. 

Of the genus Colobus, a perfect skin of C. leucomeros, Ogilby, has 
been received in Paris, which securely establishes that species. The 
face is encircled with white hair, very long on the sides ; and the tail 
also is white, as in C. ursinus. 

Finally, a notice and figure have been just published of a species 
designated Colobus verus, but which appears tu me, both from its con- 
tour and the description (which states its hair to be annulated), to be 
a thumbless Cercopithecus, allied to C. Campdellii. The negative 


+ Written Carnassiers by Cuvier.—Ep. 

t In one genus of Cheiroptera (Dysopes), the hinder thumbs of some 
of the species incline to be’ opposable; while the last trace of this 
character in the anterior limbs, would seem to be the freedom of the 
thumb in the Bats generally, their fingers being all connected by 
membrane.—Ep. 

§ At least not generally: but it is commonly so in the Mangoustes 
(Herpestes), and allied genus Cynictis; also in the Felis planiceps : 
it is nearly so in the frugivorous Cheiroptera, and, it would seem, in 
Taphozous among the insectivorous Bats.—Ep. 

|| This is a favourite mode of expression of our author; but we 
have reason rather to transpose the sequency, or, in other words, to 
regard the habit as necessitating the particular modifications of strue- 


ture. ‘Thus, on consideration, it will appear, that the productive 


powers of nature ever exceeding the actual demand for such 
species upon species have been endowed with 
successive checks upon 


multiplication, 
the necessary organization to aid as 


CARNARIA. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF CARNARIA,— 


CHEIROPTERA,— | 


are placed on the breast. Their distinctive character consists ina fold of the skin, which, | 
commencing at the sides of the neck, extends between their four feet and their fingers, sustams 
them in the air, and even enables such of them to fly as have the hands sufficiently developed 
for that purpose.f This disposition required strong clavicles, and large scapulars, to impart 
the requisite solidity to the shoulder; but it was incompatible with the rotation of the fore- 
arm, which would have diminished the force of the stroke necessary for flight. These animals 
have all four large canines, but the number of their incisors varies. They have long been 
distributed into two genera, according to the extent Of their organs of flight { [sustaming 
membrane]; but the first requires numerous subdivisions. 


THE Barts (Vespertilio, Lin.}— 

Have the arms, fore-arms, and fingers excessively elongated, so as to form, with the 
membrane that occupies their intervals, real wings, the surface of which is equally or 
more extended than im those of Birds. Hence they fly very high, and with great rapidity. 
Their pectoral muscles have a thickness pro- 
portioned to the movements which they have 
to execute, and the sternum possesses a 
medial ridge to afford attaclinent to them, 
asin Birds. The thumb is short, and fur- | 
nished with a crooked nail, by which these 
animals creep and suspend themselves. Their 
hinder parts are [generally ] weak, and divided 
into five toes, nearly always of equal length, | 
and armed with trenchant and sharp nails. 

They have no ccecum to the intestine. Their | 
eyes [except in the frugivorous species] are | 
extremely small, but their ears are often very 


Preserves some affinities with the Quadrumana by the pendulous penis*, and mammz which 


large, arm constitute with the wings an enor- 
mous extent of membrane, almost naked, and 
so sensible that the Bats guide theimselves 
through all the intricacies of their labyrinths, 
even after their eyes have been removed, pro- 
bably by the sole diversity of aérial impres- 
sions.§ They are nocturnal animals, which, in 

During the day they suspend themselves in 


Fig. 7.—Skeleton of Bat. 


our climates, pass the winter in a torpid state. 


| other sources. Hence, therefore, the organization should be con 
sidered as having reference to, rather than as occasioning the par- 
ticuiar habit.—Ep. 


superfluity, it being clear, speaking generally, that the consumed 
must have pre-existed to the consumer; or, to embody the proposi- 
tion in still more general terms, the conditions must have been first 


present, in especial reference to which any species has been or- 
ganized : in conformity with which theorem, it may be remarked, that, 
however reciprocal, on a superficial view, may appear the relations of 
the preyer and the prey, a little reflection on the observed facts 
suffices to intimate that the relative adaptations of the former only 
are special, those of the latter being comparatively vague and general ; 
indicating that there having been a superabundance which might 
serve as nutriment, in the first instance, and which, in many cases, 
was unattainable by ordinary means, particular species have therefore 
been so organized (that is to say, modified upon some more or less 
general ¢ype or plan of structure,) to avail themselves of the supply ; 
which special adaptation, however, does rot necessarily prevent then 
‘in a vast proportion of cases) from also deriving nourishment from 


* This organ, however, as in the Carnivora, cortains a bone (though 
only within the glans,) with its accompanying pair of muscles.—Ep. 

+ This character applies to all, with the exception of the Colugo 
(Galeopithecus), a genus which has little claim to range in this divi- 
sion.—Ep. 

t This term is inapplicable to the parachute membrane of the 
Colugo.—Ep. 

§ L have reason to suspect that the delicate tact alluded to resides 
principally in the fecial membrane, present in only some genera. A 
specimen of Vesp. Nattereri, which I have just been ubserving, (in 
which restricted genus there is no developement of membrane on the 
face,) has severai times, in flying about the room, flapped against a 
glass case.—Ep. 


F2 | 


| 


Ss 


638 MAMMALIA. 


obscure places. Their ordinary produce is two young at a birth, [one only in the frugivorous 
species, and many others,] which cling to the mamme of their parent, [have their eyes closed 
for a while,*] and are of large proportional size. They form a very numerous genus, present- 
ing many subdivisions. First there require to be separated— 


Tus Roussettes (Péeropus, Briss.),— 


Which have cutting incisors to each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns, or rather the latter have 
originally two longitudinal and parallel projections, separated by a groove, and which wear away by 
attrition: accordingly they subsist in great part upon fruits, of which they consume a vast quantity ; 
they also ably pursue small birds and quadrupeds: [a statement which much requires confirmation. ] 
They are the largest of the tribe, and their flesh is eaten. The membrane is deeply emarginated between 
their legs, and they have little or no tail; their index finger, shorter by half than the middle one, pos- 
sesses a third phalanx, bearing a short nail (see fig. 9), which are wanting in other Bats ; but the following 
fingers have each only two phalanges ; [their thumb is proportionally very large] ; they have the muzzle 
simple, the nostrils widely separated, the ears middle-sized and without a tragus, and their tongue studded 
with points that curve backwards ; their stomach is a very elongated sac, unequally dilated, [and their 
intestines are much longer than in other Bats.] They have only been discovered in the south of Asia and 
the Indian Archipelago ; [now, however, also in Japan, Australia, Madagascar, and the south and west 
of Africa. 


The species are very numerous, and have been greatly elucidated by the investigations of Temminck and 
others, who have established most of them on a considerable number of specimens of all ages, and many 
anatomically. They produce early, and the sexes are separately gregarious, the young also associating apart 
from their parents as soon as they can provide for themselves.t] They divide into 

1. Tailless Roussettes, with four incisors to each jaw; all of which were comprehended by Linneus under 
his Vespertilio vampyrus. [More than twenty species are known, some of which exceed five feet across. 
One of the commonest in collections is] 

The Black-bellied Roussette (Pt. edulis, Geof.)—Of a blackish brown, deeper beneath [the fur crisp and 
coarsel; nearly four feet im extent [sometimes, according to Temminck, upwards of five feet French, corre- 
sponding to five feet anda half English]. It inhabits 
the Moluccas and Isles of Sunda, where they are found 
during the day suspended in great numbers to the trees. 
To preserve fruit from their attacks, it is necessary to 
cover it with nets. Their cry is loud, and resembles that 
of a Goose. They are taken by means of a bag held to 
them at the end of a pole; and the natives esteem their 
fiesh a delicacy ; but Europeans dislike it on account of 
its musky odour. The flesh of the Common Roussette 
(Pt. vulgaris, Geof.), an inhabitant of the Mauritius, 
has been compared to that of the Hare and Partridge. 

2. Roussettes with a short tail, and four incisors to each 
jaw: [also generally less than the smaller species of 
the preceding. At least six are known, one of which 
only (Pt. amplexicaudatus), has the tail moderately con- 
spicuous : the muzzle is comparatively somewhat shorter. 
These two divisions comprehend all that are now 
ranged in Pteropus ; and one species only (Pt. macro- 
cephalus, Ogilby), from the Gambia, presents any marked 

Fig. 8.—Head of Preropus edutis. departure from the general character, in the great size of 

its head, the superior magnitude and solidity of its 

canines, and separation of the molars: allied to it is Pt. gambianus, Ogilby, from the same locality, and Pé. 

Whitei, Ben., which has a singular tuft on each side of the neck. The name Epomophorus, Ben., is applied to 
these three species by Gray.] 


3. According to the indicia of M. Geoffroy, we now separate from the Roussettes 


Tue Cepuarors (Cephalotes, Geof.),— 


Which have [nearly] similar grinders, but in which the index finger, short, and consisting of three 


* Perhaps the frugivorous species form an exception to this. The + The same appears to be the case with some of the insectivorous 
others are naked at birth, but have the limbs strong, and adapted for | Bats of Europe.—Ep. 
clinging to their parent. 


CARNARIA. 69 


phalanges, like that of the preceding, has no nail. The membranes of their wings, instead of meeting 
at the flank, are joined to each other at the middle of the back, to which they adhere by a vertical and 
longitudinal partition [a character which occurs, however, more or less completely, that is, the volar 
membrane is attached more or less near to the middle of the back, in some of the Roussettes]. 
They have often only two incisors [when adult, which are inserted in small curved intermaxillaries, 
that are moveable backwards and forwards]. 

“M. Isidore Geoffroy, in a monograph of this genus [Pteropus], forms the Pt. personatus, Tem., 
and some allied species, into the subgenus Pachysoma, which has four molars less than the others, and 
the zygomatic arches more projecting: the Pt. minimus or rostratus composes his subgenus Macro- 
glossus, the muzzle of which is longer and more slender, and there are spaces between the grinders ; 
it is believed that the tongue is extensile [row known to be slightly so, and of a rather longer and 
more acuminate form than in the others}. Lastly, he separates the Cephalot of Peron from that of Pallas, 
and applies to the former the name Hypodermis, on account of the complete dorsal insertion of the 


membranes of its wings.””* ae 


[M. Temminck, in his excellent monograph of the Pteroprae, or frugivorous Bats (published in 1835), adopts, as 
generic, the divisions Pteropus, Pachysoma (Cynopterus, F. Cuv.), Cephaiotes, Geof. (Hypodermis, Is. Geof.), 
Harpyia, Wiger (Cephalotes, Is. Geof.), and Macroglossus.t Six species are known of Pachysuma, which present 


some other peculiar characters, 
and vary in size from ten to twenty 
inches across: the remaining three 
respectively consist of one known 
species only, viz., C. Peronii, 
sometimes two and a half feet 
in extent,—H. Paillasii (fig. 9), a 
singular looking animal, from Ti- 
mour, fourteen inches across, with 
a claw on its fore-finger (like the 
Cephalot), and projecting tubular 
nostrils, —and M. rostratus, the 
Kiodote, the smallest of the tribe, 
rarely measuring a foot in spread 
of wing, and which is known to 
subsist chiefly on the fruit of the 
Clove (Eugenia); its grinders are 
remarkably diminutive. Between 
these frugivorous Cheiroptera and 
the following genera, the lapse is Fig. 9.—Harpyia Pallasii. 
very considerable. } 


The Roussettes having been detached, the genuine Bats remain, all of which [excepting Desmodus] are 
insectivorous, and possess three grinders on each side of both jaws, beset with conical points, and 
preceded by a variable number of false molars. Their index never has a nail, and, a single sub- 
genus excepted, the membrane always extends between their hind-legs. [The greater number haye 
cheek-pouches, and most, if not all, emit a peculiar low clicking note.] 

They should be divided into two principal tribes: the first having three bony phalanges to the 
middle finger of the wing, while the other finger and the index even haye only two. To this tribe, 
which is almost exclusively foreign, belong the following subgenera :— 


Tue Motossines (Molossus, Geof. Dysopust, Mlig.) 


These have the muzzle simple; the ears broad and short, arising near the angle of the lips, and 
uniting with each other upon the muzzle; the tragus short, and not enveloped by the conch. Their 
tail occupies the whole length of the interfemoral membrane, and very often extends beyond it. 
[Their wings are narrow, and body large and heavy.] It is seldom that they have more than two in- 
cisors to each jaw: but, according to M. Temminck, several of them have at first six below, four of 
which they successively lose. 


* This passage occurs in the Appendix to the original work.—Ep. is likewise used in Ornithology, where another appellation must be 
+ The term Macroglossus, however, has unfortunately been pre- ; Substituted.—-Ep. 


occupied in Entomology: for which reason Aiodotus (the common ,_ ¢ This term is more generally accepted.—Ep, 
name of the species, latinized) may be proposed in its stead. Harpyia | 


70 MAMMALIA. 


The Dinops of M. Savi refers to 
these Molossines with six inferior 
incisors. There is one of them in 
Italy (Dinops cestonii, Savi). 

M. Geoffroy has applied the name 
Nyctonomus to those which have 
four inferior incisors. 

The Molossines were at first dis- 
covered only in America; but we 
now know several from both con- 
tinents. Some of them have the 
hinder thumb placed farther from 
the other digits than these are Fig idee Head of Dyaepualtertulr’ 
from each other, and capable of 
separate motion; acharacter on which, in one species where it is very strongly marked, Dr. Horsfield has 
established his genus Cheiromeles [the ears of which, also, differ in being widely separated]. 

It is probable that we should also place here the Thyroptera of Spix, which appears to have several cha- 
racters of the Molossines, and the thumb of which has a little concave palette peculiar to them (fig. 10, a), by 
which they are enabled to cling more closely. [Several species of this genus agree in possessing this appendage, 
which is proportionally larger in the 
young. 

As a whole, the group of Molossines is 
extremely distinct and insulated, though 
consisting of a vast number of species, 
of which about twenty may be considered 
established; six or seven of these ap- 
pertain to the eastern hemisphere. ‘The 
largest and most curious of them is 
D. cheiropus, Tem. (Cheiromeles, Horsf., 
fig. 11), from Siam, which measures 
nearly two feet across: it is quite naked, 
with the exception of an abrupt collar 
of hairs round the neck. 

Several have the upper lip laterally 
pendent (fig. 10), whence the name 
Molossus or Mastiff; and the term 
Dysopus refers to the toes being more 
or less tufted with hair. The greater 
Fig. 11.—Dysopus cheiropus. number of species are from Brazil and 

Paraguay. |] 


Tue Nocrutes (Noctilio*, Lin. Ed. xii.) . 


Muzzle short, inflated, and split into a double hare-lip, marked with odd-looking warts and grooves ; 
ears separate ; four incisors above and two below ; tail short, and [possibly in some] free above the inter- 
femoral membrane ; [limbs much elongated, the hinder very large and stout, and furnished with strong 
claws ; the volar membranes are attached high upon the back, in some almost meeting dorsally, as in the 
Cephalot and some Roussettes. | 

The most generally known species is from America (Vesp. leporinus, Gm.), of a uniform fulyous. [Others 
have been found on the same continent: and Celeno, Leach, was founded on an imperfect specimen, which is 
still extant. The Noctules are allied to the true Bats (Vespertilio); and a group which appears to be somewhat 
intermediate, but with a more elongated muzzle, is the Emballonwa, Kuhl (Proboscidea, Spix), of which four 
species have been described from South America, and a fifth from Java. Pteronotus, Gray, is probably a Noctule, 
with a longer tail than usual; and Myspteris, Geoff., and also Aélio, Leach, do not seem to differ essentially.] 


Tue Paytiostomes (Phyllostoma, Cuv. and Geoff.) 

The regular number of incisors is four to each jaw, but some of the lower ones frequently fall, 
being forced out by the growth of the canines ; [the second false molar is generally elongated]. They are, 
moreover, distinguished by the membrane, in the form of an upturned leaf, which is placed across the 
end of the nose. The tragus of their ear (fig. 12) resembles a leaflet, more or less indented. Their 
tongue, which is very extensile, is terminated by papilla, which appear to be arranged so as to form 


* The division Necéilio was unaccountably ranged by Linnaeus among his Glires, or the Rodentia of our author.—Ep. 


CARNARIA. 


an organ of suction ; and their lips also have tubercles symmetrically arranged. 


They are American 


animals, which run along the ground with more facility than the other Bats, and have a habit of 


sucking the blood of animals. 


1. Tailless Phyllostomes (Vampyrus, Spix). 

The Vampyre [of authors] (Vesp. spectrum, Lin.)—(fig. 
12.) This animal is reddish-brown, and as large as a 
Magpie. Ithas been accused of causing the death of 
men and animals by sucking their blood; but the truth 
appears to be, that it inflicts only very small wounds, 
which may sometimes prove dangerous from the effects of 
the climate. [There are several others, certain of which 
compose the divisions Madateus and dAretibeus, Leach, 
Lophostoma, Orb., (which is very like a Desmodus ex- 
ternally,) Diphylla, Spix, and Carollia, Gray,—founded on 
trivial modifications of the form of the nose-leaf, tragus, 
and interfemoral membrane. | 

2. Phyllostomes with the taii enveloped in the interfe 
moral membrane. 

The Javelin Ph. (Vesp. hastatus, Lin.)— The leaf shaped 
like the head of a javelin, with its edges entire. [Also 
various others, some of which constitute Macrophyllum and 
Brachyphylla, Gray.] 

3. Phyllostomes with the tail free above the membrane. 

Ph. crenulatum, Geof.—The leaf indented on the side. 


M. Geofiroy distinguishes from the Phyllostomes 
those species which have a narrow extensile tongue, 
furnished with papiliz resembling hairs. He de- 
signates them GLossopHacuEs (Glossophaga). All 
the species are likewise from America. [These also 
have been subdivided, according to the presence or 
absence of a short tail, and other frivolous characters 
into Phyllophora and Anoura, Gray, Monophylius, 
Leach, and Glossophaga, as restricted. Spix applies to 
one of them (Gl. amplexicaudata, Phyllophora of 
Gray) the term Sanguisuga crudelissima,—‘a very 


cruel blood-sucker.” According to Mr. Bell, the tongue of Phyllostoma, has “a number of wart-like 
elevations, so arranged as to form a complete circular suctorial disc, when they are brought into con- 
tact at their sides, which is done by means of a set of muscular fibres, having a tendon attached to 


Fig. 12.—Vampyrus spectrum. 


each of the warts.” The teeth of these animals, however, are decidedly ill-adapted for blood-letting. 


Tae True Vameyres (Desmodus, Pr. Max., Edostoma, Orb., Stenoderma ?, Geof.) 


This extraordinary genus has two immense, projecting, approximate upper incisors, and similar 
lancet-shaped superior canines, all of which are excessively sharp-pointed, and arranged to inflict a 


Fig. 13.—Teeth of Desmodus. 


triple puncture, like that of a Leech; four bilobate inferior 
incisors, the innermost separated by a wide interval; the 
lower canines small and not compressed: there are no true 
molars, but two false ones on the upper jaw, and three on 
the lower, of a peculiar form, apparently unfitted for mas- 
tication (fig. 13). The intestine is shorter than in any 
other known animal; as blood, which probably constitutes 
their sole food, is so readily assimilated.* They have the 
general characters of the Phyllostomes externally, a small 
bifid membrane on the nose, no tail or calcaneum, and the 
interfemoral membrane but little developed. Are also in- 
habitants of South America. 


* In Vespertilo noctula, the intestine is only twice the length of | proceeds almost straight to the anus. It would be interesting to know 


the body, while in Pleropus it is full seven times. 


In Desmodus, it! the first or milk teeth of Desmodus. 


“Tr 
ss) 


“ MAMMALIA. 


Two or three species are known, of moderate but not large size.* One was taken in the act of sucking blood 
from the neck of a Horse, by Mr. Darwin. It is probable that their external similitude to the Phyllostomes has 
occasioned the latter to be accused of a sanguivorous propensity, for which their structure seems to be at 
most but partially adapted, while that of the present genus is obviously expressly designed for this mode of life. 
Compare the figures given of the dentition of the two genera. ] 

In the second grand tribe of Bats, the index has only one bony phalanx, while all the other fingers 


have two. This tribe also requires to be divided into several subgenera. 


Tue Mecaperms (Megaderma, Geof.)— 


Have the nasal membrane more complicated than in the Phyllostomes; the tragus large and most 
commonly bifurcated; the conch of the ears very ample, and joined together on the top of the head ; 
the tongue and the lips smooth ; interfemoral membrane 
entire, and there is no tail. They have four incisors below, 
but none above, and their intermaxillaries remain carti- 
laginous. [Their wings are remarkably ample, the whole 
cutaneous system of these animals being excessively de- 
veloped. 


Four species are known; two from Africa, the others from 
the Indian archipelago. One of the former (M. frons, fig. 14) 
has the body covered with long hair, of most delicately fine ¢ 
texture; it constitutes the division Lavia of Gray.] They are 
distinguished by the figure of the leaf, like the Phyllostomes. 


Tue RHINOLFHINES (Rhinolophus, Geof. and Cuy. [ Nocetilio 
Bechst.]), vulgarly termed Horse-shoe Bats. 


These have the nose furnished with very complicated 
membranes and crests resting on the forehead, and al- 
together presenting [more or less] the figure of a horse- 
shoe; their tail is long, and placed in the interfemoral 
membrane. They have four incisors below, and two small 
ones above, fixed in a cartilaginous intermaxillary. 


Two species are very common in France [and found sparingly 
and locally in England}],—Vesp. ferrum-equinum, Lin., or Rh. 
bifer, Geof., and Vesp. hipposideros, Bechstein. They both 
inhabit quarries [cathedrals, &c.], where they hang solitarily [?] suspended by the feet, and enveloping the »- 
selves with their wings, so that no part of their body is visible. [They differ chiefly in size, but in this con- 
siderably ; the larger measuring 13 inches across, the other 83 inches. 

More than twenty species are known, all from 
the eastern hemisphere. They fall under two 
divisions, of which the extremes are shown in 
the accompanying representation (fig. 15); but 
the majority are of intermediate character, like 
the two which inhabit Europe. Those with 
membranous crests have the tragus distinct, 
and sometimes considerably developed; the 
others have no separated tragus, and compose 
the divisions Hipposidoros, Gray, (identical with 
Phillorhina, Bonap.) and Asellia, Gray : Ariteus 
of the same systematist referring to a member of 
the former sub-group, which is destitute of tail, 
and almost of interfemoral membrane ; charac- 
ters, however, to which other species approxi- 
mate. They inhabit the darkest caverns, in vast maltitudes, the sexes and young in separate assemblages. 
Penetrating to more deeply obscure recesses than any of the others, it is probable that their facial appendages are 
endowed with exquisite sensibility, for the still further extension of that delicacy of the sense of touch, by which 
others of this family are enabled to guide themselves when deprived of vision: the dryness of those membranes 
intimates that they are not olfactory. Certain inguinal glands, more or less distinctly developed in these 
animals, have been erroneously described as mammary teats. 


Fig. 14.—Megaderma frons. 


Fig. 15.—Rhinolophus nobilis. R. insignis 


* There is reason to suspect that the genus Desmodus is much more } A British locality, where both occur rather numerously, is the 
extensively represented.—Ep. well-known cave near Torquay, in Devonshire, called Kent's Holo. 


CARNARIA. 73 


Tue Nycropuiters (Nyctophilus, Leach)— 


Are, according to Temminck, somewhat intermediate to the Rhinolphines and the next genus of 
Nycterins ; approaching the former in the character of their incisors and canines, and the latter in 
that of their molars: the ears are large and pointed; the tragus lanceolate; nasal follicles distinct ; 
the tail moderately long, and enveloped in the membrane. 


Nyct. Geoffroyi, Leach, is the only known species, from some part of Oceanica. It appears to be allied to the 
true Bats (Vespertilio), and was included in Barbastellus, Gray, as originally constituted.] 


Tue Nycrerins (Nycteris, Cuy. and Geof.) — 


Have the forehead furrowed by a longitudinal groove, which is even marked upon the cranium, 
bordered by a fold of the skin, which partially covers it; nostrils simple; four incisors without inter- 
vals above, and six below; ears large and 
separated; the tail involved in the inter- 
femoral membrane [and terminated by a 
bifid cartilage (fig. 16, 2).] They are 
African species [for the most part, but one 
inhabits Java. 


These animals are remarkable for a power of 
inflating the skin, which is only attached to 
the body in some few places, by an open cel- 
lular connexion. There is a small aperture at 
the bottom of each cheek-pouch, by which this 
is effected; and the nostrils are so formed as 
to close when at rest, and to open only at will. 
By respiring with the mouth closed, the air 
passes through these apertures along the 
frontal groove to the upper part of the neck, and thence under the skin of the back, chest, and abdomen, 
which, by a repetition of the process, can be puffed out like a balloon: the intent remains to be explained. ] 


\\\\ 


git ay 

2 ll t “ 
A 

\\ 


\ 
\ 


NN 

SY 
‘A 

\\ 


Fig. 16.—Head of Nycteris javanicus. 


Tse Rutnopomes (Rhinopoma, Geof.)— 


Have the frontal depression less marked; the nostrils at the end of the muzzle, with a little lamina 
above, forming a kind of snout; the ears are joined; and the tail [which is very slender] extends 
far beyond the interfemoral membrane. 

[A few species occur on both continents, one of which is figured in the great French work on Egypt, under the 
name Taphien filet.] 
Tue Tapuiens (Taphozous, Geof.)— 


Have also a small rounded indenture on the forehead; but their nostrils have no raised lamina: the 
head is pyramidal, and there are only two incisors above, very often none, and four tiilobate incisors 
below; their ears are 
widely separated, and [the 
tip of ] their tail free above 
the membrane. The males 
have a transverse cavity 
under the throat. A little 
prolongation of the mem- 
brane of their wings forms 
a sort of pouch near the 
carpus.* 

One species was discover- 
ed in the catacombs of 
Egypt by M. Geoffroy [and 
1t is probable that the others 
are peculiar to the old con- 
tinent, though one (Vesp. Fig. 17.—Mormoops Blainvillii. 
marsupialis, Muller) is said to be American. 7. rufus, Harlan (Wils. Am. Orn., vol. vi. pl. 50) is most likely « 


* Hence the name Saccopleryz, applied to this genus by Illiger. 


MAMMALIA. 


Vesperiilio. The Egyptian species is represented to have small eyes ; but that figured by Gen. Hardwicke (Lin. 
Trans., vol. xiv. p. 525) possesses eyes proportionally as large as in a Squirrel, and we have examined skins of 
another species (chinchilla-grey above, pure white beneath), in which the same character must have been con- 


spicuous. } 


Tur Mormores (Mormoops, Leach)— 


Have four incisors to each jaw, the superior rather large ; the inferior trilobate: their skull (fig. 17 ) is 
singularly raised like a pyramid above the muzzle; and on each side of the nose is a triangular 


membrane, which extends to the ear. 
The species M. Blainvillii, Leach, is from Java. 


[It has since been received, together with two others of the 


same form (but considered by Gray as separable), from Jamaica; so that the former locality may be presumed to 


be wrongly assigned. ] 


Tue orprnary Barts [to which this term may be restricted] (Vesperdilio, Cuv. and Geof.) — 


Ilave no leaf or other distinctive mark on the muzzle, and the ears separated; four incisors above, of 


which the two middle ones are apart, and six below, sharp-edged, and somewhat notched * : 


is comprehended in the membrane. 


This subgenus is the most numerous of all, and universally distributed. 


their tail 


There are six or seven species 


in France [more than double that number. Thirteen have now been met with in England, including the Barbastelle 
and Oreillard. The sexes and young of several congregate separately.t] 


* M. Rousseau, in a memoir on the anatomy of Vesp. murinus, 
states, of the two dentitions of this animal, that the first is developed 
before birth, the second not till some time afterwards. The fetal teeth, 
he remarks, are twenty-two in number; namely, four incisors, two 
canines, and four molars to the upper jaw, and six incisors, two 
canines, audfour molars to the lower one. The permanent teeth, in 
the adult, are thirty-eight in number; of which twenty-two should 
replace the feetal or temporary teeth; the sixteen others successively 
show themselves, later as their position is further backward. The 
permanent teeth do not wait to appear until their predecessors 
are shed, whence at a certain epoch forty or fifty teeth, or even more, 
may be counted in the same individual: this last fact we have ob- 
served in the instance of the common Fitchet Weasel.—En. 

+ To facilitate the researches of the British naturalist, our known 
indigenous species may be briefly indicated: it is not unlikely that 
more remain to be discovered, as but few persons have hitherto be- 
stowed much attention on these lucifugal animals. 

The British species fall under two natural divisions. 

In the first, the tregus is more or less rounded at the tip, short, and 
a little thickened in its substance ; there are four pairs of false molars 
to each jaw. Such are 

The Noctule Bat (7. noctula).—Of a bright reddish-brown; the 
membrane dusky. Length of the head and body nearly 3 inches: ex- 
tent 13 or 14 inches. Ears oval-triangular, shorter than the head ; 
the tragus not one-third the length of the ear, arcuated, and termi- 
nated in a broad rounded head; muzzle short, broad, and blunt. 
This species is not uncommon, and is even numerous in some 
districts: its flight is lofty, whence designated altivolans by White. 

Hairy-armed Bat (/”. Leisleri).—The fur long, bright chestnut above, 
brownish grey beneath; under surface of the flying membrane with a 
broad band of hair along the fore-arm. Length of the head and body 
2\ inches ; extent 1144 inches. The ears oval-triangular, shorter than 
the head; tragus barely one-third the length of the ear, terminating 
in arounded head. But one specimen is known to have been killed in 
England. 

Particoloured Bat (V. discolor).—Fur reddisk-brown above, with 
the tips of the hairs white; beneath, sullied white. Length of the 
head and body 234 inches; extent 10% inches. Ears about two- 
thirds the length of the head, oval, with a projecting lobe on the 
inner margin; the tragus of nearly equal breadth throughout, rather 
more than one-third the length of the ear. It inhabits towns, and 
comes abroad early in the evening. The only native specimen was 
taken at Plymouth. 

Pipistrelle Bat (V7. pipistrellus, erroneously termed V, murinus by 
British writers till very lately).—This smail species is the commonest 
of any; it is dark reddish brown, paler beneath. Length to the tail 
14 inch; extent 814 inches. Ears two-thirds the length of the head, 
oval-triangular, notched on the outer margin; tragus nearly half as 
long as the ear, almost straight, thickened, obtuse, and rounded at 
the apex. It runs with celerity, carrying its head near the ground, 
from which it rises with ease; and is active during the greater part 
of the year. The Pygmy Bat (/. pygmaeus, Leach,) is evidently a 
young animal, and probably of this species. 

The next has only two pairs of superior false molars, 

The Serotine Bat (/. serotinus).—Fur chestnut-brown above, yel- 
Length of the head and body 2% inches; ex- | 


lowish-grey beneath. 


tent 1214 inches. The ears oval triangular; shorter than the head ; 
tragus semicordate, little more than one-third the length of the ear. 
The Serotine frequents uninhabited houses, the roofs of churches, &c. 
and sometimes hollow trees; flies steadily and rather slow, and is 
occasionally taken near London, 

In the second group, the tragus is relatively longer, thin, narrow, 
and more or less pointed; and there are six pairs of false molars to 
each jaw. 

Mouse-coloured Bat (V. murinus).—The fur reddish-brown above, 
dull white beneath. Length of the head and boily 34 inches ; spread 
of wing 15 inches. fars oval, broad at the base, becoming narrower 
towards the apex, as long as the head; tragus falciform, the inner 
margin straight, not quite half the length of the ear. This Batis very 
common in France and Germany, but only one instance has been re- 
corded of its occurrence in Britain. 

Bechstein’s Bat (/”. Bechsteinii).— Fur reddish-grey above, grevish- 
white beneath. Dimensions, to the insertion of the tail, 244 inches ; 
1l inches across. Ears oval, rather longer than the head; tragus 
narrow, falciform, not half the length of the ear. The thumb longer 
than inthe others. A woodland species, found occasionally in the 
New Forest, Hants. 

Fringe-tailed Bat (V7. Nattereri).— Fur brown above, whitish 
beneath. Length, to the tail, nearly 2 inches; extent UJ) inches, 
Ears oblong-oval, about as long as the head; tragus narrow-lanceo- 
late, nearly two-thirds the length of the ear; interfemoral membrane 
with the margin crenate and stiffly ciliated, from the end of the spur 
or calcaneum to the tail, Has been met with in several parts of the 
country. 

Notch-eared Bat (V’. emarginatus, Geof., not of Jenyns).—The fur 
reddish-grey above, ash-coloured beneath. Length of the head and 
body two inches; extent 9 inches. The ears oblong, as long as the 
head, with a notch and a small lobe on the outer margin; tragus awl- 
shaped, a little curved outward, more than half the length of the ear. 
One was killed near Dover. 

Daubenton’s Bat (V. Danbentonii,—emarginatus of Jenyns).—Fur 
soft, plentiful, brownish-black at the base; the surface greyish-red 
above, ash-grey bexeath. Length of the head and body 2 inches ; 
extent9 inches. The ears oval, three-fourths the length of the head, 
very slightly notched on the outer margin, with a fold on the inner 
margin at the base; tragus narrow-lanceolate, rather obtuse, bending 
a little inward, half the length of the ear; tail longer than the body. 
Has been taken in several localities, and flies rapidly near the ground, 
or over stagnant water. 

Whiskered Bat (/. mystacinus).—Fur blackish-chestnut above, 
dusky beneath ; the upper lip furnished with a moustache of long fine 
hair. Length of the head and body 154 inch ; extent 8iginches. Ears 
oblong, bending outward, shorter than the head, notched on the outer 
margin; the tragus half the length of the ear, lanceolate, a little ex- 
panded at the outer margin near the base. Has also occurred in 
different parts of the country. 

The above characters are chiefly compiled from Bell’s British Quad- 
rupeds, where figures and minute descriptions are given of each of 
them, together with full-sized representations of theirheads. tury 
be remarked that only the last five are retained in Vespertilio by Mr. 
Gray, the others being included in his Scotophilus.—Ep, 


CARNARIA 75 


M. Geoffroy also separates from the Bats 


THE OREILLARDS (Plecotus),— 


Which have the ears longer than the head, and joined above the cranium, as in the Megaderms, 
Rhinopomes, &e. Their tragus is large and lanceolate, and there is an operculum to their auditory 
orifice. 


Fig, 18.—Kars or Plecotus auritus, 


The common species (Vesp. auritus, Lin.) is still more 
abundant in France than any of the Bats [and is equally 
plentiful in England], inhabiting houses, kitchens, &c. Its 
ears (fig. 18) are nearly as long as its body [more than double 
the length of the head; yet, when reposing (as shown in 
fig. 19), they are folded so as to be out of sight. Its peculiar 
shuffling gait, with the head raised, is different from that of 
the Bats with short ears; and it may be tamed to hover around 
with familiarity, and alight upon the hand for insect food. 
The Pl. brevimanus, Jenyns, is merely the young; but there 
are several exotic species.] We have also another, discovered by Daubenton, with much shorter ears, [now 
forming the equivalent division 


Fig. 19.—Plecotus auritus, 


BARBASTELLE (Barbastellus, Gray)— 


The ears of which are moderate, united at base; and there is a hollowed naked space on the upper 
surface of the muzzle, in 
which the nostrils are situ- 
ated; but one pair of false 
molars to each jaw. 

B. Daubentonii, Bell, (fig. 
20,) is the only ascertained 
species. It is of rare occur- 
rence in Britain, and measures 
103 inches in extent of wing.} 

Finally, Nycticeus*, Ra 
fin., [ Scotophilus, Leach, 
Pipistrellus, Bonap.], with Fig. 20.—Barbastellus Dau e toni. 
ears of medium size, and the simple muzzle of the Bats, has only two incisors to the upper jaw 
[which are widely separated, and close to the canines.] It does not otherwise differ from Vespertil o. 


The known species are from North America, [but others have since been discovered in the ancient continent, 
as N. Heathii, Horsf., from India, and another from Java. Mr. Gray, indeed, includes most of the European Bats 
in his Scotophilus ; but Temminck, who rejects Pleeotus even, suggests, and I think with reason, that the present 
also is a superfluous division, based on insuflicient characters. The Oreillards and Barbastelles are subordinate 
to Vespertilio, also Furia, F. Cuv., (Furipterus, Bonap.) which has the tail partly cartilaginous, Natalus, Gray, 
wherein the heel-bone extends the whole length of the interfemoral membrane ; Romicius, Gray, and Miniopterus, 
Bonap. Atalapha, Rafin., is said to have no incisors, Hypexodon, Rafin., to have incisors (of the usual number, 
six) in the lower jaw only ; Lasiurus has been applied to a small group with the interfemoral membrane hairy ; 
and, lastly, Pachyotus and Nyctalus, Bowditch, are divisions of no value whatever. It is to be regretted that 
naturalists cannot occupy their time more profitably than in coining supernumerary names. 


* Sometimes written Nycticejus.—Ep. 


76 MAMMALIA. 


Many of the foregoing animals fly with their young invo.ved in the interfemoral membrane. The 
extremity of the tail in some is slightly prehensile. 


We would remark, here, that the order Primaria, indicated at p. 43, resolves into two 
primary sections, of which the second is constituted by the Cheiroptera, as opposed to the 
remainder, or the Bimana and Quadrumana of Cuvier. We regard the Cheiroptera as 
divisible into two groups only of the value of families, namely, Pteropide, comprising the 
frugivorous genera, and Vespertilionide, comprehending all the remainder, which may pro- 
bably be reduced to seven or eight primary divisions. The remains of insectivorous Cheiroptera 
have been detected in the European tertiary deposits. |* 


THE Cotveos (Galeopithecus, Pallas)— 


Differ generically from the Bats in having their fingers, which are armed with trenchant nails, no 
longer than the toes, so that the membrane which occupies their intervals, and extends to the sides of 
the tail, can only officiate as a parachute. Their canines are dentelated, and as short as the molars. 
They have two [four] dentclated incisors above, very widely apart; six below‘, split into narrow 
strips like a comb, a structure altogether pe- 
culiar. These animals live on the trees in the 
Indian archipelago, and pursue insects, and per- 
haps birds; to judge from the detrition which 
their teeth experience with age, they would ap- 
pear to subsist also upon fruits. They have a 
large coecum. 


» [This remarkable genus accords chiefly with the 

~ Bats in the adaptive structure of its hind extremities, 
and in the tail being completely attached to interfe- 
moral membrane: the molars, also, are sharply tuber- 
culated, implying an insectivorous regimen, at least 
in part ; but this character is common to several Strep- 
sirrhini: there is also a tendency to an opposable 
power in both the fore and hind thumbs. The 
general anatomy agrees very closely with that of the 
Lemurs; one marked feature in which it differs from 
the Bats is, the presence of a large ccecum, as intimated 
by Cuvier. The orbits of the skull, though raised, 
are much less approximated than in the Lemurs, and 
incomplete ; in which respect this genus chiefly devi- 
ates from the type of the Quadrumana. A parachute 
membrane occurs, likewise, among the Squirrels and 
Phalangers, only not extending to the tail, as in the 
present instance; this, therefore,is merely an adaptive 
character of minor importance. Linneus designated 
the only species he knew Lemur volans. 

“Two species,”’ remarks Temminck, “are strongly 
characterized by their osteology ;”? which may be pre- 
sumed to be those provisionally named by Waterhouse 

G. Temminckii, and G. philippinensis, both of which are extremely variable in colour. The former is more exten- 
sively diffused, and superior in its linear dimensions, but with smaller hands and ears ; its teeth are separated by 
intervals, and the parietal ridges of the cranium are widely apart: in the latter there are no interspaces between 
the teeth, which are much stouter and broader; the jaw is accordingly much stronger, and to impart ad- 
ditional vigour to the muscles which operate upon it, the parietal ridges, to which they are attached, almost meet 
on the occiput. They inhabit lofty trees in dark woods ; to which they cling with all four extremities, and traverse 
easily by means of their strong and extremely compressed, very hitching claws; they also leap and float a dis- 
tance of a hundred yards in an inclined plane, supported by the membrane. ‘They are very inoffensive animals, 
subsisting in part on the leaves of the nanka, or jack-fruit ; and when captured, do not attempt to bite, as has often 


Fig. 21.—Galmopitheous Temminckii. 


* Our plan only permitting us to class those animals the characters 
of which we have personally ascertained, or from very complete 
descriptions and figures, we have been obliged to omit several genera 
of MM. Rafinesque, Leach, &c.; and may here observe that there is 
no group of animals which stands more in need of revision than 


that of the Bats—a revision from Nature, and not from compilation. 
(Their mutual affinities particularly require elucidation. } 
+ Analogy with the Lemurs intimates that the exterior of these 
| represent the canines.—Ep. 


CARNARIA. v4 


been remarked on cutting down the tree to which one was clinging, and seizing it before it could extricate itselr 
from the branches. They produce generally two young at a birth; and their cry resembles the low cackle of a 
Goose. ] 


All the other Carnaria have the mammee situated on the belly. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF CARNARIA,— 


INSECTIVORA,— 


Possess, like the Cheiroptera, grinders beset with conical pomts, and generally lead a nocturnal 
or subterraneous life : they subsist principally on insects, and in cold countries most of them 
pass the winter in a torpid state. They have no lateral membranes, as in the Cheiroptera ; 
but the clavicles are never absent: their feet are short, and their movements feeble*; the 
mammee are placed under the abdomen, and the penis in a sheath. None of them have a 
ccecum, and in running they all place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground. 

They differ in the relative proportions and position of their incisors and canines. 

Some have long incisors in front, followed by other incisors [along the sides of their narrow 
jaws], and canines, all shorter even than the molars; a kind of dentition, of which the Mal- 
mags, among the Quadrumana, have already afforded an example, and which somewhat 
approximates these animals to the Rodents: others have large separated canines, between 
which are placed small incisors, being the ordinary disposition of these teeth both in the Quad- 
rumana and Carnaria ; and these two systems of dental arrangement occur in genera other- 
wise very similar in the character of their teguments, im the form of their limbs, and mode 
of life. 

[It is in this group that we are led to identify the canine tooth as simply the first of the 
false molars, which in some has two fangs ; and, as in the Lemurs, to perceive that the second 
in the lower jaw is m some more analogous in size and character to an ordinary canine, than 
that which follows the incisors. The incisor teeth are never more than six in number, which 
is the maximum throughout placental Mammalia (as opposed to marsupial); and, in several 
instances, one or two pairs are deficientt: the canines, with the succeeding false molars, are 
extremely variable}; but there are ordinarily three tuberculated molars posterior to the repre- 
sentative of the carnivorous or cutting grinder of the true Carnivora. The snout in the 
Insectivora is generally elongated. | 


Tue Urcuins, or Hepcenoes (Erinaceus, Lin.) — 


Have the body covered with prickles instead of hairs. The skin of the back is furnished with such 
muscles that the animal, by inclining its head and feet towards the belly, is enabled to inclose itself as 
in a purse, presenting only its spines towards an enemy. ‘Their tail is very short, and their feet have 
each five toes. They possess on each jaw six incisors, of which the middle are the longest; and on 
either side three false molars, three bristled true molars, and a small tuberculous tooth. 


The European Urchin (£. Europeus, Lin).—A well known species, common in the woods and hedges. It sub- 
sists chiefly on insects, but also feeds partly upon fruit, by which at a certain age its teeth become worn: passes 
the winter in its burrow, whence it issues in the spring with an amplitude and complication of its vesicule semi- 
nales that is almost incredible. [It produces a variable number of young, sometimes six or seven, which are 
born with their eyes closed, and, what is remarkable, their ears also: their prickles are then thin, and few in 
number, white, and at first flexile and disposed backward ; but they soon harden on exposure. The adults remain 
concealed till the evening, when they run about in search of prey, with an omnivorous appetite; they devour 
Toads, and have been known to destroy leverets.] Pallas has noticed as an interesting fact, that the Urchin eats 
hundreds of Cantharides without experiencing any ill effect, whereas a single one produces horrible agony in a 
Dog or Cat. 

(Ten other species are now known, distributed over Asia and Africa, but not Madagascar. Some are of smali 
size, and others have the ears considerably enlarged. 


* In Macroschelides, the hind feet are lengthened, and announce ) this genus, appear, in Solenodon and Myogalea, of small size, between 


agility ; while the Banxrings are said to be as lively as a Squirrel.—Ep. the representatives of the long dentelated incisors of Sorer. 
+ The forked incisors of the Shrews appear each to represent two t Ic should be remarked that a single tooth with two fangs is often 
teeth; and the analogues of the inferior central incisors, wanting in represented by two separate teeth, each with one fang. 


"3 MAMMALIA. 


Tue SoxinaH (Echinops, Martin)— 
Is a Madagascar animal, which differs chiefly from the Urchins in its dentition, having but four upper 
incisors, of which the medial are large, and placed before the others; the superior canines (or what 
may be designated as such) are tuberculated behind; there are five molars in all to each side of the 
upper jaw, longitudinally very short, but broad, a groove passing continuously along their crowns : two 
small lower canines, three inferior false molars inclining forward, and four true molars obtusely 
tuberculated. 

E. Tel/airi, Mart., is the only ascertained species ; and the form may be regarded as subordinate to Erinaceus.] 


Tue Tenrecs (Centenes, Mliger)— 


Have the body covered with spines, like the Urchins [but more slender and bristle-like] ; they do not, 
however, possess the faculty of rolling themselves so completely into a ball: they have no tail; their 
muzzle is very pointed, and their teeth are very different. On each jaw are from four to six incisors, 
and two large canines: next follow one or two small teeth, and four triangular molars with sharply 
tuberculated crowns. They are natives of Madagascar, one species having been naturalized in the 
Mauritius: are also nocturnal animals, which pass three months of the year in a state of lethargy, 
although inhabiting the torrid zone. Brugiere even asserts that it is during the greatest heats that 
they become torpid. : 


[Three if not four species have been ascertained ; one of which, the Tendrac of Buffon (Erinaceus setosus, Lin.), 
with six incisors to each jaw, composes the Ericulus of Is. Geoffroy. 


The foregoing genera have little or no tail, whereas the following have very long tails. ] 


Tur Gymnures (Gymnura, Vig. and Horsf. [Echinosorex, Blain.] )— 


“ Appear to approach the Banxring in dentition, and the Shrews by the pointed muzzle and scaly tail. 
There are five unguiculated toes to each foot, and tolerably stiff {almost spinous] bristles growing 
among woolly hair, [resembling the close fur of the Shrews.] It can only be properly classed when its 
anatomy is known.”* [The general aspect is that of a Tenrec, with a long, naked, and scaly tail. There 
are six incisors to each jaw, the medial above widely separated, large, and resembling canines; the 
others lateral, and successively smaller: those below are separated into two pairs, the middle ones 
being somewhat apart, and one smaller on each side. The canines are moderately large, and somewhat 
curved, those of the upper jaw having two fangs: next follow, on each jaw, two pairs of small false 
molars, succeeded by one larger above, and two below ; and the true molars are four in number above 
and three below, square, and tuberculated as in the Urchin. 


The only known species (G. Raffesii) inhabits Sumatra, and is larger than the Urchin of Europe. 


The various preceding genera have small but not minute eyes. 


Tue Macroscetixs (Macroscelides, Smith ; Erinomys, Blain. ; Rhynomys, Lichst.)— 


Compose a well-marked genus, somewhat resembling the Shrews, but with large eyes and more elong- 
ated hind-feet: their fur is long and soft, and of very fine texture. They have six (lateral) incisors to 
each jaw, minute canines, and on either side five sharply tuberculated molars. Their habits are 
diurnal, and they retreat into burrows or beneath stones on apprehension of danger. 


Eight species are known, all from South Africa except one, which inhabits Algiers. They are called Elephant 
Mice in the Cape Colony.] 


Tue Banxrines (Tupaia, Raff.; Cladobates, Fr. Cuv. [Glisorea, Diard. ; Hylogale, Tem.] ),— 


A genus lately characterized, from the Indian Archipelago, the teeth of which bear some resemblance 
to those of the Urchins, only that their middle superior incisors are proportionally shorter, and there 
are four to the lowex jaw, more elongated, [and projecting forwards as in the Lemurs]; they also [do 
not] want the tuberculous tooth behind. These animals are covered with hair [soft and glistening, but 
not fine in texture], and have a long bushy tail; and, contrary to the habits of other Insectivora, 
they ascend trees with the agility of a Squirrel, but their pointed muzzle renders them easily distin- 


** From the Appendix to the author's edition.—Ep. 


CARNARIA. 79 


guishable, even at a distance. [The general form is not unlike that of the Marsapial genus Myrme- 
cobius : and the bony orbits of the cranium are sometimes complete.  - 


Three species are known, the T. ¢ana, sumatrana, and ferruginea, all of which are well characterized by differ- 
ences in the conformation of the cranium, in addition to external distinctions; they inhabit trees, and are lively 
and active animals.* 


All the remaining genera have minute eyes. ] 


Tse Sarews (Sorex, Lin.)— 


Are generally small, and covered with [soft] hair. Under this, on each flank, there is a band of stiff, 
closely-set bristles, from between which, during the rutting season, exudes an odorous fluid, the produet 
of a peculiar gland. Their two middle superior incisors are hooked, and dentated at the base; the 
lower ones slanting and elongated: five small teeth follow on each side the first, and only two the 
second. There are besides, on each jaw, three bristled molars, and finally on the upper one a small 
tuberculous tooth. These animals retire to holes they burrow in the ground, which they scarcely 
leave till towards the evening, and subsist on worms and insects. 


[We have observed them to be much about during the day, under shelter of close herbage, where their sibilant 
and insect-like cry notifies their presence, and have occasionally seen them venture forth from cover when all was 
quiet.— M. Duvernoy discovered that their incisors occupy, from the first, the position they maintain in after-life, 
but are enveloped for a while by the periosteum or investing membrane of the bone to which they are attached, 
through which the larger protrude some time before the others: he accordingly infers that these animals have no 
milk-teeth. The same naturalist divides this genus into 

1. Sorex, Duv. (Crocidura, Wagl.; including Myosorex, Gray); wherein the edge of the long inferior incisors is 
unserrated ; that of the upper notched, or with the spur appearing as a point behind; the small lateral teeth which 
follow are three or four in number, and diminish rapidly in size from the first to the last; none of the teeth being 
coloured. The ears are conspicuously developed, and the tail has always longer and coarser hairs mingled with 
the ordinary short ones. This group, which is very distinct, comprises all the numerous extra-European species, 
together with three (S. araneus, Geoff., S. Etruscus, Savi, and S. leucodon, Herm.) which are met with on this con- 
tinent. None occur in the British islands. QOne of the most remarkable is S. giganteus, Is. Geof., from dia, 
which approaches in size to the Black Rat, and has a follicle on each side, producing a pungent musky secretion. 

The remainder have the ears buried in the fur, and consequently inconspicuous. ‘ 

2. Amphisorex, Duv. (Corsira, Gray.)—Incisors of the lower jaw with the edge dentelated ; those of the upper 
forked, the spur behind prolonged to a level with the point in front: the lateral small teeth which follow five in 
number, and diminishing gradually in size: all the teeth more or less coloured at the tips. The British species 
have till very recently been confounded together under the name araneus, which pertains to a continental mem- 
ber of the preceding division.+ 

3. Hydrosorex, Duv. (Amphisorex and Crossopus, Gray.)—The inferior incisors with an entire edge; the upper 
notched, or with a spur appearing as a point behind: the lateral teeth which follow in the upper jaw four 
in number; the first two equal, the third somewhat smaller, and the fourth rudimentary: tips of all the teeth a 
little coloured. This division, which comprises the aquatic species, is less distinct from the second than both are 
from the first. Crossopus of Gray is indeed stated to have the lower incisors dentelated. The British species 
require further elucidation.§ 

The Shrews compose an exceedingly numerous genus, the first section of which appears to be almost generally 
diffused. They renew their covering both in spring and autumn, acquiring a longer and less glossy winter coat; 
and the mode of effecting this is rather peculiar, the change commencing at the head and proceeding backward, 
preserving a distinct cross line of demarcation throughout its progress. These animals are often found dead on 
foot-paths, and dry ditches, on spots devoid of herbage, the cause of which remains to be explained. 


* It is remarkable that the Squirrels of the same region have very , marshy districts, though not confined to them. 


similar fur, both in colour and texture. 

+ The common Shrike (Lanius collurio) preys much upon our native 
species.—Ep. 

t Mr. Jenyns distinguishes them as follows: allare of a reddish- 
brown colour. 

The Comnon Shrew (4. rusticus, Jenyns).—Snout and feet slender : 
tail moderately stout, nearly cylindrical, not attenuated at the tip, 
well clothed with hairs, which are very divergent in the young state, 
and never closely appressed. It appears principally to frequent dry 
situations—gardens, hedge-banks, &c. 

Irish Shrew (4. hibernicus, Jenyns).—Admitted as a species duubt- 
fully, until more specimens have been examined. Itis allied to but 
apparently smaller than the last, with the colours more uniform, and 
tail shorter and more slender. 

Square-tailed Shrew (4. tetragonurus, Herm.)—The snout broad, 
compared with that of the common Shrew: feet, the fore especially, 
much larger; the tail slender, more quadrangular at all ages, and 
slightly attenuated at the tip; clothed with closely appressed hairs in 
the young state, in age nearly naked: upper parts very deep reddish 
brown ; below, dirty yellowish-grey. This species is more attached to 


Chestnut Shrew (4. castaneus, Jenyns).—Snout and feet much as 
in the last species, but the former rather more attenuated ; tail mo- 
derately short, nearly round, well clothed with hairs, which form at 
the extremity a long pencil : upper parts, as well as the snout, feet, 
and tail, bright chestnut; under parts ash-grey. The cranium is 
broader posteriorly and rather more elevated in the crown than in 
A, tetragonurus. It inhabits the same marshy districts. 

§ Mr. Jenyns distinguishes the 

H, fodiens, Gm.—Of a deep brownish-black above, nearly white 
beneath; the two colours distinctly separated on the sides: feet and 
tail ciliated with white hairs. It inhabits marshes and banks in 
ditches, but is occasionally met with at a distance from water. It 
often seeks its prey at the bottom of pools under water, thus approxi- 
mating in habit to the Desmans. 

S.ciliatus,Sowerby (remifer of Yarrell, and doubtfully of Geoffroy). 
Black above ; geeyish-black beneath; throat yellowish-ash colour : 
feet and tail strongly ciliated with greyish hairs. Is found in the 
same situations as the preceding. 

There is reason to suspect others, one or more marked with rufous 
on the under parts having been indicated by observers.—E pb. 


80 MAMMALIA. 


Tue Sotenopon (Solenodon, Brandt)— 


Resembles a gigantic Shrew, but with coarse fur, and proportionally much longer whiskers: the tail is 
long, naked, and scaly, and the claws considerably more developed. There are six incisors to each 
jaw, the first pair above, and the second pair below, very large, and resembling canines; two superior 
false molars, and three inferior, on each side; then five true molars above, and four below, subquad- 
rate, and broad or transverse. 


The species, S. paradoxus, Brandt, inhabits Hayti, and is larger than the Brown Rat. | 


Tue Desmans (Mygale*, Cuv.)— 


Differ from the Shrews by having [like the Solenodon] two very small teeth placed between the two 
large inferior incisors, and in their upper incisors, which are flattened and triangular. Behind these 
incisors are six or seven small teeth, and four bristled molars. Their muzzle is elongated into a small, 
very flexible proboscis, which is constantly in motion. Their long tail, scaly and flattened at the sides, 
and their feet with five toes all connected by membrane, proclaim them to be aquatic animals. Their 
eyes are very small, [the fur long, straight, and divergent,] and they have no external ears. 

The Russian Desman (Sorex moschatus, Lin)—Nearly equal in size to the common Urchin; blackish above, 
inclining to white beneath ; the tail one fourth shorter than the body. It is very common along the rivers and lakes 
of Southern Russia, where it feeds on worms, the larve of insects, and particularly on Leeches, which it easily with- 
draws from the mud by means of its flexible proboscis. Its burrow, excavated in a bank, commences under water, 
and ascends to above the level of the highest floods. This animal never comes voluntarily on shore, but is taken 
very often in the nets of the fishermen. Its musky odour arises from a kind of pomatum secreted in small follicles 
under the tail, and is even communicated to the flesh of Pike which devour the Desman. 

There is found in the streamlets of the Pyrenees a smaller species of this genus, which has the tail longer than 
its body (Myg. pyrenaica, H.) [This constitutes the division Mygalina of Isidore Geoffroy. 


The rest of the Jnsectivora have amazingly powerful fore-feet, designed for tearing open the ground, 
rather than for burrowing by merely scratching away the mould, as in the preceding genera. ] 


Tue Curysocutores (Chrysocloris, Lacepede),— 


Like the preceding genus, possess two incisors above and four below; but their grinders are elevated, 
distinct, and nearly all in the form of triangular prisms: the muzzle is short, broad, and recurved ; and 
their fore-feet have only three nails, of which the exterior is very large, much arcuated, and pointed, 
forming a powerful instrument for digging and burrowing into the soil; the others successively decrease 
in size. Their hind limbs have five toes of the ordinary dimensions. They are subterraneous animals, 
whose mode of life is similar to that of the Moles. To enable them to dig the better, their fore-arm 
is supported by a third bone placed under the cubitus. 

The Cape Chrysochlore (Talpa asiatica, Lin. [now better known as C. capensis, Desm.) ].—Rather smaller than 
our Moles, without apparent tail. It is the only known quadruped which presents any appearance of those splendid 
metallic reflections which adorn so many birds, fishes, and insects. Its fur is of a green, changing to copper or 


bronze: the ears have no conch, and the eyes are not perceptible.t It inhabits Africa, and not Siberia, as falsely 
reported. [There are three others, C. Hottentota, Damarensis, and villosa, all from the same general locality. ] 


Tue Motes (Talpa, Lin.)\— 
Are well known for their subterraneous life, and for their structure eminently qualified in adaptation to 
it. A very short arm, attached to a large shoulder-blade, supported by a stout clavicle, and provided 
with enormous muscles, sustains an extremely large hand, the palm of which is always directed either 
outwards or backwards : the lower edge of this hand is trenchant, and the fingers scarcely perceptible, 
but the nails which terminate them are long, flat, strong, and sharp. Such is the instrument which 
the Mole employs to tear open the ground, and throw back the mould behind it. Its sternum possesses, 
in common with that of Birds and Bats, a ridge which allows the pectoral muscles to attain the mag- 
nitude requisite for the performance of their functions. To pierce and raise up the ground, it makes 


* This name being preoccupied by a genus of Spiders, Fischer has 
altered it to Myogalea.—Ep. 

+ The Red Mole of America, Sebal. pl. xxxii. fig. 1, (Talpa rubra, 
Lin.), is most probably a Cape Chrysochlore, figured from a dried spe- 
cimen, for then the fur appears purple. [It is more likely the Scalops 


canadensis.) But the Tucan of Fernandez, regarded as one of its 
synonymes, appears rather, to judge from its two long teeth to each 
jaw, and vegetable regimen, to be some subterrancous rodent, perhaps 
a Diplostoma, 


CARNARIA. 81 


use of its long, pointed head, the extremity of its muzzle being provided with a peculiar little bone, and 
the cervical muscles being extremely powerful. There is even an additional bone in the cervical liga- 
ment. The hinder part of the body is feeble, and the animal above ground advances as awkwardly as 
it does rapidly below the surface. Its sense of hearing is extremely acute, and the tympanum very 
large, although there is no external ear; but the eyes are so small, and so hidden beneath the hair, 
that their existence even was denied for a long while. [They have been ascertained, however, to be 
tolerably sharp-sighted.] The genital organs have this peculiarity, that the bones of the pubis do not 
become joined; by reason of which, notwithstanding the narrowness of the pelvis, they are enabled to 
produce tolerably large young ones: the urethra of the female passes through the clitoris: she has 
six teats. The jaws are feeble, and the food consists of insects, worms, and some tender roots, [chiefly, 
however, worms, though even small birds are sometimes sacrificed to their voracity, when they can 
dart upon them from the entrance of their runs]. There are six incisors above and eight below.* The 
canines have two roots, in which respect they partake of the nature of false molars +: behind them are 
four false molars above, and three below ; and finally, three bristled molars. [The fur is set vertically 
in the skin, whence it has no grain or particular direction. ] 


Our common European Mole (T. Europea, Lin.)—Entirely black, but often varying to white, fulvous, or pied. 
[A most remarkable animal, not only for the ardour of its passions, appetites, and emotions, but for the curious 
instincts with which it isendowed, more particularly with regard to the complicated regularity of its subterraneous 
dwelling and galleries.] According to M. Harlan, this species likewise exists in North America [or, at any rate, 
there is a species stated to be from that continent most closely allied to it, of which the Zoological Society of 


London possess specimens. } 
M. Savi has found a Molein the Apennines said to be quite blind, although otherwise similar to the common one 


(the T. ceca, Sav.): it is not, however, perfectly blind, for the eyelids haye an opening, though smaller than in the 
common Mole. The existence of the optic nerve in this Jast species has been denied: I think I can demonstrate 
it throughout its course. [Two other species are known, 7. japonica and T. moogura. | 


Tue ConpyLures (Condylura, Mlig.),— 
Seem to combine the two kinds of dentition of the /usectivora: their upper jaw has two large trian- 
gular incisors, two others which are extremely small and slender, and upon each side a strong canine ; 
the lower jaw has four incisors slanting forward, and a pointed canine of small size. Their superior 
false molars are triangular, and separated ; the lower dentelated and trenchant. In their feet and whole 
exterior, the animals of this genus resemble the Moles, but have a longer tail, and, what very readily 
distinguishes them, their nostrils are encircled with small moveable cartilaginous points, which, when 
they separate, radiate like a star. 
[Three or four species are now known, ail from North America. Among them is] Sovew cristatus, Lin. 


THE SHREW-MOLES (Scalops, Cuy.)— 

Have teeth rather similar to those of the Desmans, except that their small or false molars are less 
numerous ; the muzzle is simply pointed, as in the Shrews; and their hands are widened, armed with 
strong nails, and in short adapted for digging into the ground precisely as in the Moles, which they 
entirely resemble in their mode of life. Their eyes are equally small, and their ears concealed in the 
same manner. 

Sorex aquaticus, Lin.—Appears to inhabit a very great part of North America, along the rivers: externally, it 
so nearly resembles the European Mole as to be readily mistaken for it. [Three other species, from the same 
general locality, have been recently discovered. 


The Insectivora, according to the views of De Blaimville, should constitute an entirely 
distinct order, intermediate to the Cheiroptera and Edentata. 

They present an almost unbroken series of successively distinct divisions, more or less allied 
together. The most definite super-generic section is that composed of the four genera last in 
order, or the various animals analogous to the European Mole. At the other end of the series, 
the spinous genera, at first sight, appear equally separated ; but they certainly grade through 
Centenes and then Gymnura to the Shrews, which are again related to the Tualpide ; if, indeed, 
the line of separation should not be drawn between Centenes, and Erinaceus and Echinops : the 


* Were this truly the case, it would be an anomaly throughout pla incisors as the real canines.—Ep. 


cental Mammalia: but as the lower canines, as thus assigned, close 
within the upper, we are led to identify the exterior pitir of seeming | See p. 77.—Ep. 


+ There is no essential difference between canines and false molars. 


a a as 
oe a ee ee 


82 MAMMALIA. 


different generic groups, however, maintain their integrity. Macroscelides and Vupaia are the 
least conformable withthe others; but neither are these much removed in their more essential 
characters. As a whole, they compose a very natural and appreciable division, and our author 
assigns them a rank equivalent to the CHEIROPTERA on the one hand, and to the Carnt- 
VORA, comprising his Pliantigrada, Digitigrada, and Amphibia, on the other. 

Remains of three species of Sorex, one of Talpa, and one of Erinaceus, have been found in 
the European Tertiary deposits, apparently referable to species still in existence. ‘The present 
range of the division does not extend to South America* nor Australia, where, however, it 
appears to be adequately represented by the numerous small Marsupiata, peculiar to those 
regions; a curious fact, first noticed by Waterhcuse, and since by De Blainville. ] 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF CARNARIA. 


CARNIVORA. 


Although the designation carnivorous is applicable to all unguiculated Manwalia, except 
the Quadrumana, which have three sorts of teeth, inasmuch as they all subsist more or less on 
animal matter, there are nevertheless many, more especially of the two preceding families, 
which are reduced by the feebleness and the conical tubercles of their grmders to prey almost 
entirely on insects. In the present family, the sanguinary appetite is combined with the force 
necessary for its gratification. There are always four stout and long separated canines, 
between which are six incisors to each jaw, of which the second inferior are inserted a little 
more inward than the rest. The molars are either wholly cutting, or have some blunted 
tuberculous parts, but they are never studded with sharp conical projections. 

These animals are the more exclusively carnivorous, in proportion as their teeth are more 
completely trenchant or cutting, so that the degree of admixture of their regimen may be 
almost calculated from the extent of the tuberculous surface of their teeth, as compared with 
the cutting portion. The Bears, which can hye altogether on vegetables, have nearly all their 
teeth tuberculated. 

The anterior molars are the most trenchant; next follows a molar, larger than the others, 
which has usually a tuberculous projection, differmg in size; and then follow one or two 
smaller teeth, that are entirely flat. It is with these small hindward teeth that the Dog chews 
the herbage that he sometimes swallows. We will call, with M. F. Cuvier, this large upper 
molar, and its corresponding one below, carnivorous teeth ; the anterior poimted ones, false 
molars, and the posterior blunt ones, tuberculous molars. 

It is easy to conceive that the genera which have fewer false molars, and of which the jaws 
are shorter, are consequently better adapted for biting. 

Upon these differences the genera can be most surely established. 

The consideration of the hind-foot, however, must also be attended to. 

Several genera, like those of the two preceding families, m walking, place the whole sole of the 
foot on the ground, a circumstance [generally | indicated by the absence of hair on all that part. 

Others, and by far the greater number, rest on only the ends of the toes, elevating the tarse. 
Their gait is more rapid, and to this primary difference are added many others of habit, and 
even of internal conformation. In both, the clavicle is a mere bony rudiment suspended in 
the muscles. 

THE PLANTIGRADA 
Constitute this first tribe, which walk on the whole sole of the foot, a circumstance which gives 
them greater facility of standing upright upon their hind-feet. They partake of the slowness 


with hair: the same is observable in some Martens, while others of 
this genus have the sole altogether naked.—Ep. 


* Sorea tristriatus of some of the old authors is a true Didelphis. 


—Ep. 
+ In the Polar Bear, and Panda, the sole is completely covered 


BEARS. 


SLL 


AAA 


at 


CARNARIA 83 


and nocturnal life of the Insectivora, and, like them, have no ececum: most of those which 
inhabit cold countries pass the winter in a state of lethargy. All have five toes to each foot. 


Tae Bears (Ursus, Lin.)— 


Possess three large molars on each side of both jaws*, altogether tuberculous, and of which the poste- 
rior above are the most extended. These are preceded by a tooth a little more trenchant, which is the 
carnivorous tooth of this genus, and by a variable number of very small false molars, which sometimes 
fall at an early age. This system of dentition, almost frugivorous, explains why, notwithstanding their 
great strength, the animals of this genus devour flesh only from necessity. 

They are large stout-bodied animals, with thick limbs, and tail extremely short: the cartilage of their 
nose is elongated and moveable. They excavate dens and construct huts [?], where they pass the 
winter in a state of somnolency more or less profound, and without taking fuod. It is in these retreats 
that the female brings forth. 


The species are not easily distinguished by obyions characters. 

The Brown Bear (U. arctos, Lin.) of Europe, has the forehead convex : fur, brown, more or less woolly when 
young, becoming smoother with age. It varies, however, considerably in colour, and also in the relative propor- 
tion of parts: the young have generally a pale collar, which in some is permanent. This animal inhabits the 
high mountains and extensive forests of Europe, together with a great part of Asia. [The Barren-ground Bear of 
North America appears to be undistinguishable. ] 
It couples in June, and brings forth in January ; 
nestles sometimes very high up in trees: its flesh 
is good eating when young, and the paws are much 
esteemed at allages. [The Black Bear of Europe 
is now generally regarded as a mere variety. ] 

The Black Bear (U. americanus, Gm.) of North 
America, is a species well distinguished, with a 
flat forehead, smooth and black fur, and fulvous 
muzzle. We have always found the small teeth 
behind its canines to be more numerous than in 
the Bear of Europe. It lives chiefly on wild fruits, 
and where fish is abundant sometimes frequents 
the shores for the purpose of catching it; resorts 
to flesh only in default of other food, [and is then 
destructive to Pigs ; is a great devourer of honey, 
in common with most others of the genus]: its 
flesh is highly esteemed. There is another Black 
Bear found in the Cordilleras, with white throat 

Fig. 24-—The Black Bear. and muzzle, and large fulvous eye-brows (U. or- 
natus, F. Cuv.), [considered by many to be a variety of U. americanus. The Jardin des Plantes, however, has lately 
received a Bear from the Peruvian Andes, which appears very distinct : colour of U. arctos, with larger ears. 

The gigantic Grisly Bear (U. ferox), now a well-known species, from the Rocky Mountains of North America, is 
the most formidable of all the land Bears, and by much the largest. It can only ascend trees, as the others do, 
when young. It constitutes the ill-characterized subgenus Danis of Gray. 

The Syrian Bear (U. syriacus) is of a fulvous white colour, with a stiff mane uf close erected hairs be- 
tween the shoulders. The species which inhabits the Atlas chain of mountains remains to be ascertained. } 

The East Indies produce several Bears of a black colour; such as 

The Malayan Bear (U. malayanus) ; from the peninsula beyond the Ganges to the islands of the Straits of Sunda. 
—Sleek [with comparatively short fur], a fulvous muzzle, and heart-shaped mark of the same colour upon the chest. 
(This, and another species, or perhaps variety, (U. euryspilus,) with the whole chest fulyous, from Borneo, consti- 
tute the division Helarctos of Horsfield, or the Sun Bears. They are small, and of very gentle and playful dispo- 
sition, easily rendered quite tame.] It is very injurious to the cocoa-nut trees, which it climbs in order to devour 
the tops, and drink the milk of the fruit. 

The Thibet Bear (U. thibeticus, F. Cuv.)—Black ; the under lip, and a large mark in the form uf a Y on the 
breast, white; profile straight and claws weak. [Is intermediate to the preceding and next species.] From the 
mountains in the north of India. 

The most remarkable, however, of all these Indian Bears is the following, of which I[lliger forms his genus 
Prochilus. 


* We shall no longer repeat the words on each side, &c.; it being , analogical comparison of the Bear's dentition with that of proximate 
understood that where the molars of one side are spoken of, those genera, that the third tooth in succession from behind represents the 


of the other correspond. cutting Or carnivorous tooth in each jaw, there being two tuberculous 
+ Although it may seem presumptuous to attempt to set Cuvier | grinders in this and the five succeeding genera (which together coin- 
right in matters of this kind, it is nevertheless sufficiently obvious, on | pose a distinct natural group), and one only in the remainder.—Ep. 


GZ 


84 MAMMALIA. 


The Jungle Bear (U. labiatus, Blainv.: U. longirostris, Tied: Bradypus ursinus, Shaw), which has the nasal 
cartilage dilated, and the tip of the under lip elongated, both lips being moveable: when old, very long shagg 
hairs surround the head. The muzzle and tips of the paws are fulvous or whitish, and there is a half-collar 
or Y-like marking on the fore-neck and cheek. [The incisors of this species generally drop at an early 
age.] It isa favourite with the Indian jugglers 
on account of its uncouth appearance. 

M. Horsfield describes another Bear from Nipal 
of alight bay colour, the nails of which are less 
trenchant than those of the other Bears of India, 
and which appears to him a distinct species. We 
have also recovered many fossil bones of lost spe- 
cies of Bears; the most remarkable of which are 
U. speleus, Blumenb., with a rounded forehead, 
and of very large size; and U. cultridens, Cuv., for 
which see the fourth vol. of my Ossemens Fos- 
siles: [another extinct species (U. sivalensis, 
Caut. and Falc.), has been detected in the Sivalik 
deposits of the sub-Himmalayas.] Lastly, 

The Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus, Lin.), is yet 
another species, very distinctly characterized by 
its lengthened and flat head, and by its smooth 

Fig. 25.—The Jungle Bear. and white fur. It pursues Seals and other marine 

animals [on the polar ice, but in captivity will 

thrive, like the rest, on vegetable food only. It is the largest of the genus,] and exaggerated reports of its voracity 
have rendered it very celebrated. [It constitutes the Talarctos of Gray.] 


~ Tue Raccoons (Procyon, Storr.)— 


Have three tuberculous back molars [the first representing the carnivorous tooth], of which the superior 
are nearly square, and three pointed false molars before them, forming a’ continuous series to the 
canines, which are straight and compressed. Their tail is [moderately] long; but the rest of their 
exterior is that of a Bear in miniature. They rest the whole sole of their foot on the ground only 
when they are still, raising the heel when they advance. [Are peculiar to the western continent. ] 

The Common Raccoon (Ursus lotor, Lin.; Mapach of the Mexicans.)—Greyish brown; the muzzle white; a 
brown streak across the eyes: tail annulated with brown and white rings. An animal the size of a Badger, which 
is easily tamed, and remarkable for a singular instinct of eating nothing that it has not previously dipped in water. 
It is a native of North America, and subsists on eggs, birds, &c. 

The Crab-eating Raccoon (P. cancrivorus, Buff. Supp. vi. xxxii.)—Uniform ash-brown; the caudal rings less 
distinct. From South America. [Three others have been described by Prof. Wiegmann, (see Ann. Nat. Hist. 
1. 133), of which P. Hernandrii, Wagler, would appear to be dubiously separable from P. lotor.] 


Tue Panna (Ailurus, F. Cuy.)— 


Appears to approximate the Raccoons by its canines and what is known of its other teeth; except 
that it has only one false molar. ‘Gen. Hardwicke has since described it to haye four square tuberculous 
molars, and one trenchant false molar in front, at a short distance from the canine.’ The head is 
short; tail [rather] long; gait plantigrade, the toes five in number, with half-retractile nails. 


Only one is known, the Bright Panda (A. refulgens, F. Cuv.)—Size of a large Cat; the fur soft and thickly set: 
above of the richest cinnamon-red; behind more fulvous, and deep black beneath. The head is whitish, and the tail 
annulated with brown. This beautiful species, one of 
the handsomest of known quadrupeds, from the moun- 
tains of the north of India, was sent to Europe by my 
late son-in-law, M. Alfred du Vaucel. [It frequents 
the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes 


< : 
) means of its loud cry or call, which resembles the sound 
‘; wha, often repeated. The soles of its feet are hairy.] 


Ruy 
bs / 


MO 


oy) 


TurBrnturones(Jetides,Valenc.; drctictis,Tem.) 
Are also related to the Raccoons by their denti- 
tion; but the three superior back molars are 
considerably smaller, and less tuberculous, the 
last one of each jaw more particularly, which is very small and almost simple. These animals are 


Fig. 22.— \ilurus fulgens, 


CARNARIA. &5 


covered with long hair, and have a tuft at each ear. The tail is long, hairy, and has a propensity to 
eurl, as if prehensile; [which it really is: their whiskers are long and conspicuous]. 

‘They are also natives of India, for the first knowledge of which we are indebted to M. du Vaucel. One species 
(Iet. albifrons, F. Cuv.) is grey, with the tail and sides of the muzzle black; of the size of a large Cat; from 
Boutan. Another (Iect. ater, F. Cuv.) is black, with a whitish muzzle, and as large as a stout Dog; from Malacca. 
[The latter is merely the male, and the other the femaie of the same species, which is rather a slow-moving 


animal, allied to the last in habit, of a timid disposition, and easily tamed. The Ictide dorée, F. Cuy., isa 
species of Musang (Paradoxurus). | 


THE Coatimonpis (Nasua, Storr),— 


To the dentition, tail [which however is longer], nocturnal life, and slow dragging gait of the 
Raccoons, add a singularly elongated and moveable snout. Their feet are semi-palmate, notwith- 
standing which they climb trees [with great facility, and descend them head foremost, clinging by 
their hind feet, which they almost reverse]. Their long claws serve them to dig with; [and they feed 
voraciously on earth-worms, slugs and snails, also on small mammalians (which they catch adroitly), 
birds and their eggs, together with fruits and vegetables]. They inhabit the warm parts of America, 
and subsist on nearly the same food as our Martens. 

The Red Coatimondi (Viverra nasua, Lin.; N. rufa, Desm.)—Rufo-fulvous, the muzzle and caudal annulations 
brown. And the Brown Coatimondi (V. narica, Lin.; N. fusca, Desm.)—Brown, with white spots over the eye 
and snout. [These animals employ their claws to divide flesh, which they thus tear and separate before devour- 
ing it.j 

Tur Krnxasou (Cercoleptes, Mliger)— 
Can scarcely be introduced elsewhere than in this place [which is unquestionably its true posi‘ion]. 
To the plantigrade gait, it joins a very long tail, prehensile, as in the Sapajous*, a short muzzle, slender 
and extensile tongue, with two pointed grinders before, and three tuberculous ones backward, [the 
first of which latter represents the carnivorous tooth]. 

But one species is known (Viverra caudivolvula,Gm.), from the warm parts of America and some of the Great 
Antilles, where it is named Pottot: size of a Fitchet, [and larger]; the fur woolly, and of a yellowish [or golden], 


brown: nocturnal, and of a mild and gentle disposition ; subsisting on fruits, honey, milk, blood, &c. [It is emi- 
nently an arboreal quadruped, which moves with a cautious gait, recalling to mind some of the Quadrumana. 


There is a Mexican animal to which Lichtenstein has assigned the generic name Bassaris, and which 
Blainyille and others have associated with the Viverrine genera, but which I greatly suspect must 


rather be placed near the Kinkajou, though I have not at present the means of ascertaining its cha- 
racters. In form it is not unlike a Musang (Paradoxurus.) ¢ 


The remaining genera are only semi-plantigrade (that 1s, they do not bring the heel quite 
to the ground), and possess but one tuberculous grinder, which varies greatly in extent of 
surface: none of them become torpid in winter; and they all emit, when alarmed, a defensive 
odour, which in many is horribly fetid. | 


Tue Bavcers (Meles, Storr),§— 


Which Linneus placed, together with the Raccoons, in his genus of Bears, have one very small tooth 
behind the canine, then two pointed molars, followed in the upper jaw by one which we begin to 
recognize as carnivorous, from the trace of a cutting character which it exhibits on ics outer side; 
behind this is a square tuberculous tooth, the largest of the series; and, on the lower jaw, the last but 
one likewise commences to bear some resemblance to the inferior carnivorous tooth; but as there 
are two tubercles on its inward border as elevated as its cutting point, it performs the office of a 
tuberculous one; the last below is very small. [The Badger, in fact, has precisely the same den- 
tition as the Weasels and Otters, presenting a modification of that type for less carnivorous regimen. ] 
These animals have the tardy gait and nocturnal habit of all the preceding; their tail is short, [and 


* One which I had an opportunity of studying, as it ran about loose t Strong presumptive evidence that the Basset (Basscris) does not 
in a room, possessed the prehensile power of the tail in an extremely | appertain to the Viverrine group, is afforded by the restriction of the 
moderate degree, merely resting slightly on this organ, which it | geographic range of the latter to the eastern hemisphere, in every 
stiffened throughout its length, and never coiled in the manner of the | other instance. The presence or absence of a cecum would decide 
Sapajous.—Ep. the question. 

+ This term, applied by the negroes in Africa to a Lemurine animal § Taxus of some systematists : but this name is employed in Botany 


(Perodicticus), has been introduced by them, and misapplied in other | for the Yew genus.—Ep. 
countries.—Eb. 


————) 


86 MAMMALIA. 


coramonly held erect]. Their toes are much enveloped in the skin ; and, what eminently distinguishes 
them, is a pouch situate beneath the tail, 
from which exudes a fatty, fetid humour, [as 
in the Skunks, Weasels, &c., to which the 
Badgers are very closely allied]. The long 
claws of their fore-feet enable them to burrow 
with much facility. 


The European Badger (Ursus meles, Lin.; M. 
taxus, Auct.)—Greyish above, beneath black, with 
a dusky band on each side of the head. That of 
America (Mel. hudsonius [ (?) M. labradorius, Sa- 
bine; Ursus taxus, Schreb.| does not appear to 
differ essentially. [It is even generically very dis- 
tinct, pertaining to the next division. A second 
species of Badger, however, appears to me to ex- 
ist in the Balysaur of India (Arctonyx collaris, 
F. Cuv.; Mydaus collaris, Gray,) which M. F. 
Cuvier has represented much too Hog-like in 
his figure; the snout being scarcely longer than 
that of the European Badger, the fur somewhat 
coarser, and the tail (which almost reaches the ground) not so scantily covered with hair as stated.* A 
cranium figured as that of the Balysaur by Mr. Gray, in his published series of Gen. Hardwicke’s drawings, 
appears to me to indicate another species, distinguished by the long vacant interspace between the inferior canine 
and first existing molar. This genus would seem to be peculiar to the eastern continent. 


Fig. 25.—Common Badger. 


Tue Taxexs (Zavidea, Waterh.)— 


Are the reputed Badgers of America, but which present a very different cranium, and more carnivorous 


dentition: their cutting molar is increased, and the tubercular reduced, to an equal size; the latter 
having a triangular crown: skull widest at 


the occiput, where it is abruptly truncated ; 
the auditory bullae much developed; and 
articulating surface of the lower jaw ex- 
tended, but not locking as in the Badgers. 
Their claws are longer and stouter, enabling 
them to burrow with great rapidity. 


One only is clearly ascertained, the T. labra- 
doria (Ursus taxus, Schreb.) Remarkable for 
the fine quality of its fur. Dr. Richardson 
has taken a Marmot from the stomach of this 
animal. 


Tue Buarsian (Ursotaxus, Hodgson). 


Four cheek-teeth above and below, com- 
prising two superior and three inferior false 


Fig. 26.—Taxel. 


molars ; the tubercular of the upper jaw transverse, and smaller than the carnivorous tooth. General 
conformation similar to that of the Badger, but without external ears. 


But one species is known (N. énauritus, Hodg., Asiat. Res. xix. 60, and Journ. As. Soc. v. 621), from the 
vicinity of Nipal, scantily covered with coarse hair. It is completely plantigrade and fossorial, dwelling in bur- 
rows on the southern slopes of the hills, which it seldom leaves during the day.] 


Tue WotverinEs (Gulo, Storr)— 
Have also been placed in the Bear genus by Linneus; but they rather approximate the Martens in 
their dentition and general character, according only with the Bears in their plantigrade gait. They 
have three false molars above, and four below, anterior to the carnivorous tooth, which is well cha- 
racterized ; and behind this a small tubercular, which is wider than long. Their upper carnivorous 
tooth has but one small internal tubercle, so that they have nearly the same dental system as the 


* There is a figure, in Bewick’s Quadrupeds, apparently of this Tower Menagerie. The description intimates its near resemblance 
species, taken from a seemingly unhealthy individual confined in the | to the common Badger. 


eee ee ee eee ee 


CARNARIA. 87 


Martens. These animals have the tail of middle length, with a fold beneath it in place of a pouch; and 
their foot is very similar to that of a Badger. 


The most celebrated species is the Glutton of the north, Rossomak of the Russians (Ursus gulo, Lin.); size of a 
Badger, and commonly of a fine deep maroon colour, with a browner disk on the back ; but sometimes it is paler. 
It inhabits the glacial regions of the north, is reputed to be very sanguinary and ferocious, hunts by night, does 
not become torpid during the winter, and subdues the largest animals by leaping upon them from atree. Its 
voracity has been absurdly exaggerated by some authors. The Wolverine of North America (Ursus luscus, Lin.) 
does not appear to differ by any constant characters, but is generally of a paler tint. [Excepting in size and 
massiveness, I cannot perceive that this animal differs from the Martens: assuredly it does not in the structure 
of its feet.] 

Warm climates produce some species which can only be placed near the Wolverines, from which they differ merely 
in having one false molar less to each jaw, and by a longer tail. Such are the animals termed by the Spanish 
inhabitants of North America Ferrets (Hurons), and which in point in fact have the dentition of our Ferrets and 
Weasels, and lead the same kind of life ; but they are distinguished by their semi-plantigrade carriage, [or rather 
by having their soles uncoyered with hair]. Such are 

The Grison (Viverra vittata, Lin.)—Black, the top of the head and neck grey, a white band reaching from the 
forehead to the shoulders. [This constitutes the Grisonia, Gray, and with an allied species, Ze petit furet of 
Azzara (Galictis Allamandi, Bell), the Galictis* of the last-named naturalist, who places them contiguous to the 
Weasels. They are small animals, easily rendered very tame, and extremely playful in domestication ; of very 
carnivorous disposition, and particularly fond of eggs. | 

The Taira (Mustela barbara, Lin.) [Subdivision Taira of Gray.]—Brown [or brownish-black]; the head grey ; 
{and sometimes] a large white spot under the throat. [The fur remarkably short.] 

These two animals are distributed throughout the warm parts of America, and exhale an odour of musk. Their 
feet are a little palmated, and it appears that they have been sometimes taken for Otters.¢ [We conceive that the 
Wolverine might be advantageously removed to the genus of Martens; and would restrict the term Gulo to the 
others. The Grisons diffuse when irritated a disgusting stench. ] 


THe Rarexs (Mellivora, ¥. Cuv.)— 
Have a false molar to each jaw still less than the Grisons, and their upper tuberculous tooth but 
little developed, so that they approximate the Cats in dentition ; but their whole exterior is that of the 
Grison, or [rather] of a Badger. The legs are short; feet [semi-]plantigrade, and five toes to each ; 
the claws very strong, &c. 


But one species is known (Viverra mellivora, Sparm., and Viv. capensis, Schreb. pl. 125), of the size of the 
European Badger; grey above, black below, with a white line that separates the two colours; sometimes it is 
almost wholly white above. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and burrows into the ground with its long 
claws, in search of the honey-combs of the wild Bees. 


Tue DiciTiGRADA— 


Form the second tribe of CARNivorRA, the members of which walk on the ends of their toes. 

In the first subdivision of them [all the members of which are semi-plantigrade], there 
is only one tuberculous grinder behind the upper carnivorous tooth: these animals, on account 
of the length of their body, and shortness of the limbs, which permit them to pass through 
very smal] openings, are styled vermiform [vermin]. They are destitute of coecum, like the 
preceding, but do not pass the winter in a state of lethargy. Although srnall and feeble, they 
are very sanguinary and ferocious. Linnzus comprehended them all under one genus, that of 


Tue WeasE ts (Mustela, Lin.),— 
Which we will divide into four subgenera. 


Tue True Weasets (Putorius, Cuv. [ Mustela, Ray.] )— 

Are the most sanguinary of any: their lower carnivorous tooth has no internal tubercle, and the upper 
tuberculous one is broader than long; there are only two false molars above and three below. These 
animals may be recognized by having the extremity of the muzzle somewhat shorter and blunter than 
in the Martens. They all diffuse [when alarmed] a fetid stench; [take the water, and dive with 
facility, having the toes semipalmated ; trace their prey by scent, and kill it by inflicting a wound in the 
neck: the female is commonly much smaller than the male. 

* This must not be confounded with the Galictis of Is. Geoffroy | | It is supposed from the description given by Marcgreave of his 


(Compte rendu, Oct. 1837), which refers to the Mustela or Putorius | Curigueibeia, which name Buffon has applied to his Saricovienne, vol. 
striatus of Cuvier.—Ep. ) xiii. p. 319, that he meant to speak of the Taira. 


a 


$$ $$$ 


88 MAMMALIA. 


There are yery many species, three of which inhabit Britain:—fhe Fitchet Weasel, or Polecat, of which the 
Ferret appears to be a domesticated variety* ; the Stoat, or Ermine, which in cold countries (and occasionally even 
in South Britain) becomes pure white in winter, except the end of its tail, which always continues black; and the 
Common Weasel, of diminutive size, which preys chiefly on Mice and other small animals injurious to the agricul- 
turist. Itis a curious fact that in several instances the female Polecat has been known to stow away many Frogs 
and Toads in an apartment of its burrow, disabling each without killing it, by puncturing the skull. The Common 
Weasel traverses the boughs of trees, tops of palings, &c., with facility, and will spring from the ground upon a 
Partridge flying near the surface. Put. striatus, Cuv., a small Madagascar species, reddish-brown, with five longi- 
tudinal white stripes, composes the division Galictis of Isidore Geofiroy (not of Bell); and Put. Zorilla, Cuv., a 
species marked with broken stripes of white, and possessing a more snout-like muzzle, the tail of which also is 
jonger and more bushy, is the Zorilla capensis of some recent authors: there would appear, indeed, to be several 
species of these Zorilles.] 

Tae Marrens (Mustela, Cuv. [Martes, Ray] )— 


Differ from the true Weasels by having [commonly] an additional false molar above and below, and a 
small tubercle on the inner side of their car- 
nivorous tooth; two characters which some- 
what diminish the ferocity of their nature. 
[They are handsome, and remarkably lithe 
active animals, with larger ears than the 
Weasels, and fine bushy tails; are also 
more arboreal in their habits. The scent 
they diffuse when irritated is not disagree- 
able. tT] 


There are two species in Europe, very closely 
allied together. The Yellow-breasted or Pine 
Marten (Mustela martes, Lin.), inhabiting wild 
districts, and the White-breasted or Beech 
Marten (M. foina, Lin.), which frequents woods 
near human habitations. [Many consider these to 
be varietics merely of the same; but on examining several crania, I have noticed that the former are constantly 
smaller, with the zygomatic arch fully twice as strong as in the other. The American species usually deemed 
identical with MW. foina, is intermediate. There are numerous others, as the Pekan or Fishing Marten of Canada, 
&c.; and the Sable of commerce (M. zibellina, Auct.), celebrated for its beautiful fur, is a member of this 
division. In the Sable and several others, the soles are completely covered with close fur; but in M. flavigula of 
the Himmalayas, the under surface of the foot is naked, and the toes joined to their extremities, as in the 
Badgers, &c.] 


Fig. 27.—The Marten. 


THE Skunks (Mephitis, Cuv.)— 


Possess, like the Weasels, two false molars above and three below; but their superior tuberculous 
grinder is very large, and as long as broad, and their inferior carnivorous tooth has two tubercles on 
its inner side, thus approximating these animals to the Badgers, in the same way as the Weasels are 
related to the Grisons and Wolverine. In addition to this, the Skunks accord with the Badgers in 
having their anterior claws long, and adapted for burrowing, and they are even semiplantigrade, [and 
equally slow in their movements]. This resemblance extends even to the distribution of their colours. 
[The truth is, they scarcely differ from the Badgers, except in having a remarkably fine and large 
bushy tail, which is borne elevated, like the small short tail of the Badgers.] In the present family, 
notorious for diffusing a fetid stench, the Skunks are pre-eminently distinguished by emitting a most 


intolerable odour. 

These animals are mostly striped longitudinally with white ona black ground, but the number of stripes appears to 
vary even in the same species; [not, however, I think, to the extent that has been supposed ; for there are several 
species, distinguishable by their osteology, which agree sufficiently in their general style of colouring, allowing for 
some variation on the part of each, toinduce the supposition, judging only from external characters, that they 
might all be referred to one. The intensity of their most nauseous suffocating stench, which has been described 
to resemble that of the Fitchet mingled with assafcetida, is scarcely credible: it appears, however, to be emitted 
only in self-defence. The geographic range of this genus is confined to America]. 


We may make an additional subgenus of 
Tue TeLepu (Mydaus, F. Cuv.),— 
Which, together with the dentition, [the teeth, however, being smaller (from which results a more 


* Thave sought in vain for any osteological distinction between | + Hence our native species are designated Sweet-mart, in opposi- 
these aninals.—Ep. on to Fou-mart, or foul mart, a common name for the Polecat-—Epb. 


| 


CARNARIA. 89 


elongated muzzle), the canines placed further backward, and the molars more sharply tuberculatea, 
recalling to mind those of the Jnsectivora], feet, and colouring even of the Skunks, have the muzzle 
truncated, so as to assume the form of a snout, and the tail reduced to a small pencil, [which, however, 
is also held erect, as in the Badgers, &c.] Only one species is known,— 


The Javanese Teledu (Mid. melaceps, F. Cuv.)—[Brownishj black, the nape of the neck, a stripe along the back, 
and tail, white; the dorsal stripe sometimes interrupted about the middle. [Fur soft and rather fine.] Its stench 
is equally horrible with that of the Skunks, [and precisely similar, as I am informed by Dr. Horsfield, who has had 
experience of both: it subsists principally on earth-worms, for which it turns up the light soil with its snout, in the 
manner of a Hog; is easily tamed, and by no means offensive in captivity ; and it is especially remarkable for its 
restriction to a particular elevation on the mountains of Java, below which it is never found. 


We may here also introduce 
Tue NYENTEK (Helictis, Gray; Meloyale, Is. Geof.),— 


The body of which appears to be more lengthened and yermiform, and the tuberculous molar small 
and transverse: it is described to have three false molars above, and four below; the upper carnivorous 
tooth three-lobed, with a broad two-pointed internal process: soles of the feet bare, and toes united. 
The Nyentek of the Javanese (Gulo orientalis, Horsf.; H. moschatus, Gray.)—Size of a Polecat: brown, with a 
white stripe along the back, crossed by another less distinct over the shoulders, and a white spot on the head; tail 


of mean length. This animal inhabits eastern Asia, and smells strongly of musk: it is one of the few Mammalia 
known in Europe to inhabit China, where the larger indigenous species are supposed to have been exterminated. | 


Tue Orrers (Lutra, Storr)— 
Have three false molars above and below, a strong process to the upper carnivorous tooth, an internal 
tubercle to the lower one, and a large tuberculous grinder that is nearly as long as broad; their head 
is flattened, and the tongue rather rough. They are distinguished from all the preceding genera 
by their [more completely] webbed toes, and horizontally flattened tail,—two characters which pro- 
claim them to be aquatic animals: they subsist on fish. 

The European Otter (Must. lutra, Lin.)—Brown above, whitish round the lips, on the cheeks, and the whole 
under parts. The rivers of Europe [and sometimes the sea-coast. Is occasionally spotted above with white. The 
species of this extensive genus, which is almost generally diffused, are mostly very similar externally, and are best 
distinguished by the configuration of the cranium, &c.] That of India (L. nair, F. Cuv.) is employed for fishing, 
as the Dog is for hunting. The Cape Otter (LZ. capensis, F. Cuv.) is remarkable (at least at a particular age) for 
having no nails; a character on which M. Lesson has founded his genus donyx : young individuals, however, have 
been received from the Cape, which possess nails; and it remains to ascertain whether they are of the same species. 
The American Otter (M. braziliensis), from the rivers of both Americas, has the extremity of the muzzle, which in 
most other animals is naked, covered with close fur: [it is also very gregarious in its habits. But the most remark- 
able species is the great Sea Otter (Mustela lutris, Lin., composing the division Enhydra of Fleming. It is 
twice the size of the European species, from which it differs in the form of its hind feet, which have the 
outermost toe longest. The adults have but four lower incisors, the exterior pair being doubtless forced 
out by the canines.] Its blackish velvet-looking fur is extremely valuable, to obtain which the English and 
Russians hunt the animal throughout the northern shores of the Pacific Ocean, for the purpose of disposing of it 
to the Chinese and Japanese. [A species intermediate to the Sea Otter and the others constitutes the Pfero- 
nura, Gray. M. Temminck has received a new genus allied to the Otters, which he names Potamophilus. 


We here arrive at the termination of an extensive and very distinct natural group, which 
falls under two principal subdivisions, the limits of which, however, are not easy to define. 

The first consists of exclusively ground animals, with a thick and heavy body, stout limbs, 
and strong claws adapted for burrowing with rapidity. It comprises the Badgers, Teledu, 
Skunks, Taxels, Bharsiah, and Ratel; nearly all of which ordmarily erect the tail, and are 
more or less striped longitudinally. 

The remainder are vermiform and agile, and most of them ascend trees with facility : they 
are also more predatory, though some of the former (as the Ratel) possess an equally carni- 
vorous dentition: many are marked similarly to the preceding. 

The Zorilles might almost be referred to either section; but we prefer retaining them near 
the Weasels. | 

The second subdivision of the DicrriGRapa [being the first, strictly so named, ] possesses 
[like the Urside] two flat tuberculated molars posterior to the upper carnivorous tooth*, 


* There are three tuberculous molars to each jaw in the Canis (Megalotis) Lalandi, and De Blainville figures the cranium of a common Dog 
in which the same was observable.—Ep. 


JO MAMMALIA. 


which has itself a large internal process. They are carnivorous animals, but not preda- 


tory in proportion to their strength, and often feed on carrion. They have all a small 


coecum. 
Tue Dogs (Canis, Lin.)\— 


Have three false molars above, four below, and two tuberculous grinders behind each carnivorous tooth. 
The first of these upper tuberculous molars is very large. Their superior carnivorous tooth has only a 
small internal tubercle; but the inferior one has its hinder portion altogether tuberculous. The 
tongue is soft; the fore-feet have five toes, and the hind-feet [in general] only four. [The ccecum is 
of a peculiar spiral form. ] 

The Domestic Dog (C. familiaris, Lin.)—Distinguished by its recurved tail, but otherwise varying infinitely 
with respect to size*, form, colour, and quality of the hair. It is the most complete, the most singular, and useful 
conquest ever made by Man; the whole species having become his property: each individual is devoted to its 
particular master, assumes his manners, knows and defends his property, and remains attached to him 
until death; and all this, neither from constraint nor want, but solely from gratitude and pure friendship. The 
swiftness, strength, and scent of the Dog have rendered him a powerful ally to Man against other animals, and 
were even, perhaps, necessary to the establishment of society. It is the only animal which has followed Man all 
over the world. p 

Some naturalists think the Dog is a Wolf, and others that he is a domesticated Jackal; but those which have 


become wild on desert islands resemble neither one nor the other. ar 


Fig. 28.—The Dingo, or Australian Dog. 


The wild Dogs, and those which belong to 
savages, such as the inhabitants of Australia, 
have straight ears, whence has arisen a belief that 
the European races, nearest to the original type, 
are our Shepherd’s Dog and Wolf Dog ; but com- 
parison of the crania indicates a closer approach 
on the part of the French Matin and Danish Dog, 
after which follow the Hound, the Pointer, and 
the Terrier, which chiefly differ in size and the 
relative proportions of parts. The Greyhound is 
more attenuated, and has the the frontal sinus 
smaller, and scent weaker. The Shepherd’s Dog 
and Wolf Dog resume the straight ears of the 
wild ones, but with greater developement of brain, 
which continues to increase, together with the 
intelligence, in the Barbet and Spaniel. The 
Buill-dog, on the other hand, is remarkable for the 
shortness and strength of its jaws. The small 
pet Dogs, the Pugs, lesser Spaniels, Shocks, &c., 
are the most degenerate productions, and exhibit 


the most striking marks of that influence to which Man subjects all nature. 

The Dog is born with its eyes closed; it opens them on the tenth or twelfth day; its teeth commence changing 
in the fourth month, and its full growth is attained at the expiration of the second year. The female remains with 
young sixty-three days, and produces from six to ten young ata birth. The Dog is old at fifteen years, and seldom 


* A specimen, which attained two years of age, and is preserved 
in the Museum of Dresden, measured only five inches and a 
half in length; this being exactly the same length, from the corner of 
the eye to the tip of the nose, of a Saxon boar-hound examined by 
Col. Hamilton Smith.—Ep. 

+ If the idea, which I conceive there is every reasou to entertain, 
respecting the origin of the Domestic Dog be well founded, it is clear 
that a recurrence to a single wild type would be impossible. The Dog 
is apparently a blended race, derived principally from the Wolf, and 
partly from various other allied species. In the Museum of the Zoologi- 
cal Society of London, there is a specimen of an Esquimaux Dog, which 
resembles the large American Wolf (C. nubilus) so closely, that there 
ean scarcely be any doubt of the connexion which subsists between 
them; and it is well known, of the American Wolves in particular, 
that if a young animal be surprised by a hunter, and suddenly menaced 
by his voice and manner, it will crouch to him and implore his mercy 
in precisely the manner of a spaniel; so that only a little encourage- 
nient and kindness are required to gain its permanent attachment ; 
indeed, many of them are killed to obtain the proffered reward, by 
taking this (assuredly unworthy) advantage of their natural subinis- 
siveness. That the Wolf possesses the mental qualities, and is 
capable of the same strong attachment to Man as the most faithful 
Dog, has been abundantly proved by the observations of M. F. Cuvier 
and others; and the unremitting persecution to which it has been 
necessarily subjected in Europe for so many ages, will sufficiently 


acccunt for the savage and distrustful character which it exhibits 
when unreclaimed ; though even then the germs of a better disposition 
are traceable in the permanent attachment of the male and female, 
and sociality of the young till urgent necessity, or the annual period 
of dominant sexual excitement, subdues every milder propensity and 
acquired sentiment of friendship or disinterested affection. 

In the late edition of Dr. Prichard’s work on Man, an old error is 
revived, which originated with Buffon, but which that naturalist 
afterwards corrected; namely, that the period of gestation in the 
Wolf is much shorter than inthe Dog. It is precisely the same in 
both animals. 

Instances occasionally happen of the Dog returning by choice toa stute 
of wildness, and assuming then, of necessity, the character ascribed 
to the Wolf. I have known this to eccur in a male pointer, and in a 
female greyhound: the latter was so fine a specimen of the breed, that 
on being entrapped, it was thought desirable to obtain a litter from 
her, which was accordingly effected ; but, while her puppies were very 
young, she managed to escape to the woods, and never returned: 
three of her progeny grew to be execllent hounds; but two others 
proved quite irreclaimable; and escaping from servitude, like their 
dam, were finally shot, for their destructive poaching propensities. 

It is not unusual to trace the peculiar markings, and grizzled colour- 
ing of the back, common to most of the wild species of Canis, in 
domestic Dogs, of various size and character.—Ep. 


Ee squimnax Dog 


ey oe 


Wild Tndian Do 


CARNARIA. 91 


lives beyond twenty. Every one is acquainted with its vigilance, bark, singular mode of copulation, and suscepti- 
bility of various kinds of education. 

The Wolf (C. lupus, Lin.)—A large species, with a straight tail; the most noxious of all the Carnivora of Europe. 
It is found from Egypt to Lapland, and appears to have passed over to America. Towards the north, its coat 
becomes white in winter. It attacks all our animals, but does not evince a courage proportioned to its strength ; it 
often feeds on carrion. Its habits and physical developement are closely related to those of the Dog. Another 
species, the Black Wolf (C. Zycaon) is sometimes, though rarely, found in France. The Mexican Wolf (C. mexicanus, 
Lin.) has the under part of the body and the feet white. 

The Red Wolf (C. jubata, Az.)—A fine cinnamon red, with a short black mane along the spine. From the 
marshes of South America. [The beautiful fur of this animal renders it one of the handsomest of the genus. ] 

The Jackal (C. aureus, Lin.) [division Vulpecanis, Blainv. and Jacalus, Hodg.J|—A voracious species, which 
hunts like the Dog [in packs], and in its conformation and the facility with which it is tamed, resembles the latter 
more nearly than any other wild species. Jackals are found from the Indies and the environs of the Caspian Sea, 
as far as Guinea incluéive; but it is doubtful whether they all belong to the same species. [There are now several 
well-known species of these animals. The Canis primevus, Hodg., C. Dukhunensis, Sykes, is a large red Jackal, 
or Jackal-like Dog, inhabiting India, and very like the Dingo of Australia.] 


Foxes [Vulpes of some naturalists] may be distinguished from Woives and Dogs by having the tail 
longer and more bushy [though in this respect there is no drawing the line of separation], by a more 
pointed muzzle, and pupils which, during the day, form a vertical fissure; also by their upper incisors 
being less sloping; they emit a fcetid odour [scarcely less offensive in the Jackals], dig burrows, and 
attack only the weaker animals ; [are also more frugivorous than the preceding.*] This subgenus is 
more numerous than the foregoing. 


The Common Fox (C. vu/pes, Lin.)—More or less rufous, with the extremity of the tail [generally] white. Is 
found from Sweden to Egypt, [though many of 
those of the south of Europe appertain to a diffe- 
rent species, C. melanogaster, Savi, which is 
smaller and less carnivorous than the Common 
Fox, and differs somewhat in habit.t There are 
very many others, almost generally diffused over 
the globe. Wecan only mention] 

The Arctic or Blue Fox, or Isatis (C. lagopus, 
Lin.)—Deep ash-colour, often white in winter; 
the under surface of the toes hairy, (though several 
of the Foxes, and even the common one, have hair 
under the feet in the north). From the glaciai 
regions of both continents, particularly the north 
of Scandinavia; is much esteemed for its fur. 


Fig. 29.—The Black Fox. 


The interior of Africa produces Foxes remarkable for the size of their ears, and the strength of their 


whiskers: they compose the Megalotis, Mliger. Two are known, the 

C. megalotis, Lalande [Megalotis Lalandi of some authors], a Cape species, somewhat smaller than the Common 
Tox, but higher on its legs ; [especially remarkable for possessing three tuberculous molars posterior to the cutting 
grinder of each jaw: its teeth become much worn with use, whence it would appear to be mainly frugivorous.] And 

The Zerda, or Fennec of Bruce (C. zerda, Gm.), 
which has ears still larger; it is a very small 
species, almost of a whitish fulvous, with woolly 
hair extending beneath the toes; burrows in the 
sands of Nubia, [and ascends the trunks of trees 
with facility: dentition that of an ordinary Fox.] 


Finally, we may place after the Dogs, as a 
fourth subgenus, distinguished by the num- 
ber of toes, which are four to each foot, 


The Wild Dog of the Cape (Hyena venatica, 
Burch ; H. picta, Tem. [Lycaon picta, Brookes} ), 
which has the dental system of the Dogs [Ci- 
vets, &c.], and not of the Hyznas; a tall gaunt 
form; fur marbled with white, fulvous, grey, 
and blackish; the size of a Wolf, with large 
ears tipped with black, &c. It lives in numerous 
packs, which often approach Cape-town, and de- Fig. 30.—The Marbled Lycaon. 
vastate the environs. [This remarkable species 


* The common Dog is an eager devourer of gooseberries, of which | Fox, inthe old Greek fables, apply better to C. melanogaster tkan to 


it will soon strip the bushes to which it has access —Ep. C. vulpes.—Ep. 
+ It is remarkable that many of the habits attributed to the 


—————————— rr 


i nn nnnnnnn nee nnn nnncnsSsa En 


92 MAMMALIA. 


is Dog hke, but certainly not a Canis: its form and colouring (and there is reason to suspect its internal 
conformation), are rather those of a Hyena; and it is known to copulate in the manner of those animals, and 
not in the peculiar manner of the Dogs and Foxes. Even its dentition is the same as that elsewhere found, 
(with one other exception,—Proteles,) throughout the group to which we conceive the Hyznas to belong, the 
dental system of which latter appears to be modified in accordance with their much increased and prodigious 
strength of jaw.] 


Tue Civets (Viverra),— 


Have three false molars above and four below, the anterior of which sometimes fall out ; two tolerably 
large tuberculous teeth above, one only below, and two tubercles projecting forwards on the inner side 
of the lower carnivorous tooth, the rest of that tooth being tuberculous. The tongue is covered with 
sharp and rough papilla. Their claws are more or less raised as they walk; and near the anus is a 
pouch more or less deep, where an unctuous and often odorous matter is secreted by peculiar 
glands. 

They divide into four subgenera. 


Tue True Crverts (Viverra, Cuv.),— 
In which the pouch, large, and situate between the anus and the genitals, dividel also into two sacs, 
is abundantly supplied with a pommade having a strong musky odour, secreted by glands which 
surround the pouch. This substance is an article of commerce, much used in perfumery. It was 
more employed when musk and ambergris were little known. The pupil of the eye remains round 
during the day*, and their claws are only semi-retractile. 

[Four species are known, from Africa and India: beautiful spotted animals, larger than a domestic Cat: they 
“a have an erectible mane along the back (as in the 
Hyenas), more or Jess conspicuous: are of an 
indolent disposition, and easily tamed ; feed partly 
on fruits; and when irritated raise the dorsal 
mane, and hiss like Cats. ] 


Tue GeneETs (Genetta, Cuv.),— 


Have the pouch reduced to a slight depres- 
sion formed by the projection of the glands, 
with scarcely any discernible secretion, al- 
though diffusing a very perceptible odour. 
In the light, their pupil forms a vertical 
fissure ; and their claws are completely re- 
tractile,as in the Cats. [They are smaller and 
more slender animals than the Civets, from 
which they scarcely differ in style of colour- 
ing: are also partly, but less, frugivorous, 
and in general easily tamed. 


Fig. 31.—The African Civet 


The species are numerous, and inhabit the same general locality as the preceding. One (Viv. genetta, Lin.) ] is 
found from the south of France to the Cape of Good Hope. It frequents the edges of brooks, near springs, &c., 
and its skin forms an important article of traffic. 


[Tue Garer (Cryptoprocta, Ben.)— 


Would appear, from its dentition, to be the most carnivorous of the Viverrine quadrupeds: its jaws 
are much abbreviated, and there are only two false molars to each: claws wholly retractile. 


The species (C. ferox, Ben.) is little larger than a Stoat, and uniformly brown, with large ears: an inhabitant of 
Madagascar. Eupleres (Jourdan?) would seem to be allied. 


Tur Detunpune (Prionodon, Horsf.)— 


Is also allied to the Genets, but with the false molars three-lobed or serrated. 


Felis and subsequently Pr. gracilis, Horsf., is the only species; a rare Javanese animal, of slender form, very 
handsomely streaked and spotted. ] 


* Indicating that they inhabit the open country. See the Cats (Felis\.—Ep. 


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Indian Jchnemmon 


Mey puan Iehneumou 


CARNARIA. 93 


Tae Musanes (Paradoxurus, F. Cuv.)— 


Possess the teeth and most of the characters of the Genets, with which they were long confounded : 
but their general form is stouter, and their gait plantigrade: what more particularly distinguishes 
them, however, is the spiral inclination of the tail*, which is not prehensile. 


Only one species is known, the Pougonné of India (P. typus, F. Cuv.), termed Palm Marten by the French in 
India. [No less than ten or twelve have since been discovered, chiefly from India and the great Asiatic islands, though 
some inhabit Africa. They feed much on fruit, but are also tolerably carnivorous, springing upon their prey from 
a place of ambush: gait slow and plantigrade, vith the head and tail lowered, and the back arched; but they 
also advance by rapid digital bounds, and are excellent climbers, constructing a nest on the forked branches of 
trees. They are easily tamed, and, when angry, growl and spit like Cats: sleep rolled up in a ball, &c. 

As the Dogs may be considered the highest of the Carnivora, and the Cats the most eminently predaceous, so 
the Musangs may be regarded as presenting the fairest average of a member of this division. Their dentition is 
scarcely distinguishable from that of the Dogs; but, on reverting the cranium, their cerebral cavity is seen to be 
proportionally smaller. a 

Various species of Musang have been named as separate subgenera by different systematists. Ambliodon, Jourd., 
is the Ietide dorée of M. F. Cuvier ; and Pagwma, Gray, refers to the young of P, larvatus. P. Derbianus, Gray, 
a species approximating the Genets, of a fulvous-grey colour, with broad cross bands of dark brown, is the 
Hemigalea zebra of Jourdan. Most of them present the streaks and spots of the Genets, but on a darker 
ground-tint. 

Several affect the vicinity of human habitations, and are very destructive to poultry, their eggs, &c. 


Tue CynoGaLe (Cynogale, Gray; Limictis, Blainv.)\— 


Is an aquatic representative of the preceding, to which it bears a similar relation to that which the 
Otters hold with the Weasels. Its false molars are large, compressed, sharp, and slightly notched or 
serrated; and entire dental system, together with its external characters, generally modified for a pis- 


civorous regimen. 

One species only is known (C. Bennettii, Gr.; Viv. and Lim. carcharias, Bl.)—A native of Sumatra, uniform dark 
brown; the ears small: head, and also colouring, very similar to that of a common Otter: its tail, however, is 
cylindrical. ] 

Tue Maneoustes (Mangusta, Cuy.; Herpestes, Il.t) 


The pouch voluminous and simple, and the anus situate within its cavity; [bony orbits of the skull 
most usually perfect.] Their hairs are annulated with pale and dark tints, which determine the 
general colour of the eye. [Tail long as in the preceding subdivisions, and bushy towards its 


insertion. 

The species are very numerous ; and] that of Egypt (Viv. ichneumon, Lin.), so celebrated among the ancients by 
the name of Ichneumon, is grey, with a long tail terminated by a black tuft; it is larger than our Cat, and as 
slender as a Marten. It chiefly hunts for the eggs of the Crocodile, but also feeds on all sorts of small animals ; 
brought up in houses [where, in common with its congeners, it is readily domesticated, and exhibits much intelli- 
gence and attachment], it pursues Mice, reptiles, &c. By the Europeans at Cairo it is designated Pharaoh’s Rat, 
and Nems by the natives. The ancient allegation of its entering the throat of the Crocodile, to destroy it, is quite 
fabulous. The common Indian species (Viv. mungos, Lin.) is celebrated for its combats with the most dangerous 
serpents ; and for having led us to a knowledge of the Ophiorhiza mungos as ‘an antidote to their venom. [Some 
are less vermiform in their make, and higher on the legs: one, termed the Vansive by Buffon, forms the division 
Athylax of M. F. Cuvier; others compose the Galidea and Ichneumonia of M. Is. Geoffroy : Cynictis, Og., includes 
several species with only four toes to each foot; and Lasiopus and Mongo, Auct., are additional dismember- 
ments of this genus. The Urva of Mr. Hodgson appears also to be a Mangouste, with incomplete orbits. } 


THe SurtkaTeE (Ryzena, Il.)\— 


Resembles the Mangoustes, even to the tints and annulations of its fur; but is distinguished from 
them, and from all the Carnivora hitherto mentioned [save the Lycaon picta and Cynictis, just indi- 
cated], by having only four toes to each foot. It is also higher upon the legs, and does not possess 
the small molar immediately behind the canine. ‘The pouch extends even into the anus. 

Only one is known (Viv. tetradactyla, Gm.), a native of Africa, and rather smaller than the Mangouste of India. 


Tue Mancukr (Crossarchus, F. Cuv.),— 
Has the muzzle, teeth, pouch, and gait of the Surikate; the toes and genital organs of the Man- 


goustes. 

* In those which I have seen alive, including P. typus, this charac- ; + This term is more generally adupted. The name Jchnenmon, 
ter was not perceptible: the individual figured by M. F. Cuvier pre- | formerly applied to the animals of this genus, has been transferred 
senung a morbid deformity, an analogous instance of which oceurred | to a very extensive group of Hymenopterous [nsects.—Ep. 


in a Leopard formerly exhibited in London.—Ep, 


94 MAMMALTA. 


We know but of one (Cr. obscurus, F. Cuv.), from Sierra Leone: size ofa Surikate. [Other Mangoustes are 
included by recent systematists ; and it may be remarked that both this and the preceding subdivision are merely 
slight modifications of Herpestes, and have similar perfect orbits.] 


We shall here mention a singular animal from South Africa, which is known only when young, and 
which has five toes before, four behind, and the head a little elongated as in the Civets, the legs raised, 
those behind rather shorter, and a mane as in the Hyena; and which also resembles the Striped Hyzena 
very remarkably in its colouring. Its anterior thumb is short, and placed high up. The Proteles 
“Lalandi, Is. Geof.; an inhabitant of caverns. 


The individuals examined, which were all 
young, possessed but three small false molars, 
and one small tuberculous back. molar. It 
seems as though their teeth had never come to 
perfection, as often happens in thé Genets. 
(See my Ossemens fossiles, iv. 388.) [The per- 
manent canines are of tolerable size, but the 
simple form of the molars, all very sinall, and 
separated by intervals, presents an anomaly 
among the Carnivora, which is even more re- 
markable on account of the affinity of this spe- 
cies to the Hyenas. It is destructive to very 
young lambs, and is stated to attack the mas- 
sive fatty protuberance on the tails of the 
African Sheep. ] 


Fig. 32.—Proteles Lalandi. 


The last subdivision of the Digitigrades has no small teeth whatever belimd the large molar 
of the lower jaw. It contains the most sanguinary and carnivorous of the class. There are 
two genera, 

Ture Hyanas (Hyena, Storr)— 

Have three false molars above and four below, all conical, blunt, and singularly large: their upper car- 
nivorous tooth has a small tubercle within and in front; but the lower one has none, presenting only 
two stout cutting points. This powerful armature enables them to crush the bones of the largest prey. 
Their tongue is rough [exhibiting a circular collection of retroflected spines] ; all their feet have each but 
four toes, as in the Surikate ; and under the anus is a deep and glandular pouch, which led the ancients 
to believe that these animals were hermaphrodite. The muscles of their neck, and of the jaws, are so 
robust, that it is almost impossible to take from them anything they may have seized; whence, among 
the Arabs, their name is the symbol of obstinacy. It sometimes happens that their cervical vertebra 
become anchylosed in consequence of these violent efforts; and thus has arisen the opinion that the 
animals of this genus have only one bone in their neck. They are nocturnal animals, and inhabit 
caverns ; voracious, subsisting chiefly on dead bodies, which they will even disinter from the grave, a 
habit that has given rise to a multitude of superstitious traditions. 


Three species are known. The striped Hyena (H. vulgaris, Canis hyena, Lin.), found from India to Abyssinia 
and Senegal. The spotted H. (H. crocuta, Schreb., C. erocuta, Lin.,) from South Africa; and the Woolly Hyena, 
(1. bruanea, Thunb., H. villosa, Smith), also from South Africa. Remains of a fossil species (H. spelea) are 
found in many cavern deposits of France, Germany, and England. [Hynas are easily tamed, if allowed their 
liberty, and are susceptible of strong attachment to those who use them kindly : many are employed in the capacity 
of watch-dogs both in Asia and Africa. They are physiologically nearly related to the Civets, and not to the 
Dogs*; and the loss of the posterior tuberculous molar appears to be a consequence of the great increase in size 
of the carnivorous grinders : notwithstanding which these animals feed much on bulbs. ] 


Tue Carts (Felis, Lin.)\— 
Are, of all the Carnaria, the most completely and powerfully armed. Their short and rounded muzzle, 
short jaws, and especially their retractile talons, which, being raised upward when at rest, and closing 
within the toes, by the action of elastic ligaments, lose neither point nor edge, render them most for- 
midable animals, more particularly the larger species. They have two false molars above, and two 


“ Their rough tongue, small and not spiral caecum, the structure | their anal pouch, style of colouring, &e., combine to iudieate their 
of their reproductive organs, and consequent mode of copulation; | true position to be as above assiyned. 


\S 
) 


RA , 


CARNARIA. 95 


below: the upper carnivorous tooth three-lobed, with a broad heel on its inner side; the inferior with 
two pomted and cutting lobes, and without any heel: finally, they have only one very small upper 
tubercular, and no corresponding one in the lower jaw. [These animals creep unawares upon their prey, 
and seize it with a sudden spring, in which they expend their energy.] The species are exceedingly 
numerous, and vary much in size and colour, but they are all nearly similar in structure. We can 
only subdivide them by characters of trivial import, as size, and the length of fur. 

At the head of this genus ranks 


The Lion (Felis leo, Lin.), the most powerful of the beasts of prey; distinguished by its uniform tawny colour, 
the tuft of black hair at the end of the tail, and the flowing mane which clothes the head, neck, and shoulders of 
the male. Formerly inhabiting the three divisions of the ancient world, it appears to be now confined to Africa, 
and the neighbouring parts of Asia. Its head is squarer than in the following species. [The Lion is subject to 
considerable variation, chiefly as regards the quantity of mane, and lengthened hair on other parts: those of 
Guizerat are almost destitute of any ; the Lions of Africa present the greatest quautity, in many of which there is 
a median line of long hair extending along the belly; but even these differ one from another: there is also con- 
siderable difference of physiognomy between the African and Asiatic Lions, and the latter are always paler, and 
reputed to be less courageous ; but there is no difference of size and apparent strength. Those who distinguish 
the Lions of Asia and Africa as different species, might change their opinion on seeing the various adults now 
living in London.] 

Tigers are large species with short hair, and commonly exhibiting vivid markings. [We may here observe that 
it is quite impossible to subdivide the genus felis into definite sections, aud that every attempt of this kind 
hitherto made has consequently proved a complete failure: the transition into the Lynxes is most gradual; and 
the spotless species (as the Lion, Puma, &c.) are marked like the rest when young. Those species, however, 
which affect the open country, as the Lion and Leopard, have the pupil of the eye contracting to a point; whereas 
in those which inhabit forests, as the Tiger and domestic Cat, the pupil closes to a vertical line, permitting thus, 
when least dilated, of a full range of vision, in the direction in which these animals chiefly watch for prey. A few 
of the more conspicuous may be briefly indicated. ] 

The Tiger (F. tigris, Lin.)—As large as the Lion, but with the body longer and head rounder ; of a bright red- 
dish-buff above, with irregular black transverse stripes, and pure white underneath; [the hair surrounding the 
head elongated]: thé most cruel of quadrupeds, and the scourge of the East Indies. Such are the strength and 
the velocity of its movements, that during the march of an army it has been known to seize a soldier while on 
horse-back, and bear him off to the jungle, without affording a chance of rescue. [This species also occurs, 
sparingly, in northern Asia. Its markings vary much in different individuals. ] 

The Jaguar (F. onca, Lin.) of America.—Nearly as large as the preceding, and scarcely less dangerous: it is 
beautifully spotted with rings more or less complete, and containing smaller spots [on a deeper ground-tint: the 
space included within the annulations of all the spotted Cats being deeper coloured than the rest of the body.] 
Black individuals sometimes occur, which have the spots more intense, and visible only at particular angles, 
[the fur of the spots differing in texture: the same has been observed of the Tiger and Leopard, and albino 
individuals of the former have likewise been noticed. Jaguars also differ much one from another]. 

The Panther (F. pardus, Lin. : Pardalis of the ancients.)—[Covered with annular series of irregular small spots. ] 
It is widely spread over Africa, the hottest region of Asia, and also the Indian archipelago. 


The Leopard (Ff. Zeopardus, Lin.)—[Very like the 
Panther, but with the markings less broken into 
small spots: it varies, however, considerably, and 
the two sides of the same animal do not always 
resemble: from Asia and Africa.] These two spe- 
cies are smaller than the American Jaguar [and 
are very doubtfully separable from each other. 

The Ounce of Buffon (F. uncia, Gm.) is a long- 
haired mountain Cat, as large as a Leopard, with 
tail longer than the body: also similarly spotted, 
but more obscurely, and on a paler ground-tint. 
It inhabits the Asiatic mountains, and a fine spe- 
cimen Of it has lately been deposited in the British 
Museum. 

Of the other spotted Cats, may be mentioned 
the F. chalybeata, Herm., from the north of India; 
and F. viverrina, Ben., from Sumatra*: also the 
Rymau-dyan (Fig. 33), or gigantic Tiger-cat of 
Sumatra (2. macroscelis), and the nearly allied but 
smaller Marbled Cat (J. marmorata), from the 
same locality, which are remarkable for length of 
tail. The Ocelot of South America (/. pardalis, 


Fig. 33.—Tiger-cat of Sumatra. 


* Notwithstanding its name, this species presents no real approach to Viverra: its cranium, for instance, being strictly that of a Felis, 


y6 


MAMMALIA. 


Lin.), twice the size of a large domestic Cat, and comparatively .ower on the legs, is marked somewhat like the 
Jaguar, but with a tendency to a linking of the spots into longitudinal bands, more or less observable in different 


individuals.* F. Sumatranus and Bengalensis are not larger than a House-cat, but coloured like the foregoing ; 
though individuals commonly occur of the same greyish ground-tint as the majority of the smaller species. A 
beautiful European Cat, with the markings of the Leopard group, is the F. pardina, Oken, which inhabits the 
mountains of Spain; its tail, however, is short, as in the following. There are many others]. 

Lynxes are short-tailed Cats, with mostly pencil-tufts to their ears, and fur generally spotted more or less dis- 


Fig. 34.—Felis Lynx. 


mobile tail: it inlvabits Africa. 


tinctly : those of cold countries have the fur long. 
A species little less than a Leopard (F. dyna, Lin.) 
still inhabits the mountainous parts of Europe, 
from Scandinavia to Spain and Naples, and, it is 
said, the north of Africa also. [Prof. Nilsson dis- 
tinguishes three large European species in Scan- 
dinavia, and figures different varieties of each.] 
The Canada Lynx is smaller, with very long fur, 
which extends even under the toes; [it is allied 
to the Wild Cat of Britain. There are many 
others, some, as the Pampas Cat (Ff .pajeros) grad- 
ing into the next group. We can only notice 
a handsome short-haired species, the Caracal of 
Turkey and Persia, almost uniform bright vinous 
red; it is the true Lynx of the ancients. The 
Chati (F. Serval, F. Cuv.), an elegant spotted 
species, of siender form, and very high upon the 
legs, may be approximated to this group, and 
indeed has a moderately short and singularly 


Allied to it is the Chati (F. mitis), a native of South America. 


Approaching the domestic Cat in size, colour, and markings, are also numerous species, among which the 


native Cat of Britain (fig. 35) may be particularized, distinguished by its tail not tapering as in the tame Cat; 
it is also larger, but with much shorter intestinal canal, though it is probable that the length of intestine in the 
common Cat may have been gradually induced by long-continued habituation to a less carnivorous regimen, 
operating through many successive generations. The domestic Cat is referred by Temminck to his F. maniculata, a 
species wild in Egypt; but is probably a mingled race, derived from several distinct wild stocks: our author, in 
his last edition, referred it to the European Wild Cat, but subsequently retracted his opinion: the Angora variety 


Fig $5.—Wila Cat. 


of it is perhaps the most remarkable, being 
covered with long silky hair. Of the spotless 
species, may be mentioned] 

The Cougar, Puma, or pretended Lion of 
America (F. concolor, Lin.) (Fig. 36.)—Red [sil- 
very or greyish-red], with small spots of a 
slightly deeper colour, which are not easily per- 
ceived [nor always present in the adults, and a 
small black tuft at the end of the tail. Size 
nearly that of a Leopard], from both Americas, 
where it preys on Sheep, Deer, &c. [and has 
been known, though very rarely, to attack 
mankind. An allied species, redder, and with 
shorter tail, exclusively from South America, is 
known as F,. unicolor; and there is a small 
species also very similar, the Eira of Azzara, 
the tail of which is not tufted. The Jaguarondi 
is another from the same locality, of medium 
size, altogether of a blackish-brown, more or 


less dark, and rather low on the legs: and there is a deep reddish-brown Cat in India, scarcely larger than the 


* As a warning against relying too much upon the proverbially 
uncertain temper of these eminently carnivorous animals, may be 
mentioned a fact which occurred not long ago in France. A gentleman 
had sneceeded in taming an Ocelot, which for three years enjoyed 
the range of his house and garden as freely as a domestic Cat, 
appearing thoroughly reclaimed. One evening, nowever, at the fire- 
side, when a child of three years old was playing with it, as it had 
often done before, the animal, being irritated, seized the infant by 
the throat, and killed it before assistance could be rendered. An 
instance has occurred in this country of a babe being attacked by a 
tame Ferret. The Domestic Cat is undoubtedly more susceptible of 
attachment than it has been generally described ; and it is surprising 
to perceive how patiently it bears the rough handling of children, We 
have seen it hail the return of persons it knew with as lively joy as 


any animal could well testify, and this in the case of individuals who 
had never fed it: but it is understood, with what general truth may 
perhaps be questioned, that while the Dog will mourn and even pine 
to death over the body of its master, the Cat feels no compunction in 
making it its prey: it is needless to observe, however, that the intel- 
lect of the Cat is very much inferior to that ef the Dog, on which 
account some allowance may be granted. 

With respect to the Domestic Cat, also, another consideration may 
be borne iu mind, which is, that there can be little doubt that its 
nature has been considerably modified by domestication, which has 
gradually rendered it less exclusively carnivorous than its wild con 
geners. It is even remarkable that instances of the rapacity of this 

| animal towards young children are not of trequent occurrence.—Ep. 


CARNARIA. 37 


domestic, named F. Temminckii: F. planiceps approximates the last, but is smaller, with some markings on the 
head, and is remarkable for its complete bony 
orbits.] 

We might place as a separate subgenus [Cy- 
nailurus, Blainy.? ] a species which has the head 
rounder and shorter, and the talons of which are 
not retractile {a statement which is unwar- 
ranted by fact], the Chetah, or Hunting Leo- 
pard (Ff. jubata, Schreb.): size of a Leopard, but 
longer-bodied, and stands higher; of a pale 
fulvous, with tolerably uniform small black spots, 
a black streak reaching from the eye to the angle 
of the mouth, and tail annulated at the end. 
The disposition of this animal is mild and docile. 
[From Asia and Africa, but apparently not 
specifically the same on the two continents. 


The Digitigrapa of Cuvier, exclu- 
sive of the semi-plantigrade genera which 
have no ccecum, divide primarily mto, = 
first, the Canine group, or the Dogs and : 
Foxes, which is the most distinctly se- 
parated by anatomical characters; the 
remainder are all much more nearly al- 
hed, but we may venture to detach the 
Feline animals or Cats: the rest may all 
be included in the Viverrine section, to 
which the Hyznas strictly appertain; a 


Vie. 36.—Tne Puma 


varied, but quite natural assemblage, ex- 

clusively confined in its distribution to the eastern continent, and scarcely extending beyond 
the tropics; whereas the former groups are generally diffused, with the exception of Aus- 
tralia and the remote oceanic islands. Of the Viverrine animals, the most definitely cha- 
racterized subdivision is that of the Mangoustes and subordinate sections: the Genets scarcely 
differ from the Cats except in the prolongation of the muzzle; and the Hyzna group is so 
nearly related to the Civets that it does not appear to be separable on physiological characters. | 


Tue Ampuisia [PiInNIGRADA, Blain. |— 


Compose the third and last of the minor tribes into which we divide the CARNivoraA. Their 
feet are so short and so enveloped in the skin, that, upon land, they only serve to crawl 
with* ; but, as the intervals between their toes are occupied by membranes, they form excel- 
lent oars: hence these animals pass the greater portion of their lives in the water, which they 
only quit to bask in the sunshine, and to suckle their young. Their lengthened body; their 
very moveable spine, provided with muscles which strongly flex it; their narrow pelvis; their 
short close fur, setting flat upon the skin; all combine to render them able swimmers, and 
the details of their anatomy confirm these first indications. [As in the Dugong, the Cetacea, and 
other large aquatic Mammalia, their bones are light and spongy, more particularly in the 
larger species.]| Only two genera have as yet been distinguished, the Seals and the Morses. 


Tue Seats (Phoca, Lin.)— 


Have six or four incisors aboye, four or only two below, pointed canines, and grinders to the 
number of twenty, twenty-two, or twenty-four [that is to say, two, in the complete series, posterior 
to the representative of the carnivorous tooth], all of them trenchant or conical, without any tuber- 
culous portion: five toes to each foot, the anterior successively shortening from the thumb ; Whereas, 


«It is only when clambering that the Seal employs its feet on land: it wriggles along, upon the ground, by the action of the abdo- 


minal muscles,—Ep, 


H 


98 MAMMALIA. 


in the hind feet, the outer and inner toes are the longest, and the intermediate comparatively short. 
Their fore-feet are enveloped in the integuments of the body as far as the wrist, the hinder almost to 
the heel; between the latter is a short tail. The head of a Seal resembles that of a Dog; and they 
have the same intelligence and mild and expressive physiognomy. They are easily tamed, and become 
much attached to their feeder. The tongue is smooth, and notched at the end, their stomach simple, 
ccecum short, intestinal canal long, and tolerably regular. These animals subsist on fish, which they 
always devour in the water, and are enabled to close their nostrils when diving, by means of a sort of 
valve. As they remain long below the surface, it was supposed that the foramen ovale continued open 
as in a foetus, which is not the case: they have a large venous cavity, however, in their liver, which 
assists them in diving, by rendering respiration less necessary to the motion of the blood. The 
latter is very abundant and very dark. 


Analogous to Calocephala, Taz Sraxs, (properly so called, or without external ears),— 


Have the incisors pointed; all their toes enjoy a certain degree of motion, and are terminated by 
pointed nails placed on the edge of the connecting membrane. 
They may be divided according to the number of their incisors. In 


Calocephala, F. Cuv. [Phaca, as restricted ],— 


There are six above and four below. [The cheek-teeth have more than one root; and besides the 
main cutting point, there is on each an anterior smaller one, and two posterior. The brain is in this 
division amply developed, and the intelligence proportionate. ] 


The common Seal (Ph. vitulina, Lin. ; Ph. littorea, Thiem.)—Common on the coast of Europe in vast herds, and 

— extending far to the north. The European seas, 
however, contain several Phoce, which have 
been long confounded, some of which are per- 
haps varieties of the others; as Ph. hispida, 
Schreb. ; Ph. annellata, Nills. ; Ph. feetida, Fabr., 
&c. [Those of the British islands much require 
elucidation.} A species more easily recog- 
nized is 

The Harp Seal (Ph. groenlandica and oceanica, 
Auct.), from the whole north of the globe. [Re- 
markable for the difference in marking between 
the adult male (fig. 37) and the female and 
young: length five feet. It pertains to the British 
fauna, as does also the next species, according to 
report, for which the Halicherus griseus, how- 
ever, has been generally mistaken. ] 

Bearded Seal (Ph. barbata, Fabr.), a northern 
species, surpassing all the preceding ones in 
size, which is from seven to eight feet. Its 
moustaches are thicker and stronger than in the 
others. [Several more are known from the north- 
ern hemisphere. ] 


Fig. 37.—Greenland Seal. 


Tut Srerrincks (Stenorhynchus, F. Cuv.)— 
Possess four incisors to each jaw, and cheek- 
teeth deeply notched into three points (fig. 38), 
[but with single roots: the muzzle slender aud 
much elongated ; and very small claws]. 

One only is known (Ph. leptonyx, Bl.), from the 
Austral seas: size of the Bearded Seal. [An allied 
species constitutes 

Tue Lepronyx (Leptonyx, Gray)— 


The grinders of which are bluntly three-lobed, 


the muzzle broad and rounded, and hind feet Fig. 38.—Teeth of Sterrinck 
clawless. 


Olaria Weddellii, Lesson.—Aiso from the South Seas]. 


AMUPEHUUBIOUS ANIDYALS 


A\\N 
ANGE 


4 
LAKH 
ARON 


Otter 


(ff 


CARNARIA. 99 


Tae Monx (Pelagius, F. Cuv.)— 

Also possesses four incisors to each jaw; but the grinders form obtuse cones, with a slightly marked 
process before and behind. There is one in the Mediterranean, 

Ph. monachus, Gm., from ten to twelve feet in length. It is particularly found among the Grecian and Adriatic 
Isles, and was probably the species best known to the ancients. 

[Tae Haxxets (Halicherus, Nilsson). 

Grinding teeth of the upper jaw simple ; those of the lower with an inconspicuous tubercle before and 

behind. Muzzle deep and obliquely truncated: the head flat, and brain comparatively very small. 


H. gryphus, Nils., a species nearly as large as the Bearded Seal, inhabits the Baltic and British seas, where it 
would seem to be not uncommon. Its intelligence has been observed to be very inferior to that of the 


true Phoce.] 
Tur Hoopcap (Stemmatopus, F. Cuv.). 


Four superior, and two inferior incisors; the grinders compressed and slightly three-lobed, supported 
by thick roots. 

Ph. cristata, Gm.; Ph. leonina, Fabr.—A species attaining a length of seven or eight feet, with loose skin upon 
the head, which can be inflated into a sort of cowl, and is drawn over the eyes when the animal is menaced, at 
which time the nostrils also are puffed out like bladders. From the Arctic Ocean. 

Finally, : bi 
Tur Myrouncas (Macrorhinus, F. Cuv.; [Cystophora, Nilsson, | )— 

Possess, with the incisors of the preceding, obtuse conical molars (fig. 39) ‘but massive canines], and 
muzzle lengthened into a short moveable proboscis. The 
largest known Seal is of this subgenus ; the 

Ph. leonina, Lin.—Twenty to twenty-four feet in length [sometimes 
thirty, according to English measure, and of great proportionate 
bulk]. Brown, the muzzle of the male terminated by a wrinkled 
snout, which becomes inflated when the animal is angry. It is common 


in the southern latitudes of the Pacific Ocean, and of great request for 
the quantity of very superior oil with which it abounds. 


Those with external ears, 


Tue Oraries (Ofaria, Peron),— 

ASE 20 = Teel oF yun Are worthy of being formed into a separate genus, inasmuch 
as, besides the projecting auditory conch, the four middle upper incisors have a double cutting edge (a 
structure not hitherto remarked in any other animal); the exterior are simple and very small, and the 
four inferior forked: the molars are all simply conical. The. toes of their anterior swimming-paws 
[which are placed far backward] are almost immoveable ; and the membrane of their hind feet is 
prolonged into a flap beyond each toe : all the nails are thin and flat. 


Ph. jubata, Gm. (Sea Lion of Steller, Pernatty, 
&c., but not of Anson, which refers to the My- 
rounga; the latter being also the Sea Wolf of Per- 
natty). From fifteen to twenty feet [French], and 
more, in length: the neck of the male covered 
with more frizzled and thickly-set hairs than 
those on the other parts of the body. From the 
South Pacific. 

[The Falkland Otary, or Fur Seal of com- 
merce (C. Falklandia, Desm.)—Remarkable for 
the great disproportionate size of the sexes (if, 
indeed, the same does not apply to all its con- 
geners); the full-grown male, according to 
Weddell, measuring 6 ft. 9 inch.; the female 
only 34 feet. It is polygamous, in the proportion of 
one male to about twenty females. The fur is 
an esteemed article of commerce; and so abun- 
dant was the species formerly in various locali- 
ties, that for a period of fifty years, not less than 
1,200,000 skins were annually obtained from a 

~ single island]. 


pom 
100 MAMMALIA. 


The Ursal (PA. wrsina, Gm. [Arectocephalus ursinus, F. Cuy. fig. 40.]—Eight feet long, no mane, varying trom 
brown to whitish. From the north of the Pacific Ocean. 


Tue Morse (Trichecus, Lin.)\— 
Resembles the Seals in the general form of its body and limbs, but differs considerably from them in 
the head and teeth. The lower jaw has neither incisors nor canines, and is compressed anteriorly to 
pass between two enormous canines or tusks which issue from the upper one, and which are directed 
downwards, attaining sometimes a length of two feet, with proportionate thickness. The magnitude 
of the sockets requisite for holding such enormous canines raises up the whole front of the upper jaw, 
so as to form a thick bulging muzzle, the nostrils opening upwards, instead of being terminal. The 
molars are ali short cylinders, obliquely truncated. There are four [or five] on each side above and 
below ; but at a certain age, two of the upper ones fall out. Between the canines are two incisors 
similar to the molars, which the majority of observers have overlooked, as they are not fixed in the 
intermaxillary bones; and between these again, in young individuals, are two pointed and 


small ones. 
The stomach and intestines of the Morse are nearly similar to those of the Seals: and it appears 
that they subsist on fuci as well as on animal substances. 


One species only has been ascertained, the Morse or Walrus (77. rosmarus, L.); an inhabitant of all parts of the 
Arctic seas, exceeding the largest Bull in bulk; it attains a length of twenty feet, and is covered with short yel- 
lowish hair. This animal is much sought for on account of its oil and tusks; the ivory of which, though coarse- 
grained, is employed in the arts. The skin makes excellent coach-braces. [A strange assertion originated with 
Sir E. Home, that the feet of the Morse possess suckers, by which it is enabled to ascend perpendicular ice-bergs. 
There is no foundation for this statement. 


It is difficult to interealate the Amphibia in the series of Carnivora, and to determine to 
what extent their peculiarities should be regarded as adaptive modifications, based on the 
rudimental structure of the whole order. 

At the head of the Carnivora we prefer to place the Dogs or Canide, followed by the 
Viverride and Felide : the Seals or Phocide might, we conceive, next range with less impro- 
priety than elsewhere : and after them the Mustelide, and Urside ; then, finally, the Insectivora, 
which the author ranks as equivalent to all the foregomg. The Cheiroptera, cr Bats, we 
deem to be subordinate rather to the preceding order. 

Remains of nearly all the principal genera and some additional ones have been found, more 
or less abundantly, in the tertiary strata, or deposits overlying the chalk, but not in beds of 
anterior formation. | 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— 


MARSUPIATA,— 


(Or that of the Pouched Animals,)— 


With which we formerly terminated the CARNARIA, as a fourth family of that great ordinal 
division, presents so many singularities in the economy of its members, that we are induced to 
separate and elevate it to its present position; the more particularly, as we observe in it a 
sort of representation of three very different orders. 

The first of all their peculiarities is the premature production of their young, which are 
born in a state of developement scarcely comparable to that of an ordinary foetus a few days 
after conception. Incapable of motion, and barely exhibiting the rudiments of limbs and 


MARSUPIATA. 101 


other external organs, these minute offspring attach themselves to the teats of their mother, 
and remain fixed there until they have acquired a degree of developement analogous to that 
in which other animals are born. The skin of the abdomen is almost always so disposed 
around the mammz as to form a pouch, in which these imperfect young are preserved as in a 
second uterus; and into which, long after they can walk, they retire for shelter on the appre- 
hension of danger. Two peculiar bones attached to the pubis, and interposed between the 
muscles of the abdomen, support the pouch, [and prevent inconvenient pressure of the young, 
when grown, upon the bowels.] These bones are also found in the male, and even in those 
species in which the fold that forms the pouch is scarcely visible. 

The matrix of the animals of this order does not open by a single orifice into the extremity 
of the vagina, but communicates with this canal by two bent lateral tubes. The premature 
birth of the young appears to depend on this singular organization. The scrotum of the male, 
contrary to what obtains in other quadrupeds, hangs before the penis, which at rest is directed 
backwards. 

Another peculiarity of the Marsupiata is, that, notwithstanding a general resemblance of 
the species to each other, so striking that they were all long included in one genus, they 
differ so much in the teeth, the digestive organs, and the feet, that if we rigidly adhered to 
these characters, it would be necessary to separate them into distinct orders. They carry us 
by insensible gradations from the Carnaria to the Rodentia*, and there are even some animals 
which have the pelvis furnished with similar bones ; but which, being destitute of incisors and 
even of any sort of teeth, have been approximated to the Edentata, where, in fact, we shall 
leave them, under the name of Monotremata. [The latter are now more properly included 
as a second order of the same superior division of Mammalia which contains the Marsupiata, 
by the general consent of physiologists. ] 

In brief, it may be stated that the Marsupiata form a distinct ciass, parallel to that of 
ordinary quadrupeds, and divisible mto similar orders; so that, if we were to arrange 
these two classes into even columns, the Opossums, Dasyures, and Bandicoots, would be 
opposed to the insectivorous Carnaria, such as the Tenrecs and Moles; the Phalangers 
and Potoroos to the Urchins and Shrews; while the Kangaroos, properly so called, could not 
well be compared with any other genus; but the Wombat should be placed opposite the 
Rodentia. Lastly, if we were to consider the bones of the pouch only [commonly desig- 
nated marsupial bones], and regard as marsupial all animals which possess them, the 
Platypuses and Echidnas might compose a group parallel to the Edentata. 

Linneus ranged all the species which he knew under his genus Didelp vis, signifying double 
matrix. 'The pouch is indeed in some respects a second one. 

[The Marsupiata, together with the Monotremata, is now generally regarded as a distinct 
subclass, Ovovivipara, equivalent to the rest of the Mammalia. Its members are lower in 
their organization than any other mammiferous animals, approximating the oviparous type 
(and particularly Reptiles), in sundry details of their organization. ‘The hemispheres of the 
brain, for instance, (which is much reduced in size,) are not united by a corpus callosum ; 
and they are observed to be very defective in intelligence, as is indicated by their phy- 
siognomy +t: the blood also is returned to the heart by two principal veins, as in Birds 
and Reptiles; and the sutures of the skull never become united. In short, they hold an 
analogous relation towards other Mammalia, to that which the Batrachia present to all 
other Reptiles. Their incisor teeth frequently exceed six in number, which is the maxi- 
mum throughout the rest of the class,—another indication of their inferiority. 

The geographic range of the Marsupiata, with the exception of the Opossum group 
peculiar to America, is at present almost confined to Australia and the neighbouring coun- 

* Only upon the supposition that the gnawing teeth of the Rudentia | supiata, is afforded by their turning to bite the stick with which they 


are modified incisors, which is more than doubtful.—Epb. are smitten, rather than the hand that guides it, 
+ A curious illustration of this inferiority on the part of the Mar 


9 


a 


10 MAMMALIA. 
tries, where they constitute, very nearly indeed, the only mammiferous animals; but fossil 
remains of them occur, sparingly, in the ancient secondary deposits of Europe, where 
hitherto no higher Mammalia have been detected. Consequently, the Marsupiata would 
appear to have been much earlier introduced upon ovr planet; a further indication, if not 
of their inferiority, at least of their intrimsical separateness as a group: there is reason 
also to suspect that at former epochs they were much more numerous, as well as generally 
diffused, than at present.” ] ; 
The first subdivision of them is distinguished by long canines, and small incisors to 
each jaw; the back molars are beset with pointed tubercles, and the general character of 
the teeth is the same as in the Insectivora, which these animals entirely resemble in their 


regimen. 
Tue Opossums (Didelphis, Lin.),— 

Which of all the Marsupiata have been the longest known, compose a genus peculiar to America. 
They have ten incisors above, and eight below; three anterior compressed molars, and four sharply 
tuberculated back molars, the superior of which are triangular, the inferior oblong: so that, with the 
four canines, they have in all fifty teeth, a number greater than has as yet been observed in any other 
quadruped.t Their tongue is bristled, and the tail prehensile and in part naked ; the hinder thumb is 
long and effectively opposable to the four other digits, whence the name Pedimana has been applied 
Their extremely wide mouth, and large naked ears, 
They are fetid and nocturnal 


to these animals; it is not furnished with a nail. 
give them a peculiar physiognomy. The glans penis is bifurcated. 
animals, whose gait is slow; nestle upon trees, and there pursue birds, insects, &c., without rejecting 
fruit : their stomach is small and simple, and the cecum moderate and without enlargements. 

The females of certain species have a deep pouch, wherein are placed their teats, and in which the 
young are inclosed. 

The Common Opossum (D.virginiana, Pen. (fig. 41.) 
—Nearly the size of a Cat: fur, a mixture of black 
and white: it inhabits the whole of America, enters 
the villages at night, and attacks poultry, devour- 
ing their eggs, &c. The young at birth, sometimes 
sixteen in number, weigh only a grain each. Al- 
though blind and nearly shapeless, they find the 
nipple by instinct, and adhere until they have at- 
tained the size of a Mouse, which happens about the 
fiftieth day, at which epoch they open their eyes. 
They continue to return to the pouch until they are 
as large as Rats. The term of uterine gestation 
is only twenty-six days. [Several others are known; 
one of which] the Crab-eating Opossum (D. cancri~ 
vorus), frequents the marshes of the sea-coast, where 
it feeds chiefly upon crabs. 


Other species possess no pouch, but merely a 
“ vestige of it, or fold of skin on each side of the 
belly. They habitually carry their young on 
their backs, the tails of the latter being entwined 
Y round that of the mother. . 


_ [A considerable number are known, from South 
America. } 


Tue Yaracu (Cheironectes, Mig.)— 


[Is merely an aquatic Opossum, with semi-pal- 
mate toes. | 


Fig. 41.—Common Opossum. 


* Since writing the above, Prof. Blainville has published an elabo- 
rate Essay on the reputed Marsupiata of the secondary deposits, 
wherein he advances the opinion that these celebrated fossil remains 
appertain rather to reptiles of a higher organization than any now 
existing. M. Valenciennes and Prof. Owen have subsequently ad- 
vocated the currently received opinion; while the first-named natu- 
ralist has been supported by Dr. Grant, who long previously had 


entertained the same idea. The question still remains sub jwdice; and 
it even appears that the objections to either solution of the difficulty 
| are more weighty than the arguments in its favour. 

+ There are fifty-two teeth in the newly-discovered Myrmecobius. 
The multiplication of the teeth in the Cetacea is on a different 
principle.—Ep. 


MARSUPIATA. 103 


The Yapach (Did. palmata, Geof. ; Lutra memimna, Bodd, fig. 42) frequents the rivers of Guiana. 


All the other Marsupials inhabit eastern 
countries, and especially New Holland; a 
land of which the mammiferous population 
seems even to consist principally of ani- 
mals of this group. 

[The three next genera, and probably 
the fourth, possess no ccecum. | 


Tue Tuyxacines (Thylacinus, Tem.)— 


Are the largest of this first division: they 
are distinguished from the Opossums by 
the hind-feet having no thumb, by a hairy 
and not prehensile tail, and two incisors 
less to each jaw; their molars are of the 
same number. They have accordingly 
forty-six teeth; but the external edge of 
the three large ones is projecting and 
trenchant, almost like the carnivorous tooth of a Dog: their ears are hairy, and of middle size. 


Fig. 42.—The Yapach. 


But one [living] species is known, a native of Van Diemen’s Land.—Size that of a [small] Wolf, but lower on the 
legs; of a greyish colour, barred with black across the crupper (Did. cynocephala, Harris). It is very carnivorous, 
and pursues all small quadrupeds. [This animal does not fish, as has been stated; nor is its tail compressed: it 
is principally nocturnal, and is called Tiger and Hyena in its native island.] A fossil species of Thylacine has 
been found in the gypsum quarries of Paris. 

THe PuascoGates (Phascogale, Tem.)— 


Have the same number of teeth as the Thylacines; but their middle incisors are longer than the 
others, and their back molars more sharply tuberculated, in which respect they rather approximate the 
Opossums. They are also allied to them by their small size; the tail, however, is not prehensile : 
their posterior thumbs, though very short, are still distinctly apparent. 


[Four species are now known, varying from the size of a Rat to that of a Mouse: they inhabit New Holland and 
Van Diemen’s Land, where they live on trees, and pursue insects. 


THE Dasyures (Dasyurus, Geof.)— 


Have two incisors and four grinders in each jaw less than the Opossums, so that they have only forty- 
two teeth; and their tail, everywhere covered with long hairs, is not prehensile. The hinder thumb 
is reduced to a mere tubercle, or even quite disappears, [as in the Thylacine]. They inhabit New 
Holland, and subsist on insects and dead carcases; they even penetrate into houses, where their 
voracity is very inconvenient. Their mouth is not so wide*, and the muzzle [much] less pointed, than 
in the Opossums ; their ears also are shorter, and hairy. They do not ascend trees. 


The Ursine Dasyure (Did. wrsina, Harris).—Long coarse black hairs, with some white markings; the tail 
half as long as the body, almost naked underneath. Inhabits the north of Van Diemen’s Land, and is 
nearly the size of a Badger. [This species, which is of common occurrence, is designated in Van Diemen’s Laud 
the Devil: it is nocturnal, and very destructive to Sheep, of a fierce disposition, bites severely, and is a match for 
an ordinary Dog: in common with the rest of its tribe, including the Thylacyar, it often sits on its haunches, and 
cleans its head with its fore-paws. | 

The long-tailed Dasyure (Das. macrourus, Geof.)—Size of a Cat, with the tail as long as the body ; fur brown, 
spotted with white both on the body and tail. The tubercle of the thumb is still well marked in this species, but 
in the following it can no more be seen. 

Maugé’s Dasyure (Das. Maugii, Geot.)—Rather smaller than the preceding, of an olive colour, spotted with 
white both on the body and tail: and lastly, Did. viverrina, Shaw ; which is black, spotted with white, and no spots 
onthe tail; athird less than the first. [These are still the only ascertained species, though it is probable that others 
remain confounded. The last is termed Wild Cat in Van Diemen’s Land, and is yery destructive to poultry, of 
which it only sucks the blood. These animals apply the entire sole of the hind-foot to the ground when standing. 


Tur MyrmecoBE (Myrmecobius, Waterh.)— 
Has the greatest number of teeth of any known marsupial, fifty-two in all; namely, eight upper and 


* T have been much astonished on witnessing the amazingly wide gape of the Ursine Dasyure.—Ep. 


| 104 MAMMALIA. 


six inferior incisors, and behind the canines four compressea molars in each jaw, and finally four small 
molars above, and five below, the latter pectinated internally in consequence of the irregularity of 
attrition ; the canine of the lower jaw is much incurved. The form of this animal is similar to that of 
a Squirrel, but with a long and pointed muzzle, as in the Banxring: it has no thumb to the hind-foot. 

The Banded Myrmecobe (M. fasciata, Waterh.)—Size of a Rat, and barred on the crupper similarly to the Thy- 
lacine, but with white bands on a reddish ground tint. The only specimens at present known were procured at 
Swan River settlement, Australia. This animal has been supposed to present the nearest living approach to the 
fossil Thylacotherium of the secondary lias.] 


Tue Banpicoors (Perameles, Geof. ; Thylacis, Ilig.)— 


Have the hinder thumb short, as in the first Dasyures, and the two following toes joined by the skin as 
far as the claws; the thumb and little toe of their fore-feet are reduced to simple tubercles, so that 
there seem to be only three toes: the superior incisive teeth are ten in number, the most hindward 
pointed, and widely separated from the rest ; below there are only six, [the posterior bilobate] ; but 
their molars are the same as in the Opossums, [though less angular internally]. Their tail is bairy, 
and not prehensile. They inhabit Australia. The great claws of their fore-feet, almost straight, 
announce the habit of digging into the ground, and their rather long hind-feet that their gait is rapid. 
[Their cecum is of middle size, as in the Opossums, to which they are approximated by Prof. Owen. 


The Long-nosed Bandicoot (P. nasutus, Geof.)—Muzzle very much elongated; the ears pointed; fur a greyish 
brown. It resembles, at the first glance, a Tenrec. The P. obesula, Geof., is not so authentic. [The latter is 
now well established, as also another, P. Gunnii, from Van Diemen’s Land, which is very generally diffused 
throughout that island; it lives principally on bulbs, but also on insects. Two or three more have been indi- 
dicated, one of which, P. lagotis, Reid, is ranged by Prof. Owen as 


= Tue PHILANDER (Thalacomys, Owen) ,— 
The superior hindward incisor of which is close to the others, and the muzzle very long, and abruptly 
attenuated: auditory bulla remarkably large, and divided posteriorly. The ears long, and the tail also 
long and bushy. 


The only known species (Per. lagotis, Reid)—is a nimble-looking and handsome animal; greyish, and as large 
as the common Opossum. From New South Wales. ] 


In the second subdivision of Marsupials, there are two large and long incisors in the lower 
jaw, with poited and trenchant edges sloping forwards, and six corresponding teeth in the 
upper one. The superior canines are still long and pointed ; but those of the lower jaw are so 
small that they are often hidden in the gum: in the last subgenus there are even none below. 

Their regimen is in great part frugivorous; hence their intestines, and particularly the 
ececum, are much longer than in the Opossums. They have all a large thumb, so separated 
from the other digits that it seems directed backward as in Birds: it has no nail, and the two 
following fingers are joined by the skin as far as the last phalanx. It is from this circum- 
stance that they have derived their name of 


PHALANGERS (Phalangista, Cuv.) 


THe RestrictED PHALANGERS (Balantia, Mlig.)— 


Have not the skin of the flank extended: they have on each jaw four back molars, all of which present 
individually four points, ranged in two rows; and before these a large one, conically compressed ; also, 
between this and the upper canine, two small and pointed teeth, to which correspond the very small 
teeth below, of which we have spoken: their tail is always prehensile. 

In some it is in great part scaly. They inhabit trees in the Molucca islands, where they feed on 
insects and fruit. At the sight of a man they suspend themselves by the tail; and if he gazes at them 
steadily for some time, they fall through lassitude. They diffuse an offensive odour, notwithstanding 
which their flesh is eaten. 

Several species are known, of various size and colours, all of which are comprehended under the Didelphis 


orientalis of Linnwus. [Those in which the tail is partly scaiy are peculiar to the Molucca islands, aud constitute 
the division Cuscus of some systematists. Five are enumerated by the author, who follows Temminck.] 


In others, which have hitherto been found in New Holland only, the tail is hairy to the tip. 


MARSUPIATA, 105 


[The author enumerates three, to which four have since been added by Mr. Ogilby, and an eighth by M. Geoffroy. 
These animals keep in holes of trees till twilight, and for an hour or two after sunset are observed eating the 
leaves of the different Ewcalypti ; also, in retired places, those with the young shoots of fruit-trees. The Ph. vul- 
pina is known as the Brush-tailed Opossum in Van Diemen’s Land, and the Ph. Cookii, as the Ring-tailed 
Opossum. ]} 


| 
Tue Peraurists (Petaurus, Shaw ; Phalangista, Wig.)— 
Have the skin of the flanks more or less extended between the legs, as in the Colugos, and Taguans 
among the Rodents, by which they are enabled to sustain themselves in the air for some seconds, and 
to make greater leaps. They have been found only in New Holland. 
Some of the species still possess inferior canines, but extremely small. Their upper canines and 
the three first molars, both above and below, are very pointed ; the back molars have each four points 
[the last excepted, in which there are but three]. M. Desmarest has named this division Acrodates. 
[It possesses thirty-six teeth in all.] 
The Pygmy Petaurist (Did. pigmea, Shaw).—Of the colour and nearly the size of a Mouse; the hairs of the tail 
disposed very regularly on its two sides like the barbs of a feather. 
Other species have no inferior canines, and the superior are very small. Their four back molars 
each present four points, but a little curved into a crescent, somewhat as observed in the Ruminants. 
Anteriorly, there are two above and one below, less complicated: this structure renders them still 
more frugivorous than any of the preceding. [Their teeth amount in all to thirty-four. ] 


The Great Petaurist (Did. petaurus, Shaw; P. taguanoides, Desm.)—Resembles the Tagaun and the Colugo in 
size: its fur is soft and thick, and the tail long and [not in those which I have seen] flattened: brown-black 
above, white underneath. 

The Scinrine Petaurist (Did. sciurea, Shaw).—Ash-coloured above, white beneath, and smaller than the pre- 
ceding; a brown line commencing on the muzzle and continued along the back: the tail tufted, and as long as the 
body, its posterior portion black. From the islands near New Guinea. [It is abundant along the south coast of 
New Holland. The teeth are forty in number, and exhibit considerable modification; hence this animal has been 
made a separate division of the Belidea, Waterh. There are but four true molars to each jaw, with comparatively 
blunt tubercles originally ; three false molars and a middle-sized canine above, and four small flattened teeth 
below: the palate also is in this group perfect, whereas it is not so in the two others. Four or five species are 
known to possess these characters. 

‘The remainder appertain to the same minimum group as P. taguanoides.] 


Our third subdivision possesses the incisors and superior canines of the preceding. The 


two toes of the hind-foot are also similarly united; but the posterior thumbs and inferior 
canines are wanting. It contains but a single genus, 


Tue Pororoos (Hypsiprymnus, Ilig.),— 

Which are the last animals of this family that retain any trace of the general character of the Car- 
naria. Their teeth are nearly the same as in the Phalangers, and they still have pointed canines above 
[which all but disappear in one species]. Their two middle upper incisors are longer than the rest, 
and pointed; the two inferior ones project forwards. They have anteriorly a long trenchant and 
dentelated molar, followed by four others, each with four blunt tubercles. What particularly distinguishes 
these animals, however, is their hind legs, which are very much longer in proportion than their fore 
ones, that have no thumbs, and the two first toes of which are joined as far as the nail; so that, at a 
first glance, it seems as though there were but three toes, the middle one having two nails. They 
often hop on their hind-feet, at which time they make use of their long and strong tail to support 
themselves. They have accordingly the form and habits of the Kangaroos, from which they only differ in 
possessing the superior canine. Their regimen is frugivorous, and the stomach large, divided into two 
sacs, and possessing several inflations ; but their ccecum is moderate and rounded. 


Only one species is known, the size of a small Rabbit, and of a mouse-grey colour, which is termed the Kanga- 
roo-rat (Macropus minor, Shaw.) [Five or six others have since been discovered, two of which, inhabiting New 
Guinea, are remarkable for their arboreal habits, in reference to which their structure is slightly modified, the 
limbs being less unequal, and the great nails of their hind-feet curved: they do not, however, essentially differ 
from the others. One species is common in the interior of Van Diemen’s Land). 


The fourth subdivision differs only from the third im having no canines whatever. 


Ture KancGaroos, (Macropus, Shaw ; Halmaturus, Ilig.),— 


In which all the characters occur that we have assigned to the preceding genus, except that the upper 


106 MAMMALIA. 


canines are wanting, and the middle incisors do not project beyond the others. The unequal size of 
the limbs is even more remarkable, so that they advance on all fours with difficulty and slowly, but 
make immense leaps on their hind-feet, the great nail of which (almost in the shape of a hoof) serves 
them likewise for defence, as, by supporting themselves on one foot and their enormous tail, they can 
inflict a severe blow with that which is at liberty.* They are very gentle, herbivorous animals, their 
grinders presenting only transverse ridges: they possess five in all, of which the anterior are 
more or less trenchant, and fali with age, so that older individuals have often only three. Their 
stomach is formed of two elongated sacs, that are inflated at several places like a colon: the ccecum 
also is large and inflated. The radius allows a complete rotation of the fore-arm. 

The penis in these two genera is not bifurcated; but the female organs are similar to those of other 


Marsupiata. 


The Great Kangaroo (M. major, Shaw).—Sometimes 
six feet in height, being the largest animal of New Hol- 
land. It was discovered by Cook in 1779, and is now 
bred in Europe. The flesh is said to resemble venison. 
The young ones, which are only an inch long at birth, 
remain in the maternal pouch even when they are old 
enough to graze, which they effect by stretching out the 
neck from their domicile, when the mother herself is 
feeding. These animals live in troops, conducted by the 
old males.t They make enormous leaps. [Numerous 
other species are now known, which have even been ar- 
ranged into subgenera: these, however, are not gene- 
rally adopted. They degrade in size to smaller than a 
Hare. ] 


The fifth subdivision has two long incisors 
in the lower jaw, but no canines; in the upper 
two long middle incisors, with some small ones 
[four in number] placed laterally, and two 


Fig. 43.—Great Kangaroo, 


small canines. It comprehends but one genus, 


THE Koata (Koala, Cuv.; Lipurus, Goldf.; Phascolarctost, Blainv.),— 


Which presents a short, stout body, and short legs, without any [or rather with a short] tail: their ante- 
rior toes, five in number, separate into two groups 
for prehension, the thumb and index antagonizing 
with the other three. On the hind-feet there is 
no thumb; and the first two toes are united as in 
the Phalangers and Kangaroos. [There are five 
molars in each jaw, square, with four tubercles each, 
excepting the first. This animal is essentially a 
Phalanger with a short tail.] 

One only is known (Lip. cinereus, Goldfuss.)—Of a 
greyish colour, which passes its life partly upon trees, 
and partly in burrows which it excavates at their foot 
(fig. 44.) The female carries her young for a long time 
on her back. 


Finally, our sixth division of the Marsupial 


animals, consisting of 


Fig. 44.—Koala. 


Tue Womrat (Phascalomys, Geof.; | Amblotis, Bass] ),— 


Comprehends a true Rodent according to the teeth and intestines, which preserves its relationship with 
the Carnaria only in the mode of articulation of its lower jaw; and which, ina rigorous system, it 


* A Kangaroo will hag a Dog with its fore-paws, while it kicks and They lodge during the day among high ferns, and feed chiefly hy 
rips up the belly with its hind-foot.—Ep. night, or in the evening and morning; but are very sharp-sighted 
* It appears rather that the animals of this genus are not strictly | during the day.—Ep. 
gregarious, but collect accidentally at the scattered feeding places. 1 This term is generally adopted.—Epb. 


: RODENTIA. 107 


would therefore be necessary to rank among the Rodentia. We should even have placed it there, 
had we not been gradually led to it by an uninterrupted series from the Opossums to the Phalan- 
gers, thence to the Kangaroos, and from the Kangaroos to the Wombat.* Their reproductive organs 
are entirely similar to those of other Marsupiata. 

They are sluggish animals, with large flat heads, and bodies that appear as if crushed. They are 
without a ‘tail; have five naiis on each of the fore-feet, and four, with a small tubercle in place of a 
thumb, on each of the hind ones, all very long and adapted for burrowing. Their gait is remarkably 
slow. They have two long incisors to each jaw, almost similar to those of the Rodentia, [but which 
oppose flat surfaces to each other, and not chisel-like edges, as in the latter] ; and their grinders have 
each two transverse ridges. : 

They subsist on herbage, and have a large and pear-formed stomach, and short and wide ccecum, 
furnished (like that of Man and the Ourang-outang) with a vermiform appendage. The penis is forked, 
as in the Opossums. 


One species only is known (Did. ursina, Shaw) ; of the size of a Badger ; the fur abundant, and ofa more or less 
yellowish-brown. It is found in Van Diemen’s Land, where it lives in its burrow; and breeds readily in confine- 
ment. The flesh is said to be excellent. [The skin of this animal is remarkably thick, and curiously attached to 
the hip-bones : its eyes are unusually small. When attacked, it grunts like a Pig; and is found at various eleva- 
tions, burrowing in the forests and low grounds, and retiring to crevices in the upper. To the colonists, it is 
generally known as the Badger. 


The Marsupiata are distributed by Prof. Owen, in conformity with the structure of their 
digestive organs, as follows :— 

1, The ccecum altogether absent.—Thylacynus, Dasyurus, Phascogaie, and probably 
Myrmecobius. 

2. With a small coecum.—Didelphis and Cheironectes; Perameles, and probably Thy- 
lacomys. 3 

3. Coecum of large size—Phascolarctos, Phalangista, Petaurus. 

4. The stomach complicated.—Macropus and Hypsiprymaus. 

5. Ceeeum with a vermiform appendage.—Phascalomys 

This arrangement appears to be perfectly in accordance with the affinities of these animals : 
though, at the same time, it may be added that the Wombat (Phascalomys) might properly 
form a distinct order of Ovovivipera. } 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. 


RODENTIA. 


We have just seen, in the Phalangers, canines so small, that we can hardly consider them 
as such. The nutriment of these animals, accordingly, is chiefly derived from the vegetable 
kingdom. Their intestines are long, and the coecum simple ; and the Kangaroos, which have 
no canines at all, subsist on vegetables only. The Wombat might commence that series of 
animals of which we are now about to speak, and which have a system of manducation even 
less complete. 

Two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by a wide interval, cannot well 
seize a living prey, or devour flesh. They are unable even to cut the aliment; but they 
serve to file, and by continued labour, to reduce it into small particles; in a word, to gnaw 
it: hence the name Rodentia applied to the animals of this order: it is thus that they suc- 

* This gradation is, however, more apparent than real, as regards | never cease growing at the base, as their crowns wear away by 


the Wombat, which differs from all other Marsupiata in the persist- | attrition,—Kp. 
ency of the formative pulps of its teeth, which, in consequence, 


MAMMALIA. F 


cessfully attack the hardest substances, frequently feeding on wood and the bark of trees. 
The better to accomplish this object, these incisors have enamel only im front, so that 
their posterior edges wearing away faster than the anterior, they are always naturally sloped 
[or chisel-like]. Their prismatic form causes them to grow from the root as fast as they wear 
away at the tip [their formative pulps being persistent]; and this tendency to increase in 
length is so powerful, that if either of them be lost or broken, its antagonist im the other jaw, 
having nothing to oppose or comminute, becomes developed to a monstrous extent.* The 
inferior jaw is articulated by a longitudinal condyle, in such a way as to allow of no horizontal 
motion, except from back to front, and vice versd, as is requisite for the action of gnawing. 
The molars also have flat crowns, the enamelled eminences of which are always transversal, so 
as to be in opposition to the horizontal movement of the jaw, and better to assist in 
trituration. 

The genera in which these eminences are simple lines, and the crown is very flat, are more 
exclusively frugivorous ; those in which the emmences of the teeth are divided into blunt 
tubercles are omnivorous; while the small number of such as have no points more readily 
attack other animals, and approximate somewhat to the Carnaria. 

The form of the body in the Rodentia is generally such, that the hinder parts of it exceed 
those of the front ; so that [with the exception of a large South American group, including 
the Guinea-pig and its allies,] they rather leap than run. In some of them, this disproportion 
is even as excessive as in the Kangaroos. 

The intestines of the-Rodentia are very long; their stomach simple, or but little divided ; 
and their coecum often very voluminous, even more so than the stomach. In the subgenus 
Myoxus, however, this intestine is wanting. 

Throughout the present group, the brain is almost smooth and without furrows: the orbits 
are never separated from the temporal fossze+, which have but little depth: the eyes are 
directed sideways: the zygomatic arches, thin and curved below, announce the feebleness of 
the jaws; and the fore-arms have almost lost the power of rotation, ther two bones being 
often united: in a word, the inferiority of these animals is perceptible in most of the details 
of their organization. Those genera, however, which have stronger clavicles, display a certain 
degree of address, and employ their fore-feet together to hold up feod to the mouth : some of 
them even climb trees with facility. 

[We have seen that in the true Lemurs the middle superior incisors are separated by a wide 
interval, which in the Colugos (Galeopithecus) is still more extended: in Propithecus of 
Mr. Bennett, on the contrary, the front pair are brought nearly contiguous, having more of 
the Monkey character than in other Strepsirrhini. The lower canines also, which are directed 
horizontally forward throughout that group, and approximated so as to leave little room for 
the intervening incisors, which are accordingly extremely narrow or corapressed, are even 
more approximated in the Propithecus, so that one pair of the imcisors is necessarily sacri- 
ficed; and hence the diminution of the interspace between the upper incisors. Now im 
this we may discern a slight approach to the rodent character of Cheiromys, im the loss of one 
pair of incisors. In the latter genus, the whole of the incisors disappear, the canines of both 
jaws occupying their site: precisely as in the true Rodentia, wherein also the incisors and not 
the canines or tusks are almost without exception obliterated, as is beautifully shown in the 
instance of the Hare, where true incisors exist posterior to the upper gnawing teeth: it will 
be observed that in all Rodentia the currently reputed incisors pass through the inter- 
maxiliaries; while the constant limitation of their number to two in each jaw, and the imva- 
riable absence of any trace of other teeth in the ordinary position of canines, assist im con- 
firming the opinion here decidedly entertained respecting the nature of what have been desig- 
nated incisive teeth in these animals. It may be added that the Marsupiata do not, therefore, as 


* We have seen one of these upper teeth thus prolonged, and + They are so in Cheiromys, ranged by the author in this order.— 


gradually curling round, so as to destroy the eye of a Rat.—Ep. | Ep, 


A 


RODENTIA. 109 


arranged by Cuvier, effect a transition im the rudimental character of their dentition from the 
Carnivora to the Rodentia; masmuch as the canines, and not the incisors, disappear in them 
(as observable in Hypsiprymnus): the Wombat (Phascalomys) might indeed be thought to 
present a solitary exception to this remark; but there is reason to believe that the gnawing 
teeth of this animal are modified incisors. Perhaps the nearest affinity of the Rodentia is 
with the Elephant, among the Packydermata. | 

Some of the Rodentia even ascend trees with facility. Such are 


THe SauirreELs (Seiurus, Lin.),— 


Which may be recognized by their very compressed lower incisors, and by their long bushy tail. Their 
fore-feet have only four toes, the hinder five: the site of the anterior thumb is however marked by a 
tubercle [and it is between these tubercles of the two fore-paws that the Squirrels and allied genera 
hold up their food to the mouth]. They have in all four grinders to each jaw, variously tubercu- 
lated, and a very small additional one above in front, which soon falls. Their head is large, the eyes 
prominent and lively. They are light and agile animals, which nestle on trees, and subsist upon their 
produce. 
Tue Sauirre.s, properly so called (Sciwrus, Cuv ),— 

Have the hairs on the tail directed laterally, so as to resemble a feather. There are numerous species 
on both continents. 

The Common Squirrel (Sc. vulgaris, L.)—[Bright red in summer, with a dash of grey on the upper parts in 
winter, at which latter season the fur 1s much finer, and the ears are terminated with long hairs; the belly white. ] 
One of the most beautiful is the 

Sc. maximus and macrourus, a native of India.—Nearly the size of a Cat; above, black, the flanks and top of the 
head a beautiful bright maroon, the head, and all the under parts of the body, with the inside of the limbs, pale 
yellow ; a maroon-coloured band behind the cheek. It inhabits the palms, and is extremely fond of the milk of 
the cocoa-nut. 

There are several species in warm climates, remarkable for the longitudinal bands which adorn their fur. Such 
are the Palmist [which has been known to vary entirely black, or white, &c. Certain African species, inhabiting 
rocky situations, the tail of which is not bushy, but thinly covered with stiff appressed hairs, and somewhat tufted at 
the extremity, constitute the Petromys of Smith; and others, also from Africa, which are entirely covered with 
coarse rigid fur, the claws of which also are long and straight, adapted for burrowing only, compose the Xerws, 
Emp., and Ehr.; Geosciurus, Smith: many of the latter animals live together, in holes of the ground; subsisting 
mainly on roots, for which they scratch up the soil. Sc. capensis, Thunberg, is an example of this form.] 


It is probable that we shall have to separate from the Squirrels certain species that have cheek- 
pouches, like the Hamsters, and which retreat into subterraneous holes. They are 


Tae Grounp-squirRELs (Jamia, Illig.). 
Such are 


The Sc. striatus, Lin., which is found throughout northern Asia and America, particularly in the pine forests. 
The tail is less bushy than in the Common Squirrel of Europe, the ears smooth, and fur brown, with five black 
stripes and two white ones. [Those from America are specifically different, and indeed constitute two or three 
separate species. ] 


We ought also, most probably, to distinguish 


Ture Gueruineuets [ (Macroxus, Bodd.) ],— 
Wherein the tail is long, and almost round, and the scrotum pendent and enormous. In both the 
Ground-squirrels and Guerlinguets, the teeth are similar to those of the true Squirrels. 


Species of them occur on both continents. 


Tue Tacuans, AssAPAns, or Flying Squirrels, (Pteromys, Cuv.)— 
Have already been separated. In these the skin of the flank, extending between the fore and hind 
legs, imparts the faculty of sustaining themselves for some instants in the air, and of making immense 
leaps. Their feet have long osseous appendages, which support a portion of this lateral membrane. 


There is a species in Poland, Russia, and Siberia (Sciurus volans, Lin.)—Greyish ash-colour above, white below ; 
the tail only half the lengthof the body: size of a Rat; and which lives solitarily in the forests. Another in 
North America, smaller, with the tail only a fourth shorter than the body (Se. volucedla, Lin.): it lives in troops in 
the prairies of the more temperate districts. 


110 MAMMALIA. 


In the Indian Archipelago there is one nearly the size of a Cat (Sc. petaurista, Lin.): but the same Archipelago 
produces smaller ones, as the Se. sagitta, distinguished from the rest, the small ones especially, by its membrane, 
which, as in Pt. petaurista, forms an acute projecting angle behind the tarsus. 

[M. F. Cuvier has subdivided this group into the Taguans (Pteromys), and Assapans (Sciuropterus), which 
latter term he applies to the smaller species, the hairs on the tail of which are arranged distachously : there are 
several eastern species, however, which appear to connect the two together. ] 


Tue Aye-AyveE (Cheiromys, Cuy.),— 


The inferior incisors of which are still more compressed, and above all, more extended from front to 
back, resembling plough-shares. Their feet have each five toes, of which four of the anterior are 
excessively elongated; the medius being much more slender than the others; in the hind-feet, the 
thumb is opposable to the other digits; so that in this respect these animals are to the other rodents, 
what the Opossums are among the Carnaria.* The structure of their head is otherwise very different 
from that of the other Rodentia, presenting a closer relationship with the Quadrumana [among which 
this remarkable genus is now ranged by almost general consent. It is, in fact, in the aggregate of its 
conformation, a Lemurine animal: in which group we have already seen that the lower canines are 
singularly modified, projecting forwards, and being approximated to each other; insomuch that the 
intervening incisors (except in Galgopithecus) are consequently extremely compressed and narrow, 
one pair of them being even sacrificed in the Indris. In the present genus, the whole of the incisors 
disappear, as in the ordinary Rodentia ; the canines of both jaws occupying their site: but it is very 
doubtful whether, as in the true Rodents, these teeth have persistent formative pulps, as there does 
not exist another known instance of continuously growing teeth in any animal pertaining to the great 
divisions of Primaria and Carnaria.f What little is known of the osteology of Cheiromys is strictly 
% Lemurine ; and no rodent possesses the rotation of the bones of the 
fore-arm, and free separate movement of the limbs as prehensile in- 
struments, which are observed in this genus. Its habitat even is 
Madagascar, the metropolis of the Lemurine group of animals. ] 

One species only is known, discovered by Sonnerat (Sciurus madagascar- 
iensis, Gm.); as large as a Hare, of a brown colour, tinged with yellow ; tail 
long and thick, with some black bristles; and large naked ears. It is a 


nocturnal animal, the movements of which seem painful to it; lives in 
burrows, and employs its long slender digit to convey food to its mouth. 


Linneus and Pallas have brought together in one single group, 
under the general name of 


Rats (Mus, Lin.),— 

All the rodents possessed of clavicles which they could not distin- 
guish by some obvious external character, such as the tail of the 
Squirrels or that of the Beaver; from which resulted the utter impos- © 
sibility of assigning to them any common character: the greater 
number had merely pointed lower incisors, but even this character 
was subject to exceptions. 

Gmelin has already separated the Marmots, Dormice, and Jerboas; 
but we carry their subdivision much further, from considerations founded on the form of their 


Fig 45.—The Aye aye. 


grinders. 
Tur Marmors (4rctomys, Gm.)— 

Have, it is true, the inferior incisors pointed, as in the greater number of animals comprised in the 
great genus of Rats; but, as in the Squirrels [to which superior group they indubitably appertain], 
they have five molars on each side above, and four below, all of them sharply tuberculated ; accord- 
ingly, some of the species are inclined to eat flesh, and feed upon insects as well as vegetables. They 
have four toes, and a tubercle in place of a thumb, to their fore-feet ; and five toes to their hind feet. 
In other respects, these animals are nearly the direct reverse of the Squirrels; being heavy, with short 
limbs, a hairy tail of middle length or short, a large flat head, and they pass the winter in a state of 


* The Opossums were arranged among the Carnaria in the author’s | + The Wombat presents the only instance amongst the Mar- 
first edition.—Ep. | supiata. 


RODENTIA. lll 


lethargy in deep holes, the entrance of which they close with a quantity of grass.* They live in society, 
and are easily rendered tame. 

Two species are known in the Eastern continent. The Alpine Marmot (Mus. alpinus, Lin.), as large as a Rabbit, 
witha short tail, and yellowish-grey fur, more ash-coloured towards the head, which inhabits lofty mountains 
immediately below the perpetual snow line: and the Polish Marmot, or Bobac (M. bobac, Lin.), the same size as 
the other, and yellowish-grey, wlth a russet tint about the head; it inhabits the lesser mountains and hills from 
Poland to Kamtschatka, and often burrows in the hardest ground. Russian travellers in Bucharia mention some 
others, as Arct. fulvus, leptodactylus, and musogaricus, which are perhaps not sufliciently determined. America 
likewise produces several Marmots. 


. 


Under the name of 
Sousxixs (Spermophiius, F. Cuv.),— 
May be distinguished several Marmots which have cheek-pouches. Their superior lightness has 
caused them to: be designated Ground-squirrels, [and they connect the true Squirrels with the 
foregoing]. Eastern Europe produces one,— 


M. citillus, Lin.—A pretty little animal, of a greyish-brown, waved or mottled with white, the spots small, which 
is found from Bohemia to Siberia. It has a particular fondness for flesh, and does not spare even its own species. 
[There is another in Russia, Sp. guttatus, Tem., and more, further eastward, as Sp. wanthoprymnus, a native of 
Trebizond ; but North America produces by far the greater number, some of which are beautifully marked with 
white lines along the back, between each of which is a series of white spots in the elegant Sp. Hoodii.] 


It appears that we should approximate to the Marmots, a rodent remarkable for the habit of living 
in great troops, in immense burrows, which have even been styled villages. It is called the Prairie 
Dog or Barking Squirrel, on account of its voice, which resembles the bark of a small Dog: the 
Arctomys ludovicianus of Say. M. Rafinesque, who [erroneously] ascribes to it five toes to each foot, 
has formed of it his genus Cynomys. [It is in every respect a true Marmot. 

All the foregoing genera, with the prominent exception of Cheiromys, are simply modifications of a 
single peculiar type, and together compose the first principal section of the Sciurid@ or Squirrel family. ] 


Tue DormicE (Myoxus, Gm.)— 


Have the lower incisors pointed, and four grinders, the crown of each of which is divided by closely- 


folded lines of enamel. 

They are pretty little animals, with soft fur, a hairy and even tufted tail, and lively expression: they 
inhabit trees like the Squirrels, and subsist on their produce. In the very numerous order of rodents, 
this is the only subgenus which is destitute of a ccecum. They become torpid in winter, like the 
Marmots, passing that season in a very profound lethargy: and so natural is it for them to fall into 
this state, that a species from Senegal (IM. Coupeii), which had probably never experienced it in its 
native country, became torpid in Europe as soon as it was exposed to cold. 

The Fat Dormouse (M. glis, Lin.)—Size of a Rat; greyish ash-brown above, whitish underneath; of a deeper 
brown around the eyes; tail very hairy throughout its length, and disposed somewhat like that of a Squirrel, fre- 
quently also a little forked at its extremity. It inhabits the south of Europe, and nestles in the holes of trees and 
fissures of rocks. It sometimes attacks small birds. This is probably the Rat fattened by the ancients, among 
whom it was considered a great delicacy. [It is still eaten by the modern Italians. ] 

The Garden Dormouse (M. nitela).—Somewhat less than the preceding ; greyish-brown above, white beneath ; 
black round the eye, which extends spreading to the shoulder ; the tail tufted only at the end, and black, with its 
extremity white. This species is common in gardens, where it shelters itself in holes about the walls, and does 
much injury to the fruit-trees nailed to them. [It does not occur in Britain.] 

The Red Dormouse (M. avellanarius, Lin.)—Size of a Mouse; cinnamon-red above, white beneath; the 
hairs of the tail disposed somewhat like a feather. From the forests of all Europe. It constructs its nest of grass 
on low branches, in which it rears its young: the rest of its time, and particularly during winter, it remains in 


the hollows of trees. 
[It has been said that this species cannot pierce a ripe nut-shell, and that its specific name does not correctly 


apply ; but in confinement we have frequently seen it penetrate to the kernel of the hardest hazel-nuts. 

Tue Grapnyvres (Graphyurus, F. Cuv.)— 
Scareely differ from the Dormice externally, but have weaker jaws, and a longer and more slender 
intestinal canal: their molars are of small size, and simple structure; and they have also no ccecum to 


the intestine. 


* The Ground-Squirrels (Zamias), and even the members of the restricted group Scirus, are more or less subject to become torpid in 


winter.—Ep. 


112 MAMMALIA. 


Two species have been ascertained, both from South Africa. 


The Dormice and Graphyures compose the second and last division of the Seiwride or Squirrel family]. 
We approximate to the Dormice, [but with questionable propriety ],— 


Tae Ecuymyps (Echymys, Geof. ; Loncheres, Ilig.),— 


Which also have four grinders, but differently formed ; the superior consisting of two lamine bent like 
a V, the inferior of one bent and one simple lamina. The fur of several species is rough, with inter- 
mixed flattened spines or prickles. They inhabit America. One of them, 

The Golden-tailed Echymyd (Hystrix chrysuros, Schreb.), is more than double the size of the Brown Rat; it is 
a handsome animal, of a brown maroon-colour, the belly white, with a crest of elongated hairs and a longitudimal 
white band on the head; the tail long, and black, with its posterior half yellow. From Guiana. Another, 

The Red Echymyd (Ech. rufus ; the Spinous Rat of Azzara), of the size of a Rat, reddish-grey, with tail shorter 
than the body, is found in Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay. It excavates long subterraneous burrows. ['These 
species with hairy tails pertain to the Ne/omys of M. Jourdan, who restricts the term Ecehymys to the following. ] 


Others have merely the ordinary kind of hair, more or less rough. 


The most remarkable is Ech. dactyliacus, Geoff., the Long-toed Echymyd, which is still larger than the Golden- 
tailed species, and has the two middle toes of the fore-feet double the length of the laterai ones: its scaly tail is 
longer than the body; fur yellowish grey; the hairs on the nose forming a crest directed in front. 

The Mus paradoxus, Thomas (Lin. Trans. xi., Heteromys, Lesson), apparently differs only from the Echymyds 
in possessing cheek-pouches. However, not having seen its teeth, I cannot arrange it. 


[Tur Cercomyps (Cercomys, F. Cuy.) — 


Are closely related to the preceding, and have also four molars surrounded with enamel, which are 
deeply indented internally, and inclose three insulated circlets of enamel near their external border: 
their form is still more Rat-like, but with the profile of the visage arched; there are no spines in the 
fur, and the tail is long and scaly. 


One species (C. braziliensis) is figured by M. F. Cuvier in his great work on Mammalia]. 


Tare Hypromyps (Hydromys, Geof.)— 


Are in many respects related to the Echymyds externally ; but they are distinguished from all other 
Rats by their hind-feet, two-thirds of which are palmated: their molars, also, two in number above 
and below, have a peculiar character in the crown, which is divided into obliquely quadrangular lobes, 
the summits of which are hollowed out like the bowl of a spoon. They are aquatic. 

Several have been sent to Europe from Van Diemen’s Land, some with the belly white, others with a fulyous 
belly, but all deep brown above, with a long tail which is black at the base, the distal half white. They are some- 


times donble the size of the Brown Rat. H. hydrogaster and H. leucogaster, Geof. [The former is variable, but 
the latter notwithstanding appears to be another species. ] 


Tae Hourtas ‘Capromys, Desm.)— 


Have four molars above and below, with flat crowns, the enamel of which is folded inward, so as to 
form three re-entering angles on the external border, and only one on the internal side of those above, 
and the inverse in the lower ones. Their tail is round, and slightly hairy. Like the Rats, they have 
five toes to their hind feet, and four with the rudiment of a thumb to the anterior; their form is that 
of Rats as large as a Rabbit or Hare. 

Two [three] species are known [all from the West Indies], which, together with the Agoutis, formerly consti- 
tuted the chief game of the indigenous inhabitants. Jsodon pilorides, Say, refers to one of them. [They are 


nct distantly allied to the Porcupines. It is remarkable that these animals hold up their food (a fusiform root for 
instance) with one foot only to the mouth, resting on the other three. They ascend bushes with facility. ] 


Tue Rats, properly so called, (Mus, Cuv.),— 
Have three molars to each jaw, the anterior of which is the largest [and the posterior smallest], and the 
crowns of which are divided into blunt tubercles, which, by attrition, acquire the form of a disc vari- 
ously indented ; their tail is long and scaly. These animals are very annoying from their fecundity, 
and the voracity with which they gnaw and devour substances of every kind, There are three species 
very common in houses, namely, 


The Common Mouse (M. musculus, Lin).—Known in all times and all places. 


RODENTIA. Lis 


The Black Rat (M. rattus, Lin.), which the ancients have not alluded to, and which appears to have entered 
Europe during the middle ages. It is more than double the size of the Mouse in all its dimensions. The fur is 
biackish [with the ears much larger, and the tail longer, than in the following. There is a brown variety of this 
species, which is common in Paris, and appears to have been figured by M. F. Cuvier as the Surmulot. ] 

The Brown Rat, or Surmulot (M. decumanus, Lin.), which did not pass into Europe till the eighteenth century, 
and is now more common in large cities [and elsewhere, except in remote isolated localities,] than the Black Rat 
itself; it is a fourth larger than that species, and is also distinguished by its brown colour. This animal appears to 
belong to Persia, where it lives in burrows: it was not till 1727, that, after an earthquake, it arrived at Astracan, 
by swimming across the Volga. 

It would seem that the Black Rat, also, originated in the East; and these two large species, together with the 
Mouse, have been transported in ships to all parts of the globe. 

{Of the very numerous others, it must suffice to name the huge Bandicoot Rat of India (M. giganteus, 
Hardw.), which is much larger than the Surmulot. Those indigenous to South America have more complicated 
folds of enamel to their molars.*] Some have spines mingled with their fur, as 

The Cairo Mouse (M. cahirinus, Geoff.), which has spines on the back in place of hairs, and was noticed by 
Aristotle. 

[Only two strictly indigenous British Mice have hitherto been described : the first, extremely diminutive, is the 
Harvest Mouse (M. messorius, Shaw), with short ears, and red fur similar to that of the Common Dormouse: it 
constructs a beautiful round or pear-shaped nest, attached to corn-stems, or placed in low bushes ; ; and is remark- 
able for its tail being slightly prehensile at the extremity. The second is commonly termed the Long-tailed Field 
Mouse (M. sylvaticus), and might almost form a separate subgenus; it rather exceeds the common Mouse 
in size, with proportionately larger ears, and much larger and very brilliant eyes; a brown mark in the centre 
of the chest: it is a pretty and very active species, more generally diffused than the Harvest Mouse, and never 
enters buildings, where the other is often carried with the sheaves. | 


Warm climates produce Rats, similar in every detail to those of which we have just spoken, except 
that their tails are more hairy. Such are 


Hypudeus variegatus, Licht., var. flava; Meriones syenensis, Id. To which must be added the Arvicola 
messor, Le Conte; Arv. hortensis, Harl., or Sygmodon, Say, distinguished however by its hairy ears, like 
the Ofomys. 

Another group, also with a hairy tail, but the teeth of which wear away faster, comprises the Hypudeus obesus, 
Licht., the Mus ruficaudus, Id., and also the Meriones sericeus of the same naturalist, characterized by the 
projecting ridges of the molars, which alternately catch in each other. 

We have then to group the Neotoma floridanum of Say, or the Arvicola floridana of Harlan, and the Arvicola 
gossypina, Le Conte, two species which, size excepted, are very similar even in their colours, and the molars of 
which, provided with roots [after a while], when worn a little, have crowns similar to those of the Arvicole. (The 
tail in one of them is covered with hair of tolerable length. Both inhabit North America. 

Reithrodon, Waterh., requires also to be introduced here, distinguished by its grooved upper incisors, its arched 
and Rabbit-like head, great eyes, and large and round ears. Three or four species are known, from South 
America, where they were discovered by Mr. Darwin. 

The Pseudomys of Gray is another Rat-like animal, remarkable for inhabiting New Holland: the anterior molar 
of its lower jaw is however more compressed and elongated, and there is a claw on its rudimentary thumb. ‘The 
species, Ps. australis, inhabits holes in swampy places, at Liverpool plains. 

It is necessary also to introduce here the Hapalotis albipes, Licht.; Conilurus constrictus, Ogilby ; another 
rodent from New Holland, the size of a Rat, with delicate ample ears, ane a long, hairy, and somewhat tufted tail. 
It is remarkable for constructing an above-ground habitation, so firmly interlaced with thorny twigs externally, 
as to repel the Dingo or semi-wild Dog of that country.] 


Tue Gersits (Gerbillus, Desm.; Meriones, Mlig.)— 


Have molars scarcely differing from those of the Rats, merely becoming sooner worn, so as to form 
transverse ridges. Their upper incisors are furrowed with a groove; their hind feet are somewhat 
longer in proportion than those of Rats in general, with the thumb and little toe but slightly sepa- 
rated: their tail is [very] long and hairy, [and generally tufted]. 

The sandy and warm parts of the eastern continent produce several species, [mostly of a light buff colour, white 
underneath]. 

Tue Merions (Meriones, F. Cuv.),— 

Which we separate from the Gerbils, have the hind feet still longer, the tail nearly naked, and a very 
small tooth before the superior molars ; characters which approximate them to the Jerboas: theix 
superior incisors are grooved, as in the Gerbils, and their toes also are similar. 


There is a small species in North America, Mus canadensis, Pen.; Dipus canadensis, Shaw; D. americanus, 


* Certain of these, the upper lip of which is scarcely fissured, com- | South Africa, which constitute the Dendromys of Smith : they scarcely 


pose the Holochilus, Brandt. There are also some arbore al Mice in | differ in stracture from the British Harvest Mouse.—F ob. 


114 MAMMALIA. 


Barton. Its agility is extreme, and it closes itself up within its burrow, and passes the winter in a state of lethargy. 
The Gerbillus labradorius, Harl., or Mus labrad., Sabine, constitutes another. 


Tue Hamsters (Cricetus, Cuy.)— 


Have teeth nearly similar to those of the Rats, but their tail is short and hairy, and the two sides 
of their mouth are hollowed (as in certain Monkeys) into sacs or cheek-pouches, in which they trans- 
port the grain they collect to their subterraneous abodes. 


The Common Hamster ( Mus cricetus, Lin.).—Larger than the Rat, of a reddish-gray above, black on the flanks 
and underneath, with three white spots on each side; its four feet are white, and there is also a white spot under 
the throat, and another under the breast ; some individuals are all black. This animal, so agreeably variegated in 
colour, is one of the most hurtful in existence, on account of the quantity of grain which it hoards up, filling its 
hole, which is sometimes seven feet in depth. It is common in all the sandy districts, that extend from the north 
of Germany to Siberia. The latter country produces several smaller species. 


THE Vo.es (4rvicola, Lacep.)— 


Have three grinders above and below, like the Rats, but without roots, and which are each formed of 
triangular prisms, placed alternately in two lines. [Their incisors (or ¢wsks), unlike those of the pre- 
ceding genera, are rounded, having an oval section.] They require to be subdivided into several 
groups, Viz. :— 

Tue Musxauasu (Fiber, Cuv.; [Ondatra, Laceped.]),— 


Which is a Vole with semi-palmated hind-feet, a long, scaly, and compressed tail, of which one species 
only is well known,— 


The Ondatra, Muskquash, or Musk Rat of Canada (Castor zibeticus, Lin.; Mus zibeticus, Gm.)—As large as a 
Rabbit, and reddish grey [the-fur resembling that of the Beaver]. In winter they construct, on the ice, a hut of earth, 
in whieh several reside together, passing through a hole in the bottom, for the roots of the Acorus on which they 
feed. When the ice closes their holes, they are necessitated to devour one another. This habit of building has 
induced some authors to refer the Muskquash to the genus Castor. 


The second subdivision is that of 


Tae Orprnary VoLEs (4rvicola, Cuv. ; Hypudeus, Mlig.),— 
The tail of which is hairy, and about the length of the body [or shorter], without webs to the toes. 


The Water Vole (Mus amphibius, Lin.)—A little larger than the Black Rat, and deep greyish-brown ; the tail as 
long as the body. Inhabits the banks of ditches, and burrows in marshy plains in search of roots; but it swims 
and dives badly. [This species has been known to occasion much damage, by burrowing into the raised banks of 
canals: in other respects it is quite harmless, except that it lays up a store of potatoes, &c., in its winter retreat, 
which is placed far from the water. Its ordinary food is green aquatic herbage. A black variety is not of 
uncommon occurrence, in many parts of Britain.] 

The Alsacian Vole (Mus terrestris, Lin.)—Rather smaller than the last, with a shorter tail. It lives under 
ground like the Mole, preferring elevated fields, where it excavates galleries, and removes the earth to some dis- 
tance from the opening. Its magazines, which are principally filled with the roots of the wild carrot cut into two- 
inch pieces, are frequently two feet in diameter. [It is not found in Britain.] 

Meadow Vole (Mus arvalis, Lin.).—Size of a Mouse, reddish ash-colour, the taila little shorter than the body. It 
inhabits burrows in the fields, in which it hoards up grain for the winter. By multiplying excessively, it sometimes 
occasions great damage. [There are several nearly allied small European species, two of which inhabit Britain : 
that known as A. arvalis in this country has the tail very short, and the ears inconspicuous; A. pratensis or 
ripicola is redder, with a longer tail, and more apparent ears ; it is less common than the other. Many more exist 
in Asia and North America, of which it will be sufficient to notice] 

The Economic Vole (3fus @conomicus, Pallas.)—A little darker coloured than the foregoing, with the tail stil) 
shorter. It inhabits a sort of oven-shaped chamber, placed under the turf, from which issue several narrow and 
ramifying canals running in various directions; other canals communicate with a second cavity, wherein it 
amasses its provisions. From all Siberia. It is thought to have been also found in Switzerland and the south of 
France, particularly in the potato fields. 


Tue Lemmines (Georychus, Ill.; [Lemmus, Link] ),— 


Have exceedingly short ears and tail, and fore-feet better adapted for digging. [In other respects, 
they only differ from the Voles in being rather more heavily formed. ] 


The two first species have five very distinct nails to their fore-feet, as in the Mole-rats and Helamyds. 

The Scandinavian Lemming (Mus lemmus, Lin.)—A northern species, the size of a Rat, with fur variegated black 
and yellow: it is very celebrated for its occasional migrations in immense bodies. At these periods they are said 
to march in a straight line, regardless of rivers or mountains; and while no insurmountable obstacle impedes their 


RODENTIA. 115 


progress, they devastate the country through which tney pass. Their ordinary residence appears to be the shores 
of the Arctic Ocean. 

The Siberian Lemming, or Zocor (Mus aspalax, Gm.)—Reddish-grey; the three middle nails of the fore-feet 
long, arcuated, compressed and trenchant, for cutting earth and roots. The limbs are short ; there is scarcely 
any tail; and the eyes are exceedingly small. From Siberia, where it lives under-ground, like the Moles and 
Mole-rats, and subsists chiefly on the bulbs of different Liliacee. 

The third species, like the other animals comprehended under the great genus of Rats, has only the rudiment 
of a thumb to its fore-feet. It is the Hudson’s Bay Lemming (Mus Hudsonicus, Gm.) ; of a pearl-grey colour, 
without any tail or external ears: the two middle toes of the fore-feet of the male seem to have double 
claws, the skin at the end of the toe being callous, and projecting from under the nail; a variety of con- 
formation unknown except in this animal.* It is as large as a Rat, and lives under ground in North 
America. 

THE Oromyps (Otomys, F. Cuv. ; 'Euryotis, Brandt] )— 
Are nearly allied to the Voles, and have also three grinders, but composed of slightly arcuated lamin, 
which are arranged successively in file, so as to present an exact miniature resemblance to the grinders 
of the Elephant. Their incisors are grooved longitudinally, and the tail and ears are hairy, the latter 
being also large. 


The only known species, the Cape Otomyd (0. capensis, F. Cuv.), inhabits Africa, and is of the size of a Rat, 
with fur annulated black and fulvous. Tail a third shorter than the body. 


THE JERBOAS (Dipus, Gm.)— 


Have nearly the same teeth as the Rats properly so called, differing only in the occasional presence of 
a very small tooth, placed before the superior molars. Their tail is long and tufted at the end, the 
head large, and eyes large and prominent; but their principal character consists in the immoderate 
length of the hinder limbs, as compared with the anterior, and above all, in the metatarsus of the three 
middle toes, which is formed of a single bone, as in what is termed the tarsus of birds. This dispro- 
portion of the limbs caused them to be designated two-footed Rats by the ancients: and in fact their 
ordinary gait is by great leaps on the hind-feet. Their fore-feet have each five toes; and in certain 
species, besides the three great ones to the hind-feet, there are [one or two] small lateral toes. These 
rodents live in burrows, and become profoundly torpid in winter. 

(There are numerous species, inhabiting Asia and Africa. Those with five toes have been brought together by 
some under the name Alectaga.| 

Tue Hevamyps (Helamys, F. Cuvy.; Pedetes, Il.),— 


Which are commonly termed Jumping Hares, have, like the Jerboas, the head large, as are also the eyes, a 
long tail, and very short fore-legs in comparison with the hinder ; the disproportion, however, being much 
less than in the true Jerboas. Their peculiar characters consist in having four grinders, each com- 
posed of two lamine ; five toes to the fore-feet, armed with long and pointed nails, and four only to 
the hind-feet, all separate, even to the bones of the metatarsus, and terminated by large claws almost 
resembling hoofs. The number of their toes is accordingly inverse to that of the ordinary Rats. Their 
inferior incisors are truncated, and not pointed as in the Jerboas, and as in the majority of other 
animals which have been comprised in the great genus of Rats. 

One species only is known, as large as a Rabbit, 
and pale fulvous, with a long tufted tail black at the 
tip (Mus caffer, Pallas ; Dipus caffer, Gm.)—It inha- 
bits deep burrows near the Cape of Good Hope. 


[The affinities of this curious animal are by no 
means obvious. | 


Tue Mote-rats (Spalax, Guldenstedt)— 


Have also been very properly separated from 
the genus of Rats, although their grinders are : : 
three in number, and tuberculated as in the Seg EO —- 
Rats properly so called, and also the Hamsters, niga) Mere 


and are merely a little less unequal; their in- 
cisors being too large to be covered by the lips, and the extremities of those of the lower jaw 


Fig. 46.— Mole-rat. 


* The Plovers, and several other birds belonging to the same group, present a somewhat analogous conformation.—En. 


r2 


ee 


1i6 MAMMALIA. 


trenchant, rectilinear, and not pointed: their limbs are very short; all their feet have five short..tees, 
with flat and slender nails; their tail is short or wanting, and there is no external ear. They live 
under ground like the Moles, throw up the earth in the same manner, although provided with very 
inferior instruments for the purpose, and subsist entirely on roots. 


The Blind Mole-rat, Zemny, or Stepitz (Mus typhlus, Pallas.)\—A singular animal, which, from its large head, 
angular at the sides, its short legs, the total absence of atail or of any apparent eye, has a most shapeless appear- 
ance. The eye is not visible externally, and we merely find beneath the skin a small black globule, which appears 
to be organized like an eye, but which cannot serve for the purpose of vision, since the skin passes over it without 
opening, or even becoming thinner, and being as much covered with hair as on any other part. It exceeds our Rat 
in size, and has smooth ash-coloured fur, verging on red. Olivier supposed that this animal was alluded to by the 
ancients, when they spoke of the Mole as being totally blind. 

The islands in the Straits of Sunda produce a Mole-rat as large as a Rabbit, of a deep grey colour, with a white 
longitudinal stripe upon the head (Spalax javanicus, Auct.) 


[Tue Canets (Rhizomys, Gray ; Nyctocleptes, Tem.)— 
Have been approximated to the Mole-rats; but have small open eyes, and conspicuous naked ears: 
their head is large, the body round and massive; limbs short, with five toes to each foot, and thick 
and naked tail of mean length. There are three rooted molars on each side of both jaws, more com- 
plicated than in Spalax. 


Two species are described, Mus sumatrensis, Raffles, which feeds chiefly on the roots of the bamboo, and 
R. sinicus, Gray.] 


From the Mole-rats themselves should have been separated— 


Tue Batuyercuts (Bathyergus*, Il. ; Orycteropus, F. Cuv.),— 


Which, with the general form, the feet, and truncated incisors of the preceding, combine four molars 
to each jaw: their eyes, though small, are distinctly perceptible ; and they have a short tail. 

The Shore Bathyergue (Mus maritimus, Gm.).—Nearly the size of a Rabbit, with grooved upper incisors, and 
whitish-grey fur. Also the Cape Bathyergue (MM. capensis, Gm.), scarcely as large as a Guinea-pig, brown, with 
a spot around the eye, another round the ear, and a third on the vertex, together with the end of the muzzle, 
white. The incisors of this species are smooth. There is a third, also, with smooth incisors like the last, grey, 
and hardly equal in size to a Rat (B. hottentotus). 


We should place near the Mole-rat and Bathyergues 


Tue PsreupostomEs (Geomys, Rafinesque ; Pseudostoma, Say ; Ascomys, Licht.; [Saccophorus, Kuhl]),— 


Which have likewise four molars above and below, prismatically compressed: the first double, the 
three others simple; and the upper incisors of which are furrowed with a double groove in front. 
Their three anterior middle nails, the medial more especially, are very long, crooked, and trenchant. 
They are low on the legs, and have very deep cheek-pouches, which open externally, enlarging the 
sides of the head and neck in a singular manner. 

Only one species is known (Mus bursarius, Shaw), of the size of a Rat, with reddish-grey fur; the tail naked, 
and shorter by haif than the body. It inhabits deep burrows, in the interior of North America. The figure of 


this animal in the Linnean Transactions resembles nothing in nature, having the cheek-pouches turned 
inside out. 


Tue Gaurrres (Diplostoma, Rafin.)\— 
Scarcely differ from the preceding, except in the total absence of a tail. 
They are from North America. The species before us is reddish, and ten inches in length. [Eight or ten 
species pertaining to this and the preceding subdivision are now known, one or more inhabiting Europe. 
Tur Saccomyps (Saccomys, F. Cuv.)— 
Have similar cheek-pouches, and four rooted molars on each side of both jaws, successively lessening. 
They have five toes on each.foot, the anterior thumbs very small; tail long and naked. 


The only species described (S. wanthophilus) inhabits North America, and is of the size and has much the aspect 
of a Mouse. Its cheek-pouches were distended with the flowers of Secuwridaca volubilis, with some entire seeds, 
apparently of Convolvulacee. 


* This name is now cunfined to certain species whick have only three molars. Orycteropus, however, is also applied to a genus of Hdentata, 
—Ep. 


RODENTIA. 117 


We now pass to larger rodents than those of which we have hitherto spoken, but of which 
several have still well-developed clavicles. 


Of this number are 
Tue Beavers (Castor, Lin.),— 
Which are distinguished from all other rodents by their horizontally-flattened tail, of a nearly oval 
form, and covered with scales. They have five toes on each foot, the hinder being webbed, and a 
double and oblique nail on the digit next the thumb. Their grinders, four in number above and 
below, with flat crowns, appear as if formed of a doubled bony fillet, exhibiting one deep indentation 
on their internal border, and three on the outer edge above, and the reverse below. 

They are rather large animals, and are aquatic in their mode of life; their feet and tail assisting 
them in swimming. As they subsist chiefly on bark and other hard substances, their incisive teeth 
are very robust, and grow as rapidly from the root as they wear at the tip. By means of them they 
are enabled to cut down trees of various kinds. 

Large glandular pouches, which terminate on the prepuce, secrete a pommade of very pungent 
odour, which is employed in medicine under the name of Castoreum. In both sexes, the organs of 
generation terminate within the extremity of the rectum, so that they have only one external orifice. 
The Beaver of Canada (C. fiber, Auct.).—Surpasses the Badger in size, and is, of all quadrupeds, the most indus- 
trious in fabricating its dwelling ; to erect which many work in concert, in the most retired districts of North 
America. 

Beavers choose water of such a depth as is not likely to be frozen to the bottom, and, whenever possible, run- 
ning streams, that the wood which they cut above, may be carried downwards by the current to where they 
require it. They maintain the water at an equal height, by dams constructed of branches of trees, mixed with 
clay and stones, and repair them year after year, till a hedge is at length formed by the germination of part of the 
materials. Each hut serves for two or three families, and is divided into two apartments ; the upper dry, for the 
habitation of the animals; the lower under water, for the provision of bark. The latter only is open, having its 
entrance under water, without any communication with the land. The huts are formed of interlaced twigs and 
branches, having their interstices closed up with mud. There are always several burrows along the bank, in which 
these animals seek for refuge when their huts are attacked. They only inhabit them during the winter ; dis- 
persing in summer, at which season they live solitarily. 

The Beaver is easily tamed, and accustomed to feed on animal substances. Those of Canada are of a uniform 
reddish brown; and their fur, as every one knows, is in much request for hatting. It is sometimes flaxen- 
coloured ; at others black, or white. We have been unable to ascertain, on the must scrupulous comparison, 
whether the Beavers which inhabit burrows along the Rhone, the Danube, the Weser, and other rivers of Europe, 
are specifically different from those of America; and whether the vicinity of man prevents those of the eastern 
continent from building. 

Tus Coypu (Myopotamus, Commerson)— 

Resembles the Beaver in size, in having four molars almost similarly compressed, in the robustness of 
its yellow-coloured incisors, and in having five toes to each foot, those of the hinder palmated ; but its 
tail is long and rounded, [and its skul! dissimilar]. 

We only know one (Mus coypus, Molina), which lives in burrows beside the rivers of South America. Its 
yellowish-grey fur, mixed with down at the root, is employed by hatters like that of the Beaver, and is conse- 
quently an important article of commerce. Thousands of their skins are sent to Europe. [This species, like the 
Beaver, is easily tamed, and appears to withstand the climate of this country. ] 


Tue Porcurines (fHystria, Lin.)— 

Are recognized at the first glance by the stiff and pointed quills with which they are armed, somewhat 
as in the Urchins or Hedgehogs, among the Carnaria. Their grinders are four in number above and 
below, with flat crowns differently modified by lines of enamel, between which are depressed intervals. 
Their tongue is roughened by spiny scales. The clayicles are too small to rest on the sternum and 
scapular, being merely suspended by the ligaments. They live in burrows, and have very much the 
habits of Rabbits. From their grunting voice, and thick truncated muzzle, they have been compared 
to Pigs, whence their French name of Porc-epen or Porcupine. 


Tue Porcurines, properly so called (Hystrix, Cuv.), — 


Have the head more or less convex, on account of the developement of the nasal bones. They have 
four toes before and five behind, furnished with stout claws. 


That of Europe (1. cristata, Lin.) inhabits the South of Italy, Sicily, and Spain. Its quills are very long, and 


118 MAMMALIA. 


with hollow truncated tubes suspended by slender pedicles, which make a rattling sound when the animal shakes 
them. Its cranium and muzzle are singularly convex. There are other species not very different, but with the 
head less convex, inhabiting India and Africa. [These constitute the Acanthion of M. F. Cuvier: the H. hirsuti- 


rostris, Brandt, is however intermediate. ] 


| 
annulated black and white; there is a crest of long bristles on 1ts head and neck. Its tail is short, and furnished 
We separate from the true Porcupines | 


The head and muzzle of which are not inflated, and the taillong, but not prehensile; their feet are  , 


similar to those of the preceding. 


The Pencil-tailed Atherure (Hyst. fasciculata, Lin.)—The quills on the body furrowed with a groove in front, 
and the tail terminated by a bundle of flattened horny slips, constricted at intervals. [Inhabits India and Malacca. ] 


Tue Ursons (Frethizon, F. Cuy.),— | 
Have a flat cranium, and short muzzle which is not convex: their tail is of middle length, and the 
spines short and half-hidden in the hair. 


One species only is known, from [the Atlantic side of] North America (Hyst. dorsata, Lin.). [The #. epixan- 
thus, Brandt, from the western side of the same continent, appears to be another. These animals produce but 


one young at a birth. ] 


Tue ATHERURES (A¢herura, Cuv.),— | 
| 


Tue CoEenpous (Synetheres, F. Cuy. [Cercolabes, Brandt] ). 


Muzzle short and thick; the head convex above; quills short; and the tail, in particular, long, 
naked at the tip, and prehensile, as in a Sapajou or Opossum. They climb trees, and have only four 


| toes on each foot. 


In the warm parts of North America, there is a species with black and white spines, and brown-black fur 
(I1yst. prehensilis, Lin.); and a smaller kind in South America (/. insidiosa, Licht.), the prickles of which are 
partly red or yellow, and hidden during part of the year by its long greyish-brown fur. [M. d’Orbigny is of 
opinion that these constitute but one species. In Brandt’s memoir on the Porcupines, however, they are referred 
to different subgenera, after M. F. Cuvier; the first, with the addition of another (S. platycentrotus), to Synetheres 
as restricted, the other, with two more species (S. nigricans and &. affinis), to a subdivision Sphiggurus. 


a  —— 


Tue AuLacopon (dulacodus, Tem.) 


Incisors very broad, the upper furrowed with two grooves, and a third at their inner margin: four 
molars as in the preceding, those of the upper jaw with a single deep fold of enamel within, and two 
without, excepting the anterior, which has three; in the lower jaw, the outer margin has only one 
fold, and the inner two. There are five toes before and four behind, and some flattened spines 
mingled with the fur. The form is that of a Rat, with the molars of a Porcupine. 


A. swinderianus, Tem., is the only known species, from the Eastern Archipelago]. 


Tur Hares (Lepus, Lin.)— 

Have a very distinctive character, in their superior incisors being double; that is to say, there is 
another of small size behind each of them* [or, in other words, two genuine incisive teeth are present 
in these animals, posterior to the ordinary representatives of the tusks or canines]. Their molars, five 
in number above and below, are each of them formed of two vertical laminz soldered together, and in 
the upper jaw there is a sixth, simple and very small. They have five toes before, and four behind ; 
an enormous coecum, five or six times the size of the stomach, and lined internally with a spiral layer 
throughout its whole length. The interior of their mouth and the under part of their feet are covered 
with hair like the rest of the body. 


Tur Hares, properly so called (Lepus, Cuv.),— 
Are distinguished by their long ears, short tail, hind-feet much longer than the fore, imperfect clavi- 
cles, and antorbital space in the cranium widely pierced and reticulated. There are numerous species 
in both hemispheres, which from their resemblance are difficult to characterize. 


{Four occur in the British islands. The Common Hare (L. timidus, Lin.), with yellowish-brown fur, which has 
a tendency to curl; the Irish Hare (ZL. hibernicus), with shorter limbs and ears, and smooth reddish fur, of very 


* There is even a period when they are shedding their teeth, during which they appear to have three pair of upper incisors, one behind 


the other, 


— 


RODENTIA. ES 


inferior value to that of the preceding, and which occasionally turns white in winter *; the Variable Hare (L. varia- 
bilis), a mountain species, larger than either of the foregoing, with still shorter ears and limbs than the Irish Hare, 
and brown fur in summer, which always changes to white at the approach of winter ; and the Rabbit (L. cuniculus), 
remarkable for its burrowing habits, and for bringing forth its young blind and naked, while the Leverets of the 
three others see and run from birth. Not less than sixteen species of Zepus are already known in North 
America; and many others exist in Asia and Africa. ] 


THE Pixas (Lagomys, Cuv.)— 


Have ears of moderate length, the limbs nearly equal, the antorbital foramen simple, almost perfect 
clavicles, and no tail whatever. They often utter a very sharp cry., They have hitherto been found 
only in Siberia [since, however, at a considerable altitude on the Himmalayas, and in North Ametica], 
and Pallas was the first to make them known. 

[The largest of them] Lepus alpinus, Pallas, is the size of a Guinea-pig, and yellowish-red. It inhabits the most 
elevated mountain summits, where it passes the summer in selecting and drying the herbage for its winter pro- 
vision. Its hay-stacks, which are sometimes six or seven feet high, are a valuable resource for the Horses of the 
Sable-hunters. 


Some fossil remains have been discovered of an unknown species of Pika, in the accumulations of osseous 
breccia in the island of Corsica. 


After the two genera of Porcupines and Hares, come the rodents which Linnzeus and Pallas 
brought together under the name of Cavia, but for which it is impossible to assign any other 
constant and positive character than the imperfection of their clavicles, though the various 
species are not without analogy in the aspect of their body and manners. They are all from 
the New Continent. 


Tue Capysara (Hydrocherus, Erxleben)— 


Has four toes before, and only three behind, all of them armed with stout claws, and connected 
together by membranes; four grinding teeth above and below, the last of which [especially in the 
lower jaw] are the longest, all composed of numerous simple and parallel lamin; the anterior of 
these laminz forked towards the outer edge in the upper, and towards the inner one in the lower 
teeth. Only one species is known. 

The Capybara (Cavia capybara, Lin.), as large 
as a Siamese Pig, with very thick muzzle, short 
legs, coarse yellowish-brown hair, and no tail. 
Inhabits the rivers of Guiana and the Amazons, 
where it lives in troops: is a good swimmer, and 
the largest [existing] species of the Rodentia. 
The Beaver alone approaches it in size. 


Tue Cavies, popularly termed Guinea-pigs, 
(dnema, ¥. Cuy.; Cavia, Mig.),— 

Are miniatures of the Capybara, except that 

their toes are separated, and their molars 

have each only a simple lamina, together 

with a forked one externally in those above, 

HET) SUING CLS AE and on the inside in the lower. 


The species best known is the common domestic Cavy, or Guinea-pig (Cavia cobaia, Pallas; Mus porcellus, 
Lin.), extremely common now in Europe, where it is bred in houses, under the [mistaken] supposition that its 
odour drives away Rats. It varies in colour like other domestic animals. [Six or seven species are now known, 
one of which, the Patagonian Cavy (C. patachonica, Pen.), is much larger than the rest, with remarkably long 
limbs: the author suspected it to be an Agouti. Some separate it by the appellation Dolichotis.] 


Tue Mocos (Kerodon, F. Cuv.)— 


Have grinders rather more simple than those of the Cavies, each being formed of two triangular 
prisms. 

The only known species is also from Brazil, somewhat surpassing the Guinea-pig in size, and of an olive-grey 
colour. 


* The Irish Hare has only recently been distinguished, and has ) Common Hare was unknown. Great numbers of the latter, however, 
hitherto been met with only in that island, where, until lately, the | have been turned loose there during the last twelvemonth, 


Na = 


L290 MAMMALIA. 


Tur Acoutis (Chloromys, F. Cuv.; Dasyprocta, Il.)— 
Have four toes before and three behind, and four grinders above and below, of nearly equal size, with 
flat crowns irregularly furrowed, and a rounded contour, notched on the inner edge of those above, 
and the outer of those below. In disposition and the nature of their flesh, they resemble Hares and 
Rabbits, which they in some degree represent in the Antilles and hot parts of America. 


[Several species have been ascertained, one with only two toes to the hind-feet. They employ their fore-feet 
to hold up food to the mouth. ] 


Tue Pacas (Celogenys, F. Cuv.; Osteopera, Harl.)— 


With teeth pretty much resembling those of the Agoutis [and Porcupines], combine a very small 
additional toe on the inner side of the fore-foot, and two, equally small, on the sides of the hind-foot, 
which have consequently five in all. Besides this [and in addition to ordinary cheek-pouches], there 
is a cavity hollowed in each cheek, which dips under the projection of a very large and salient zygo- 
matic arch, which imparts an extraordinary aspect to the skull. Their flesh is understood to be 
fine eating. 


There is one species or variety of a fulvous colour, and another brown, both of which are spotted with white 
(Cavia paca, Lin.). 


Finally, there remains an animal perhaps allied to Cavia, perhaps more approximating to Lagomys, 
or to the Rats, which we are unable to arrange for want of knowing its dentition,—the Chinchilla of 
the furriers, the skins of which are imported in immense numbers, but the body we have 
never been able to obtain. * * * 

The Viscacha, described by Azzara, and such as we have seen it figured, can hardly be other than 
a large species of Chinchilla, with shorter and coarser fur. 

[The progress of discovery has realized this expectation of the author, and we are now acquainted 
with three subdivisions of these animals, all of which have four rootless molars above and below, com- 
posed of alternating transverse layers of enamel and ivory: the form of the cranium and lower jaw 
indicates considerable affinity with the Cavies ; but the clavicles are developed, and the aspect altogether 
more Rabbit-like, or rather approximating that of the Pikas; the eyes are placed far backward, the 
whiskers remarkably long and conspicuous, and the tail is always held recurved. These animals live 
socially in extensive burrows. The first subdivision is that of 


Tue Viscacua (Lagostomus, Brookes),— 


In which the fore-feet are furnished with four toes, the hinder with three only, as in the Cavies, all of 
them armed with stout claws adapted for digging. The ears are of moderate size, and the tail com- 
paratively short. Their three anterior molars of the upper jaw consist each of two double layers, and 
the last of three; the lower of two each throughout. 


The only known species (L. trichodactylus, Brookes,) is about the size of a Hare, and inhabits Chili and Brazil : 
its general colour is greyish, the fur of two sorts, one entirely white, and the other, which is coarser, black, 
except at the base; the under parts white. Its motions are quick, and resemble those of a Rabbit; and it seeks 
its food by night, subsisting wholly on vegetables: inhabits the level country, and is not esteemed as food. This 
animal is figured in Griffith’s edition of the present work under the name of Diana Marmot. 


The others are mountain animals, which frequent rocky places near the snow-line. 


Tue Curncnas (Lagotis, Ben. ; Legidium, Meyer)— 
Scarcely differ from the Viscacha except in having four toes to each foot, and a long bristly tail, as in 
the Chinchilla. 

Two species are known; the first with long Rabbit-like ears, and greyish fur, from the Peruvian Andes 
(L. Cuvieri, Ben.; Legid. peruvianum, Mey.) ; the other from the ChiJian Andes, with shorter ears, and fur inclining 
to reddish-brown (L. pallipes, Ben.). 

Lastly, 

Tue CurncuiLia (Chinchilla, Ben.; Eriomys, Vander Hoeven; Callomys, Gray),— 
Hlas a fourth very small internal toe on the hind-foot: ears ample; the internal auditory buile 
remarkably capacious, appearing on the upper part of the skull. Each of the upper molars has 
three alternate layers of enamel and ivory, the inferior only two. 


RODENTIA. 121 


One species only is well determined, the Chin- 
chilla of the furriers (Ch. lanigera, Ben.), cele- 
brated for the delicate fineness of its fur. It 
inhabits the Chilian and Peruvian Andes. 


Somewhat allied to the foregoing, is an- 
other small group of South American rodents, 
with also four rootless molars of equal size 
above and below, except in one instance 
( Abrocoma), where the inferior resemblethose 
of an Arvicola; they are surrounded with 
enamel, and doubled, or indented deeply, on 
both sides. The antorbital foramen is very 

Braet EAGAN UNS large. There are five toes to each foot, ex- 
cept in dérocoma, which bs only four anteriorly ; and the general aspect is intermediate to that of the 
Chinchillas and Rats or Voles: the head, however, is arched. Four subdivisions have been distin- 
guished. In 


Tue Asrocomes (dérocoma, Waterh.),— 
The ears are large, the claws very small, and the tail rather long and not tufted. The excessive 
fineness of their fur probably exceeds that of any other animal. 


Two species were taken near Valparaiso by Mr. Darwin, A. Cuvieri and A. Bennettii, Waterh. 


THE Ocropons (Octodon, Bennett ; Dendrobius, Meyer),— 

Have also large ears, and a long and tufted tail: their inferior molars resemble those of the following. 

The only known species (O. Cummingii, Ben.), is the Sciurus degus of Molina, D. degus, Meyer. It inhabits 
Chili, and is often seen traversing the branches of low underwood. 

Tare PapHacomes (Poéphagomys, F. Cuv.),— 

Have narrow incisors, the auditory conch small, but distinct: claws adapted for burrowing. 

The only ascertained species (P. afer) inhabits Chili. 

Finally, 

Tue Crznomyps (Cfenomys, Ben.)— 

Are distinguished by the great breadth of their incisors, by the smallness of their ears, their rather 
short tail, and stout claws, well qualified for burrowing. 

There is a species in Brazil (Ct. braziliensis, Blainy.}), and another near the Straits of Magellan (Ct. Mageliani- 
cus, Ben.) 


A remarkable African rodent, which is in several respects allied to the last, is known as 


THe Crenopacry.e (Ctenodactylus, Gray),— 

The incisors of which are rounded; there are but three molars, however, on each side of both jaws, 
surrounded with enamel, the upper with one deep indentation externally, the lower indented on both 
sides. The feet have each four toes, with the rudiment of a thumb on the anterior; and the hinder 
especially are furnished with stiff brush-like bristles, which curve over the toes (a structure which is 
also seen in the last preceding subdivisions). The general aspect resembles that of the Chinchilla 
group, to which the structure of the lower jaw bears also some resemblance ; and there are similar 
great whiskers on the upper lip. 


But one species is known (C. Massonii, Gray), from North Africa; size of a Rat, with a short tail, and pale 
yellowish-brown fur, of very fine texture. 


The foregoing arrangement of the extensive series of Rodentia is by no means reduced to 
that simplicity which we conceive will ultimately be attamed. Mr. Waterhouse, who has 
recently studied these animals very attentively, has sueceeded in detecting several unexpected 
affinities which tend to this result: and he finds that the most useful or least variable charac- 
ters, indicative of the mutual relations of the several genera, are derivable from the configura- 
tion of the cranium, and especially that of the lower jaw. The space allotted in this work 
forbids our entering into details ; so that it must suffice to state that, in general, the members 


122 MAMMALIA. 


of the first grand division are distinguished by having the inferior projecting angle of the 
lower jaw subquadrate, and not tapering to an acute point. In this group, or series, range 
first the Sciuride, or Squirrels and Marinots, followed by the Dormice, and next by the 
Jerboas, which latter require to be interpolated between the Sciuride, and the Muride or 
Rats; the Jerboas evincing several peculiar points of relationship with the Dormice : the 
Arvicolide, or Muskquash, Voles, and Lemmings, together with the Guaffres (Geomys), 
follow the Muride, and then succeed two isolated genera,—Castor and Helamys, which seem 
to constitute particular families: all these successive groups being readily distinguishable by 
the structure of the cranium and inferior jaw, combined with other characters. The members 
of the next great group have the inferior angle of the lower jaw acute, and usually four equal 
molars on each side above and below, having their folds of enamel gradually more complex. 
Abrocoma, Octodon, Poéphagomys, Ctenomys, Capromys, Echymys, Myopotamus, Aulacodon, 
then Hystriz and its allies, and near to the last Celogenys and Dasyprocta, form a very intel- 
ligible series, after which the bony palate contracts anteriorly, and we arrive at the Cavide, 
or Capybara, Moco, and Cavies, succeeded by the Chinchiilide, and lastly by the Hares and 
Pikas, near which it may be that the Ctenodactyle holds its station. In the terminal genera, 
or the Leporide, the angle of the jaw suddenly ascends. It is probable that multitudes of 
existing rodents still remain to be discovered, a knowledge of some of which may assist in 
improving the general arrangement. But few have hitherto been met with in the ancient 
tertiary deposits, and those of genera still extant, as that of the Dormice in particular. | 


THE SIXTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— 


EDENTATA,— 


Or quadrupeds without teeth in the fore-part of their jaws, constitute our last principal divi- 
sion of unguiculated animals. Although brought together by a purely negative character, 
they have, nevertheless, some positive mutual relations, particularly in the great claws which 
encompass the ends of their toes, and which more or less approximate to the nature of hoofs ; 
also by a certain slowness, or want of agility, obviously arising from the peculiar organization 
of their limbs. There are certain tolerably well-marked intervals, however, in these relations, 
which subdivide the order into three tribes. 


Tur TARDIGRADA 


Compose the first of these divisions. They have a short face. The name refers to their 
excessive slowness, consequent upon a construction truly heteroclite, in which nature seems 
to have amused herself by producing something imperfect and grotesque. [A most strange 
assertion on the part of Cuvier, originating from a want of knowledge of the peculiar habits 
of these singular animals.| The only existing genus is that of 


Tue Storus [as they are badly named] (Bradypus, Lin.),— 


Which have cylindrical molars, and sharp canines longer than these molars; two pectoral mamm2 ; 
and the toes completely joined by the skin, and only marked externally by enormous compressed and 
crooked claws, which, when at rest, are always bent towards the palms, or soles, of the fore and hind 
feet. The latter are obliquely articulated on the leg, and apply only their outer edge; the phalanges 
of the toes are articulated by serrated ginglymi, and the first, at a certain age, becomes soldered to 
the metacarpal or metatarsal bones, which also, for want of use, become similarly anchylosed. To this 
inconvenience [?] in the organization of the extremities is added another, not less great, in their 
proportions. Their arms and fore-arms are very much longer than their thighs and legs, insomuch 


SL 


ae 


EDENTATA. 123 


that, when these animals advance [on the ground], they are obliged to drag themselves forward on their 
elbows. The pelvis is so large, and the thighs so much directed outwards, that they cannot approxi- 
mate their knees. Their gait is the necessary consequence of so disproportioned [unusual] a struc- 
ture.* These animals inhabit trees, and never remove from that on which they are located until they have 
stripped it of every leaf, so painful to them is the requisite exertion to reach another; it is even 
asserted that they let themselves fall from a branch to avoid the labour of descending. [The truth is, 
that these animals are modified for hanging by their limbs to the branches of trees, instead of sup- 
porting themselves upon the limbs like others: in this, their only natural posture, they are by no 
means slow in their movements; and they inhabit the densely intertangled forests of South America, 
where hundreds of miles may be traversed by passing from one tree to another: clinging by the hinder 
claws, the posterior limbs securely embracing the bough, and generally by one of their fore-limbs also, 
they employ the other to hook towards them the foliage on which they browze, whence the great 
length of their arms: and it is observed that in more open places, where the trees are less contiguous, 
the Sloths take advantage of windy weather to effect their transits, when the boughs are blown 
together and commingled. Their long and coarse shaggy hair protects them from insects: and in 
short, as is well remarked by Professor Buckland, the peculiar conformation of these anima!s ought no 
more to excite our pity and compassion, than the circumstance of fishes being deprived of legs. They 
are just as admirably adapted and fitly organized for their appointed singular mode of life as any other 
animal whatever.] The female produces but one young one at a birth, which she carries on her back. 

The viscera of these animals are not less singular than the rest of their conformation. Their stomach 
[of enormous size] is divided into four compartments, somewhat analogous to the four stomachs of 
the ruminants, but without leaflets or other internal projecting parts; while the intestinal canal is 
short, and without a ccecum. 

M. F. Cuvier applies the name dcheus to such of them as have three claws on their fore-feet ; they 


have a very short tail. 

The Ai (Br. tridactylus, Lin.) is the species in which all the 
peculiarities of its genus are developed to the greatest extent. 
Its thumb and little toe, reduced to small rudiments, are 
concealed by the skin, and soldered to the metatarsus and 
metacarpus ; the clavicle, also, reduced to a rudiment, is sol- 
dered to the acromion. Its arms are twice as long as its legs ; 
the hair of its head, back, and limbs is long, coarse and un- 
elastic, bearing some resemblance to dried grass, which gives 
it a forbidding aspect. The colour is greyish, often spotted 
——_. with brown and white, [particularly when young]. Size that 
of a Cat. It is the only known mammalian which has nine 
= BOW Sr ~ cervical vertebre [the fact being, that the eighth and ninth 

7 (v= =e support rudimental ribs (as shown at Fig. 2, p. 39), and are 


ie ————— 
- 6 (het bate 5 . 

SEE CPR Do I therefore dorsal vertebra, as in all the rest of the class: the 

Fig. 49.—The Ai, or Common Sloth more complete rotation of the neck, however, thus acquired 


by this extraordinary animal, having an obvious reference to its peculiar habits]. Some varieties of the Ai have 
been described as separate species, differing however in colour only: but the Bradypus torquatus, Geof., is very 
distinct, even in the bony structure of its head. 


M. F. Cuvier reserves the name Bradypus for those species which have two claws only on their 
fore-feet (the Cholepus, Mlig.). Their canines are longer and more pointed, and they are quite desti- 
tute of tail. We know but of one, 


The Unau (Br, didactylus, L.), which is rather less unfortunately (malheureusement) organized than the Ai. Its 
arms are shorter, its clavicles complete; there are fewer bones of its fore and hind feet which become soldered 
together. Its muzzle is more elongated, &c. It is larger by one half than the Ai, and of an uniform greyish- 
brown, which inclines sometimes to reddish. 

These two animals are indigenous to the hot parts of America. Were it not for their stout claws, they would 
probably have been long since exterminated by the Carnivora of that country. [The lofty canopy from which 
they hang is beyond the reach of such enemies, In their affinities, the Sloths are closely related to the 
Myrmecophage.| 

« Sir A. Carlisle has observed that the arteries of the limbs com- ; generality of birds, being connected rather with the power of pro- 
mence by subdividing into numerous ramifications, which afterwards | tracting muscular exertion.) Independently of this, the Loris, the 
re-unite into a single trunk, from which the asual branches procced, | Ourang-outang, and the Coiata, all very slow animals, are remarkable 
This structure being also met with in the Loris, the gait of which is | for the length of their arms. [Still more so are the Gibbons, which 
almost equally sluggish, it is possible that it may exert some influence | are distinguished for the agility of their movements. ] 
on this slowness of motion, [It occurs also in the Whale, and the 


124 MAMMALIA. 


There have been discovered in America the fossil skeletons of two animals belonging to the order 
Edentata [and lately another not yet named], of enormous dimensions: the first of them, the Mega- 
therium, has a head very similar to that of a Sloth, but without canines, and approximating in the rest 
of its skeleton partly to the Sloths, and partly to the Ant-eaters, [most of all, however, to the minute 
Chlamyphorus, having even been covered by a similar massive buckler]. It is twelve feet long, and 
six or seven high. The other, the Megalonyx, is rather less: its toes are the only parts that are well 
known, and they strongly resemble those of the other. 


The second tribe, comprehending 


Tur OrDINARY EDENTATA,— 


Have the muzzle pointed. They have still molar teeth, and are divisible into two genera. 


Tue ArMADILLOs (Dasypus, Lin.) — 


Are very remarkable among the Mammalia, for the scaly and hard [bony] shell, composed of pave- 
ment-like compartments, which covers their head and body, and often the tail. This substance forms 
a shield upon their forehead, another larger and more convex on the shoulders, a third on the crupper 
similar to the preceding, and between the two 
latter several parallel and moveable bands, 
which allow the body to bend. The tail is 
sometimes furnished with successive rings; and 
at others, with varied tubercles, like the legs. 
These animals have [generally] large ears, and 
also great claws, either five or four anteriorly, 
and always five to their hind-feet; a some- 
what pointed muzzle; cylindrical grinding 
teeth separated from each other, to the num- 
ber of seven or eight on each side of both 
jaws, and without enamel on the inside; a 
soft tongue, but little extensible; and there 
are a few scattered hairs between their scales, 
or on those parts of the body not covered by the shell. They excavate burrows, and subsist partly on 
vegetables, and partly on insects and carcases: their stomach is simple, and there is no cecum. All 
of them are indigenous to the warm or at least temperate regions of South America. 

They may be arranged into subgenera, according to the structure of their fore-feet and the number 
of their teeth. The majority have only four toes anteriorly, of which the medial are the longest. Of 
this number are 


Fig. 50.—Peba Armaiillo. 


Tut CacHicaMEs, F. Cuv.,— 


Which have only seven teeth on each side of both jaws; a pointed muzzle; and long tail encircled 
with bony rings. Such are 


The Black Armadillo of Azzara (D. novemcinctus, Lin.), with nine intermediate bands, and sometimes but 
eight; also the Mule Armadillo of the same naturalist (D. septemcinctus), with a shorter tail than the preceding. 


Tue Aparas, F. Cuv.,— 
Uave toes the same as in the Cachicames, but nine or ten teeth above and below. 


The Apara Armadillo of Azzara (D. tricinctus, Lin.), with three intermediate bands, and a very short tail plated 
with regular tuberculated compartments. By enclosing its head and feet within its armour, this species is enabled 
to roll itself completely into a ball, like certain Onisci. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay, and is one of those found 
farthest to the south. 


Other Armadillos, 
Tue Encouserts, F. Cuy.,— 
Have five toes to their fore-feet, of which the three medial are the longest: their tail is in great part 
covered with quincunx scales, and their teeth are nine or ten in number, above and below. In this 
suvdivision ranges 


eo 


EDENTATA. as 


We 


The Encoubert Armadillo, Payou of Azzara, (D. sexcinctus and octodecemeinctus, Lin.), which is distinguished 
from the rest of the genus by having a tooth on each side fixed in the intermaxillary bone: its coat of mail has six 
or seven bands, with smooth, large, and angular compartments ; tail middle-sized, and annulated only at its base. 
The Pichiy of Azzara, and an allied species, the Hairy Armadillo (Tatou velu, Az.), resemble the Encoubert 
except in wanting the intermaxillary teeth, in having the posterior shell denticulated, and the parts that are not 
plated clad with longer and more close-set hairs. 


A third principal division of these animals exhibits five toes to the fore-feet, but disposed obliquely, 
so that the thumb and index are siender, the latter being longest, the middle one bearing an enormous 
trenchant claw, the next having a shorter claw, and the fifth being shortest of any. This structure 
enables them to cut up the ground, and burrow very rapidly, or at any rate to hold on so firmly to the 
sides of their excavation as to be very difficult to detach. In this subdivision, or 


THE CaBAssous,— 
There are eight or nine teeth on each side of both jaws. 


The Cabassou propre, Buff. ; Tatouay, d’Azz.; (D. unicinctus, Lin.}—Twelve intermediate bands; the tail long 
and tuberculated ; the compartments of the bands and skin are square, and broader than long; five toes before, 
of which four are furnished with enormous claws, trenchant on their outer border. It attains a great size. 


THE Priopontes, F. Cuy.,— 


With five anterior toes still more unequal, and claws even exceeding those of the Cabassous, possess 
twenty-two or twenty-four small teeth on each side above and below, making eighty-eight or ninety-six 
in all. Such is 

The Giant Armadillo (D. gigas, Cuv.)—With twelve or thirteen intermediate bands, a long tail covered with 


imbricated scales, the compartments of which are square, and broader*than long. It is the largest species of 
Armadillo, being sometimes three feet in length without the tail. 


At the termination of the Armadillos, as a very distinct subgenus, [genus, or even family, to which 
the colossal Megatherium also appertains], may be placed 


Tue CuLtamypuHores (Chlamyphorus, Har.),— 


Which have ten teeth on each side of both jaws, five toes on each foot, the anterior claws very large, 
crooked, compressed, and furnishing (as in the Cabassous) a very powerful cutting instrument [adapted 
for digging]. The back is covered wlth a series of scaly pieces, arranged transversely, without any 
solid buckler either before or behind, but forming a sort of cuirass, which is only connected with the 
body along the spine. The hind part of the body is abruptly truncated, and the tail incurved and 
partially attached to the under part of the body: [it is covered with small scales, and expanded at the 
tip. The osteology of this animal, as given by Mr. Yarrell (Zool. Journ., No. xii.), is considerably allied 
to that of the Cabassous. There is a singular tuberosity on the skull over each eyebrow. 


We know but of one (Chlamyphorus truncatus, Harlan), only five or six inches in length; it is a native of the 
interior of Chili, where it passes most of its time under ground, [and is either very rare (perhaps verging towards 
extinction), or difficult to obtain on account of its subterraneous habits]. 

N.B. There have been found, in America, some fossil bones of a gigantic Armadillo, which appears to have been 
about ten feet long exclusive of the tail. (See my Ossemens Fossiles, vol. vy. part 1, p. 191, note.) 


Tue Orycreropes (Orycteropus, Geof.)— 


Have been long confounded with the Ant-eaters, inasmuch as they subsist on the same food, have a 
similar-formed head, and a tongue which is somewhat extensible; but they are distinguished by having 
grinding teeth, and flat claws, adapted for burrowing rather than for cutting open ant-hills. The 
structure of their teeth is different from that of all other quadrupeds ; they are solid cylinders, traversed, 
like reeds, in a longitudinal direction, by an infinitude of little canals. The stomach is simple, and 
muscular towards its outlet, and the coecum small and obtuse. 


Only one species is known of this genus, the Cape Orycterope (Myrmecophaga capensis, Pallas), which the 
Dutch colonists style the Ground Hog. It is an animal about the size of a Badger or larger, low upon the less, 
with scanty greyish-brown hair, and tail shorter than the body and as little clad. It inhabits burrows, which it 
forms with extreme rapidity ; and its flesh is eaten. 


The remaining Edentata possess no grinders whatever, and consequently have no teeth 
at all. There are two genera. 


126 MAMMALIA. 


Tus Ant-EaTERS (Myrmecophaga, Lin.)— 


Are well covered with hair, have a long muzzle which terminates by a small toothless mouth, from 
which is protruded a filiform tongue, susceptible of considerable elongation, and which they insinuate 
into ant-hills and the nests of the Termites, whence these insects are withdrawn by being entangled in 
the viscid saliva that covers it. Their fore-nails, strong and trenchant, which vary in number according 
to the species, enable them to tear open the nests of the Termites, and also furnish them with effective 
means of defence. When at rest, these nails are always half-bent inwards, resembling a callosity of the 
tarsus; hence these animals can only bring the side of the foot to the ground. . Their stomach is 
simple, and muscular towards its outlet, their intestinal canal moderate, and without a ccecum.* 

The members of this genus are peculiar to the warm and temperate regions of South America, and 
produce but one young at a birth, which is carried on the back. 

The Maned or Great Ant-eater (M. jubata, 
Auct.), upwards of four feet in length, with 
four anterior claws and five hind ones, and a 
tail furnished with long hairs vertically directed, 
both above and beneath. Its colour is greyish- 
brown, with an oblique black band bordered with 
white on each shoulder. It is the largest species 
of Ant-eater ; and stated [but erroneously] to de- 
fend itself from the Jaguar. It inhabits low places, 
never ascends trees, and moves slowly. 

The Tamandua (M. tamandua, Cuv.; Myrm. 
tetradactyla and M. tridactyla, Lin.).—Figure 
and feet of the preceding, but not half the 

Fig. 51.—Great Aut-eater. size; the tail scantily furnished with hair, and 

naked and prehensile at the tip, enabling the animal to suspend itself to the branches of trees. Some of them are 
of a yellowish-grey, with an oblique band on the shoulder, that is only visible at a certain light ; others are fulvous 
with a black band; some fulvous, with the band, crupper, and belly black; and others again black altogether. It 
is not yet known whether these differences indicate species. 
The Two-toed Ant-eater (Myrm. didactyla, Lin.).—Size of a Rat, with fulvous woolly hair, and a russet line along 
the back, the tail prehensile and naked at the tip, and only two claws anteriorly, one of them very large, and four 
to the hind-foot. [Were it not for the interposition of the preceding species, it is doubtful whether the author 
would have arranged this curious little animal in the same minimum group as M. jubata: it has been sepa- 
rated by some naturalists ; and its close affinity with the Sloths is very obvious. } 


Tur Pancotiys (Manis, Lin.),— 
Are also without teeth, have an extensile tongue, and subsist on Ants and Termites in the manner of 
the Tamanduas; but their body, limbs, and tail, are covered with large trenchant imbricated scales, 
which they elevate in rolling themselves into a ball, when they wish to defend themselves against an 
enemy. All their feet have five toes. Their stomach is slightly divided in the middle part of it, and 
they have no cecum. They occur only in the ancient Continent. 


[Four or five species are now ascertained, inhabiting Asia and Africa, and varying from three to five feet in 
length]. The Short-tailed Pangolin (M. pentadactyla, Lin.), is the Phattagen of Hlian. An unguinal phalanx has 
been found, in the Palatinate, of a Pangolin that must have been twenty feet long, or more. (See Cuv., Oss. foss. 


vol. v. part 1, p. 193.) 


The third tribe of Edentata comprehends animals which M. Geoffroy designates 


MoNnoTREMATA, 
On account of their having but one external opening for all their excretions. Their genera- 
tive organs present extraordinary anomalies: though without a ventral pouch, they have 
nevertheless the same supernumerary bones to the pubis as the Marsupiata ; the vasa defe- 
rentia terminate in the urethra, which opens into the cloaca; the penis, when retracted, is 
drawn into a sheath, which opens by an orifice near the termination of the cloaca. The only 
matrix consists of two canals or trunks, each of which opens separately and by a double 
orifice into the urethra, which is very large, and terminates in the cloaca. As yet naturalists 


* Daubenton has described two small appendages in the M. di- + M. Mecke! considers as such two glandular masses which he 
ductyla, which, in strictness, may be considered as coca. I have found greatly developed in a female Ornithorynchus. ‘These M. Geof- 
satisfied myself, however, that they do not exist in M, tamandua. froy deems to be rathe~ glands, analogous to those on the flanks of the 


are not agreed as to the existence of their mammezt; nor whether these animals are viviparous 


EDENTATA. 127 


or oviparous.* The singularities of their skeleton are not less remarkable; there being a sort 
of clavicle common to both shoulders, placed before the ordimary clavicle, and analogous to 
the furcula of birds. Lastly, in addition to five claws on each foot, the males have a peculiar 
spur on the hind ones, perforated by a canal which transmits a liquid secreted by a gland 
situated on the inner surface of the thigh: it is asserted that the wounds it inflicts are 
venomous.f These animals have no external conch to the ear, and their eyes are very small. 

The Monotremes are found only in New Holland, where they have been discovered since 
the settlement of the English. There are two genera known. 


Tue Ecutpnas (Echidna, Cuy.; Tachyglossus, lig. : sometimes called Spiny Ant-eaters). 


The elongated slender muzzle of these animals, terminated by a small mouth, and containing an exten- 
sile tongue, resembles that of the Ant-eaters and Pangolins, and like them, they feed on Ants. They 
have no teeth, but their palate is provided with several ranges of small spines, directed backwards. 
Their short feet have each five long and very stout claws, fitted for burrowing; and all the upper part 
of their body is covered with spines, as in a Hedgehog, [but much larger and more powerful]. It 
appears that in the moment of danger, they have also the faculty of rolling themselves into a ball. 
The tail is verv short; stomach ample and nearly globular, and the ccecum of middle size. 


Two species have been discovered,—the Spiny Echidna 
(E. hystrix), completely covered with large spines,—and 
the Bristly Echidna (EH. setosa), covered with hair, 
among which the spines are half-hidden. Some con- 
sider the difference as only arising from age. 


Tue Ducksiiis (Ornithorynchus, Blumenbach ; 
Platypus, Shaw). 

Muzzle elongated, and at the same time singularly 
enlarged and flattened, presenting the greatest ex- 
ternal resemblance to the bill of a Duck, and the 
more so as its edges are similarly furnished with 
They have no teeth ex- 


Fig. 52 --Echidna small transverse lamine. 
cept at the bottom of the mouth, where there are two on each side of both jaws, without roots, with 
flat crowns, and composed, as in the Orycterope, of small vertical tubes. Their fore-feet have a 
membrane which not only connects the toes, but extends beyond the claws: in the hinder, the mem- 


brane reaches only to the base of the claws; two characters which, in addition to their flattened tail, 


indicate aquatic habits. Their tongue is to 
a certain extent double; one in the bill beset 
with villosities ; and another at the base of 
the first, thicker, and furnished anteriorly 
with two little fleshy points. The stomach 
is small, oblong, and has its outlet near 
the entrance; ccecum small; and there are 
numerous salient and parallel laminz in the 
course of the intestines. The penis has only 
two tubercles. These animals inhabit the 
rivers and marshes of New Holland, and 
particularly the neighbourhood of Port 


Jackson. 
Two species only are known, one with smooth and thin reddish fur (O. paradoxus, Blum.) ; the other with 
blackish-brown fur, flat, and somewhat frizzled. These are perhaps ouly varieties of age. 


Monotremata are nov oviparous, but must resembie in their repro- 
duction the Marsupiata. The young have never yet been met with 
attached to the mamme of their dam, but from the structure of the 


Fig. 53.—The Ornithorynchus. 


Shrews. [Prof. Owen has since demonstrated them to be mammary, 
although these animals (like the true Cetacez) have no teats or nip- 
ples, the lacteal secretion transuding by a number of minute pores. } 


* Travellers have lately asserted, that they have been ascertained 
to produce eggs. Should this prove to be the case, the Monotremes 
must, in some sort, be considered as a particular class of animals ; but 
it is much to be wished, that some competent anatomist would minutely 
describe these eggs, their internal origin, and their developement 
efter exclusion. [Prof. Owen has since conclusively shown that the 


beak in very young Ornithorhynci, which have been found in the 
burrows, there can be little doubt that the mouth forms, at first, a 
suctorial disk, adapted to hold on an even flat surface. ] 

+ There is reason to suspect that this statement is without founda- 
tion, as the animals never attempt to employ the spur as a weapon of 
defence.—Ep. 


128 MAMMALIA. 


THE SEVENTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. 


PACHYDERMATA. 


The Edentata terminate the series of unguiculated Mammalia, and we have just seen that 
there are some of them with claws so large, and so enveloping the ends of the toes, as to 
approximate to the nature of hoofs. Nevertheless, they have still the faculty of bending 
these toes round various objects, and of seizing with more or less force. The entire absence 
of this faculty characterizes the hoofed animals. Using their feet only as supports, they m no 
mstance possess clavicles. Their fore-arms remain constantly im the state of pronation, 
whence they are reduced to feed on vegetables. Their forms and mode of life present there- 
fore much less variety than in the unguiculated animals, and they can hardly be divided into 
more than two orders,—those which ruminate, and those which do not; but the latter, which 
we bring together under the general term Pachydermata, admits of some subdivision into 
families. 

The first is that of the Pachyderms, which have a proboscis and tusks, or the 


PRoOBOSCIDEA,*— 


Which are distinguished by having five toes to each foot, very complete in the skeleton, but 
so enveloped by the callous skin which surrounds the foot, that their only external appearance 
consists in the nails attached to the extremity of this species of hoof. They have no canines, 
nor incisors properly speaking; but in the incisive [or intermaxillary] bones are implanted 
two defensive tusks, which project from the mouth, and frequently attain enormous dimen- 
sions. The magnitude of the sockets necessary to hold these tusks renders the upper jaw so 
high, and so shortens the bones of the nose, that the nostrils im the skeleton are placed near 
the top of the face: but in the living animal they are prolonged into a cylindrical trunk, 
composed of several thousands of small muscles variously interlaced, flexible in all directions, 
endowed with exquisite sensibility, and terminated by an appendage like a finger. This trunk 
imparts to the Elephant as much address as the perfection of the hand does to the Monkey. 
It enables him to seize whatever he wishes to convey to his mouth, and sucks up the water 
he is to drink, which, by the flexure of this admirable organ, is then poured into the throat, 
thus supplying the want of a long neck, which could not have supported so large a head with 
its heavy tusks. Within the parietes of the cranium, however, are several great cavities, 
which render the head lighter: the lower jaw [except in a fossil genus when immature,] has 
no incisors whatever; the intestines are very voluminous; the stomach simple; ccecum 
enormous ; the mammz, two in number, placed under the chest. The young suck with the 
mouth and not with the trunk. Only one living genus exists, that of 


Tue Eveeuants (Elephas, Lin.),— 


Which comprehends the largest of terrestrial Mammalia. The astonishing services performed by their 
trunk, an instrument at once supple and vigorous, an organ both of touch and smell, contrast forcibly 
with the clumsy aspect and massive proportions of these animals; and being conjoined to a very 
imposing physiognomy, have contributed to exaggerate their intellect. After studying them for a long 
time, we have not found it to surpass that of the Dog, or of several other Carnaria. Naturally of a 
miid disposition, Elephants live in troops conducted by the old males. They subsist wholly on 
vegetables. 

Their distinctive character consists in the grinders, the bodies of which are composed of a certain 
number of vertical laminz, each formed of a bony substance, enveloped with enaniel, and cemented 


* The Proboscideans have various affinities with certain Rodents; , grinders being often formed of parallel lamina; 3rdly, in the form of 
Istly, in the magnitude of their incisors [tusks}; 2ndly, in their | several of their bones, &c. 


PACHYDERMATA. 129 


together by a third substance, termed the cortical; in a word, similar to those we have already seen 
in the Cavies, and some other Rodents. These grinders succeed each other not vertically, as our 
permanent teeth replace the milk teeth, but from behind forwards, so that as fast as one tooth becomes 
worn, it is pushed forward by that which comes after it; hence it happens that the Elephant has 
sometimes one, sometimes two grinders on each side, or four or eight in all, according to its age. The 
first of these teeth is always composed of fewer laminze than those which succeed them. It is stated that 
certain Elephants thus change their molars eight times: their tusks, however, are changed but once. 

The Elephants of the present day, covered with a rough skin nearly destitute of hair, inhabit only 
the torrid zone of the ancient Continent, where hitherto but two species have been discovered. 


The Asiatic Elephant (EZ. indicus, Cuv.).—Head oblong, with a concave forehead; th crown of the grinders 
presenting transverse undulating ridges (bans), which are sections of the laminz which compose them, worn 
down by trituration. This species has smaller ears than the next one, and has four nails to the hind foot. It is 
found from the Indus to the Eastern Ocean, and in the large islands to the south of India. From time immemo- 
rial this species has been employed as a beast of draught and burden; but has never yet propagated in captivity, 
though the assertion respecting its modesty and repugnance to copulate before witnesses is utterly devoid of 
foundation. The females have very short tusks, and in this respect many of the males resemble then. 

The African Elephant (E. africanus, Cuv.).—Head round, with a convex forehead; very large ears; and grinders 
presenting lozenge-shaped eminences on their crowns. It appears to have often only three toes on the hind-foot. 
This species inhabits from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. Whether they ascend the eastern coast of Africa, 

or are replaced there by the Asiatic species, is not yet 

ascertained. The tusks of the female are as large as 

those of the male, and the weapon itself is generally 

pee ; larger than in the preceding. This animal is not 

eas now tamed in Africa, though it appears that the Car- 

thaginians employed it in the same way that the 
inhabitants of India do theirs. 

In nearly every part of the two Continents, are 
found, under ground, the bones of a species of Ele- 
phant allied to that of India, but the grinders of 
which bear straighter and narrower eminences, the 
sockets for the reception of the tusks are much longer, 
and the lower jaw is more obtuse. A specimen re- 
cently taken from the ice on the coast of Siberia, by 
Mr. Adams, appears to have been densely covered 
with hair of two kinds, so that it is possible that this 
— species may have lived in cold climates. It [is termed 
Fig. 54.—Mammoth Skeleton. the Mammoth Elephant (#. primogenius, Cuv.), and] 

has long been quite extinct. 


The second genus of Proboscideans, or that of 


THE Mastropons (Mastodon, Cuy.),— 


Has been quite destroyed, no species of it being now alive. They had the feet, tusks, trunk, and many 
other details of conformation the same as the Elephants; but their grinding teeth differed in having 
large conical tubercles above the gum, which, by detrition, were reduced to disks of various size, that 
represent sections of the tubercles, (a conformation common to the Mastodon, Hippopotamus, Pig, 
&c., which has induced the erroneous idea that the first were carnivorous). These grinders, which 
succeeded each other from behind as in the Elephants, present also so many pairs of points, as the 
animal was advanced in age. [There are small tusks in the lower jaw of the immature Mastodon, in 
which state it is the Tetracaulodon of Godman.] 

The Great Mastodon (M. giganteum, Cuv.), in which the tubercles were lozenge-shaped, is the species most cele- 
brated. It equalled the Elephant in size, but with still heavier proportions. Its remains are found in a wonderful 
state of preservation, and in great abundance through all parts of North America*: in the Eastern Continent 


they are of much rarer occurrence. 

Narrow-toothed Mastodon (M. angustidens).—Much narrower grinders than the preceding, the tubercles of 
which, when worn down, present trefoil-shaped discs, whence they have been mistaken by someauthors for the 
grinders of the Hippopotamus. This species was one-third less than the Great Mastodon, and much lower on the 
legs. [Two or three have been confounded under its name.] Its teeth, in certain places, tinged with iron, become 
of a fine blue when heated, forming what is called the ‘ oriental turquoise.” 


* An almost perfect skeleton, made up however of the bones of different individuals, found in the celebrated deposit of “ Big-boue lick,’’ as 
mounted in the Museum of Philadelphia,—Ep. 


K 


130 MAMMALIA. 


Our second family is that of the 


PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA,— 


Which have four, three, or two toes to their feet. Those in which the toes make even num- 
bers have feet somewhat cleft, and approximate the Ruminants im various parts of the 
skeleton, and even in the complication of the stomach. They are usually divided into two 
genera. 
Tue Hrepororami (Hippopotamus, Lin.)— 

Have four nearly equal toes to each foot, terminated by little hoofs; six grinders on each side of both 
jaws, the three anterior of which are conical, the posterior presenting two pairs of points, which, by 
detrition, assume a trefoil shape ; four incisors above and below, those of the upper jaw short, conical, 
and recurved, the inferior prolonged, cylindrical, pointed, and horizontally projecting; a canine tooth 
on each side above and below, the upper straight, the lower very large and recurved, those of the two 
jaws rubbing against each other. 

These animals have a very massive body, naked of hair; very short legs, their belly almost 
touching the ground; an enormous head, terminated by a swoln muzzle, which encloses the apparatus 
of their large front teeth; a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Their stomach is divided into several 
sacs. They live in rivers, upon roots and other vegetable substances, and display much ferocity and 
stupidity. 

One living species only is known, the #. amphibius, Lin., now confined to the rivers of medial and south 
Africa. It formerly found its way to Egypt by the Nile, but has long disappeared from that country. * 


The European freshwater deposits contain the bones of a species of Hippopotamus very similar to that of 
Africa, and also of two or three others successively smaller. (See my Researches on Fossil Bones, vol. i.) 


Tue Pres (Sus, Lin.)— 
Have two large middle toes to each foot, armed with strong hoofs, and two much shorter lateral ones 
that hardly touch the ground. Their incisors vary in number, but the inferior always slant forward ; 
the canines project from the mouth and curve upward: muzzle terminated by a truncated snout 
adapted to turn up the soil, and stomach but slightly divided. 


Tue Pies, properly so called,— 


Have from twenty-four to twenty-eight grinders, the posterior of which are oblong, with tuberculated 
crowns, the anterior more or less compressed, and six incisors to each jaw. 


The Wild Boar (Sus scropha, Lin.), which is the parent stock of our Domestic Hog and its varieties, has pris- 
matic tusks that curve outward and slightly upward; the body stout and thick; straight ears; the hair bristly 
and black: the young ones are variegated black and white. It does great injury to fields in the neighbourhood 
of forests, by tearing up the ground in search of roots. 

The Domestic Pig varies in size and length of limbs, in the direction of its ears, and also in colour; being white 
or black, sometimes red, and often varied. Every one is acquainted with the usefulness of this animal, on account 
of the flavour of its flesh, and the length of time it can be preserved by means of salt; the facility with which it is 
fed; and its great fecundity, which surpasses that of all other animals of its size, the female often producing 
fourteen young at a litter. The period of gestation is four months, and they produce twice a year. The Hog 
continues to increase in size for five or six years, is prolific at one, and sometimes lives to twenty. Although 
naturall y savage, they are social, both wild and tame, and know how to defend themselves against Wolves, by 
forming a circle, and presenting a front in every direciion. Voracious and savage, they do not even spare their 
own young, [at least, if the parent be disturbed soon after their birth]. ‘This species is spread throughout the 
globe, and none but Jews and Mahometans refuse to eat its flesh. [It appears to be indigenous only, however, to 
Europe and Asia, extending to the Peninsula of Hindostan: the Chinese breed is probably a distinct species, 
though it commingles freely with the other. ] 

The Masked Boar (S. larvatus, F. Cuv.; S. africanus, Schreber ; Sanglier de Madagascar, Daub.)—Tusks li .e 
the Common Hog; but on each side of the muzzle, near the tusks, is a large tubercle, somewhat like the nipple of 
a woman, supported by a bony prominence, which imparts a singular physiognomy to the animal. It inhabits 
Madagascar and the south of Africa. 

The Babyroussa (Sus babyrussa, Buff. Supp.)—Longer and more slender legs than the others, with slender tusks 
turned vertically upwards, those of the upper jaw inclining spirally backward. It inhabits several islands of the 
Indian Archipelago. [The Papuan Hog (S. papuensis) is another distinct species from New Guinea. ] 


From the Pigs require to be separated 


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PACHYDERMATA. 131 


Tur Wart-HoGs (Phascocheres, F. Cuv.),— 


The grinders of which are composed of cylinders, cemented together by a cortical substance, almost 
like the transverse lamine of the Elephant, and like them succeeding each other from behind. Their 
skull is singularly large, the tusks rounded, directed laterally upward, and of a frightful magnitude ; 
and on each of their cheeks hangs a thick fleshy lobe, which completes the hideousness of their 
aspect. They have but two incisors above and six below. 


The individuals received from Cape Verd (S. africanus, Gm.) haye generally the incisive teeth complete; those 
which arrive from the Cape of Good Hope (S. ethiopicus, Gm.) scarcely show any trace of them, although vestiges 
are sometimes found within the gum. This difference may perhaps arise from age, which has worn down the teeth 
of the latter, or it may indicate a specific diversity, the more especially as the heads of those from the Cape are 
rather larger and shorter. 


There is still better reason to separate from the genus of Pigs— 


Tue Peccariss (Dycoteles, Cuy.),— 


Which have certainly grinders and incisors very like those of the Pigs properly so called, but their 
canines, directed as in the generality of the class, do not project from the mouth, besides which they 
want the external toe to their hind-feet. They have no tail, and upon the loins is a glandular opening 
from which a fetid humour exudes. The metacarpal and metatarsal bones of their two great toes are 
soldered into a kind of cannon-bone, as in the Ruminants; with which their stomach, also, divided into 
several sacs, presents a marked analogy. It is a singular fact, that the aorta of these animals is often 
found very much enlarged, but not always in the same part, as if they were subject to a kind of 
aneurism. 


There are two species known, both inhabitants of South America, which were first distinguished by Azzara. 
Linneus confounded them together under the name of Sus tajassu. 

The Collared Peccary (D. torquatus, Cuy.).—Hair annulated grey and brown; a whitish collar, stretching 
obliquely from the angle of the lower jaw over the shoulder. Size half that of the Wild Boar. 

The White-lipped Peccary (D. labiatus, Cuv.).—Larger ; and brown, with white lips. 


Here may be placed a genus now unknown among existing animals, which we have discovered, and 

named 
ANOPLOTHERIUM, Cuy.,— 

And which presents the most singular relations with the different tribes of Pachydermata, ap- 
proximating, in some respects, to the order Ruminantia. Six incisors to each jaw, four canines 
almost similar to the incisors and of even length with them, and seven molars on each side above and | 
below, form a continuous series without any intervening space, a disposition of the teeth seen elsewhere 
in Man only. The four posterior molars on each side resemble those of the Rhinoceroses, the Damans, 
and Paleotheriums; that is to say, they are square above, and form double or triple crescents below. 
The feet, terminated by two great toes, as in the Ruminants, are yet different in the circumstance of 
the metacarpal and metatarsal bones remaining always separated, or being never united into a cannon- 
bone. The construction of their tarsus is the same as in the Camel. 


The bones of this genus have hitherto only been found in the gypsum quarries near Paris. We have already 
recognized five species : one the size of a small Ass, with the low form and long tail of an Otter (A. commune, Cuv.), 
the fore-feet of which have a smail internal accessory toe; another of the size and slender form of the Gazelle 
(A. medium); a third no bigger and with nearly the same proportions as a Hare, with two accessory toes to the 
sides of its hind-feet, &c. (See my Ossemens fossiles, tom. iil.) | 


The ordinary Pachydermata which have not cloven feet comprehend, m the first place, 
three genera, the molar teeth of which are very similar, there being seven on each side with 
square crowns, and various prominent lines, and seven in the lower jaw, the crowns of which 
form double crescents, and the last of all a triple one: their meisors, however, vary. 


Tae Rurnoceroses (fhinoceros, Lin.)\— 
In this respect differ from one another. They are large animals, with each foot divided into three toes, ae 
and the nasal bones of which, very thick and united into a kind of arch, support a solid horn, which 
adheres to the skin, and is composed of a filrous an! horny substance, resembling agglutinated hairs. 


132 MAMMALIA. 


They are naturally stupid and ferocious ; frequent marshy places; subsist on herbage and the branches 


of trees; have a simple stomach, very long intestines, and great caecum. 

The Indian Rhinoceros (Rk. indicus, Cuy.).—In addition to its twenty-eight grinders, this species has two stout 
incisive teeth in each jaw, together with two other intermediate smaller ones below, and two still more diminutive 
outside of its upper incisors. It has only one horn, and its skin is remarkable for the deep folds into which it is 
thrown behind and across the shoulders, and before and across the thighs. It inhabits the East Indies, and 
chiefly beyond the Ganges. ‘ 

The Javanese Rhinoceros (Rh. javanus, Cuy.),—with the great incisors and single horn of the preceding, has 
fewer folds in the skin, though one of them on the neck is larger; and, what is remarkable, the entire skin is 
covered with square angular tubercles, [as is also the case, to a partial extent, in the preceding; trom which it 
further differs in having a comparatively slender head]. 

The Sumatran Rhinoceros (Rh. swnatrensis, Cuv.),—with the same four great incisors as the foregoing, has no 
folds to the skin, which is besides hairy, and there is a second horn behind the first. 

The African Rhinoceros (Rk. africanus, Cuv.) [or rather Rhinoceroses, three species of them being now ascer- 
tained].—Two horns as in the preceding ; and no folds of the skin, nor any incisor teeth, the molars occupying 
nearly the whole length of the jaw. This deficiency of incisors might warrant a separation from the others. [The 
Great Rhinoceros (RA. simus, Burchell), which considerably exceeds in size any of the others, is further distin- 
guished by its pale colour, its very long and straight anterior horn, and remarkably short hind one, and particu- 
larly by the form of its upper lip, which is not capable of elongation, and a certain degree of prehension, as in all 
the others: it is the most gregarious of any, and also the most inoffensive, frequenting the open karoos. The 
common Cape Rhinoceros (Rh. africanus or capensis) is darker, with also unequal horns, the posterior being 
shorter ; and the Ketloa Rhinoceros (RA. ketloa), recently discovered by Dr. Smith, is an animal of solitary habits, 
with horns of equal length, reputed to exceed the rest in ferocity.*] 

There have been found, under ground, in Siberia and different parts of Germany, the bones of a double-horned 
Rhinoceros, the skull of which, besides being much more elongated than in any known existing species, is further 
distinguished by a bony vertical partition that supported the bones of the nose. It is an extinct animal; but of 
which a carcase, almost entire, exposed by the thawing of the ice on the banks of the Vilhoui in Siberia, showed 
to have been covered with tolerably thick hair. It is possible, therefore, that it inhabited northern climates, like 
the fossil Elephant. 

More recently there have been disinterred, in Tuscany and Lombardy, other Rhinoceros bones, which appear 
to have belonged to a species allied to the African. Some have been found, in Germany, with incisors like the 
Asiatic species ; and lastly, there have been discovered, in France, the bones of one which announce a size scarcely 
larger than a Pig. [It appears that several of the fossil species were destitute of the nasal horn.] 


Tue Damans (Hyrax, Hermann)— 


Were long placed among the Rodentia, on account of their very small size; but, on examining 
them carefully, it will be found that, excepting the horn, they are little else than Rhinoceroses in 
miniature; at least they have quite similar molars; but the upper jaw has two stout incisors curved 
downwards, and, during youth, two very small canines; the inferior four incisors, without any 
canines. They have four toes to each of their fore-feet, and three to the hind-feet, all, excepting the 
innermost posterior, which is armed with a crooked and oblique nail, terminated by a kind of very small, 
thin, and rounded hoof. The muzzle and ears are short: they are covered with hair, and have only 
a tubercle in place of a tail. The stomach is divided into two sacs; their ccecum is very large, and the 
colon has several dilatations, and is also furnished with two appendages about the middle, analogous to 
the two cceca of birds. 


Only one species is known, the size of a Rabbit, and greyish: it is not uncommon in rocky places throughout 
Africa, where it is much preyed on by rapacious birds, and it also appears to inhabit some parts of Asia; at 
least we cannot perceive any certain difference between the Hyrax capensis and H. syriacus. (Five, if not six, are 
now conclusively established ; one of which, indigenous to South Africa, even ascends trees. ] 


Tur PALHOTHERIUM, Cuv.—~ 


Is another lost genus: with the same grinders as the two preceding, six incisors and two canines to 
each jaw as in the Tapirs, and three visible toes to each foot, it combined a short fleshy trunk, for the 
muscles of which the bones of the nose were shortened, leaving a deep notch underneath. We have 
discovered the bones of this genus, mingled with those of the Anoplotherium, in the gypsum quarries 
in the environs of Paris, and they occur in several other parts of France; [also, with those of the 
Cheropotamus, Dichobune, &c., other lost genera of Pachydermata, in the Binstead quarries of the 
Isle of Wight, England]. 


* Previous to discovering this species, a fine specimen of which is | Africa, which are distinguished there by separate names: one of them 
deposited in the British Museum, Dr.Smith received information, from | is stated to have only a single horn.—Ep. 
the natives, of the existence of five sorts of these animals in South 


i Ma SURO 


Calmue Hoi 


ft 
WM)/ 
HY 


vd Pony Draneht toa 


PACHYDERMATA. 


Eleven or twelve species are already known. At Paris alone, we aave found one the size of a Horse, another 
that of a Tapir, and a third of a small Sheep: the bones of a species nearly equalling the Rhinoceros in size 
have been met with in the neighbourhood of Orleans. These animals appear to have frequented the borders 
of lakes and marshes, for the deposits which enclose their remains contain also those of freshwater shells. (See 
my Ossemens fossiles, tom. iii.) 

Tae LopH1opons— 
Form another extinct genus, which appears to have been closely allied to the preceding one; but the 
inferior incisors of which exhibit transverse ridges. Ten or twelve species have been exhumed from 
the same ancient freshwater deposits that have yielded the Palzeotheriums. 

To these last genera succeeds that of 


THe Tapirs (Zapir, Lin.),— 


Wherein the twenty-seven molars, before they are worn, present transverse and rectilinear ridges ; 
there are six incisors and two canines in each jaw, separated from the molars by a wide interval. The 
nose assumes the form of a short fleshy trunk; and the fore-feet have each four toes, the hinder 
but three. 


For a long while only one species was known, that of America (7. americanus, Lin.), which is the size of a small 
Ass, with a brown and almost naked skin, a short tail, and fleshy neck, that forms a crest at the nape. It is 
common in humid places and along the rivers of the warm parts of America, where its flesh is eaten. The young 
are spotted with white like the fawns of a Stag. Within a few years, a second species has been discovered in the 
Eastern Continent (7. indicus), of larger size than the other, and brown-black, with the back greyish white. It 
inhabits the forests of the Malay peninsula, the island of Sumatra, &c. Still more recently, Dr. Roulin has dis- 
covered in the Cordilleras a third species, of a black colour, and covered with thick hair; the bones of its nose 
are more elongated, a particular in which it somewhat approximates the Paleotheriums. 

There have also been found in Europe some fossil bones of Tapirs, and, among the rest, those of a gigantic 
species approaching the Elephant in size (1%. giganteus, Cuv., Oss. foss.) ‘The lower jaw of this huge animal 
has been obtained by M. Schleyermacher, and proves to possess enormous canines, which must have projected 
from the mouth, [and are directed downwards]: it should therefore form a separate genus. Its size may have 
been greater than that of the Elephant by one half. [A more perfect head of this extraordinary species, the largest 
of the Pachydermata hitherto discovered, has been lately disentombed in Germany, and described by Prof. Kaup. 
With two other species, successively smaller, it now composes the genus Deinotherium, the members of which are 
suspected by Blainville and other anatomists to have been aquatic animals, destitute of posterior extremities, like 
the Dugongs and Manati.] 


The third family of Pachydermata, or of hoofed animals that do not ruminate, consists 


of the 
SOLIDUNGULA, 


Or quadrupeds with only one apparent toe and a single hoof to each foot, although beneath 
the skin, on each side of their metacarpus and metatarsus, there are appendices (stylets) 


which represent two lateral toes. But one genus of them is known, that of 


Tue Horses (Zguus, Lin.). 


There are six incisors to each jaw, which, during youth, have their crowns furrowed with a groove, 
and six molars on each side above and below, with square crowns, marked by laminze of enamel which 
penetrate them, with four crescents, besides which there is a small disk on the inner border of those 
above. The males have in addition two small canines in their upper. jaw, and sometimes in both, 
which are always wanting in the females. Between these canines and the first molar, there is a wide 
space which corresponds with the angle of the lips, where the bit is placed, by which alone Man has 
been enabled to subdue these powerful quadrupeds. Their stomach is simple and middle-sized; but 
their intestines are very long, and cecum enormous. The teats are situate between the thighs. 

The Horse (Z. cabatlus, Lin.).—This noble associate vf Man in the chase, in war, and in the labours of agricul- 
ture, arts and commerce, is the most important and carefully tended of domestic animals. It does not appear to 
exist in the wild state, excepting in those countries where the offspring of tame individuals have been suffered to 
run wild, as in Tartary and America, where they live in troops, each conducted and defended by an old male. 
The young males, expelled as soon as they have attained the age of puberty, follow the troop at a distance, until 


they have attracted some of the younger mares. 

In a state of servitude, the colt continues sucking for six or seven months, and the sexes are separated at two 
years; at three they are first handled and accustomed to some management, and at four saddled and mounted, 
at which age they can propagate without injuring themselves. The period of gestation is eleven months. 


134 MAMMALIA. 


A Horse’s age is known by his incisors. The miacue teeth begin to appear about fifteen days after birth; and 
at two years and a half the middle ones are replaced ; at three and a half the two next follow; and at four anda 
half, the outermost or corner teeth. All these teeth, with originally-indented crowns, lose by degrees this character 
by detrition. At seven and a half or eight years, the depressions are completely effaced, and the Horse is no 


longer marked. 
The inferior canines appear at three years and a half, the superior at four years; they remain pointed until the 


sixth, and at ten begin to peel away. 

The life of a Horse seldom extends beyond thirty years. Every one knows how much this animal varies in size 
and colour. The principal races even exhibit sensible differences in the form of the head, and in their proportions, 
each being specially adapted for some particular mode of employment. 

The most beautiful and swift are the Arabs, which have contributed to perfect the Spanish breed, and with the 
latter to form the English: the stoutest and strongest are from the coasts of the North Sea; and the most dimi- 
nutive from the north of Sweden and Corsica. Wild Horses have a large head, frizzled hair, and ungraceful pro- 
portions. [If the figure of Pallas be correct, of the Wild Horse of northern Asia, it is doubtful, from the length of 
the ears and some other characters, whether a distinct species intermediate to the true Horse and the fol- 
lowing be not represented. M. Serres suspects that a species of Equus now extinct is represented on the celebrated 
mosaic of Palestrina. Bones of this genus are not uncommon in the older tertiary strata, and have even been found 
in those of South America. 

The Dzegguetai (Equus hemionus, Pallas).—A distinct species, intermediate in its proportions to the Horse and 
Ass, which lives in troops in the sandy deserts of Central Asia. Colour isabelle, with black mane and [broad] 
dorsal line; a terminal black tuft to the tail. This was probably the Wild Mule of the ancients. 

The Ass (#. asinus, Lin.).—Known by its long ears, the tuft at the end of its tail, and the black line crossing the 
dorsal one over its shoulders, which is the first indication of the transverse stripes that occur in the following 
species. (Some of the young have obscure cross-bands on the legs.] Originally from the vast deserts of the 
interior of Asia, the Ass is still found there free and unreclaimed, in numerous troops, which migrate north and 
south according to the season: hence it does not thrive in countries too much to the north. Its patience, sobriety, 
hardy constitution, and the services which it renders to the poor, are well known to every one. The harshness of 
its voice, or bray, is occasioned by two small peculiar cavities situate at the bottom of the larynx. 

The Zebra (E. zebra, Lin.).—Nearly the form of the Ass, and everywhere transversely striped with black and 
white in a regular manner. It is indigenous to the whole south of Africa. We have known a female Zebra 
produce successively with the Horse and the Ass. 

The Couagga (E. quaccha, Gm.), resembles the Horse more than the Zebra, but inhabits the same country as the 
latter. Its coat is brown on the neck and shoulders, transversely striped with whitish; the crupper reddish-grey, 
and tail and legs whitish. Its name expresses the sound of its voice, which is not unlike the bark of a Dog. 

The Onagga or Dauw (EZ. montanus, Burchell).—Another African species, inferior [?] in size to the Ass, but 
with the handsome form of the Couagga, and of an isabelle colour, striped with alternately broader and more 
narrow black markings on the head, neck, and body. The hinder stripes are disposed obliquely forward, and the 
legs and tail are white. 


THE EIGHTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— 


RUMINANTIA,— 


Is, perhaps, the most natural and the best determined of the whole class, for all the species 
which compose it appear to have been constructed on the same model, and the Camels alone 
present some inconsiderable exceptions to the general characters of the group. 

The first of these characters is that of having no incisors in the upper jaw, while the 
inferior has always eight, [the two outermost of which represent canines, as can be easily 
shown]. They are replaced above by a callous pad. Between the imcisors and the molars 
is a wide space, where, in some genera, there are one or two canines.* The molars, almost 
always six in number above and below, have their crowns marked with two double crescents, 
the convexity of which is turned inwards in the upper, and outwards in the lower jaw. 

The four feet are each terminated by two toes, and by two hoofs, which present a fiat sur- 
face to each other, appearing as though a single hoof had been cleft: hence the names that 
have been applied to these animals, of cloven-footed, bifurcated, &c. 

Behind the hoof there are always two small spurs, which are vestiges of lateral toes. The 


* Though acquainted with all the subdivisions of Ruminantia, we inthe Camels, wherein the inferior canine has been recognized as 
have never seen more than one canine in any animal whatever; and such, there are never more than sea lower incisurs —Ep. 


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Lae 


RUMINANTIA. 135 


two bones of the metacarpus and metatarsus are united into a single one, designated the 
cannon bone ; but in certain species there are also vestiges of lateral metacarpal and metatarsal 
bones. 

The name Ruminantia intimates the singular faculty possessed by these animals, of masti- 
cating their food a second time, it being returned to the mouth after the first deglutition. 
This faculty depends on the structure of their stomachs, which are always four in number, 
the first three of which are so disposed that the food may enter into either of them, the 
cesophagus termimating at the poimt of communication. 

The first and largest stomach is named the paunch ; it receives a large quantity of vegetable 
matters coarsely bruised by the first mastication. From this it passes into the second, termed 
the honey-comb bag, the parietes of which are laminated like the cells of Bees. This second 
stomach, very small and globular, seizes the food, and moistens and compresses it into little 
pellets (or cuds), which afterwards successively return to the mouth to be rechewed. The 
animal remains at rest during this operation, which lasts until all the herbage first taken into 
the paunch has been subjected to it. The aliment thus remasticated descends directly into 
the third stomach, termed the feuillet, on account of its parietes being longitudinally lami- 
nated somewhat like the leaves of a book, from which it descends into the fourth or caillette, 
the coats of which are wrmkled, and which is the true organ of digestion, analogous to the 
simple stomach of animals in general. In the young of the ruminants, while they continue to 
subsist on the milk of the mother, the cai/lette is the largest of the four. The paunch is only 
developed by receiving great quantities of herbage, which finally give it its enormous volume. 
These animals have the intestinal canal very long; but there are few enlargements in the 
great intestines. The ccecum is likewise long and tolerably smooth. Their fat hardens more 
by cooling than that of other quadrupeds, and even becomes brittle. It is commonly termed 
tallow. ‘The udder is placed between the thighs. 

The Rumimants, of all animals, are those which are most useful to Man. They furnish him 
with food, and nearly all the flesh that he consumes. Some serve him as beasts of burden, 
others with their milk, their tallow, leather, horns, and other products. 


The two first genera are without horns. 


THe Camets (Camelus, Lin.),— 

Approximate the preceding order rather more than the others. They have not only always canines in 
both jaws, but have also two pointed teeth implanted in the intermaxillary bones, six inferior incisors, 
and from eighteen to twenty molars only; peculiarities which, of all the Ruminantia, they alone 
possess, besides which the scaphoid and cuboid bones of the tarsus are separated. Instead of the 
great hoof, flat at its inner side, which envelopes the whole inferior portion of each toe, and which 
determines the figure of the ordinary cloven foot, they have but one small one, which only adheres to 
the last phalanx, and is symmetrically formed like the hoofs of the Pachydermata. Their tumid and 
cleft lip, their long neck, projecting orbits, weakness of the crupper, and the disagreeable proportions 
of their legs and feet, render them in some sort deformed ; but their extreme sobriety, and the faculty 
they possess of passing several days without drinking, cause them to be of the highest utility. 

It is probable that this last faculty results from the great masses of cells which cover the sides of 
their paunch, in which water is constantly retained or produced. The other Ruminants have nothing 
of the kind. 

Camels urinate backward, but the direction of the penis changes during copulation, which is effected 
with considerable difficulty, and while the female lies down. In the rutting season a fetid humour 
issues from the head. 

Tut Came s, properly so called,— 
Have the two toes united below, almost to the point, by a common sole, and humps of fat upon the 
back. They are large animals of the Eastern Continent, of which two species are known, both of them 
completely domesticated.* 


* Pallas states, on the authority of the Bucharians and Tartars, may remark that the Calmucks are in the habit of liberating all sorts 
that there are wild Camels in the deserts of Central Asia; but we | of animals from a religious principle. 


136 MAMMALIA. 


The Bactrian or Two-humped Camel (C. dactrianus, Lin.),—originally from Central Asia, and which descends 
much less to the south than 

The Arabian or One-humped Camel (C. dromedarius, Lin.), which is spread from Arabia into all the north of 
Africa, and great part of Syria, Persia, &c. 

The first is the only one employed in Turkostan, Thibet, &c.; and is sometimes led as far as Lake Baikal. The 
second is well known, in consequence of the necessity of employing it in crossing the great Desert, being the only 
means of communication between the countries on its borders. 

The Two-humped Camel walks less painfully than the other on humid ground; and is also larger and stronger. 
Previous to renewing its coat it sheds the whole of its hair. It is the One-humped Camel that is the most abste- 
mious. The Dromedary is merely a lighter variety of it, better fitted for expedition. 

The flesh and milk of the Camel serve for food, and its hair for garments, to the people who possess it. In rocky 
or stony countries both species are useless. [Buffon considered the humps and callous pads on the legs of these 
animals as marks of servitude: on the contrary, they are admirable instances of direct adaptation to their indi- 
genous locality. The enlargement and convex soles of their feet are expressly fitted for treading on loose yielding 
sand; aud their humps are provisions of superabundant nutriment, which are gradually absorbed and disappear 
on the occasion of a scarcity of other food, as is particularly observed at the end of a long journey. By resting on 
their callosities, they are enabled to liedown and repose on a scorching surface; and finally, the abundant supply 
of fluid in their stomach is too obvious a provision, in reference to their peculiar requirements, to need even this 
passing allusion. ] 

Tae Lamas (Auchenia, Iliger),— 


Have their two toes separate, and are without humps. Only two clearly distinct species are known, 
both from the New World, and much smaller than the preceding. 

The Lama, which, in its wild state, is termed Guanaco (Camelus llacma, Lin.).—As large as a Stag, with dense 
hair of a chestnut-colour, but varying when the animal is domesticated. It was the only beast of burden which the 
Peruvians possessed at the time of the conquest. It can carry a hundred and fifty pounds, but can only make 
short journeys. The Alpaca is a Variety with long woolly hair.” 

The Vicugna (Cam. vicunna, Lin.).—Size of a Sheep, and covered with fulvous wool, of admirably fine texture, 
and of which valuable stuffs are manufactured. [The Lamas are mountain animals, peculiar to the Andes. 
M. Ale. @Orbigny, who has long resided in their native country, distinguishes tour species of them, viz., the 
Lama and Alpaca, which have been completely reduced to servitude, and the Guanaco and Vicugna, which con- 


stantly refuse to copulate with the others. 
The bones of an animal related to the Lamas, but which must have equalled the Camels of the eastern hemi- 


sphere in stature, and which had three toes to the fore-feet, have lately been recovered by Mr. Darwin in Paraguay: 
the Macrauchenia, Owen] 

Tue Musxs (Moschus, Lin.),— 
Are very much less anomalous than the Camels, differing only from ordinary Ruminants in the absence 
of horns, by a long canine on each side of the upper jaw, which projects beyond the mouth in the 
males, and lastly, by having a slender peroneum, which is not present even in the Camel. They are 
remarkable for their elegance and lightness. 


The Pouched Musk (M. moschiferus, Lin.), is the most celebrated species. Size that of a Roe, and almost 
without tail; it is completely covered with hairs, so coarse and brittle that they might almost be termed spines : 
what particularly distinguishes it, however, is the pouch situate before the prepuce of the male, which contains 
an odorous substance, well known in medicine and perfumery by the appellation musk. This species appears con- 
fined to that rugged and rocky region from which most of the Asiatic rivers descend, and which extends between 


OD 


Siberia, China, and Thibet. Its habits are nocturnal and solitary, and timidity extreme. It is in Thibet and 
Tonquin that it yields the best musk; that of the north being almost inodorous. [The difference more probably 
arises from the amount of adulteration, which is practised toa vast extent. ] 

The other Musks have no musk-pouch, [and constitute the Tragulus of Bennett]. They inhabit the warm parts 
of the eastern hemisphere, and are the smallest and most elegant of the Ruminantia. Such are M. pygmeus, 
Buif. ; BZ. memina, Schreb.; and M. javanicus, Buff. 


All the other Ruminants, at least of the male sex, have two horns ; that is to say, two pro- 
minences of the frontal bones, more or less long, which occur in no other group of animals. 

In some, these prominences are covered with an elastic sheath, formed as it were oF agelu- 
tinated hair, which continues to increase by layers during life. The name of horn is applied. 
to the substance of this sheath, and the sheath itself is termed the core. The pro- 
minence which it envelopes grows with it during life, and never falls. Such are the horns of 
cattle, as Oxen, Sheep, Goats, and Antelopes. 

In others, the prominences are only covered with a hairy skin, continuous with that of the 
head: these prominences do not fall; and the Giraffes afford the only example. 


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Wapiti 


RUMINANTIA. 137 


| 

Finally, in the genus of Stags, the prominences, covered for a while with a hairy skin like | 
the other parts of the head, have at their base a ring of bony tubercles, which, as they enlarge, 
compress and obliterate the nutritive vessels of that skin, [commonly termed the velvet]. It | 
becomes dry, and is thrown off: the bony prominences, being laid bare, at the expiration of | 
a certain period separate from the skull to which they were attached; they fall, and the 
animal remains defenceless. Others, however, are reproduced, generally larger than before, 
which are destined to undergo the same fate. These horns, purely osseous, and subject to 
periodical changes, are styled antlers. 


Tue Sraes (Cervus, Lin.)— 
Are consequently ruminants which have heads armed with antlers; but, if we except the Rein Deer, 
the females in no instance possess them, [save in rare individual cases *]. The substance of these 
antlers, when completely developed, is that of a dense bone without pores or internal cavity: their 
figure varies greatly aécording to the species, and even in each species at different ages. These animals 
are extremely fleet ; live mostly in forests; and feed on grass, the leaves and buds of trees, &c. 


Those species which have antlers either wholly or partially flattened may be first distinguished; such as— 

The Elk, or Moose Deer (C. alces, Lin.).—As large as a Horse, and sometimes larger; very high upon the legs ; with 
a swoln cartilaginous muzzle, and a sort of goitre, or variously shaped pendulous swelling, under the throat; hair 
always very stiff, and of an ash-colour, more or less dark. The antlers of the male, at first dagger-shaped, and 
then divided into narrow slips, assume, at the age of five years, the form of a triangular blade, dentelated on its 
outer edge, and borne on a pedicle. They increase with age, so as to weigh fifty or sixty pounds, and to have 
fourteen branches on each horn. The Elk lives in troops in the marshy forests of the north of both continents, 
and its skin forms valuable leather. 

The Rein Deer (C. tarandus, Lin.).—Size of a Stag, but with shorter and stouter limbs ; both sexes have antlers, 
divided into several branches, at first slender and pointed, and finally terminating with age in broad dentelated 
palms: the hair, brown in summer, becomes almost white in winter. It is peculiar to the glacial regions of both 
continents, and is the animal so celebrated for the services which it renders to the Laplanders, who have numerous 


herds of them, which in summer they lead to the 
mountains, and in winter bring back to the plains: 
it is their only beast of burden and draught, its 
milk and flesh serve them for food, its hide for 
clothes, &c. 

The Fallow Deer (C. dama).—Less than the Stag, 
and blackish-brown in winter, fulvous spotted with 
white, in summer; the buttocks always white, bor- 
dered on each side with black: tail longer than that 
of the Stag, black above and white below. The horn 
of the male is round at base, with a pointed antler, 
and throughout the rest of its length flattened, with 
its outer edge dentelated. After a certain age it 
shrinks, and splits irregularly into several slips. 
This species, the P/atyceros of the ancients, has be- 
come common throughout Europe, but appears to 
have been originally from Barbary. A blackish variety 
without spots [even in the fawns] is not uncommon. 

The species with round antlers are more nume- 
rous. Those of temperate climates change colour, 
more or less, with the seasons. 

The Common Stag, or Red Deer (C. elephas, 
Lin.).—Fulvous-brown, with a black dorsal line, 
and on each side of it a series of small pale fulvous 
spots, in summer ; uniform greyish-brown in win- 
ter: the crupper and tail pale fulvous at all seasons. 
It is indigenous to the forests of all Europe, and 
of the temperate parts of Asia. The antlers of 
the male are round, and appear in the second year, 
at first dagger-shaped, and then with branches on 


Fie. od.—Red Deer. 
which increase im number with age; they are crowned finally with a sort of palmation, having 


their inner side, 
instance is recorded of a Doe with only a single horn, resembling that 


of a three-year-old Buck; and on dissection, the ovary of the same 
side was fonnd to be schirrous. After attaining their maximum of 


« There is the hend of a female Roe, with antlers, in the Museum of 
the Royal College of Surgeons, London. The connexion of these 
defences, however, with the sexual organs is remarkable. They do 
not grow in emasculated individuals ; and the rutting season imme- 
diately follows their developement. In Lin. Trans. vol. ii. p. 356, an | each successive renewal,—Ep 


developement, the antlers of these animals decrease, in old age, at 


138 MAMMALIA. 


many points. When very old, the Stag becomes blackish, and the hairs on the neck lengthen and become erect. The 
antlers are shed in spring, the old ones losing them first; and are reproduced in summer, during the whole of 
which period the males associate separately. When they are grown again, the rutting season commences, which 
lasts three weeks, at which time the males become furious. Both sexes unite in vast herds to pass the winter. 
The hind carries eight months, and brings forth in May ; the fawn is fulvous, spotted with white. 

The Canadian Stag, or Wapiti; Elk of the Anglo-Americans (C. canadensis, Gm.; C. strongyloceros, Schreb.) 
—A fourth larger than our Stag, and nearly of the same colour, but with the disk of the crupper larger and paler, 
the horns equally round, but more developed, and without a palm. Inhabits all the temperate parts of North 
America. 

The Virginian Stag, or Deer of the Anglo-Americans (C. virginianus, Gm.).—Less than ours, and more elegantly 
formed; the muzzle more pointed; of a pale fulvous in summer, reddish-grey in winter; the under part of the 
throat and tail white at al] seasons. Antlers shorter than in the European species, and very differently formed. 

The species inhabiting warm climates do not change 
colour. There are several in South America, at pre- 
sent but imperfectly determined; as C. paludosus, 
Desm.; C. campestris, F. Cuv.; C. nemoralis, 
H. Smith, &c. There are also several in the East In- 
dies ; as the Axis (C. avis, Lin.), permanently spotted 
with pure white, and which is indigenous to Bengal, 
but propagates easily in Europe: also C. Aristotelis, 
Cuv., which, with long hairs on the neck and throat, 
and inhabiting the north of India, must correspond 
with the Hippelaphus of Aristotle, &c., &c. Several of 
these have canine teeth. 

The Roe (C. capreolus, Lin.),—withi but two. tines to 
its antlers: of a greyish-fulvous; the buttocks white ; 
no infra-orbital sinuses, and scarcely any tail. Some 
individuals are very bright russet, and others black- 
ish. This species lives in pairs in the elevated forests 
of temperate Europe, sheds its antlers at the close of 
autumn, renews them in winter, undergoes the rut in 
November, and remains with young five months and 
ahalf. Its flesh is much more esteemed than that of 
the Stag. There are none in Russia. The Tartarian 
Roe (C. pygargus, Pallas) is larger, with longer hair, 
and horns more spinous at their base. It inhabits 
the high grounds beyond the Volga. There are also 
some Roes in America, the antlers of which always 
remain simple, or without tines ; as C. rufus, F. Cuv., 
with canines in both jaws, C. nemorivagus, F. Cuv., 
and C. simplicicornis, H. Smith. 

In India there are some small species which might 

Fig. 66.—Cervus macrourus. be separated from the other Roes, having sharp ca- 
nines, and short antlers borne upon pedicles, covered with hair on the forehead: such are the Muntjac, or Kijang, 
(C. muntjac, Gm.), which is found in small herds at Ceylon and Java, the C. philippinus, H. Smith, C. moschatus, 
Id., &c. 


Tue Girarre (Cameleopardalis, Lin.)\— 
Is characterized by conical horns in both sexes, that are always covered with a hairy skin, and never 
fall. The bony nucleus of them is articulated during youth to the frontal bone bya suture. In the middle 
of the forehead, there is an eminence or third horn, broader and much shorter, but equally articulated 
by suture. This animal is in other respects one of the most remarkable that exist, on account of the 
great length of its neck and the disproportionate extension of its fore-legs.* 


Only one species is known (C. giraffa, Lin.), confined to the deserts of Africa, which has short hair, marked 
with angular fulvous spots on a greyish ground, and a slight mane on the hind-neck. It is the tallest of all 
animals, its head being frequently raised eighteen feet from the ground. Its disposition is gentle, and it feeds on 
leaves. 


THE RUMINANTS WITH HOLLOW HORNS— 
Are more numerous than the others, and we have been necessitated to divide them into 
genera upon characters of trivial import, derived from the form of the horns, and the propor- 
tions of the various parts. To these M. Geoffroy has advantageously added those afforded by 
the substance of the frontal prominence, or the bony nucleus of the horn. 


* The Giraffe is essentially a modified Deer, with persistent horns. | large gall bladder, like the Antelopes; whereas no trace of this 
Of three dissected, however, by Prof. Owen, one proved to possess a ' receptacle existed in either of the others, as in the Deer tribe.—Ep 


Pee a nt 
VL Lae ie a ip i 
Ned ‘ Me is Mo 
ih ani 
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Bhi ee) Ve it i 


i 


a Ae 


ANT ELOPIES o 


AIAAN 


Gazelli 


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auth , 
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MN } A a 
f- 


—— 


RUMINANTIA. 139 


Tue AntTELopEs (Antilope, Lin.)— 


Have the substance of the bony nucleus of the horn solid, with neither pores nor cavity, like the 
antlers of the Stags. They also further resemble the Stags in possessing infra-orbital sinuses, in the 
slenderness of their form, and speed of foot. They compose a very numerous genus [consisting now 
of more than seventy well-ascertained species], which we have been compelled to subdivide principally 
after the shape of the horns. 


a. Horns annulated, with a double curvature; the points forward, or inward and upward, [in other words, annu- 
lated and lyrated; also placed forward on the head, above the eye: the muzzle and around the nostrils hairy. 
This is the most characteristic section of the genus, and the species composing it may be distinguished by the 
term Gazelles.] : 

The Numidian Gazelle (4. dorcas, Lin.).—Round, thick, and black horns, with the size and graceful shape 
of the Roe: pale fulvous above, white below; a brown band along each flank, a tuft of hair on each knee, 
and a deep pouch on each groin. Inhabits the north of Africa in innumerable herds, which form a circle when 
attacked, presenting horns on every side. Is the ordinary prey of the Lion and the Panther. The soft expression 
of its eye supplies the Arabic poets with many images. 

[To this division belong also the A. euchore, Kevella,* Bennettlii, arabica, corinna, Soémmeringii, mhorr, dama, 
ruficollis, melampus, and pygargus, which last seems to tend through A. caama, bubalus, &c., to the Gnus. The 
author likewise includes A. guttwrosa, Pallas, the Hoang-yang or Yellow Goat of the Chinese, herds of which 
mhabit the arid plains of Central Asia, and the A. saiga, Pal., or Colus of Strabo, a European animal, indigenous 
to the south of Poland and Russia]; it is as large as a Fallow Deer, and fulvous in summer, whitish-grey in 
winter. Its cartilaginous, thick, and vaulted muzzle, with very expanded nostrils, obliges it to retrograde in 
feeding. The herd sometimes consists of more than ten thousand individuals. [We are inclined to approximate 
to the Saiga a remarkable species from Northern India, the Chiru (A. Hodgsoni, Abel); it is somewhat less than 
the Fallow Deer, of a whitish colour, with the face and front of the limbs black; horns nearly straight, or but slightly 
lyrated, and remarkably long and slender, rising abruptly from the forehead. Among the true Gazelles, may be 
particularly noticed the Springer, or Syring-bok (A. euchore) of the Cape colonists, so celebrated for occasionally 
visiting, during seasons of drought, the cultivated lands 
of South Africa in innumerable herds, which devastate 
wherever they pass.] It is larger than the Numidian 
Gazelle (A. dorcas), and nearly of the same form and co- 
lour ; is distinguished by a fold of skin on the crupper, 
clothed with long white hairs, which opens and enlarges at 
every bound the animal takes. [The A. Soémmeringii is 
still larger, and of a delicate pale buff-yellow or nankeen 
colour, the hairs singularly disposed in zig-zag patches, 
imparting a peculiar waved appearance. | 

6. Horns annulated, and with a triple [spiral] curve. 

The Indian Antelope (4.cervicapra, Lin.).—Stillvery like 
the Gazelles, but the horns have a triple flexure. [Colour 
variable, black or different shades of brown, relieved with 
white around the eyes,and below: this animalisremarkable 
for the great developement of its infra-orbital cavities]. 

The Addax, or Nubian Antelope (4. addax, Licht.).—Also three curves to the horns, which are larger and more 
slender than those of the preceding : it is whitish, tinged with grey on the back, and has a large brown spot on 
the forehead. [There are horns in both sexes, as in ; 
most of the foregoing: this animal seems to be allied 
rather to A. strepsiceros, pertaining to a subsequent 
section. ] 

e. Horns annulated, with a double curve, but winding 
in an opposite direction to those of the preceding, 
the points directed backward; the Damalis of H. Smith, 
in part. 

The Bubalus of the ancients (4. bubalus, Lin.).—More 
heavily formed than the others; the head [very] long 
{and the eyes situate remarkably backward]: size of 
a Stag, and yellowish-brown, except the end of the 
tail, which is terminated by a black tuft. A common 
species in Barbary. The A. caama, or Harte-beeste of the 
Cape colonists, [and A. dunata,] range in this divisicn. Fig. 58.—Addax. 

[These animals have much the aspect of a small Cow, and inhabit the more sterile regions of Africa in small 
herds, headed by an old male. They are easily domesticated. ] 


‘s Fig. 57.—Spring-bok. 


* The 4. subgutturosa, Gm., remarks the auther, has not been pretended to differ from 4. Kevella. further than in having a slight swelling 
under the throat. 


140 MAMMALIA. 


d. Small, straight, or but slightly curved horns, shorter than the head ; peculiar, in most of the species, to the 
male sex, [and placed far backward, behind the eyes: thes? 
animals have a distinct maxillary gland, and naked muzzle; 
there is generally a tuft of long hair between the horns. The 
crupper is broad and elevated, the body heavy, and general 
form approximating that of the small Musks (7ragulus), 
the Hog Deer, and, we may add, the Agoutis: they are de- 
nominated Bush Antelopes (Philantomba, Ovilby), trom their 
natural haunts. 

At their head may be placed the Great Bush Antelope 


yy MiG : (A, stlvicultrix), much larger than the rest, and dark-coloured, 
NG i VLA 7 g ‘ > 
(arr y with a white stripe along the back, becoming very broad on 


the crupper. In its train follow,—A. mergens, pygmea, Max- 
welliit, perspicilla, Natalensis, philantomba, Burchellii, 
grimmea, and one or two others; some of them very dimi- 
nutive: the delicate little 4. saltiana appears to rank on the 
extreme confines. The author likewise admits a very peculiar 
species, the Klip-springer (A. oreotragus), distinguished by its stiff brittle hair, of a greenish-yellow colour, and espe- 
cially by the singular structure of its hoofs, which do not expand 
or project forwards, their outline being perpendicular with the 
leg: its name signifies rock-springer. He also places here the 
Woolly Antelope (A. lanata, Desm.).] 

e. Annulated horns with a simple curve, the point directed 
forward (Redunca, Smith). [The muzzle still naked. 

To this group belong the A. redunca, scoparia, quadriscopa, 
montana, tragulus, capreolus, eleotragus, isabellina, Lalandii, 
pedeotragus, rufescens, madagua, melanotis, &c.} 

J. Horns annulated, straight, or a little curved, and longer 
than the head (Oryx, Smith, in part). 

The Oryx (A. orya, Pallas).—As large as a Stag, with slender 
horns two or three feet long, straight, pointed, round, the basal 
third obliquely annulated, and smaller in the females. It is found 
northward of the Cape, and in the interior of Africa. The length 
of its hoof, which is greater than in the other species, enables it to climb rocks, and it prefers mountain 
districts. 

The Algazel (4. gazella, Lin.; (A. bezoastica, H. Smith].—Inhabits North Africa, from Nubia to Senegal. It is 
often sculptured on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia; 
and M. Lichtenstein thinks that it is the true Orywx of the 
ancients. [The A. lewcorya, which is distinct, and A. beisa, 
require to be here added. Perhaps also the Anoa depressi- 
rostris, Auct.] 

g. Worns annulated, with a simple curve, the points di- 
rected backward. 

The Blue Antelope (A. leucopkea, Gm.).—A little larger 
than the Stag, of a bluish ash-colour; large horns in both 
sexes, uniformly curved, with more than twenty rings. 

The Equine Antelope (A. equina, Geof.).—As large as a 
Horse, and reddish-grey, with the head brown, a white spot 
before each eye; a mane on the neck, large horns, &c. [A 
nearly allied species, of equal size (A. nigra), has lately been 
discovered in South Africa, the males of which are almost 
wholly black. We may here mention also the A. ellip- 
siprymnus, Which is larger than a Stag, with a conspicuous 
white ring on the buttocks, and rather long coarse hair; which 
latter character is enhanced in A. kobaand A. sing-sing.] 

The Cambing-outan, or Antelope of Sumatra (4. suma- 
trensis, Shaw).—Size of a large Goat; black, with white hair on the neck and throat ; the horns smali and pointed. 
{The affinity of this species with the preceding is not obvious : it is more nearly allied to d. fhar and A. ghorral.]} 

h. Horns encircled with a spiral ring. 

The Impoof (A. oreas, Pall.).—Elk of the Cape colonists. As large as the largest Horse, with stout, conical, and 
Straight horns, surrounded by a spiral ridge; greyish hair, with a small mane along the spine; a kind of dewlap 
under the neck; and tail terminated by a tuft. It lives in herds on the mountains, to the north of the Cape of 
Good Hope. [Allied to it is the 4. canna, from the same locality, which is smaller and more slender.] 

The Coudou (A. sérepsiceros, Pal.)—Size of a Stag, with large horns in the male only, that are smooth with a 
triple curve, and a single longitudinal and slightly spiral ridge: a small beard on the chin, and a mane along the 
spine. This animal lives solitarily, to the north of the Cape of Good Hope. 


Fig. 59.—Great Bush Antelope. 


big. 60.—* teen bek (4. tragulus). 


Fig. 61.—Oryx Antelope. 


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RUMINANTIA. 141 


Near it, we conceive, should be placed the Addax, together with the 4. sylvatica, decula, scripta, and one 
or two others. The A. scripta, or Harnessed Antelope, is an 
elegant small species, the Guib of Buffon, of a lively fulvous 
colour, marked with harness-like white stripes and spots. 
The A. zebra has dark regular stripes across the crupper.] 

i. Horns bifureated, (Antilocapra, Ord; Dicranoceros, 
Smith). 

Of all the forms of hollow horns, this is the most singular : 
a compressed branch is given off from their base or trunk, 
almost like the antler of a Stag; the pointed tips curve back- 
ward. The best known species is 

The Cabril of the Canadians (A. furcifera, H. Smith), which 
inhabits the extensive plains of the centre and west of North 
. America in vast herds: its size is nearly that of the Roe; hair 
thick, waved, and reddish; the antler of its horns situate 
near the middle of their height. [Nearly allied is tae A. pat- 
mata, Smith, decidediy a distinct species, which has palmated 
forked horns, that it employs in scooping away the snow: it is 
a mountain animal, the range of which appears to be more southward than that of the other.] 

k. Four horns (Teér'acevos, Leach). 

This subdivision, recently discovered in India, was not unknown to the ancients. A®lian speaks of it, xv. c. 14, 
by the name of the Mow-horned Oryx *: the anterior pair are before the eyes, the posterior completely behind the 
frontal. [As the position of the horns varies in some groups of two-horned Antelopes, it may be that the anterior 
pair of the four-horned species are represented in the greater number, and the posterior pair in the Bush Ante- 
lopes (Philantomba).] 

The Tchicarra (A. chicarra, Hardw.).—Size of a Roe, and nearly uniform fulvous: no horns in the female sex. 
It is found in the forests of Hindostan. The 4. quadricornis, Blainy., is only known to me bya cranium, the 
anterior horns of which are proportionally larger ; perhaps it may only diifer in age. 

7. Two smooth horns. 

The Nylghau (A. picta, and trago-camelus, Gm.).—As large as a Stag, and larger: horns short, and recurved for- 
ward, peculiar to the male sex; a beard under the middle of the neck. Inhabits India. 

The Chamois (A. rupricapra, Lin.).—The only ruminant of western Europe that can be compared with the 
Antelopes, but presenting peculiar characters. Its smooth horns are curved abruptly backward like a hook : behind 
each ear, is a sac beneath the skin, which opens externally by a small orifice.f Its size is that of a large Goat. 
Hair deep brown, with a black*band descending from the eye towards the middle. This species traverses rocks and 
precipices with extreme agility, inhabiting in small troops the middle region of the highest mountains, [The 
A. thar, sumatrensis, ghorral, and other goat-like species, seem to be allied to this group and to that of 
A, strepsiceros.] 


Fig. 62.—Prong-horned Antelope. 


Col. Smith separates from the Antelopes, under the generic title of 


THE GNnus (Catoblepas),— 

The Antilope gnu, Gm.; a very extraordinary species, which, at first sight, seems to be a monstrous being, 
compounded of parts of different animals. It has the body and crupper of a small Horse, covered with brown 
hair; the tail furnished with long white hairs, like that of a Horse; and on the neck a beautiful flowing mane, 
white at base, and black at the tip of the hairs. Its horns, approximated and enlarged at the base, like those of 
the Cape Buffalo, descend outwardly, and turn up at the point; the muzzle is large, flat, and surrounded by a 
circle of projecting hairs: under the throat and dewlap is another black mane; and the legs are as slender 
and light as those of a Stag. Both sexes have horns. 

This animal inhabits the mountains northward of the Cape; where it does not appear common, although the 
ancients seem to have had some knowledge of it. [There are two other very distinct species, the Brindled Gnu 
(C. gorgon), and the Taurine Gnu (C. tawrina), both also from the interior of South Africa.] 


The three remaining genera have the bony core of the horns occupied, to a considerable 
extent, with celis, that communicate with the frontal smuses. The direction of their horns 
characterizes the several divisions. 


Tue Goats (Capra, Lin.)— 


Have the horns directed upwards and backwards : their chin is generally furnished with a long beard, 
and the chanfrin almost always concave. 


* The fossil cranium and some otiier bones of a gigantic four-horned | + It was perhaps a miscomprehension of the nature of this aperture, 
ruminant, have lately been discovered in the productive Sivolik | which led the ancients to say, after Empedocles, that Goats breathed 
deposits of Northern India, the Sivatherium, Caut, and Fale, twice | through their ears. 


the size of a large Ox.—_Ep, 


ee 


142 MAMMALIA. 


The Wild Goat, or 42guagrus (C. egagrus, Gm.)—Appears to be the stock of all our domestic breeds, and is dis- 
tinguished by its anteriorly sharp horns, very large in the male, short and sometimes wanting in the female ; 
which is also sometimes the case with the different 
Ibexes. It inhabits the mountains of Persia in 
troops, where it is known by the appellation pasing, 
and perhaps those of several other countries, even 
the Alps. The oriental bezoar is a concretion found 
in its intestines. 

Domestic Goats (C. hireus, Lin.), vary exceed- 
ingly in size, colour, and the length and texture of 
their coat; also in the magnitude, and even the 
number of their horns. Those of Angora and 
Cappadocia have the longest and most silky hair. 
The Thibet Goats are celebrated for the admirably 
fine wool which grows among their hair, of which 
the Cashmere stuffs are fabricated. There is a race 
in Upper Egypt with short hair, convex chanfrin, 
and projecting lower jaw, which probably is hybrid. 
The Goats of Guinea, termed mambrines and juida, 
are very small, with horns inclining backwards. All of them are robust, capricious, wandering animals, that 
betray their mountain origin by affecting dry and wild situations, where they feed on coarse herbage and the 
shoots of bushes. They do much injury in forests. The kid only is eaten, but their milk is useful in several 
diseases. The femate can produce at seven months, and goes with young five months; she generally yeans two 
kids. The male engenders at a year old, and one suffices for more than a hundred females : in five or six years 
he becomes aged. 

The Ibex (C. ibex, Lin.).—Immense horns, square in front, and marked with prominent transverse knots. [t 
inhabits the most elevated summits-of lofty mountain chains, throughout the whole ancient Continent. The 
Caucasian Ibex (C. caucasica), has great triangular horns, obtuse but not square in front, and notched as in the 
preceding. Both species propagate with the Domestic Goat. The African Maned Ibex (C. ethiopica) is another. 
(These various animals with enormous horns are said to precipitate themselves fearlessly down precipices, always 
falling on the horns, the elasticity of which secures them from injury. Those who have observed the force with 
which domestic Rams butt at each other, mutually striking the forehead, will feel less surprise at the Ibexes 
withstanding the shock of a fall. | 


Fig. 63.—Angora Goat. 


THE SHEEP (Ovis, Lin.)— 


Have horns directed backward, and then inclining spirally more or less forward; their chanfrin is 
generally convex, and they have no beard. They so little merit to be generically separated from the 
Goats, that the two produce by intermixture a fertile offspring. As in the Goats, there are several 
wild races or species, closely allied together. 


The Argali, or Wild Sheep of Siberia (Ov. ammon, Lin.),—the male of which has very large horns, triangular at 
base, the angles rounded, flattened in front, and transversely striated ; those of the female are falchion-shaped and 
compressed. Its hair, in summer, is short and greyish-fulvous ; in winter close, stiff, and reddish-grey, with some 
white or whitish upon the muzzle, throat, and under-parts. ‘There is always, as in the Stag, a yellowish space 
around the tail, which latter is very short. This animal inhabits the mountains of all Asia, and attains the stature 
of a Fallow Deer. [A smaller and distinct species inhabits the Himmalaya mountains, which is termed the 
Burrhal; there are specimens in the Museums of the Linnean and Zoological Societies, London. | ’ 

The Corsican Moufilon (Ov. musimon, Pal.)—appears to differ only in its inferior size, and in the deficiency or 
smallness of the horns in the female sex. It is said to be also found in Crete. ‘There are some varieties wholly 
or partially black, and others more or less white. oe 

It is probable that the American Moufflon (Ov. montana) is a species of Argali, which may have crossed the sea 
onthe ice. Its horns are very stout, and more perfectly spiral than those of the Asiatic Argali. 

The African Moufflon (Ov. tragelephus, Cuy.) has soft reddish hair, with a long mane hanging under the neck, 
and another at each ankle; the tail short: it appears to be a distinct species, and inhabits the rocky regions of 
Barbary; M. Geoffroy observed it in Egypt. 

From the Moufilon or Argali, it is believed that the innumerable breeds of our woolly domestic Sheep have been 
derived ; animals which, the Dog alone excepted, have split into a greater number of varieties than any other. 
{One remarkable fact, however, at variance with this supposition, and which we have never yet found to be 
noticed, is, that all the wild races have exceedingly short tails, whereas the domestic breeds have generally, if 
not always when unmutilated, tails that reach nearly to the ground. It is easier to conceive the loss of this 
appendage in certain domestic breeds, than its acquirement or extension, and the latter theory is borne out 
by no analogy]. 

We have some in Europe with fine or common wool; large and small; with big or little horns, wanting in the 
female, or in both sexes, &c. The most interesting varieties are the Spanish or Merino, which has a fine curly 
fleece, with large spiral horns in the male, now beginning to be diffused through Europe, and the English, which 
has long and fine wool. The most common variety in southern Russia has a very long tail. Those of India and 


gay 


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Guinea 


Persian 


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Veury horned Rocky toowntain 


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Brahminy Bull 


RUMINANTIA. 143 


of Guinea, which have also long tails, are distinguished by their tong legs, very convex forehead, pendent ears, 
want of horns, and short coarse hair instead of wool. The Sheep of Northern Europe and Asia are mostly of small 
size, with a very short tail, [the truth being, that this appendage is merely cut short by the shepherds soon after 
birth]. Those of Persia, Tartary, and China, have the tail completely transformed into a double globe of fat. 
The Syrian and Barbary Sheep retain long tails, which are loaded with a vast mass of fat, In both the latter 
varieties, the ears are pendent, the horns large in the Rams and middle-sized in the Ewes and Wethers, and the 
wool is intermixed with hair. 

Sheep are valuable for their flesh, suet, milk, skin, wool, and manure; the flocks, well managed, proving every- 
where a source of fertility. The Lamb is weaned at two months, and sheds its milk teeth from the first to the 
third year. The Ewe propagates at one year, and is prolific for ten or twelve; its period of gestation is five 
months, and it often yeaus two Lambs. The Ram, adult at eighteen months, suffices for thirty Ewes, and is 
enfeebled at eight years old. 


THE OxEN (Bos, Linn.)— 


Have horns directed laterally, inclining upwards or forwards in a crescent form; they are large 
animals, with a broad muzzle, heavy and massive body, and stout limbs. 


The Common Ox (B. taurus, Lin.).—Specifically distinguished by its flat forehead, longer than broad, and round 
horns, placed at the two extremities of a projecting ridge which separates the forehead from the occiput. In 
fossil skulls, which appear to have belonged to this species in its original condition (the Urus of the ancients), 
these horns curve forwards and downwards; but in the numberless domestic varieties they vary exceedingly in 
size and direction, and are sometimes altogether wanting. The ordinary races of the torrid zone have all a lump 
of fat upon the shoulders, and there are some of these races not larger than a Hog. Every one is acquainted with 
the utility of these animals for labour, and with the value of their flesh, fat, milk, hide, and even horns. The 
Cow goes with young nine months, and produces at eighteen. The Bull couples at eighteen months or two years, 
and is useless at ten. 

The European Bison, or Aurochs, (Bos urus, 
Gm.)—This species, which has been erroneously 
deemed the original stock of our domestic cattle, 
is distinguished by its convex forehead, broader 
than high, by the attachment of its horns below 
the occipital ridge, by the length ofits legs, by an 
additional pair of ribs, by a sort of curly wool 
which covers the neck of the male, forming a 
short beard under the throat, and by its grunting 
voice. It is a savage animal, which at present 
finds refuge in the great marshy forests of Lithu- 
ania, of the Krapacs, and of Caucasus, but which 
was formerly spread all over temperate Europe. 
it is the iargest of the European quadrupeds. 
(There is some reason for suspecting that the 
Caucasian or Mountain Bisons are not identical 
with those of Lithuania. ] 

The American Bison, termed Buffalo by the 
Anglo-Americans, (B. bison, Lin.).—The bony 
head very like that of the preceding, and similarly 
covered, together with the neck and shoulders, 
with frizzled wool, which becomes very long in 
winter; but its limbs and tail are shorter, [and it 
has yet another pair of ribs]. It inhabits all the 

Fig. 64.—European Bison. temperate parts of North America, and repro- 
duces with the domestic Cow. 

The Indian Buffalo (B. bubalus, Lin.).—Originally from India, and brought into Egypt, Greece and Italy, during 
the middle ages. It has a convex forehead, longer than broad; the horns are directed backward, and marked in 
front by a longitudinal projection. This animal is difficult to tame, but very powerful, and prefers marshy places 
and coarse plants on which the Ox could not live. Its milk is good, and the hide very strong, but its flesh is not 
esteemed. There is a race of them in India, the horns of which include a space of ten feet from tip to tip; it is 
named Arni in Hindostan, and is the Bos arni of Shaw. [There would appear to be several different wild races, 
and many tame ones, varying much in size. ] 

The Gyall, or Jungle Ox (B. frontalis, Lambert),—resembles the Domestic Ox in most of its characters, but 
has horns flattened from before backwards, and no angular ridges. They are directed laterally and more or less 
upward, but not backward. It is a domestic race in the mountain districts of the north-east of India, and 
is perhaps derived from the intermixture of the Buffalo with the common species. [We suspect it rather to be 
allied to the original stock, if it be not really the latter, of the various humped breeds of India.] 

The Yak, or Grunting Ox, (3. grunniens, Pal.)—A small species, with the tail completely covered with long 
hairs like that of a Horse, and along mane on the back: its head appears to resemble that of a Buffalo, but the 


144 MAMMALIA. 


horns have not been sufficiently described. This animal, mentioned by lian, was originally from the 
mountains of Thibet. Its tail constitutes the standard, still used by the Turks to distinguish their superior 
officers. 

The Cape Buffalo (Bos caffer, Sparm.).—Very 
large horns, directed outward and downward and 
then turned upward, flattened, and so large at 
base that they nearly cover the forehead, leaving 
only a triangular space, the point of which is 
above. It is avery large and extremely ferocious 
animal, which inhabits the woods of Caffraria. 
(There are other African Buffaloes of inferior size, 
a female of one of which (B. brachyceros, Gray), 
or the Short-horned Buffalo, with very large 
ears and well-proportioned limbs, is now living in 
London.] Lastly, 

The Musk Ox (Bos moschatus, Gm. [Ovibos mos- 
chatus, Blainy.]).—Horns approximated and di- 
rected as in the Cape Buffalo, but meeting on the 
forehead by a straight line: those of the female 
smaller and separated. The forehead convex, and 
extremity of the muzzle hairy. It stands low, and 
is covered with long hair, that reaches the ground. 
Tail extremely short. It diffuses more strongly 
the musky odour common to the whole genus, 
{and which is also particularly noticeable in the 
European Bison]. Inhabits the coldest regions 
of North America, where alone it has been seen, 
though its skull and bones are sometimes carried 
by the ice to Siberia. 


Fig. 65.—Cape Buffalo, 


THE NINTH ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— 


CETACEA,— 


Consists of animals without hind-limbs: the trunk being continued by a thick tail, which 
terminates in a horizontal cartilaginous fin, while the head is connected to the body by so 
short and thick a neck, that no diminution of 
its cireumference is perceptible: this neck 
consists of very slender cervical vertebra, that 
are partly anchylosed or soldered together. 
The first bones of their anterior extremities 
are shortened, and the succeeding ones flattened 
and enveloped in a tendinous membrane, which 
reduces them to the condition of true fins. 
Hence the external form is absolutely that of 
fishes, except that the latter have the tail-fin — 
vertical. They always therefore remain in the = 
water; but as they breathe by lungs, they are 

compelled to return frequently to the surface 

to take im fresh supplies of air.* Their warm blood; ears that open externally, though by 


Fig. 66.—Swimming Paw of Whale. 


very small orifices ; their viviparous generation, mamme by which they suckle their young, 
and all the details of their anatomy, sufficiently distinguish them from fishes. 


* The larger species, however, will remain more than an hour | blood required to store these cavities, they continue breathing for a 
bencath the surface: in reference to which faculty, these animals | certain regular period, at each time of coming to the surface for that 
have capacious reservoirs for arterial blood along the dorsal region, | purpose.—Ep. 
aud even within the head: hence, to oxygenate the great volume of 


CETACEA. 145 


The brain is large, and its hemispheres well developed; that portion of the cranium which 
contains the internal ear is separated from the rest of the head, to which it only adheres by 
ligaments. There are never any external ears, nor hairs upon the body. 

The form of the tail compels them to flex it from above downwards, to produce a progressive 
motion; and it greatly assists them in rising in the water. 

To the genera hitherto included, we add others formerly confounded with the Morses, 
[and which have since, with still greater propriety, been placed subordinately to the great 
series of PACHYDERMATA]. They form our first family, or that of the 


Creracrea Herstvora,— 


The teeth of which have flat crowns, which determines their mode of life; and the latter 
induces them to leave the water frequently, to seek for pasture on shore. They have two 
teats on the breast, and hairy moustaches ; two circumstances which, when observed from 
a distance as they raise the anterior portion of the body above water, may give them some 
resemblance to human beings, and have probably occasioned those fabulous accounts of 
Tritons and Sirens which some mariners pretend to have seen. Although, in the cranium, the 
bony nostrils open towards the summit, the orifices of the skin are pierced at the end of the 
muzzle. Their stomach is divided into four saes, of which two are lateral, and they have a 
large coecum. 
Tue Manarti (Manatus, Cuv.)— 

Have an oblong body, terminated by a lengthened oval fin: their grinders, eight in number throughout, 
have square crowns, marked by two transverse ridges; there are no incisors or canines in the adult, 
but, when very young, there are two very small pointed teeth in the intermaxillary bones, which soon 
disappear. Vestiges of nails are visible on the edges of their swimming-paws, which they employ 
with some address in carrying their young; heace the comparison of these organs with hands, and 
the name of Manatus applied to the animals. From their manner of living, they are also called 
Sea-cows, &c.; and from their mamme, Mermaids, &c. 


The Manati (Trichechus manatus, Lin.),—Is chiefly found near the mouths of rivers, in the hottest parts of the 
Atlantic Ocean ; and it does not appear that those of the American rivers differ specifically from those of Africa. 
They grow to the length of fifteen feet, and their flesh is eaten. [M. F. Cuvier, from examination of the crania, 
arrived at the conclusion that the African species (M. senegalensis, Adanson) was satisfactorily distinct; and a 
third, from the rivers of Florida, has since been distinguished by Dr. Harlan as M. latirostris.] 


Tue Dueones (Halicore, Ilig.)— 


Have grinders composed of two cones laterally united: the teeth implanted in the incisive bones 
continue to increase in length, till they become true pointed tusks, but are in great part covered by 
thick fleshy lips, that are bristled with moustaches. The body is elongated, and the tail terminated by 
a crescent-shaped flapper. 


We know but of one species (H. dugong), which inhabits the Indian Ocean, and has been confounded by several 
travellers with the Manati. Like that animal, it has been named Siren, Sea-cow, &c. [There is reason to suspect 
the existence of several species of this genus; that of the Red Sea is described by M. Ruppell by the appellation 
Hi. tabernaculus.] ! f 

THE STELLERINES (Rytina, Ulig.)— 
Appear to have only a single composite grinder on each side, with a flat crown, and elevated ridges of 
enamel. Their swimming-paws have not even the little nails observable in the Manati. According to 
Steller, the first, and hitherto the only one who has described them, their stomach also is much more 
simple. 

But one species is known, which inhabits the southern parts of the Pacific Ocean. [It is entirely covered with 
a thick rugged cuirass, formed of agglutinated hairs, like the hoofs of ungulated quadrupeds. 


The second family, or the animals which constitute the 


CreTACEA ORDINARIA,— 
Are distinguished from the preceding by the singular apparatus from which they have 
received the appellation of Blowers. As with their prey they necessarily engulf, in their 
L 


146 MAMMALIA. 


capacious mouths, a great volume of water, there required to be some method of getting rid 
of it; and accordingly it passes through the nostrils by means of a peculiar disposition of the 
velum palati, and is accumulated in a sac situated at the external orifice of the cavity of the 
nose, whence, by the compression of powerful muscles, it is violently expelled through a 
narrow aperture pierced on the summit of the head. It is thus that these animals produce 
those jets of water observed by mariners at so great a distance. Their nostrils, continually 
bathed in salt water, could not be lined with a membrane sufficiently delicate to enable them to 
pereeive odours; hence they have none of those projecting lamimz observed in other animals : 
the olfactory nerve is in some wanting, and if there be any endowed with the sense of smell, 
it must be in a very slight degree. Their larynx, of a pyramidal form, penetrates into the 
posterior portion of the nostrils, to receive air and conduct it to the lungs, without the animal 
being obliged to raise its head and throat above water for that purpose: there are no pro- 
jecting lamime im the glottis, and the voice is reduced to simple bellowing. They have no 
vestige of hair*, but the whole body is covered with a smooth skin, under which [or more 
strictly, forming part of it,| is that thick layer of blubber abounding in oil, the principal 
object for which they are pursued. 

The mamme are placed near the anus, and their swimming-paws are incapable of 
graspmg. 

Their stomach has five and sometimes as many as seven distinct sacs; instead of one single 
spleen, they have several, that are small and globular. Those species which have teeth have 
them all conical and similar to one another; for they do not chew their food, but swallow it 
rapidly. 

Two little bones suspended in the flesh, near the anus, are the sole remaining vestiges of 
posterior limbs. 

Several have a vertical fin on the back, composed of a tendinous substance, but unsup- 
ported by bone. Their eyes, flattened in front, have a thick and solid schlerotica ; and the 
teguments of the tongue are soft and smooth. 

They may be subdivided imto two small tribes: those im which the head bears the usual 
proportion to the body, and those in which it is immoderately large; the first comprehending 
the Dolphins and the Narwhals. 

Tue Doxputins (Delphinus, Lin.)— 
Have teeth in both jaws, all simple, and nearly always conical. They are the most carnivorous, and, 
in proportion to their size, the most cruel of their order. There is no ccecum. 


Tue Dotpuins, properly so called, (Delphinus, Cuy.)— 
Have a convex forehead, and the muzzle, which forms a kind of beak in front of the head, more 
slender than the rest. 

The Common Dolphin (PD. delphis, Lin.).—The beak-like snout depressed, and armed on each side of both jaws 
with from forty-two to forty-seven slender, curved, and pointed teeth: it is black above, white below, and eight or 
ten feet in length. This animal, found in vast herds in every sea [?], and celebrated for the velocity of its move- 
ments, which sometimes precipitate it on the decks of vessels, appears really to have been the Dolphin of the 
ancients. The entire organization of its brain would seem to indicate the docility which they attributed to it.+ 

The Great Dolphin (D. tusio, Bonaterre.)—The beak short, broad, and depressed ; twenty-one to twenty-four 
teeth on each side above and below, which are conical, and often worn down: some individuals are more than 
fifteen feet in length. It appears that they are found in the Mediterranean as well as in the Ocean [and, though 
seldom taken, on account of the extreme rapidity of their movements, they are not rare in the British seas. There 
are numerous others]. 


M. de Blainville separates from these first Dolphins, under the term 


DrLPHINORYNCHUS,— 
Those species in which the snout, though elongated and slender, is not separated from the forehead 
by a distinct groove. 


* Except in the genus Inia, d’Orbigny, wherein there are true | Héppuris), celebrated for its beautiful iridescent colours, which bears 
gny, ‘PP , , 
moustaches —Ep, the same popular name —Ep. 
f This animal must not be confounded with a fish (Coryphena 


CETACEA. 147 


One has been thrown upon our coasts (D. micropterus, Cuy.), remarkable for the small size and backward posi- 
tion of its dorsal fin; it attains a length of fifteen feet, and loses all its teeth at an early age. [Only a single 
specimen of this remarkable species has ever been obtained, which was cast upon the shore near Havre: its form 
is slender and elongated, and the head is externally attached to the body by a distinct neck. No teeth were 
discovered in either jaw in the recent state; but after the gums were removed, a few rudimentary teeth were 
found in the lower jaw, as often happens in the upper jaw of the Cachalots. This animal constitutes the dodon, 
we believe, of Lesson. ] 

Another, which also sometimes occurs in our seas (D, rostratus, Cuv.), has a slender muzzle, externally all even 
with the head, and twenty-one teeth on each side of bothjaws. Its dorsal is of the ordinary size. 

The Soosoo of the Ganges (D. gangeticus, Roxburgh) should be separated from the foregoing, having the 
spiracle in a longitudinal line, and slender jaws swoln at the end. [its teeth are thirty on each side above and 
below, and according to M. F. Cuvier, the long symphysis and the intermaxillary crests approximate it to the 
Cachalots.] It ascends very high up the Ganges, and is probably the Platanista of Pliny, [which might be 
adopted as its generic designation]. 


Tue Porporses (Phocena, Cuv.)— 


Have no beak [the largeness of the front-head compensating for its non-extension], but a short 


muzzle, uniformly convex. 


The Common Porpoise (Delph. phocena, Lin.), compressed and trenchant teeth, of a rounded form, to the 
number of twenty-two or twenty-four on each side of both jaws; blackish above, the under-parts white. It is 
[one of] the smallest of the Cetacea, not exceeding four or five feet in length, and is very common in all our 
seas, where it associates in vast herds. 

The Grampus (D. orea and D. gladiator, Auct.).—Large conical teeth, a little crooked, eleven on each side above 
and below, the posterior transversely flattened : body black aboye and white beneath; a whitish crescent-shaped 
mark over the eye; and the dorsal fin elevated and pointed. It is the largest of the Dolphin group, becoming 
from twenty to twenty-five feet in length; and is a cruel enemy to the Whale, which it attacks in troops, tor- 
menting it till it opens its mouth, when they devour the tongue. 

A smaller species is occasionally met with on our coasts (D. aries, Risso; [Ph. griseus, F. Cuy.}), which loses 
its upper teeth at an early age, and retains but few of the lower: its dorsal fin is less elevated and placed further 
backward than in the Grampus, which latter is the true Aries of the ancients. The Epaulard ventru of Bonaterre 
presents a similar form; but Hunter’s specimen was eighteen feet in length, whereas the present species does not 


exceed ten. 


[The species with globular heads compose the 


GLOBICEPHALUS, Lesson. |] 

The Deductor, or Ca’ing Whale (Delph. globiceps, Cuy. (Gl. deductor, Scoresby] ).—Head globular, with long and 
pointed swimming paws: attains a length of more than twenty feet; and is black, with a white streak from the 
throat to the anus. This species lives in troops of several hundreds, conducted by old males; and is sometimes 
thrown upon our coasts. It has from nine to thirteen teeth on each side above and below, but loses all of them 
with age. [A beautiful second species (G7. Rissii) exists in the Mediterranean, and two others have been deli- 
neated and described. ] 

THe DeLPHINAPTERUS, Lacepede,— 


Merely differs from the Porpoises in having no dorsal fin. [This name has more recently been con- 
fined to such as have a beak like the Dolphins, the others constituting the 


Brtuaa, Lesson. 
To the latter subdivision appertains | 
The White Beluga (Delph. leucos, Gm.; D. albicans, Fabr.), with nine teeth on each side above and below, 
thick and blunt throughout; a yellowish-white skin ; head externally convex like that of a Porpoise, [but more 
approaching to globular], and size that of aGrampus. It inhabits all the glacial seas, and sometimes ascends 
rivers to some distance. [Is occasionally met with on the British coasts. 


To the restricted 
DELPHINA PTERUS— 
belongs ] 

The White-beaked Dolphin of Peron (D. leucoramphus, Per.; [Delphinapterus Peronii, Less.}, an inhabitant of 
the Austral seas, the head of which is but slightly convex and rather pointed, and the muzzle, part of the swim- 
ming-paws, and all the under parts of the body, lustrous-white; the superior portion black. It has from thirty- 
eight to forty-two teeth on each side above and below.* 

* M. Rafinesque speaks of a Dolphin with two dorsal fins [on which | but as they only saw it at a distance, and half-immersed in the waves, 


he bestows the appellation Oxypterus] ; and M.M.Quoy and Gaymard | there may have been some optical delusion, 
saw one they have named D, rhinoceros, Voy. de Freycinet, ii, f. 21; 


148 MAMMALIA. 


Tue Borrie-HEADS (Hyperoodon, Lacep.)— 


Have the body and muzzle nearly similar externally to those of the Dolphins properly so called, but 
the cranium is laterally elevated by vertical bony partitions: most usually there are found only two 
small teeth in the fore-part of the lower jaw, which do not always appear externally ; the palate is 
studded with small tubercles, [and there is a small dorsal fin]. 

But one species is known, which attains a length of five-and-twenty feet, and perhaps more, [ Delph. edentulus, 


Schreb.; D. bulskopf, Lacepede; D. bidentatus, Hunter; D. Hunteri, Desm.; the Bottle-nosed Whale of Hunter]. 
—It is taken in the British Channel and the North Sea, and is often designated Baleine a bec. 


[Tue Diopons (Diodon, Lesson)— 


Principally differ from the preceding in having a flattened forehead: their lower jaw is much larger 
than the upper, and convex. 
There is a species in the Mediterranean (Delph. Desmarestii, Risso), fifteen feet inlength; aspecimen of which, 


or of another closely allied, was cast on shore on the coast of Scotland (D. Sowerbii, Desm. and Blainv.) Several 
others are said to belong to this subdivision. ] 


Tus Narwaat (Monodon, Lin.)\— 


Has no teeth, properly so called; but very long and slender-pointed tusks implanted in the inter- 
maxillary bones, and directed in the line of the axis of the body. The form of their body and head 
greatly resembles that of the Porpoises, [and still more the Beluga, as noticed by Prof. Bell; the 
swimming paws being also remarkably small, and the dorsal fin wanting, as in the latter animal]. 


Only one species is known (Mon. monoceros, Lin. ; [Narwhalus microcephalus, Bonat., Lacep., Desm.]), the tusk 
of which, grooved spirally, and sometimes ten feet long, was formerly termed the horn of the Unicorn. This 
animal possesses the germs of two tusks, but it is seldom that both become equally developed. That on the left 
side usually attains its full growth, while the other remains permanently concealed within its socket, its develope- 
ment having been prevented by its interior cavity becoming too rapidly filled with the deposition of ivory, which 
thus obliterates its gelatinous core. According to the description of the Narwhal, it is scarcely more than twice 
or three times the length of its tusk ; the skin is marbled with brown and whitish; it has a convex muzzle, small 
mouth, spiracle placed on the top of the head, and no dorsal fin, but merely a projecting crest the whole length of 
its spine. The teeth are sometimes found perfectly smooth. 


[We may here mention, at the conclusion of the Cefacea with moderate-sized heads, an extremely 
remarkable genus,— 
Tue Intra, d’Orbigny,— 
Which has the external form of the Dolphins, properly so called, with some coarse bristly hairs on the 
snout: the spiracle is placed far backward, above the swimming-paws; the lips are deeply cleft to 
beneath the eye; and there is a small dorsal fin, and proportionally large auditory aperture. 


The only species known (I. Boliviensis, d’Orb.) is remarkable for occurring thousands of miles from the sea, 
appearing to inhabit only the remote tributaries of the Amazons, and the elevated lakes of Peru: the singular 
character of possessing bristly hairs on the snout has also been observed in them when very young. This species 
has large swimming-paws, and thirty-four teeth om each side above and below, all of them rough, marked with 
deep and interrupted furrows, and of an irregular mammalory shape behind, which is very peculiar. A female 
specimen measured seven feet long, and the males are stated to be double that size: colour variable, commonly 
pale blue above, passing into a roseate hue beneath. It comes more frequently to the surface than the marine 
species, and is generally met with in troops of three or four individuals. ] 


The remaining Cetacea have the head so very large, as to constitute one-third or even half 
the entire length; but neither the cranium nor the brain participates in this disproportion, 
which is wholly due to an enormous developement of the bones of the face. 


Tue Cacuators (Physeter, Lin.),— 


Are Cetacea with a most voluminous head, excessively enlarged, particularly in front ; in the upper jaw 
of which there are neither teeth nor baleen (whalebone), or, if any of the former, they are small, and 
not projecting beyond the gum; but the lower jaw, straight, elongated, and corresponding to a groove 
in the upper one, is armed on its two sides with a row of cylindrical or conical teeth, which enter into 
corresponding cavities of the upper jaw when the mouth is closed. The superior portion of their 
enormous head consists almost entirely of large cavities, separated and covered by cartilages, and filled 
with an oil that becomes concrete on cooling, well known in commerce by the name spermaceti, a 


CETACEA. 149 


substance for which they are principally hunted, as the body does not yield a large proportion of 
blubber : these cavities, however, are very distinct from the true cranium, which is rather small, is 
placed under their posterior portion, and contains the brain as usual. It appears that cavities filled 
with this spermaceti, or adipocire as it is called, are distributed to several parts of the body, communi- 
cating with those which fill the mass of the head; they even ramify through the external fat or 
blubber. The odorous substance known by the appellation ambergris appears to be a concretion 
formed in the intestines of the Cachalots, particularly during certain states of disease, and, it is said, 
chiefly in the ccecum. 


The species of this genus are by no means well determined. That which appears most common, the Ph. macro- 
cephalus of Shaw and Bonaterre, but not of Linnzus, has a mere callous prominence instead of a dorsal fin; there 
are from twenty to twenty-three teeth on each side of the lower jaw, and small conical ones hidden beneath the 
gum in the upper: its blow-hole is single, and not double as in the greater number of Cetacea; neither is it 
symmetrical, but is directed towards the left, and terminates on that side on the front of the muzzle, which latter 
is truncate.* In addition to this, itis stated that the left eye is often smaller than the other, for which reason the 
whalers endeavour to attack it on that side. This species must be very extensively distributed, if, as is asserted, 
it alone furnishes the whole of the spermaceti and ambergris of commerce, for these substances are brought from 
both the north and south. Cachalots without a dorsal fin have even been taken in the Adriatic. 


Tue Puyserers, Lacepede,— 
Are Cachalots with a dorsal fin. 
Two species only have been distinguished (microps, and tursio or mular), and those merely by the equivocal 


character of having the teeth curved or straight, blunt or pointed. These animals are found both in the Mediter- 
ranean and glacial seas, in the latter of which they are reputed to be cruel enemies to the Seals. 


THe Wuatess (Balena, Lin.)— 


Equal the Cachalots in size, and in the proportional dimensions of the head, although the latter is not 
so much enlarged in front; but they have no teeth whatever [beyond the rudiments of them in the 
feetal state]. Thé two sides of their upper jaw, which is keel-shaped, are furnished with thin, trans- 
verse, serrated lamine, termed daleen or whalebone, composed of a sort of fibrous horn fringed at the 
edges, which serve to retain [and strain from the water] the minute animals on which these enormous 
cetaceans feed. Their inferior jaw, supported by two osseous branches arched outwardly and upward, 
without any armature, affords lodgment to a very thick and fleshy tongue, and, when the mouth is 
closed, envelopes all the internal part of the upper jaw and the baleen with which it is invested. These 
organs do not allow Whales to feed on such large animals as their vast size would lead to imagine. 
They subsist on fish, but principally on worms, mollusks, and zoophytes, and it is said that they 
chiefly take the very smallest, which become entangled in the filaments of the baleen. Their nostrils, 
better organized for smell than those of the Dolphins, have some ethmoidal laminz, and appear to 
receive some small olfactory nervous filaments. They have a short ccecum. 

The Great Northern Whale (B. mysticetus, Lin.) was long considered to be the largest of known animals, but it 
appears from the recent observations of Capt. Scoresby, that it scarcely ever exceeds seventy feet in length, which 
the Rorquals or Whales with wrinkled bellies frequently surpass. {[t has no dorsal fin. To procure its blubber, 
often several feet in thickness, and yielding an immense quantity of oil, whole fleets are annually equipped in 
pursuit of it. Formerly bold enough to venture into our seas, it has gradually retired to the far north, where the 
number is daily diminishing. Besides its oil, it furnishes the black and flexible whalebone of commerce, the pieces 
of which are eight or ten feet long, and to the number of eight or nine hundred on each side of the palate. A 
hundred and twenty tons of oil are obtained from a single individual. Shelled Mollusks attach themselves to its 
skin, and multiply there as upon a rock; the Balanus family even penetrate into it. The excrement is of a fine 
red colour, and affords a tolerable dye. There is a very similar species in the Antarctic seas, 


Other species, 

Tue Rorauats (Balenoptera, Lacepede),— 

Have a dorsal fin, and are subdivided according as the belly is smooth or wrinkled. [As the former 
section is unquestionably founded in error, as suspected by Cuvierf, we pass to those] which have the 
throat and under-parts wrinkled with deep longitudinal folds, and consequently susceptible of great 
dilatation, the intent of which, in their economy, is yet unknown. 


* We have verified on two crania this want of symmetry in the | induces us to credit the inequality of the eyes inentioned by Eyéde. 
spiracie, announced by Dudley, Anderson, and Swedianer, which { The wrinkied belly being simply filled out with water. 


| 
| 
| 


150 MAMMALIA. 


There are two in the European seas, viz.,—the Great Rorqual (Bal. ooops, Lin.),—superior in length to the com- 
mon Whale, and shunned on account of its extreme ferocity, and the small quantity ofits oil; and the Small Ror- 
qual (Bal. musculus, Lin.), which differs from the other [in its very inferior size, in its proportions, and number 
of vertebre. There is a third in the southern seas, and also a distinct fossil species. 


On proceeding to determine the fixed analogies of the teeth throughout the different groups of Mammatia, we 
have arrived (since most of the foregoing pages were stereotyped) at the conclusion, that no placental mammalian 
has more than three pairs of incisors, or three pairs of true or persistent molars, (normally,) in either jaw; all 
seeming exceptions being reducible to this general proposition: whereas the Marsupials have normally four of 
each, and some even five. By persistent molars, are intended those which are not preceded by milk-teeth. 

Following, then, the indications afforded by the structure of the molars, (which we conceive to furnish the most 
available guide to sound classification,) we are next led to recognize two principal varieties of dentition among the 
Placentalia, to one or the other of which every observed modification may be definitively referred. These two 
varieties are characteristic of a great zoophagous type and a great phytophagous type. 

Where exceptions occur in the former instance, the amylaceous parts of vegetables, as fruits, seeds, and fari- 
naceous bulbs or roots, are almost exclusively resorted to; and animal products are preferred to the composition 
of the recent carcass in those few exceptive cases which, in a trivial degree, affect the latter generalization. 

The zoophagous type of dentition is obviously of a higher grade than the other, and the animals in which it 
occurs require more nutritious aliment. 

Throughout the zoophagous division, the molars are compact in texture, and the enamel never dips into their 
substance ; the basal growth of the teeth (except the pseudo-incisive canines only, in the very singular genus 
Cheiromys,) ceases upon the latter attaining their required size; in consequence of which they gradually wear 
down by attrition, till in aged animals they are not unfrequently reduced to stumps. 

In the phytophagous division, the molars are much less compact, and the enamel generally dips into 
their substance in various ways; the teeth are commonly furnished with persistent formative pulps, which 
deposit fresh substance at their base as their crowns wear away, so that they continue permanently growing. ‘The 
exceptions that occur to this general definition do-not intrinsically affect the distinctness of the present group 
from the other, and are easily understood, so that a transverse section of a molar (kuown to be that of a placental 
animal) will suffice in every instance for the determination to which it belongs. 

These two great divisions somewhat analogously subdivide each into two sections, which differ considerably in 
the general details of their organization, and most commonly in the structure of the teeth. They may be regarded 
as normal and abnormal sections. 

In the normal sections of the zoophagous and phytophagous grand divisions of Placentalia, the four sorts of 
teeth—incisors, canines, renewed and persistent molars—are generally present, or at least three sorts of them, 
each characterized by a particular form and structure different from the rest. In the abnormal sections, the teeth 
are commonly much more numerous, and alike in structure, and consist principally or even wholly of false 
molars; all of them are without exception single-rooted. 

We might consider these four sections as Orders, and denominate them as follow. 

A. Zoophagous type. 
1. Typodontia. Normal: comprehending the Bimana, Quadrumana, and Carnassiers of Cuvier. 
2. Isodontia. Abnormal: consisting of the Cetacea of Cuvier, divested of the herbivorous subdivision. 
B. Phytophagous type. 
3. Diplodontia. Normal: comprising the Pachydermata, Cetacea herbivora, Rodentia, and Ruminantia of 


) 


the same naturalist. 
4. Aplodontia. Abnormal: corresponding to the Edentata of Cuvier, divested of the Monotremata. 


These together constitute the normal or placental subclass of Mammalia; and the abnormal or oyo-viviparous 
subclass might range in two orders only, viz. : 

5. Heterodontia. Normal: or the Marsupiata: and 

6. Pseudodontia. Abnormal: or the Monotremata. 

The Typodontia primarily subdivide into the Primates and Fere of Linnzus, or Secundates, as the latter has 
recently been termed by De Blainville. 

The Primates are characterized by the external distincticns popularly known, and also, it may be added, by their 
hair being of one sort only, having never any softer felt beneath it.* They separate into Cheiropoda and Cheiroptera. 

The Cheiropoda comprise the Bimana and Quadrwnana of Cuvier, but not the marsupial handed animals, in- 
cluded under this name by Mr. Ogilby. They have never more than four incisors in either jaw, invariably pos- 
sess a coecum, have no os penis, and are born with the eyes open. They subdivide into Anthropida and Lemuria. 

The Anthropida are characterized by the general form of the head, the complete separation of the orbits from 
the temporal fossa by a bony partition, by having the incisors broad and contiguous, and vertical, or nearly so, 
in both jaws, by their anthropoid molars, &c. Their teeth form an even series, the continuity of which is only 
broken by the interspace required for the reception of the opposite canine; and in Man only, where the canines 
are not lengthened beyond the other teeth, even this vacuity does not occur. They fall into the Catarrhini and 
Platyrrhini of Geofiroy, according to the number of false molars; and the circumstance of their being respectively 
peculiar to the Old and New Worlds, affords a presumptive argument that the human genus, which pertains 
strictly to the former, is not indigenous to America. 


* We were deceived by certain appearances in stating that exceptions to this rule existed, at pp. 57, 60. 


MAMMALIA. 151 


The Lemuria are mostly distinguished by a vulpine muzzle, with separated incisors in the upper jaw, those of 
the lower directed horizontally forward, as are also the inferior canines, which the author reckoned as a third pair 
of incisors. Their cheek-teeth are often sharply tuberculated ; and the doubling down of the ears in some, the 
character of the fur, the particular structure of the female reproductive organs, nocturnal habits, and a variety of 
other characters, forcibly recall to mind the insectivorous Bats. Among them, the genus Cheirogaleus is remark- 
able for the total absence of superior canines; and that of Cheiromys for having rodent canines, which pass 
through the intermaxillary bones, and supply the place of incisors, which are altogether wanting. 

The Cheiroptera have never more than four incisors to the upper jaw, but commonly six below, which is the 
normal complement. Amongst their less obvious distinctive characters from the other Primates, may be mentioned 
the constant absence of any ccecum, and the presence of a small os penis within the glans, but different from that 
of ordinary occurrence among the Secundates. They are born with their eyes closed. Following the fancy of 
Linneus in applying the name Lemur to the preceding group, we propose to designate the two principal divisions 
of Cheiroptera,—Harpydia and Spectra, which, in various respects, are analogous to the Anthropida and Lemuria. 

The Harpydia have blunt molars, an extremely elongated stomach, and long intestines; also a sonorous voice, 
and most usually a claw to the fore-finger. Though stated to feed, in some instances, partly on insects, we have 
reason to believe (from recent observation of a living animal, which invariably rejects all insect-food that is offered 
to it,) that they are exclusively frugivorous. All are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. 

The Spectra have a globular stomach, short intestines, and sharp tubercles to the molars, except in the very 
extraordinary genus Desmodus, which, for reasons connected with its habits, has no true molars whatever. They 
have a clicking voice, and no claw to the fore-finger, &c. 

The second sub-order of Typodontia, or the Fere, or Secundates, subdivides into the obvious groups Carnivora 
and Insectivora of Cuvier; but as these names are equally applicable to Marsupial genera, and therefore particu- 
larly liable to mislead, by inducing the erroneous supposition that they apply to all carnivorous and insecti- 
vorous Mammalia respectively, in which significant general sense they might still be employed with con- 
venience, just as the analogous terms Herbivora and Frugivora are at present, we believe that they might 
advantageously be disused in their restricted and forced meaning, to be superseded by names of more special 
application. We therefore venture to designate them Cynodia and Ecanina. It isin this division that the four 
different sorts of teeth assume their most distinctive characters, as it is unnecessary to dwell upon. The incisors 
are rarely less than six in number, in either jaw. 

In the Cynodia, the canines are always present, both above and below, and are invariably strongly characterized 
as such; and the incisors form a transverse range, the outer pair, more particularly those above, being always 
largest, and the medial smallest. They fall into four subtribes, viz., Digitigrada, Subplantigrada, Plantigrada, and 
Pinnigrada ; the first and last of which are constantly furnished with a ccecum, which does not occur in the others. 

The Digitigrada are not always digitigrade, but the term need not on this account be altered. We adopt the 
group as instituted by Cuvier, detaching only the first leading subdivision, or that of the Weasels and allied genera. 

The Subplantigrada have never more than one true molar above, and another below, which vary exceedingly in 
developement, in an inverse ratio to the carnassier, or scissor-tooth,—the Weasels and Badgers exhibiting the 
extremes. The great and small intestines scarcely differ in calibre; and all, unless the Otters constitute an excep- 
tion, can diffuse at will a disgusting stench. None of them fall into a torpid state during the winter, like the northern 
Plantigrada. Their hind feet are always semi-plantigrade, but none of them bring the heel quite to the ground. 

The Plantigrada have constantly two pairs of true molars in each jaw, which likewise vary exceedingly in de- 
velopement, and in an inverse ratio to the scissor-teeth, which in the Bears are reduced to their minimum 
throughout the Cynodia. In their plantigrade gait, and generally naked sole (not naked by friction merely, as in 
the Badgers), their tendency to torpor during severe weather, and a variety of other particulars, a direct affi- 
nity to the Insectivora, Cuv., is very apparent; and the Raccoons among them are further remarkable for the 
entire separation, and a certain amount of prehensibility of the toes, which last enables them to clasp small objects 
in a manner observed in no other Secundates,—the rest of the Cynodia having a membrane more or less developed 
between the toes. The skull of the Bears exhibits various tokens of affinity with the next group. 

The Pinnigrada, or Seals, correspond to the Amphibia of Cuvier, and are remarkable for the similarity of their 
true and false molars ; the former of which, however, in no instance, exceed the typical number. 

The Ecanina, or second and abnormal subtribe of Secundates (being the Insectivora, Cuv.), have an attenuated 
muzzle, and mostly separated incisors that face laterally, the medial or foremost being always largest, as in the Pri- 
mates; no true upper canines, but very commonly an enlarged false molar with two fangs, that presents the appear- 
ance and performs the office of a canine, the lower canines being always present (unless in the Shrews), but commonly 
very small, and hence ranked as a fourth pair of incisors. They have generally three true molars, both above and be- 
low, and always perfect clavicles, which is the case in no species of Cynodia. The genera Macroschelides and Tupaia 
alone possess a ccecum ; and the Shrews, which have no incisors, nor even intermaxillary bones that should contain the 
upper ones, are remarkable for possessing two very curious front teeth, which wesuspect are modified false molars. 

We shall offer no further remarks on the IsoponTt1a, or Cetacea ordinaria of Cuvier, than to observe, that 
the Narwhal alone among them possesses other than false molars. 

The DreLopontIA, or normal order of the great phytophagous type, divides first into Brochata and Ungulata, 
the names of which require to be admitted with some reservation, though certainly not with more than—nor indeed 
so much as—the Edentata of Cuvier. They have always a voluminous ccecum, with the single, and consequently 
very remarkable, exception of the small Dormouse group. 

The Brochata have ordinarily (at least the three first principal divisions of them) permanently growing canines, 
which either pass through the intermaxillaries, as in the Elephants and Rodents—deriving their nutriment, how- 


152 MAMMALIA. 


ever, from within the true maxillaries—or they are directed outwards, as in the Pigs and Hippopotami. The 
composite structure of the molars, from which this order takes its name, attains its most remarkable develope- 
ment in the present division, as observed in the Elephant, the Capybara, and the Phascochcere. They have rarely 
fewer than four, and often five distinct toes on each foot; and generally a cleft upper lip, less observable when the 
nose is prolonged into a snout, or proboscis. They separate into Proboscidia, Rodentia, Cherodia, and Syrenia. 

The close affinity of the Proboscidia and Rodentia was distinctly pointed out and descanted upon by Cuvier in 
his Ossements Fossiles, to which valuable work the reader is necessarily referred, from want of space to enlarge 
upon the subject here. The tusks of the Proboscidia are mostly peculiar to the upper jaw, where they attain 
enormous dimensions, being small when present in the lower one. Their form is cylindrical, with conically- 
pointed tips, and they are surrounded with euamel.* 

The Rodentia have approximated tusks in both jaws, with enamel only in front; and the Hares alone among 
them possess true incisors in the upper jaw only, in front of which the tusks pass, protruding in their usual site 
throughout the group. They have neither an elongated snout nor a proboscis; and their extremities are unguicu- 
lated. In the Hare, which has six rootless molars, the three first alone are preceded by rooted milk teeth; and 
the anterior molar, in numerous other genera, the adults of which have four, is in like manner preceded by a 
deciduous rooted tooth, which is shed about the time the last posterior molar protrudes through the gum. 

The Cherodia have always incisors, their tusks, of similar kind to those of the two preceding groups, being 
directed outwards, and those of the upper and lower jaws generally rubbing against each other. The Swine and 
Hippopotami are characteristic examples ; and we are disposed to refer to this division (as a distinct minor group), 
the very singular genus Hyraz, the adults of which do not possess canines. 

Lastly, the Syrenia, or Cetacea herbivora, Cuv., which have no posterior extremities, like the Isodontia, are 
likewise deprived of canines, at least the existing genera; for the Deinotherum (assuming that this lost genus is 
correctly placed here) had enormous tusks in the lower jaw only, anomalously turned downward. Their general 
anatomy leaves no doubt of the propriety of separating them altogether from the Jsodontia, or zoophagous 
Cetacea, and allies them (we consider) most nearly to the Chewrodia. 

The Ungulata, or grazing animals, divide, according to the simple or complex stomach, into Bellua & Ruminantia 

The Bellua consist of the Horses, Tapirs, Rhinoceroses, and proximate fossil genera; all of which now existing 
have a prehensile upper lip more or less developed, the nostrils being prolonged with it into a short flexible pro- 
boscis in the Tapirs, and there is reason to conclude in many of the extinct forms. The true and false molars 
present no sensible difference in the adult animal ; but the dentition of the young proves that the normal comple- 
ment of true molars is not exceeded, 

The Ruminantia fall into Ancerata and Pecora ; the former consisting of the Camels and Llamas, which have a 
cleft and prehensile upper lip, and claw-like hoofs upon which they do not rest; and the latter of the remainder, 
which have the upper lip entire and non-prehensile, (the tongue becoming so in its stead,) and the ends of their 
toes encased in hoofs, upun the soles of which the weight of the body is supported. The former alone possess any 
superior incisors, though only one pair; but all have six incisors in the lower jaw, together with inferior canines, 
which in the Pecorva assume the form and direction of incisors, but the true analogy of which appears on com- 
parison of them with the lower canines of either the Bellua or Ancerata, and of the Bactrian or Two-humped 
Camel in particular, which has no interspace (as in the others) between its lower canines and incisors. 

The APLoponTIA, or abnormal division of the phytophagous type, corresponding to the Edentata of Cuvier, is 
now in course of becoming unexpectedly elucidated by the extraordinarily rapid discovery of fossil genera in South 
America, which present a more complicated form of molar tooth than was previously known im this division, as 
exemplified by the newly established genera Mylodon, Glyptodon, and we venture to suggest — Tovrodon, 
wherein the indentations of the enamelled sides of the teeth resemble those of many rodents. However numerous 
may be the false molars in certain genera of this division, the number of their true molars appears in no instance 
to exceed three, (at least in those which we have been able to examine, comprehending all with the unfortunate 
exception of Priodon); and the structural distinction between their true and false molars is sufficiently evident. 

Of the two Ovo-viviparous orders, there is only space left to remark, that whereas the Placental Carnivora and 
Herbivora are (as we have seen) modified upon two distinct types, which do not pass into each other, the Marsu- 
pial Carnivora and Herbivora pertain to the same equivalent type, and grade into each other so that an analogous 
line of rigid demarcation cannot be traced. This perhaps may be added to the various indications of their 
abnormity as a group, as compared with the preceding or Placental subclass of Mammalia. 

In conclusion, it may here be noticed, that without intending any thing of the kind while gradually ascending 
to the foregoing classification, it has so happened that species with superior intelligence in conformity with their 
cerebral developement are placed at the head of each principal group, which may or may not be fortuitous coinci- 
dence. Thus, Man ranks at the head of the most highly organized order—Typodontia, the Dolphin at the head of 
the Zsodontia, and the Elephant at that of the great phytophagous division, and, consequently, of the Diplodontia ; 
while the Dog ranges first among the Secundates, and the Horse first of the Ungulata. The leading genus of the 
Aplodontia may yet remain to be discovered. The animals here mentioned (at least the terrene kinds, for of the 
Dolphin we do not possess the requisite data for forming an opinion), certainly appear to possess more eminently 
culturable intellects than any others, such as may be applied to purposes having no relation to their natural 
habits ; and Man has accordingly been enabled to gain them as assistants in his various labours and occupations. ] 

* It may be that the Proboscidia supply an exception to the other- | real, the last of them being probably analogous to the teeth which 
wise universal rule of placental Mammalia having never more than | human beings sometimes develope when in vigorous senility ; theoreti- 


three pairs of true molars in either jaw; but we suspect that such | cally, a renewal of their predecessors. 
seeming exception would upon analysis prove tu be more apparet than 


THE OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATES IN GENERAL. 


Although the three classes of Oviparous Vertebrates differ very much from each other 
in their quantum of respiration, and in all that relates to it, viz., the power of move- 
ment and the energy of the senses, they present several characters in common when 
opposed to the Mammalia, or Viviparous Vertebrates, [certain of which are partici- 
pated in by the Ovoviviparous Mammalia, or the subclass of Marsupiata and 
Monotremata]. 

The hemispheres of the brain are much reduced, and [as in the Ovoviviparous 
Mammalia] are not united by a corpus callosum; the crura of the cerebellum do not 
form that protuberance called the pons Varolii; the nates (at least in two of these 
classes) attain a great development, are hollowed so as to enclose a veutricle, and [as 
in the Ovoviviparous Mammalia] are not covered by the hemispheres, but are visible 
below or on the sides of the cerebrum, [which last statement does not apply to the 
Ovoviviparous Mammalia]: their nostrils are less complex ; the ear [as in the Mono- 
tremata] has not so many small bones, which in several are totally wanting; the 
cochlea, where it exists, which is oniy the case in Birds, is much more simple, &c. 
Their lower jaw, always composed of many pieces, is attached by a concave facet to a 
salient process, which belongs to the temporal bone, but is separated from its petrous 
portion: the bones of the cranium are more subdivided, though they occupy the same 
relative places, and fulfil similar functions ; thus, the frontal is composed of five or six 
pieces, &c. The orbits are merely separated by an osseous lamina of the sphcenoidal 
bone, or by a membrane. When these animals possess anterior extremities, in addition 
to the clavicle, which is often united to its fellow on the opposite side, and is then 
termed fourchette, the scapular also rests upon the sternum, by means of a very large 
and prolonged coracoid apophysis. ‘The daryne is more simple, and has no epig/lottis ; 
the lungs are not separated from the abdomen by a perfect diaphragm, [except in the 
single instance of that extraordinary bird, the Apteryr], &c. But in order that these 
various relations should be adequately appreciated, it would be necessary to enter into 
anatomical details, which do not belong to this first part of our work. It is sufficient 
to have here pointed out the mutual analogy of the Ovipara, which, in reference to the 
plan on which they are constructed, is greater than that of any of them with the 
Mammalia. 

Oviparous generation consists, essentially, in this; that the young animal is not 
attached by a placenta to the parietes of the uterus, or of the oviduct, but remains 
separate from it by its most external envelope, [all which applies to the Ovoviviparous 
Mammalia]. Its aliment is prepared beforehand, and enclosed in a sac attached to its 
intestinal canal ; being what is termed the vitellus, or yolk of egg, of which the young 
animal is a sort of appendage, at first imperceptible, which is nourished and augmented 
by absorbing the fluid of the yolk. Such of the Ovipara as breathe by lungs, have the 
egg furnished with a highly vascular membrane, which appears to serve for respiration ; 
it is connected with the bladder, and represents the allantoid of Mammalia. ‘This 
membrane is neither found in Fishes, nor the Batrachians; which latter, when young, 
respire in the manner of Fishes, by gills or branchie. 


154 AVES. 


Many of the cold-blooded Ovipara do not bring forth their young until they are 
developed and extricated from their shell, or other membranes which separated them 
from their parent. ‘These are called false Ovipara. 


THE SECOND CLASS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 


THE BIRDS (AVES),— 


Are oviparous vertebrates with double circulation and respiration, [mostly] organized 
for flight. 

Their lungs, undivided and attached to the ribs, are enveloped by a membrane 
pierced with large holes, and which allows the air to pass into many cavities of the 
chest, the abdominal region, arm-pits, and even of the interior of the bones*; so that 
the ambient fluid not only bathes the surface of the pulmonary vessels, but also that 
of an infinitude of vessels traversing the rest of the body. hus Birds respire, in 
certain respects, by the ramifications of their aorta, as well as by those of their 
pulmonary artery, and the energy of their irritability is in preportion to their amount 
of respiration.t ‘Their total conformation is arranged to participate in this energy. 

Their anterior extremities, destined to sustain them in flight, could neither serve 
them for standing, nor for clutching : they are bipeds, then, 
and pick up objects from the earth with their mouth ; their 
body, consequently, is balanced upon the legs; the thighs 
are directed forward, and the toes are lengthened to form 
a sufficient base for standing. The pelvis is longitudi- 
nally much extended, to furnish attachment to the muscles 
which support the trunk upon the thighs: there is even 
a suite of muscles proceeding from the pelvis to the toes ; 
and passing over the knee and heel, so that the simple 
weight of the bird flexes the toes: it is thus that they 
are enabled to sleep perched on one foot. The ischia, and 
especially the ossa pubis, are lengthened out behind, and 
widened in their span, to allow the necessary space for 
the developement of the eggs. 

The neck and the beak are elongated to reach the 
ground; but the former has also the requisite flexibility for 
doubling backward when at rest. It has therefore numerous 
vertebre, [varying from twelve to twenty-three, which latter 
number is attained only in the genus Cygnus]. ‘The trunk, 
on the contrary, which serves as a fulcrum to the wings, 
has but little mobility; the sternum especially, to which 

Hig. 07.—Skeleton of Jer Falcon. are attached the muscles which effect the propulsive stroke 
in flying, is of great extent, its surface [except in the Ostrich and allied genera, which de 
not fly,] being further augmented by a projecting ridge along its middle. Itis [mostly] 


* In the Hornbills, even the phalanges of the toes are hollow, and + Two Sparrows consume as niuch air as a Guineu-pig..—Levoi- 
communicate with the lungs. The opposite extreme occurs in the | sree, Mémoires de Chimie, i. 110, 
alpterys, which has no accessory air-cavities.—Ep. 


155 


composed originally of five pieces: one medial (fig. 68, @), of which this salient lamina 
[known as the sternal crest, ridge, or keel] constitutes a part ; two triangular anterior la- 
teral [termed costal processes] (6), for the attachment of the ribs ; 
/ and two forked posterior lateral (c), for the extension of its sur- 
}%~ face; and the greater or less degree of the ossification [that is to 
4 ee say, obliteration] of the notches of these last, and the extent of 
z OZ the interval which is left between them and their principal bone, 
‘“<—~=— denote the relative amount of vigour of flight in Birds. The 
© (Eagles, Harriers, (the Falcons much more slowly, if indeed at 
all), and some other] diurnal Birds of prey, the Swifts and the 
Humming-birds, [the Parrots, and also the Storm-petrels,] lose, 
as they grow old, all traces of these unossified spaces. [In the 
Ostrich and its allies, the sternum is composed originally of only two pieces ; and the 
number likewise varies in those Birds which possess a sternal crest. } 

The fourchette [/urcula, or “‘ merry-thought” bone], (fig. 68, d), produced by the 
junction of the two clavicles, and the two stout abutments formed by the [huge] 
coracoid aphophyses (e), keep the shoulders apart, notwithstanding the opposing force 
exerted by the action of flying ; the fourchette, in particular, is commonly more stout 
and open, acccrding as the flight of a Bird is vigorous.* (See fig. 67.) The 
wing, supported by the humerus (fig. 69 a,) fore-arm 
(6), and hand, which is elongated, and exhibits one 
digit and the rudiments of two [or (including the 
winglet 0,) three] others (1, 2,4) is furnished through- 
out its length with a range of elastic quills, which greatly 
extend the surface that resists the air. The quills ad- 
hering to the hand are named primaries, and these are 
[almost] always ten in number}; those attached to 
the fore-arm are called secondaries, but their number 
varies ; weaker feathers attached to the humerus are 
styled scapularies [tertiaries; the true scapularies 
constituting that separate range which grows over 
the scapulars, or ‘ shoulder-blades”] ; and the bone 
which represents the thumb} (0), is also furnished 
with what are designated bastard quills, [this member 
being generally termed alula spuria, or winglet]. Along 
the base of the quills is a range [and successive 
ranges] of feathers named coverts [both on the outer 
and inner surfaces of the wing, which receive corre- 
sponding appellations to those of the quill-feathers they 
impend, as primary coverts, &c.,and are further distinguished as greater, lesser, and least]. 


Fig. 68.—Sternal apparatus of a 
newly-hatched Chick. 


Fig. 69.—Jer Falcon’s Wing. 


* In the instance of the Parrots, some of which are birds of very 
strong flight, although the coracoids are always very stout (much 
resembling those of the Hawks), the furculais never strong, and is 
peculiarly flattened, so that its resisting force is thus considerably 
diminished, Some Parroquets, indeed, as those small ones popularly 
ternied Love-birds (Agrapornis), have no ‘urcula whatever; and it 
is worthy of being noticed that the restricted Toucans (Rhamphastos) 
have the clavicles separate and very short, forming small dagger- 
shaped appendages, the use of which is not obvious.—Ep. 

+ In the Grebe genus, eleven: many of the singing birds have the 


first extremely minute ; and, in the Starling and some others, it is, 
analogically speaking, wanting; so that the number is in these 
reduced to nine.—Ep. 

t As on the removal of digits, that of the thumb is found to be 
invariably the first, the rudimentary finger above referred to is now 
considered as analogous to the index finger of the human hand: the 
thumb, however, being sometimes represented by a beny spine; 
as the spur of a common fowl represents the first digit of the 
foot.—Ep. 


a 


156 AVES. 


The bony tail is very short, [and consists in most instances of nine vertebre, the 
three last of which are commonly anchylosed into a plough-share form, and are gene- 
rally collectively styled the coccyx], but has a range of strong feathers, which, when 
spread out, assist in supporting the bird: their number is ordinarily twelve ; sometimes 
fourteen, and in many of the Gallinacee eighteen; [in some few genera, as the 
Grebes, Nandou, &c., these are wanting altogether ; a single Humming-bird (Trochilus 
enicurus) possesses only six; the Ani eight; the rest of the Humming-birds, and 
various others, ten; while the Swans present from eighteen to twenty-two. The two 
central of these feathers are implanted above the even line formed by the insertien of 
the rest, and essentially correspond to the wing-tertiaries, as the others do to the 
wing-secondaries ; the latter being in no instance moulted more than once in the year, 
the former in many instances twice: we might accordingly designate the two central 
tail feathers, which differ conspicuously from the rest in structure, wropygials. Above 
and below the tail are lengthened feathers, commonly of weak texture, known as the 
upper and under tail-coverts. 

The rest of the feathers of Birds are named from their position, as frontal, coronal, 
occipital, nuchal, dorsal or interscapulary, which together form a continuous series, apart 
from the scapalaries ; those in front of the eye are termed Joral,and the auditory aperture 
is covered by a range styled auriculars.or ear-coverts : the sides of the neck and medial 
portion of the sternal and abdominal region are at most covered with down; the 
former being concealed by the lateral feathers of the fore and hind neck meeting ; the 
latter by a similar junction of two distinct lateral ranges. As it is necessary that the 
warm body of a bird should be in actual contact with the eggs during incubation, 
whatever down may cover the medial inferior region disappears in the females towards 
the season of propagation, even in those confined in cages, so that this bareness is not 
produced mechanically. Finally, besides various accessory tufts in different genera, 
some long slender feathers are situate at the base of the wing internally, which are 
named azillaries}. 

The legs have a femur, a tibia, and a peronzeum attached to the femur with a spring, 
which maintains their extension without effort on the part of the muscles. The tarsus 
and metatarsus are represented by a single bone, terminating below in three pullies. 

Most commonly there are three toes before, and a thumb behind*; the latter being 
sometimes deficient. In the Swifts it is directed forwards, [though half-reversible : in 
the Moth-hunters and some others, inward, at a right angle with the axis of the body]. 
In the yoke-footed Birds, on the contrary, the external toe and the thumb are dis- 
posed backwards [most usually, but sometimes (as in the Touracos and Puff-birds) 
laterally: in the Trogons, the first and second toes are opposed to the third and 
fourth; and accordingly the longest toe, or that which corresponds to the middle one 
in the generality of the class, is inward, instead of being outward, as in all the other 
yoke-footed groups]. The number of articulations increases in each toe, commencing 
with the thumb, which has two, and ending with the external toe, which has five. 
[The Swifts present a remarkable exception; and it may be remarked that, in the 
Ostrich alone, only two toes are present. ] 

In genera’, [invariably], Birds are covered with feathers, a sort of tegument best 


* The word thumb is here and subsequently used merely ina popular ) thumbs of the Quadrumana are represented, in the class of Birds, 
seusc, to signify its antagonism to the other digits: as the hinder } only by the tarsal spurs of many Gallinacee.—Ep. 


AVES. uaz 


adapted to protect them from the rapid variations of temperature to which their move- 
ments expose them. The air-cavities which occupy the interior of their body, and 
[usually] even supersede the marrow in their bones, increase their specific lightness. 
The sternal portion of the ribs is ossified, as well as the vertebral, to impart more force 
to the dilatation of the chest. To each rib is attached a small bone, which soon becomes 
soldered to it, and is directed obliquely backward towards the next rib, all concurring 
to give additional solidity to the thorax. 

The eye of Birds is so conformed as to enable them to distinguish objects both far 
and near with equal clearness; a vascular and plaited membrane, which extends from 
the profundity of the globe to the edge of the crystalline, probably assists in displacing 
that lens. The anterior surface of the globe is also strengthened by a circle of bony 
pieces; and, besides the two ordinary eyelids, there is always a third, situate at the 
inner angle, and which, by means of a remarkable muscular apparatus, can be drawn 


over the front of the eye like a curtain. The cornea is very convex, but the crystalline 
is flat, and the vitreous humour small. 

The ear of Birds has but a single small bone, formed of a branch adherent to the 
tympanum, and of another terminating in a plate that rests upon the fenestra ovalis : 
their cochlea is a cone slightly curved; but their semicircular canals are large, and 
lodged in a portion of the skull, where they are surrounded on all sides by air-cavities 
that communicate with the arca. [Some] nocturnal Birds alone have a large 
external conch, which however does not project like that of quadrupeds, [though in the 
restricted genus Striz an overlapping cartilaginous flap is developed anteriorly, by 
which the auditory aperture is closed at will]. The orifice of the ear is generally 
covered with feathers [the ear-coverts], the barbs of which are more fringed than those 
of other feathers. 

The organ of smell, concealed within the base of the beak, has ordinarily three car- 
tilaginous ossa turbinata, which vary in complication; it is very sensible, although it 
has no cavity excavated within the parietes of the cranium. The size of the bony 
openings of the nostrils determines the strength of the beak; and the cartilages, 
membranes, feathers, and other teguments which contract these apertures, exert an 
influence on the perceptibility of odours, and on the sort of nourishment. 

The tongue has little muscular substance, and is supported by a bone articulated on 
the hyoid; in most Birds this organ is not very delicate. [The Parrots probably enjoy 
most perfectly the sense of taste. ] 

The feathers, as well as the quills, which differ only in size, are composed of a stem, 
hollow at its base, and of barbs, which are themselves furnished with smaller ones ; 
their tissue, lustre, strength, and general form, vary infinitely. [They may be con- 
veniently divided into clothing feathers, and those which are subservient to locomo- 
tion; the vibrissee even, which are disposed in some instances as eyelashes, and more 
frequently impend the nostrils or arm the rictus of Birds, are merely barbless feathers, 
which are developed and periodically renewed like other feathers. In many groups, 
the clothing feathers are furnished with a supplementary shaft, or accessory plume, 
which, in the quills or sustaining feathers, is at most represented by only a few downy 
filaments. This supplementary plume, in the Emeus, is developed equally with the 
primary shaft, so that two similar feathers grow from the same quill: and in the 
Cassowary, there is even a third shaft in addition. In the Poultry and some others, 


eee 


AVES. 


the accessory plume is large, but of soft and downy texture: others have it reduced to 
a small tuft of down; while in many it is absent altogether. In some Birds, the 
vanes of the feathers are to a variable extent united, or soldered into an uniform mass , 
and there are various additional modifications, too numerous to admit of detail]. The 
touch must be feeble in all parts that are covered with them; and, as the beak is 
almost always corneous and but little sensitive, and the toes are invested with scales 
above and a callous skin underneath, this sense can be of little efficacy in the class of 
Birds. [In the Snipes and Lamellirostres, however, the sense of touch in the bill must 
be delicate, as testified by their manner of feeding, as well as by the many nervous 
papillee distributed over its surface. The enormous bill of the Toucans, also, is 
very sensitive ; and even the hardest bills are traversed by ramifications of the fifth 
pair of nerves, which terminate in scattered papille. } 

The feathers are cast twice in the year [in some instances, but by far the greater 
number of Birds renew their plumage in autumn only; and in no instance are the 
wing-primaries shed excepting in autumn, or at that moult which corresponds to the 
autumnal moult. Many, as the Hawks, larger Gulls, &c., retain their entire nestling 
garb till the second autumn ; while others, as the Crows, Starlings, &c., renew every 
feather previous to the first winter; and there are some groups, as that of the 
Thrushes, together with various double-moulting Birds, as the Pipits and Wagtails, 
which change their first clothing plumage soon after quitting the nest, but retain their 
nestling primaries until the second autumn—(that is, until the third renovation of the 
body feathers). In the Cormorants, Grebes, &c., some additional ornamental plumes are 
developed towards the commencement of the breeding season; at which time various 
other Birds undergo a change of colour, unaccompanied by any moult *; while others, 
again, cast the terminal portion (commonly of a dingy hue) of the greater number of 
their feathers, which during winter had concealed the brighter tints of summer: two 
or more of these various modes, by which a seasonal alteration of appearance is effected, 
being frequently simultaneously observable in the same individual.] In certain species, 
the winter plumage differs in its colours from that of summer; and in the greater 
number, the female differs from the male by colours less vivid, and the young of both 
sexes then resemble the female. When the adult male and female are of the same 
colour, the young have a peculiar livery. 
require to be qualified by numerous exceptions: the true enunciation of them being, 
that, when the plumage of the young differs from that of the adult male, or of the 


[As thus expressed, however, these rules 


female in those few cases where (as in the common Gallinule) this sex is the brighter, 
that of the other sex may be similar to either of those extremes, or is in various 
degrees intermediate: the male and female of the common British Redstart, for 
instance, are dissimilar, and the young do not resemble the adult female; but the 
garb of the latter is intermediate to those of the adult male and young.t] 


adults of both sexes; and, in the Common Gallinule, only by the 
mature female. There are also many Birds in which neither sex 


* When this takes place, as in certain Gambets (Yotanus), the 
colouring matter is often entirely absorbed previously to the autumnal 


change of feather ; and in some double-moulting species, as the Golden 
Plover, it commonly happens in spring that the colouring secretion 
tinges the old feathers that are loose, and ready to drop off ;—thus 
proving that a circulation obtains in the pores of feathers, even up to 
the period of their being naturally cast.—Ep. 

+ There is a typical state of plumage in most groups of Birds,which, 
in certain species, as the Tree Sparrow, is common to old and young 
of both sexes; but which is very usually obtained only hy the adult 
male, as is observable in the common House Sparrow: in the Robin, 
Goldfinch, &c., to select other familiar examples, it is acquired by the 


assumes this comparatively advanced livery: the larger Bitterns, for 
example, both sexes of which permanently retain the markings and 
style of colouring characteristic of only the first or immature dress of 
the Dwarf-bitterns (subgenus Ardeola); the adult male common 
Bunting (Emberiza miliaria), also, thus exhibits correspond- 
ing livery to that proper to the females and young of the rest of its 
group, never advancing, like the males of the other species of Bunting, 
beyond its primitive nestling colours and markings. We are led to 
recognize, therefore, two extreme conditions of plumage as regards 
the colouring,—one generally, but not always, characteristic of matu- 


AVES. 159 


The brain, in Birds, offers the same general characters as in the rest of the Ovipara ; 
but is distinguished by its very considerable proportionate size, which often even sur- 


passes that of this organ in the Mammalia. 


It is principally on the tubercles analo- 


gous to the corpora striata that this volume is dependent, and not upon the 


hemispheres, which are very small and without convolutions. 


The cerebelium is 


tolerably large, and almost without lateral lobes, being principally formed by the 


vermiform process. 


The trachea of Birds has its rings entire ; 


at its bifurcation is a glottis, most usually 


furnished with peculiar muscles, and named the lower larynx ; it is there that the voice 


rity,—the other of immaturity ; the first having usually more decided 
and contrasted colours ; the second being comparatively sombre, with 
fainter or more blended colours, which however are commonly broken 
into various streaks or spots, and other different mottlings: where the 
latter condition, however, becomes permanent, the variegations of the 
adult bird are in general more distinctly defined; thus a beautiful 
Himmalayan Thrush (Jurdus Whitei), which occasionally strays into 
Europe, retains the mottling of the dorsal plumage peculiar to the 
unmoulted young of other Thrushes, but the colours of those mottled 
feathers are much more finely brought ont ; in like manner the distinct 
transverse bars on the adult plumage of the Bush-shrikes (Thamno- 
philus) and those on certain Woodpeckers (Colaptes), respectively 
represent the more indistinct markings of the nestling dress of the 
ordinary Shrikes (Lanivs) and certain other Woodpeckers (Chrysu- 
ptilus), which barred plumage is succeeded in the latter by an adult 
garb devoid of those markings: this increased distinctness is however 
less apparent in some cases, as in that of the Bittern of North Ame- 
rica, the adult markings of which correspond, feather by feather, (their 
intensity being but inconsiderably enhanced,) with those of the im- 
mature Dwarf-bitterns already referred to. 

Accordingly, then, it is in the first plumage of Birds that the affinity 
of allied groups is ordinarily most apparent, as is analogously the case 
with the young of animals in general (the distinctions of all essen- 
tially allied groups of which continue to decrease till they disappear 
successively, as we ascend tothe embryo); and the same remark 
applies, as might be anticipated, to the shape and structure of the 
feathers, equally with their colouring. Thus, the nestling garb is 
always much less firm than that subsequently attained; and those 
feathers which are acuminate in the adult are rounded, or but slightly 
narrowed, in the young, and in general become gradually more 
elongated and pointed at each successive moult, till they have ac- 
quired their final shape and developement: the dorsal feathers of the 
common Heron, and clothing plumage of the Starling, may be cited 
in exemplification. In this respect, also, as with their colouring, the 
feathers of some species, compared with those of others proximately 
allied, are specifically arrested at various stages of developement: the 
adult plumage of the Bitterns represents in this particular the imma- 
ture garb of the Herons generally; and in the weakness of texture of 
the dorsal feathers, equally with their mottled markings, the mature 
livery of the Jantkocincle corresponds with the nestling dress of the 
majority of other Birds of the Thrush tribe. 

It should be remarked that in some cases where the typical plumage 
is finally attained, this is only ufter a series of moultings more or less 
numerous, each suceessive stage of which may or may not present a 
nearer approximation to it in different species ; it being thus assumed 
gradually, or abruptly ; and, in such cases, it is generally acquired by 
the male sex sooner than by the female, where both ultimately arrive 
at it. In the European Oriole, the male alone attains the typical garb, 
but not before its third or fourth change of plumage, when it is 
assumed abruptly, or nearly so; in the Dwarf-bitterns, the male 
acquires its final livery at the first moult, the female not before the 
third or fourth moult, presenting an intermediate garb in the mean 
while, which is ultimately exchanged for the same livery as that of its 
mate. The amount of constitutional vigour tends to determine the 
period at which the more advanced condition of plumage is obtained, 
in the ratio of the average period required for its assumption: thus, 
we perceive little or no irregularity in those instances where the 
typical dress is gained at the first renewal, but considerable irregu- 
larity where the period of its assumption is ordinarily protracted ; and 
it would seem that in the latter case the females are more apt to 
acquire ultimately the most advanced livery, than in those instances 
where the male alone regularly obtains it at the first moult; though, 
as there is always a tendency on the part of vigorous females to throw 
out the masculine attire, it may be that this apparent difference arises 
simply from the fact of such females being liable to escape notice, 
from their consequent similarity to the other sex inducing a belief 
that they belong to it, and so precluding further examination. Of 
species thus usually presenting a marked sexual diversity of plu- 


mage, we have seen females of the common Redstart, Linnet, Redpole, 
Red-backed Shrike, and Scaup Pochard, which could not be distin- 
guished externally from males; and all of them contained eggs in the 
ovarium. 

As the assumption of the typical plumage, then, in species wherein 
it is tardily acquired, is especially dependent on the amount of con- 
stitutional vigour, it follows that captive Birds should generally arrive 
more slowly at their final livery, than those individuals which are 
unconfined ; and it might be predicated, also, that instances of captive 
females assuming the male plumage, in those species wherein the 
females ordinarily differ from the males, would be of comparatively 
unfrequent occurrence. Such are accordingly the facts : but it requires 
to be noticed, that any effectual injury to the ovarium, or other cause 
of sterility, also occasions female Birds to throw out the masculine 
livery (just as the Doe, mentioned at p. 137, with one schirrous ovary, 
developed an antler on the same side), this fact being very commonly 
noticed in Pheasants and domestic Poultry. On the other hand, how- 
ever, it is still more remarkable that a male bird, analogously injured, 
will sometimes even moult back from the typical plumage to that pro- 
per to the female and young; though caponized fowls retain their 
male costume. 

We have thus far treated on the subject only under its most simple 
phase, as observed in those species which renew their plumage in 
autumn only ; and have entered somewhat into detail, from experience 
of the great assistance rendered by a knowledge of the characters thus 
afforded in tracing the affinities of groups, by simple inspection of the 
plumage: being enabled thus to perceive the systematic relationship 
of various genera at a glance, which is not obvious in the rest of their 
external characters, nor even in this one to persons unacquainted 
with the normal progressive changes characteristic of the particular 
group. In illustration, let it be supposed that a species of Sparrow 
existed (which is quite probable), the males of which, like the 
females of the House Sparrow, retained permanently the colouring of 
the nestling garb of the latter, (or, in other words, that its plumage 
presented the same analogy with that of the House Sparrow which 
the common Bunting’s plumage does to that of its congeners): the 
affinity of such a species to the Tree Sparrow, both sexes of which 
exhibit at all ages a style of colouring corresponding to that peculiar 
to the adult male of the House Sparrow, would be rendered intelli- 
gible by the mutation incidental to the latter, even though no actual 
similitude were traceable between the plumage of the Tree Sparrow 
and that of the imagined species. There are numerous groups, then, 
the relationship of which may be at once recognized on the principle 
here indicated. 

Among those species which retain their first plumage till the second 
autumn, its aspect andergoes considerable variation in some, from 
different causes. Thus, in the Osprey, Gannet, and some others, the 
upper parts are fora while conspicuously speckled with terminal white 
spots, on a dark ground-colour ; which spots gradually disappearing, 
as the terminal edges of the feathers are naturally shed, leave the 
back uniformly dark-coloured and plain. In certain other groups, as 
in some Harriers (Circus), au actual change of colour takes place in 
the feathers, to a variable extent. 

In those species of Birds which undergo a double moult, the sexes 
are generally similar, or nearly so, in both states of plumage, and 
always in the winter dress ; and even the summer and winter liveries 
do not in all cases differ, as may be observed in the Tree Pipit 
(Anthus arboreus). Where the contrary prevails in both sexes, the 
young, in their first down, are subject to possess the colouring of the 
adult summer garb, as noticeable in the common Guillemot and 
Razorbill ; and, in the plumage which succeeds the down, to resemble 
the mature winter dress, or to present a combination of the two, 
which is not uncommon—particularly among the small waders, which 
subsequently attain their proper winter clothing plumage by a moult 
towards the close of autumn. When the breeding livery of the male 
and female differs, the same law prevails as in single-moulting Birds. 
We have not space to enter more minutely into detail.—Ep. 


I a ae a en 
ee 


160 AVES. 


of Birds is formed; the enormous volume of air contained in the air-cavities contri- 
butes to the strength of this voice, and the trachea, by its various forms and move- 
ments, to its intonations. The upper larynx, which is extremely simple, has little to 
do with it. 

The face, or upper mandible of Birds, formed principally by the intermaxillaries, is 
prolonged backwards into two arcades, the internal of which is composed by the pala- 
tine and pterygoid bones, the external by the maxillaries and jugals, and which are | 
both supported on a moveable tympanic bone, commonly termed the square bone 
(os carré), that represents the drum of the ear: above, this same face is articulated or 
united to the skull by elastic lamin; a mode of union which always leaves some 


mobility. 
The horny substance which invests the two mandibles supplies the place of teeth, | 
and is occasionally serrated, so as to represent them.* Its form, as also that of the | 
mandibles which support it, varies excessively, according to the sort of food | 
resorted to. 
The digestion of Birds is in proportion to the energy of their vitality, and the | 
amount of respiration. ‘The stomach is composed of three parts: the craw, which is 
an expansion of the gullet; the proventriculus, a membranous stomach, furnished in 
the thickness of its coats with a multitude of glands [variously disposed and shaped in 
different groups], the secretion of which humects the aliment; and lastly, the 
gizzard, armed with two powerful muscles united by two radiating tendons, and inter- 
nally lined by a coating of cartilage. The food is more readily ground there, as Birds 
are in the habit of swallowing small stones to augment its triturating power. 
In the greater number of species which subsist only on flesh or fish, the muscles 
and the internal lining of the gizzard are reduced to extreme tenuity, so that it appears 
to make but one sac with the proventriculus. [The same is noticeable in the Bustards, 
which subsist mainly upon herbage: a series of inter- 
mediate gradations, however, occurring from these to 
the most powerfully muscular gizzards. ] 

The dilatation of the craw is also sometimes [even 
generally] wanting. [This is is commonly situate 
above the furcula, but in the genus Palamedea 
: 7D , beyond it: in the Grebes, there is a contraction and 

Hl 
i 


fi gt 
a 
Te com | intervening space between the proventriculus and 


S) 


ei 


fe aff, gizzard+, which in the very peculiar genus Opistho- 
i) 


In eead al . . : . . . 
(|e i if i comus is developed into a considerable cavity (this bird 
H/ iat Me wk : i ; 

Z subsisting mainly on green foliage): the Totipalmati 
have generally an accessory pouch to the stomach, 
analogous to that of the Loricated Reptiles. It may 
also be mentioned here, that in the Parrots and 
| Pigeons, both exclusively vegetable feeders, the craw 

ame eens eae is furnished with numerous glands, which become 
developed in both sexes during the period that they alternately perform the duty 
* See note to p.36.—Ep. vented from entering the gizzard till they have been sufficiently 
+ The same contraction is noticeable, to a less extent, in the Mer- | reduced, by the action of the gastric juice elaborated in the proven- 


gansers, and other piscivorous Birds with strong and muscular | triculus, to pass its aperture. 
gizzards: hence the fishes that they swallow are mechanically pre- 


161 


AVES. 


of incubation, and the function of which is to secrete a lacteal substance, with 
which the young are at first nourished. The craw of Birds generally is situate on 
the right side only; but in the Pigeons it is double, and fig. 70 represents the ordi- 
nary aspect of that on one side when inflated (a), and the thickened glandular appear- 
ance of that on the other (0), as noticeable in Pigeons that have newly-hatched young. 
In other Birds, the craw merely serves as a reservoir for such food as cannot be imme- 
diately taken into the stomach; though grain is generally moistened there and 
softened, by macerating in fluid sipped for the purpose]. 

The liver voids its bile into the intestine by two ducts, which alternate with the two 
or three by which the pancreatic fluid passes. The pancreas of Birds is large, but their 
spleen is small; they have no epiploon, the functions of which are in part fulfilled by 
the partitions of the air-cavities. The ccecal appendages [when present] are placed near 
the origin of the rectum, and at a short distance from its outlet; these are more or less 
The Herons [as also the Smew Mer- 
ganser] have only one, which is minute; in other genera, as that of the Woodpeckers, 


long, according to the regimen of the bird.* 


they are wanting altogether. 

The cloaca is a pouch in which the rectum, the ureters, and the spermatic ducts— 
or, in the female, the oviduct—terminate; it opens externally by the anus. As a 
general rule, Birds do not urinate; the secretion of the kidneys being mingled with 
their solid excrement. The Ostriches alone have the cloaca sufficiently dilated to 
allow of an accumulation of the urine. [In the majority of Water-fowl, there is a 
small accessory pouch to the cloaca, termed the bursa Fabricii: its use has not been 
clearly ascertained. | 

In most of the genera, coition is effected by the simple juxta-position of the anus; 
the Ostriches and many aquatic Birds [those which copulate in water], however, have 
a penis furrowed with a groove, along which the seminal fluid is conducted. The 
testicles are situate internally above the kidneys, and near the lungs ; [they attain an 
enormous developement towards the season of propagation;] only one oviduct is 
developed, the other [with its ovary] being reduced to minute size. 

The egg, detached from the ovary, where only the yolk is perceptible, imbibes in the 
upper part of the oviduct that exterior fluid termed the white, and becomes invested 
with its shell in the lower part of the same canal. ‘The chick is developed by incuba- 
tion, unless where the heat of the climate suffices, as in the case of the Ostrich [in 
some localities}. The young bird has on the tip of its beak a horny point, which 
serves to rupture the shell, and falls off a few days after exclusion. 

Every one knows the varied industry which Birds exhibit in the construction of their 
nests, and the tender care which they take of their eggs and young; it is the 
principal part of their instinct. With regard to the rest, their rapid passage through 
different regions of the air, and the intense and continued action of that element upon 
them, renders them presensible of the variations of the atmosphere, to an extent of 


* Some difficulties occur in the way of this explanation, unless 
duly qualified in reference to the normal characters of particular 
groups, or subtypes of form, Thus, the Hawks and the Owls subsist 
pretty nearly on the same regimen; the ceca being in the former in- 
stance constantly minute, and in the latter as invariably of consider- 
able size, but with the same proportional dimensions in every species : 
nor can this diversity be explained on another principle that has been 
advanced, equally correct in its application to groups; viz., that the 
somuolent inactive Owls require to have more complex digestive 
organs (which should retain the chyme longer in its passage), than ! 


the more energetic tribe of Falcons; inasmuch as the rapidly-flying, 
active Harfang, or Snowy Owl, which on the wing can scarcely be 
distinguished from the Jer Falcon, possesses ccoeca—as before gene- 
rally intimated—proportionally quite as large as those of the light- 
flapping Barn Owl; while the lazy, smooth-sailing Buzzard, the 
floating Kite, and the buoyantly-skimming Harrier, present no further 
developement of these appendages than the darting Hawks, or the 
impetuous, far-rushing Falcons. A variety of analogous instances 
might be enumerated.—Ep. 


162 AVES. 


which we can have no idea, and from the most ancient times has caused to be attri- 
buted to them, by superstitious persons, a power of announcing future events. It is 
doubtless upon this faculty that the instinct depends which [periodically] agitates 
migratory Birds, and impels them to direct their course towards the equator when 
winter approaches, and pole-ward at the return of spring.* ‘They are not devoid of 
memory, and even imagination—for they dream; and every body knows with what 
facility they may be tamed, taught [in numerous instances] to perform various services, 


and to retain airs and words. 


DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF BIRDS INTO ORDERS. 


Of all classes of animals, that of Birds is the most strongly characterized, that in 
which the species bear the greatest mutual resemblance, and which is separated from 
all others by the widest interval. 

Their systematic arrangement is based, as in the Mammalia, on the organs of man- 
ducation or the beak, and on those of prehension, which are again the beak, and more 
particularly the feet. [The configuration of the sternal apparatus, also, (which we 
have illustrated by numerous figures,) and the modifications of the digestive and some- 
times vocal organs, supply highly important characters on which to ground the 
subdivisions. ] 

One is first struck by the character of webbed feet, or those wherein the toes are 
connected by membranes, that distinguish all swimming Birds.| The backward position 
of their feet, the elongation of the sternum, the neck, often longer than the legs, to 
enable thern to reach below them, the close, shining plumage, impervious to water,— 
altogether concur with the feet to make good navigators of the Palmipedes. 

In other Birds, which have also most frequently some small web to their feet, at 
least between the two external toes, we observe elevated tarsi ; legs denuded of feathers 
above the heel-joint; a slender shape; in fine, all the requisites for fording along 
shallow water, in search of nourishment. Such, in fact, is the regimen of the greater 
number ; and, although some of them resort exclusively to dry places, they are never- 
theless termed Shore-birds or Waders. 

Amongst the true land-birds, the Gallinacee have—like our domestic Cock—a heavy 
carriage, a short flight, the beak moderate, its upper mandible vaulted, the nostrils 
partly covered by a soft and tumid scale, and almost always the edges of the toes 
indented, with short membranes between the bases of those in front. They subsist 
chiefly on grain. 

Birds of prey have a crooked beak, with its point sharp and curving downward ; 
and the nostrils pierced in a membrane that invests its base: their feet [save in the 


Vulture group] are armed with stout talons. They live on flesh, and [the Vultures 


more the extraordinary fact (familiar to all practical observers) of 


* Itis certain, however, that the rapid enlargement of the sexual 
Birds of passage, unless when driven by stress of weather, returning, 


organs is the immediate stimulant to migration in the spring ; while 


decline of temperature, most generally, is the directly predisposing 
agent in the autumn: this is manifest in the case of migratory Birds 
kept in confinement. The instances of the Swift, and adult Cuckoo, 
retiring southward at the hottest season of the year, are more difficult 
of explanation, and indicate some ulterior agency not hitherto divined ; 
though they donot affect the multitudinous observations, which con- 
clusively prove the influence of decline of temperature. It is less easy 
to imagine physical agency that should constantly impel migratory 
animais to travel in the riyht directiin; and the marvel increases 
when we consider the length of route ordinarily traversed, and still 


both in summer and winter, to their former place of abode, and this 
even when reared in confinement, and released immediately previous 
to their first journey.—Ep. (See note to p. 31.) 

+ It is most difficult thus to yeneralize in the class of Birds. For 
instance, the Gallinules, or Moorkens,—habitual swimmers,—have no 
connecting membrane to the toes; while the Terns, which are never 
seen to swim, have their toes completely webbed, &c. Even the Herons, 
the Curlews, and numerous other waders, will sometimes take the 
water of their own accord, and swim across pools, though their struc- 
ture does not indicate such a habit.—Ep. 


ACCIPITRES. "93 


again excepted] pursue other Birds; their flight accordingly is mostly powerful. The 
greater number still retain a slight web betwixt their external toes. 

The Passerine Birds comprise many more species than all the other families ; but 
their organization presents so many analogies that they cannot be separated, although 
they vary very much in size and strength. Their two external toes are joined at the 
base. and sometimes higher. 

Finally, the name of Climbers is applied to those Birds in which the external toe is 
directed backwards like the thumb, because the greater number of them [some of them] 
avail themselves of a conformation so favourable for a vertical position, to climb along 
the trunks of trees.* [As constituted upon this single character, the present group is 
a most unnatural one, excluding genera that in every other respect belong to it, and 
including the Parrots, which differ widely from the rest in every other detail of their 
conformation. Besides the Parrots, also, which are the only true climbers among 
Birds, (if we except perhaps the Colies,) the Woodpecker and Barbet groups comprise 
all the yoke-footed species which ascend the trunks of trees, the latter only being 
enabled to descend them ; and corresponding genera to these occur among the Passerine 
Birds, as the Creepers and their allies—to the Woodpeckers, and the Nuthatches—to 
the Barbets. The Trogons moreover, as stated at p. 156, are yoke-footed on a different 
principle from the rest. We have no hesitation in placing the Parrots at the head of 
the whole series of the class of Birds. ] 

Each of these orders subdivides into families and genera, principally after the con- 
formation of the beak. But these different groups pass into each other by almost 
imperceptible gradations, insomuch that there is no other class in which the genera 
and subgenera are so difficult of limitation. 


TILE FIRST ORDER OF BIRDS,— 


THE BIRDS OF PREY (ACCIPITRES, Lin.)— 


Are recognized by their hooked beak and talons,—powerful weapons, with which they immo- 
late other Birds, and even the weaker Quadrupeds and Reptiles. They are among Birds what 
the Carnivora are among Quadrupeds.t The muscles of their thighs and legs indicate the 
force of their claws; their tarsi are rarely elongated: they having all four toes; and the claw 
of the thumb and that of the innermost toe are the strongest. 

They constitute two families, the Diurnal and the Nocturnal. 

The DiurnAu Birps or Prey have the eyes directed sideways ; a membrane, termed the 
cere [as in the Parrots], covering the base of the beak, in which the nostrils are pierced; three 
toes before [the outer in the Osprey genus reversible], and one behind, unfeathered, the two 
exterior almost always connected at base by a short membrane ; the plumage close, the quills 
strong, and flight powerful. [They have constantly a large craw (fig. 71) or dilatation of the 
gullet]; the stomach is almost wholly membranous ; their intestines [save in the Osprey 
genus | but little extended, and furnished with mimute cceca. The sternum (fig. 72) is large 
and completely ossified, [or with only a posterior foramen left, in most of the genera], in 
order to give more extended attachment to the muscles of the wing; and their fourchette 

* Inmy first Elementary Sketch, in 1798, I was obliged to suppress | of recent Ornithologists, have assented to this suppression. 


the order Pice of Linneus, which has no one determinate character, + As the frugivorous Parrots may be compared to the Quadrumana, 
(at least as constituted by that naturalist]. M. Illiger,and the majority | —Eo. 


M 2 


164 AVES. 


(fig. 72, a) 1s semicircular and very wide, the better to resist the violent pressure of the humerus 
incidental to a rapid flight. [The young undergo no change of feather until their second 
autumn ; and they renew their plumage slowly, and in no 
imstance more than once in the year; its seasonal change 
being confined to a slight wearmg off, rather than a natural 
shedding, of the margins of the feathers : in several species, 
however, the colour indicative of maturity is partially ac- 
quired, previously to moulting, by a change of hue in the first 
or nestling plumage. The eggs of Accipitrine Birds are 
nearly spherical ; and those of the present division are gene- 
rally more or less spotted or blotched with rusty-brown. 
The young are at first densely clad im short soft down. | 
Linneus made only two genera, which are two natural 
divisions,—the VuLTuREs and the FALcons. 


Tue Vuttures (Vultur, Lin.) — 


Have the eyes even with the head; the tarsi reticulated, or, in 
other words, covered with small scales; the beak lengthened, 
curved only at the end; and a greater or less portion of the head, 
and generally of the neck, [in the adult,] devoid of feathers. The 
force of their talons does not correspond with their stature, and 
they make more use of their beak than of their claws. Their 
wings are so long, that in walking they hold them half-extended. 
They are of a cowardly disposition, and feed on carrion oftener 
than on living prey: when they have gorged themselves, their 
craw forms a large protuberance above the fourchette, a fetid 
humour issues from their nostrils, and they are almost reduced 


Fig.71.—AlimentaryCanal of the Common Buzzard : 


exhibiting the first expansion, or craw; and (be- to a state of apathy. [They differ, moreover, from all the suc- 
low the divarication of the trachea) the proven- 


triculus, stomach, and intestines. The second j ] rrive at the Poultry,—with th if Xs 
figure represents the termination of the small ceeding eroups, till we a Y nics Foes 


jutestines) with the rectum swelling below te ception of the Secretary genus (Gypogeranus), which indeed might 

the junction of the great and small intestines.* 6 ranged with them,—in possessing more than twelve cervical ver- 
tebre +: their fourchette, though extremely stout and wide, 
is flattened as in the Owls; the sternal crest low, and reduced 
anteriorly ; and the posterior edge of the sternum (fig. 73), in 
some of those of America, is doubly emarginated for some 
time: they even further accord with the Owls in having a rib 


less than the Faleonine genera. 


Tuv Vutrures, properly so called, (Vultur, Cuv.) — 


Have a large and strong beak, the nostrils opening cross-wise at 
its base, the head and neck without feathers or caruncles, and a 
collar of long feathers, or of down, at the base of the neck. 
They have hitherto been found only on the old continent [but 
none of the tribe are met with in Australia, where the absence 
of larger indigenous quadrupeds than the Kangaroos, and of 
predatory animals that should leave the surplus of their 
meals to putrefy, indicate that they could not be sup- 


ee 72.—Sternal apparatus of the Common Harrier, 
-B. the keel (b) is rather more developed in the 


+ 

ported. | ie Falcons ; less so in the Eagles, 
* Copied from M‘Gillivray’s Rapucious Birds of Britain.—Ep. a rib, the difference is essentially trifling, and does not intrinsically 
+ In the long series of groups adverted to, the thirteenth vertebra | affect the above generalization —Ep, 

generally, but not always, bears a pair of minute ribs, which diminish t The Alectura, Gray, which has been ignorantly classified with the 


till they disappear in some species; if, therefore, the thirteenth Vultures, is in every respect a true Poultry bird. 
vertebra is to be considered as cervical in such cases, as not bearing 


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ACCIPITRES. 165 


\ The Fulvous Vulture (V. fulvus, 
| / Gm.) is the most widely-diffused spe- 
° cies, inhabiting the mountainous parts 
| fe of the whole ancient continent. Its 
' / body surpasses in size that of a Swan 


\ f \ f | ; ye {possibly in the instance of some fe- 
| a f { ~ males. This bird has been errone- 
\ g 


im ously stated to have fourteen tail- 
me Zs feathers.* The greater number of the 
\ genus possess similar characters. ] 


| | The Dusky Vulture (V. cinereus, 
| } Gm.)—As widely distributed as the 
is preceding [but less numerously], and 
still larger: it frequently attacks liv- 
ing animals. [This species exemplifies 
the subgenus Gyps of Savigny: hav- 
ing the beak more sharply pointed, 
| the nostrils almost round, and the 
head partially clothed with feathers. 
, The Vultures generally, indeed, have 
| } the head and neck feathered when 


young, like the Turkey and other 
fi | y, birds which have bald heads in a state 
a \ {i J eZ of maturity: the immature V. Ango- 

| L~ lensis, Gm., is doubtfully figured by 
| q f Bennett as a species of Caracara (Po- 
f lyborus? hupoleucos); but the adults 


Fig. 73.—1, hind margin of the sternum of a true Vulture—2, ditto, of Neophron—3, ditto, of of that species continue to have those 
Cathartes wura—, ditto, of C. Californiunus, the foramina of which have become obliterated , 
—5, ditto, of another presumed Cathurtes—6, ditto, of Secretary. parts invested. | 


The Oricou Vulture (V. auricularis, Daud.), an African species, [probably the largest of the true Vuitures,] has 
a longitudinal fleshy crest on each side of the neck, above the ear, [a character which likewise occurs, less promi- 
nently, in one or two others]. 


America produces Vultures remarkable for the caruncles which surmount the membrane at the base 
of the beak; the latter is as large as in the preceding, but the nostrils are oval and longitudinal. 
They are 

Tue Conpors (Sarcoramphus, Dumeril),— 
[A very distinct genus, remarkable for having no muscles attached to the trachea, in consequence of 
which they are necessarily deprived of voice, emitting no sound beyond a weak snorting. Their hind 
toe is shorter than in other Accipitres. ] 


The King Condor (V. papa, Lin).—Size of a Goose. The naked parts of the head and neck vividly coloured, and 
the caruncle denticulated like the comb of a cock. It inhabits the Pampas and other hot parts of South America. 
This species is termed the King of the Vultures, from the Gallinazos giving place to it, through fear, whenever it 
settles upon a carcase which they had begun to devour. 

The Great Condor (V. gryphus, Lin.); the male of which, in addition to his superior caruncle+, has another 
under the beak, like the cock. The female differs in colour, and is without the caruncles. This bird has been 
rendered famous by exaggerated reports of its size: it is little larger than the Bearded Griffin, which its manners 
resemble. It inhabits the most elevated regions of the Andes, and flies higher than any other bird. 


Tue Gaxiinazos (Cathartes, Cuv.)— 


Have the beak of the Condors, that is to say, large, with longitudinal oval nostrils, but no fleshy crest : 
their head and neck are without feathers ; [plumage nearly or wholly black: the sternum emarginated 
inward of the ordinary foramen. ll the species are from America. | 

The Great Gallinazo (V, californianus, Shaw),—approaches the large Condor in size, with proportionally longer 
wings. [From the western coast of North America. ] 

The Turkey Buzzard of the Anglo-Americans (V. aura, Lin.)—Little larger than a fowl. [There appear to be 
others, hitherto imperfectly determined. | 

Tur Neopnrons (Neophron, Cuv.)— 

Have a long and slender beak, rather tumid above its curvature; the nostrils oval and longitudinal, 


* No species of bird has more than twelve tail-feathers (including + It is proper to remark that the rigid cartilaginous crest of the 
the wropygials) till we arrive at the Poultry. Hence, the dlectura, male of this Condor offers no analogy, anatomically, with the flaccid 
—nentioned in the preceding note,—which possesses eighteen, might | caruncle of the other.—Ep. 
in this character alone have been referred to its proper station. 


166 AVES. 


and the head, but not the neck, devoid of feathers. They are birds of moderate size, and in strength 
do not approach the Vultures properly so called ; hence they are even more addicted to carrion and 
all sorts of filth, which attract them from afar. They do not even disdain to feed on excrement. 


The White Neophron (V. percnopterus, Lin.)—Little larger than a Raven: the adult male [and probably also 
the old female] white, with black quill-feathers ; the female and young brown. [It is common in Africa, and the 
countries bordering the Mediterranean; rare in the north of Europe: has been once killed in England.] It fol- 


lows the caravans in the desert, to devour all that dies. 

The Urubu (V. jota, Ch. Bonap.), or Carrion Crow of the Anglo-Americans.—The same size and form as the 
preceding, but with a stouter bill, and the head entirely naked ; plumage wholly deep black. It abounds in the 
temperate and hot parts of America, [and is generally ranged in Cathartes. One or move additional true Neo- 


phrons, however, exist in Africa.] 
Tue GriFFins (Gypdetos, Storr),— 


Placed by Gmelin in his genus Falco, approximate the Vultures rather in their habits and conformation : 
they have the eyes even with the head; the claws proportionally feeble ; wings half-extended when at 
rest ; the craw, when full, projecting at the bottom of the neck: but their head is completely covered 
with feathers ; [and they have only thirteen cervical vertebrae, which is one more than in any of the 
Falcons ; the Neophrons and Gallinazos possessing fourteen, and the Condors and true Vultures fifteen. 
The sternum is proportionally short, and very broad.] Their distinctive characters consist in a very 
strong, straight beak, hooked at the point, and inflated on the curve; nostrils covered [owl-like] with 
stiff hairs directed forward; and a pencil of similar hairs under the beak: their tarsi are short, and 
feathered to the toes; and their wings long, having the third quill longest. 


The Bearded Griffin, or Lammer-geyer, (V barbatus, and Falco barbatus, Gm.).—This is the largest bird of prey 
belonging to the Eastern Continent: it inhabits the high chains of mountains, but is not very common. It 
nestles in inaccessible acclivities ; attacks Lambs, Goats, the Chamois, and even, it is said, sleeping Man [or 
persons standing on the edge of a precipice]; it is pretended that children have been sometimes carried away by 
it, [a statement recently confirmed by facts, in more than one instance]. Its method is to force animals over steep 
precipices, and to devour them when disabled by the fall. It does not, however, refuse dead bodies. Its length 
is nearly five feet (French), and extent of wing from nine to ten feet. This bird is the Phene of the Greeks, and 
the Ossifraga of the Latins, [The species of the Himmalayas is considered to be different. ] 


Tue Faxcons (Falco, Lin.)— 


Constitute the second, and by much the most numerous division of the diurnal birds of prey. They 
have the head and neck covered with feathers: their eye-brows [except in the Ospreys] form a pro- 
jection which occasions the eye to appear sunk, and imparts a very different character to their phy- 
siognomy from that of the Vultures: the majority of them subsist on living prey ; but they differ much 
in the amount of courage displayed in the pursuit of it. Their first plumage is often differently 
coloured from the adult, and they do not [in most instances] assume the latter for three or four 
years,—a circumstance which has occasioned the species to have been greatly multiplied by nomencla- 
tors. The female is generally one-third larger than the male, which, on this account, has been named 


a tercel. . 


It is necessary to subdivide this genus first into two sections. 


Tur Faxcons, properly so called, (Falco, Bechstein), commonly termed the Noble Birds of Prey,— 


Compose the first. They are the most courageous in 
proportion to their size, a quality which is derived from 
the power of their armature and wings. Their beak 
(fig. 74), curved from its base, has a sharp tooth on each 
side near the point ; and the second quill of their wings 
is the longest, the first nearly equalling it, which renders 
the entire wing longer and more pointed. From this, 
also, result particular habits: the length of the quills of 
their wings weakens their efforts to ascend vertically, and 
renders their forward flight, in a calm state of the at- 
mosphere, very oblique, necessitating them, when they 
ee cmp can io, 8 cu KM COD wish to rise directly, to fly against the wind. They are 


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ACCIPITRES. 167 


exceedingly docile Birds, and are those which are most generally employed in falconry, being taught 
to pursue game, and to return when called. 


The Peregrine Falcon (F. communis, Gm.; [F*. peregrinus, Lin.).—Apparently a cluster of indefinitely distin- 
guishable species, generally diffused in temperate climates, both northward and southward of the equator]. The 
species mostly trained for purposes of falconry. 

{There are numerous others, of which the Jer Falcon, the Lanner,—which is intermediate to the Jer and 
Peregrine Falcons,—the Hobby, the Red-legged, and the Merlin Falcons, inhabit northern Europe. The Red- 
legged Falcon is remarkable for sometimes breeding in society. F. concolor and some others haye the 
tarsi elongated: and in #. @salon (the Merlin), and some allied species, the third quill-feather equals and 
sometimes exceeds the second; these last are also somewhat Hawk-like in the structure of their feet, and in 
their manners. The division of Kestrel-falcons (termed Cerchneis by Boié) comprehends Birds of weaker 
structure, which have the sternum proportionally smaller; in some the front of the tarsi is scuteilated, as in 
the short-winged Hawks: the Kestrel-Falcons prey chiefly on field-mice, which they discern as they hover 
stationary at a moderate altitude, with the head invariably turned towards the wind; it is thus that they have 
obtained the names of Wind-hover and of Stand-gall or ‘‘ stand-gale:”? there are several species, two only of 
which inhabit Europe—the common Kestrel (fF. ¢tinnunculus, Lin.), and the White-clawed Kestrel (Ff. cenchris, 
Frisch. and Naum; F. tinnunculoides, Tem.). 

The division Hierofalco, Cuv., was instituted by mistake, for the reception of the Jer Falcon, under the suppo- 
sition that its beak had only a festoon, as in the short-winged Hawks; the tooth of these Birds being sometimes 
cut away by the falconers. Gampsonyx, Vigors, however, fulfils nearly the conditions which were assigned to 
Hierofalco ; the upper mandible being devoid even of emargination, and considerably resembling that of the 
Buzzards: the head is small, feet and tarsi robust, the latter feathered half-way from the joint; wings the same 
as in Falco: one species only is known, a bird of small size from Brazil (G. Swainsonii, Vig.). 

Other species (the Jerax, Vigors), of very small size, have the second and third quill-feathers nearly equal; the 
upper mandible strongly and sharply bidentated, by the further developement of a sinuation visible in the rest. 
Two species are known, from Jaya and Manilla respectively, (Ff. cerulescens, Edwards, and I. erythrogenys, 
Vig.)—They are scarcely larger than a Swallow, but yield to none in energy and spirit: their wings, however, are 
less firm than in other Falcons. 


There are some bidentate species, which in other respects accord more nearly with the Goshawks : 
they are 
Tue Harpacons (Harpagus, Vig.; Bidens, Spix),— 
Which present an acute bidentation of both mandibles, and have hitherto been found only in South 


America. 
The best known species (Ff. bidentatus, Latham) is figured in the adult state by Spix as Bidens rufiventer, and 
in immature plumage as B. albiventer. 


Others more nearly approximate the Perns, as 
THE Fatcoprerns (Lepidogenys, Gould),— 
The wings of which are remarkably long, having the third quill longest ; feet very short, and the talons 


small and but slightly curved : the bidentation is less strongly marked than in the preceding. 


F. lophotes, Tem., an elegantly-crested bird from India, and another from Australia—L. subcristatus, Gould, 
pertain to this division. Nearly allied would seem to be the Aviceda, Swains., from Western Africa; except that 
its armature is considerably more powerful.] The Baza of Hodgson is probably identical with Lepidogenys. 


The second section of the great genus Falco is that of the Birds of prey termed Jgnodle, because they 
cannot be so well employed in falconry; a tribe much more numerous than that of the Nodles, and 
which it is necessary to subdivide considerably. Their longest quill-feather is almost always the fourth, 
the first being very short, which has the same effect as if the tip of the wing had been obliquely cut 
off; hence, ceteris paribus, result diminished powers of flight. Their beak, also, is not so well armed, 
as there is no lateral tooth near its point, but only a slight festoon about the middle of its length. 

Tae Eacurs (Aquila, Brisson),— 
Which form the first tribe, have a very strong beak, straight at its base, and curved only towards the 
point. Among them we find the largest species of the genus, and the most powerful of all the 
Birds of prey. 
Tue EAGtes, properly so called (Aguila, Cuv.)— 

Have the tarsi feathered down to the base of the toes: they inhabit mountains, and pursue Pirds and 
Quadrupeds ; their wings are as long as the tail, their flight both elevated and rapid, and their courage 
superior to that of most other Birds. 


| 
168 AVES. 


(The Golden Eagle (F. chryséetos, Lin.), the Grecian Eagle (4. Heliaca, Savigny; F. imperialis, Tem.), the 
Spotted Eagle (F. mevius and maculatus, Gm.), the Social Eagle (4. Bonelli, Bonap.), and the Little Eagle 
(#. pennatus, Gm.), are the European species, which suc- 
cessively decrease in size in the order announced; the 
last-named being smaller than a Common Buzzard.) 

New Holland produces Eagles of similar form to those 
of Europe, the tail excepted, which is cuneiform. Such 
is the Wedge-tailed Eagle (A. fucosa, Cuv.). 


(There are many others.] We should remark that the 
transition from the Eagles to the Buzzards is effected by 
insensible gradations, {the typical Buzzards being merely 
small-sized Eagles, with weaker armature]. 


Tae Ernes (Halieetus, Cuv.) 


Have wings resembling those of the preceding, 
but the tarsi clothed only on its upper half with 
feathers, the remainder being semi-scutellated. 
[Their beak also is longer and larger.] They 


frequent the shores of rivers and of the sea, and 
subsist in great part upon fish [without disdaining 


carrion, like the true Eagles. 


The Cinereous Erne (F. albicilla, Lin.) of Europe, and 
the American White-headed Erne (/’. leucocephalus, Lin, 
fig. 75) are characteristic examples. There are also some 
of small size, as the bird commonly termed the Pondi- 


cherry Kite (Ff. ponticerianus, Gm.), which the Hindoos 


] . 7 73 ’ a 
Fig. 75.—White:headed Erne. consider sacred to Vishnu. The Cunduma of Hodgson 


is merely a large Halieetus]. 
Tur Ospreys (Pandion, Savigny)— 
Have [somewhat] the beak and feet of the Ernes; but their talons are round underneath, while in 
other Birds of prey [save in the true Elani] they are grooved 
or channelled; their tarsi are reticulated, and the second 
[third] quill of their wings is longest. Their sternum (fig. 76) 
differs from that of other Falcons (see fig. 72) in becoming 
narrower towards its posterior margin, where a notch exists 
analogous to the inner emargination of the Gallinazos, but not 
to the foramen observable in the Falcons generally: the intes- 
tine is very slender and of great length (whereas in the Ernes 
it does not differ from that of other Falcons): the super- 
orbital bone does not project: the feathers even are com- 
pletely destitute of the supplementary plume, (which in the 
Ernes and most other Falcons is considerably developed), and 
are not lengthened over the tibia: the outer toe is reversible, 


and the foot astonishingly rough underneath, to enable them 
to hold their slippery fishy prey, on which they subsist ex- 
clusively. This is by far the most strongly characterized division 
of the Linnean genus Falco.*] yi 


))))) 


The Common Osprey (F. halieetus, Lin.)—[Evidently a cluster of a 
allied species, very generally distributed. That of New Holland (P. Zeu- 
cocephalus, Gould) has the crown white. In some places this bird 
nidificates in large societies. 


As a group, externally intermediate to the Eres and Ospreys, 
might be separated the F. ichthyeetus, Horsf., and several allied 
species from Australasia. They are essentially Osprey-like Ernes, 
which most probably retain the anatomy of the latter, and ex- 
hibit greater developement of the mandibular tooth than either.] Fig. 76.—Sternum of Osprey. 


« The genus Herpethotheres alone is nearly allied. 


ACCIPITRES. 169 


Tue MarsxH-EAGLes (Circdetus, Vieillot)— 
Hold a sort of mediate station between the Ernes, the Ospreys, and the Buzzards. They have the 
wings of the Eagles and Buzzards, and the reticulated tarsi of the Ospreys. Such are 

The European Marsh-eagle, or Jean-le-blanc, (F. gallicus, Gm.),—the beak of which curves more rapidly than 
in other Eagles, and the toes are proportionally shorter. It exceeds the Osprey in size, and inhabits Europe, 
preying chiefly on reptiles. 

Le Bateleur of Le Vaillant, (F. ecaudatus, Shaw).—An African species, remarkable for the extreme shortness 
of its tail, and its beautifully variegated plumage. [It constitutes the division Helotarsus of Smith, synonymous 
with Terathopias of Lesson, differing in severai particulars from the others, and particularly in the baldness of 
its cheeks. The Bateleur preys on young Gazelles, young Ostriches, &c., and also on putrid carrion, disgorging 
the latter into the throats of its young, as observed of the Vultures. ] 

America produces Eagles with long wings like the foregoing, and naked scutellated tarsi, in which 
a more or less considerable proportion of the sides of the head, and sometimes of the throat, is 
denuded of feathers. The general name of 

CaRACARAS— 


fas been applied to them. From this group M. Vieillot has made his genera Daptrius, Ibycter, 
aud Polylorus, [partly] according to the greater or less extent of the bare part of the head. 
[ Phalcobanus, d’Orbigny, Gymnops and Milvayo, Spix, have also been applied to divisions of the 
Caracaras. These Birds are carrion-feeders, and pass their time chiefly on the ground, amongst the 
herbage, where their gait is ambulatory. All are from the warm regions of America. ] 


Tae Coronarps, or short-winged Fisher-eagles, (Harpyia*, Cuv. ; [| Tirasdetos, G. Gray] )— 


Are also American Eagles, which have the tarsi very thick and strong, reticulated, and half-covered 
with feathers, as in the Ernes, from which they differ chiefly in the shortness of their wings ; their 
beak and talons are stronger than in any other tribe. 

The Harpy Coronard or Eagle (F. hanpyia, and F. cristatus, Lin.).—Of all Birds, this possesses the most terrific 
beak and talons; it is superior in size to the common Eagle. On the back of its head are elongated. feathers, 
forming a sort of fan-like crest upon the nape, which, when erected, impart to its physiognomy a resemblance to 
the tufted Owls: like them, also, its external toe is frequently directed backward. It is said to be so strong, as to 
have sometimes cleft a Man’s skull with a blow of its beak. The Sloths are its ordinary food, and it not unfre- 


quently carries off Fawns. 
Tue EaGie-HAwks (Morphnus, Cuy.)— 
Have, like the preceding, wings shorter than the tail; but their elevated and slender tarsi, and their 
feeble toes, oblige us to distinguish them. Some have the tarsi naked and scutellated. 
The Crested Eagle-hawk of Guiana (F. guianensis, Daud.), resembles singularly, in its colours and markings, 
the Harpy Coronard of the same country; but is not so large, and its naked and scutellated tarsi sufficiently 


distinguish it. 
F. urubitinga, Lin., is crestless. This handsome species hunts in inundated grounds. [Certain other uncrested 


species, with very long tarsi, constitute the Limnéetos, Vigors. 


Others have elevated tarsi, feathered throughout their length [the Spizdetus of Vieillot]. 


The Tufted Black Eagle-hawk of Africa (I. occipitalis, Daud.),—inhabits the whole of that continent. 

The Variegated Eagle-hawk (F. ornatus, Daud.; F. superbus and coronatus, Shaw: Harpyia braccata, Spix, 
refers to the young).—A handsome species from South America, which varies from black and white to deep brown. 
(Certain Indian species compose the Nisaééos of Hodgson. } 


Finally, there are in America some Birds with beaks as in all the preceding; very short, reticulated 
tarsi, half-feathered in front; wings shorter than the tail; but the most distinctive character 
of which consists in their nostrils, which are almost closed, and resemble a fissure. A small tribe may 
be made of them, designated 

Tue Cyminpues (Cymindis, Cuv.). 
Such is 
The small Cayenne Hawk of Buffon (F. cayennensis, Gm.) ; which has another peculiar character, by possessing 


asmall tooth at the bend of its beak. 
[F. hamatus, Illiger, ranged by the author in Cymindis, composes the Rostrhamus of Lesson; its beak is very 


narrow, the upper mandible resembling a long and slender claw: tail slightly furcate. 


« This term was previously applied to a subgenus of Cheiroptera.—Ep. 


170 AVES. 


Tur AsturINnEs (Asturina, Vieillot)— 


Have been generally placed next. They have the nostrils lunulated; the bill straight at its base; 
wings short, and the tarsi also short and somewhat slender. 


A, cinerea, Vieillot, a species from Guiana, may be cited in exemplification. ] 
Tuer Hawks (dstur, Bechstein; Dedalion, Savigny),— 


Which form the second division of the /gnobles, have wings shorter than the tail, as in the last three 
tribes of Eagles; but their beak curves from its base, as in all that follow. 


THE GosHAWES (Astur, as restricted) — 


Have the tarsi [more distinctly] scutellated, and comparatively short. 
The European Goshawk (I. palumbarius, Lin.), equals the Jer Falcon in size, but always stoops obliquely on its 
quarry. Falconers, however, sometimes use it for the weaker kinds of game. It is common in the hilly and 


secondary mountain ranges of Europe. 

Among foreign Goshawks, we may notice that of New Holland (F. Nove Hollandie, White), which is often 
entirely snow-white; but it appears that these white individuals constitute a variety only of a bird of the same 
country, pale ash-coloured above, white below, with vestiges of pale undulations. 


We may approximate to the Goshawk certain American Birds, with short wings and tarsi, the latter 
reticulated. [These are 
Tue Nicacuas (Herpethotheres, Vieillot ; Dedalion, Vigors),— 


A strongly characterized division, interesting, as presenting evidently a modification of the peculiar 
Osprey type, to which genus they alone appear to~be allied. It is particularly desirable, therefore, that 
their anatomy should be ascertained. | 


The Nicagua of Azara, or Laughing Falcon, (F. cachinnans, Lin.): so named from its cry. From the marshes of 
South America, where it preys on reptiles and fish. [Its colouring, and the texture of its plumage, are the same 
as in the Osprey; and it has similar short feathers on the tibia. F. melanops, Lath, ana F. sufflator, Lin., apper- 
tain to this division ; the latter, however, constituting the restricted Physeta of Vieillot.} 


Tue Sparrow-HAwkKs (Misus, Cuv.; [dccipiter, Ray] )— 


Have longer and more slender tarsi than the Goshawks, [still shorter wings, and the middle toe much 
lengthened]; but the passage from one to the other of these divisions is almost insensible. 


_ Our common Sparrow-hawk (F, nisus, Lin.) has the same colouring as the Goshawk, but is much less in size ; 
notwithstanding which it is employed in falconry. There are foreign species still smaller; but also some that are 
much larger, as 

The Chaunting Hawk (F. musicus, Daud.),—a native of Africa, where it pursues Partridges and Hares, and 
builds in trees. It is the only bird of prey known that sings agreeably, [by which, however, cannot be meant that 
it inflects the voice, as in those Passerine Birds which have additional laryngeal muscles. This bird,—and there is 
more than one species here confounded,—has a much weaker bill, and longer wings, than the true Sparrow-hawks ; 
it has probably been made the type of a separate division. 

The Gymnogenys of Vieillot may also be introduced here. It is a Hawk with very long wings, lengthened and 
distinctly scutellated tarsi, and short toes, but the most distinctive character of which consists in its being naked 
above the bill and on the cheeks. The only species, G. madagascariensis, is grey, with round black spots on the 
wings, and the lower parts below the breast transversely rayed: it bears some resemblance to the Secretary. 

The species of Hawks displays the maximum sexual disparity of size, in favour of the female. ] 


Tue Krres (Milvus, Bechst.)— 


Have short tarsi, and feeble toes and claws, which, added to a beak equally disproportioned to their 
size, render them the most cowardly of the whole group: they are further distinguished by their 
excessively long wings, and by their forked tail, in consequence of which their flight is very swift 
and easy. 

Some have the tarsi very short, reticulated, and half-feathered above, like the last small tribe of 
Eagles: [their claws, save that on the middle toe, are rounded underneath]. Such are 


Tue Evanets (Elanus, Savigny). 
The Black-winged Elanet (J*. melanopterus, Daud.); a common species from Egypt to the Cape, and which 
appears to be found in India, and even in America. [The American and New Holland species are distinct.] 


Insects are almost its sole prey. 
The Swallow-tailed Glede (i. furcatus, Lin.).—Larger than the preceding, [with wings excessively long, and tail 


ACCIPITRES. 171 


deeply furcate]. It attacks reptiles [and the larger insects, and has been known to scrape out Wasps’-nests like 
the Pern. Its talons are not rounded underneath, on account of which, together with other distinctive characters, 
it is now generally recognized as constituting the Nauclerus, Vigors. This bird is indigenous to America, but 
has been known to stray into Britain. It is social in its habits, and almost gregarious. A nearly allied African 
species constitutes the E/anoides of Vieillot.] 


Tue Kires, properly so called (Milwus, Cuv.)— 


Have the tarsi scutellated and stronger, [and are very nearly related to the Ernes]. 


The Common or Red Kite (F'. milvus, Lin.).—Of all European Birds, this remains longest and most tranquilly 
on the wing. It scarcely attacks any thing but reptiles. [Another European species, not hitherto found in Britain, 
where the first is fast disappearing, is 

The Black Kite (MZ. ater, Gin.).—The author has likewise ranged here 

The American Puttock (F. plumbeus, Lath.), or the Mississipi Kite of Wilson, which is referrible to Vieillot’s 
genus Ictinia, now generally accepted. This forms an obviously distinct group, the members of which are much 
more powerfully armed than the Kites, having a short and stout beak, the upper mandible of which is somewhat 
angularly festooned, and talons comparatively developed. They prey, however, principally on the larger insects, 
and occasionally on Snakes and Lizards: are most nearly related to the Elanets.] 


Tur Perns (Pernis, Cuv.),— 


Or Honey Buzzards, combine, with the weak bill of the Kites, a very peculiar character, in having the 
space between the eye and beak, which in the rest of the genus Falco is naked, and only furnished 
with some !radiating] bristly feathers, covered with close feathers disposed like scales ; their tarsi are 
half-feathered above, and reticulated ; their tail even; wings long, [the third quill being longest]; and 
their beak curved from its base, as in all that follow. 


The Common Pern (F. apivorus, Lin.) pursues insects, and principally Bees and Wasps, [the combs of which it 
scratches out of banks to feed on the maggots: in default of these, however, it will attack small warm-blooded 
animals and reptiles. It runs with celerity on the ground; is migratory; and generally builds on the tops of 
lofty beeches. Two or three additional species have been ascertained, all from the Eastern Continent]. 


Tue Buzzarps (Buteo, Bechstein)— 


Have long wings, the tail even, the beak curved from its base, the interval between it and the eyes 
without feathers, [at least such as the Perns exhibit], and the feet strong. 

Some of them have the tarsi feathered to the toes [the Butdetes, Lesson]. They are distinguished 
from the Eagles by having the beak curved from its base, and from the Hawks and Eagle-hawks by 
their feathered tarsi and long wings. Europe possesses one, 


The Rough-legged Buzzard (Ff. lagopus, Lin.), [of which F. Sancti Johannis, Auct., appears to be merely the 
old individuals.*]—One of the most widely diffused of Birds, being found almost everywhere. [It frequents 
marshy tracts, and particularly rabbit-warrens, which it beats till very late in the evening.] 


But the greater number of Buzzards have the tarsi naked [except on the upper half in front] and 
scutellated. In Europe there is but one, 


The Common Buzzard (F. buteo, Lin.)—The commonest and most noxious bird of prey throughout Europe. It 
remains all the year in the forests, descends upon its prey from the top of a tree, and destroys much game. 


Some species are crested, [have also naked cheeks, and reticulated tarsi. They are barely separable 


from the Circdeti. 
THE Hamarorns (Hematornis, Gould) }. 


F. bacha, Auct.—A very savage bird of Africa, which preys chiefly on the Hyraces. [Other naked-cheeked 
Buzzards compose the Buteogallus, Lesson. } 


Tue Harriers (Cireus, Bechst.)— 
Differ from the Buzzards in their more elevated [and very slender] tarsi, and by a sort of collar, which 
the tips of the feathers which cover the ear form on each side of the neck. [These Birds frequent 
open moorlands, over which they skim in search of prey very close to the ground, and nestle and 
always roost on its surface.t] 


* We have seen a British-killed specimen as dark as any from | by the sternal apparatus (fig. 72), mor in their digestive organs, do 
America,—Ep. = they approximate the latter in the least degree. ‘The structure of the 


+ Some systematists consider the Harriers to form a link from the | ear, resembling that of other Falcons, is shown at fig. 77. They are 
Falcons generally to the Owls ; but neither in the skeleton, as shown | most nearly related to the Hawks. 


= 


+ eet 


172 AVES. 


There are only three species in France, which have been multiplied by the nemenclators on account of the varia- 
tions of their plumage. [The Common, Montagu, and Marsh 
Harriers are alluded to; besides which the C. pallidus, an abun- 
dant Asiatic species, has recently been met with in the east of 
Europe. There are numerous others. } 


Finally, 
Tue SEcRETARY (Gypogeranus, Mlig.),— 


Is an African bird of prey, the tarsi of which are at least 
double the length of those of the preceding, which has 
induced some naturalists to range it among the Waders ; 
but its thighs, entirely covered with feathers, its hooked 
beak, projecting eyelids, and all the details of its ana- 

Fig. 77> Hes offiarice tomy, concur to place it in the present order. Its tarsi 
are scutellated, the toes proportionally short, and the circumference of the eyes naked; it has 
a long rigid crest on the occiput, and the two middle feathers 
of its tail extend far beyond the others. An inhabitant of the 
arid and covertless plains in the neighbourhood of the Cape, it 
pursues reptiles on foot, whence its claws become much worn. 
Its principal strength is in the foot. It is the 


Falco serpentarius, Gm.—An atterapt has been made to multiply the 
breed in Martinique, where it might render the most important service 
by destroying the lance-headed Vipers which infest that island. [This 
bird, two if not three species of which are recognized, resembles the 
Vultures in having fifteen cervical vertebre. It offers no molestation to 
poultry or other warm-blooded animals. } 


Although a vast number of generic and subgeneric names have 
been applied, the Diurnat Brirps or Prey may be reduced to 
comparatively few natural divisions. After detaching the Vul- 
tures and the Secretary, the genera Pandion and [Herpethotheres 
may be signalized as forming a particular subdivision apart from 
all the rest. The whole of the remainder then form an equiva- 
lent natural group, the members of which scarcely differ anato- 
mically. The most distinct subdivision is that of the Coronards, 
which alone differ in the number of pelvic vertebra, and in 
having the outer toe reversible, as in the Ospreys and Owls. The 
rest are little else than adaptive modifications of one another, 
according in all their rudimental characters. We may commence 
with the Falcon group, followed by that of the Hawks (or the Fig. 78.—-Sternum of Secretary: 
subdivisions Dedalion, Asturina, Astur, Accipiter, and Gymnogenys); the Harriers naturally succeed, 
which lead by C. e@ruginosus to the Ernes, and then to the Kites (Milvus, as restricted); probably the 
Buzzards and Eagles, which are but arbitrarily separable, should next range, merging into the Eagle- 
hawks ; or perhaps the Perns, followed by the Elanet group (including Jctinia). We are less satisfied of 
the affinities of the Caracaras, of the Cymindues, and of the Marsh-eagles and Hzematorns, which last 
group seems to approximate that of the Hawks. ] 


Tus NocrurNAL Birps oF Prey 


Have the head large; very great eyes, directed forwards, and surrounded by a circle of 
fringed feathers, the anterior of which cover the cere of the beak, and the posterior the orifice of 
the ear. Their enormous pupils permit so much light to enter, that they are dazzled in full day. 
Their skull, inflated, but of a slight substance, contains large cavities that communicate with the 
ears, and probably assist the sense of hearing ; but their apparatus for flight is feeble, the fureula 
offermg but slight resistance : their feathers, with soft barbs, and delicately downy, make no 
noise in flying. The external toe can be voluntarily directed forward or behind. These Birds fly 


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Snowy : Owl 


-Cyplian Owl 


ACCIPITRES. 173 


chiefly during twilight, or by the light of the moon. When attacked by day, or struck by the 
appearance of some new object, they [the majority of them] do not fly off, but stand more 


erect, assume grotesque attitudes, 


and make the most ludicrous gestures. 


Their stomach is tolerably muscular, [as compared with the Falcons, although their prey 
is wholly animal, consisting of Mice, small birds, [even fish in some instances,] and insects ; 


Fig. 79 —Alimentary canal of an Owl: a, the gullet, 
devoid of any craw ; b, the cweca.* 


but is preceded by a large craw, [an madvertent statement 
of the author, as the absence of any expansion of the 
gullet, which is wide, but always of uniform diameter (see 
fig. 79 a), invariably distinguishes the nocturnal from all the 
diurnal birds of prey]; the ececa () are long, and enlarged 
towards the extremity, &c. Small Birds have a natural 
antipathy to them, and assemble from all parts to assail 
them; hence they are employed to attract Birds to the 
snare. [It may be added, that their tarsi are in no in- 
stance scaled, even when denuded of feathers, as in the 
subdivision Ketupa,; all of them lay round white eggs. | 
They form one genus, that of ~ 


THE Owts (Striz, Linn.),— 
Which may be divided according to their head-tufts, the size of 
their ears, the extent of the circle of feathers which surrounds 
their eyes, and some other characters. 

Those species which around the eyes have a large complete 
disk of fringed feathers, itself surrounded by a circle or collar of 
scaly feathers, and between the two a large opening for the ear 
(see fig. 80), are more removed in their form and manners from 
the diurnal Birds of Prey, than those in which the ear is small, 
oval, and covered by fringed feathers which come from below 
the eye. Traces of these differences are perceptible even in the 


‘skeleton, [though only as regards the degree of stoutness of the 


bones (see figs. 81 and 84), there being no gradation or transi- 
tion into the Falcons, either in thé skeleton or digestive organs. 


The following arrangement of the Owls, based on the comparative size of the aperture of the ear, is 


liable to the objection of dispersing 


some nearly allied groups, and approximating others that are less 


so, which is almost necessarily the result of too exclusive attachment to any single character. ] 
Among the first species, we will distinguish 


Tue Hisoux (Ofus, Cuv.),— 


Which have two tufts of feathers (vulg. horns) which they 
can erect at will, and the ear-conch of which (fig. 80), 
extends in a semicircle from the beak almost to the top of 
the head, and is furnished anteriorly with a membranous 
operculum. Their feet are feathered to the toes. Such, in 
Europe, are 

The Long-tufted Hibou (St. ofus, Lin.).—Very widely distri- 
buted; it inhabits woods, especially those of fir and other ever- 
greens, and breeds generally in deserted Crows’ nests: and 

The Short-tufted Hibou (Str. brachyotus, Lin.).—Found almost 
every where, [if indeed the same species, which there is reason to 
doubt : it inhabits open moors, breeds on the ground, and exhibits 
trifling sexual disparity of size. This bird is scarcely, if at all, 
dazzled by sun-light: it is the Brachyotus palustris of Gould). 


We apply the designation of 


* Copied from M. M‘Gillivray’s Rapacious Birds of Britain. 


Fig. 80.—Ear of Hibou, as observed by raising its ante 


rior flap. 


174 AVES. 


How ters (Ulula, Cuv.)— 
To the species which have the beak and ear of the Hiboux, [the latter, however, less developed 
(see fig. 83)], but not the tufts. They are to be found in the north of both continents : for example, 
The Cinereous Howlet (St. lapponica,Gm.).—Almost as large as our Bubow. It inhabits the mountains of the 


north of Sweden, [and Arctic America]. 
The Barred Howlet (St. nebulosa, Gm.).—[A common bird of North America, very rare in Europe. ] 


Tue Restrrictep Ow:s (Strix, Savigny)— 


Have ears as large as in the Hiboux [but of a very different form], and furnished with a still larger 
operculum ; but their elongated beak is only bent towards the end, while in all the other subgenera it 
curves from the point. They have no head-tufts; their tarsi are 
feathered [and rather long], but they have hairs only upon the toes : 
[their middle claw is obtusely serrated: their sternum (fig. 81), 
shorter than in the others, has its inner notch very slight, and often 
obliterated.] The mask, formed by the fringed feathers that surround 
the eyes, is greatly extended, which renders their physiognomy more 
extraordinary than that of any other night-bird. The species common 
in France, 


The Barn Owl (Strix flammea, Lin., fig. 82), appears to be diffused over the 
whole globe, [or rather, there are numerous species more or less distinguish- 
able]. It builds in steeples, towers, &c. [and in places distant from the abode 
of Man, where no hollow trees occur, in the burrows of quadrupeds. When 
nestling in pigeon-houses, it offers no molestation to the other inhabitants. 
Its manner of propagation is remarkable; as it produces three or four suc- 
cessive broods, two or more of which, of different ages, commonly occur in 
the same nest: the young remaining much longer in the nest than those be- 
longing to the other divisions, from which they differ in developing a firmer 
nestling plumage, similar to the adult garb, and which (as in the Hawks) is 
not shed before the second autumn. This curious and 
handsome bird is naturally familiar, and eminently worthy 
of protection; as it preys solely on small quadrupeds and 
insects. ] 


Fig. 81.—Sternum of Barn Owl. 


Syrnium, Savigny. 

The disk and collar of the preceding ; but the conch 
(fig. 83) reduced to an oval cavity, that does not ex- 
tend to half the height of the skull; they have no 
head-tufts, but their feet are feathered to the talons. 
[Notwithstanding the authority of Cuvier, it is proper 
to remark, that there is no appreciable difference be- 
tween this and Ulula,—certainly none of generical 
importance. The Bulaca of Hodgson appears also 
to be synonymous. | 


The Tawny Howlet (Strix aluco and stridula, Lin.).—A 
common European bird, which nestles in the woods, or 
frequently lays its eggs in the [deserted] nests of other 
Birds, [though more commonly (if not always) in the hol- 
lows of trees, where it abides by day. It is the species so 
well known for its sonorous hootings. The young are clad 
at an early age with downy feathers, which are succeeded 
by the adult plumage previous to their first winter. Their 
parents often feed them with fish.] 


Tue Busows (Bubo, Cuv.)— 
Are species which, with as small a conch, and the 1 feo a 
disk of feathers less marked than in the preceding, possess head-tufts. The known species have great 
feet, feathered to the talons. [They differ from the Hiboux only in their superior size, and the small- 
ness of the auditory aperture.] Such is | 


The European Bubow (Str. bubo, Lin.), or the Great-horned or Eagle-owl.—The largest of nocturnal Birds [or 


ACCIPITRES. 175 


which is exceeded in size only by others of this genus. It is little less than the Golden Eagle, and very destruc- | 
tive to Grouse, Hares, and even Fawns: inhabits the mountainous parts of Europe, and is seldom seen in | 
Britain.] Add 

The American Bubow (Sér. virginiana, Daud.)—[Smaller than the preceding, with the grey colour predominating 
over the fulvous: the Arctic Eagle-owl of the Fauna Americana-borealis appears to be only a semi-albino variety. 
Another species is 

The Small-tufted Bubow (St. ascalaphus, Savigny), inadvertently placed by the author in his division Otus. It 
is proper to Asia and Africa, and is occasionally met with in the south-east of Europe. There are several more, 
certain of which appear to compose the Huhkua and Urrhua of Hodgson. ] 


Other species occur, in which the aigrettes, wider apart and placed further backward, are elevated 
with less facility above the horizontal line. Species occur in both continents ; as 


Str. griseata, Shaw, from Guiana; and Sér. strepitans, 
Tem., from Batavia. 


Nocrua*, Savigny. 

Neither tufts, nor an open and deeply set conch to 
the ear; the aperture of which is oval, and scarcely 
longer than in other Birds: the disk of fringed fea- 
thers is smaller and even less complete than in the 
Bubows. Their relations to the diurnal Birds of 
prey are evident, even in their habits, [but not in 


their internal conformation ]. 
Some are remarkable for a long cuneiform tail, 
and have their toes densely feathered. They are 


THE Surns (Surnia, Dumeril)— 

The Rayed Surn (Str. nisoria, Wolt; Str. funerea, Lin.). 
—This, the best-known species, from the north of the 
whole globe, is about the size of the Sparrow-hawk. It 

Fig. 83.—Howlet’s Ear. hunts more during the day than the night. 
The species of the Uralian mountains (Str. wralensis, 
Pallas), is nearly as large as the Harfang. It also hunts during the day, and is sometimes seen in Germany. It 
is probably the Hybris or Ptynx of Aristotle.+ 

There is a species termed Arcadian (St. acadica, Naum), but which belongs to the whole north of the Globe [? ] 
It is the smallest of its tribe, being hardly larger than a Sparrow. It does not avoid the light of day; but Le Vail- 
lant has made known another, from Africa (le Choucou, No. xxxviii.), which, according to his account, is very 
nocturnal. [The former is the Sé. passerina of Linneus, but not of British authors, and the Si. acadica of 
Temminck, but not of Gmelin; it is referrible to the Glaucidium of Boié, 
and is not found in America: the Str. acadica, Gm., is peculiar to 
America, and pertains to avery different subdivision, Nyctale of Brehm, 
the members of which are considerably more nocturnal in their habits 
and adaptments. To the latter group the Choucou of Le Vaillant 
should also probably be referred. Minow of Hodgson seems to be iden- 
tical with Glaucidium.| 


Others have the tail short, and the toes densely feathered : 
the largest of which, and also the largest night-bird without 
head-tufts, is 


The Harfang (Str. nyctea, Lin.), or Great Snowy Owl, which almost 
equals the European Bubow in its dimensions. It inhabits the north 
of both continents, nestles on elevated rocks, and preys on Hares, Ca- 
percalzies, and Ptarmigan. [This bird forms another very distinct 
division, and is most nearly allied to the Bubows: like them, it does 
possess head-tufts, which however are small and inconspicuous, though 
we have seen the bird erect them; its plumage is remarkably firm. 
The term Nyc/ea, Swainson, has been generically applied to it, with the 


specific appellation candida.] Fig. $4.—Sternum of Harfang. 

* This term is falling into disuse, from its having been previously | of it, in the Birds of Europe,—should be disposed to elevate it to the 
bestowed on a group of insects: it is moreover far from being feli- | rank of a separate division (Ptyn2); its large and complete ruff distin- 
citous, as applied to the most diurnal of the Owls.—Ep. guishes it from Surnia, as its accipitrine form and lengthened tail do 

+ The Prince of Musignano places this remarkable bird in Syrninm. | from Syrnium or Ulula.—Ep. 


I have never seen a specimen, but—to judge from Mr. Gould’s figure ‘ 


176 AVES. 


There are others very much smaller,—such as 


Str. Tengmalmi, Gm.—!These have an extended auditory conch, as in the Howlets, like which they are very 
nocturnal, and unable to endure the light of day. The Nyctale of Brehm. The species indicated is peculiar to 
the Eastern Continent, that confounded with it in the fur-countries of North America, Str. Tengmalmi, 
Richardson, being now dedicated to its enterprising discoverer. | 

But the greater number of these small species have only 
a few scattered hairs on the toes, [and are nearly allied to the 
true Surns. They are the Athene, Boié]. Such is 


Str. passerina, Gm. [and of British authors; Str. noctua, Lin. ; 
Athene noctua, Bonap.|—It nestles in old walls, [and frequently in 
chimneys, and has been seen to pursue Swallows on the wing. A 
remarkable exotic species, with very long tarsi, is the 

Str. cunicularia, Molina, or the Burrowing Owl, as it has been 
called; but which, it is most probable, only appropriates the dwell- 
ings of burrowing quadrupeds, as the Barn Owl is known to do 
under similar circumstances ; the present species inhabiting the open 
prairies of America, where there are no trees, and abounding in the 
villages of the Prairie Marmots, as also in the burrows of the Vis- 
cachas]. 


There are yet other Noctue with unfeathered toes, which 
approximate the Howlets in size. Cayenne supplies several fine 
species, and particularly the three following :— 


Fig. 85.—Steroum of Howlet. Str. cayennensis, Gm.; Str. lineata, Shaw, or Str. albomarginata, 
Spix; and Str. torquata, Daud.—The two first of these equal in size the Tawny Howlet, and the last is 
still larger. 
Finally, there are some in America, which have the tarsi, in addition to their toes, denuded of 
feathers ; of which the 


Str. nudipes, Daud., may be cited in illustration. 


Tue Scops (Scops, Savigny),— 
With ears proportioned to the size of the head, the incomplete disk and naked toes of the preceding, 
combine aigrettes analogous to those of the Bubows and Hiboux. 
One inhabits Europe (Sér. scops, Lin.)—Scarcely larger than a Blackbird, [and there are many others]. 


Some foreign species occur of rather large size, with the legs, as well as the toes,naked. [They 
constitute the subdivision Ketupa.] Such are 


Str. Ketupa, Tem., and Str. Leschenaulti, Id., which may possibly prove to be identical. [These Birds are 
essentially Bubows, with long and naked tarsi, the skin of which corrugates in dry specimens, so as to present 
somewhat the appearance of being covered with reticulated scales, which is not the case. Their toes are very 
rough underneath, as in the Ospreys; and like them they prey chiefly on fish, and sometimes crustaceans. The 
Cultrunguis of Hodgson ap) ears to be a synonyme of this subdivision, 


The great group of Owls falls naturally into three distinct sections, distimguishable at the 
first glance ; and two of these sections comprehend species which differ exceedingly in the 
magnitude of the external ear. 

The first comprises all that are decorated with aigrettes, or what are popularly termed 
Horned Owls ; as the divisions Nyctea, Bubo, Ketupa, Scops, and Otus. 

In the second section, the whole of the tuftless species should be brought together, 
excepting those constituting the subdivision Strix of Savigny. They mainly differ in their 
degrees of adaptation for nocturnal or semi-diurnal habits. 

‘the third is composed of the restricted genus Strix, or the Barn Owls, and is much more 
distinct from both the others, than the latter are inter se. The aspect of the living bird is 
very diferent 1 these ihree primary sections. | 


PASSERIN &. WT 


THE SECOND ORDER OF BIRDS. 


THE PASSERIN &. 


This is the most numerous order of the whole class. Its character seems, at first sight, 
purely negative, for it embraces all those Birds which are neither swimmers, waders, clanbers, 
rapacious, nor gallinaceous. Nevertheless, by comparing them, a very great mutual resem- 
blance of structure becomes perceptible, and particularly such insensible gradations from one 
genus to another, that it is extremely difficult to establish the subdivisions. 

They have neither the violence of the Birds of Prey, nor the fixed regimen of the Pouitry 
and Water-fowl; insects, fruit, and grain, constitute their food, which consists more exclu- 
sively of grain as the beak is stouter and stronger, and of insects as it is more slender. Those 
in which it is strong even pursue other Birds. 

Their stomach is a muscular gizzard. They have, generally, two small coeca: and if is 
among them that we find the singing Birds, and the most complicated inferior larynx. 

The proportional length of their wings and the power of their flight are as various as their 
habits. 

The adult sternum has ordinarily but one emargination on each side of its posterior border. 
There are, however, two in the Rollers, Kingfishers, and Bee-eaters, [also in the Colies, 
Motmots, and Todies, which the author imcludes in this group,] and none whatever in the 
Swifts and Humming-birds. 

We institute our first partition according to the feet, and have then recourse to the beak. 

The first and most numerous division comprehends those genera in which the external toe 
is connected to the middle one as far as the first or second joint only. 

[This ordinal subdivision, properly restricted, is one of the most rigorously defined through- 
out nature, quite as much so as that of the Parrots. 

The entire skeleton, digestive and vocal organs, are peculiar; and those genera included 
by the author which differ in one particular differ also in the rest, and accord in all their 
essential characters with another great group that follows. 

The lower larynx is always complicated, and operated upon by four distinct pairs of 
muscles ; besides which, the long sterno-tracheal pair—found im mest other Birds—is gene- 
rally present, but reduced to extreme tenuity. This character excludes the Cuvieran genera 
Cypselus, Caprimulgus, Podargus, Colius, Coracias, Colaris, Upupa, Merops, Prionites, Alcedo, 
Ceyx, Todus, and Buceros,—ten of which have also no intestinal cceca, and the three others 
very large cceca, exactly resembling those of the Owls (fig. 79). All the remaining genera, 
except the Humming-birds, which also require to be excluded, have two minute ceca. 

With the sole exception again of the Humming-birds, which have the lower larynx diffe- 
rently complicated, all singing Birds belong to this great order: the conformation alluded to 
enables them to inflect and modulate the voice; though there are many species, possessing 
the same structure, which nevertheless utter only monotonous cries, and others of which the 
notes are harsh and little varied; even these, however, are very generally capable of being 
taught to speak, to whistle airs, and to imitate almost any sound; and in such individuals as 
cannot be brought to do so, it by no means follows that there is any physical deficiency, as 
indicated by the diversity noticeable in this respect in individuals of the same species: there 
are indeed very few of them, if any, that do not sing, or utter some peculiar note or chatter 
analogous to song, during the season of courtship. 

The sternal apparatus, whether of a Swallow or Tree-creeper, a Promerops, Finch, Crow, 
Thrush, or Manakin, presents invariably the same peculiar characters, with scarcely any modi- 
fication. The long manubrial process in front between the coracoids, with slantingly truncate 
bifureate tip; the costal process, expanding anteriorly much beyond the articulations of the 


178 AVES. 


ribs; the single deep and angular posterior emargination, reduced to a foramen in some; the 
long, slender, and curving furcula, with invariably a compressed vertical appendage ;—all are 
characters that at once indicate the 
present order, and exclude every 
one of the genera that have been 
enumerated. 

They have constantly a large brain, 
and characteristic form of skull, ex- 
cepting in one genus*; twelve tail- 
feathers, another character which 
excludes the genera Cypselus, Capri- 
mulgus, Podargus, Colius, Upupa, 
Trochilus, and Buceros ; and their 
clothing feathers have rarely any 
trace of the supplementary plume, 
which is never developed beyond a 

MS Sse eens ot Haw sGroahests few downy filaments. All of them are 
hatched naked, and in nearly every instance from coloured or speckled eggs, larger at one end, 
and in a nest constructed and generally interwoven by the parents,—extremely few other 
Birds domg more than heaping together a quantity of materials. 

The toes are formed for perching; and are always three before and one hindward, the 
outward and middle toes being in every instance connected to the first joint, and sometimes 
further. | 

The first family of this division is that of 


THE DENTIROSTRES,— 


Wherein the upper mandible is notched on each side toward the point.t It is in this family 
that the greatest number of insectivorous Birds occur; though many of them feed likewise 
on berries and other soft fruits. 

The genera are determined by the general form of the beak, which is stout and compressed 
in the Shrikes and Thrushes, flattened in the Flycatchers, round and thick in the Tanagers, 
and slender and pointed in the Pettychaps group; but the transitions from one to another of 
these forms are so gradual that it is very difficult to limit the genera. 

[The study of the changes of plumage, and even colours and markings, affords considerable 
assistance in determining the affinities of the various genera,—more so, perhaps, than any 
other character. | 

Tue Surikes (Lanius, Lin.)\— 


Have a conical or compressed beak, more or less hooked at the point. 


THE SuRikEs, properly so called, (Lanius, Vieillot)— 


Have it triangular at the base, with compressed sides. They live in families [for a few weeks after the 
breeding season], fly irregularly and precipitately, uttering shrill cries ; nestle on trees [or in bushes] ; 
lay five or six eggs, and take great care of their young. They have the habit of imitating, in the wild 
state, part of the songs of such Birds as live in their vicinity. The females [?] and young are gene- 
rally marked with fine transverse lines on the upper parts. 

Some have the upper mandible arched ; those in which its point is strong and much hooked, and in 
which the notch forms a small tooth on each side, manifest a degree of courage and cruelty which has 
led to their association with the Birds of Prey by many naturalists. In fact, they pursue other Birds, 
and successfully defend themselves against the larger ones, even attacking the latter whenever they 
intrude in the vicinity of their nest. 


* Malurus; the different species of which are singularly variable | + No trace of this notch is ever visible in the bone, from which the 
in this respect. | “tooth” of certain Accipitres is a true process —Ev. 


PASSERIN #. 179 


There are four or five species of this subdivisiun in Europe, as 


The Sentinel Shrike (L. excuditor, Lin.)—As large as a Thrush, and ash-coloured above, white underneath : the 
wings, tail, and a band crossing the eyes, black; some white on the scapulars and tail. It resides ail the year in 
France, [and is chiefly known as an uncommon winter visitant in Britain]. 

The Red-backed Shrike (Z. col/urio, Gm.)—Smaller, with the head and rump ash-coloured, the back and wings 
reddish-brown, a black streak through the eyes, lower parts whitish, tinged with pinkish lilach, wing's and tail dull 
black, the side feathers of the latter white at the base externally. [Female, brown above, without transverse stria, and 
sometimes attaining the masculine livery with age.] It destroys other Birds, young Frogs, and a vast number of 
insects, which it impales on the thorns of bushes, to devour at leisure, {a habit common to the whole genus, whence 
they have derived the name of Butcher-birds. We may here remark that the Shrikes have great power of clutching 
with their toes, and always hold their prey in one foot, resting on the tarsal joint of that foot, unless when they 
have fastened it upon a thorn, when they pull it to pieces in a contrary direction. The present species feeds much 
* on small mammalia, as Shrews and the smaller Voles, captures insects on the wing in the manner of a Flycatcher, 
and is a common summer visitant in the southern counties of England]. 

The Wood Shrike (Z. rufus, Gm.)—Wings and tail nearly as in the preceding, the band across the eyes meeting 
over the forehead, the head and neck bright rufous, back black, the scapulars, rump, and lower parts, white. 
[Sexes almost similar. A summer visitant, of very rare occurrence in Britain. There are two others in Europe, 
allied to the first, Z. minor, Gm., and L. meridionalis, Tem.; and many more in Asia, Africa, and America, some 
of the former having shorter wings, and a longer and more cuneated tail.] 

There are numerous exotic species with arcuated beaks, the points of which diminish by degrees, till it becomes 
impossible to define the limits between them and the Thrushes. 

The genus Lanio of Vieillot is founded on one of them, the edges of the upper mandible of which are slightly 
angular. It is the Tangara mordoré of Bufton, (Tan. atricapillia, Gm.) 

Various species with feeble bills constitute the Laniarius of Vieillot. (Gal. Ois. 143.) 

The Vireoles (Vireo) of the same naturalist chiefly differ in the shortness and slenderness of the bill. [They con- 
stitute a very distinct genus, consisting of the warbling Flycatchers of North America, as Muscicapa olivacea, 
Wils., and many proximate species, which are allied to the Pettychaps group (the restricted Sylvia, or Phillo- 
pneuste) of Europe: they are to a considerable extent baccivorous. | 


Other Shrikes have the superior mandible straight, and abruptly hooked at the tip. They are all 
foreign, and grade towards the Fauvettes and other slender-billed Dentirostres. 


(They constitute the Thamnophilus of Vieillot, as now generally accepted, wherein the plumage is soft and puffy, 
and conspicuously barred across at all ages, these markings being in some instances broken into spots, as in the 
nestling dress of the Thrushes, to which and the true Shrikes they are intermediate, passing to the Thrushes 
through Janthocincla. They are also related to the Antcatchers, and are indigenous to South America]. 

Some of them have a straight and very strong beak, the lower mandible of which is much inflated ; 


As L. lineatus, Leach, (Zool. Mise. pl. vi.), Thamnophilus guttatus, Spix. 


Others, again, with a straight and slender bill, are remarkable for their crests of vertical feathers ; 


As L. plumatus, Shaw ; of which Vieillot makes his genus Prionops, and le Manicup of Buffon (Pipra albifrons, 
Gm.), which has nothing in common with the true Pipre, beyond a more than usually prolonged junction of the 
two outer toes. M. Vieillot makes of it his genus Pithys. (Gal. 129.) 


Among these Shrikes, more particularly so called, some other exotic subgenera, that differ more or 

less, require to be specified. Such are 
Tue VaneGas (Vanga), Buffon,— 

Distinguished by a large beak, very much compressed throughout, its tip strongly hooked, and that of 
the lower mandible bent downward. 

The Vanga (L. curvirostris, Gm.), and also some newly-discovered species, as V. destructor, Cuv., &c. 

Tue LanGareys (Ocypterus, Cuv.; Artamus, Vieillot)— 

Have the beak conical and rounded, without any ridge, somewhat arched towards the tip, with a very 
fine point, slightly emarginated on each side. Their feet are very short, and the wings in particular 
reach beyond the tail, which renders their flight similar to that of a Swallow; but they have the 
courage of the Shrikes, and do not fear to attack even the Crow. 


Numerous species inhabit the coasts and islands of the Indian Ocean, where they are continually seen on the 
wing, flying swiftly in pursuit of insects.* [They are unquestionably allied to the following. } 


Tue Bariraus (Barita, Cuv. ; Cracticus, Vieillot)— 
Have a large and straight conical beak, round at its base,—where it extends circularly backward upon 


* Consult a monograph of this genus, by M. Valenciennes, published in Mem. du Mus., tom. vi. p. 20. 


N 2 


180 AVES. 


the forehead, occupying the site of the frontal feathers,—laterally compressed, and emarginated. The 
nostrils, small and linear, are not surrounded by a membranous space. 


They are large birds of Australia and the neighbouring islands, which naturalists have arbitrarily dispersed in 
several genera. They are said to be very noisy and ciamorous, and pursue small Birds: [are also docile, and 
readily learn to whistle airs with remarkable power and execution]. 


Tur CHALYBEANS (Chalybeus, Cuv.)— 


Have the beak similar to that of the Baritahs, except that it is rather less thick at the base, and the 
nostrils are pierced in a large membranous space. The known species are indigenous to New Guinea, 
and are remarkable for their fine tints, resembling burnished steel. 

The Paradisian Chalybean (C. paradiseus, Cuv.; Paradiswa viridis, Gm.).—The feathers on the head and neck 
like curled velvet, which, together with the lustre of its hues, has caused it to be ranked among the Birds of 
Paradise. 

The Tufted Chalybean (C. cornutus, W1.; Barita Keraudrenii, Lesson).—Two pointed tufts of feathers on the 
occiput ; and the trachea forms three circles before it reaches the lungs.* 


Tue Psaras (Psaris, Cuv.; Tetyra, Vieillot,)— 


Have a conical beak, very thick, and round at its base, but not extending backward upon the forehead ; 
the point is slightly compressed and hooked. 
'The species inhabit South America, and that best known is 


The Cayenne Psara (Lanius cayanus, Gm.), which is ash-coloured, with the head, wings, and tail, black. Its 
manners resemble those of the Shrikes. There are many others. 


Tue Cuovucaris (Graucalus, Cuv.)— 


Have the bill less compressed than in the Shrikes, the ridges of its upper mandible sharp, and regu- 
larly arcuated throughout its length; the commissure of the beak is slightly arched. The feathers 
which sometimes cover the nostrils have occasioned them to have been approximated to the Crows, 
but the emargination of the beak removes them from that genus [ ? ] 


They inhabit, like the Baritahs, the remotest parts of the Indian Ocean. Some have very brilliant plumage, and 
compose the Pirola of Temminck, or Ptilonorhynchus, Kuhl, founded on the head-feathers being more like velvet. 
Sphecotheres, Vieillot, only differs from the others in being rather more naked round the eyes. 

To the Choucaris may be approximated one of the most beautiful of the birds lately discovered in those regions, 
the Coracias puella, Lath. ; Irena puella, Horsf.; Drongo azuré, Tem. ; a Javanese species, of a velvet black, the 
back of which is of the most splendid ultramarine blue that can possibly be imagined. 


Tue Beruutes (Bethylus, Cuv.; Cissopus, Vieillot). 
The beak thick, short, uniformly bulging, and slightly compressed towards its tip. 


We know but of one, which has the form and colours of our common Magpie—(Lanius leverianus, Shaw ; 


L. picatus, Latham). a 
Tur Faxtconets (Faleunculus, Vieillot)— 


Have a compressed beak, almost as high as long, with the ridge of the upper mandible arcuated. [They 
are merely Tits, with a somewhat shrike-like bill, and resemble our common Pari in their manners, 
notes, nidification, eggs, and plumage]. 

The Crested Falconet (Lanius frontatus, Latham).—Size of a Sparrow, and nearly the same colours as our com- 


mon Great Tit: the coronal feathers of the male form a crest. It inhabits New Holland. [Some of the Malaconoti 
are nearly allied.] 


Tur Parparortes (Pardalotus, Vieillot)— 
Have a short beak, slightly compressed, the upper mandible with a sharp arcuated ridge, and its tip 
emarginated. They are very small birds, with a short tail. 
The best-known species (Pipra punctata, Shaw), is partly sprinkled with white, like an Amaduvat. From 


New Holland, [where there are many others]. 


Tue Frycatcuers (Muscicapa, Lin.)— 
Have the beak horizontally depressed, and armed with bristles at its base, with the point more or less 
decurved and emarginated. Their general habits are those of the Shrikes ; and, according to their size, 
they prey on small Birds or Insects. The most feeble of them pass by insensible gradations into the 
slender-billed warblers. We divide them as follow. 


* This is the only modification of the trachea we have heard of among the Passerina.—Ep. 


Tue Tyrants (Tyrannus, Cuv.)— 


Have a long, straight, and very stout bill; the ridge of the upper mandible straight and blunt; its 
point abruptly hooked. They are American birds, of the size of our Shrikes and equally spirited, 
which defend their young even against Eagles, and drive all Birds of prey from the vicinity of their 
nest. The largest species prey on smaller birds, and do not always disdain those they find dead. 
[They have even been observed to plunge after fish in the manner of a Kingfisher; and have been 
sometimes noticed to throw up their food and catch it in the throat, as in the Toucans, Hornbills, &c. 

The species are extremely numerous, and have been further subdivided by different systematists. Thus, several 
with extremely furcate tails compose the Milvulus, Swains., and the smaller and weaker species the Tyrannula of 


the same nomenclator : the latter grade into the Kinglets. Others constitute the Platyrynchus, Vieillot, &c. The 
majority have yellow or red coronal feathers, somewhat as in the Kingiets.] 


| 
PASSERINZ. . 181 
THe MoucwHEro.tes (Muscipeta, Cuv.)— 
i 
Have a long beak, very much depressed, and twice as broad as high, even at the base ; the ridge of the 
upper mandible very obtuse, but sometimes however the reverse; the edges slightly curved, the points 
and emargination feeble, and long vibrissz at the gape. 

Their weakness disables them from preying on aught but insects. All of them are foreign; and 


many are ornamented with long tail-feathers or with fine crests, or at least have vivid colours on the 


plumage. 

(Several different natural groups are here brought together: the term is now generally restricted to some beau- 
tiful birds of the eastern hemisphere, the males of which have crimson and black plumage, and long even tails, the 
females being yellow where the male is red; their colours are distributed as in the Redstarts, and there are other 
birds of similar form and colouring, but stouter and larger, which compose the Phenicornis, Gould.] 


Some species approximating the Moucherolles [or rather the Tyrants ],— 
Tus Frarsipys (Platyrynchus, Vieillot),— 


Are remarkable for having the bill still broader and more depressed. 


[They have been confused by many writers with the Todies, a widely separated genus, that does not even possess 
the distinctive characters of the Passerine. 'They have also been ranged under many named minor subdivisions. ] 


Others, which have also the beak broad and depressed, are distinguished by their longer legs and 


short tail. They compose the genus 
ConoporHaGa, Vieillot,— 


Of which but two or three species are known, all from America, that subsist on Ants, which has caused 
them to be ranged with the small tribe of Thrushes termed Antcatchers. 


Tue Restricrep Frycatcuers (Muscicapa, Cuv.)— 


Have shorter bristles at the gape, and the bill more slender than in the Moucherolles. It is still, 
however, depressed, with an acute ridge above, a straight edge, and the point alittle curved downward. 
[They are closely related by affinity to the Chats and Redstarts, as are also the Moucherolles, and have 
similar mottled nestling plumage, a character that does not occur in the great Tyrant group. 


Four species inhabit Europe, migrating southward in winter. ] 

The Grey Flycatcher (M. grisola, Gm.)—Grey above, whitish underneath, with some greyish streaks on the 
breast. [It is very common throughout Britain, seldom arriving before May: one of the least musical of our 
native Birds. Its legs are shorter than in the following, and general character different: hence, with some others 
from Africa, it composes the Butalis of Boié.] 

The Collared Flycatcher (M. albicollis, Tem.), is very remarkable for the changes of plumage [or rather of 
colouring only] which the male undergoes seasonally. Resembling the other sex in winter, that is to say, grey [on 
the upper parts] with a white patch on the wing, it attains towards the nuptial season an agreeable distribution of 
pure black and white, the head, back, wings and tail, being of the former colour, and the forehead, a collar round 
the neck, a great patch on each wing, a smaller one in front of it, and the outer edge of the tail, white. It nestles 
in the trunks of trees. 

Another species subject to the same changes has more recently been discovered, in which the neck of the male 
is black like the back in the nuptial season, and which wants the small white spot on the edge of the wing. It is 
the Pied Flycatcher (M. Juctuosa, Tem.), which is found further northward than the other. [This species is 
remarkable for its local distribution in the British islands, being very common near the lakes of the north of 
England, and of rare occurrence elsewhere. It is doubtful whether the other ever occurs here. They are said to 
differ in their notes, and both lay blue eggs, whereas the Grey Flycatcher lays whitish eggs spotted with brown. 
The two pied species are also comparatively musical. ] 


182 AVES. 


The fourth was discovered in Germany, [in some parts of which it is common It is smaller than the others, with 
plumage resembling that of a Robin; constitutes the division Erythrosterna of Bonaparte]. 


The beak of the Flycatchers becomes more and more slender, till it finally approaches that of some 


Kinglets. 
Some species, wherein the ridge of the upper mandible is more raised, and arched towards the tip, 


lead to the Chats and Wheatears. Certain of these appear to compose the Drimophilus of Temminck. 
There are also several genera or subgenera closely allied to different links of the great series of 


Flycatchers, although they much surpass them in size. Such are 
Tue Batp Tyrants (Gymnocephalus, Geof.),— 
Which have nearly the same beak as the Tyrants, only that its ridge is rather more arcuated, 


and a great part of the face is destitute of feathers. 
We know but of one species, from Cayenne, as large as a Crow, and the colour of Spanish snuff. 


Tur Dracoon-sirps (Cephalopterus, Geof.)— 
Have, on the contrary, the base of the bill adorned with feathers, which, radiating at top, form a large 


crest resembling a parasol. 
Only one species is known, from the banks of the Amazon ; of the size of a Jay, and black: the feathers on the 
lower part of its breast form a sort of pendent dewlap—(C. ornata, Geoff.; Coracina cephaloptera, Vieillot ; 


Cor. ornata, Spix.) 
Tue Cotincas (Ampelis, Lin.) — 


Have the beak compressed, as in the generality of Flycatchers, but proportionally rather shorter, tole- 
rably wide at base, and slightly arcuated. x 
Those in which it is strongest and most pointed, retain a very insectivorous regimen. They are 


named 
PrauHaus (Querula, Vieillot)— 


From their cry, and inhabit America, where they live in flocks in the woods, and pursue insects. 

Such are the Common Pianhau (Muscic. rubricollis, Gm.), black with a purple throat; and the Great Piauhau, 
entirely purple, (Cotinga rouge, Vaillant ; Coracias militaris, Shaw). The Grey Cotinga (Amp cinerea) resembles 
the Piauhaus rather than the genuine Cotingas. The Golden-throated Piauhau (Coracias scutata, Lath., or Co- 
racina scutata, Tem.), has a smaller beak, and approximates the Bald Tyrant. 

Tue Resrrictep Cotincas (Ampelis, Vieillot),— 
In which the beak is rather weaker, feed on berries and soft fruits, in-addition to insects. They inhabit 
humid places in South America; and the greater number are remarkable, at the breeding season, for 
the splendour of the azure and purple which adorn the males. During the rest of the year both sexes 


are grey or brown. 
The Scarlet Cotinga (A. carnifex, Lin.)—Crown, rump, and belly scarlet ; the rest brownish-red: fourth quill of 


the wing narrowed, shortened, and tough or horn-like. The Pompadour Cotinga (4. pompadora, Lin.).—Of a 
lovely reddish purple, with white quill-feathers. The Blue Cotinga (A. cotinga, Lin.).—Splendid ultramarine, with 
a violet breast, frequently traversed bya large blue band, and spotted with dark yellow. There are others equally 


handsome. 
Tuer Tersines (Tersina, Vieillot)— 


Are Cotingas with the beak wider at its base. As 
The Tersine of Buffon (Amp. tersa, Gm.; Procnias tersina, Tem., or Pr. hirundinacea, Swainson). 


Tur CATERPILLAR-HUNTERS (Ceblepyris, Cuv. ; Campephaga, Vieillot),— 
With the beak of the Cotingas, have a singular character, which consists in the somewhat prolonged, 
stiff, and spiny shafts of their rump-feathers. They inhabit Africa and India, and feed upon Caterpil- 
lars, which they find on the highest trees; but they have none of the brilliancy of the Cotingas. Their 
tail, somewhat forked in the middle, is rounded at the sides. 


Such are the Grey and Black Caterpillar-hunters of Vaillant (the former of whichis the Muscic. cana, Gm.). The 
Yellow C, of the same naturalist is the young of Turdus phenicopterus,Tem. Add C. fimbriatus, Tem. Col. 249, 250. 


We may also distinguish 


Tur Waxwines (Bombycilla, Brisson) ,— 
The head of which is adorned with [erectible] feathers, longer than the rest, and they have besides 


PASSERINE. 183 


a singular character in the secondary quills of the wing, the ends of which ‘at least in two of the three 
species, are converted into] smooth, oval, red disks, [much resembling red sealing-wax ]. 


There is one in Europe, the Common Waxwing (Amp. garrulus, Lin.), [and which also occurs in America west- 
ward of the Rocky Mountains, and in Asia to China and Japan.] It is less than a Thrush, with soft vinous-grey 
plumage, the throat black ; tail black, tipped with yellow, [with minute scarlet lobes resembling those on the wing- 
secondaries in old specimens*, wherein the primary quills also are each terminated with white, forming a series of 
transverse markings]; wings black, variegated with white {and yellow]. This bird appears in flocks, at long inter- 
vals, and without regularity, from which circumstance its presence was long considered an evilomen. It is not 
timorous, is easily captured and kept in captivity, eats of every thing, anda great quantity, [but in the wild state 
is principally baccivorous, and in times of necessity has been seen to eat the buds and sprouts of various trees: 
it flies rapidly, and has a low warbling song}. This bird is supposed to breed very far to the north. Its flesh is 
esteemed good eating. 

There isa very similar but smaller species in America (Amp. garrulus, B., Lin.; A. americana, Wils.; B. caro- 
linensis, Brisson; B. cedrorum, Vieillot), [the Cedar-bird of the Anglo-Americans: it inhabits eastward only of 
the Rocky Mountains. | 

A third, in Japan (B. phenicoptera, Tem.), has no wax-like appendages to the wings, and the tail and lesser 
wing-coverts are tipped with red. [Its size equals that of the first.] 


M. M. Hofmansegg and Illiger have separated, with equal propriety,— 


THe CaMpANERO and some others (Procnias, Hof.),— 


Wherein the beak, weaker and more depressed, opens nearly as far as the eye. They are indigenous 
to South America, and subsist on insects. 
They require to be subdivided into 


Tue CaMPANEROs (Procnias, as restricted) ,— 
Which have feathered throats. 
One species (Amp. carunculata,Gm.), distinguished by a long soft caruncle at the base of its beak, is white when 
adult, greenish when young. [This is the celebrated Campanero or Bell-bird of Guiana, the loud sonorous voice 


of which, heard from time in the depths of the forest, during the stillness of mid-day, exactly resembles the tolling 
of a bell.] 


Others, 
THE AVERANOS (Casmarhynchus, Tem.),— 
Have naked throats. 


There is one in which the naked part of the throat of the male is covered with fleshy caruncles: the Averano of 
Buffon (Amp. variegata, Lin.). Another (Procn. araponga, Pr. Max; Casm. ecarunculatus, Spix) has some small 
thinly-scattered feathers on the same place. These birds also are white in the adult state, and have the females 
and young greenish. 


Finally, we place at the end of the Cotinga group, 


THE GyMNopEs (Gymnoderes, Geoff.),— 


The beak of which is only a little stouter, but the neck is partly naked, and the head covered with 
velvety feathers. 


The species known is from South America, and in great part frugivorous. It is the size of a Pigeon, and black, 
with bluish wings. (The Gracula nudicollis, Sh.; Corvus nudus and Gracula fetida, Gm.).—N.B. M. Vieillot 
brings the Choucaris, Gymnode, and Dragoon-bird together, to form his genus Coracina. 


Tue Dronecos (Edolius, Cuv.; Dicrurus, Vieillot)— 


Also pertain to the great series of Flycatchers. Their beak is equally emarginated and depressed, its 
upper ridge acute ; but they are distinguished by having both mandibles slightly arcuated throughout 
their length: the nostrils are covered with feathers, besides which there are long hairs forming mous- 
taches. [These interesting birds exhibit a flycatching modification of the great corvine type]. 


The species are numerous in the countries bordering the Indian Ocean, and are generaliy glossy black, with a 
forked tail, {the outermost feathers of which are often extremely long, with a naked shaft except at the base and 
tip: they are gregarious, assembling towards the evening, and subsist on insects, particularly Bees and Wasps, for 
which they hawk in the vicinity of the hive; are popularly termed Devil-birds]. It is said that some of them sing 
as finely as a Nightingale. 

The genus Sparactes of Miger was founded on a disguised specimen of one of these birds, decorated with feathers 
not its own by a dealer, and the legs of a Hoopoe. 


* This tends to corroborate a remark inp. 156, wherein the tail-feathers are stated to correspond to the wing-secondaries, excepting the 
middle pair, or uropygials, which represent the wiug-tertiaries.—Ep. 


184 AVES. 


Tur Putpauures (Phibalura, Vieillot)— 


Have an arcuated ridge to the bill, as in the Drongos, but the beak is shorter than the head. 


The only known species (PA. flavirostris, Vieillot) inhabits Brazil, and has a deeply-forked tail ; its plumage is 
spotted with black and yellow, and there are some red feathers on the head, which recal to mind the 
Tyrant Flycatchers. [This is a very curious species, which is closely related to the Swallows, as well as the Cotinga 


group, and to the Tyrants. ] : 
Tue Tanacers (Tanagra, Lin.)\— 


Have a conical beak, triangular at its base ; the upper mandible emarginated towards the tip, with its 
ridge arcuated ; wings and flight short. They resemble the Sparrow tribe in their habits, and feed on 
grain as well as on insects and berries. The greater number are conspicuous in our collections for 
their brilliant colours. [All are peculiar to America.] We subdivide them as follow :— 


Tue Linpos (Luphonia, Vieillot ?)— 
Or Bulljineh Tanagers, which have a short beak when viewed vertically, bulging on each side of its 
base: their tail is proportionally shorter than in the others. 

Such are the Tanagra violacea, cayennensis, diademata, viridis, chrysogaster [and several others. The Spanish 
name Lindo, applied by Azara, intimates their brilliancy]. 
Tue Fincu-ranaGeErs (Habia, Vieillot)— 
Have a thick, bulging, conical bill, as broad as high, the upper mandible of which is rounded above. 


Such are Tan. flammiceps, Pr. Max., T. supereiliosa, psittacina, and atricollis, Spix, &c. 
THe TANAGERS, properly so called,— 


Have a conical beak, shorter than the head, as broad as high, the upper mandible arcuated and slightly 


pointed. 

T. episcopus, multicolor, and numerous Others [many of them remarkable for the variety of contrasting, brilliant 
hues, which variegate and adorn their plumage]. 

T. talas and some others have been separated by Mr. Swainson under the name Aglaia. 


Tue OrtoLe-TANAGERS (Zachyphonus, Vieillot),— 


Have the beak conical, arcuated, pointed, and notched towards the tip. 


T. cristata, Tem., of which T. brunnea, Spix, is the young, and various others. 

The T. gularis and pilecta, Tem., and T. speculifera, Spix, approximate the Bec-fins in the slenderness of their 
bills. “ Mr. Swainson makes of them his genus Spermagra.” 

The Pyranga of Vieillot is founded on an individual deformity. We will designate his species T. cyanictera. 

In the Palmiste, Buff., the emargination of the upper mandible is very slight, and it almost entirely disappears 
ina proximate species, of which M. Vieillot has formed his genus Jecteria. This bird is the Pipra polyglotta, 
Wilson, [a very curious species, the affinities of which are by no means obvious]. It conducts to the Weavers. 


THE CARDINAL-TANAGERS [ (Pyranga, as now generally accepted) ],— 

Have a conical and slightly bulging beak, with an obtuse salient dentation on each side. 
T. mississipiensis, Tem., or T. estiva, Wils. Also T. rubra and T. ludoviciana, Wils., &c. 
Lastly, 

Tur RHAMPHOCELE-TANAGERS (Jacapa, Vieillot),— 

Have a conical beak, the rami of the lower mandible of which are enlarged behind. 


Such are 7. jacapa and brazilia, Tem., and T. nigrogularis, Spix. 


[We may remark that the great group of Tanagers is simply a ramification of the Cotinga family, 
peculiar to the same restricted locality. ] 


Tue Turosues (Turdus, Lin.)— 
Have the beak arcuated and compressed; but its point is not hooked, and the lateral emargination 
does not produce so marked a dentation as in the Shrikes. Nevertheless. as already stated, there are 
gradual transitions from one to the other of these genera. 

The regimen of the Thrushes is more frugivorous: they feed much on berries, and their habits are 
solitary. [The majority are however gregarious during the winter ; and some (as our common Field- 
fare) even throughout the year. ] 


The name of Merle is applied to those species, the colours of which are uniform or distributed in large masses. 
(They are generally also more bulky; but pass, by insensible gradations, mto the spotted-breasted Thrushes.] 


a 


PASSERINE. 185 


The Black Merle, or Blackbird (T. merula, Lin.)—Maie entire:y black, with the bill and eyelids yellow; female 
blackish brown, reddish and more or less spotted on the breast, [beak seldom wholly yellow. The plumage is soft, 
and wings-short and rounded]. A mistrustful species, which however is easily tamed, and sings finely, having 
even been taught to speak. [{t is generally seen in pairs, and is at no season gregarious: appears to be peculiar 
to Europe, being replaced by an allied species (7. pecilopterus) eastward. ] 

The Ring Thrush (7. ¢orquatus, Lin.).—Black, with the feathers bordered with whitish, and a conspicuous white 
gorget on the breast. [All the proportions of this bird exactly correspond, even to minutiz, with those of the 
Fieldfare, which is placed by many systematists in a different named division. The Ring Thrush inhabits bleak 
and upland moors, chiefly in the north of Europe, and migrates far southward at the close of autumn. It is a loud 
but inferior songster, and common only ina few districts of Britain. ] 

The lofty mountains of the south of Europe sustain two species (1. saxatilis, Lin., and T. cyaneus, Lin.). The 
first, which is more frequently seen northward, is better known. It sings finely, and nestles in steep rocks, or 
ruined buildings. [These Birds, which with various others constitute the Petrocinela, Vigors, and have since 
even been separated into minor groups, form a natural division apart from the other Thrushes, and are allied to 
the Chats and Wheatears, which they much resemble in habit. They are not found in Britain.] 

The term Thrush is applied more particularly to the species with spotted plumage, that is to say, marked with 
black or brown spots on the breast. There are several in Europe, which assemble in large flocks in winter, and 
migrate southward. 

The Missel Thrush (7. viscivorus, Lin.)—Is the largest [with one exception! of the whole genus. [It is uniform 
yellowish-brown above, and tinged with sulphur-yellow on the under parts, which are speckled with transverse 
spots; beneath the wings white. Is common throughout Britain, and resident at all seasons; feeding princi- 
pally on berries: the young alone associate in large flocks about October, which soon separate and disperse. This 
bird is very wild and distrustful, except at the season of propagation, when it affects the vicinity of human habi- 
tations, and is remarkable for the spirit with which it attacks and drives away Magpies, &c. from near its nest, 
uttering a loud rattling screech: it always builds on trees; and is a powerful but monotonous songster, heard 
nearly throughout the year. ] 

The Fieldfare Thrush (7. pilaris, Lin.).—Distinguished by the ash-colour of the neck and rump, [dark reddish 
colour of the back, &c. Is remarkable for generally nestling in society, being gregarious throughout the year ; 
visits Britain in large flocks about November, and departs late in spring; is the least musical probably of 
the whole genus]. 

The Song or Mavis Thrush (7. musicus, Lin.).—[Brown above, yellowish on the breast, which is spotted with 
black; fulvous beneath the wings. It is the finest songster of the European species, and is seldom observed in 
flocks in Britain, where it is resident at all seasons. This bird is a great destroyer of snails.] 

The Redwing Thrush (7. iliacus, Lin.)—Smaller than the preceding, the flanks and beneath the wings, deep 
rufous ; [back brown, inclining to olive green; a conspicuous pale streak over the eye; and longitudinal markings 
on the under parts. This bird isa common winter visitant in Britain, arriving always some weeks before the 
Fieldfare, and keeping in more straggling flocks, the individuals of which depart gradually in spring, and not 
simultaneously, as in that species. It is an inferior songster. 

Allied to the Fieldfare, Redwing, and Ring Thrushes, are numerous foreign species, two of which—of interme- 
diate character to those mentioned—occur in Eastern Europe, T. Nawmanni and T. atrogularis ; others, related to 
the Redwing and Mavis, all of which are proper to the eastern parts of Asia, including Japan, have slaty-black 
plumage, more or less relieved, to which group the T. sibiricus, which has also been met with in the east of 
Europe, appertains. There are foreign species of this extensive genus intermediate, in every possible way, to all 
those of Europe: some are found almost everywhere. 

In a group inhabiting Australia, the Indian Archipelago, and slopes of the Asiatic mountains, the dorsal 
plumage is mottled at all ages; a character peculiar to the nestling dress of the others. Onespecies belonging 
to it (7. Whilii, Eyton), the largest of all the Thrushes, resembles the Missel Thrush in its form and proportions, 
and occasionally strays to the west of Europe, having been met with even in Britain: it is common on the southern 
slopes of the Himmalayas. Another (T. varius, Horsf.) indigenous to Java, conducts to the lanthocinele, not only 
by this style of marking, but by its soft puffy plumage, short and rounded wings, and large bill and feet. 

Other Thrushes, peculiar to America, and breeding in the northern division of that continent, are solitary in 
habit, and pass insensibly into the Nightingales; successively diminishing in size; having the bill gradually 
weaker and tarsi more elongated ; assuming even the russet tint and rufous tail of those birds, gradually losing 
the breast-spots, &c. Such are 7, mustelinus, Gm., which differs little from the true Thrushes, T. solitarius, 
Wilsonii, and minor, which last is but arbitrarily separable from the European Nightingales. 


A group now generally distinguished is that of 


Tue Mocxers (Mimus, Boié; Orpheus, Swains.)— 
Wherein the form is much more elongated, the wings shorter, and tail in particular longer, and the 
upper mandible more curved. 


The Mocking-bird of North America (Twrdus polyglottus, Lin.).—One of the finest of song-birds, and remark- 
able for its great facility of imitating almost any sound. 

There are several others, all of them peculiar to America. 

The Thrushes form a great centre of radiation, which ramifies in every direction, and graduates till the normal 


nn 


186 AVES. 


generic features disappear. We have already seen them pass through Petrocincla, into the Chats and Wheatears, 
to which should be added the Robins, Redstarts, Phenicorns, &c.; through T. varius, into the Ianthocincle, 
Gould, an eastern group, with large bill and feet, very soft plumage, and short wings, the species of which inhabit 
shrubberies, and find their food chiefly on the ground, never flying to any distance; through certain North Ame- 
rican species into the Nightingales ; and the passage into various other received genera is equally gradual: ina 
word, these latter are merely ramifications of Turdus, different as some of them appear in extreme cases. Thus 
Cinclosoma, Vigors, conducts from the Fieldfare to the subdivision Accentor ; the Dippers and Ant-catchers to the 
Wrens and Tree-creepers, &c. &c.] 


Some of these birds appear to approximate the Shrikes in their habits, although there is nothing in 
the form of the beak to distinguish them from other Thrushes. 

There are even no available characters by which to distinguish certain African species, which live in 
numerous bustling troops, like Starlings, pursue insects, and commit great havoc in gardens. 


Several of them are remarkable for the glossy tints of their plumage, which are of a browned steel-colour, (as 
T. auratus and T. nitens, 'Tem.); and one of the former for its cuneated tail, which is a third longer than the 
body (7. @neus, Tem.) [The straightness of the wing indicates these birds to belong rather to the Starling group, 
as does also their brown and spotless nestling plumage, the wing primaries of which are shed at the first moult, 
which is not the case in any of the Thrush tribe. Their habits, as already mentioned, are strictly those of the 
Starlings. ] 

We conceive it proper to approximate also the New Guinea Thrush, with a tail three times longer than the 
body, and a double crest on the head, which has been considered a Bird of Paradise (Paradisea gularis, Latham, 
and P. nigra, Gm.), but only on account of the incomparable magnificence of its plumage. M. Vieillot applies to 
it the generic name Astrapia. 

Other Thrushes with brilliantly shining plumage, the occipital feathers of which are pointed as in the Starlings, 
compose the Lamprotornis of Temminck. [These also strictly pertain to the natural family of Starlings.] We 
should distinguish the L. erythrophrys, on account of its bright red eyebrows, formed of cartilaginous feathers. 

Some Thrushes have the bill so slender, that it approximates that of the Wheatears (the Jvos of Temminck). 
[These birds are mostiy crested, and have bright red feathers under the tail, which generally intimates that that 
appendage is carried erect. They rank among the very finest of singing birds, and the celebrated Buhil-buhl 
of the Oriental poets is one of them: all are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, and they are closely related to the 
Philedons, into which they pass by insensible gradations. } 

Others baye a slender bill, but straight and strong, and in the greater number of them the tail is excessively 
forked. They are the Anicures (4nicura, Tem.), [a group having much the appearance, at first sight, of the Pied 
Wagtails, and resembling them in habit, but which are essentially modified Thrushes, and not distantly removed 
from the Wheatears]. 

Others, again, [closely allied to the last,] are distinguished by having legs so long, that they have the general 
appearance of Waders. They constitute the Grallina of Vieillot, or Tanypus of Oppel. 


Tue Crinons (Criniger, Tem.)— 
Are Thrushes with strong sete at the gape, and which have sometimes bristly feathers on the neck. 
Such is Cr. barbatus, Tem. (Col. 88). 
Tue AntcatcHers (Myothera, Ulig.)— 
Are known by their lengthened limbs and short tail. They subsist on insects, and principally Ants: 
inhabit both continents. 
Those of the eastern hemisphere, however, are remarkable for their brilliant colours. They are 


Tue Breves of Buffon (Pitta, Vieillot),— 


[The piumage of which recals to mind that of the Halcyons and Kingfishers, the latter of which they 
further resemble in their flight, as do also the Dippers and Wrens, and they similarly frequent streams 
and brooks, like the Dipper of Europe. ] 

Such are Corvus brachyurus, Gm., and several other beautiful species, to which we add the Turdus cyanurus, 
Latham, or Cornus cyanurus, Shaw, which only differs in the tail, which is rather more pointed. [There are indeed 
two natural subdivisions, distinguished apart by the form and structure of the tail]. 

The Pitta thoracina, Tem., of which MM. Vigors and Horsfield make their genus Thimalia, is but little removed 
from P. cyanura, Vieillot, if we except its sombre hues and its beak, which latter diminishes more regularly in 
front, and thereby approaches the Tanagers. 


Those of the New Continent, which are much more numerous, have brown tints, and vary in the 
length and stoutness of the bill. They obtain their living from the enormous Ant-hills which abound 
in the woods and deserts of South America; and the females of them are larger than the males. These 
birds fly but little, und have sonorous voices, even extraordinarily so in some instances. [They are 
essentially gigantic Wrens. ] 


ar re ne en nah nS sin ain 


PASSERINE. 187 


Among those which have a thick and arched bill, may be particularized 

The King of the Antcatchers (Turdus rev, Gm.; Corvus grallarius, Shaw), which is larger aoe the others, also 
the highest upon its legs, and that which has the shortest tail: at the first glance it might be taken for a wader ; 
its size is that of a Quail, and its grey plumage is elegantly barred across. This species lives more isolated than 
the others. M. Vieillot has formed of it his genus Grallaria. 

The species with a straighter, but still tolerably strong beak, approximate the Bush-Shrikes with similar bills. 

Such are Thamnophilus stellaris and Th. myotherinus, Spix, with various others. The M. leucophrys, Tem., 
although from Java, seems to approach this group; as does also the Brachypteryx montana, Horsf., from the same 
country, in the length of its limbs ; but its tail is longer in proportion, and beak more like that of a Wheatear. 

Others have a sharp and slender bill, which, together with their barred tail, allies them to the Wrens. 

Such are Turdus bambla, Tem., and T. cantans, Tem. Here should come M. Vieillot’s genus Rhamphocenes. 

We should replace among the Thrushes, however, numerous species that have been ranged with the Ant- 
catchers. No group has been more overloaded with species that do not belong to it. At the same time, we must 
confess that the present is not more rigorously defined than other divisions of the Dentirostres. 


We may approximate to the Antcatchers 


Tue OrtHonets (Orthonyx, Tem.),— 
Which have the beak of the Thrushes, but shorter and more slender ; their legs are long, the claws 
almost straight, and the tail-feathers terminate in a stiff point, as in the Tree-creepers. 
{The fact is, that the Antcatchers, Dippers, Wrens, Tree-creepers, and various other named subdivisions, are 
merely modifications of the same ramus of the great Thrush group, which grade insensibly into each other in every 
possible way. ] 


We should also separate from the Thrushes 


Tue Drippers (Cinelus, Bechstein ; Hydrobata, Vieillot),— 
Witerem the beak is compressed and straight, with both mandibles of an equal height, nearly linear, 
and tapering towards the point, the upper but slightly arcuated. 


One inhabits Europe, the White-breasted Dipper (Stwrnus cinclus, Lin.: Turdus cinclus, Lath.), which stands 
rather high, and has a moderately short tail, therein approximating the Antcatchers. It is [blackish] brown, with 
white throat and breast, and remarkable for its singular habit of immersing its whole body without swimming, 
but walking about [in a jerking, fluttering manner] at the bottom of streams, in search of the small animals which 
constitute its food. [At least two others have been ascertained, C. Padllasii, from Asia generally, and C. americana: 
all of them frequent mountain torrents, and our native species generally builds its domed nest in the precipice 
behind a water-fall, through which it plunges to and fro; its actions are very similar to those of a Wren.] 


Africa, and the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean, supply a genus of Birds related to the 
Thrushes, which I have named 
PuiLevons (Philedon, Cuv., comprising Meliphaga, Lewin),— 
The beak of which is compressed, slightly arcuated throughout its length, and emarginated towards 
the tip; their nostrils are larger, and covered by a cartilaginous scale, and their tongue terminated 


with a pencil of hairs. 

The species, generally remarkable for some peculiarity of conformation, have been distributed by authors in the 
most various genera. [Their manners and actions, as observed in captivity, bear an exceedingly close resemblance 
to those of the Starlings.] Some of them have fleshy caruncles at the base of the beak: as Certhia carunculata, 
Lath., which inhabits the Friendly Isles, and is stated to be a superb songster, with various others. These con- 
stitute the Creadion of Vieillot, “and certain of them the Anthochera, Swainson.” 

Others have portions of skin about the cheeks, divested of feathers, as the Werops phrygius of Shaw, &c. 

In those even, which are every where completely feathered, some peculiar disposition of the plumage may be 
observed: as in the Merops Nove Hollandie of Brown, wherein the ear-feathers become frizzled, and descend 


almost to the fore-part of the breast. 
Others again are destitute of any singularity. ‘‘ Those species in which the bill is long and slender, as Certhia 


cucullata, Vieillot, compose the Myzomela, Swainson.”’ 

THE Minas (L£ulabes, Cuv.)— 
Approximate the Philedons. Their beak is nearly that of a Thrush; their nostrils round and smooth ; 
and they are particularly distinguished by the broad strips of naked skin on each side of the occiput 
and below the cheek. 


Linneus confounded two species under the name of Gracula religiosa. That of India (E. indicus), is the size 
of a Blackbird, and glossy black, with a white spot near the base of the wing-primaries. Its feet, bill, and the 
naked parts of its face are yellow. The Javanese species (H. javanus) has a broader bill, more deeply cleft, also 
more hooked at the end, and without emargination : consequently, it should come after Colaris, Cuy. {a genus 


_ "SS eaccemrecmeeneemeeerreneec eee 
a 


188 AVES. 


the entire anatomy of which is widely different]; but it resembles the other in all the rest of its conformation, 
and particularly by its naked spaces on the sides of the head. Of all birds, this one is said to imitate most com- 
pletely the language of Man. 

Nothing can be more perplexing to systematists than the diversity in the form of bill observable in birds other- 
wise so nearly allied. [It intimates, with a variety of other circumstances, that naturalists have attached undue 
importance to the character thence derivable, in tracing the affinities of these animals. The factis, that the Pas- 
serine contain two principal centres of radiation,—the genera Turdus and Corvus,—together with several of 
subordinate importance, each of which may exhibit modifications suited for any mode of life, as fly-catching, 
nectar-sucking, &c.: those species analogously modified upon different of these types, however, having no imme- 
diate physiological relationship for each other, such as is evinced by genera reaily connected by aflinity, how- 
ever differently modified, in their changes of plumage, system of coloration, eggs, &c., all of which require to be 
taken much more into consideration than has hitherto been the practice, if these birds are to be classified in 
accordance with their true natural affinities. One great help toa sound arrangement is afforded by the geogra- 
phical distribution of forms; another by the nestling plumage, as stated on a former occasion ; and a third, 
judiciously and not inconsiderately followed, by the style and character of the colouring and structure of the fea- 
thers, which are worthy of particular attention. Habit is the most deceptive guide of any, but should nevertheless 
be duly kept in view]. 

Tue Gracktes (Graculus, Cuv. ; Cridotheres, Vieillot)— 
Constitute another genus allied to the Thrushes [or rather to the Starlings], the species of which 
inhabit Africa and the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean. Their beak is compressed, very 
slightly arcuated and notched, its commissure forming an angle as in the Starlings. The feathers on 
the head are nearly always narrow, and there is a naked space round the eye. Their habits are those 
of the Starlings, like which they fly in large flocks, and pursue insects. 

One species appears occasionally in Europe, the Rose Ouzel (Pastor voseus, Meyer), [which 1s sufficiently dis- 
tinct from the true Grackles]. It is of a shining black, with the back, rump, scapulars, and under-parts, rose- 
coloured; the coronal feathers narrow, and lengthened into a pendent crest. This bird is of great service in warm 
countries, by destroying Grasshoppers. 

Another species, Paradiseus tristis, Gm., has become celebrated for similar services rendered to the Isle of 
France. It is however a very general feeder, nestles in palm-trees, and is extremely docile. Its size is that of a 
Blackbird, and coiour brown, blackish on the head; a spot near the tip of the wing, lower part of the abdomen, 
and tips of the lateral tail-feathers, white. There are numerous others. Linneus and his followers brought 
together most discordant species under the appellation Gracula. 


THe Manorruatnes (Manorrhinus, Vieillot)— 
Have the beak very much compressed, only slightly arcuated, and feebly notched; the nostrils large, 
but in great part closed by a membrane, which leaves only a narrow slit; neck short. The frontal 
feathers, which are soft like those of young birds, are partly reflected over the nostrils. 
M. viridis, Vieillot, Gal. 149. 
THE Cuocarps (Pyrrhocorax, Cuv.)— 

Have the compressed, arched, and emarginated bill of the Thrushes, but their nostrils are covered by 
incumbent feathers, as in the Crows, from which they were long undistinguished. 


We have one the size of a Daw, the Alpine Chocard (Corvus pyrrhocorax, Lin.), entirely black, with a yellow 
bill, the feet brown at first, then yellow, and finally red, which nestles in the clefts of rocks in the highest moun- 
tains, whence, in winter, it descends in great flocks into the valleys. It feeds on insects, snails, and likewise on 
fruit and grain, and does not reject carrion: [is simply a modified Crow, nearly allied to the Choughs]. 

Another, in India (Pyr. hevanemus, Cuv.), is distinguished by three barbless shafts, as long as the body, which 
grow on each side among the feathers which cover the ear. 


I can find no sufficient character by which to separate from the Thrush group 


Tue Orroues (Oriolus, Lin.),— 


Wherein the beak, otherwise resembling that of the Thrushes, is merely a little stouter, the legs also 
being rather shorter, and the wings proportionally longer. Linneus and several of his successors 
confounded them with the Cassicans, which they merely resemble in colour. 


The European Oriole (O. galbula, Lin.), is somewhat larger than a Blackbird. The male is of a bright yellow, 
with the wings, tail, and a spot behind each eye, black, the tip of the tail yellow; but during the two first years 
he retains the permanent colouring of the female, wherein the yellow is replaced by olive-green, and the black by 
brown. This bird suspends its skilfully-constructed nest to the branches of trees, feeds on cherries and other 
fruit, and during spring on insects. It is timorous, remains in France only for a short time in summer, and 
travels in pairs, or three together. [In accordance with its migratory habits, it has longer wings than any of its 
numerous congeners. | 


PASSERIN Z. 189 


We should distinguish from among the others tue Regent Orvole of authors (Sericulus regens, Lesson), the piu- 
mage of which is fine silky black, with velvety feathers of a bright orange-yellow on the head and neck, and a great 
spot of the same colour on each wing. [The female is brown, spotted with dull white. Paradiseus aureus, Shaw, 


should range along with it.] 
Tue Gouins (Gymnops, Cuy.)— 


Have the same strong beak as the Orioles, the nostrils rounded and scaleless, and not surrounded by 
any membrane, and a great part of the head naked of feathers. 


The Grey Goulin (Gracula calva, Gm.), &c.—Some of them have prominences on the beak, as the Corbicalao ot 
Vaillant (Merops corniculatus, Shaw): in these, ‘‘ which constitute the Tropidorynchus of Swainson,” the tongue is 
pencillated as in the Philedons. 

Tue Lyre-rait (Menura, Shaw),— 

The size of which has occasioned some authors to range it among the Poultry, pertains obviously to 
the order of Passerine, having the toes separated (excepting the outer and middle ones along the first 
phalanx), and approximating the Thrushes by the form of its beak, which is triangular at base, 
elongated, a little compressed, and notched towards the tip; the nostrils being large and membranous, 
and in part covered by reflected feathers, as in the Jays. The great tail of the male is remarkable for 
the three sorts of feathers which compose it; namely, the twelve ordinary, with very fine and widely 
separated barbs, two medial, each garnished on one side only with a vane, and two exterior, curved 
like the letter S, or like the frame of a lyre, the internal barbs of which, large and serrated, resemble 
a broad riband, whereas the external are very short, lengthening only towards the tip. The female 
has only twelve tail-feathers of the ordinary structure. 

This singular species (I. Zyra, Auct.) inhabits the rocky districts of New Holland; its size is somewhat less 
than that of a Pheasant. [It frequents the most retired parts of the country, and runs very fast upon the ground, 
but its cumbrous tail is said to disable it from flying in a direct line. The order of Birds to which it strictly 
belongs is sufficiently indicated by its being asongster. They are said to sing for a couple of hours in the morning, 
beginning when they quit the valleys, till they attain the summit of a hill, where they scrape together a small 
hillock, as they exhume the grubs on which they feed: on this they afterwards stand, with the tail spread over 
them; and in this situation imitate the notes of every bird within hearing, till after a while they return to the 
low grounds. ] 

Tue SLUENDER-BILLED PassERIN»/ (Mofacilla, Lin.)— 
Compose an excessively numerous family, characterized by the beak, which is straight, slender, and 
awl-shaped. When slightly depressed at the base, it approaches that of the Flycatchers ; and when 
compressed and a little curved at the point, that of the straight-billed Shrikes. Some endeayour has 


been made to divide them as follows. 


Tue Cuats (Sawxicola, Bechst.)— 
Have the beak a little depressed and rather wide at base, which allies them to the last small tribe of 
Flycatchers. They are lively birds, rather high upon the legs. The European species build on or 
near the ground, and subsist on insects. [They grade from the Rock-thrushes (Petrocinela), and like 
them are remarkable for always perching on the summits of objects. 


Three inhabit the British isles. ] 

The Stone Chat (Mot. rubicola, Lin.).—A small bird, [with a short tail; black on the upper parts and throat in 
summer, with a dark reddish breast, some white on the sides of the neck, wings, and tail; the female browner : in 
winter the black is more or less concealed by brown margins to the feathers ; and the young are at first speckled 
with whitish. ‘This species is resident throughout the year in Britain, and is common in furze-brakes and coyert- 
less situations. It has little song, which, as in the following, is often delivered on the wing. 

The others are summer-yisitants, of rare occurrence in the winter months. 

The Whin Chat (Mot. rubetra, Lin.), resembles the last inform, and is more delicately coloured, with a conspi- 
cuous white streak over the eye, and black patch on the cheek. It also inhabits furze-brakes, and is more gene- 
rally diffused in grassy places than the Stone Chat : is a monotonous songster. 

The Wheatear Chat (Mot. wnanthe, Lin.).—Larger than the preceding, with the crupper and basal half of the 
tail-feathers conspicuously white, the rest of the tail, wings chiefly, and a band through the eyes, black, and the 
body fulvous: the female is browner, and the young spotted with whitish. This species inhabits still more open 
situations, as chalk-downs and ploughed fields, and particularly the sea-shore. Its flesh is often eaten. 

There are numerous others]. 


Tue Rosins (Sylvia, Wolf and Meyer; Ficedula, Bechstein; [Dandalus, Boié; Rubecula, Brehm ; 
Erythacus, Swains.] )— 

Have the beak merely a little narrower at the base than the preceding. They are solitary birds, which 

generally nestle in holes, and live on worms, insects, and berries. 


poate ee es Se es A ee ene eee OE a Sa ee Pe 
190 AVES. 


The European Robin (Mot. rubecula, Lin.).—Olive-brown above, throat and breast orange-red, slightly bordered 
with ash-colour, the belly white: young mottled brown. [We have seen a very similar species, but with differently 
formed bili, from Trebizond ; and there is another closely allied, from Japan. | 

The Blue-throated Fantail (Mot. suecica, Lin. ; [Cyanecula suecica, Brehm]. )—Brown above, with a brilliant 
blue throat, in the middle of which is a rufous spot, [which disappears with age. This bird has been separated 
with propriety, and differs remarkably from the others in its gait, always running by alternate motion of the feet, 
like a Wagtail, instead of hopping; when running thus, it spreads out its tail from time to time like a fan. It is 
only an accidental visitant in Britain. 

The following are referrible to the Ruticilla, Brehm ; Phenicurus, Swains.] 

The White-fronted Redstart (Mot. phenicurus, Lin.),—Grey above, with a black throat and white forehead, the 
under parts, rump, and all but the middle pair of tail-feathers, bright ferrugineous. [Female browner, with tail 
and rump similar to the male; young spotted. This is a common summer visitant in many parts of Britain, inha- 
biting the vicinity of large hollow trees, ivied ruins, dilapidated garden-walls, &c. Like most of the present 
group, it generally sings perched on some high pinnacle. Its note is plaintive and little varied]. 

The Black Redstart (Mot. erythacus, tithys, gibralteriensis, and atrata, Gm.)—j Rather larger than the preceding, 
with longer wings: no red underneath, and rarely any trace of white on the forehead. It is more confined to 
rocky places and great buildings than the other, and is very rare in the British islands, where, however, it does 
not appear to be migratory. The young of this species are not mottled. It is an inferior songster. 

There are several others, all from the eastern hemisphere. 

The Petroica, Swains., comprehends some nearly allied species from Australia. Others, with shorter legs, and 
rather stouter bills, conspicuous for the bright azure of their upper parts, compose the Sialia of the same system- 
atist, and are found only in America. These and many other named subdivisions, including the Phcenicorns and 
Moucherolles, pass, however, in every possible way, into each other. They grade, as already noticed, from the 
Petrocincle ; the true Robins form a closely-allied subdivision, Geocincla of Gould.] 


Tue Favvertes (Curruca, Bechst.)— 


Have the bill straight, slender, and slightly compressed in front; the ridge of the upper mandible 
curving a little towards the tip. 

The most celebrated bird of this subgenus [but which assuredly does not belong to it] is 

The Nightingale (Mot. luscinia, Lin.), of 
a russet-brown above, whitish brown on the 
Jower parts, with a rufous tint on the tail. 
Every one is acquainted with this songster 
of the night, the varied and melodious notes 
of which resound through the woods. It 
nestles upon trees, [always on or near the 
ground, among decayed leaves], and sings 
Only till its young are excluded. 

There is a rather larger species in the east 
of Europe, with obscure spots on the breast 
(Mot. philomela, Bechst.).—[These birds 
have no particular affinity with the follow- 
ing, but are essentially small slender 
Thrushes, almost inseparably allied to Tur- 
dus minor and some others from North 
America. They have much longer limbs 
than the Fauvettes, seek their food princi- 
pally on the ground, among decaying leaves, 
and the young are in their first plumage 
mottled, as in the true Thrushes, which is 
not the case with the following. The 
Common or Plain-breasted Nightingale has 
very much the same mannersas a Robin, and 
is equally pugnacious: we have known it 
to breed in captivity with a female of that species. The Nightingales constitute the Phiiomela, Swains., Luscinia, 
Brehm. } 

Other species, more particularly known as Fauvettes, have almost always an agreeable song, and sprightly 
habits. They are continually flitting about in pursuit of insects, nidificate in bushes, and the greater number of 
them frequent watery situations, among the reeds, &c. [Such as do so fall, for the most part, under the natural 
division Salicaria, and are very distinct from the others : they have a peculiar babbling song, and are exclusively 
insectivorous. 

Some of them have proportionally large bills, and streakless plumage, dark above, paler underneath. Such are] 

The Great Babbler (Turdus arundinaceus, Lin. ; Sylvia turdoides, Tem.).—Rather less than a Redwing, and 


Fig. 87.—The Nightingale.* 


* Sketcned from life. 


PASSERINE. bod 


reddish-brown above, yellowish beneath, the throat white. [This species, which passes for a good songster, 
though extremely comreon on the opposite coast of Holland, has not yet been detected in the British islands. A 
nearly allied species (S. olivetorum, Strickland), which is rather smaller, is common in Syria. ‘he rest are con- 
siderably less, and there is one of these, a miniature of S. ¢wrdoides, which is very common, though local, in South 
Britain, migrating in winter, as do all the rest: the S. arundinacea, Auct. They are the Calamoherpe, Meyer. 

Other species have smaller bills, and are generally striated on the back, with longitudinal whitish streaks on the 
head, the Calamodyta, Bonap. Among them we find] 

The Sedge Babbler (Mot. salicaria, Lin.; (S. phragmitis, Auct.]); distinguished by a conspicuous whitish streak 
over each eye. [This bird is also a common summer visitant in Britain, more generally distributed than the 
Reed Babbler (S. arundinacea) ; and is remarkable for the sparrow-like tone of many of its chirpings, which has 
induced an erroneous opinion that it is an imitator or mimic. There are several others. : 

Some species, not far removed from the Babblers, are remarkable for the absence of bristles at the gape (which 
in the latter are rather conspicuous), for their graduated tail, composed of broad, soft feathers, their deli- 
cately-formed feet, with straight claws, and particularly for the singularity of their note, which consists of a pro- 
longed sibilant trill, somewhat resembling that of the Mole-cricket. They compose the Locustella of Gould, of 
which three species inhabit Europe. Such, in Britain, is 

Ray’s Locustelle (LZ. Rati, Auct.), or the Grasshopper Warbler of many writers, (fig. 88), the dorsal plumage of 
which is coloured like that of the Water Rail. It is common in many districts of this 
country, as a summer visitant, frequenting furze-brakes and other dense cover, 
where its singular voice is heard at all hours, but principally at dusk: while utter- 
ing this sound, it gapes very widely, and sometimes continues to emit it when 
flitting from bush to bush, or even hovering in the air. A larger species (L. flu- 
viatilis), common on the reedy margins of the Danube, utters precisely the same 
sound. The Sylvia certhiola, Tem., of eastern Europe, constitutes the third. 

Those which inhabit sylvan districts have, in general, stouter bills, and all feed 
more or less upon fruit, of which some are great devourers. They are very distinct 
from the foregoing, and several are delicate songsters. Such, in the British 
isles, are 

The Blackcap Fauvet (Curruca atricapilla, Auct.)—Olive-brown above, ash-colour on the neck and lower parts, 
becoming whitish on the throat and belly; a black, or, in the female and young, reddish-brown cap on the head. 
One of the finest of our native vocalists, remarkable for the melody of the loud clear whistle with which it termi- 
nates its lays. It inhabits gardens and the outskirts of woods, arrives early in spring, and is very frugivorous. 

The Garden Fauvet (C. hortensis) resembles the Blackcap in form, except that it is rather shorter; its head is 
of the same colour with the back, and there is a little grey on the sides of the neck. This species is remarkable 
for the deep mellow tones of its voice, arrives late in spring, and is similar in all its habits to the preceding. 

The other British species have white on the exterior tail-feathers, and pertain to a group the members of which 
are mostly less arboreal, frequenting low bushes. 

The White-breasted Fauvet (C. garrula) is, however, often heard from the summits of high trees, having nearly 
the same habits as the Blackcap. It is smaller than the preceding, with a proportionally more slender bill; and 
ashy-brown above, pure grey on the head and neck, silvery white below, the feet lead-coloured. Is common in 
gardens, and has a low warbling song, with a loud inharmonious finish. 

The Whitethroat Fauvet (C. cinerea), is larger and browner than the last, with some mahogany-colour on the 
wings ; feet yellowish. This species, exceedingly common about hedges and low brake, is seldom seen upon trees, 
and is an inferior chattering songster, that often ascends singing to a small height in the air, with peculiar ges- 
ticulations. Lastly, 

The Long-tailed Fauvette (C. provincialis), made into a genus Melizophilus by Leach, on account of its shorter 
wings and more graduated tail, wherein it only differs in a slight degree from some others, as C. Sarda, &c., is 
remarkable for being resident throughout the year in furze-brakes in some parts of the south of England. Its 
manners exactly resemble those of the Whitethroat. Colour dark ashy-brown, vinaceous-red below. 

There are several continental species allied to all the above.] 


Fig. 88.—ltay’s Locustelle. 


Bechstein has separated from the Fauvettes 


Tue Dunnocks (4ccentor, B.),— 


The beak of which, still slender, but more exactly conical than that of other Bec-fins [and also rather 
sharply pointed], is slightly retracted at the edges. Their gizzard also is more fleshy. 


The Alpine Dunnock (Mot. alpina, also Sturnus alpinus and St. collaris, Gm.).—An ashy-coloured bird [mixed 
with brown], with a white throat sprinkled with black, two ranges of white spots on the wing, and some bright 
rufous on the flanks. It inhabits the pastures of the high Alps, where it feeds on insects, descending however in 
winter into the plains to pick up grain. [A species of rare occurrence in the British islands.] 

The Hedge Dunnock (Mot. modularis, Lin.), [currently termed the Hedge Sparrow.—This well-known species is 
resident in this country at all seasons, but the majority quit France in summer; emits a pleasing shrill 
song, particularly: in early spring, which is accompanied by a peculiar shiver of the wings: it feeds very much 
on small seeds. There are a few others, of which one, 4. montinellus, belongs to eastern Europe. The Dunnocks 
grade from the Thrushes through Cinclosoma. 


192 AVES. 


The immense group of Sylvicoles (Sylvicola), peculiar to America, certainly appear to have some relationship 
with the Dunnocks, but are probably slender-billed modifications of the same great type as the Tanagers. 


THE KinGuers (Regulus, Cuv.)— 
Have a slender bill, forming a perfect and very sharp cone, the sides of which even appear a little 
concave when viewed from above. They are small birds, which live among trees, and pursue Gnats. 


Among European species, we have 
The Golden-crowned Kinglet (Mot. regulus, Lin.),—which is the smallest of European birds, greenish-olive 


above, yellowish-white below, the head of the male marked with a brilliant golden-yellow crest, bordered with 
black, [which latter can open or close nearly over it: in the female the coronal feathers are pale yellow]. It con- 
structs a globular nest on trees, with a lateral opening, suspends itself on their boughs in all positions, like a Tit, 
and approaches human habitations in the winter ; [is very animated, and utters a shrill weak song in the breeding 
season]. 

A still smaller [or rather a somewhat larger] species has recently been distinguished, the crest of which inclines 
more to reddish, and which has a black streak before and behind the eye [with a white line on each side of the 
crest] (Reg. ignapillus, Naum). [This bird is of rare ovcurrence in the British isles, where the first is very 
common. 

A third has still more recently been detected in Dalmatia, and since in England, with only a pale central yellow 
line in place of the crest, but a bright yellow streak over each eye (R. modestus, Gould). This species wants a 
remarkable character of the others, which is, that the nostrils are covered by a single feather, that grows 
over them. 

There are several more, allied to the two first, in Asia and America. 

The following, however, ranged by the author in this genus, have little to do with them. They constitute the 
restricted Sylvia of some nomenclators, Phillopneuste, Meyer, and are all summer visitants only in these parts]. 

TheSong Pettychaps (Mot. trochilus,Lin.) (fig.89.)—Rather larger than the Kinglets, and nearly of the same colour, 
but without any crest, [and also longer in its make. It is distinguished from one 
of the other British species by its duller tints, anda yellow tinge on the under 
tail-coverts, and from the other by its yellowish-brown legs. From both it differs 
in the pleasing melody of its song, which is extremely musical, though consisting 
, only of a simple run of notes. This bird is extremely common throughout Europe, 
= and we have seen a very Similar species, if not actually identical, from Japan. 

The Dark-legged Pettychaps (8. rufa, Naum) (fig. 90), is rather smaller, half a 
shade darker, with shorter wings, and blackish-brown legs. Has only a mono- 
= tonous cry of two notes, repeated many times successively, and occasionally 

a ~~ alternated with a croaking sound, which is extremely peculiar. The young, after 
Hig: D--Sohe Rettrehaee. the first moult, of both this and the preceding species, are much brighter yellow 
than the old birds, but their colour gradually fades during the winter. 

The Grove Pettychaps (Mot. sibilatrix, Lin.) (fig. 91.) has longer wings than 
either of the preceding, more vividly green plumage on the upper parts, witha 
much broader and clearer yellow streak over the eye, yellow cheeks and breast, 
and pure white belly and under tail-coverts. It arrives later than the others, and 
frequents trees much more exclusively, where it may be recognized by its peculiar 
shivering voice, during the utterance of which it shakes its wings in a remarkable 
manner ; it also emits a very plaintive cry, which is common to both sexes. 

These birds generally nestle on the ground, among the herbage. There are two 


other European species, Sylvia icterina and S. Nattereri.] 
th Le Grand Pouillot (Motac. hippolais, Lin.).—Larger than the preceding, [of the 


<a Hf same size and shape as the Reed Babbler: it belongs, however, to a distinct group 
e RA from either (the Hippolais of Brehm), and is a fine songster: it has never yet 
@ been detected in Britain, though common along the opposite coast]. 


Fig. 90 —Dark-legeed Vetty chaps. 


Tue Wrens (Troglodytes, Cuv.)— 


Merely differ in having the beak still more slender, and a little arcuated. 


We ~~ [They are properly an American group, of which one species only occurs in 
Fig. 91.—Grove Pettichaps the eastern hemisphere. | 
The European Wren (Mot. troglodytes, Lin.}—Brown and transversely striated, with rather a short tail, gene- 


rally held erect. It builds a domed nest, and sings agreeably, even in the depth of winter. 
[America produces numerous others, and there are even many well-marked divisions of them.] Some of the 


foreign species inosculate with the Antcatchers, and others with the Tree-creepers. 
Tue Wacraits (Motacilla, Bechst.)— 
Combine a bill even more slender than that of the Fauvettes, with a long tail, which they are con- 


stantly shaking up and down, lengthened legs, and particularly elongated tertiary feathers, which 
extend as far as the tip of the closed wing, imparting a resemblance to the generality of waders. 


PASSERIN &. 193 


Tue Warter-wacraits (Motacilla, Cuv.)— 
Have a comparatively short and curved hind claw, and frequent the borders of water. 


That of France (Mot. alba and cinerea, Lin.), is grey above, white below, with the occiput, throat, and breast, 
black. [The throat white in winter. It has not yet been registered as an inhabitant of Britain. 

The common British Wagtail (17. Yarrelliz, Gould), appears to be of rare occurrence on the Continent of Europe. 
It is somewhat larger, and has a black back in summer, 

Another species, common in the north of Britain, visits the southern counties in winter—the Yellow-rumped 
Wagtail (M. boarula, Lin.)—It is grey above, with a very long tail, the outer feathers of which are white; under 
parts and rump bright citron-yellow, with a black throat in summer]. 

Another in the south of Europe resembles the common French Wagtail when young, but acquires a black back 
with age, the WZ. Zugubris, Roux. [It is larger than any of the others. ] 


Tue Frecp-Wacraits (Budytes, Cuv.)—, 


With the general characters of the preceding, possess a long and almost straight hind-claw, which 
approximates them to the Pipits. [The tail is shorter, and style of colouring different.] They fre- 
quent pastures, and pursue insects among the cattle, [as do also the others]. 


The most common is the Grey-headed Field-Wagtail (Mot. flava, Lin.).—Bluish ash-colour on the head, olive on 
the back, bright yellow below, with an eye-streak and two-thirds of the lateral tail-feathers white. [It is very rare 
in Britain, where it is replaced by another species, 

The M. neglecta, Gould, the head of which is yellow-olive, very bright in old males after the vernal moult, and 
the eye-streak intense yellow. It is much more seldom seen in watery situations than the preceding, and is rare 
on the Continent. The females of both are pale, or even dull white underneath, and the males in winter plumage 
have a reddish tinge on the lower parts, the young males not acquiring the yellow colour before the sprmg. 
Neither of them has any song, in which they differ from the Water-wagtails. 


Tue Pirrrs (Anthus, Bechstein) — 


Were long classed with the Larks on account of their long hind-claw, [and the resemblance of the 
colours, although not the texture, of their plumage], but their more slender and notched bill approxi- 
mates them to the other Bec-jins.* [They have absolutely the same form as the Field-wagtails, from 
which they differ only in their colours, and their habit of singing on the wing. ] 

Such as have a moderately curved hind-claw retain the faculty of perching. [The others do so, 
only rather less habitually. ] 


The Tree Pipit (4. arboreus, Bechst.)—Streaked olive-brown above, paler underneath, with longitudinal dark 
spots on the breast ; two pale transversal bands on each wing. [A migratory species, and very sweet songster, of 
common occurrence in Britain. It generally rises singing from the ground, and after attaining a certain height, sails 
descending to the summit of a tree; then rises from the tree, and descends singing to the ground. Its carriage, 
and general character, as seen alive, are very different from those of the others. } 

Others have the long hind-claw of the Larks, and keep more on the ground. As 

The Common Pipit (Alauda pratensis, Gm,.)—[More slender than the preceding, and nearly of the same colour 
in winter, but less fulvous or olivaceous in summer. It is extremely common throughout Europe, inhabiting 
mountain moors, and lowland heaths and marshes, even to the sea-side. Frequently ascends singing into the 
air, but less musically than the preceding. 

The Shore Pipit (Anth. aquaticus, Naum) is larger and darker-coloured, with a proportionally greater bill. This 
species abounds on the sea-coast, and is very rarely met with inland. Is a superior songster to the last. 

The Great Pipit (A. Richardi, Vieillot).—An accidental straggler only in this country, but seldom met with. Is 
much larger than the others, and coloured like A. pratensis. There are several more, of which three inhabit 
Europe. 

The Wagtails and Pipits compose a very insulated and distinct group, all the members of which are ambulatory 
in their mode of progression, and moult twice in the year. The young resemble or differ little from the adults, 
having a very dissimilar nestling dress from that of the Larks, to which they have been very generally, but erro- 
neously, approximated]. 


We terminate this family of the Dentirostres with some birds which differ from all the 
foregoing, by having their two external toes connected as far as the second joint, a character 
wherein they resemble the family of Syndactyl. 


Tue Manakins (Pipra, Lin.)— 


Have a compressed bill, higher than broad, emarginated, with great nasal fossee. Their tail and limbs 


* The author erroneously states, in the original, that the form of the wing distinguishes them from the Wagtails.—Ep. 


10) 


194 AVES. 
are short ; and their general proportions occasioned them to be long regarded as allied to the Tits 
At their head, but as a separate subdivision, should be placed 


Tue Rock-MANAKINS (Rupicola, Brisson) ,— 


Which are large birds, and have a double vertical crest on the head, composed of feathers disposed 
longitudinally like a fan. 

The adult males of the two species, both from America (Pip. rupicola, Gm., and P. peruviana, Lath.),—are of a 
delicate rich orange colour, while the young are dull brown. They live on fruits, and scratch the ground like a 
common Fowl, construct their nests with wood in the depths of caverns, the female laying two eggs. 

Tur EMERALD-MANAKINS (Calyptomena, Horsf.)— 
Merely differ from the preceding in the head-feathers not being disposed like a fan. 

There is a species, not larger than a Thrush, in the Indian Archipelago, the colour of which is intensely brilliant 

emerald-green. 
Tue True Manakins (Pipra, Cuv.)— 
Are diminutive birds, generally remarkable for their vivid colours. They inhabit humid forests in 


large troops. 
[All are American, and they obviously pertain to the great Cotinga family, as do also the Rock-manakins. ] 


Tue Evrytames (E£urylaimus, Horsf.)\— 


Have feet similar to those of the Manakins and Rock-manakins ; but their beak, as strong as in the 
Tyrants, is exceedingly wide and depressed, its base being wider even than the forehead. 


These birds inhabit the Indian Archipelago, and have a black ground-colour, relieved by vivid colours; they 
have much the air of the Barbets, a genus of a very different order. Frequent watery situations, and feed on 
insects [and also berries]. 


Tue FIssIROSTRES,— 


Compose a family numerically small, but very distinct from all others in the beak, which is 
short, broad, horizontally depressed, slightly hooked, unemarginated, and very deeply cleft, 
so that the opening of the mouth is extremely wide, and suited for swallowing insects, which 
are sought for on the wing. 

The tribe of Flycatchers is that to which they are most nearly allied, and especially the 
genus Procnias, the beak of which only differs m its emargination. 

Their regimen, exclusively insectivorous [in the generality of instances], renders them 
eminently birds of passage, which quit Europe in winter. They separate into diurnal and 
nocturnal, like the Birds of Prey. 

Tur Swattows (Hirundo, Lin.)— 
Are diurnal species remarkable for their close plumage, the extreme length’ of their wings, and rapidity 
of flight. We distinguish among them 

THE Swirts (Cypselus, Iliger),— 


Which, of all birds, have proportionally the longest wings, and fly with the greatest rapidity. [The 
Humming-birds will bear comparison, if not the 
pelagic Tachypete.] Their tail is forked, [and con- 
sists of ten feathers only]; their extremely short 
fect have a very peculiar character, the thumb 
being directed forward almost as much as the 
other toes, and the middle and outer toes haying 
each but three phalanges, like the inner one. 

The shortness of the humerus, the breadth of 
its apophyses, the oval fourchette [devoid of any 
medial appendage}, the sternum (fig. 92), destitute 
of posterior emarginations,—indicate, eyen in the 
skeleton, their adaptation for vigorous flight; 
while the shortness of their feet, combined with 
the length of their wings, disables them from rising from a plane surface. Hence they pass their time 


Fiz. 92.—Sternum of Swift. 


PASSERINE. 195 


chiefly in the air, [even copulating on the wing], and pursue insects in flocks, sometimes at a great 
altitude, uttering discordant screams. They nestle in the holes of walls and rocks, and climb perpen- 
dicular surfaces with facility. 

(With this genus, we enter upon a very different type of form from any of the foregoing. The 
entire anatomy, if we except the trachea and toes, and the latter more than any other genus, very 
closely resembles that of the Humming-birds. It is only in superficial or adaptive modifications that 
they accord with the Swallows. The lower larynx is furnished with only one pair of muscles, the ordinary 
sterno-tracheales; there are immense salivary glands, as in the Humming-birds, which secrete a viscid 
mucus, and no intestinal cceca; the clothing feathers have a considerable supplementary plume. 

It is necessary to subdivide them into 


Tue True Swirts (Cypselus, as restricted) — 


Which have a forked tail, and feet as already described. 


Of several species, two only inhabit Europe. ] 

The Common Swift (Hirundo apus, Lin.; C. murarius, Tem.)—Black, with a white throat, [and common 
throughout Europe in summer, making but a short stay. The young do not moult before the second autumn. } 

The White-bellied Swift (H. melba, Lin).—Larger, and brown, with white collar and medial inferior region. [Of 
rare occurrence in Britain. Unlike the Swallows, these birds rear but one brood in a season. There are several 
more. | 


Others have stiff, pointed tail-feathers, as in the Woodpeckers, and the thumb directed backward ; 
but they pass insensibly into the preceding. They constitute the 


Cu&TURA, Swainson. 
There is one common in North America, the Chimney Swallow of Wilson; also others in the eastern hemisphere, 
one or more of which inhabit Australia. 


Tue True Swautows (LHirundo, Cuv.)— 


Have the feet and sternum similar to those of ordinary Passerine; [also the complex inferior larynx 
as usual, small cceca to the intestine, twelve taii-feathers, &c. Their rapid flight depends entirely on 
external modifications, for which reason it is much less capable of protraction than in the Swifts, as is 
particularly shown by their weariness after performing migration, on which occasions they have been 
seen to alight flat upon the sea. ] 


Some have the feet feathered to the claws, have a slight tendency to revert the posterior toe, and a moderately 
forked tail; as 

The Martin Swallow (H. urbica, Lin.).—Glossy black above, white below and on the rump. Every one is 
acquainted with the solid mud-built nest of this species, fixed under window-eaves, the jutting roofs of houses, &c. 

Others have naked feet, and a more sharply forked tail, the exterior feathers of which are often much 
prolonged. As 

The Chimney Swallow (H. rustica, Lin.).—Above [and across the breast] glossy black, the forehead and throat 
rufous, beneath [and a spot on each except the middle tail-feathers], white: it builds generally in chimneys. 

The Bank Swallow (1. riparia, Lin.).—Brown above and across the breast, the throat and under-parts white. 
fA small tuft of down on each foot.) It burrows and forms its nest in steep banks. [There are two others in 
southern Europe, H. rufula, Tem., or H. daurica, Sav., and H. rupestris, Lin.) 

Among the [very numerous] species foreign to Europe, may be noticed a very small one from the Indian Archi- 
pelago, the H. esculenta, Lin., which is brown above, whitish below and at the tip of its forked tail. It is cele- 
brated for its nest, formed of a whitish gelatinous substance arranged in layers, and obtained by macerating [in 
the stomach] a peculiar species of fucus. The nutritious qualities attributed to these nests in China have ren- 
dered them an important article of traffic in that country. 

{It is interesting to note that the Purple Swallow (1. purpurea) of America, which has a stouter beak than the 
others, feeds much on berries, at least while in its winter quarters, as observed by M. Audubon. The relation of 
this genus to the Phibalures has been already remarked]. 


Tue Mora-Hunters (Caprimulgus, Lin.)— 


Have the same light, soft plumage, minutely mottled with grey and brown, that characterizes other 

night-birds. Their eyes are large; the beak, still more deeply cleft than in the Swallows, and 

[generally] armed with strong vibrissz, is capable of engulphing the largest insects, which are retained 

by means of a glutinous saliva, !as in the Swifts]; the nostrils, placed at its base, are like small 

tubes; their wings are lengthened ; the feet short, with plumed tarsi, and a membrane connecting the 

basal portion of the toes; the thumb itself is thus connected with the internal toe, and is directed 
o 2 


AVES. 


196 


inward. The claw of the middle toe is commonly pectinated on its inner edge; and the outer toe has 
only four phalanges, a conformation extremely rare among Birds. They live solitarily [or rather per- 
manently in pairs] and are crepuscular in their time of action, pursuing Moths and other nocturnal 
insects: deposit few eggs [we believe always two in nuinber] on the bare ground, and have gene- 


rally singular voices. 

[The Moth-hunters bear the same relationship to the Swifts (not to the Swallows) that the Owls do 
io the Hawks, and have similar great cceca; also a simple vocal organ, and general anatomy very 
much resembling that of the Cuckoos, as will be partly seen by 
comparison of the figures we have given of the sternal apparatus 
of both. They have only ten tail-feathers; and the young are 
covered with down when first excluded. ] 


The common European species (C. Europeus, Lin.) [is remarkable for 
the loud sound it emits, like the burr of a spinning-wheel. Another, 
C. ruficollis, Tem., visits south-western Europe. The former is the 
latest to arrive in spring of all our summer visitants, rarely appearing 
before the end of May. 

Among the foreign species, a great number hare longer tarsi, adapted 
for running on the ground. The tail varies much in shape, and there 
is one, from Africa, remarkable for a feather twice the length of the 
body, which arises from the carpus of each wing, and is barbed only at 
the end; another has prodigiously developed secondaries ; and there 
are some with an appearance of aigrettes on the head, which constitute 
the Lyncornis of Gould. 


Fig. 93.—Sternum of Moth-hunter, 


Tue Guacuaros (Steatornis, Humboldt)— 


Have a stronger beak, and toes separate to their articulation, the thumb still directed inward. 


These curious birds inhabit deep caverns in South America, subsist on berries, and the fat of the young is pro- 
cured upon a large scale to be employed in cookery. 


Tue Nyctisounes (Nyctibius, Vieillot)— 


Are also from South America, and are remarkable for having the shortest tarsi of any bird whatever : 
their wings are immensely long, and sides of the gape not bristled. The toes are formed for clinging 
to the bark of trees, as their proportions completely disqualify them from rising from a level surface. 


There are several large species, which ordinarily float at a great altitude above the forests. 


THE AlGOTHELES (gotheles, Vig.)— 
Have long tarsi, and toes apparently fitted for hopping from bough to bough; the wings compara- 
tively short. 


The only known species inhabits Australia, and is the Caprimulgus Nove Hollandie of Phillips]. 


Tue Poparcues (Podargus, Cuv.)— 
Have the form, colour, and habits of the Moth-hunters, but the bill is considerably more robust, and 
there are no membranes to the toes, nor pectination of the middle claw, [a character which is wanting 


in several even of the true Moth-hunters ]. 


The species inhabit Australia and Australasia, and have some appearance of aigrettes on the head: are remark- 
able for the singularity of their general aspect. 


The foregoing genera, commencing with the Moth-hunters, form an entirely distinct natural group, 
intermediate to the Swifts and Cuckoos, but passing into neither. ] 


The third family of the Passerines, or 


THE CoNIROSTRES,— 
Is composed of genera that have a stout beak, more or less conical, and [generally] devoid of 
emargination. They subsist more exclusively on grain as the beak is stronger and thicker. 


We first distinguish among them 
Tue Larks (dlauda, Lin.)— 


Which have a long and straight hind-claw, a character which however is also more or less marked in 
the Pipits, and in the Snowflecks, yet to be denoted. They are granivorous birds, and pulverators [or 


PASSERIN &. Lo] 


which shake dust into their feathers instead of bathing], that run and nestle on the ground, [and 
ascend singing to a vast height in the air]. 
The greater number have a straight bill, moderately stout and pointed: as 


The Sky Lark (A. arvensis, Lin.).—This species is known to every one for its fine and varied song, and on account 
of the quantities that are brought to tabie. 

The Crested Lark (A. cristata, Lin.).—Similar in size and plumage, with longer coronal feathers, and of less 
common occurrence than the preceding. It approaches villages, [and habitually seeks its food on the high road ; 
is remarkable for never visiting this country, though not rare on the opposite coast, even in the vicinity of Calais. ] 

The Wood Lark (A. arborea, Lin.).—Less, with a shorter tail, and the crest rather less elongated ; a pale streak 
is continued round the occiput. [This delightful vocalist, which particularly frequents woodland hilly districts, 
is remarkable for the delicacy of its tones, which are peculiarly soft and plaintive. 

Nine others are found in Europe, either occasionally or habitually, of which one only—the Shore Lark (A. alpes- 
tris), a northern species, occurs as a very rare straggler in Britain. Several have much stouter bills than the 
foregoing; and three or four, including A. alpestris, a pair of aigrettes, or pointed tufts of feathers, on the head. 

The Larks, which have been much subdivided by systematists, compose a very isolated family, well character- 
ized by their peculiar nestling plumage, which is entirely shed (including all the primaries) before the first winter. 
With the exception of one species, they are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. Several have the beak compara- 
tively stout and thick. ] 

Tue Tits (Parus, Lin.)— 

Have the beak slender, [rather] short, straight and conical, with little hairs at its base, and nostrils 
concealed by the plumage. They are very active little birds, continually flitting from spray to spray, 
and suspending themselves in all kinds of attitudes, rending apart the seeds on which they feed, [which 
they hold firm with the foot while piercing a small hole in the husk, through which they extract the 
kernel], devouring insects whenever they see them, and not even sparing small birds when they 
happen to find them sick and are able to destroy them. They store up provisions of grain ; nidificate 
in the holes of trees, and produce more eggs than the generality of Passerine. 

(These little birds are miniatures of the Jays, and equally omnivorous, subsisting on fruit in addition to the 
varied regimen above mentioned. As previously stated, they pertain to the same natural group as the Falcuncu- 
lus, placed by the author among the Shrikes, and have nothing whatever to do with the present series. 

Of the European species, two have shorter and thicker bills, and differ in some other minutie. Their plumage 
is prettily marked with light blue. They are the Common Blue Tit (P. cerudeus), so abundant in Britain, and 
the P. cyaneus of Pallas. The rest have the bill longer and more pointed. The Great Tit (P. major), of pleasing 
colours, with a black median list down the belly ; the Marsh Tit (2. palustris), with merely a black cap and throat ; 
the Cole Tit (P. ater), with a conspicuous white spot on the hind-neck, and very slender bill; and the Crested Tit 
(P. cristatus), with a pointed crest, not very dissimilar from that of a Lapwing, and which is rare in this country ; 
inhabit the British islands, the first four being every where common. 

There are a vast number of others. 


Tue Borrietir (Mecistura, Leach),— 


Included by the author in Parus, should unquestionably be separated. The beak is very short, its 
upper mandible curving slightly over the lower: diet exclusively insectivorous. 

The Common Bottletit (M. vulgaris ; Parus caudatus, Lin.).—A very small species, with a long graduated tail, 
the medial feathers of which are shorter than the next pair: the young are very differently coloured from the 
adults, and have the tail still longer. This curious little bird builds a most elegantly domed nest with a small 
side opening, upon a forked branch, and rears a numerous progeny, which follow their parents till the return of 
spring. The form of its feet, character of plumage, habits, all are different from those of the true Pari: its eye- 
lids are naked, and of an orange-yellow colour. 


Very nearly allied to the Bottletits, there is a group of small Australian birds, 


Tue Azurines (Malurus, Vieillot),— 


Which have a longer beak, resembling that of many Bec-jfins, and the old males of which are distin- 
guished by their intensely vivid tints of verditer and azure: they vary singularly in the number of 
tail-feathers, which, in one species, are reduced to four, that are extremely long and gauze-like, being 
the lowest number found throughout the class, where any exist at all. 


The species are numerous ; resemble the Bottletit in their mode of life, and manner of nidification ; some of them 
even in the peculiar form of the tail; the medial or uropygial feathers of which are shorter than the next pair, 
and the exterior successively graduated. The African species sometimes referred to this genus have but little 
affinity to it.] 

Tue Reepuincs [ (Calamophilus, Leach) ]— 


Differ from the Tits in the form of their upper mandible, the tip of which curves over the lower. 


198 AVES. 


[Their anatomy is strictly that of a Finch, and they are much more nearly related to the Waxbill 
Finches than to the Tits, with which latter they have little in common. The gullet has an extremely 
large dilatation or craw*, and the gizzard is remarkably muscular. 


There is only one known species, the Bearded Reedling (C. biarmicus), an inhabitant of reedy districts, exten- 
sively diffused over Europe and Asia, and not rare in some parts of Britain. It is one of the most exquisitely 
beautiful of birds, although its colours are not vivid. The plumage is remarkably long and dense, the wings short, 
and tail long and graduated: general colour rich orange-brown, marked with black, white, and yellowish on the wings ; 
the male distinguished by a pure ash-coloured head and neck, a long pointed tuft of intensely black feathers pro- 
ceeding downward, like a moustache, on each side of the face, under tail-coverts of the same hue, the throat 
white, and a delicate mixture of lilac and other tints on the breast; beak and iris bright yellow, and feet (which 
are long and robust) black. The female has no black on the moustaches and under tail-coverts, and is every where 
less bright ; and the young have a broad black stria along the back. Stripped of the feathers, this species appears 
singularly small, with disproportionally large legs: its apparent size is that of a Whitethroat. 

The Bearded Reedling subsists on reed seeds during the season, and feeds very much on small shelled mollusks, 
which it finds among the aquatic herbage; its nest and eggs, placed in a tussock of grass, or among the sedges, a 
good deal resemble those of a Bunting, and the brood appears to follow the parents till the return of spring. ] 


Tue Penpuxines [ (Agithalus, Vigors) |— 
Have the beak more slender and pointed than in the Tits, and are celebrated for their artificially- 
constructed nests. 
There is one in Europe (Par. pendulinus, Lin.).—Ash-coloured, with brown wings and tail; a black band across 
the forehead, which, in the male, is continued to behind the eyes. This small species, an inhabitant of the east 


and south of Europe, is noted for its admirable purse-like nest, composed of willow or poplar down, and lined with 
feathers, which it suspends to the flexile branches of aquatic trees. 


Tur Buntines (Emberiza, Lin.) — 
Possess an exceedingly distinct character in their short, straight, and conical beak, the upper man- 
dible of which, narrower and more retracted at its edges than the inferior, has a hard projecting 
palatal tubercle. They are granivorous birds, easily ensnared. 


[Of fourteen European species, three are common in Britain, a fourth along the southern coast, not far from the 
sea, and a fifth sometimes occurs as a very rare straggler. The form is peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, 
though there are some nearly allied species in North America. All are unmusical birds, that feed their young on 
insects, and consume much unripe corn. 

Of the British species, the Corn Bunting (EZ. miliaria, Lin.) is the largest, and coloured like a Lark; beak 
stouter than in the others, and yellow in summer, horn-colour in winter ; plumage of both sexes alike: frequents 
inclosures. The male Yellow Bunting (2. citrinella) is distinguished by its clear yellow crown and breast, and 
abounds everywhere upon hedges and furze-brakes. The Cirl Bunting (£. cirlus) is allied to the yellow species, 
but smaller and shorter, with a black throat; particularly frequents the summits of elms, but breeds in the 
hedges, and is rarely seen far inland. The Reed Bunting (EZ. scheniculus) has a black head and gorget, and 
white ring round the neck ; the black concealed in winter (at least in the young, less so in the old birds,) by deci- 
duous edgings to the feathers: it inhabits watery localities. Lastly, the Ortolan Bunting (Z. hortulana) has a 
greenish head, with a pale yellow streak proceeding from the angle of the bill. It is very rare in this country, but 
abundant in many parts of the Continent, where, with some other species, it is fattened and eaten as a great 
delicacy. ] 


M. Meyer has distinguished from the Buntings 


Tue Snowr.ecks (Plectrophanes),— 


Which have a long hind-claw as in the Larks, [and lengthened wings]. Such is 


The Common Snowfleck (Emb. nivalis, Lin.).—[{Beak and upper parts deep black in summer, the rest, and the 
wings and tail partly, white, the feet black : in winter the black and white are more or less concealed by brown 
margins to the feathers, and the beak is yellow. In its nest, eggs, notes, and various other characters, this species 
has little relationship with the Buntings. It abounds in the most northern countries, and migrates southward in 
large flocks during the inclement season, when it is common in North Britain. Another species (Pl. lapponica) 
is of very rare occurrence in this island. Two others have been distinguished. ] 


Tue Fincues (Fringilla, Lin.)— 


Have a conical beak, more or less stout at its base, but the commissure of which 1s not angular. They 
subsist generally on grain. 


* We are aware of no instance of this dilatation existing in any of the preceding genera of Passerina. 


Dn 8 —— 5508S ee 


PASSERINE. 199 


We subdivide them first into 
Tre Weavers (Ploceus, Cuv.),— 


The beak of which is so large that some of them have been classed with the Cassicans; but the 
straightness of its commissure distinguishes that of the latter, and the upper mandible is moreover slightly 
bulging. These birds are found in both continents, and the greater number of those of the eastern 
hemisphere are remarkably skilful nest-builders, which interweave blades of grass, a circumstance 
from which they derive their name. 


Such is the Philippine Weaver-bird (Lowxia Philippina, Lin.).—Yellow, spotted with brown; throat black. Its 
spherical pensile nest is entered by a vertical canal, which communicates with a lateral opening of the cavity 
wherein the eggs are deposited. 

Some of them build a vast number of contiguous nests, which form a single mass divided into numerous com- 
partments ; as 

The Social Weaver-bird (Lowia socia, Lath.) 


Among those of America, [which have been very properly separated, first into 


Tue Boparinks (Dolychonyx, Swainson)— 


Which have stiff pointed tail-feathers], we may distinguish 


The Rice-bird of the United States (Oriolus niger and orizivorus, and Corvus surinamensis, Gm.), innumerable 
flocks of which devastate the cultivated fields of several of the warmer parts of that continent. 

Nomenclators have not yet succeeded in reducing to order the various black birds of America, more or less allied 
to the Cassicans, [near which the Bobalinks should be also placed}. 


Tue Sparrows (Pyrgita, Cuv. [ Passer, Ray] ) 


Have the beak rather shorter than in the preceding, conical, and merely a little bulged towards the 


point. 

(There are five species in Europe, of which two inhabit Britain; the House Sparrow (Fring. domestica, Lin.), 
and the Tree Sparrow (F. montana, Lin.),—which latter has a maronne-coloured head, with the chin, and a spot 
on each side of the neck, black, its plumage being precisely alike in both sexes, and even the nestling young, and 
corresponding in its general character with that of the adult male only of the others. There are several more, all 
peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. The beak is always black in summer, horn-colour in winter. 

We have observed that the common House Sparrow, like most other birds that nestle upon buildings, (as the 
Starling, Jackdaw, Rook, Pigeon, Swallow, &c.), breeds in considerable numbers in the cliffs along the sea-coast, 
which is doubtless its aboriginal nesting-place. | 


Tue CuaFrFincues (Fringilla, Cuv.)— 
Have the beak less arcuated than in the Sparrows, stouter and more elongated than in the Linnets. 


There are three in Europe. The Common or White-winged Chaffinch (Fring. cvlebs, Lin.); the Mountain 
Chaffinch, or Brambling (F. montifringilla, Lin.), [which visits Britain in winter] ; and the Snow-finch (F. nivalis, 
Lin.), which nestles in the high Alps, and descends only in the depth of winter to the secondary ranges. [This 
bird, now generally ranking as the Montifringilla nivalis of Brehm, absolutely resembles the Common Snowfleck 
in all but the shape of its beak, which latter even becomes quite black in summer, as in that species: it affords, 
accordingly, one of the very numerous proofs that the value of the form of the bill, as a zoological character indi- 
cative of affinity, has been much over-estimated by systematists. In the true Chaffinches, the bill turns dark 
bluish in summer]. 

Tue GoiprincuEs (Carduelis, Cuv.)— 


Have an exactly conical beak, without any bulging; the tip prolonged to a sharp point. 


[There are two groups of them, characterized by plumage, and a slight difference of habit: in the first, the 
colouring is gay, the beak pale flesh-coloured in summer, and its point further attenuated. These are more parti- 
cularly designated Goldfinches. 

But two are known, the common European species (C. elegans), and another in the Himmalaya mountains of 
Asia (C. caniceps, Gould). The first is well known as a pleasing songster. 

The rest have a shorter bill, and less elongated form; the plumage variegated black and yellow, with always a 
black crown. They are commonly termed Siskins. Of numerous species, two only inhabit Europe, and one the 
British islands (#. spinus, Lin.).] 


Tue Linnets (Linaria, Bechst. [Linota, Bonap.] ) 
Have also an exactly conical bill, but which is less elongated. 


In some, however, its tip is comparatively drawn out. [These are generally known as Redpoles ; of which there 
are several species, not easy to discriminate : two occur in Britain—the Common or Small Redpole (/’. minor, Lin.), 
and the Mealy or Stone Redpoie (ZL. canescens, Gould), which latter is larger and stouter, with a whitish rump, 
that is scarcely tinged with the pink so conspicuous in the other. 


ae 


200 AVES. 


The Common or Song Linnet (Fr. cannabina, Lin.), is remarkable for the crown and breast plumage of the male, 
which, in winter, is dingy reddish-brown, concealed by terminal edgings, that disappear in spring, at which season 
the colour changes to bright crimson : the same enhancement of tint obtains, though to a less extent, in the preceding 
species, the coronal and breast feathers of which are pink in winter, brightening considerably towards the breeding 
season. It is remarkable that none of these birds ever acquire their gay tints in captivity, although they breed 
freely when encaged. The same applies to several allied groups, as the Crossbills and Erythrospize, or purple 
Finches of the North, which latter are intermediate to the Linnets and Corythi. 

There is a fourth British species, of inferior size to the last, with a smaller bill of a wax-yellow colour, and no 
pink except on the rump; the Twite, or Mountain Linnet (F. montium, Gm.), which abounds in the most northern 
districts of the island, and upon upland heaths, migrating southward in winter. 


Various species more or less yellow are known as Serins or Canary-birds [the latter having the bill 
comparatively bulging. 

We can only notice] the Canary, so abundantly bred in captivity (I. canaria, Lin.), the domesticated varieties 
of which are so numerous that it is difficult to assign the original colour. It hybridizes with various other Finches, 
producing mules that are more or less capable of propagation. [The original stock is still wild in the islands from 
which this species takes its name: individuals occasionally learn to pronounce words with remarkable precision 
and articulation. 

Tue Warpaus (Vidua, Cuy.)— 
Are African and Indian birds, with the beak of a Linnet, sometimes a little bulged at its base, [the 
males of] which are distinguished by the extraordinary elongated covert feathers above the tail, [at 
least during the breeding season]. 


They grade without assignable interval into the Linnets. 


Tue Grospeaxs (Coccothraustes, Cuv.)— 
Possess an exactly conical beak, which is distinguished only by its extreme thickness. 


The Haw Grosbeak (Lowvia coccothraustes, Lin.), is one of those particularly worthy of the name, [though its beak 
is slight in comparison with that of some others].—Crown and back chestnut-brown, neck and rump ash-coloured, 
{beak dark bluish in summer, flesh-coloured in winter; the secondary feathers of the wing abruptly truncated. 
Its sternal apparatus is figured at p. 178, as characteristic of the whole enormous group of Passerine]. This bird 
inhabits wooded districts, nestles upon beech or fruit-trees, and feeds on all sorts of kernels. [Is not rare in some 
parts of South Britain, but in general extremely wild and shy of approach. ] 

The Green Grosbeak, Green Linnet, or Green-finch, (Lox. chloris, Lin.)—[One of the commonest of British 
birds ; its bill turns pale flesh-colour in summer, as in the Goldfinch. 


Among the very numerous groups of foreign Finches and Grosbeaks, a strongly marked subdivision is 


that of 
Tue Amapuvats (4madina, Swainson), 


The beak of which is short and slightly bulging. 


Such is the Java Sparrow, so abundantly brought alive from the Indian Archipelago, and numerous diminutive 
species of pleasing colours, several of which inhabit Australia. 


Tue Waxsi.ts (Estrilda, Swainson)— 
Are nearly allied, and also approximate the Reedlings: they have a smaller and somewhat arched 
bill, and long graduated tail. 


Of several species, one is very commonly brought alive to this country, with delicate grey plumage transversely 
rayed, and a crimson streak through the eye; beneath the tail black, as in the Bearded Reedling. 
They inhabit the same countries as the Amaduvats]. 


Tue Pirytus, Cuv. 


The beak as thick as in the Grosbeaks, a little compressed, arched above, and sometimes a salient 
angle at the middle of the upper jaw. 

[Among the various groups to which the above definition is more or less applicable, we may parti- 
cularly notice one lately discovered at the Gallipago Isles, 


Tue Geospiza, Gould,— 
Wherein the beak varies singularly in shape and stoutness, notwithstanding which there is an exceed- 
ingly strong resemblance in every other character, which forbids their separation. They are chiefly 
ground-birds, with sombre plumage and short tails. 


a a eS 
a es A 


PASSERINE. 201 


Mr. Gould subdivides them into Geospiza as restricted, with the bill of a Cardinal-finch (Guarica),—Camaryn- 
chus, with that of a Corythus,—Cactornis, wherein the beak resembles that of an Icterus,—and Struthidea, 
wherein it even approaches the slender bill of an Accentor]. 


THe CARDINAL-FINCHEsS ( Guarica, Swainson)— 


Have nearly the beak of the Grosbeaks, but slightly bulging, and are peculiar to America. 
The Virginian Nightingale, as it is termed (Low. cardinalis, Lin.), is a well-known example. 


Some have the beak remarkably compressed; and a species in which this compression attains its 


ultimatum, constitutes 
PaRrADOxORNIS, Gould,— 


Wherein the curved ridge of the upper mandible forms an acute angle, its sides do not bulge, and the 
cutting edge is deeply sinuated. 
The only known species (P. flavirostris, Gould,) mhabits the Himmalayas. 


Naturalists have long separated 


THE BuLiFINcHEs (Pyrrhula),— 
Which have a rounded and every where bulging bill, [the tip of the upper mandible overhanging the 
lower one. Plumage soft and very dense]. 

The Common Bullfinch (Loxia pyrrhula, Lin.].—Ash-colour above, vivid tile-red below, with black cap, [tail, and 
wings partly, the rump white]. Female dull reddish-brown where the male isred. [Young destitute of the black 
cap. There is a race, considerably larger in all its proportions, but otherwise exactly resembling, in eastern Eu- 
rope; another in Japan, differing inconsiderably in colour, but undoubtedly distinct ; and a fourth on the Himma- 
layas (P. erythrocephala), more strongly characterized). 


Tue Crosspitis (Lowvia, Brisson)— 
Have a compressed beak, the mandibles of which are so strongly curved, that their tips cross each 
other, and not always on the same side. This extraordinary bill enables them to extract the seeds 
from pine-cones with astonishing facility. 

(These birds present a singular modification of the same particular type to which the Siskins and Redpole Lin- 
nets appertain; than which they are merely stouter built, with the tips of the beak still more prolonged, and 
anomalously modified, in adaptation to peculiar habits. The species are very indeterminate, but there appear to 
be several of them, successively increasing in stoutness and strength of bill, but differing in no other particular ; 
and as one of them only is distinguished by white bars on the wing, like a common Chaffinch, which character is 
found in individuals only of a particular size, this circumstance militates against the rest being considered varie- 
ties of one another. 

That common in western Europe (Lox. curvirostra, Lin.), is of medium strength, and of late years has become 
considerably more abundant than formerly in the British Isles, where it was previously chiefly known as an occa- 
sional and very irregular visitant. The Parrot Crossbill (L. pytiopsittacus, Bechst.), is larger and stouter, with a 
much stronger beak, the points of which rarely pass the ridge of the opposite mandible. It is of very rare occur- 
rence in Britain, where the white-winged species (L. leucoptera), which is chiefly found in America, has also 
occurred as a straggler. The nestling plumage of these birds corresponds with that of a Redpole, and the males 
afterwards assume, most irregularly, a red or buff-yellow garb, brightest on the crown, breast, and rump. Their 
call-note, and all their actions, strikingly recall to mind those of a Goldfinch or Redpole.] 


Tue Prne-FINCHES (Corythus, Cuv.)— 
[Are simply Crossbills, devoid of the peculiar character from which those birds derive their name, 
with rather softer and less firm plumage, and a beak scarcely differing from that of the Bullfinches. 


They have also the same irregularity of colour, and their habits are nearly similar. One species (C. enucleator) 
is common in the northern pine-forests of both continents; there is a second in northern Asia, and the Pyrrhula 
longicaudata, Tem., constitutes a third.] 


Tue Cotes (Colius, Gmelin)— 
Are still very near the preceding, [a remark of the author perfectly unaccountable]. Their beak is 
shost, thick, conical, a little compressed, the two mandibles being arcuated without either passing 
beyond the other* ; tail-feathers [ten in number, much] graduated, and exceedingly long [and rigid] ; 
the thumb, as in the Swifts, capable of being directed forwards like the other toes; their plumage, 
fine and silky, [short, dense, and smooth,] is generally of an ash-colour, [and the coronal feathers are 


elongated, forming an erectile pointed crest: the body feathers possess an accessory plume, and are 


* The upper mandible does considerably overhang the other.—Ep. 


eS 


ee ES SS EE 


202 AVES. 


very short over the rump]. They are birds of Africa and India, which climb somewhat in the manner of 
Parrots, live in troops, and even breed in society, constructing numerous nests in the same bushes ; 
lastly, they sleep suspended to a branch, with the head downward, many of them together, and subsist 
on fruits [the buds of trees, and tender sprouts of vegetables. 


These very curious birds are closely allied by affinity to the Plantain-eaters and Touracos, and have no especial 
character of the Passerine. They sail from bush to bush in a long row one atter another, alighting always near 
the ground, and clambering to the topmost twig with the assistance of the beak and long stiff tail, picking off the 
buds or berries; and do not pass to the next until the whole flock are ready, when they again sail in the same 
regular succession. They are very mischievous in gardens in the Cape colony, devouring the young plants of 
vegetables as fast as they spring up; and are there known by the term Muys-végel, or “* Mouse-bird :” their cry 
is monotonous, (having but one pair of vocal muscles,) and in the largest species closely resembles the bleating of 
alamb. They constitute the ordinary food of several species of Birds of Prey, and have remarkably heavy, massive 
bodies, for their apparent size, the plumage lying flat and close]. 


Here also should be placed 
Tur Oxpeckers (Buphaga, Brisson), — 

A small genus, wherein the beak, of medium length, is first cylindrical, both mandibles bulging 
towards the end, which terminates obtusely. They employ it to compress the skin of cattle, in order 
to force out the larve of @stride lodged within it, upon which they feed. [The claws are accordingly 
extraordinarily sharp, to enable them to cling while so occupied. 

Two species are now known, both from South Africa: they strictly pertain to the Starling family, and have no 
sort of relationship with the Honeyguides (near which some systematists place them), being true Passerine.] 

Tue Cassicans (Cassicus, Cuv.)— 

Have a large beak, exactly conical, thick at the base, and singularly sharp at the point ; small round 
nostrils pierced at its sides; the commissure of the mandibles forming a broken line, or an angle as in 
the Starlings. They are American birds, with manners approaching those of our Starlings, [at least in 
some instances,] frequently construct their nests close together, and sometimes with much art. They 
subsist on insects and grain, and the numerous flocks of them commit great ravages in the cultivated 
districts. 

We subdivide them into 

Tue Cassicans, properly so called, (Cassicus, as restricted), 

Wherein the beak mounts upon the forehead, encroaching circularly on the plumage. The largest 
species are included in this group. 


[Some are very superior songsters, and rival the Mocking-bird in mimicry.] 


Tue Bartimorss (Jcterus, Cuv.)— 
Have the beak arcuated throughout its length, and forming only a pointed notch on the forehead. 


[This name is now generally applied to the Baltimore-birds of North America, with some proximate species from 
the southern continent. They do not congregate, and build an elegant pensile nest, as do also the preceding. 
The males are several years attaining their mature colouring. | 

Tur Trooprats (Xanthornus, Cuv.) 
Only differ from the last in having the beak straight. 


[Certain of these, the true Troopiais (Aglaius, Swainson), have a comparatively short beak, thick at the base. 
Their habits are those of the Starlings, and they are exceedingly destructive in the maize plantations: they breed 
in small societies, sometimes on or near the ground, and where opportunities occur, in the interstices of the 
massive nests of the Osprey; it is said that the proportions ofthe sexes in these little communities are very irre- 
gular, which would intimate that they do not pair*; a circumstance the less unlikely, from their close affinity to 
the next, or 

The Molothrahs (Molothrus, Swainson) ; of which two species are now known, both parasitic in their mode of 
propagation, depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds, like the Cuckoo of Europe: these certainly do not 
mate. They are distinguished by a still shorter bill, and differ little in their habits from the Troopials. 

Several other natural subdivisions have been instituted, of which the Bobalinks, or Rice-birds, have been already 
noticed (p. 199). The Chewinks (Pipilo, Vieillot,) with a bulging sparrow-like bill, pertain to the same group ; 
and there are others which approximate the Crows, as the divisions Quiscalus, Scoiephagus, &c., and even the 
Larks, as Stwrnella, Swainson, the members of which have the beak obtusely pointed, like the true Starlings, and 
are nearly related to the Bobalinks]. 


PASSERIN ZZ. 203 


THe Oxyryncuvus, Tem., 
Has a conical and very sharp bill, [not thick, and] shorter than the head. 


The only known species (Ov. flammiceps, Tem.), has a partly red crest, like many Tyrants. [The affinities of 
this bird are most puzzling. It obviously belongs to the distinct division Passerine, and therefore has no parti- 
cular relationship with the Woodpeckers, contiguous to which it is arranged by some. Colour, green above, 
whitish and spotted like a Thrush on the breast. Inhabits Brazil.] 


Tue Firprts, Butf. (Daenis, Cuv.)— 
Represent the Baltimores on a diminutive scale, having the beak conical and sharp-pointed. 
(They consist of some of the Sylvicoles, p. 191.] 


THe Starines (Sturnus, Lin.)— 
Differ from the Troopials only by a compressed beak, particularly towards the point, [which is obtuse 


aud nail-like. 

(There are two in Europe, one generally diffused, and extending eastward to China,— 

The Common Starling (St. vulgaris, Lin.).—At first dull brown, then finely glossed black, with a pale tip to each 
feather, imparting a pretty speckled appearance; the clothing feathers are successively more elongated and 
pointed for several moults, and most of their pale terminal specks finally disappear altogether, the bill also 
becoming rich yellow. It is easily tamed and taught to speak*, and very social in its habits, flying in large 
flocks: flesh bad-tasted. The other species (S¢. wnicolor) has still longer pointed clothing feathers, and never 
any whitish spots: inhabits the south of Europe, and particularly Sardinia. ] 


We can perceive no characters of sufficient importance to sanction the separation, from the 
Conirostres, of the genera belonging to the family of Crows, which have precisely the same 
internal structure, as well as the same external organs, being distinguished only by a much 
greater size, which allows some of them to pursue other birds; their strong beak is often 


laterally compressed. 
The genera are three in number, viz., the Crows, Birds of Paradise, and the Rollers [which 
last alone do not possess the distinctive characters of the Passerine]. 


Tue Crows (Corvus, Lin.)— 
Have a strong beak, more or less compressed, and the nostrils covered with stiff incumbent bristles 
directed forwards. They are sagacious birds, and their sense of smelling is very acute; they have 
generally the habit of purloining articles that are quite useless to them, as pieces of money, &c. 

We apply the name of Crow, or Raven, more particularly to certain large species, which have the 
stoutest beaks of any, and the ridge of the upper mandible most arcuated. Their tail is round or 
square. © 

The Raven (C. corax, Lin.), is the largest Passerine bird found in Europe, equalling a fowl in size. Its plumage 
is wholly black, the tail rounded; ridge of the upper mandible arched anteriorly. Its habits are more retiring 
than those of its congeners, [except where it is quite unmolested] ; flight, vigorous and lofty ; scents carrion at the 
distance of a league; and also feeds on fruit and upon small animals, even carrying off poultry ; it nestles on lofty 
trees or in steep precipices, is easily tamed, and readily learns to speak. This bird appears to be found in all 
parts of the world, [a fallacious opinion, very generally received : few travellers that have seen a large black spe- 
cies of Corvus have troubled themselves to ascertain that it was the Raven ; and collectors have generally neglected 
to procure a bird, which they supposed was not uncommon at home; the truth being, that there are as many as 
six or seven species confounded under the name, several of which are readily distinguishable upon actual com- 
parison. The similitude of the common Crow and Rook of Europe should have rendered naturalists cautious in 
identifying the species of this genus]. 

The Corby Crow (C. corone, Lin.).—A fourth less than the Raven, with a square tail, and beak less arcuated. 

The Rook (C. frugilegus, Lin.).—Smaller still, with a [comparatively] straight beak, more pointed than that of 
the last. Excepting when young, the head is bare of feathers as far back as the eyes, which the bird probably 
wears off in digging up the grubs on which it feeds. 

These two species live in great flocks, nestling even in society ; [certainly, however, not the first of them]. They 
devour grain as well as insects. Are found throughout Europe; remaining in the winter, however, only in the 
milder districts. [The Corby Crow is much more carnivorous than the Rook, and very destructive to eges and 
young game: we have knownit attempt to fly off with a young Turkey nearly as big as itself: it is very seldom 
that the Rook attacks other birds, but we have known a party of this species to destroy a brood of Missel Thrushes 
that had recently left the nest. ] 


* We have known a Starling to learn the song of the Nightingale, and warble it to perfection, 


SSS ee A 


a a nt 


204 AVES. 


The Hooded Crow (C. cornix, Lin.).—Ash-coloured, with black head, tail, and wings. Is less frugivorous, and 
frequents the sea-shore, preying on shelled mollusks, &c. ; {feeds much on carrion and garbage]. Naumann 
assures us that it often breeds with the black Crow, and produces fertile offspring [the truth being, we believe, 
that black varieties of the Hooded Crow now and then occur, as is indeed said to be the case by several authors. ] 

The Jackdaw (C. monedula, Lin.).—A fourth shorter than the three last, or about the size of a Pigeon, and black, 
with a pale gray nape; builds in steeples, old towers, &c., [and the holes of trees,] lives in flocks, and subsists on 
the same regimen as the others, frequently flying with them. Predatory birds have no enemy more vigilant. 
[These are the British species, and there are many more: one (C. spermologus, Vieillot) inhabits central Europe]. 


Tue Maeprss (Pica, Cuv.)— 
Are less than the Crows, [and slighter built]; have also the upper mandible more arcuated than the 
lower, and the tail long and much graduated. 


The European Magpie (Corv. pica, Lin.)—A very handsome bird, of a silky black, with purple, blue, and bronzed 
reflections: the belly white, and a great white patch over each wing. Its continual chattering has rendered it 
celebrated. It prefers the neighbourhood of human habitations, and subsists on all sorts of food, even carrying 
off young poultry. [Specimens from North America are undistinguishable; but there is another species in that 
continent, with a yellow bill, and differently bronzed tail (P. Nuttalli, Aud.); and we have seen a species from 
Norway, hitherto undescribed, much smaller in all its proportions than the common Magpie, with tail resembling 
that of the Yellow-billed species. We will term it P. scandiaca. 

There are several birds nearly allied, with magnificent azure plumage; and some with shorter bills, and more 
strictly arboreal conformation, as the Indian P. vagabunda, which compose the Dendrocitta of Gould]. 


THE Jays (Garrulus, Cuv.)— 
Have both mandibles slightly elongated, and terminated by a sudden curve; when the tail is gradu- 
ated, the bill is more lengthened; and the frontal feathers, lax and disunited, are more or less erected 
when the bird is excited. 

The European Jay (Corv. glandarius, Lin.) is a handsome bird, of a vinaceous-grey colour, with black quills 
and moustaches, and a beautiful mottled patch on each wing, rayed with bright blue. It subsists principally on 
acorns during the season. Is very imitative, and nestles in our woods, living in pairs or families. [There are two 
closely allied species—the Syrian Jay, distinguished by a black crown, and that of Japan, which has black cheeks ; 
the proportions of the ornamental patch on the wing are also different. Other proximate species occur on the 
Himmalaya mountains. 

The Jays with longer and more slender bills, and graduated tails, are all smaller, and constitute the Cyanocorax 
of Boié, in part. There are four species in North America, of which the well-known Blue Jay (G. cristatus) affords 
a familiar example. A species of this group occurs on the Himmalaya mountains of Asia, and we are disposed also 
to refer to it the Peca cyanea, Wagler, common in Spain. The Whiskey-jacks (Perisoreus, Bonap.) compose another 
small natural group, scarcely differing from the Pari in structure, and but little in habit: the European Core. 
infaustus, Lin., and C. canadensis, Lin., of North America, belong to it.] 


Tur Nutcrackers (Caryocatactes, Cuv.; Nucifraga, Vieillot)— 
Have both mandibles equally pointed, straight, and without curvature. 

The European Nutcracker (Corv. caryocatactes, Lin.).—Brown, speckled with whitish all over the body. It nes- 
tles in the holes of trees, in dense mountain forests ; climbs trees and perforates their bark, like the Woodpeckers; 
devours all sorts of fruit, insects, and small birds; and sometimes comes in flocks into the plains, but without 
regularity. Is celebrated for its confidence. [There is a larger species, closely allied, on the Himmalayas; and a 
third in America, without any spots, the Corvus columbianus, Wilson]. 


Tue Tremra, Vaillant (Crypsirina, Vieillot ; Phrenotrix, Horsfield),— 
With the front and tail of the Magpies, combines an elevated bill, and bulged upper mandible, the 
base of which is adorned with velvety feathers, nearly as in the Birds of Paradise. 


The first-known species (Corv. varians, Latham), is of a bronzed green colour. These birds are found in Africa 
and India. 
Tue Giaucopts, Forster,— 


A similar beak and front, but two fleshy caruncles at the base of the bill. 

The known species (GJ. cinerea, Lath.), inhabits New Holland, and is the size of a Magpie, blackish, with a 
graduated tail; it lives on insects and berries, seldom perches, and is esteemed good eating. 

Tue Rotiers (Coracias, Lin.)— 

Have a strong beak, compressed towards the tip, with the point of the upper mandible a little hooked ; 
oblong nostrils placed at a slight distance from the plumage, and not covered by incumbent feathers ; 
the feet short and stout [with their outer and middle toes free to the articulation]. They are peculiar 
to the eastern hemisphere, and bear some resemblance to the Jays in their manners, and in their lax 
frontal feathers ; are vividly coloured, but in general not harmoniously. 


PASSERINE. 


Their anatomy offers some peculiarities which connect them with the Kingfishers and Wood- 
peckers ; the sternum (fig. 94) is doubly emarginated, they have but one pair of Jaryngeal muscles, 
and the stomach is membranous; [they have also no cceca to the intestine. In every essential par- 
ticular they thus accord with the Kingfishers and Bee-eaters, with which they form a special natural 
group, all the members of which take their food commonly on the wing, lay numerous polished 
white eggs, of an almost spherical shape, in holes of some description, collecting no nest, the young 

retaining their first plumage, which is little less bright than that 
of the adult, until the second autumn: the whole of them subsist 
exclusively on animal diet]. 


THE Roiiers, properly so called,— 


Have a straight beak, higher than broad, [and comparatively 
elongated]. 


There is one in Europe (C. garrula, Lin.).—Vivid sea-green, with red- 
dish-fulyous back and scapularies; some pure blue at the bend of the 
wing; and size about equal to that of a Jay. It is a very wild bird, 
though social with its own kind; noisy; which nestles in the holes of 
trees in the forests, and leaves at the approach of winter. It feeds on 
worms, insects, and small Frogs. Some have the exterior tail-feathers 
elongated, [as in the common Swallow ; and there is one species, inhabit- 
ing South Africa, which is stated to perch and watch for prey on the 


horn of the Rhinoceros, giving notice to that animal of the approach of 
Fig. 94.—Sternum of Roller. the hunter]. 


THE Ro..es (Colaris, Cuy., Eurystomus, Vieillot), 
Differ from the preceding by having a shorter and more arcuated bill, and particularly by its being 
widened at the base, which is broader than high. 


[The species are less numerous; and there is one inhabiting Australia. ] 


Tue Brros-oFr-PaRrADIsE (Paradisea, Lin.), 
Have a straight, compressed, stout, and unemarginated beak, with covered nostrils, as in the Crows; 
but the influence of the climate they inhabit, which extends to birds of several other genera [so far 
as the beak is concerned], imparts a velvety texture, and frequently also a metallic gloss, to those fea- 
thers which overlie the nostrils, while the plumage of various other parts acquires a singular develope- 
ment. These birds are indigenous to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. From the mode in 
which the specimens brought to Europe are prepared by the savages of those countries, it was for- 
merly thought that they were quite destitute of limbs, and supported themselves entirely by their airy 
plumes. It is said that they live on fruits, and are particularly fond of aromatics. [They also subsist 


largely upon insects. | 

Some of them have thinly-barbed feathers on the flanks, [or rather shoulder-tufts, which cover the closed 
wing,] inordinately prolonged, so as to form immense tufts, that extend far backward beyond the body; there 
are also two [generally] barbless filaments [the uropygials] attached to the rump, which are even more elongated 
than the airy lateral plumes. Such are 

The Emerald Bird-of-Paradise (P. apoda, Lin.), which is the most anciently known species ; andthe Red (P. rubra, 
Vaillant). These compose the Samalia of Vieillot. [They are large birds, much more so than the contracted 
skins brought to Europe, which are evidently shrunk by the application of great heat, would lead to suppose: it 
is only in such specimens that the wings and legs appear disproportionately large. ] 

Others have the same long filaments, but their lateral tufts, though still elongated, do not extend past the tail. As 

The King Bird-of-Paradise (P. regia, Cincinnurus regius, Vieillot), and the Magnificent B. (P. magnifica, Sonne- 
rat), [which are very distinct, generically, from the preceding]. 

Some have the thinly-webbed feathers on the flanks, but they are short, and the filaments on the rump are 
wanting, as 

The Six-stemmed B. (P. aurea, Gm.; P. sexsetacea, Shaw), with a golden-green spot on the throat, and three 
long filaments proceeding from each ear, which are terminated by a small disk of barbs of the same colour. It 
constitutes the Parotia of Vieillot. 

Lastly, there are some with neither elongated filaments nor lateral tufts (the Lophorina, Vieillot), as 

The Superb B. (P. superba, Sonnerat), and the Golden B. (P. aurea, Shaw; Oriolus aureus, Gmelin), [which 
last is congenerous with the Australian Regent-bird, and therefore a Sericulus.] 


The fourth family of the Passerine, or that of 


206 AVES. 


THE TENUIROSTRES,— 


Comprehends the remainder of this first division; the Birds composing it being distinguished 
by a slender, elongated, sometimes straight and sometimes curved bill, devoid of emargina- 
tion. They bear the same relation to the Conirostres which the Bec-fins do to the other 


Dentirostres. 
Tue Nuruatcues (Sitta, Lin.),— 


Have a straight, prismatic, pointed beak, compressed towards the tip, which they employ like the 
Woodpeckers to perforate the bark of trees, [and particularly to scale it off], to get at their insect- 
food; and although they climb in every direction, they have only one toe directed backward, which is 
certainly very strong. Their tail is of no use in supporting them, as in the Woodpeckers and Tree- 
creepers. [These birds also feed largely on various seeds, and are celebrated for the instinct of fixing 
a nut in a chink, while they pierce it with the bill, swinging the whole body as upon a pivot, to give 
effect to each stroke. They lay up stores of focd, like the Tits. 

Of several species, three inhabit Europe, and one the British Isles, which is not uncommon (S. europea, Lin.).— 
Ash-grey above, yellowish beneath, with dark rufous flanks and under tail-coverts, the latter spotted with white ; 
a black streak through the eye, and round white spots on the tail-feathers ; size, that of a Robin. Its note is 
remarkably loud, and disposition fearless. } 

THE Xenops, Illiger,— 


Have merely the beak rather more compressed, and its inferior ridge more convex. 


Tue ANABATES, Temminck,— 
Have, on the contrary, the superior ridge a little convex, almost like the beak of a Thrush, without 
emargination. The tail is long and wedge-shaped, and occasionally worn, which intimates that it is 


employed for sustension. In 
Tue SynALuaxis, Vieillot,— 


The beak is straight, not much elongated, slender, and pointed; the tail-feathers are generally long 
and sharp. There are even some of them in which the shafts of those feathers are stout, and pro- 


longed beyond the barbs. 
Tue Creepers (Certhia, Lin.)— 


Have an arcuated bill, but little else in common. We subdivide them first into 


Tue TREE-CREEPERS (Certhia, Cuv.),— 
So named from their habit of traversing the boles of trees, in the manner of the Woodpeckers, [that 
is, in an ascending direction only], their tail, which terminates in similar stiff points, serving to sup- 
port them. 

There is one in Europe, the European Tree-creeper (C. familiaris, Lin.), a diminutive species, reddish-brown 
above, speckled with whitish, inclining to ferruginous on the rump, and pure glistening white underneath. It 
nestles in the holes of trees, and ascends their trunks with rapidity, searching for the insects and larve concealed 
in their chinks, and among the mosses and lichens. [Is very common throughout Britain]. 


America produces some true Creepers of comparatively large size, which have heen termed 


DenprocoLaptes, Hermann. 

Their tail is the same, but the beak is much stronger and wider. 

There is even one of them which approaches the Nuthatches in its straight and compressed beak: it might be 
taken for a Nuthatch with a worn tail (Oriolus picus, Gm. and Lath.; Gracula picoides, Shaw; or Dendy. 
guttatus, Spix). 

The beak of another, twice as long as the head, is arched only towards the tip (Je Nasican of Vaillant). That of 
a third is long, slender, and as much arcuated as in Melithreptus. 


Tue TrcHopromgs (Tichodroma, Illiger), 
Or Wall-creepers, do not lean upon the tail, although they creep up walls and rocks as the preceding 
do the trunks of trees, but they cling to them with their strong claws. Their beak is triangular and 


depressed at its base, very long and slender. [They moult twice in the year. ] 

One only is known, an inhabitant of the south of Europe (Certhia muraria, Lin.). It is a handsome bird of a 
light ash-colour, with some bright red on the wings. Throat of the male black [in summer. The affinities of 
this curious little bird are not obvious]. 


Tur Honry-suckers (Nectarinea, Mliger)— 
Neither use the tail, nor indeed climb, although their beak, of medium length, arched, pointed, and 
compressed, resembles that of the Tree-creepers. A. uf them are foreign. 


ye pee 
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3, Troelilus Cora, 


Trochilus J)avadiamnis 


Trochihis Cinstatus bt. Trocbilus Auratus. 


PASSERIN . 207 


The name Guit-guit is applied to certain small species, the males of which have vivid colours. Their tongue is 
bifid and filamentous. Certhia cyanea, 'Tem., and C. cerulea, Edwards, are American examples, to which we add 
some eastern species, most of which are red,—the Cwreba, Vieillot. 

We may separate, however, the largest and least handsome of them, wherein the tongue is short and cartila- 
ginous ; as the Merops rufus of Spix, which constructs a nest upon shrubs, arched over like an oven, and of which 
M. Temminck forms his genus Opetiorhynchus, and M. Vieillot his Furnarius. The Figulus of Spix does 
not differ. 


DiczvuM, Cuv. 


The members of this group also do not climb, nor employ the tail: their arched and pointed beak, 
longer than the head, is depressed and widened at its base. 


They inhabit the East Indies, are very small, and have generally some scarlet on their plumage. 
} 

In 

MELITHREPTUS, Vieillot,—/ 


The tail is also not used, and the beak is extremely elongated, and curved almost to a semicircle. They 
inhabit the South-sea Islands. | 


One species (Certhia vestiaria, Shaw) is covered ‘with scarlet feathers, of whicn the natives of the Sandwich 
Isles manufacture the beautiful mantles of that colour, which are so highly prized. 


Tae Sun-sirps (Cinnyris, Cuv.)— 


Do not lean on the tail; the edges of their long and very slender beak are finely serrated ; the tongue, 
which is capable of protrusion, terminates in a little fork. They are small birds, the males of which 
have most brilliant metallic colours during the season of propagation, approaching the Humming- 
birds in beauty ; of which, in this respect, they are the representatives in the Eastern Continent, 
being found principally in Africa and the Indian Archipelago. They subsist on the nectar of flowers, 
which they suck up; are of a lively disposition, and sing agreeably. Their beauty renders them a great 
ornament in our cabinets; but the garb of the female sex, and of the male in winter, is so different 
that the species are not easy to characterize. 

In some, the tail is even; in others, its two middle feathers are elongated in the males; and some are distin- 


guished by a straight beak, or nearly so. [In most of the true Cinnyrides, the lateral tuft of feathers, so enor- 
mously. developed in the Birds of Paradise, exists, of small size]. 


| 


THE SprpeR-catcHERs (Arachnotheres, Tem.)— 
Have the same long, arcuated beak, as the Sun-birds, but stronger and not dentelated ; their tongue is 
short and cartilaginous, and the known species inhabit the Indian Archipelago, where they live on 
Spiders. 

After all these distinctions, there are still other birds that should be separated from the great genus 
Certhia, some of which are merely Philedons, with the characters of that genus more developed. 


Tue Hummine-zirps (Trochilus, Lin.). 


These diminutive birds, so celebrated for the metallic lustre of their plumage, and particularly 
for the scale-like feathers, brilliant as gems, which offer a peculiar structure, have a long slender beak, 
inclosing a tongue capable of protrusion upon the same principle as that of the Woodpeckers, and which 
is split, almost to its base, into two filaments, employed, as is asserted, in sucking up the nectar of 
flowers. They also, however, feed on small insects, for we have found-their stomach filled with them. 
Their very small feet, great tail, excessively elongated and narrow wings, and their very large sternum 
(fig. 95) without posterior emargination, combine to produce a 
mode of flight similar to that of the Swifts, besides which the Hum- 
ming-birds balance themselves in the air by a rapid motion of the 
wings, like many Flies. It is thus they hem about flowering 
shrubs and plants, and fly more rapidly than any other bird. Their 
gizzard is very small, and they have no ceca, in which they ap- 
proximate the Woodpeckers. They live singly, defend their nests 
with courage [attacking, with their needle-like bills, the eyes of 
an intruder, which renders these minute creatures truly formida- 
ble], and fight with one another desperately. 


Fig. 95.—Sternum of Humming-bird. 


208 AVES. 


[The whole anatomy of a Humming-bird, internal as well as external, intimates a very close affinity with the 
Swifts: the beak and tongue even of which, though so different at first sight, will be found on examination to 
differ only in not being drawn out. The Humming-birds, however, have a complicated inferior larynx, and toes 
with the usual number of joints: their tail-feathers, asin the Swifts, are ten in number, save in one remarkable 
species (thence named 7. wnicurus), wherein they are reduced to six; the body-feathers have an accessory 
plume, &c. The beak varies exceedingly, in being more or less prolonged, straight, arched downward, or even 
recurved, like that of an Avocet, two species exhibiting which structure are now known : those which have straight 
beaks feed chiefly on minute insects, and have often the tip of the tongue furnished with retroflected lateral spines, 
nrecisely as in the Woodpeckers ; while in the majority with curved bills, the upper mandible shuts over and 
incloses the lower, forming a tube and admirable sucking instrument, adapted for drawing up the nectar of flowers 
between the tongue and palate: the tail assumes every form in different species, and some have the shafts of the 
alar quills extraordinarily thickened ; many have ornamental tufts of feathers, most variously disposed; and in 
short, the greatest variety of modifications are observable of the one general type, (which is not passerine,) though 
it is difficult or even-impossible to institute satisfactory subdivisions. 

Not less than a hundred and seventy species are now known, and others are constantly being discovered. All 
are from America, and, with few exceptions, from the southern division of that continent. The smallest of them, 
when plucked, are less than a large Bumble Bee; and one only, that is much larger than any others as yet known, 
(T. gigas, Auct.), nearly equals the common Swift in size: this bird is also one of the dullest-coloured, and its 
general resemblance to the Swifts is very manifest. Many, like the Swifts, employ a secreted mucus* in the con- 
struction of their nest, which is mostly placed on a horizontal, lichened bough; and they lay two similar white 
eggs, of an elongated form, that produce generally male and femaie.1 


Among 
Tue Hoopors (Upupa, Lin.), 
We first arrange 
Tue Cuovueus (Fregilus, Cuv.),— 

Wherein the nostrils are covered by feathers directed forwards, a characver which has induced some 
authors to place them with the Crows [most unquestionably their true station], to which their habits 
approximate. The beak is rather longer than the head, [slender, a little arcuated, singularly brittle, 
and much resembles red coral]. F 


The European or Red-legged Chough (Corvus graculus, Lin.).—Nearly the size of a Rook, and glossy black, with 
red bill and legs. Inhabits the loftiest Alps and Pyrenees, and nestles in the crevices of rocks, like the Chocard, 
than which it is less common, and also less gregarious. Fruit and insects are equally its food, and when it descends 
into the valleys, its presence is a sure forerunner of snow and bad weather. [This bird is not rare on many parts 
of the sea-coast of Britain, breeding in the highest cliffs, but upon none of our mountains, though occasionally on 
lofty buildings near the sea: parties of them are not unfrequently observed on Salisbury Plain, which is consider- 
ably inland; and their appearance is there considered an indication of stormy weather. They have all the man- 
ners, intelligence, thieving propensities, &c. of the Crows and Magpies, but invariably avoid walking upon turf ; 
their claws are hooked and very sharp, enabling them to cling to the face of perpendicular cliffs, while they insert 
their lengthened slender bill into crevices, picking out minute insects, which constitute their chief food. 
The bill and feet of the young are coloured while in the nest, but less brightly than those of the adults. Three or 
four additional species are known, one from New Holland.] 


Tue Hoopoks, properly so called, (Upupa),— 
Have a double range of long erectible feathers on the head, forming a splendid crest. 


[They possess none of the exclusive characters of the Passerine, and, upon 


ever, in several obvious particulars. They have a wide gape, and tongue very 
short and heart-shaped ; the mandibles much prolonged, obtusely terminated, 
flat, and not even grooved within; nostrils exposed, and a little removed from 
the base: the feet resemble those of a Lark, but are adapted for ascending steep 
surfaces, resting on the tarsal joint: ten tail-feathers only : a membranaceous 
stomach ; short intestines, probably devoid of cceca; and a peculiar sternal 
apparatus (fig. 96). Flight undulatory, like that of the Woodpeckers, which 
they also resemble in their mode of tapping with the bill. It is altogether one 
of the most isolated genera of Birds.] 

The European Hoopoe (U. epops, Lin.).—Of a rufous-chestnut colour, varied 
with black and white: it searches for insects in humid ground, nestles in the 
holes of trees or walls, and migrates southward in winter; [is singularly re- 
bi markable for its intelligence and susceptibility of attachment. There are one 
Fig. 96.—Sternum of Hoopoe. or two others, all peculiar to the eastern hemisphere]. 


* That is to say, not analogous to the macerated fucus with which the Esculent Swallow builds ; the Humming-birds, like the Woodpeckers, 
having immense salivary glands, in which the Swifts resemble them. 


the whole, resemble most nearly the Hornbills, from which they differ, how- | 


PASSERINE. 209 


Tuer Promeropses (Promerops, Brisson),— 


Are not crested, but possess a very long tail; their tongue, furcate and extensile, enables them to suck 
the nectar of flowers, like the Humming-birds and Sun-birds. 
(There are many species, found only in the warm regions of the eastern hemisphere. } 


Tue Eprmacuus, Cuy.,— 


Consists of Birds, which, with the beak of the Hoopoes and Promeropses, combine velvety or scale- 
like feathers, which partly cover the nostrils, as in the Birds-of-Paradise; they inhabit also the same 
countries, and have equally gorgeous plumage. The males have even tufts of lengthened feathers, 
more or less produced, upon the flanks. 


The Superb Epimachus (Upupa magna, Lin.).—Black, with a graduated tail, three times longer than the body ; 
the feathers on the flanks elongated, turned up, and frizzled, with the edges of a burnished steel-blue; and most 
magnificent coloured glosses on the plumage generally. 


Naturalists have distinguished the square-tailed species, or 


THE PriLoris, Swainson,— 


Such as the Twelve-wired Epimachus (Hp. albus; Paradisea alba, Blum.), which was long ranged among the 
Birds-of-Paradise, on account of the long bunches of white plumes which decorate its flanks, the stems of them 
being prolonged into six barbless filaments on each side. The body is usually violet-black, and the feathers on 
the bottom of the breast have an edging or border of emerald green. Ep. magnificus, Cuv., and Ep. regius, 
Lesson, are two other superb species of this subdivision. 


The second and smaller principal division of the Passerine consists of Birds wherein the 
outer toe is nearly as long as the middle one, and connected to it as far as the second joint. 
We make but one group of them, that of 


THe SYNDACTYLI, 


Long since divided into five genera, which we retain. [None of them are modified upon the 
distinct type of the Passerine. | 


THe Bee-narers (Merops, Lin.)— 


Have a lengthened beak, triangular at its base, slightly arcuated, and sharp-pointed. Their sternum 
(fig. 97) is doubly emarginated behind: [they have a membranaceous stomach, and no cceca; a short 
and heart-shaped tongue, and very thick skin.] Their long and pointed wings, and short feet, render 


Fig. 97.—Sternum of Bee-eater. 


their flight similar to that of a Swallow. They pursue insects in 
flocks, and particularly Bees and Wasps, by which it is remarkable 
that they are never stung [seizing the insect and at once crushing it 
by the snap of their powerfully compressive beak : are peculiar to the 
eastern hemisphere, and nearly allied to the Kingfishers and Rollers. 


These birds have brilliant plumage, and tail variously shaped, but gene- 
rally with the uropygial feathers elongated: they excavate deep holes in 
banks, like the Kingfishers, and lay similar spherical polished white eggs, six 
or eight in number; the young retaining their first plumage till the second 
autumn. 

Of numerous species, there is one common in the south of Europe during 
summer, but rare in the latitude of Britain, which it seldom visits (M. apias- 
ter, Lin.): another (M. persicus, Pallas), visits the south-east of Europe. 
These birds often watch their prey from the summit of trees, to which they 
return after skimming about for a minute or two. 


It is necessary to distinguish from them 


Tue Nycriornis, Gould,— 


Which have shorter beaks, and softer and denser plumage, loose and puffy upon the throat. Their 
habits are crepuscular or nocturnal, and their distribution is confined to Asia. 


Three or four species are known, which are very noisy during their time of activity]. 


The Bee-eaters are represented in America by 


Tuer Mormorts (Prionites, Hliger),— 


Which have the same feet and port [their tarsi being however longer], but differ by a stronger bill, 


P 


AVES. 


both mandibles of which are serrated, and by having the tongue barbed like a feather, as in the 
Toucans ; [also short and round wings]. They are handsome birds, approaching the size of a Magpie, 
with lax feathers on the head, as in the Jays, [and similar loosely-webbed plumage generally,] a long 
graduated tail, the two middle feathers of which are stripped of their barbs in the adults for a short 
space near the end, which occasions a particular form of tail, [this singular mutilation being performe: 
by the birds themselves]. They fly badly, live solitarily, nestle in holes {burrowed in sand-hills | 
subsist on [fruit and] insects, and even prey on small birds and other animals. 


(They are intermediate to the Bee-eater and Roller group, and that of the Toucans, but perfectly distinct from 
either: the stomach is stated by Le Vaillant to be tolerably fleshy. Six or seyen species are known]. 


Tue KryerisHers (Alcedo, Lin,)— 


Have feet still shorter than in the Bee-eaters, the beak longer, straight, angular, and pointed; the 
tongue and [in some instances] the tail very short. Their sternum (fig. 98) has two posterior emargina- 
tions, as in the Rollers and Bee-eaters. They live on small fish, which they take by precipitating 
themselves into the water from some branch, [or ar- 
resting themselves suddenly during rapid flight, poising 
for an instant and then plunging], and return to their 
perch to gulp their prey, [which they first kill by 
repeatedly beating it against the bough]. Their sto- 
mach is a membranous sac, [the intestines very long 
and slender, and without ccecaj]. They nestle like the 
Bee-eaters in holes of banks, and are found in both 
continents. 

That common throughout Europe (A. ispida, Lin.), is little 
larger than a Sparrow, of a mottled verditer green above, 
with a broad band of splendid ultramarine-blue along the 
back ; the under-parts rufous. [It exemplifies the group to 
which Alcedo is now more particularly restricted, with he- 
ron-like beak, short and rounded wings, splendid colouring, and very short soft tail; the members of which, all 
of small size, are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. 

Others, with similar beak, have little or no vivid colouring, longer wings and tail, and some are of much larger 
size,—the Ceryle of Boié. Species are found in both continents, and one (A. dis, Lin.) inhabits the east of Eu- 
rope. Of the natural group of Rollers, Bee-eaters, and Kingfishers, the present subdivision is the only one found 
in the New World. 

Numerous other species have lighter and inflated bills, resembling those of Storks; the wings and tail as in 
Ceryle, the latter in a few instances uneven: they prey on insects, and some of the larger species on crustaceans, 
and are known as the Halcyons (Halcyon, Swainson). 

Others, again, inhabit desert regions, which they traverse in search of Snakes and other reptiles: they have the 
general form of the Halcyons, with beak rather more approaching that of the true Kingfishers. They constitute 
the Dacelo of Leach, which comprehends the largest species of any: are peculiar to Australasia and Australia, 
in which latter country the most celebrated species (D. gigantea), which is remarkable for its loud and grating 
prolonged cry, is not uncommon. ] 


Fig. 98.—Sternum of Kingfisher. 


Tue Creyx, Lacepede,— 
Merely differs from the ordinary Kingfisher in the absence of the inner toe. 


There are three species in India, [which less require to be separated than the preceding]. 


Tue Toptes (7odus, Lin.)— 

Are small American birds, nearly similar to the Kingfishers in their general form ; and which have the 
same feet and elongated bill, except that the latter is horizontally flattened, and [generaliy] obtuse at 
its extremity, the tarsi being also more elevated, and the tail less shortened. [They have a small and 
tolerably muscular gizzard, and shorter intestines than perhaps any other bird, with great pedicillate, 
dilated cceca, resembling those of the Owls: the sternum is doubly emarginated, and similar to that of 
the Kingfisher (fig. 98), except that it is much shorter, with the crest very low: the tongue is pro- 
longed into a very thin lamina, like that of the Jacamars.] They live on insects, and nestle in the 
ground, [burrowing like the Kingfishers, but laying fewer eggs, which are spotted with buff or 
rust-colour. 


Three or four species are now known, all chiefly vivid-green, varied with other colours on the throat. They 


SCANSORES. 211 


have no affinity with various small flat-billed members of the Tyrant-flycatcher group, which have often been 
arranged with them by superficial writers]. 

We terminate the notice of this order by the most extraordinary of its genera, which bears less 
resemblance to the other Syndyctali than the latter do inter se, and which might very properly be 
ranged as a separate family. 

THe Horneitxs (Buceros, Lin.)— 

Great birds of Africa and India, the enormous [arched and] dentelated beak of which is surmounted 
by a protuberance, sometimes as large as the beak itself, or which latter is at least very much inflated 
above, as remarkably so as in the Toucans; while their port and habits approximate them to the 
Crows, and their feet are similar to those of the Kingfishers and Bee-eaters. The form of the rostral 
excrescence varies much with age, and in very young individuals there is even no trace of it percep- 
tible ; its interior is generally cellular, [or permeated by a fragile network of osseous fibres]. The 
sternum has but one slight emargination on each side behind, [and is otherwise peculiar]. The 
tongue is short [and heart-shaped, as in the Hoopoes, and the Roller, Bee-eater and Kingfisher group], 
and deep in the throat. [The stomach moderately muscular, and intestines rather short ard without 
cceca: they have only ten tail-feathers (as in the Hoopoes), and body-plumage short upon the rump, 
and everywhere destitute of the supplementary plume to the feathers: the eyelids are fringed with 
stout lashes, as if to guard the eyes from falling particles of dust disengaged by the rostral protube- 
rance, however that may be employed, which is unknown.* The bones are more completely permeated 
by air than in any other genus, the ambient fluid penetrating even the phalanges of the toes]. They 
subsist on all sorts of food, devouring tender fruits, chasing Mice, small birds and reptiles, without 
disdaining carrion ; [and breed in the hollows of decayed trees, producing four rounded white eggs. 

The species are very numerous, and one alone is distinguished from the rest by having a solid bony protube- 
rance to the bill, of medium size. The flight of these birds is sailing, and resembles that of a Crow; and on the 
ground they advance by a leaping mode of progression, assisted by the wings: the larger species are extremely 
shy and difficult of approach, and they always perch on the decayed branches of lofty trees, where their vision can 
command a wide range. It requires to be confirmed that any of them feed on vegetable diet when ina state of 
nature. | 


THE THIRD ORDER OF BIRDS,— 


THE CLIMBERS,+ [Zycopactry11, Tem.]— 


Consists of species wherein the outer toe is directed backward like the thumb [except in the 
Trogons, where the first and second toes are opposed to the third and fourth], from which 
results a more efficient grasp, which certain of the genera avail themselves of to cling to the 
trunks of trees, and so climb up them. The name of CiimBeErRs (Scansores) has, therefore, 
been appropriated to this division, although it does not rigorously apply to all its component 
members, and there are also several birds that climb equally well, the toes of which are dis- 
posed in the ordinary manner, as the Tree-creepers and the N uthatches. 

The Birds of this order nestle generally in the holes of decayed trees ; their flight is [ordi- 
narily] but moderate; their nourishment, as in the Passerine, consists of insects and fruits, 
according as the beak is more or less robust; and certain of them, as the Woodpeckers, are 
provided with special means of obtaiming it. 

In the greater number of genera, the sternum is doubly emarginated at its posterior edge ; 
but in the Parrots [which have no sort of affinity with any of the rest] there is merely a hole 
or foramen, and often not even this. 

; Tue Jacamars (Galbula, Brisson)— 
Hold a near relationship with the Kingfishers by their lengthened beak, which is pointed, with a sharp 
upper ridge, and by their short feet, the two front toes of which are connected to the second joint ; 


+ More properly speaking, yoke-footed birds, as the greater aum- 
ber of them do not climb.—Ep. 


* The Ani (Crotophaga) which have a very similar elevation of 
the beak to thatof several of the smaller Hornbills, have also the eyes 
guarded by lashes. 


AVKS. 


these, however, not being the corresponding toes to those which are joined together in the King- 
fishers. [The sternal apparatus (fig. 99) is most nearly related to that of the Bee-eaters, but much 
shorter, with a lower medial ridge; the Jacamars thus holding the same analogy with those birds which 
the Todies do to the Kingfishers ; and like the Todies, they have also a considerably lengthened, exceed- 
ingly thin, lamina-like tongue, a small and rather muscular gizzard, short intestines, 
and similar great cceca: both genera are very slightly made, have exceedingly thin 
skins, and soft puffy plumage (the character of the feathers being however different) ; 
the nostrils are a little removed from the base of the bill, and quite exposed; the 
gape is furnished with vibrisse ; and they subsist by taking insects in the manner 
By {\\\ of a Flycatcher]. Their feathers have always a brilliant metallic shine. They live 
A, pu), solitarily in humid woods, and nestle on low branches, [or, more probably, as Le Vail- 
ANS la dd I lant was informed, in the holes of trees, laying blue eggs]. 
Fig. 99.—Sternum of The American species have a long beak, which is quite straight [the diagnosis of the restricted 
acy Galbula.] These are much more numerous than the following. 
Others, from the Indian Archipelago, [a mistake of Le Vaillant, all the species inhabiting America, like the 
Todies,] have a shorter and more inflated beak, which is a little arched, and thus approximates that of the Bee- 
eaters. Their anterior toes are more separated. They constitute the Jacamerops of Le Vaillant, and that naturalist 


even figures one species devoid of the ridge to the upper mandible. 
Lastly, there is one in Brazil, which has only three toes. 


Tue Woopreckers (Picus, Lin.)— 
Are well characterized by their long, straight, and angular bill, the end of which is compressed into a 
wedge adapted for perforating the bark of trees; by their slender vermiform tongue, armed towards 
the tip with lateral retroverted spines, and which, by the action of the elastic cornua of the hyoid bone, 
can be thrust far out from the beak: and finally by their tail, composed of ten feathers with stiff and 
elastic stems, which serve them as a support in climbing, besides which the twelfth pair of tail-feathers 
invariably exist externally, of minute size. They are pre-eminently climbing birds, which traverse the 
bark of trees in every direction, [or rather, like the Tree-creepers, they are unable to proceed in a 
downward direction, otherwise than obliquely backward ; whereas the Nuthatches and 
Barbets climb perpendicularly upward or downward with equal facility]; striking with 
the beak, and insinuating their long tongue into chinks and crevices, to draw out the 
larve of insects on which they feed, [besides which, some of them subsist largely on 
acorns and nuts, even upon soft fruits, and on eggs.*] The tongue, in addition to 
its armature, is supplied with a viscid mucus secreted by large salivary glands, 
[which mucus is conveyed by a double duct that opens at its tip}: it is retracted by two 
muscles wound like ribands round the trachea, and when thus drawn in, the horns 
of the os hyoides slide round the skull beneath the skin nearly to the base of the 
upper mandible, the sheath of the tongue corrugating into folds at the bottom of the 
throat. Their stomach is nearly membranous, [though considerably less lax than in 
the Cuckoos]; and they have no cceca.t Shy and wary, these birds pass the greater 
portion of their time solitarily, and, at the nuptial season, may often be heard sum- 
moning the female by rattling the beak against a dead branch. They nidificate once 


a year in the holes of trees, and both sexes incubate by turns. 
[The species are extremely numerous, and generally distributed, with the exception of Australia. The great ma- 
jority have crimson feathers on the head, and the largest of them have the rest of the plumage mostly pied with 
white. Such, in America, are the great Californian Woodpecker (P. imperialis, Gould,) and the Ivory-billed and 
Pileated Woodpeckers, wherein the actual textnre of the beak closely resembles ivory; also, the Great Black 

’ Woodpecker of Europe, which is stated to have been sometimes met with in Britain. 

Others, forming an extremely numerous group, the Dendrocopus, Swainson, differ little but in being smaller 
and more mottled with white. They inhabit, like the former, northern or mountain districts, feed much on nuts 
and acorns, and never descend to the ground. Of four in Europe, two inhabit Britain, the Picus major and 
P. minor, Auctorum. 

Some, the Apternus, Swainson, are destitute of the ordinary hind-toe. There are several species, and one in 
northern Europe (P. tridactylus, Lin.) 

Many of those of tropical climates have full soft crests, and generally bald necks: these constitute the Malacolo- 
phus, Swainson. 


as 100.—Sternum of 
ied Woodpecker. 


* AupuBon, Pic. erythrocephalus. Woodpecker, two c@ca of moderate size. In many that we have ex 
+ Prof. Owen found, in a single individual of the common Green | amined, these appendages were invariably wauting.—Ep, 


SCANSORES. 213 


Others have cylindrical or much less angular bills, and smooth firm plumage,—the Melanerpes, Swainson, to 
which the well-known Red-headed Woodpecker of North America appertains. These are the most frugivorous of 
any, and sometimes feed on the eggs of other birds, even entering Pigeon-houses for that purpose. Their colours 
are disposed in large masses. : 

The Green Woodpeckers, or Poppinjays, (Gecinus, Boié; Chrysoptilus, Swainson,) constitute another subdi- 
vision, remarkable for the inner emargination of the sternum being much smaller than the outer, and for barred 
plumage in the young, which corresponds with the adult garb of certain species with slightly arcuated bills, that 
compose the Colaptes, Swainson: these two subdivisions are closely allied together, and the members of them 
frequently descend to feed at ant-hills, being exclusively insectivorous: there are two in Europe of the first, of 
which the common Green Woodpecker of Britain may be cited as an example, as the equally common Golden- 
winged Woodpecker of North America may be of the other. The species of both are remarkable for contorting 
the neck in the same manner as the Wrynecks. 

Some additional subdivisions have been proposed, which are less admissible.] 


Tue Wrynecks (Yunz, Lin.)— 
Have the tongue extensible, as in the Woodpeckers, and by the same mechanism, but without spines ; 
their straight and pointed bill is somewhat rounder and less angular, and the tail is similarly com- 
posed, but broad, soft, and flexible [at the extremity, notwithstanding which the shafts are tolerably 
firm, and the bird leans on them when clinging]. They live pretty much as the Woodpeckers, except 
that they seldom climb, [and feed principally on Auts. Their flight is swift, and not undulating as in 
the Woodpeckers. 

Two species only are known, one common in Europe as a summer visitant, appearing in Britain rather plenti- 
fully. Its size is that of a Lark, and colour elegantly pencilled brown and ash, resembling a lichened branch. 
This bird arrives early in the spring, and is well known for its frequently reiterated cry, which resembles that of 
the smaller Falcons; it often repeats this note, holding on to a perpendicular twig. Instinctively trusting to the 
close resemblance of its tints to the situations on which it alights, it will lie close, and sometimes even suffer itself 
to be taken by the hand; or on such occasions will twirl its neck in the most extraordinary manner, rolling the 
eyes, and erecting the feathers on the crown and throat, occasionally raising the tail, and performing the most 
ludicrous movements ; then, taking advantage of the surprise of the spectator, will suddenly dart off like an 
arrow. It breeds in the holes of trees, and lays several polished white eggs, resembling those of a Woodpecker. ] 


Tue Picuxets (Picumnus, Tem.)— 
Scarcely differ from the Wrynecks, except by a very short tail, [which is soft, and held elevated, like 
that of a Wren. Their beak and tongue are rather, however, those of a true Woodpecker, which they 
exactly resemble in their whole anatomy]. They are very small birds, and there is even one of them 
which is destitute of the small hind-toe. 


Tue Cucxoos (Cuculus, Lin.)— 
Have the beak of mean length, rather deeply cleft, compressed, and slightly areuated ; the tail long, 
{with ten feathers only]. They subsist on insects [and fruits], and are mostly migratory. [Have a 
lax stomach, ceca like those of the Owls, and no gall-bladder]. We subdivide this numerous group as 


follows. 
Tue True Cuckoos (Cuculus, Cuv.)— 


Have the beak of medium strength, and short [partly feathered] tarsi. They are celebrated for the 
singular habit of depositing their eggs in the nests of insectivorous [as well as granivorous] birds; 
and, what is not less extraordinary, the foster-parents, often of species much inferior in size, bestow as 
much care on the yeung Cuckoo as upon their own proper nestlings, even although the deposition of 
the strange egg is preceded [or rather, (as we have ascertained,) succeeded, which is still more curious, | 
by the destruction of whatever others may have been in the nest: [or, if other eggs are 
subsequently laid, and hatched with the young Cuckoo, the latter is endowed with the astonishing 
instinct, about the eighth day, of ejecting its helpless companions by insinuating itself under them, and 
then by a jerk casting them successively over the rim of the nest]. The cause of this phenomenon, 
unique [so far as is known, with the exception of the Molothrahs (p. 202),] in the history of Birds, is 
yet unknown, [but appears, we conceive, to be immmediately connected with the structure of the 
reproductive organs ; and to be necessitated by the fact of the female Cuckoo requiring several days to 
intervene between the deposition of each successive egg, five or six in number, for which reason she 
could not well incubate her own: certain it is, however, that although a great proportion of the young 
Cuckoos are not hatched till after their parents have migrated southward, the female has been often 
seen to loiter about in the vicinity of her offspring, which she has been known to entice away when it 


214 AVES. 


took flight]. Herissant attributed the phenomenon to the position of the gizzard, which in fact is 
placed further backward in the abdomen, and is less protected by the sternum (fig. 101) than that of 
other birds [in general, but not of the Moth-hunters, which the Cuckoos closely resemble in their 
internal anatomy, and particularly in the singularly diminutive size of the brain: the young are 
exceedingly slow in learning to take their own food, and are fed by their foster parents till they have 
neatly attained the full growth of their feathers. 


Of various species, all peculiar to the eastern hemisphere,] there is one 
in Europe, 

The Common Cuckoo (C. canorus, Lin.)}—Of an ash-grey colour, the 
belly whitish, rayed with dusky black across, and tail-feathers laterally 
spotted with white: the young barred all over with rufous. [It feeds 
principally on caterpillars, and is sometimes seen to hawk for insects on 
the wing, also devours cherries and the smaller fruits. Is well known 
for its cry, which is common to both sexes, and is sometimes uttered on 
the wing; as is also another particularly melodious sound, which it 
generally emits as it takes flight; it often congregates many together on 
the same tree, attracted by each others’ notes; but never flies in society, 
except when migrating. It does not pair; is particularly shy and re- 
tiring in disposition, and is often buffeted by the small birds on whose 
domain it encroaches. ] 

Africa [and the islands of the Indian Ocean] produce several small spe- 
cies, the plumage of which is more or less gilded, [or brilliant emerald- 
green, bronzed, or purple]. Their beak is rather more depressed than 
in the preceding, [and they compose the Chalcites, Swainson, which, 
however, are scarcely separable either from structure or habit]. 

2 A crested, spotted species is occasionally found in southern Europe, 

ik, 10} sternum of Cuckoo: the cry of which is more sonorous (C. glandarius, Edwards). [This, with 
various others from Africa, pertains to the distinct group Oxylophus of Swainson, which, with the following, has 
longer and naked tarsi. ] 

Others inhabit America [all of which build nests and rear their offspring, constituting the Erythrophrys, Swain- 
son: these are well known to feed much on the eggs of other birds, which it is generally believed the true Cuckoos 
do also: some of them descend much on the ground, and prey on snails like a Thrush, in addition to berries and 
caterpillars. The young resemble the adults]. 

Others again, with generally spotted plumage, have the beak deep vertically. 


Tuer Covas (Coccyzus, Vieillot)— 
Merely differ from the Cuckoos by their elevated tarsi. They nestle in the holes of trees, and do not 
entrust their eggs to the charge of strangers: this is at least true, with respect to those species of 
which the propagation is known. 
There is one in America that requires to be distinguished,— 


Tue Lizarp-skEKER (Saurothera, Vieillot),— 
Which has a long beak, curved at the tip only, [and feet adapted for running swiftly on the ground, as 
is the case with the American Cuckoo tribe generally]. 


It is the Cuculus vetula of Temminck. 


Le Vaillant has already separated, with good reason, 


Tue Coucats (Centropus, Illiger),— 
Birds of Africa and India, the thumb-nail of which is long and pointed as in the Larks, [and the 
plumage in general singularly rigid and spinous]. All the known species are natives of the eastern 
hemisphere, and nestle in the holes of trees, [producing white eggs. They feed chiefly on Grasshop- 
pers, and run about with celerity among reeds and other herbage, from which they are slow to take 
wing: their flesh is particularly rank ; and the eyelids are fringed with lashes, as in most of the 
Cuckoo tribe which rear their own offspring. 


The species are very numerous, and grade into the true Couas and Malkohas}. 


The same naturalist has rightly separated 


Tue Courots (Leptosomus, Vieillot),— 
Madagascar birds, the beak of which is thick, pointed, straight, and compressed, with the tip of the 


SCANSORES. 215 


vpver mandible but slightly arcuated, and the nostrils pierced obliquely in the middle of each side of 
it, Their tail consists of twelve feathers; and they nestle in holes of trees like the preceding, and 
inhabit forests. It is said that they are principally frugivorous. 


{They are closely related to the Puff-birds of America, and like them produce only two eggs, and nave the first 
and fourth toes directed laterally, enabling them to perch lengthwise. ] 


Tue Honey-curpeEs (/ndicator, Vaillant)— 

Are birds of South Africa that feed on honey, and which are celebrated for guiding the natives to 
the nests of wild Bees, enticing them to the spot by flitting before them, and reiterating a peculiar 
cry ; [they also, however, lead them in like manner to where a beast of prey lies concealed]. Their 
beak is short, high, and nearly conical, like that of a Sparrow. There are twelve tail-feathers; and 
the tail is at the same time wedge-shaped and a little forked. Their skin, singularly tough, protects 
them from the stings of Bees; which latter, however, continually tormenting them, sometimes kill 
them by attacking the eyes. 


[These curious birds are most nearly allied to the Woodpeckers, and climb trees in the same manner, having 
similar feet and claws. Their colours are sombre, and, contrary to what occurs in all the Cuckoo tribe, there is a 
distinct accessory plume to their feathers. They lay several pure white eggs in the holes of trees, precisely like 
those of the Woodpeckers. | 

Tue Barsacous-(Monasa, Vieillot)— 


Have the beak conical, a little compressed, lengthened, slightly arcuated towards the tip, and armed at 
its base with stiff bristles or barbless plumes, which approximate them to the Barbets, [or rather to 
the Puff-birds, which the author ranges with the Barbets, like which they have also twelve tail-fea- 
thers, and the first and fourth toes directed laterally. The sternum resembles that of a Cuckoo, but 
with a small second emargination. 


These birds have blackish plumage, and generally coral-red bills. Their habits are precisely the same as those 
of the Puff-birds, which they further resemble in laying two eggs in holes, and in being peculiar to America. ] 


Tue Marxouas (Phenicopheus, Vieillot)— 

Have a very thick bill, round at its base, and arched towards the tip, [somewhat as in the Toucans], 
with a great naked space round the eyes. Some have round nostrils, placed near the base of the bill, 
while in others they are narrow, and situate near its edges. They are natives of Ceylon [and other 
warm parts of the eastern hemisphere], and live, it is said, principally on fruits. 

Certain species of them should probably be distinguished, that have the beak less thick, and no bare 
space round the eyes. 

THE RaIn-rowt (Scythrops, Latham)— 

Have the beak still longer and thicker than in the Malkohas, and furrowed on each side with two 
shallow longitudinal groves: their nostrils are round, and the space surrounding the eyes naked. The 
beak approaches that of the Toucans [in its superficies only], but the tongue is not ciliated as in 


those birds. 

Only oneis known, the Australian Rain-fowl (Ser. australasia, Shaw), a grey bird of the size of a Crow, whitish 
and a little barred underneath. [Its sternal apparatus and digestive organs resemble those of the European 
Cuckoo, as do also its system of coloration, and the structure of its feathers. Mode of propagation unknown]. 


Tue Barserts (Bucco, Lin.)— 
Have a thick conical beak, bulged on the sides of its base, with five overlying bundles of stiff bristles 
directed forwards ; one behind each nostril, another on each side of the base of the lower mandible, 
and the fifth placed at its symphysis. Their wings are short, and their proportions and flight rather 
heavy. They subsist on insects, and attack smaller birds; occasionally feeding on fruit: nestle in the 
holes of trees. 


They require to be divided into three subgenera. 


Tue Barsicans (Pogonias, Iliger)— 
Have one or two strong denticulations on each side of the upper mandible, the ridge of which is 
arcuated and obtuse, [and the sides marked with transverse grooves]. Their bristles are very stout. 
They inhabit Africa and India, and feed more on fruit than the others. 


(The species are not numerous, and are generally black variegated with crimson. The compressive force of their 
beak is very considerable; and they seldom climb. | 


216 AVES. 


Tue ResrricrepD BarsBets (Buceco, Cuv.)— 
Have the beak simply conical, slightly compressed, with a blunt ridge, a little raised about the middle. 
They are found in both continents, and are generally adorned with vivid colours. At the season ot 
propagation they are found in pairs, and in little troops [or families] during the remainder of the year. 


[This and the preceding subdivision form a totally distinct group from the rest, and are most nearly related to 
the Woodpeckers: the tongue, however, is of the ordinary structure, and they have but ten tail-feathers, which 
are not rigid. heir feet also are adapted for descending the trunks of trees, like a Nuthatch, and not merely for 
ascending them, as in the Woodpeckers and Tree-creepers ; having the claw of the reversed toe particularly hooked 
and sharp. The beak is especially fitted for cutting the stems of fruits, as with a pair of scissors ; and they lay 
always four white eggs in the holes of trees, occasionally resorting to the composite nests of the social Grosbeaks. 
Some other divisions have been instituted among them, with propriety; and they altogether constitute a natural 
family, some species of which are even entirely destitute of the tufts of bristles, which latter may be traced, in 
various degrees of developement, in many other birds, as the Trogons, &c.} 


Tue Purr-sirps (Tamatia, Cuv.)— 
Have the beak rather more elongated and compressed, with the extremity of the upper mandible 
[generally] bent downward. Their disproportionately large head, great beak, and short tail, impart 
an air of stupidity, [which is less observable in the ordinary aspect of the living bird, the dense plu- 
mage of which is commonly puffed out into a round ball]. All the known species inhabit America, and 
subsist on insects. 


[They are generally subdivided into Tamatia proper, the beak of which somewhat approximates that of the 
Bush-shrikes, and Lypornya, in which it is smaller, little if at all hooked at the tip, and grading towards that of the 
Barbacous. Together with the latter genus, and the Courols of Madagascar, they form a distinct group, most 
nearly related to the Cuckoos, which they resemble anatomically; all the members of which appear to possess the 
habit of puffing out their feathers, and perch lengthwise, clasping the bough with their first and fourth toes, which 
are directed sideways and not backwards, the same as in the Touracos: they have all twelve tail-feathers, and 
invariably lay two eggs, in holes either of trees or banks, which probably produce male and female that associate 
for life, as they are constantly observed in pairs. The American species appear to differ in being exclusively 
insectivorous, watching for the larger insects, which they take in the manner of a Flycatcher: their manners are 
familiar ; and the plumage of the forehead directed forwards and more or less terminating in stiff points, very 
rigid to the feel, which admirably defend the eyes from the fluttering of their insect-prey. ‘The colours of all are 
sombre, and not gay, as in the Barbets]. 


Tue Trocons (Trogon, Lin.)— 

Together with the bundles of bristles round the bill of the Barbets, have a short beak, broader than 
high, curved at its base, with a blunt arcuated ridge to the upper mandible. Their small feet, feathered 
nearly to the toes, cheir long and broad tail, and fine, light and dense plumage, impart a peculiar air. 
Some portion of their plumage has generally a brilliant metallic lustre; the rest being vividly coloured. 
They nestle in the holes of trees [producing two or four delicate rounded white eggs, the shell of which 
is particularly slight and fragile], subsist on insects, and frequent low branches in the interior of thick 
woods, flying only during the morning and evening. 


[The Trogons constitute another distinct and insu- 
lated group, intermediate in some respects to the 
Cuckoos and Moth-hunters, both which they resemble 
generally in their anatomy, but are hatched naked, in 
which they differ from either. The sternum (fig. 102) is 
doubly emarginated. Their toes are remarkable for 
s being zygodactyle on a different principle from that of 
any other genus ; the ordinary inner toe béing reversed 
instead of the outer one: their feathers closely resemble 
in structure those of the true Poultry, and are similarly 
elongated over the rump, where in certain species they 
attain an extraordinary developement in the male sex, 
analogous to the train of a Peacock. Like the Poultry, 
‘ also, they are remarkable for the small proportional size 
’ of the head. They capture insects in the manner of a 
Fly-catcher, with a swift and deeply undulating flight ; 
some of them feeding likewise upon berries. Are found 
in the warm regions of both continents. ] 


Fig. 102.—Sternum of Trogon. 


Tue Ant (Crotophaga, Lin.) — 
Are known by their thick, arcuated, and compressed beak, without denticulation, high, and surmounted 


SCANSORES. 217 


oy a sharp vertical crest [like that of several of the smailer Hornbills]. They are birds of the hot and 
humid climates of America, with stout and elevated tarsi, a long and rounded tail [composed of only 
eight feathers], and black plumage. They subsist on insects and grain, fly in flocks, and several pairs 
lay and incubate in the same nest, which is placed on the branches of trees, and is built of a 
size proportionate to the number of couples which help to construct it. They are easily tamed, and 
even taught to speak ; but their flesh is rank and disagreeable. 


[The similarity of the colour and size of these birds to the Quiscali and Scolephagi, (p. 202), which inhabit the 
same countries, has occasioned much confusion in their history. Itis the latter, and not the Ani, which are 
granivorous; and which also are easily tamed and taught to speak, the Ani having no accessory yocal muscles, 
and consequently only uttering a particular screech. The name Crotophaga implies that they feed on the insect 
parasites of cattle, like the common Starling; which is not true of the Ani, though it applies to the birds 
with which they have been confounded. The Ani strictly appertain to the Cuckoo group, and are remarkable for 
possessing eyelashes like the Coucals and Hornbills: though inhabitants of the hottest regions of America, they 
are remarkably solicitous for warmth, and soon perish of the least chill; hence their singular sociality even while 
brooding on their eggs, which are of a dark green colour. Several species are now known, and they appear to 
subsist exclusively on insects. ] 

: THe Toucans (Rhamphastos, Lin.)— 

Are at once recognized by the enormous size of the bill, which is nearly as large and as long as the 
body itself, but internally very light and cellular, [or rather permeated by a fragile network of osseous 
fibres], having its edges dentated, and both mandibles arched towards the tip; the tongue is narrow 
and elongated, and laterally barbed like a feather. They are peculiar to the warm regions of America, 
where they live in small troops, [different species of them commonly associating in the same flock], 
and subsist on fruit and insects, and during the nesting season on the eggs and young of other birds. 
The structure of the bill necessitates them to throw each morse] of food into the air, and catch it in 
the throat ; [a habit practised by many other birds in which the tongue is either unusually short, or 
of a form unfit to assist in deglutition]. Their feet are short [not particularly so] ; their wings but 
moderate, and tail rather lengthened, [and commonly held erect; it consists of ten feathers]. They 
nestle in the trunks of trees [producing, in every known instance, two delicately white eggs, of a 
rotund form: the young recurve their tails upon the back while in the nest. 

These birds have a doubly emarginated ster- 
num of peculiar form (fig. 103), a slightly muscu- 
lar stomach, and short intestines without cceca: 
they have no gall-bladder. Their movements are 
light and elegant in an extreme degree, leaping 
from bough to bough with the most lightsome 
agility, so that, in the living bird, the beak has 
no appearance whatever of being disproportion- 
ately large. They fly rapidly, but evidently with 
much exertion, and with difficulty against the 
wind, raising the bill above the axis of the body, 
and propelling themselves at short intervals: 
are exceedingly destructive to the eggs and young 
of other birds, which they frequently obtain by 
dipping their huge bill into the deep pensile nests 
which abound in their indigenous abode, that 
organ being remarkably sensitive, which enables 
them to feel the contents. When roosting at 
night, they contrive to bury their enormous beak 
completely between the scapulary and intersca- 
pulary feathers; and they employ it with singular 
dexterity, and are often observed to scratch it 
gently with the foot, as if that produced an agreeable sensation: many nervous papille are distributed over its 
surface]. 


Fig. 103.—Sternum of Aricari. 


Tue RestricteD ToucANs— 
Have the beak thicker than the head, and are generally black, with vivid colours on the throat, breast, 
and croup. [Their size is comparatively large, both sexes are alike in plumage, the tail is less 
cuneated, the clavicle bones are separate, short, and pointed, not joined to constitute a furcula. as in 


Birds in general. ] 
Tue Aricaris (Péeroglossus, Iliger)— 


Ilave the beak not so thick as the head, and enveloped with a less attenuated corneous covering; their 


218 AVES. ‘ 


size is inferior, and the ground-tint of their plumage commonly green, with some red or yellow on the 
throat and breast ; [the female is chestnut-brown where the male is black, the tail much graduated, 


and the furcula (fig. 103) complete. 


Among the Aricaris are certain species more vividly green than the rest, the beak of which has a deep, laterai, 
longitudinal furrow ; they are the Groove-bills (Aulacorynchus, Gould). The Aricaris generally are more varie- 
gated than the true Toucans, to which they bear nearly the same relationship which the Jays and Magpies he'd 
with the Crows. They appear to be less carnivorous]. 


Tue Parrots (Psi¢tacus, Lin.)— 


Have a stout, hard, solid beak, rounded on all sides, and enveloped at base by a membrane in which 
the nostrils are pierced ; together with a thick, fleshy, and rounded tongue: two circumstances which 
impart the greatest facility in imitating the human voice. Their inferior larynx, which is complicated, 
and furnished on each side with three peculiar muscles, [the bony ring at the divarication of the 
bronchi being besides incomplete, so as to permit of dilatation and contraction,] further contributes to 
the same object, [if, indeed, it be not entirely produced by the latter means]. . Their vigorous jaws are 
set in motion -by a greater number of muscles than are found in other birds, [whence especially results 
the remarkable mobility of the upper mandible]. They have very long [and remarkably slender] 
intestines, without cceca; and subsist on fruit of all kinds [together with bulbs and other succulent 
parts of vegetables in many instances, holding their food up to the mouth with one foot, as with a 
hand]. Assisted by their hooked bill, they clamber about the branches of trees; nestle in hollow 
trunks; and have a loud and harsh voice in a state of nature. Nearly all of them are adorned 
with gorgeous colours, and they are scarcely found out of the torrid zone, [except in the southern 
hemisphere], but are found in both continents, the species of course differing in each. Every 
large island even kas its own species, the short wings of [many of] these birds incapacitating 
them from traversing great tracts of sea. The species are therefore extremely numerous, and are sub- 
divided according to the form of the tail and some other characters. 


[This extensive group is obviously an ordinal division of the class, and should doubtless rank first in the series 
of Birds, preceding the Birds of Prey, as among Mammalia the Quadrumana do the Carnivora. If we except the 
trivial character of their outer toe being reversed,—and their foot even is in all other respects extremely different, 
and covered with small tubercle-like scales, instead of plates as in all the Passerine, and the rest of the yoke-footed 
genera without exception,—they have absolutely nothing in commonwith the other Zygodactyli that should entitle 
them to range in the same special division: their whole structure is widely at variance; and if there be one group 
more than another to which they manifest any particular affinity, it is that of the diurnal, Birds of Prey, which we 
conceive should range next to them, though still very distantly allied. They certainly accord with the Falcons 
more than with any other bird in the contour of the beak, and the nostrils are analogously pierced in a mem- 
brane termed the cere: they have asimilar enlargement of the cesophagus, which occurs in no other zygodactyle 
bird, but which is glandular as in the Pigeons, secreting a lacteal substance with 
which the young are at first nourished, (the Parrots and Pigeons being almost the 
only birds which subsist exclusively on vegetable diet at all ages). The stomach is 
but slightly muscular, and we have found it enormously enlarged in old cage spe- 
cimens ; intestines singularly long and slender, as before stated; and there is no 
gall-bladder, a particular in which the Parrots accord with the Toucans, the 
great Cuckoo group, and that of the Pigeons. The sternal apparatus (figs. 104 and 105) 
differs least from that of the diurnal Birds of Prey, the medial ridge being however 
rounded anteriorly, and the furcula slight and peculiarly flattened, being least unlike 
that of the Pigeons, while in one subdivision of Parroquets it is absent altogether. 
From the rest of the zygodactyle birds, the Parrots differ remarkably in their intel- 
ligence and docility, qualities in which some species are unsurpassed by any member 
of the class; while the other tree birds not framed on the definite type of the Pas- 
serine, are with few exceptions remarkably devoid of intelligence, and incapable of 
receiving instruction. ; 

t It may further be noticed, that all the numerous tribeof Parrots conform in every 

| essential detail of their organization, being framed on an especial subtype, which, 
7 however it may admit (like every other) of subordinate modifications, exhibits no 
indication of a passage or transition into any other form: the same remark applies 
to several of the preceding groups that do not pertain to the Passerine, but which: 
are lower in the scale than the present one, or, in other words, less distantly removed 
apart than ail are from the latter; that they have not been generally recognized as 
thus insulated, which all have acknowledged to be the case in the instance of the 
Parrots, is attributable to their equally constant distinctive characters being less obyious externally. 


wis. 104.—Sternum of Parrot. 


aS 
RSE __ 
Z SSS 


=> 


= 


N\A PON ee 
Ni Mi 
LA 
My HIN Wy 
an J hi! h 


i) 
MWg 


ZZ 
Hr 


{i 


Ae 
Sel! 
HN 
Fi AN NNN 
Hy NN\ 


i} 
ili 


6 | . *) 
Cockatoo i) i Crested Parrake 


Hyviace Maximilian's Macaw 


SCANSORES. 219 


The Parrots have been arranged under many nanied subdivisions, the limits of which are mostly arbitrary, 
though several very natural groups are tolerably distinct. 

First, among the species with square tails, we may notice the great Black Cockatoos of Australia (Calyptorynchus, 
Vig.), large crested species, with heak of extraordinary strength, and very deep vertically. Their plumage is black, 
with some red or yellow on the tail; wings capable of vigorous flight; and food the seeds of the Eucalypti, 
with the juice of which fruit their bills are generally stained. Attempts to maintain them in captivity appear 
to have always hitherto failed.. The subdivision Corydon, Wavieri, is barely separable. 

The White Cockatoos (Plyctolophus, Vieillot), the species of which 

( ce inhabit the Indian Archipelago and Australia, fall into two minor 

1 vA) groups according to the form of the crest. Their disposition is sin- 

gularly gentle and affectionate, and several species are abundantly 
brought alive to Europe, where they are kept with much facility. 

Their singular antics and extraordinary grotesque movements are well 

known to all, 

The square-tailed species without crests constitute the restricted 
Parrots (Psittacus) of several authors, and are found in the old and new 
continents. They are generally esteemed for the facility with which 

6 they learn to speak ; and the majority are gaily coloured: it is neces- 
sary, however, to subdivide them much further. One group, termed 

Nestor, is remarkable for the extraordinary elongation of the upper 

mandible, which far overhangs the lower : it is believed to be employed 

in hooking up bulbs: the members of this division are essentially 
crestless Cockatoos, allied to Pl. nasicus, and are also natives of Aus- 
tralia. 

The Love-birds (Psittacula, Kuhl), compose a beautiful group of 
species of diminutive size, wherein the tail is slightly graduated ; they 


Se 
_ 


\ ny are found in both continents, and are remarkable for having no 
Kw furcula. 

The Ring Parroquets (Paleornis, Vig.), have a very long pointed 
Fig. 105.—Sternum of Parrot. tail, and collar-like mark round the neck; they inhabit the Asiatic 


continent and islands, where there are many species. 

Australia produces numerous long-tailed Parroquets with more elongated tarsi, adapted for running on the 
ground; their tail-feathers are not pointed, and their colours are in general gorgeously variegated, and peculiarly 
mottled on the back. They constitute the Platycercus, Vig. and Horsf. Polyletes, Wagler, is allied, with pointed 
tail-feathers ; and Nymphicus refers to a small species related to the latter, but with the pointed crest of some 
Cockatoos. : 

The Maccaws (dra, Kuhl; Macrocercus, Vieillot), are long-tailed American species, which exceed all the rest 
in size, and are superbly coloured. The more characteristic have a large space of naked skin on the cheek, 
crossed by narrow stripes of short feathers. This bare space is gradually lost as they successively decrease in 
size, and they finally grade into the American Parroquets (Conwrus, Kuhl), one species of which (Ps. carolinensis, 
Auct.) is the only member of the Parrot group found northward of the tropic of Cancer. 

The Lories (Zorius, Vieillot),—are oriental species with square tails, and dense soft plumage, the colours of 
which are glowing in the utmost degree: beak in general comparatively feeble. Some allied birds are smaller, and 
have graduated tails, but are particularly distinguished by their extensile tongue having a circle of papille at the tip, 
adapting them to feed on the nectar of flowers: they are termed Lorikeets (Trichoglossus, Vigors). Tanygnathus, 
Wagler, includes some Lories with immense bills; and Coryphilus, a number of smail species, with slender bills, 
thick skin, and commonly purple colouring. Finally, Pezoporus, Uliger, and Nanodes, Vig. and Horsf., consist of 
some beautiful and delicate long-tailed species, which have also feeble bills, and tarsi somewhat elevated; they 
are known to seek their food chiefly on the ground.*] 


Among the Climbers are commonly placed two nearly allied African genera, which appear 
to me to have also some analogy with the Gallinacee, and with the Curassows in particular. 
They have the wings and tail of the latter, [their tail, however, consisting of only ten feathers, 
instead of fourteen], and like them inhabit trees; their beak is short, and superior mandible 
bulged, [or compressed and much elevated; the gape remarkably wide]; the feet have a 
short membrane which connects the external and front toes, though it is true that the outer 
toe is often directed backward, as observable in the Owls. Their nostrils are simply pierced 
in the corneous substance of the beak. the cutting edges of the mandibles are dentelated, 
ard the sternum (fig. 106), at least that of the Touraco, has not those two very deep emar- 
g:nations common to the Gallinacee. 

{Were we have another insulated group, which also comprises the Colies (p. 201), the anatomy of 


* We would enumerate some additional subdivisions, but their distinctive characters could not be given with the requisite brevity. 


220 AVES. 


which at once indicates the propriety of arranging it in the present series, among which it is most 
nearly related to the Toucans. They have but twelve true cervical vertebra ; and the sternum, 
though singularly small, presents no affinity for that of the Poultry. The stomach is large and 
but slightly muscular, extending into the abdominal por- 
tion of the cavity of the body; and the intestines are short 
and without cceca. Unlike the Toucans, however, they possess 
a small gall-bladder; but the tongue, at least in some of 
them, is similarly barbed towards the tip. The feet have the 
first and fourth toes directed laterally, for which reason they 
commonly perch lengthwise on the horizontal branches of 
trees, which they perambulate longitudinally, clasping the 
bough with their two laterally disposed toes, while the others 
are directed forwards. Their movements are light and elegant 
in the extreme, a particular in which they differ remarkably 
from the Colies: they pass with an easy sailing flight from tree 
to tree; live in pairs or families according to the season; 
subsist almost exclusively upon fruits, and lay four delicate 
white eggs in the hollows of decayed timber]. 
Such are 


Tue Touracos (Corythaix, Mliger),— 
Fig. 106.—Sternum of Touraco. The beak of which does not ascend upon the forehead, [and 
is generally much compressed], and the head is adorned with an erectile crest. 


[Seven species are now known, the ground-colour of which is generally vivid-green, with some gorgeous crimson 
on the open wing. We should observe, that in all this group the feathers are very short upon the rump, being the 
reverse of what obtains throughout the Poultry. The head, however, is small, as in the latter.} 


Tur PLANTAIN-EATERS (Musophaga, Isert),— 
Are so named from the fruit on which they subsist, and are characterized by the base of the bill forming 
a disk, which covers part of the forehead. 
[They grade, however, into the former, the beak becoming more and more inflated, till in one species it for- 
cibly recaiJs to mind that of a Toucan. Another is of great size, approaching the stature of a Curassow, and has 
a splendid curled crest, resembling that of several of those birds. 


A third genus consists of 
Tuer Nape-crests (Chizeris, Swainson) ,— 
Which have a rounded beak approaching that of some Trogons, and hard and sombre mottled plumage, 
very unlike that of the others. Their exterior toe is more limited in its range outward by the con- 


necting membrane. 
Two species are well known, both from Africa, like all the preceding,—one the Phasianus Africanus of Latham. 


We here, at length, arrive at a sufficiently marked interruption of the series of the class of 
Birds, to be enabled to introduce some remarks on the affinities of the preceding orders, 
which we conceive might be arranged most naturally as follow. | 

I. Scansores, as limited to the Parrots. 

II. Raprores, or the Birds of Prey; which subainde into two thoroughly distinct 
sections. 

Il. Srrepirores, Screechers, consisting of all the remainder that are not organized upon 
the definite type of the Passerine. It is necessary to subdivide them first into three series, 
which might be designated Syndactyli, Zygodactyli, and Heterodactyli ; the two first of 
which names, however, do not rigidly apply im every instance, the groups bemg founded rather 
upon the aggregate of the organization, than upon any single character. 

1. Syndactyli.—These, with the exception of the Motmots, are exclusively animal-feeders, 
hke the Raptores, to which they succeed; and even the Motmots subsist more upon animal 
than upon vegetable diet. They fall under two principal minor groups, which we term 
Buceroides and Halcyoides. 


SCANSORES. 221 


The Buceroides are distinguished by a very short and heart-shaped tongue, a singly-emar- 
ginated sternum, and ten tail-feathers only ; mtestines short, and we believe always without 
coeca ; plumage never vividly coloured. In order to mark the degree of value of the two 
very distinct genera included, we conceive it necessary to indicate the Hornbills by the term 
Appendirostres, and the Hoopoes by that of Arculirostres. Both are peculiar to the eastern 
hemisphere. 

The Halcyoides have a doubly-emarginated sternum, twelve tail-feathers, and, with the 
sole exception of one group of Kingfishers, splendidly coloured plumage. They fall mto three 
tribes, viz., Cylindirostres, comprismg the Rollers, Bee-eaters, and Kingfishers, whieh have 
tongues similar to the foregoing, membranaceous stomachs, and no ececa; a thick skin, firm 
plumage (not moulted the first year), and great power of wing; nidificating m holes, and pro- 
ducing numerous shining white eggs, &e. ;—Angulirostres, composed of the Jacamars and 
Todies, which have thin, lengthened, lamina-like tongues, muscular gizzards, and great cceca, 
resembling those of the Owls; thin skin, soft plumage, feeble powers of flight, and which - 
produce coloured or speckled eggs, also in holes ;—and Serratirostres, or the Motmots,-whieh 
are intermediate to the Cylindirostres and the Toucans, (which commence the next series). 
The Angulirostres and Serratirostres are confined in their distribution to America; while the 
Cylindirostres, with the exception of a single subdivision of Kingfishers partly, are found only 
in the old world. 

2. Zygodactyli—The members of this division likewise fall into two principal mimor 
groups, which may be termed Picoides and Cuculoides. The greater number subsist on mixed 
diet, and a marked predatory propensity is retamed by some. 

The Picoides have always (at least in every known instance) a doubly-emarginated sternum, 
comparatively muscular gizzard, and no cceca to the intestine. They all produce white eges, 
less spherical than those of the Syndactyli, (im which respect the latter approximate the 
Raptores, which precede them) ; and have an accessory plume to their feathers, more or less 
developed; their plumage being almost always adorned with vivid colours. It is im this 
group that the tongue is so variously modified, in the Toucans, Woodpeckers, &e. To bring 
the species as near as possible together, they may be arranged into two tribes, viz., Leviros- 
tres, consisting of two very distinct families,—that of the Toucans, and that of the Touracos 
and Colies; and Cuneirostres, comprehending the Woodpecker family (which includes the 
Honeyguides), and that of the Barbets. The Toucan and Touraco families are respectively 
peculiar to the old and new worlds, the latter, with the sole exception of two or three Collies, 
to Africa ; the Woodpeckers are generally diffused, excepting in Australia; and members of 
the Barbet family are found in the warm regions of both hemispheres. 

The Cuculoides have a comparatively lax stomach, and invariably great coeca, whieh when- 
ever they occur throughout the Strepitores are always of the same proportional dimensions 
and form as those of the nocturnal Birds of Prey: their colours, excepting in one group of 
Cuckoos, are never bright; and they have no trace of an accessory plume to the feathers : 
the greater number lay coloured or speckled eggs, and many construct inartificial nests in 
bushes, (all the preceding genera, save the Colies only, resorting to holes for that purpose). 
A great proportion of them have the outer and middle toes more or less directed laterally. 
They fall under two families only, that of the Courols, Barbacous, and Puff-birds, which have 
twelve tail-feathers, and that of the Cuckoos, which have only ten or fewer, and which might 
be again naturally distributed into several supergeneric divisions, or subfamilies. Of these, 
we can only remark, that that which comprises the parasitic species is peculiar to the 
old world. 

3. Heterodactyli—tThis group consists of Birds the great majority of which are mainly 
insectivorous, and take their food on the wmg. They are generally endowed, therefore, with 
considerable power of flight, have a wide gape, and short feet, rarely adapted for progression. 
The only zygodactyle family of them has the toes differently disposed from those of all other 


222 AVES. 


yoke-footed genera. The species which possess coeca closely accord with the Cuculoides in 
their anatomy, but all of them possess the accessory plume to the clothing feathers, in which 
they differ from that group. We subdivide them into Trogonoides and Cypseloides. 

The Trogonoides consisting of the Trogons only, it will be sufficient to refer to the generic 
head (p.216). They have twelve tail-feathers. 

Tie Cypseloides have only ten. They divide into two tribes, which may be termed Parvi- 
rostres, containing the family of Podargues and Moth-hunters, nocturnal species with great 
coeca, and which lay mottled eggs; and Tenuirostres, comprising the two distinct families of 
the Swifts and Humming-birds, which have no cceca, and lay white eggs, the last-named 
family differing remarkably from all the preceding Strepitores in having a complicated inferior, 
larynx, which character obtains throughout the next order, without a smgle known exception. 

Although the foregoing long series of groups, more or less subordinate, evince a decided 
mutual affinity and tolerably regular successionship, to those who have practically studied 
them, we have been unable to detect a single character that will apply to all, and the only one 
which. approximates to being general, consists in the lower larynx being provided with only 
the sterno-tracheal pair of muscles, save in the single family of the Humming-birds : hence 
these birds are unable to inflect the voice, and sing; and they are generally very inferior in 
intelligence and docility to the members of either of the three other orders with which we are 
now engaged ; the Picoides and Hoopoes constituting the chief exceptions to this generalization. 
Linnzeus obtained a glimpse of their distinctness from the Passerine, when he instituted his 
ordina! divisions Pice and Passeres; but he fell into error in assigning a position among the 
former to the Crows, which alone could have induced Cuvier to remark that he could discover 
no distinctive character to separate the Pice and Passeres of his great predecessor. 

The series of Strepitores can accordingly be defined only by negative characters, derived 
principally from comparison of them with the Passerine. Perhaps the most remarkable fact 
connected with their anatomy, consists im the cceca being invariably either altogether absent, 
or, if present, developed to a considerable but fixed size, which never varies; this diversity 
being found to exist in groups that are nearly allied, as in the Swifts and Moth-hunters, the 
Kingfishers and Todies, &c. 

IV. Canrores, or the restricted Passerine.—It is impossible for a greater contrast to be 
afforded than is furnished by this ordinal division and the preceding one. Although com- 
prismg many more species and received generic divisions than the three foregoing orders 
collectively, there is absolutely no essential difference of structure perceptible throughout the 
whole immense series; the only differences consisting in the degrees of developement of parts 
common to all : the peculiar type of skeleton, digestive and vocal organs, &c. beg invariably 
one and the same, just as the Humming-bird or Parrot model is analogously varied, in a minor 
degree. There are no subdivisions equivalent to those which have been indicated as famihes 
even of the Strepitores, however the beak may vary in magnitude and form; the most dissi- 
milar beaks being often unaccompanied by other marked diversities, so that a dead specimen 
deprived of its head, although at the first glance it might be referred with certainty to the 
present order, could only in a few instances be assigned, even on anatomical examination, to 
any particular group of it, and the plumage and style of colouring would even then afford the 
surest indication of its affinities, in the great majority of cases. In the Strepitores, on the 
contrary, any one organ, and very commonly a single ordinary clothing feather, would suffice 
to indicate the very genus from which it had been taken: the varieties in the form of the 
sternal apparatus may be cited as one illustration of the considerable diversities observable in 
the whole structure of the Strepitores; whereas a single sternal apparatus (fig. 86, p. 178), 
we have deemed fully adequate to represent the form of this important portion of the skeleton 
throughout the amazingly extensive series of the present division.* There are, in fact, no 


* The sternal apparatus of numerous genera of Cantores are beautifully figured in Mr, Yarrell’s History of British Birds. 


GALLINA. 223 


characters of dichotomous application, till we descend to mmute particulars, such as the sea- 
sonal and progressive changes of plumage, the system of coloration, character of the eggs, Xe. 
and these require to be carefully and extensively studied, in order to extricate the Cantores 
from their present heterogeneous state of artificial arrangement, which, like most other classi - 
fications based on the variations of a single organ (the beak), has induced a variety of approxt- 
mations at variance with natural affinity. To detail our own views on the arrangement of 
this great order, would require more space than the nature of the present work would 
allow; it must suffice, therefore, to refer to the few hits which have been given in the 
details of the various genera. 

The four orders here indicated have a vague general character in common, which is not 
easy to define or even express : it partially consists in the magnitude of the head, as compared 
with the subsequent divisions generally; and’ a hind toe being always present, on the same 
plane with those in front, the great majority of them perch and traverse the boughs of trees 
with comparative facility, while the remainder are too obviously allied to admit of separation |. 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF BIRDS,— 


THE POULTRY, (GaLuina, Lin.)— 


Are so named from their affinity to the Domestic Cock, in common with which they have 
generally the upper mandible vaulted, the nostrils pierced in a large membranous space at the 
base of the beak, and covered by a cartilaginous scale.» Their heavy carriage, short wings, 
and bony sternum (fig. 107), diminished by two emarginations so wide and deep that they 
occupy nearly its whole lateral portion, its crest being ob- 
liquely truncated in front, so that the sharp edge of [an 
appendage to] the fourchette is only joined to it by hga- 
ment, are circumstances which, by greatly impairig the 
force of the pectoral muscles, render their flight laborious. 
The tail has generally fourteen, and sometimes eighteen, 
quill-feathers. Their inferior larynx is very simple, so that 
\\ none of them can sing. They have an extremely muscular 
v gizzard, and [most generally] a large [globular] crop. If 
we except the Curassows, they lay and incubate on the 
ground, on a few carelessly arranged stems of straw or grass. 
Each male has ordinarily several females, and takes no sort 
of trouble either with the nest or young ones, which are 
generally very numerous, and, in most cases, are able to 
run as soon as they quit the shell. 
[We should observe, that exceptions occur to almost all 
a a se these generalizations in the course of the series, which will 
be pointed out as they arise. In the polygamous species, the male is always larger and more 
gaily coloured than the female ; while in such as are monogamous, (as Ptarmigan and Par- 
tridges,) the sexes nearly or quite resemble, both in size and colour. This diversity is appa- 
rent in some species that are otherwise closely allied together. The head is very small, as 
compared with the members of the preceding orders generally; and the number of cervical 
vertebrz is irregular and always greater. | 
The Poultry constitute, for the most part, a very natural family, remarkable for having fur- 
nished us with the greater number of our farm-yard fowls, and with much excellent game. 
Their anterior toes are connected at base by a short membrane, the edges of which are dente- 


AVES 


lated; and they can only be subdivided upon characters of trivial import, drawn from some of 
the appendages of the head. In order to avoid, however, an excessive multiplication of 
groups, we associate with them certain genera the toes of which have no connecting membrane, 
and one (that of the Pigeons) which links the Poultry with the Passerine, the others (such as 
the Hoazin) presenting a slight approach to the Touracos ; [very slight and superficial i both 


instances ]. 
Tue Curassows (Alector, Merrem)— 

Are large Poultry-birds of South America, which somewhat resemble Turkeys, and have a broad and 
rounded tail, composed of large stiff quills, [fourteen in number]. Several of them possess a singular 
conformation of the trachea. They live in the woods, feed on buds and fruit, perch and nestle upon 
trees, [their hind-toe being on the same plane with those in front], and are very sociable and easily 
domesticated. [The sternum has its inner emargination less deep than in other Poultry]. Gmelin 
and Latham have divided them into Curassows and Guans, but upon very indeterminate characters. 
We subdivide them in the following manner :— 


Tue Curassows, properly so called, (Crax, Lin.),— 


Have a strong beak, its base surrounded by a skin, sometimes brightly coloured, in which the nostrils 
are pierced; and their head is adorned with a crest of long, erectible, narrow feathers, curled at the 
tips. Their size is that of a Turkey, and hke the members of that genus they fly up into trees. They 
are bred in a domestic state in America, and individuals have been received from that country so 
variously coloured, that we hesitate about characterizing the species. 


The most common, or the Yellow-billed Cu- 
rassow (C7. alector, Lin.), is black, with a white 
belly, and cere of the beak brilliant yellow. The 
trachea makes but one slight curve before it 
enters the breast. Some, as Cr. globicera, Lin., 
have a larger or smaller globular tubercle at the 
base of the beak. 


Tue Pauxt (Ourax, Cuv.)— 
Have a shorter and thicker bill, and the 
membrane at its base, as well as the greater 
part of their head, is covered with short 
dense plumage resembling velvet. 


The most common of them, or the Galeated 
Pauxi (Cr. pauxi, Lin.), has an oval tubercle at 
- the base of the beak, of a light blue colour and 

agi Sw ; stony hardness, almost as large as the head. This 
PSS ays 1 *)\ PS bird is black, with the lower part of the belly, and 
tip of tail, white. It nestles on the ground, and 
its native country is not known with precision. 
The trachea descends on the right side beneath the skin to behind the sternum, where it turns to the left, and 
ascends to enter the thorax through the fourchette: its rings are all compressed. Another species (Cr. galeata, 
Lath. ; Cy. tomentosa, Spix), has a red salient crest on the beak, instead of the tubercle. 


Fig. 108.—The Yellow-billed Curassow, 


Tue Guans (Penelope, Merrem)-— 
Have a more slender beak than the others, and the space around the eyes naked, as is also the throat, 


which is mostly susceptible of inflation. 

So many varieties of colour are found among them, that it is difficult to trace the limits of the various species. 
Those especially which have a crest, are extremely variable. [The size is in general much less than in the others, 
and form more slender: the naked parts are often beautifully coloured]. The trachea, at least in the crested 
species, descends under the skin far behind the posterior edge of the sternum, ascends, is again flexed, and then 
continues its course towards the fourchette, through which, as usual, it gains access to the lungs. In one crestless 
species (Pen. marail, Tem.), greenish-black, with a fulvous belly, (which appears very distinct,) the trachea forms 
in both sexes a curve at the upper part of the sternum, before it enters the lungs. 


Tue Parraavas (Ortalida, Merrem)— 
Merely differ from the Guans in having no naked skin about the head. 


One species only is known, of a bronzed brown above, whitish gray beneath, and rufous on the head, (the Ca- 


GALLINE. . 225 


traca, Buffon; Phasianus motmot, Gmelin; Ph. parraqua, Lath). The cry of this bird is very loud, and articu- 
lates its name. The trachea of the male descends beneath the skin as low as the abdomen, and then ascends to 
enter the thorax. 


With these different Curassows has been generally associated 


THE Hoazin (Cpisthocomus, Hofmansegg,)— 
An American bird, which has the same port, and a short and thick bill, with nostrils pierced in its 
corneous substance, without any membrane. The head is adorned with an occipital crest of long fea- 
thers, very narrow and thinly barbed ; and what distinguishes it from all the true Poultry, is the total 


_ absence of membrane between the toes. 


This bird is the Phasianus cristatus, Lin. ; of a greenish-brown, variegated with white above, the front of the 
neck and tip of the tail fulvous, and the belly chestnut. It is found in Guiana, perching along the margin of 
inundated places, where it subsists on leaves and the seeds of a species of Arum. Its flesh smells strongly of 
castor, and is only employed as a bait for particular fishes. It forms a genus very distinct from any other among 
the Poultry, and when its anatomy is known, may become the type of a particular family. 

[This very curious bird is perhaps the most insulated species of the whole class: its eyelashes, and reticulated 
tarsi, help to separate it externally from the Poultry ; and its anatomy is altogether unique, exhibiting a peculiar 
adaptation for deriving nutriment exclusively from foliage. The crop, of enormous dimensions, hollows out, as 
it were, the pectoral muscles and anterior portion of the sternal keel, occupying a great heart-shaped cavity, and 
extending backward half-way along the trunk and at least four-fifths the length of the sternal apparatus ; it 
receives the superior portion of the cesophagus on the left side, and on the right is succeeded by an inflated canal, 
five inches and a half long, constricted like the human colon, and terminated by the proventriculus, to which 
follows the gizzard, which latter is no bigger than an olive, with its muscular coat scarcely thickened ; the intes- 
tines are moderately long, and cceca aninch. The sternal crest, so deeply cut away in front, forms a slight ridge 
anteriorly, which is continued forward into a very long bony apophysis, that is soldered with the furoula; the 
hindward emarginations are inconsiderable, the exterior pair being commonly reduced to a foramen, or even quite 
ossified. This bird is not naturally wild, and is observed in small flocks, which commonly perch side by side on 
some branch, always in marshy situations.* It appears to have only ten tail-teathers. 


We now arrive at the normal series of Poultry-birds, which have the hind-toe small and 


elevated. | 
THE PEeArowt (Pavo, Lin.),— 

So named (Paon) from their cry, and which are characterized by a crest of peculiar form, and by the 
tail-coverts of the male extending far beyond the quills, and being capable of erection into a broad and 
gorgeous disk. The shining, lax, and silky barbs of these feathers, and the eye-like spots which 
decorate their extremities, are well known to every one, as exemplified in 

The Indian Peatfow] (P. indicus, Lin.), the head of which is adorned with an aigrette of narrow vertical feathers, 
widened at the tips. This superb bird, originally from the north of India, [where it still exists abundantly in a 
state of nature], was introduced into Europe by Alexander. The wild specimens even surpass the domestic ones 
in brilliancy. The blue extends over the back and wings, instead of the common barred markings; and their 
train is stilllonger. [We have seen domestic Peacocks with these characters, which however are not attained by 
the greater number; and have also observed wild-shot birds like the ordinary breed, which it may be suspected 
had not acquired their final colouring; the developement of which would seem to be generally arrested in the 
former, so much so that we have seen an individual more than eighteen years of age, that did not differ from the 
common farin-yard specimens]. 

The Japanese Peafowl (badly named by Linneus P. muticus t, as it possesses spurs), is a distinct species, the 
aigrette of which is composed of long and narrow feathers; its neck is green instead of blue, and undated or 
gilded: train scarcely differing from that of the other. 


[The additional species ranged by the author among the Peafowl are distinct enough, and now 
generally known as 
Tue Prea-pHEasants (Polyplectron, Tem.). 
They are much smaller, and particularly remarkable for the tarsi of the male bearing two or more 
spurs.] The tail-coverts, which do not extend beyond the tail, and are webbed in the ordinary manner, 
have two brilliant metallic spots, and the wing-tertials have sometimes single ones. 


(Three or four species are known, from the mountains of eastern Asia ] 


THE Impeyan (Lophophorus, Tem.). 
The head surmounted by an aigrette like that of a Peafowl, and a similar flat tail, the coverts of which, 


* L'Herminier, in Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1837. | which was afterwards continued, this bird having no harsh cry like 
+ We suspect that this name originated in a misprint for mutys, | the other.—Ep. 


AVES. 


however, are not prolonged. It also resembles the Peafowl in the brilliancy of the colours of the 
male: circumference of the eye, and even the cheeks, naked, as in the Pheasants, and the tarsi armed 
with stout spurs. [The upper mandible very much overhangs the under one, as observable in a less 
degree in the Pheasants generally, enabling this bird to root up bulbs with facility. ] 

We know but one species, from the mountains of the north of India, the Resplendent Impeyan (L. refulgens, 
Tem.; Phasianus Impeyanus, Lath.). Size of a [small] Turkey, and black; the crest and dorsal plumage of 


changeable colours, reflecting tints of gold, copper, sapphire and emerald: tail-feathers chestnut-rufous, [and the 
rump white]. The female and young are brown, dashed with grey and fulvous. 


Tue Turkeys (Meleagris, Lin.)\— 
Have the head and upper part of the neck invested with a naked, mammellated skin; an appendage 
under the throat, and another conical one on the forehead, which becomes inflated and prolonged when 
the bird is excited by passion, when it hangs over the beak. On the lower part of the neck in front, 
the adult male has a tuft of very long pendent bristles; the coverts of the tail, shorter and more stiff 
than in the Peafowl, can be expanded in like manner into a fan. The males have weak spurs, [and are 
the only American Poultry-birds wherein a trace exists of those appendages]. 

But one species was known for a long time, the Common Turkey (J. gallipavo, Lin.). It was brought from 
North America during the 16th century, and was soon diffused throughout Europe, where it continues to be 
reared for the excellency of its flesh, its great size, and the facility with which it is bred. The Wild Turkeys vastly 
exceed the domestic breed in brilliancy, and are of a greenish-brown, glossed with copper reflections. 

A second, however, has been recently described, the Ocellated Turkey (M. ocellata, Cuv.), which approximates 


the Peafowl in the splendour of its colours, and by the disks of sapphirine-blue, inclosed by circles of gold and 
ruby-red, which adorn the tail-coverts. It was captured in the Bay of Honduras. 


[We may here introduce a large Poultry-bird of New Holland, 


THE VULTERN (dlectura, Gray),— 
Which has been strangely arranged by some authors among the Vultures, on account of its bald neck. 
From the Poultry generally, it is distinguished by the shortness of the downy plumage of the rump, 
as in the Touracos; its hind-toe is large, and on the same plane with those in front, the same as in 
the Curassows, like which it is also destitute of spurs; but its tail-feathers are eighteen in number. 

One species only is known (A. Lathami, Gray), entirely of a dusky colour, the feathers of the under-parts tipped 
with whitish. ] 

Tue Prnrapvos (Numida, Lin.), 
Or Guinea-fowl, have a naked head, and fleshy wattles below the cheeks, a short tail, and the skull 
generally surmounted by a callous crest. Their feet are without spurs; the tail short and pendent, so 
that the long feathers of the croup impart a rounded figure. 

The common domestic species (NV. meleagris, Lin.), originally from Africa [the indigenous habitat of all], has a 
slate-coloured plumage, everywhere speckled with round white spots [of different sizes]. Its noisy and querulous 
disposition render it an incommodious species in poultry-yards, although its flesh is excellent. In the wild state, 
they live in large flocks, and prefer the neighbourhood of marshes. 

(Three or four others are known, of which N. vulturina, Gould, is the most beautiful, having pointed purple 
feathers on the lower part of the neck; the body-plumage of all being nearly similar. The Crested Pintado 
(N. cristata, Pallas), is very remarkable for the appendage to the furcula forming a sort of cup, in which the 
trachea undergoes a convolution. No trace of this structure exists in the common species. ] 

The great genus of 
Purasants (Phasianus, Lin.)— 
Is characterized by partly naked cheeks, covered with a red skin, and by the tectiform tail, the feathers 
of which are variously disposed. We first distinguish among them 


Tur Fow ts (Gallus, Cuy.),— 

The head of which is surmounted by a vertical fleshy comb, and the inferior mandible furnished on 
each side with fleshy wattles. Their tail-feathers, fourteen in number, are elevated on two vertical 
planes, placed back to back; the coverts of that of the male are prolonged to form the arch over the 
tail proper. 

The species so common in our poultry-yards, [absolutely without a special English name] (Ph. gallus, Lin.), 
varies endlessly in colour, and very much in size: there are races wherein the fleshy comb is replaced by a crest 
of reverted feathers ; some in which the tarsi and even the toes are feathered ; another in which the crest, wattles, 


and periosteum of the whole skeleton are black ; and some monstrous kinds which have hereditarily five and even 
six toes to each foot. 


GALLINZ. 2 


to 
~T 


Several wild species are also known, as that of Sonnerat (Gal. Sonneratii, Tem.), which is very remarkable for 
the neck feathers of the male, the stems of which widen into three successive disks of a horny nature. The comb 
of the same sex is dentelated. This species inhabits the Ghauts of Hindostan. 

M. Leschenhault has procured two others from Java: one (G. Bankiva, Tem.), with a dentelated crest like the 
preceding; all the feathers of the neck long, pendent, and of the most beautiful golden red: it appears to 
me to bear the greatest resemblance to our domestic races: the other (PA. varius, Shaw; G. furcatus, Tem.), is 
black, with a copper-green neck, speckled with black, its crest plain, and a kind of small dewlap instead of 
wattles. 

THE PuHeasants, properly so called (Phasianus, Cuv.)— 
Have a long graduated tail, each of its quills being inclined on two planes, and covering each other. 


The most common of them (PA. colchicus, Lin.), was brought from the banks of the Phasis by the Argonauts, 
and is now diffused over all temperate Europe, where it requires, however, considerable care. [Another, from 
China, with a white ring round the neck, and a greener general cast of colour, but otherwise closely allied, has 
also been turned wild, and produced a prolific race of hybrids with the Common Pheasant, intermediate specimens 
in every degree being not uncommon. The pure breed of Ph. colchicus is distinguished by the total absence of 
the white ring, and reddish-copper tint of the croup, instead of greenish. 

China produces several other species, with most superb plumage, as 

The Golden Pheasant (Ph. pictus), and Amherst Pheasant (Ph. Amherstii), which have both a gorgeous ruff 
round the neck, and the latter in particular an exceedingly long tail, the feathers widening in the middle. 

The Reeves’s Pheasant (PA. Reevesii), from the same country, is one of the most magnificent of birds. It is 
half as large again as the common species, with a tail exceeding six feet in length. Ph. versicolor, and Ph. 
Soémeringii, from Japan, are also truly splendid, and nearly allied to the common one. 

Others approximate the Common Fowl in their carriage, as the Silver Pheasant (Ph. nycthemerus), from China, 
and the Lineated (Ph. lineatus), from the mountains of Thibet: both these have purple-black under-parts, 
with the feathers above white and lineated ; a pendent crest on the head. Ph. albocristatus comes still nearer to 
the Fowls, retaining the head only of the Pheasant group; and Ph. pucrasia, is perhaps the dullest of the whole 
genus, with a pointed short tail, but is otherwise allied to the ordinary species: the two last are from the Himma- 
layas]. The females of all are sombre [that of-Ph. Reevesii the least so, which is beautifully variegated with white 
upon the neck,] and have shorter tails. 

We conceive that the description of the Pheenix, by Pliny, (lib. x. cap. 2), was drawn up from a specimen of the 
Golden Pheasant. 


One of the most singular of all Birds is 


The Argus (Ph. argus, Lin).—A large Pheasant from the south of Asia, the head and neck of which are almost 
naked. The tarsi are without spurs; a very long tail in the male; the secondary quills of the wing exces- 
sively elongated, widened, and covered throughout their length with ocellated spots, which, when spread out, 
impart an extraordinary aspect to the bird. It inhabits the mountains of Sumatra and some other countries of 
the south-east of Asia, and constitutes the genus Argus of Temminck. 


Tue Macartneys (Euplocomus, Tem.),— 
With the naked cheeks common to this genus, have the vertical tail and arched coverts of the Cocks, 
together with erectible feathers on the head, which form a crest similar to that of the Peafowl. The 
projecting lower edge of the naked skin of their cheeks supplies the place of wattles. The tarsi are 
armed with strong spurs. 


We are acquainted with one only, from the Isles of Sunda (Phasianus ignitus, Shaw) ; size of a Cock, and bril- 
liant black, with a golden-red rump, the upper tail-coverts yellowish or whitish, and the flanks spotted with white 
or fulvous. Female brown, finely streaked with blackish above. and dashed with white beneath; crested like ~ 
the male. [The PA. albocristatus might be placed with it.] 


. 


Tue TrRAGopans (Tragopan, Cuy.)— 
Are [with the exception of one species] remarkable for the singular adornment of the head, which is 
almost naked, with a small slender horn [or erectible excrescence} behind each eye, and a wattle sus- 
ceptible of inflation under the throat. There are short tarsal spurs in both sexes. 


[Four species are now known, all beautifully spotted with white, somewhat as in a Pintado, and in three of them 
upon a gorgeous red ground-colour; the naked parts are also vividly tinted with rich blue and yellow. Females 
and young dull brown. They inhabit the Himmalaya range of mountains, and perch like Pheasants]. 


We should separate from the Pheasant group 


Tue CryptTonyx, Tem.,-— 
Wherein the immediate circumference of the eye alone is naked, the tail is moderate and plain, and 
the tarsi are without spurs. Their most remarkable character, however, consists in the absence of the 
hind-claw. 


In the only well-known species (Cr. coronatus, Tem.), the male has a long crest of thinly-barbed rufous feathers, 
and some long barbless stems over each eyebrow. Plumage bright green and blue. [Another (Cr. niger), is wholly 
black, with the female brown. There are two or three more, all from India and its islands]. 


Tue Grouse (Tefrao, Lin.)— 
Form another great genus, characterized by a naked space, generally of a bright red colour, in place of 
an eye-brow. It is subdivided in the following manner. 


Tue RestricteD Grouse (Tetrao, Latham)— 
Have feathered tarsi without spurs. Those to which we more particularly confine the name have 
a rounded or forked tail, and naked toes. [They are polygamous, and spread the tail and strut in the 


manner of Turkeys]. 


The Bearded or Wood Grouse, Capercailzie, or Cock of the Wood (7. urogallus, Lin.), is the largest of the true 
Poultry, surpassing the Turkey in size. Its plumage is slate-coloured, finely rayed with blackish, [the breast 
shining bottle-green]; female fulvous, barred with brown or blackish. It inhabits the extensive mountain forests 
of the north of Europe, nestles in the heather or newly-cleared grounds, and subsists on buds and berries, [and 
particularly pine-shoots]. Its flesh is excellent, and the trachea makes two curves before entering the lungs. 

The Black Grouse (7. tetrvix, Lin).—Black, with some white on the wing-coverts and beneath the tail, the two 
outermost feathers of which are forked and curled outward. Female fulvous, barbed with whitish and dusky 
black. Their size that of the Domestic Cock and Hen. Found also in the European mountain forests. [There is 
a nearly allied species in Siberia]. 

An intermediate species appears to exist in the north of Europe (7. intermedius, Langsdorf). [It is still very 
doubtful whether this be not a hybrid between the Bearded and Black Grouse. 

Several more exist in North America; one (7. cupido) is remarkable for a double nuchal crest, and an expan- 
sile globular pouch on the sides of the neck, of the colour and size of an orange, which is inflated when the bird 
is strutting. Others, the Centrocercus, Swainson, have sharp-pointed tail-feathers, and shorter wings: they inhabit 
the open country, and do not perch. Suchis 7. urophasianus, Bonap., the great Cock of the Plains, which is one 
third smaller than the European Wood Grouse, with some inflatable skin on the sides of the neck. 


Others again, 
THe Bonasia, Bonap.— 


Have a naked strip along the front of the tarsi, and the coronal feathers lengthened ; as] 


The Hazel Grouse (T. bonasia, Lin.).—Scarcely larger than a Partridge, and prettily mottled, grey and rufous. 
Inhabits temperate Europe. [We have found its crop and stomach filled with birch catkins.] Another (7. umbellus, 
Gmelin), in North America, is about a third larger. 


Tue PrarMican (Lagopus, Cuv.)— 

Are species with a round or square tail, the toes of which are feathered like the tarsi. [They are 
monogamous, and do not strut with expanded tail-feathers]. The more generally diffused species 
become white in winter. 


The Common Ptarmigan (7. lagopus, Lin.).—Inhabits our highest mountains, and shelters itself, in winter, in 
holes which it burrows in the snow [a habit which is 
also practised by the common Partridge.] The Willow 
Ptarmigan (T. saliceti, Tem.), from the whole north, is 
larger, with a stouter bill. [Though not found in 
Britain, like the last, it is the common species of the 
London markets. Another, still more densely clad 
(L. bradydactyla, Gould), occurs in Russia, and there 
are additional species in Iceland and in North America]. 

There is a Ptarmigan in Scotland, however, which 
does not change colour in winter. 

The Heath Ptarmigan (7. scoticus, Latham).—{Com- 
mon Moor-fowl, or Red Grouse of sportsmen, remark- 
able for being quite restricted in its distribution to the 
British islands: it renews its feathers twice a year, 
however, like the others]. 


We may here separate by the name of 


Tue GaneGas (Pterocles, Tem.)— 
The species with a pointed tail and naked toes. 
RUE CG GET The circumference of the eyes alone is naked, and 


not of a red colour: their thumb is very small. [The wings are remarkably long and pointed, with the 


GALLIN. 229 


first quill longest, and flight extraordinarily swift ; sternal crest more developed than in any other bird 
whatever, the inner emargination of the sternum almost obliterated : furcula singularly short and wide, 
without any appenddage: the alimentary passage resembles that of other Poultry, having coeca as 
much developed as in a Partridge. The feathers are nioulted twice a year, and resemble those of the 
Bustards, both sexes being alike in winter, and the male acquiring a peculiar garb in summer. They 
lay few eggs, and the young do not follow their parents for some time, but are fed by them in the 
nest. They inhabit the arid deserts of Africa and Arabia, and are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. } 

One (T. alchata, Lin.), habits the south of France and borders of the Mediterranean. [Another (7. arenarius, 
Pallas) occurs in Spain, and a third (Pt. caspicus, Menetr.) is found in south-eastern Europe. There are 
iaany more, 

Closely allied to the Gangas, we deem 

THE TerraAoGaALius, Hardwicke,— 

A large species from the mountains of the north of India, with shorter wings and comparatively 
stout bill. The tarsi are armed with spurs, and the first five quills are nearly equal. , 


It 1s the T, nigelli, Gray]. 
Tue Parrrincss (Perdix, Brisson) ,— 


Have the tarsi naked as well as the toes. Among them 


Tue Francouins (Francolinus, Tem.)— 
Are distinguished by their longer and stouter beak, more developed tail, and generally by their stout spurs. 
There is one in southern Europe (7. francolinus, Lin.), with red feet ; the neck and belly of the male black, with 
round white spots, and a vivid rufous collar. 
Some of the foreign species are remarkable either for possessing double spurs, or a naked skin on the throat, or 
they combine these two characters: others, again, have a particularly large beak, and are without spurs. 
Tue Resrrictep ParrripGEes— 
Have the beak not quite so stout: the males have short spurs, or simple tubercles, which are wanting 
in the females. 
Every one is acquainted with 
The Grey Partridge (7. cinereus, Lin.), that prolific species of game, which lives and propagates in our fielcs, 
and is so highly esteemed for the table. 
The Red Partridge (T. rufus, Lin.) [and five or six others with the same general character of plumage, form a 
natural group, the first dress of which is analogous to that of the preceding. All are peculiar to the eastern 


hemisphere. } 
THE Quatts (Cofurniz, Tem.)— 


Are smaller than the Partridges; with a more slender beak and shorter tail: they have neither spurs 
nor red eyebrow, [and have longer wings. All are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, where they are 
generally diffused]. 

The Common Quail (7. coturnix, Lin.), a small European bird, celebrated for its migrations across the Medi 
terranean. [There are many others.] 

THE Couns (Ortyx, Stephens),— 

Or Partridges and Quails of America, have a shorter and stouter beak, more convex above: their tail 
is somewhat larger. They perch on branches, and, when disturbed, even on trees.* Several species 
migrate like our Quails. 


{Some have remarkable recurved topknots, in one of cxtraordinary length]. 
We are obliged to separate from the whole genus of Grouse 


THe OrtyeGans (Hemipodius, Tem.),— ; 
Which have no thumb, and the compressed beak of which forms a slight projection under the lower 
mandible. They cannot, however, be properly classed until their anatomy is known. The species are 
polygamous, and inhabit sandy regions. 


Some of them, 
Tue Ortycans (Ortygis, llliger),— 


Have the general aspect of Quails, with toes separated to their very base, having no small membrane. 
[The chief peculiarity of their anatomy consists in the absence of a craw. ] 
The natives of Java train one species for fighting (the H. pugnaa), as Game-Cocks are trained in England. 


* The Red Partridges will sometimes do this.—Epn. 


230 AVES. 


Others, 
Tar ArracEens (Syrrhaptes, lliger),— 


Are so far removed from the general type of the Poultry, that it is even doubtful whether they should 
range in the present order. [They appear to be nearly related to the Gangas.] Their short tarsi are 
feathered, as are also the toes, which are short, and joined together for a part of their length; tie 
wings being extremely long and pointed. 

But one species is known, from the deserts of central Asia [and very rarely eastern Europe,] (7. paradoxus, 
Pallas), the Heteroclyte of Temminck. 


We are equally necessitated to separate from the Grouse 


Tue Tinamouvs (Tinamus, Latham ; Crypturus, Iliger),— 

An American genus, remarkable for a long and slender neck, (although the tarsi are short,) covered with 
feathers, the tips of the barbs of which are slender and slightly curled, which imparts a peculiar air to 
that part of their plumage. The beak is long, slender, and blunt at the end; somewhat vaulted, with 
asmall groove at each side: the nostrils are pierced in the middle of each side, and penetrate obliquely 
backwards. Their wings are short, and they have scarcely avy tail. The membrane between the base 
of their toes is very short. Their thumb, reduced to a spur, cannot touch the ground. They have a 
small naked space round the eye. These birds either perch 
on low branches, or conceal themselves in tall grass; they 
live on fruits and insects, and their flesh is very good. Their 
size varies from that of a Pheasant down to that of a Quail, 
or even still smaller. [Eggs of a deep purple colour. ] 

Some of them (the Pezus of Spix), have a small tail concealed 
under the feathers of therump. Others (the Tinamus of Spix) have 
no tail at all, and the nostrils are placed a little further backward. 

We should distinguish the Rhynchotis of Spix, wherein the beak, 
which is stronger, has no groove, and is a little arcuated and de- 
pressed, with the nostrils pierced towards the base. 


THe PicEeons (Columba, Lin.)— 

May be considered as forming some passage from the 
Galline to the Passerine. As in the former, their 
beak is vaulted, the nostrils are pierced in a large mem- 
branous space, and covered with a cartilaginous scale, 

Bi eeernastiot Tins mou. which even forms a bulge at the base of the beak: the 
bony sternum (fig. 111) is deeply and doubly emarginated, although somewhat differently [the 
inner notch being mostly reduced to a foramen; the ridge of the 
sternum deep, and rounded off anteriorly (much as in the Par- 
rots) ; and the furcula flat and destitute of any appendage]. The 
crop (fig. 70, p. 160) is extremely large [and double, or expanding 
on each side of the cesophagus, in which it differs from that of 
any other bird; it also secretes a lacteal substance, as in the 
Parrots, during the period of incubation. The gizzard is power- 
fully muscular ; the intestines very long and slender, with minute 
cceca; and there is no gall bladder]. The inferior larynx is fur- 
nished with but one muscle proper—[we have invariably found 
two pairs]; but there is no other membrane between the base of 
the toes than that which results from the continuity of the edges. 
The tail consists of twelve feathers, and they fly tolerably well. 
These birds are invariably monogamous, nestle in trees or the 
holes of rocks, and lay but very few eggs, ordinarily two, though 
they breed often. Both sexes incubate, and they feed their young 
by disgorging grain macerated in the crop. They form but one 
great genus, which naturalists have attempted to divide into three 
subgenera, from the greater or less strength of the bill, and the proportions of the feet. 


Fig. 111.—Sternum of Pigeon. 


GRALL&. 231 


Tue Gouras (Lophyrus, Vieillot)— 
Approximate the ordinary Gallinacee more than the other subgenera, by their more elevated tarsi and 
gregarious habits, finding their food more on the ground, and never [not so habitually] perching. Their 
beak is slender and flexible, [aud their anatomy precisely that of the others]. 


One species is even allied to the Gallinacee by the caruncles and other naked parts about the head (the C. carun- 
culata, Tem.) 

Another, at least, approaches them in size, which almost equals that of a Turkey,—the Crowned Pigeon of the 
Indian Archipelago (C. coronata, Gm.).—Entirely of a slaty-blue, with some chestnut and white on the wings; the 
head adorned with a vertical longitudinal crest of thinly-barbed feathers. It is bred in the poultry-yards of Java, 
&c., but refuses to propagate in Europe. It is to this species that the names Gowra and Lophyrus espe- 
cially apply. 

A third approximates the Poultry by the long pendent feathers of its neck, somewhat asin the Cock,—the Nicobar 
Pigeon (Col. nincobarica, Lin.), of a brilliant golden-green colour, the tail white. It is found in many parts of 
the Indian Isles, [and propagates in the same manner as the others, contrary to what has been asserted. 

Other small species compose the Chemepelia, Swainson, as the Ground Dove of Wilson’s American Ornithology, 
C. passerina, Lin.} P 
Tue RestricteD PiGEons (Columba, as limited)— 
Have shorter legs than the preceding, but the same flexible and slender bill. 


There are four wild species in Europe 

The Cushat, or Ring Dove (Col. palumbus, Lin.), is the largest of them. It inhabits forests, and more parti- 
cularly those of evergreens, and is of a bluish ash-colour, rufous beneath, and distinguished by a spot of white on 
each side of the neck. [It nestles on the branches of trees. ] 

The Stock Pigeon (C. wnas, Lin.).—Of a slaty-grey colour, vinous beneath, with some changeable green upon 
the neck. Rather smaller than the last, and similar in its general habits. [It breeds, however, either in conve- 
nient holes of trees, or in leafy pollards termed stocks, and not unfrequently in rabbit-burrows; makes no flap- 
ping sound with the wings in flying, like the next species]. 

The Rock Pigeon (C. livia, Brisson).—Slaty-grey, some iridescent green on the neck, two black bars on each 
wing, and awhite rump. The Dovecot Pigeon is derived from this species, and, it would appear, the greater 
number of the innumerable domestic breeds, in the production of which, however, the admixture of some proxi- 
mate species may likewise have an influence. [The wild Rock Pigeon breeds principally in sea-cliffs, and but 
sparingly inland. There is a race, which we suspect to be a distinct species, closely allied, the wings of which are 
spotted, somewhat as in the Stock Pigeon, but more extensively, in place of the black bars. Numbers of them, 
all shot, are sold in the London markets. We will term it C. macularia]. 

The Turtle Dove (Col. turtur, Lin.).—A fulvous-brown mantle, spotted with brown, the neck bluish, with a spot 
on each side, variegated black and white. It is the smallest of the European wild Pigeons, and resembles the 
Cushat in its habits, [excepting in being migratory]. 

The Collared Dove (Col. visoria, Lin.), appears to have been originally from Africa. It is of a reddish-white 
colour, pale below, with a black collar on the neck. 

The species of this division are extremely numerous, and might be further subdivided according as the tarsi are 
naked or feathered, and upon the naked space surrounding the eyes of some of them. Those with feathered tarsi 
constitute the Ptilinopus, Swainson. 

Some have even caruncles and other naked parts on the head: and there are others [the Ectopistes, Swainson], 
which might be separated on account of their pointed tail. 


But the best of all the divisions that have been instituted among the Pigeons is that of 


Tue Vrnacos (Vinago, Cuv.),— 
Which are recognized by having a stouter bill, of solid substance, and compressed laterally: their tarsi 
are short, and their feet large and well bordered. They inhabit extensive woods, and subsist on fruit. 
But few species are known, all from the torrid zone of the eastern continent. 


[They have generally vivid-green plumage, variegated with bright yellow]. One has a pointed tail. 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF BIRDS— 
THE STILT-BIRDS (Gratta, Lin.),— 


Also termed Shore-birds and Waders, names which are derived from their habits and con- 
formation. The members of this division are recognized by the nudity of part of the tibia, 
and most commonly by the elongation of the tarsi; conditions which permit them to enter 


232 AVES. 


the water to a certain depth without immersing the feathers, and to wade therein and seize 
fish by means of the neck and beak, the length of which is generally proportioned to that of 
the legs. The stronger among them feed on fish and reptiles, and the weaker on worms and 
insects. A very few content themselves in part with grain or herbage, and these alone inhabit 
at a distance from any water. Their external toe is most commonly united at base to the 
middle one, by means of a short membrane; in some there are two membranes, while others 
want them entirely, having the toes quite separated; it also sometimes happens, though 
rarely, that they are palmated to the end : the thumb is altogether wanting in several genera ; 
and all these circumstances exert an influence on their mode of life, which is more or less 
aquatic. Nearly the whole of these birds, if we except the Ostriches and Cassowaries, have long 
wings and fly well. They stretch out their legs backward during flight, contrary to what is ob- 
served of others [or at least those of the foregoing orders], which double them under the belly. 

In this order we establish five principal families, together with some isolated genera. 

The first family of Stilt Birds, that of 


THE BREVIPENNES, 
Although generally similar, in other respects, to the rest, differs widely from them in the 
shortness of the wings, which are inadequate to perform the function of flight. The beak and 
regimen give them numerous affinities with the Gallinacee. 

It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the disposal of nature, would be insuffi- 
cient to move such immense wings as would be required to support their massive bodies in 
the air: their sternum (fig. 112) is a 
sumple buckler, and without the ridge 
which exists in all other Birds. The 
pectoral muscles are reduced to ex- 
treme tenuity ; but the posterior ex- 
tremities regain what the wings have 
lost. The muscles of their thighs, 
and of the legs especially, are of an 
enormous thickness. 

[ Most, if not all, of these birds, are 
remarkable for their singular mode of 
incubation. In the Ostrich, Emeu, 
and Nandou, it appears that several 
females lay in the same nest, the eggs 
being chiefly sat upon by the male, 
who feigns lameness when disturbed : 

Ship ESSE THEOL ake an artifice practised by the generality 
of ground-birds. It may therefore be presumed that they are polygamous, the attendant 
females of each male depositing their eggs together, commonly to the number of thirty, or 
even more. | 

They all want the back-toe. In the Ostrich, the number of phalanges to the two front-toes 
are four and five; in the Cassowary, [Emeu,] and Nandou, the phalanges of the three front- 
toes number three, four, and five, respectively. We recognize two genera. 


rat 


A ; 
a : mi i 
MY 


Wy) 


Tae OsrricuEs (Struthio, Lin.),— 
Have lax and flexible feathers on the wings, which latter are sufficiently long to accelerate their speed. 
Every one is acquainted with the elegance of these slender-stemmed feathers, the barbs of which, 
though furnished with secondary barbules, do not hitch in each other, as is the case with feathers 
generally. The beak is horizontally depressed, of mean length, and blunt at the tip; the tongue short, 
and rounded like a crescent ; and the eye large, with its lids garnished with lashes. Their legs and 
tarsi are very long. They have an enormous crop, and considerable proventriculus between the crop 


# 
ai 

- 
a 


GRALLA. 233 


and gizzard, voluminous intestines, and long ececa, also a vast receptacle in which the urine accumu- 
lates, as in a bladder; they are accordingly the only birds that urinate. The penis is very long, and 
often protruded. 

But two species are known, each of which might form a separate genus, [and they are now generally recognized 
as such, an additional species having been discovered of one of them.] 

The Ostrich of the Eastern Continent (Str. camelus, Lin.).—Only 
two toes to each foot, the outer of which, shorter by one-half than the 
other, is destitute of a nail. This bird, celebrated from the most 
remote antiquity, and very numerous in the sandy deserts of Arabia 
and the whole of Africa, attains the height of six feet anda half. It 
lives in large flocks, lays eggs which weigh nearly three pounds each, 
and which, in very hot climates, it leaves to be hatched by the solar 
heat, but, in extra-tropical regions, carefully incubates and de- 
fends them with courage. It subsists on grain and herbage, and its 
taste is so obtuse, that it swallows indifferently pebbles, pieces of 
iron, copper, &c. [its gizzard always containing a surprising quantity 
of small stones, which are doubtless taken for the purpose of assist- 
ing in the trituration of the food.] » When pursued, it dashes stones 
behind it with great force. No animal can overtake it in the chace. 

The Nandou (Str. rhea, Lin. [Rhea americana, Auctorum]), or 
Ostrich of America, is about half the size of the African Ostrich, and 

Fig. 113.—Foot of Ostrich. more thinly covered with feathers: it is also distinguished by pos- 
sessing three toes to each foot, allof which are furnished with claws. Its plumage is greyish, inclining to brown 
above, with a black line descending along the neck of the male. Is not less abundant in South America than the 
other is in Africa. It is easily tamed when taken young, and its flesh during youth is eaten. [The tarsi of this 
bird are scutellated. 

A second South American species (Rh. Darwinii, Gould; Rh. pennata, D’Orbigny), is one fifth less in size, with 
reticulated tarsi : it has also a more densely plumed wing, the feathers of which are broader, and are all terminated 
by a band of white. The bill is shorter than the head, and the tarsi are plumed for several inches below the joint. 
Inhabits Patagonia, where it is rare. Mr. Darwin observed that the Nandous swim with facility]. 


(iGusear tee 


\ 
A 


Tue Cassowartss (Casuarius, Brisson) — 


Have wings still shorter than those of the Ostriches, and quite useless in aiding progression. 
Their feet have three toes, all furnished with nails; and the barbs of their feathers are so little fringed 
with barbules, that at a distance they resemble pendent hair. [The accessory plume of the feathers 
(which in the Ostrich and Nandou does not exist at all) attains its maximum of developement, so that 
two equal stems appear to grow from the same quill, while in the restricted Cassowary there is even a 
third in addition. ] 

Two species likewise occur of this genus, ¢ach of which might also be elevated to the rank of a genus, [nov 
generally accepted]. 

The Galeated Cassowary (Str. casuarius, Lin. ; [Casuarius Emeu, Auctorum] ).—The beak laterally compress d 
and head surmounted with a bony prominence, invested with a horny substance; the skin of the head and neck 
of an azure blue and flame-colour, with pendent caruncles, analogous to those of the Turkey: wings furnished 
with some rigid barbless stalks, which are employed as weapons in combat: the nail of the inner toe much 
the strongest. It is the largest species of bird, next to the Ostrich, from which it differs considerably in its 


anatomy; for it has short intestines an ! 
small coeca, wants the intermediate stomach 
between the crop and gizzard, and its cloaca 
does not proportionally exceed that of other 
birds. It lives on fruit and eggs, but not 
on grain; and lays dark-green eggs, few in 
number, which, like the Ostrich, it aban- 
dons to the heat of the sun. It is found in 
different islands of the Indian Archipelago. 

The Emeu of New Holland (Casuarius 
Nove Hoilandie, Latham, [Dromaius Nove 
Follandie, Vieillot}).—A depressed beak, 
with no casque on the head, nor naked 
space except around the eye; the plumage 
brown, more dense, and the feathers more 
barbed; no caruncles, nor spurs to the 
wing; and the nails of the toes nearly equal. Its flesh resembles beef: it is swifter than the fleetest Greyhound, 
and the young are striped brown and white, {Either this or more probably an allied species has been extirpated 


Fig. 114.—Sternum of Emeu. 


ae aS a ee ee ie ern ae SS rene 


Oe ee an i are ne ak oh tn ig ce pen ee ees 3 
234 AVES. 


in New Zealand, where some bones of it have been found, and a tradition of its destruction is preserved by the 
inhabitants. ] 


N. B.—We cannot with propriety admit into this series, species so little known, or so ill-authenti- 
cated, as those which compose the genus of 


Dopos (Didus, Lin.),— 

The first species of which (D. ineptus) is only known from the description of it by the early Dutch navigators, 
preserved in Clusius (Hot. p. 99), and by an oil-paint- 
ing, of the same epoch, copied by Edwards, pl. 294; for 
the description by Herbert is puerile, and all the rest 
are copied from Clusius and Edwards. It seems that 
the species has entirely disappeared, for at the present 
time there is only a foot of it extant in the British Mu- 
seum, and an ill-preserved head in the Ashmolean Mu- 
seum at Oxford. The beak appears to be not without 
some resemblance to that of the Awks, and the foot 
would resemble that of the Penguins, had it been pal- 
mated. [Since this was written, the author personally 
examined these last precious remains of the now extinct 
Dodo, and was not merely satisfied of their validity and 
total generic distinctness, but expressed an opinion 
that the foot also preserved at Oxford was specifically 
different from that in the British Museum. ] 

The second species (D. solitarius) rests on the sole 
testimony of Leguat (Voy. i. p. 98), a man who has mis- 
represented well-known species of animals, as the Hip- 
popotamus and Manati. 

The third, or Bird of Nazareth (D. nazarenus), is 
only known from the account of Francois Carechi, who 
considers it the same as the first species, giving it however but three toes, while all the others allow that bird to 
have four. No one has been able to inspect any of these birds since the time of those voyagers. 


Fig. 113.—The Dodo. 


Tue Apteryx, Shaw,— 

Appears, of all Birds, to have the wings most completely reduced to simple rudiments. Its general 
form is that of a Penguin, and size that of a Goose. The feet also bear some resemblance to those of 
the Penguins, but are not described to be palmated. The beak is very long, slender, marked on each 
side with a longitudinal groove, and furnished 
with a membrane at its base: [the nostrils are 
placed at the top of the upper mandible be- 
neath, which passes beyond the under one]. 
Wing reduced to a little stump, terminated by a 
hook. 


[Several specimens of this singular bird have re- 
cently been received, more particularly in England, 
and its characters are now tolerably determined. It 
has no relationship whatever with the Penguin group, < 
but there is every reason to place it in the present 
family. From all other birds, it differs in the com- hemes aii anes 
pleteness of its diaphragm, and in the absence of abdominal air cells ; none of its bones are hollow. The sternum | 
is exceedingly reduced, with one deep posterior emargination on each side, and also a pair of anomalous perfora- 
tions or foramina towards the middle: the ribs are extraordinarily broad, and a single pair of vocal muscles are 
attached to the coracoids: stomach but slightly muscular, and intestines of mean length, with moderate-sized 
coeca. The feathers have no accessory plume, and their shafts are prolonged considerably beyond the barb; 
there are many long vibrisse about the base of the bill, which is invested with a ceral membrane. The feet have 
a short and elevated hind-toe, the claw of which is alone externally visible. The dimensions of the female appear 
to exceed those of the male, and her bill is longer. Size that of a domestic fowl, and colour deep brown. 

This very interesting bird is nocturnal in its time of action, and subsists on insects. It runs with rapidity, and 
defends itself vigorously with its feet. Its native name is Kivi-kivi, derived from its cry.] 


The fami'y of ; 
PRESSIROSTRES— 
Comprehends a number of genera with elongated tarsi, in which the back-toe is either quite 


absent, or so short as not to reach the ground. Bill moderate, but strong enough to penetrate 


GRALL. 235 


the ground in search of worms, [to obtain which they have the habit of patting with the feet, 
which causes the worms to rise]: those species in which it is more feeble frequent meadows 
and newly-ploughed land, where this food can be procured with greater ease : those which 
have stronger bills, subsist additionally on grain, herbage, &c. 


Tue Busrarps (Otis, Lin.)— 


With the heavy port of the Poultry, combine rather a long neck and legs, together with a moderately 
stout bill, the superior mandible of which is slightly arcuated and vaulted; and they also further 
approximate the Gallinacee by the very small membrane at the base of their toes: but the nudity of 
the lower. portion of the tibia, their whole anatomy, and even the flavour of their flesh, concur to 
place them in the-present order, in common with various members of which they also want the 
back-toe, and the smaller species are nearly allied to the Plovers. They have reticulated tarsi, and 
short wings; fly little, hardly ever using their wings, except to assist them in running, the same as 
the Ostriches ; and feed equally on grain, herbage, and worms and insects. [The stomach is very capa- 
cious, and extremely attenuated, contrasting remarkably with the muscular gizzard of the true Plovers ; 
their plumage is moulted twice in the year, the males of most of them developing accessory ornamental 
feathers, or black under-parts, in the spring; and their flight, when they do fairly rise, is easy and 
winnowing, and capable of considerable protraction. The species are numerous, and confined to the 
Eastern Continent. 

The two first, one indigenous, the other an occasional visitant, in the British Isles, possess a comparatively 
stout beak, which is compressed laterally. ] 

The Great Bustard (0. tarda, Lin.).—Bright buff-coloured plumage on the upper-parts, crossed with numerous 
black lines; elsewhere greyish-white, The male, which is the largest of European birds, has [in its summer dress] 
lengthened ear-coverts, which form a sort of large moustache on each side. This species, which is one of the 
finest kinds of game, frequents extensive plains, and nestles on the ground amongst the corn. [It is polygamous, 
and the female is much smaller than the maie; the latter being further distinguished by a very capacious mem- 
branous sac beneath the tongue. The voice of the male is a remarkable explosive sound. This bird lays only two 
eggs, of a dark greenish colour, with some black patches: the young, when first hatched, are very like young 
Piovers. It has been nearly extirpated in Great Britain.] 

The Little Bustard (0. tetrax, Lin.).—Less than half the size of the last species, and much less widely diffused ; 
of a brown colour, speckled with black above, whitish underneath. The male with a black neck, [in summer plu- 
mage Only,] and two white collars. [In this species, the sexes scarcely differ in size, from which we should infer 
that it is monogamous. It Jays four or five spotless green eggs in corn-fields, and is also highly esteemed for 
the table. ] 

The greater number of exotic species have the bill more slender, [and depressed instead of compressed]. Among 
them we may remark 

The Ruffed Bustard (O. houbara, Desm.), of Africa and Arabia, [and rarely Spain, the male of] which is adorned 
with lengthened feathers on the sides of the neck. [Another species with this character exists in central Asia.] 


Tue Provers (Charadrius, Lin.)— 


Likewise want the hind-toe, and have a middle-sized bill, compressed, but swoln towards the tip. They 
may be divided into two subgenera. 


THe THICK-KNEES ((dicnemus, Tem.),— 


Wherein the tip of the bill is inflated above as well as beneath, and the groove of the nostrils extends 
only half the length of the beak. They are the largest of the Plover group, and live by preference 
upon arid and stony districts, feeding on slugs, insects, &c. They are allied to the smaller species of 
Bustards [in their exterior conformation, but not in the structure of the stomach, which is a muscular 
gizzard: their plumage also is moulted once only in the year, and they undergo no seasonal change of 
colour]. Their legs are reticulated, and they have a short membrane at the base of their three toes. 

The European Thick-knee (Ch. wdicnemus, Lin. ; Gd. crepitans, Tem.).—Size of [larger than] a Woodcock, 
and fulyous-grey, with a brown streak along the middle of each feather; the belly white, and a brown space under 
the eye. [This is the Stone Curlew, Whistling or Norfolk Plover, asit is variously designated, which is common in 
several districts of South Britain, and well known wherever it occurs from its sonorous whistling. It lays but 
two eggs, which however do not resemble those of the Bustards, and taper at one end; the smaller Bustards (as 
we have seen) produce a greater number. The Thick-knees are for the most part migratory, but some regularly 
stay the winter. We have reason to believe that it rears more than one brood in a season. There are several 
exotic species, some considerably larger and much stouter]. 


236 AVES. 


Tue RestricreD Provers (Charadrius,)— 
Have the beak swoln only above, and two-thirds of its length occupied by the nasal groove on each 
side, which renders it weaker. They live in numerous flocks. frequent low and humid places, and 
stamp the ground to cause the worms on which they feed to rise. 

Those of France are merely birds of passage, which are met with in autumn and spring; near the sea-coast some 
of them remain till the beginning of winter. [They all breed, however, within the British isles, and at least some 
of them in France also.] Their flesh is excellent. They form, with numerous exotic species, a tribe with reticu- 
lated tarsi, of which the most remarkable are 

The Golden Plover (Ch. pluvialis, Lin.).—Blackish, speckled with yellow at the tips of the feathers; the belly 
black [in summer, in winter white. It breeds on upland moors. There are others very closely allied, but smaller, 


in India, Australia, and North America]. 
The Dottrel Plover (CA. morinellus, Lin.).—Grey or blackish, the feathers edged with whitish fulvous ; a white 


streak over the eye, the breast and upper part of the belly bright rufous, and the lower part of the belly white. 
[it breeds on the very summits of mountains uncovered by snow; flies in large scattered flocks, which are not 
shy; and is partial to chalky districts : its feathers are much esteemed by anglers. ] 

The Ring Plover (Ch. hiaticula, Lin.).— Greyish brown above, white beneath, with a black [or in winter a brown] 
collar on the lower part of the neck, very broad anteriorly ; the head marked with black and white, and the beak 
yellow tipped with black. Two or three races or different species inhabit these parts, varying in size and the 
distribution of the colours of the head. [Those of Britain are, first, the conmon Ring Plover, with plumage as 
above described, and orange-coloured legs, which is everywhere very abundant on the sea-coast, breeding both 
there and on heaths a little inland ; the Kentish Plover (Ch. cantianus), with longer and black legs, and a rufous 
occiput, an inhabitant of shingle-beaches, and less deeply coloured; and the Little Plover (C. minor), which is a 
diminutive of the first, and of excessively rare occurrence so far north.] There are numerous other foreign spe- 


cies, with similar general distribution of colours. 
Various exotic Plovers have scutellated tarsi, and form a small division (the Pluvianus, Vieillot), of which the 


greater number of species possess spurs to the wings, and fieshy wattles to the head; some of them have both 
these characters. 

Tue Lapwines (Vanellus, Bechst.; Tringa, Lin.)— 
Have the same beak as the Plovers, and are only distinguished by the presence of a back-toe, which 
however is so small that it does not reach the ground. 

In the first tribe of them (the Sguatarola, Cuv.), this back-toe iS scarcely perceptible. The Dill is 
swoln underneath, and the nasal groove as short as in the Thick-knee. The feet are reticulated, and 
the tail of the European species is rayed black and white. It associates with the Plovers. 

The Grey Lapwing, or Stone Plover (Tringa squatarola, Auct.)—[This bird differs only from the Golden Plover 
in the stoutness of its bill, and in possessing the small back toe. Its seasonal changes are the same, having the 
under-parts black in summer and white in winter; the feathers above are similarly mottled, only with whitish 
instead of yellow, except in the young, which is even speckled with yellow. From the true Lapwings and the 
Pluviani, this bird and the restricted Plovers differ in their pointed wings and reticulated tarsi; the latter having 
scutellated tarsi, broad and rounded wings, and a difierent system of coloration. Its habits are precisely those of 
the Golden Plover, and it breeds on some of the northern British moors. ] 


Tue Resrraictep Lapwines (Vanellus, Cuv.)— 


Have the hind-toe rather more developed, the tarsi scutellated, at least in part, and the nasal fossa pro- 
longed over two-thirds of the beak. They procure worms in the same manner as the Plovers, [and are 


peculiar to the eastern hemisphere ]. 

That common in Europe, the Crested Lapwing (T. vanellus, Lin.), is a handsome species the size of a Pigeon, of 
arichly bronzed black above, with a long and slender occipital crest. [Throat black in summer and white in 
winter, at which latter season the colours are comparatively dull.] Jt arrives in spring, lives and propagates in 
the meadows, and departs in autumn. The eggs are considered a great delicacy. 

There are some species of this genus in hot climates, the wings of which are armed with one or two spurs, and 
others which have fleshy wattles at the base of the beak. They are very noisy birds, screaming at every sound 
they hear, and defend themselves with courage against birds of prey. Live alsoin the meadows. [A second 
European species of Lapwing, from the south-eastern countries, is the V. gregarius, Pallas, or V. keptuscka, Tem.] 


Tue Oysrer-catcHers (Hematopus, Lin.)— 
Have the beak rather longer than in the Plovers and Lapwings, straight, pointed, and compressed into 
a wedge ; strong enough to enable them to force open the bivalve shells of the mollusks on which 
they feed. They also seek for worms upon the ground. The nasal groove, which is very deep, 
occupies half the length of the bill, and the nostrils are pierced in the middle like a small fissure. 
Their legs are of mean length, the tarsi reticulated, and the feet divided only into three toes. 


Iai 


GRALL. 


That of Europe (ZH. ostralegus, Lin.) is commonly termed Sea-pie, from its black and white plumage; the belly, 
throat, and base of the wings and tail, being of the latter colour; beak and feet bright orange-red. [There are 
several more. } 


We shall place near the Plovers and Oyster-catchers 


Tue Coursers (Cursorius, Lacepede ; Tachydromus, Iliger),— 
The beak of which, more slender, but equally conical, is arcuated, without any groove, and moderately 
cleft ; the wings are shorter, and the legs more elevated, and terminated by three toes, without any 
thumb or palmature. [They approximate the Bustards in appearance and habits, and have a similar 
large membranous stomach; but do not change colour with the seasons, and are very much smaller : 
are peculiar also to the eastern hemisphere]. 


One has been met with, but very rarely, in France and England, which is indigenous to the north of Africa, the 
Cream-coloured Courser (C. isabellinus, Meyer), of a pale fulvous colour above, white beneath, [the young trans- 
versely rayed above with narrow dusky lines. There are several others. } 


As far as can be judged from the exterior, it is here that we should also place 


Tur Carrama (Microdactylus, Geoff.; Dicholophus, Mliger)— 
Which has a longer beak, more curved, and cleft as far as the eye, which imparts somewhat of the 
physiognomy and disposition of the Birds of Prey, approaching also a little to the Herons. The legs, 
scutellated and very long, terminate in three short toes, a little palmated at the base, together with a 
thumb that does not reach the ground. 

[This curious bird is most nearly related to the Guans, and should rank in the Poultry order: the 
affinity is particularly apparent when it is seen alive. In its anatomy, it chiefly differs from the Galli- 
naceous type in wanting the appendage to the furcula, which latter is otherwise similar to that of a 
Fowl, and in having the sternal emarginations much less deep. It is essentially a Poultry bird with 
the long legs of a Crane ; but differs in its short and elevated hind-toe from the Carassows and Guans]. 

We are acquainted with one species only, from South America, (MV. cristatus, Geoff. ; Palamedea cristata, Gm. ; 
Saria, d’Az.), which surpasses the Heron in size, and subsists on Lizards and insects, which it hunts for on high 
grounds and along the borders of forests. Plumage yellowish-grey, waved with brown ; some thinly-barbed fea- 
thers at the base of the beak, forming a slight crest, which is thrown backward. It flies but seldom, and then 
badly ; and its loud voice resembles that of a young Turkey. As its flesh is esteemed, it has been domesticated in 
several places. 


The family of 
CULTRIROSTRES 

Is known by a tong, thick, and stout beak, which is most generally trenchant and pointed, 
and is almost entirely composed of the birds comprehended in the genus Ardea of Linnzus. 
In a great number of species, the trachea of the male [and of the female also} forms various 
curves: their coeca are short [or moderate], and the true Herons have even only one. 

We subdivide it into three tribes, the Cranes, the Herons properly so designated, and the 
Storks. 

The first tribe forms but one great genus, that of 


THE Cranes (Grus, Cuv.),— 
Which have a straight beak, but slightly cleft; the membranous groove of the nostrils, which is large 
and concave, occupying nearly half its length. Their legs are scutellated, with toes of moderate length ; 
the external but slightly palmated, and the thumb barely reaching to the ground. A more or 
less considerable portion of the head and neck is bare of feathers in nearly all of them. Their habits 
are more terrene, and their nourishment is derived more from vegetables, than in the following 
genera: they have accordingly a muscular gizzard, and tolerably long ceca. The inferior larynx is 
provided with only one muscle at each side. 
At the head of the genus we place, as Pallas has already done, 


Tue AGami (Psophia, Lin.),— 
Which has a shorter beak than the others, the head and neck invested merely with down, and the 
circumference of the eves naked. They live in the woods, and subsist on grain and fruits. 


238 AVES. 


The best known species (Ps. crepitans, Lin.), inhabits South America, and is called the Trumpeter, from its 
faculty of producing a low, deep sound, which at first seems to 
proceed from the anus. It is the size of a large Capon; plumage 
black, with reflections of brilliant violet on the breast; and an 
ashy mantle tinged with fulyous above. This bird soon recog- 
nizes persons, becomes attached to them like a Dog, and when 
domesticated, it is said, may be left to take charge of other 
poultry. It flies badly, but runs with great swiftness, and nestles 
on the ground at the foot of a tree. Its flesh is considered good 
eating. 

[The location of this very singular species among the Cranes, 
is by no means satisfactory ; but we do not know that it can be 
placed to greater advantage elsewhere. Its port resembles that 
of the Struthious birds (or Brevipennes); and the configura- 
tion of the sternum (fig. 117) is unique, not even approaching 
that of any other group. The trachea is much elongated, and 
continued under the skin of the abdomen, which occasions the 
sound of its voice to appear to come from that part. Upon the 
whole, we conceive that it is as nearly allied to the Tinamous, 
which inhabit the same region, as to any other known genus, and 
would prefer to detach it in a more marked manner from that of 
the Cranes. It has also some remote affinity with Palamedea. 


Fig. 117.—Sternum of the Agami. 


Tue RestricTeD CRANES (Grus, Bechstein) — 
Have ample wings, and considerably longer neck and legs. Their figure is much more elegant and 
graceful; and they feed on corn, and upon reptiles ; chiefly frequenting humid districts in flccks that 
are often numerous. They do not run with speed; but have singular habits of attitudinizing, with 
expanded wings, and circling around each other with a light and tripping step. Their \oice is vw ry 
loud and harsh. Naturalists have further subdivided them, first into 


Tur BaLearicans (Balearica, Vigors),— 

The occiput of which is adorned with a peculiar bushy crest, composed of erect and crimpled barbless 

stems of equal length; the forehead is clad with short and close feathers, of velvety appearance ; and 

the throat is furnished with fleshy wattles. The sternum resembles that of a Heron; but the furcula 

is not anchylosed to its ridge, as in the others, nor does the trachea undergo any convolution; the 

laryngeal muscles are attached to the first true ribs. These birds perch with facility, and are very 
readily domesticated. 

Two species are known, from eastern and western Africa respectively ; the first with a pale grey neck, and much 


larger fleshy wattles, (B. regulorum) ; the other, which is more commonly brought alive to Europe, having a blackish 
neck and small wattles (B. pavonia). Both have also naked cheeks. 


The rest have lengthened tertials, and no crest: the furecula is soldered to the sternal keel, ard the 
latter is hollow and inflated to receive the trachea, which undergoes a convolution within it, as in 
several Swans. Such are 

Tue DeEMoIsELLes (4nthropoides, Vigors),— 
Which have the head and neck quite feathered, and the tertials hanging over the tail to reach the 
ground. They are confined to Africa, like the last. 


The Paradise Demoiselle (G. paradiseus, Vieillot ; Anth. Stanleyanus, Bennett).—A large species, entirely of a 
delicate ashy-grey colour ; the plumage of the head short and erectile, having very much the appearance of infla- 
table skin. The Numidian Demoiselle (Ardea virgo, Lin.) is much smaller, and characterized by a black neck, 
with two elegant whitish tufts on the sides of the head, formed by the prolongation of the ear-coverts. 


Finally, 
Tue True Cranes (Grus, Vigors)— 
Have the beak as long as the head, or longer; the head and part of the neck generally naked; and the 
tertials commonly recurved. The species are comparatively numerous, and much more widely 
distributed. Habits migratory. 

One is common in Europe, and sometimes occurs, but as an exceedingly rare straggler, in the British Isles, the 
European Crane (Ardea grus, Lin.; Grus cinerea, Bechst.) |—¥our feet and upwards in height, of an ash-colour, 
with a black throat; the summit of the head red and naked. ‘This bird has been celebrated from the earliest 
ages, on account of its regular migrations, from north to south in the autumn, and back in the spring, which it 
effects in numerous and well-ordered flocks. It feeds on grain, but prefers the worms and insects of marshy 


GRALLE. 239 


grounds. The ancients frequently speak of it, because the principal course of its migrations appears to be 
through Greece and Asia Minor, 


Between the Cranes and Herons may be placed 


Tuer Courtan [ (Aramus, Vieillot), | 
The beak of which, more slender and rather more deeply cleft than that of the Cranes, is swoln near 
the terminal third of its length; and the toes are comparatively long, without any basal membrane. 
[Its anatomy approaches that of the Rails]. 


The species (Ard. scolopacea, Gm.), resembles the Herons in size as well as manners, and has brown plumage, 
with some white pencils on the neck. 


Also 
Tue Care (Luropyga, Ilig.),— 
With a beak more slender than that of the Cranes, but marked with a similar nasal groove, and split 
nearly to the eyes, as in the Herons, but having no naked skin at its base. 

It is a bird the size of a Partridge, with a long and slender neck, broad open tail, and rather short legs, which 
altogether impart a very different aspect from that of the wading birds in general. Its plumage, shaded with 
bands and lines of brown, fulvous, russet, grey and black, recalls to mind the colouring of some of the most beau- 
tiful Moths. It is found along the rivers of Guiana, [and we suspect is closely allied to the African genus 
Rhynchea). 

The second tribe is more carnivorous, and is characterized by its stronger beak, and longer 
toes: [they mostly nestle upon trees in large societies, and the young are at first helpless and 
naked]. At its head may be placed 


Tue Boatsitts (Cancroma, Lin),— 

Which would completely resemble the Herons in the strength of their bill, and the kind of nourish- 
ment resulting therefrom, were it not for the extraordinary form of that organ; as, upon close exami- 
nation, we find that it is merely the beak of a Heron or Bittern, very much inflated : in point of fact, the 
mandibles are singularly wide from right to left, and formed like the bowls of two spoons, the concave sides 
of which are placed in contact. These mandibles are very stout and sharp-edged, and the upper one has 
a pointed tooth on each side of its tip; the nostrils, pierced towards the base, are prolonged into two 
parallel grooves to near the end. The feet have four toes, all of them long, and nearly without con- 
necting membrane; for which reason these birds perch on the branches of trees by the sides of rivers, 
from which they precipitate themselves on the fish, which constitute their ordinary food. Their gait is 
slow, and their attitudes constrained like those of the Herons. [The Boatbills are, in brief, simply 
modified Herons, from which they differ only in their inflated beak, conforming in their whole 
anatomy. | 


The known species (C. cochlearea, Lin.), is the size of a common Fowl, and 
whitish, with a grey or brown back, the belly rufous, and forehead white ; 
head adorned with a black calotte, which, in the adult male, becomes a 
lengthened crest : it inhabits the hot and humid regions of South America. 


Tue Herons (Ardea, Lin.),— 

Have the beak cleft as far as the eyes, with a small nasal fossa pro- 
longed into a groove nearly to the point: they are also distinguished 
by the pectinated inner edge of the claw of their middle toe. Their 
legs are scutellated, with the toes (including the hind one) rather 
long [and articulated on the same plane]: the palmature of the outer 
ones is considerable, and their eyes are placed in a naked skin, which 
extends to the beak. Their stomach is a very large sac, but slightly 
muscular, [the intestines extremely long and slender,] and they have 
only one minute ccecum. They are unlively birds, which nestle and 
perch by the sides of rivers, and consume a vast quantity of fish. The 
species are very numerous in both continents, and can scarcely be dis- 
tinguished except by differences of plumage. 


The True Herons have a very slender neck, with long and pendent feathers 
towards its base. As 
‘kne Common Heron (A. major & A. cinerea, Lin.).—Bluish ash-coloured, with a black occipital crest ; the neck 


Fig.118.—Sternum of Purple Heron, 


240 AVES. 


white, marked on each side with a row of black tears ; [dorsal plumage rounded in the young, pointed after the 
first moult, and much elongated and narrowed in the adult, all the feathers having a crape-like appearance, devoid 
of gloss, but rich in colouring. Both sexes alike.] A large bird, very noxious on account of the quantity of fish 
it destroys, and formerly celebrated for the sport which it afforded to falconers. [It breeds, like most of the 
genus, on the branches of high trees, many nests together, which are termed Heronries ; seizes its prey by an 
instantaneous stroke of the bill, transfixing it if large; watches for it motionless ; emits a loud cry or honk, and 
flies buoyantly : characters which mostly apply to the genus generally.] 

We have also another species, the Purple Heron (4. purpurea) [smaller and more slender, with longer toes, like 
those of a Bittern. It breeds on the ground, and is rare in the British islands. Colour altogether more reddish. ] 

Certain small species with shorter legs are termed Dwarf-bitterns [the Ardeola, Bonap. They are in every 
respect true Bitterns, and resemble that of North America in immature plumage, acquiring a garb analogous to 
that of the Night-herons when adult.] There is one common in the mountainous districts of France (Ard. minuta 
and danubialis, Gm.), which is scarcely larger than a Rail, and fulvous, with the calotte, back, and quills, black. 
It frequents the vicinity of ponds. 

The Tiger-bitterns conjoin to the contour of the Dwarf-bitterns the stature of a Heron and the plumage of the 
ordinary Bitterns. : 

Egrets are Herons, the feathers of which, on the lower part of the back, at a certain epoch are lengthened and 
thinly barbed. [They are mostly pure white.] One of the handsomest of them, the Heron-crested Egret (4. gar- 
zetta, Lin.), is entirely white, with the dorsal plumage not extending beyond the tail, [and a long occipital crest of 
narrow feathers, resembling in shape those of the Common Heron. It is peculiar to the eastern continent]. Also 
the European Great Egret (4. alba and egretta), likewise wholly white, and the thinly-barbed dorsal plumage 
prolonged beyond the tail. [There are numerous others, in every part of the world. A third in Europe is the 
Butf backed Heron or Egret (4. xussata), with a shorter and smooth yellow bill, longer toes, and coloured dorsal 
plumage in the adult, like the next species. | ‘ 

We approximate to the Egrets the Squacco Heron (A. comata and ralloides), a bird of the south of Europe, with 
a russet-brown back, the belly, wings, and tail, white. The adult has a yellowish neck, [densely clad like that of a 
Bittern], and a long [striped] occipital crest: [the toes are also long, and the lengthened dorsai plumage of this 
and the last species are of a hair-like texture, besides resembling in colour. The present species occurs less 
unfrequently in the British Isles than either of the three last.] 

Bitterns have the feathers of the neck lax and separated, which increases their apparent size, [at least when they 
erect them, which they have the power of doing to their whole clothing plumage]. They are commonly rayed or 
speckled, [and not so high on the legs]. 

The European Bittern (4. sfed/aris) is bright fulvous or clay-colour, mottled and speckled with blackish, and 
has green bill and feet. It is found among the reeds, whence it emits its terrific voice, which has caused it to be 
designated Bos-taurus. [This bird is not rare in Britain, runs with great celerity like a Rail, flies also with 
unwillingness, and with its legs hanging, during the day, and when surprized puffs out its plumage in an extra- 
ordinary manner, and strikes with its spear-like bill. In the evening it rises to a vast height in the air, in spiral 
circles, occasionally bellowing in its flight: it breeds among aquatic herbage in the marshes, and lays eggs of a 
dark brown colour. ] 

The Night-herons, with the same port as the Bitterns, have the beak proportionally much thicker, and some 
slender feathers [three in number] growing from the occiput of the adult. One only inhabits Europe (A. nyeti- 
curax, Lin.), the male of which is whitish, with the calotte and back black ; the young brown above spotted with 
whitish, and the calotte dusky. [It is rare in Britain.] 

In fine, we should remark that these different subdivisions of the genus of Herons are of trivial import, and by 
no means well defined. [Together with the Boatbills, they constitute a perfectly distinct group, strongly charac- 
terized by their anatomy, and particularly by the single minute caecum, and the number of cervical vertebre 
—seventeen. | 


The third tribe, besides having a stouter and smoother beak, has tolerably strong and nearly 
equal membranes between the bases of the toes. 


Tue Storxs (Ciconia, Cuv.)— 
Possess a thick bill, moderately cleft, without any fossa or groove, and the nostrils pierced towards 
the back and base ; also an extremely short tongue. Their legs are reticulated, and the front toes 
strongly palmated at base, more particularly the outer. Their large and thin mandibles, by striking 
against each other, produce a clattering noise, which is almost the only sound these birds ever make. 
Their gizzard is slightly muscular, and their two ceca so small as to be barely perceptible. Their inferior 
larynx has no muscle proper; and the bronchi are longer and composed of more entire rings than usual. 

We have two species in France. 

The White Stork (A. ciconia, Lin.).—White, with black quill-feathers, and red bill and feet ; a large bird, which 
the people hold in particular respect, doubtless originating from its utility in destroying Snakes and other noxious 
animals. It nestles by preference on towers and chimney-stacks, returning to the same every spring, after having 
passed the winter in Africa. [The reason that this species is not common in Britain, is that every pair are shot 
soon after making their appearance, which prevents the founding of a colony. } 


GRALLZ. 241 


[The Black Stork (A. nigra, Lin.).—Blackish, with rich purple reflections, and the belly white. It frequents 
retired marshes, and builds in the forests. 


Among foreign species, we may distinguish 


Tue Apsutants [Argala, Beun.],— 
Or bare-necked Storks, the beak of which is still larger and slighter; and among them 
The Pouched Adjutants (Ard. dubia, Gmelin; A. argala, Lin.); which have an appendage under the middle of 
the throat resembling a great sausage, and from beneath the wings of which are procured those light downy fea- 
thers, that are made into tufts called Maribuus. Two species of them are known; one from Senegal, with a 
uniform mantle, (Cic. maribou, Tem.), the other from India, of which the wing-coverts are bordered with white, 
(C. argala, Tem,).—Their large beak enables them to capture birds on the wing. Add C. capillata, Tem. 


Tue Jasrrus (Myeteria, Lin.),— 
Which were separated by Linnzus from Ardea, are very closely allied to the Storks, and much more 
so than the latter are to the Herons; the moderate opening of their beak, their nostrils, the reticu- 
lated envelope of their legs, together with the considerable palmature of the toes, are absolutely the 
same as in the Storks, which they further resemble in their mode of life. Their peculiarity consists in 
having the beak slightly curved upwards towards its extremity. 

The best-known species (I. americana, Lin.), is very large, and white, with a bare head and neck, invested with 

a black skin, the lower part of which is red; the occiput alone has some white feathers, and the beak and feet are 
black. It is found along the borders of pools and marshes in South America, where it preys on reptiles and fish. 
The Ciconia ephippiryncha, Ruppell, only differs from M. senegalensis, Latham, in being drawn from the recent 
specimen. 

Tue Umsres (Scopus, Brisson)— 
Are only distinguished from the Storks by their compressed beak, the trenchant ridge of which is 
inflated towards the base, and the nostrils are prolonged by a groove which runs parallel with the 
ridge to its tip, which is slightly hooked. 


One species only is known, the Crested Umbre (Sc. umbretta), as large as a Crow, and of an umber colour, the 
male crested. It is diffused over all Africa. 


Tur Anastomes (Hians, Lacep. ; Anastomus, Illig.)— 
Are separated from the Storks by about as trivial a character as that which distinguishes the Jabirus. 
The mandibles of their beak come in contact only at the base and tips, leaving a wide interval 
between their edges, at the medial portion. Even this seems to be the result of detrition, for the 
fibres of the horny substance appear as though it had been worn away. 
They are East Indian birds, one of which is whitish (Ardea ponticeriana, Gm.), the other greyish-brown 
(A. coromandeliana, Sonnerat). Perhaps the latter is merely the young of the former. Both have black quill and 


tail-feathers. A third, of an iridescent black (An. lamelliger, Tem.), is remarkable for the stem of each of its fea- 
thers terminating in a narrow horny chsk, which passes beyond the vane. 


THe Dromes (Dromas, Paykull)— 
Bear a close resemblance to the preceding, having nearly the same feet and contour; but their com- 
pressed beak, the base of which is a little inflated beneath, is pierced with oval nostrils, and the 
mandibles close completely. 


We know only one species, from the shores of the Red Sea and banks of the Senegal (Dromas ardeola, Payk.) 
with white plumage, and part of the mantle and wings black. 


Tue Tantats (Jantalus, Lin.)— 
Have the feet, nostrils, and beak of the Storks, except that the ridge of the latter is rounded, and its 
tip gradually curved downwards, and slightly emarginated on each side: a portion of the head, and 
sometimes of the neck, is bare of feathers. 


The Wood Ibis of North America (7. Joculator, Lin.).—As large as a Stork, but more slender ; white, with the 
quill and tail-feathers black, as is also the naked skin of the head and neck. It is found in both Americas, 
appearing in each during the rainy season, and frequents muddy waters, where it seeks principally for Eels. Its 
gait is slow, and general aspect unlively. 

The African species (7. ibis, Lin.), which is white, slightly shaded with purple on the wings, and has a yellow 
beak, and the naked skin of the visage red, was long regarded by naturalists as the bird so revered by the ancient 
Egyptians under the name of Ibis; but recent researches have proved that the real Ibis is a much smaller species, 
which we will notice presently. The bird now under consideration is not even commonly found in Egypt, but is 
brought chiefly from Senegal. 

R 


242 AVES. 


That of Ceylon (T. lewcocephatlus) is the largest of all, and has also the thickest bill. Its beak, and the naked 
skin of the face, are yellow, the plumage white, with black quills and cincture round the breast, and long roseate 
plumes on the croup, which are shed during the rainy season. A fourth may be added, the 7. lacteus of 


Temminck. ; 
THE Spoonsixxs (Plaialea, Lin.)\— 


Approximate the Storks in their whole structure, but their beak, from which their name is derived, is long, 
flat, and broad throughout its length, widening and flattening more particularly at the end, so as to form 
a round spatula-like disk ; with two shallow grooves extending its entire length, without being exactly 
parallel to its edges. The nostrils are oval, and pierced at a small distance from the origin of each 
groove. Their minute tongue, reticulated tarsi, the somewhat considerable palmature of their toes, 
their two very small cceca, but slightly muscular gizzard, and inferior larynx without any peculiar 
muscles, are the same as in the Storks; but the expansion of their bill deprives it of all its strength, 
and unfits it for any thing but turning up sand, or picking up small fish and aquatic insects. 

The White Spoonbill (Pl. /eucorodia, Gm.).—Entirely white, with an occipital crest. It is common throughout 
the ancient continent, and nestles in high trees. [The trachea normally undergoes in both sexes a small conyolu- 
tion resembling the figure 8, but we have dissected one female wherein it proceeded straight to the divarication 
of the bronchi, and was furnished with a small pair of muscles]. 


The Roseate Spoonbill (Pl. ajaja).—A naked visage, and vivid roseate tints of different shades upon the plumage, 
which deepen with age. It is properly an inhabitant of South America. 


The family of 
LONGIROSTRES 


Consists of a multitude of Shore-birds, the greater number of which were comprehended by 
Linnzus in his genus Scolopax, and the rest confounded by him in that of Tringa, though 
partly in opposition to the character assigned to the latter, of having the back-toe too short 
to reach the ground. Lastly, it contains a few that have been placed with the Plovers, on 
account of the total absence of the hind toe. The whole of these birds have nearly the same 
conformation, the same habits, and most frequently the same distribution of colours, which 
render it difficult to distinguish between them. ‘They are generally characterized by a long, 
slender, and feeble bill, which only permits them to bore in the mud in search of worms and 
sinall insects ; and the various slight modifications in the form of this beak enable us to 
arrange them into genera and subgenera. 

[We should observe that the distinction between this group and the Pressirostres is extremely 
vague, or rather, with certain reservations, that they compose but one series, plainly charac- 
terized by their anatomy. The sternal apparatus of the Knot Sandpiper (fig. 119.) may serve 
as a specimen of this portion of the skeleton throughout 
the whole, the few modifications which occur of it being 
inconsiderable. The stomach (save in the Bustards and 
Coursers, which in other respects are the least conform- 
able among them), is always a muscular gizzard, and the 
intestines long, with small or moderate coeca, and mvaria- 
bly a distinct ccecal remnant of the umbilical vessel. The 
females (except in the very few species of polygamous 
habit), are larger than the males, and they almost invariably 
lay four eggs on the ground, upon little or no nest, and 
dispose them with the small ends inwards; the young 
following their parents as soon as they burst the shell]. 

According to his own principles, Linnzeus should have 
classed most of these birds in his great genus of 


Tue Snipes (Scolopax),— 
Which we divide as follows, from trivial variations of the form 
of the bill. 


Fiz. 119 —Sternum of the Knot Sandpiper. 


Tue Ietses (Lbis, Cuy.). 
We separate these from the Tandali of Gmelin, on account of their beak, which, though arcuated as in 


nS 


GRALLZ. 243 


the latter, is much more feeble, and devoid of emargination at the tip; besides which the nostrils, 
pierced towards the back and base, are prolonged in a groove which reaches to the end. This beak is 
also tolerably thick, and nearly square at the base, and some parts of the head or even of the neck are 
always bare of feathers. The external toes are considerably palmated at base, and the thumb suffi- 
ciently long to bear upon the ground. [The gradation is, in fact, quite imperceptible from these to the 
Tantals, and the anatomy and character of 
the plumage concur to show that both natu- 
rally pertain to the preceding division of Cul- 
trirostres : we believe the Ibises also build in 
society upon trees ; and there is certainly no 
trace of a passage from them into the Scolo- 
paceous birds.] Some of them have short 
and reticulated legs; and these are also more 
robust, and have a thicker bill. 


The Sacred Ibis (I. religiosa, Nobis; Abou 
Hannés, Bruce; Tantalus Asthiopicus, Latham), is 
the most celebrated species. It was reared in the 
temples of ancient Egypt, with a degree of respect 
bordering on adoration; and was embalmed after 
its death. This arose, according to some, from its 
devouring serpents, which would otherwise have 
multiplied to a noxious extent in the country ; while others are of opinion that it took its origin from some rela- 
tion between its plumage and one of the phases of the moon; a third class ascribing it to the fact that its appear- 
ance announced the overflow of the Nile. For along while, the African Tantal was believed to be the Ibis of the 
Egyptians, which is now ascertained to be a species of the division we are now treating of, the size of a Fowl, 
with white plumage,excepting the tips of the quill-feathers, which are black; the greater coverts [tertiaries] 
having elongated, slender, and loose barbs, of a black colour with violet reflections, and covering the extremities 
of the wing and tail. The beak and feet, together with the naked part of the head and neck, are black; and the 
latter clothed, in the young, at least the upper surface, with short black feathers.* It is found throughout 
Africa. 


Other Ibises have scutellated tarsi, and generally a more slender bill. 


The Scarlet Ibis (Scol. rubra, Lin.; Tantalus ruber, Gm.).—Remarkable for its bright-red colour all over, 
except the black tips of its wings. The young are at first covered with blackish down, becoming then ash- 
coloured, and whitish when they begin to fly: in two years the red makes its appearance, the brilliancy of which 
increases with age. It is found in the hot parts of America, and lives in marshy districts in the vicinity of 
estuaries ; does not migrate, and is easily rendered domestic. 

The Glossy Ibis (Sc. falcinellus, Lin.).—Body empurpled rufous-brown, with a deep green mantle; the young 
with the head and neck speckled with whitish. A resplendent species of the south of Europe and north of Africa, 
and probably that designated Black Ibis by the ancients. [It occurs rarely in the British Isles.] 


Fig. 120.—Sternum of Glossy Ibis. 


Tue Curtews (Numenius, Cuv.)— 
Have an arcuated bill like that of an Ibis, but more slender, and round throughout ; the tip of the 
upper mandible passing beyond that of the lower, and bulging a little downwards in front of it. 
The toes are palmated at base. 

The Whaup Curlew (Se. arcuata, Lin.).—Size of a Capon, and brown, with the margins of all the feathers 
whitish ; the croup white, and tail barred white and brown. It is tolerably good eating, and commen along our 
coasts, and as a bird of passage in the interior, [breeding in the upland moors of Britain: its plaintive whistle is 
well known along the sea-side, and has given rise to its name. ] 

The Whimbrel Curlew (Sc. pheopus, Lin.).—One half smaller, with nearly similar plumage. [Is not quite so 
common in Britain as the last, and breeds sparingly on our most northern hills. There are several others]. 


Tue Snipes, properly so called, (Scolopax, Cuv.),— 
Have a straight bill, with the nasal grooves extending nearly to the tip, which expands a little exter- 
nally to reach beyond the lower mandible, on the middle of which there is a simple furrow. The tip of 
the bill is soft and very sensitive, and drying after death presents a punctured surface. The feet are 
devoid of any palmature. A peculiar character of these birds consists in the compressed form of the 
head, and the backward site [at least in the larger species, with shorter tarsi], of their large eyes, 
which imparts a singularly stupid air, in conformity with their habits. 


* We helieve that all birds which have any naked parts in the adult state, have invariably the same feathered when voung.—Ep. 


R 2 


244 AVES. 


(They fall into two natural subdivisions: the first that of the Woodcocks, with less slender form, shorter legs, 
and the tibia feathered to the joint ; colour resembling that of decayed leaves. ] 

The European Woodcock (Se. rusticola, Lin.).—Universally known, with handsomely mottled plumage. In the 
summer it inhabits high mountains, and descends into the woods in the month of October, where it is generally 
met with singly or in pairs, particularly in dull weather, and feeds on worms and insects. A few remain in the 


level country throughout the year. 

[The Snipes, commonly so called, are lighter-made, with longer legs, and tibia bare above the joint. They fre- 
quent marshy districts, and are coloured in adaptation to their abode. 

In Britain, we have three species, very similar in their colouring,—the Great or Double Snipe (Sc. major), which 
approaches in form to a Woodcock, and is only met with in the seasons of passage; the Common or Whole Snipe 
(Sc. gallinago), which breeds in considerable numbers on the northern hills, and is everywhere common in marshy 
districts during the winter; andthe Half or Jack Snipe (Sc. gallinula), a minute species, more richly coloured 
than the preceding, with much less tail: a fourth, the Sabine’s Snipe (Sc. Sabini), is extremely rare, and exceeds 
the Common Snipe in size, having dingy plumage, with no white upon it. All are highly esteemed for the table.] 


We should distinguish from the other Snipes 


The Grey species (S. grisea and Novoboracensis: [Macroramphus griseus, Leach), which is in truth a Tringa 
with a longer bill than usual, similar to that of the Snipes, and retains the gregarious habits and seasonal changes 
of colouring of the true Sandpipers and Godwits.}] Its front toes are semipalmated. This bird is common in North 
America aad occurs as a rare straggler on this side of the Atlantic. 


Tue RuyNncHEAns (Rhynchea, Cuv.)-— 
Are African and Indian birds, the mandibies of which are nearly equal, a little arched at the end, with 
the nasal grooves extending to the tip of the upper one, which has no third furrow. Their toes are 
not palmated. To the port of the Snipes, they conjoin more vivid colours, and are particularly 
remarkable for the ocellated spots which adorn the quill-feathers of their wings and tail. 
They are found of different medleys of colour, which Gmelin brought together as so many varieties of one 


species (Sc. capensis), and which Temminck also believes to be the same at different ages. One perfectly distinct 
has, however, been received from Brazil (Rh. hilarea, Val.) 


Tue Gopwirs (Limosa, Bechst.)— 

Have a straight bill, sometimes a little arcuated upwards, and still longer than in the Snipes, the 
nasal groove extending almost to the tip, which is rather soft and depressed, but without additional 
furrow, or punctation. The external toes are palmated at base. Their form is much more attenuated, 
and legs considerably more elevated, than in the Snipes, and they frequent salt marshes and the shores 
of the ocean [changing to rufous on the under-parts and partially above in the breeding season, as in 
many Sandpipers, to which their gregarious habits are more nearly related than to those of the Snipes. 

Two species are not uncommon on the British shores, viz., the Bar-tailed Godwit (ZL. rufa), which breeds more 
to the north, and abounds during the seasons of passage, and throughout the winter ; and the Black-tailed Godwit 
(L. melanura), which is much taller, with a longer bill, and (in old specimens) a pectinated middle claw; the 
distal half of its tail is black, and it does not acquire so bright a rufous in the spring. This bird breeds in the 


British marshes, and can pick up and subsist on barley, upon which numbers are fed that are brought from Hol- 
land to the London markets. There are several others. ] 


Tue Sanppipers (Calidris, Cuv.; Tringa,* Tem.)— 

Have the tip of the beak depressed, and the nasal furrow very long, as in the Godwits, but the mandi- 
bles in general are not longer than the head; their toes, slightly bordered, have no palmation at the 
base, and the back-toe hardly reaches to the ground; their legs but moderately elevated, and abbre- 
viated form, impart a heavier carriage than that of the Godwits. Their size also is much smaller. 
(The author separates his group Pelidna, merely on the character of having the beak a trifle longer 
than the head, a difference which in several species depends merely on age or sex; the females of all 
the present family having a proportionally longer beak than the males, besides exceeding them a little 
in stature. 

Numerous species are found, more or less regularly, on the British shores: the principal of which are—the 
Knot Sandpiper (Tr. canutus), the size of a Snipe, and ashy-grey above, white below, with some dusky spots on 
the breast in winter, suffused with bright ferruginous in the spring; bill short and straight ; it isa common species, 
and occurs in large flocks during the seasons of passage and through the winter, retiring further north to breed. 
The Purple Sandpiper (Tr. maritima), is smaller and less gregarious, and prefers rocky shores; back empurpled, 


the feathers margined with greyish during the winter. The rest are placed by the author in his Pedidna. The 
Purre Sandpiper (7%. variabilis), still smaller, with a rather longer and more arcuated bill, coloured in winter like 


« The latter name is generally adopted.—Ep. 


GRALL. 245 


the first, and mottled with rufous above, and a black patch across the breast, in the breeding season: it is the 
commonest of all, and some breed on the upland moors. The Curlew Sandpiper (Sc. subarquata, Gin.; Numenius 
africanus, Lath.), resembles the Knot in colouring and seasonal changes, and the Purre in size, with a still longer 
and more-arcuated bill; it is not common, nor very rare, on the British shores. The Little Sandpiper (Tr. minuta) 
is considerably less than the last, with a short bill ; it acquires some rufous tints in the spring, on the upper parts 
and across the breast, and is certainly rare, though very much overlooked. Three or four others occur as strag- 
glers. These active-little birds take their food along the margin of the sea, following each retreating wave ; when 
gregarious in considerable flocks, and in their winter plumage, the whole show alternately their grey upper 
parts and white lower parts as they whirl in the air, producing a remarkable appearance, well known to those 
accustomed to wander by the sea side. ] 


THE SANDERLINGS (/4renaria, Bechst.; Calidris, Vigors)— 
Merely differ in the absence of hind-toe, like the Plovers. 


One only is known (Charadrius calidris, Gmelin), the size of a Purre, with analogous seasonal changes to those 
of the Knot Sandpiper. [It appears to be almost generally diffused, and is common on the British shores. | 


Tue Faxcine es (Erolia, Vieillot)— 
Have the beak rather more arcuated than in the Curlew Sandpiper, but do not, as has been asserted, 
want the thumb. 
We are acquainted with one only, (Sc. pygmea, Lin.), a bird proper to Africa, but which is occasionally found 
in Europe. 
Tue Rurrs (Machetes, Cuv.)— 


Are true Sandpipers by the bill and feet, except that the palmature of their outer toes is nearly as 
considerable as in the Gambets, Godwits, &c. 

One species only is known (77. pugnax,Lin.). Larger than a Snipe, and very celebrated for the furious combats 
which the males wage in spring for the possession of the females. At this epoch, the head becomes partly covered 
with red [or yellow] papillz, and the neck is furnished with a very considerable collar or ruff of lengthened feathers, 
so variously marked and coloured in different individuals, that two can hardly ever be found alike, and rarely much 
resembling each other. They have always yellow legs*, which, together with the semi-palmation of the toes, assists 
us to recognize them at all seasons. The species is common in the north of Europe, [and is remarkable for the 
male exceeding the female in size, at variance with the other members of this group, but in accordance with 
its polygamous habits. Vast numbers are brought from Holland to the London markets. } 

America produces some species nearly allied, as the Hemipalamus, Bonap.; or Tringa semipalmata, Wilson; 
{the habits of which are more allied to those of the Gambets, to which in fact they essentially belong). 


Near the Sandpipers should apparently be placed 


THE SpPATHE-BILL (Lurinorhynchus, Wilson) ,— 
Which is distinguished by a depressed bill, widened at the tip somewhat as in the Spoonbills, and the 
only species of which is 
The Platalea pygmea, Lin.; Eurinorynchus griseus, Wilson (Thun. Acad. Suec., 1816, pi. vi), which is one of 


the rarest birds in existence, as it is only known by a single individual, grey above and white beneath, and about 
the size of a Purre Sandpiper. [It has since been met with in northern Asia.] 


THE PHataropeEs (Phalaropus, Brisson),— 
Are small birds, the bill of which, more flattened than in the Sandpipers, is otherwise similar as regards 
its proportions and lateral grooves, and the toes of which are bordered with very broad membranes, 
as in the Coots. [Their lower plumage resembles in texture that of the Gulls.] 

The known species (77. lobata and Tr. fulicaria, Lin.), has a wide bill for a member of this family, and is in 
winter ash-coloured above, whitish below and on the head, with a black band upon the neck: it is then the Grey 
Phalarope (Tr. lobata, Edw.). In summer it becomes black, mottled with fulvous above, and of a deep reddish 
below [like the Knot Sandpiper, Godwits, &c.]: but at all seasons it retains a white spot on the wing, the rest of 
which is blackish. It is then the Red Phalarope (Ph. rufus, Bechstein and Meyer; 7’. fulicaria, Lin.). This bird 
is rare in Europe [not very so in the British Isles, during the season of passage, when individuals are occasionally 
met with swimming upon inland ponds, like a very diminutive Duck, and evincing little fear or shyness: they 
also occur in small flocks, and breed chiefly within the Arctic circle]. 


Tue Turnstones (S¢repsilas, Iliger),— 
Are rather lower on the legs, and have a short bill, and toes devoid of any palmature, like the true 
Sandpipers ; but their beak is conical, pointed, and without depression, compression, or inflation, and 
the nasal groove reaches only half-way. The thumb barely touches the ground. Their beak, rather 


* This is very far from being the case.—Ep. 


246 AVES. 


stouter and proportionally less flexible than in the preceding, is used by them to turn over stones to 
search for the worms that lie beneath them. [Its form is not unlike that of a Nuthatch’s bill.] 


The two species doubtfully indicated by the author are merely the same in different states of plumage: it 
is a bird of remarkably wide geographic range, and tolerably plentiful on the British coasts: its affinitv is rather 


with the Oyster-catchers and Plovers]. 


THe Gambets (Totanus, Cuv.)— 


Ilave a slender, round, pointed, and solid beak, the nasal groove of which only extends half its length, 
and the upper mandible is slightly arcuated towards the tip. Their form is slight, and legs elevated: 
the thumb hardly touches the ground, and the palmation of their outer toe is well-marked. The 
species are each found nearly all over the world, [or rather, there are many difficult of determination 
apart, which has induced the latter opinion. | 


The Greenshank Gambet (Scol. glottis, Lin.).—As large as a [rather small] Godwit, with the beak comparatively 
stout, [and a little recurved] ; ashy-brown above and on the sides, with the margins of the feathers punctated with 
brown, the croup and belly white, and tail rayed with narrow irregular bars grey and white ; the feet green: in 
summer the throat and breast are spotted with dusky tears, which disappear after the breeding season. This is 
the largest species of Gambet in Europe. [It breeds on the margins of lakes, including those of Britain, and 
during the season of propagation is very clamorous, rising on the wing and spreading an alarm at the approach of 
danger to all other birds within hearing: in winter it resorts to the sea-shore in small flocks, apparently the 
amount of broods. The Greenshank is a characteristic example of a particular group, the members of which are 
comparatively large, acquire more or less of a dusky colour on the under-parts towards the breeding season, and 
agree in their general habits, mostly frequenting fresh-water lakes. An allied species of North America (Tot. semi- 
palmatus) has the toes half-webbed, and has been known to occur in Europe as a straggler. The Dusky Gambet 
(T. fuscus) is another European species, more delicately formed, with particularly slender beak and feet, and 
beautifully barred tail and coverts, which becomes entirely suffused on the under-parts with fuliginous-black in 
the spring, and is rare in Britain. A fourth (7. calidris), the Redshank Gambet, is very abundant in Britain, 
breeding also not uncommonly in marshes near the sea-shore, and especially about the estuaries of rivers. 

Others acquire no colour on the under-parts in spring, and mostly breed in the marshes, where they trip across 
the broad floating leaves of aquatic plants with grace and agility: such are, particularly, those with longer legs, 
as the delicate Wood Gambet (7. glareola), which is sometimes found in Britain, the T. stagnatalis, Bechst., of 
eastern Europe, and 7. chloropygius of North America: one more common in this country, with shorter legs, and 
a conspicuous white rump as it flies, is the Green Gambet (T. ochropus), which conducts into the next minor group. 

The others, at least those of Europe, are still smaller, and familiarly known as Summer Snipes in England. One 
very common may be termed the Common Gambet (7. Aypoleucos), which in America is represented by a species 
with a breast spotted like that of a Thrush (7%. macularia). Another in Europe, still more diminutive (7. Tem- 
minckii or pusilla), has been generally classed with the Sandpipers, but strictly appertains to the present group 
both in structure and habits, being never found on the sea-shore, but frequenting inland waters like its true 
congeners, allof which jerk the tail and nod the head frequently as they run about, and emit a clear whistling 
note. There are many others in foreign parts. ] 


Tue Loseroor (Lobipes, Cuv.),— 

Which we consider ought to be separated from the Phalaropes, which 
it resembles in the lobation of its toes, is distinguished from them by 
its bill, which is that of a Gambet. Such is 

The Red-necked Lobefoot (Tringa hyperborea, Lin.).—A little bird, grey 
above, white below, tinted with rufous on the scapularies, and having a broad 
red gorget round its white throat. Add the Phalaropus frenatus, Vieillot ; 
or Holopodius [Wilsonii] of M. C. Bonaparte, [which is found in America 
generally. The first-named species breeds in the northern isles of Scotland, 
inhabiting marshy grounds, where it cannot be obtained without much diffi- 
culty, though far from being timid in its disposition]. 

Tue Sritts (Himantopus, Brisson)— 

Have a round beak, slender and pointed, even more so than in the 
Gambets ; the grooves of the nostrils extending only half-way. But 
what particularly distinguishes them, and has given origin to their 
name, is the inordinate length and ‘slenderness of their legs, which 
are reticulated and destitute of hind-toe, and the bones of which are 
so feeble as to render walking painful to them. Fig. 121.—The Stilt 


But one species is known in Europe (Charadrius himantopus, Lin. ; [H. Plinii, Auct.|; which is white, with a 
black calotte and mantle, and long red legs. It is rather rare, and little is known of its manners. [The latter 


GRALLZ. 247 


bear a near resemblance to those of the Avocets, with which this genus is even linked by an intermed ate species, 
which conjoins the webbed toes of the latter with the beak of the Stilts (the H. palmatus, Gould, a native of 
Australia). There are three or four normal species, and both this and the next genus are aimost generally dif- 
fused, frequenting muddy estuaries in winter, and salt-marshes during the season of propagation]. 


We can scarcely place otherwise than here 


Tue Avocets (Recurvirostra, Lin.),— 

Although their feet, which are webbed nearly to the ends of their toes, almost entitle them to rank 
among the Swimming-birds; but their lengthened tarsi and half-naked tibiz, their long, slender, 
pointed, smooth, and elastic bill, and the mode of life which results from their conformation, concur 
to approximate them to the Snipes. What particularly characterizes them, and distinguishes them 
even from all other birds [if two remarkable species of Humming-bird be excepted, the Trochilus 
recurvirostra and Tr. avocetta], is the strong upward curvature of their beak, [the mandibles of which 
have often been compared to two thin slips of whalebone]. Their Jegs are reticulated, and thumb too 
short to reach the ground. 


That of Europe (R. avocetta, Lin.) is white, with a black calotte and three bands of the same upon the wings, 
and leaden-coloured legs. It is a handsome bird, of attenuated form, which frequents the sea-shore in winter, 
{where it feeds by scooping (as it is termed), with its singular bill, drawing this through the mud or sand from 
right to left as it advances its left leg foremost, and vice versd, seizing whatever living prey is thus met with. Its 
manners in the breeding season resemble those of the Gambets, rising on wing and emitting its cry at the approach 
of any intruder; it collects, however, a greater quantity of nest than is usual among the wading-birds, the majo- 
rity of which pertaining to the present group merely lay in some slight hollow. There are three or four other 
species}. 


The family of 
MAcRODACTYLI 

Are furnished with very long toes, adapted for traversing aquatic herbage, or even for swim- 
ming, in those numerous species which have them bordered, [and not these only]. There are 
no membranes, however, connecting the bases of their toes, not even the two outer ones. 
The beak, more or less laterally compressed, is lengthened or shortened according to the 
genus, without ever attaining the degree of feebleness and attenuation which is characteristic 
of the preceding family. The body of these birds is also singularly compressed, a conforma- 
tion resulting from the narrowness of the ster- 
num (fig. 122) ; their wings are short or mode- 
rate, and their flight feeble. [The females are 
mostly larger, and in some instances excel the 
males in brightness of colouring; and they pro- 
duce numerous speckled eggs, having a reddish 
clay ground-colour, the young running soon 
after they are hatched, being then covered with 
a rigid, black, hair-like down: their ery is gene- 
rally abrupt and croaking]. 

They have been divided into two tribes, ac- 
cording to the presence or absence of any arma- 
ture on the wings; but this character is subject 
to exception. 


Tue Jacanas (Parra, Lin.)— 
Are conspicuously distinguished from all other Stilt- 
birds by the extraordinary length of their four toes, 
which are separated to the base, and the claws of which, more particularly that of the back-toe, are 
extremely long and sharp-pointed. ‘The bill resembles that of the Lapwings by its medium length and 
slight bulge towards the tip, and the wing is armed with a spur. They are noisy and quarrelsome 
birds, which reside in the marshes of hot climates, where they walk with facility on the floating leaves 
of aquatic plants, by means of their long toes. [They are essentially modified, however, upon the type 


Fig. 122.—Sternum of Corn Crake or Land Rail. 


248 AVES. 


of the preceding group, which is traceable in their whole anatomy ; and are nearly allied to certain 
Lapwings, which we believe they also resemble in the number and character of their eggs. ] 
America produces some species which have a flat naked membrane at the base of the bill, which is reflected over 


part of the forehead. As 
The Common Jacana (P. jacana, Lin.).—Black, with a rufous mantle; the primary wing-coverts green; and 


fleshy wattles under the beak. It is the commonest of those inhabiting the hot climates of « merica, and has very 


sharp spurs. 

Some of the same kind are found in Asia, as 

The Bronzed Jacana (P. enea). The body black, changing to blue and violet, a bronzed-green mantle, blood- 
red croup and tail, the anterior wing-feathers green, and a white streak behind the eye. Its spurs are small and 


blunt. 
Others have been discovered in the east in which this membrane does not exist, and which are otherwise 


remarkable for some singular differences in the proportions of their quill-feathers. As 
The Long-tailed Jacana (P. sinensis)—Brown, with the head, throat, fore-neck, and wing-coverts, white, the 
hind-neck adorned with silky feathers of a golden-yellow colour, and a small pedicillated appendage to the tips of 


some of the quill feathers. 
There is one also in the east which is crested, and has no spurs to the wings, (the P. gallinacea, Tem.). 


THE ScrEAMER (Palamedea, Lin.)— 


Resembles the Jacanas, but on a very large scale, by the two stout spurs which it bears on each wing, 
and by its long toes and strong claws, more particularly that on the hind-toe, which is long and 
straight as in the Larks; but its beak, which is slightly cleft, is neither much compressed nor bulging, 
and its upper mandible is a little arcuated. The legs are reticulated. 


The species known, the Horned Screamer (P. cornuta), termed in Brazil Anhima, and Camouche in Cayenne, is 
larger than a Goose, and blackish, with a rufous spot on the shoulder, the top of its head bearing a singular orna- 
ment, consisting of a long and slender, moveable, horny stem. Its toes have no palmation. This bird inhabits 
the inundated grounds of South America, and its very loud voice is heard afar off. It is strictly monogamous: is 
said to pursue reptiles; but although its stomach is only slightly muscular, it scarcely feeds on any thing but 
aquatic herbage. [The trachea of this bird has an abrupt bony box or enlargement about the middle, somewhat 
analogous to that of the male Velvet Pochard (Oidemia fusca) }. 


A distinct genus has been made of 


THE CuHauna (Opistolophus, Vieillot),— 
Which has no horn on the vertex, but the occiput is adorned with a circle of erectible feathers. The 
head and upper part of the neck are only covered with down, and it has a black collar. A singular 
phenomenon is exhibited by the circumstance of its skin, even that covering its legs, being inflated by 
the interposition of air between it and the muscles, so that it crackles under the finger. 

It is the Parra chavaria, Lin. The rest of its plumage is lead-coloured and blackish, with a white spot at the 
bend of the wing, and another at the base of some of the large primaries. There is a tolerably well-marked palma- 
ture between its external toes. It feeds principally on aquatic herbage ; and the Indians of Carthagena rear some 
among their flocks of Geese and Poultry, as they deem it very courageous, and capable of repulsing even a 
Vulture. 

Near to the Screamers we think should be placed, although they have scarcely any naked space 
above the tarsal joint, 

Tue Mecaropes (Megapodius, Lesson),— 
A genus recently discovered in New Guinea, with a vaulted beak, a little compressed, the membranous 
nostrils occupying about half its length, and very stout and elevated tarsi, which are scutellated, the 
toes (including the hind one) being long, and terminated by claws which are rather flat. They have 
a short tail, a naked space round the eye, and there is a small tubercle on the carpus, the first and 
slight vestige of the spur of the Screamer. The membrane between their external toes is very slight, 
while that of the inner is rather larger. They lay disproportionately large eggs for their size. 


One species is crested nearly as in the Chauna (M. Duperreyi, Lesson) : two others have no crest; and a fourth 
has scarcely any tail. 


In the tribe wherein the wings are unarmed, Linnezus comprises, under the genus Fulica, 
all such as have the bill continued backward into a sort of shield, that covers the forehead ; and 
those which do not possess this character he arranges in the genus Rallus. 


Se ee EE eee ee 
SS eee ee 


GRALL. 249 


Tue Rarts (Rallus, Lin.),— 


Which bear, in other respects, a very strong mutual resemblance, have bills of very different pro- 
portions. 
Among the species in which it is longest, 


Tue Rats (Rallus, Bechstein),— 
May be first mentioned. 


The European Rail (R. aquaticus, Lin.).—Olive-brown, marked with black above, bluish-ash-colour beneath, 
with some narrow black and white rays crossing the flanks. This bird is common in our ponds and ditches, where 
it swims well, and runs lightly upon the leaves of aquatic herbage, feeding on small Crustaceans. {Its frontal 
feathers are rigid, in place of the shield of the Coots and Gallinules. There are various others, all extra-European. ] 


Other species, 
Tue Craxes (Crex, Bechstein),— 


Have a shorter bill, as observed in 


The Corn-Crake (R. crex, Lin.).—Of a reddish-brown colour, marked with blackish above, and greyish below, 
with dull black rays crossing the flanks ; the wings rufous. It lives and nestles in our fields and meadows, and runs 
with great swiftness among the long grass. The Latin name, Crew, is expressive of its cry. It feeds on corn, in 
addition to worms and insects. 


{The following species, or 
Tue Soras (Zapornia, Stephens) ,— 
Have an intermediate beak, and resemble the Rails in their aquatic habits. ] 

The Speckled Sora (R. porzana, Lin.).—A deep brown, speckled with white, and whitish rays on the flanks. It 
is a good swimmer and diver, and does not leave France till the middle of winter. [There are two smaller kinds 
in western Europe, including the British Isles; the Baillon’s Sora (Z. Baillonii), with somewhat speckled 
plumage; and the Little Sora, as it is termed, though surpassing the last in size, (Z. pusilla), the plumage of 
which approximates that of the Common Rail. Of various exotic species, some are considerably larger than the 
Crake and Rail of Europe]. 

THE Coots (Fulica, Lin.) — 
May be subdivided in the following manner, according to the form of the beak, and the membranes 
margining the toes. 
THe GALLINULES (Gallinula, Briss. & Lath.)— 
Have the beak nearly as in the Crakes, but distinguished by the frontal shield, and by longer toes, 
bordered with a narrow membrane. 

The Common Gallinule (G. chloropus, Lin.).—Deep olive-brown above, slaty-grey below, with some white on 
the sides, [the feet green, with a red and yellow cincture above the tarsal joint, and the frontal shield bright red: 
these lively colours being much more conspicuous in the female, which is larger also than her mate. A very 


common species throughout Europe, and considered to be of universal diffusion, as specimens from the most 
distant regions are undistinguishable]. 


Tue Sutranas (Porphyrio, Brisson)— 
Have the beak higher in proportion to its length; and very long toes, with scarcely any perceptible 
border; the frontal shield considerable, and rounded in some, square above in others. These birds 
stand on one foot, while they employ the other to convey food to the beak. Their colours are gene- 
rally fine shades of violet, blue, and azure. Such is 


The Common Sultana (#ulica porphyrio, Lin.), a beautiful African species, now naturalized in several islands 
and countries bordering the Mediterranean. Its beauty would render it an ornament in our parks. 


Lastly, 
Tue Restricrep Coots (Fulica, Brisson)— 


Conjoin to a short beak and large frontal shield, toes that are much widened by a festooned border, 
which renders them excellent swimmers ; hence their lives are passed in pools and marshes. Their 
smooth plumage is not less adapted than the rest of their conformation to this mode of life, and they 
consequently exhibit a marked transition from the Wading to the True Swimming Birds, [though only 
in superficial or adaptive characters, which are principally external]. 

There is one in Europe (F. atra, aterrima, and ethiops, Gm.)—{Slaty-black, darker on the neck, with a flesh- 


coloured shield, which becomes white in the season of propagation. It is very easily tamed, and subsists on grain, 
pond-weed, and even small fish, diving with facility. ] 


250 | AVES. 


We terminate this series of Stilt-birds by three genera, which it is difficult to associate with 
any others, and which may be considered as each forming a separate family. 


Tue SHEATHBILLS (Chionis, Forster)— 
Have short toes, nearly as in the Poultry, the tarsi scutellated, the beak thick and conical, and 
enveloped at base by a hard substance, which, it appears, the bird has the power of raising and 
depressing. 
We are acquainted with only one species, from New Holland (Ch. necrophaga, Vieillot), the size of a [large] 
Partridge, and entirely white. It frequents the sea shore, and feeds on dead animal matter thrown up by the 


tide. [Prof. Blainville has lately shown that this remarkable bird approaches very near to the Oyster-catchers in 
its whole anatomy, and the affinity is discernible on comparison of their external characters. 


Apparently allied are 
Tue Arracens (d¢tagis, d’Orb.),— 


The uncompressed bill of which nearly resembles that of a Poultry-bird, and the plumage is not unlike 
the immature dress of a Lark: wings and feet as in Chionis. 


Several species inhabit the Cordilleras of the Andes, varying in size from that of a Partridge to less than 
a Lark. The smaller constitute the Tinochorus of Vieillot.] 


Tue Prartincotes (Glareola, Gmelin) — 
Have a short, conical beak, arcuated throughout, and resembling that of a Poultry-bird. The wings 
excessively long and pointed, and tail often forked, producing the flight of a Swallow or Petrel. The 
legs are of mean length, the tarsi scutellated, the external toes a little palmated, and thumb reaching 
to the ground; [middle claw furnished with an obtusely serrated inner edge]. They fly in troops, and 
cry about the borders of water, subsisting on aquatic insects and worms. [Their sternal apparatus and 
anatomy intimate their position to be among the Snipes and Plovers.] 


The European species (GZ. torquata) is brown above, white below and on the croup; the gorget encircled with a 
black marking; and base of the bill and feet reddish. It appears to inhabit the north of the whole ancient world. 


Our last genus consists of 
Tur FLamincoss (Phenicopterus, Lin.),— 

Which are among the most extraordinary and isolated of birds, [being, in fact, an extreme modification 
of the Lamellirostral type, that is, of the Duck tribe, with inordinately elongated neck and legs]. Their 
legs, of excessive length, have their front toes palmated to the ends, and an extremely short hind- 
toe; the neck is equally long and slender with the legs, and their small head is furnished with a bill 
the inferior mandible of which is of an oval form, longitudinally bent into a semicylindrical canal, 
while the upper one, oblong and flat, is bent crosswise in the middle, so as to join the other exactly. 
The membranous groove of the nostrils occupies nearly the whole side of that part which is behind 
the sudden bend of the mandibles, and the nostrils themselves form a longitudinal slit at the base of 
the groove. The edges of the two mandibles are furnished with small and very fine transverse 
laminz, which, together with the fleshy thickness of the tongue, imports some relationship with the 
Ducks. We might even place the Flamingoes among the Palmipedes, were it not for the length of 
their tarsi, and the nudity of part of the tibia, [an objection which would equally apply to the Gulls 
and Petrels]. They feed on Testaceans, Insects, and the spawn of Fishes, which they seize by means 
of their long neck, reverting the head to employ with advantage the crook of the upper mandible. 
They construct their nest of earth in marshy situations, placing themselves astride of it [? ] during the 
act of incubation, in consequence of the extreme length of their legs incapacitating them from sitting 
in the usual manner. [The digestive organs resemble those of the Ducks with unlobated hind-toe ; 
having even the crop, or distension of the cesophagus, which occurs in no species strictly belonging to 
the division of Stilt-birds.] 

The common species (Ph. ruber) stands from three to four feet in height, and is ash-coloured, with brown 
streaks, during the first year; in the second there is a roseate hue on the wings, and in the third it assumes a 


purple red on the back, and rose-coloured wings. This species is found in all parts of the eastern continent below 
40 degrees. Numerous flocks are seen every year on the southern coasts of Europe, and they sometimes ascend 
as far as the Rhine. 

M. Temminck thinks [and has since definitively ascertained] that the American Flamingo is distinct ; besides 


which, there is a small species on that continent (Ph. minor, Vieillot) of which the Pigmy Flamingo of Temminck 
is the young. 


PALMIPEDES. 251 


[ Here, at the close of the great series of Ground-Birds, as of the Perchers, may be intro- 
duced a few brief remarks on the classification of these animals, as warranted by the present 
state of information. The divisions are not all so strongly characterized apart as the four 
principal groups or orders already specified ; but chiefly because certain genera stand forth 
from the rest, and will not (so far as we can perceive at present) satisfactorily range with any 
of the others. Preserving the same form of nomenclature as before adopted, as less objection- 
able than any other that we can devise, the various groups of Ground-birds (as the vast 
majority of the foregoing extensive series may be appropriately denominated,) fall into six 
principal divisions, which may be designated as follow : — 

V. Gemirores (Cooers)—the Pigeons; an order strongly characterized by the whole 
internal anatomy, and not less so by the outward conformation. It is perfectly distinct: from 
the contiguous orders, to which it is linked by no intrinsically connecting species. 

VI. Rasores (Ground-scratchers)—the Poultry: a group sufliciently cognizable in its 
totality, but not easy to subdivide im such a manner as to exemplify the relative value of its 
various genera. 

VII. Cursores (Runners) ; or the Brevipennes of Cuvier. 

VIII. Caucatrores (Stampers); or the Pressirostres and Longirostres of our author, 
comprising the numerous genera with soft and flexile bills, more or less prolonged, the greater 
number of which lay four eggs, which they dispose crosswise, &c. &e. The name alludes to 
the habit which many of them display, of stamping with the foot, to cause the worms on 
which they feed to rise. 

TX. Grapatores (Stalkers); or the Cultrirostres of Cuvier. 

X. Larirores (Skulkers) ; or the Macrodactyli. 

Each of these appears to us to constitute a distinct and natural order, possessing various 
distinguishing characters; and we suspect that every genus of Ground-birds will ultimately 
prove, when its characters have been sufficiently studied, to rank in one or another of them. 
As a whole, they form a series, analogous to those of the Perchers and Swimmers. ] 


THE SIXTH ORDER OF BIRDS,— 


THE PALMIPEDES,— 


Have the feet organized for swimming; that is to say, placed far backwards on the body, with 
short and compressed tarsi, and webbed toes. They are further characterized by a close and 
polished plumage, impregnated with oil, and by a quantity of down next to the skin, which pro- 
tect them from the water in which they pass most of their lives. They are the only birds in 
which the neck is longer than the legs, which is sometimes the case to a considerable extent, 
for the purpose of enabling them to search for food in the depths below, while they swim on 
the surface. Their sternum is very long, affording a complete guard to the greater portion of 
their viscera, and having on each side [generally] but one emargination, or oval foramen, 
filled up with membrane. They have most frequently a muscular gizzard, long ceeca, and a 
simple inferior larynx ; which last is in one family, however, inflated into a cartilaginous. cap- 
sule. [So many exceptions occur to the foregoing generalization respecting the stomach and 
ceeca, that it might advantageously have been omitted. ] 
This order subdivides tolerably well into four families, of which that of 


Tue Divers (Brachypteres)— 
Presents, in certain of its species, some [very superficial] tokens of relationship with the Galli- 
nules. The position of their legs, which is farther backward than in any other birds, renders 
walking difficult, and obliges them to maintain, when upon land, an upright attitude. As the 


252 AVES. 


greater number of them are also feeble flyers, and several are quite deprived of that faculty, in 
consequence of the shortness of their wings, they may be regarded as exclusively attached to the 
surface of the water: their plumage 1s particularly dense, and its surface frequently polished, 
presenting a silvery lustre. They swim under water by the aid of their wings, which are 
employed as fins. Their gizzard is tolerably muscular; the cceca of moderate length. They 
have only one special muscle on each side of their lower larynx. Such are 
Tue Loons (Colymbus, Lin.),— 

Which are characterized by a smooth, straight, compressed, and pointed bill, with linear nostrils ; but 
require to be subdivided from characters derived from the feet [the entire skeleton, character of 
plumage, propagation, &c. &c.] 


Tue Greses (Podiceps, Latham; Colymbus, Brisson and Illiger),— 

Instead of ordinary webs between the toes, have the latter widened as in the Coots, and the anterior 
connected only at base by membranes, [which border the remainder]. The claw of the middle toe is 
flattened ; the tarsi exceedingly compressed. The semi-metallic [or satiny ] 
lustre of their lower plumage has led to the occasional employment of it as 
fur. Their tibia, as also that of the Loons [in which it is much more pro- 
duced,] is prolonged forwards beyond the joint, to give a more efficient 
insertion to the extensors of the leg. ([Sternum (fig. 123)* very short, 
and of peculiar conformation, approaching in some respects to that of 
the Cormorants; which these very singular birds also resemble in the 
character of their eggs, the hard shell of which is invested with an ab- 
sorbent chalky substance. They have no vestige of a tail. The young are 
clad in exquisitely soft down, which is striped black and white, as in the 
Emeu. The constant number of cervical vertebra is nineteen instead of 
thirteen, as in the restricted Loons; and their skeleton is altogether 
4 extremely different. ] i 

These birds reside in lakes and ponds, and nestle among the rushes, 
[producing numerous eggs, whereas the Loons lay very rarely more than 
two]. It appears that under certain circumstances they carry their young 
under their wings. Their size and plumage change so much with age [the 
latter rather according to season], that naturalists have very much multiplied the species. M. Meyer 
reduces those of Europe to four, [instead of five, which is the right number, as follow] :— 


Fig. 123.—Sternum of Grebe. 


The Crested Grebe (P. cristatus).—As large as a Duck, and satiny-white, with dusky upper-parts, acquiring with 
age a double black crest, and rufous collar edged with black, [which exist only during the breeding season]. 

The Red-necked Grebe (P. rubricollis).—Smaller, with the neck bright rufous, and greyish collar less developed. 

The Horned Grebe (P. cornutus) {and Eared Grebe (P. auritus).—Still less, and precisely of the same size with 
each other, so that they can only be distinguished, when the seasonal collar falls, by the beak of the second being 
distinctly a little recurved, and by a difference in the colour of the iris of the recent specimen ; their collars, how- 
ever, during the breeding season, are very different, and that of the Eared Grebe is less developed than in the 
other]. 

The Little Grebe (P. minor).—Size of a Quail, with never any crest or collar. [These various species, notwith- 
standing the shortness of their wings, can fly with considerable speed, when they once fairly rise, which they do 
with unwillingness, and seldom except when compelled to migrate. They can walk with their feet, and do not 
trail upon the belly, like the Looms ; and when under water, they make more use of their wings than the latter do 
habitually]. 

Tue Finreet (Heliornis, Bonaterre ; Podoa, Uliger)— 
Have feet lobed as in the Coots and Grebes, but their tail is more developed than in either, and their 


claws sharper. 
Such is Plotus surinamensis, Gmelin; and Heliornis senegalensis, Vieillot, which Gmelin approximated to the 
Anhingas. 


Tue Loons (Colymbus, Latham ; Mergus, Brisson; Eudytes, Uliger),— 
With all the [external] form of the Grebes, have the feet webbed in the ordinary manner ; that is 
to say, their three front toes are connected by membrane to the tips, and are all terminated by 


* The representation (fig. 123), in other respects accurate, is somewhat too long.—Ep, 


ccc eepemneseeeeemeeee essere eee rr ee 


PALMIPEDES. 


pointed nails. They are northern birds, which rarely nestle with us, and visit these latitudes in 
winter, when they are not uncommon upon our coasts. [They have large wings, and fly strongly, 
but in consequence of the position of the feet, the tibia being quite buried within the integuments, 
are unable to walk, though they push themselves forward with facility and tolerable speed, trailing 
upon the belly. They have a short tail, on the tripod of which and the feet they are enabled to 
stand upright, and take a wide view around them by means of their long neck: they utter dismal 


howlings ; and produce large spotted eggs, two or three in number, which are extremely unlike those 
of the Grebes. “ 


Three species are weil known, the whole of which are not rare in Britain. One, as large as a Goose (Col. gla- 
cialis), the Collared Loon, black above, beautifully spotted with white, with a nearly perfect collar of the same 
round the neck, and a black head. The second, (C. glacialis), the Black-throated 
Loon, extremely variable in size, but always smaller than the preceding, with a fuli- 
ginous grey head, and larger white spots on the upper parts: both of which species 
have the immature plumage dusky above, with greyish edgings to the feathers: and 
the Red-throated Loon (C. septentriunalis), still smaller and much commoner, the 
winter dress of which (and not the immature plumage, which resembles that of the 
others, is speckled above with numerous small whitish spots bordering the feathers, 
which wear off in spring, leaving the back spotless blackish ; coincident with which 
change of appearance, a rufous patch appears in front of the neck. All three are 
great destroyers of fish, and proceed with extreme swiftness under water, in general 
making little use of their wings to assist their progress. They are common to the 
northern regions of both continents, as are also the four first-mentioned Grebes.] 


Tae Guittemors (Uria, Brisson & Illiger),— 
With the general form of the beak of the preceding, have it covered with 
feathers as far as the nostril, and emarginated at the tip, which is a little 
arcuated. Their principal distinction, however, consists in wanting the 
back-toe. Their wings, much shorter than those of the Loons, barely suffice 
for the function of flying. They feed on fish and crustaceans, and are found 
about the precipitous rocks on which they breed. 


[These birds, the first of which is merely an Auk with a more slender bill, fly with considerable swiftness in a 
straight line, their wings being reduced to the minimum extent adequate for aerial support, in order that they 
might be more efficient under water, where no use whatever is made of the feet, 
which are held out like those of a wading bird when cleaving the air. Ac- 
cordingly they literally fly under water, whereas the subaquatic progression of a 
Grebe more resembles that of a Frog, and the Loons do not generally use the 
wings at all: hence the prolongation forward of the fixed patella, so considerable 
in the Loons, which is reduced in the Grebes, and entirely wanting in the Auks, 
Puftins, and Guillemots, which form a particular group, found only in the ocean. 
‘The latter have also smaller coeca, a particularly tough cuticular lining to the 
stomach, of a bright yellow colour, a different sternal apparatus, which most 
nearly approximates that of the Loons, diverse plumage and seasonal changes, 
&c. They are pre-eminently remarkable for the manner in which the skeleton 
incloses the viscera as in a box, in order to resist the pressure of deep water ; 
while their air-cavities are unusually large, which causes them to float very high 
when on the surface, and are obviously designed to increase the standard of 
respiration so as to permit of their sustaining themselves in the air with their 
short and narrow wings, these, however, not being violently beaten in the act of 
flying. Their movements under water precisely resemble those of the Dyticide, 
or common Water Beetles; the principal motion being more or less vertical, in- 
stead of horizontal as in the Grebes and Loons: they are, therefore, together with 
the distinct group of Penguins, the most characteristic divers of the class. 

One common on the precipitous coasts of all Britain, is the Common Guillemot 
(U. troile), of a dusky slate-colour above, white beneath, and a bar of the same on 
the wing, formed by the tips of the secondaries; the throat black in summer, 
white in winter. It lays only one egg, of enormous proportional magnitude, ana remarkably variable in colour. 
‘The young at first resemble the adults in summer dress; but their first plumage, which succeeds the down, and 
the texture of which is singularly delicate, presents the colouring of the adult winter-garb, and is exchanged for 
the latter in the course of a few weeks. They breed in vast numbers on the narrow ledges of rocks, where in 
many places they are seen sitting in successive rows, one over another. In autumn they migrate southward, 
those which breed on the British shores being replaced by others from more northern latitudes. 

Another and smaller species, is the Black Guillemot (U. grylle), entirely black, with a great white wing-spot. in 


Fig. 124.—Sternuin of Loon. 


Fig. 125.—Sternum of Guillemot. 


254 AVES. 


summer, and everywhere mottled with white in winter: the bill and feet red. Its range is more northerly, rarely 
if ever breeding to the southward of the Scottish Isles, and producing two and often three eggs, proportionally 
smaller, and singularly different from those of the other, both in shape and colour. It is less allied to the Common 
Guillemot than the latter is to the Auks, with which an intermediate species, rarely found on the British coasts, 
tends even to connect it,—the U. Brunnichii, which scarcely differs except in the more robust form of the bill. 
There is also a breed of the Common Guillemot found on the Welsh coast, and some other places, which has a 
narrow white line from the bill to the eye, as in the Razor-billed Auk. } 


Tue Rorcue (Cephus, Cuv. [Mergulus, Ray and Vieillot] ),-— 
Has a shorter bill, more arcuated above, and unemarginated ; the symphysis of the lower mandible 
extremely short. Its wings are stronger, and the membranes of the feet somewhat notched. 

The known species, termed Little Auk and Greenland Dove, (C. alle ; Colymbus minor, Gmelin), is not larger 
than a Pigeon, and black above, white below, with the same mark on the wing as the Common Guillemot. It 
inhabits the arctic shores, where it breeds on the ground, and is occasionally met with in our latitudes during the 
winter. 


The genus of 
Tue Avuxs (Alea, Lin.) — 
Is known by its extremely compressed beak, raised vertically, sharp along the ridge, and ordinarily 
grooved on the sides, together with its feet entirely palmated and without back toe, the same as in the 
Guillemots. The species are all from the northern seas. 
They require to be divided into three subgenera. 


Tuer Purrins (Fratercula, Brisson ; Mormon, Iliger),— 

Of which the beak, shorter than the head, is as high or higher than it is long, giving it a very 
extraordinary form, while its base is generally furnished with a folded skin. The nostrils, placed 
near its edge, are mere slits. Their short wings can just sustain them for a brief period, and they 
reside in the ocean like the Guillemots, and nestle in the rocks, [or rather they burrow holes in loose 
soil, and lay their single egg at the depth of several feet. They run or creep swiftly on the ground, 
and the Auks and Guillemots can also waddle with more speed than might be anticipated from the 
shortness of their legs]. 

The common species (Alca arctica, Lin.; Mormon fratercula, Tem.), is a littie larger than a Pigeon, with black 
mantle, calotte, and collar, and the rest white. [Legs orange; bill brightly coloured; and a slip of loose skin at 
each eye. It is common in suitable localities on the British shores, flies rapidly, and may often be seen to return 
to its mate or young, with a number of small fishes curiously ranged on each side of its bill, each held by the head. 
The young are at first covered with long and flocculent black down, which is replaced by delicately soft plumage 


analogous to that of the young Guillemot, succeeded by the adult garb in the course of a few weeks, which last 
undergoes no seasonal changes]. 


M. Temminck distinguishes as 


Tue Puaverins (Phaleris, Tem.), 
Those species which have the beak less elevated; as, 


The Alca cristatella, Vieillot, and A. psittacula, Pallas. [Six species are known on the arctic shores of America, 
one forming the Ceratorynchus, Bonap. ; some of these extend to the north of Siberia. ] 


Tue Resrricrep Auxs (dica, Cuv.)— 
Have a more lengthened beak, resembling the blade of a knife; feathers at its base as far as the nos- 
trils, [the same as in the Guillemots, to which they are most nearly allied,] and wings decidedly too 
small to support them, inasmuch as they cannot fly at all; [an erroneous statement respecting one of 
the two species]. 


The Razor-bill Auk (Alca torda and pica, Gmelin). [Plumage and seasonal changes of the Common Guillemot, 
only that the black is more deep, and some white transverse lines on the bill. It is rather smaller than that spe- 
cies, which it exactly resembles in habit and extent of wing, flying equally well: inhabits the same cliffs, but less 
numerously ; and commonly lays two eggs, sometimes three, of similar character to those of the Black Guillemot : 
has a croaking voice. } 

The Great Auk (A. impennis, Lin.).—Colours of the preceding, but the beak marked with eight or ten cross 
grooves, and an oval white spot between the eye and bill. It lays but one great egg, spotted with purplish. [This 
species, which is larger than a Goose, is the only northern sea-fowl utterly deprived of the function of flight, and 
has accordingly its wings reduced to exactly that size which is most efficient of all for subaquatic progression : 
they are not larger than very moderate-sized fins, and the limb-bones are considerably weightier and less solid 
than those of its congener; but we are not aware that the skeleton makes any approach in form to that of the 


PALMIPEDES. 255 


Penguins of the southern hemisphere, which are very distinct from the ¢uks. As a particularly rare visitant, this 
species is allowed a place in the British Fauna. ] 


The genus of 
Tue Pencuins (Aptenodytes, Forster) — 

Ts even less capable of flying than that of the Auks. Their little wings, covered with mere vestiges of 
feathers, which at the first glance resemble scales; their feet, placed farther back than in any other 
bird [the Grebes and Loons, alone excepted, ] 
only support them by bearing on the tarsus, 
which is widened like the sole of the foot of a 
quadruped, and in which are found three bones 
soldered together at their extremities. They 
have a small hind toe, directed inwards, and 
their three anterior toes are joined by an entire 
membrane. These birds are found only in the 
antarctic seas, never going on shore except to 
breed. They can only reach their nests by 
trailing on their bellies. The difference in the 
bill authorizes their division into three sub- 
genera. 


Tue PrncGurns, properly so called (Apteno- 
dytes, Cuv.),— 
Have a long, slender, and pointed beak, the 
upper mandible a little arcuated towards the tip, 
Fig. 126.—Sternum of Penguin. and feathered for about a third of its length; 
in this the nostril is placed, from which a groove extends to the tip. 
The Patagonian Penguin (Apt. patachonica, Gm.).—Size of a Goose, and slate-coloured above, white underneath, 
with a black mark, encircled by a citron-yellow cravat. It inhabits the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan in large 
flocks, ranging as far as New Guinea. Its flesh, although black, is eaten. 


THE Gorrews (Catarrhactes, Brisson)— 
Have a stout and pointed beak, somewhat compressed, with a rounded ridge, and tip a little arcuated ; 
the groove which extends forward from the nostril terminates obliquely on the inferior third of its edge. 

The Crested Gorfew (Apt. chrysocoma, Gm.).—Size of a large Duck, black above, white below, and adorned with 
a white or yellow crest on each side of the occiput. It is found in the vicinity of the Falkland Isles and of New 
Holland, and sometimes leaps out of the water while swimming. Deposits its eggs in a hole of the ground. 
There are several others. 

THE SPHENISCANS (Spheniscus, Brisson)— 
Have a straight and compressed beak, irregularly furrowed at the base; the tip of the upper mandible 
hooked, and of the other truncate ; nostrils situate in the middle, and uncovered. 

The Cape Spheniscan (Apt. demersa, Gmelin).—Black above, white below, the beak brown, with a white band in 
the middle, throat black, and a line of the same upon the breast, which is continued along each flank. It chiefly 
inhabits the neighbourhood of the Cape, where it nestles among the rocks. [Fig. 126 represents the sternal appa- 
ratus of this species, showing the peculiar configuration common to the group, and particularly the broad 
scapula, The bones of the Penguins are permanently filled with marrow. ] 


The family of 
LONGIPENNES 


Comprehends those Birds of the high seas, which, in consequence of their capability of pro- 
tracted flight, are met with everywhere, [though it does not appear that the particular species 
are more widely diffused than others]. They are known by the freedom or total absence of 
the thumb, their very long wings, and smooth-edged beak, which in the greater number of 
genera is hooked at the tip, and in the others simply pointed. Their inferior larynx has 
only one muscle proper on each side, and the gizzard is muscular [or lax and very capacious], 
the cceca short [or moderate ]. 


Tue Perrets (Procellaria, Lin.)— 
Have the beak hooked at the tip, with its extremity appearing as though a piece had been articulated to 


256 AVES. 


the rest; their nostrils are united to form a tube, which lies along the back of the upper mandible ; 
and their feet, instead of a back toe, have merely a claw implanted in the heel. They are, of all the Pal- 
mipedes, those which remain most constantly at a great distance from land; and when a tempest comes 
on, they are often compelled to seek refuge on reefs and ships, from which circumstance they derive their 
name of Storm-birds: that of Petrel (a diminutive of Pefer,) has been applied to them from their habit 
of walking on the waves, which they do with the assistance of their wings. They nestle in the holes 
of rocks, [producing but a single egg,] and spurt upon those who disturb them an oily fluid, with 
which their stomachs appear to be always filled. The greater number of species inhabit the Antarctic 
seas. [Their stomach is extremely capacious, and but slightly muscular, and they feed principally on 
oily substances. ] 

Those are more particularly called Petrels (Procellaria), the lower mandible of which is truncated. 

The largest species, or Giant Petrel (Proc. gigantea), inhabits the Austral Seas, and exceeds a Goose in size. Its 
plumage is blackish, but with varieties more or less white. In the same seas is found 


The Spotted Petrel (Pr. capensis).—Size of a small Duck, and white, spotted with black above. It is often 
mentioned by navigators [as the Cape Pigeon]. 

The Fulmar Petrel (Pr. glacialis).—White, with ash-coloured mantle, the bill and feet yellow, and size that of 
a large Duck. It nestles in the precipitous coasts of the [northern] British isles, and is found throughout the 
whole north. [It has been computed that this species is the most numerous in individuals of the whole class. 
Though rare in our latitudes, its numbers in the Arctic seas are inconceivable. } 


Tue Srorm-Petrets (Thalassidroma, Vig.)— 
Are certain small species, with a somewhat shorter bill, rather longer legs, and black plumage, which 
are more particularly designated Storm-birds [and 
Mother Carey’s Chickens| by mariners. [Their habits 
are crepuscular and nocturnal, as are also those of 
most of the tribe: and their flight considerably 
resembles that of a Swallow. ] 


The most common (Proc. pelagica, Brisson) is scarcely 
larger than a Lark, but stands higher on the legs. It is 
entirely brown-black, except the croup, which is white, 
and there is a trace of white on the greater wing coverts. 
When this bird seeks a shelter upon vessels, it is a sign of 
an approaching storm. [That of America (Ph. Wilsonii) is 

Baye ceemereior Stommie Sie distinct, and is sometimes met with on our shores; as is 
also a third species with a forked tail, Th. Bullockii. After tempestuous weather, these birds are not unfrequently 
found far inland, generally upon the high road, unable to rise]. 


We separate, with Brisson, by the name of 


Tue SHEARWATERS (Puffinus),— 
Those species in which the tip of the lower mandible is curved downwards, like that of the upper, and 
the nostrils of which, although tubular, do not open by a common orifice, but by two distinct holes. 
Their beak also is proportionally longer. 


The Cinereous Shearwater (P. cinereus ; Proc. puffinus, Gm.)—Ash-coloured above, whitish beneath, with the 
wings and tail blackish; the young rather more deeply coloured. Its size is nearly that of a Crow, and it is 
found almost everywhere, [but rarely so far north as on the British shores]. 

A smaller species was long confounded with it, black above and white below, the Manks Shearwater (P. anglo- 
rum), which inhabits the northern shores of Scotland and its isles in immense numbers, and which the inhabitants 
salt for winter provision. [A third (P. obscurus, Vieillot) has occurred in Britain, and there are two or three 
more, further south. ] 

Navigators sometimes mention, under the name of Petrels, certain birds of the Antarctic seas, which 


should make two particular genera. One is 


Tue Hataprome (Haladroma, Illiger),— 
Which, with the beak and form of the Petrels and Shearwaters, has a dilatable throat like the Cormo- 
rauts, and entirely wants the thumb, as in the Albatrosses. 


Such is Pr. urinatrix, Gmelin. 


The other is 


i 


PALMIPEDES. 257 


Tue Prions (Pachyptila, Iliger),— 
In other respects similar to the Petrels, have separate nostrils like the Shearwaters, and the beak 
widened at its base, its edges being interiorly furnished with fine, pointed, vertical lamin, analogous 
to those of the Ducks. 


These are the Blue Petrels (Proc. vittata and cwrulea, Forster). 


Tue A.Barrosses (Diomedea, Lin.)— 

Are the most massive of all aquatic birds. Their large, stout, and trenchant beak, with strongly 
marked sutures, is terminated by a hook, which looks as if articulated. The nostrils resemble short 
rolls, laid on each side of the beak; and the feet have no hind toe, not even the little nail which is 
found in the Petrels. They inhabit the Austral seas, and feed on the spawn of Fishes, Mollusks, &c.; 
[indeed, upon whatever falls in their way. They pertain to the same particular group as the Petrels, 
which they resemble in their whole anatomy. Their webbed feet are equally large, and they have the 
same habit of trampling on the waves]. 


The species best known to navigators, or the Giant Albatross (D. exulans, Lin.), has been termed the Cape Sheep 
from its size, having white plumage, and black wings. The English also style it the Man-of-War Bird, [a mistake, 
as this term applies to the Tachypete]. It is particularly common beyond the tropic of Capricorn, and is the great 
enemy of the Flying Fish. This bird constructs a high nest of earth, and Jays numerous eggs [each individual, 
however, one only, and generally in company with Penguins], which are esteemed good eating: its cry is very loud. 
There are three or four others, about two-thirds the size. 


Tue Gutts (Larus, Lin.)— 
Ilave the bill moderately long, compressed, and pointed, the upper mandible arcuated towards the tip, 
and the lower forming a projecting angle beneath. Their nostrils, placed near its middle, are long, 
narrow, and pierced quite through, [the beak having little bony substance in comparison with those of 
the Petrels and Albatrosses]. .Their tail is full, the legs tolerably elevated, and the thumb short. 
They are cowardly and voracious birds, which abound along the sea-shore, and feed on all sorts of fish, 
carrion, &c. They nestle in the sand or in clefts of rocks, and lay few eggs, [generally three in 
number]. When they come inland, bad weather may be expected. Several species of them are found 
on our coasts; and as their plumage varies exceedingly with age, they have been further multiplied by 
systematists. In general, during youth, they are mottled with greyish. [These birds have a capacious 
guilet, and small gizzard, which becomes more muscular with age. Their general anatomy is consider- 
ably allied to that of the Calcatores, or Snipes and Plovers. Their toes A 
are shorter than in the preceding genera, and the feet better fitted for 
walking on land. 


Those of Britain are—the Great Black-backed Gull (ZL. marinus), white, with a 
black saddle; bill four inches long, and with the orbits yellow; of common 
occurrence: the Glaucous Gull (L. glaucus), with a very pale silvery saddle, and 
entirely white quills, from which we do not regard the Iceland Gull (L. islandi- 
cus, Auct.), of Europe, as distinct, having cbtained intermediate specimens of 
every grade of size; it is rare on the coasts of South Britain: the Herring 
Gull (L. argentatus), the commonest of all, differing from the first chiefly in its 
inferior size and ash-coloured mantle: the Lesser Blackbacked Gull (L. fuscus), 
somewhat less than the Herring Gull, and similar to the first, but not so deeply 
coloured, and having yellow legs instead of flesh-coloured, and red orbits; which 
is rather common: the Mew Gull (ZL. canus), a diminutive of the Herring Gull, 
with white legs: the Kittiwake Gull (Z. rissa), rather smaller still, and at once | 
distinguished by the total absence of hind-toe; both of these being common in 
particular localities: and the Ivory Gull (L. eburneus),the adult plumage of which 
is wholly pure white, contrasting with black feet, and which is only an occasional 
straggler in the British seas. All these are, for the most part, rock-builders. Fig. 123.—Sternum of Gull. 

Others, the Xema of Leach, have a black hood in summer, like the Terns, and are generally slighter-made, 
breeding chiefly in marshes: The commonest in Britain is known as the Hooded Gull (L. ridibundus), with the 
head and upper neck brownish-black during the breeding season, and bill and legs bright vermilion: the Masked 
Gull (L. capistratus) is rather smaller, with the hood considerably reduced, and is not common: L. atricilla is 
larger than either, with a stouter bill, and black legs; also very rare: L. Sabini, smaller than the Masked Gull, 
is at once distinguished by its forked tail, and is met with occasionally in Ireland and the west of Britain: and 
L. minutus, the smallest of all, not exceeding ten inches in length, and equally uncommon upon the British shores, 
is known by its size. There are many more, of both divisions. ] 


j On 


258 AVES. 


From the Gulls have been very properly separated 


Tue Sxuas (Lestris, Iliger),— 
The membranous nostrils of which, larger than in the preceding, open nearer to the point and edge of 
the beak; the tail also is pointed, [and they have great cceca]. They eagerly pursue the smaller 
Gulls to rob them of their food, and, as has been said, to devour their excrement ; [the truth being, 
that they cause them to disgorge, whereupon they seize the food before it reaches the water, being 
endowed with uncommon power of flight]: hence their name, [Les¢ris, or robber. 

Four species occur on the British shores, successively smalier, with the middle tail-feathers prolonged in the 
same ratio. The largest (LZ. cataractes), nearly the size of the Great Black-backed Gull, has deep brown plumage, 
with the middle tail-feathers but slightly elongated. It breeds on certain of the northern Scottish isles, high 
upon the mountains, defending its nest with extraordinary spirit and intrepidity, and furiously driving off Eagles 
from the vicinity, for which reason it is protected by the inhabitants, as a guard to their flocks. The Pomarine 
Skua (ZL. pomarinus) is smaller, and though generally exceedingly rare, makes its apearance in certain seasons in 
considerable numbers, as in the instance of November, 1837. L. Richardsonii is the next in size, which is common 
about the northern Scottish isles; and L. parasiticus, the smallest, which belongs more properly to America, has 
exceedingly long middle tail-feathers. 'The females of these birds are larger than the males, which is the reverse 
of what is observable in the Gulls; and they lay but two eggs, of a dark colour]. 


Tue Terns (Sferna, Linn.) — 

Are termed Sea-swallows, from their extremely long and pointed wings, their forked tail, and short legs, 
which induce a port and flight analogous to those of the Swallows, [the true Terns, however, winnowing 
| more in the manner of the Gulls]. Their beak is straight, pointed, and compressed, without 
curvature or projection; having the nostrils near its base, oblong, and pierced quite through. The 
membranes which connect their toes are deeply emarginated, and they swim little, [if at allj. They 
fly in every direction and with great rapidity, uttering loud cries, and skilfully raising from the surface 
of the water mollusks and small fishes, upon which they feed, [and to obtain which they often plunge]. 
They also penetrate to the lakes and rivers of the interior. [Their anatomy precisely accords with that 
of the Gulls, as do also the character of their plumage, their seasonal and progressive changes, mode of 


propagation, eggs, &c. 

The British species fall into two principal groups; the majority having the same black calotte in spring as the 
Xema Gulls. The commonest (Sé. hirundo) has an ashy mantle, red feet, and the bill red with a black tip. The 
Arctic Tern (S¢. arctica), common along our northern coasts, is rather smaller, with shorter legs, and under- 
parts tinged with ash-colour. The Little Tern (St. minuta) is distinguished by its very inferior size, and white 
forehead. The Sandwich T. (S¢. canfiaca and Boysii) is larger than any of the foregoing, with black feet, and 
often a tint of roseate on the breast. In the Roseate T. (St. Dougalli), the same tinge is brighter, and the feet 
are orange. The Gull-billed T. (S¢. anglica) has the bill prominent at the symphisis, as in the Gulls; but not- 
withstanding its received systematic name, is extremely rare in Britain. The Caspian T. (S¢. caspia), occasionally 
met with in the Channel, is very considerably larger than any of the others. The two last are principally marsh 
Terns; and the most characteristic of these is the Black Tern (St. nigra), with tail less deeply forked than in 
the others, membranes of the feet more reduced, and smaller bill, which subsists chiefly on insects taken on the 
wing, and flies more like a Swallow. There are numerous others. } 


We might distinguish from the other Terns, 


Tue Noppres (Megalopterus, Boié),— 
The tail of which is not forked, [but the reverse,] and even with the wings ; and the bill has a slight 
salient angle, the first indication of that in the Gulls; [whilst the character of the plumage resem- 
bles that of a Petrel, and the feathers are not continued forward to the nostrils]. We only know 
of one,— 
The Black Noddy (Sterna stolida, Lin.).—Brown black, the front of the head whitish. It is well known to 


seamen for the stupidity with which it throws itself on vessels [and allows itself to be taken. Is one of the most 
widely distributed of birds ; and has occurred on the Irish coast. M. Audubon found its nests in yast numbers, 


placed upon bushes, in an island uninhabited by Man]. 


Tue Skimmers (Rhyncops, Linn.)— 
Resemble the Terns by their short feet, long wings, and forked tail; but are distinguished from all 
other birds by their extraordinary bill, the upper mandible of which is shorter than the other, both 
being flattened into simple [vertical] laminee, which meet without clasping. Their only mode of 
feeding is by skimming their aliment from the surface of the water with the lower mandible as 


they fly. 


a a 


PALMIPEDES. 259 


The first known species (Rh. nigra, Lin.), is white, with a black calotte and mantle, a white streak over the eye, 
and the external tail-feathers white outside, bill and feet red. From the vicinity of the Antilles. There are four 
or five others. 


The third family, or that of the 
TOTIPALMATI, 


Is characterized by the thumb being united with the other toes by one single membrane ; 
though, notwithstanding this conformation, which renders their feet perfect oars, they are 
almost the only Palmipedes which perch on trees. All of them fly well, and have 
short legs. Linneus arranged them in three genera, the first of which requires to be 
subdivided. 

Tue Peticans (Pelicanus, Lin.)— 

Comprehend all those wherein some naked space is found at the base of the pill. Their nostrils are 
mere fissures, the aperture of which is scarcely [or not at all] perceptible. ‘The skin of the throat is 
more or less extensible, and the tongue extremely small. Their attenuated gizzard forms, with their 
other stomachs, a great sac, [which in several is furnished with an accessory pouch, analogous to that 
of the Crocodiles], and they have only middling or small cceca. [Their nostrils, which are always per- 
vious in the nestling, soon become entirely closed in 
the greater number of genera. The furcula is always 
anchylosed to the anterior portion of the sternal ridge. 
Their eggs are encased with a soft, absorbent, chalky 
substance, over the hard shell; and the young are at 
first covered with long and flocculent blackish down, 
remaining very long in the nest, and generally much 
exceeding the parents in weight when they leave it. 
None of them appear to moult before the second 
autumn. The greater number have bright green 
irides. | 


THE Pericans, properly so called (Pelicanus, Illiger ; 

Onocrotalus, Brisson),— 
Have the beak very remarkable for its inordinate 
length, its straight, very broad, and horizontally-flat- 
tened form, for the hook which terminates it, and finally for the lower mandible, the flexile rim of 
which supports a naked membrane, which is dilatable into a voluminous pouch. Two grooves extend 
throughout its length, in which the nostrils are concealed. The circumference of the eyes is naked, 
like the throat. The tail round. 


The common European Pelican (Pel. onocrotalus, Lin.).—As large as a Swan, and wholly white, slightly tinged 
with carneous, [and haying the breast deep buff-colour in old specimens]. The hook of the bill cherry-red. It is 
more or less plentifully diffused over the eastern world, nidificates in the marshes, and subsists entirely on live 
fish. Is reported to convey provisions and water in its pouch. Two or three others have been distinguished. 


Fig. 129.—Sternum of Cormorant. 


Tue Cormorants (Phalacrocorax, Briss.; Carbo, Mey.; Halieus, Il.)— 

Have the beak elongated, with the tip of the upper mandible hooked, and that of the other truncate. 
The tongue very small; and the skin of the throat less dilatable. The nostrils are like a little 
line, which does not seem to be pervious. The middle claw has a serrated inner edge. [Tail stiff and 
cuneated. It may be added, that the feet are placed backwards, in adaptation to diving habits, but are 
still tolerably free, these birds employing both the wings and feet in subaquatic progression. Their 
voracity is proverbial: and their intelligence surpasses that of most other birds, as does likewise their 
docility: hence they were formerly trained in Europe for fishing, as Hawks are for fowling, and they 
are still so employed in the East. The species are exceedingly numerous, and some are found almost 
everywhere. 

Two are very common on the British coasts. 

The Bronzed Cormorant (Pel. carbo, Lin.).—Size of a Gooze, and bronzed black, with fourteen tail-feathers. 
Both sexes develope, towards the breeding season, various accessory ornamental feathers about the head and 
neck, at which time the naked skin becomes brightly coloured, and a tuft of white feathers grows upon each 


si2 


260 AVE 


flank. These ornaments fall in a few weeks, and are but imperfectly developed in younger individuals, and 
seldom except in a state of perfect liberty. In some parts of Europe, this species builds upon house-tops, and not 
unfrequently on trees: but on the British coast, they mostly resort to precipitous rocks or islets, generally in 
society. From their croaking voice, dark colour, and appearance on the wing, they are often termed Sea Crows. 
They can climb with considerable facility, aided by the beak and rigid tail-feathers. Occasionally they fly to inland 
waters and fish-preserves, where they are notoriously destructive, and are observed to evince a marked preference 
for Eels. 

The other species, or Crested Cormorant, (Phal. cristatus, Olass), is smaller, and less robust, with only twelve tail- 
feathers ; its glosses incline more to green, and the adults have an elegant recurved crest during the breeding 
season. ‘This bird is commoner towards the north, while the preceding is more numerous southward: neverthe- 
less, the Bronzed Cormorant appears to occur in both continents, whereas the Crested is represented in North 
America by a different one (PA. dilophus), both of these extending to high latitudes, though respectively peculiar 
to the Old and New World, so far as has vet been observed. 

A third European species is the Black Cormorant (Pel. graculus, Gm.); a diminutive of the first, but possessing 
only twelve tail-feathers, like the preceding, with which it has been confounded until very recently, by British 
naturalists. It inhabits to the southward of the British Isles, in which it has not hitherto been met with.! 


Tue TacuyPetes (Jachypetes, Vieillot)— 
Differ from the Cormorants by a forked tail, short feet, the membranes of which are very deeply notched, 
an excessive spread of wing, and a beak both mandibles of which are curved at the tip. Their wings 
are so powerful that they fly at an immense distance from all land, and principally between the tropics, 
darting upon the Flying-fish, and striking the Gannets to make them disgorge their prey. 

One only is known (Pel. aquilus, Lin.), the plumage of which is [richly empurpled] black, the under-part of the 
throat more or less varied with white, and the beak red. Its extent of wing is reported to be sometimes ten or 
even twelve feet. [This is the noted Frigate-bird, or Man-of-War-bird, of the English sailors, which is surpassed 
in command of wing by none of the class, if equalled by any. It breeds on trees on uninhabited islands, and 
lays a single spherical white egg. ] 

Tue Gannets (Sula, Brisson; Dysporus, Iliger)— 
Have a straight beak, slightly compressed and pointed, with the tip a little arcuated, and its edges serrated, 
the denticulations [which are more developed in the Cormorants] directed backwards: the [im- 
pervious} nostrils are prolonged in a line nearly to the tip: the throat is naked, as is also the skin of 
the eyes; the former but slightly extensible: inner edge of the middle claw serrated. The wings are 
less extended than in the Tachypetes, and the tail is a little cuneated. These birds are called Boobies, on 
account of the stupidity with which they [certain species of them] allow themselves to be attacked by 
men and birds, more particularly the Tachypetes, which, as already stated, force them to yield up the 


prey they have captured. 


The most common is the European Gannet (Pel. bassanus, Lin.).—White, with black feet and wing primaries, 
the bill greenish, and nearly equal in size to a Goose. [A common species in the British seas, which breeds in 
vast numbers upon the Bass rock in the Frith of Forth, and one or two other similar localities: the young are at 
first covered with the blackish down common to the group, in which they contrast remarkably with their white 
parents; their first plumage is dark above, beautifully speckled with white, these terminal specks gradually 
wearing off. The Gannets take their prey by plunging upon it from on high, and sail with an easy flight, with 
little motion of the wings. ‘Their air cavities are extraordinarily developed ; the ambient medium permeating all 
their bones with the exception of the phalanges of the toes, and passing under the skin of the breast, which is 
only attached to the muscles by a number of scattered connecting pillars; a structure which is also met with in 
the Phaetons. } 


Tue Anuineas (Plotus, Lin.)— 
With the body and feet nearly like those of a Cormorant, have a very long neck, and a slender, straight, 
and pointed bill, with denticulated edges; the eyes and nudity of the face as in the Pelicans, of which 
they have likewise the habits, nestling, like those birds, upon trees. [They may be described as Cor- 
morants, with the bill and neck of a Heron. 


Two or three species are found, in both continents ; the body inferior in size to that of a common Duck.] 


Tue Puaertons (Phaeton, Lin.)— 
Are known by their two very long and slender tail-feathers, which, at a distance, resemble a straw. 
Their head has no naked part. The beak is straight, pointed, denticulated, and moderately stout, 
[with pervious nostrils at all ages]: their feet are short, and their wings long. Accordingly, they fly 
very far from land, on the high seas ; and as they rarely quit the boundaries of the torrid zone, their 
appearance serves to indicate to mariners the vicinity of the tropic, [whence their common name of 


PALMIPEDES. 261 


Tropic-birds]. On land, where they seldom resort except to breed, they perch upon trees. [They are 
closely related by affinity to the Gannets. | 


Several species are known, with white plumage, more or less varied with black, [and tinged in some with roseate, ] 
which do not exceed the size of a Pigeon. 


The family of 
LAMELLIROSTRES 


Is distinguished by a thick bill, invested with a soft skin rather than with true horn, [the 
fact being, that the corneous portion is restricted to the nail-like extremity, the rest corre- 
sponding to what is known as the cere]: its edges supplied either with laminz, or small 
teeth, [which are modifications of each other]: the tongue large and fleshy, with a dentelated 
border. Their wings are of moderate length. They live more in fresh waters than in the 
sea: and, in the greater number, the trachea of the male is dilated near its bifurcation into 
capsules of various form. Their gizzard is large, very muscular, and the cceca [generally | 
long. [These birds lay numerous spotless eggs, and the young follow their parent as soon 
as hatched. | 

The great genus of 

Tue Ducks (duas, Lin.)— 
Comprehends those Palmipedes which have a large and broad bill, the edges of which are beset with 
salient laminze placed transversely, and the purport of which appears to be for straining off the water 
when the bird has seized its prey. They divide into three subgenera, the limits of which, however, 
are not very precise. 
THE Swans (Cygnus, Meyer)— 

Have the bill of equal breadth throughout, and higher than wide at the base ; the nostrils placed about 
midway: and the neck exceedingly elongated, [possessing twenty-three vertebre*]. They are the 
largest birds of this genus, and feed chiefly on the seeds and roots of aquatic plants, [together with the 
grass which grows near the brink of water]. Their intestines, and cceca more especially, are accord- 
ingly very long. Their trachea has no inflation or labyrinth. 

(Swans are essentially modified Geese, and like the latter are exclusively vegetable feeders, with 
similar plumage in both sexes, which is moulted once only in the year, and undergoes no seasonal va- 
riation of colour. They attack with the same hissing note, strike similarly with their wings, and the 
male guards the female during incubation, and accompanies her while followed by her brood. They 
fall into two subdivisions. 

In the first, the trachea, after describing a slight curve towards the sternal ridge, proceeds to the 
lungs without entering any cavity in the bone. When swimming, they often erect the tertial plumes 
of the wing, in an elegant manner. Three of the four species have a fleshy caruncle over the base of 
the upper mandible, beneath which the bone is protuberant. 

The Mute Swan (Anas olor, Gmelin), or common domesticated species, the adults of which are wholly pure 
white, with a reddish bill, surmounted by a black protuberance, and leaden-black feet: young, grey, with the bill 
lead-coloured. The wild breed (C. immutabilis, Yarrell) is rather smaller, with the rostral protuberance less 
developed in the few specimens examined: there is also a semi-albino domestic race, with feet whitish, or par- 
tially so, and reported to have white cygnets, which is termed the Polish Swan by the dealers ; it varies in size, 
some attaining the largest dimensions of the ordinary tame breed. We are satisfied, from anatomical examina- 
tion, that these are all specifically the same. The wild race is rarely met with in Britain. These birds do not 
appear to breed before the third year. 

The Black Swan (A. atrata, Latham; A. plutonia, Shaw).—Less than the preceding, and not so elegant in its 
conformation, with its tertials curled upwards: colour black, with the exception of its white primaries, and the 
bill and naked skin at its base, which are red. It is common in New Holland, and propagates readily twice a 
year, or oftener, when brought to Europe. 

The Black-necked Swan (C. nigricollis)—White, with black neck and tips of the primaries; the sides of the 
head white, and bill and feet orange, the former haying a black protuberance. Common in South America. 

The smallest of all, or Duck-billed Swan (C. anatoides, King.), is also from South America, inhabiting towards the 
Straits of Magellan. Colour pure white, with black tips to the primaries, and bill and feet orange: the former 


having no basal protuberance. With the exception, therefore, of the common mute species, this division pertains 
to the southern hemisphere. 


The rest have the trachea elongated as in the Cranes, and similarly entering a cavity in the sternal 


* We have found this number in four species, viz., C. olor, atratus, musicus, and Bewichii,—Ep. 


262 AVES. 


ridge. They carry the neck more upright, and never elevate the tertial plumes. None of them has 
any protuberance on the base of the bill; and they have all white 
plumage with black feet, or, in the young, grey plumage with white 
wings, and the feet white when newly hatched. They yield the swan’s 
down of commerce, which is much inferior both in quality and quan- 
tity in the others; and are restricted in their distribution to the 
northern hemisphere. 


Of four species, two are respectively peculiar to each continent. 

The Trumpeter Swan (C. buccinator) of America is the largest, and yields 
\\; most of the down of commerce, together with the next species. Its bill is 
wholly black, and the trachea forms a double vertical convolution within the 
sternal ridge, and is bifurcated into short inflated bronchi. 

Audubon’s Swan (C. Audubonii and americana) is smaller, but fully equals 
the European Hooper Swan in size, although it has been confounded with 
C. Bewickii. Its bill has au orange-yellow spot on each side towards the base, 
and the trachea forms a horizontal flexure within the inflated hind-margin of 
the sternum, having similar bronchi to those of the last. 

Bewick’s Swan (C. Bewichkii) is considerably smaller, with exactly similar 
tracheal apparatus, and a larger orange-yellow space at the base of the 
bill, extending to the nostrils. Of seventeen specimens dissected by us, 
one only presented the horizontal flexure of the trachea (represented 
from the identical specimen in fig. 130), though several were evidently older 
birds: but the inflated form of the bronchi constitutes an invariable distinc- 
tion from the next species. Tail-feathers generally twenty, sometimes eighteen, and we have more than once met 
with nineteen, where none had been lost. It is much less common in Britain, as a winter visitant, than the next. 

The Hooper Swan (C. musicus, Anas cygnus, Lin.), or common Wild Swan of Europe, which visits Britain in 
abundance in severe winters. The largest specimens are scarcely inferior in size to the Mute species, and have 
the most extended brilliant-yellow space at the base of the bill of any, extending beyond the nostrils. The 
trachea forms but a single vertical flexure, and the bronchi are much longer than in the others, and not inflated. 
On dissecting a cygnet in its down, we found the cavity of the sternal ridge completely formed, but the trachea 
did not enter. The tail-feathers are generally twenty, and sometimes twenty-one or twenty-two. All these birds 
utter loud trumpeting cries, and the present species has also a low musical note, which is often repeated. ] 


Fig. 130.—Sternum of Bewick’s Swan. 


We can scarcely distinguish from the Swans certain species, which undoubtedly are less elegant, but 


have the same beak. As 

The Knobbed Goose (Anas cygnoides, Lin.), which we rear in our poultry-yards, and which interbreeds readily 
with the common domestic species. The base of its upper mandible is protuberant, as in the Mute Swan, and its 
neck is whitish, with a dark streak passing down the back of it. [In every essential particular, this is a true 
Goose, and has sixteen cervical vertebra, like the rest of that genus. Its flesh is less highly esteemed than that 
of the common bird; than which, however, it is considerably more prolific, propagating at all seasons. As in the 
other Geese, it seeks its food principaily, or it may be said wholly, on land, and utters loud noisy cries.] 

The Spur-winged Goose (Anas Gambensis, Lin.).—Remarkable for its size, its elevated legs, the tubercle upon 
its forehead, and the two stout spurs with which the bend of its wing is armed. Its plumage is empurpled black, 
(very like that of a Musk Duck, to which this species is considerably allied, notwithstanding its long legs. It 
forms the genus Plectropterus of Swainson. 

The author also includes among the Swans the Canada Goose (A. canadensis), which also possesses every 
intrinsic character of the true Geese. It is a very Jarge species, with a long black neck, and white mark across 
the throat, as in the Black-necked Swan ; which is likewise readily domesticated, and breeds plentifully in Europe. 
Another nearly allied (4. Hutchinsonii) has more recently been discovered in the same country—North America, 
from which neither has been known to stray across the Atlantic in the wild state, though found very far to the 
north. The first down of all the Geese is mottled, of the Swans plain. ] 


Tue Geese (Anser, Brisson)— 
Have the bill moderate or short, narrower in front than behind, and higher than broad at the base ; 
the legs longer than in the Ducks, and placed nearer the middle of the body, to facilitate their gait 
on land. They have no labyrinth at the bottom of the trachea, nor does the latter form any curve in 
the known species. Several [all] feed on grass and grain. 


Tue Gerss, properly so called,— 
Have the bill as long as the head, with the ends of the lamelle extending to its edges, and appearing 
like pointed teeth. 


(The last-mentioned character is most strongly developed in the Snow Goose (A. hyperboreus) of North America, 
the adult male of which is white, with black primaries. This species rarely straggles into northern Europe. Four 


>. Long Tailed Duck 


L. Harle quin Duc k 


2 ral Duck +. Summer Duck 


PALMIPEDES. 263 


are more or less common in Britain during the winter, tne three first of which have been much confused. The 
colour of all is nearly that of a coloured domestic Goose. The Grey-lag Goose (A. cinereus), at once distinguished 
by the pale grey colour of its rump, which in all the others is dark blackish-brown. The bill also is larger and 
broader, with more strongly marked lamellz: the hue of it reddish flesh-colour, tinged with yellowish in summer, 
with always a white terminal nail to the upper mandible, except when very young; and the legs flesh-coloured. 
This, which is obviously the origin of the common tame Goose, is at present much the rarest in the British Isles, 
though it formerly bred abundantly in the fenny counties. The common statement that the male of the tame 
Goose invariably becomes white in the course of a few years, is untrue. The most nearly allied to it is the 
White-fronted Goose (A. albifrons), considerably smaller, with always a white forehead in the adult, and ordinarily 
more or less black on the under-parts, appearing in irregular patches; traces of which may likewise be sometimes 
found in the preceding species : its legs are orange-yellow, and bill flesh-coloured, with a white nail except when 
very young. This species is very common in winter, but has not hitherto been known to breed here. A still 
more abundant species is the Bean Goose (A. segetum), nearly as large as the first, with orange legs, and narrower 
bill, generally blackish, with an orange band across it, and a black nail: the latter is very rarely white in aged 
specimens, which often have the bill nearly wholly yellow, but never quite. The Bean Goose breeds sparingly in 
Sutherland, and some parts of Ireland. Lastly, the Pink-footed Goose (4. brachyrynchus, Baillon ; A. pheni- 
copus, Bartl.) is distinguished from the last by its inferior size, and pinkish-red legs, together with its shorter 
bill, the similar cross-band of which is permanently of a reddish-colour. It is not very common, though 
more so than the first, and combines the general form of the Bean Goose with the legs of the Grey-lag.] 


Tue BARNACLES— 
Are distinguished from ordinary Geese by a shorter and more slender bill, the edges of which conceal 
the extremities of the laminz, [though there is no drawing the line of separation, and the present 


division is generally rejected as superfluous. 


Two are common in Britain, and found on both sides of the Atlantic, each retiring very far north to breed, more 
particularly the second species. The Barnacle Goose (A. Jewcopsis); much smaller than any of the preceding, 
with a grey mantle, the feathers broadly edged with black, a black neck, and white visage: and the Brent Goose 
(A. bernicla), still less, and nearly all black above, with a white spot on each side of the middle of its neck. This 
bird is one of the finest for the table of the whole tribe. A third (A. swjicollis), common on the shores of the 
Caspian, and as far eastward as Lake Baikal, occurs as a rare occasional straggler, and has the smallest bill 
of any]. 

The Egyptian Goose, or Bargander, (dn. egyptiaca, Gm.), revered by the ancient Egyptians for the affection 
it evinces for its young, and remarkable for its display of colours, and for the small spur on the bend of its 
wing, also pertains to this subgenus: it is sometimes domesticated, but always retains a propensity to return 
to the wild state. [This species very properly constitutes the division Chenelopex, Swainson, and is a modifica- 
tion of the distinct Shieldrake group, all of which belong to the higher division of Geese, and not to the Ducks. 
There is a single inflated labyrinth at the bottom of its trachea, which, with its plumage, and the character of the 


down of the young, helps to intimate its real affinities*. | 


Tue Crreopsis (Cereopsis, Latham)— 
Is a New Holland bird, nearly related to the Barnacles, [so far as the beak alone would indicate,] but 
with a still smaller bill, the membrane of which is much broader, and extends a little upon the forehead. 
[This species seldom, if ever, enters the water, and has long legs, which are bare above the joint. ] 


We only know one, the Grey Cereopsis (C. cinereus, Latham), of a grey colour, with black spots, and as large as 
a tame Goose. [It breeds freely in this country, and possesses a tracheal labyrinth]. 


Tue Ducks, properly so called, (4nas, Meyer),— . 
Have the bill broader than high at its base, and wider at the end than towards the head; the nostrils 


also more approximated towards its back and base. The shortness and backward position of their legs 


render their gait upon land more difficult than in the Geese; and they have also a shorter neck, and 
their trachea is inflated at its bifureation into cartilaginous labyrinths, of which the left is generally the 
larger. [They subsist to a greater or less extent on animal diet, and the sexes are always different in 
colouring, the charge of the young being entirely left to the female, and the male approximating to the 
female colouring immediately after the breeding season. ] 

The species of the first division, or those in which the hind toe is bordered by a membrane, have a 
larger head, a shorter neck, the feet placed further backward, smaller wings, a more rigid tail, the tarsi 
more compressed, and the toes longer, with more complete webs. They walk with more difficulty, and 


live almost exclusively on animal food, diving very often. [The plumage is generally moulted once 


* The 4. Magellanica and antarctica, also, referred by the Author | figured by M. Eyton. The truth is, that these trivial modifications of 
to his division of Barnacles, likewise appertain to the Shieidrake the bill are of subordinate value, in the present extensive series. | 
--Kb. 


group, as shown by their anatomy: their tracheal labyrinths are 


a nS ee 
Ciesla eee Oe el anaemia 5 


264 AVES. 


ouly in the year, the change of colour of the males, about midsummer, taking place without a renewal 
of the feathers.] Among them we may distinguish 


Tue Scorers (Oidemia, Fleming)— 
By the breadth and inflation of the bill. [Their plumage is chiefly deep black, and they are found 
almost exclusively in salt water, where they prey mostly on Testacea. Feet particularly large. 

Two species are not uncommon in the British seas—the Common or Black Scoter (Anas nigra, Lin.), entirely 
black, with an orange protuberance at the base of the bill, and orange-coloured legs; which is the most abundant, 
and has swollen bronchi; and the Velvet Scoter (4. fusca, Lin.), which is larger, with pink feet and black mem- 
branes, a white band on the wing, and spot of the same at each eye, its trachea having a sudden box-like enlarge- 
ment about the middle. A third, allied to the last, the Surf Scoter (4. perspiciliata, Lin.), occasionally strays 
from America, and is distinguished by the triangular patches of white on the crown and occiput: females of all 
dusky. 

The author adds certain species to this genus, with stiff and pointed tail-feathers, forming the Oxyura, Bonap. ; 
as the A. leucocephala, Pallas; and A. lobata, Shaw; which latter, a New Holland kind, is remarkable fora 
large fleshy appendage hanging under the bill. The A. rubida of Wilson is referable to the same natural 
division. ] 

Tue Garrots (Clangula, Leach)— 
Have a shorter bill, which is narrower in front: and at their head we place a species with the middle 
tail-feathers very long, which renders the tail pointed. [This bird, forming the division Harelda of 
Leach, is quite distinct from the others, and moults twice in the year.] 


The Long-tailed Hareld (An. glacialis, Lin.),—White, with a fulvous spot on the cheek and side of the neck, the 
breast, back, tail, and point of the wing, black: [scapularies broadly edged with rufous-brown in summer, con- 
siderably longer and pure white in winter, when they hang over the wing, as in the Eiders.] Its trachea, ossified 
towards the base, has on one side four square menibranous facets, above which it is inflated into a bony labyrinth. 
[A very active and noisy marine species, not rare off the coast of Scotland in winter, flying in small flocks. 
Further north, it becomes exceedingly numerous. } 

The Harlequin Garrot (An. histrionica, Lin.).—Ash-coloured, the male fantastically streaked with white; eye- 
brows and flanks rufous. [Also chiefly a marine species, not very closely allied to the remainder. 

The rest have a very large head, or which appears, rather, to be so from the fulness of the plumage, and are 
remarkable for their sexual disparity of size. They are chiefly found in fresh water, and prefer to breed in the 
hollows ot trees, as severally observed by Linneus, Hewitson, and Audubon. One is a common winter visitant in 
Britain]. 

The Golden-eyed Garrot (An. clangula, Lin.).—White, with a black head, back, and tail, a round white spot before 
each eye, and two white bands on the wing; female ashy, with rufous head: the middle of the trachea is very 
much enlarged, but preserves its flexibility, and it again becomes singularly widened towards its divarication. 
[The little Buffel-headed Garrot (An. albeola, Lin.), common in North America, is nearly allied]. 


Tue Erpers (Somateria, Leach)— 
Have a longer bill than the Garrots, ascending higher upon the forehead, where it is cut into by an 
angle of the feathers; but which is still narrower towards the tip. [These birds are more particularly 


allied to the Scoters, with which they accord in their exclusively marine habits and food. 

There are two species, both with long white scapularies, hanging laterally over the wing, and black and white 
plumage in the adult male. The Common Eider (An. mollissima, Lin.), with a singular green stain on each side 
of the neck ; and the King Eider (A. spectabilis), remarkable for a huge protuberance over the base of its upper 
mandible. Both yield the celebrated Eider down of commerce]. 


After these separations, there still remain 


Tue Pocuarps (Fuligula, Leach),— 
The beak of which is wide and flat, but offers no other marked distinguishing character. We possess 
several species, in all of which the trachea terminates by nearly similar labyrinths, forming a capsule 
to the left, in part membranous, supported by a framework and ramifications of bone. 

[Three are very common in Britain,—the Scaup Pochard (An. marila, Lin.), grey, with leaden-coloured bill, and 
green-black head and neck, which is chiefly found in salt water; the Red-headed Pochard (A. fevina, Lin.), ash- 
coloured, with rufous head and neck, and black breast, nearly allied to which, but larger, is the celebrated Ame- 
rican Canyass-back (A. valisneria, Wilson); and the Tufted Pochard (4. fudigula, Lin.; F. cristata, Auct.), 
purple-black, with pendent occipital crest, and white flanks and belly. A fourth, the White-eyed Pochard 
(A. nyroca, Gin.), is not common, and is distinguished by its maronne head and neck, the latter encircled with a 
black collar, and a white spot on the chin. A fifth, the Red-crested Pochard (A. rujina, Lin.), is larger than any 
of the foregoing (except the American), with elongated, bright ferrugineous, coronal feathers, and the rest mostly 
dark: this bird belongs properly to Asia, and is only known as a straggler so far west. Lastly, the Pied Pochard 
(An, Stelleri and dispar), with plumage not unlike that of an Eider, another native of eastern Asia, has likewise 


PALMIPEDES. 265 


been killed here. Most of these birds are very fine eating, the Scaup least so, and feed (excepting that srecies) 
principally on vegetable diet. Their ceca are larger than in nearly all of the foregoing. ] 


The Ducks of our second division, wherein the back toe is not bordered by a membrane, have a 
more slender head, the feet less broad, the neck not so long, the bill more even, the body not so thick : 
they walk better, and feed on aquatic plants and seeds, as wellas 
on animal diet, [as indeed do also the preceding, though generally 
to a less extent]. It appears that their tracheal labyrinths con- 
sist of a homogeneous bony and cartilaginous substance, [which 
forms a simple vesicle. They all moult twice in the year, the 
males attaining, by actual change of feather about midsummer, a 
garb more or less similar to that of the females. They have a con- 
siderable dilatation of the cesophagus, and large cceca]. 

These likewise admit of some subdivisions, [though considerably 
less strongly marked than the foregoing]; and firstly, we may 
distinguish that of 


THe SHOVELLERS (Rhyncaspis, Leach) ,— 
The long beak of which is remarkable for its upper mandible 
forming a perfect half-cylinder, widened at the end. The lamallze 
are so long and delicate that they resemble ciliz. These birds feed 
on small worms, which they obtain from the mud at the edge of 
brooks, [and are merely true Ducks with the bill a little modified]. 

The Common Shoveller (An. clypeata, Lin.), is a very beautiful Duck, with green head and neck, white breast, 
rufous flanks, brown back, and wings varied with white, ash-grey, green, brown, &c., which visits us [principally] 
in the spring. Its flesh is excellent, and tracheal labyrinth small, [the intestines remarkably narrow and elongated]. 
It is the Chenerotes of Pliny. 

An Australian species (An. fasciata, Shaw), is remarkable for the edge of its beak being prolonged on each side 
into a hanging membranous flap. [The Shovellers grade into the ordinary Ducks by a succession of species, allied 
to the British Gargany Duck, which latter retains much of the same character of plumage and colouring. | 


Fig. 131.—Sternum of Teal. 


THE SHreLtpRAKEs (Zadorna, Leach)— 

Have the bill very much flattened towards the end, with a projecting boss at the base. [These birds 
are the most duck-like representatives of an extensive group, found chiefly in the southern hemisphere, 
and intermediate in their general characters to the present group of Ducks with unlobated hind-toe, 
and the Geese, but exhibiting none of the essential characters of the former. Like the Ducks, they have 
always a brilliant speculum of metallic colouring on the wing, and an inflated vesicle, in some single, 
towards the divarication of the bronchi: but they are exclusively vegetable feeders; the male guards 
the nest, and protects his brood, uttering with outstretched neck a hissing sound at any intruder; 
their plumage is moulted but once a year, and undergoes no seasonal change of colour, being generally 
alike in both sexes, or, when different, the male is white, as in certain Geese ; and lastly, they have a 
gait very different from that of the Ducks, all of them standing high upon the legs, and their young 
are at first pied, unlike those of other Lamellirostres. In all that we have examined, the intestines are 
particularly long and slender. Their subdivision is not easy ; and the common Shieldrake and Egyptian 
Goose, or Bargander, may be cited as characteristic examples: the wings of most are very similar. 

The Common Shieldrake (An. tadorna, Lin. ; T. vulpanser, Auct.).—White, with a green head and neck, a cin- 
namon-brown cincture round the breast, and black streak down the belly; the wing variegated with black, white, 
rufous, and green. Common on the shores of the North Sea and of the Baltic, where it nestles in the downs, 
generally in deserted Rabbit burrows, [and not rare on the British coasts, subsisting on fuci]. The trachea 
swells into two nearly similar osseous capsules at its divarication. 

{Another, of eastern Europe and Asia, the Ruddy Shieldrake (7. w¢i/a), has been known to stray westward as 


far as Britain. It has more the characters of a Goose, and chiefly inhabits the banks of large rivers. Wing like 
the common species, the rest of its plumage chestnut-rufous, whitish on the head and neck. ] 

Some Ducks of this second division have naked parts on the head, and often likewise a boss at the 
base of the beak; as, 

The Musk Duck (A. moschata, Lin.).—Originally from America, where it is still found wild, and is observed to 
perch upon trees ; it is now very common in our poultry-yards, where it is reared on account of its size. It readily 
hybridizes with the common species, [producing infertile hybrids]. Its capsule is very large, circular, vertically 
flattened, and on the right side only. [Its legs are very short, both sexes are alike in plumage, the male guards 
the nest and brood, and we consider it to be an extreme modification of the group of Shieldrakes.] 


266 AVES. 


Some have the tail pointed. 

The Pintail Duck (A. acuéa).—[A common winter visitant in Britain, highly esteemed for the table; the male 
with a white mark down each side of the neck, meeting behind. It forms, with another, the needless division 
Dayjila of Leach.] 

In others, the middle tail-feathers are more or less curled upwards ; as, 

The Common or Mallard Duck (A. boschas, Lin.); known by its orange feet, greenish-yellow bill, the fine 
changeable green of its neck, separated from the dark maronne colour of its breast by a white ring, &c. In our 
poultry-yards, it varies like other domestic animals. The wild bird, common in our marshes, nestles among the 
rushes, in old trunks of willows, and sometimes upon trees. Its trachea terminates below with a great osseous 
capsule. 

Some of them have a crested head, and a bill rather narrower anteriorly, and which, though foreign, 
are now raised in all our aviaries. [They have smaller feet, perch readily on trees, and surpass all 
the rest of the tribe in the splendour of their colours. They constitute the Dendronessa, Swainson]. 

Such is the Mandarin Duck (A. galericulata) of China, and the Summer Duck (A. sponsa) of North America. 
Their capsules are rounded, and of moderate size. 

Other exotic species conjoin to the bill of the Ducks, legs which are even longer than those of the 


Geese: they perch and nestle upon trees. 

[These are the long-legged Whistling Ducks of the West Indies, which pertain to the major division of Shiel- 
drakes, and form the subgenus Dendrocygnus.] One of the number has even semipalmated toes. 

Lastly, among those which have no particular characteristic, the following visit our shores during 
the winter. 

The Gadwall Duck (4. strepera, Lin.), mostly of a lineated grey colour, with some rufous on the wings; the 
Widgeon (A. penelope, Lin.) ; grey, with a yinaceous breast, and rufous head and neck, the forehead and along 
the top of the head yellowish-white ; the Teal (4. crecca), with a rufous head, marked with green on each side, 
and a spotted breast; and the Gargany (A. querquerdula and circia), with a white stripe behind the eye. [In 
addition to these, two stragglers have been found in Britain, the Bimaculated Duck, (4. giocitans,) from Asia, 
allied to the Teal, but larger, with a brown head, having two large glossy green spots on each side; and the 
American Widgeon, with a Teal-like green stripe on the sides of the head (a trace of which is sometimes met with 
in the common Widgeon), no rufous on the head, a narrower bill, and smaller tracheal capsule. In all these the 
females have lineated brown plumage, which is characteristic of the true double-moulting Ducks with unlobated 
hind-toe, and the males are finely rayed across. The hubits of all are nearly similar to those of the common 
species. ] . 

The genus of 
Tue Mercansers (Mergus, Lin.) — 

con species, the bill of which, much more slender and cylindrical than in any of the foregoing, 

has each mandible armed throughout its length with small pointed teeth 
like those of a saw, directed backwards, [and which are merely modifica- 
tions of the ordinary lamellw]; the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. 
Their port and even their plumage are the same as in the Ducks, properly 
so called; but their gizzard is less muscular, and the intestines and ceca 
are shorter, [though less so than in the Scoters and Eiders. They have a 
lobated hind-toe, and the plumage is moulted in autumn only, the colours 
of the male undergoing an extraordinary amount of change towards mid- 
summer. They do not acquire their adult dress until the second general 
W; renewal of the feathers]. The labyrinth at the inferior larynx of the 
4 males is enormous, and in part membranous [resembling that of the other 
Ducks with lobated hind-toe] ; and they live on lakes and ponds, where 
they are very destructive to fish, breeding in similar situations to the 


common Duck. 


(Of five species, four are met with in the British Isles, three of them commonly 
during the winter. All are beautiful birds, at least the males in breeding dress. 
They are—the Great Merganser (M. merganser and castor), as large as a Shieldrake, 
with green head and neck, and short bushy crest, the body white, more or less 
deeply suffused with saffron, with a blackish mantle, coral bill, and orange legs, 
—the male; and female rufous-brown, white beneath, with a slender and much 
longer crest ; which retires further north to breed: the Bay-breasted M. (MM. ser- 
rator), size of a Mallard, with a rufous brown breast, spotted with blackish, a green- 
black head and neck, surmounted with along thin crest, white ring round the 
neck, and elegant bordered shoulder-tufts ; female very like the last; which breeds on our northern lakes: and 


Fig. 132.—Sternum of Merganser. 


REPTILIA. 267 


the Hooded M. (I. cucullatus), an American species, rare on this side of the Atlantic, the size of a Widgeon, 
with a very large fan-like crest, white bordered with black. These have two cceca of moderate length, and the 
trachea of the first presents two successive inflations in its course, which are about equal, the same expansions 
being also visible in the second species, wherein the higher is however increased, and the lower one diminished, 
in addition to the labyrinth at the inferior larynx. To this first group would seem also to belong the M. brazili- 
ensis, which is peculiar to South America. 

Finally, the Smew Merganser (MJ. aibellus) is very remarkable for possessing only one minute ccecum, resem- 
bling that of a Heron. It is an extremely beautiful bird, proper to the eastern Continent, and not rare in Britain 
during the winter, the male of which is bright glistening white, variegated with black markings, and the female 
like that of the others, except that the adult has a black patch before each eye. It retires far north to breed. 

The great division of web-footed birds might be naturally arranged imto five principal 
groups, continuatory with those indicated at the close of the series of Waders: viz.— 

XI. Natarores (Swimmers); includimg the Flamingo, but corresponding otherwise to 
the Lamellirostres of Cuvier. 

XII. Mercirores (Immergers); restricted to the two distinct families of Loons and 
Grebes. 

XIII. Piscatrores (Fishers); or the Totipalmati, which are all exclusively piscivorous. 

XIV. Vacarores (Wanderers) ; or the Longipennes; containing the two perfectly distinct 
groups of the Terns, Gulls, and Skuas, and of the Albatrosses and Petrels. 

XV. Urinatores (Divers); more properly so designated ; and composed of the separate 


families of Auks and Penguins. 


THE THIRD CLASS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 


REPTILIA. 


These have the heart so constructed that at each contraction a portion only of the 
blood received from the various parts of the system is sent into the lungs, the remainder 
of this fluid returning into the general circulation without having passed through the 
lungs, and consequently without having been subjected there to respiration. 

Hence, it results that the action of oxygen upon the biood is less than in the 
Mammalia, and that, if the amount of respiration of the latter, wherein the whole of 
the blood is obliged to pass through the lungs before returning into the system, be 
expressed as unity, the quantum of respiration of Reptiles should be expressed as a 
fraction of unity proportionately small, as the quantity of blood propelled into the 
lungs, at each contraction of the heart, is diminished. 

As respiration imparts the warmth to the blood, and the susceptibility of the fibre 
to nervous irritamen, Reptiles have cold blood, and their aggregate muscular energy 
is less than in the Mammalia, and much less than in Birds. Hence, their movements 
can scarcely be performed otherwise than by crawling or swimming: and though 
several of them leap and run with celerity on certain occasions, their habits are gene- 
rally sluggish, their digestion excessively slow, their sensations obtuse, and, in cold or 
temperate climates, they pass nearly the whole winter in a state of lethargy. Their 
proportionally very diminutive brain is less necessary than in the two preceding 
classes for the exercise of their animal and vital functions; their sensations seem to be 
less referrible to a common centre; they continue to live and to execute voluntary 
movements, for a very considerable while after having been deprived of the brain, and 
even when the head is severed. The connexion with the [main trunks of the] 
nervous system is also much less necessary for the contraction of the muscular fibre ; 


268 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS 


and their flesh preserves its irritability much longer, after having been separated from 
the rest of the body, than is the case with the preceding classes. Their heart pulsates 
for many hours after it has been detached, and its loss does not deprive the body of 
mobility for a still longer period. It has been remarked of some which have the 
cerebellum extremely diminutive, that this circumstance has some reference to their 
disinclination to move. 

The smallness of the pulmonary vessels enables Reptiles to suspend their respiration 
without arresting the course of the blood, and thus to remain submerged with less 
difficulty, and for a longer time, than Mammalia or Birds. The cells of their lungs 
are not so numerous, as they contain fewer vessels within their precincts, and they are 
also much larger, these organs having sometimes the form of simple sacs, merely a 
little cellular. 

For the rest, Reptiles are provided with a trachea and larynx, although they have 
not all the power of emitting an audible voice. 

Their blood not being warm, they consequently do not require teguments capable 
of retaining heat; and they are accordingly covered with scales, or simply with a 
naked skin. 

The females have a double ovary and two oviducts, and the males of several genera 
have a forked or double penis, but in the last order (that of the Batrachians), they 
have [mostly] none at all. 

No Reptile incubates its eggs. In several genera of Batrachians, these are not 
fecundated until after they have been excluded; they have merely a membranous 
envelope. The young of this last order have, on quitting the egg, the form and gills 
of Fishes ; and certain genera retain these organs even after the developement of their 
lungs. In other Reptiles which produce eggs, the Snake, for example, the young is 
already formed and considerably advanced within the egg ut the time the parent 
deposits it; and there are even some species which may be rendered viviparous at will, 
by retarding the deposition of their eggs, as M. Geoffroy exemplified by depriving 
the common Snake of water. 

The amount of respiration in this class is not fixed, as in the Mammalia and Birds ; 
but it varies according to the relative proportion of the diameter of the pulmonary 
artery, as compared with that of the aorta. Thus, Tortoises and Lizards respire much 
more than Frogs, &c. [though the latter, it should be observed, respire in part over the 
whole damp skin, as conclusively ascertained by the experiments of Dr. Milne 
Edwards]. Hence, the differences of energy and sensibility are very much greater than 
those between one Mammalian and another, or one Bird and another. 

Reptiles also present more varied forms, characters, and modes of gait, than the 
two preceding classes; and it is in their production more especially, that Nature 
seems to have tried to imagine grotesque forms, and to have modified in every possible 
way the general plan adopted for all vertebrated animals, and for the oviparous classes 
in particular. 

A comparison of the extent of their respiration with their organs of movement has 
led M. Brongniart to divide them into four orders, which are as follow :— 

The Cuerontans (or Turtles and Tortoises), which have a heart with two auricles, 
and the body of which, supported by four limbs, is enveloped by two plates or buck- 
lers formed of the ribs and sternum. 


CHELONIA. 269 


The Savrtans (or Lizards), which have a heart with two auricles, and the body of 
which, borne on four or two feet, is covered with scales. 

The Oruiprans (or Serpents), having a heart with two auricles, and the body of 
which is always deprived of feet. And 

The Barracurans, the heart of which has only one auricle; [Prof. Owen has 
shown that these also possess two] ; and which have a naked body, that in the greater 
number passes, with age, from the form of a Fish respiring by gills, to that of a 
Quadruped breathing by lungs. Some of them, however, never cast their gills; and 
there are certain species which have only two feet. 

Other authors, as Merrem, have made a different partition of the Saurians and 
Ophidians. They detach the Crocodiles to form an order [Loricata] by themselves, 
and place the rest of the Saurians with the first family of Ophidians (or that of the 
Orvets), which mode of distribution is founded on certain peculiarities of the organiza- 
tion of the Crocodiles, and upon a certain affinity of the Orvets for the Lizards. We 
have deemed it sufficient to indicate these affinities, which are nearly all internal, 
adopting, nevertheless, a division of more easy application. [In consequence, how- 
ever, of rejecting this obvious natural arrangement, the Ophidians and Saurians of 
our author grade into each other; whereas the more intrinsical characters remain 
inviolate, and indicate three natural groups of Loricata, Saurophidia, and Ophidia.] 


THE FIRST ORDER OF REPTILES,— 


CHELONIA,— 


Better known by the appellation of Tortoises [Testudinata], have a heart with two auricles, 
and a ventricle with two unequal chambers, which communicate together. The blood from 
the body enters the right auricle, and that from the lung the left; but the two streams mingle 
more or less in passing through the ventricle. 

These animals are distinguished, at the first glance, by the double buckler in which their 
body is inclosed, and which only allows the head and neck, the tail, and the four limbs, to be 
protruded. 

The upper buckler, termed the carapace or shield, is formed by the ribs, in number eight 
pairs, which are widened and joined together, and also to the plates adhering to the annular 
portion of the dorsal vertebra, by dentelated sutures, so that the whole is completely deprived of 
mobility. The inferior buckler, named the plastron or breast-plate, is formed of pieces which 
represent the sternum, and which are ordinarily nine in number. A frame-work composed of 
bony pieces, which are believed to have some analogy to the sternal or cartilaginous portion 
of ribs, and which in one subgenus even remains cartilaginous, surrounds the carapace, and 
unites all the ribs which compose it. The cervical and caudal vertebra are alone moveable. 

These two bony envelopes are immediately covered by the skin, or by scales; the scapula, 
and all the muscles of the arm and neck, mstead of being attached to the ribs and spine, as 
in other animals, are all underneath, as are also even the bones of the pelvis and all the muscles of 
the thigh; sothat, im this respect, a Tortoise may be regarded as an animal turned inside-out. 

The vertebral extremity of the blade-bone is articulated to the carapace; and its opposite 
extremity, which may be considered as analogous to a clavicle, is articulated to the breast- 
plate ; so that the two shoulders form a ring, through which pass the cesophagus and trachea. 


270 REPTILIA. 


A third bony ramification, larger than the two others, and directed backwards and down- 
wards, represents, as in Birds, the coracoid apophysis ; but its extremity remains free. 

The lungs are much extended, and situate in the same cavity with the other viscera. The 
thorax being in the greater number immoveable, it is by the action of the mouth that the 
Tortoise breathes, by holding its jaws firmly closed, and alternately depressing and raising 
the hyoid bone: the first of these movements permits the air to enter by the nostrils; when, 
the tongue immediately closing their internal aperture, this second operation forces the air 
into the lungs. The same mechanism occurs in the Patrachians. 

Tortoises have no teeth; but their jaws are invested with horn like those of Birds, except 
in the Chelydes, in which they are merely covered with skin. Their ear-drum and palatal 
arches are fixed to the skull, and immoveable; their tongue is short, and beset with fleshy 
papille ; their stomach simple and strong; their intestines of mean length, and without a 
ccecum; and they have a very large fader The male has a simple penis of considerable 
size; and the female produces eggs covered with a hard shell. The male may often be 
recognized externally, by the concave form of the breast-plate. 

These animals are very retentive of life, and will continue to move for many weeks after 
having been deprived of the head. They require very little nourishment, and can pass whole 
months and even years without eating. Linnzeus united them all in the genus of 


Tue Torroises (Testudo, Lin.),— 
Which have been dividee into five subgenera, principally after the form and teguments of their 


carapaces and feet. 
Tur LANnpD-Tortotrsgs (Testudo, Brongniart)— 


Have a bulged carapace, sustained by a bony skeleton wholly solid, and anchylosed for the greater 
part to the lateral edges of the breast-plate; their legs are truncated, with very short toes connected 
almost to the nails, and are capable, together with the head, of being completely withdrawn into the 
armour; the fore-feet have five nails, and the hinder four, all thick and conical. Several species 


subsist on vegetabie matter. 

The Greek Tortoise (T. gr@ca, Lin.), is that which is commonest in Europe. It inhabits Greece, Italy, Sardinia, 
and (it would appear) al! round the Mediterranean ; is rarely a foot long; feeds on leaves, fruit, insects and 
worms ; and burrows a hole in which it passes the winter: it engenders in spring, and lays four or five eggs 
resembling those of Pigeons. 

Among the foreign species, there are several in the East Indies of enormous size, measuring three feet and 
upwards in length. One is more particularly known as the Indian Tortoise (7. indica, Vosm.), of a deep brown 
colour, with the carapace compressed in front, and its anterior border reverted above the head. Others are 
remarkable for the pleasing distribution of their colours, as the Geometrical T. (T. geometrica, Lin.), a small 
species with a black carapace, each scale of which is regularly adorned with yellow lines radiating from a disk of 
the same colour. A nearly similar but much larger kind (7. radiata) inhabits New Holland. 

Some species (the Pyaxis, Bell), have the anterior portion of the mouth moveable, as in the Terrapins ; and 
others (the Kinixys of the same naturalist) can move the hinder part of their carapace, but we have some reason 
to suspect that this latter conformation is merely accidental. 

Tue Emynes, or Freshwater Tortoises (Emys, Brongniart)— 
Have no other constant characters to distinguish them from the preceding, beyond the further sepa- 
ration of their toes, which are also terminated by longer nails, and the intervals between them are 
occupied by membranes, though they grade even in this particular. They also possess five nails hefore 
and four behind. The structure of their feet adapts them to more aquatic habits. The greater 
number live on insects, small fish, &c. ; and their envelope is generally flatter than in the Land-tortoises. 

That of Europe (7. europea, Schn.; T. orbicularis, Lin.), is the most widely diffused, and inhabits all the south 
and east of Europe as far as Prussia. It attains a length of ten inches, and its flesh is eaten, with a view to which 
it is fed upon bread and tender herbage; but it also subsists on insects, slugs, small fish, &c. Marsigni states 
that its eggs require a year to hatch. The Painted Emyde (T. picta, Scheff.) is one of the prettiest species, brown, 
with each scale encircled with a yellow riband, more wide in front. It is found in North America among the 
reeds, upon the rocks, or on the trunks of trees, from which it falls into the water on being approached. There 
are very many others. 

M. Fitzinger separates, under the name of Chelodina, and Mr. Bell under that of Hydraspis, those species which 
have an elongated neck, as Em. longicollis, Shaw, &c. 


Among the Fresh-water Tortoises may be noticed more particularly, 


CHELONIA. 271 


Toe Terrapins, or Box-Tortoises, (Terrapene, Merrem; Kinosternon, Spix; Cistuda, Fleming),— 
The breast-plate of which is divided into two pieces by a moveable articulation, and which have the 
power of completely closing their carapace when the head and limbs are withdrawn into it. 


Some have only the anterior segment of the breast-plate moveable, as 7’. subnigra, Lin., and T. clausa, Scheff. ; 
while in others both segments are equally mobile, as T. tricarinata, Scheff., and T. pennsylvanica, Id. 


There are some Fresh-water Tortoises, 


Tue Cueryprons (Chelydra, Fitzinger ; Chelonura, Flemmg),— 
Which have a long tail and great limbs, that cannot be quite withdrawn within their armour. They 
approximate to some of the following genera, and more particularly to the Chelydes, and should rank 
as a particular subdivision. 

Such is the Long-tailed Tortoise (7. serpentina, Lin.), which is known by having its tail almost as long as the 
carapace, and beset with dentelated and pointed crests, and pyramidal scales. It inhabits the warm regions of 
North America, is very destructive to fish and water-fowl, ascends far up the rivers, and sometimes attains a 
weight of twenty pounds. 

Tue Turtes (Chelonia, Brongniart ; Caretta, Merrem)— 
Have their envelope too small to receive the head, and more especially the feet, which latter are 
extremely elongated, (particularly those in front,) flattened to serve as oars, and have all their toes 
closely united, and enveloped in the same membrane. The two first toes alone of each foot 
are furnished with pointed nails, and even these are apt to fall, one or the other of them, at a certain 
age. The pieces which compose their plastron do not form a continuous plate, but are variously 
dentelated, and leave great intervals, which are occupied only by cartilage. Their ribs are narrowed, 
and separate one from another at their external portion, but the entire circumference of the cara- 
pace is occupied by a circle of pieces corresponding to sternal ribs. The temporal fossa is covered 
over by an arch formed of the parietals and other bones, in such a manner that the whole head is 
guarded by a continuous bony casque. The esophagus is internally armed throughout with carti- 


laginous points, and sharp tubercles directed towards the stomach. 

The Edible or Green Turtle (7. midas, Lin.) is distinguished by its greenish scales, to the number of thirty, 
which do not cover each other in the manner of tiles, and the medial of which are ranged in almost regular hexa- 
gons. It attains a length of six or seven feet, and a weight of seven or eight hundred pounds. Its flesh supplies 
an agreeable viand, very wholesome to mariners traversing the torrid zone. It feeds in great troops upon the 
alge in the depths of the ocean, and approaches the mouths of rivers to respire. Its eggs, which are deposited in 
the sand where the sun may warm them, are very numerous, and fine eating; but its shell is not employed in 
manufactures. 

A neighbouring species (Ch. maculosa, Nobis,) has the middle plates twice as long as wide, and of a fulyous 
colour, marked with great black spots; and another (Ch. lachrymata, Nobis,) has plates as in the preceding one, 
but raised into a boss posteriorly, and black splashes upon the fulyous. The scales of both these are useful in 
manufactures. 

The Imbricated Turtle (7. imbricata), which is less than the green one, with a more lengthened muzzle and 
dentelated jaws,fand bearing thirteen yellowish and brown scales, which cover each other in the manner of tiles, 
furnishes the best tortoise-shell employed in the arts; but its flesh is disagreeable and unwholesome, though the 
eggs are very delicate. It inhabits the seas of hot climates. 

There are yet two species allied to the Imbricated Turtle, the Ch. virgata, Nobis, the scales of which are more 
raised, and the medial equal, but with more pointed lateral angles, and radiating black lines; and Ch. radiata, 
Scheeff., which merely differs from the last by having the hindmost of its middle scales wider, being perhaps a 
mere variety. 

Finally, the Hawk-billed Turtle (7. cavetta, Gm.) is more or less brown or rufous, with fifteen scales, the medial 
of which have raised crests, more particularly towards the extremity; the point of the upper mandible is crooked, 
and the fore-feet longer and narrower than in the others, preserving also better-marked nails. It inhabits 
Several seas, and even the Mediterranean, subsists on Testacea, has bad flesh, and shell which is in low estima- 
tion, but it furnishes an oil that burns well. 


Merrem has recently distinguished, as 


Tue Leatuersacks (Sphargis, Ill.; Coriudo, Fleming ; Dermochelis, Lesueur),— 
Those species which have no scales, but the carapace of which is invested with a sort of leather. 
Such is a large species of the Mediterranean [which has occurred two or three times on the British shores] 
(T. cor.acia, Lin.), the carapace of which is oval, and pointed behind, with three prominent longitudinal ridges. 
There is another in the Atlantic (Dermochelis atlantica, Lefevre]. 


Tue Cuetypes (Chelys, Dumeril ; Matamata, Merrem)— 
Resemble the Emydes by their feet and nails; but their envelope is much too small to inclose the 


272 REPTILIA. 


head and feet, which are particularly large; their nose is prolonged into a little trunk; but the most 
strongly marked of their characters consists in having their widely-cleft mouth not armed with a 
horny beak, as in other Testudinata, but rather resembling that of certain Batrachians, which form 


the genus Pipa. 
The Matamata (7. fimbria, Gm.).—The carapace bristled with pyramidal eminences, and the body fringed all 


round with lamine, as if cut. An inhabitant of Guiana. 

Tue Sorr Tortorses (Trionyx, Geoff.)— 
Have no scales, but merely a soft skin enveloping both the carapace and plastron, neither of which 
is completely supported by bone, the ribs not reaching to the borders of the carapace, nor being 
united together for more than a portion of their length, the parts analogous to sternal ribs being 
replaced by a simple cartilage, and the sternal pieces being partly dentelated, as in the Turtles, and 
not covering the whole inferior surface. After death it is perceptible, through the dry skin, that the 
surface of the ribs is very jagged. The feet, as in the Emydes, are palmated without being lengthened, 
but only three of their toes are provided with nails. The horn of their beak is invested with fleshy 
lips outside, and their nose is prolonged into a small trunk. ‘The tail is short, and the orifice of the 
anus beneath its extremity. They inhabit fresh water, and the flexible borders of their envelope 


assist them in swimming. 

The Trionyx of the Nile (T. triunguis, Forsk and Gm.; T. egyptiacus, Geoff.) is sometimes three feet long, and 
of a green colour spotted with white; the carapace but slightly convex. It devours the young Crocodiles as soon 
as they are excluded, and thus renders more service to the Egyptians than even the Mangouste. 

The American Trionyx (7. ferov, Gm.) inhabits the rivers of Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Guiana; and lies 
in ambuscade at the roots of the weeds, seizing on birds, reptiles, &c., and devouring the young Alligators, 
while itself becomes the prey of the larger ones. Its flesh is good eating. There are several more. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF REPTILES,— 
SAURIA,— 


Have the heart composed, as in the Chelonia, of two auricles, and a ventricle sometimes 


divided by imperfect partitions. 

Their ribs are moveable, attached partly to the sternum, and can rise and fall for the 
purpose of respiration. 

- Their lung extends more or less towards the hinder part of the body, often penetrates con- 
siderably forward below, and the transverse muscles of the abdomen slide under the ribs so 
far as to entwine the neck. Those in which the lungs are most developed exercise the singular 
faculty of changing the colours of their skin, according ‘as they are influenced by their wants 
or by their passions. 

Their eggs have an envelope more or less indurated ; and the young issue from them with 
the form which they retain ever afterwards. 

The mouth is always armed with teeth; their toes, with very few exceptions, are furnished 
with nails ; the skin is covered with scales more or less serrated, or at least with little scaly 
granules ; and they engender with either a singleor double male organ, according to the genus. 

All have a tail more or less lengthened, and in nearly every instance very thick at the base: 
the greater number have four limbs, though some have only two. 

Linnzus arranged them into only two genera, the Dragons and the Lizards; but the latter 
requires to be divided into several, which differ in the number of feet, of intromittent organs, 
in the form of the tongue, of the tail, and of the scales, so that we are obliged to separate 
them even into families. 

The first of these, or that of the CrocoDILEs, comprises but one genus,— 


THE Crocopites (Crocodilus, Brongniart),— 
Animals of Jarge size, which have the tail flattened at its sides, five toes on the fore-limbs, and four on 


Rattle Snake 


ih 
lle 


Crocodile 


I a a 
1 


SAURIA. X73 


the hind, of which the three inward only of each foot are furnished with claws, all of them being more 
or less conaected by membrane; a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw; the tongue flat and 
fleshy, and attached very near to its edges, which led the ancients to believe that it was altogether 
wanting; the penis single; the anal orifice longitudinal; the back and tail covered with great square 
scales of exceeding strength, having an elevated ridge along their middle; and a deeply dentelated 
crest upon the tail, double at its base. The scales of the belly are also square, but smooth and 
narrow. The nostrils, opening at the tip of the muzzle by two small transverse fissures which close 
as valves, are continued by a long straight canal pierced in the palate bones and sphenoid, as far as 
the throat. 

The lower jaw is prolonged backward beyond the skull, which occasions the upper one to appear 
moveable, as the ancients asserted to be the case: the latter can only move, however, with the 
entire head. 

The external ear is closed at will by two fleshy lips; and the eye has three lids. Under the throat 
are two small holes, the orifices of glands, where a musky pommade is secreted. 

The vertebre of the neck are propped together by little false ribs, which render lateral movement 
difficult: hence these animals cannot readily change their course, and are easily avoided by turning. 
They are the only Saurians which have no clavicular bones; but their coracoid apophyses are attached 
to the sternum, as in all the others. Besides the ordinary true and false ribs, their abdomen is pro- 
tected by others, which do not ascend to the spine, and which appear to be produced by the ossifica- 
tion of the tendinous extremities of the straight muscles. 

Their lungs do not penetrate into the abdomen, as in other Reptiles; and the fleshy fibres adhering 
to the portion of peritoneum which invests the liver, impart the appearance of a diaphragm; cir- 
cumstances which, conjoined to the particular of their heart being divided into three chambers, 
wherein the blood that comes from the lungs does not mingle so completely with that of the body as 
in other Reptiles, ally these animals somewhat nearer to the warm-blooded quadrupeds. 

Their ear-drum and pterogoid apophyses are fixed to the skull, as in the Tortoises. 

Their eggs are hard, and the size of those of domestic Geese, whence the Crocodiles are reputed to 
be, of all animals, those which attain the greatest dimensions considering their size at birth. The 
females guard their eggs, and continue to protect the young for some months after exclusion. 

They inhabit fresh water, and are very carnivorous, but are unable to swallow under water; and 
their habit is to drown their prey, and then place it in some hole beneath the surface, where they 
leave it to putrefy before they devour it. 

They differ, indeed, so much from other Lizards, that several recent authors have deemed it neces- 
‘sary to make of them a particular order, termed Loricata by Merrem and Fitzinger, and Emydosaura 
by De Blainville. 

The species, more numerous than has hitherto been supposed, fall into three distinct subgenera. 


Tue Gaviats, Cuv.,— 
Have the muzzle slender, and very much elongated; the teeth about equal; the hind-feet dentelated at 
their external edge, and webbed to the ends of the toes; two great perforations in the bones of the 
skull behind the eyes, which may be discerned outside the skin. They have only been observed on 
the eastern continent. 


That of the Ganges (Lac. gangetica, Gm.), which attains a large size, is remarkable, not only for thelength of 
its muzzle, but for a large cartilaginous prominence surrounding the nostrils, which throws these backwards, and 
led lian to assert that the Gangetic Crocodile had a horn at the tip of its snout. 


Tue CrocopiLss, properly so called,— 
Have the muzzle oblong and flattened, the teeth unequal, but resemble the Gayials in other respects. 
Some of this form occur on both continents. 
Tue Caymans, or Alligators (Alligator, Cuv.)— 
Have a broad and obtuse muzzle, and uneven teeth, the fourth below entering into cavities of the 


upper jaw, and not the interstices of the upper teeth, as in the preceding; their feet are only semi- 
palmated, and undentelated; and the species are only known to inhabit America. 


274 REPTILIA. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE SAURIANS,— 


Tue Lizarps,— 
Is distinguished by its slender, extensible, and forked tongue, as in the Snakes; by its lengthened body 
and rapid gait; the feet have each five toes furnished with claws, which are separate and unequal, 
more particularly those behind; their scales, under the belly and around the tail, are disposed in 
parallel transverse bands ; their tympanum, which is on the upper part of the head, is membranous 
and shallow; a production of the skin, split longitudinally, and which closes by a sphincter, protects 
the eye, beneath the front angle of which is a vestige of a third eyelid; their false ribs do not form a 
complete circle ; the males have a double penis ; and the anus is a transverse aperture. 
The species are very numerous and much varied, and we subdivide them into two great genera. 


Tue Monirors (recently termed, by a singular mistake, Tupinambis),— 
Are the largest of the whole tribe; they have teeth in both jaws, but none on the palate, and the 
greater number have the tail laterally compressed, in adaptation to aquatic habits. Frequenting the 
vicinity of the haunts of Crocodiles and Alligators, it is said that they give warning, by a whistling 
sound, of the approach of those dangerous reptiles, and hence, probably, their names of Sauvegarde 
and Monitor, though this is not quite certain. 
They divide into two distinct groups. The first, or that of 


Tur Monitors, properly so called,— 
Are known by their numerous small scales upon the head and limbs, the belly, and around the tail, 
which latter has a keel above, composed of a double range of projecting scales. Their thighs do not 
exhibit that range of pores found in most other Saurians. All are from the ancient continent. 
Two species, in Egypt, have been considered the types of separate subdivisions; the Nilotic M. (Lae. nilotica, 
Lin.), of Varanus, and the Ground M. (ZL. scineus, Merrem), of Psammosaurus, both of Fitzinger. Africa and India 
produce many more, with sharper teeth and still more compressed tail. 


The other group of Monitors has angular plates upon the head, and great rectangular scales upon 
the belly and around the tail. The skin of their throat is invested with small scales, and forms two trans- 
verse folds. They have a range of pores on the inside of each thigh. Two subdivisions are required. 

The first, or that of ° 

Tue Draconets (Crocodilurus, Spix; dda, Gray),— 
Is distinguished by caudal crests, like those of the Crocodiles, formed of raised scales; their tail is 


compressed. Such is 
The Great D. of Guiana (M. crocodilinus), Merr.), which attains a length of six feet, andis eaten. There are 
various others in the hot regions of America. 


Tue Resrrictep Monitors (Monitor, Fitzinger),— 
Have no keeled scales either on the back or tail; their teeth are denticulated, but with age the hind- 


most become rounded. 

Some, more particularly termed Sauvegardes, have the tail more or less compressed, and the belly scales longer 
than broad; they frequent the borders of water. One, in Braziland Guiana, attains to six feet in length. It runs 
swiftly on the ground, and takes to the water when pursued, into which it plunges, but does not swim ; it devours 
all sorts of insects, reptiles, the eggs of poultry, &c., and nestles in holes which it burrows in the sand. Its flesh 
and eggs are eaten. 

Others, termed Ameva, merely differ in having a round tail, covered, as is also the belly, with transverse ranges 
of keeled scales, which on the belly are broader than long. They are American animals, which resemble our Lizards 
extremely, but, besides wanting molar teeth, the greater number have no collar, and all have minute scales on the 
throat; their head, also, is more pyramidal than in the Lizards, and they have no bony plate over the orbit. 


Tue Lizarps, properly so called,— 
Form the second great genus of this tribe. They have the back portion of the palate armed with two 
ranges of teeth, and are otherwise distinguished from the preceding animals by a collar round the 
neck, which is formed by a transverse range of broad scales, separated from those of the belly by a 
space covered with small ones like those of the throat, and also by a part of the bones of the skull 


yo 2dvancing over the temples and orbits, so that the whole head is defended by a bony casque. 


Z The species are yery numerous, and many are found in Europe [though two only in this country, L. agilis, which 
is comparatively rare, and L. vivipara, which, unlike the other, is ovoviviperous, as in the Vipers, and extremely 


SAURIA 275 


common upon heaths and sunny banks, One of a beautiful green colour, (L. viridis), is common over the south 
of Europe, and in the Channel Islands. ] 

The division Algyra, Cuy., has the dorsaland caudal scales carinated ; those of the belly imbricated and smooth» 
and no collar round the neck. 

Tachydromus, has square carinated scales upon the back, under the belly, and on the tail ; neither collar nor 
femoral pores ; but on each side of the anus is a small vesicle, opening by a pore. Their body and tail are very 
much elongated, and the tongue still longer than in the Lizards. 7 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE SAURIANS,— 


THe Iguana Grovup,— 
Have the general form, long tail, and few and unequal toes of the last series ; the eye, ear, double penis, 
and anus, also similar; but their tongue is thick, fleshy, and non-extensible, and is notched only at 
the tip. They fall into two sections; the first having no palatal teeth, in which the following genera 


are arranged. 
Tue STELLions (Séellio, Cuv.)—- 


Which, with the general characters of this family, have the tail encircled with rings of large scales, 


that are often spinous. The subgenera are as follow. 
Cordylus, Gronoy., which have not only the tail, but the belly and back covered with large scales, transversely 
arranged. Their head, as in the common Lizards, is protected by a bony casque, and covered with plates. In 
several species, the points of the caudal scales form spinous circles ; there are, also, little spines on those of the 
sides, the back, shoulders, and outside of the thighs. The latter have a line of large pores. 
Stellio, Daud.—Caudal spines middle-sized ; the head posteriorly swollen by the muscles of the jaws; the back 
and thighs bristled with scales larger than the others, and sometimes spinous; little groups of spines encircling 
the ear; no femoral pores, and the tongue lengthened to a point. But one species is known, which inhabits the 
Levantine countries, where it is persecuted by the Mahometans, who conceive that it mocks their actions when 
praying. : 
Doryphorus, Cuy.—No femoral pores, as in the last, but the trunk not bristled with groups of spines. 
Uromastix, Cuy., have merely the head not swollen, and all the body-scales small, uniform, and smooth, but 
those of the tail are still larger and more spinous than in restricted Ste/lio, though there are none underneath it. 
A series of pores beneath the thigh. 
Tue AcamaAs (dgama, Daud.)— 


Have a great resemblance for the restricted Stellions, especially in the bulging of the head; but their 
imbricated and not verticillated caudal scales distinguish them. The maxillary teeth are nearly the 


same, and there are none on the palate. In 
The Ordinary Agamas, the scales, raised into points or tubercles, are alike bristled on various parts of the body, 
and especially round the ear, into spines that are sometimes grouped, and sometimes isolated. Occasionally, there 
is a range round the neck, but they never form the crest which characterises the Galeotes. The skin of the throat 
is lax, folded across, and susceptible of inflation. Some only have femoral pores. 
The Tapays are merely Agamas, which, with a swollen beliy, have a short and slender tail. 
Trapelus, Cuy., have all the scales small and spineless, and no femoral pores. That of Egypt changes colour as 
readily as the Chameleon. 
Leiolepis, Cuy., has the head less swollen, and is wholly covered with small and smooth serrated scales. It has 
femoral pores. 
Tropidolepis, Cuv., is uniformly covered with square, imbricated scales, and has the series of femoral pores 
strongly marked. 
Leposoma, Spix., differs only from the last in the absence of the pores. 
The Galeotes, (Calotes, Cuv.), are regularly covered with imbricated scales, often square and pointed, over the 
whole body, limbs, and tail, which last is very long ; those of the middle of the back being more or less raised and 
compressed into spines, forming a crest of varying length. 
Lophyrus, Dumeril, have a compressed tail, and dorsal crest still higher than in the last, from which they differ 
in possessing femoral pores. 
Gonocephalus, Kaup., have also a sort of disc on the skull, formed by a crest which terminates by a dente- 
lation before each eye. They likewise have a throat-appendage and nuchal crest. The tympanum is visible. 
Lyriocephalus, Merrem, conjoin to the characters of Lophyrus that of having the tympanum couched under the 
skin and muscles, as in the Chameleons. They have also a dorsal crest and keeled tail. 
Brachylophus, Cuv., have small scales, a nuchal and dorsal crest but slightly projecting, a small throat-appen- 
dage, femoral pores, and general aspect of the Iguanas; but no palatal teeth, and those of the jaws denticulated. 
Physignathus, Cuy.—The head bulged. backwards, without any throat-appendage, and a crest of great pointed 
scales along the back and tail, which last is much compressed. 


Tue [strures (Istiurus, Cuv.; Lophura, Gm.)— 
Are characterized by a raised and trenchant crest, which extends over a part of the tail, and is sus- 
The 


276 REPTILIA. 


tained by long spinous vertebral apophyses ; this crest is scaly like the rest of the body ; the belly and 
caudal scales are small, and approach a little to a square form; the teeth are strong, compressed, and 
undenticulated, and are found only on the jaws; there are femoral pores, and the skin of the throat is 
lax, without forming an appendage. 
Tue Dragons (Draco, Lin.)— 

Are known at the first glance from all other Saurians, by their first six false ribs, instead of encircling 
the abdomen, being extended in a straight line, so as to support a production of the skin, which forms 
a sort of wing, and acts as a parachute when the animal leaps from bough to bough. They are small- 
sized reptiles, everywhere covered with minute imbricated scales, those of the tail and limbs being 
keeled. Their tongue is fleshy, but slightly notched and little extensible. Beneath the throat is a 
long pointed {inflatable} appendage, sustained by the hyoid bone, and laterally by two other small 
bones. The tail is long; the thighs have no pores; and there is a slight dentelation on the neck. 
Each jaw has four small incisors, flanked by a long and pointed canine, behind which are a dozen 
triangular and trilobate molars. 

They have, therefore, the scales and throat-appendage of the Iguanas, with the head and teeth of the Stellions. 
All the known species are from the East Indies. 


| Sitana, Cuv., differs in the non-prolongation of the ribs, and by having an enormous throat-appendage, which 
reaches to the middle of the belly, and is more than double the height of the animal. 


It is perhaps to this tribe of Agamas that we should approximate a most extraordinary fossil 
| reptile, the remains of which are imbedded in the Jura limestone,— 


| Tue Preropactry.us, Cuv. 

| It had a very short tail, a very long neck, and very large head; the jaws armed with even and 
pointed teeth ; but its principal character consisted in the excessive elongation of the second toe of its 
fore-feet,which extended twice the length of the trunk, and probably [undoubtedly] served to sustain some 
membrane by which the animal was enabled to fly, similar to that which the ribs of the Dragon support. 


The second section of the family of Iguanas, or that of the Iguanas proper, is distinguished 
from the preceding by the existence of palatal teeth. 


Tue Ieuanas, properly so called, (Iguana, Cuv.)— 

Have the body and tail covered with small imbricated scales; a range of spines along the back, or of 
raised, compressed, and pointed scales, and under the throat a compressed and pointed appendage, the 
edge of which is sustained by a cartilaginous production of the hyoid bone. The thighs have the same 
range of porous tubercles as in the Lizards proper, and their head is covered with plates; each jaw is 
surrounded by a range of triangular, compressed teeth, with denticulated edges; and there are also 
two little ranges at the back of the palate. 

A species common in all tropical America (Lac. iguana, Lin.), which grows to four or five feet in length, is 
esteemed very fine eating, though hurtful in syphilitic disorders. It lives chiefly upon trees, occasionally enters 


the water, and subsists on fruit, grain, and leaves. The female deposits eggs in the sand as large as those of a 
Pigeon, which are agreeable to the taste, and almost without white. Several others inhabit the same countries. 


Oruryessa, Boié. 
Small imbricated scales, a slightly projecting dorsal crest prolonged over the compressed tail, palatal 
teeth, and denticulated maxillary teeth which approximate it to the Iguanas, but no throat-appendage 


nor femoral pores. 
Tue Bastuisks (Basiliscus, Daud.) 


No femoral pores, but palatal teeth as in the last; the body covered with small scales; and a 
continuous elevated crest along the back and tail, which supports spinous vertebral apophyses as in 


the tail of Istiurus. 
Tue Marsters (Polychrus, Cuv.)— 


Have palatal teeth, and femoral pores, like the Iguanas, but which are inconspicuous: their body, 
however, clad with small scales, is not crested; the head is covered with plates; tail long and sharper- 
edged ; the throat extensile, forming an appendage at the will of the animal; and they change colour 
like the Chameleons, having a very voluminous lung, which fills nearly the whole body, and subdivides 
into numerous branches ; their false ribs also surround the abdomen, as in the Chameleons, and unite 
to form complete circles. 


SS ss NY 


SAURIA. Qi 


THE Ecpurimotes, Fitz. 
Teeth and pores of the preceding, but small scales on the body only ; those of the tail, which is thick, 
being large, pointed, and keeled; head plated; general form somewhat short and flattened, as in 
certain Agamis, rather than attenuated as in the Marblets. 


Op.urus, Cuv.,— 
Differs from the last in wanting femoral pores, with keeled and pointed caudal scales, which approximate 
this group to the Stellions ; the dorsal scales are also keeled and pointed, but very small. 


Tue Ano.is (Anolius, Cuy.)— 
To the general form of the Iguanas, and especially of the Marblets, conjoin a very peculiar distinctive 
character ; the skin of their toes widening under the antepenultimate phalanx into an oval disk, striated 
across underneath, so as to attach to different kinds of surfaces, over which they creep with much 
facility by means of their very crooked claws. The body and tail are uniformly roughened with 
minute scales, and the greater number have a goitre-like appendage under the throat, which inflates 
and changes colour with the passions of the animal, and during the season of copulation. Several of 
them at least equal the Chameleon in the facility with which they vary the colours of their skin. Their 
ribs unite beneath into complete circles, as in the Chameleons and the Marblets. Their teeth, as in 
the Iguanas and Marblets, are trenchant and denticulated, and they have the same range of them on 
the palate. The skin of the tail wrinkles into slight folds, each containing some circular ranges of scales. 


This genus appears to be peculiar to America. 
Some have a caudal crest sustained by spinous vertebral aphopyses, as in the Istiures and Basilisks ; while others 
have a round tail, or which is only 2 little compressed. 


It is to this family of Iguanians with palatal teeth, that the enormous fossil reptile of Maestricht ap- 
pertains, to which the term Mososaurus has been applied ; the Geosaurus of Soemmering, also, the Mega- 
losaurus of Buckland, and the /guanodon of Mantell, with certain others, all of immense size, appear to 
approximate this sanse family ; but their characters are not sufficiently known to class them with certainty. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE SAURIANS,— 


THE GECKOTIANS,— 


Consists of nocturnal species, so similar that they may be all left under a single generic head,— 


Tue Geckos, Daud. (Séellio, Schneider. ; Ascalabotes, Cuv.). 

These have not the attenuated form of the Lizards already treated of, but, on the contrary, are flat- 
tened; more particularly on the head, and have the feet of mean length, and the toes nearly equal; their 
gait is slow and stately ; their very large eyes, the pupil of which shrinks from the light, as in the Cats, 
indicate them to be nocturnal creatures, which pass the day in obscure places; their very short eyelids 
retreat altogether between the eye and orbit, which imparts a different physiognomy from that of other 
Saurians ; their fleshy tongue is not extensible; their tympanum a little deepened; their jaws are 
armed all round with one range of minute serrated teeth ; their palate toothless ; their skin is roughened 
above with ‘minute granular scales, among which are often some larger tubercles, and is covered on 
the under parts with somewhat less diminutive flat and imbricated scales. Some have femoral 
pores. The tail has circular folds, as in the Anolis; but, when it has been severed, it is reproduced 


without folds, and even without tubercles, which has led to a multiplication of the species. 

This genus is very numerous, and is diffused over the hot regions of both continents. Their tardy and sombre 
aspect imparts a certain resemblance to the Toads and Salamanders, and have hence caused them to be disliked, 
and accused of being venomous without any proof that they are so. 

The greater number have the tarsi widened throughout or in part, and marked underneath with very regular 
folds of the skin, which enable them to adhere to surfaces, so as to walk even on ceilings. Their claws are 
variously retractile, and preserve their sharp points ; which circumstance, in conjunction with their eyes, has led 
to their being compared to the Cats among mammiferous animals; these claws, however, vary in number 
according to the species, and in some are wanting altogether. 

The first and most numerous subdivision of the Geckos, which I name Platydactyles, have toes widened through- 
out their length with transverse scales underneath ; some have claws on all their toes, and very small thumbs. 
They are handsome animals, with bright colours, and are entirely covered with tubercles. The different known 
species inhabit the Mauritius. There are some with femoral pores, and others without, and among the latter rome 
with fewer or no claws. 


273 REPTILIA. 


A second subdivision is formed of the Hemidactyles, which have an oval disk at the base of their toes, formed 
by a double range of chevron scales underneath; the middle of this disk elevates the second phalanx, which is 
slender, and bears the third, with its claw, at the extremity. The known species have all five claws, and the range 
of pores on either side of the anus; the scales underneath the tail form broad bands, as in the true Serpents. 

A third subdivision, which I style Thecadactyles, have toes widened throughout their length, and furnished 
with transverse scales underneath, but which latter are divided by a deep longitudinal groove, into which the 
claw retracts completely. Those known to me have the thumb alone clawless, no femoral pores, and the tail 


covered with little scales both above and below. 

The fourth subdivision of Geckos, I term Ptyodactyles. These have only the ends of their toes dilated into 
plates, with a fan-like structure beneath; the middle of the plate being split, and the claw placed in its fissure. 
They have very crooked claws on all their toes. 

Some have a round tail, and five toes; while others haye the tail bordered with a membrane on each side, and 
the toes palmated. It is probable that the latter are aquatic, and they are the Uroplates of Dumeril. 

A fifth subdivision is composed of the Spheriodactyles,—which are certain small Geckos, the ends of the toes of 
which are terminated by a little palette without folds, but the claws of which are always retractile. Those in which 
the palette is double, or emarginated in front, approximate the round-tailed Ptyodactyles. More frequently, how- 
ever, the palette is round and simple. All the known species are from India and the Cape. 

Finally, there are certain of these Saurians which, with all the other characters of the Geckos, have the toes not 
widened. Their claws, five in number, are nevertheless retractile. Some of these, with a round tail, and the toes 
striated beneath, having dentelated edges, constitute the Stenodactyles ;—and there are others with slender and 
naked toes, and also a round tail, which are the Gymnodactyles of Spix. 

Some, again, have the tail horizontally flattened, in the form of a leaf, which I denominate Phillurus. 

One species only is as yet known, from New Holland. 


THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE SAURIANS,— 


THe CHaMELeEons (Cham@leo, Lin.),— 


Are so very distinct from the other Saurians that it is not easy to intercalate them in the series. 

All have the skin roughened with little scaly granules; the body compressed, and the dorsal line 
sharp; tail round and prehensile ; five toes on each foot, but divided into two opposite sets, one con- 
sisting of two toes, and the other of the remainder,—the toes of each of these sets being connected by 
skin as far as the nails; the tongue is fleshy, cylindrical, and extremely protrusile; the teeth trilo- 
bate; the eyes large, but almost covered by the skin, which leaves only a little aperture opposite the 
pupil, and they are moveable independently one of the other; the ear not visible externally, and the 
occiput pyramidically raised. Their first ribs are joined to the sternum, and the remainder are each 
continued to join the corresponding rib of the other side, encircling the abdomen by complete hoops. 
The lung is so vast that, when inflated, the body appears transparent, and induced the ancients to 
believe that these animals fed upon air. They subsist on insects, which they take with the glutinous 
extremity of the tongue, which organ is the only part of them that moves quickly. The motion of the 
limbs is excessively slow. The magnitude of the lung is probably the indirect cause of their changing 
colour, which does not take place, as is currently supposed, for the purpose of assimilating them to the 
proximate surfaces, but according to their wants and passions. Their lung, in fact, renders them more 
or less transparent, by forcing the blood more or less into the vessels of the skin, the colour even of 
this fluid being more or less vivid according as the lung is distended with air. They are constantly 


found upon trees. 

[These most singular animals are particularly remarkable for the diminished sympathy of the two sides of their 
whole frame, one of which may be asleep and the other awake, one of one colour and the other of another, &c.,— 
the separate movement of their eyes being merely another phase of the same phenomenon : hence it is remarkable, 
that, unlike most other animals, the Chameleon is totally unable to swim, from the incapability of its limbs 
of acting in due concert. } 


X 


THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE SAURIANS,— 


THE SCINDOIDIENS,— 


Are recognized by the shortness of their feet, the non-extensibility of the tongue, and the equality of 
the tile-like scales which cover the whole body and tail. 


Tue Scinques (Scincus, Daud.)— 
Have four very short feet, a body of nearly the same calibre with the tail, no occipital bulge, no crest 
or throat appendage, and the scales uniform and shining, and disposed tile-fashion like those of a Carp. 


SAURIA. 279 


Some have a spindle-shape; and others, which are nearly cylindrical, and more or less elongated, resemble 
Snakes, and more particularly the Orvets (dnguwis), with which they have many internal points of rela- 
tionship, and which thus grade from the family of Iguanas by an uninterrupted series of transitions. 
For the rest, the tongue of this genus is fleshy, and but slightly extensible and notched; and the jaws 
are armed all round with small serrated teeth. The remainder of their conformation approximates 
more or less to that of the Iguanas and Lizards, and all their toes are unguiculated and free. Certain 
species have palatal teeth, and a dentelated anterior border to the tympanum, while others (the 7iliqua, 
Gray) have no teeth to the palate. 


Tue Seps (Seps, Daud.)— 
Merely differ from the Scinques by having the body still more elongated, almost like that of an Orvet, 
and the feet still smaller, the fore and hind being also more separated from each other. Their lungs 
begin to exhibit some irregularity. 


Tue Diropes (Bipes, Lacep.)— 
Compose a small genus, which only differs from Seps by the total absence of anterior limbs, merely re- 
taining the scapulars and clavicles buried beneath the skin, and the hind feet alone being visible. There 
is but one step from them to the Orvets. Some have a range of pores on each side of the anus, which 
is not found in others. 
Tue CHatcripes (Chalcis, Daud.)— 

Are very elongated and snake-like Lizards, like the Seps; but their scales, instead of being disposed 
tile-fashion, are rectangular, and form transversal bands on the tail, like those of ordinary Lizards. 

Some have a groove along each side of the trunk, and the tympanum still very apparent. They approximate 


the Cordyles, as the Seps do to the Scinques, and lead, in a variety of ways, to the Pseudopodes and Ophisaurs. 
Others have a concealed tympanum, and conduct to the Chirotes, and thence to the Amphisbenes. 


Tue Currotes (Chirotes, Cuv.)— 
Resemble the last by their verticillated scales, and still more the Amphisbzenes, by the obtuse form of 
the head; but are distinguished from the former by the absence of hind feet, and from the latter by 


the existence of fore-feet. 
The only species (C. Zumbricoides) inhabits Mexico, and has all the internal organization of an Amphisbene, with 
femoral pores, and one great lung and the vestige of a second, as in most Ophidians. 


In fact, the genera which terminate this order of Saurians interpose in so many ways between the 
ordinary Saurians and the genera placed at the head of the Ophidians, that many recent naturalists 
object to separating the two orders, or at least establish one comprised of the Saurians in part, detaching 
the Crocodiles, and another of the Ophidians pertaining to the family of dAnguis; but among the fossils 
of the ancient limestone formations are found two very extraordinary extinct genera, which, with the 
head and trunk of a Saurian, have feet borne on short limbs, and composed of a multitude of little 
articulations, which form in the aggregate a sort of fin or swimming-paw, analogous to those of Ceta-. 
ceans. ‘The first of these genera, or that of 


Tue IcrHYOSAURUS,— 
Had a large head and short neck, enormous eyes, middle-sized tail, and elongated jaws armed with 


conical teeth, inserted in a groove. 
Several species are found in England, France, and Germany, some of immense size. 


The other genus, or 
THE PLESIOSAURUS,— 

Had a small head, and extremely long serpent-like neck, composed of more cervical vertebre than that 
of any other known animal. Its tail was short, and its remains are found in the same calcareous strata. 

These two genera, for a knowledge of which we are principally indebted to the researches of Messrs. 
Home, Conybeare, Buckland, &c., were inhabitants of the sea. They should form a very distinct family, 
but what is known of their osteology approaches more to that of the ordinary Saurians than the Croco- 
diles, with which latter they have been gratuitously associated by M. Fitzinger, since neither their tongue 
nor scales are known, which are the two most distinctive characteristics of the Loricata. [It has since 
been ascertained that they were covered merely with skin, apparently as in the Batrachians ; and there is 
reason to suspect that the Icthyosaur possessed a cartilaginous dorsal fin, as in many of the true Cefacea ] 


—_—_— 
Sr 


280 REPTILIA. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF REPTILES. 


THE SERPENTS (Opuipra). 


These have no feet, and are consequently, of all others, the Reptiles which most merit the 
name. Their extremely elongated body progresses by means of folds pressed backwards against 
the ground. They divide into three families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF OPHIDIANS,— 
THE ORVETS— 


Retains the skull, teeth, and tongue of the preceding group of Seps, and the eye has three lids, &c. 
whence they are merely Seps without feet. Such are 


Tue Orvets (Anguis, Lin.),— 
Externally characterized by imbricated scales, which cover them all over. We subdivide them into 
four subgenera, the three first of which have a shoulder-bone and pelvis beneath the skin. 

The Pseudopodes (Pseudopus, Merrem) have the tympanum visible externally, and a small prominence on each 
side of the anus, which contains an ossicle analogous toa femur, articulated toa true pelvis beneath the skin; 
the anterior limbs are only represented by an inconspicuous depression, and have no internal humerus. One of 
the lungs is a fourth shorter than the other. The scales are square, thick, and semi-imbricated, and between 


those of the upper and lower parts is a groove of smaller scales on each side. 
The Ophisaurs (Ophisaurus, Daud.), merely differ in the absence of external rudiments of limbs, but retain the 


tympanum, and have one lung a third shorter than the other. 

The Orvets (Anguis, Cuvier), have no trace of limbs externally visible, and their tympanum even is couched 
beneath the skin; their maxillary teeth are crooked and compressed, and they have none on the palate. The body 
is surrounded with imbricated scales, without any lateral fold, as in the preceding ; and one of the lungs is shorter 
by half than the other. [A species, known as the Slow-worm, or Blind-worm, is of common occurrence in Britain, 
and throughout Europe. When alarmed, it constricts its muscles, and is then singularly brittle.] 

These three subgenera have still an imperfect pelvis, a small sternum, scapulars, and also clavicles, hidden 


beneath the skin ; and the absence of these several bones characterizes 

The Acontias (Acontia, Cuv.), which, in the structure of their head and eye-lids, still resemble the preceding ; 
their anterior ribs are connected all round, beneath the trunk, by cartilaginous prolongations; and they have one 
middle-sized lung, and another very short one. Their teeth are small and conical, and I think that I have per- 
ceived some on the palate. They are easily known by having the muzzle closed by a sort of mask. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF OPHIDIANS,— 
THe TRUE SERPENTS,— 


Which is much more numerous, is composed of genera with neither sternum nor vestige of shoulder, 
but the ribs of which still encircle a great part of the trunk, and the vertebre are still articulated by 
a convex facet applied to a concave facet of the succeeding one. They have no third eyelid, nor 
tympanum ; but the small bone of the ear exists beneath the skin, and its handle passes behind the 
tympanic bone. Several have also, under the skin, a vestige of hind-limbs, which in some even shows 
itself externally in the form of a small hook. 

We subdivide them into two tribes. 

That of the Dovste-Marcuevurs [which progress either head or tail foremost,] have still the lower 
jaw fixed as in all the preceding Reptiles, by a tympanic bone, articulated direct to the cranium, the 
two rami of this jaw anchylosed at the symphysis, and those of the upper fixed to the skull, and to 
the intermaxillaries ; so that their swallow cannot dilate as in the following tribe, and their head is of 
even size with their whole body; a form which enables them to progress backwards or forwards with 
the same facility. The bony frame of the orbit is incomplete behind, and the eye is very small. 
Finally, their body is covered with scales, the anus very near its extremity, the trachea long, and the 
heart placed far backwards. None of them is known to be venomous. 

There are two genera, one of which approximates to the Chalcides and Bimanes, and the other to 
the Orvets and Acontias. 

Tue AMPHISBZNES (Amphisbena, Lin.)— 
Have the whole body surrounded with circular ranges of square scales, as in the Chalcides and Rimanes 


OPHIDIA. 


among the Saurians; a range of pores before the anus; the teeth few, conical, and growing only from 
the jaw, none from the palate ; and they have only one lung. 


There are three or four species, which live on insects, and are found principally about ant-hills, a circum- 
stance which has induced the opinion that they subsist chiefly upon Ants. They are oviparous. 


Tue Typeutors (7yphlops, Schneider)— 
Have the body covered with small imbricated scales, like the Orvets, with which they were long 
arranged ; the muzzle prolonged and plated ; the tongue rather long and forked; the eye reduced to a 
point, scarcely. visible through the skin; the anus nearly at the extremity of the body; and one lung 
four times as large as the other. They are small species, resembling Earth-worms at the first glance, 
and are found in the hot regions of both continents. 

Some have the head obtuse and even with the body, resembling packthread at both ends. Others have the 
muzzle depressed and obtuse, with scaly plates anteriorly. Some, again, have the fore-part of the muzzle covered 
with a single broad plate rather sharp in front. And there are others in which the muzzle terminates in a little 
conical point, being also totally blind: the posterior extremity of these is enveloped in a bony oval buckler, and 
they were formerly ranged with the Orvets, on account of their small scales. 


The other tribe, or that of the SeRPENrs properly so called, have a tympanic bone or pedicle to 
the lower jaw, which is moveable, and nearly always suspended by another bone analogous to the 
mastoid, which latter is attached to the skull by muscles and ligaments, that allow it also to be 
moveable. The branches of this jaw are not united together, and those of the upper are connected by 
ligaments only to the intermaxillaries ; so that they can open more or less, which imparts to these 
animals the capability of dilating the mouth, so as to swallow objects of greater bulk than themselves. 

Their palatal arches partake of this mobility, and are armed with recurved and pointed teeth, 
which is the most marked and constant character of this tribe; their windpipe is very long; the 
heart placed far backward ; and the greater number have only one great lung, with the vestige of 


a second. 

They divide into venomous and non-venomous, and the former of these into venomous having 
several maxillary teeth, and into venomous with isolated fangs. 

In the non-venomous, the branches of the upper jaw are furnished throughout their length, like 
those of the lower jaw and the palate, with fixed and solid teeth. There are three or four subequal 
ranges of these teeth in the upper part of the mouth, and two in the lower.* Those among them 
which have the mastoid bones inclosed within the cranium, the orbit incomplete behind, the tongue 
short and thick, and which resemble the Double-Marcheurs in the cylindrical form of their head and 
body, were formerly classed with the Orvets, on account of their diminutive scales. 


Tue Rotes (Tortrix, Oppel; Torguatrix, Gray; Ilysia, Hemp.),— 


Are externally distinguished from the Orvets by the range of scales along the belly and beneath the 
tail being rather larger than the others, as also by the extreme shortness of the tail. They have but 
one lung. All are from America. 

The Uropeltis, Cuy. (Anilius, Oken), is an allied new genus, the tail of which, still shorter and obliquely trun- 
cated above, is flat and beset with little scales at the truncation. Their head is very small; the muzzle pointed ; 
they have arange of scales under the tail, a little larger than the rest, and a double range beneath its truncate 
portion. 


The non-venomous Serpents which, on the contrary, have detached mastoid bones, and the jaws or 
which are dilatable, have the occiput more or less bulged, and the tongue forked and very extensible. 
Two principal genera have long been distinguished,—the Boas and the Snakes proper. 


Tue Boas (Boa, Lin.),— 
Formerly comprehended all Serpents, venomous or not so, the under-part of the body and tail of 
which is covered with scaly transverse bands, each of a single piece, and which have neither spur nor 
rattle at the tip of the tail. Being very numerous, it is necessary to subdivide them, after abstracting 
the venomous ones. 


* The common opinion is, that all Serpents destitute of pierced , hack-molars of which are very large, are reputed to be ex*remely 
fangs in the lower part of the jaw, are non-venomous; but this | have | venomous in the countries which they inhabit; an opinion which is 
confirmed by the experiments of Lalande and Leschenauld, which it 
is desirable should be repeated. 


some reason to doubt. All have a maxillary gland, often very large ; 
and the back-molars frequently exhibit a groove, which would seem to 
conduct seme liquor. This much is certain, that various species, the 


282 REPTILIA. 


The Boas more particularly so named, have a hook on each side of the anus; a compressed body, 
larger towards the middle ; a prehensile tail; and small scales, at least on the hinder part of the head. 
Among them are found the largest of all Serpents, certain species attaining a length of thirty or forty 
feet, and being capable of swallowing Dogs, Stags, and even Cattle, at least according to some narra- 
tors, after having crushed them within their folds, lubricated them with their saliva, and enormously 
dilated their jaws and gullet. This operation lasts a long while. A remarkable particular of their 
anatomy consists in their having one lung but half shorter than the other. [At the extremity of the 
great lung in all this tribe is an extremely capacious air-bag, the use of which appears to be for con- 
taining the air requisite for respiration, when the nostrils are closed by the tedious process of degluti- 
tion.] We subdivide these Serpents according to the teguments of the head and jaws. 

Some have the head covered as far as the tip of the muzzle with small scales resembling those of the body, and 
the plates which invest the jaws are not furrowed with grooves. Others have scaly plates beneath the eyes as far 
as the muzzle, and no furrows to the jaws. Some, again, have scaly plates upon the muzzle, and grooves upon 
those of the sides of the jaws. There are some with plates on the muzzle, and the sides of the jaw hollowed into a 
slit-like chink beneath the eye and further backward. And, lastly, some have no furrows, and the muzzle 
invested with plates but slightly prominent, which are obliquely cut backwards in front and truncated at the tip, 
so as to terminate in corners: these have the body much compressed, and the back keeled. They inhabit the 
East Indies whereas the others are from America, and should form a distinct subgenus—Cenchris, Gray. 


Tue Scyrats (Pseudoboa, Schneider). 

Plates, not only on the muzzle, but over the cranium, as in the Snakes proper; no grooves, the body 
round, and head even with the trunk, as in the Roles. 

Daudin has likewise separated 

Tue Eryx,— 

Which differ by having a very short obtuse tail, and by their ventral plates being narrower. The head 
is short and nearly even with the body, characters in which they approximate the Roles, were it not 
that the conformation of their jaws permitted these to distend. The head is covered with small 
scales; and they kave also no hooks near the anus. 


Tuer Erpetons, Lacepede,— 
Are very remarkable for having two soft prominences covered with scales, at the tip of the muzzle ; 
head plated; the plates of the belly not very wide, and those of the under-part of the tail different 
from the other scales. Their tail, however, is long and pointed. 


Tue Snakes Proper (Coluber, Lin.) — 
Comprehended all the species, venomous or non-venomous, the plates underneath the tail of which are 
divided each into two, or, in other words, ranged in pairs. 


Independently of the subtraction of the venomous kinds, their number is so vast that we are obliged to have 
recourse to all sorts of characters in order to distinguish them. First, are separated 


Tue Pytuons, Daudin,— 
Which have hooks near the anus, and narrow ventral plates, as in the Boas, from which they only 
differ by having the plates underneath the tail double. Their head is plated at the tip of the muzzle, 


and their lips grooved. Species occur as large as any Boa. 

Some of these Pythons have the first, and others the terminal plates of their tail, simple ; but these are perhaps 
accidental varieties. 

The Cerberi, like the true Pythons, have the head entirely covered with small scales, with the exception of 
plates between and before the eyes ; but they have no hooks near the anus. They bave sometimes also simple 
plates at the base of the tail. 

Xenopeltis, Reinwardt; have great imbricated triangwar plates before the eyes, which might be confounded 
with the scales adjacent to them, only that the latter are smaller. 

Heterodon, Beauvois.—The ordinary plates of this group, but the tip of the muzzle composed of a short single 
piece, in form a trihedral pyramid, which is a little raised and erected above, a conformation which has induced 
the appellation of pig-snouted Serpents. 

The Hurria, Daud.—Indian species, with subcaudal plates always simple, except those at the point, which are 
double ; these trivial anomalies, however, merit but little notice. 

The Dipsas of Laurenti (Bungarus, Oppel.)—Body compressed, and very much larger than the head: the range 
of scales along the spine of the back larger than the others. 

Dendrophis, Fitzinger ; Ahetulla, Gray.—Resemble the last by having a range of broader scales along the back, 
and narrower scales along the flanks; but their head is not wider than the body, which is slender and very much 
lengthened. Muzzle obtuse. 


OPHIDIA. 283 


Dryinus, Merrem ; Passerita, Gray.—Body as long and slender as in the last, but a small and slender pointed 
appendage at the tip of the muzzle. 

Dryophis, Fitzinger.—The same long filiform or cord-like body, but no appendage, and the scales of equal size. 

Oligodon, Boié. Small species, with an obtuse, short, and narrow head, and no palatai teeth. 

After all these dismemberments by different authors, there yet remain several which appear to me less worthy 
of adoption ; being founded on slight differences in the proportions of the head, the thickness of the trunk, &c, : 
and there is still left a group the most numerous of all in species, that of 

The Snakes, as most restricted, which have no peculiar distinguishing character. Several of these are found in 
France, [and one only in Britain, the common Ring-necked Snake (C. natrix and Natrix torquatus), which attains 
to a yard in length, and feeds on Frogs, Mice, insects, &c.] It is eaten in some provinces of France. 'The exotic 
species are innumerable: some are remarkable for the splendour of their colours; others for the regularity of the 
distribution of them ; many are quite uniform in their tints ; and a few only attain a very large size. 


Tue Acrocuorpvus, Hornstedt— 
Are readily distinguished from the rest of this family by the uniformly small scales with which their 


body is covered both above and below. 

The known species (A. javensis, Lac.; Anguis granulatus, Schneider,) has each of its scales raised into three 
little crests, resembling, when the skin is very loose, three isolated tubercles. It grows to a large size. Hornstedt 
has stated that it subsists altogether on fruits, which in an animal of this kind would be very extraordinary. 


The Venomous Serpents par excellence, that have isolated fangs, present a peculiar structure of the 
organs of manducation. 

Their superior maxillary bones are very small, borne upon a long pedicle, analogous to the outer 
pterygoid apophysis of the sphenoid, and are also very moveable; having a pointed tooth affixed to 
them, which is pierced by a small canal, through which issues a liquid secreted by a large gland 
beneath the eye. This liquid it is, instilled into the wound inflicted by the tooth, which poisons 
the bodies of animals, and produces effects more or less deadly, according to the species from 
which it is derived. The tooth lies down flat in a fold of the gum when the Serpent has no occasion 
for it, and behind it are several germs designed successively to replace it, in case it should be 
left in a wound. Naturalists have termed these venomous teeth crochets mobiles [or fangs], but it is 
properly the maxillary bone that moves. These Serpents have no other teeth besides the double 
range upon the palate. 

All the venomous species of which we possess certain information, bring forth their young alive, the 
eggs hatching within the body of the parent, [though during the act of parturition]. It is thus that 
their general name of Vipers has arisen, which is a contraction of viviparous. 

Venomous Serpents with isolated fangs, present nearly the same external characters as the pre- 
ceding; but the greater number have extremely dilatable jaws, and the tongue very extensile. Their 
head, which is wide posteriorly, has in general a savage aspect, which to a certain extent announces 
their ferocity. They form two principal great genera, the Rattle-snakes and the Vipers, of which the 
second has many subdivisions, around which some alien small ones require to be grouped. 


; Tue RaTTuLrE-sNnakEs (Crotalus, Lin.)\— 
Are more celebrated than any other Serpents for the deadliness of their venom. In common with the 
Boa, they have simple transverse plates beneath the body and tail, but are most obviously distinguished 
by the rattling instrument which they carry at the tip of the tail, and which is formed of several 
scaly cornets loosely attached together, that move and rattle whenever the animal shakes or alters the 
position of its tail. It appears that the number of these cornets increases with age, and that they acquire 
an additional one at each casting of the skin. Their muzzle is hollowed by a little rounded depression 
behind each nostril. All the known species are from America. They are so much the more dan- 
gerous, as the season or climate is hotter; but their ordinary habits are tranquil and sluggish. They 
move slowly, and only bite when provoked, or for the purpose of killing their prey. Although they do 
not climb trees, they nevertheless feed principally upon Birds, Squirrels, &c., which it was long be- 
lieved they possessed the faculty of hallucinating or charming, so as to draw them by degrees to enter 
their throat. It would seem, however, that the fear which their appearance inspires occasions those 


disordered movements of their prey, which have given rise to the foregoing supposition. 

Most of the species have the head scaled similarly to the back; while others have great plates upon the head. 
We approximate 

The Trigonocephali of Oppel (Bothrops, Spix ; Cophias, Merrem); which are distinguished ‘by the absence of 
the rattle, but accord in their other characters. Some of these have simple subcaudal plates, as in the preceding, 


284 REPTILIA. 


and the head plated to the eyes; the tail terminated by a spur. Others have no subcaudal plates, and the head 
scaled like the back. Some have the head plated, with double subcaudal plates: and others conjoin to the latter 
character, excepting that the extremity of the tail has small scales both above and below, little scales upon the 
head also. 
Tue Vieers (Vipera, Daud.),— 

The greater number of which were confounded by Linnzus with the Snakes proper, on account of 
their double subcaudal plates, require to be separated from the latter by reason of their venomous 
fangs, and grade into other Serpents with single or partly double subcaudal plates, being distinguished 
from the Rattlesnakes and Trigonocephalets by the absence of cavities beneath their nostrils. 

Some have only keeled and imbricated scales upon the head, like those of the back ; and others have the head 
covered with small granulated scales, [among which is the Viper or Adder of this country]. Some again [the Ce- 
rastes| have a pointed bone over each eyebrow, [and are peculiar to Africa]. Others, which are similar in ali other 
respects to the preceding generally, have three plates a little larger than the scales which surround them upon 
the middle of the head. There are some Vipers, also, with plates upon the head, like those of the Common Snake. 

Naia—Are Vipers with plated heads, the anterior ribs of which can be dilated and thrown forward, so as to 
distend this part of the trunk into a disc more or less broad. The most celebrated species is the Cobra di Capella 
of India, with a spectacle-like mark on the disk, and which is extremely venomous. The Haje, or Asp, of Egypt, 
is another. 

Elaps.—Head plated, and an opposite organization of the body to the Asps; their jaws even can scarcely widen, 
on account of the shortness of the tympanic bones, and especially of the mastoids, from which it results that the 
head is nearly of even size with the body, as in the Roles and Amphisbanes. 

Micrurus, Wagner, has merely the tail shorter. 

Platurus, Latreille—Head also plated, and double plates beneath the tail; but the latter compressed like an 
oar, which renders them aquatic. 

Finally, we place at the termination of the Vipers certain species which only differ in having single subcaudal 
plates, either partly or throughout. They are distinguished from the Tisiphones by having no cavities behind 
the nostrils. 

Some, with entire plates at the base of the tail, compose the Trimererurus, Lacepede, having large plates on the 
head, and some of the subcaudal ones double, others single. 

Oplocephalus, Cuy.—Have great plates on the head, and all the subcaudals single. 

Acanthophis, Daud.; Ophrias, Merrem.—Plates in front of the skull and of the head, the tail terminated by a 
hook, and all its plates simple, though sometimes there are double ones at its extremity. 

Echis, Merrem.—Small plates on the head, and all the subcaudals single. 

Langaha, Bruguitres.—Head plated ; the muzzle pointed and projecting; anterior half of the tail encircled 
with entire rings, and the posterior with little imbricated scales both above and below. 


Besides these two tribes of Serpents properly so called, which have been longer known, a third has 
been discovered more recently, the jaws of which are organized and armed nearly as in the non- 
venomous kinds, but which have, nevertheless, the first of their maxillary teeth longer than the rest, 
and pierced for the purpose of conducting venom, as in the genera with isolated fangs, already described. 

These Serpents form two genera, distinguished from those of the two allied families, by the scaling 
of the belly and under-part of the tail. 


Tue Bonears (Pseudoboa, Oppel.) — 


Possess, like the Boas, the Rattlesnakes, and the Scytals, simple plates beneath the belly and tail. 
Their head is short, covered with large plates, and the occiput but slightly bulged. Their most charac- 
teristic distinction, however, consists in their very carinated back being furnished with a longitudinal 
range of scales, broader than the lateral ones, as in the Dipsas. 


They inhabit the Fast Indies, where they are called Rock Snakes, one of the species attaining a length of seven 
or eight feet. 


Tue Hypras (Hydrus, Schneider, in part ; Hydrophis and Pelamides, Daud.)— 


Have the back part of the body and tail very much compressed and raised vertically, which, imparting 
to them the power of swimming, renders them aquatic animals. They are very common in certain 
parts of the Indian Seas, [and excessively venomous, feeding on fishes]. Linnaeus ranged those that 
were known to him among the Orvets, on account of the small scales with which they are wholly 
covered. Daudin has subdivided them as follows :— 


Hydrophis.—These have a range of scales a little broader than the rest under the belly, as in the Erpetons and 
Roles ; the head small, not bulged, obtuse, and covered with large plates. Several species are found in the salt 
water of Bengal, and others in the Indian ocean. 

Pelamides,—have, also, great plates on the head, but their occiput is bulged on account of the length of the 


BATRACHITA. 285 


pedicles of their lower jaw, which is extremely dilatable ; all their body-scales are equal, of small size, and disposed 
hexagonally. To these subgenera I have addea that of 
Chersydrus,—the head and body of which are equally covered with small scales. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF OPHIDIANS,— 


Tue NAKED SERPENTS,— 
Comprises but one very singular genus, which several naturalists have deemed to belong rather to the 
Batrachians, although we are not aware that it undergoes any metamorphosis. It is that of 


Tue Cecrirans (Cecilia, Lin.),— 

So named on account of their excessively minute eyes, which are nearly hidden by the skin, and are 
sometimes absent altogether. The skin is smooth, viscous, and annularly wrinkled, appearing naked, 
although, upon dissection, some perfect though minute scales are discernible, which are regularly 
disposed in several transverse ranges between the wrinkles of the skin, and which we have detected, 
with certainty, in more than two species. The head is flattened, the anus round and nearly at the 
extremity of the body, the ribs much too short to encircle the trunk, the articulations of the vertebre 
together are by conically hollow facets filled up with gelatinous cartilage, the same as in the Fishes 
and some of the lower Batrachians, and, in a slight degree, in the Amphisbznes only, among the other 
Ophidians ; their maxillary bones cover the orbits, which are pierced by only a very small foramen, and 
the temporal bones extend over the fossa, so that the skull presents a continuous beny buckler above; 
their hyoid bone, composed of three pairs of arcs, induces the supposition that it originally supported 
gills. The maxillary and palate teeth are arranged in two concentric lines, the same as in the 
Proteans, but are often sharp and curved backward, as in the Snakes properly so called; the nostrils 
open behind the palate, and the lower jaw has no moveable pedicle, the tympanic bone being encased, 
together with the other bones, in the buckler formed by the skull. 

The auricle of the heart of these animals is not divided so deeply as to be considered double, but 
their second lung is as small as in the other Serpents; the liver is divided into a great number of 
transverse lamin. In their intestines have been found vegetable matter, together with soil and sand. 


Their ear has merely a small plate upon the oral orifice, the same as in the Salamanders. 

Some of them have an obtuse muzzle, lax skin, very deep wrinkles, and two small cili# near the nostrils; as 
C. annulata of Brazil, which is found in marshy places several feet under ground, C. glutinosa of Ceylon, &c.; 
while others have the folds of the skin nearly obsolete, a very long slender body, and projecting muzzle. One of 
these is totally blind, the C. dumbricoides, Daudin; it is of a blackish colour, two feet long, and no thicker than a 
goose-quill. 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF REPTILES,— 


THE BATRACHIANS,— 


Have but one auricle and one ventricle to the heart, [an assertion disproved by Professor Owen]. 
Their two lungs are always equal, and when young they conjoin to these, gills, which give them 
a relationship with the class of Fishes, and which are borne on the sides of the neck, upon the 
cartilaginous arches which support the hyoid bone. The greater number lose these gills, 
together with the supporting apparatus of them, upon attaining the perfect state: three genera 
only, the Syrens, Protei, and Menobranchi, retaining them at all ages. 

During the period of the retention of the gills, the aorta, on proceeding from the heart, 
divides into a number of branches upon each side, corresponding to that of the gills; the 
blood from the gills returning through veins which unite together towards the back, into a 
single arterial trunk, as in Fishes: this trunk, or the veins which form it more directly, supplies 
the greater number of arteries which nourish the body, and even the vessels which conduct the 
blood for respiration into the lungs. But in the species which shed their gills, the vascular 
ramifications that communicate with them become obliterated, excepting two, which unite 
together to form a dorsal artery, each giving off a small branch to the lung of its particular 
side, so that the circulation of a Fish becomes thus converted into that of a Reptile. 


286 REPTILIA. 


These animals have neither scales nor carapace, but the body is invested with a naked [and 
moist] skin, [over the surface of which the blood receives much of its oxygenation.] With 
the exception of one genus, they have no nails to the toes. 

The envelope of their eggs is simply membranous, and in most cases these are fecundated 
as they issue forth, the male attaching himself to the other sex in order to be simultaneous. 

Their eggs or spawn enlarge very much in the water after they have been laid. The young 
not only differs from the adult by the presence of its gills, but its feet are only developed by 
degrees, and in several genera there are also a deciduous beak and tail, and intestines of a 
different form. Some of the species are even viviparous. 


Tue Froes (Rana, Lin.)— 
Have four legs and no tail in their adult state. Their head is flat, the muzzle rounded, the mouth 
deeply cleft, and the greater number have a soft tongue attached only to the lower part of the gullet, 
but which extends forward to the jaw, and is doubled back above. Their fore-feet have only four 
toes, but the hinder sometimes show the rudiment of a sixth. 

Their skeleton is entirely deprived of ribs. A cartilaginous plate, even with the head, takes the 
place of tympanum, and renders the ear visible externally. The eye has two fleshy lids, and a third, 
which is horizontal and transparent, concealed by the lower one. 

The inspiration of air is produced simply by the movements of the muscles of the throat, which, by 
dilating, draw in the air through the nostrils, and, by contracting, whilst the orifices of the nostrils 
are closed by means of the tongue, force the air into the lungs. Expiration, on the contrary, is 
effected by the contraction of the muscles of the lower belly: so that, by opening the belly of the 
living animal, the lungs will distend without any power of contraction, and by holding open the 
mouth the animal will become asphyxiated, for want of air sent into the lungs. 

The embraces of the male are excessively prolonged: in reference to which the thumb of this sex 
is furnished with a spongy swelling, which enlarges during the season, and which is designed to aid 
in grasping. The eggs are fecundated at the moment they are laid, and the young is termed a ¢adpole. 
It is at first provided with a long fleshy tail, and a small horny beak, but with no other apparent 
members besides certain little fringes at the sides of the neck. These disappear after some days, but 
Swammerdam assures us that they still exist as gills underneath the skin. The latter-are minute 
_ crests, which are very numerous, attached to the four cartilaginous arches placed on each side of the 
neck adhering to the hyoid bone, and enveloped by a membranous tunic, which is covered by the 
general skin. The water, entering by the mouth, to bathe the intervals of these cartilaginous arches, 
passes out either by two orifices or by a single one, according to the species, pierced through the 
external skin, either on the middle or on the left side of the animal. The hind feet are gradually 
developed to view, by little and little, while the anterior likewise appear beneath the skin, but do not 
burst it for some time later. The tail is absorbed by degrees. The beak falls, and occasions the 
genuine mandibles to appear, which had previously been soft, and were concealed underneath the skin. 
The gills shrink and are obliterated, leaving the lungs to perform their functions unassisted by them. 
The eye, which in the Tadpole was only visible through a thinner space in the skin, becomes 
apparent with its three lids. The intestines, previously very long, slender, and spirally contorted, 
shorten, and acquire the enlargement of stomach and colon: the Tadpole living solely upon aquatic 
vegetation, whilst the adult animal preys on insects and other animal substances. * Finally, the limbs 
of the Tadpole reproduce the parts of them that had been mutilated, nearly as in the Newts. 

The particular epoch of each of these several charges varies, according to the species. 

In temperate and cold climates, the perfect animal buries itself, during winter, under ground, or in 
the mud below the surface of water, where it continues to live without food or respiration, [beyond 
what of the latter is effected by the surface of the skin] ; although, during the warm season, if it be held 
for a few minutes only with the mouth open, so as to impede the process of respiration, it perishes. 


Tue Frogs, properly so called, (Rana, Laurenti),— 


Have a slender body, and the hind limbs very long, and more or less palmated; their skin is smooth 
and slippery ; their upper jaw supplied all round with a range of minutely fine teeth, and they have an 


BATRACHIA. 287 


interrupted range across the middle of the palate. The males have, on each side, under the ear, a deli- 
cate membrane, which is inflated with air when they croak. These animals both swim and leap with 
celerity. 

(One only (B. temporaria) is indigenous tv the British Isles.] 

Ceratrophrys, Boié,—are Frogs with a broad head, the skin wholly or partly granulated, and ahorn-like mem- 
branous prominence over each eyelid. 

Dactylethra,—South African species, with pointed toes, those of the hind-feet broadly palmated, and the three 
internal having their extremities enveloped by a conical nail, of a black horny substance. 

Hyla, the Tree-Frogs,—differ in no respect from the common ones, excepting that the extremity of each of their 
toes is widened and rounded into a sort of viscous palette, which enables them to adhere to the surfaces of bodies, 
and to climb trees, to which last they resort, during the summer, in pursuit of insects; but they deposit their eggs 
in water, and penetrate into the mud in winter, like other Frogs. Several species are decked in the gayest colours. 


Tue Toaps (Bufo, Laurenti)— 
Have the body thick and squat, and covered with tubercles, with a large swelling pierced with pores 
behind each eye, from which a fetid milky secretion is expressed; no teeth whatever; and the hind 
limbs but little elongated. They leap badly, and are generally found at a distance from water. They 
are animals of hideous, disgusting form, the saliva of which has been erroneously considered venomous, 
as also their teeth, their supposed urine, and even the moisture which exudes from the skin; [the latter 
being, in fact, absorbed by the skin, for the purpose of cutaneous respiration, often in great quantity, so 
that the animal, when seized and taken up, lightens itself by discharging a quantity of this from the anus. ] 

(Two species are found in Britain, viz., the Common Toad (B. vulgaris), which progresses more by leaping than 
crawling; andthe Natterjack (B. calamita), an inhabitant of heaths and commons in the south of England, which 
has a yellow mesial stripe along the back, never leaps, but creeps with considerable celerity, and utters a chirping 
cry. Its appearance is less unprepossessing than that of the other. ] 

Bombinator, Merrem,—only differs from Bufo by having the tympanum concealed beneath the skin. 

Rhinella, Fitzinger ; Oxyrhynchus, Spix,—has the muzzle pointed anteriorly. 

Atilophus, Cuy.—Muzzle angular, and a crest on each side of the head, extending round the parotid. 

Breviceps, Merrem; Engystoma, Fitzinger, in part.—No tympanum nor parotid visible externally, an oval body, 
the head and mouth very small, and feet but slightly palmated, 

Pipa, Laur.—The body horizontally flattened ; head large and triangular ; tongue wholly wanting ; tympanum 
concealed beneath the skin; small eyes placed towards the margin of the upper jaw; each of the front toes split 
at the tip into four little points; lastly, an enormous larynx in the male, formed as a triangular bony box, within 
which are two moveable bones which can close the entrance of the bronchi. 

The longest known species (R. pipa, Lin.) inhabits the obscure nooks of houses in Cayenne and Surinam, and 
has a granulated back, with three longitudinal ranges of larger granules. The male places the eggs of the female 
upon her back, where they are fecundated, upon which the female returns to the water, the skin of her back 
swelling so as to form a number of cells, which inclose each of the eggs, and wherein the young pass their tadpole 
state, until they have lost their tails, and developed their limbs, at which time the mother returns to land. 


THe SaLAMANDERS (Salamander, Brong.)— 

Have an elongated body, four limbs, and a long tail, which give them the general form of Lizards, 
whence Linnzus left them in that genus; but they have all the characters of Batrachians. Their head 
is flattened; the ear concealed entirely by the flesh, having no tympanum, but merely a little cartila- 
ginous plate over the fenestrum ovale ; both jaws furnished with numerous minute teeth; two longi- 
tudinal ranges of equal teeth on the palate, but attached to the bones that represent the vomer ; tongue 
as in the Frogs, no third eyelid; a skeleton with three small rudiments of ribs, but no bony sternum ; 
a pelvis suspended by ligaments to the spine; four toes before, and nearly always five behind. They 
respire, in the adult state, in the same manner as the Frogs and Tortoises. Their tadpoles breathe at 
first by gills in the form of crests, to the number of three on each side of the neck, which are subse- 
quently obliterated, and which are suspended to cartilaginous arches, that form portions of the hyoid 
bone of the adult. A membranous operculum covers these apertures; but the gill-crests are never in- 
closed within a tunic, but float loosely. Their fore-feet are developed before the hind, and the toes 
appear successively. 

The terrestrial species (Salamandra, Laurenti) have, in the perfect state, a round tail, and only remain in the 
water during their state of Tadpole, which endures but for a brief period, and when they resort to that element to 
breed. Their eggs are inclosed in an oviduct. Those of Europe have, on each side of the occiput, a gland analo- 
gous to that of the Toads. 

The Aquatic Salamanders (Triton, Laurenti) permanently retain the vertically-compressed tail, and pass nearly 


their whole lives in the water. [It is certain, however, that those of Britain all leave the water at the end of 
summer, and have then a round tail. ‘The small ones, even with the remnants of their gills still attached, may be 


288 REPTILIA. 


found in abundance at that period about the roots of rushes, &c., in the vicinity of ponds; whence it is not true 
that they quit in consequence of the water being dried up, as has been suggested]. 

The experiments of Spallanzani, on the extraordinary power which these animals have of reproducing their 
parts, have rendered them celebrated. ‘They renew, many times successively, the same member after it had 
been severed; and this with all its bones, muscles, vessels, &c. Another faculty, not less singular, consists (as 
shown by Dufoy) in their recovering after having been long frozen up inice. Their eggs are fecundated by fluid 
dispersed in the watery medium, which penetrates with the water into their oviducts. They lay long chaplets of 
eggs, and the young appear fifteen days from the deposition of them, retaining their gills for a longer or shorter 
period according to the species. Modern observers have distinguished several European species, the males of 
which develope high membranous dorsal crests very early in the spring, [which are absorbed, and the remnants 
cast off, ere they leave the water at the end of summer. One, with a smooth olive-coloured skin like a Frog 
(T. punctatus), and handsomely spotted with black, is common in stagnant waters throughout Britain; and two 
others (7. palustris and T. marmoratus), with a granulated skin like a Toad, and also spotted upon a much darker 
ground, and punctated with white, are—the first at least—equally so. All have the under parts bright orange 
colour. Those with granulated skins resemble the Toads in the capability of remaining without food for a most 
extraordinary period, in a state of imprisonment, having been found occasionally in closed cavities, where they 


must have remained for many years.] 
The skeleton of an animal of this genus has been found among the schists of GEningen, which is three feet in 


length. It is the pretended fossil man of Scheuchzer. 

In the suite of the Salamanders should range several very similar animals, some of which are reputed 
never to have gills, while others, on the contrary, retain them permanently, notwithstanding which they 
have the same lungs as the other Batrachians, being thus the only vertebrated animals that are truly 
amphibious. 

The former of these, which have never been seen with gills, fall under two genera. 

THe Mewnopoma, Harlan. 

Form altogether that of a Salamander, the eyes apparent, feet well developed, and an orifice on each 
side of the neck. Besides a range of fine teeth surrounding the jaws, they have a parallel range before 
the palate. The known species, fifteen to eighteen inches in length, inhabits North America, where it 
is termed Hell-bender. 

THE AmMpHiuMA, Garden,— 
Has also an orifice on each side of the neck, but the body is excessively elongated ; the limbs and feet, 
on the contrary, but little developed; and the palatal teeth form two longitudinal ranges. Likewise 
from North America. 

Among those which permanently retain their gills, 

THE AxoLorLis,— 
Altogether resemble the tadpole of a Salamander. They have velvety teeth to both jaws, and two 
bands of the same upon the palate. From Mexico. 


Tue Menosrancuus, Harlan,— 
Has but four toes to each foot; a range of teeth on the intermaxillaries, and another parallel but more 
extended range, on the maxillaries. 
Tue Proteus, Laurenti. 

Three toes before, and only two behind; the muzzle lengthened and depressed; both jaws furnished 
with teeth; tongue but slightly moveable, and free anteriorly ; eyes excessively small, and couched be- 
neath the skin, as in the mammiferous genus Spalax ; ear covered by the flesh, as in the Salamanders ; 
and skin smooth and whitish. The skeleton resembles that of the Salamander, except that it has many 
more vertebrz, and fewer rudiments of ribs; but the general conformation of the skull is very different. 
Inhabits the subterranean waters, with which certain lakes in Carniola communicate. 


Tue Syrens (Syren, Lin.)— 
Are elongated animals, having nearly the form of Eels, and three branchial crests; no hind feet, nor 
even vestige of pelvis; head flatiened; mouth not deeply cleft; muzzle obtuse; eye very small; ear 
concealed ; lower jaw armed with teeth all round, but none in the upper; and two raised series on each 


side of the palate. 
One species (S. lacertina, Lin.) attains a length of three feet. Others are smaller, with the branchial crests less 
developed, and compose the Pseudobranchus of Gray. 


THE FOURTH CLASS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 


THE FISHES—(PISCES). 


[Fishes are the proper vertebrated inhabitants of the waters; and they are formed 
and organized for living, moving, and in general finding their food, wholly within this 
element. The nature of their locality necessarily makes their history obscure, because 
human observation extends to only a very limited portion of the waters, and in that 
portion to only a trifling depth; but when we consider that, exclusive of lakes and 
rivers, the seas occupy full seven-tenths of the earth’s surface, that those seas yield 
food as far down as the rays of the sun can extend their life-giving energy, and that 
there is no obstacle in the water to bar the motions of the fish, we can at once see 
that, of all vertebrated animals, they must be the most numerous, and probably they 
exceed in numbers the whole of the other three classes of the same grand division of 
animated nature. They inhabit, stratum super stratum, as it were,—one species near 
the surface, another near the bottom, and others, again, range through the intermediate 
depth. What may be the absolute depth of the ocean waters at which life ceases, and 
the profound of death and darkness begins, we have no direct means of ascertaining. 
It varies, of course, with the latitude, being greater as the rays of the sun are more 
direct, and less as their obliquity increases ; and it probably also varies with the nature 
of the bottom. In correspondence with the vast range of pasture which is assigned to 
the Fishes, their productive powers are enormous,—the young produced by one Cod-fish, 
at a single deposit, being ascertained to be not much less than four millions, while in the 
common Flounder they are not fewer than one hundred and fifty thousand. A fertility 
so enormous, as compared with anything we are acquainted with on land, of itself 
shows the importance of the Class, and how well they are adapted for supplying each 
other with food. But, interesting as it is, the space to which we are restricted, forbids 
any disquisition on their physiology; and all that we can accomplish, is to render the 
text of the last edition of Cuvier’s great work, as faithfully in substance, and as briefly 
im expression, as we possibly can. Our own original remarks must necessarily be few; 
and we shall inclose them in brackets, the same as this introductory paragraph, to dis- 
tinguish them from the substantive part of the genuine text of Cuvier, which, in the 
way of systematic arrangement, has received no improvement, since the science of 
Zoology was deprived of that foremost of its cultivators. ]} 

Fishes are oviparous Vertebrata, with a double circulation, and respiring through the 
medium of water. For this purpose they have, on each side of the neck, branchie, or 
gills, consisting of arches of bone attached to the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue ; 
and to these arches the filaments of the gills are attached, generally in a row upon 
each, and having their surfaces covered by a tissue of innumerable blood-vessels. The 
water taken in by the mouth passes through among the filaments of the gills, and 
escapes by the gill-openings towards the rear. In its progress through the filaments 
of the gills, the water imparts to these the oxygen of the air which it contains [and 
receives carbon in return, the same as in the lungs of an air-breathing animal. The 
gills of a fish do not decompose water, so as to derive oxygen from it, but merely sepa- 

U 


a 
rere ae LS UN ee OE 


290 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 


rate the oxygen from the atmospheric air contained in the water; and hence, if water is 
deprived of this air, or impregnated with deleterious gases, Fishes cannot live in it. As 
little can they bear the return of water entering at the gill-openings, and escaping by 
the mouth ; for if a fish is held so that the water is made to pass in this direction, it is 
as speedily drowned as if it were an air-breathing animal]. The blood is brought to 
the gills by the heart, which thus answers to the right ventricle of warm-blooded 
animals; and from the gills it is sent to an arterial trunk, lying immediately upon the 
under side of the back bone, which trunk is the left or systematic ventricle of the heart, 
and sends the blood throughout the body of the fish. 

Living habitually in water, which is of very nearly the same specific gravity as their 
bodies, Fishes have no weight to bear, but merely to propel themselves through the 
water; and their form and their organs of motion are all adapted to this one purpose, 
though varying in the species. In many, there is under the spine a membranous air- 
bladder, which the fish can expand or contract at pleasure; and this is understood to 
alter its gravity, and enable it to suspend itself at any depth in the water. [Many 
fishes, wanting this apparatus, have, however, nearly the same habits as others which 


are possessed of it. ] 

Progressive motion is effected by the tail striking alternately right and left against the 
water, [for which purpose the flexure of the spine is lateral, whereas in the other Verte- 
brata generally, the principal flexure is vertical], and perhaps the jet of water thrown 
backward from the gill-openings may assist. Thus a fish has but little use for extremi- 
ties; and the parts analogous to legs and arms are accordingly very short, terminating in 
a number of rays analogous to fingers and toes, and these, covered by membranes, form 
what are termed fins. The fins answering to arms are called pectorals, and those 
answering to legs ventrals; and besides these there are cften fins on the back called 
dorsal, behind the vent called anal, and on the extremity of the tail called caudal, 

The texture of the fins is important in classification. If the rays consist of single 
bones, whether stiff or flexible, they are said to be spinous ; and if they consist of a 
number of jointed pieces, divided at their extremities, they are called soft, or articulated. 

The pectorals are attached to two bones immediately behind the gills, and answering 
to the scapulars, which bones are sometimes imbedded in the muscles, or attached to the 
spine, but generally to the bones of the head. The pelvis rarely adheres to the spine; 
and it is often in advance of the belly, and attached to the bones of the shoulders. 

The vertebre have their proximate surfaces concave, and filled with cartilage, which 
forms the joints, and is generally continued by an aperture through the centre of each 
vertebra. Spinous processes, upwards and downwards, support the muscles, and main- 
tain the vertical position of the body; but, as far as the cavity extends, the downward 
processes are wanting, and there are transverse processes, to which the ribs are some- 


times soldered by cartilages. 

The head varies much in form; but in general consists of the same number of bones 
as in the other Vertebrata,—a frontal of six pieces, parietals of three, occipitals of five, 
and five of sphenoid and two of each temporal bone, are included in the composition of 
the cranium. 

Besides the brain, which is disposed as in Reptiles, Fishes have nodes or ganglions 
at the base of their olfactory nerves. The nostrils are simple cavities at the end of the 
muzzle, always pierced with two holes, and lined by a regularly-plaited pituitary mem- 


PISCES. 291 


brane. In their eyes, the cornea is flat, and there is a little aqueous humour, but the 
crystalline lens is almost spherical, and very hard. The ear is a sac, in which are sus- 
pended small hard bodies; and there are three membranous canals within the cranium 
in ordinary fishes, but in its walls in the cartilaginous ones. They want the Eustachian 
tube and tympanal bones; and only the Sharks and Rays have an external opening, 
which in them is level with the head. As great part of the tongue is bony, and as it is 
often furnished with teeth and other hard parts, Fishes can have little sense of taste. 
The fleshy cirri, or beards as they are termed, of some of the species, are perhaps 
organs of touch. The body is in general covered with scales, and generally speaking 
they have no organ of prehension except the mouth. 

In most fishes, the intermaxillary bone forms the edge of the upper jaw, having the 
maxillary or the labial behind it. The palatal bones, pterogoid and zygomatic pro- 
cesses, and the tympanum and squamosa, form an anterior jaw, as in Birds and Serpents, 
to the posterior part of which the lower jaw is articulated, which jaw has generally 
two bones in each side, except in the cartilaginous fishes. The teeth are very various 
in situation, in number, and in form. They are found on the intermaxillaries, the max- 
illaries, the lower jaw, the vomer, the palate, the tongue, the gill-arches, and even on 
the bones of the pharynx behind these; [but many fishes have them only on some of 
these places, and there are some which are almost, if not altogether, toothless]. 

Besides the gill-arches, the hyoid bone supports the gill-membrane. The gill-lids, or 
operculi [by the working of which respiration is carried on], consist of three pieces, the 
operculum, sub-operculum, and inter-operculum. These are articulated on the temporal 
bone, and play on the pre-operculum; but many of the cartilaginous species want them. 

The stomach and intestines differ greatly ; and, except in cartilaginous fishes, the 
pancreas is supplied by ceca round the pylorus, or by a duplicature of the intestine. 
The kidneys are against the spine, but the bladder is above the rectum, and opens behind 
the vent and the reproductive passage, contrary to what is found in the Mammalia. The 
male organs are large glands termed mi/ts, and the female are sacs, which also attain 
great size, and have the eggs in their internal folds. In most fishes, there is no im- 
pregnation till after the expulsion of the eggs; but in the Sharks and Rays, and some 
others, the case is different, some of them producing perfect eggs, and others bringing 
forth the young alive. 

The proper classification of Fishes is a very difficult matter. ‘There are two distinct 
series of them:—FisuEs, properly so called, or Bony Fishes ; and Cartilaginous Fishes, 
or Cuonproprerycu. The latter want some bones of the jaws, and have other pecu- 
liarities: they are divided into three orders ;— 

Cycxostomt (round-mouths, or suckers), which have the jaws soldered into a sort of 
ring, and numerous gill-openings. 

Srracui (Sharks and Rays), which have gill-openings similar to the former, but 
the jaws not soldered into a ring. 

Sturrones (Sturgeons), which have the gill-openings with a lid, as in the Fishes 
properly so called. 

Of the Orpinary Fisues, or those with bones in the skeleton, one order have the 
maxillary bone and the palatal arch fixed to the cranium. These are called Piecro- 
enatui (soldered jaws), and they consist of two families: Gymnodontes (naked teeth), 


and Sclerodermi (hard skins). Another order, the Lornosrancuir, which consists 
U 2 


999 PISCES. 


but of one family; and which, with the jaws perfect, have the filaments of the gills 
arranged in tufts upon the arches. 

In the rest, which include by much the greater number of the True Fishes, the cha- 
racter employed by Ray and Artedi, and taken from the nature of the first rays of the 
dorsal and anal fins, furnishes two principal divisions. ‘These are MaLacoprEryGil 
(soft fins), in which all the rays, with the occasional exception of the first dorsal or the 
pectorals, are soft or jointed; and Acanruorreryeir (spiny fins), in which the first 
portion of the dorsal, or first dorsal when there are two, always have spinous rays, and 
which have also some in the anal, and at least one in each ventral. 

The first of these sub-classes may be divided according to the position of the ventral 
fins. If these are on the belly, the fishes are Abdominal ; if attached to the shoulder, 
they are Sub-brachian ; and if wanting, they are Apodal. Each of these orders com- 
prises certain families, of which the abdominal ones are very numerous. 

The Spinous Fishes do not admit of this kind of division; but must be separated into 
families, the characters of which are, in many instances, well defined. The same gra- 
dation of families cannot be traced among Fishes as among Mammalia. Thus, the organs 
of sense, and those of generation in some, indicate connexion between Cartilaginous 
Fishes and Serpents, while the imperfect skeleton of others of these fishes indicates a 
relation to Mollusca and Worms, [though the far more important disposition of the 
nervous system, characteristic of the type of Vertebrated Animals, is still retained. 

The abstract of Cuvier’s arrangement of Fishes, by far the best—that is, the most 
natural, which has hitherto been made, or which there are materials for making—may 
be given briefly thus:—The series of True or Bony Fishes he divides into the two divi- 
sions already mentioned, as distinguished by the rays of the fins. The Spinous Fishes 
form a single order, and this order he divides into fifteen families, which he names, 
from some well-known species as the type, or for some marked peculiarity of character 
which belongs to the whole of the family and to no other fish. The Soft-finned Fishes 
he divides into three orders, according as the ventral fins are abdominal, thoracic, or 
wanting; and the Cartilaginous Fishes he divides into two orders,—those with free 
gills, and those with the gills fixed. ] 


THE FIRST ORDER OF BONY FISHES. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


This first order contains by far the greater number of the Ordinary Fishes. Their characters 
are spinous rays in the first dorsal, if there are more than one, and spinous rays in the first 
part if there is one only; but sometimes, instead of a first dorsal, they have free spines 
without any connecting membranes. The anal fin has also its first rays spinous; and 
there is generally one such ray in each ventral. [When we speak of the first ray of a fin, 
we mean the one nearest the head of the fish, which is easily understood in the other fins, and 
is the extreme one either above or below in the caudal. | 

The spinous fishes are arranged into fifteen families, and some of these families contain a 
vast number of genera. The families are named, as already noticed, from some well-known 
species, or some strikingly peculiar character. [When a species is the type, the technical 
name of the family ends in ide@ or oide, the Greek word for resemblance; and when it is 
founded on a peculiar character, the name is descriptive of that]. 


ACANTHOPTERYGIL. 293 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Prercip& (the Percu Family). 


These fishes have the body oblong, covered with hard or rough scales, with the gill-lid or gill-flap, or 
often both, toothed or spinous in the margins. The species are very numerous in the waters of all 
warm countries ; their flesh is in general agreeable and wholesome ; they are mostly thoracic, or have 
the ventral fins under the pectoral, and they are subdivided according to the number of gill rays. 
The first division have seven rays in the gills, two dorsal fins, and all their teeth are velvety. 
[Cuvier makes use of this expression as descriptive of very minute teeth, set closely together 
in numerous rows, and thus resembling the pile of velvet in arrangement though not in texture.] 

This division comprises various species, of which the following are the principal genera:— 

Perca, including the Common Perch of Europe, and various other species of North America and other places ; 
Labrax, the Basse, a marine genus, of which species are found both in Europe and in America; Lates, the Perch 
of the Nile, of which there are also species in the Indian rivers ; Centropomus, the Sea Pike, which has the oper- 
culum obtuse and without spines; Grammistis, an Indian genus, with white longitudinal stripes, and a black 
ground ; Arpro, the River Perch, found chiefly in the Rhine ; Zingel, a peculiar Perch of the Danube, with thirteen 
spines in the first dorsal. 

This subdivision also comprehends some fishes of foreign countries, whose peculiarities cause several subgenera. 
These are, Huro, like a true Perch, only the pre-operculum is not toothed; felis, with hooked teeth in the jaws, 
but not in the palate ; Niphon, with strong spines on the pre-operculum and operculum ; Enoplosus, like a Perch, 
but with body much compressed, two high dorsals, and the pre-operculum deeply toothed ; Diplorion, compressed, 
double-toothed border to the pre-operculum, and two spines on the gill-lid. Other species of this subdivision are, 
Apogon, small fishes, of a red colour, with two dorsals far apart, and large scales, easily separated. One of them, 
the King of the Mullets, or Beardless Mullet, is found in the Mediterranean ; Chetlodipterus, resembling the former, 
but with long teeth in the jaws; and Pomatomus, a very rare genus, of small size, with immense eyes, and 
exceedingly small teeth, velvety in their arrangement. 


A second subdivision have two dorsal fins, but long and pointed teeth, mingled with a velvety 


arrangement. 

Of these the principal genera are Ambassis, with the dorsals near each other, and a spine in front of the former ; 
they are small fishes of the warm regions of the East, abundant in pools and rivulets, and sometimes prepared as 
Anchovies; and Lucio-perca, the Perch-Pike, with long teeth on the maxillaries, and and also in the palate, found 
in Eastern Europe. 

The second division of the Perches have seven rays in the gills, but only one dorsal fin; the genera 
are arranged by the characters of their teeth, and the leading ones are these :— 

Serranus, the Sea Perch; Anthias, the Barber, a beautiful red fish of the Mediterranean, with metallic reflec- 
tions; Merous, the Great Perch, and some varieties. 

Distinct from these are several genera, Plectrepoma, Diacopus, Mesoprion, Acerina, Rypticus, Polyprion, 
Centropristis, and Gristes. These inhabit different parts of the world, and some of them are beautiful fishes. 


The Percide with less than seven gill-rays, are arranged according to the number of their dorsal 


fins and the characters of their teeth. 

With a single dorsal, some have hooked teeth among the other ones, as Cirrhites, which inhabit the Indian 
Ocean, and have six gill-rays. Others have only small teeth, among which there are the following genera, Chiro- 
nemus, Pomotis, Centrachus, Priarcanthus, Dules, Therapon, Palates, and Elotes. These are chiefly fishes of the 
warm countries, some of the fresh water and others of the sea; their colour is in general silvery, marked with 
blackish longitudinal lines. 

There are two genera of Percide which have less than six gill-rays and two dorsals. 

These genera are Tyichodon, a native of the North Pacific ; and Si//ago, found in the Indian Ocean. One of 
the latter is supposed to be the finest fish in India. + 

We now pass on to other Percide, which have more than seven gill-rays, and seven soft rays besides 
a spine in their ventrals, the other Acanthopterygit having never more than five soft rays. 

The genera, Holocentrum, Myripristis, Beryx, and Trachichthys, all of which are brilliant fishes of the warm 
seas, and some have the air-vessel divided into two parts. 

All the Percide hitherto mentioned have the ventrals immediately under the pectorals ; but there 
are others which have them differently placed. 

The Jugular Percide have the ventrals upon the throat farther forward than the pectorals. They 
comprehend the following genera :— 

Trachinus, the Weevers, with the head compressed, the eyes near each other, the mouth obliquely up- 


a | 
A a OS) UAL a Eon 100 oP 


PISCES. 


wards, the first dorsal very short, but with a formidable spine on the first ray, the second dorsal long, the 
pectorals large, and a strong spine on the operculum. ‘These fishes lie in the mud, and inflict severe wounds 
with their dorsal spine, which the fishermen believe has a poisonous quality, but it is merely rugged, and lacerates 
an ill-conditioned wound, similar to what is inflicted by the antler of a Stag. Percis, which resemble the Weevers, 
and inhabit the warm seas, have crooked teeth on the maxillaries and the vomer, but none on the palatal bones. 
Pinguipes, also of the warm seas, more sluggish than the preceding genus, with the teeth strong and conical, 
fleshy lips, and teeth on the palate. Percophis, with the body very long, some of their teeth long and pointed, and 
the lower jaw much advanced. 

One very remarkable genus of Percidw is Uranoscopus, the Star-gazer, so called because the eyes are placed 
on the upper surface of the nearly cubical head, and directed toward the heavens. Their-pre-operculum is tcothed 
on the lower part ; their mouth is cleft vertically ; they have a strong spine on each shoulder, and only six rays 
on each gill, Within their mouth, behind the tongue, is a narrow slip which they can protrude, and with which 
they attract small fishes, while themselves are concealed in the mud. Their gall bladder is of immense size. 
One species, U. scaber, inhabits the Mediterranean, but none of the others are European. This is a very ugly fish, 
but still it is eaten. 


The third division comprises the 4)dominal Percide, or those which have the ventral fins behind 


the pectorals. 

One genus has them still partially attached to the bones of the shoulder. This is Polynemus (many fillets), so 
called because the inferior rays of their pectorals are filled and extended into long threads. Their teeth are in part 
velvety, like those of the true Perches, and partly also like those of a Carp, and they have them on the maxillaries, 
the vomer, and the palate. Their snout, however, is rounded, and the vertical fins are scaly. They are found in 
the waters of warm countries, and one, P. paradiseus, of a beautiful yellow colour, with seven filaments from the 
fin on each side, at least twice as long as the body, is the celebrated “‘mango fish” of the Ganges, reckoned 
the most delicious in India, Most of the other species have the filaments shorter, but the flesh of all of them is 
excellent. 


The following genera have the ventrals still farther behind, and the bones of the pelvis quite detached 


from the bones of the shoulder. Of these there are several :— ; 

Sphyrena, the Sea Pike, which has been confounded with the Zsox or True Pike. They are large 
fishes, with an oblong head and projecting under jaw. There are several species inhabiting the warmer 
seas, and one, S. barracuda, is as much dreaded as the White Shark. Paralepis, small fishes, resembling 
the last genus in general characters, but with the second dorsal fin small and fleshy. Mudlus, the Sur- 
mullet, a very celebrated genus, and held in much estimation by epicures. These fishes must not be 
confounded with the Mullets properly so called, which give name to another family, and are typical of 
it, being very different in form and appearance from the Surmullets. The latter have the body thick and 
oblong, with the profile of the head nearly vertical, the eyes far up, teeth in the lower jaw and palate only, two 
cirri inwards at the lower jaw, and but four rays in the gills. There are two species, both of which are European, 
the Striped Red Mullet, W. swrmudatus, which is not very uncommon on the southern coast of England; and the 
Plain Red Mullet, 7. barbatus, which, though named as a British fish, is chiefly found in the Mediterranean. 
Both species are delicious eating ; and the luxurious Romans used to feast their eyes with the changes of colour 
in the Red Mullet when dying, before they devoured its flesh. Upeneus is a genus of the tropical seas, with teeth 
in both jaws, but none in the palate. They have only four gill-rays, like the Surmullets, but have also an air- 
bladder, which the latter are without. These complete the family of the Percide, as now known. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


FisHes witH Harp CHEEKS. 


This family comprehends a number of fishes of which the appearance of the head is singular, being 
variously mailed, or defended by spines and scaly plates of hard matter ; but they have many characters 
in common with the Percide. Their principal distinction consists in the suborbital bone being 
more or less extended over the cheek, and articulated with the operculum. The Star-gazer is the only 
genus of the Perch family which resembles them in this respect ; but in it, though the suborbital bone 
is very broad, it is connected posteriorly with the temporal bones, and not with the operculum. 

The following are the principal genera :— 

Trigla, the Gurnards, so called from the sounds which they utter with their gill-lids when taken out of the water. 
hey have an immense suborbital plate, to which the operculum or gill-lid is articulated by an immoyeable suture, 
so as to be incapable of separate motion. ‘They have the head vertical in the sides, hard and rough bones, two 
distinct dorsals, three free rays under the pectorals, twelve cceca, and an air-bladder of two lobes. The Gurnards 
properly so called, have small teeth in both jaws, and in front of the vomer, together with large pectorals, 
but not sufficiently so for raising them out of the water, like those of the Flying Fishes. There are many species 
found in the temperate seas, which, though in estimation for the table, are inferior in this respect to the Sur 
mullets. ‘The English species are 7. cuculus, the Red Gurnard, with strong plates in the cheeks, the body 


ACANTHOPTERYGIL. 295 


lengthened, and nearly round, one spinous and one soft-ray dorsal fin; seven rays in the gills, gill-opening large, 
and with three free rays at the base of each pectoral. 7. Hirundo, the Sapphirine Gurnard, with the pectorals of 
immense size, but in most of its other characters analogous to the Red Gurnard. It is more abundant than that 
species, and grows toa larger size. Is rather a dry fish, but the flavour is tolerably good, and it answers very 
well for salting. There are various other species, chiefly found in the Mediterranean. 

The following genera, which are closely allied to the Gurnards, deserve some notice :— Prionotus, an 
American fish, resembling the Sapphirine Gurnard, but with the pectorals so large, that they can support the 
body during a considerable leap through the air. They have a characteristic band of small teeth, closely 
crowded together, upon each parietal bone. Peristidion, a genus having the whole body mailed with large hex- 
agonal scales, ranged in longitudinal rows. Their muzzle is divided in two, and there are cirri to the mouth, but 
no teeth. Dactylopterus, celebrated as Flying Fishes. ‘They have the subpectoral rays numerous, longer than the 
body, and united by a membrane, so as to furnish large supplemental fins, by means of which the fishes can 
protract their fall for a few minutes, when they spring from the water to escape the Coryphenes, and other ene- 
mies ; but as the fishes cannot fly, or take a new impulse from the air, they speedily fall down and become the 
victims of the pursuers. ‘They are found in the Mediterranean aud Indian Ocean; and are small fishes, seldom 
more than a foot in length. Cephalacanthus, resembles the former, with the exception of the supplementary fins, 
or wings, as they are sometimes improperly called. Cotfus, the Bull-head, of which there are several species. 
They have the head depressed, with teeth in both jaws and in the front of the vomer, the gill-lids furnished with 
spines; gills with six rays, and large openings, bodies slender, and without scales ; two dorsals, near to each other, 
and the ventral fins small. Of these, C. gobio, the Miller’s Thumb, is found in rivers; C. bubalis, which has the 
gill-lids very spiny, C. quadricornis, with four short spinous processes on the top of the head, are found in the 
sea: besides these there are some foreign species. 

Apidophorus, the Pogge, sometimes termed the Armed Bull-head, has the body octangular, and covered with 
scaly plates, with recurved spines on the snout, and teeth in the jaws only; it is a genus found in the Northern 
Atlantic and Pacific, but the species are small and unimportant. 

Some groups, recently known, have the characters of Cottus, and of Scorpena. Of these we may notice 
Hemitripterus, with two dorsals, a bristly head, and no scales ou the body; it varies in length from one to two feet, 
and is found on the American shores. Hemilepidotus, has only one dorsal; teeth in the palate, and longitudinal 
bands of scales, which are not visible till the body is dried; it occurs in the Pacific. Platycephalus, is found in 
the Indian Ocean. It has large ventrals, with six rays placed behind the pectorals ; the head depressed, and sharp 
and spinous at the sides, but not operculated. There are seven rays in the gills, a row of sharp teeth in the 
palate, and the body covered with scales. 

Scorpena, of which there are two subgenera, which have the head rough, and hardened with plates, and are com- 
pressed laterally; the body is scaly; and there is one dorsal fin. Except in the singular appearance of their 
armed and tuberculated heads, they very much resemble the Perches. The subgenera aye Scorpena, without 
scales, but armed with spines, which are accounted dangerous. ‘They are a gregarious fish, and have 
their haunts among the rocks. Some allied species have the body much compressed, and a very high 
dorsal fin, united to the caudal. Sebastes, the Norway Haddock, rather a large species, with many spines on the 
head, a long dorsal, of which the posterior portion has soft rays; the eyes very large, and teeth in all the jaws. it 
inhabits the northern seas, and the Greenlanders use its spines as needles. Pterois, Indian fishes, resembling 
the last genus, but with no lateral and pectoral rays; remarkably long; their colour very beautiful; and no 
teeth in the palate. Blepsias, inhabits the North Pacific; has hard cheeks, cirri on the lower jaw, five gill-rays, 
small ventrals, and one dorsal, consisting of three lobes. Apistes, Treacherous, are small fishes, having a formid- 
able spine on the suborbital plate, and branched rays in the pectorals. Some have scales, andsome not. Agriopus, 
want the spine of the former, have the dorsal very high, and reaching to between the eyes, a narrow muzzle, and 
the body without scales. Pedor, like Scorpena in their teeth ; two free rays in the pectorals, head flat, eyes close 
together, dorsal spines very high, and whole appearance singular. Synanceia, as ugly as the former; the head 
shapeless, tuberculated, and the skin loose. No teeth on the vomer or palate. Like most of the analogous genera, 
they inhabit the warm seas, and this genus is considered poisonous. Monocentris,—body short, thick, com- 
pletely covered with rough, angular plates, four or five stout spines in place of the first dorsal; each ventral a 
single large spine; head and mouth large; teeth on the jaws and palate, short and crowded; found near Japan. 
Gasterosteus, Stickleback, a numerous and very common genus, found both in fresh waters and the sea. 
Named from the free spines on the back, anda bony covering on the belly. Their ventrals, placed behind the 
pectorals, consist only of a single spine, and they have but three rays and gills. There are several European 
species, distinguished chiefly by the number and character of their spines. Though of small size, they are 
exceedingly voracious. Orveosoma, a small oval fish, with its body all covered over with scaly cones; only one 
species is known. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Scianip& (the Maiere Family). 


These still resemble the Perches in the notches of the pre-operculum and operculum; but they have 
no teeth on the vomer or palate. The muzzle is thickened, and there are a few scales on the dorsal 
fins, of which fins some genera have one and others two. 

The following are the principal genera :— 


296 PISCES. 


Sciena, of which there are seven subgenera. ‘The general characters are,—the head inflated, and supported by 
cavernous bones ; two dorsals, or one deeply notched, the soft part much longer than the spinous; the anal short, 
the pre-operculum toothed, and the operculum divided into points at its extremity; seven arches in the gills. 
They resemble the Perches, only they have no teeth in the palate; their whole head is scaly, their air-bladder 
often curiously fringed, and the stony appendages in the ear larger than in most fishes. The following are the 
subgenera :— 

Sciena, or Maigres, properly so called, which have the spines of the anal weak, and neither elongated canine 
teeth nor cirri at the mouth. One species, S. wmbra, inhabits the Mediterranean, and used to be highly esteemed, 
but has latterly become rare. It grows to the length of six feet or more. Some other species of this subgenus 
are found in the Southern and Indian Seas. 

Otolithus, has the anal spines weak, and no cirri, some elongated or canine teeth, and two horns attached to the 
air-bladder, and erected forwards. They are Indian and American fishes; one is known as the Stone Perch of 
Pondicherry. Ancylodon, resembles the former, but has a short muzzle, long canine teeth, and a pointed tail. 
Corvina, small and crowded teeth, with neither canines nor cirri; the second anal spine rather strong. One, 
species, C. nigra, is abundant in the Mediterranean, and there are others in the Indian and American seas. 
Johnius, resembles the last, but has the second anal spine weaker, and shorter than thesoft rays. They are found 
in the seas of India, Tropical Africa, and America, and are esteemed as food, their flesh being white and easy of 
digestion. Umbrina, distinguished by a cirrus on the lower jaw. A remarkably beautiful fish, found plentifully 
in the Mediterranean, and occasionally on the southern coasts of Britain. Its ground colour is golden, with bright 
bands of steel blue; and its flesh is excellent. It is not a very long fish, but is sometimes forty pounds in weight. 
Pogonias, somewhat like the former, but with several cirri below the jaw. Some of them are silvery, and attain 
the size of an Umbrina. This fish produces much more sound than any of the other Sciznide, on which account 
it is sometimes called the Drum-fish. 

Eques, has a long and compressed body, elevated at the shoulders, and tapering to the tail; the teeth are small 
and closely set ; the first dorsal is high, the second long and scaly ; and they all belong to the American seas. 


The Scienide with a single dorsal fin, are subdivided according to the number of the gill-rays. 
Those which have seven, correspond to some genera of the Sparidz, and have the pre-operculum always 


notched. The following genera have seven gill-rays :— 

Hemulon, has the muzzle lengthened, resembling that of a Hog; the lower jaw compressed, opening very wide 
and of a bright red. Hence they are called “ Red-throats”’ in the West Indian Islands. Their teeth are small, and 
closely set; and their dorsal fin is slightly notched, having the soft part scaly. They inhabit the American seas. 

Pristipoma, have pores in the jaw, like the last species, but the muzzle thicker, the mouth not so deeply cleft, 
and their dorsal and anal fins without scales. The obtuse angle of the operculum is concealed by a membrane. 
They are numerous, and inhabit the warm latitudes of both oceans. 

Digramma, resemble the last-named, except that the cavity of the symphysis is wanting, and there are two large 
pores beneath each side. They are found in both oceans. Those of the Atlantic have large scales, and those of 
the Indian Ocean smaller, and a shorter and thicker muzzle. 


The Scizenide with a single dorsal, and less than seven gill-rays, admit of more subdivision. Some 
have the lateral line extending to the caudal fin, others have it interrupted. The following genera 


possess the former character :— 

Lobotes, have the muzzle short, the lower jaw prominent, the body high, and the posterior angle of the dorsal 
and anal fins so elongated, as, with the rounded candal fin, to appear in three lobes. There are four groups of very 
small points near the end of the jaw. They inhabit both oceans. 

Cheilodactylis, have the body long, the mouth small, many spinous rays in the dorsal, and the lower rays of the 
pectorals simple, and produced beyond the membrane. 

Scolopsides, have the second suborbital plate toothed, and terminated by a point directed backwards, crossing 
another point of the third suborbital, directed the contrary way. The body is oblong, mouth little cleft, teeth 
velvety, scales large, and no pores in the jaws. They inhabit the Indian seas. 

Micropteres, have the body oblong, three spines on each side of the jaw, and the last rays of the soft part of the 
dorsal separated from the others, and forming a small peculiar fin. They have the operculum without notches. 


The Sciznidz with less than seven gill-rays, and the lateral line interrupted, form several genera of 
small oval fishes, generally finely coloured, and distinguished by the armature of their heads. They 
have a nearer relation to the genus Chetodon, and resemble some of the fishes with labyrinthic 


branchie. The following are the genera :— 

Amphitrion, with the pre-operculum and three operculum pieces dentelated, the latter produced on a single row 
of blunt teeth. Pomacentres, have the pre-operculum denteiated, the operculum without armature, and a single 
row of trenchant teeth. Premnas, have one or two stout spines on the suborbital, and the pre-operculum toothed. 
Dascyllus, resemble Pomacentres, except in having the teeth very small, and thickly crowded. All the genera in- 
habit the Indian seas. 

Glyphisodon, with the gill-lids entire, and a single row of trenchant and generally notched teeth. They are 
found in the Atlantic, but more abundantly in the Indian seas. 

Helianus, resemble the preceding genus in their operculum, but have the teeth small and velvety. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 297 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Sparip (the Sea-pream Family). 


These have no teeth in the palate; their general figure resembles that of the preceding family; their 
bodies have scales larger or smaller, but they have none on the fins; their muzzle is not thickened, nor 
the bones of the head cavernous; they have no notches in their preoperculum, nor spines on the oper- 
culum; their pyrolus has ccecal appendages ; they have six gill-rays, which are arranged according to 
the form of the teeth. The first tribe, of which there are five genera, have the sides of the jaws set 
with round, flat teeth, resembling a pavement. The genera are as follow :— 

Sargus, with cutting teeth in the front, like those of Man; but in some species the teeth vary. 

Chrysophris, Gilt-heads, with round grinders in the sides of the jaw, and a few blunt conical teeth in front. 
There are two European species: C. auratus, a large and beautiful fish, with a golden eyebrow; and C. microdon, 
with the teeth smaller, and the profile fuller. The first species is occasionally found on the south coast of England. 
They have very strong teeth, and are able to break the hardest shells of the Mollusca. 

Pagrus, has only two rows of grinders. 

P. vulgaris, silvery, glossed with red, inhabits the Mediterranean, and is occasionally met with on the English 
shores. There are others in the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, and one of Southern Africa, which has the jaws 
as hard as stone. 

Pagelus, has the teeth smaller, and the muzzle more elongated. P. erythrinus, the Spanish Bream, is silvery, 
glossed with rose-colour: it is a very beautiful fish. There are numerous others found in the Mediterranean 
and other seas; but the species named is the only one that occurs on the English coast, excepting the Sea Bream, 
P. centrodentus, which is of the same colour as the fornier, but has a large dark patch on the shoulder. 

Dentex, has all the teeth conical, and the front ones hooked. One species, D. vulgaris, occasionally occurs in 
the south of England, and there are various others. 

Some have the mouth less cleft, the body lower, and the caudal scaly to the end; and others have 
no scales on the cheek, but a pointed scale between the ventrals, and one above each of them. These 
form a second tribe of the family: and a third tribe also consists of a single genus,— 

Cantharus, which has crowded teeth, hooked, and placed cardwise round the jaws. One species, C. griseus, of 
a silvery grey colour, with brown longitudinal stripes, is found on the English shores, and known as the Black 
Bream. 

The fourth and last tribe consists of two genera :— 

Boops, with the mouth small, and the external teeth trenchant. There are several species in the Mediterranean, 
silvery or steel-coloured, with longitudinal golden stripes. Oblada, with small crowded teeth behind the trenchant 
ones; silvery, with blackish stripes, and a broad black spot on each side of the tail. 


THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


MENID. 


These differ from the last in the great extensibility of the upper jaw, which is advanced or withdrawn 


by means of long intermaxillary pedicles. It contains only the following four genera :— 

Mena, with fine narrow teeth in the jaws, and a band of the same on the vomer ; body shaped like that of a 
Herring, lead-coloured on the back, silvery on the belly. Smaris, want the teeth on the vomer, and the body is 
less elevated. Casio, has the dorsal somewhat higher. Geres, mouth protractile, jaw descends in advancing, 
and teeth in the jaws only: much esteemed for food. The first two genera inhabit the Mediterranean, the third 
the Indian Ocean, and the fourth the Atlantic, whence a stray individual sometimes reaches the coast of England. 


THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


SQUAMIPENNES (Scaly-finned). 


These fishes are so designated because the soft, and often the spinous parts, of their dorsal fins are 
so covered with scales as not to be easily distinguished from the rest of their bodies. This is the most 
distinguishing character; but they also have, in general, the body much compressed, and the intestines 
long, and with numerous ceeca. Linnzus included all those known in his time in the genus Cheéodon, 
or bristle-teeth, from the thinness and close array of these parts; but this genus admits of subdivision, 
and there are some others. 


The Chetodons have their teeth like a brush, their mouth small, their dorsal and anal fins scaly like 
the body, so that it is difficult to say where the fin commences. They abound in the seas of warm 


298 PISCES. 


climates, and are remarkable for the beauty of their colours. Their intestines are long, with numerous 
cceca, and their air-bladders are large and strong. They frequent rocky shores, and are eaten. The 
following are the genera :— 


== Chetodon, properly so called, with the body more or less elliptical, 
the spinous and soft rays continued in a uniform curve, the snout pro- 
jecting more or less, and sometimes a small dentation on the operculum. 
They all resemble each other, even in their colours, being marked with 
a black band which passes over the eye. In some, there are several 
vertical bands; others have them longitudinal, or oblique; some have 
brown spots on the flanks; some have glossed bands on the vertical 
fins, and one or two ocellated spots. Some of them are also distin- 
guished by filaments produced from the soft rays of the dorsal, and 
others have very few spines in that fin. 

Chelmon, remarkable for the length of its snout, with the mouth small, 
and at the extremity, and the teeth fine like hairs. One species, C. 
rostratus, has the faculty of shooting insects with drops of water pro- 
jected from the mouth, and it seizes them as they fall. It is found near 
the shores of South-eastern Asia. 

Heniochus, Coachman, have the first spines of the dorsal, and particu- 
larly the third and fourth, extended into filaments like a whip, and 
often twice the length of the body. 

Ephippus, Horseman, with a deep notch between the spinous and 
soft portions of the dorsal, the first of which has no scales, and can be 
folded into a groove on the back. There are various species, some of 
the American and some of the Indian seas; and one species is said to 
be a very foul feeder. Many of this genus are found fossil in Mount Bolca in Italy, which is a vast magazine of 
petrified fishes. 

Holocanthus, have a strong spine on the operculum, with the edge of that toothed. They are found in the warm 
latitudes of both oceans. ‘Their flesh is excellent, and the colours beautiful. and regularly marked. 

Pomacanthus, have the body more elevated from a sudden rise of the edge of the dorsal. They are only known 
as American. 

Platax, has trenchant teeth, with three points in front of their brush-like ones, and their body strongly com- 
pressed, and continued into thick, elevated, and scaly fins, with a few concealed spines in the anterior edge, so 
that the height is much greater than the length. They inhabit the Indian Ocean, but a fossil species has been 
found at Bulca. 

Psettus, resembles Platax, but has all the teeth small and crowded; and the ventrals, which are very long in 
that, reduced to a small spine, without soft rays. They are of various forms, and known only as inhabitants of 
the Indian Ocean. 

Pimelepterus, with a single row of teeth placed on a horizontal base or heel, and trenchant in the antericr part. 
The body is oblong, the head blunt, and the fins thickened with scales, whence the name. They inhabit both oceans. 

Dipterodon, an analogous genus, with trenchant teeth, chisel-shaped, and the spinous and soft parts of the 
dorsal separated by a deep notch. Found in the Southern Ocean. 


Fig. 133 .-—Chietodon rostratus. 


The following genera, which are ranged with Chetodon, on account of their scaly fins, yet differ 
from them in having teeth on the vomer and palate :— 

Brama, Ray’s Bream, has the body deep and compressed, the profile almost vertical, one elongated dorsal fin, 
scales on the dorsal and anal, and slender curved teeth on the jaws and bones of the palate. It is found in the 
warmer seas, but is occasionally met with on the shores of England. 

Pempheris, has a long and scaly anal, the dorsal short and elevated, and an obtuse profile and large eye; a-small 
spine on the gill-lid, and small crowded teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palate. Inhabits the Indian seas. 

Toxotes, the Archer, has the body short and compressed, the dorsal far backwards, the snout short and de- 
pressed, and the lower jaw projecting beyond the upper one. It has small teeth crowded in all parts of the mouth, 
and the gill-lids finely toothed. It hits insects with drops of water at the height of three or four feet above the 
surface, and is remarkably sure of its aim. 


THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Scomperip& (the Macxerer Family) 


This family comprises a vast number of genera, many species, and countless individuals. They are 
eminently useful to Man, and are the object of some of the most extensive fisheries. Many of them 
were included by Linnzus in one genus, Scoméer, but they are subdivided as follows :— 

Scomber, the Mackerel, with the body spindle-shaped, beautifully coloured, smooth, and with small 
scales. The common Mackerel is well known as one of the most valuable of the fast-swimming surface 


ACANTHOPTERYGII 299 


fishes, for the rapidity with which it dies when out of the water, and also becomes putrid, or tainted. 


There are several species in the European and American seas. 

Thynnus, the Tunny, has a soft corselet of large scales on the thorax, a cartilaginous keel between the crests 
and the sides of the tail, and the first dorsal approaching the second. It is very abundant in the Mediterranean, 
where it sometimes attains the length of fifteen or eighteen feet. It is captured in vast numbers, and forms an 
essential article of the food of the people. It has been known in the Mediterranean from the remotest antiquity, 
and occasionally appears on the British coast. There are several species, of which the Bonito, or Striped Tunny, 
is one of the most striking. 

Oreynus, has the pectoral fins much longer than the Tunny, the back blackish, the belly silvery, and the flesh 
much whiter than that of the Tunny. In summer, it visits the Mediterranean and Bay of Biscay, in shoals. [Most 
of the Scomberide frequent the shores in summer, for the purpose of depositing their spawn; and they subsist, in 
great part, upon the fry of the later spawners, as these again live upon theirs, which is a beautiful adaptation, 
whereby the immense surplus of one family of fish adequately supplies the wants of another. ] 

Auxis, have the corslet and short pectorals of the Cunny, and the separate dorsals of the Mackerel. Found in 
the Mediterranean. Of a fine biue on the back, with oblique blackish lines, and the flesh deep red. A West Indian 
species equals the Tunny in size. 

Sarda, differ from the Tunnies in having the teeth separate, strong, and pointed. The only known species in- 
habits both oceans, and is common in the Black Sea and Mediterranean. 

Cybium, have the body long, no corselet, jaw-teeth large and lancet-shaped, parietal teeth small, short, and 
crowded. Found in the warm parts of both oceans; and some of the species grow very large. Thyrsites, has the 
front teeth longer than the others, pointed teeth on the palate, and no lateral keels to the tail. 

Gempylus, have jaw-teeth similar to the last, but no parietal teeth, and the ventral fins scarcely perceptible. 

[These are the subgenera of Scomber, and the remaining Scomberide have characters somewhat different. ] 


Xiphias, the Sword-fishes, resemble the Tunnies in their very minute scales, the keels in their tails, 
the power of their caudal fin, and their whole internal organization. Their distinguishing characteristic 
is a long pointed beak, formed like a sword or 
spit, which terminates their upper jaw, and is 
a most powerful offensive weapon, with which 
they attack the largest animals in the ocean, 
[and sometimes drive it into the timbers of 
ships, where it breaks, and a portion is left]. 
This beak is principally composed of the vomer 
and the intermaxillaries, and supported at its 
base by the ethmoid and the frontal maxil- 
laries. Their gills are not divided like the teeth of a comb, but each consists of two large and parallel 
laminz, with reticulated surfaces. They swim with extreme rapidity, [and it is probable that the 
peculiar gills enable them to do this with safety, not being liable to get entangled like those in threads]. 
Their flesh is excellent. The subgenera are,— 

NXiphias, the Sword-fish, properly so called; has the beak long, flattened horizontally, and trenchant, like the 
blade of a large sword; sides of the tail with strong keels; only one dorsal, which wears in the middle in old speci- 
mens, and then seems two. This is one of the largest and best fishes in the European seas, and is frequently fifteen 
feet long. It is very abundant in the Mediterranean, but less so in the Atlantic. Notwithstanding its formidable 
weapon, its great strength, and its almost incredible celerity, a small crustaceous animal penetrates the flesh of 
the Sword-fish, and sometimes so torments it that it dashes itself on the shore with mortal violence. 

Tetrapturus. Beak shaped like a stiletto; each ventral conSists of one jointless blade; two small crests on 
each side of the base of the caudal, as in the Mackerel. [These lateral crests on the tail appear to steady that 
powerful organ, and thus render it more efficient and unerring in its intense labour.] One species inhabits the 
Mediterranean. 

Makaira, like the former, but wants the ventral plates; rather a doubtful species. 

Tstiophorus, has the beak and caudal crests like Tetrapturus, but the dorsal high, and serving as a sail in 
swimming; and the long and slender ventrals are composed of two rays each. Several species have been named, 
but they are imperfectly known. All the Sword- 


fishes attain a large size, [and the dorsal fin is subject 
to variations]. 


Fig 134 .—Xiphias clodius. 


Centronotus, a genus having free. spines in- 
stead of the first part of the dorsal, and ventrals 
in all the species. The subgenera are,— 

Naucrates, the Pilot-fish, has spindle-shaped body, 


free dorsal spines, keel on the tail as in the Herring, 
and two free spines before the anal. The Common 


300 PISCES. 


Pilot-fish of the Mediterranean is not above a foot long ; but it is swift and voracious, and follows in the wake of 
ships along with the Shark, which it has been erroneously supposed to lead, and hence its name of Ductor. A 
black species of the South American coasts has been found eight or nine feet long. 

Eclacates, form and dorsal spines like the last, but the head flattened, and the keel and anal spines wanting. 

Lichia, has dorsal and anal spines on the back, one of the former lying flat and directed forwards, but the body 
is compressed, and no keels on the tail. There are several species in the Mediterranean, all eatable, and some of 
large size. Trachinotus merely has the body a little more elevated, and the dorsal and anal longer and more 
pointed. 

Rhynchobdella. Spines as in the former genus, long body, and no ventrals. The subgenera are,— 

Macrognathus: has a pointed, cartilaginous muzzle, projecting beyond the lower jaw, and the dorsal and anal 
separate from the caudal. Mestacembelus: jaws equal, aud dorsal and anal joined to the caudal. Both inhabit 
the fresh waters of Asia, and feed on worms, in search of which they plough up the sand with their cartilaginous 
noses : their flesh is much esteemed. 


This is the place for the imperfectly known genus Notacanthus, which has the muzzle of the last, 
free spines for a dorsal, ventrals abdominal, a long anal reaching to the top of the tail, and joining a 
very small caudal. The known species inhabit the Arctic Ocean, and have been found two feet and a 


half long. 

Seriola. This genus resembles Lichia, has a horizontal spine before the dorsal, but the dorsal spines united by 
a fin, a small fin with two spines before the anal, and no keel ou the lateral line. One species is the Milk-fish of 
Pondicherry, so much esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh. There are several other species in both oceans. 

Nomeus, resemble the last, but have large ventrals attached to the abdomen by their inner edge; colour, 
silvery, with transverse black bands on the upper part. Has been confounded with the Gobies. 

Temnodon: tail unarmed, spines or small fins before the anal, first dorsal small, second and anal small, 
scales, one row of trenchant teeth in each jaw, with small crowded ones behind, and on the vomer, the parietals, 
and tongue; seven rays on the gills, and the gill-lid forked. There are species common to both oceans, and about 
the size of the common Mackerel. 

Caranx, have the lateral line with scaly plates, keeled, and often spinous, hoiizontal spine before the first of the 
two dorsals, last rays of the second dorsal often detached, some spines or a small fin before the anal. Several 
species in the European seas, and generally over the globe. Resemble Mackerel, and are called Bastard 
Mackerel. [On the British shores they are designated Scad or Horse Mackerel, and they sometimes make their 
appearance in immense shoals, literally ‘‘ banking the sea,’’ especially along the Cornish coasts, and shores of the 
Bristol Channel. They feed on the fry of Herrings, and are not in much estimation as food. ] 


Vomer. This genus have the body more and more compressed and elevated in the different sub- 
genera, while the armature on the lateral line diminishes, and the skin becomes smooth like satin, 
without any apparent scales. They have no teeth, except short and fine ones crowded together; and 
the subgenera are chiefly distinguished from each other by various filamentary prolongations of sonie 
of the fins. Linnzus and Bloch included them, but improperly, in the genus Zeus (Dory). The fol- 


lowing are the subgenera :-— 

Olistus. These resemble Situle, a subgenus of Caranx, but the middle rays of the second dorsal are not 
branched, but merely articulated, and extend in long filaments. 

Scyris. Nearly the same in form and filaments, 
but the spines of the fir t dorsal hidden in the edge 
of the second, and the ventrals short. 

Blepharis, has long filaments to the second dorsal 
and anal, the ventrals very long, and the spine 
scarcely above the skin; their body is very elevated, 
but their profile not so vertical as that of some of 
the other subgenera found in the warm seas; and in 
the West Indies one species is called the ‘‘ Cobbler.” 
Gallus, similar to the last in all respects except 
having the profile more vertical. Argyreiosus, has 
the profile still more vertical, the first dorsal defi- 
nitely formed, and some of its rays extended in 
filaments, as well as those of the second dorsal; the 
ventrals are also very long. 

Vomer, properly so called, has the body com- 
pressed, and the profile vertical, as in the two sub- 
wenera immediately preceding it, but none of the 
fins are extended into filaments. 


Zeus. After removing the analogous sub- 


Hus a95Blegeen genera of Vomer, this genus comprehends 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 301 


fishes with the mouth greatly projectile, and few and weak teeth. They differ much, and require 
division into various subgenera. 


Zeus, the Dory, has the first dorsal deeply notched 
between the spines, and the intermediate membranes 
extend into long filaments, together with the forked 
spines along the bases of the dorsals and the anal. 
One species, the Common Dory (John Dory) is yel- 
lowish brown, with golden or silvery reflections, 
according to the position of the light, with a round 
black spot margined with white on the shoulder. 
[The Dory has been a renowned fish since the days of 
the ancients, who styled it not the fish of Jove, but 
Zeus, that is, Jove himself. The religious also claimed 
it as the “ Tribute-money-fish,”’ from the black marks 
of the thumb and fingers of St. Peter on the shoulders, 
in which it is the rival of the Haddock—neither of 
which fishes Peter had any chance of seeing. It is 
still held in great estimation by epicures; and being a 
ground fish, it keeps two or three days, and is all the 

Fig. 137.—The Dory. better for it.] 

Capras, the Boar-fish, has the notched dorsal of the Dory, but no spines along the dorsal or anal; it has the 
mouth still more projectile than the Dory, the body 
covered with rough scales, and the fins entirely with- 
out filaments. [Its flesh in little esteem. ] 

Lampris, has a single dorsal very high anteriorly, 
as also is the anal, which has one small spine before 
its base; sides of the tail with keels; ventrals and 
caudal lobes very long, but subject to be worn away; 
colour, violet, spotted with white, and the fins red. 
Inhabits the Arctic seas, and grows to a large size. 
{In Britain it is known as the Opah, or King-fish.] 

Equula, One dorsal with several spines, the fore- 
most occasionally long, snout much protracted, * 
body compressed, and edges of the back and belly 
toothed with fins. They are small fishes, several 
of which inhabit the Indian Ocean, and some of 
them have the power of contracting the snout 
when at rest, and projecting it suddenly for the 
capture of those small fishes on which they feed. 

Menas, has the snout as in the last, but the body 
more compressed, the abdomen trenchant and very 
convex, but the back nearly straight; the ventrals 
are behind the pectorals, but still attached to the shoulder. One only is known, of the Indian Ocean, silvery, 
with a black spot near the back. 

Stromateus. This genus has the same compressed form as Zeus, and the same smooth epidermis; but the 
muzzle is blunt, and not protractile. It has a single dorsal, with a few concealed spines anteriorly, but no 
ventrals, The vertical fins are thickened as in the scaly-finned fishes ; the gullet has a number of spines attached 
to the membrane. They are found in the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and Pacific. Some of the species 
differ a good deal in form. 

Peprilus, has the pelvis trenchant and pointed before the vent, resembling rudimental ventrals, and some 
species have this part toothed. 

Luvarus, resembles the former, but has no trenchant blade on the pelvis, only a small scale, which covers the 
vent, and a prominent keel on each side of the tafl. A large species, silvery, with a reddish back, is found in the 
European seas. 

Seserinus. All the characters of the last genus, save that there are little rudiments of ventrals. One small 
species is known in the Mediterranean. 

Kurtus, resemble Peprilus, but differ in having the dorsal shorter, and the ventrals larger; the anal is long, and 
the scales so minute as to be invisible till the skin is dried. They have seven gill-rays, a spine between the 
ventrals, and some small trenchant plates before the dorsal, which has a spine directed forward at its base. The 
ribs are dilated, convex, and form a continuous annular tube, which extends so far under the tail, and contains 
the air-bladder. Some have a little cartilaginous horn in advance of the plates before the dorsal. They are found 
in the Indian seas. 


Coryphena, Dorades, or Gold-fishes, the Dolphins of the ancients, and of the modern Hollanders. 
They have the body long, compressed, and covered with small scales; the head trenchant in the upper 


Fig. 138,—The Boar-fish. 


302 PISCES. 


) 


part; a single dorsal, which extends the whole length of the back, with flexible rays the whole length, 
but the anterior ones not jointed; and they have seven rays in the gills. The following are the sub- 


genera :— 
Coryphena, the Coryphene, properly so called, have the head much elevated; the profile curved, and descending 


rapidly ; they have teeth in the palate, as well as the jaws. They are large and splendidly-coloured fishes, cele- 
brated for the velocity of their motions, and the havoc which they commit among the Flying Fishes. [C. hipparis, 
the Common Coryphene, is found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. It is a brilliant fish, and drives through the 
water like a radiant meteor. Its long dorsal is sky-blue, with the rays gold-coloured; its tail-fin green; its back 
green, mottled with orange; and its belly silvery, divided from the former by a yellow lateral line. As it passes 
along, however, there is an extraordinary play of colours upon it; and it is one of the fishes with the changes of 
whose colours, when dying, the luxurious Romans used to gloat their depraved fancy. Some of the Indian species 
are brighter coloured than this one; and, indeed, all the Scomberide have a tendency to get blackish in the cold 
seas, and brilliant in the warm ones, owing to the greater effect of the solar light in the latter; for the sunbeam 
is Nature’s pencil, down even to the deepest fish or pear] shell]. 

Curanxamores, differ from Coryphene in having the head oblong, and less elevated, and the eye in a medium 
position. Centrolophes, has no teeth in the palate, and a plain space between the occiput and the dorsal. [One 
species, the Black Fish, C. pompilius, occasionally wanders from the Mediterranean to the southern shores of 
Britain. It is a powerful fish, and not easily caught, but its flesh is much esteemed. It feeds partially on some 
sea-weeds, but chiefly on other fishes. ] 

Astrodermus, has the head and dorsal like the Coryphene, but the mouth small, four rays in the gills, and the 
ventrals very small in the throat. The scales are thinly scattered over the body, arranged into stars, hence the 
name. Only one species is known, which inhabits the Mediterranean ; is silvery, spotted with black, and has a 
very long dorsal. The fins are red. 

Pteraclis, teeth and head like the Coryphene, but the scales larger; ventrals on the throat small; dorsal and 
anals as high as the fish. 


{Such are the leading genera and subgenera of the Mackerel family, one of the most numerous and 
splendid in the class. ] 


THE EIGHTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 
Tanip# (Ribbon-shaped). 


This family is closely allied to the Mackerels, its first genus agreeing intimately with the last sub- 
genera of Scomber. The fishes composing it are long, flattened on the sides, and have very small 
scales. One tribe has the muzzle elongated, the mouth deeply cleft, with strong trenchant teeth, and 


the lower jaw projecting beyond the upper. This tribe contains only two genera. 

Lepidopus, the Scabbard-fish, or Scale-foot—from the form of the ventrals, which are merely two scaly plates. 
The body is thin and elongated, with a dorsal above, and a low anal beneath, terminating in a well-formed caudal. 
The gills have eight rays; the stomach is long, with more than twenty cceca near the pyrolus ; and the air-bladder 
is long and slender, with a glandular body attached. One species, L. argyreus, occurs from England to Southern 
Africa, but is not plentiful. It is sometimes five feet long, but itis rare. [It swims with extreme rapidity, and 
often with the head above water. It has no scales on the body, except the two which occupy the place of the 
ventral fins.] 

Trichiurus, Hair-tail. The body, muzzled jaws, and teeth like the last, and a dorsal extending along the back; but 
no ventral, anal, or caudal fins, excepting a few obscure little spines on the under side of the tail, which terminates 
in a hair-like point; there are seven rays in the gills; the stomach is long and thick; the intestines striped with 
numerous coeca; and their air-bladder long and simple. Viewed laterally, they resemble beautiful silver ribbons. 
There are several species of the Indian Ocean, and one at least of the Atlantic. (One, 7. Lepturus, called by 
some the Blade-fish—in contrast, we suppose, to the Scabbard-fish—occurs occasionally in various parts of the 
British seas. It is shining silvery, with greyish-yellow fins; the dorsal mottled with black on the edge; the 
irides are golden]. Some of the Indian Trichiuri have been described as having electric or galvanic properties, 
but such is not the fact. 


A second tribe comprehends genera which have the mouth small, and little cleft. 

Gymnetrus, has the body elongated, and flat, without an anal fin, but with a long dorsal, a caudal composed of 
few rays, and ventrals under the pectorals, which are fibrous, with small expansions at their extremities, but both 
they and the anterior of the dorsal are liable to be broken. The fishes themselves are very tender, their bones 
soft, their fins easily rent, and their flesh soon decomposed. They occur in the Mediterranean, the Indian, the 
Atlantic, and the Arctic Seas. Some of them are ten feet in length. [Two species have occurred in the British 
seas :—G. Hawkensii, on the coast of Cornwall, and G. arcticus, on some of the northern coasts; but the last 
species is not very satisfactorily made out, as the tenderness of the fish causes it to be mutilated almost the in- 
stant it is stranded. ] 

Stylephorus, has a caudal fin, as in the last, but shorter ; and instead of the tail ending in a hook in the middle 
of the fin, as it does there, it is produced in a filament longer than the body. 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 303 


A third tribe has the muzzle snort, and the mouth cleft ooaquely. It contains three genera. 

Sepola, have a long dorsal and anal, the top of the cranium flattened, the gape inclining upwards, all the spines 
of the dorsal flexible, but those of the ventrals stiff, cavity and stomach very short, and the air-bladder extending 
as far as the tail. One species, of a reddish colour, inhabits the Mediterranean; [and is occasionally found on the 
south coast of England, where it is known as the Red-band Fish, or Red Snake-fish. They appear to have little 
command of themselves in a stormy sea]. JLophotes, head short, with an osseous crest surmounted by a spine, 
bordered behind this with a low fin, extending from this spine to the tail, which has a very smal] caudal; the anal 
very short, pectorals moderate, and scarcely any ventrals; teeth pointed, eyes very large, and abdominal cavity 
occupying nearly the whole length of the body. One species is known in the Mediterranean, where it attains a 
large size. 


THE NINTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


TuHeEuTYEs (the Lancer-risu Family). 


These agree with the Mackerel family in some respects, but differ in others, such as trenchant spines 
on the sides of the tail, and an horizontal spine before the dorsal. The family contains few genera, all 
foreigners, with compressed oblong body, small mouth, slightly or not at all protractile, and only a 
single row of trenchant teeth in the jaws. They feed chiefly on fuci and other marine plants, and have 
large intestines. [Their powerful spines, which they use very dexterously, are weapons of defence 
supplied to them for nearly the same purposes as the horns of the ruminant Mammalia. | 

Siganus, have a unique character in their ventrals, which have two spinous rays, one external and the other 
internal, and three branch rays between them. They have five gill-rays, a horizontal spine before the dorsal, and 
the styloid bones of the shoulder so curved as to unite at their extremities with the first interspiral bone of the 
anal. There are numerous species in the Indian Ocean. 

Acanthurus, Lancet-fishes, have the teeth trenchant and notched, and a strong spine at each side of the tail, as 
sharp as a lancet, with which they inflict severe wounds on such as attempt to handle them unwarily; hence their 
common name. They are found in the warm parts of both oceans: some with the dorsal very elevated, others 
with a tuft of bristles before the lateral spine, and others again with the teeth divided like a comb. 

Prionurus, differ from the last only in having a number of horizontal cutting-blades on the side of the tail, in 


place of the strong spine. [These might be termed Scarifiers.] 
Naseus, have trenchant blades in the tail like the last, but with conical teeth, and a prominent horn projecting 


over the muzzle; only four rays in the gills, and three in the ventrals. Their skin is leathery. 

Axinurus, more elongated than the last, and without the prominence in front, but with the same number of rays 
in the gills and ventrals ; on each side of the tail, they have a single square cutting-blade, without a basal shield; 
their mouths are small, and their teeth slender. 

Priodon, have the notched teeth of Acanthurus, the three soft ventral rays of Naseus, and the sides of the tail 


armed like Syganus. 


THE TENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


FIsHES WITH LABYRINTHS IN THE PHARYNX. 


By the term Pharyngine labyrinthiforme, is meant that the upper membranes of the pharynx 
are divided into small irregular leaves, more or less numerous in the different genera, containing cells 
between them, which the fish can at pleasure fill with water; and by ejecting a portion of this water, 
moisten its gills, and thus continue its circulation while out of its proper element. [From this con- 
trivance of Nature herself, we are to understand that, if the gills of a fish can be kept properly 
moistened, by salt water or by fresh, according as the fish is naturally an inhabitant of one or the 
other, it may be carried alive over land to an indefinite distance]. By means of this apparatus, 
these fishes are enabled to quit the pool or rivulet which constitutes their usual element, and move to 
a considerable distance over land. This singular faculty was unknown to the ancients; and the people 
in India still believe that these fishes fall from heaven. 

[In cold and temperate climates, this apparatus is not necessary, because all the ponds and streams 
there, which are capable of supporting fish, are perennial, and never dried up, except in seasons of 
extreme drought, when, of course, all the fishes perish ; but in tropical countries, and in India perhaps 
above all other tropical countries, where the seasons are alternate drought and rain, there is neither 
food nor water for a fish during the one season, and plenty of both during the other. Hence, these 
fishes are furnished with this peculiar apparatus in the pharynx, by means of which they are enabled 
to follow the water over dry obstacles, and, in some of the species, to climb steep banks, or even trees, 
in the course of their instinctive journeys]. The following are the genera :— 


304 PISCES. 


Anabas, the Climbing Perch of India. This genus has the labyrinths highly complicated; the third pharyngi 
have pavement teeth, and there are others behind the cranium; the body is round in the section, and covered with 
strong scales; the head is large, the muzzle short 
and blunt, and the mouth small; their lateral line 
is interrupted for the posterior third ; the margins 
of the operculum, super-operculum, and inter- 
m Operculum, are strongly toothed, but there are 
y no teeth in the pre-operculum; their gills have 
five rays; they have many spinous rays in the 
dorsal and anal; and their stomach is of middle 
size, rounded, and with three ccecular appendages 
to the pyrolus. Only one species is known, which 
not only quits the water, and moves over banks, 
but is said by Daldorf to climb bushes and trees, by means of its dorsals and the spines on the gill-lids; but 
others dispute the latter power. This species is very common in India. 

Polyacanthus, has the spinous rays as numerous as the last genus, or even more so; and the same mouth, scales, 
and interrupted lateral line, but the gill-lid is not toothed; the body is compressed ; there are four rays in the 
gills, a narrow band of small crowded teeth in the jaws, but no palatal teeth; the labyrinths are less complicated, 
and the pyrolus has only two ccecular appendages. 

Macropodus, differs from the last in having the dorsal less extended, and that in the caudal and ventral ending 
in slender points ; the anal is also larger than the dorsal. 

Hesostoma, have a small compressed mouth, so protractile as to advance from and retreat to the suborbitals ; 
they have small teeth on the lips, and some on the jaws of the palate; five gill-rays, on the arches of which, to- 
wards the mouth, there are lamelle resembling the external ones ; the stomach is small, and has only two pyrolic 
ceca, but their intestine is long; the air-bladder is very stout. 

Osphromanus (so called from a conjecture, apparently erroneous, that the labyrinths of the pharynx are organs 
of smell], resembles Polyacanthus, but has the forehead concave; the anal longer than the dorsal; the suborbitals, 
and inferior edge of the pre-operculum, finely toothed ; the first soft ray of the ventrals very long; six gill-rays; 
the body much compressed. One species, O. alfax, grows as large as a turbot, and is considered more delicious. 
It has been introduced into ponds in the Isle of France and Cayenne, where it thrives well. The female, as in 
many other species of fish, digs a cavity in the sand for the reception of her eggs. 

Trichopodus, has the forehead more convex than the last, a shorter dorsal, and only four gill-rays. The only 
known species is a small fish from the Oriental Isles, of a brownish colour, with a dark spot on the side. 

Spirobranchus, resembles Anabas, but has no teeth on the gill-lids, but teeth in the palate. The only known 
species is a minute fish of Southern Africa. 

Ophicephatus, like the rest of the family in most of its characters, especially in the pharyngeal labyrinth, and 
can creep for some distance over land; but it differs from all other Acanthopterygii in having no spines in the 
fins, except a short one on the first of the ventrals. The body is long, and nearly cylindrical; the head flat, and 
covered with polygonal plates; the dorsal extends nearly the whole length; the anal is also long, and the caudal 
round it; they have five gill-rays; the stomach is obtuse, with moderately long cceca; and the abdominal cavity 
extends nearly to the base of the caudal. They are found in India and China, of various species, and different 
sizes. In the former country, the jugglers, and even the children, amuse themselves by making it craw] along 
upon dry ground; and in China, the larger ones are cut up alive for sale in the markets. 


{All the genera and species of this family are fresh-water fishes ; and they have not hitherto been 
found except in the south-east of Asia and the adjacent islands, and in Southern Africa.] 


Fig. 139 —Anabas. 


THE ELEVENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Mueiip& (the Muter Family). 


This family consists of the following three genera :— 

Mugil, the Mullet, properly so called, [which must not, however, be confounded with the Red 
Mullets, either plain or striped, which are included in the Perch family]. Their organization has so 
many peculiarities that they might be formed into a separate family. Their body is nearly cylindrical, 
covered with large scales, two separate dorsals with only four spinous rays in the first, and the ventrals 
are a little in rear of the pectorals. Their head is a little depressed, covered with large angular scaly 
plates ; their muzzle is short; their form isan angle, in consequence of a prominence at the middle of 
the lower jaw; and their teeth are very small, and in some almost imperceptible. They have six 
gill-rays ; the bones of the pharynx give an angular form to the gullet; their stomach terminates in a 
fleshy gizzard, resembling that of a bird; they have few cecal appendages, but the intestinal canal is 
long and doubled. They are gregarious, resorting to the mouths of rivers in large troops, and con- 
stantly leaping up out of the water. [They feed in part upon small Crabs and other Crustacea, which 


ee ee 


CANTHOPTERYGII. 


they swallow entire]. There are several species found in the European seas, of which the flesh is 


much esteemed. 

M. cephalus, the Grey Mullet, has the eyes half covered by two adipose membranes, adhering to the anterior 
and posterior margins of the orbit ; when the mouth is closed the maxillary is completely hidden under the 
suborbital ; the base of the pectoral has a long crest with a keel; the nostrils are separated by a considerable 
space, and the teeth are a little prominent. It is the largest and best of the Mediterranean species. [It occurs 
also on the British shore, though, perhaps, not so frequently as another species, the Thick-lipped Grey Mullet, 
M. chelo. The two are, however, sometimes confounded with each other. In addition to these, there is another 
Grey Mullet, first described by Mr. Yarrell, and which, from its shortness in proportion to the length, he has 
called. M. curtus. With the exception of its form, its small size, and some difference in the rays of the pectoral, 
anal, and caudal fins, it bears considerable resemblance to I. cephalus.] 

M. capito, the Ramando of Nice, has the maxillary visible behind the commissure of the jaws, even when the 
mouth is shut ; its teeth are much weaker: its nasal openings nearer to each other; and the membrane of the eye 
does not cover any part of the ball. The scale before the pectoral is short and blunt, and there is a black spot at 
the base of that fin. 

Two much smaller species (M. aureus and M. saltator of Risso) resemble M. camhiok The first has the maxillaries 
under the suborbitals, like Cephalus, but the nostrils are near each other, as in Capito. Thesecond, with the cha- 
racters of Capito, have the suborbital notched, showing the maxillary. 

M. chelo, is common in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. It is easily distinguished by its thick fleshy lips, 
by their ciliated edges, and by the teeth which penetrate their substance like hairs. The maxillary is curved, and 
appears behind the commissure. MM. /abio, a small American species, has proportionally larger lips, with their 
margins curved. There are also some thick-lipped species in the Indian seas. [There seems little doubt that 
Chelo is the Grey Mullet, which is so frequently taken in the bays and estuaries on the Channel coast, although 
not the one generally described as such]. 

Tetragonurus, is so named from the projecting keels or ridges on each side, near the base of the caudal. It is 
also one of those insulated genera which indicate particular families, [rather than belong to any of those esta- 
blished ones]. They in part resemble the Mullets, and in part the Mackerels. Their body is elongated; their 
spine is dorsal, long, but very low; their soft dorsal, which approaches the other, higher and shorter; their anal 
is opposite the soft dorsal, and their ventrals a little behind the pectorals; the sides of the lower jaw are raised 
vertically, and furnished with a single row of trenchant teeth like a saw, and inclosed, when the mouth is shut, by 
the upper teeth; there is also a small range of teeth upon each parietal bone, and two on the vomer ; the gullet is 
furnished internally with hard and pointed papillz ; their stomach is fleshy, and doubled; their coeca numerous, 
and their intestinal canal long. Only one species is known, an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, about a foot long, 
and black: its flesh is believed to be poisonous. 

Atherina, is a genus which does not completely harmonize with any other, and therefore it is arranged between 
the Mullets and the Gobies. It has a lengthened body, two dorsals far apart, ventrals behind the pectorals, the 
mouth protractile, and furnished with very small teeth. All the known species have a broad silvery band along 
each flank. They have six gill-rays; their stomach is a cul-de-sac, and no ceecular appendages. The last trans- 
verse process of the dorsal vertebre are bent, forming a sort of conical receptacle for the end of the air-bladder. 
They are small fishes, much esteemed for the delicacy of their flesh; and the fry remain a long time in shoals 
along the shores, and are consumed in great numbers. Four species are found in the Mediterranean, and there 
are a good many foreign ones. [4. presbyter, is found on the south coast of England, and also on the east coast 
as far as Lincolnshire, and in the Firth of Forth, but not abundantly. On the coasts of Hampshire and Sussex it 
is plentiful; and on the Cornish coast it is taken at all seasons. It is a handsome little fish, about six inches long, 
known as the Sand Smelt, but inferior in flavour to the true Smelt. ] 


THE TWELFTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Gopiop® (the Gosy Family). 

The fishes of this fetnlly 3 are known by the thinness and flexibility of their dorsal spines. They all 
———— ———————— have the same kind of viscera,—namely, a long, 
uniform, intestinal canal, without cceca, and 
no air-bladder. -[The family contains several 

genera, some of which admit of subdivision]. 
Blennius. The Blennies have one well-marked 
character in their ventral fins, inserted before 
the pectorals, and having only two rays each. 
The stomach is slender, with no cul-de-sac; the 
= intestine large, without cceca, and there is no 
air-bladder. The form is elongated and com- 
pressed, and there is but one dorsal, composed 


almost entirely of jointless but flexible rays, 
x 


Fig. 140.—Blennius. 


306 PISCES. 


They live in small troops, among rocks near the coast, swimming and leaping, and can exist for some 
time without water. Their skin is covered with a mucous secretion, whence they have their common 
name Blennies. Many of them are viviparous, or bring forth their young alive, fully formed, and 


capable of subsisting by themselves. They are divided as follows :— 

Blennies, properly so called, have the teeth equal and closely set, forming only a single and regular row in each 
jaw, but terminating behind, in some of the species, by a longer and crooked tooth; their head is blunt, their 
profile vertical, and their muzzle short. Most of them have a fringed appendage over each eye, and some have 
another on each temple. Their intestines are wide and short. The following are some of the more remarkable 
species :—B. ocellaris, Ocellated Blenny, or Butterfly-fish. This has two lobes in the dorsal, the first marked with 
around black spot surrounded by a white ring, and then a black one. It is a native of the Mediterranean, (but is 
occasionally found in the South of England by dredging. It lives among the rocks and sea-weed, and is under- 
stood to feed on minute Crustacea and Mollusca. It spawnsin spring. It is avery small fish.] B. tentacularis 
has four filaments on the head, the dorsal fin even, and a black spot on the fourth and fifth rays. [It is not 
named among the English Blennies.] B. gattorugine, has the dorsal nearly even, and only two fillets on the head. 
[It is found on the Cornish shores, varying in length from one inch to five. The general colour is reddish-brown, 
paler on the belly.]  B. palmicornis, has the appendage over the eye fringed, and the dorsal almost quite even, 
the anal Jong, and the caudal rounded: [it is found on yarious parts of the British shores, and even as far north as 
Norway. It is usually of small size, and pale brown, mottled with dark dull brown]. In some the appendages 
over the eyes are hardly visible, but they carry a prominent membrane on the top of the head, which becomes red 
and inflated in the pairing season. Of these there are several in the European seas. B. galerita. [Head blunt and 
rounded, body smooth, compressed, and clammy, one long dorsal fin, ventrals before the pectorals, with only two 
rays each, and both joined at the base. This is an insignificant species, found occasionally on the British shores, but, 
like most of the genus, quite valueless.] B. rubiceps, has the first three rays of the dorsal elevated, with red 
points, and the top of the head of the same colour. B. pholis, has the head without any appendages, the dorsal 
notched, and the pectorals rather large. [It is found on the British shores, and is remarkably tenacious of life, 
being capable of living a good many days if kept in moist grass or moss: like the rest, it is of trifling value. ] 


The following subgenera are separated from the Blennies, properly so called :— 

Myxodes, with the head lengthened, the muzzle pointed, and projected in advance of the mouth; a single row of 
teeth, but no large or canine ones. 

Salarias, have the teeth in a single row, placed close, hooked, but very slender and numerous. In a recent 
specimen they yield to the touch like the keys of a musical instrument. The head is much compressed above, and 
enlarged transversely below; their lips are fleshy and thick; their profile is quite vertical. Their intestines have 
spiral convolutions, and are longer and more slender than in the Common Blenny. They are found in the Indian 
Ocean only. 

Clinus, have short pointed teeth, dispersed in several rows ; their muzzle is less obtuse than in the former ; the 
stomach is more ample, and the intestines shorter. There are some variations of character. 

Cirrhibarba, resembles Clinus in shape, has small curved teeth, a little filament over the eye, one in the nostril, 
three larger ones at the end of the muzzle, and eight under the point of the lower jaw. Found in India. 

Murenidides, the Spotted Gunnel, or Butter-fish, has the ventral smaller than in any of the rest, often only a 
single ray; head small; body lengthened like a sword-blade ; a low dorsal, extending the whole length of the 
back; teeth like Clinus; and the stomach and intestine have a uniform appearance. [Found generally in the 
European seas, even as far north as Greenland, where it is eaten. ‘There it is said to grow to the length of ten 
inches, but on the British shores it is seldom more than six. The mucous secretion of the skin is very copious. | 

Opistognathus, resembles the true Blennies in form, especially its short snout ; has large maxillaries prolonged 
backwards to a sort of moustache ; teeth rasp-like, the external row strongest ; three rays in the ventrals, which 
are directly under the pectorals. From the Indian Ocean. 

Zoarcus. These cannot be separated from the Blennies, though they have no spinal ray, for they have all the 
more essential characters; [one species, Z. viviparens, is very common on the British shores, especially the north 
and east ; it is easily taken about the season when charlock is in flower in the corn-fields ; but it is of little value, 
and generally disliked, because when boiled its bones turn green. It attains the length of seven or eight inches, 
and the female brings forth her young alive. The body is heavy and lumbering, for so smalla fish. Z. labrosus 
is an American species, of an olive colour, with brown spots, and it sometimes attains the length of three feet. ] 

Anarrichas. [So very similar did Cuvier consider these fish to the Blennies, that he was disposed to consider 
them as Blennies without ventral fins.] Their dor- 
sal fin is composed entirely of simple but not stiff 
rays, and extends, as does also the anal, very close 
to the base of the caudal, which last, as well as the 
pectorals, is rounded The whoie body is soft and 
slimy. Their parietal bones, vomer, and man- 
dibles, are hard, with stout bony tubercles, sur- 

Fig. 741. Annerichas lus. mounted by small enamel teeth; but their front 
teeth are much larger and conical. This structure of the teeth gives them an armature, which, added to their large 
size, makes them both fierce and dangerous fishes. They have six rays in the gills; stomach short and fleshy, 
with the pyrolus near its base; the intestines short, wide, and without cceca ; and they have no air bladder. 


a eee 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 307 


A. lupus, the Sea Wolf, or Sea Cat, is the most common species: it inhabits the north seas, and is very often 
met with; attaining the length of six or seven feet. Its colour is brown, clouded with darker. Its flesh 
resembles that of an Hel. It is very valuable to the Icelanders, who salt its flesh for food, employ its skin as 
shagreen, and make use of its gall as soap. [This large and formidable species is almost exclusively confined to 
the northern seas, and in appearance it is a very repulsive fish. Its body is thick and lumbering, while the form 
of the pectorals, the colours of the front, the proximate position of the eyes, and the great teeth, give it much the 
appearance of a Cat, or even of one of the more formidable animals of that family. Its manners accord with its 
aspect, for it is remarkably strong, very active, and equally ready to defend itself or attack an enemy. It often 
enters the fishermen’s nets for the purpose of plundering them of the entangled fish ; and when the fishermen 
attack it, and it cannot dart through the net, it fights like a Lion. They maul it with handspikes, spars, and such 
heavy timber as they may have in the boats ; but even when it is landed, and apparently dead, they are not quite 
safe from its bite. On the east coast of Scotland, it is a frequent though by no means a welcome visitor; and 
though those who can overcome their aversion to its appearance find it wholesome and light food, yet it is a fish 
which the majority would not receive gratis. It deposits its spawn in early summer, among the sea-weed, and is 
understood to prey indiscriminately upon Fishes, Crustacea, and shelled Mollusca, its jaws and teeth being capable 
of breaking the hardest shell. In the Arctic seas, which are its appropriate localities, it grows to a greater size 
than on the British shores. ] 


Gobius, the Gobies, or Sea Gudgeons, are easily recognized by the union of their ventrals, which are 
thoracic, and united either for their whole length, or at their bases, into a single hollow disc, more or 
less funnel-shaped. The rays of the dorsal are flexible, their gills have five rays only; and, like the 
Blennies, they have but little gill-opening: they can live for some time out of the water. Like the 
Blennies, also, their stomach has no cul-de-sac, and their intestines no ceca. In their reproduction 
they further resemble the Blennies; and some species, as in these, are known to be viviparous. They 
are small or middle-sized fishes, which live among rocks near the shore, and most of them have a 
simple air-bladder. 


They admit of division into the following subgenera :— 

Gobius, comprehending the Gobies, properly so called. They havethe ventrals united for the whole of their length, 
and also a transverse membrane joining their bases in front, so as to form the whole apparatus into a concave disc. 
The body is lengthened, the head moderate and rounded, the cheeks turgid, and the eyes near each other, and 
they have two dorsal fins, the last of which is very long. Several species inhabit the European seas, the characters 
oi which are not sufficiently ascertained. They prefer a clayey bottom, in which they excavate canals, and pass 
the winter in them. In spring they prepare a nest in some spot abounding with sea-weed, which they afterwards 
cover with the roots of Zostera (grass-wrack). Here the male remains shut up, and awaits the females, which 
successively arrive to deposit their eggs; and these he fecundates, and exhibits much solicitude and courage in 
defending them from enemies. The Goby is the Phycis of the ancients; according to Aristotle, “ the only fish 
that constructs a nest.” 

G. niger, the Black Goby, or Common Goby, is the one most frequent on European shores. [It is only about 
five or six inches long, and of scarcely any value, except as food for other fish. The margins of the united ventrals 
form almost a perfect oval, and there is a tubercle behind the vent, the use of which is conjectured, but not known. 
In the Mediterranean the species are much more numerous, have considerable variety of colour, and one, the Great 
Goby (G. capito) grows to the length of a foot or more. Other British ones are, the Two-spotted Goby, a small 
species with one dark spot under the base of thefirst dorsal, and another on the base of the caudal,—this is not above 
two or three inches long; the Spotted Goby, about three inches long, yellowish, with pale rust-coloured spots, 
very abundant in estuaries, or on shallow shores, and used by fishermen as bait; and the Slender Goby, similar 
to the preceding in colours and in length, but much more slender in the body. The habits of all are nearly 
» the same.] 

Other subgenera are,—Gobiodes, which differ from the Gobies in nothing but having one dorsal tin. Tenioides, 
more lengthened in the body; the lower jaw elongated, and rising over the upper one; tongue very fleshy; some 
cirri on the lower jaw; eyes extremely minute, and almost hidden. Periopthalmus: the entire head scaly ; eyes 
with a moveable underlid; the pectorals scaly for more than half their length, which gives them the appearance 
of having wrists. [Indeed, this species leads naturally to the structure and habits of the family next to be noticed]. 
Their gill-openings are still smaller in proportion than those of the Gobies; and they can live for a longer time 
out of the water. In the Molucca Islands, which they inhabit, they may be seen creeping and leaping over the 
mud, either to escape from enemies, or to seize upon the minute Crustacea which constitute their food. Eleotris, 
have, like the Gobies, flexible spines in the first dorsal, and an appendage behind the vent; but they have the 
ventral fins separate, and six gill-rays. They inhabit chiefly the fresh waters of warm countries, and lurk in the 
mud. One, E. dormatrix, the Sleeper, from the West Indian marshes, is tolerably large; and others have been 
found in Africa, in India, and in the Mediterranean. 

Callionymus, have two very striking characters: their gill-openings are only a hole on each side of the nape, 
and their ventrals are placed under the throat, separate, and larger than the pectorals. The head is oblong, de- 
pressed, and with the eyes directed upwards ; their intermaxillaries are very protractile, and their pre-operculi are 
lengthened backwards, and terminate in some spines; their teeth are small, and thickly set, and they have none 


in the palate. They are finely-coloured fishes, with the skin smooth ; the first dorsal supported by setaceous rays, 
- oD 


308 PISCES. 


the first of which reaches backwards nearly to the tail; and the second dorsal and the anal have also the rays con- 
siderably elongated. They have neither cul-de-sac to the stomach, cceca, nor air-bladder. 

One species, C. lyra, the Dragonet, is common in the British Channel, [and not rare on many parts of the 
British coast, even as far north as the Orkneys. The prevailing colour is yellow, with spots of brownish yellow, 
whence some of the common names of the fish. It frequents the shallow waters, feeding on Crustacea, Mollusca, 
and Worms; and answering little purpose, save as food for more valuable fish. Its flesh is said, however, to be 
firm and good. C. dracunculus, the Sordid Dragonet, is more dingy in colour, and has the rays of the first dorsal 
much less produced. It was once supposed to be the female of the other species, but the mistake has been found 
out and rectified. There are some subgenera nearly allied to Callionymus.] 

Trichonotes, differs not much from the last, except in having the body very long, a single dorsal, and the anal 
proportionally longer. The first two rays of the dorsal are extended in long threads, representing the first dorsal 
of the former. It is said that the gill-openings of this subgenus are tolerably wide. 

Comephorus, have the first dorsal very low; the muzzle oblong, depressed, and broad; the gills with seven rays, 
and large openings; the pectorals very long; and (which distinguishes them from the rest of the family) they have 
no ventrals whatever. The known species is found in the fresh-water lake of Baikal. It is a foot in length, very 
soft and greasy in its substance, and pressed for obtaining an oil. It is not fished for in the lake, but found dead 
on the shores after storms, which are there severe and frequent. 

Chirus, are fishes with the body rather long, small ciliated scales, a small unarmed head, a shallow mouth, with 
small and irregular conical teeth. The spines of the dorsal are always slender, and that fin extends along the 
whoie back. Their distinguishing character is several series of pores, extending aleng the side, and haying some 
resemblance to additional lateral lines. All the known species inhabit the Sea of Kamtschatka. 


THE THIRTEENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


| PecToraALEs Pepuncutati (Fishes with Wrists to the Pectoral Fins). 


There are some spinous fishes in which the carpal bones are so elongated as to form a sort of arm or 
wrist, to the extremity of which the pectoral fin is articulated. The family consists of two genera, 
closely allied to each other, though authors have sometimes placed them far apart in their arrangements; 
and they are also related to the Gobies, [particularly to Periopthalmus, already noticed. This is a very 
peculiar structure of the fins; gives these fishes a strange appearance, and enables them, in some in- 
stances, to leap suddenly up in the water, and seize prey which they observe above them; and in others 
to leap over the mud, somewhat after the manner of Frogs. ] 

Lophius, Anglers.—The distinguishing character of these, besides their demi-cartilaginous skeleton, 
and their skin without scales, consists in the pectoral being supported as by two arms, each consisting 
of two bones, which may be compared to the radius and ulna of an arm, but which in reality belong to 
the carpus, or wrist; and in this genus they are larger than in any other. They are also characterized 
by having the ventrals placed much in advance of the pectorals; and by having the operculum and the 
gill-rays enveloped in the skin, so that the gill-opening is merely a hole situated behind the pectoral. 
They are voracious fishes, with a large stomach and a short intestine; and they can live a long time 
out of the water, in consequence of the small size of their gill-openings. They admit of division into 


three subgenera. 

Lophius, head excessively large compared to the body; very broad, depressed, and spinous in many parts; the 
mouth deeply cleft, and armed with pointed teeth; and the lower jaw fringed round with many fleshy barbules. 
They have two dorsal fins, and some rays of the first are free, and move on the bones of the head, where they rest 
on a horizontal interspinal process. [In the Angler, or Fishing Frog of the British seas, the motions of these de- 
tached rays are very peculiar. ‘Two are considerably in advance of the eyes, almost close to the upper lip; the 
posterior of these is articulated by a stirrup upon a ridge of the base, but the anterior one is articulated by a ring 
at its base, into a solid staple of the bone, thus admitting of free motion in every direction, without the possibility 
of displacement, except in case of absolute fracture. The third one, which is on the top of the cranium behind 
the eyes, is articulated much in the same manner as the posterior one of the other two; and of course, though 
these two have considerable motion in the mesial plane of the fish, they have very little in the cross direction. 
The one near the lip, however, can be moved with nearly the same ease and rapidity in every direction ; and while 
the others terminate in points, it carries a little membrane, or flag, of brilliant metallic lustre, which the fish is 
understood to use as a means of alluring its prey; and the position of the flag, the eyes, and the mouth, certainly 
would answer well for such a purpose]. The gill-membrane forms a large sac, opening in the axilla of the 
pectorals, supported by six very long rays, and with a small operculum. They have only three gills on each side. 
It is said that these fishes lurk in the mud, where, by agitating the rays on their heads, they attract smaller 
fishes, which mistake the appendages upon the rays for worms, and which are instantly seized, and transferred 
to the gill-sac. Their intestines have two or three short cceca near the commencement, but the fishes have no 
air-bladders. 

1. piscatorius, the Fishing Frog, Sea Devil, and many other local names, attains sometimes the length of four or 


| 


Seen eR ne See a ee ea nee ee Ne 
ACANTHOPTERYGIL. 309 


five feet ; and the extreme hideousness of its appearance has procured it some celebrity. [There are few parts of 
the muddy shores of the British islands where these ugly and voracious fish are not to be met with; and such is its 
propensity to keep its great mouth in exercise, that when captured in a net along with other fishes, it speedily 
begins to swallow its companions, especially if Flounders, which appear to be its favourite food. On some coasts, 
it is sought for on account of the live fish in its stomach, its own flesh being but small in quantity, and held in 
little estimation. Another European species, L. palviparus, has its second dorsal lower, and five vertebre fewer 
in the spine. 

Chironectes. These have, like the last genera, free rays on the head, of which the first is small, and often 
terminating by a tuft; and those behind it are enlarged by a membrane, which is sometimes very broad, and at 
other times they are united into a fin. Their body and head are compressed, and their mouth opens vertically. 
Their gill membranes have four rays, and have no opening but a small hole behind the pectorals. Their dorsal 
extends along the whole back, and they often have cutaneous appendages all over their bodies. They have four 
gills, a large air-bladder, and a moderate intestine without ceca. They can inflate their great stomach with air, 
in the same manner as the Tetrodons blow up their bellies like balloons. On the ground, their two pairs of fins 
enable them to crawl along like little quadrupeds; and tie pectorals, in consequence of their position, perform 
the functions of hind legs. They can live out of the water for two or three days. They are found only in the seas 
of warm countries, and Aineas confounded many of them under the name ZL. histrio. [In some of the muddy 
estuaries on the north coast of Australia, from which the tide ebbs far back in the dry season, these Frog-fishes 
are so abundant, and capable of taking such vigorous leaps, that those who have visited the places have, at first 
sight, taken them for birds.] One might separate the species in which the second and third rays are united into 
a fin, and sometimes also joined to the other dorsals. 

Malthus. These have the head greatly extended and flattened, principally by the projection of the sub-opercu- 
lum; the eyes are forwards ; the snout projecting, with a little horn; the mouth under the muzzle, of mean size, 
and protractile; the gills sustained by six or seven rays, and opening by a hole above each pectoral. They have a 
simple dorsal, which is soft and small; and there are no free rays in the head. The body is studded with osseous 
tubercles, and bordered round with cirri. They have neither cceca nor air-bladder. 

The remaining genus of this family is Batrachus,the Frog-fishes, properly so called. They have the head flattened 
horizontally, and much larger than the body; the gape deeply cleft; the operculum and sub-operculum spinous; 
six gill-rays; the ventrals straight, attached under the throat, with only three rays, of which the first is broad and 
lengthened: the pectorals are carried by a short arm, resulting from an elongation of the carpal bones: their first 
dorsal is short, supported by three spinous rays; the second is soft and long, and has the anal corresponding to it; 
their lips are often garnished with filaments ; their stomach is an oblong sac; their intestines are short, and with- 
out coeca; and their air-vessel is anteriorly deeply forked. They lurk in the sand, in order to swallow small 
fishes, in the same manner as the members of the last genus; and it is thought that wounds inflicted by their 
spines are dangerous. They inhabit both oceans. In some, the scales are smooth, and they have a membrane 
over the eye; others are scaly, and want that membrane. [None of them appear in the authenticated lists of 


British fishes.} 


THE FOURTEENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


Laprip& (the Wrasse, or Rock-risH Family). 


This family are easily known by their appearance. They have an oblong body, covered with scales ; 
and a single dorsal, supported anteriorly by spinous rays, often furnished with membranous lamine. 
The jaws are covered by fleshy lips. There are three bones in the pharynx,—two upper ones attached 
to the cranium, and a large under one. All the three are furnished with teeth, arranged like a pave- 
ment in some, and pointed, or in laminz, in others; but generally stronger than is usual in the class 
of Fishes. Their intestinal canal is either without cceca, or with two small ones; and they have a large 
and strong air-bladder. They admit of division into various genera and subgenera. 

Labrus, or Lipped—that is, Thick-lipped—Fishes. A very numerous genus, the species of which 
much resemble each other in their oblong form, and in their double fleshy lips, from which they receive 
their name. One of these lips adheres immediately to the jaw-bones, and the other to the suborbitals. 
They have thickly-set gills, with five rays. Their conical maxillary teeth (of which the middle and front 
ones are the largest), and their cylindrical teeth in the pharynx, are arranged like a pavyement,—the 
upper ones with two large plates, and the under with one only, which fits to the others. Their stomach 
has no cul-de-sac, but is continued in an intestine without cceca, which, after two reduplications, ter- 
minates ina wide rectum. The air-bladder is single, and strong. There are several subgenera. 


Labrus, properly so called, vulgarly termed ‘‘ Old Wives of the Sea.”’, They have no spines or notches in the 
operculum or pre-operculum, and the operculum and cheek are covered with scales. The lateral line is nearly 
straight. The European seas furnish several species, which, from variations of colour in the same species, are not 
easily distinguished from each other. L. maculatus, the Balloon Wrasse, is a foot or eighteen inches long, with 
twenty or twenty-one spines in the dorsal; blue or greenish above ; white below; marked all over with yellow, and 


319 PISCES. 


sometimes the yellow colour predominates. [This species 1s numerous upon the British shores, though they are 
not very often caught ; and from the variations of their colours they are not easily identified. They frequent deep 
pools among the rocks, hide themselves in fuci, and are understood to feed chiefly on Crustacea. If the fishermen 
know their haunts, they take a bait freely ; and, according to the report of Mr. Couch, the first taken are always 
the largest. They frequent the rocky shores only. They spawn in April; and the fry, which are then of small 
size, remain among the rocks during the summer. It is understood that the blue colour, which appears to be 
characteristic of the high condition of the fish, is very evanescent. J. lineatus, the Lineal streaked, is more 
clouded; has irregular bands along the flank, the ground of which is reddish; and the dorsal spines are less nume- 
rous, and the soft part of the fin lower, than inthe former species. This species is named as a British fish, but it 
appears to be exceedingly rare. L. variegatus, the Blue-streaked, is one of the most beautiful of the family, of an 
orange red, paler on the belly, having the sides and irides striped with fine blue. The lips are capable of great 
extension, and there is a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw. It is found in the British seas, but only on the 
south and south-west coasts. J. vetuda, is also named as a British fish. It is dark purple, black on the upper 
part, paler on the belly, and has the fore part of the head flesh-coloured, tinged with purple, and the eyelid blue. 
Few specimens have been met with on the British shores, and those of comparatively small size. Perhaps it is the 
Merula of Gmelin. L. carneus, the Three-spotted Wrasse, reddish in the colour, with four light spots, and three 
black ones intermediate, extending from the middle of the dorsal to the root of the caudal. It belongs to the 
Mediterranean, but has been found on the Channel-coast of England, in the Firth of Forth, and even on the coast 
of Norway, and in the Baltic. There are various other species; but, as we have said, they are not easily distin- 
guished from each other, in consequence of the change of colour to which they are subject. ] 

Cheilinus, differs from Labrus, properly so called, in having the lateral line interrupted at the end of the dorsals, 
where it recommences a little lower down. They are beautiful fishes, inhabiting the Indian seas. 

Lachnolaimus, (Captains), have the general character of Labrus; but their pharynx has no pavement-like teeth, 
except in the posterior part,—the remainder of them, as well as a part of the palate, being covered witha villous 
membrane. They are easily known by the first spines of the dorsal, which extend in long flexible threads. They 
are American fishes. 

Julis, have the head entirely without scales, and the lateral line forming a curve near the end of tbe dorsal. 
There are some in the Mediterranean, but they are more numerous in the tropical seas. [They are generally 
small but beautiful fishes: some are violet, some bright scarlet, some rich green, and some marked with golden 
colour; and those which have the caudal fin rounded, or truncated, have the first dorsal rays extended in long 
filaments. ] 

Anampses, have the character of the last, with the exception of two flat teeth, which project from the mouth, 
and curve upwards. The two known species are from the Indian seas. 

Crenilabrus. These fishes are separated from the Lutjanus of Bloch, to arrange them in their proper place. 
They have the true characters of Labrus, both external and internal; and differ only in having the border of the 
pre-operculum toothed. Some species are found in the North Sea, such as Lutjanus ruprestis of Bloch, yellow, 
with clouded bands ranged vertically, and blackish; Z. norvegicus, brownish, irregularly marked with deep brown; 
L. melops, orange, spotted with blue, and a black spot behind the eye; L. exoletus, remarkable for five spines in 
the anal fin. The Mediterranean furnishes a number, most beautifully coloured, the most splendid of which is 
L, lapina, silvery, with three broad longitudinal bands, composed of vermillion dots, with the pectorals yellow and 
the ventrals blue. They are also abundant in the tropical seas; and many species, hitherto included in the genus 
Labrus, ought to be placed here. [Several species of this subgenus occur in the British seas, the chief of which 
are—Cranilabrus tinca, the Gilt-head; C. corneticus, the Gold-sinny; C. gibbus, the Gibbous Wrasse; and C. leusias, 
the Scale-rayed Wrasse; but they are all small fishes, in little or no estimation. ] 

Coricus. This subgenus has all the characters of the last, in addition to which the mouth is little less protractile 
than in the next. Only one small species is known, which inhabits the Mediterranean. This genus is removed 
from Sparus, in order to be placed near the preceding ones. 

Epibulus. These fishes are remarkable for the extreme extension which they can give to their mouth by means 
of a see-saw motion of their maxillaries, and the sliding forward of the intermaxillaries, which instantly forms a 
kind of tube. They make use of this artifice for seizing small fishes which pass near this curious instrument; and 
the same artifice is resorted to by the Coryci, the Zei, and the Smares, according to the degree of protractility of 
the mouth. The entire body and head of this subgenus are covered with large scales, the last track of which ad- 
vances upon the anal and caudal fins, as in Cheilinus. The lateral line is similarly interrupted as in the latter ; 
and, as in Labrus, there are two long conical teeth in the front of each jaw, followed by smaller blunt ones. The 
known species is from the Indian seas, and is of a reddish colour. 

Clepticus. This subgenus has a small cylindrical snout, which is suddenly advanced forward, but which is not 
so long as the head. The teeth are small, and barely perceptible to the touch; the body is oblong; the lateral 
line continuous ; and the dorsal and anal are enveloped in scales nearly to the top of the spines. One species, of a 
red colour, and from the West Indies, is the only one known. 

Gomphosus. These Labride, with the head entirely smooth, as in Julis, have the muzzle in the form cf a 
tube, composed of the prolonged maxillaries and intermaxillaries, as far as the small opening of the mouth. Several 
species are taken in the Indian Ocean, and the flesh of some is considered delicious. ‘ 

Xirichthys, resemble Labrus in their general form, but are much compressed. The forehead descends towards 
the mouth with a sharp and almost vertical line, formed by the ethmoid and the ascending branches of the inter- 
maxillaries. Their bodies have large scales ; their lateral line is interrupted; their jaws are furnished with conical 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 311 


teeth, largest in the centre ; the pharynx is paved with hemispherical teeth; the intestinal canal has two flexures, 
but no cceca; the stomach has no cul-de-sac, and they have a toierably long air-bladder. [Until Cuvier arranged them 
differently, they were always classed with the Coryphenes, from which they differ much, both externally and in- 
ternally.] They most nearly resemble Labrus, and are not easily distinguished from it, except by the profile of 
the head. Are found in the Mediterranean, and also in the southern seas; and the flesh of some is much 
esteemed. 

Chromis. These have the lips, protractile maxillaries, pharyngeals, and general aspect of Labrus; but their 
teeth resemble those of a card, except a range of conical ones in front. Their dorsal fins have long filaments ; their 
ventrals are produced into long threads; their lateral line is interrupted; and their stomach forms a cul-de-sac, 
but has no cceca. A small one, of a chestnut-brown colour, is taken in yast numbers in the Mediterranean; and 
there is one in the Nile, C. niloticus, tbe Egyptian Corycina of the ancients, which attains the length of two feet, 
and is reckoned the best fish in Egypt. 

Cychla, have the teeth small and crowded, formed into a large band, and the body elongated, which are their 
chief differences from the preceding subgenus. ; 

Plesiops, have the head compressed, the eyes near each other, and extremely long ventrals; but in other respects 
they resemble Chromis. 

Malacanthus. These have the general character of Labrus, and the same teeth in the maxillaries, but their teeth 
in the pharynx are arranged like those of a card. Their bodies are elongated, their lateral line continuous, their 
operculum terminated by a small spine, and their long dorsal has only a few fiexible spinous rays in the fleshy part. 
A species is found in the West Indies, of a yellowish colour, irregularly streaked across with violet, which, like many 
others belonging to this family, has been improperly ranged with the Coryphenes. 


Scarus.— The fishes of this genus are remarkable for their jaws-—that is to. say, for their inter- 
maxillaries and premandibles,—which are convex, rounded, and furnished with scale-like teeth on their 
margin and anterior surface. These teeth succeed each other from the rear to the front in such a 
manner that the bases of the newest form a trenchant range. It has been erroneously supposed 
by naturalists that the bone in this state is naked. In the living state, the jaws are covered with fleshy 
lips, but there is no double lip adhering to the suborbital bones. These fishes have the oblong form 
of Labrus, with large scales, and an interrupted lateral line. They have two plates in the upper part 
of their pharynx, and one in the under, furnished with teeth as in Labrus; but their teeth are in trans- 


verse laminz, and not rounded and arranged like the stones of a pavement. 

The Archipelago contains one species, of a blue or red colour, according to the season, which is the S. creticus 
of Aldrovandus; and which, after new investigations, I believe is the true Scarus so celebrated among the 
ancients, which, during the reign of Claudius, Elipertius Optatus the Roman admiral sailed to Greece in order 
to obtain and distribute through the Italian seas. It is still eaten in Greece, and its intestines are used for sea- 
soning. There are numerous species in the tropical seas, which, on account of the form of their jaws and the 
brilliancy of their colours, are called Parrot-fishes. Some have the caudal fin in the shape of a crescent; and of 
these a few have the front singularly enlarged and rounded, while in others it is truncated toa square. These 
constitute the genus Scarus, properly so called, from which two subgenera may be separated :—Calliodon, which 
have the lateral teeth of the upper jaw separate and pointed, and on the same jaw an anterior range, much smaller 
in size; and Odaz, which resemble the true Labrus in their thickened lips and uninterrupted lateral line, but their 
jaws are constructed as in Scarus, except that the bones are flat, not rounded, and are coyered by the lips. Their 
teeth, however, resemble pavement, like those of Labrus. 


THE FIFTEENTH FAMILY OF THE ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


FIisTULARIDz (Pipe-mouthed Fishes). 


The fishes of this family are characterized by a long tube projected forwards from the cranium, and 
composed of elongations of the ethmoid, vomer, pre-operculum, inter-operculum, pterygoids, and tym- 
panals, at the extremity of which they have the mouth, composed, as usual, of intermayillaries, maxil- 
laries, palatals, and mandibles. Their intestine has no great inequalities, nor many flexures ; and their 
ribs are short, or wanting. The family consists of two genera :—Fistularia, with the bodies cylindrical ; 
and Centriscus, in which it is oval and compressed. 

Fistularia. Fishes of this genus receive their particular name from the long tube common to all 
the family. Their jaws are at its extremity, but little cleft, and opening nearly in a horizontal : irec- 
tion. Their head, thus elongated, is equal to a third or a fourth of the length of the body, which is 
itself long and slender. There are six or seven rays in their gills; and some osseous appendages 
extending behind the head, by means of which the anterior part of the body is more or less 
strengthened. The dorsal is directly above the anal; and the stomach is a fleshy tube extending in a 
straight canal, but with two coeca at the commencement. There are two subgenera. 


312 PISCES. 


Fistularia, Pipe-mouths, properly so called. These have omy one dorsal, consisting, in great part, as well as the 
anal, of simple rays. Their intermaxillaries and the lower jaw are furnished with small teeth. From between the 
lobes of the raudal fin there arises a sort of filament, which is sometimes as long as the body. The tube of the 
muzzle is depressed; the air-bladder is exceedingly small; and the scales on the skin are invisible. They are 
found in the warm seas of both hemispheres. [Sailors term them Tobacco-pipe Fishes, and they are of no value, 
except as curiosities. | 

Aulostomus. These have numerous free spines before the dorsal; and their jaws are toothless: their body is 
very scaly; not so slender as in the former subgenus, but enlarged and compressed between the dorsal and the 
anal, which enlargement is followed by a short and slender tail, ending in a common fin. The tube of the muzzle 
is shorter, wider, and much more compressed than that of the true Pipe Fishes ; and the air-bladder is larger. 
There is but a single known species, which is a native of the Indian Ocean. 


Centriscus, or Snipe-fish.—These have the tubular muzzle characteristic of the family; but the body 
is oval or oblong, not lengthened, compressed laterally, and sharp on the upper part. They have only 
two or three slender gill-rays ; a spinous first dorsal ; and small ventrals behind the pectorals. Their 
mouth is very small, and opens obliquely: their intestine has two or three folds, but no cceca: and 


their air-bladder is of considerable size. As in Fistularia, they admit of division into two subgenera. 

Centriscus, properly so called. These have the first dorsal fin backwards; and the first dorsal spine, which is 
long and strong, connected, by intermediate pieces, with the bones of the shoulder and the head. They have the 
body covered with small scales, and some larger denticulated ones over the apparatus connected with the spinous 
ray of the first dorsal. [This ray is strong in itself, firmly supported, and with rugged teeth on its posterior edge, 
capable of being moved, and thus forms a very powerful weapon. One species, C. scolopax, the Sea Snipe, 
Sea Trumpet, or Bellows Fish of the Cornish coast, is common in the Mediterranean, and is occasionally found 
on the south coast as a straggler. The specimens met with are not large, not exceeding five or six inches in length. 
Che young are of a brilliant silvery lustre; but when mature, the back is red, paler on the sides, and passing into 
silvery, glossed with gold, on the belly. All the fins are greyish white. The scales are hard and rough, granu- 
lated on the surface, and beautifully ciliated on the posterior edge. Its flesh is considered good. Its haunts are 
understood to be muddy bottoms, in moderately deep water ; and its food the minute Crustacea with which such 
places usually abound.] 

Amphisile, has the back mailed with large scaly pieces, of which the anterior spine of the first dorsal appears to 
be a continuation. Some have other scaly pieces on the flanks, and the spine in question placed so far behind 
that it is against the base of the tail; against which it, as it were, thrusts the second dorsal and the anal; this 
is C. scutatus. Others are intermediate between this form and that of the ordinary Centriscus, or have the mail 
plates covering only a part of the back; such is C. velitaris. All the known species are inhabitants of the 
Indian seas. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF BONY FISHES. 


MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 


The second division of the Ordinary Fishes, [or fishes with bones in the skeleton,] the 
Malacopterygii, or Jointed-fin Fishes, consists of three orders, the distinguishing character 
of each of which is the position or absence of the ventral fins. 

The present order comprises fishes which have the ventral fins suspended to the abdomen, 
behind the pectorals, without being attached to the bones of the shoulder; they are the most 
numerous order of the division, and include the greater part of fresh-water fishes. They are 
divided into five families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGIL ABDOMINALES. 


Cyprinip& (the Carp Family). 


These have the mouth shallow, the jaws feeble, very often without teeth, and the margin formed 
by the outer maxillaries ; but they have the pharynx strongly toothed, which compensates for the feeble 
armature of the jaws. They have few gill-rays; their body is scaly ; and they have no adipose 
dorsal, as we shall find in the Silures and Salmon. The stomach has no cul-de-sac or ccecal appen- 
dages; and they are the least carnivorous of all fishes. [The genera and subgenera are arranged as 
follows :|— 


MALACOPTERYGIL ABDOMINALES. 313 


Cyprinus.-—These form a genus, at once very natural and very numerous; easily distinguished by 
he small mouth, the jaws without a single tooth, and three flat gill-rays. Their tongue is smooth ; 
their palate furnished with a thick, soft, and remarkably sentient substance, vulgarly called carp’s 
tongue. Their pharynx is a powerful instrument of mastication, having strong teeth on the inferior 
pharyngeal bones, and they bruise their aliments between these and a stony disc, which is set in a large 
cavity under a process of the sphenoid. They have but one dorsal; their body is covered with 
scales, usually large: they inhabit the fresh waters ; and are the least carnivorous of fishes,—feeding 
chiefly on seeds, the roots of plants, and [as is said] on mud and sludge. The stomach is continuous, 
with a short intestine without cceca; and the air-bladder is divided in two by a close contraction. 
The genus is divided into the following subgenera :— 

Cyprinus, the true Carps, have a long dorsal, of which, as well as the anal, the second ray has a spine more or 
less stout. Some of them have fleshy tubercles at the angles of the upper jaw, such as C. carpio, the Common 
Carp, a well-known fish: olive green above, and yellowish below; with strong toothed spines in the dorsal and 
anal, and short tubercles. The teeth of the pharynx are flat and striated in their crowns, [something like those of 
the Ruminant Mammalia}. Originally [as is understood] from the middle latitudes of Europe, it is now generally 
distributed, and thrives well in fish-ponds and other still waters, where it sometimes grows to the length of four 
feet: its flesh is esteemed as food. [Though an imported fish, Carp thrives well in England, though better in 
ponds than even in the most slow running parts of rivers; but in Scotland the waters are less adapted for them, 
and they breed and grow slowly, even in ponds. Austria and Prussia are the great Carp countries. To their 
vegetable food they add insects and worms, if such can be obtained : and when out of the water, they are very 
tenacious of life, in consequence of which they are easily extended from pond to pond.] 

Of the true Carps there is one race, C. rex earporum, the King of the Carps, which have the scales large, but 
often wanting in patches, and sometimes entirely. They are artificially varied,—that is, they occur only in ponds. 
Some foreign species are reddish brown, and others golden green, but these are imperfectly known. 

Some species want the barbules. Among these are,—C. carassius, having the body high, the lateral line straight, 
and the caudal fin squared off. This is a northern species. C. gibelio, the Crucian or Prussian Carp, has the body 
less elevated, the lateral line curved downwards, and tail fin forked. [It occurs as a British fish, but, perhaps, 
not so plentifully as the former]. C. awratus, the Golden Carp, [called Gold Fishes or Silver Fishes, according to 
their colour], These are black when young, but by degrees acquire the golden red for which they are esteemed; 
though some of them are silvery, with various clouds of all the three colours. Some have no dorsal; others a very 
small one; others, again, a large caudal of three or four lobes; and others, still, very large eyes; all of which 
varieties are merely accidental, and the results of that artificial treatment which they receive when kept in glass 
vessels for ornamental purposes. 

Allied to these is the smallest of the European Carps, C. amavus, only about an inch in length; greenish above, 
pale yellow beneath, with a steel-blue line on each side of the tail, in April, which is the spawning season. 

Barbus, the Barbel, or Bearded Fish—from the cirri at its mouth—has the dorsal and anal short ; a strong spine 
for the second or third dorsal ray ; two cirri at 
the point of the muzzle, and two at the angles of 
the upper jaw. [B. communis,] the Common 
Barbel, known by its long head, is very com- 
mon in streams and fish-ponds, and sometimes 
grows to the length of ten feet. [In the sluggish 
parts of the Thames, and some of its affluents, 
Barbel ‘are very plentiful. They are said to 
plough up the mud with their noses, which, 
setting very small animals adrift in the water, 
attracts those small fishes on which the Barbel 
feeds. ] 

Gobio, the Gudgeons, have the dorsal and anal 
short, an1 are without spines or beards. In slow-running rivers, where there is a gravelly interruption, they are 
found in vast shoals, readily caught, and, though small in size, esteemed for their flavour. 

Tinca, the Tenches, resembling the Gudgeons, but have the scales and cirri very small. The Common Tench 
is short and thick, of a yellowish brown, and sometimes beautifully golden. It prefers stagnant waters, and is not 
in much estimation as food. 

' Cirrhinus, have the dorsal larger than the Gudgeons, and the cirri in the central part of the upper lip. 

Abramis, Bream, have neither spines nor cirri; a short dorsal behind the ventrals, or long anal; and the tail 
forked. There are two species, the Carp Bream, and the White bream; the first is the largest and most highly 
esteemed ; and the other is of little value, except to feed other fishes in ponds. 

Labeo. All foreigners ; have neither spines nor cirri along the dorsal, and remarkably thick lips, often furred. 

Catostomus, have the lips of the former, but a short dorsal above the ventrals. They are from North America. 

Leuciscus: dorsal and anal short; no spines, cirri, or peculiarities of the lips: species numerous, but little 
esteemed. (One species, the Ide, Z. idus, has been seen as a British fish; and besides this there are several 
others, as L. dobulus, the Double Roach; L. utilis, the Roach; L. vulgaris ; L. Lancasteriensis, the Graining ; 


Fig. 142—The Barbel. 


PISCES. 


L. cephalus; L. erythropthalmus, the Red Eye; L. ceruleus, the Azurine; ZL. alburnus, the Bleak; and L. 
phoxinus, the Minnow; but none of them are fishes of any great importance, except as bait for more valuable 
ones.] 

Gonorhynhus, have the head and body elongated, the operculum covered with small scales, the muzzle angular, 
the small mouth without teeth or cirri, three gill-rays, anda small dorsal over the ventrals. Known only in 
Southern Africa. 

Cobitis, Loche, or Loach, have the head small; the body long, covered with small scaies, and slimy; the ventral fins 
are far backwards, and above them there is a single dorsal; the mouth is at the end of the muzzle, little cleft, and 
without teeth, but having lips forming a sucker, and numerous barbules; the gills have small openings, and only three 
rays; the lower bones of the pharynx are strongly toothed; no ceca to their intestines, and these are very small; 
their two-lobed air-bladder is inclosed in a case of bone, adhering to the third and fourth vertebre. There are 
three species in the fresh waters of Europe. C. barbatula, the Common Loach, or Beardie, is a little fish of four or 
five inches long, clouded, dotted with brown on a yellow ground, and having six barbules at the mouth. It is not 
uncommon in the shallow and clear-running streams; but on account of its lurking habits, the rapidity of its 
swimming when disturbed, and its small size, it is not often seen. Small as itis, its flesh is very good. U. fossilis, 
the Pond Loach, is sometimes a foot long, with longitudinal stripes of brown and yellow, and ten barbules to the 
mouth. They inhabit the mud of stagnant waters; and can subsist for a Jong time after the water has been dried 
up, or covered with ice. When the weather is stormy, they rise to the surface of the water, and keep it in a state 
of agitation by their motion; and when cold, they bury themselves in the mud. Ehrman states that they 
habitually swallow atmospheric air, which is discharged by the vent, after being changed into carbonic acid,— 
{a fact which is contrary to the usual physiology of the class]. Their flesh is soft, and has a muddy flavour. 
C. tenia, the Groundling, has six barbules, and the body compressed, of an orange colour, marked with a row of 
black spots. It has a large spine behind each nostril. It is the smallest of the species inhabiting the smaller 
running waters, and lurking under stones. [It is found in the British rivers, and is probably much more nume- 
rous than is generally represented ; but as it is of-no value, it is regarded only by naturalists.] 

Anableps. This genus, long, but very improperly, united with Cobitis, has strong peculiar characters. The 
eyes are prominent, placed under a sort of roof formed by the side of the frontal; and the cornea and iris are di- 
vided by transverse bands, which gives the fish the appearance of having four eyes, whereas in reality it has only 
two. There are certainly two openings to each eye, but still, in its essential parts, the organ is single; and 
whether vision is performed by the anterior or posterior opening, the same sentient organ is acted upon. ‘They 
have also the generative and urinal aperture, in the male, placed before the vent; and the female brings forth her 
young alive, and in a state of considerable advancement. The body is cylindrical, with strong scales; there are 
five gill-rays; the head is flat; the snout blunt, and the mouth across its extremity, with small crowded teeth in 
both jaws; the intermaxillaries have no peduncle, but are suspended to the nasal bones; the pectorals are in 
part scaly; the dorsal is small, and nearer the tail than the anal; the pharyngals are large, and covered with 
small globular teeth; the air-bladder is large; and their intestine is wide, but without any coeca. Only one spe- 
cies, A. tetropthalmus, the Four-eyed, is known. It inhabits the rivers of Guiana. 

Pecilia. These have the jaws horizontally flattened, with a small opening, and furnished with a single row of 
small and very fine teeth ; the upper part of the head flat; the gill-openings large, with five gill-rays; the body 
rather short; the ventrals rather forward ; and the dorsal and anal against each other. They are small fishes of 
the fresh waters of America, and bring forth their young alive. 

Labias, resemble the preceding, only the teeth have several points. One species, a very small fish, with little 
black streaks on the flanks, is found in Sardinia. 

Fungulus, still resemble Peecilia, but their teeth are set like velvet: those in the anterior range are crooked, and 
they have strong conical ones in the pharynx. They have only four gill-rays. 

Molenesia, have the anal between the ventrals, and immediately under the anterior part of the large dorsal ; 
teeth like Fungulus, and four or five gill-rays. [These genera are chiefly found in America. ] 

Cyprinodon, have fine velvety teeth, and six gill-rays, but in other respects are like the preceding genera. 
C. umbra inhabits the lakes, and especially the subterranean waters which are so common in Southern Austria. 
They are small fishes, of a russet colour, with brown spots. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGIT ABDOMINALES. 


Esocip& (the Pree Family). 


These have no adipose dorsal fin. The margin of the upper jaw is formed by the intermaxillary; or 
when not so formed, the maxillary is toothless, and concealed by the lips. - These fishes are extremely 
voracious; their intestine is short, and has no cceca; all of them have an air-bladder. Many species 
inhabit the fresh waters, or ascend rivers. With the exception of Microstoma, all the known ones 
have the dorsal opposite the anal. Linneus included them all in the genus Esox, but we divide that 
genus into the following subgenera :— 


Esox, Pikes properly so called, have small intermaxillaries, furnished with small pointed teeth in the middle of 
the upper jaw, where they form two rows, but the lateral parts of the maxillaries are without teeth. The vomer, 
the palatals, the tongue, the pharynx, and the gill-arches, are roughened with teeth like a card; and they have, in 


MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 315 


the sides of the under-jaw, a row of long and pointed teeth. The muzzle is oblong, obtuse, broad, and depressed. 
They have but one dorsal placed over the anal; a large forward stomach, continued in a slender intestine with 
two flexures, but without cceca; and their air-bladder is very large. 

E. lucius, the Common Pike, Jack, Pickarel, Gedd, and many other names, is well known to every one as the 
most voracious and destructive of fishes, but its flesh is good, and easy of digestion. [Besides its fame, as an eater 
and as being eaten, Shakspeare has thrown a ray of glory around the Pike by representing it as the ‘‘ White Lucie” 
in the armorial bearings of the immortal Justice Shallow. In some of the still waters of Britain, Pike of thirty- 
four pounds’ weight have been killed. It is generally said that, notwithstanding the havoc which the Pike com- 
mits among smaller fishes, it will not stand the attack of a Trout of equal weight, the immense velocity of the 
latter fish in swimming giving it a decided advantage}. Besides this, two species have been noticed in the fresh 
waters of North America,—E. reticularis, with a net-work of brownish lines; and E. estor, sprinkled with round 
blackish spots. 

Galavius, have no visible scales on the body. The opening of the mouth is small, with middle-sized pointed 
teeth in both jaws, the margin of the upper being formed by the intermaxillary, and a few strong crooked teeth on 
the tongue. There are pores in the sides of the head; and the position of the dorsal and anal fins, and also the 
digestive organs, are like those of the Pikes. 

Alepocephalus. Head naked, body with broad scales, mouth small, teeth minute and crowded, eyes very large, 
and eight gill-rays. A. rostratus, the only known species, is found in the depths of the Mediterranean. 

Microstoma. Snout very short, lower jaw beyond the upper, jaws and intermaxillaries with very small teeth, 
three broad and flat gill-rays, eyes large, body long, lateral line with firm scales, a single dorsal a little in rear of 
the ventrals, and digestive organs as in the Pike. The only known species (S. microstoma of Risso) inhabits the 
Mediterranean. 

Stomias. Snout extremely short, mouth cleft almost to the gills, gill-ray reduced to a little membranous 
lamina, and maxillaries fixed in the cheek; intermaxillaries, palatals, mandibles, and tongue, armed with long and 
crooked teeth, widely set; body elongated; ventrals far back; dorsal over the anal, and both near the caudal. Two 
species were discovered in the Mediterranean by Risso. Both are black, with rows of silvery spots on the belly. 
E. boa, Risso, has no cirri; S. barbatus, has a long and stout one, attached to the symphisis of the lower jaw. 

Chauliodus, resemble the former, but have two teeth in each jaw, across the other jaw when the mouth is shut; 
the dorsal between the pectorals and ventrals, which last are not so far back as in Stomias; the first dorsal ray 
terminates in a filament. C. Sloani, the only known species, has been found only at Gibraltar. It is about a foot 
and a half long, and of a deep green colour. 

Salana, have the head depressed, gill-lids folded downwards, and four flat gill-rays ; the jaws short and pointed, 
each furnished with a row of crooked teeth; the upper jaw formed entirely by intermaxillaries without peduncles; 
the lower jaw is a little lengthened at the symphisis by a small appendage carrying the teeth; the palate and the 
inner part of the mouth are entirely smooth, and there is not even a lingual projection. 

Belone. This genus have the upper jaw—which, as well as the under one, is extended into a long beak—com- 
posed of the intermaxillaries, and both jaws furnished with small teeth, without any others in the mouth, except 
in the pharynx, where they are arranged like a pavement. ‘The body is very long, and covered with scales which 
are scarcely visible, except one keeled row on each side, near the under edge of the fish. They are remarkable for 
the bright green colour of their bones. One species—the Common Gar-fish, Sea Pike, Mackerel Guide, Green- 
bone, and a number of other names—is not uncommon on some parts of the British shores, and as far north as 
the Arctic regions. It is of a greenish blue on the upper part, fading gradually into silvery white on the belly. 
There are several other species, some of which are said to attain the length of eight feet, and bite very severely. 
Notwithstanding the colour of the bones, which renders them repulsive to many persons, the flesh of these fishes 
is not unwholesome. 

Scomberesox, the Mackerel Pike, or Saury Pike, resembles the former in the length of its snout, its general 
shape, and its scales; but the last rays of the dorsal and anal are detached, and form spurious fins on the upper 
and under sides, like those of the Mackerel. They are found in the Mediterranean; [and the Common Saury is 
generally distributed along the British coasts, as far to the northward as the Orkneys]. They are gregarious 
fishes; and are followed and preyed upon by Porpoises, and also by the Tunny, and other large members of the 
Mackerel family. 

Hemiramphus, resembles the Gar-fish in its general characters, but has the upper jaw short, and the lower one 
drawn out into a long beak, without teeth. They are found chiefly in the seas of warm countries, though a stray 
one is occasionally met with in the south of England. 

Exocetus, (literally, “ Fishes out of the water’’]. These are at once distinguished from all the rest of the Abdo- 
minal Malacopterygii by the immense size of their pectoral fins, which are sufficiently large for supporting them 
for a few moments in the air. Their head and body are scaly, with a line of keeled scales along each flank ; their 
head is flat above, and laterally; the dorsal over the anal; the eye is large ; the intermaxillaries without peduncles, 
and found in the margin of the upper jaw; both jaws have small pointed teeth, and the pharynx pavement teeth ; 
they have ten gill-rays; their air-bladder is very large; their intestine straight, and without cceca ; and the lower 
lobe of the caudal fin much larger than the upper. They do not fly, in the strict sense of the term, but merely rise 
from the water to escape voracious fishes, and soon fall again,—their fins merely serving as parachutes, and being 
incapable of taking a new stroke in the air, as is done by awing. They are found in all the seas of the warm 
climates ; and it would seem that they have more enemies than most other fishes, for while the voracious fishes 
pursue and capture them in the water, the long-winged sea-birds seize them in the air; and between themselves 


316 PISCES, 


and their swimming and flying enemies, they furnish one of the most singular sights in the warm seas. E. evilens, 
common in the Mediterranean, has the ventral fins long, and in rear of the middle of the body. EE. volitans, com- 
mon in the Atlantic, has the ventral fins small, and placed further forwards. The latter species sometimes visits 
the British shores, in single individuals, and eyen in shoals. They can leap more than two hundred yards in 
distance, and upwards of twenty feet in height. Their food is understood to be the small floating Mollusca; and 


themselves are good eating. 


Next to the Pike family, there is placed a genus of fishes which, though differing but little from 
that family in other respects, has longer intestines, and two ceca. It will probably give rise to a new 
family. This is Mormyrus, having the body compressed, oblong, and scaly; tail thin at the base, but 
swelling near the fin; skin of the head naked, covering the operculum and gill-rays, and leaving no 
opening for the latter but a vertical fissure, which has led some naturalists to assert that these fishes have 
no gill-lids, and only one gill-ray, whereas their gill-lids are perfect, and their rays five or six. Their 
gape is small, and resembles that of the Ant-eater, the angles being formed by the maxillaries. The 
teeth are small, notched at the extremities, and occupy the intermaxillaries and lower jaw; and there 
are bands of small crowded ones on the vomer and tongue. The stomach is a roundish sac, followed 
by a slender intestine with two cceca, almost always covered with fat; and the air-bladder is long, large, 
and simple. They are accounted among the best fishes of the Nile. Two species have a cylindrical 
muzzle,—the one having a long dorsal, and the other a short one; a third has both the snout and dorsal 
short; and in a fourth, the forehead forms a protuberance advancing in front of the mouth. There are 
various other species in the Nile [and probably also in the other African rivers], but they have not 


been described. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES, 


Siturip# (the SHeat-FrisH Family.) 


These fishes are distinguished from all the rest of the order by the want of true scales, having only a 
naked skin, or large bony plates. The intermaxillaries, suspended under the ethmoid, form the margin 
of the upper jaw; and the maxillary bones are either simple vestiges, or extended into cirri. The in- 
testinal canal is large, folded, and without cceca. The air-bladder is large, and adheres to a peculiar 
apparatus of bones. A strong articulated spine generally forms the first ray of the dorsal and the pec- 
torals ; and there is sometimes an adipose dorsal behind the other, as in the Salmon family. The fol- 
lowing are the genera and subgenera :— 

Silurus.—These form a numerous genus, known by the naked skin, from the mouth being cleft in the 
end of the muzzle, and from a strong spine in the first ray of the dorsal. This spine is articulated only to 
the bones of the shoulder; and the fish can at pleasure lay it flat on the body, or keep it fixed in a per- 
pendicular direction, in which case it is a formidable weapon, and wounds inflicted by it are understood 
to be poisoned, which opinion has arisen from tetanus sometimes following the wound, not from poison 
certainly, but from the ragged nature of the wound itself. 

These fishes have the head depressed; the intermaxillaries suspended under the ethmoid, and not 
protractile ; the maxillaries very small, but almost always continued in barbules attached to the lower 
lip, and also to the nostrils ; the covering of their gills is without sub-operculum or gill-flap; their air- 
bladder, strong and heart-shaped, is attached, by its two upper lobes, to a peculiar bony structure, which 
again is attached to the first vertebra; the stomach is a fleshy cul-de-sac, having the intestinal canal 
long and wide, but without cceca. They abound in the rivers of warm countries ; and seeds of plants 
are found in the stomach of many of their species. The following are the subgenera :— 


Silurus, properly so called, with only a small fin of four rays on the fore part of the back, but with the anal very 
long, and approaching very close to the base of the caudal. There is no obvious spine in the dorsal; and the teeth 
in both jaws, and in the vomer, are like those of acard. SS. glanis, the Sly Silurus, is the largest fresh-water fish 
of Europe, and the only member of the genus in this quarter of the world. Itis smooth, of a greenish black 
spotted with black above, and yellowish white below; head large, with six cirri,—two large ones near the nostrils, 
and four shorter on the lower jaw. It sometimes grows to six feet in length, and weighs three hundred pounds. 
It is found in the slow-running rivers of Central Europe, and lurks in the mud to watch for its prey. Its flesh is 
greasy, and is sometimes employed as hog’s-lard. [It is named as a British fish, but its visits to these shores are 
very rare.] Is found in the rivers of Asia and Africa. 

Schilbus, have the body vertically compressed, a strong toothed spine in the dorsal, the head small and depressed, 
the nape suddenly raised, and the eyes low down. They have eight cirri, are found in the Nile, and their flesh is 


Li is... ee eee ee 
MALACOPTERYGIT ABDOMINALES. 317 


less disagreeable than that of the other Siluri. Some American species, with the nead small, rounded, and blunt, 
having three cirri, and the eyes scarcely perceptibie, may form a new subgenus. 

Mystus, are Siluri with a second or adipose dorsal fin. They are found in the waters of Guiana. 

Pimelodes, body naked, and no lateral armature; but the subgenus requires division and subdivision. First, 
Bagrus has small crowded teeth in both jaws and the vomer, and may be subdivided by the number of cirri, and 
the shape of the head. With eight eirri, some have the head long and depressed, and others short and broad. 
With six cirri, some have the snout as depressed, and broader than that of the Pike; others have the head oval, 
and a kind of helmet of shagreen-like bones; in others, the head is round and naked; while others, again, have 
the head greatly depressed, the eyes low down, and the adipose fin very small; and there are yet others which 
have only four cirri. [Some of these, as Pimelodes cyclopum, are ejected in hot water from volcanoes. | 

Pimelodes, properly so called, want the teeth in the vomer, but often have them in the palate; the cirri and 
form of the head differ more than in the preceding subgenus; some have but a single row of teeth; some have the 
head helmeted, and a distinct bony plate between the helmet and the dorsal spine; others have a single plate from 
the snout to the dorsal; others, again, have the head oval and naked ; some with six cirri, and others eight; some 
with a large naked head are called Cats, which have six or eight cirri; then there are others which have the head 
small and flat, the dorsal minute, and the teeth scarcely perceptible; there are others still which have teeth on the 
palatals, sometimes like velvet, or like a card, with a buckler on the nape, distinct or united to the helmet, and 
the palatai teeth sometimes like a helmet; some singular ones have teeth like a card, under the skin of the cheek, 
and moveable; others yet have a lengthened snout, or a pointed one, nearly toothless. These last lead to,— 

Synodontis, with the snout narrow, and the lower jaw supporting an assemblage of teeth laterally flattened, 
ending in hooks, and individually attached to flexible peduncles. The helmet extends in one plate to the first 
spine of the dorsal, which is very strong, as are also those of the pectorals; the cirri, aid sometimes the maxil- 
laries, are barbed. ‘They are found in the Nile and other African rivers, but are not eaten. 

Ageniosus. Some of these have the maxillary turned up in a kind of toothed horn, instead of a fleshy cirrus ; 
and others have it concealed under the skin, with the dorsal and pectoral spines scarcely visible. 

Doras, have an adipose dorsal, with plates in the lateral line, armed with keels or spines; the dorsal and pectoral 
spines strongly toothed, the helmet rough, and the shoulder-bone pointed backwards. Some have teeth only in 
the upper jaw; others have the snout pointed, and the teeth absent, or hardly visible, with occasional lateral 
bristles to the cirri. 

Heterobranchus, head broad, from the helmet having two lateral pieces of the frontal and parietal bones; oper- 
culum smaller, but with a tree-like ramification on the third and fourth gill-arch, as a sort of supplemental gills.; 
viscera like the rest of the-family, but they have from eight to fourteen gill-rays, strong pectoral spines, no dorsal 
one, and the body long and naked. They inhabit the rivers of Africa, and some of those of Asia. Their flesh is 
indifferent, or bad. 

One of them, however, Macropteronotes, with a single indented dorsal, constitutes a considerable article of food 
in Egypt and Syria, where it is called the Sharmuth, or Black Fish. Others have a dorsal with rays, and also an 
adipose one. Protosus, have a second dorsal, with rays; and this and the anal long, and uniting to form a tail 
like an Eel; lips fleshy ; conical teeth in front of the mouth, globular ones behind, and those above placed on the 
yomer; skin naked; nine or ten gill-rays; eight cirri; and a singular branched appendage behind the vent, be- 
sides the tubercle common to the family. Some have large and toothed dorsal and ventral spines; others have 
them almost concealed under the skin. They are found in the East Indies. 

Callichthys, have the sides armed with four rows of scaly plates; head the same, but the snout and under-part 
of the body naked; one ray in the second dorsal; pectoral spines strong, and dorsal one feeble; mouth small; 
teeth barely visible; four cirri; eyes small, and lateral. They can crawl out of the water like an Eel. (These are 
the subgenera of Silurus]. 

Malaptherurus, has no dorsals with rays, but only a small adipose one in the tail, and no spines in the pectorals. 
The skin is smooth; the teeth small and crowded, and are ranged into a broad crescent in each jaw; there are 
seven gill-rays; and the jaws and viscera are like those of Silurus. M. electricus, the Raasch, or Thunder-fish of 
the Arabs, is the only known species. It has six cirri, and the head more slender than the body, but enlarged in 
front. Like the Torpedo and Gymnotus, it can communicate an electric shock, the organ of which is situated 
between the skin and muscles, and consists of a cellular tissue, inclosing a fluid, and abundantly furnished with 
nerves. It is found in the Nile, and the rivers of Central Africa. 

Aspredo, have the head flattened, and the anterior part of the body much widened; the tail long; the eyes small, 
and placed upwards ; the intermaxillaries under the ethmoid directed backwards, and with teeth on the posterior 
edge only; and they have the whole gill apparatus immoyeable, being soldered to the temporal bone and the pre- 
operculum ; gill-opening a mere slit behind the head, the membrane of five rays adhering everywhere else; the 
lower jaw is transverse, and shorter than the snout; the first ray of the pectorals is more toothed than in any 
other of the family; there is but one dorsal, with a weak first ray; but the anal is long, extending under the long 
and slender tail. Some have six cirri, some eight; and, in the latter case, one pair are attached to the maxillaries, 


the others to the lower jaw in pairs. 
Loricaria, have hard angular plates on the head and body ; small intermaxillaries suspended under 
the muzzle; transverse disunited mandibles, supporting hooked teeth, which are long, slender, and 


flexible. A large membranous veil encircles the opening; the pharynx is furnished with numerous 


pavement teeth ; the gill-lids are immoyeable, but two small plates supply their places ; they have four 


318 PISCES, 


gill-rays; strong spines in the first dorsal, pectorals, and even ventrals; but neither cceca nor air-bladder. 


They form two subgenera :— 

Hypostomus, have a small dorsal with one ray; the labial veiled with papillz, with a small cirrus on each side ; 
no plates on the belly; and the intestines spirally convoluted, and as slender as a thread. They inhabit the 
rivers of South America. 

Loricaria, have one dorsal forwards, the labial veiled with cirri, plates on the under parts of the body, and the 


intestines moderately large. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 


SALMONID& (the SALMon, or Trout, Family). 


According to Linnius, these formed but one great genus, characterized by a scaly body, all the rays 
of the first dorsal soft, and the second dorsal adipose, or formed of skin inclosing fat, and without rays. 
They have numerous ceeca, and an air-bladder. Most of them ascend rivers; and their flesh is highly 
esteemed. They are naturally voracious; and as the form and armature of their jaws vary greatly, 
they may be arranged into the following subgenera :— 

Salmo, Salmon and Trout, properly so called.—These have great part of the margin of the upper 
jaw formed of the maxillaries; a row of pointed teeth in the maxillaries, the intermaxillaries, the 
palatals, and mandibularies, and two rows on the vomer, the tongue, and the pharynx,—being, in fact, 
the most completely toothed of all fishes. In old males, the extremity of the lower jaw is bent up 
towards the palate, where a groove receives it when the mouth is shut. The ventrals are under the 
first dorsal, and the anals under the adipose one. They have six gill-rays, or thereabouts ; the stomach 
is long and narrow, with numerous coca; their air-bladder extends the whole length of the abdomen, 
and communicates anteriorly with the gullet. Many species are spotted, and their flesh is in general 
very good. They ascend rivers to spawn, often leaping over cascades of considerable elevation, and 
finding their way to the brooks and small lakes of the most lofty mountains. [They are understood to 
return almost invariably to the rivers in which they are produced; and therefore the fixing, at the 
mouth of a river, of any sort of bar to their progress upwards, is sure to drive them from the estuary. 
According to Mr. Yarrell, one of the very best authorities, all the family are clouded with transverse 
dusky patches when very young,—analogous to what occur on all the species of Cats. ] 


S. salar, the Salmon properly so called, is the largest of the genus, with red flesh, and irregular brown spots, 
which disappear in fresh water; the cartilaginous beak of the male is not much hooked. They inhabit the seas 
of comparatively cold regions, whence they ascend the rivers for the purpose of spawning, at different times of 
the year according to the climate,—some in autumn, some in winter, and some in early spring. [The efforts 
which they make to overcome difficulties in the ascent are very great; and when they have made some progress 
up the fresu water, it is equally cruel and impolitic to capture them. It should seem that, in most of the British 
rivers, Satmon are diminishing in numbers, and becoming inferior in quality, the cause of which has not been 
explained in a satisfactory manner. In Ireland, where they have more recently become an article of commerce, 
they are found in considerable abundance. Salmon Fry have the tail forked, and the fork disappears as the fish 
advances in age; but the margin does not become convex, as in the Bull-trout.] S. Awmatus, is whitish, spotted 
with red and black; and the snout of the male is narrow, and much crooked in the lower jaw. Its teeth are more 
robust than those of the true Salmon, and its flesh as red; but it is inferior in quality. It is found in the mouths 
of rivers. S. Schiefermulleri, the Sea-trout, is smaller than the former, with the teeth more slender and longer. 
The flanks are sprinkled with small crescent-shaped spots, and the flesh is paler than that of the Salmon. S. 
hucho (perhaps the Bull-trout, or Gray Trout], grows to almost the size of the Salmon, and has strong teeth, and 
a pointed lower jaw in the male. 

The remaining Trouts are found in all the ciear streams of Europe, especially among mountains; and they are 
subject to great variations from age, food, and the nature of the waters; but these do not appear to account for all 
the differences. [In the same river, Trout are yellowish brown, with bright crimson spots, where the water is fine 
and pure; and lurid and dark, and greatly inferior in flavour, where it is tinged with peat.] S. /emanus, Geneva 
Trout, found in that lake, and some neighbouring ones; ground colour whitish, with small blackish spots on the 
head and back; sometimes forty or fifty pounds in weight: the flesh is white. S. trutta, Salmon Trout, bluish 
black above, pale on the sides, silvery on the belly, with cross-shaped spots towards the upper part, migratory in 
clear streams, and esteemed next in value to the Salmon. [It varies a good deal in colour; and, from its silvery 
lustre, it is called White Trout in some parts of Britain.] S. fario, the Common, or River Trout, is generaily 
smaller than the last, spotted with brown on the back, and crimson on the flanks,—the crimson spots usually sur- 
rounded by a pale-coloured circle; common in all the clear streams of temperate countries, and sometimes found 
two feet and a half long, and fifteen pounds in weight. [The Gil/aroo Trout of the Irish lakes appears to be a 
variety, in which the internal coating of the stomach is modified a little to suit the nature of the food. S. ferox, 
the Great Grey Trout, inhabits the deeper lakes, and grows to a large size, but its flesh is inferior.j S. savelinus, 


MALACOPTERYGIL ABDOMINALES. 319 


the Welsh Char, or Torgoch, has red spots in the flanks, an orange belly, and red pectorals, with the first ray very 
thick and white. S. alpinus, nearly the same colour, but the first rays of the lower fins not so much distinguished. 
It abounds in Lapland, where it is very valuable. S. wmbla, Northern Char, found in various British lakes, and 
also in the Lake of Geneva. [There are various other members of the genus Salmo, but the line of distinction be- 
tween species and variety is sometimes not easily drawn.] 

Osmerus, the Smelt, has two rows of teeth on each palatal, but only a few in front of the vomer. Form like a 
Trout, but only eight gill-rays, and the body brilliant silvery, with some greenish reflections, but with no spots. 
{Found abundantly in some estuaries of British rivers at particular seasons, but very local. It seldom exceeds, 
and rarely equals, a foot in length. Its flesh is delicious.] 

Maillotus, mouth like the preceding, but teeth very small and crowded, and only in the jaws, palate, and tongue ; 
eight gill-rays, body lengthened, and small scales; first dorsal and ventrals behind the middle, pectorals large, 
round, and nearly meeting beneath. The only known species, S. groentandicus, the Capelin, classed by Gmelin © 
among the Herrings, is remarkably abundant on the shores of Newfoundland, and used as bait in the Cod fisheries, 
{and sometimes as manure for the land]. 

Thymallus, the Grayling, has the jaws like a Trout, but the mouth small, and the teeth remarkably fine; first 
dorsal long and high, scales much larger than on a Trout, stomach thick, and seven or eight gill-rays ; first dorsal 
long, as high as the body, spotted with black, and occasionally with red, with dusky bars on the large dorsal, 
Recent it smells like wild thyme, and when cooked in its perfume it is a dainty dish. 

Coregonus, the Gurniad, has the mouth as in the last, but with few teeth, and sometimes none, the scales 
larger, and the dorsal shorter. There are many species or varieties of this genus; some in the sea, others in the 
fresh waters only, and one occurs in several British lakes. [C. Willughbii, the Vendace, is found insome lakes of 
the south of Scotland. It feeds on insects, and very minute fresh-water Crustacea. ] 

Argentina, has the mouth small and toothless, but strong hooked teeth on the tongue, and small ones before 
the vomer, six gill-rays, and the digestive organs like those of a Trout. A. sphyrena, the only known species, 
has the air-bladder thick, and very much loaded with nacre—the silvery substance used in counterfeiting pearls ; 
it is found in the Mediterranean. The following subgenera, which have the numerous cceca of the Salmon, and 
the double air-bladder of the Carps, have not more than four or five gill-rays. 

Crimata, externally like Thymallus, and some of them have the same teeth, differing only in the gill-rays. 
Others have teeth in both jaws, sharp and directed forwards. They inhabit the American rivers. 

Anastomus, like Thymallus, and with small teeth in both jaws, but the lower jaw is so turned up and enlarged 
at the point, that the mouth appears a vertical slit. 

Gastropelecus, mouth as in the last, but abdomen compressed, projecting, and sharp; ventrals small and far 
back, first dorsal over the anal; upper teeth conical, lower ones notched and trenchant. 

Plabucus, have the head small, the mouth shallow, a compressed body, the ventral keel entire and sharp, a ie 
anal, and the first dorsal opposite its commencement. 

Serrasalmus, has the body compressed, the belly toothed and sharp, and frequently a spine in front of the 
dorsal. The known species inhabit the South American rivers; and, it is said, pursue ducks, and even bathers; 
wounding them severely with their teeth, which are triangular, notched, and very sharp. 

Tetragonopterus, has teeth as in the former, but the mouth smaller, and no keel or tooth on the belly. 

Chalceus, with the same mouth and teeth, has the body oblong, and the teeth on the maxillaries small and 
rounded. 

Myteles, with triangular teeth hollowed in the crowns, and three points at the corners, mouth shallow, with two 
rows on the intermaxillaries, but none on the palate, the maxillaries, or the tongue. Some have the elevated 
form, falchion-shaped fins, spine directed forwards, and even the sharp and toothed belly, of Serrasalmus, but 
not the teeth. One American species grows large, and is good eating. Others have simply an elongated body, 
and the first dorsal between the ventrals and ‘he anal. These are Egyptian. 

Hydrocyon, have the point of the muzzle formed by the intermaxillaries, the maxillaries nearer before the eyes, 
and completing the aperture; the tongue and vomer are always smooth, but the jaws have conical teeth, and the 
large suborbital covers,the cheek like an operculum. Some havea close range of small teeth on the maxillaries 
and the palatals, and the dorsal fin between the ventrals and anals. They inhabit the tropical rivers, and 
taste like Carp. Others have a double row of teeth in the intermaxillaries and lower jaw, a single row in the 
maxillaries, and none in the palate; the first is over the ventrals. They inhabit Brazil. Others, again, have a 
single row in the maxillaries and lower jaw, with the teeth alternately very long and very sharp, and lodging in 
holes of the upper jaw when the mouth is shut; there are large scales upon the lateral line, and the first dorsal 
is between the ventral and the anal. They are also from Brazil. A fourth type have the muzzle prominent and 
pointed, the maxillaries very short, and with the lower jaw and intermaxillaries with a single row of closely-set 
teeth ; the firstis between the ventral and anal, and they have large scales. They too are from Brazil. Others, 
yet, have no teeth in the maxillaries or lower jaw, and what they have are few, but strong and pointed; their first 
dorsal is directly over the ventrals. ‘They inhabit the Nile. 

Cetharinus, have the mouth depressed, cleft at the end of the muzzle, and the upper margin entirely formed by 
the intermaxillaries ; the maxillaries are small and toothless, occupying oply the commissure ; the tongue and 
palate both smooth, the adipose, dorsal, and great part of the caudal, covered with scales. Found in the Nile. 
Some have three small teeth in the upper jaw, and the body elevated, but the belly not sharp or toothed. Others 
have many ranks of close teeth on the jaws, which teeth are slender and forked, and the fishes themselves are 
elongated. 

Saurus, muzzie short, gape cleft far behind the eyes, margin of the upper jaw composed wholly of intermaxil- 


320 PISCES. 


laries, iong pointed teeth on the jaws, the palatals, and on the tongue and pharynx, but none on the vomer; eight 
or nine, often twelve or fifteen, gill-rays: the first dorsal a little behind the large ventrals ; the body, cheeks, and 
gill lid are scaly, the intestines like those of Trouts. They are marine fishes, and exceedingly voracious. One is 
found in the Mediterranean, a transparent one in the lake of Mexico, and several in India, where they are dried 
and salted as a relish. ‘ 

Scopelus, have the gape and the gill openings very deep. Both jaws with very small teeth, the margin of the 
upper formed entirely by the intermaxillaries, the tongue and palate smooth, muzzle very short and blunt, nine 
or ten gill-rays, a first dorsal between the ventrals and anal, and a second, in which there are slight vestiges of 
rays. One small species in the Mediterranean has brilliant silver spots on the belly and tail. 

Aulopus, combines the characters of Salmon andCod. Their gape is wide, their intermaxillaries forming the 
whole margin of the upper jaw ; their palatals, the front part of the vomer, and the lower jaw with a band of card- 
shaped teeth, but the tongue and flat part of the palate are only rough. The maxillaries are large and toothless, 
as in many fishes, their ventrals are under the pectorals, with the external rays thick and unforked. ‘The first 
dorsal answers to the first half of the space between the ventrals and anal. They have twelve gill-rays, and large 
scales upon the cheeks, gill-lids, and body. One species inhabits the Mediterranean. 

Sternoptyx, are little fishes with high compressed body, the mouth directed upwards, their humeral bones 
forming a trenchant crest forwards, and terminating below in a little spine. The pelvis formed by a small spine 
before the ventrals. There are small grooves on each side of the pelvic crest, which has been considered as a ster- 
num, and hence their name. They have an osseous crest before the first dorsal, and a little membrane answering to 
the second. The borders of the mouth are formed by the maxillaries. Two speeies are found in the Atlantic, which 
may become types of two distinct genera. One of these has five gill-rays, the other nine. 


THB FIFTH FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGIL ABDOMINALES. 


CLupeip& (the Herrine Family). 


These have no adipose dorsal, and, as the Trout, they have their upper jaw formed in the middle by 
intermaxillaries without peduncles, and the sides by maxillaries. Their bodies are always scaly, and 
most of them have an air bladder and many cceca. Few of them ascend rivers, though they appear 
periodically upon the shores. 

Clupea, the Herrings, have the intermaxillaries narrow and short, forming but a small portion of the 
jaw, which is completed on thessides by protractile maxillaries. The lower edge of the compressed 
body is notched by scales, resembling the teeth of a saw. The gill openings are so wide that the fishes 
die almost the instant they are out of the water. The gill arches towards the mouth pectinated, the 
stomach is an elongated sac, the air bladder long and pointed, and their bones are very slender and 


numerous. They consist of several subgenera. 

Clupea, Werrings properly so called, with the mouth mean-sized, and the upper lip entire. C. harengus needs 
no description ; it appears periodically in numerous shoals, [but does not breed in the Polar seas, as was once 
stated, as it gets southward into warm latitudes. Its flesh is dry and inferior]. C. sprattus resembles the Herring, 
but is much smaller. C. alba, White Bait, a small and delicate species, resorts to the top of the brackish water 
to mature its spawn. It is found in various estuaries, and is highly esteemed. C. pilchardus is about the size of 
the Herring, but has the dorsal more forward. It inhabits more southernly than the Herring, and is caught in 
vast numbers on the coast of Cornwall. C. sardina, the Sardine, is like the Pilchard, only smaller. It is taken 
in the Mediterranean, where the Herring is unknown, and also on the west coast of France. Its flavour is highly 
esteemed. 

Alosa, has a notch in the middle of the upper jaw, but is in other respects like the Pilchard and Sardine. A. vul- 
garis, the Shad, is much larger and thicker than the Herring, growing to three feet in length, and it has no teeth, 
and a black spot behind the gills. In spring it ascends rivers, when it is much esteemed; but when taken in the 
seais dry and disagreeable. A. finta, the Twaite Shad, has teeth in the jaws, and five or six dark spots along the 
side. It is the Common Shad of the British rivers; but is considered inferior to the Common Shad, or Alice Shad, 
as it is called, which, as a British fish, is by no means so common. 

Chatoessus, resembles a Herring, only the first dorsal ray is prolonged in the filament. Some have the jaws 
equal, the muzzle not prominent, and the mouth small and without teeth. Others have the muzzle prominent, but 
the mouth small. The fibres of the first gills unite with those on the opposite side, and form under the palate 
curious pinnated points. These are from the warm seas, and they complete the subgenera of Clupea as at present 
arranged, though the following come appropriately after the Herrings, inasmuch as they have the belly sharp and 
notched. 

Odontognathus, have the body very compressed, with three sharp teeth near the vent, a long but narrow anal, 
a small and feeble dorsal, which is always broken, six gill-rays, the maxillaries prolonged and a little pointed, and 
furnished with small teeth directed forwards, and wo apparent ventrals. One species from Cayenne is known, 
resembling a small Sardine, but having the body more compressed. 

Pristigaster, head and teeth as in the Herrings, four gill-rays, ventrals generally wanting, belly compressed, 
arched, and toothed. They are found in both oceans. 


MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 321 


Notopierus. Gill-lids and cheeks scaly; the suborbitals, pre-operculum, and operculum have two crests; the lower 
jaw is keeled, the belly toothed, and the palatals and jaws have fine teeth; the upper jaw formed in great part of 
the maxillaries. Their tongue is set with strong crooked teeth; they have one strong and bony gill-ray; ventrals 
hardly visible, followed by a long anal, which occupies three-fourths of the length, and is united, as in Gymnotus, 
with the fins of the tail and back; opposite the middle of the anal there is a small dorsal with soft rays. They 
are found in the stagnant fresh waters of India, being the Gymnotus notopterus of Pallas. 

Fingraulis, the Anchovies, distinguished from the 
Herrings by the mouth being more deeply cleft, the 
gill-openings wider, and ten or twelve gill-rays. 
The small intermaxillaries are fixed under a little 
pointed snout, in advance of the mouth, and the 
z maxillaries are long and straight. E. enchrasicho- 

Fig. 143—The Anchovy. dus, the Common Anchovy, so well known for its 

rich and peculiar flavour, is about a span long, 

bluish above, silvery below, the abdomen not trenchant, the anal short, and the dorsal over the ventrals. Taken 

in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and less abundantly in the ocean. 4H. meletia is a Mediterranean species. 
E. edentulus, an American species, without teeth. 

Thryssa, differs from the Anchovies in having the belly toothed, and the maxillaries very long. It is an East 
Indian subgenus. 

Megalops. Fins and jaws generally formed like those of the Herring, but the belly not trenchant, nor the body 
compressed ; teeth in the jaws and palate very small and numerous; from twenty-one to twenty-four gill-rays ; 
and the last ray of the dorsal, and often of the anal, extended in a filament. One American species, the Apalite, is 
found twelve feet long, has fifteen rays in the dorsal, and a filament to that in the anal. An Indian species has 
seventeen dorsal rays. 

Elops, resembies the former, but is rather longer, wants the dorsal filament, has more than twenty gill-rays, 
and the caudal with a flat spine above and below. 

Buterinus, has jaws like those of a Herring, a round and lengthened body, and prominent snout; the mouth 
shallow; the jaws with small, crowded teeth; and the tongue, vomer, and palate, have rounded ones, also closely 
set. There are twelve or thirteen gill-rays. This and the former genus are beautiful fishes, of a silvery colour, 
with many bones and ceeca, and they grow to a large size. 

Chirocentrus, has the upper jaw as in the Herring, with a row of stout conical teeth in both jaws, the two middle 
ones in front very long; the tongue and gill-arches toothed like a card, but not the palatal or vomer; seven or 
eight gill-rays, the latter ones very broad; a pointed scale above and beneath each pectoral; body long, com- 
pressed, and sharp, but not toothed on the belly; verntrals very small, and shorter than the anal, which is opposite; 
stomach and air-bladder long and slender. Only one known species, of the Indian Ocean, and silvery. 

Hyodon, has the form of a Herring, but the belly not toothed, eight or nine gill-rays, and the teeth and the 
mouth like those of a Trout. Found in the fresh waters of North America. 

Erythrinus. Upper jaw almost entirely formed of the maxillaries; conical teeth in the edges of each jaw; crowded 

teeth in the palatals; five broad gill-rays ; head round, blunt, with hard bones, but no scales; body oblong, com- 
pressed, with scales like Carp; dorsal opposite the ventrals; stomach and air-bladder large; cceca smail. Found 
in the tropical rivers, and esteemed as food. 
' Amia, have the head like the last, but twelve gill-rays, and a hard buckler on the under-jaw; pavement-teeth 
behind the conical ones; nostrils tubular; stomach large; intestine wide, and with no cceca; air-bladder cellular, 
like the lung of a Reptile. Found in the rivers of the southern states of America, feeds on Crustacea, and is 
rarely eaten. 

Sudis,—tresh-water fishes resembling Erythrinus, but having the dorsal and anal placed opposite each other, and 
occupying the last third of the body. ‘They inhabit the rivers of tropical countries. 

Osterglossum, differs from the last by having two cirri suspended from the lower jaw, and the tongue closely 
toothed like a rasp. A large species inhabits Brazil. 

Lepisosteus, have long teeth in the edges of the jaws, and their anterior surfaces rasp-like; the scales as hard 
as stone; the dorsal and anal opposite, and far back ; the intestine with two folds, and numerous cceca; air-bladder 
cellular. Of tropical America, grow large, and are good eating. 

Porypterus. Sides of the upper jaw immoveable; head covered with sharpened bony plates; body with strong 
scales ; one gill-ray ; a number of separate fins on the back; the teeth like a rasp, with long ones in front; the 
stomach large; double air-bladder, with large lobes, the left one opening freely into the gullet. They are found 
in the African rivers, and are eatable. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF BONY FISHES,— 


MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI,— 


Have the ventrals under the pectorals, and the pelvis suspended to the shoulder-bones. 
[They are thus better adapted for ascending and descending than the abdominal fishes. ] 
Y 


ee a EE EE EE eee 
nn een 


PISCES. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 


Gapip& (the Cop Family). 


This family are almost wholly included in the great genus Gadus, easily known by having the 
yentrals inser‘ed under the throat, and pointed. The body is moderately long, a little compressed, 
and covered with small soft scales; the head is well-proportioned, but naked: all their fins are soft; 
the jaws and front of the vomer have unequal-pointed teeth, of medium or small size, disposed in 
several rows, like a card or rasp; the gill-openings are large, and there are seven rays. Most of them 
have two or three fins on the back, some behind the vent, and a distinct caudal fin. The stomach is a 
large and strong sac; and the intestine long, with numerous cceca. The air-bladder is large and strong, 
and often notched in the margins. The greater number live in the cold or temperate seas, and furnish 
a most important branch of the fisheries. Their flesh is white, easily separable into flakes, and, gene- 
rally speaking, wholesome, easy of digestion, and agreeable to the palate. [Taken altogether, they are 
probably more really serviceable to Man than any other family of fishes. Their reproductive powers 
are great, and their numbers countless; and they have the advantage of being generally found in vast 
shoals, at particular places.] They can be subdivided as follows :— 


Morrhua, Cod, properly so called, with three dorsals, two anals, and a cirrus at the point of the lower jaw. They 
are the most numerous and valuable of the family, consisting of*three sections, or species :—G. morrhua, the Cod, 
two or three feet long, with the back spotted brown and yellow ; inhabits all the north seas, and multiplies exceed- 
ingly in the colder latitudes. They are taken in vast numbers for salting, and also for immediate use. [Their 
appearance and quality vary a good deal with the nature of the ground.] G. «glefinus, the Haddock, brown on 
the back, silvery on the belly, with the lateral line, and a spot behind the pectoral fin, black. Almost as numerous 
in northern latitudes as the Cod, but less esteemed. [When the Haddock is taken in deep and clear water, it is 
perhaps the most delicate, and at the same time the most savoury of the whole family; but it does not take salt 
so wellas Cod.] G.callarius, the Dorse, spotted like the Cod, but smaller, and with the upper jaw longest. It is 
much esteemed in the north, when eaten fresh. [Besides these, there are various sub-species, or varieties, of all 
the three kinds, some of them found on the British shores. ] 

Merlangus, the Whiting, with the same fins as Cod, but no cirri. Of these, G. merlangus, the Whiting, is well 
known from its abundance, and the lightness of its flesh. It is pale, reddish grey above, silvery below, has a Jong 
upper jaw, and is about a foot in length. G. carbonarius, the Coal-fish, twice the size of the Whiting, blackish 
brown, with the upper jaw short, and the lateral line straight. The flesh of the full-grown one is coarse and tough, 
but it takes salt like Cod. G. polachius, the Pollock, jaws like the Coal-fish, brown above, spotted on the flanks, 
and silvery below. It is abundant in the Atlantic; and better than the Coal-fish, but inferior to the Whiting. 

Merluccius, the Hake, with only two dorsals, one anal, and no cirri, sometimes exceeds two feet; the back 
brownish grey, the first dorsal pomted, and the lower jaw longest. It is a coarse fish, but captured in great 
numbers, and salted. There are some species in high southern latitudes. 

Lota, the Ling (which means the Long Fish), has two dorsals, one anal, and some cirri at the mouth. G.molva, 
from three to four feet long, olive above, silvery beneath, dorsals equally high, lower jaw a little shorter than the 
upper, and with a cirrus. This species salts well, and is not inferior to Cod: hence it is a very valuable object in 
the fisheries. 

G. lota, the Burbot, from one to two feet long, yellow mottled with brown, dorsals of equal height, and one 
cirrus; head slightly depressed, and body cylindrical. It ascends rivers, and its flesh and flavour are highly 
esteemed. [The livers of most of the family are large, and turnish a great deal of oil, highly valuable in the dress- 
ing of leather, and other operations of the arts.] F 

Motella, the Rockling. Body lengthened, first dorsal scareely perceptible, second and anal very long, and three 
or more cirri. M. vulgaris, the Three-bearded Rockling, has two cirri on the nose, and one on the lower jaw. It 
is fawn-coloured, with brown spots. MM. quinquecirrata, the Five-bearded, has four cirri on the upper part, and 
one on the chin. It is dark-brown on the upper part, and seldom attains any considerable size. 

M. glauca, the Mackarel Midge, is about an inch and a quarter long, bluish-green on the upper part, and silvery 
below, and on the fins. M. argenteola, the Silvery Gade, is also a small fish, with three cirri, and coloured nearly 
like the former. 

Brosmius, the Torsk, is a northern species, with a long body, a dorsal along the whole back, one barbule on the 
under jaw, and the ventrals fleshy. It grows to the largest size in its native north. 

Brotula, from the West Indian seas, with the dorsal, anal, and caudal, forming one fin, which ends in a point. 

Phycis, Fork-beard, have a single ray in each ventral, which is produced and forked. They have also a small 
barbule on the chin. There are one or two British species. 

Raniceps, the Tadpole Fish, has the head broad and depressed, and the first dorsal scarcely visible. 

Lepidoleprus, a separate genus, having some relation to the Cod. Their suborbitals are united with the nasal 
bone, and form a depressed muzzle, advancing before the mouth, which, however, retains its mobility. Head 
and body with hard spinous scales; the ventrals are a little on the throat; the pectorals of mean size; the first 
dorsal high; the second dorsal, anal, and caudal united; the jaws short; the teeth fine and short. They inhabit 


MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 395 


deep water, and utter a grumbling sound when drawn up to the surface. Two species are known, inhabiting the 
depths of the Mediterranean and Atlantic. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIAT . 
PLEURONECTID# (the FLuat-Fisu, or FLounpeER Family). 


“These are all included in the great genus Pleuronectes, which have a character quite unique among 
vertebrated animals: this consists in the want of symmetry in the head. [An animal is said to be sym- 
metrical when it is supposed to be divided in a mesial plane, or plane exactly along the middle, in a 
vertical direction,—the two sides being the exact counterparts of each other, and differing in nothing 
but in the one being turned to the right, and the other to the left.] These fishes have both eyes on 
one si le, and this side always remains uppermost when the animal is swimming, [while all other fishes 
swim on the belly.] The upper side is in general deeply coloured, while the other side is whitish. The 
body, from the head backwards, though formed nearly as usual, partakes a little of this peculiarity. 
The two sides of the mouth are not equal, and the pectoral fins are rarely so; the body is depressed, 
and elevated in the direction of the spinous processes; the dorsal extends along the whole back; the 
anal occupies the lower edge of the body, and the ventrals are sometimes united with it. [The fins 
are thus lateral fins, in respect of the swimming of the fish when in motion; and the action of the 
spine is vertical, in respect of that position, and not lateral, as in other fishes.] They have six gill- 
rays; the abdominal cavity is small, but extends in a cavity imbedded in the flesh on the two sides of 
the tail, for the purpose of containing some of the viscera; they have no air-bladder, and they seldom 
rise far from the bottom. Notwithstanding the peculiarity of the cranium, by that twist of the neck 
which brings both eyes to one side, the bones are the same as in other families, but very differently 
proportioned. They are found along the shores of almost all countries; and are, generally speaking, 
wholesome and agreeable eating. 

Some individuals have the eyes placed in the opposite side to that in which they are generally found 
in their species, and these are said to be reversed. Others have both sides coloured alike, in which 
case they are called “ Doubles.” It is usually the coloured side which is doubled, though occasionally 
it is the white one. They are subdivided as follows 


P. platessa, Plaice, have a row of sharp teeth in each jaw, and very often pavement-teeth in the pharynx; the 
dorsal does not advance more forwards than the upper eye, and both it and the anal terminate and leave smooth 
spaces before the base of the caudal; they generally have two or three small ceca, and six gill-rays. P. vulgaris, 
Common Plaice, has six or seven tubercles, forming a line between the eyes, and spots of Aurora red over the 
brown on the upper side of the body. The height is but a third of the length; and the flesh is soft, and soon de- 
composes. P. flesus, the Flounder, similar, but with the spots lighter; some tubercles on the head, and some on 
the base of the dorsal and anal fins; and have rough scales on the lateral line. They ascend a considerable way 
up rivers, and reversed individuals are not unfrequently caught. P. limanda, the Dab, has the eyes large, the 
lateral line curved above the pectoral, the scales rough, and the upper side brown, with whitish spots. P. mi- 
crocephalus, the Laminder, with the eyes smaller, nearer each other, and the back finely mottled with brown and 
yellow. [Both these are found in the salt water, as is also P. leminoides, the Long, or Rough Dab, which has the 
body elongated, something like a saw, and it approaches that species and quality. P. pola, the Crayed Fluke, has 
the head small, the right eye considerably in advance of the left, with the body yellowish-brown, and the fins 
darker. [All these, and some other species, are found on the British shores, chiefly on muddy or sandy bottoms. ] 

Hippoglosus, the Halibut. Shape and fins like a Flounder, lateral line arched, attains the length of six or seven 
feet in the northern seas, and weighs from three to four hundred pounds. Its flesh is rather coarse and dry, but 
it admits of being salted. There are several small species in the Mediterranean, some of which have the eyes on 
the left side, [whereas all the others hitherto noticed have them on the right side, unless when understood to be 
reversed ;] and one is oblong, with a straight lateral line, and large scales. 

Rhombus, the Turbotgenus. Teeth as in the Halibut, but the dorsal advances in front of the eyes, and the anal 
comes to the edge of the jaws. The eyes are generally on the left, and in some they are separated by a low crest. 
R. maximus, the Turbot, is the most esteemed of the family. Its height is nearly equal to its length, its form a 
truncated rhombus, and with the lateral line much arched. The upper or left side is brown, and beset with 
tubercles ; but reversed specimens are sometimes taken. R. vulgaris, Brill, is rounded on the sides, has the body 
without tubercles, and the first rays of the dorsal split into filaments. The eyes are usually on the left side. It is 
not so much esteemed as Turbot, still it is a good fish. R. hirtus, Topknot: mouth small, almost vertical; teeth 
distinct and sharp; colour reddish-brown, mottled with black, with a large spot on the lateral line near the tail, 
but not so conspicuous as in one other species, which has the body turned the other way, or the eyes on the 
right side, and the lateral line nearly straight. R. megastoma, the Whiff: body oblong, mouth wide, lateral line 
nearly straight, upper colour brown: it is not muchesteemed. R. arnoglossum, the Scarlet Fish: oblong, eyes to 
the left, fin-rays extending beyond the membrane, and of a yellowish-brown colour, 


wa 2 


324 PISCES. 


Solea, the Sole. Eyes on the right, mouth twisted in the opposite direction, and with teeth only in the sides oppo- 
site to the eyes; form obiong; snout rounded, generally in advance of the mouth; dorsal and anal margining all 
the sides of the body. S. vulgaris, the Common Sole, is dark-brown on the upper part, with a strong skin and 
small scales, and white onthe under. S. pegusa, the Lemon Sole, is paler in colour, and wider and thicker than 
the Common Sole. All the Soles are excellent fishes, and may be had in good condition nearly all the year. 

Menochirus, resembles the Sole, but has only one small pectoral on the same side with the eyes, which is the 
right side in all the Soles. The Variegated Sole of the Mediterranean—occasionally found on the British coast—is 
an example. 

Achirus, are Soles entirely without pectoral fins, some having the ventrals distinct, and others having them 
united to the anal. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 


Discopoxt (Fishes with the ventrals formed into a Sucker, or Disc). 


The disc formed by the ventrals is the family characteristic, and they consist of two genera, both of 
which have the power of attaching themselves to rocks and other hard substances, by means of the 
disc, and thus they are capable of remaining in situations where otherwise the current of the water 
would carry them away. [This curious property enables these fishes to remain and find their food in 
situations where every other species of fish would be swept away by the current of the water. ] 

Lepidogaster.—These small fishes have large pectorals reaching to the under-side of the body, where 
they consist of stouter rays, incline forwards, and unite with each other by a transverse membrane 
directed forwards under the throat, and composed of the united ventral fins. Body without scales ; 
head broad and depressed; snout curved and protractile; gills with little opening, and four or five 
rays; only one soft dorsal opposite the anal, and both reaching to the base of the caudal. Intestines 
short, straight, and without cceca. They have no air-bladder, but they swim briskly. There are two 


subgenera :— 

Lepidogaster, properly so called, have the membranes representing the ventrals extended to one complete disc; 
and behind this, another disc, formed by the united pectorals. Some have the dorsal and anal united to the 
caudal, and others not. [There are several British species found on the south and west coasts; but they are small, 
and of no interest, except to naturalists. ] 

Gobiesox, have the dise entire, but with a cleft on the sides, and the membrane produced; the gill-opening 
wider, and the dorsal and caudal smaller, and separated from the anal. [Of this there is one small British species, 
not above an inch and a half in length, bright red above, and paler below. The sucker adheres readily to any wet 
surface, but not to a dry one.] 


Cyclopterus.—Rays of the ventrals suspended round the pelvis, united by a single membrane, and 
forming the disc; mouth wide; small pointed teeth in the jaws and pharynx; gill-lid small, and opening 
close below; six gill-rays; pectorals large, almost meeting under the throat, so as to surround the disc 
there, but forming no part of it. Their bones are soft; skin naked and mucous, but studded with hard 
granulations ; stomach large, and with numerous cceca; intestine long; air-bladder moderate. There 


are two subgenera :— 

Lumpus, have the first dorsal more or less visible, but with simple rays; the second opposite the anal, with 
branchial rays; the body is thick. [The Lump-fish is found in the British seas, and as far north of them as the 
margin of the polar ice. When in good condition for the table, it is red, or rather various shades of blue, purple, 
and reddish orange; but when out of season, it fades to a dull blue. It attains considerable size, and is a high 
and thick fish,—the height being about half the length, and the thickness half the height.] 

Leparus, with a single dorsal, and this and the anal both long; the body long, and compressed towards the tail. 
(There are one or two British species, some of which are called ‘‘ Snail-fishes,” from their soft and unctuous 
texture, and the readiness with which they adhere to rocks. ] 

Echeneis. This genus, like Pleuronectes, might form a distinct family of Sub-brachial Malacopterygii. They 
have a disc on the head, formed of cartilaginous lamine, ranged transversely or obliquely backwards, and with 
teeth or spines on their posterior edge. These are moveable, so that by means of them the fish can attach itself 
firmly to a rock, the bottom of a ship, or any other substance; and it is owing to this that it used to be alleged 
that these fishes could at once arrest the course of the swiftest vessel. Body long and scaly, a small dorsal oppo- 
site the anal, top of the head flat, lower jaw projectile, teeth small, tongue and vomer rough, eight gill-rays, large 
stomach, short intestine, six or eight cceca, and no air-bladder. This species are not numerous, and they inhabit 
generally the warmer seas. [E. remora, the Common Sucking-fish, is abundant in the Mediterrancan; and has 
been met with as a straggler on the British shores,—Dr. Turton having found one riding on the back of a Cod- 
fish, at Swansea, in 1806. The West Indian species are larger. ] 


MALACOPTERYGII APODA. 325 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF BONY FISHES. 


MALACOPTERYGII APODA. 


The fishes in which ventral fins are always wanting, form but one natural family. 

Murenide, or Eel-shaped Fishes, which are lengthened in form, have the skin thick and soft, the 
scales almost invisible, and but few bones. They have no ceca, but almost all have air-bladders, often 
singularly shaped. 

The genus Murena is easily known by small opercule, surrounded by concentric rays buried in the 
skin, and opening only by a hole at some distance backwards, which arrangement, by protecting the 
gills, enables these fishes to live long out of the water, [and crawl for some distance over-land, when 
such a journey is necessary.] Body long and slender, scales visible only on the dried skin, no ventrals 


or cceca, and the vent far backwards. This extensive genus may be subdivided as follows :— 

Anguilla, known by the pectoral fins, and the gill-openings under them; stomach a lony cul-de-sac, intestine 
straight, and a peculiar gland near the middle of the long air-bladder. They are again subdivided :—Anguilla, 
the true Eels, have the dorsal and caudal meeting at the extremity of the tail, and forming a point, and the dorsal 
beginning a considerable way behind the pectorals. [They have also a singular pulsatory apparatus for the circu- 
lation of lymph, situated near the extremity of the tail. They are, strictly speaking, fresh-water fishes; but they 
migrate to the sea in the end of the season, bury themselves in the sludge there, and mature their spawn, again 
ascending the rivers for the purpose of spawning. Like Trout, they are much affected in appearance and quality 
by the waters which they inhabit. Three species are known as British Eels :—Acutirostrus, the Sharp-nosed Eel; 
Latirostrus, the Broad-nosed Eel; and Mediorostrus, the Snigg Eel. Eels are delicate fishes, and not found in 
very high latitudes. In Britain they are most abundant, and best in quality in the pure rivers which rise in the 
chalk districts.] 

Conger.—Dorsal commencing near or at the pectorals, and upper jaw longest. The Conger is found in most 
European seas; and is sometimes from four to six feet long, and as thick asa man’s leg. The margins of the 
dorsal and anal are black, and the lateral line marked with white spots. C. myrus of the Mediterranean is smaller 
than the Conger, and has whitish spots on the snout and the occiput. In some foreign ones, the dorsal begins 
before the pectorals. 

Ophisurus, Snake Eels, differ from the former in haying a portion of the extremity of the tail without fins, and 
ending in a pouch like the tail of a Serpent. O.serpens of the Mediterranean is brown above, silvery beneath, 
has the snout slender and pointed, grows to the length of six feet or more, and is as thick as a man’s arm. Some 
foreign species have the pectorals much smaller, which gives them a little the appearance of the genus,— 

Murena, which have no pectorals, very small gill-openings, gill-lids thin, and the rays not easily discernible ; 
the stomach short.; the air-bladder small, and placed in the upper part of the cavity. Some have one row of sharp 
teeth in each jaw, among which is,—M. helena, common in the Mediterranean, and much esteemed by the ancients, 
who carefully fed it in ponds. The story of Vedius Pollio, who caused his offending slaves to be flung alive into 
the ponds to feed the Murene, is well known. They grow to the length of three feet or more, are mottled brown 
and yellow, and very voracious and ugly. 

Others have two rows of sharp teeth in each jaw, and one on the vomer; and others, again, have round or conical 
teeth, as M. unicola of the Mediterranean, which appears uniformly brown, though marked with small lines and 
modellings. Cthers have two rows of teeth on the vomer, and a single one on the jaws; others, again, have two 
rows on the jaws, and four, like a pavement, on the vomer; and others still have several rows of card-teeth, as 
M. saga, with long, round, and pointed jaws, and the tail ending in a very sharp point. 

Sphagebranchus, have the gill-openings near each other below, the fins apparent only near the tail, and the snout 
long and pointed. Some want pectorals, others have mere vestiges, and others still are totally finless. 

Monopteras, have the gill-openings united, but with a partition; the dorsal and anal apparent only from the 
middle of the tail backwards; card-teeth on the jaws and palate ; six gill-rays, and only three very small gill-arches. 
The known species is from the Moluccas, and it is green above and fawn-coloured below. 

Synbranchus.—Gill-opening entirely single, no pectorals, fins fatty, head thick, snout rounded, operculum carti- 
laginous, with six rays, stomach and anal perfectly straight, and bladder long and narrow. Found in the seas of 
hot countries. 

Alabes, have one gill-opening; pectorals well marked, with a disc between them; gill-lids small, with three 
rays ; teeth pointed ; and intestines as in the last. The well-known species inhabits the Indian Ocean. 

Here should be placed a recently-discovered fish, one of the most singular of the whole class, namely :— 

Saccopharynx, which can inflate the thorax to a large tube, which terminates in a very long and slender tail, 
with long upper and under fins meeting at the point. Teeth sharp, mouth opening behind the eyes, which are 
very near the point of the snout, and gill-opening a smali hole under the pectorals. Grows large, and appears to 
be voracious ; but only a few specimens have been seen floating in the Atlantic, by means of the inflation of the 
thorax. 

Gymnotus.—Gills partially covered by membranes, but opening before the pectorals; vent far forwards ; anal 
fin occupying the under line of the body, generally to the extremity of the tail, but no dorsal. They admit of 


subdivision :— 


326 PISCES. 


Gymnotus, the true Electric Eels, have no caudal or dorsal fin, nor visible scales; moderate intestines, with 
several fiexures, and numerous cceca; stomach short, and plaited on its inner surface. One long air-bladder 
extends in a cavity of the abdomen; the other, in two lobes, is placed over the gullet. Found only in the rivers 
and stagnant fresh waters of tropical America; and the most celebrated is,— 

G. electricus, the Electric Gymnotus, called from its form the Electric Eel. It attains the length of five or six 
feet, and communicates shocks so powerful that men and horses have been stunned by them. This power is 
voluntary, and can be sent ina particular direction, and even through the water, the fish in which are killed, or 
stunned, by its shocks. By giving these, it is greatly exhausted, and requires both rest and nourishment before it 
can renew them. The immediate organ of this power extends along the whole under-side of the tail, occupying 
about half its thickness. It consists of two large longitudinal fasciculi above, and two smalier ones below, resting 
on the base of the anal fin. Each fasciculus is composed of numerous parallel membranes, nearly horizontal, and 
close to each other, one end being attached to the skin, and the other to the mesial plane. They are joined by 
numerous transverse and vertical membranes; and the canals and cells thus formed are filled with gelatinous 
matter. The whole apparatus is largely supplied with nerves, [affording one striking instance of the intimate 
connexion between electric or galvanic action in matter, and nervous action in living animals.] 

Carapus, has the body compressed and scaly, and the tailmuch narrowed. They live in the South American rivers. 

Stenarchus, have the anal separated from the tail, and a caudal,—a soft filament along the back, lodged ina 
groove, in which it is retained by tendinous threads, and reaching the whole way to the tail. It has some freedom 
of motion, but the use of it isnot known. The head is oblique, compressed, and naked, with the skin hiding the 
operculum and gill-rays ; the body scaly ; the teeth small and crowded, and scarcely discernible in the middle of 
the jaw. Like the rest of the genus, they inhabit the waters of South America. 

Gymnarchus.—Body long and scaly; gill-opening before the pectorals; a soft-rayed fin along the back, but no 
anal, and the tail ending in a point ; head naked and conical; mouth small, and with a single row of cutting-teeth. 
G. niloticus, the only known species, inhabits the Nile. 

Leptocephalus.—Gill-opening before the pectorals ; body compressed and ribbon-like; head very small; snout 
short, and a little pointed; pectorals nearly or totally wanting; dorsal and anal obscure, but extending to the 
point of the tail; the viscera occupying a small cavity along the under-part of the body. One species is found in 
the British seas. L. morrissii, the Anglesey Morris, is a very little fish, silvery, and semi-transparent, but with 
bright and prominent rays, and is very lively in its motions. It lurks in sea-weed; and is one of those animals, 
exceedingly rare among Vertebrata, of which the internal structure can be seen without dissection, and its action 
understood accordingly. Other species have been found in the warm seas. 

Ophidium, resembles the Eels in having the vent far backwards, and the dorsal and anal meeting at the point of 
the tail; and the body is so long and compressed, that the fish has been compared to a sword-blade. The skin 
has minute and buried scales, as in the Eels, but the gill-openings are large, and the gill-lids have free motion; 
the dorsal rays are joined, not branched; some have small barbules, others none, and some short cirri; some are 
flesh-coloured, with black fins ; some brown, and some large ones are rose-colour, with brown spots. 

(The species without cirri, the O, imberbis of Linneus, has been made a subgenus by Cuvier, under the name of 
Fierasfer, in which the dorsal seems a mere fold of the skin. A specimen, about three inches long, has been met 
with on the south coast of England]. 

Ammodytes, have the body like the former, a fin with simple-jointed rays along the back, an anal fin, and a forked 
caudal, and the fins are not united; snout sharp; upper jaw extensile, and shorter than the lower in the closed 
mouth ; stomach fleshy and pointed; no cceca, or air-bladder. They burrow in the sand, and are captured by 
digging it at low water; and are understood to contribute materially to the support of Salmon in the estuaries. 
There are two species :—A. tobianus, the Sand-eel; and A. lancea, the Sand-lance. ‘The latter is thicker in the 
body than the former, with the intermaxillaries larger, and the dorsal commencing farther forward. They are 
both found on the sandy shores of Britain. 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF BONY FISHES. 


LOPHOBRANCHII (FISHES WITH THEIR GILLS IN TUFTS). 


All the fishes of the preceding four orders not only have a skeleton of fibrous bones, and 
the jaws complete and free, but their gills are always in fibres or fringes, like the teeth of a 
comb; but those of the present order, while they have the jaws complete and free, have the 
gills not in equal laminz along the arches, but in small round tufts, disposed along the arches 
im pairs,—-a structure of which there is no instance in other fishes. These are defended by a 
large operculum, attached by membranes on all sides, except one small hole for allowing the 
water to escape; and mere vestiges of rays are shown in the substance of the operculum. 
These fishes are also distinguished by shields or small plates, which cover the body, and often 
give it an angular form. In general, they are of small size, and almost without flesh. Their 


a 


LOPHOBRANCHIL. 327 


intestine is of uniform width, and without ecceca; and their air-bladder, though slender, is 
large in proportion to their size. They form two genera; and the first admits of subdivision. 


Syngnathus.—These are characterized by a tubular snout, composed, as in the Fistularide, of pro- 
longations of the ethmoid, vomer, temporals, pre-operculum, and other bones; and this snout ends in a 
mouth as in other fishes, only its opening is nearly vertical. The gill-opening is near the nape; and 
there are no ventral fins. In their reproduction there is this peculiarity, that the eggs slide into a 
pouch formed by an inflation of the skin, and remain there till they are hatched. This pouch is under 
the belly in some, and at the base of the tail in others. It bursts spontaneously, and allows the fry to 


escape. [Thus these fishes have some analogy to the marsupial Mammalia. ] 

Syngnathus, the Pipe-fishes, properly so called, have a very long and slender body, differing little in diameter 
throughout its entire length. Some have a dorsal, caudal, and anal; others want the anal only, and in these the 
hatching-pouch is situated under the tail. S. acus, the Great Pipe-fish, and S. ty/phe, the Peak-nosed Pipe-fish, 
both found in the British Seas, belong to these sections. Others, again, have neither anal nor pectorals; and 
others no fin but the dorsal. S. ophidion, the Snake Pipe-fish, and S. lwmbriciformis, the Worm Pipe-fish, are 
British fishes belonging to these sections. ['They have the pouch under the belly ; and it is to be observed that in 
all the species it is the male, and not the female, which has the pouch, and hatches the eggs. ] ‘ 

Hippocampus, has the body compressed laterally, and much more elevated than the tail; and in dead speci- 
mens the neck bends, and the upper part has a faint resemblance to the head and neck of a Horse in miniature, 
from which they have been called Sea-horses. The margins of their scales are formed into ridges, and the angles 
into spines. They have no fin in the tail, but that organ is prehensile, and enables them to climb or hold on by 
the stalks of marine plants. The common species is found in the British seas, and is sometims about five inches 
long; and, on the coast of Australia, there is a longer one, with the angles of the scales extended into leafy 
appendages. 

Solenostomus, differ from the former chiefly in having, behind the pectorals, large ventrals united with each 

other and with the body, and forming an apron which serves to retain the eggs while hatching, in the same 
manner as the pouch of the Pipe-fishes. There is one dorsal of few rays near the nape, a very small one near the 
tail, and a large pointed caudal, but otherwise they resemble Hippocampus. ‘The only known species is from the 
Indian Ocean. 
+ Pegasus, have a snout as in the former, but the mouth under it, and moveable, like that of a Sturgeon, only 
composed of the same bones as in other osseous fishes. The body is armed as in Hippocampus, but their thorax 
is broad, depressed, and with the gill-openings in the sides. They have two distinct ventrals in rear of the pecto- 
rals, which are often large, and haye procured these fishes the name of Pegasus, or Flying Horses. The dorsal 
and anal fins are opposite each other, the abdominal cavity is wider and shorter than in Syngnathus, and the in- 
testine has two or three flexures. Some species are found in the Indian seas. 


THE SIXTH ORDER OF BONY FISHES. 


PLECTOGNATHI (FisHes witH SOLDERED JAWS). 


Though retaining many of the characters of the Bony Fishes, the members of this order re- 
semble the Cartilaginous ones, in the imperfect structure of the jaws, and the slow ossification 
of the skeleton; but still this skeleton is fibrous, and resembles that of the Bony Fishes. The 
chief characters are—the maxillary soldered to the side of the intermaxillary, which consti- 
tutes the jaw, and the connexion of the palatal arch with the cranium by an immoveable 
suture. Besides, the gill-lid and rays are concealed under the thick skin, with only a small 
opening, the ribs are mere rivets, and there are no true ventrals. The intestine is large, and 
without coeca; and the air-bladder is always ample. They admit of division, by the character 


of their teeth, ito two very natural families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE PLECTOGNATHI. 
GymnopontTEs (Fishes with naked Teeth). 


Instead of teeth, these have the jaws covered with a substance like ivory, laminated internally, and 
resembling the beak of a Parrot, though these are true teeth united, and are reproduced as soon as they 
are destroyed by using. Their gill-lids are small, with five obscure rays. They live on Crustacea and 
sea-weed, and their flesh is mucous, and not liked,—that of some species being reckoned poisonous, at 


east at certain seasons of the year. 


328 PISUES., 


The genera Tetraodon ana vrodon have the faculty of blowing themselves up like balloons, by filling 
with air a thin and extensile membranous sac, which adheres to the peritoneum the whole length of 
the abdomen. When thus inflated, they roll over and float with the belly uppermost, without any 
power of directing their course; but they are remarkably well defended by spines all over the surface, 
which are erected as they are inflated. Their air-bladder has two lobes. They have but three gill- 
arches in a side; and when taken, the escape of the air from the pouch makes a sound. Each nostril 


is furnished with a double fleshy tentaculum, 

Diodon, Spinous Globe-fishes, get the generic name from the jaws consisting of only two pieces, one above and 
the other below. Behind the trenchant edge of each piece, there is a rounded portion furrowed across, and 
forming a powerful grinding apparatus. The spines upon the inflated skin, which vary a good deal in the dif- 
ferent species, present a formidable appearance. They inhabit the warm seas; but sometimes, though rarely, a 
specimen, brought no doubt by the Atlantic current, is found on the coast of Cornwall. 

Tetraodon, have each jaw marked with a suture, so as to give the appearance of four teeth. The spines are 
small and low, and some species are reckoned poisonous. None of them is recorded as visiting Britain. One is 
electrical, 7’. dineatus, straight, brown and whitish: it is found in the Nile, cast on shore by the inundations, and 
collected by the children as a plaything. 

Orthagoriscus, the Sun-fish, has the body compressed, spineless, and incapable of inflation, with the tail so short 
that it appears only the anterior half of a fish which had been cut in two in the middle. Their dorsal and anal, 
both high and pointed, are united to the caudal; no air-bladder, and the stomach is small; their surface is covered 
with mucus. They are found in many seas; and two species at least—O. mola, the Short Sun-fish, and O. oblongus, 
the Oblong Sun-fish—are found in the British seas. 

Triodon.—These species have the mark of a suture on the upper jaw, but none on the under, which gives them 
the appearance of having three teeth. A vast membrane, as long as the body, and twice as high, is supported 
before by a large bone answering to the pelvis, and makes these fishes resemble Balistes, in the following family. 
Tins as in Diodon, body rough like Tetraodon, and the surface of the membrane roughened by a number of littie 
oblique crests. ‘The only known species is from the Indian Ocean. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE PLECTOGNATHI. 
Scituropermi (Fishes with Hard or Granulated Skins). 


These are readily distinguished by a conical or pyramidical muzzle, which is prolonged forwards from 
the eyes, and-terminates in the mouth, with distinct teeth in both jaws. The skin is either rough or 
covered with very hard scales; and the air-bladder is large, strong, and of an oval shape. There are 
two genera. Balisfes, File-fishes, admit of subdivision, and have the body compressed; eight teeth, 
generally trenchant, in a single row in each jaw; the skins scaly or granulated, but not osseous; the 
first dorsal composed of one or more spines, articulated with a particular bone, which is attached to 
the cranium, where is a groove for its reception; the second dorsal and anal long, and placed opposite 
each other. Though without ventral fins, they have pelvic bones attached to the shoulders. They 
abound in the warm seas near rocks, or on the surface of the water; and their brilliant colours sparkle 
in the water like those of Chetodons. Their flesh is disliked at all times; and they are supposed to 
feed on Coralline Polypi at some seasons, and become poisonous, but Cuvier found only sea-weed in 


such as he opened. 

Balistes proper, have the whole body covered with long and hard rhomboidal scales, which do not overlap each 
other, but have the appearance of the teeth ofa file; three 
spines on the dorsal, the first long, the third small and far 
back; extremity of the chest salient and prickly, with 
some spines in the skin behind, which have been con- 
sidered as rays of ventral fins. Some have no particular 
armature of the tail; and of these, again, some have large 
scales behind the gill-openings. Such is the Kuropean 
File-fish—B. capriscus, which has been occasionally, but 
very rarely, found on the British shores, and which is com- 
mon in the Mediterranean. 

Monacanthus.—This subgenus has very small scales, set 
rough like the pile of velvet ; a large cirrated spine on the 
first dorsal, and the extremity of the pelvis salient and 
spinous. Some have the pelvic bone moveable, and con- 
nected with the abdomen by an extensile membrane, and 
frequently strong spines on the sides of the tail. Some have 
stout bristles on the tail, some have the body with tuber- 
cles, and others with branched hairs. 


Fig. }441.—Balistes pencilligerns. 


PLECTOGNATHI. 329 


Aluteres, have the body long, the granulations 
scarcely visible, and a single spine in the first 
dorsal, but the pelvis is completely hidden in the 
skin. 

Triacanthus, has a kind of ventrals, each sup- 
ported by one large spinous ray, adhering to a non- 
projecting pelvis; the first dorsal has one largish 
spine, and three smaller ones behind it; the body 
is crowded with small scales; and the tail is longer 
than in any of the other subgenera. The single 
known species inhabits the Indian Ocean. 

Ostracion, the Trunk-fish, has the head and body 
covered in such a manner with plates of bones, 
soldered together, as to form an inflexible cuirass, 
leaving only the tail, the fins, the mouth, and a 
small margin of the gill-opening, capable of mo- 
: tion,—all of which moveable parts pass through 

Fig. 145.—Balistes geographicus. openings of the cuirass. The greater part of the 
vertebre are also soldered together. The jaws are furnished with a row of ten or twelve conical teeth; and they 
have no apparent gill-opening, except a mere slit with a cutaneous lobe; but inside the skin they have a gill-lid and 
six rays. They have neither pelvic bone nor ventrals, and the single dorsal and anal are both small: they have 
little flesh, but the liver is large, and abounds in oil; the stomach is also very large and membranous. Some of 
them are thought to be poisonous. They might be subdivided according to the form of the body and the spines, 
but it is not yet ascertained whether there may not be sexual differences in these respects. [The body is triangular 
in some, quadrangular in others, and in some it is compressed; and the appearance of the cuirass, or covering, 
varies still more. None has been met with on the British shores. ] 


CHONDROPTERYGII. 


The second series of Fishes, the CaonpropreryGu, or Cartilaginous Fishes, cannot 
be considered either superior or inferior to the Ordinary Fishes ; for, while some of the 
genera resemble Reptiles in the structure of their ear and reproductive organs, other 
genera have the skeleton so very rudimental that one almost hesitates to regard them 
as vertebrated animals. They form a series, ranging parallel to the Bony Fishes, just 
as the Marsupial Mammalia range parallel with the other ordinary Mammalia. 

Essentially, the skeleton is cartilaginous,—that is to say, it has no bony fibres, but 
the calcareous matter is disposed in grains. The cranium is always formed of a single 
piece without sutures; but there are ridges, furrows, and holes, whereby the por- 
tions of it analogous to the cranial bones of other fishes mzy be distinguished. Even the 
moveable articulations of other orders are not distinguishable in the whole of this: as, 
for instance, part of the vertebree of some of the rays make a single piece, and some 
articulations of the bones of the face also disappear. Among the latter, the most 
prominent character is the reduction of the maxillaries and intermaxillaries to mere 
rudiments concealed under the skin, while their functions are performed by the palatals, 
and sometimes by the vomer. The gelatinous substance which fills the intervals of the 
vertebrz in other fishes, and communicates from one to another by only a small hole, 
is, in several of this order, a long cord, which traverses all the vertebre, with little 
variation of diameter. 

The series divides itself into two orders:—Those with free gills, like all other 
Fishes ; and those with fixed gills, which are so attached to the skin by the internal 
edges that the water cannot escape from their intervals, except by holes in the surface. 


330 PISCES. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF CHONDROPTERYGIL— 
CHONDROPTERYGI BRANCHHS LIBERIS,— 


(Or, with free gills), have m their gills a single wide opening, and a gill-lid, like the Bony 
Fishes, but they have no gill-rays. There are two genera. 

Accipenser, the Sturgeon.—General form like that of the Shark, but the body more or less covered 
with bony plates in longitudinal rows, and the head externally armed with the same. Their mouth, 
placed under the muzzle, is small and toothless; and the palatal bones, soldered to the maxillaries, 
form the upper jaw, while 
there are vestiges of the in- 
termaxillaries in the thick 
lips. Piaced upon a pedicle 
of three articulations, this 
mouth is more protractile 
than that of the Shark; 
the eyes and nostrils are on the sides of the head, and barbules are suspended from the muzzle; the 
labyrinth within the cranial bones is perfect, but there is no external ear—the hole behind the temple 
leading merely to the gills. The dorsal is behind the ventrals, and has the anal directly opposite to it; the 
caudal surrounds the extremity of the spine, and terminates in the upper lobe of the tail, but an under 
lobe gives the tail the appearance of being forked. Internally, we find the spiral intestinal valve, and 
the single pancreas of the Shark family; and there is a very large air-bladder, which communicates 
with the gullet by a large opening. Sturgeons ascend some rivers in vast numbers, and are the object 
of valuable fisheries. The flesh of most is agreeable, their eggs or roes are made into caviar, and their 
air-bladders furnish the finest isinglass. 


Fig. 146.—The Sturgeon. 


A. sturio, the Common Sturgeon, occasionally found in the west of Europe and on the British shores, is about 
six feet long, has a pointed muzzle, five rows of plates with strong spines, and its flesh is much esteemed, being 
somewhat like veal. The rivers falling into the Black and Caspian Seas produce this and three other species, if not 
more. A. ruthenus, the Sterlet, is seldom more than two feet long, with the plates on the lateral line numerous and 
keeled, and those in the belly flat. It is considered delicious, and caviar made from it is reserved for the 
Russian court. There is reason to believe that this is the Hlops and Accipenser so much celebrated by the ancients. 
A. stelatus, the seroregia of the Russians, and the scherg of the Germans, grows to the length of four feet, has the 
plaits rougher and the snout more slender than the others. It is very numerous, but less esteemed than the 
Common Sturgeon. A. huso, the Great Sturgeon, has blunter plates, a smoother skin, and shorter snout and cirri, 
than the Common Sturgeon. It is frequentiy found more than twelve, or even fifteen, feet inlength, and weighing 
more than twelve hundred pounds. One specimen is mentioned which weighed near 3,000 pounds. Its flesh is not 
much esteemed, and it issometimes unwholesome; but its air-bladder yields the very finest isinglass. It is found 
in the Po as well as in the northern rivers. 

Several Sturgeons are found in North America, which are peculiar to that quarter of the world. 

Poliodon, may be considered as a subgenus of Accipenser. These fishes are distinguished by the great prolong- 
ation of their snout, the broad margins of which give it the figure of aleaf. In the general form and fins they re- 
semble the Sturgeons; but their gill-openings are wider, and the gill-lid is prolonged in a membranous flap, which 
extends to half the length of the body; their gape is much cleft, and furnished with a number of small teeth. 
Their upper jaw is formed by the union of the palatals and maxillaries with a pedicle of two articulations. There is 
a spinal cord like that in the Lamprey, and the same spiral valve which is common to most of the order; but the 
pancreas is partially divided into ceca. ‘They are furnished with an air-bladder. Only a single species is known, 
P. folium, which is found in the Mississippi. 


Chimera.—This second genus of cartilaginous fishes with free gills, closely resembles the Sharks in 
form, and in the disposition of the fins; but the gills open externally by one apparent hole in 
each side, though, if we examine more closely, we find great part of their edges attached, and that there 
are five separate holes terminating in the common aperture: still they have a vestige of an operculum 
concealed in the skin. Their jaws are more reduced than in the Sharks, for the palatals and tempo- 
rals are mere simple vestiges suspended to the sides of the muzzle, and the upper jaw is represented by 
the vomer only: hard and undivided plates supply the place of teeth, four of them above, and two below. 
The muzzle, supported as in the Sharks, projects forwards, and has pores arranged in rows nearly 


CHONDROPTERYGIT BRANCHIIS LIBERIS. 331 


regular. The first dorsal, containing a strong spine, is placed over the pectorals; and the males, as in 
the Sharks, have a bony appendage to the ventrals ; but these are divided into three branches, and they 
have spinous appendages before the base of the ventrals, and small spines on the point of a fleshy 
appendage between the eyes. Their eggs are large and flattened, with a leathery covering, and 
having margins. [In fact, with some singular peculiarities, they approach pretty closely to the fishes 
with fixed gills. ] 

C. monstrosa, the King of the Herrings, and Cat of the Mediterranean, is three feet long, and of a silvery 
colour spotted with brown. It inhabits the European seas, the northerly ones most abundantly. Another, forming, 
perhaps, a second subgenus, Callirhynchus, has the snout ending in a fleshy appendage like a toe. The 
second dorsal begins over the ventrals, and terminates at the commencement of the fin under the tail. Cnly 
one species, from the South Seas, is known. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF CHONDROPTERYGITI. 


CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 


These have their gills attached at the outer edge, with a separate opening, through which 
the water from each gill escapes. They have also small arches of cartilage suspended in their 
muscles, opposite the gills, which may be called gill-ribs. They form two families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE CHONDROPTERYGIT BRANCHIIS FIXIS,— 


SELacui (the SHarxs and Rays),— 


Which has been comprised in two genera, has many common characters. The palatals and postmandi- 
bularies are alone armed with teeth, supplying the place of jaws, the usual bones of which are mere 
rudiments, a single bone representing the tympanal, jugal, and temporal bones, and the preoperculum. 
The os hyoides is attached to this pedicle, and supports gill-rays as in ordinary fishes, although not 
distinctly visible externally. It is followed by branchial arches, but has none of the three pieces which 
compose the gill-lid. They have pectorals and ventrals, the latter behind the abdomen on each side of 
the vent. Their membranous labyrinth is inclosed in the cartilage of the cranium, and their cavities 
contain starchy masses and not stony ones. The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, and not divided 
into cceca; the intestinal canal is short, but with a spiral valve. The sexes pair regularly, the females 
having oviducts highly organized, which supply the place of a matrix in those that bring both their 
young alive ; such as produce eggs have them with a horny covering, the substance of which is supplied 
by a larger gland surrounding the oviduct. The males are easily known by large appendages on the 
inner edge of the ventrals, the use of which is not well known, [though believed to serve as claspers]. 
Squalus, the Sharks properly so called, have a long body; a thick, fleshy tail; moderate pectorals ; 
and resemble ordinary fishes in their form, having the gill-openings on the sides of the neck, not 
below, as in the Rays, and the eyes in the sides of the head. The snout is supported by three carti- 
laginous branches arising from the fore part of the cranium, and the rudiments of maxillaries, inter- 
maxillaries, and premandibulars, may be traced in the skeleton. The bone of the shoulder is sus- 
pended in the muscles behind the gills, without connexion with the cranium or the spinal column. 
Some are viviparous ; others produce eggs covered with yellow and transparent horn, of an oblong 
shape, and with cords of horn at the angles. Their small gill-ribs are apparent, and small ones are 
traceable along the spine; their flesh is dry and leathery, and eaten only by the poor. They are 


numerous, and form many subgenera. 

Scyllium (called Dog-fishes on the British coast).—Snout blunt and short ; nostrils near the mouth, continued in 
a groove to the edge of the lip, and more or less closed by membranes ; teeth with a long point in the middle, and 
a shorter one at each side. They all have spiracles, and one anal fin; the dorsals are far backward, the first being 
even before the ventrals ; their caudal is long and truncated, and their gill-openings under the pectorals in the 
British ones; the anal is against the interval between the two dorsals. The species are: 

S. canicula, the Small-spotted Dog-fish, with numerous spots and the ventrals truncated.—S. cutilis, the Large- 
spotted Dog-fish, with the spots larger, sometimes ocellated, and the ventrals square.—S. melastomum, Black- 


332 PISCES. 


mouthed Dog-fish. Light-brown, with ocellated spots. All the three are peculiarly destructive to the more 
valuable fishes. Some foreign ones have a slight difference of character. 

The Sharks properly so called include all species with a produced snout, no nasal grooves, and with 
a caudal lobe more or less forked. They form the genus 

ee — Carcharias,—a numerous and notorious tribe, 
= .— with trenchant-pointed teeth, usually serrated in 
the margins; the first dorsal before the ventrals ; 
the second nearly opposite the anals. They have no 
spiracles ; the nostrils are in the middle of the 
snout, and the last gill-opening extends over the 
pectorals. C. vulgaris, the White Shark, is some- 
times twenty feet long, with isosceles-triangular 
teeth, ragged at the sides, and the lower ones 
narrow points placed on wider bases ; these teeth in 
the mouth of such a fish forming weapons dreaded 
by all mariners. Foundin most seas. [Its appear- 
ance on the British shores has been mentioned, 
but it wants authentication.} C. vulpes, the Fox- 
shark, or Thresher.—Triangular teeth in both 
jaws; upper lobe of the tail as long as the whole 
body ; second dorsal andanal very small. C. glau- 
cus, the Blue Shark, with curved-sided teeth 
above, inclining outwards, and straighter ones be- 
low ; all ragged on the edges. 

Lamna, the Porbeagle, differs from a true Shark in the pyramidal snout, and the gill openings before the pec- 
torals. ZL. cornubica occasionally appears on the 
British coast, and its size has caused it to be mis- 
taken for the White Shark. JZ. monensis resembles 
the last, but has the snout shorter. 

Galeus.—Shaped like the Sharks, but with spira- 
cles and an anal. G. vulgaris, the Tope, is found 
on the British shores. 

Mustelus, resembles the former in shape, but 
has the teeth like a close pavement. 

Milavis, the Smooth Hound, isa British species. 

Notidanus, wants the first dorsal; has six gill- 
openings, triangular teeth above, and like a Fig. 145 —The Thresher. 
saw below. Two species inhabit the Mediterranean. Has the form of the Sharks, and spiracles, with the gill- 
openings nearly surrounding the neck ; its teeth are smail and not notched. It is the largest of the True Fishes, 
being sometimes thirty-six feet long; but it is a harmless fish. S. maximus, the Basking Shark, is found in the 
British seas. 

Centracion, has spiral teeth like pavement, and a spine before each dorsal. 

Spinax, resembles Carcharias, but bas spiracles ; no anal fin ; several rows of small trenchant teeth ; and a strong 
spine before each dorsal. S. acantheus, the Piked Dog-fish, 1s a British species. 

Centrina, resembles the last; but the second 
dorsal over the ventrals, and the short tail, give 
it a clumsy appearance ; its skin is very rough. 

Scymnus, the Greenland Shark, is more abun- 
dant in the Arctic seas, and is large and vora- 
cious; but is understood not to attack Man. 

Zygena, forms a second genus. Like the 
Sharks in the body, but with the snout singu- 
larly produced, forming two pieces like a couble- 
headed hammer, with an eye in the middle of 
each extremity. The species of the European 
seas grow to the length of twelve feet, [and we 
believe larger ones are met with in southern 
latitudes]. 

Squatina, the Angel Fish, has spiracles and 
wants the anal; but it has the mouth at the end 
of the muzzle; the eyes in the upper part of 
the head; the head round; the body broad and 
flattened horizontally; the pectorals large and 
far forward, but separated from the back by a 
slit in the gill-openings; their two dorsals are 
behind the ventrals, and the caudal is attached both to the upper and under sides of the termination of the body, 


Fig. 147.— The White Shark. 


Fig 149.—The Hammer-he \ded Shark. 


CHONDROPTERYGIL BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 333 


S. angelus, the Common Angel-fish, grows seven or eight feet long; is very voracious, and one of the ugliest 
of fishes. 

Pristis, the Saw-fish, form a fourth genus. They 
have a long body, like the Sharks, with the gill- 
Openings below; the snout extended like the 
blade of a sword, and with strong and trenchant 
teeth like spines on both edges. This formidable 
weapon gives name to the fishes, and with it they 
will attack the largest Whales, and inflict dreadful 
wounds. They sometimes attain twelve or fifteen Fig. 150.—The Saw-fish, 
feet in length. 


Raia, the Skate, [or rather, perhaps, Raiaide, the Skate family,] are less numerous than the Sharks. 
They have the body flattened till, from its union with the large and fleshy pectorals, it forms a disc. 

hese pectorals are joined to each cther before the snout; extend behind as far as the base of the 
ventrals, and have their humeral bones articulated with the spine behind the gills. Eyes and spiracles 
above ; mouth, nostrils, and gill-openings below; and dorsal fins almost always on the tail. Eggs 
brown, leathery, and square, with points at the angles. They consist of the following subgenera: 


Rhinobatis, connect the Sharks and Rays by their thick fleshy tail, and two distinct dorsals and a caudal. 
The rhomboids formed by the snout and pectorals is sharper in front and narrower than in the ordinary Rays ; 
but excepting this they have all the characters of these, and their crowded teeth are placed in fives, like little 
paving-stones. Some inhabit the Mediterranean ; some the Atlantic; and one species from Brazil is said, but 
not proved, to be electric. Rhina differs from Rhinobatis in having a stout, broad, and rounded snout. 

Torpedo.—Tail short, but tolerably fleshy ; disc of the body nearly circular, the anterior edge being formed by 
two productions of the muzzle, which extend outwards and join the pectorals. The space between the pectorals 
and the head and gills is filled by an electric apparatus. consisting of numerous cells formed like honeycombs, 
and subdivided by lateral diaphragms, in the intervals of which a mucous fluid is contained. This electric or 
galvanic apparatus is, like that in Gymnotus, amply supplied with nerves. The shocks given by the Torpedo, 
though smart, are not so benumbing as those of Gymnotus. They probably enable it to stun its prey. The body 
is smooth, and the teeth small and pointed. Two species, one with ocellated spots, and another with seyen fleshy 
protuberances round the spiracles, with the back marbled, sprinkled, or spotted with brown, were long confounded 
with this one. There are also several species in the foreign seas. The Common Torpedo is occasionally found on 
. the Channel coast of England. 

Raia, the Rays properly so called, or Skate, have the disc rhomboidal ; the tail slender; with two small dor- 
sals on the upper part, near the point, and sometimes the vestige of a caudal; and their teeth are small, and 
ranged in quincunx on the jaws. The European seas furnish many species, some of which are not yet well deter- 
mined. Their flesh is rather hard when recent, but wholesome. [The species found in the British seas are as 
follows: R. chagrinea, the Shagreen Ray; R. batis, the Blue or common Skate; R. oxyrhynchus, the Sharp- 
nosed Ray; R. marginata, the Margined Ray; R. maculata, the Homelin or Spotted Ray; R. microcellata, the 
Small-eyed Ray; R. clavata, the Thornback; and R. radiata, the Starry-ray.—Yarrell’s British Fishes.] 

Trygon, the Sting Ray, bas on the tail a strong spine notched on both sides; teeth similar to the other Rays; 
the disc obtuse forwards, and the tail often without any fin save arudimentalmembrane. R. acanthus resembles 
Trygon, but has the tail long and slender, without fin or spine. 

Miliobatis, the Eagle Ray, has the snout projecting beyond the long pectorals, which extend outwards like 
wings; the jaws have broad flat teeth like a pavement; the tail is long and slender, having a spine on the upper 
part near the base, and not far behind the small dorsal. In some there are two or more spines. 

Cephaloptera, has the small tail, the spine, and the small dorsal of the last subgenus: but the pectorals are 
more extended in proportion to the length of the body ; the head is truncated in front, and a lobe of each pectoral 
advances on each side of it, making the fish seem as if it had horns. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 


CycLosTomata (with the Mouth formed into a Sucker). 


With respect to their skeleton these are the least perfect of fishes, and, indeed, of all vertebrated 
animals. They have no pectorals or ventrals ; their body ends ina circular fleshy lip, with a cartilaginous 
ring supporting it, and formed of the soldered palatals and mandibularies. The substance of all the 
vertebre is traversed by a single tendinous cord, filled internally with a mucilaginous fluid, without 
contractions and enlargements, which reduces the vertebra to cartilaginous rays not easily distinguish- 
able from each other. The annular portion is rather more solid than the rest, but not cartilaginous 
through its whole circle. They have no ordinary ribs, but the gill-ribs, noticed as rudimental in the 
Sharks and Rays, are more developed and united with each other in this family into a kind of cage, but 
there are no solid gill-arches. Instead of being comb-shaped, as in other fishes, the gills have the 


PISCES. 


appearance of sacs produced by the union of the faces of the proximate ones. The labyrinth of the ear 
is embedded in the cranium, and the nostrils opened by a single orifice, in front of which is a blind 
cavity, improperly thought a spiracle. The intestine is straight and slender, with a spiral valve. 


Petromyzon, the Lampreys, have seven gill-openings on each side, and the skin on the upper and under parts of 
the tail is formed into fin-like crests, which, however, haveno rays. The Lampreys properly so called, have strong 
teeth in the maxillary ring, and the inner disc of the lip, which is very circular, is covered with tubercles, hard and 
crusted like teeth: this ring is suspended by a transverse plate answering to the intermaxillaries, and there are 
vestiges of maxillaries on the sides. The tongue, which moves backwards and forwards like a piston, and performs 
the suction, has two longitudinal rows of small teeth. Water reaches the gills from the mouth by a particular 
membranous canal, a sort of trachea, placed under the gullet and perforated with holes; there is a dorsal before 
the vent, and another behind it which unites with the caudal. They habitually fix themselves to stones and other 
hard substances by means of the sucker ; and they attach themselves to the largest fishes in the same manner, and 
in the end pierce their integuments and prey upon their substance. 

The species are—P. marinus, the Sea Lamprey, two or three feet long, marbled with brown and a yellow ground; 
the first dorsal separate from the second ; two large teeth on the upper part of the maxillary range. Inspring they 
approach the mouth of rivers, and their flesh is highly esteemed. P. fluviabilis, the River Lamprey, from a foot to 
eighteen inches long ; silvery, with blackish or olive spots on the back ; two large teeth in the maxillary ring; found 
in the fresh waters. P. planerii, the Small River Lamprey, is eight or ten inches long, and has the colours and 
teeth of the preceding : it also inhabits the fresh waters. [The last two are often styled Lamperns. ] 

Myxine.—The members of this genus have but one tooth in the maxillary ring, which is entirely membranous ; 
two rows of strong teeth on each side of the tongue; but in other respects like the Lampreys. The mouth is 
circular, with eight cirri, and has a spiracle on the upper margin which reaches the interior. The body is cylin- 
drical, and furnished with one fin round the extremity of the tail. The intestine is straight, but simple, and plaited 
internally, and the liver has two lobes: no eyes are perceptible. Their eggs grow to a large size; they discharge 
60 much mucus from the pores in their lateral line that if kept in a vessel of water they turn it into a jelly; they 
attack fishes in the same manner as the Lampreys, and they are divided into subgenera according to the number 
of their gill-openings. 

Heptratremus, has seven on each side, like the Lampreys, and the only known species is from the South Sea. 

Gastrobanchus, has a common canal to the gills on each side, each of which opens by a hole near the heart, and 
at one third of the length from the head. G. glutinosa, the Hag, is the only known species, and it enters the mouths 
of fishes when on the fishermen’s line, and plunders their substance. 

Ammocetes, has the entire skeleton so soft and membranous that there is not a bone in the whole, not even a 
tooth ; they have the external form and gill-openings of the Lampreys, but their fleshy lip forms only a semicircle 
on the upper part of the mouth, which ‘is furnished with numerous cirri. ‘The known species, 4. branchialis, is 
from six to eight inches long, about the thickness of a goose-quill, and of no use but as bait for other fish. [It has 
been accused of sucking the gills of other fishes, but perhaps falsely. It is found in the sand and mud of small 
streams; preys on worms, insects, and dead matter, and is, in return, preyed on by the Eel.] 

[Amphioxvus, has the body compressed, the surface without scales, and both ends pointed. It has a dorsal along 
the whole line of the back, but no other fins. The mouth is on the under side of the body, opens longitudi- 
nally, and has a row of filaments on each side. A. lanceolatus, the Lancelet, is the only known species. It is a 
British fish, and an inhabitant of the sea, in which it is found, although very rarely, lurking under stones in 
pools left by the ebbing tide. Pallas considered it as a molluscous animal, and not a fish; but Mr. Yarrell, in his 
British Fishes, argues that it is a fish, and that in organization it is the lowest of the class. ‘ The form of the 
fish,” says Mr. Yarrell, ‘‘is compressed; the head pointed, without any trace of eyes; the nose rather produced ; 
the mouth on the under edge, in the shape of an elongated fissure, the sides of which are flexible; from the inner 
margin'extend various slender filaments, which cross and intermingle with those on the opposite side. Along 
the sides of the body the muscles are arranged in regular order, diverging from a central line; one series passing 
obliquely upward and backward, and the other series as obliquely downward and backward ; the anal aperture is 
situated one-fourth of the length of the fish in advance of the end of the tail; the tail itself pointed; from the nose 
to the end of the tail, a delicate membranous dorsal fin extends the whole length of the back, supported by very 
numerous and minute soft rays; the surface of the bodysmooth.’? These characters leave no doubt that the 
animal is a fish; but that it ought to be classed with the Lamprey family is another matter. The specimen from 
which the description was made was not above an inch in length, very slender, and alm st transparent. ] 


SECOND GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


THE MOLLUSCA. * 


Tue Mo ttusca have no articulated skeleton nor vertebral canal. Their nervous 
system does not unite in a spinal cord}, but merely in a certain number of medullary 
masses dispersed in different points of the body, the principal one of which, called the 
brain, is placed crosswise upon the gullet, encircling it with a nervous collar. Their 
organs of motion and of the senses have not the same uniformity in number and 
position as in the Vertebrated Animals; and the variety is still more striking with the 
viscera, particularly in relation to the position of the heart and respiratory organs, and 
even in the structure and nature of the latter; for some Mollusca breathe the free air, 
and others the fresh or salt water. In general, however, their external organs, and 
those of locomotion, are symmetrical on the opposite sides of a middle axis. 

The circulation of the Mollusca is always double,—that is to say, their pulmonary 
circulation always makes a separate and complete circuit; and this function is always 
aided by one fleshy ventricle at least, placed, not as in the Fishes, between the veins 
of the body and the arteries of the lung, but, on the contrary, between the veins of the 
lung and the arteries of the body. It is, consequently, an aortic ventricle. The 
family of Cephalopods alone is provided, besides, with a pulmonary ventricle, which is 
even divided into two. The aortic ventricle is also divided in some genera, of which the 
Arca and Lingula are examples : at other times, as in the remaining bivalves, its auricle 
only is divided. 

When there is more than one ventricle, they are not united together to form a single 
organ, as in animals with warm blood, but they are often placed considerably apart, so 
that we may say that then there are several hearts. 

The blood of the Mollusca is white, or bluish ; and the fibrine appears to be pro- 
portionally less abundant than in the blood of Vertebrated Animals. ‘There is reason to 
believe that their veins perform the functions of absorbent vessels. 

Their muscles are attached to different points of their skin, and form there tissues 
more or less complicated and close in texture. The motions of these tissues are limited 
to contractions in different directions, which produce inflexions and prolongations, or 
relaxations, of their different parts; by means of which the creatures creep, swim, and 
seize upon various objects, according as the forms of the parts are adapted to these 
movements ; but as their members are not sustained by jointed and solid levers, the 
Mollusca cannot make rapid springs. 

The irritability of the greater number of the Mollusca is very great, and is retained 


sition of the Linnean classification of avertebrated animals, and the theory, that the brain and spinal cord are the result of a union of 
also the modification of it proposed by Bruguiéres. Cuvier’s first the nerves, trending from the circumference to certain centres. The 
sketch of the arrangement now to be explained was made in May | opposite opinion was that maintained by Haller, and all the carlier 


1795.—Ep. physiologists.—Ep,. 


* In the original, there is here a long note, containing an expo- | + From this mode of expression, we infer that Cuvier had adopted 


336 MOLLUSCA. 


a long time in parts after they have been amputated. Their skin is naked, very sensi- 
tive, and, in general, bedewed with a humour, which oozes from its pores. No peculiar 
organ of smell has yet been discovered, although they enjoy that sense; and it may be 
that the entire skin is its seat, for this has much resemblance to a pituitary membrane. 
All the Acephales, the Brachiopods, the Cirrhopods, and some of the Gasteropods and 
Pteropods, are destitute of eyes; but the Cephalopods possess these organs, with a 
structure equal, at least, in complexity, to those of animals with warm blood. They also 
are the only Mollusca in which organs of hearing have been detected, and in which 
the brain is inclosed in a particular cartilaginous skull. 

Nearly all the Mollusca have a developement of the skin which covers the body, and 
resembles more or less a cloak, but which is often reduced into a simple disk, or is folded 
into a tube, or hollowed into a sac, or, lastly, extended and divided in the form of fins 
or swimmers. 

We call those Mollusca naked in which the cloak is simply membranous or fleshy ; 
but there is commonly formed within it one or several lamine of a more or less solid 
substance, which is deposited in layers, and increases at the same time in extent, as 
well as in thickness, because the recent layers always extend beyond the older ones. 

When this substance lies concealed in the cloak, common usage allows us to extend 
to the species so circumstanced, the title of naked Mollusca. But oftener that substance 
assumes such a size and developement that the animal can contract or withdraw under 
its shelter; we then give it the name of shell, and the animal is said to be festaceous. 
The skin which covers the shell is thin, and sometimes dried, or wanting: it is commonly 


called [by French naturalists], the drap-marin, [and by the English, and those who 
write in the Latin tongue, the epidermis].* 

The variety in the forms and colour, in the exterior sculpture, composition, and lustre 
of shells, is infinite. The greater number by far are calcareous ; there are some simply 


corneous; but all are formed of material deposited in layers, or exuded by the skin 
under the epidermis, as are the rete mucosum, the nails, the hair, the horns, the scales, 
and even the teeth. The texture of shells differs according as that exudation is made 
in parallel layers, or in vertical filaments arranged closely against each other. t 

The Mollusca present every kind of mastication and deglutition : their stomachs are 
sometimes simple, sometimes multiplicate, often furnished with peculiar armatures, and 
their intestines are variously elongated. They have, in general, salivary glands, and 
always a liver of considerable size, but no pancreas} nor mesentery. Several have 
secretions, which are peculiar to them. 

They exhibit, also, every variety of generation. Several fecundate themselves, 
while in others, although hermaphrodite, the union of two individuals is necessary to fe- 
cundation : in many the sexes are distinct and separate. Some are viviparous; others 
are Oviparous, and the eggs of these are sometimes enveloped in a more or less con- 
sistent shell, or sometimes only in a simple viscosity. 

These variations in digestion and generation are found in Mollusca of the same order, 
sometimes of the same family. 

The Mollusca, in general, seem to be animals of inferior developement: hebetous 


* Previous to my system, the Testacea were considered a peculiar + The student will find the formation of shells, and their structure, 
order; but the transitions from the naked to the shelled Mollusca are | admirably explained by Mr. Gray, ina paper, on the economy of Mol- 
so insensible, and their natural divisions are so interlaced, that this luscous animals, inserted in the Phil. Trans., 1833.—Ep. 
distinction can be no longer retained. Moreover, there are several t Professor Grant maintains that there is a pancreas, or its repre- 
Testacea which are not Mollusca. sentative, in all classes of Mollusca.—Ep, 


CEPHALOPODES. aay, 


and incapable of active exertion, they maintain themselves amid living beings princi- 
pally by their fecundity, and the tenacity with which they retain life. 


DIVISION OF THE MOLLUSCA INTO SIX CLASSES.* 


The general form of the body of the Mollusca being, in a sufficient degree, propor- 
tional to the complication of their internal organization, indicates their natural divisions. 

In some, the body has the form of a sac, inclosing the branchiz, and open above, 
whence there protrudes a head well developed, and crowned with certain strong fleshy 
elongated productions, by means of which the animals progress, and seize upon objects. 
We call these the CEPHALOPODES. 

In others, the body is not open; the head has no appendages, or only very minute 
ones; the principal organs of locomotion are two wings, or membranous fins, placed 
on the sides of the neck, and in which the branchial tissue is often spread. These are 
the PreropovEs. 

Others, again, crawl on the belly on a fleshy disk, sometimes, though rarely, com- 
pressed into a fin. They have almost all a distinct head. We call these the 
GASTEROPODES. 

A fourth class is composed of those Mollusca in which the mouth lies concealed in 
the base of the cloak, which also incloses the branchiz and the viscera, and opens 
either throughout its whole length, or at both its extremities, or at one only. These 
are our ACEPHALES. 

A fifth comprehends the species which, inclosed also in a cloak, and without an 
apparent head, have fleshy or membranous arms, garnished with cilize of the same 
nature. We have called these the Bracniopopss. 

Lastly, there are some which, alike the other Mollusca in the cloak, the branchiz, 
&c., differ from them in having numerous horny articulated members, and in a nervous 
system more allied to that of the Annulose Animals. Of these we constitute our last 
class, the CrrrRHOPODEs. 


THE FIRST CLASS OF MOLLUSCA. 


THE CEPHALOPODES.* 


The cloak unites under the body, and forms a muscular sac, that incloses all the 
viscera. In several species, its sides are extended into fleshy fins. The head issues 
from the opening of the sac: it is roundish, furnished with two large eyes, and crowned 
with fleshy conical arms or feet, varying in their length, and capable of being bent 
very vigorously in every direction; and, as their surface is armed with suckers, the 
animals fix themselves, by their means, with great force to whatever objects they em- 
brace. With their feet they seize their prey, walk, and swim. They swim with the 
head backwards, and crawl in all directions, with the head beneath and the body above. 


classes is entirely my own, as well as the greater number of the sub 
divisions to the second degree. 
+ The Cephalophora of De Blainville. 


* For the name Mollusca, M. de Blainville proposes to substitute 
Malacozoa; and he separates from them the Chitons and the Cirrho- 
pods, with which he makes a subtypical section nnder the name 
Malentozoaria. The following distribution of the Mollusca into 


338 MOLLUSCA. 


A fleshy funnel placed at the aperture of the sac, before the neck, affords an outlet 
to the excretions. 

The Cephalopodes have two branchiz, one on each side of the sac, in the shape of a 
compound fern-leaf. The great vena cava, when between them, divides into two 
branches, which terminate each in a fleshy ventricle, placed at the base of its respective 
branchia, and propelling the blood into it. 

The two branchial veins tend to and terminate in a third ventricle, situated near the 
bottom of the sac, whence the blood is carried to every part of the body by different 
arteries. 

Respiration is effected by the water which enters into the sac, and is driven out 
again through the funnel. It appears that the water even penetrates into two cavities 
of the peritoneum, which the venze cave cross in their course to the branchie; and 
that it has some influence on the venous blood, through the medium of a glandular 
apparatus attached to these veins. 

The mouth opens amidst the bases of the feet. It has two powerful corneous jaws, 
similar to the beak of a Parrot, and between the jaws is a tongue roughened with 
horny prickles. The gullet swells out into a crop, and then passes into a gizzard as 
fleshy as that of a bird, to which succeeds a third membranous and spiral stomach, 
into which the liver, which is very large, pours its bile through two conduits. The 
intestine is simple and short. The rectum opens into the funnel. 

These animals have a peculiar excretion of a deep black colour, which they use to 
taint the water when concealment is necessary. It is secreted bya gland, and reserved 
in a sac, differently situated in different species. 

Their brain, inclosed in a cartilaginous cavity of the head, sends off from each side 
a cord which swells, within each orbit, into a large ganglion, whence are derived innu- 
merable optic filaments. The eye is formed of numerous membranes, and 1 is “covered 
by the skin, which becomes transparent in passing over it, and sometimes forms folds 
that supply the want of eyelids. The ear is merely a little cavity excavated on each 
side near the brain, without semicircular canals or external passages, and in which 
there is suspended a membranous sac, containing a little stone. 

The skin of these animals, particularly of the Octopus, changes colour, in patches 
and in spots, with a rapidity greatly superior to that of the Chameleon.* 

The sexes are separate. The ovary of the female is at the bottom of the sac. ‘Two 
oviducts carry the eggs from it, passing them through two large glands which envelope 
them, during their passage, with a viscous fluid, and gather them together into a sort 
of cluster. The testicle of the male, similar in position to the ovary, gives off a vas 
deferens that terminates in a fleshy penis situated to the left of the anus. A vesicula 
seminalis, and a prostate, also open there. There is reason to believe that impreg- 
nation is effected by a sprinkling of the seminal fluid over the eggs, as illustrated 
in the majority of Fishes. In the season of spawning, the vesicula contains a vast 
number of little filiform bodies, which, through a peculiar mechanism, writhe and 
move about rapidly as soon as they fall into the water, and shed the fluid with which 
they are filled. 


These animals are voracious and savage; and as they are agile, and are furnished 


* See Carus, Nov Act. Nat. Cur. xii. part i. p. 320; and Sangiovanni, dann. des Sci. Nat. vol. xvi. p. 308. [Also Coldstream, in Edinburgh 
Journ. of Nat. and Geograph. Science, vol. ii, p. 296.) 


CEPHALOPODES. 339 


with numerous organs for seizing their prey, they destroy many [ishes and Crusta- 
ceous animals. 

Their flesh is eatable. Their inky secretion is employed in painting, and from it 
some have asserted that the China ink of commerce is manufactured.* 


The Cephalopods comprise only one order +, which we divide into genera froin the nature of 
the shell. Those which have no external shell formed, according to Linnzus, the single genus 


Sepia, or Currie-risx,t 
which we now subdivide as follows :— 


THE Poutres (Octopus, Lam.) ; the Polypus of the ancients. 

These have only two small conical grains of a horny substance imbedded in their back, one on each 
side; and their sac, having no fins, represents an oval purse. Their feet are eight in number, all nearly 
of equal size, very large in proportion to the body, and united together at their insertions by a mem- 
brane. The Octopus uses them equally in swimming, in creeping, and in seizing its prey. From their 
length and strength they are formidable weapons, by means of which the prey is entangled and 
caught ; and they have often been the destruction of swimmers.§ The eyes are proportionally small, 
and the skin can be made at will to contract over them so as to cover them completely. The ink bag 
is embedded in the liver. The glands of the oviducts are small. 

Some (the Polypes of Aristotle) have their suckers in two alternating rows along [the oral margin] of each foot. 
The common species (Sepia octopodia, Linn.), with a minutely granulous skin, arms six times as long as the 


body, and garnished with 120 pairs of suckers, infests our coasts in summer, where it destroys an immense 
quantity of Crustacea. The seas of the tropics produce the Octopus granulatus, Lam. (Sepia rugosa, Bosc.) 


with fifty pairs of suckers. Some believe this to be the species which furnishes the China ink of commerce. 

Other Poulpes (the Eledons of Aristotle) have only a single row of suckers down each foot. In the Mediterranean 
there is a species remarkable for its musky smell: it is the Octopus moschatus, Lam.—Mém. de la Soc. d’ Hist. 
Nat. in 4to, pl.11; Rendelet, 516. 

Tue Arconaovts (Argonauta, Linn.)— 

Are Poulpes with two rows of suckers: the pair of feet nearest the back expand, at their extremities, 
into a broad membrane. They have not the dorsal cartilaginous spicula of the common Octopus; but 
we always find these Cuttles in a very thin, 
regularly-grooved spiral shell, which, from the 
disproportionate size of the last whorl, has 
some resemblance to a canoe, the spire repre- 
senting the poop. The animal uses it too as a 
boat, for when the sea is calm, groups of them 
have been seen navigating the surface in it, 
employing six of their tentacula for oars, and 
raising, it is said, the two with expanded ex- 
tremities to serve the purposes of sails. If the 
waves rise, or any danger threatens, the Argo- 
naut withdraws all its arms into the shell, con- 
tracts itself there, and descends to the bottom. 
Its body does not penetrate within the spire of 
the shell, and it appears does not adhere to it, 


Fig. 151.—Argonauta 


at least there is no muscular attachment, and this fact has led some authors to think that the Cuttle is 
a parasite of the same nature as the Hermit-crab ||; but as it is always found in the same shell, as we 
never find any other animal there, although it is very common, and naturally adapted for rising to the 


* However, M. Al. Remusat has found nothing in Chinese authors 
to confirm this opinion, [which, the translator may add, is now known 
to be erroneous). 

+ The discoveries of Mr. Owen have proved the necessity of dividing 
the class into two orders :—l. Disrancurata, with two branchie, of 
which all the naked Cuttle-fish are examples ; and, 2. TeTRABRANCHI- 
ATA, with four branchie, as in Nawtilus, and as supposed to have been 
in the multilocular-shelled fossil Cephalopodes.—Ep. 

t In Blainville’s system they form the order Cryptodibranchiata. 

§ This fact needs confirmation ; and we need scarcely add, that the 
stories of their sinking boats and ships are entirely fabulous.—Ep 


| Hence M. Rafinesque, and others following him, have made the 
animal a genus under the name Ocythoe. [Certainly the opinion of its 
being a parasite was, until recently, entertained by most naturalists ; 
but that advocated by Cuvier has been greatly strengthened, or rather 
proved, by the experiments of Mrs. Power. See the Mag. of Natural 
History, conducted by Mr. Charlesworth; and the dissections and 
arguments of Mr. Owen, in the Proceedings and Transactions of the 
Zoological Society of London. The animal does not sail as here de- 
scribed: the use of the expanded arms is to retain the animal within 
its shell.] 
» 
“ 


la 


340 MOLLUSCA. 


surface, and as it has been even asserted that the germ of this shell has been seen in the egg of the 
Argonaut *, we must say that this opinion is, to say the most of it, still very problematical.—Poli, 
Testac. Neap. iii. p. 10. See also Ferussac, Mem. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, ii. p. 160; and 


Ranzani, Mem. di Stor. Nat. Lec.i.p. 85. Itis the Nautilus and Pompitus of the ancients.—Plin. ix. c. 29. 

We know some species, very like each other bothin the animal and shell, which Linneus confounded together 
under the name of Argonauta argo, vulgarly called the Paper-nautilus. 

It is supposed that we must ascribe to an animal analogous to the Argonaut, the Bedlerophon,—fossil shells 
rolled up spirally and symmetrically, and without septa; but thick, not grooved, and whose last whorl is propor- 
tionably shorter. [Sowerby says that Bellerophon is the only fossil that bears any real resemblance to Argonauta, 
but neither shell, in his opinion, has been formed by a Cephalopodous animal, but probably by one nearly like 
that of Carinaria. The fossils are characteristic of the carboniferous limestone, and the oldest secondary strata : 
in these the shell is frequently found changed to silex.] 

THE SLEEVE-FISH (Loligo, Lam.)— 

Have in the back, instead of a shell, a horny lamina in the shape of a sword or lancet. Their sac has 
two fins; and besides the eight feet, furnished with small pedicled suckers inordinately arranged, their 
head supports two arms much longer than the feet, and only acetibuleferous near the ends, which are 
enlarged. These the animal employs as anchors to fix itself. Their ink-bag is buried in the liver; 
and the glands of their oviducts are very large. They lay their eggs attached together in straight 
garlands, and in two series ; [and the entire mass somewhat resembles a mop, being composed of 
numerous intestine-like filaments tied together in the centre}. 

The family is now subdivided from the number and armature of the feet, and the form of the fins. The Loli- 
gopsis, like the Octopus, has only eight feet, but our knowledge of the genus rests upon figures that are scarcely 
trustworthy.t In Loéigo properly so called, the arms have suckers as well as the feet, and the fins are situated 
towards the end of the sac. We have three species in our seas,—the L. vulgaris (Sepia loligo, Linn.); L. sagittata, 
and L. subulata, or Sepia media, Linn. The Onychotheuthis, Lichenst. (Onykia, Lesueur,) have the form of the 
Loligo, but the suckers of their arms end in hooked spines. The Sepiola have rounded fins, attached, not to the 
end, but to the sides of the sac. The common Sepiola (Sepia sepiola, Linn.) occurs in our seas. The body is short 
and obtuse, with small circular fins. It never exceeds three inches in length; and its horny lamina is slender and 
pointed like a needle. { The Sepiotheutes, Blainv. (Chondrosepia, Leukard,) have the sac margined throughout 
with the fins, asin the Sepia; but their shell is horny, as in the Loligo. 

Tue Curr.e-Frisu, strictly so called (Sepia, Lam.),— 

Possess the two long arms of Loligo, and a fleshy fin stretched along each side of their sac. Their 
shell is oval, thick, tumid, and composed of an infinity of very thin parallel calcareous laminz, joined 
together by thousands of little hollow columns, which are placed upright in the spaces between every 
two lamine. This structure renders it friable, whence it is employed by artists in polishing various 
works; and it is given to cage birds to sharpen their beaks upon. The Sepia have the ink-bag separate 
from the liver, and situated deeper in the abdomen. The glands of the oviducts are enormously large. 
They deposit their eggs attached to one another in branched clusters, not 
unlike a cluster of grapes, whence the vulgar have called them Sea-grapes. 

The species distributed in all our seas (Sepia officinalis, Linn.) reaches a foot or 
more in length. Its skin is smooth, whitish, and dotted with red. In the Indian 
Ocean there is one with a skin roughened with tubercles (S. tuberculata, Lam.). 

(Among fossils we find some little bodies armed with a spine, which are the 
ends of a bone of Sepia. They constitute the genus Beloptera of Deshayes. See 
Ann. des. Sc. Nat. ii. xx.1,2. Some other fossils, but petrified, appear to have great 


relation to the beaks of the Sepiz. These are the Ryncholithes of M. Faure Biguet. 
—See Gaillardot, Ann. Se. Nat. ii. 485, and pl. xxii.; and D’Orbigny, ib. pl. vi.) 


Linnus united in one genus—his Fig: 15%:—Epes of the Aneonaat® 
NavutTitus— 
All spirally twisted, symmetrical, and chambered shells,—that is to say, divided by partitions into 
several cavities ; and he supposed them to be inhabited by Cephalopods. One of them is, in fact, the 
shell of a Cephalopod, very similar to a Sepia, but with shorter arms: it is the genus 


Sprruta, Lam.— 
In the hinder part of the body of the Cuttle is an interior shell, which, however dissimilar to the 
bone of the Sepia in figure, does not differ much from it in the manner of its formation. If we imagine 


* This appears now to have been disproved.—Kp. Nut. Part. Zool. n. s. iii. p. 339, &&.—Ep. 


+ Loligopsis is now ascertained to have two arms, remarkable for t On the anatomy of Sepiola and Loligopsis, consult Dr. Grant’s 
their great length and gracility.—See Ferussac, in dnn. des Sciences | paper in the Ist vol. of the Zoul. Trans.—Ep. 


NS EIN EE LO A a ey a ee 


CEPHALOPODES. 341 


that the successive layers, instead of remaining parallel and in nigh approximation, were to become 
concave towards the body, more distant, each growing a little in breadth, and making an angle 
between them, we should then have a very elongated cone, rolled up spirally on one plane, and divided 
transversely into chambers. Such is the shell of Spirila ; which has these additional characters, that 
the turns of the spire do not touch, and that a single hollow column, occupying the interior side of 
each chamber, continues its tube with those of the other columns even to the extremity of the shell. 


This is what is named the Syphon. 

Only one species (Nautilus spivula, Linn.) is known. 

The shell of the Nautilus, properly so called, differs from that of the Spirula in this,—that the septa increase 
very rapidly, and that the last turns of the spire not only touch, but envelope the preceding. The syphon is in the 
centre of each partition. The common species (Nautilus pompilius, Lin.) is very large, silvered within, and 
covered externally with a whitish crust, varied with reddish somewhat undulated bands. According to Rumphius, 
its animal should be in part lodged in the last cell, and should have the sac, the eyes, the parrot-like beak and the 
funnel of other Cephalopods; but its mouth, instead of their great feet and arms, should be surrounded with 
several circles of numerous little tentacula, destitute of suckers. A ligament springing from the beak should run 
through the syphon, and fix the animal to it. It is probable also that the epidermis is prolonged over the exte- 
rior of the shell; but we may conjecture that it is thin upon such parts as are vividly coloured.* 

We meet with specimens of Nautilus (NV. pompilius, B. Gm. List. 552; Ammonia, Montf. 74), in which the last 
whorl does not envelope nor conceal the others, but in which all the whorls, although they touch, are visible,—a 
character which approximates them to the Ammonites; yet in every other respect they so closely resemble the 
common species that it is difficult to believe they are not a variety of it. 

Among fossils there are Nautili of large and moderate sizes, and of figures more varied than now exist in the ocean. 

We also find among fossils certain chambered shells, with simple septa and a syphon, in which the body is at 
first arched, or even spiral, but the last-formed parts of it are straight: these are the Lituus of Breyn, in which 
the whorls are either contiguous or separate, (the Hortoles, Montf.)—Others remaining straight throughout their 
growth are the Orthoceratites. It is not improbable that their animals had some resemblance to that of the 
Nautilus, or to that of the Spirula. 


Tue BELEMNITES 

Belong, probably, to the same family, but it is impossible to be sure of this, since they are only found 
in a fossil condition. Their whole structure, however, shows that they were internal shells.f They 
have a thin and double shell, that is to say, composed of two cones, united 
at their base, and the interior of which, much shorter than the other, is itself 
divided internally into chambers by parallel septa, concave on the side that 
looks to the base. A syphon extends from the summit of the exterior cone 
to that of theinternal cone, and is continued hence, sometimes along the margin 
of the septa, and sometimes through their centre. The space between the 
two testaceous cones is filled with a solid substance, composed either of ra- 
diating fibres or of conical layers, which envelope each other, and each of 
which rests on the margin of one of the septa of the inner cone. Sometimes 
we find only this solid part ; at other times we find also the nuclei of the cham- 
bers of theinner cone, or what has beencalledthealyeolz. Oftener these nuclei, 
and even the chambers, have left no other traces behind than some projecting 
circles within the inner cone; and in other instances, the alveole are found 
in greater or less numbers, and still piled or strung together, but detached 
from the double conical case which had inclosed them. 

The Belemnites are amongst the most abundant of fossils, particularly in 
beds of chalk and compact limestone. The most complete works upon them 
are the Memoire sur les Belemnites considerées zoologiquement et geologique- 
ment, by Blainville, Paris, 1827; and that of M.I. 8S. Miller on the same 
subject, in vol. ii. part 1, of the Geological Trans., Lond., 1826. [The 
English student will find the fullest details in Buckland’s Bridgewater 
Treatise.] M. de Blainville distributes them from characters derived from 
the greater or less depth to which the inner cone, or chambered part, pene- 
trates ; from the margins of the external cone, which has, or has not, a small Fig. 153.—Belemnites. 


« The structure of this singular Cephalopod has been fully described which fossils are occasionally referred to living types, to mention that 
and illustrated in a very admirable manner, by Mr. Owen, in his | Raspail believes the Belemnites to be the cutancous appendages of 
“ Memuir on the Pearly Nautilus,” Lond., 1832.—En. some sca animal, perhaps allied to the Sea-urchins, (Echinus).—Ep. 


+ It may give the student an idea of the nature of the evidence on | 


iss) 


342 MOLLUSCA. 


fissure ; from the exterior surface being marked with a longitudinal gutter on one side, or with two or 
several gutters towards the summit ; or as that surface is smooth and without gutters. 

Some fossils, very much like the Belemnites, but without a cavity, and even with a protruding basis, 
form the genus Actinocamax of Miller. 

It is upon similar conjectures that the classification of the 


Ammonites, Brug., or SNAKE-STONES,— 


Is founded, for they, also, are only found in a fossil state. They are distinguished, in general, from 
Nautilus, by their septa, which, instead of being plain or simply concave, are angulated, sometimes 
undulated, but oftener gashed on the margins, 
like the leaves of the Acanthus. The smallness 
of their last cell leads to the belief that, like the 
Spirula, they were internal shells. The beds of 
the secondary mountains swarm with them, and 
we find them there from the size of a bean 
to that of a chariot wheel. The variations 
of their whorls and of their syphon enable 
them to be subdivided. Thus the name 
Ammonites, Lam., is restricted to the species in which all the whorls are visible. Their syphon 
is near the margin. They have been still further distinguished into those which have the margins 
of the septa foliaceous, (the Ammonites, the Planites of Haan,) and into those in which they 
are simply angular and undulatory (the Ceratites of Haan). Those in which the last whorl envelopes 
all the others, are the Ordulites, Lam., or the Globites and Coniatites of Haan, or Peloguses, Montf. 
The syphon is the same as in Ammonites.* The name Scaphites, Sowerby, [or rather of Parkinson, | 
has been appropriated to those species whose whorls are contiguous and on the same plane, excepting 
the last, which is detached and bent upon itself. Those which are perfectly straight are the Baculites, 
Lam. Some are round, others are compressed ; and in the latter we some- 
times observe the syphon to be lateral. The Hamites of Sowerby, [Par- 
kinson,] are known by having their first formed cells arcuated. But the g 
Turrilites, Montf., differ more than any from the usual habit of the family, € 
for the whorls, in place of remaining on the same level, descend rapidly, 
and give to the shell that obelisk form which is denominated turriculated. Fis: 155.—Portion of a Baculite 

From analogy, it is supposed that we ought to refer to the Cephalopods, and to consider as being in- 
ternal shells 


Fig. 154.—Ammonites 


THe CaMERINES, Brug. (Nummulites, Lam.),— 


For all of them are equally fossil. They have a lenticular shape, without any apparent aperture, but 
within there is a spiral cavity, divided by septa into a multitude of little chambers without a syphon. 
Theyare amongst the most generally diffused fossils, and almost of themselves form some entire chains 
of calcareous hills, and immense banks of building stone. (It is upon such rocks that the pyramids of 
Egypt are founded, and with stones of the same description that they are built.) 

The commonest, and which attains the largest size, are altogether discoid, and have only a single 
row of chambers in the whorl of the spire. Some minute sorts of this description have been aiso found 
recent insome seas. Other minute species, both living and fossil, have their margin bristled with points, 
which give to them the figure of stars (Siderolithes, Lam.). 

The works and the patient researches undertaken successively by Bianchi (or Janus Plancus), Soldani, 
Fichtel and Moll, and Alex. d’Orbigny, have made known an astonishing number of these chambered 
and esyphonal shells (Nummularie), of extreme littleness, so as often to be altogether microscopical, 
either in the sea, among sand, sea-weed, &c. ; or, in a fossil state, in the sand-beds of various countries ; 
and these shells vary to a remarkable extent in their contour, the number and the relative position of 
their chambers, &c. One or two species, the only ones in which the animals have been noticed, have, 
apparently, a small oblong body surmounted by numerous red tentacula, a structure which, taken in 


* According to Sowerby, Orbulites and Ammonoceras, of Lamarck, are not distinct from Ammonites. The Ammonoceras is only an acci- 
dentally worn portion of an Ammonite.—Ep. 


PTEROPODES. 343 


connection with the septa of their shells, has occasioned them, like the genera which we have just 
treated of, to be arranged in the series of Cephalopods ; but this classification requires to be confirmed 
by more numerous observations before it can be considered as settled.* Linnzeus and Gmelin placed 
the species known in their time in the genus Nautilus. M. d’Orbigny, who has studied them more 
carefully than any one else, makes an order of them, which he calls Foraminiferes, because the cells 
communicate only by holes; and he divides them into families from the manner in which the cells are 
arranged. When the cells are simple, and disposed spirally, the shells constitute his Helicosteqgues, 
which are subdivided ; for, if the whorls of the spire envelope each other, as is particularly the case with 
the Camerines, he names them Helicostegues nautiloides ; if the whorls do not cover themselves, they 
are H. ammonoides; and if the whorls rise up, as in the greater number of univalves, they are his H. 
turbinoides. The family Stycostegues is known by the simple cells being, as it were, threaded on a 
single straight, or slightly curved axis. When the cells are disposed in two alternate rows, they are 
then the Enallostegues. If the cells are gathered together in small numbers, and heaped up ina globular 
shape, the family is the Agathistegues. Lastly, in the Entomosteqgues, the cells are not simple, as in the 
preceding families, but are subdivided by transverse partitions, so that a section of the shell discovers 
a sort of trellis-work. 


THE SECOND CLASS OF MOLLUSCA.+ 


THE PTEROPODES. 


They swim, like the Cephalopods, in the sea, but cannot fix themselves there, nor creep, 
from want of feet. Their organs of locomotion consist of fins only, placed at each side of 
the mouth. The species known are of small size, and few in number. They are all herma- 


phrodites. 
Tue Crt0 (Clio, Linn.; Clione, Pall.)— 


Have an oblong membrauous body, without a cloak; the head is formed of two rounded lobes, whence 
the little tentacula project; two small fleshy 
lips, and a tongue, upon the front of the 
mouth; and the fins contain the vascular net- 
work which supplies the place of branchiz ; 
the anus, and the orifice of generation, are 
under the right branchie. Some have as- 
serted the existence of eyes. The viscera do 
not nearly fill the exterior envelope. The 
stomach is large, the intestine short, and the 


Fig. 156.—Clio borealis liver voluminous. 


The most celebrated species (Clio borealis, Linn.) swarms in the northern seas; and, from its abundance, be- 
comes a food for the Whales, although no individual exceeds an inch in length. Bruguiére has observed a larger 
species, in equal abundance, in the indian Ocean. It is distinguished by its rose-colour, its emarginate tail, and 
its body separated into six lobes by as many grooves. 


It seems that we must also place here the 


CymsButia of Peron,— 
Which has a cartilaginous or gelatinous envelope in the shape of a boat, or rather of a shoe, roughened 
with little points arranged in longitudinal rows. The animal has two large vascular wings, which are 
its branchiz and its fins; and between them, on the open side, there is a third lesser lobe with three 
points. The mouth, with two small tentacula, is between the wings, towards the closed side of the 
shell; and above are two minute eyes, and the orifice of generation, whence issues a penis in the form 
+ M. de Blainville unites my Pteropodes and Gasteropodes into 


one class, which he calls Paracephalophora, of which my Pteropods 
constitute his order 4porobranchiata. ‘This order he divides into 


* Some of these multilocular shells belong apparently to the testa- 
ceous Annelides ; while the curious observations of Dujardin seem to 
have proved that the great bulk of the Foraminiferes are not Mol- 
lusca, but animals related to the Infusoria.—dnn. des Sci. Nat. n. s. two families :—The Thecosomata, which have a shell; and the Gymno- 
vol. v. et seq.—En. somata, which are shell-less. 


344 MOLLUSCA. 


of a little beak. The transparency of the body allows us to distinguish the heart, the brain, and the 
viscera, through the envelopes. 


Tue PNEUMODERMES (Pneumodermon, Cuv.)— 
Carry their dissimilarity to the Clios a little further. The body is oval, without cloak or shell; the 
branchie attached to the skin, and formed of little leaflets set in two or three lines, disposed in the 
figure of the letter H opposite to the head; the fins small; the mouth (garnished with two small lips, 
and two bundles of numerous tentacula, terminated each by a sucker) has underneath a small lobe, or 


fleshy tentaculum. 

The only species (P. Peronii, Cuv.) was taken in the ocean by Peron. It is not less than an inch in length. 

THe Limacinaé, Cuv.,— 

Ought, from the description of Fabricius, to have a nigh relationship to Pneumodermon; but their body 
is terminated with a spiral tail, and is lodged in a very thin shell, of one whorl and a half, umbilicated 
on one side,* and flat on the other. The shell serves the purpose of a boat; and when the creature 
wishes to swim on the surface, it uses its fins as oars. 

The species known (Clio helicina of Phipps and of Gmel.; Argonauta arctica, Fabr., Faun. Greent. 387) is not 
less abundant than the Clio borealis, in the Arctic seas ; and is likewise a principal aliment of the Whale. 

Tue Hyates (Hyalea, Lam.; Cavolina, Abildg.)— 

Have two very large wings; no tentacula; a cloak slit on the sides, containing the branchie at the 
bottom of the fissures, and clothed with a shell slit in a corresponding manner, the ventral aspect of 
which is very tumid; the dorsal aspect is flat, longer than the other, and the transverse line which unites 
them behind is furnished with three acute denticulations. When alive, the animal protrudes, through 
the chinks of the shell, certain narrow filaments, or productions of the cloak, of variable lengths. 

The best known species (Anomia tridentata, Forskahl; Carolina natans, Abildgaard; Hyalea cornea, Lam.) has 
a small yellowish semi-transparent shell, and is found in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. 

Tue CiEopores (Cleodora, Peron). 

For these, Brown first instituted the genus Clio. They appear to be analogous to the Hyales in the 

simplicity of their wings, and the absence of tentacula between them. It is also probable that their 


gills are concealed in the cloak ; but their conical or pyramidal shell is not slit along the margins. 

M. Rang distributes the genus into subgenera thus :—Cleodora, with the shell pyramidal; Creseis, with the 
shell conical, elongated ; Cuvieria, with the shell cylindrical; Psyche, the shell globular; Huribia, the shell hemi- 
spherical. (And it is probable that we should arrange near the Creseis, and even perhaps in the same subgenus, 
the Tripter of Quoy and Gaimard, which Blainville has referred to the family Acere.) 


It has been believed that we may place near to the Hyales,— 
Tue Pyrco,— 
A very small fossil shell discovered by M. Defrance. It is globular, very thin, and divided by a very 
narrow transverse fissure, excepting in front, where it becomes also a little enlarged. 
(Several Pteropodes have been discovered in the fossil state. M. Rang has found, in the ¢errains 
of Bordeaux, Hyales, Cleodore, and Cuvierize.—See dun. des Sci. Nat. for August 1826. The Vaginula 
of Daudin is a Creseis, according to Rang; and it has, in fact, all the characters of the same.) 


THE THIRD CLASS OF MOLLUSCA. 
THE GASTEROPODES. 


The Gasteropods constitute a very numerous class, of which the Slug and the Snail give 
a good general idea. They creep generally upon a fleshy disk, situated under the belly, 
but which sometimes assumes the form of a furrow, or of a vertical lamina. The back 
is covered with a cloak of greater or less extent, and of various figure, which secretes 
a shell in the greater number of the genera. ‘Their head, placed in front, is more or 


* Sowerby says, ‘‘ Umbilicated on both sides.”—Ep. 


GASTEROPODES. 345 


less distinct, according as it is more or less drawn in under the cloak. It is furnished 
with tentacula of [comparatively] small size, and which do not encircle the mouth; 
their number varies from two to six, but they are sometimes wanting; they are organs 
of touch, and, at most, of smell also. The eyes are very small, sometimes placed upon 
the head, sometimes at its base, either to a side or at the tips of the tentacula; they 
are sometimes also wanting. The position, the nature, and the structure of their 
breathing organs vary, and afford characters whereby to divide them into several 
families ; but they have never more than one aortic heart,—that is to say, one placed 
between the pulmonary vein and the aorta. 

The position of the orifices of the organs of generation, and that of the anus, varies; 
but they are almost always on the right side of the body. 

Several are entirely naked, others have only an interior shell, but the majority are 
covered with one which contains the soft body, and shelters it. 

These shells are secreted in [or on] the cloak. Some of them consist of several 
symmetrical pieces [or valves]; some of a single symmetrical piece ; and others of a 
non-symmetrical piece, and when this is very concave, or continues to grow for a long 
time, an obliquely spiral shell is necessarily produced. In fact, that the shell may 
represent an oblique cone, on which are placed successively other cones always wider 
in one direction than in the others, it is necessary that the whole should turn to the 
side which enlarges the least. 

That part upon which the cone is turned is named the columella [or pillar], and it is 
sometimes full, and sometimes hollow. In the latter case, its opening is called the 
umbilicus. 

The whorls of the shell may remain nearly on the same plane, or they may tend 
always towards the base of the columella. In this case, the preceding whorls rise above 
the others as they are formed, and constitute what is called the spire, which is acute 
in proportion to the rapidity with which the whorls descend, and to the measure of their 
increase. ‘The shells with an elongated spire are said to be turbinate. When, on the 
contrary, the whorls remain depressed on the same level, and do not envelope each 
other, the spire is flat, or even concave. ‘These shells are called discoid. When the 
upper part of each whorl envelopes or covers the preceding, the spire is concealed. 

The place in the shell whence the animal protrudes itself, is named the mouth, or 
aperture. 

When the whorls remain nearly on the same plane, the animal, in creeping, has its 
shell placed vertically, the columella transversely upon the hinder part of the back ; 
and its head passes out under the margin of the mouth opposite to the columella. 
When the spire is turbinate, the whorls turn obliquely to the right side in nearly all the 
species, but in a small number to the left; and the latter are named reversed, [or 
sinistrorsal]. 

It is to be observed that the heart is always on the side opposite to that to which the 
spire is directed. It is, consequently, in general on the left, and only on the right in 
the reversed kinds. The contrary is the rule with the organs of generation. 

The organs of respiration, which are always within the last whorl of the shell, receive 
the circumfluent element under its margin, sometimes because the cloak is detached 
from the body along the whole of this margin, and sometimes because it is perforated 
there with a hole. The margin of the cloak, in many Gasteropods, is prolonged into 


346 MOLLUSCA. 


a canal, through which they can reach and receive the circumfluent medium without 
extruding their head or foot from the shell. The shell has then, also, in its margin, 
near the end of the columella, opposed to that towards which the spire tends, an emar- 
gination, or furrow, wherein to lodge the canal of the cloak. Consequently, the canal 
is to the left in common, but to the right in the reversed species. 

Further, the animal being very flexile, can vary the direction of the sbell, and oftenest 
when there is an emargination or furrow, it directs the canal forwards, whence it 
happens that the spire points to behind, the columella to the left, and the opposite 
margin to the right. The contrary of this occurs in the reversed sorts : and this is the 
reason that we say that their shell turns to the left, [or is sinistral]. 

The mouth of the shell, and consequently also the last whorl, is greater or less, in 
relation to the other whorls, according as the head or the foot of the animal is more 
or less voluminous in relation to the mass of viscera which remains fixed within the 
shell; and the mouth is wider or narrower just as the same parts are more or less 
broad. There are shells whose mouth is narrow and long; and there it is that the foot 
is thin, and doubles on itself before it can be retracted. 

The greater number of the aquatic Gasteropods with a spiral shell, have an operculum, 
or a corneous or calcareous plate, affixed upon the posterior part of the foot, to close 
the aperture when the snail has withdrawn within the shell. 

There are Gasteropods with separate sexes, and others which are hermaphrodites ; 
and of these some are capable of self-impregnation, while, in others, the copulation of 
two individuals is required. 

Their organs of digestion do not vary less than those of respiration. 

The class is so numerous that we have deemed it expedient to divide it into a certain 
number of orders, the characters of which we have drawn from the position and the 
form of the branchiz. 

THe PULMONEA 
Breathe the atmosphere, receiving the air within a cavity whose narrow orifice they can open 
and close at will: they are hermaphroditical, with reciprocal copulation : some have no shell, 
others carry one, which is often truly turbinate, but never furnished with an operculum. 


THe NuDIBRANCHIATA 
Have no shell, and carry their variously-figured branchiz naked upon some part of the back. 


THE INFEROBRANCHIATA 
Are similar, im some respects, to the preceding, but their branchiz are situated under the 
margins of the cloak. 

THe TECTIBRANCHIATA 
Have their branchie upon the back, or upon the side, covered bya lamina, or fold of the cloak, 
which almost always contains a shell more or less developed ; or sometimes the branchiz are 
enveloped in a narrow fold of the foot. 

These four orders are hermaphroditical, with reciprocal copulation. 


THe HETEROPODES 


Carry their branchie upon the back, where they form a transverse row of little tufts, and are, 
in some instances, protected, as well as a portion of the viscera, by a symmetrical shell. What 
best distinguishes them is the foot compressed into a thin vertical fin, on the margin of which a 
little sucker often appears,—the only trace left of the horizontal foot of the other orders of 
the class. 


a 
ee Ee eee 


GASTEROPODA PULMONEA. 347 


THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA 
Have the sexes separated : their respiratory organs consist almost always ot pranchize composed 
of lamella united in a pectinated form, and which are concealed in a dorsal eavity opening with 
a wide gape above the head. Nearly all of them have turbinated shells, with the mouth 
sometimes entire, sometimes emarginate, sometimes produced into a syphonal canal, and gene- 
rally capable of being more or less exactly closed by an operculum attached to the foot of the 


animal behind. 
THE SCUTIBRANCHIATA 


Have branchiz similar to those of the Pectinibranchiata, but they are complete hermaphrodites, 
and require no union with a second to effect impregnation : their shells are very open, and in 
several like a shield; they never have any operculum. 


THE CyCLOBRANCHIATA 
Are hermaphrodites of the same kind as the Secutibranchiata, and have a shell consisting of 
one or several pieces, but in no case turbinate nor operculate: their branchiz lie under the 
margin of their cloak, as in the Inferobranchiata. 


’ THE FIRST ORDER OF GASTEROPODES. 


THE PULMONEA.* 


From other Mollusca, those of this order are distinguished in this,—that they breathe the 
atmosphere through a hole which opens under the margin of their cloak, and which they can 
dilate or contract at pleasure. They have, also, no branchiz, but only a network of pulmonary 
vessels, which creep upon the walls, and more particularly upon the ceiling of their respiratory 
cavity. Some of them are terrestrious, and others live in the water, but these are necessitated 
to come, from time to time, to the surface, to receive within their pulmonary cavity the air fit 
for respiration. All of them are hermaphrodites. 

The TERRESTRIAL PULMONEA have almost all four tentacula, for, in a few only, of small 
size, we cannot see the inferior pair, probably because of their littleness. 

Those of them which have no apparent shell, form the genus 


Limax— 

Of Linneus, which is divided as follows:—The Limaces, properly so called (Limax, Lam.), have an 
elongated body, and a closely-fitted fleshy disk, or shield, for a cloak, which occupies merely the anterior 
part of the back, and covers only the pulmonary sac. It contains, in several species, a small, oblong, 
flat shell, or at least, in lieu of it, a calcareous [molecular] deposition. The respiratory orifice is at the 
right side of the shield, and the anus opens near it. The four tentacula are protruded and withdrawn 
by a process of evolution and involution ; and the head itself can be contracted partially under the disk 
of the cloak. The orifice of the generative organs is under the right superior tentaculum. Inthe mouth 
is an upper jaw only, of a crescent form, and toothed, which enables them to devour with voracity herbs 

and fruits, to which they are very destructive. Their stomach is elongated, simple, and membranous. 
M. de Ferussac distinguishes the Arions by the 
respiratory orifice being towards the anterior part of 
theshield, in which there are only calcareous grarules. 
Limax rufus, Linn., is an example which we meet 
with every step in moist seasons, and which is some- 
times almost wholly black. It is thespecies of which 
a broth is used in diseases of thechest. The Limax 
proper, has the orifice near the hinder part of the 
Fig. 157 —Limax rufus, shield, and it contains a more distinctly formed shell 
Such are the Limax maximus and L. agrestris of Linn. 


* Pulmobranchiata of Blainville. [In consequence of some ob- | animals, urzed by Lamarck, English authors often call this order the 


jections to the term pulmunated being applied to any invertebrated Preumonsbranchous.—Ep.] 


348 MOLLUSCA. 


THE VAGINULUS, Feruss.*¥— 
Has a close-fitted cloak without a shell, extended over the whole length of the body; four tentacula, 
of which the inferior are somewhat forked; the anus quite at the posterior extremity, between the end 
of the cloak and that of the foot; and the same orifice leads to the pulmonary cavity situated along 
the right flank. The orifice of the male organ of generation is under the right inferior tentaculum, and 
that of the female organ under the middle of the right side. These organs, as well as those of digestion, 
are very similar to those of the Snail. The genus belongs to both Indies, and is much like our Slugs. 


THE TrESTACELLa, Lam.— 
Have the respiratory aperture, and the anus, near the posterior extremity; their cloak is very small, 
and also placed there, and contains a small ear-shaped shell,.which does not equal one-tenth of the 


length of the body. In other respects, these animals resemble our Slugs. 

One species is found abundantly in our southern 
departments (Testacella haliotoidea, Diaparn.), 
living under ground, and feeding principally 
on earth-worms. M. de Ferussac has observed 
that its cloak assumes an extraordinary develope- 
ment when the animal finds itself in too dry a 
situation, and thus produces for itself a sort of 
shade and shelter. 

[There are some interesting illustrations of the 
Pea tert ese etiye habits of the Testacelle in Loudon’s Magazine 

; : of Natural History, vol. vii.] 


Tue ParMACcELLA, Cuv.— 
Has a membranous cloak, with loose margins, situated [upon a gibbosity] in the middle of the back, 
and containing, in its posterior part, an oblong flat shell, which exhibits the mere vestige of a spine. 
The respiratory aperture, and the anus, are under the right side of the middle of the cloak. 
The first known species was from Mesopotamia (Par. Olivieri, Cuv.); but we have now one from Brazil, and 
some others from India. 
In the terrestrial Pulmonea with a perfect and exterior shell, the margin of its aperture is in general 


thickened and reverted in the adult. 


Linnzus referred to his genus 
HELIx,—— 


Every species in which the aperture of the shell (somewhat encroached upon by the projection of the 


penultimate whorl) assumes a crescent-like figure. 

When this lunated aperture is wider than it is deep, the shells belong to Helix, Brug. & Lam. In some, the 
shell is globular. Everybody knows the edible Snail (Hel. pomatia, Linn.), common in gardens and vineyards, 
and esteemed as a delicacy in some departments; and the common Snail (Hel. nemoradis, Linn.), remarkable for 
the vividness and variety of its colours, and very 
hurtful to garden stuffs in wet seasons. There is 
no one who has not heard of the curious experi- 
ments, showing to what extent they can reproduce ; 
amputated parts. 

Other species have a depressed shell, or one with 
a flattened spire; and we ought not to pass over 
without notice such as have interiorly projecting 
ribs, nor those in which the last whorl is abruptly 
turned up in the adult [so that the aperture appears ips) Avaatoma ecouore 
in the same plane as the spire], and then assumes 
an irregular plicated form,—hence denominated Anastomat by Lamarck. 

The Vitrina, Drap. (Helico-Limaz, Feruss.), are Helices with an extremely thin subspiral shell, without an um- 
bilicus, and with an ample aperture, whose margin is sharp and even. The body of the Snail is too large to be 
drawn within the shell. The cloak has a double edge; and the superior fold, which is divided into several lobes, 
may be made to overlap the shell so as to clean and polish it. The European species live in moist situations, and 
are very small; but there are some of large size in warm climates. 


* Synonymous with the Onchidiwm of Buchanan; and the Veroni- | the reflected outer lip, and the teeth in the aperture. Until then, the 


cella of Blainville is not different,—En. animal must crawl about like other Snails, with the spire of its shell 


+ “The peculiarity which distinguishes this genus from all the other 
Heliciform Univalves is so extraordinary, that it Appears to us to be 
deserving of particular notice, inasmuch as it evidences a consider- 
abie alteration in the habit and economy of the animal which produces | are known.—Ep 
it, at the time of its arrival at its last period of growth, when it forms 


uppermost; bnt as soon as it arrives at maturity, and is about to form 
its complete aperture, it takes a reverse position, and afterwards 
constantly carries its spire downwards.’”-—Sowgrsy. Two species 


Mum MCT ek ea ea Ur ess et anc a 
EE 


GASTEROPODA PULMONEA. 349 


We ought to arrange near them some Helices which, without having a double-edged cloak, are equally incapable 
of retreating within their shell. Helix rufa and brevipes, Ferus., are examples. 

When the depth of the aperture is greater than its width, as is always the case in shells with an oblong or elon- 
gated spire, they are the terrestrial Bulimi of Brug., which it appears necessary to subdivide as follows :—The 
Bulimus, Lam., have an oval rim, thickened in the adult, but without denticulations. In tropical countries, there 
are some large and beautiful species; some remarkable for the size of their eggs [equal to that of a Pigeon], and 
with an equally solid shell; and others for their reversed shells. In our own country there are several of small or 
moderate size, and one of them (Helix decollata, Gm.) has the singular habit of breaking off in succession the 
whorls from its spire. This example has been quoted as a proof that the muscles of the animal can be voluntarily 
detached from the shell; for a time does come when this Bulimus preserves no more than a single whorl of all 
those it possessed at the beginning of the decollation. 

The Pupa, Lam., have an obtusely-pointed shell, whose last whorl is narrower than the penultimate, whence 
it has an elliptical, or sometimes a cylindrical form. The mouth is surrounded by a thickened rim, and en- 
croached upon, on the side of the spire, by the penultimate whorl. The species are very small, living in moist 
stations, amongst mosses, &c. There is sometimes no toothlet in the aperture, but oftener there is one or more 
either on the projecting part of the penultimate whorl, or within the outer margin. [The genera Vertigo, Mill., 
and Alea, Jeffreys, appear to have been separated from Pupa on too slight grounds; for the inferior tentacula are 
not absent, as is alleged, but only reduced to a minimum. The Partula, Fer., deserves probably to be kept dis- 
tinct ; for the species are ovo-viviparous, while all the others are oviparous. ] 

The Chondrus, Cuv., has, as in these latter Pup, the mouth of the shell encroached upon by the penultimate 
whorl, and guarded with plates or toothlets; but the figure of the shell is more ovate, and more like that of the 
common Bulimi. Some have the teeth on the rim of the aperture, and others have plaits situated deeper within 
it. [This genus appears to be synonymous with the Azeca of Leach. ] 

Here terminates the section of terrestrial Helices whose shell has a thickened oral rim [or peritreme] in the adult. 

The Succinea, Drap., has an ovate shell, with an aperture longer than its width, as in Bulimus, but larger in 
proportion ; the outer lip sharp, and the side of the columella almost concave. The Snail is too large to be con- 
tained in it, and we may almost regard it as a Testacella with a big shell. The inferior tentacula are very small. 
It lives upon the herbs and the shrubs of the brinks of rivulets, whence it has been considered as an amphibious 
genus. 


We ought to separate from the genus Z7'urdo of Linneus, and approximate near the terrestrial 

Helices, the 
CrausiniA, Drap.,— 

Known by the slender, long, and pointed shell, with the last whorl narrower than the penultimate in 
the adult, compressed, and a little detached. Its mouth is entire and margined, and often toothed or 
furnished with plates. There is mostly found, 
within the last whorl, a little lamina [commonly 
termed the clausium], slightly curved, a little 
like the letter S, the use of which to the animal 
is unknown to us.* The species are small, and 
live in moss, at the foot of trees, &c. A great 
number of them are reversed. 


THe AcHATINA, Lam.— 

Ought likewise to be separated from the Bulle of 
Linnezus, and brought hither. The oval or ob- 
long shell has the aperture of Bulimus, but is not 
margined; and has the extremity of the colu- 
mella truncated, which is the first index of the 
emarginations we find in so many of the shelis 
of the marine Gasteropodes. These Achatinz 
are large Snails which feed on trees and shrubs 
in hot climates.t- Of such as have, within the 
last whorl, a callus or particular thickening, 
Montfort makes his genus Liguus. The body- 
whorl is proportionably narrow; and when the 

San eens Se are ER end of the columella is curved towards the in- 
side of the aperture, and the body-whorl is broader, the species constitute Montfort’s Polyphemes. 


* The use is to close the aperture of the shell when the Snail has | shells: some are West Indian, and a very few European. Among the 
retired. See a good description of its mechanism by Mr. J. E. Gray, latter, we can only lay claim to one as decidedly a native of this 
in Zool. Journ, vol. i. p. 212.—Ep country, the 4. acicula of Lamarck.”"— En, 


t “* The greater number of Achatine,’’ says Sowerby, “ are African 
g , ) Y» 


350 MOLLUSCA. 


THE Aquatic PuLMoNEA have only two tentacula. They come ever and anon to the 
surface to breathe, so that they can only inhabit waters of inconsiderable depth: thus they 
live in fresh waters or in brackish pools, or at least near the sides and mouths of rivers. 

There are some amongst them without a shell: such is the 


OncuHipIuMm, Cuy.* 

A large fleshy cloak, of the shape of a buckler, overlaps the foot on every side, and even covers the 
head when this is contracted. It has two long retractile tentacula, and over the mouth a veil, sinu- 
ated, or formed of two triangular compressed lobes. The anus and air-passage are under the hinder 
margin of the cloak, where, a little deeper, we find also the pulmonary sac. Near them, to the right, 
is the opening of the female organs, while, on the contrary, that of the male organ is under the right 
tentaculum ; and these two orifices are united by a groove which runs under and along the right edge 
of the cloak. Destitute of jaws, they have a muscular gizzard, succeeded by two membranous stomachs. 
Several species inhabit the coasts of the sea, but always in such a situation that they are uncovered at 
ebb tide, when they obtain the air necessary to respiration. 

The Aquatic Pulmonea, with perfect shells, have been placed by Linnzeus in his genera Helix, Bulla, 
and Voluta, whence they ought to be withdrawn. In Helix were the two following genera, whose aper- 
ture, as in Helix, had its inner [or pillar] margin protuberant and arcuate :— 


Tue PLanorsis, Brug.,— 
Had already been distinguished from Helix by Bruguiéres, and even previously by Guettard, because 
the whorls of their shell, rolled up nearly on a level, enlarge insensibly, and the mouth is wider than 
deep.t It contains a Snail with long, slender, filiform tentacula, at the inner base of which the eyes 
are situated. It can exude, from the margin of its cloak, a copious red liquor, which is not to be mis- 
taken for its blood. The stomach is muscular, and the food vegetable, as in the Limnez, which are 
the faithful companions of the Planorbes in all our stagnant waters. 


Tue Limn-xus, Lam., 

Were separated from the Bulimus of Bruguicres, because, notwithstanding the similarity of the shells, 
the margin of the Limnees is sharp-edged and not reflected, and their columella has an oblique fold. 
The shell is thin: the animal has two compressed, 
broad, triangular tentacula, with the eyes sessile at 
their inner base. They feed upon plants and seeds ; 
and their stomach is a very muscular gizzard, fur- 
nished with a crop. Hermaphrodites, after the fa- 
shion of their order, they have the female organ rather 
widely apart from the other,—a structure which 
compels them to copulate in such a manner that the 
individual acting as a male to his mate is the fe- 
male to a third, and from this peculiarity we occa- 

Fig. 162 —Limuwa stagnalis. sionally find them joined together in long strings. 
They abound in stagnant waters; and they are found plentifully, as well as the Planorbes, in marly 
or calcareous beds, which we thus discover to have been deposited from fresh water. 


Tue Puysa,— 
Which were arranged arbitrarily among the Bulle, have the shell of Limnzus, but still thinner, and 
there is no fold on the columella. The animal, when it swims or creeps, covers its shell with the two 
pectinated lobes of the cloak: it has two long setaceous tentacula, which are bulged at the base where 


the eyes are placed. 
The species are small, and live in clear ponds. One of them (Bulla fontinalis, Lam.), has its whorls sinistral, 
{and this, indeed, is the only certain character which distinguishes the genus from Limnzus. }} 


* M. de Blainville has changed the name Onchidium into Peronia, + Sowerby maintains that the shell in Planorbis is always reversed, 
and transfers the first to the Vaginulus. He places Peronia | or sinistral.—Ep. 
amongst his Cyclobranchia; but I cannot perceive any real difference t When the shell is oval-globose, and the cloak sufficiently ample 
between their respiratory organ and that of the other Pulmonea. [As | to cover it, in an expanded state, the genus is the Amphipeplea of 
this genus is not the Onchidium of Buchanan, as Cuvier suppdsed, | Nilson; [and when the shell is turreted, and the cloak entire, the 


M. de Ferussac proposes to name it Onchis.] genus is named Aplewa by Fleming.—Ep.] 


GASTEROPODA NUDIBRANCHIATA. 351 


From the observations of Van Hasselt it seems that we must here arrange 


THE ScaraBes, Monttf. 

The shell is oval, and the aperture contracted by large teeth projecting from both the columellar side 
as well as the outer lip: this lip is swollen, and as the 
animal re-makes it after every half-whorl, the shell is most 
protuberant on two opposite lines, and has a flattened 
aspect. The animals live on aquatic plants in the Indian 
Archipelago. 

The two genera which follow were misarranged among 


the Volutes. 
Avuricuta, Lam.,— 


Differing from all preceding aquatic Pulmonea by having 
their columella striated with large oblique channels. Their 
shell is oval or oblong; the aperture of the shape of the Bulimus or Limneus ; the lip furnished with 
a varix. Several species are of considerable bulk; but it is not ascertained if they live in marshes, 
like the Limnzeus, or merely upon their margins, after the manner of the Succinea. 

[One species, according to Lesson, lives in fresh water ; the others appear to be terrestrial, living on rocks by 
the sea-side.] We find only one in France, from the coast of the Mediterranean (Awricula myosotis, Drap.) The 
male has two tentacula, and the eyes are at their bases. [Carychium, Muller, answers so nearly to the description 
of Auricula, that the genera ought probably to be conjoined. The typical species (C. minimum) lives under leaves 
in shaded woods. ] 


Fig. 163.—Auricula scarabeus 


Tae Mextampes, Montf. (Conovulus, Lam.), 
Like the Auricula, have prominent plaits on the columella, but their aperture has no varix, and its 
inner lip is finely striated: the shell has somewhat the shape of a cone, of which the spire makes the 
base. They inhabit the rivers of the Antilles. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE NUDIBRANCHIATA.* 


They have neither a shell nor pulmonary cavity, but their branchie are exposed naked 
upon some part of the back: they are all hermaphroditical and marine : they often swim in a 
reversed position, the foot applied against the surface, and made concave like a boat; and 
they assist their progress by using the edges of the cloak and the tentacula as oars. 


Tue Doris, Cuv.,— 

Have the anus in the posterior part of the back, and the branchie are arranged in a circle round the 
anus ; and as each resembles a little arbuscule, they constitute alto- 
gether a sort of flower. The mouth is a small proboscis, situated 
under the anterior edge of the cloak, and is furnished with two small 
conical tentacula. There are other two tentacula, of a conoid figure, 
sep [and lamellated structure,] which issue from the superior and ante- 

Fig. 164.—Doris cornuta rior part of the cloak. The organs of generation have their orifices 
near to each other, under its right margin. The stomach is membranous. A gland, intimately inter- 
laced with the liver, sheds a peculiar secretion, that escapes outwards by a hole near the anus. The 
species are numerous, and some of them of considerable size. We find them on the shores of every 
sea.t Their spawn is shed in the form of a gelatinous ribbon, on rocks and sea-weeds, &c. 


The Onchidores, Blainv., only differ from the Doris in the wider separation of their sexual organs, whose orifices 
communicate by a furrow drawn along the right side, as in the Onchidia. The Plocamoceres, Leuckard, have all 
the characters of Onchidores, and moreover the anterior edge of their cloak is adorned with numerous branched 
tentacula. The branchie of Polycera, Cuv., are like those of Doris, but simpler, and furnished with two mem- 


* My first four orders are joined together by M. de Blainville into | as they have two or four tentacula. 


what he calls a sub-class, and names Paracephaluphora monoica. Of + The Scottish species are described by Dr. Johnston in the Ist 
my Nuadibranchiata he makes two orders: in the first (Cyclobranchi- | vol. of the Annals of Natural History; and Montagu has deseribed 
ata) he places the Dorides; in the second (Polybranchiata) the | many British species in the Linnaan Transactions.—Ep. 


Tritonie and its allies, which he divides into two families, according 


352 MOLLUSCA. 


branous laminz to cover them in time of danger: and besides the two conoid tentacula in front, similar to those 
of Doris, they have four, or sometimes six others, which are simply pointed. 
Tue Tritoniss (Tritonia, Cuv.),— 

Have a body, superior tentacula, and generative organs, as in the Doris; but the anus and the vent of 
the peculiar secretion are on the right side, behind the yulva: 
the arbuscular branchiz are arranged along each side of the 
back, and the mouth, guarded by broad membranous lips, is 
armed within with two lateral horny and cutting jaws, in shape 
somewhat like to the scissors for shearing sheep. 

We have a large species (Tritonia Hombergii, Cuv.) on our coasts ; and 
there are many others, some of them very small, which exhibit great variety in the size and figure of their branchiz. 
[Melibea, Rang, differs in having filiform simple tentacula issuing from a wide sheath, and two series of ovate 
muricated or tuberculated branchi# on the back, which readily fall off when the animal is handled. . rosea, 
which lives on floating sea-weeds near the Cape of Good Hope, is the type ; but there are some European Mollusca, 
of small size, which are also referable to it.] 

Tue THetuHys, Linn. ,— 
Have along the back two rows of tufted 
branchiz ; and upon the head a very large 
i Se membranous fringed veil, which curves, in its 
aN) 2 contraction, under the mouth. The mouth is 

a membranous proboscis without jaws: there 
is at the base of the veil two compressed 
tentacula, from the margin of which issues a 
small conical point. The orifices of generation, 
of the intestine, and of the peculiar secretion, 
are as in Tritonia. The stomach is mem- 
branous, and the intestine very short. 

There is, in the Mediterranean, a beautiful spe- 
cies of a greyish colour, spotted with white (Thetis 
jfimbria, Linn.). 


Fig. 163.—Tritonia, 


i 
mnt 
Hi 
1 


Tue Scyii#a, Linn. 

Fig. 166.—Thethys leporina, upper and under sides. In this genus the body is compressed ; the 
foot narrow and furrowed, to enable it to embrace the stems of sea- 
weed; no veil; the mouth forming a small proboscis ; the exterior 
orifices as in Thethys ; the tentacula compressed, terminating in a 
cavity from which a little point, with an unequal surface, can be 
protruded ; and upon the back are two pairs of membranous crests, 
carrying, on their inner aspect, some pencils of branched filaments. 
The middle of the stomach is covered with a fleshy ring, armed 
with horny lamine as sharp as a knife. The common species is found on Fucus natans, or gulf-weed, 
wherever this appears. 


Fig. 167.—Scyllwa pelagica 


Tue Guiaucus, Forster, 

Have the elongate body and the vents as in the preceding ; four minute conical tentacula ; and on each 
side [two or] three branchiz, each formed of long fringes ar- 
ranged like a fan, and by whose means they swim. They are 
little charming Molluscs of the Mediterranean and Indian 
Ocean, agreeably painted with azure-blue and silver, and swim 
with great quickness on their backs. Their anatomy closely 
resembles that of Tritonia. The species have not, as yet, been 
satisfactorily distinguished. 

The Laniogerus, Blainv., has, on each side, two series of little 
plates, finely divided in a pectinate manner, which are the branchia. 


The body is shorter and thicker than in Glaucus, but they have its 
four little tentacula. 


Tue Eoxipra, Cuv., 
RIE TES Cn acuerEOrnLees Resemble little slugs, with four tentacula above, and two on 


GASTE {0PODA TECTIBRANCHIATA. 353 


the sides of the moutn. Their branchiz are tentaculiform processes or papille disposed along the sides, 


overlying like scales, [or held erect]. They inhabit all seas. 
The Cavolina, Bruguiére, have the habit of Eolidia, but their branchiz are disposed in rows across the back. 
The Flabellines, Cuv., still exhibit the tentacula of the preceding genera, with branchie composed of radiating 
filaments supported on five or six pedicles on each side. They approximate the Glaucus; and in general it is to be 
remarked, that all the Nudibranchiata with branchiz placed upon the sides of the back are nearly affined. 


THE TeRGIPEsS, Cuv., 
Are in shape like the Eolidia, but have only two tentacula, and along each side of the back there is a row 
of cylindrical branchiz, each terminated by a little sucker, which enables them to be used as feet : hence 
the creature can walk in a reversed posture. [This singular structure of the branchizx, and their pedes- 
trious use, requires to be confirmed.] The known species are very small. 

The Busiris, Risso, is known by its oblong body, convex back, two filiform tentacula, and behind 
them, upon the neck, two plumose branchiz. 

The Plocobranchus, Van Hasselt, has two tentacula, and two labial lobes, and the whole back, 
widened at the sides, covered with numerous radiating striz, which are the branchie. In their natural 
conditions, the widened margins of the cloak are raised, and overlap each other so as to form a covering 
to the branchiz, which are thus placed in a sort of cylindrical sheath. The only species yet known is 
from the shores of Java. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE INFEROBRANCHIATA. 


These have nearly the habit and organization of Doris and Tritonia, but their branchie, 
instead of being situated upon the back, are on the sides of the body, under the projecting 
margin of the cloak, where they form two long series of leaflets. [The species are strictly 
littoral, being gasteropodous and incapable of swimming. | 


Tue Puyuuipia, Cuv. 

Their naked, and generally coriaceous cloak, is not protected by any shell. Their mouth is a small 
proboscis, and has a tentaculum at each side; two other tentacula protrude above from two little 
cavities of the cloak. The anus is in the hinder part of the cloak, and the orifices of generation under 
the right side in front. The heart is about the centre of the back ; the stomach is simple, membranous; 
and the intestine short. There are several species in the Indian ocean. 


Tue Dreuy.uipes, Cuv.— 
Have branchiz nearly similar to those of Phyllidia, but the cloak is more pointed behind ; the head, of 
a semicircular figure, has a pointed tentaculum on each side, and a slight tubercle: the anus is on the 
right side. 
(The Ancylus, Geoffroy,—a fresh-water Gasteropode, with a shell similar to that of a Patella, is placed by Rang 


in this order. He asserts that the animal is branchiferous, while the Rev. Mr. Berkeley has asserted that it is pul- 
monated. They live in stagnant waters and in rivulets, adhering to stones and aquatic plants. ] 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE TECTIBRANCHIATA.* 


They have their branchie attached along the right side, or upon the back, in the form of 
more or less divided, but not symmetrical, leaflets ; these are more or less covered by the 
mantle, in which asmall shell is generally contained. They approximate the Pectinibranchiata 


* The Monopleurobranchiata of Blainville. 
AA 


354 MOLLUSCA. 


in the form of the respiratory organs, and, like them, live in the sea; but they are hermaphro- 
dites, like the Nudibranchiata and Pulmonea. 


THe PLEUROBRANCHUS, Cuy.* 

The cloak and the foot both jut beyond the body, which thus appears as if it were between two 
bucklers. The former contains, in some species, a little oval calcareous plate ; in others, a horny one, 
and in either case it is situated above the head. The branchiz are placed along the right side, in a 
groove between the cloak and foot, and represent a series of pyramids divided into triangular leaflets. 
The mouth, in the form of a small proboscis, is overhung with an emarginate lip, and with two tubular 
cleft tentacula; the orifices of generation are before, and the anus behind the branchie. There are four 
stomachs, of which the second is fleshy, sometimes armed with osseous pieces, and the third is garnished 
with prominent longitudinal lamin. The intestine is short. 

There are different species in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, some of which are large and beautiful. [We 
have two British species. ] 


Tue PLevropraNcHa&A, Meckel (Pleurobranchidium, Blainv.),— 
Has the branchie and the orifices of generation situated as in Pleurobranchus ; but the anus is above 
the branchie ; the margins of the cloak and of the foot project but a little, and upon the front of the 
cloak are four short distant tentacula, forming a square which forces a comparison with the anterior 
disk of the Aceres. I find but one stomach, with thin parietes, which is a mere dilatation of the 
intestine. A greatly divided glandular organ opens outwardly behind the genital orifices. There is no 
trace of a shell. 

The only known species is from the Mediterranean. 

Tue ApiystA, Lin. 

The margins of the foot are turned up into flexile crests, and, surrounding the back on every side, 
they can be reflected over it. The head, supported on a neck of greater or less length, has the two 
superior tentacula hollowed like the ears of a quadruped, and two others of a flattened shape at the end 
of the inferior lip; the eyes at the base of the former. Upon the back we find the branchie in the 
form of complicated leaflets, attached to a broad membranous pedicle, and concealed by a little cloak, 
equally membranous, which contains a horny flat shell. The anus is behind the branchiz, and is often 
concealed under the lateral crests: the vulva is to the right in front, and the penis issues from under 
the right tentaculum. A groove, which extends from the vulva to the very extremity of the penis, 
conducts the semen thither in copulation. A membranous crop, of enormous size, leads into a muscular 
gizzard, armed inside with many cartilaginous and pyramidal bodies ; and this is followed by a third 
stomach beset with sharp hooks, and a fourth in the form of a cecum. The intestine is voluminous. 
These animals feed on sea-weed. A peculiar gland pours out, through an orifice near the vulva, a 
limpid humour, which is said to be very acrid in some species; and from the edges of the cloak there 
oozes in abundance a deep purple liquid, with which the animal discolours the water of the sea when it 
perceives danger to be at hand. Their ova are laid in long glairy entangled filaments, as slender as 


threads. 
There are found in our seas Apl. fasciata, Poiret, punctata, Cuy., and depilans, Linn. ; and the shores of foreign 


countries possess several others. 

Tue Dorasetis, Lam.— 
Differs only from Aplysia in the position of the branchiz at the posterior extremity of the body, which 
resembles a truncated cone. The lateral crest fits close to the branchial apparatus, leaving merely a 
narrow groove. The shell is calcareous. 


The species are found in the Mediterranean and in the Indian Ocean. 


Tue Norarcuus, Cuy.— 
Has the lateral crests united and covering the back, leaving merely a longitudinal fissure to conduct 
water to the branchie. These have no cloak to cover them, but in other respects they resemble the 
branchiz of the Aplysia; and the organization of the two genera is otherwise similar. In 


* The same as the Lamellaria of Montagu, {a name which the Botanists have usurped,] and the Berthella of Blainvilie. [This genus, Pleu- 
robranchea, Umbrella, Spiricella,and Siphonia, are placed in the preceding order by Rang.) 


Or 


GASTEROPODA TECTIBRANCHIATA. 35 


Tae Bursatettes, Blainy.,— 
The lateral crests are united in front, so as only to leave 
an oval opening for the water to pass to the branchize 
which are also destitute of a covering cloak. It is, how- 
ever, probable that this genus should be allowed to lapse 
into the Notarchus.* 


Tue Aceres, (4kera, Muller)— 
Have the branchiz covered like the preceding genera, but 
their tentacula are so much shortened, widened, and sepa- 
rated, that there seems to be none at all, or rather they 
form together a large, fleshy, and nearly square buckler, 
under which the eyes are placed. Moreover, their her- 
maphroditism, the position of their sexual organs, the 
complexity and structure of the stomach, the purple liquid 
which several of them shed, all approximate them to the 
Aplysie. The shell, in such as have one, is more or less 
convolute, with a slight obliquity, without a visible spire, 
and the mouth has neither sinus nor canal; but as the 
Pete apne ene. columella is convex and protuberant, the mouth has a 


crescent-like shape, and the part opposite to the spire is always widest and rounded. When the shell 
is buried in the cloak, M. de Lamarck names the genus Bulla. The shell has few whorls, and is too 


small to contain the animal. 

The Bullea aperta, Lam., is an example which is found in almost every sea, where 
it lives on oozy bottoms. When the shell is [external], covered with a thin epidermis 
and sufficiently roomy, M. de Lamarck allows them to retain the old name Bulla. 
The Bulla lignaria, ampulla, and hydatis are examples, [distinguished not only by the 
characters of the shells, but by peculiarities in the armature of the stomach, which 
consists of two or three comparatively large osseous pieces or jaws of different shapes 
ineach. Of those of B. lignaria, Gioeni constituted a genus to which he assigned Fig. 170.—Bullea aperta. 
his own name; it is the Tricla of Retzius, the Char of 
Bruguiére, and disfigured our systems until the cheat 
was detected by Draparnaud.] I restrict the term Acera 
to such species as have no shell whatever, or merely a 
vestige of it behind, although the cloak has the external 
* form of one. The genus is the Doridiwm of Meckel 
ee - and Lobaria, Blainv. Thereis a small species in the 
Fig. 171. —Bulla lignaria. Fig. 172.—B. ampulla. Mediterranean (Bulla carnosa, Cuv.), whose stomach 


is as destitute of any armature as its cloak is of a shell, but the cesophagus is fleshy and very thick. 


Tue GastERoPTERON, Meckel,— 
Appears to be only an Aceres with the sides of the foot expanded into broad fins, by whose aid it is 
enabled to swim, which it does in a reversed position. It also has no shell, and no stony apparatus 
in the stomach. A very slight fold of the skin is the sole vestige of a branchial cover to be observed. 

The one species known (G. Meckelii) is a Mediterranean Mollusk, about an inch long by two in breadth, when 
its wings are spread out. 

Until a more ample anatomy has been made of it, we believe that it is in this order, and near to the 


Pleurobranchus, that the singular genus 


Umpretta, Lam. (Gastroplax, Blainv.)— 
Should be placed. The animal is a great circular Mollusk, whose foot exceeds by much the cloak, and 
has its upper surface roughened with tubercles. The viscera are in a superior and central rounded 
part. The cloak is only visible by its slightly projecting sharp edge along the entire front, and on the 
right side. Under this slight edging of the cloak are the branchiz, in lamellated pyramids, like those 
of Pleurobranchus; and behind them is a tubular anus. Under this same margin, in front, are two 


cover the back and the superior surface of the lobes under the form of 


* Aplysia viridis, Montag., raised to a genus by Oken under the 
avascular network, so that the true position of the Elysia is next to 


name of Acte@on, and which is at least nearly allied to the Elysia timida 
of Risso, has been cousidered as a near ally of Aplysia, but from want | Placobranchus.] 
of a knowledge of the branchiew, I cannot classify it. [The branchie 


AA 2 


an a I a et 
Ce re ee 


356 MOLLUSCA. 


tentacula, longitudinally cleft as in Pleurobranchus, and at their inner bases are the eyes: between 
them is a kind of proboscis, perhaps an organ of generation. There is a large concave space in the 
anterior margin of the foot, the edges of which can be drawn together like the mouth of a purse; and 
at its bottom is a tubercle pierced with an orifice, which is perhaps the mouth, and is surmounted by 
a fringed membrane. The inferior surface of the foot is smooth, and serves the animal to crawl on, as 
in other Gasteropodes. It carries with it a hard, flat, irregularly-rounded shell, thickest in the centre, 
with sharp margins, and lightly marked with concentric strize. It was supposed at first that the shell 
was attached to the foot, but more recent observations have proved that it is upon the cloak, and in its 


usual place. 
[Two species have been discovered: one in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Mediterranean. | 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 
THE HETEROPODA, Lam.* 


The Heteropoda are distinguished from all other Mollusca by their foot, which, stead of 
forming a horizontal disk, is compressed into a vertical muscular lamina, which they use as a 
fin; and on the edge of which, in several species, is a sucker in the form of a hollow cone, that 
represents the disk of the other orders. Their branchiz, formed of plumose lobes, are situ- 
ated on the hinder part of the back, and point forwards; and immediately behind them are 
the heart and liver, of inconsiderable size, with a portion of the viscera and the interior organs 
of generation. The body, of a transparent gelatinous substance, sheathed with a muscular 
layer, is elongate, and generally terminated with a compressed tail; the mouth has a muscular 
mass and a tongue garnished with little hooks; the gullet is very long; the stomach thin; 
two prominent tubes, on the right side of the bundle of the viscera, serve as passages to the 
excrements, and to the eggs or semen. They swim, in ordinary, in a reversed position; and 
they can inflate the body with water in a manner which is not yet well understood. 


Forskal comprised them all under his genus Pterotrachea, which it is necessary to subdivide. 


THE CarinariaA, Lam.,— 
Has the nucleus (formed by the heart, the liver, and organs of generation,) covered with a thin, sym- 
metrical, conoid shell, with the point curved 
backwards, and often raised into a crest; under 
its anterior margin, the plumes of the branchiz 
float; on the head are two tentacula, and the 
eyes are behind their roots. 

One species (Car. cymbium, Lam.) inhabits the 
Mediterranean; another the Indian Ocean (Car. 
fragilis, B. St. Vincent). The Argonauta vitrea of 
authors may be a Carinaria, but its animai is un- 
known. 

Tue ATLANTA, Lesueur, — 
From the observations of M. Rang, should be 
animals of this order, whose shell, in place of 
being expanded, has a narrow cavity, and a 
Fig. 173.—Carinaria: the shell of its natural size, and a reduced figure of spire rolled Uppon the same plane: its con- 
GAS STINE CARN TTS OEE) 40H GG AEA tour is raised into a thin crest. They are very 


small shells of the Indian Sea; and in one of them, Lamanon believed that he had found the original 


of the Ammonites. 


« M. de Blainville makes a family of this order, which he names ; Argonauta. [Sowerby has also contended for Argonauta being ar- 


Nectopoda, and unites them in his Nucleobranchiata with another | ranged near to Carinaria.] 
family named the Pteropoda, comprising, however, only Limacina of + Seea description of the animal by M. Verony in the Zool. Journ. 
my Pteropodes. He adds to it, upon I know not what conjecture, the | vol. v- p. 325.—Ep- 


GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 357 


Tue Frroia, Peron,— 

Has the body, the tail, the foot, the branchiz, and the nucleus of the viscera, nearly the same as the 
Carinaria, but no shell has been observed. Their snout is prolonged into a recurved proboscis, and 
their eyes are not fronted with tentacula. There is often seen hanging at the end of their tail, a long 
jointed thread, which Forskal considered to be a Tape-worm, and the nature of which is not yet cer- 
tainly determined. 

One species (Pterotrachea coronata, Forsk.) is very common in the Mediterranean; and M. Lesueur has de- 
scribed several others from the same sea as different, but they require new and comparative examinations. Such 


as have the body abruptly truncate behind the visceral nucleus, instead of being terminated with a tail, M. Lesueur 
distinguishes as Firoloides. 


To these genera, now well known, I suppose we shall, on a better acquaintance with them, have 
to add the Timoriennes, Quoy & Gaym., which appear to be Firole deprived of their foot and nucleus of 
viscera; and the Monophores of the same naturalists, which have nearly the form of Carinaria, but are 
also footless and shelless, nor have any visceral nucleus. 

It is not so certain that we should place here the Phylliroes of Peron. The body, transparent and 
much compressed, has in front a snout surmounted with two long tentacula without eyes; behind, a 
truncate tail; and we can see through the integuments its heart, its nervous system, its stomach, and 
the genital organs of both sexes. The anus, and the orifices of the genital organs, are also on the right 
side, and a penis of considerable length is sometimes even protruded ; but I cannot perceive any other 
respiratory organ than its thin and vascular skin. 


THE SIXTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA.* 


This order is, beyond comparison, the most numerous of the class, since it comprehends 
almost all the univalve spiral shells, and several which are simply conical. The branchiz, 
composed of numerous leaflets or frmges, ranged parallelly like the teeth of a comb, are affixed 
in one, two, or three lines (according to the genera) to the floor of the pulmonary cavity, which 
occupies the last whorl of the shell, and which communicates outwards by a wide gape between 
the margin of the cloak and the body. Two genera only—Cyclostoma and Helicina—have, 
instead of branchiz, a vascular network clothing the ceiling of a cavity im all respects the same 
as that of the order; and they are the only ones which respire the atmosphere, water bemg 
the medium of respiration to all the rest. 

All the Pectinibranchiata have two tentacula and two eyes, raised sometimes on pedicles; a 
mouth in the form of a proboscis, more or less lengthened ; and separate sexes. The penis of 
the male, attached to the right side of the neck. cannot, in general, be drawn within the body, 
but is retlected into the branchial cavity ; it is sometimes very large. The Paludina alone has 
the organ concealed, and it comes out through a hole pierced in the right tentaculum. The 
rectum and the oviduct of the female also creep along the right side of the branchial eavity ; 
and there is between them and the branchie a peculiar organ, composed of cells filled with a 
very viscous fluid, the use of which is to form a common envelope for the inclosure of the eggs, 
and which the animal deposits with them. The form of that envelope is often very complicated 
and very remarkable. 

The tongue is armed with little hooks [or curved spinules], and wears down the hardest 
bodies by slow and oft-repeated frictions. 

The grand difference between these animals lies in the presence or absence of the canal 
formed by the prolongation of the margin of the branchial cavity on the left side, and whieh 


* In M. de Blainville’s system, it f orms the subclass Paracephalophera divica. 


358 MOLLUSCA. 


passes along a similar canal or sinus in the shell, to enao.e the animal to breathe without leaving 
its shelter. There is also this distinction between the genera—that some want the operculum; 
and the species vary in the filaments, fringes, and other ornaments that deck the head, the foot, 


or cloak. 
We arrange these Mollusca under several families from the form of their shells, which 
appears to be in sufficiently constant harmony with that of their respective animals. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA,— 
Tue TROCHOIDES,— 


Is recognized by their shell having an entire aperture, without sinus or canal for a siphon, which the 
animals have not*; and in being furnished with an operculum, or some organ as its substitute. 


THe Trocuusip® (Trochus, Linn.).t 
The mouth of the shell, angular at its exterior margin, approaches more or less to a quadrangular 
figure, and is in an oblique plane in relation to the axis of the shell, because that part of the margin 
next the spire advances more than the rest. The greater number of the animals have three filaments 


on each side of the cloak, or at least some appendages to the sides of the foot. 

‘Among those which have no umbilicus, there are some in which the columella, in form of a concave arch, is 
continuous, without any projections, with the exterior margin. It is the angle and advance of this margin that 
distinguishes them from Turbo. These are the Tectaria, Montf. Several are flattened, with asharp [spiny] margin, 
whence they have been compared to the rowel of a spur; these are the Calear, Montf. Some again are a little 
depressed, orbicular, glossy, with a semicircular aperture and aconvex callous columella; Lamarck calls such Rotelia. 
Others have the columella marked near the base with a little prominence or vestige of a tooth, similar to that of 
Monodonta, from which these Trochoides differ only in the general shape of the aperture, which is, in the present 
instances, a little deeper than wide:—they are the Cantharides, Montf. The aperture in others is, on the contrary, 
much wider than deep, and their concave base gives them a resemblance to the Calyptree; these Montfort names 
Entonnoirs. Others, in which the aperture has the same great proportional width, have the columella in the form 
of aspiral canal. And those which have the shell turreted (Telescopium, Montf.) resemble the Cerithia. 

Among the umbilicated Trochuside, some have no longer any projection on the columella; the greater number 
are flattened, and have theexterior angle sharp. Of this kind is Trochus agglutinans, Linn., remarkable for its habit 
of gluing and incorporating with its shell, in proportion as it grows, different foreign bodies, such as gravel, frag- 
ments of other shells, &c. It often covers its umbilicus with a testaceous plate. There are some also with rounded 
margins, of which we have a common example on our coasts, (Tr. cinerarius, Linn.). Other umbilicated Trochi 
have a prominence near the base of the columella: and lastly, in others it is crenulated throughout its length. 

The Solarium, Lam., is distinguished from the other Trochi by its obtusely conical spire, whose broad base is 
perforated with a wide and deep umbilicus, in which the eye can trace the margins of all the whorls winding up 
[like an elegant miniature staircase], and prettily crenulated. The Huomphalus, Sowerby, are fossil shells similar 
to Solarium, but without crenulations on the inner whorls of the umbilicus. 


Tae PertwingLes (Turbo, Linn.)\— 

Comprise all the species with the shell perfectly and regularly turbinate, and of which the aperture is 
quite round. From a detailed examination of them, they have been greatly subdivided into genera. 
The Turbo, Lam., properly so called, have a round or oval thick shell, with an aperture completed on 
the side of the spire by the penultimate whorl. The animal has two long tentacula; the eyes raised 
on [short] pedicles at the exterior base; and, upon the sides of the foot, membranous expansions, 
either simple or fringed, or furnished with one or two filaments. To some of them those stony thick 
opercula belong which may be frequently observed in collections, and which were formerly used in 
medicine under the name of Unguis odoratus. Some are umbilicated (Meleagris, Montf.), and some 
are not so (Turbo, Montf.). 

The Delphinula is a shell as thick [and solid] as the Turbo, but subdiscoid, and its aperture is entirely formed 
by the last whorl, and without a varix. The animal resembles the Turbo. The common species (Turbo delphinus, 
Linn.) takes its name from the branched curved spines that arm the whorls, and which have given rise to a com- 


parison of it to a dried fish. 
The Pleurotoma, Defrance, are fossil shells with a round mouth, and a narrow deep incision on the outer margin. 
It is probable that this incision corresponds, as in Siliquaria, with some fissure of the cloak. M. Deshayes reckons 
already more than twenty-five fossil species. The Scissurelle of M. d’Orbigny are recent species. 
The Turritelia, Lam., have the aperture of Turbo, but the shell is thin and elevated into an obelisk, or turreted. 


* Hence Blainville denominates the order Asiphonobranchiuta. + Family Gorriostomata of De Blainville. 


GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 399 


The eyes of the snail are on the exterior oase of the tentacula; the foot is small. There 1s a great number of 
fossil species ; and we ought to unite with it the Proto, Defr. 

The Scalaria has the turreted spire of Turritella, with the aperture of Delphinula, but the spire is covered with 
longitudinal, elevated, rather acute ribs, and the mouth is encircled with a varix. The tentacula and penis of 
the animal are long and slender. The principal species, the Turbo scalaris, Linn., or the Wentletrap, has long 
been famous for the high prices given for a specimen. It is distinguished by its whorls being separate from each 
other. A small species without this peculiarity (Turbo clathrus, Linn.), is common in the Mediterranean. 

We may arrange here some terrestrial or lacustrine subgenera, whose shells have an entire roundish operculated 
aperture. Of this number are the Cyclostoma, Lam., distinguished from all others by being terrestrious ; and in 
place of branchie, there is a vascular network on the parietes of the pulmonic sac.* In all other respects, Cyclo- 
stoma resembles the animals of this family. The spiral shell is finely striated in the direction of its rounded 
whorls, and, in the adult, the aperture is encircled with a small raised rim, and closed with a round thin opercu- 
lum. The Turbo elegans, Linn., found in woods, under stones and moss, is the type of the genus. 

The Valvata, Mull., live in fresh water. Their shell is obtusely conical, with a round operculated mouth ; and 
the snail, which has two slender tentacula, and eyes at their inner base, breathes by means of branchie. In our 
native V. cristata, Mull., the branchia, in the shape of a miniature feather, protrudes from under the cloak, and 
floats in the water with a vibratory motion, when the animal wishes to breathe.t On the right side there is a fila- 
ment that resembles a third tentaculum. The foot is two-lobed in front. The penis of the male is slender, and 
lies in the respiratory cavity. The shell, scarcely three lines in height, is corneous, obtuse, and umbilicated. 

It is necessary to classify here some purely aquatic snails, which formerly made a part of the genus 
Helix, since the shell had the crescent-like aperture that constituted the character of that genus.t The 


three first genera are nearly allied to Turbo. Thus 


THE Patupina, Lam.— 

Have been separated from Cyclostoma because they have no rim or varix round the aperture; because 
this, as well as the operculum, has a little angle above ; and because the animal, having branchiz, must 
live in water. It has a very short proboscis, two setaceous tentacula, eyes seated on the external bases, 
a small membranous fin on each side of the body in front, the anterior margin of the foot lobed, the 
fin of the right side folded into a small canal to introduce the water into the respiratory cavity, an 
approach to the siphon of the following family. In the common species (Helix vivipara, Linn.), the 
female is viviparous, and we find the young, in spring, in the oviduct, in all stages of developement. 
Spallanzani assures us that the young, kept separate from the moment of their birth, can give birth to 
others without having copulated, as happens with the Aphides. The males are, notwithstanding, as 
common as the females, their organ issuing from a hole in the right tentaculum, which is thus made 
larger than the other, and affords a character to know the sexes by. 

In the sea there are some shells that differ from Paludina only in their superior thickness. These are 


THe Lrrrorina, Feruss. 
The common species, or Periwinkle, swarms on our coasts, and is eaten. [The Lacuna of Turton is 
a Littorina with a perforation in the pillar.] The Monodon, Lam., differs from Littorina§ in having a 
blunt tooth at the base of the columella, which has in some also a fine incisure. Several are cre- 
nulated on the outer lip. The animal is more ornamented, carrying in general on each side three or 
four filaments as long as the tentacula. The eyes are elevated on pedicles on the outer side of the root 


of the tentacula. The operculum is round and horny. 
Trochus tesselatus, Linn., is an abundant example on the French coast. 


THE PHASIANELLA, Lam.— 

Have a shell similar in shape to that of Limneus and Bulimus, but the aperture is closed with a calca- 
reous operculum, and the base of the columella is sensibly flattened and without an umbilicus. The 
shells are much sought after by amateurs, from the beautiful speckled manner in which their various 
colours are disposed. Their snail has two long tentacula, with the eyes on tubercles at their exterior 
bases, double lips emarginated and fringed, as well as the lateral fins carrying each three filaments. 

[Planazxis, Lam., is nearly allied to Phasianella, from which, however, it may be distinguished by the truncation 
of the anterior part of the pillar. There are six species known, one of which is so common on the shores of the 
Isle of France that the rocks, in some places, are covered with 1t.] , 


+ Hence Dr. Fleming was induced to institute the order Cervici- 
branchia for the genus, which he afterwards arranged with the Nudi- 
branchia.—Ep. 

t They constitute the family Ellipsostoma of De Blainville. 

§ Sowerby more properly unites Monodon with Turbo.—Ep. 


* For this reason M. de Ferussac, with Cyclostoma and Helicina, 
makes a distinct order—his Pulmonea operculata, [which has been 
adopted by Rang and many other systematists ; and seems warranted 
by the anatomy of the former genus given by the Rev. Mr. Berkeley 
in the Zool, Journ. iv. p. 282.] 


360 MOLLUSCA. 


THE AmMPULLARIA, Lam.— 

Has a roundish ventricose shell with a short spire, like most of the Helices; its aperture is higher than 
wide, furnished with a [calcareous] operculum, and the columella umbili- 
cated. They live in the fresh and brackish water of hot climates. The 
animal has long tentacula, and pedunculated eyes. At the bottom of the 
respiratory sac, by the side of the long branchial comb, there is, according 
to the observations of MM. Quoy and Gaymard, a large pouch filled with 
air, and which may possibly be a swimming bladder. 

The Lanistes, Montf., are Ampullarie with a wide spiral umbilicus.—The Heli- 
cina, Lam., from the shell, would seem to be Ampullarie with the rim of the aper- 
ture reflected, When this rim is sharp, the shells are Ampullines, Blainv., and 
when it is blunt, the Olygire of Say. There is one species (Helicina neritella, 
Lam.) remarkable for a white shelly edge on the inner side of the operculum. It 
appears that the organs of respiration are similar to Cyclostoma, and that the 
animals can live in the open air. [ The Helicine are iand shells. Mr. Gray has 
given amonograph of the genus in the Ist vol. of the Zoological Journal ; but since its publication, the number of 
species has been doubled. ]} 


Fig. 174.—Ampullaria rugosa. 


Toe MELAnie 
Have a thicker shell, with the aperture deeper than wide, which expands at the part opposite the spire. 
The columella has neither fold nor umbilicus. The spire varies greatly in its length. They live in 
rivers, but there is no species in France. The animal has long tentacula, and the eyes are placed about 


a third way up on their outer side. 

The Rissoa, Freminv. (Acmea, Hartm.) differs from Melania in having the rim of the aperture united all round. 
[** All we have met with are littoral shells, and several species abound on our shores.”’—Sowerby.—Melanopsis, 
Ferussac, with nearly the same form as Melania, has a callosity at the columella, and a vestige of an emargination 
near the base of the aperture, indicating a relationship with Terebra. The Pirena, Lam., have not merely this 
sinus, but another on the opposite side. Like the Melania, the two last subgenera live in the rivers of the south 
of Europe, and of warm countries, [‘‘ and yet most of the fossil species are found in beds that are considered by 
geologists, in this country, to be of marine formation.””—Sowerby.] 


We incline to refer to this place in the system two genera separated from the Volutes, and which 
have a considerable similarity to Auricula, but are operculated, and have only two tentacula. First, 
Acteon, Montf., (Tornatella, Lam.), with a convolute shell; and, secondly, Pyramidella, Lam., with a 
turreted shell, whose columella is obliquely twisted and plaited. 


Tue JANTaina*, Lam.— 

Is widely separated from all that precede by the form of the animal. The shell has some resemblance 
to our land snails, but the aperture is angular at its lower part and at its outer side, where, however, 
the angle formed by the union of the upper and lower halves of the outer lip, is much rounded in most 
of the species, and somewhat so in the common one: the columella straight and elongated, the inner 
lip turned back over it. The animal has no operculum, but carries under its foot a vesicular organ, 
like a congeries of foam-bubbles, of solid consistency, that prevents creeping, but serves as a buoy to 
support it at the surface of the water. The head is a cylindrical proboscis ; and is terminated with a 
mouth cleft vertically, and armed with little curved spines: on each side of it is a forked tentaculum. 
The shells are of a violet colour ; and when the animal is irritated it pours forth an excretion of deeper 
blue to tinge the sea around it. 

The Litiopa, Rang, is a small conoid shell without an operculum, the body-whorl larger than the spire, and the 


aperture entire. The animal lives on the gulf-weed, whence it can suspend itself by a thread like a spider from 
a ceiling; and by the same thread it can remount at pleasure to the surface of the weed. ] 


Tue Nerira, Linn.— 
Are shells with the columella in a straight line, which renders their aperture semicircular or semielliptical. 
It is generally large in proportion to the shell, but always closed perfectly with an operculum. The 


spire is almost obsolete, and the shell semi-globular.f 

Natice, Lam., are Nerite with an umbilicus. The animal of such as are known has a large foot, simple tentacula, 
the eyes sessile at their bases, and a horny [or shelly] operculum. [In Neritopsis, Sowerby, there is a broad notch 
or sinus in the columella, which distinguishes it from Natica and Nerita, whose forms it seems to combine in itself. ] 


© M, de Blainville makes this genus his family O.rystoma, + The genus Nerita, Linn., constitute the family Hemicyclostoma of Blainville. 


a 


GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 361 


Nerita, Lam. (Peloronta, Oken), has no umbilicus. Their shell is thick, tne columella toothed, the operculum 
calcareous. The eyes of the animal are supported on pedicles at the sides of the tentacula; and the foot is mode- 
rate in size. There is but slight reason to distinguish among them the Velates, Montf., where the side of the 
columella is covered with a thick, swollen, calcareous layer; and the Neritina, Lam., in which the columella is 
toothless, and the animals are inhabitants of fresh waters. Some have, however, a delicately toothed columella, 
and among these is one whose spire is armed with long spines, (Clitho, Montf.). [The species of Nerite are very 
numerous. M. Lesson has brought one from Australia, where it lives abundantly upon trees! This fact ought 
to make us more than ever wary of separating the marine from the fluviatilespecies. Indeed, some real Neritine 
can live both in fresh and salt water, and others are altogether marine. | 


Recent observations induce us to arrange near to the Trochoides 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA,— 


Tue CapuLoipEs, *— 


Which comprises five genera, four of which are dismembered from Patella. All of them have a widely 
open shell, scarcely turbinate, without an operculum, or emargination or canal. The animal is male and 
female, and resembles the other Pectinibranchiata. Their branchial comb is single, laid across the vault 
of the cavity, and its filaments are often very long. ' 


Caputus, Mont. (Péleopsis, Lam.)— 
Have a conical shell, with the summit recurved a little in spiral, whence they were for long piaced with 
the Patella. The branchie are in a series under the anterior margin of their cavity ; the proboscis is of 
considerable length ; under the neck is a much plaited membranous veil; there are two conical tentacula 
with the eyes at their base on the outside. 
Hipponyx, Defr., appear from their shell to be fossil Capuli, but are very remarkable for the base of calcareous 


layers on which they rest, and which has probably been excreted by the foot of the animal. [Hipponyx is a truly 
bivalve shell. ] 


CrepipuLa, Lam. 

Shell oval [variable], with an obtuse point obliquely inclined backwards towards the margin: the 
under-side is generally concave, and the inner lip forms a broad, flattish, sharp-edged, toothless, hori- 
zontal plate, which about half covers the aperture. The abdominal sac containing the viscera is upon 
this plate, the foot under it, the head and the branchiz in front. The branchize consist of a series of 
long filaments attached under the anterior margin of the branchial cavity. Two conical tentacula bear 
the eyes at their exterior bases. 

Pileolus, Sowerby, seem to be Crepidulz, of which the transverse plate occupies half of the aperture, but their 
shell has a greater resemblance to Patella. The few species known are fossil. 

Septaria, Ferus. (Navicella, Lam.), resemble the Crepidula, excepting that their summit is symmetrical, and 
turned down on the posterior margin, and their horizontal plate projects less. The animal has, moreover, a tes- 
taceous plate of an irregular shape, attached horizontally upon the superior surface of the muscular disk of the 
foot, and covered by the abdominal sac, which rests in part above. It is, probably, the analogue of an operculum» 
but does not fulfil its office, being in some degree internal. The animal has long tentacula, and at their outside 
are peduncles to support the eyes. They live in the rivers of warm countries. 


Catyprraa, Lam. 

Shell conoid, the cavity furnished with a lateral internal appendage, very variable in form, which is 
as it were the beginning of a columella, and is interposed in a fold of the abdominal sac. The branchiz 
are composed of a range of numerous hair-like filaments. Some have the appendage adhering to the 
bottom of the cone, folded itself into a cone, or tube, and descending vertically. Others have it placed 
almost horizontally, adhering to the sides of the cone, which is marked above with a spiral line, that 
gives to their shell some relation to that of the Trochus.f 


SrpHonartiaq, Sowerby. 
Dismembered from Patella, to which in general form and appearance it very nearly approaches, but 
its margin is a little more prominent on the right side, and it is hollowed underneath with a shallow 
groove which opens at this prominence, and with which a lateral hole in the cloak corresponds, to intro- 


* M. de Bainville inserts the most of them among his Paracephala- + [Mr. Broderip has described many species in the Ist vol. of the 
phora hermaphrodita, Fam. Calyptracea, but they seem to me to beall | Trans. of the Zoul. Society, accompanied with beautiful figures ; and 
dioicous. [It is necessary to arrange with them the Loftia of Gray, | Mr. Owen has given an excellent anatomy of the genus in the same 
which has a shell almost identical with that of Patella, but the animal | work.] 
is pectinibranchous. We have at least one native species, (Pat. Cle- t Apparently the same as the Gudinia of Gray.—Phil. Mag. April, 
landi).) 1824. 


362 MOLLUSCA. 


duce the water to the branchial cavity placea upon the back, and closed in every other place, The 
respiratory organ consists in a few small leaflets, attached in a transverse line to the bottom of that 
cavity. The animal appears to have no tentacula, but only a narrow veil upon the head. _ There are 
species in which the shell shows no appearance of the groove, and would perfectly resemble a Patella 
were it not that its vertex is turned backwards. [We must observe, says Rang, that we have seen 
young Patellz to have the character of Siphonaria, and to preserve traces of it at a more advanced age: 
it is only then provisionally that we adopt this genus, and assign it a place among the Inferobranchiata. | 


Siegaretus, Adans. 

The shell is flattened, with an ample round aperture, and an inconsiderable spire, whose whorls enlarge 
very rapidly, and are visible on the inside. It is hidden during life in the fungous shield of the animal, 
which projects considerably beyond it, as well as the foot, and is the true mantle. We observe in front 
of this mantle an emargination and a semi-canal, the use of which is to conduct water into the branchial 
cavity, but which leave no impressions on the shell. The structure indicates a transition to the following 
family. The tentacula are conical, with the eyes af their exterior base: the penis of the male is very 
large. 

There are species on our own coasts. [This remark is erroneous, unless we consider Cuvier’s Sigaretus the 
same as Pleurobranchus. See some remarks on the confusion in the nomenclature of this genus by Mr. Gray, in 


the Zool. Journ.i. p. 428.] 
Coriocella, Biainv., is a Sigaretus with a horny and almost membranous shell, like that of Aplysia. 


THE Cryprostoma, Blainv.— 
Has a shell very similar to Sigaretus, supported, with the head and abdomen (which it covers), on a foot 
four times its size, cut square behind, and which produces in front a fleshy oblong part that constitutes 
nearly one half of its mass. The animal has a flat head, two tentacula, a broad branchial comb on the 
roof of its dorsal cavity, and the penis under the right tentaculum, but I have not seen ny emargination 
in the cloak. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA,— 
Tue BuccinoipEs,*— 


Have a spiral shell, the mouth of which has, near the end of the columella, a sinus or canal, for the 
passage of the siphon or tube formed by an elongated fold of the cloak. The greater or less length of 
this canal when it exists, the greater or less width of the aperture, and the various forms of the 
columella, afford characters for a division of the family into genera, which can be grouped in various 
ways. 
Tue Conss (Conus, Linn.)\— 

Are so named from the conical figure of their shells. The spire, 
either flat or slightly raised, forms the base of the cone, whose 
apex is at the opposite extremity: the aperture is narrow, 
rectilinear, or nearly so, extended from one end to the other, 
without protuberance or fold, either on the columella or the 
margin. The animal is of a thinness proportioned to the aper- 
ture through which it issues: its tentacula and proboscis are 
much elongated, and we find the eyes near the apex of the 
former, on the outside: the operculum, seated obliquely on the 
hinder part of the foot, is narrow, and too short to close the 


mouth of the shell. 
The shells of this genus are in general beautifully coloured, whence 
Fig. 175.—Conus generalis. it happens that they crowd our cabinets. Our seas produce only a 
very few species, [of which there is a full enumerationin Lamarck’s Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans vertebres. | 


ines MN 


ZY Z) yh 
=< 
rl | 


Tue Cowrtes (Cyprea, Linn.)— 
Have also a [concealed or] very short spire, and a narrow aperture extending from one end to the 
other ; but the shell, which is ventricose in the middle, and almost equally narrowed at both ends, forms 


* Coequal with the Paracephaluphora dioica siphonobranchiata of | genera with a narrow aperture, we do not intend to say that they are 
Blainville. nearest in affinity to the preceding family ; but we place them first 

+ M. de Blainville unites in one family, named Angyostoma, the | because they exhibit the characters of the siphoniferous tribes in the 
Conus, Cyprxa, Ovula, Terebellum, and Voluta. In placing here the | most distinct manner, 


GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 363 


an oval; and its aperture in the adult animal is transversely toothed on each side. The cloak is suffi- 
ciently ample to fold over and envelope the 
shell, which, at a certain age, it covers with a 
layer of shell of another colour ; and from this 
circumstance, joined to the change which the 
aperture undergoes, the full-grown shell may be 
mistaken for another species. The animal has 
moderate tentacula, with the eyes at their ex- 
ternal bases, and a thin foot without an oper- 


culum. 

The colours of the shells are very beautiful, and 
many species are found in our cabinets, though, with 
very few exceptions, they all inhabit the seas of tro- 
pical countries. {Bruguiéres was of opinion that the 
animal of the Cyprea, before it arrived at its complete 
growth, abandons its shell several times, to form 
another more fitted to its dimensions. This opinion 
is now relinquished. ] 

THE OvuLa&, Brug.— 


UES EASY Have an oval shell, with a narrow, lengthened 
aperture, as in Cypraa, but without teeth on the columellar side; the spire is concealed, and the two 
ends of the aperture are nearly equally emarginated, or equally prolonged into a canal. Linnzus con- 
founded them with Bulla, from which they were properly separated by Bruguicres. Their snail has a 
broad foot, an expanded cloak, which partly folds over the shell, a moderate and obtuse snout, and two 
long tentacula, on which we find the eyes at about the third of their length on the outside. Montfort 
restricts the name Ovu/a to such shells as are transversely denticulated on the outer lip; and he names 
those in which the two ends of the aperture are prolonged into a canal, and the outer lip is plain, the 
Volva. When this lip is also plain, without a prolongation on each side, he calls the genus Calpurna. 


TEREBELLUM, Lam.— 
Has an oblong [or subcylindrical] shell, with a narrow aperture, without plaits or grooves, and 
increasing regularly in width to the end opposite the spire, which is more or less salient, according to 
the species. The animal is not known. [On account of its hidden spire, Montfort separates the 
species named Convolutum, by Lamarck, to form his genus Seraphs, which seems to be unnecessary. | 


Tue Votutes (Voluta, Linn.)— 
Vary in the figure of the shell and of the aperture, but are recognized by the emargination without a 


canat which terminates it, and by the oblique plaits of the columella. 

Bruguiéres first separated from them the Oliva, so named from the oblong or elliptical form of the shell, whose 
mouth is straight, long, and sinuated opposite tothe short spine, and the plaits of the columella are numerous and 
similar to striz. The whorls are separated from each other by a narrow groove. These shells do not yield in beauty 
to the Cowries. Their animal has a large foot, the anterior part of which (in advance of the head) is separated by 
an indentation on each side: the tentacula are slender, and the eyes are on their side near the middle of their 
length. The proboscis, the siphon, and penis are tolerably long: they have no operculum. MM. Quoy and 
Gaymard have observed at the posterior part of the foot an appendage, which is laid in the furrow of the whorls. 

The remaining species of the Volutes have been subdivided into five genera by M. de Lamarck. The Volvaria 
nearly resemble Oliva in their oblong or cylindrical form; but their aperture is narrow, and its anterior margin 
rises even above the spire, which is extremely short. There are one or several plaits on the columella. Their 
polish and whiteness has induced the natives of some countries to string them into necklaces. There is a small 
fossil species in the environs of Paris. [According to Sowerby, Volvaria is entirely a fossil genus, of which two 
species are found in the environs of Paris, and one in the London clay at Hordwell.] Voluta, Lam., has an ample 
aperture, and a columella marked with some large plaits, of which the inferior is the strongest. Their spire varies 
much in its prominence. Some (Cymbium, Montf.; Cymba, Sowerb.) have the last whorl ventricose: their animal 
has a large, thick, fleshy foot, without an operculum; and over the head a veil, at the sides of which the tentacula 
issue. The eyes are seated on this veil, exterior to the tentacula. The proboscis is of considerable Jength, and the 
syphon has an appendage on each side of its base. The shells attain a great size, and several are very beautiful. 
[‘‘ The shells are ventricose, light, and buoyant, floating when placed upon their backs on water, and having when 


so placed a boat-like appearance. Their apex is rude, and without regularity of shape. They are sombre, and, 


for the most part, uniform in colour. They are covered with a smooth brown epidermis, which is, again, more or 


364 MOLLUSCA. 


less coated with a vitreous covering or enamel-like glaze, probabiy secreted by the mantle. The columella is 
uniformly curved, and it is believed that none of the species have hitherto been found in the New World.”— 
Broderip.| [The Melo, Broderip, resembles Cymba; but its apex, instead of being shapeless and rude, takes a 
well-fashioned and spirally-marked form. The colouring of the shell is also more elegant and vivid.] Others 
(Voluta, Montf.) have the last whorl conoid, narrowing at the end opposed tothe spire. The foot is less than in 
the preceding genus. Their shells are often very remarkable for the beauty of the colours and patterns which are 
painted on their surface. [There is reason to believe that the genera Cymba, Melo, and Voluta, are viviparous. | 
Marginella, Lam., with the form of the Voluta, has the outer lip thickened and revolute. The sinus is slightly 
marked, According to Adanson, the foot is also less, and has no operculum. ‘The animal can partially cover its 
shell by raising the lobes of its cloak, The tentacula have the eyes upon the outer side at their base. M. de La- 
marck distinguishes among them the Colombelia, by the more numerous plaits 
on the shell, and by a swelling of the middle of the outer lip. It appears 
that there is no operculum. Mitra, Lam., has an oblong aperture with some 
large folds on its columella, of which those next the spire are the largest. 
Their spire is generally long and pointed. Several species are brilliantly 
spotted with red upon a white ground. Their animal has a small foot, tenta- 
cula of moderate length, with the eyes on the side one-third above the roots, 
and a moderate siphon; but it will often protrude a proboscis longer than the 
shell. [The genus Conohelix, of Swainson, has a form more conical than the 
typical Mitr ; but its claim to be a good genus is denied by Sowerby.] Can- Fig. 177.—Colombella. 
cellaria, Lam.—The last whorl ventricose, and the aperture ample and round, 

with a plate upon the columella: the spire is prominent, pointed, and the surface marked in general with cancel- 
lated strie. [According to Sowerby, this genus is nearly allied to Purpura. ] 


THe Wuetxs (Buccinum, Linn.)*— 
Comprise all the shells furnished with an emargination, or short canal, bent to the left, and whose 
columella is not plaited. Bruguiéres made four genera of them; viz., Buccinum, Purpura, Cassis, and 


Terebra ; which MM. de Lamarck and Montfort have still further subdivided. 

Buccinum, Brug., comprises the emarginated shells without any canal, the general form being oval, as well as 
the aperture. The animals where known have no yeil on the head,—a proboscis, two widely separate tentacula 
with the eyes on their outer bases, and a horny operculum. The siphon is prolonged beyond the shell. M. de 
Lamarck specially reserves the name Buccinum to such as haye 
the columella convex and naked, and the outer lip without 
ribs or varix. Their foot is moderate in size; their proboscis 
long and thick, and their penis often excessively large. [The 
shell of the remarkable genus named Trichotropis by Broderip 
and Sowerby, is turbinated and keeled; its aperture is wider 
and rather longer than the spire; the base entire: but imme- 
diately below the obliquely truncated columella there is an in- 
distinct canal. The shell is thin and delicate, covered with an 
epidermis forming numerous sharp-pointed bristle-like pro- 
cesses on the edges of the carinz outside the shell. The horny 
operculum is much smaller than the aperture. The animal 
resembles a Buccinum, differing from it principally in having 
only a very small fold of the mantle to line the nearly obsolete 
canal of the shell. There is a British species (7. borealis).] 
Nassa has the columella covered by a plate more or less thick 
and broad, and the emargination deep, but without a canal. 
The animal resembles that of Buccinum, and there are shells intermediate between the two genera. Lamarck 
names Eburna those which join to a smooth shell, without plaits on the lip, a pillar that is deeply and widely 
umbilicated. In general form their shell has a strong resemblance to the Olives. [There is no operculum.] The 
animal is unknown. The Ancillaria, Lam., has also asmooth shell, and at the base of 
the columella a striated appendage or varix, without an umbilicus, and without a 
groove round the spire. The animal, in such species as it has been observed in, is 
similar to that of Oliva, and has the foot even more developed. The same naturalist 
unites those which are ribbed in the direction of the whorls, under the generic name 
of Dolium: the lower whorl is very large and ventricose. Montfort again subdivides 
Dolium into the Dolium proper, where the base of the columella is as it were twisted ; 
and into Perdixv, where it is sharp. Their animai has a very large foot, dilated in 
front; a proboscis longer than its shell; slender tentacula; eyes at their exterior 
side near the base; the head without a veil, and the foot without an operculum. 
Harpa is easily recognized by the prominent ribs which cross the whorls, and of 
which the last forms a rim to the margin of the aperture. The shells are beautiful. The animal has a very large 


Fig. 173,—Buccinum undatum. 


Fig. 179.—Aneillaria, 


* Forms the family Entomostoma of Blainville. 


foot, pointed behind, widened in front, wnere it 1s marked with two deep emarginations. The eyes are on the sides 
of the tentacula, near the base. There is no veil nor operculum. (MM. Reynaud, and Quoy and Gaymard have 
observed that, under certain circumstances, the hinder part of the foot is spontaneously amputated.) We recognize 
the Purpura, Brug., by its flattened columella, pointed at the base, and forming there, with the outer lip, a canal 
excavated in the shell, but not projecting. The species were scattered among the Buccina and Murices by Lin- 
neus. Their snail is like that of Buccinum as now restricted. Some shells similar to Purpura, but in which we 
notice a spine on the outer margin of the canal, form the genus Licorna, Montf. (Monoceros, Lam.) Others in 
which the columella, or at least the lip, is garnished, in the full-grown shell, with teeth that narrow the mouth, 
constitute the Sista of the former, and the Ricinula of Lamarck. The Coneholepas, Lam., has also the general 
characters of the Purpura, but the aperture is so 
enormously large and the spire so inconsiderable, 
that the shell has the aspect of a Capulus, or of one 
of the valves of an Arca. The emargination of the 
mouth has a small tooth on each side of it. The ani- 
mal resembles that of Buccinum, excepting in the 
foot, which is enormous in width and in thickness, 
and which is attached to the shell by a muscle in 
form of a horse-shoe, as in Capulus. There is a thin, 
narrow, horny operculum. A species from Peru 
(Buccinum concholepas, Brug.) is the only one known. 
Cassis, Brug.—Shell oblong; the aperture oblong or 
narrow; the columella covered with a plate as in 
Nassa, and that plate grooved transversely as well as 
the outer lip: the emargination ends in a short canal, 
which is folded and turned up backwards, and to the 
left. There are often varices. [The shells are called 
Helmets by English collectors, and are in general 
remarkable on account of their great size.] The 
animal resembles that of Buccinum, but its horny 
operculum is toothed, that it may pass between the 
grooves of the outer lip. Some have the varix of this 
lip toothed externally near the emargination; and 
others have it plain. The Morio, Montf. (Cassidaria, 
Lam.) are separated from the Cassis because their 
canal is less abruptly curved back; and they lead 
us to certain of the Murices. The animal resembles 
a Buccinum also, but its foot is more developed. 
{Oniscia, Sowerby, is sufiiciently distinguished 
from Cassidaria by its granulated inner lip, its very 
short, scarcely reflected canal, and its very singular 
general form, which is oblong or subcylindrical, with an obtuse 
apex. Strombus oniscus, Linn., is the type of the genus.] Terebra, 
Brug., have the mouth, the emargination, and the columella of 
Buccinum, but their spire is drawn out so as to be turriculated or 
subulate. [The species are numerous and beautiful.] The Subula, 
Blainv., is distinguished by some difference in the animal, and by 
the existence of an operculum. 


GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 365 | 


NN i” 
io 


i 


Fig. 181.—Cassis tuberosa. 


Tue Crerituium, Brug.,— 
Dismembered with good reason from the Murex of Linneus, 
Fig. 182.—Cassidaria echinophora. have a shell with a turriculated spire, an oval aperture, and 


a short but distinct canal 
curved to the left and back- 
wards. There is a veil on 
the head of the animal, two 
distant tentacula, having 
the eyes at the side, and 
a round, horny operculum. 
Many of them are found in a fossil state. 


M. Brongniart has separated from Cerithium the Potamides, which, with the same form of shell, have a very 
short, scarcely emarginate canal, no sinus or gutter near the top of the right lip, and the exterior lip dilated, ‘They 
live in rivers, or at least at their mouths; and some of them are fossil in formations where there are no other 


than land or freshwater species. 


Fig. 183.—Ceritheum. 


ett 


366 MOLLUSCA. 


iHE Murex, Linn.*— 


Embraces alll shells whose canal is elongate and straight. I have found in the animals of all the sub- 
genera a proboscis ; approximated long tentacula, with the eyes external at their base; a horny oper- 
culum, and no veil over the head: they otherwise resemble the Buccina, except in the length of the 
siphon. Bruguicres divided them into two genera, subsequently subdivided into others by Lamarck 


and Montfort. 

Murex, Brug., are all shells with a salient straight canal, and with varices across the whorls. M. Lamarck 
reserves this name specially to those in which the varices are not contiguous, so as to make two opposite rows. If 
their canal is long and slender, and the varices are armed with spines, they belong to the Murex of Montfort. 
If the varices are merely nodulous, 
they constitute his Brontes. Some, 
with a canal of moderate length, 
have projecting tubes between the 
spinous varices which penetrate 
the shell; and these are the Ty- 
phis, Montf. The Chicoracea of 
the same have, instead of spines, 
the varices garnished with plait- 
ed leaves, torn or divided into 
branches: their canal is long or 
moderate, and their foliaceous 
productions. vary infinitely in 
shape and complexity. When, with 
a moderate or short canal, the 
varices are only nodulous, and when the base has an umbilicus, the shell becomes an Aquilla, Montf. We have 
several species on our coasts. If there is no umbilicus, that marks the genus Lotorium. Lastly, when the canal 
is short, the spire raised, and the varices simple, the shell is a Tritoniwm. The mouth is generally grooved trans- 
versely on both sides. We have some large species in our seas. [The 7. variegatum is much valued by the inha- 
bitants of some of the South Sea islands.] There are of them some with numerous, compressed, almost mem- 
branous varices,—the Trophones, Montf.; and in others they are much compressed and very prominent, but few 
in number.t 

M. de Lamarck separates from all the Murices of Bruguiéres the Raneila. Its character is to have the varices 
opposite, so that the shell is as it were girded with a border on two sides. Their canal is short, and the surface is 
roughened only with tubercles. The margins of their aperture are furrowed. The Apolles, Montf., are merely 
umbilicated Ranelle. 

Fusus, Brug., includes all the shells of this family which have no varices. When the spire is prominent, the 
pillar without plaits, and the margin entire, this is the Fusws of Lamarck, which Montfort has still further 
restricted, for he reserves this name to such as have no umbilicus. The less elongated and more ventricose 
species gradually approximate to the Buccina in their shape, and where they have an umbilicus, Montfort calls 
them Lathires. The Struthiolaria is another subgenus, distinguished by the inner lip being thickened and 
spreading over the lower part of the last volution and the columella, and in the adult the outer lip is thickened 
and turned outward,—a character that connects them with the Murex. When the spire is raised, the columella 
without plaits, and when there is near the top of the aperture, on its outside, a well-marked sinus or fissure, we 
have the characters of Pleurotoma, Lam. When this sinus is wide and touches the spire, some have seized the 
too slight distinction to make the genus Clavatula. When the spire is depressed, and the pillar without plaits, 
these are the Pyrula, Lam., which are either umbilicated or not. Montfort separates from Pyrula the species 
with a flattened spire, and which are striated within the mouth, to call them the Fulgur. They are in some degree 
Pyrule with a plaited columella, and the plaits are sometimes even scarcely perceptible. Amid these dismember- 
ments of the Fusus, Brug., we distinguish the Fasciolaria, Lam., by some oblique and distinct folds on the 
columella, near the origin of the siphon. 

Turbinella, Lam., are likewise shells with a straight canal, without varices, distinguishable by having [from 
three to five] prominent, compressed, transverse folds, all nearly equal in size, near the centre of the columella, 
and which approximates them to the conical Volute: in fact, they only differ by the superior elongation of the 
syphonal canal, [and in having an operculum, as well as a thickish epidermis]. 


Fig. 184.—Murex tenuispina. 


Tur SrromBusip& (Strombus, Linn.)— 
Comprise the shells with a canal either straight or bent to the right, the external lip of the aperture 
becoming, in its maturity, more or less dilated, and always marked with a sinus near the siphonal 
canal, whence the head issues when the animal comes out. In the greater number this sinus is at some 
distance from the canal. 


* Coequal with the family Siphonostoma of M. de Blainville. 
+ It is to be regretted that Cuvier should have given even the appearance of a sanction to these new genera of Montfort.—Ep. 


GASTEROPODA TUBULIBRANCHIATA. 367 


M. de Lamarck subdivides these species into two suogenera. His Stromous have the outer lip dilated into awing 
of more or less expanse, but not divided 
into digitations. The foot is proportion- 
ably small, and the tentacula support the 
eyes upon a lateral peduncle larger even 
than the tentaculum itself. The operculum 
is horny, long, and narrow, resting upon a 
thin tail. Pteroceras, Lam., have the mar- 
gin of the full-grown shell divided into long, 
slender digitations, varying in number ac- 
cording to the species. The animal is the 
same as in Strombus. 

Other Strombuside have the sinus con- 
tiguous to the siphon. These are the Ros- 
tellaria, Lam. They have generally a second 
canal mounting up the spire, and formed 
” by the external lip, and by a continuation 
of the columella. In some of them the lip 
is digitated. Their animal resembles that 
of the Muricide ; but the operculum is very 
small. Others have merely denticulations 
on the lip: their canal is long and straight. 
Others have the margin entire and plane ; 
and these are the Hippocrenes, Montf. 


Ww" 


Fah 
ZAMAN 4 


Fig. 185.—Pteroceras Scorpio. 


THE SEVENTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE TUBULIBRANCHIATA.* 


They ought to be detached from the Pectinibranchiata, with which they have nevertheless 
many affinities, because their shell, m the shape of a more or less nregular tube, and only 
spiral at its apex, is permanently fixed to other bodies. Thus they have not organs of 
copulation, and must fecundate themselves. 

Vermetus, Adanson,— 
Has a tubular shell, whose whorls, at an early age, still form a kind of spire ; but they are continued on 
in a more or less irregularly twisted or bent tube, like the tubes of a Serpula. The shell usually attaches 
itself by interlacing with others of the same species, or by becoming partially enveloped by lithophytes. 
The animal, having no power of locomotion, is deprived of a foot, properly so called; but the part 
which in ordinary Gasteropodes forms the tail, is here turned under, and extends forwards, even beyond 
the head, where its extremity becomes inflated, and furnished with a thin, [horny, multispiral] oper- 
culum. When the animal withdraws into its shell, it is this inflated mass which closes the entrance. 
It has sometimes different appendages ; and the operculum is spiny in certain species.| The head is 
obtuse, furnished with two tentacula of moderate size, having the eyes on the outside at their base. 
The mouth is a vertical orifice: under it we see, on each side, a filament which has all the appearance 
of a tentaculum, but which really belongs to the foot. The branchie form a single [pectinated] line 
along the left side of the branchial ceiling. Its right side is occupied by the rectum, and by the 


spermatic canal, which is also the oviduct. There is no male organ. 

The species are pretty numerous, but ill defined. Linnzus left them among the Serpule ; and the Vermilia, 
which Lamarck still allows to stand near Serpule, do not differ from the Vermetus. [This remark is erroneous ; 
Vermilia is a true Annelide, and should be left where Lamarck has placed it. ] 


Maaitus, Montf.— 
Has its tube keeled its whole length. At first it is pretty regularly spiral, and then is extended in a 
more or less straight line. Although we do not know the animal, it is probable that its place will be 
found to be near Vermetus. [The shell is found inclosed in madrepores, bnt not attached to them in 
any degree. It would appear that when quite young the animal takes up its station in a hollow part of 


* (The genera of this order are arranged amongst the Pectinibran- + [This observation is erroneous, and has probably arisen frora mis- 
chiata by Rang taking some opercala of Serpule for those of a Vermetus.] 


368 MOLLUSCA. 


the madrepore ; and, increasing itself in size and length as the madrepore increases around it, it keeps 
the aperture even with the outer surface of the coral, and thus grows, in some instances, to a consi- 
derable length. This singular testaceous parasite is common in the coral rocks of the Isle of France, 
and its tube sometimes reaches the length of three feet. ] 


SiriquariaA, Brug.— 

Resembles Vermetus in the head, the position of the operculum, and in the tubular and irregular shell ; 
but there is a fissure on the whole length of the shell which follows its contour, and which corres- 
ponds with a similar cleft in that part of the cloak which covers the branchial cavity. Along the 
whole side of this cleft is a branchial comb, composed of numerous delicate and tubular-like leaflets. 
Linneus left these shells also in Serpula; and until a very recent date they were believed to be mem- 
bers of the class Annelides. [The remarkable operculum is similar to the pod of a Medicago, consisting 
of a spiral lamella rolled five times round an axis like a pulley. This horny lamella is very lustrous 
underneath, farinaceous or subpubescent above, and subcrenate on the under side of the rim, 
with short striole. It is convex m the centre, and the projection is multilocular, very exactly resem- 
bling a Cristellaria or Robulina. | 


THE EIGHTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 


THE SCUTIBRANCHIATA.* 


The order comprises a certain number of Gasteropods having a considerable resemblance to 
the Pectinibranchiata in the form and position of the branchiz, as well as in the general form 
of the body, but they are complete hermaphrodites. Their shells are very open, without an 
operculum, and the greater number are not in any degree spiral, so that they cover their 
animals, and particularly the branchie, in the manner of a shield. The heart is traversed by 
the rectum, and receives the blood by the two auricles, as in the majority of the Bivalves. 


Tue Haxrorripes (Haliotis, Linn.)— 
Are the only family of this order in which the shell is turbinated ; and from those shells it is distin- 
guished by the excessive amplitude of the aperture, and the flatness and smallness of the spire, which 
is seen from within. This form has caused it to be compared to the ear of a quadruped. 

In the Haliotis, Lam., the shell is perforated along the side of the columella with a series of holes; and when 
the last hole remains incomplete, the shell has the appearance of being emarginate. The snail is one of the most 
richly adorned of Gasteropods. A double membrane, with a furbelowed margin, and furnished with a double row 
of filaments, extends, at least in the commonest species, round the foot, and on to the month: outside its long 
tentacula are two cylindrical pedicles, which support the eyes. The cloak is deeply cleft on the right side, and the 
water, which passes through the holes of the shell, gains access, by the medium of the cleft, to the branchial cavity. 
Along the margins of the cleft there are also three or four filaments, which the animal can also protrude through 
the holes of the shell. The mouth is a short proboscis. 

Padolla, Montf. [Stomatelia, Lam.] has an almost circular shell; almost all the holes obliterated; and a deep 
groove that follows the middle of the whorls, and shows itself exteriorly by a corresponding ridge. 

Slomatia, Lam., have a more concave shell, with a more prominent spire, and without holes : they otherwise 
resemble the Haliotis,and connect that genus with certain kinds of Turbo. The animal is less adorned than Haliotis.} 


The following genera, dismembered from Patella, have the shell quite symmetrical, as well as the posi- 

tion of the heart and branchiz. 
FissuRELLA, Lam.— 

Have a broad, fleshy disk under the belly, as the Patella ; a conical shell placed over the middle of the 
back, but not covering it completely, and perforated in the summit with a small aperture, which serves 
both for the passage of the excrements, and of the water necessary to respiration: that aperture pene- 
trates into the cavity of the branchiz situate over the front of the back, at the bottom of which the anus 
opens ; and this cavity is moreover widely patulous over the head. There is a branchial comb on each 


* M. de Blainville unites this and the following order in his sub- | neritoid thin shell with a wide entire aperture, without an operculum. 
class Paracephalophora hermaphrodita, His Stylina (Stylifer, Broderip) has also no operculum, but the spire 

+ (Padola and Stomatia (that constitute but one genus, according | is pointed and acute. One species lives on the Echinus ; another im- 
to Sowerby,) are placed in the order Pectinibranchiata by Rang, where | beds itself in Starfish.] 


we find also next them the Velutina of Flemming, distinguished by its 


a ee eee ee 


ACEPHALES. 369 


side of it, and the combs are alike: the conical tentacula have their eyes at their external base: the 


sides of the foot are garnished with a row of filaments. 

Emarginula, Lam., has exactly the same structure as Fissurella; but instead of a hole in the apex, its cloak and 
shell have a little cleft or emargination on their anterior side, which also penetrates into the branchial cavity. ‘The 
margins of the cloak envelope and in a great measure cover those of the shell: the eyes are on a tubercle at the 
outer bases of the conical tentacula; and the sides of the foot are as usual ornamented with filaments. 

Parmophorus, Lam. (Scutwm,Montf.)—As in Emarginula, the shell is covered, in a great measure, by the turned- 
up margins of the cloak: the branchie and other organs are the same as in the two preceding genera; but the 
oblong, slightly conical shell has neither hole nor emargination. [Sowerby unites this with the preceding genus. ] 


THE NINTH ORDER OF THE GASTEROPODES. 
THE CYCLOBRANCHIATA.* 


These Mollusks have their branchiz in the form of. little leaflets or pyramids, attached in a 
circle, more or less complete, under the margins of the cloak, very nearly as in the Inferobran- 
chiata, from which they are distinguished by the nature of their hermaphroditism; for, as in 
the preceding order, they have no organs for copulation, and impregnate themselves. Their 
heart does not embrace the rectum, but varies in its position. We know only two genera, whose 
shell never exhibits even a trace of a spire. 


Tue Limeers (Patella, Linn.)— 

Have the body entirely covered with a conical shell; and under the margins of their cloak there is a 
circle of branchial leaflets. The anus and the orifice of the organs of generation are a little to the right 
above the head, to which there is a thick, short proboscis, and two setaceous tentacula, having the eyes 
at their exterior bases: the mouth is fleshy, and contains a [very long ribbon-like] spinous tongue, 
which is directed backwards, and lies folded deep within the interior of the body. The stomach is 
membranous, and the intestine long, slender, and much convoluted. The heart is in front above the 
neck, a little to the left. Some species occur in abundance on our shores. 


THE Cuitons (Chiton, Linn.)— 
Have a series of testaceous symmetrical plates set along the back of their cloak, but not occupying 
all its breadth. The margins of the cloak itself are coriaceous, either naked, or chagreened, or gar- 
nished with spines, or hairs, or bundles of bristles. Beneath this margin, on each side, is a row of 
lamellated branchie ; and in front, a membranous veil over the mouth holds the place of tentacula. The 
anus is under the posterior extremity. The heart is situated behind, upon the rectum. The stomach 
is membranous, with a long convoluted intestine. The ovary lies above the other viscera, and appears 


to open upon the sides by two oviducts. 

There are some small speceies on our shores; but in the seas of tropical countries they attain a much greater 
size. (The Chitonellus, Lam., distinguished by the valves being so small as only partially to cover the cloak, 
should be re-united to Chiton, which, in the system of Blainville, forms a separate class, named Polyplaxiphora, 
and which, he supposes, leads the way to the Articulated Animals.) 


THE FOURTH CLASS OF MOLLUSCA. 


THE ACEPHALES.t+ 


The Acephales have no apparent head, but a mouth only, concealed in the bottom, 
or between the folds, of their cloak. The latter is almost always doubled in two, and 
incloses the body as a book is inclosed between its covers ; but it frequently happens 


to discover it, nor indeed to see any other organ of respiration except 
that of a cord of leaflets which encircles the body under the margins 
of the cloak. 


* In the system of Blainville the Cyclobranchiata is an order that 
embraces the Doris. With the last three genera of the preceding 
order, and with the Patella, he makes his order Cervico-branchiata, 


divided into the Retiferes and Branchiferes: the Retiferes are the + M. de Blainville unites my Acephales and Branchiopodes in one 
Patelle ; for he supposes that they breathe by means of a vascular | class, his 4eephalophora. 
network in the cavity situated above the head. I have not been able 


370 . MOLLUSCA. 


that, in consequence of the two lobes uniting in front, the cloak forms a tube, or a sac 
when it is only closed at one end. ‘This cloak is generally provided with a calcareous 
bivalve, and sometimes multivalve, shell ; and in two families only is it reduced to a 
cartilaginous, or even membranous nature. The brain is over the mouth, where we 
also find one or two other ganglia. The branchie usually consist of large lamelle, 
covered with vascular network, under or between which the water passes: they are 
more simple, however, in the genera without a shell. From these branchie the blood 
proceeds to a heart, generally single, which distributes it throughout the system, 
returning to the pulmonary artery without the aid of another ventricle. 

The mouth is always toothless, and can only seize upon such particles as the water 
floats within reach. It leads into a first, and sometimes a second, stomach: the intes- 
tine varies much in length. ‘The bile is poured, generally by several pores, into the 
stomach, which the liver surrounds. All fecundate themselves ; and in several of the 
shelled species the young, which are innumerable, are retained for some time between 
the lamine of the [external] branchiz before they are expelled.* All the Acephales are 


aquatic. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE ACEPHALES. 


THE TESTACEOUS ACEPHALES}F (or A. WITH FOUR BRANCHIAL LEAFLETS). 


They are beyond comparison the most numerous. All bivalve shells, and some kinds of 
multivalyes, belong to them. Their body, which includes the liver and the viscera, is placed 
between the two layers of the cloak; and in front, still between the same layers, are the four 
branchial leaflets, regularly striated crosswise by the vessels. The mouth is at one extremity, 
the anus at the other. The heart is towards the back. ‘The foot, when there is one, is 
attached between the four branchize. There are four triangular laminz at the sides of the 
mouth, which are the extremities of two lips, and are used as tentacula. The foot is merely 
a fleshy mass, moved by a mechanism similar to that of the tongue of mammiferous animals: it 
has its muscles fixed in the bottom of the valves of the shell. Other muscles, which form 
sometimes one, sometimes two masses, go straight across from one valve to the other, to keep 
them closed; but when the animal relaxes these muscles, an elastic ligament situated behind 
the hinge opens the valve by its contraction. 

A considerable number of Bivalves possess what is called a byssus, that is, a bundle of more 
or less delicate filaments issuing from the base of the foot, and by means of which the animal 
fixes itself to foreign bodies. It employs the foot to guide the filaments to the proper place, 
and to glue them there: and it can reproduce them when they have been cut away; but 
nevertheless their true nature is not yet well ascertamed. Reaumur believed them to be spun 
from a secretion, and moulded in the groove of the foot. Poli thinks them to be merely pro- 
longations of tendinous fibres. 

The shell consists of two valves connected by a hinge, which is sometimes simple, and some- 
times composed of a greater or less number of teeth and lamin, that are received into cor- 
responding sockets and cavities. In a few genera, some supernumerary pieces are laid over 
the hinge. In general the valves have, ieaning over the himge, a prominent [subspiral] part, 
which is named the summit, or the nates. 

In the greater number the valves close perfectly when the animal chooses to draw them 


* Some naturalists, as Jacobson, have maintained that the minute | rent species. This opinion is now generally considered as erro- 
bivalves which, in certain seasons, load the external branchiw of the | neous. 
freshwater Mussel, are uot the foetal young, but parasites of diffe- + The class Conchifera of M. de Lamarck. 


en —— _—— o 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. Bayi 


together; but there are several which always gape, even when brought as nigh together as 
possible, either at one or at both ends. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA TESTACEA,— 


Tue OystTEers,— 


Have the mantle open, with neither tubes nor particular apertures. They have no foot, or only a very 
smail one, and are for the most part fixed either by [cementation of] their shell, or by their byssus, to 
rocks and to other submarine bodies. Those which are free can move only by squirting out the water 
by a sudden closure of the valves. 

Their first section has but one muscular mass passing from one valve to the other, as we see by the 
single impression left upon the shell. 

It is supposed that we ought to arrange here certain fossil shells, whose valves do not seem to have 
been connected by a ligament*, but to have covered each other like a vase and its lid, and to have been 
held together by the muscles only. They form the genus Acardium, Brug., or Ostracite, La Perouse, 
of which De Lamarck makes the family Rudistes. The shells of it are thick, and of a solid or porous 
texture. We now distinguish in it the Radiolites, Lam., whose valves are striated from the centre to 
the circumference. One of them is flat, and the other thick, nearly conical, and fixed. The Spheru- 
lites, Lametherief, with the valves roughened with foliations that rise up unequally. And it is guessed we 
may place here the Calceole}, of which one valve is conical, but free, and the other flat, or even some- 
what concave, so that they call to recoilection the figure of a shoe : and the Hippurites, with one valve 
conical or cylindrical, that has on its inside two obtuse longitudinal crests: its base appears even to 
have been divided into several chambers by transverse partitions ; the other valve forms, as it were, a 
lid. The Batolithes, Montf., are cylindrical and straight Hippurites ; they are often ney long ; but 
there remains much uncertainty on the nature of all these fossils. 

As to the Testaceous Acephales, known in a living state, Linnzeus had united under the genus 


OstrREA (the Oysters)— 
All those which had neither teeth nor transverse laminz in the hinge, the valves being held together by 


a ligament lodged in a little cavity on both sides. 

The Ostrea, Brug., has the ligament as just described, and their shells are irregular, inequivalved and foliated. 
They are affixed to rocks, to stakes, and even to one another, by the most convex of the valves. The animal 
(Peloris, Poli) is one of the simplest of bivalves: we observe on it nothing remarkable but a double series of ciliz 
round the margin of the cloak, which has the lobes united only above the head near the hinge: there is no appear- 
ance of afoot. Every one is familiar with the common Oyster (O. edulis, Linn.), which is fished and reared in arti- 
ficial beds. Its fecundity is as astonishing as its taste is agreeable. [Poli says that the ovaries of a single oyster 
contain 1,200,000 ova.] Among the species of neighbouring countries we may notice the Os. cristata of the Medi- 
terranean ; among those of distant lands, the Os. parasitica, which fixes itself upon the roots of the mangroves 
and other trees that grow within the reach of the salt water ; and the Os. foliwm, which is attached by the denticu- 
lations on the back of its convex valve, to the branches of the Gorgonia and other lithophytes. 

M. de Lamarck separates, under the name of Gryphea, certain Oysters, principally fossil, the apex of whose 
most convex valve projects much, and is either hooked orin some degree spiral. The other valve is often concave. 
The greater number of the species appear to have been free, but some of them have been seemingly attached by 
their hooked apices. We know only one recent species (Griph. tricarinata). [Sowerby reunites Gryphxa to 
Ostrea.] 

The Clams (Pecten, Brug.) have been properly removed from the Oysters, although they have a similar hinge. 
They are easily distinguished by their inequivalve semicircular shell being almost always regularly marked with 
ribs, which radiate from the summit of each valve to the circumference, and furnished with two angular productions 
called ears, that widen the sides of the hinge. The animal (Argus, Poli) has a small oval foot supported on a 
cylindrical peduncle, in front of an abdomen in form of a sac hanging between the branchiz. In some species, 
known by the strong sinus under their anterior ear, there is a byssus. The others are not adherent, and can even 
swim with considerable velocity, by flapping their valves together. The cloak is surrounded with two rows of fila- 
ments, several of those of the exterior row being terminated by a little greenish globule [with a metallic lustre]. 
The mouth is garnished with many branched tentacula instead of the four usual labial laminw. The shell of the 
clams is often coloured in a lively manner, [and many species are remarkable for the difference in colouring 


* [M. Desmoulins has endeavoured to prove that these shells form + Spherulites now embraces the Radiolites and Birostrites of Lam., 
a class intermediate between the shelless Acephales and the Cirrho- with Jodamia of Defrance.—En. 
podes. Deshayes, on the contrary, asserts that they are true Bivalves, t [Sowerby and Rang maintain that Calceola is mach more nearly 


allied to Chama. Bainville and Rang collect them into a distinct or- | allied to Terebratula.] 
der of Bivalves, under the name of Rudistes.] 


BBZ 


gS a a ES oe 


372 MOLLUSCA. 


opservable in the two valves.] The large species of our coasts (Ostrea maxima, Linn.), 18 the Pilgrim’s shell, [worn 
in front of the hat by those who had visited the shrine of St. James in the Holy Land.] It is eaten. 

The Lime (Lima, Brug.) differ from the Pectens in having a more elongated shell, with shorter ears, and a 
greater inequality of the sides. The majority have the ribs raised into scales. The valves cannot be closed in the 
living state, and the cloak is ornamented with a vast number of filaments of different lengths, without tubercles ; 
and further within there is a broad fold which closes the gape of the shell, and even forms a protuberant veil. The 
foot is small, and the byssus inconsiderable. The Lime swim rapidly, by flapping their valves. One species in 
the Mediterranean, of a pure white colour (Ostrea Lima, Linn.), is eaten. 

Pedum, Brug.—The shell is similar to Lima, but the valves are unequal, and the most convex only has a deep 
sinus for the byssus. The animal also is very like that of Lima, but its cloak has only a single row of small slender 
tentacula. Its byssus is larger. The one species known is from the Indian sea. 

Certain fossils may be placed here which have the hinge, ligament, and central muscle of the Ostrez, Pectines, 
and Lime, but are distinguished by some peculiarities of the shell. The Hinnites, Defr., seem to be Oysters, or 
Clams, with small ears and adherent shells, irregular and very thick, especially the convex valve. There is a fossa 
at the hinge for the ligament. (Four recent species of this genus have been described.) The Plagiostomes, Sower., 
have the oblique shell of the Lime, flattened on one side, very minute ears, the valves more ventricose, striated, 
without scales, and the outlet of the byssus less. They are found in formations older than the chalk. The 
Pachytes, Defr., have nearly the figure of the Pectines, a regular shell with small ears ; there is a transverse flat 
space between their summits, which has a strong triangular emargination in one of the valves, through or in which 
the ligament passes or is lodged. The Dianchores, Sower., have unequal oblique valves, one of them adherent and 
perforated in the summit, the other free and eared. The Podopsides, Lam., have regular striated valves, without 
opercula: one has the apex more prominent than the other, truncated and adherent ; this apex is often very thick, 
and forms a kind of stalk to the shell. (M. de Blainville regards the preceding four genera as nearer allied to Tere- 
bratula; and M. Deshayes, on the contrary, approximates them to Spondylus.) 


Although multivalve, we should approximate 


THe ANomi&, Brug.,— 

To the Oysters. They have two thin, unequal, irregular valves, the flattest 
of which is deeply notched on the side of the ligament, which is similar to 
that of the Ostrea. The greater part of the central muscle traverses this 
opening, to be inserted into a third plate, that is sometimes calcareous and 
sometimes horny, by which the animal adheres to foreign bodies ; and the 
remainder of the muscle serves to join one valve to the other. The animal 
(Echion, Poli) has a small vestige of a foot, similar to that of a Pecten, 
which glides between the emargination and the plate that closes it, and 
perhaps serves to direct water to the mouth, which is adjacent. Their 
shells are found attached to various bodies, like Oysters. They are found 
Fig. 186.—Anomia epbippium in every sea. 


[Placunomia, Sowerby, is the link which connects Anomia with the following genus. With an arrangement of the 
hinge, approaching very nearly to that of Placuna, we have the distinguishing organization of Anomia, while the 
external appearance of the shell, especially if viewed in water, bears the strongest resemblance to a Plicatula, or 
| some of the plicated Oysters. The organ of adhesion resembles that of Anomia, but is inserted between the lamine 
| of the internal surface of the lower valve, above the muscular impression, and below the hinge, and passes out into 
| an external, irregular, somewhat longitudinal superficial fissure, or cicatrix, narrowest at the hinge margin, and 
| which it entirely fills to a level with the surrounding surface of the shell. Three species are known, natives of 
the tropical seas. ] ’ 

The Placuna, Brug., is affined to the Anomiz, and, like them, have thin, unequal, and often irregular yalves, 
but neither are perforated. On one of these valves, near the hinge, we perceive two prominent ribs, forming a 
triangle whose apex is towards the hinge. The animal remains unknown. 


Sronpy tus, Linn. 

These have a rough and foliated shell, like the Oysters, ‘and frequently spiny, but their hinge is more 
complicated, for, besides the fossa for the ligament, there are two teeth in each valve that enter into 
fossze in the opposite valve respectiveiy: the two middle teeth belong to the most convex valve, which 
is usually the left, and has, behind the hinge, a projecting flattish beak, as if it had been sawed. Like 
the Pectines, the margins of the cloak of the animal are garnished with two rows of tentacula, and in 
the outer row there are several terminated with coloured tubercles: in front of the abdomen is a vestige 
of a foot, under the guise of a broad radiated disk with a short pedicle, and capable of contraction and 
elongation. From its centre there hangs a thread terminated with an oval mass, the use of which is 
unknown. The Spondyli are eaten like Oysters. Their shells are very often vividly coloured. They 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. So 


adhere to all sorts of bodies, [and their form is generally modified by the surface of the objects on which 
they grow]. 

M. de Lamarck separates from the Spondylus his Plicatula, from having no external area, or disk, between the 
beaks; and flat, almost equal, irregular, plaited and scaly valves, as in many Oysters. [Sp. plicatus, Gmel., is the 
type.] 

Matievus, Lam.— 
Has a simple fossa for the ligament, as in Ostrea, with which genus Linnzus left this one, and the more 
so as the shell is also inequivalve and irregular, but it is distinguished by an emargination on the side 
of the ligament for the passage of a byssus. 

The best known species (Ostrea malleus, Linn.), a rare and dear shell, has the two sides of the hinge extended 
so as to form something like the head of a hammer, while the valves, elongated in a transverse direction, represent 
the handle. It inhabits the Archipelago of India. Other species, which are, perhaps, but the young of the Malleus, 
have no hammer-head, and these we must be careful not to confound with the Vulselle. 


VuLsELLA, Lam.— 
Has in the hinge, on each side, a little lamina projecting inwards, and it is from one of these lamine 
that the ligament, similar in other respects to that of the Oyster, is stretched to the other. On the 
side of the lamina is a sinus for the egress of the byssus. The shell is elongated in a direction perpen- 
dicular to the hinge. The species best known inhabits the Indian Ocean. 


Perna, Brug.— 

Has across the hinge several parallel fossee opposed to each other in the two valves, and lodging as many 
elastic ligaments: their shell is irregular and foliated, like the Oysters, and has on the anterior side, 
underneath the hinge, an emargination, through which the byssus passes. Linnzus left them also 
among his Ostrez. [The recent species are brought from the Indian Ocean, and from New Holland, ] 

There has been recently separated from Perna, the Crenatule, Lam., which, instead of transverse fosse ona 
broad hinge, have little oval ones quite on the margin, where they occupy little breadth. It does not appear that 
there is any byssus. We find them often buried in sponges. To the Perne, it is supposed, we must approximate 
some fossils which have more or less numerous fosse in the hinge answering to one another, and appearing also 
to have given attatchment to ligaments. Thus the Gervillig, Defr., have a shell almost similar to Vulsella, but 
with a hinge in some degree double; the exterior with opposed fossz receiving as many ligaments, and the interior 
garnished with very oblique teeth on each valve. We find the casts of them with Ammonites in compact limestone. 
[Many species have occurred at various geological periods from the lias upward, to the baculite limestone of Nor- 
mandy.] The Jnoceramus, Sower., is remarkable for the elevation and inequality of the valves, of which the 
summit is hooked near the hinge, and whose texture is lamellated. The Catilles, Brongn., have, independently of 
fosse, for the ligament, a conical furrow drawn in a varix, which is bent at a right angle to form one of the margins 
of the shell. The valves are nearly equal, and of a fibrous texture. They appear to have had a byssus. The Pul- 
vinites, Defr., have a triangular regular shell, and its fosse, few in number, diverge within from the summit. 
Their casts are found in chalk. 


The second subdivision of the Ostracea, as well as almost all the bivalves which follow, besides the 
single transverse [or adductor] muscle of the preceding genera, have another muscle going from one 
valve to the other, and placed in front of the mouth. It is apparently in this subdivision that we must 


place 
[THe Mutter, De Fer.,— 


One of the most singular and rare of known genera. It is remarkable as being intermediate in its 
structure between /itheria and Ostrea, and as apparently connecting the regular freshwater bivalves 
with the irregular marine bivalves (Ostrex), and with the genus /Mtheria, inasmuch as in the sinus at 
the posterior extremity of the ligament it resembles the Naiades and the Aitheriz ; and in its single 
muscular impression, as well as its general form, it approaches to Ostrea. ] 


Ernert2£, Lam.— 
Are large mequivalved shells, as, or even more, irregular than the Oysters, without teeth to the hinge, 
and where the ligament, in part external, exists also interiorly. They differ from the Ostrez in having 
two muscular impressions. It is not ascertained that their animal produces a byssus. They have lately 
been discovered in the Upper Nile. 

Avicua, Brug.— 
Has a shell with equal valves, and a rectilinear hinge, often extended into wings on each side, furnished 
with a narrow, elongated ligament, and sometimes with small denticulations on that side which is next 


374 MOLLUSCA. 


the mouth of the animal. The anterior side, a little under the angle of the side of the mouth, has a 
notch for the byssus. The anterior adductor muscle is as yet excessively little. When the ears are 
less prominent, the species have been named Pintadines, Lam. (Margarita, Leach). 


The most celebrated is the Pearl-mussel (Mytilus mar- 
garitiferus, Linn.) Its nacred interior is employed in all 
sorts of fancy-work, and the orient-pearls, fished for by 
divers, chiefly at Ceylon, at Cape Comorin, and in the Per- 
sian Gulf, are but excretions of it. The name of Avicula 
is given to such species as have the ears more pointed, and 
the shell more oblique. There is in the hinge in front of the 
ligament, a vestige of a tooth, whose first trace is indeed to be 
detected in the Pentadines. The Mytilus hirundo, Linn., is 
an example from the Mediterranean, remarkable for its 
lengthened auricles: its byssus is large and strong, and has 
Fig 187.—Avicula macroptera. some resemblance to a little shrub. 


Tue Pinn#, Linn.— 
Have two equal wedge-shaped valves, which are closely united by a ligament along one of their sides. 
The animal (Chimera, Poli) is elongated in the same direction as the shell, as well as its lips, its 
branchiz, and all the other organs. Its cloak is closed on the side of the ligament; its foot is of the 
shape of a conical little tongue, and marked with a groove; there is a small transverse muscle in the 
acute angle of the valves, near which the mouth is situated, and a very large muscle at their widest 
part. On the side of the anus, which is behind this large muscle, there is attached a conical appen- 
dage, peculiar to this genus, and capable of inflation and elongation, but of the use of which we are 


ignorant. 
The byssus of several species is as fine and brilliant as silk, and is used in weaving precious stuffs. The chief is 
the Pinna nobilis. 


Tue Arcacre& (4rca, Linn.)— 
Have the valves equal and transverse, that is to say, the hinge occupies the longest side. It is fur- 
nished with a great number of small teeth, interlocking with each other; and with two nearly equal 
adductor muscles inserted towards the two extremities of the valves. 


The Arce, properly so called (Arca, Lam.), have a straight hinge, and the shell is elongated in a direction 
parallel to the hinge. The apices of the valves are generally protube- 
rant, and curved towards the hinge, but widely apart. The valves do 
not meet in the middle, because the animal (Daphne, Poli) has in front 
of the abdomen a process of a horny substance, or a tendinous ribbon, in 
lieu of a foot, which passes out thence, and by which the animal is 
affixed to submarine bodies. These shells reside near the shore in 
rocky places. They are usually covered with a velvety epidermis. They 
are in little request for the table. There are some species in the Medi- 
terranean ; and a great number of fossil species, particularly in Italy, 
in depositions anterior to the chalk. M.de Lamarck separates, under 
the name of Cucullea, some Arce in which the teeth at the ends of the 
hinge assume a longitudinal direction. [In Cucullea the two valves are Fig. 188.—Arca barbata. 
not exactly alike, and there does not appear to be a byssus, whence 
Sowerby doubts the propriety of arranging this genus with the Arcacexz.] We ought probably to separate also such 
species as have well-marked ribs, and whose valves meet closely and completely, for there is thus reason to believe 
that the animal is not fixed, and may rather resemble that of 
the Pectunculus. There is assuredly still greater reason to sepa- 
rate the Arca tortuosa, Chem., because of its peculiar figure, and 
its unequally oblique valves. (It is the type of the genus Trisis of 
Oken.) 


PrectuncuLus, Lam.— 
Has the hinge in a curved line, and the shell of a lenti- 
cular form. The valves close exactly, and their apices are 
near each other. The animal (4vinea, Poli) has a large 
compressed foot, with a double lower margin, and is hence 


Fig. 139.—Pectuncuius capable of creeping. It lives in sand. We have some 
native species. 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 375 


Nucuta, Lam.— 


Has the teeth of the hinge in a broken line. The form of the shell is elongated and narrowed towards 
the posterior end. We do not know the animal, but it is probably not much unlike that of the pre- 
ceding genus. 

For a long time we have placed here the Z'riyonie, Brug., so remarkable for their hinge, which is 
furnished with two plates en chevron, crenulated on both surfaces, and each penetrating into two 
cavities, or rather between four plates of the opposite side, similarly crenulated on their internal sur- 
faces. From the marks on the inside of the valyes we inferred that the animal had not tubes, of any 
length at least; and MM. Quoi and Gaymard having discovered it alive, we find, in fact, that, like 
the Arcaceex, it has an open cloak without any separate orifices, not even one for the anus. Its foot 
is large, truncate, and hooked at its anterior part. The recent Trigonie resemble the Cockles in the 
figure of their shell, and in the manner in which it is ribbed. Their interior is nacred. The fossil 
Trigoniz are considerably different. Their shell is flattened on one side, oblique, longest in the direc- 
tion perpendicular to the hinge, and crossed in the contrary direction by series of tubercles. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA TESTACEA,— 


THe MytTILracEx,— 


Ilas the cloak open in front, but with a separate aperture for the passage of excrements. All of them 
have a foot with which they crawl, or at least draw out, direct, and fix the byssus. They are known 
to the vulgar by the name of Mussels. 

MussELs, properly so called (Mytilus, Linn.),— 


Have a closed, triangular shell, with equal ventricose valves. One of the sides of the acute angle forms 
the hinge, and is furnished with a long, narrow ligament. The head of the animal is in the acute 
angle ; the other side of the shell, which is the longest, is the anterior one, and allows the passage of 
the byssus; it terminates in a rounded angle, and the third side ascends towards the hinge, to which 
it is joined by an obtuse angle; near this is the anus, opposite which the cloak forms a peculier aper- 
ture or little tube. The animal (Callitriche, Poli) has the edge of its cloak provided with branched 
tentacula near the rounded angle, as it is there that the water required for respiration enters. In front, 
near the acute angle, there is a small transverse muscle, and a large one behind near the obtuse angle. 


The foot resembles a tongue. 


In Mytilus, Lam., the summits [of the valves] are nearly terminal. Some species are smooth, others striated. 
The common Mussel (M. edulis, Linn.) is spread in extraordinary abundance along all our coast, where it is often 
suspended, in long clusters, to rocks, piles, ships, &c. It forms an article of food of some importance, but it is 
dangerous when eaten to excess ; [and under certain unknown circumstances, or to some individuals, becomes 
deleterious]. Some species have been found in a fossil state, (which Brongniart distinguishes generically by the 
name Mitiloide). 

In Modiolus, Lam., the apices are lower, and towards the third of the hinge; they are also more protuberant and 
rounded, whence the shell has more of the ordinary shape of bivalves. We may also distinguish separately the 
Lithodomus, Cuy., which has an oblong shell, almost equally rounded at both ends, and the summits very near 
the anterior. They at first suspend themselves to stones, like the common Mussels, but then they perforate them, 
and bury themselves in the excavations, whence they cannot again issue. After they have made their cells, the 
byssus ceases to grow.* One species (Mytilus lithophagus, Linn.) is very common in the Mediterranean, where 
it furnishes a food agreeable enough on account of its peppery taste. There is another (Modiola caudigera) which 
has the posterior end of each valve armed with a very hard little appendage, that is, perhaps, of service in the exca 
vation of its dwelling.y 


Tue FresH-waTer MusseE ts (dnodonfes, Brug.)— 
Have the anterior angle rounded like the posterior ; and the angle near the anus obtuse, and almost 
rectilinear: their thin and moderately ventricose shell has no tooth in the hinge, but merely a liga- 
ment occupying its entire length. The animal (Limnea, Poli) is without a byssus ; and it creeps over 


+ The means by which the saxicavous bivalved Mollusea perforate 


* “We cannot imagine,” says Sowerby, “that this remark has 
rocks has given rise to much discussion: some believe that they do 


been made from actual observation, because we believe it te be con- 
trary to the nature of the unimal to be at one time attached by a 
byssus, and not at another; and, moreover, we have ourselves ‘seen 
Lithodomi not more than one-eighth of an inch in length, in as com- 
pletely-formed proportions as the fuller-grown specimens.”’—Ep. 


the work by the mechanical action of the valves; others attribute it 
to asolvent secreted by the animal. All things considered, I think 
the first of these opinions, notwithstanding the difficulties in the way 
of its adoption, is vet the most probable. 


376 MOLLUSCA. 


the sand or mud by means of a large, com- 
pressed, and nearly quadrangular foot. The 
posterior end of the cloak is garnished with 
many small tentacula. The Anodontes live in 


fresh waters. 

We have some native species; and of the largest 
(Mytilus cygneus, Linn.) the valves are used to skim 
milk. From its insipidity, the animal is not edible. 

M. de Lamarck distinguishes, under the name of 
Iridina, an oblong species, whose hinge is granu- 
lated its entire length. The cloak of the animal is 
closed a little behind.* The Dipsas of Leach is 
founded on another species, which has the angles 
more decidedly marked, and a vestige of a tooth in 
the hinge. 


Tue Unrones (Unio, Brug.)— 
Resemble the Anodontes in the shell and in the 
animal, but the hinge is more complicated. There 
is a short cavity in the anterior part of the right valve, which receives a short plate or tooth from the 
left one, and behind it is a long plate, which is inserted between two others on the opposite side. 
They also inhabit fresh water, preferring running streams. Sometimes the anterior tooth is more or 
less large and unequal, as in the Mya margaritifera, Linn., whose pearls have been used in making 
ornaments. At other times this tooth is laminated, as in Mya pictorum, Linn., known to every body 


[from its shells being used in holding water colours]. 

(A great number of species, remarkable for their size and figure, are found in the lakes and rivers of North 
America. MM. Say and Barnes [and Lea] have described them, and have proposed some subgenera amongst them.) 

M. Delamarck distinguishes the Hyria, with the angular productions of the hinge so decided that their shell is 
almost triangular. And the Castalia, the shell of which, somewhat heart-shaped, is striated with rays; and the 
teeth and plates of the hinge are grooved across their longest diameter, which gives them a relationship with the 
Trigonie. 

There ought to be placed near the Uniones some marine shells, which have a similar animal, and very nearly the 
same sort of hinge, but the summits of the valves are more swollen, and prominent ribs radiate from them to the 
margins. These are the Cardita, Brug. Their 
shape is more or less oblong or cordate. In 
some the shell gapes on the lower side. The 
Cypricardia, Lam., are Cardite with the tooth 
under the summit divided into two or three. 
Their form is oblong, and their sides unequal. 
M. de Blainville has again separated the Coral- 
liophaga, whose shell is thin, and the lateral 
lamina [of the hinge] so much obliterated that it 
might induce us to approximate them to the 

Fig. 191.—Cardita caliculata. Venus. One species is known, that burrows in 
masses of coral. 

The Venericardia, Lam., differ from the Cardita only because the posterior lamina of their hinge is more trans- 
verse and shorter, thus making an advance to the Venus: their form is almost round. It may be inferred from 
the muscular impressions that their animal has also a resemblance to that of the Cardita and of the Unio. Both 
of them approach the Cardia in general form and in the direction of their ribs. 

I suspect that this is also the place for the Crassatella, Lam. (Paphia, Roiss.), which has sometimes been 
approximated to Mactra, and at others to Venus. The hinge has two slightly-marked lateral teeth, and two very 
strong middle ones, behind which, extending to both sides, is a triangular cavity for an internal ligament. The 
valves become very thick with age, and the impression made by the margins of the cloak, leads to the belief that 
there are no extensile tubes. 


Fig. 190.—Anodon Gipsas. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA TESTACEA,— 


Tue CamAcEA,— 


Ilas the cloak closed, but perforated with three holes, through one of which the foot passes; the 
second furnishes an entrance and exit to the water required for respiration ; and the third is the vent: 
the two latter are not prolonged into tubes, as in the following family. 


* Notwithstanding the similarity of the shell, Iridina does not belong to this family, but to the Cardiacea.—Ep. 


Se eee ee ee ee 
ee eee ees ne eee 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 377 


The family comprises only the genus 
Cuama, Linn.,— 

Where the hinge is very analogous to that of a Unio,—that is to say, the left valve near the summit 
is provided with a tooth, and further back with a salient plate, which are received into corresponding 
fossee of the right valve. This genus has justly been subdivided. The Tridacne, Brug., have a shell 
greatly elongated transversely, and equivalve; the superior angle, which answers to the head and 
summit, very obtuse. The animal is very remarkable, for it is not placed in the shell like most others, 
but its organs are all directed, or as it were pressed out, forwards. There is a wide opening in the 
anterior side of the cloak for the passage of the byssus: a little beneath the anterior angle there is 
another aperture by which the water gets access to the branchiz; and in the middle of the inferior 
side there is a third smaller opening, corresponding with the anus, so that there is no need of a passage 
in the posterior angle, which is solely occupied by a cavity of the cloak, open only to the third aper- 
ture, which has been just mentioned. There is but a single transverse muscle, corresponding to the 
middie of the margin of the valves. 

In the Tridacna of Lamarck the shell has in front, like the cloak, a large aperture with denticulated margins 
for the [exit of the] byssus, which is distinctly tendinous, and continuous with the muscular fibres. Such is the 
Chama gigas, Linn., of the Indian Ocean, famous for its enormous size. There are individuals which weigh more 
than three hundred pounds. The tendinous byssus by which it is suspended to rocks is so large and tough as to 
require to be cut with an axe. The animal is edible, although very hard. [It is placed in the shell somewhat 
differently from other Lamellebranchiate Mollusca; for, from a peculiar inversion, it is found that its different 
parts have not their ordinary correspondency,—a circumstance which Blainville thinks is owing to the suspended 
condition of the shell.] 

Hippopus, Lam.—The shell is closed and flattened in front, as if it had been truncated. [H. maculatus, from 
the South Seas, is the only species. ] 

Chama, Brug.—Shell irregular, inequivalved, often lamellated and spinous, and attached to rocks, corals, &c., 
in the manner of Oysters. The summits are often very protuberant, unequal, and curled. Often also their interior 
cavity has this form, though nothing on the exterior surface may indicate it. The animal (Psilopus, Poli) has a 
small foot, bent almost like that of aman. The tubes, if there are any, are short and separate, and the aperture 
through which the foot passes is little, larger than them. There are some living species in the Mediterranean ; 
and there are also several fossil species. [The Cleidotherus, Stutchbury, has a very exact resemblance to Chama, 
but is worthy generic distinction from the remarkable circumstance of its internal hinge cartilage having an 
elongated testaceous appendage, in form resembling the human clavicle. The only species is from Port Jackson. ] 

The Dicerates, Lam., do not appear to differ from Chama in anything essential; but their hinge tooth is very 
thick, and the spirals of their valves are so prominent as to prompt a comparison of their form with two horns. 
{Only known in a fossil state. ] 

Isocardia, Lam., has a free, regular, ventricose shell, the beaks of the valves distant, turned backwards, and 
involute. The animal (Glossus, Poli) differs from that of Chama only in having a larger and oval foot, and in the 
anterior aperture of the cloak beginning to assume the ordinary proportion. One species (Chama cor, Linn.) is 
found in the Mediterranean [and German Ocean]. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA TESTACEA,— 


Tue CarRDIACEA,— 


Have the cloak open in front; and there are besides two separate apertures, (one for respiration and 
one for a vent,) which are prolonged in tubes, sometimes distinct, and at others united together. There 
is always an adductor muscle at each extremity, and a foot, which in general enables the animal to 
creep. We may regard it as a very general rule, that those which have long tubes live buried in the 
mud or sand. ‘This peculiarity of their organization is to be traced on the shell by the greater or less 
depth of marks made by the insertion of the edges of the cloak previous to its uniting with the impres- 
sion of the posterior transverse muscle. 


Tue Cockers (Cardium, Linn.)— 

Have, like most other Bivalves, a shell with equal ventricose valves, with prominent beaks curved 
towards the hinge, which gives them, when we view them laterally, the figure of a heart, whence their 
generic name. Ribs, more or less prominent, trend from the beaks to the margins of the valves. But 
that which distinguishes the Cardia is their hinge, where we may notice, on both sides in the middle, 
two little teeth ; and at some distance before and behind, a tooth or prominent lamina. The animal 
(Cerastes, Poli) has usually an ample aperture in the cloak, a very large foot, bent in the middle, with 
its point directed forwards, and two short or but moderately long tubes. 


378 MOLLUSCA. 


The species of Cardia are numerous on our coasts, and the C. edule, Linn., is gathered for food. [Fossil species 
occur in nearly all the fossiliferous beds, from the mountain limestone upwards. ] 

We may separate from them, under the name of Hemicardia, the species with valves compressed from before 
backwards, and strongly keeled in the middle, for it is difficult to believe that the animal is not modified to suit 
this singular configuration. : : 

THE Donacrs (Donax, Linn.)— 
Have nearly the same kind of hinge as the Cardia, but their shell is of a very different form, being a 
triangle, of which the obtuse angle is at the summit of the valves, and the base at their edge, and of 
which the shortest side is that of the ligament, or the posterior side, a rare circumstance among 
Bivalves. They are generally small shells, prettily striated from the beaks to the margins. Their 


animal (Peronea, Poli) is furnished with long tubes, that are received into a sinus of the mantle. 

We have some native examples. (The Donaz irregularis, a fossil from the neighbourhood of Dax, is the type of 
the genus Gratelupia of Desmoulins, and is distinguished from the other Donaces by several tooth-like lamellz 
which accompany the hinge teeth.) 

Tue Cyctapes, Brug.,— 
Like the Cardia and Donaces, have two teeth in the ‘middle of the hinge, and before and behind two 
prominent and sometimes crenulated laminz ; but the shell, as in several species of Venus, is more or 
less rounded, equilateral, and transversely striated. The external tint is usually grey or greenish. The 


animal has moderate tubes, and is an inhabitant of fresh waters. 

One species (Tedlina cornea, Linn.) is very common in our marshes. 

Cyrena, Lam.—The shell is thick, somewhat triangular and oblique, and covered with an epidermis, and is 
further distinguished from the Cyclas by having three hinge teeth. They likewise inhabit rivers, but we have 
none in France. Cyprina, Lam.—Shell thick, oval, with curved beaks, three strong teeth, and besides, a lateral 
tooth behind: under the teeth a large fossa, in which is lodged a part of the ligament. Palathea, Brug., [Pota- 
mophila, Sowerby,] has the sheli a right-angled triangle; three teeth in one valve and two in the other, diverging 
from the beaks; and the lateral teeth approximated. The single species known [Venus subviridis, Gmel.] is from 
the fresh waters of India. [It is also found in the river Congo.] 

This is the proper place to set another genus dismembered from the Venus, viz., the Corbis, Cuv. (Fimbria, 
Megerl.) Marine transversely oblong shells, which have also strong middle teeth and well marked lateral plates : 
their external surface is furnished with transverse ribs, so regularly crossed by rays that it may be compared to 
wicker-work. [Venus fimbriata, Linn., is the type.] Since the impression of the cloak has no fold, the tubes 
ought tobe short. There are some fossil species. ; 


Tae TELLINID (Tellina, Lin.)— 
Have in the centre [of the hinge] a tooth on the left and two teeth on the right, often bifid, and at 
some distance in front and behind; on the right valve, a lateral tooth or plate, which does not pene- 
trate into a cavity of the opposite one. There is a slight fold near the posterior extremity of both 
valves, which renders them unequal in that part, where they gape a little.* The animal (Peronea, 
Poli), like that of Donax, has two long tubes, respiratory and excrementitial, which can be withdrawn 
into the shell, and concealed in a duplicature of the cloak. The shells are generally transversely 
striated, and painted with beautiful colours. Some are oval and thickish; others oblong and much 
compressed ; others lenticular. Instead of a fold, we often find in the latter merely a deviation in the 
course of the transverse strie. We could separate generically some oblong species, which have no 
lateral teeth; and others that, with the hinge of a Tellina, have no posterior fold, form the genus 


Tellinides, Lam. 

It is necessary to distinguish from Tellina the Lovipes, Poli, which have a lenticular shell with the central teeth 
almest obsolete, and behind the nates a simple groove for the ligament. The animal has a short double tube, and 
its foot is prolonged into a cylindrical cord. We notice within the valves, besides the ordinary impressions, a 
mark going obliquely from the impression of the anterior muscle (which is very long) towards the nates. The 
impression of the cloak exhibits no sinus for the retractor muscle of the tube. 

Lucina, Brug., has, like Cardium, Cyclas, &c., separate lateral teeth penetrating between corresponding lamine 
of the other valve; and in the centre are two teeth, which are often scarcely visible. The shell is orbicular, 
without an impress of the retractor muscle of the tube, but that of the anterior retractor muscle is very long. 
Having thus the same marks as Loripes, their animals ought to be analogous. [It is obvious that Loripes and 
Lucina are but one and the same genus.] The recent species, so far as is known, are munch less numerous than 
the fossil: the latter are very common in the vicinity of Paris. 

We ought to place near the Lucina the Ongulina, which has an orbicular shell, two hinge teeth, but no lateral 
anes, and the anterior muscular impression is not so long. = 


* [“ The irregular flexuosity of the anterior ventral margin appears | species possessing this character, and agreeing alsu in other general 
to have been constantly regarded as the principal distinguishing eha- | circumstances, it may perhaps be still considered as the essentiai 
racter of this beautiful genus; and when we consider the number of | character of the genus.”—Sowerly.] 


oo 
~T 
© 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 


Tue Venusip& (Venus, Linn.)— 
Comprise many shells, whose common character is to have the teeth and laminz of the hinge collected 
under the beaks in a single group. They are in general flatter and more elongated in a direction 
parallel with the hinge than the Cardia. Their ribs, when there are any, are almost always transverse, 
which is the contrary of the rule in the Cardia. The ligament often leaves, behind the beaks, an 
elliptical impression, to which the term vulva las been applied; and in front of the beaks there is 
almost always another oval impression that has been called the anus.* The animal has always two tubes, 
capable of being more or less protruded beyond the shell, but they are sometimes united together 


apparently in one; and it has also a compressed foot wherewith to crawl. 

M. de Lamarck restricts the name Venus to those which have three divergent teeth under the beaks. This cha- 
racter is peculiarly distinct in the species with an oblong, slightly convex shell. [These have been separated by 
Sowerby to form his genus Pudlastra, to which he unites the Venerupis, Lam., believing that the latter do never 
perforate rocks, but merely occupy the holes excavated by other animals.] Some (Astarte, Sow., or Crassina, 
Lam.) have only two diverging hinge teeth, and resemble the Crassatella in their thickness and some other 
characters. Among the heart-shaped species it is important to notice those whose transverse ribs or striz termi- 
nate in crests or tuberosities on the posterior side; and those which have longitudinal ribs and elevated crests. 
They lead by degrees to the Cytherea, Lam., which has a fourth tooth upon the rizht valve, projecting under the 
anus, and received in a corresponding fossa of the left valve. There are some species, as in Venus, of an elliptical 
and elongated form, and others that are ventricose, among which is the famous species (Venus Dione, Linn.), that 
originated the application of the name of the Goddess of Love to a shell, and remarkable for the long pointed 
spines that guard its posterior end. There are species too of an orbicular form with slightly curved beaks, in 
which the impression of the retractor muscle of the tubes forms a large, almost rectilinear triangle. 

When the animals are better known, it is probable we may have to separate from Cytherea,—1. The species of a 
much compressed, lenticular shape, with beaks approximating to a point. There being no impression of the fold of 
the cloak, we infer that the tubes are not extensile. 2. Those of a ventricose, orbicular form, which want the 
impression just mentioned, but have a very long imprint of the anterior muscle, as in Lucina. 3. The thick species 
with radiated ribs and without the impression of the cloak, which connect the Venuside with the Venericardia. 

There has been already separated from Venus the Capsa, Brug., which have on one side of the hinge two teeth, 
and on the other one only, but bifid; the shell has no anus, is considerably convex, oblong, and the impression 
left by the retractor muscle of the foot is considerable ; and the Petricola, Lam., with two or three very distinct 
teeth, one of them forked, on each side of the hinge. Their form is more or less cordate; but, as they live in 
cavities of stone, [which they themselves perforate,] they become sometimes irregular. From the marks left on 
the shell by the cloak, their tubes ought to be larger. 

The Corbule, Brug., similar in form to the triangular or heart-shaped Cytherez, have only a single strong tooth 
in each valve, locking side by side. The ligament isinternal. The tubes ought to be short; and the valves are 
rarely quite equal. The fossil species are much more numerous than those actually existing. Some live in the 
interior of stones. [The Sphenia, Turton, separated from Corbula, and which has C. rostrata as its type, has not 
been adopted by foreign Conchologists. Sowerby unites it to Mya.] 


Tue Macrraip® (Mactra, Linn.)\— 
Are distinguished among the shells of this family because the ligament is internal, and is lodged on 


both sides in a triangular fossa. They have all a compressed foot, fit to creep with. 

In Mactra, Lam., the ligament is attended in the left valve, on both sides, with a lateral tooth, which locks 
within two lamin of the opposite valve. Close to the ligament there is on both valves a tooth which is folded 
into the shape of the letter V, the point being nearest the umbo. The tubes are short and united. We have some 
species on our shores.f In the Lavignons [Listera, Turton] the lateral teeth are almost obliterated: nothing is 
noticeable but a smal] tooth near the internal ligament, and we may remark also a small exterior ligament: the 
posterior side of the shell is the shortest. The valves gape a little. The tubes are separate and very long, as in 
Tellina. One species (Mya hispanica, Chemn.) is native, living in the sand at the depth of several inches. 


THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA TESTACEA— 
THe INcLusa,— 


Hfas the cloak open at the anterior end, or near the middle only, for the passage of the foot. The 
opposite end is prolonged into a double tube, that can be pushed far beyond the shell. This is always 


* These terms are apt to mislead, and are otherwise objectionable. | species. The same author has also given a good definition of Amphi- 
The student should remember that the ligament is always bn the pos- | desma, which is not synonymous with the Ligula; but our limits 
terior side of the beaks. prevent us going into detail. Cumingia, Sowerby, should be placed 

+ Erucina, Lam., is allied to Mactra, but indifferently character- | near to Amphidesma. It is remarkable for the dissimilarity of the 
ized. One portion of them may be Crassatellea. dmphidesma, Lum., | hinge of the two valves, oue having a strong lateral tooth on each side 
or Ligula of Montagu, appear also to be atlined to Mactra; but they | of the ligament, and the other being entirely destitute of lateral teeth. 
are too little known to assign to them a definite place. [Hrycina has | The species are found in sand, in the fissures of rocks, and, so far as is 


been since well defined by Sowerby, who has characterized three | known, they are trepical.] 


380 MOLLUSCA. 


agape at both extremities. They live almost umformly ouried in sand or mud, in rocks or in 


wood. 
Tur Myapz (Mya, Linn.)— 


Are bivalved shells with a variable hinge. The double tube forms a fleshy cylinder; the foot is com- 
pressed. From variations in the hinge MM. Daudin, Lamarck, &c., have established the following 


subdivisions, the first three having an internal ligament. 

Lutraria, Lam.—the ligament, like that of the Mactra, is inserted in a large triangular fossa in each valve, and 
in front of that fossa is a small tooth en chevron, but there are no lateral teeth. The gape of the valves is wide, 
particularly at the posterior end, whence the large double tube for respiration and excremential matters protrudes. 
The foot, which issues at the opposite end, is small and compressed. The species burrow in sand at the mouth of 
rivers. 

Mya, Lam., has in one valve a broad, spoon-shaped tooth, which projects into the other valve, in which there 
is a fossa, and the ligament is stretched from the fossa to the tooth. The species on our shores burrow in sand. 
Near to the My we ought to place the Anatine, Lam., that have a small moveable testaceous appendage, connected 
with the ligament immediately before the hinder teeth. In the Solemya, Lam., the 
ligament appears externally, but aportion of it remains attached to a spoon-shaped 
tooth in each valve. There is no other toothin the hinge. A thick epidermis overlaps 
the margins of theshell. An example (Tellina togata, Poli) lives in the Mediterranean, 
[The animal is so remarkable that it may become the type of a distinct family, for, 
instead of four lamellar branchiz, it has two only, which are pectinate, or rather pen- 
nate.| Glycymeris, Lam. (Crytodairia, Daud.), has neither teeth, nor lamin, nor 
fosse, in the hinge, but a simple callosity, behind which there is an external ligament. 
The animal is similar to Mya. The best known species (Mya siliqua, Linn.), comes 
from the Arctic seas. Panopea, Mesnard, Lagr., have in front of the callosity of the 

Fig. 192.—Anatina suorostrata preceding, a strong tooth immediately under the beak, which crosses with a similar tooth 
of the opposite valve,—a character which affines them to Solen. There is a large species from the hills at the foot 
of the Apennines, so well preserved that it has been sometimes believed to have been brought from thesea. Per- 
haps we ought to remove from the genus another fossil species, which is almost completely closed at the anterior end. 

We may arrange at the end of these different modifications of the Myadex, the Pandora, Brug., which has one 
valve much flatter than the other, an internal ligament placed crosswise, accompanied with a projecting tooth of 
the flat valve. The posterior side of the shell is elongated. The animal is more completely contained within the 
shell than it isin the preceding genera, and the valves close better, but its habits are thesame. One native species 
(Tellina inequivalvis, Chemn.), is well known. 

Here, also, we group together some small but singular genera. The Byssomia, Cuv., characterized by an obiong 
toothless shell, with the opening for the foot very nearly in the centre of the valves, and opposite the beaks. They 
perforate rocks and corals. One species, furnished with a byssus (MJ/ytilus pholadis, Mull.), is very numerous in 
the seasofthenorth. Hiatella, Daud., has ashell that gapes in the middle where the foot protrudes, as in the pre- 
ceding, but the tooth of the hinge is more distinct. The shell is often armed backwards with [two] rows of spines. 
The species live in sand and amid zoophytes, &c. The northern seas possess a small species.* 


Tae Soxtenes (Solen, Linn.) — 
Have an oblong or elongated bivalved shell, but their hinge is always furnished with distinct teeth, and 


their ligament is always external. 

Solen, Cuv., or Razor-fish, has a shell in the form of an elongated cylinder, with two or three teeth in each valve 
towards the anterior extremity, where the foot passes out. This is of a conical shape, and is used by the animal 
to form its burrow in the sand, in which it sinks rapidly on the approach of danger. Several species inhabit our 
shores. The species in which the teeth approach near the centre of the shell may be distinguished generically. 
The shell in some of them is still long and straight; in others it is wider and shorter, and the foot of these is very 
large. Some such are found in the Mediterranean. Inthe Sanguinolaria, Lam., the hinge is very nearly the same 
as in the broad Solenes, and there are two hinge teeth at the middle of each valve; but the valves approximate 
much closer at their ends, where they only gape to a slight extent, as in some of the Mactre: S. vosea is the type. 
Psammobia, Lam., differs from Sanguinolaria in having a single tooth in one valve, which clasps in between two of 
the opposite ones. And the Psammothea, Lam., have only one tooth in each valve, but otherwise resemble 
Psammobia. [The Glauconome, Gray, is a geuus of the family Solenacee, “ inhabiting some of the great rivers of 
the continent of China.”” The shell is thin, oblong, with close margins, and three teeth in each valve. Solenelia, 
Sowerby, is an interesting genus, partaking of the characters of Nucula and Solen, so that it may be regarded as 
the link that connects the two families Sclenacee and Mactracee, “It belongs to the Solenacez, having the external 
ligament and the large sinus in the muscular impression of the mantle; but resembles Nucula in having the lateral 
teeth divided into a series of minute and pointed teeth, differing from it, however, in not having an internal 
ligament.’’ The species are South American.] 


Tue Puorapes (Pholas, Linn.),— 
Have two principal valves, wide and ventricose on the side of the mouth, narrowed and elongated on 
the opposite side, and leaving at each end a large oblique opening; the hinge has, like that of the Mya, 


* (Byssomia, Hiatella, Biopholius, and Pholeobius of Leach, are all reduced to the Saxicava of Lam., by Sowerby, and not unreasonably.j 


ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 381 


properly so called, a lamina projecting from one vatve into tne other, and an internal ligament proceeding 
from that lamina to a corresponding fossa. The cloak is reflected outward upon the hinge, and con- 
tains one or sometimes two or three supernumerary pieces. The foot issues by the opening at the side 
of the mouth, which is the widest, and from the opposite end there comes out the two tubes united in 
one, and capable of being extended in every direction. The Pholades inhabit cells which they have 
made, some in the mud, others in rocks, {and others in wood]. They are sought after [in some 
countries] from their agreeable taste. 


Pholas dactylus, Linn., occurs on our coasts. [The genus Xylophaga of Turton, which burrows in decayed wood, 


is reduced by Deshayes to Pholas. ] 
Tue Terepines (Teredo, Linn.)— 


Have the mantle extended in a tube much longer than the two small rhomboidal valves, and terminated 
by two short tubes, the base of which is furnished on each side with a calcareous and moveable kind 
of operculum or palette. These Acephales, while quite young, penetrate and establish their habitations 
in submerged pieces of wood, such as piles, ship’s bottoms, &c., perforating and destroying them in 
every direction. It is thought that, in order to penetrate as fast as it increases in size, the Teredo 
excayates the wood by means of its valves ; but the tubes remain near the opening by which its entrance 
was effected, and through which, by the aid of its palette, it receives water and aliment. The gallery it 
inhabits is lined with a calcareous crust which exudes from its body, and which forms a second kind 
of tubular shell for it. It is a noxious and destructive animai in the seaports of Europe. 

The common species (7. navalis, Linn.), which is said to have been introduced from the torrid zone, has more than 
once threatened Holland with ruin, by the destruction of its dikes. It is six inches in length and upwards, and 
has simple palattes. In tropical countries, there are large species with jointed and ciliated palettes, which deserve 
notice for the analogy they establish with the Cirrhopodes. Such is the Teredo palmulatus, Lam. 

Tue Fistutana, Brug.— 
Has been distinguished from Teredo, for its external tube is entirely closed at its larger end, and is more 
or less like a bottle or club. The species are sometimes found buried in wood or fruits that have been 
apparently submerged in the water; sometimes they are simply enveloped in the sand. The animal 
has two small valves and two palettes, as in the Teredo. Recent specimens are brought from the 
Indian Ocean, but our formations have preserved some fossil species. 

Near Fistulana we should place Gastrochena, Spengler*, whose shells have a toothless hinge, and the margins 
being wide apart in front, leave a large oblique opening, opposite to which there is in the cloak a small opening for 
the passage of the foot. The double tube, which can be concealed entirely within the shell, is capable of great 
elongation. It appears certain that they have a calcareous tube. In some species, the beaks are at the anterior 
angle; in others, near the middle. They live in the interior of madrepores, which they perforate. [‘‘ This bivalve 
is inclosed in the posterior clavate extremity of a shelly tube, which is attenuated and open anteriorly, its aperture 
being oblong and bilobate, or nearly divided into two by a sort of septum which does not quite meet in the centre: 
this double aperture serves for the passage of the two tubes of the animal: the posterior extremity of the shelly 
tube is closed. This irregular clavate tube, already inclosing the two valves of the Gastrochena, is generally found 
within some other shell, to the inside of which it is attached, or it is protected in the ready-formed cavities of shells 
or rocks, or it lines cavities perforated by the animal itself in rocks, shells, or corals, and in this latter case, the 
double termination of the shelly tube projects beyond the surface of the coral or other object in which it is 
inclosed.’’] 

Among fossils, two genera have been recognized furnished with tubes like the Teredo, but the first [Teredina, 
Lam.] has a little, spoon-shaped cavity in each valve, and a little loose piece, in form of a shield, at the hinge. 
The other (Clavagella, Lam.) has one of its valves agglutinated to tiie tube, and the other loose. A living species 
is found in the madrepores of the Sicilian seas, which has been described by M. Audouin. [The best description 
of this genus is given by Messrs. Broderip and Owen in the Trans. of the Zoological Society.] 

Some naturalists think we should also place in this family 
Tue ASPERGILLUM,— 
The shell of which is formed of an elon- 
gated, conical tube, closed at its widest ex- 
~ tremity by a disk perforated with numerous 
small tubular holes ; the little tubes of the 
outer range, being longest, form a kind of 
corolla round it. The reason for approxi- 
mating them to the Acephala with tubes is 
Fig 193 —Aspergillum. found in the fact that there is a double 


* According to Deshayes, Gastrocnena and Fistulana are the same,—Ep. 


MOLLUSCA. 


projection on one part of the cone, which really resembles the two valves of the Acephales. The re- 
semblance between its little tubes, and those which envelope the tentacula of certain Terebella, formerly 


caused this animal to be referred to the Annelides. 

The best known species (Asp. javanus) is seven or eight inches in length. [Rang conjectures that the animal 
of Aspergillum is essentially the same as that of Clavagella, and, as well as Blainville, he erroneously thinks that 
both are furnished with a byssus passing through all the anterior apertures of the tube, to attach it to foreign bodies. 
The Aspergillum probably burrows in sand, the disk underneath, and the tubular part uppermost.] 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE ACEPHALES. 


THE SHELL-LESS ACEPHALES, (or A. NubA). * 


This is a small order, and differs so far from the other Acephales that it might be made a 
distinct class, were such a division considered to be convenient. Their branchiz assume 
various forms, but are never divided into four leaflets: the shell is replaced by a cartilaginous 
tunic, sometimes so thin that it is as flexible as a membrane. We divide the order into two 


families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA NUDA,— 


THE SEGREGATA,— 


Embraces the genera whose individuals are isolated and without mutual organic connection, although 


they often live in societies. 


Tue Brenores, Brug. (Thalia, Brown ; Salpa and Dagysa, Gm.),— 

Have the cioak and its cartilaginous envelope oval or cylindrical, and open at the two extremities. On 
the side of the anus the aperture is transverse, wide, and furnished with a valve, which allows the water 
to enter, but prevents its egress; on the side of the mouth the aperture is simply tubular. Muscular 
bands embrace the cloak and contract the body. The animal moves by forcing out from the anterior 
aperture the water which has entered the body by the posterior, so that its motion is always retrograde, 
whence it has happened that some naturalists have mistaken the posterior aperture for the real mouth. 
It also generally swims with the back undermost. The branchia form a single tube or riband, furnished 
with regular vessels, placed obliquely in the middle of the tubular cavity of the cloak in such a manner 
as to be constantly bathed by the water as it traverses that cavity.f The heart, the viscera, and the 
liver, are piled near the mouth towards the back; but the position of the ovary is variable. The cloak 
and its envelope exhibit in the sun the colours of the rainbow, and are so transparent that the whole 
structure of the animal can be seen through them : in many they are furnished with perforated tubercles. 
The animal has been seen to come out from its envelope without apparently any injury. But a more 
curious fact in their history is that, during a certain period, they remain united together, as they were 
in the ovary, and float in the sea in long chains, the individuals being disposed, however, in a pattern 
different in different species. M. de Chamisso assures us that he has ascertained a still more singular 
fact, which is, that the individuals that have issued from a multiplicate ovary have not an ovary of the 
same kind, but produce only isolated individuals of a form considerably different from their originals ; 
and these again, give birth to others with ovaries similar to the parents of the first, so that there is, 
alternately, a scanty generation of separated individuals, and a numerous generation of aggregated indi- 
viduals, and these two alternating generations do not resemble each other. Certainly we have observed, 
in some species, small individuals adherent to the interior of larger ones by a peculiar sucker, which 
were different in shape tiom those which contained them. These animals are found in abundance in 
the Mediterranean and the warmer portions of the ocean, and are frequently phosphorescent. 

The Thalia, Brown, have a little crest or vertical fin near the posterior end of the back. 

Amongst the Salpe, properly so called, there are some which have, within the cloak, above the visceral mass, a 
gelatinous plate of a deep colour, which may be the rudiment of a shell. In others there is only a simple protu- 
berance of the cloak itself in this situation, but of a thicker texture. In others there is neither plate nor pro- 


€ The Acephalophora hetcrobranchiata of Blainville. The Tuniccta | + Some authors say that this tube is perforated at bothends, and that 


of Lamarck. the water traverses it, 2 fact I have in vain sought to determine. 


ae ee ee ee ee ee es te 
ACEPHALA NUDA. 383 


tuberance, but the cloak is prolonged into certain points. And of tnese some have a single point at each extremity, 
others have two, three, or even more at the oral extremity ; some have one only at that end ; and the greater number 
are simply oval or cylindrical. 

Tue Ascip1x (Aseidia, Linn.), Thetyon of the Ancients. 

The cloak and its cartilaginous envelope, which is frequently very thick, resemble sacs everywhere 
closed, except at two orifices, which correspond to the tubes of many Bivalves, one of which admits the 
water of respiration, and the other is the vent. Their branchiz form a large sac, at the bottom of 
which the mouth is situated, and near the mouth is the mass of viscera. The envelope is much wider 
than the cloak properly so called. This is fibrous and vascular; and we perceive on it one of the 
ganglions between the two tubes. These animals attach themselves to rocks and other bodies, and are 
deprived of all power of locomotion; the chief sign of vitality which they exhibit consists in the ab- 
sorption and evacuation of water through one of their orifices: when alarmed, they eject it to a con- 


siderable distance. They abound in every sea, and some of them are eaten. 

Some species are remarkable for the long pedicle which supports them. M. Savigny, from his own researches 
and mine, has attempted to subdivide the Ascidiz into several subgenera: such are Cynthia,—body sessile, envelope 
coriaceous, branchial sac plaited longitudinally. Phadlusia differs from the preceding in the branchial sac not being 
plaited ; their envelope is gelatinous. Clavellina,—the branchial sac without plaits, not reaching the bottom of the 
envelope, the body pedunculate, the envelope gelatinous. Boltenia,—the body pedunculate, and the envelope coria- 
ceous. He also takes into consideration the number and form of the tentacula which encircle the inside of the 
branchial orifice, but their characters, in part anatomical, cannot yet be applied with certainty to a great number 
of species. Mr. Macleay has more recently proposed two genera, the Cystingia and Dendrodoa, on distinctions of 


the same nature. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE ACEPHALA NUDA,— 


THE AGGREGATA,— 


Comprises animals more or less analogous to the Ascidia, but united in a common mass, so that they 
seem to communicate organically with each other, and in this respect to connect the Mollusca with the 
Zocphytes ; but what, independently of their peculiar organization, is opposed to this idea, is that, 
according to the observations of MM. Audouin and Milne Edwards, the individuals at their birth live 
and swim about separately, and only become united at a certain subsequent period of their life. Their 
branchie form, as in the Ascidia, a large sac, which the food must traverse before it can reach the 
mouth : their principal ganglion is likewise between the mouth and the anus, and the disposition of the 
viscera and of the ovary is very nearly similar.* 
Nevertheless some have, like the Biphor, an opening at each end. Such are 
THE Borrytuus, Gertn.,— 

That has an oval form, adherent to various foreign bodies, and united by tens or twelves, like the rays 
of astar. The branchial orifices are at the outer end of the rays, and the vents open in a common 
cavity, which is in the centre of a star. When an orifice is irritated one animal contracts only, but if 
the irritation is applied to the centre, they all contract. These minute creatures attach themselves to 
Ascidiz, sea-weeds, &c. In some species three or four starred clusters appear to be piled upon one 


another. 
Tue Pyrosoma#, Peron.— 


Are united in great numbers, so as to form a large hollow cylinder, open at one end, and closed at 
the other, which swims in the ocean by the alternate contraction and dilatation of the individual animals 
which compose it. These terminate in points on the exterior, so that the whole surface of the cylinder 
is bristled with them: the branchial orifices are pierced near these points, and the vents open into the 
cavity of the tube. We might thus compare a Pyrosoma to a great number of the stars of a Botryllus 


that had been strung in a line together, but the whole mass remaining moveable. 

The Mediterranean and Atlantic produce some large species, the animals of which are arranged with but little 
regularity. They sparkle during the night with all the brilliancy of phosphorus. A small species is also known 
(P. atlanticwm), in which the animals are arranged in very regular rings. 

The remaining species of this family have, like the typical Ascidia, the vent and the branchial aperture near 
each other, on the same extremity of the body. All that are known are fixed, and they have been hitherto con- 
founded with the Aleyonia. The mass of the viscera of each individual is more or less prolonged in the cartila- 


* To M. Savigny we are indebted for our knowledge of the singular ; known the peculiar structure of the Botryllus and of the Pyrosoma. 
organization of this family, which was formerly confounded with the | See the adinirable work of Savigny on Invertebrated Animals, part ii. 


Zoophytes. At the same time, MM. Desmarest and Lesueur made 


384 MOLLUSCA. 


always represents on the surface a little star with six rays. We unite them all under the name of Polyclinum. 
Some cover foreign bodies like fleshy crusts; others rise in conical or globose masses. Others again expand into 
a disk, so as to have a distant resemblance to a flower or an Actinia; or they are lengthened out into cylindrical 
branches, supported by more slender pedicles; or they are grouped into cylinders (Synoicum, Lam.). It even 
appears from some recent observations that the Escharide, hitherto arranged with polypiferous Zoophytes, belong 
to the Molluscans of this family. 


THE FIFTH CLASS OF MOLLUSCA. 


ginous or gelatinous common mass, and more or less constricted and dilated at particular parts*; but each orifice 
THE BRACHIOPODES.f 


Like the Acephales, the Brachiopodes have a cloak with two lobes, and this cloak is 
always open. In place of a foot, they have two fleshy arms, garnished with numerous fila- 
ments, which they can push beyond the shell and withdraw within it: the mouth is between 
the insertions of the arms. We are not well acquainted with their organs of generation, nor 
with the nervous system.{ They are all covered with a fixed bivalve shell, and are conse- 
quently destitute of lecomotion. We only know three genera of them. 


Tut Lineuts, Bruyi— 
Have two equal, flattish, oblong valves, with the beaks at the end of one of the narrowest sides, gaping 
at the opposite end, and attached between the two beaks to a fleshy pedicle, by which they are sus- 
pended to rocks. Their arms are rolled up spirally, to lie within the shell. It appears that their 
branchiz consist of little leaflets, arranged all round each lobe of the cloak, on its internal surface. 


Only ene species (Lingula anatina, Cuv.) is known, from the Indian Ocean. [Mr. Broderip has described two 


other species. | 
THE TEREBRATULA, Brug.— 


Have two unequal valves united by ahinge: the summit of one, more protuberant than the other, is per- 
forated to permit the passage of a fleshy pedicle which attaches the shell to rocks, madrepores, other shells, 
&ec. Internally, a small bony framework is observed, that is sometimes sufficiently complex, composed 
of two branches, which articulate with the imperforate valve, and which support the two arms, edged 
all round with long, closely-set fringes, between which there. is, on the side next to the large valve, a 
third simply membranous and much longer appendage, usually spirally convoluted, and fringed like the 
arms. The mouth is a small vertical fissure between these three large appendages. The principal part 
of the body, situated near the hinge, contains the numerous muscles, which reach from one valve to the 
other, and between them are the viscera, which occupy but little space. The ovaria appear to be two 
ramose productions, adherent to the parietes of each valve. I have not yet been able to satisfy 
myself in regard to the position of the branchia. Numberless Terebratule are found, in a fossil or 
petrified state, in certain secondary strata of ancient formations. The living species are less numerous. 

There are some species broader transversely, or longer in the direction perpendicular to the hinge, with a 
margin entire, or emarginate, or three-lobed, or with several lobes; there are even some that are triangular: 
their surface may be smooth, or furrowed, or veined: they are thick, or thin, or even transparent. In several, 
instead of a hole in the apex of their valve, there isan emargination, and this is sometimes partly formed by two 
accessory pieces, &c. It is probable that the animals, when better known, will present generic differences. AlI- 
ready there have been recognized in the 

Spirifer, Sow., two large cones, formed of a spiral thread, which appear to have been the supports of the animal. 
In the Thecidea, Def., the support seems to have been incorporated with the small valve. 


Tue OrpicuLa, Cuy.— 
Have two unequal valves, one of which, being round and conical, resembles the shell of a Patella: the 
other is flat, and adherent to rocks. The arms of the animal (Crispus, Poli) are ciliated and spirally 
curved, like those of the Lingula. 


* On these peculiarities Savigny has founded his genera Polyclinum, t [Mr. Owen has an admirable memoir on their anatomy in the Ist 
Aplidium, Didemnum, Eucalium, Diazona, Sigillina, &c., which vn) of the Trans. of the Zoological Society.) 

§ Observations more precise than any we yet have made appear 
necessary before we can arrange the Mugas of Sowerby, the Strigoce- 
phates of Defrance, and some other groups, near this one. 


it appears to us unnecessary to preserve. 
+ Palliobranchiata of M. de Blainville. [Rang makes them the Ist 
order of the Testaceous Acephales. } 


(sy) 
GO 
On 


CIRRHOPODLS. 


ur seas produce a small species (Patella anomala, Mull.). 

The Discin, Lam., are Orbicule whose inferior valve is notched with a fissure.* We must also approximate to 
the Orbicule, 

The Crania, Brug., whose animal has equally ciliated arms, but the shells have deep and round internal mus- 
cular impressions, in which some have fancied they saw a likeness to the figure of a skull. One (Anumia cranio- 
Jaris, Linn.) is a native of our seas. There are many fossil species, of which M. Hoeninghaus has given a beautiful 
monograph. 

[The Producta of Sowerby is a fossil genus, with a shell somewhat like a Cardium in figure, and rendered re- 
markable by the manner in which the anterior margin is produced beyond the part inhabited by the animal. The 
species are, to a certain extent, characteristic of the strata of secondary formation, and particularly of the carbon- 
iferous or mountain limestone. ] 


THE SIXTH CLASS OF THE MOLLUSCA. 


THE CIRRHOPODES} (Lepas and Triton, Linn.) 


In several points of view the Cirrhopodes effect a sort of connection between this sub- 
kingdom and that of Articulated Animals. Enveloped in a cloak, and im a shell whose valves 
often resemble those of several of the Acephales, their mouth is furmshed with lateral jaws, 
and the abdomen with filaments named cirri, arranged in pairs, composed of a number of little 
ciliated articulations, and representing a kind of feet or swimmers, such as we see under the 
tail of many Crustacea. The heart is situated in the dorsal region, and the branchie on the 
sides: the nervous system forms a series of ganglions in the abdomen. However, it may be 
said that the cirrhous feet are merely the analogues of the articulated appendages of certain 
Teredines, while the ganglions are in some respects only repetitions of the posterior ganglion 
of the Bivalves. The position of these animals in the shell is such that the mouth is at the 
bottom, and the cirri near the orifice. Between the two last cirri there is a long fleshy tube, 
which has been sometimes inadvertently mistaken for a proboscis; and at its base, near the 
back, is the vent. The stomach is puckered with a number of little cavities in its parietes, 
which appear to fulfil the functions of a liver: 
we notice besides a simple intestine, a double 
ovary, and a double serpentine canal termi- 
nating in the extremity of the fleshy tube pre- 
viously mentioned. ‘The eggs pass through this tube, 
and in their course are exposed to the influence of 
the seminal fluid. The Cirrhopodes are all fixed. 
Linneus considered them all as belonging to one 
genus, which Bruguiéres divided into two, and 
these have recently been much subdivided. 


Toe Anatira, Brug.— 
Hlas a compressed cloak, open on one side, and sus- 
pended to a fleshy tube, varying greatly as to the 
number of testaceous pieces with which it is furnished. 
The animal has twelve pairs of cirri, six on each side ; 
those nearest the mouth are the shortest and thickest. 
The branchiz are elongated pyramidical appendages, 
that adhere to the external base of the whole of the 


cirri, or of part of them. 

In the commonest species (Pentalasmis, Leach) the two 
principal valves have a considerable resemblance to those of 
a Mussel; two others serve to complete a part of the margin 
of the shell opposite the beak ; and a fifth odd one unites the 


Fig. 194.—Group of Anatifa, attached to a ship's bottom, 


~ (7 We have shown that Lamarck’s new geuus Discina ought to be | Orbicula norvegica, which we sent to him.”—Sowerby.| 


entirely expunged, as being actually formed from some specimens of 4 The Cirripedes of Lamarck: the Nematopodes of Blainville. 


cc 


386 MOLLUSCA. 


posterior margin to that of the opposite valve: these five pieces cover the whole of the cloak. From the place 
where the ligament should be springs the fleshy peduncle. A strong adductor muscle unites the two valves near 
their beaks. The mouth of the animal lies concealed behind them, and the posterior 
end of the body, with all its little articulated feet, comes out a little further down, 
between the first four valves. The widest spread species in our seas (Lepas anatifera, 
Linn.) has got its name from having given rise to a fable of its being the original or 
parent of the Barnacle-goose. They grow attached to rocks, piers, to the bottom of 
ships, &c. We may distinguish the Pollicipes, Leach, which, besides the five prin- 
cipal valves, has several small ones near the pedicle. In some species these valves [ 
almost equal the primary in size. There is often an odd one opposite the normal 
oddone. [Scalpellum, Leach, consists of thirteen valves, six on each side and one 
dorsal; and its peduncle is squamose.] Cineras, Leach.—The cartilaginous cloak 
incloses five valves, but of small size, so as not to occupy the whole surface. Otion, 
Leach.--The cloak contains only two very small valves, with three little pieces which 
scarcely merit that name; and there are two tubular appendages in the shape of ears. 
Tetralismis, Cuv., has only four paired valves encircling the aperture, two being 
longer than the others. The animal is partly contained in the pedicle, which is wide 
and hirsute. They are, in some degree, Balani without a tube. ([Zithotrya, Sow., 
is pedunculated like Anatifa, but has, at the base of the peduncle, a shelly appendage 
analogous to the testaceous base of Balanus, and possesses besides a peculiarity not 
to be found in any other genus of this class, that of penetrating stones for its habi- 
tation. ] Fig. 195.—Cineras Cranchii, 


Tue Bavanus, Brug., or ACORN-SHELLS. 

The principal part of the shell consists of a testacous tube attached to various bodies, the aperture 
of which is more or less closed by two or four valves. This tube is formed of various pieces or com- 
partments, which appear to unloose or separate in proportion as the growth of the animal requires 
additional room. The branchiz, the mouth, the articulated tentacula, and the anal tube, differ little 


from the same parts in the Anatifa. 

In Balanus, properly so called, the tubular portion of the shell is a truncated cone, formed of six outer valves, 
separated by as many inner ones, three of which are narrower than the others. Their base is usually formed of a 
calcareous lamina, fixed to various bodies. The four valves of the operculum close the aperture exactly. The 
rocks, shells, and piers of all our coasts are, in a manner, covered with a species, the 
Lepas balanus, Linn. 

There have been separated from these the Acasta, Leach, whose base is irregular, con- 
vex outwardly, and not fixed: the greater number live within sponges. [Sowerby reunites 
Acasta to Balanus.] Conia, Blainv., whose shell has only four exterior valves. [On the 
contrary, in the Octomeris, Sow., the pieces or valves amount to eight.] Asema, Ranz., 
whose shell has no well-marked exterior valves. Purgoma, Say-, whose shell forms a very 
depressed cone, with Only a very small aperture, almost as in a shell of the Fissurella. 
Ochthosia, Ranz.,which have only three outer valves, and a bivalved operculum. Creusia, 
Leach, with four outer valves, and a bivalved operculum, M. de la Lamarck sepa- 
rates, under the name of Coronula, the depressed species in which the 
valves are loosely cellular ; and under that of Tubicinella, the species which 
form an elongated cone, but narrowest at the base, and girded with ring's that 
mark the successive epochs of its growth. There are species of both genera 
which plant themselves on the skin of Whales, and penetrate into their lard. 

Diadema, Ranz.—The shell is almost spherical, and has only two small 
valves, almost concealed in the membrane that closes their operculum. The 
opercula do not shut the aperture entirely without the aid of the mem- 
brane that unites them. They also live upon Whales; and we often find Otions attached to their surface. 


Fig. 196.—B, spinosus. 


Fig. 197.—Conia radiata. 


a ee ee 


THIRD GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


THE ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


Tuts third general type of organization is quite as strongly characterized as that 
of the Verteb;ata. The skeleton is not internal, as in the latter: but is seldom 
altogether absent, as in the Mollusks. The articulated rings which encircle the bedy, 
and frequently the limbs, supply the place of skeleton—and being, in almost every 
instance, tolerably hard, furnish the necessary resisting fulcra to the muscles of loco- 
motion ; whence, as among the Vertebrates, we find that the several actions of stepping, 
running, leaping, swimming, and flying, are performed by them. There are also some 
families among them that are either footless, or have merely soft and membranous 
articulated limbs, by which they can at most crawl. This external position of their 
hard parts, with the muscles inward, reduces each articulation to the condition of a 
case, and only permits of two kinds of movements. When attached to the next arti- 
culation by a closed joint, as in the instance of the limbs, the only motion is by 
ginglymus, that is, in a single direction, so that numerous articulations are required to 
impart variety of action: and from this results a very great loss of power in the 
muscles, and consequently a general feebleness in the creature in proportion to its 
magnitude. The articulated pieces which compose the body frame-work, however, 
are not always thus connected; being oftener united by flexible membranes only, 
which slide considerably one over another, and so allow of more varied movements, 
but not of the same force. 

The system of organs in which all Articulated Animals bear the nearest resemblance 
to each other, is that of the nerves. 

Their brain, placed over the cesophagus, and supplying nerves to the parts ad- 
jacent to the head, is very small. Two chords, which encircle the cesophagus, are 
continued along the abdomen, and are connected at intervals by double knots or 
ganglia, from which the nerves of the body and of the limbs are sent forth. Each of 
these ganglia seems to perform the functions of a brain to the adjoining parts, and 
continues for a certain time to confer sensibility on them, after the animal has been 
divided. If to this be added, that the jaws of these animals, whenever they have 
any, are invariably lateral, and open and shut outward and inward, and not upwards 
and downwards, and that in none of them has a distinct organ of smell yet been dis- 
covered, nearly all has been expressed which it seems can be stated of them generally: 
for the existence of organs of hearing; the presence, number, and form of those of 
sight; the productiveness and mode of generation*; their kind of respiration; the ex- 

*A remarkable discovery connected with this subject is that of | See his Dissertation on the Eggs of Spiders, Marbourg, 1824; and 


M. Herold, who found that in the egg of Crustaceans and Arach- | that of M. Rathke on the Eggs of Crahs, Leipsic, 1829. 
nides, the yolk communicates with the back through the interior.— 


eo? 


388 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


istence of organs of circulation, and even the colour of the blood, offer very great vari- 
eties,which must be studied under the various subdivisions. 


DISTRIBUTION OF ARTICULATED ANIMALS INTO FOUR CLASSES. 


The members of this great division, which have mutual relations as varied as they 
are numerous, still present themselves under four principal forms, whether we regard 
them externally or internally. 

The AnnewipvEs, Lamarck, or Red-blooded Worms, constitute the first. In these, 
the blood is generally of a red colour, like that of the Vertebrates, and circulates in a 
double and close system of arteries and veins, which have sometimes one or several 
hearts or fleshy ventricles, tolerably well marked: they respire by organs, which are 
either developed externally, or are spread over the surface of the skin, or concealed 
internally. The body, which is more or less elongated, is always divided into nu- 
merous rings, of which the first, which is termed the head, scarcely differs from the 
rest, except by the presence of the mouth and of the principal organs of sense. Several 
have their branchie uniformly spread over the surface of the body throughout its 
whole length, or only about the middle ; others, and such as inhabit tubes, generally 
have them only at the anterior portion. None have any articulated limbs; but the 
greater number are furnished with silky feet, or bundles of stiff and mobile filaments, 
instead of them. They are generally hermaphrodite, and some require a reciprocal 
fecundation. The organs of the mouth consist either of jaws more or less powerful, 
or of a simple tube : their external sensitive organs are fleshy tentacles, which in some 
are articulated ; and upon which are certain blackish points, that have been considered 
as eyes, but which are not present in all the species. 

The Crustaceans constitute the second form, or class, of Articulated Animals. These 
have articulated limbs, more or less complicated, attached to the sides of the body. 
Their blood is white, and circulates by means of a fleshy ventricle placed towards the 
back, which receives it from the gills, situate at the sides of the body, or at its hinder 
portion, and to which it returns by a ventral canal that is sometimes double. In the 
species last alluded to, the heart or dorsal ventricle is lengthened into a canal. ‘These 
animals are all furnished with antenne or articulated filaments, attached to the fore- 
part of the head, and which are generally four in number ; besides which, they have 
several transverse jaws, and two compound eyes. It is among these only [through- 
out the Articulata] that we find a distinct auditory apparatus. 

The third class of Articulated Animals is that of the AkacunrpEs, which, in common 
with a great number of Crustaceans, have the head and thorax joined into a single 
piece, with articulated limbs on each side, but the principal viscera of which are con- 
tained in the abdomen, which is attached to the hinder portion of the thorax. Their 
mouth is armed with jaws, and they have a variable number of simple eyes in the head ; 
but never any antenne. Their circulation is performed by a dorsal vessel, which 
gives out arterial ramifications, and receives venous ones ; but the manner of respira- 
tion varies, some having true pulmonary organs with orifices leading to them at the 
sides of the abdomen, and others receiving air by means of trachee, in the same 
manner as Insects. All, however, have lateral apertures for this purpose, or true 
stigmata. 

Insects constitute the fourth class of Articulated Animals, and the most numerous 


en nn nn nnn Tae 


ANNELIDES. 389 


im species of any throughout the Animal Kingdom. With the exception of some 
genera (the Myriapoda), which have the body divided into a great number of subequal 
articulations, they all consist of three parts: the head, upon which are the antenne, 
the eyes, and the mouth; the thorax or corselet, which bears the feet, and the wings 
whenever these exist ; and the abdomen, which is suspended to the thorax, and con- 
tains the principal viscera. Insects that have wings do not possess these [externally ] 
before a certain age, and often pass through two forms or stages, more or less different, 
before they assume the winged state. ‘They respire in all these states by means of 
trachez, which are elastic vessels that receive the air by orifices termed stigmata, 
pierced in their sides, and which are distributed by minute ramifications over every 
part of the body. The only vestige of a heart consists of a vessel which runs along the 
back, and alternately contracts along its course, but to which no branches have been 
discovered : hence it is believed that the nutrition of the several parts is effected by 
imbibition ; and it is probably this mode of deriving the nutriment which necessitates 
the kind of respiration proper to these animals, the nourishing fluid not being con- 
tained in vessels*, wherefore, as there was no means of directing it towards cir- 
cumscribed pulmonary tubes to be aérated, the latter are consequently diffused over 
the whole body, instead. Thus’ it is, also, that Insects have no secretory glands, 
but merely long spongy vessels, which appear, over their whole surface, to absorb the 
several juices that should produce them, from out of the mass of nutritive fluid. 
Insects vary endlessly in the form of their manducatory and digestive organs, as also 
in the industry of their habits, and mode of life. Their sexes are always separate. 
The Crustaceans and Arachnides were long confounded with them under a common 
name ; and in many respects bear a considerable resemblance to them, in external form, 
the disposition of their organs of movement, their sensations, and even manducation. 


THE FIRST CLASS OF ARTICULATED ANIMALS,— 


THE ANNELIDES,— 


Are the only Invertebrate Animals that have red blood: this circulates in a double 
system of complex vessels. Their nervous system consists of a double nervous chord, 
the same as in Insects. Their body is soft, more or less lengthened, and often divided 
into a very considerable number of segments, or at least of transverse folds. 

Almost all of them (the Earth-worms excepted) live in water. Many bury them- 
selves in holes at the bottom, or construct for themselves tubes of mud and other 
matters, or even transude a calcareous substance, which forms a sort of tubular shell. 


DIVISION OF THE ANNELIDES INTO THREE ORDERS. 


This class, not a very numerous one, offers in its respiratory organs the basis of 


three sufficient divisions. 
Some have their branchiz in form of tufts or arbuscules, attached to the head, or 


* M. Carus has observed various movements in the fluid which fills &c.,in German. Leipsic, 1827, 4to. 
the body of the larve of certain Insects ; but these movements do not + See, upon this subject, my Memoir on the Nutrition of Insects, 
take place ina system of closed vessels, as in the higher animals.— | printed in 1799, amony those of the Natural History Society of Paris 


See his Treatise, intitled Discovery of a simple Circulation of Blood, | Baudouin, An viy, 4to, p. 32. 


So 
Ee ee Bee Se ee ee 


390 ANNELIDES. 


to the anterior portion of the body. Nearly all of them imhabit tubes, and we term 
them Tubicole. 

Others have upon the middle portion of their body, or ail along their sides, branchiz 
in form of arbuscules, crests, lamine, or tubercles, in which vessels ramify. The 
greater number live in mud, or swim freely in the water; only a very few inhabiting 
tubes. These we denominate Dorsibranchiata. 

Finally, others have no apparent branchie, and respire either over the surface of the 
skin, or, as is believed in some cases, by their internal cavities. ‘The greater number 
live freely in water, or in mud; some, however, in humid earth: and we designate 
these Abranchiata. 

The genera of the two first orders have all silky bristles, of a metallic colour, upon 
the sides, either simple or in bundles, and which supply the place of feet ; but in the 
third order, there are some genera devoid of all such support.* 

The particular study which M. Savigny has made of these feet or locomotive organs, 
has led him to distinguish, firstly, the foot or tubercle which bears the bristles, of 
which there is either one only upon each ring, or two, one above the other, which he 
respectively terms a simple or double oar; secondly, the bristles which compose a 
bundle upon each oar, varying much in consistence, and which either constitute true 
spines, or fine and flexible filaments, that are often dentelated, barbed, or irregularly 
so, &c.; and thirdly, the cirrhi, or fleshy filaments, adhering either to the inside or 
outside of the feet. 

With respect to their organs of sense, the two first orders of Annelides have gene- 
rally tentacles to the head, or filaments, which, notwithstanding their fleshy consis- 
tence, some moderns have designated antennz ; and several genera of the second and 
third orders have black and shining points, which have been regarded as eyes. The 
organization of the mouth varies exceedingly. 

(The Annelides constitute one of the many small, but singular and highly interesting, 
tribes of animals, which, from being upon the confines of the peculiar class or sub- 
kingdom to which they in effect belong, exhibit, in a remarkable degree, the modifi- 
cations of other higher groups: thus, by an ordinary observer, these creatures would 
be at once classed as Worms; and the common Earth-worm, one of them, would be 
regarded as the type of the grand class of Linnzan Vermes, the great majority of which, 
however, do not even belong to this great subkingdom, but to that of the Zoophytes, 
from which these articulated animals are at once distinguished by the possession of red 
blood circulating in a well-defined system, and a far more perfect developement of the 
nervous system; still, in their vermiform appearance, and in the elongated filaments 
with which many of them are furnished, they resemble certain Zoophytes,—on the 
other hand, they approximate to the most imperfect Fishes, such as the Lampreys and 
others, in which the spine has disappeared. Their annulose character, and nervous 
system, however, bring them nearer to the true Annulosa, especially the Myriapoda ; 
this will at once be evident by comparing the figures of Geophilus longicornis, given in 
p- 486, with that of Syllis monilaris here figured. Mr. Mac Leay accordingly con- 


* M. Savigny has proposed a division of the Annelides according to | he mingles with the dpudes many intestinal Worms, which M. 
their possessing locomotive silky bristles, or not so; reducing the Savigny does not admit. 
latter to the Leeches. M, de Blainville, who has adopted this idea, + Mr. Mac Leay considers that they form the immediate connexion 
ranges the bristled Annelides asa class, termed Entomozoaires Che- | between such Vertebrata as Amphioxus and Mynine, and such Annu- 
topodes, aud the others as one designated Entomozoaires Apodes; but | losa as Porocephalus, and other white-blooded Vermes, which have 
the sexes distinct. (dnn. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1840.) 


a ee ee el 


TUBICOLZ. 391 


siders them as the intermediate link between the Vertebrata and Annulosa, ob- 
serving upon the curious circum- 
stance that these two subkingdoms, 
so highly organized in the scale of 
the creation, should be linked to- 
gether by a group exhibiting such 
great imperfections of structure. 


Fig. 198.—Syllis monilaris, with one of its locomotive organs and setigerous 


appendage attached thereto. This class has been greatly neg- 
lected in this country. Dr. Johnston has, however, described various species (especially 
in the Annals of Natural History, for February, 1840), and Mr. Mac Leay, in the same 
number,* has noticed several fossil species. It is, however, in France that the greatest 
attention has been paid to them, especially by Savigny, Audouin, and Milne Edwards. ] 


THE FIRST ORDER OF ANNELIDES. 


THE TUBICOLE. 


Some species of this division form a homogeneous, calcareous tube, which probably results 
from their transudation, like the shells of the Mollusks, but to which the muscles do not adhere ; 
others construct tubes, by agglutinating grains of sand, fragments of shells, and particles of 
mud, which they join by means of a membrane, which likewise is doubtless transuded ; lastly, 
there are some, the tubes of which are entirely membranous, or horny. 


To the first group belong 
SEeRPuULA, Linn.,— 


The calcareous tubes of which invest, from their twisting about, fragments of stones, shells, and all sorts of 
submarine matters. The truncation of these tubes is either round or angular, according to the species. 

The animal within has its body composed of a great number of segments; its fore-part widened 
into a disk, furnished on each side with many bundles of stiff bristles; and on either side of its 
mouth is a tuft of fan-like gills, in general vividly coloured. At the base of each tuft is a 
fleshy filament; and one of these, on the right or left side indifferently, is always prolonged and di- 
lated at its extremity into a variously-formed disk, which serves for an operculum and mouth at the 
entrance of the tube when the creature retires into it. 

The common species (S. contortuplicata, Ellis), has a round and twisted tube three 
lines in diameter. Its operculum is funnel-shaped, and its gills often ofa fine red, or 
varied with yellow, violet, &c. This animal quickly fabricates its tube of mud, aggluti- 
nating into it whatever small objects lie around. 

There is another and smaller species on our coasts, with a club-shaped operculum, 
armed with two or three little points (S. vermicularis, Gmelin). Its gills are sometimes 
blue. Nothing is more beautiful to see than a group of these Serpule when their wings 
are expanded. 

In other species, the operculum is flat, and bristled with more numerous points. 
These are the Galeolaria, Lamarck. 

There is one in the Antilles (S. gigantea, Pallas), which is found among the Madre- 
Fig, 199.—S. contortuplicata, pores, and the tube of which is often inclosed in their mass. Its gills roll up spirally 

SARS AURORE: when they are withdrawn, and the operculum is armed with two little branching horns 


* Mr. Mac Leey has given the following quinarian distribution of the class in the memoir noticed above. 
ANNELIDA. 
Normat Gaovur. 


Bolypadas fi Nercidina.... Animals free, having a distinct head, provided with eyes, or antennae, or both, 


MA ee ayy a pods, L Serpulina.... Animals sedentary, and having no head, provided with eyes or antenne. 
provide z 
ABERRANT GRouUP. Lumbricina.. Animals without eyes or antenni ; body externally setigerous for locomotion ; articula- 

tion distinct. 

bE 3 k ae Nemertina .. Animals aquatic, without eyes or anteune ; body not externally setigerous; articulation 

Body without feet, or a distinct eaasatiue 

indistinct. 

eet Hirudina.... Animals provided generally with eyes, but not with antenna ; body not externally seti- 
gerous ; articulation distinct. 


392 ANNELIDES. 


like the antlers of a stag. This is the Terebella bicornes, Abeldy., and the Actinia or Animal-flower of Home. 
M. Savigny has made of it his subdivision of Serpules cymospires, which M. Blainville elevates to the rank of 
a genus. 

M. Lamarck distinguishes the Spirorbis, the branchial filaments of which are much less numerous (three or 
four only on each side); their tube is of a tolerably regular spiral form, and they are mostly very small: such is 
S. spirellum, Pallas, and S. spirorbis, Muller. 

SABELLA, Cuv. (Amphitrite, Lam.) 
The same body and fan-like gills as in Serpula, but with the fleshy filaments adhering to the bran- 
chi, pointed, and neither of them forming an operculum; they are also not always present. Their 
tube appears oftener composed of granules of clay or very fine mud, and is rarely calcareous. The 


known species are rather large, and their branchial tufts are of an admirable delicacy and beauty. 

Some, like the Serpule, have on the anterior portion of the back a membranous disk, across which pass the first 
pairs of their bundles of bristles ; their branchial pectinations are turned spirally, and their tentacles reduced to slight 
folds. They are the Serpules spiramelles of M. Savigny, and the Spiramilla, Blainville. A large and beautiful 
species inhabits the Mediterranean, witha calcareous tube like that of the Serpule, or orange-coloured gills, &c., 
the S. protula, Nobis, or Pastula Rudolphii, Risso. 

Others have no membranous disk on the foreparts, and their branchial pectinations form two equal spires, the 
Sabelles simples of M. Savigny. Such are ‘Amphritite reniformis, Muller, or Tubularia penicillus, 1d.; also Tere- 
bella reniformis, Gmelin, together with the Amphritite infundibulum, Montagu, and A. vesiculosa, Id. 

There are some with a double range of filaments on each pectination—the Sabelle Astarte, Say., such as S. 
grandis, Cuv., or S. indica, Say., and the Tubularia magnifica, Shaw. 

Others in which one pectination only is twirled, the others being smaller, and enveloped within the base of the 
first. The Sabelles spirographes, Sav., as S. unispira, Cuv., and Spirographis Spallanzani, Mart. 

In some the gills do not form a simple funnel round the mouth, but numerous filaments, which are serrated and 
strongly ciliated on the internal face; the silky feet of these are almost imperceptible—such is S. villosa, Cuv. 

Lastly, some have been described with six filaments disposed like a star—the Fabricia of Blainville. 


TEREBELLA, Cuv.,— 
Like the greater number of species of Sabella, inhabit a factitious tube, but which is composed of 
grains of sand, and fragments of shells; their body has 
much fewer rings, and the head is differently ornamented. 
Numerous filiform tentacles, capable of much extension, 
surround the mouth, and upon the neck are gills of an ar- 
buscular, and not a fan-like form. 

There are several On our coasts which were long confounded 
under the name of Terebella conchilega, Gm., and which are 
mosty remarkable for having their tubes formed of large frag- 
ments of shells, the aperture having its borders prolonged into several 
small branches formed of the same fragments, which serves to lodge 


the tentacles. 
The greater number have three pairs of branchiez, which in those with 


branched tubes pass through a hole for the purpose; they are the 
Terebelles simples, Sav. 


Fig. 200.—Terebella medusa, in its tube. 


AMPHITRITE, Cuv.— 

Are easily recognized by their golden-coloured spines, disposed 
in a comb-like series, or in a crown, in one or several ranges 
upon the forepart of the head, and which probably serve them 
for defence, or perhaps to crawl with, or to gather up the mate- 
rials for the tube. Around the mouth are very numerous ten- 
tacles, and on either side of the commencement of the back are 
pectinated gills. 

Some of them compose slight tubes, of a regular conical form, which they carry about with them. Their gilded 
spines form two comb-like series, the teeth of which are directed downwards ; and the intestine is very ample, 
and several times folded, being ordinarily full of sand; they are Pectinaires of Lamarck, the Amphyctines, Sav., 
the Chrysodons, Oken, and the Cistena, Leach. Such, upon our coasts, is the A. belyica, Gmelin, with a tube 
two inches long, formed of small round granules of various colours. A much larger species occurs in the Southern 
seas, 4. auricoma capensis, Pallas, the slender and polished tube of which appears as though transversely fibrous, 


and formed of a soft fucus-stem-like substance, dried up. 

There are some species which inhabit factitious tubes fixed to various substances. Their gilded spines form 
several concentric crowns upon the head, whence results an operculum that closes the tube when they contract 
into it, but which has two parts that can be spread asunder. They have a cirrhus on each foot. Their body 


Fig. 201.—Terebella variabilis. 


DORSIBRANCHIATA. 393 


terminates behind into a tube recurved over the head, doubtless for the purpose of emitting their excrements. 1 
have found in them a muscular gizzard. 

Such upon our coasts is the Sabella alveolata, Gmelin, or Tubiporaarenosa, Linn., the tubes of which, united 
into a compact mass, present orifices rather regularly disposed, like the cells of a honey-comb. The Amphitrite 
plumosa, Faby., should perhaps range here, of which M. Blainville has formed his genus Pherusa. Amph. ostrearia, 
Cuv., establishes its tubes upon Oyster-shells, and is reputed to check the propagation of their inmates. 


To this order I suppose must be approximated 


Tue Sypuostoma, Otto,— 
Which have a bundle of fine silky bristles above each articulation, a simple bristle below it, and at the 
fore extremity two bundies of stiff and gilded bristles, beneath which is the mouth, preceded by a 
sucker encircled by many soft filaments, that perhaps subserve the office of branchie, and which are 
accompanied by two fleshy tentacles. Their medullary nervous cord may be seen through the skin of 
the belly. They live deep in the mud. 
The species are S. diplochoites, Otto, and S. uncinata, Aud. and Edw. 


Lastly, in the vicinity of the same group, has lately been placed 


DeENTALIUM, Linn.,— 
The species of which have a shell in form of an elongated cone, arcuated, and open at beth ends, 
which may be compared to an Elephant’s tusk in miniature; but the recent observations of M. Savigny, 
and especially of M. Deshayes, render this classification very doubtful. 

The animal does not appear to haye any appreciable articulations, nor 
lateral silky bristles; but it has a membranous tube, in the interior of 
which is a sort of foot, or fleshy and conical operculum, by which it closes 
the orifice. At the base of this foot is a small, flat head, and there are 
BR ees tate) cats feather-like branchiz upon the neck. If the operculum approximates the 

tube. foot of the Tubulibranchiate Mollusks (Vermetus and Siliguaria), the gills 
are rather those of Amphitrite and Teredella. Further observations on their anatomy, and principally 


on their vascular and nervous systems, are required to solve this problem. 
Different species have the shell angular, longitudinally striated, or round. Among the first are D. elaphantinum, 
Martini, &c. ; among the second, D. dentalis, Rumpf.; and among the third, D. entalis, Martini. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF ANNELIDES,— 


THE DORSIBRANCHIATA,— 


Have their organs, and particularly their gills, distributed about equally throughout the 
length of the body, or at least its middle portion. 
We place at the head of them certain genera, in which the gills are more developed. 


ARENICOLA, Lam. 

Gills of an arbuscular form, upon the rings of the middle part of the body only. The mouth a fleshy 
trunk, more or less dilatable, but no discernible teeth. tentacles, or eyes. The posterior extremity of 
the body devoid not only of gills, but also of bundles of silky bristles, which occur on the other part ; 
no cirrhus on any ring of the body. M. Savigny forms of them his family 7'éléthuces. 

The common species (Lumbricus marinus, Linn.), is very abundant in the sand of the sea shore, where the 


fishermen dig for it to serve as bait. It is nearly a foot long, of a reddish colour, and diffuses, on being touched, 
a quantity of yellow fluid. It has three pairs of gills. 


AMPHINOME, Brug. 

A pair of branchiz in form of a crest, or a tuft more or less complicated, on each ring of the body, 
and two bundles of separate bristles, together with two cirrhi, upon each foot. The trunk or proboscis 
without jaws. These form the family of 4mphinomes of M. Savigny, who divides them into 

Chloeia, wherein are five tentacles to the head and gills in formof a tripinnate leaf. There is one in the East 
Indies (Terebelia flava, Gm.), extremely remarkable for its long citron-coloured bundle of bristies, and for its 
splendid purple tufts of branchi#. Its form is broad and depressed, and it has a vertical crest on the muzzle. 


394 ANNELIDES. 


Pléione, Say. (Amphinome, Blainv.), which, with the same tentacles, have crest-like gills. These also are from 
the East Indies, and attain a great size. 

To these may be added Euphrosine, Sav., which has but one 
tentacle to the head, together with arbuscular gills, very 
much developed and complicated; and to which the genus 
Anisteria, Say., established on a mutilated individual, should 
probably be approximated ; and, lastly, 

Hipponoe, Audouin & Edwards, which, devoid of caruncle, 
has only one cirrhus and packet of bristles to each foot. There 
is one at Port Jackson, H. Gaudichaudii, Aud. & Ed. 


Eunicr, Cuvy.— 
Is likewise furnished with tuft-like gills, but the trunk 
is formidably armed with three pairs of differently-formed horny jaws; each of their feet has two 
cirrhi and a bundle of bristles ; and there are five tentacles upon the head above the mouth and two 
on the neck. Some species only exhibit two small eyes. M. Savigny’s family of Lunices is constituted 
by this division, and the particular genus is termed by him Leodice. 


Fig. 203.—Euphrosine laureata. 


A species, from one to four feet in length, inhabits the sea around the Antilles (Z. gigantea, Cuv.), which is the 
largest Annelide known. Some upon our coasts are much smaller. 

M. Savigny distinguishes by the name of Marphisia certain species, otherwise very similar, which have no 
nuchal tentacles, and the upper cirrhus of which is very short, as Nereis sanguinea, Montagu. An allied species 
(N. tubicola, Muller), inhabits a horny tube. 


After these genera with complex branchie, are placed those in which the organs adverted to are 
reduced to simple laminz, or even to slight tubercles, or which, lastly, are represented only by the 
cirrhi. Some of them resemble Eunice by the powerful armature of the trunk, and by their antennz 
of unequal number. Such are 

Lycrpice, Sav.,— 
Which, together with the jaws of Eunice, or even a greater number than in that genus, and often un- 
equal on the two sides, have but three tentacles, and cirrhi to perform the office of branchiz. 


AGLAURA, Sav.— 
Have likewise numerous jaws, of an unequal number, seven, nine, &c.; but no tentacles, or which are 
entirely hidden ; and the gills are similarly reduced to cirrhi. 


Under this name I unite the Aglaura and Ginone of Savigny, and even certain species without tentacles, which 
MM. Audouin and Edwards leave in Lycidice, as Ag. fulgida and C2. lucida. 


Tue Nerrerps, properly so called (Nereis, Cuv.; Lycoris, Sav.). 

Tentacles of an even number, attached to the sides of the base of the head, two other biarticulated 
ones a little more forward, and between these two simple ones; only one pair of jaws within the 
trunk; the gills formed of little laminz, traversed by a network of vessels; and at each of their feet 
two tubercles, two bundles of bristles, and a cirrhus above and below. 

A great number of species inhabit our coasts. 

(The species here figured, N. prolifera (Mul- 
ler, Zool. Dan.), exhibits a singular peculiarity 
in its mode of propagation, merely by sponta- 
neous division, the hind part of the body being 
gradually transformed into an additional animal, 
the head and tentacular cirrhi being already de- 
veloped. Muller describes one mother, to which 
three feetuses, of different ages, appeared in one 
length. The mother had thirty segments, the 
young one nearest to it had eleven, and the two 
hinder, or older ones, seventeen segments each. ] 


Vig. 204.--Nereis prolifera. 


After these should rank various genera. equally distinguished by a slender body, and gills reduced to 
simple laminz, or even to simple filaments or tubercles. Several, however, have no jaws nor tentacles. 


Puy.iopoce, Sav. (Nereiphylla, Blainy.),— 
In common with the Nereids proper, have tentacles of even number at the sides of the head, and four 
or five small ones anteriorly. They have distinct eyes; their large trunk is furnished with a circlet 
of very short fleshy tubercles, does not contain jaws, and, what particularly distinguishes them, their 


a 
ee ee 


DORSIBRANCHIATA. 395 


gills are in the form of very broad leaves, forming a range on each side of the body, upon which minute 
vessels ramify extensively. ¥ 

The V. viridis, Muller, of which M. Savigny, without having seen it, proposes to make a genus Eutalia, and the 
two species of Eunomia, Risso, appear to me to belong to Phyllodoce, to which also, perhaps, should be referred the 
Nereis pinnigera, Montagu, and the N. stillifera, Muller, which M. Savigny, without seen them, proposes to make 
into a genus Lepidia, and N. longa, Otto, which M. Savigny places with N. flava in his genus Etiona. All these 
require to be examined anew after the method detailed by M. Savigny. The genus Phyllodoce, Sav., however, must 
not be confounded with that of M. Ranzani, which latter is allied to Aphrodita, and especially to Polynoe. 


Auciopg, Aud. & M. Edwards,— 
Have nearly the mouth and tentacles of Phyllodoce, but the feet present, besides the tubercle which 
bears the bristles and the two foliated cirrhi, or gills, a couple of branchial tubercles, which occupy its 
upper and lower borders. 
Spio, Fabricius & Gmelin. 
A slender body ; two very long tentacles that have the appearance of antenne ; eyes upon the head, 
and on either side of each segment of the body a gill in form of a simple filament. They are small 


northern Sea-worms, which inhabit membranous tubes. 
Polydore, Bosc., appears to me to be referrible to this genus. 


SyLuis, Sav.— 
Have tentacles of uneven numbers, articulated in chaplets, together with upper cirrhi to the feet, 
which are very simple, and bear no bundles of silky bristles. It appears that they vary with respect 


to the existence of jaws. 

S. monilaris, Say. [figured in p. 391 ante}, the Nereis armillaris, Muller, of which M. Savigny, without having 
seen it, proposes to make a genus, which he terms Lycastis, having tentacles and cirrhi in chaplets, like a Syllis; 
but the former, represented to be of even number, requires farther examination. 


Gtyceris, Cuv.— 
Are recognized by the form of the head, which terminates in a conical fleshy point, having the aspect 
of asmall horn, and the summit of which divides into four very small tentacles, that are scarcely visi- 
ble. The trunk of some of the species contains jaws, which cannot be perceived in others. 
Such are Nereis alba, Muller, and Glyc. Meckelii, Aud. & Edw. 


Nepatuys, Cuv. 
The trunk of Phyllodoce, but no tentacles; and on each foot two bundles of bristles widely sepa- 
rated, and a cirrhus between them. 


LomBrINEREIS, Blainv.— 
Have no tentacles; the body, considerably elongated, has merely a small forked tubercle at each arti- 
culation, which bears alittle packet of silky bristles. If there be any external respiratory organ, it 
can only be the upper lobe of this tubercle. 

Nereis abranchiata, Poll., Lumbricus fragilis, Muller, of which latter M. Blainville makes, but doubtfully, his 
genus Scoletome. 

The Scolelepe, Blainv., which are only known by the figure of Abildgaart (Lumbricus squamatus), have a very 
slender body, with numerous rings, each of which has a cirrhus that serves for a gill, and two bundles of silky 
bristles, the lower of which seems to consist of a fold of skin compressed like a scale, and the head has neither 
jaws nor tentacles. 

. AriciA, Sav.,— 
Have neither teeth nor tentacles. The body, which is lengthened, bears two ranges of lamelliform 
cirrhi along the back ; and the anterior feet are furnished with dentelated crests, that do not occur on | 
the other feet. : 

Ar. Cuvieri, Aud. and Edw. The Lumbricus armiger, Muller, which M. Blainville, without having seen it, pro- 
poses to make a genus of, by the name of Scolople, appears to have neither teeth nor tentacles, and bears two 
small simple bundles of short bristles on its first segments, and on the rest a bifid tubercle, a little bristle, and a 
long and pointed branchial lamina. 

HESIONE,— 
Have a short and rather thick body, composed of few ill-defined rings: a very long cirrhus, which pro- 
bably fulfils the office of branchiz, occupying the upper part of each foot, which has also another 
lower one, and a packet of silky bristles, and the trunk large, having neither jaws nor tentacles. 

Such are H. splendida, Savigny, H. festina, 1d., and H. pantherima, Risso. 


396 ANNELIDES. 


OPHELINA, Say. 

Body rather thick and short, the rings ill-defined, bristles scarcely visible, and long cirrhi serving 
for gills upon two thirds of its length; the mouth containing a dentelated crest at the palate, lips sur- 
rounded with tentacles, of which the two uppermost are larger than the rest. 

Hereabouts should probably be placed the Nereis prismatica and bifrons of Fabricius. 


CIRRHATULA, Lam. 

A very long filament serving for gills, and two little bundles of bristles at each articulation of the 
body, which are very numerous and much serrated, together with a collar of long filaments around the 
neck. Head ill-defined, with neither tentacles nor jaws. 

Lumbricus cirrhatus, Otto, from which the Terebella tenticulata, Montagu, and the Cirrhinereis filiger, Blainville, 
do not appear to me to differ generically. 
PALMYRE, Sav. 

Distinguished by their upper bundle composed of large flattened bristles disposed like a fan, and 
brilliant as the most polished gold ; the inferior bundles small ; their cirrhi and gills not very distinct. 
They have a lengthened body, and two long and three very small tentacles. 

One only is known, from the Isle of France, two inches in length, the P. aurifera, Savigny. 


Apuropita, Linn. 

Easily known from the rest of this order by two longitudinal ranges of broad membranous scales, 
covering the back, to which the name elytra has been given without much reason, and under which 
the gills lie concealed in form of little fleshy crests. The body is generally flattened, and shorter and 
broader than in other Annelides. A very thick and muscular cesophagus is observable on dissection, 
which is capable of being reversed into a trunk externally ; the intestine is unequal, and furnished on 
each side with a great number of branched cceca, the extremities of which are fixed between the bases 
of the packets of silky bristles which serve for feet. 

M. Savigny distinguishes among them the 


HALIrTHEA,— 


Wherein are three leaflets, between two of which is a very small crest, and which also has no jaws. 

There is one upon our coasts, which is among the most beautifully coloured of animals (Aphrodita aculeata, 
Linn.) Its form is oval, six or eight inches long, and two or three broad. The scales of its back are covered 
and concealed by a substance resembling tow, which originates at its sides: the latter have also groups of stout 
spines, which partly pierce the tongue, together with bundles of flexible bristles, as brilliant as gold, and change- 
able to every hue of the rainbow. The colours they present are surpassed in beauty neither by the scale-like 
feathers of the Humming-bird, nor by the most brilliant gems. Below them is a tubercle bearing three groups 
of spines, of three different thicknesses; and finally, a fleshy cover. There are forty of these tubercles on each 
side, and between the two first are two little fleshy tentacles ; besides which there are fifteen pairs of broad scales, 
which are sometimes bulged upon the back; and fifteen small branchial crests on each side. 

(The animals of this group, which greatly resemble, in form, the Euphrosine laureata, figured in a preceding 
page, are well known under the name of Sea Mice, and are often thrown upon the beach after a gale of wind. In 
some species the lateral sete exhibit a beautiful structure, admirably fitting them for weapons of defence, being 
barbed on each side at the tip; but, in order to prevent the injury which might occur to the animals, in consequence 
of the power it possesses of retracting these sete, each is inclosed in a smooth, horny sheath, composed of two 
blades.} 

Some species have no tow-like substance on the back, which are the Halithus hermiones of M. Savigny, and form 
the genus Hermione of M. de Blainville. There is one in our seas, the Aphr. hystrix, Savigny. 


Another division of Aphrodita is the 
Potynog, Sav. (Humolpe, Oken),— 
Having no scales on the back, and five tentacles, together with strong corneous jaws, within the pro- 
boscis. 
Several small species inhabit our coasts. 
S1GALion, Aud. and Edw.,— 
Presents a more elongated form than other Aphrodites, with cirrhi upon all the feet. 


AcorEtss, Id.,— 


Have cirrhi which alternate with the elytra for a considerable space, and stronger and better dentelated 
jaws. 


ABRANCHIA. 397 


The Antilles possess a large one, which inhabits a tube of the consistence of leather. The Phyllodoce mavillosa, 
Ranzani, named Polyodante by Reinieri, and Eumolpe maxima, Oken, appear to be nearly allied, having the 
same trunk and jaws, and neither genus having perhaps been described from perfect specimens. Many species 
of Annelides remain, which have been too imperfectly described to admit of their being characterized ; and the 
Myriane, and two or three other genera of M. Savigny, must remain to be examined anew. 


Finally, we place here a new and very singular genus, which I name 


CH2TOPTERUS. 

Mouth with neither jaws nor trunk, but furnished above with a lip, to which three small tentacles 
are attached. A disk then follows with nine pairs of feet, after which is a pair of long silky bundles 
like two wings. The lamina-formed gills are attached more towards the upper surface than the lower, 
and range along the middle of the body. 

{Here also ought probably to be placed the genus 
Peripatus of Guilding, founded upon a West Indian 
species, which burrows in the sand, and which has 
much perplexed naturalists as to its relations. By 
Guilding it was considered as molluscous; by Mac 
Leay as forming the passage between the Iulide and 
the annulose annelidous worms; whilst Gray (Zool. 
Misc. p. 6) asserts that it is annelidous, and connects 
Fig. 205.—Peripatus LIuliformis. Nereis with Lumbricus.] 


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THE THIRD ORDER OF THE ANNELIDES,— 


ABRANCHIA,— 


Have no respiratory organ appearing externally, and seem to respire either, as in the 
Earthworms, over the whole surface of the skin, or, as in the Leeches, by internal cavities. 
Some of them have yet bristles to serve for locomotion, of which others are deprived, and they 
accordingly fall into two families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ABRANCHIA,— 


THE ABRANCHIA SETIGERA,— 


Which are provided with silky bristles, comprise the Earthworms and Naides of Lianzeus. 


$ . . 
Tue Eartuworms (Lumbricus, Linn.)— 


Are characterized by a long, cylindrical body, divided by transverse furrows into a great number of 
rings, and by a mouth without teeth: they require to be thus subdivided: 


Tae True Eartaworms (Lumbricus, Cuv.)— 

Have neither eyes, tentacles, gills, nor cirrhi: a distinct enlargement, particularly during the breeding 
season, indicates where they attach themselves to one another in the act of copulating. Internally 
they have a straight, wrinkled intestine, and some whitish glands towards the fore part of the body, 
which appear to serve for generation. It is certain that they are hermaphrodite, and it seems that 
their contact only serves to excite each other to self-fecundation. According to M. Montégne, the 
eggs descend between the intestine and external envelope, as far as around the rectum, where they 
hatch, the young crawling out alive by the anus. M. Dufour states, on the contrary, that they deposit 
eggs analogous to those of the Leeches. Their nervous chord consists of a series of an infinitude of little 
ganglia, serrated one against another.* 

M. Savigny subdivides them further into Hnterion, having on each ring four pairs of little bristles, eight 
throughout, to which belongs 

The Common Earthworm (JL. terrestris, Linn.).—This well-known species attains to nearly a foot in length, with 


* T is is common to very many species, as M. Savigny first observed. As many as twenty have been been characterized. M. Duges only 


distinguishes six 


398 ANNELIDES. 


120 or more rings; the bulge is towards its anterior third. Under the sixteenth ring are two pores, of which the 
use is unknown. It pierces the ground in all directions, perforating it remarkably well, and subsists on roots, 
woody fibres, animal matter, &c. In the month of June it searches at night above ground for a mate. 

[It is especially in rich and well-manured soils that the Earthworm delights, particularly in gardens 
and meadows; they are extremely sensitive to movements of the earth; and anglers, knowing well their temerity 
in this respect, take advantage of it, in order to obtain a supply of these animals for baits, by introducing a spade 
or fork into the ground, and stirring the soil, when they soon appear on the surface. We are indebted to Charles 
Darwin, Esq., for a remarkable and interesting memoir on the utility of this animal, read before the Geological 
Society. The worm casts, which so much annoy the gardener by deforming his smooth-shaven lawns, are of no 
small importance to the agriculturist; and this despised creature is not only of great service in loosening the 
earth, and rendering it permeable by air and water, but is also a most active and powerful agent in adding to the 
depth of the soil, and in covering comparatively barren tracts with a superficial layer of wholesome mould. The 
author’s attention was directed by Mr. Wedgwood, of Maer Hall, Staffordshire, to several fields, some of which 
had a few years before been covered with lime, and others with burnt marl and cinders, which substances in every 
case are now buried to the depth of some inches below the turf, just as if, as the farmers believe, the particles had 
worked themselves down. After shewing the impossibility of this supposed operation, the author affirms that 
the whole is due to the digestive process by which the common Earthworm is supported, since, on carefully 
examining between the blades of grass in the fields above-mentioned, he found that there was scarcely a space of 
two inches square without a little heap of the cylindrical castings of worms; it being well known that worms 
swallow earthy matter, and that having separated the serviceable portion, they eject at the mouth of their burrows 
the remainder in little intestine-shaped heaps. Still more recently Mr. Darwin has noticed a more remarkable 
instance of this kind, in which, in the course of eighty years, the Earthworms had covered a field then manured 
with marl, with a bed of earth, averaging thirteer inches in thickness. ] 

[Fig. 206, b, represents the anterior extremity of the Earthworm, to show the mouth, as well as the sete directed 
backwards upon the segments of the body, by means of which it is admirably enabled 
to work its way through the earth, their backward direction enabling it to retain its 
station as it protrudes its head further into the earth. Fig. c, represents one of its 
eggs, inclosing, as is sometimes the case, two young; and fig. d represents the escape 
of the young worm from the egg, the anterior extremity of which is furnished with 
a peculiar valve-like structure; these two figures are highly magnified. ] 

Hypogeon, Sav., have an additional single, or uneven, bristle upon the back of 
each ring. They are only known in America. 

MM. Audouin and M. Edwards likewise distinguish the Trophonius, which has 
four bundles of short silky bristles on each ring, and at the anterior extremity a 
great number of long and brilliant bristles, encircling the mouth. 


Tue Naipes (Nais, Linn.),— 

Have the elongated body and the rings less marked than in the Earthworms. 
They live in holes which they perforate in mud at the bottom of water, 
and from which they protrude the anterior portion of the body, incessantly 
moving it. Some have black points upon the head, which have been 
regarded as eyes. They are small worms, the reproductive power of which 
is as astonishing as that of the Hydra or Polypus. Many gpecies exist in our 
fresh waters. 

Some have very long bristles; others (the Sty/aria, Lamarck) a long protrusile 
trunk; several (Proto, Oken) have small tentacles at the hind extremity, and there 
are others with very short bristles. 

To this genus may be approximated certain Amnelides allied to the Earth- 
worms, which fabricate the tubes of clay, or debris, into which they retire. 

Such are the Tubifex of Lamarck, which, however, requires further examination. 
CLIMEN#, Sav.,— 
Appears likewise to belong to this family. Their body is rather thick, 

aM i. coke with few rings, and bears, for the greater portion of its length, a range of 
strong bristles, and, a little higher up, a bundle of finer bristles on the dorsal aspect. The head has 
neither tentacles nor appendages ; posterior extremity truncated and rayed, and they also inhabit tubes. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE ABRANCHIOUS ANNELIDES,—or, 


Tue ABRANCHIA WITHOUT BRISTLES,— 


Comprise two great genera, both of which are aquatic. 


ABRANCHIA. 3$9 


Tue Lerecues (Hirudo, Linn.)\— : 
Mave an oblong body, sometimes depressed, and wrinkled transversely ; the mouth encircled by a lip, 
and the posterior extremity furnished with a flattened disk, both ends being adapted to fix upon bodies 
by a kind of suction, by means 
of which these animals move, 
for, having fixed their anterior 
extremity, they draw the other 
up to it and fix that, and then 
readvance the first, [besides 
which, they swim with facility]. 
Several have a double series of Fig. 207.—Hirudo officinalis ; a, its anterior extremity, shewing the sucker. 
pores underneath the body, which are the orifices of little internal pouches, considered by some natu- 
ralists as organs of respiration, although they are generally filled with a mucous fluid. The intestinal 
canal is straight and swoln at intervals, extending for two thirds the length of the body, where there 
are true cceca. The blood they swallow continues red, and without alteration, for several weeks. The 
ganglia of their nervous system are much more separated than those of the Earthworms. They are 
hermaphrodite, and have a large penis about the anterior third of the body, and a vulva a little behind 
it. Several accumulate their eggs into cocoons enveloped by a fibrous excretion. 

[On opening the Leech shortly after it has gorged itself with the blood of its prey, it will be found 
that none of the blood has passed into the intestines. The operation of digestion is extremely slow, 
notwithstanding the rapid and excessive manner in which the Leech fills its stomach: a single meal 
of blood will suffice for many months, nay, more than a year will sometimes elapse before the blood 
has passed through the intestines in the ordinary manner, during all which period so much of the 
blood as remains undigested in the stomach continues in a fluid state, and as if just taken in, notwith- 
standing the vast difference in the heat of the body of a mammiferous animal and that of a Leech. ] 
— Griffith, An. King., part 35, p. 129. 

They are subdivided upon characters derived principally from the organs of the mouth. In 


Ture Lercues, properly so called (San- 
guisuga, Sav.),— 
The anterior sucker has the lip divided into 
several segments; its aperture is trans- 
versal, and contains three jaws, each armed 
with a double range of very fine trenchant 
teeth, which enable them to pierce the 
skin without inflicting a dangerous wound: 
Fig. 208.—Developement of Hirudo medicinalis. they have ten minute points, which have 
been considered as eyes. 


Every one is acquainted with the medicinal Leech (H. medicinalis, Linn.), so useful an instrument for local 
blood-letting. 


Hamopis, Sav.,— 
Differs by having the teeth less numerous and comparatively obtuse. 
Such is the common Horse Leach, (H. sanguisorba, Sav.). 
BDELLIA, Sav.,— 
Has only eight eyes, and no teeth whatever. 
There is one in the Nile (Bd. nilotica, Egypt. Ann.) 
NEPHELIS, Sav.,— 
Has also but eight eyes, and the mouth with only three folds of the skin interiorly. 
M. de Blainville terms them Erpoddellis, and M. Oken Helluo. 
Numerous small species inhabit our fresh waters, among which should be distinguished 


TrocHetTIa, Dutrochet,— 


Which differ by having a bulge at the genitals. 
A species (Geobdella trochetii, Blainy.), is often seen upon the ground, pursuing the Earthworms. 


400 ANNELIDES. 


M. Moquin Tandon has described a subgenus oy the name of dulastoma, the mouth of which has 
merely longitudinal folds, several in number. 

In the suite of Nephelis, should be placed the Branchiobdellia of M. Odier, remarkable for having 
two jaws and no eyes. 

One species only is known, which lives upon the gills of the Crab. 

All these subdivisions have the anterior sucker a little separated from the body: the two next are 
distinguished by a further separation, composing almost a segment, having a transverse aperture. 


HaMocuHaris, Sav.,— 
In addition to this conformation, have eight eyes, a slender body, and rings not very distinct. Their 
jaws do not project, and are scarcely visible: they do not swim, but advance in the manner of the 
caterpillars termed geometrical, and attach themselves particularly to fishes. They are the Piscicola 


of Blainville, and the Jethiobdella of Lamarck. 
Une species is common upon the Carp, (H. pisciwm, Linn.). 


ALBIONES, Sav. (Pontobdella, Leach and Blainyille),— 
iffer from the preceding by having the body bristled with tubercles, and eyes only six in number. 


They live in the sea. 

There is a parasite on the Torpedo, named Branchellion, very similar to a Leech, but which appears 
to have a little mouth at the hind border of its anterior disk, which last is borne on a slender neck, and 
at the base of it is a small hole for the generative organs. The lateral edges of its folds, which are 
compressed and salient, have been regarded as branchiz, but I cannot perceive vessels ramifying upon 
them ; the epidermis is ample, and envelopes the creature like a very loose sac. 


Cuepsines, Sav. (Glossoporis, Johnson) ,— 
Ranks commonly also among the Leeches. The body is widened, with a disk only behind, and the 
mouth is formed into a trunk, and not suctorial ; but it is not impossible that some of these belong to 
the family of Planarie. Phillines, Oken, and Malacobdellis, Blainv., have also a widened body, and 
want the anterior sucker. Their habits are parasitic. 


Tue Gorpians (Gordius, Linn.).— 
Have the body in form of a filament; slight transverse folds, which mark the articulations only; and 
no feet, branchiz, or tentacles have yet been discerned ; nevertheless, they are internally distinguished 
by a knotted nervous chord. They should perhaps be placed, however, with the intestinal worms, 


such as the Nemertes. 
The various species inhabit fresh water, mud, and inundated grounds, which they perforate in all directions, 
&c. [We have not unfrequently met with them upon garden-cabbages, and their name is derived from the com- 
plex knots into which they seemingly entangle their ex- 
tremely elongated bodies.] The commonest (G. aquaticus, 
Linn.), is several inches long, and scarcely thicker than 
} ahair. See the memoir of Dr. George Johnston on this spe- 
cies in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. ix. p. 359.] 
[This animal, which is found in slowly-running and stagnant 
waters in the summer, is commonly mistaken for the species 
of Filaria, the proper habitat of which is the intestines of 
Beetles and other insects. ‘The head of Gordius is obtusely 
conical, with a simple circular terminal pore for a mouth, from which a sort of membrane can be forced by 
pressure. The tail is bifid ; the processes short, equal, and obtuse; the latter has often been mistaken for the 
mouth. Thus Dr. Turton describes the mouth as “small, horizontal, with equal obtuse jaws.” Dr. Johnston 
states, that having cut off portions of the anterior extremity and tail, the detached parts soon lost every sign of 
life ; it has, however, been asserted, that each part would grow into a perfect animal. } 


Fig. 209.—Gordius aquaticus. 


AO] 


INTRODUCTION TO THRE ARTICULATED ANIMALS WITH 
ARTICULATED LEGS.* 


BY Mie Peg Ac MACE BS tobi Br 


OvERWHELMED by the variety of his occupations, and yielding too easily to the im- 
pulse of friendship, M. Cuvier has confided to me the portion of this work which treats 
upon insects. 

These animals were the objects of his earliest studies in zoology, and hence origin- 
ated his friendship with Fabricius, one of the most celebrated disciples of Linnzeus, who 
has repeatedly, in his works, shown evidences of his particular esteem. Various inte- 
resting observations upon some of these animals, published in the Journal d’ Histoire 
Naturelle, formed the prelude to his works upon natural history. Entomology, like the 
other branches of zoology, has derived the greatest advantages from his anatomical re- 
searches, and the happy modifications which he has thence made in the groundwork of our 
classification. The external structure of insects has been better understood; and this 
branch of the science has no longer been neglected, as it had previously been. His 
Tableau Elémentaire de 0 Histoire Naturelle, and Legons d’ Anatomie Comparée, have 
pointed out the path to the natural method. The public will therefore have cause to 
regret that his numerous pursuits would not permit him to undertake this portion 
of his treatise upon animals. 

In undertaking this work, my object has been to unite, in as narrow limits as possible, 
the most striking facts in the history of insects ; to arrange these animals with precision 
and clearness, in a natural series; to sketch their physiognomy ; to trace, in as few 
words as possible, their distinguishing features, adopting a plan which shall be in rela- 
tion to the progressive advance of the science and of the student; to notice the bene- 
ficial and obnoxious species,—indicating, at the same time, the best sources where he 
may attain a knowledge of the other species; to reduce the science to the engaging 
simplicity which it exhibited in the days of Linneus, Geoffroy, and the earlier works 
of Fabricius, and yet to present it as it now appears, enriched but not overcharged with 
recent observations and researches ;—in a word, to make it conformable to the work 
of Cuvier, 

This author, in his Tableau Elémentaire de l Histoire Naturelle des Animaux, did not 
limit the extent of the class of insects, as restricted by Linnzeus, but introduced neces- 


* (These introductory observations appeared in both editions of the _ lished in the intervening period. In like manner, the internal anatomy 
Regne Animal, the object of Latreille being herein tu set forth the | of these animals had been greatly studied,—thereby, in many instances, 
general principles upon which his arrangement of the Linnean insects | affording more certain proofs of the solidity of many of the groups pre- 
was founded. Inthe second edition, the same general classification | viously proposed, and of whose internal structure it therefore becaine 
was adopted, but considerable alterations were made in the arrange- | necessary to add the details to the generally external character pre- 
ment of the secondary and tertiary groups, such as families, genera, | viously given; so thut this second edition ought more strictly to be 
&c., it having been impossible to bring the work down to the then | regarded as an entirely new work.] 
present state of the science, without modifying the former arrange- *,* Throughout the Articulated portion of the present edition, the 
ment, and making great additions; so that two volumes were requisite | original passages are enclosed in editorial parentheses, thus [ if 
instead of one, to give a summary of the multitudinous genera pub- 


DD 


402 INTRODUCTION TO THE 


sary modifications, which have served as the basis of other subsequent classifications. 
He at first characterized insects from other invertebrated animals, by more rigorous 
characters than had been before employed,—namely, a knotted or ganglionated nervous 
chord, extending down the body, and articulated limbs. Linnzus terminated his class 
of insects with those which are destitute of wings, although some of them—as the 
crabs and spiders—are, in respect to their organic systems, the most perfectly organized 
(les plus parfaits) of the class, and consequently the nearest to the molluscous animals. 
This arrangement is therefore opposed to the natural system; and M. Cuvier, by placing 
the Crustacea at the head of the class, succeeded by the other apterous insects, has 
rectified the method in a point where the series was in opposition to the scale formed 
by nature. 

In his Lecons d’ Anatomie Comparée, the class of insects, after the removal of the 
Crustacea, was divided into nine orders, founded upon nature, or the functions of their 
mouth-organs, and the variations in their wings, thus uniting the principles of the 
Linnean and Fabrician arrangements. [lst. Those with maxille, five orders: Gnath- 
aptera (including the majority of the Linnzan Aptera, after the removal of the Crustacea), 
Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Orthoptera; and, 2nd, those without max- 
ille, four orders: Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Aptera.] The groups esta- 
blished by Cuvier in his Gnathapterous order are nearly identical with those which I 
proposed in a Memoir presented to the Société Philomatique, in April, 1795, and in my 
Précis des Caracteres Génériques des Insectes, in which I divided the Linnzan Aptera 
into seven orders :—1. Suctoria; 2. Thysanura; 3. Parasita; 4. Acephala (the Arach- 
nides palpistes of Lamarck); 5. Entomostraca; 6. Crustacea; 7. Myriapoda. 

Lamarck’s arrangement of the Linnzan Aptera appears, however, to make the nearest 
approach to a natural system; and we have adopted it, with certain modifications, which 
we will now explain. With him, I divide the Linnean insects into three classes :— 
Crustacea, ARACHNIDA, and Insecta; but I do not employ the characters derived 
from metamorphosis ;—these, although natural, and already employed by De Geer, not 
being classical (classique), presupposing the observation of the animal in its different 
states, which has been so much neglected. I have not, however, entirely neglected 
these characters; and, indeed, a Memoir which I have prepared upon the metamor- 
phoses of insects, not yet published, has been resorted to in the general observations 
upon the different groups. 

In the class Crustacea, I have established five apparently natural orders, founded 
upon the situation and form of the branchie, the manner in which the head is articu- 
lated with the thorax, and the mouth-organs; and I have terminated this class, like 
Lamarck, with the Branchiopoda, which are a kind of Crustaceous Arachnida. 

In the class AracunipA, I only comprehend the Arachnides palpistes of Lamarck, 
and which thus constitute a group well characterized, both internally [from the struc- 
ture of their respiratory apparatus] and externally, from their being destitute of antenne, 
and have ordinarily four pairs of feet. I divide this class into two orders: namely, the 
Pulmonaria and Trachearia. 

The class of Insxcra is characterized in a very simple manner by the system of res- 
piration consisting of two air tubes running along the sides of the body, furnished at 
intervals with centres of ramifications, corresponding with the [external] spiracles, and 
by the possession of swo antenne. The primary groups of insects are founded upon 


ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 403 


the following considerations :—1st, Wingless insects, with incomplete metamorphoses, 
or which do not undergo any change, comprising the first three orders; 2ndly, Wingless 
insects, undergoing complete metamorphoses, comprising the fourth order; and, 8rdly, 
Insects with wings, which they acquire by metamorphosis, either of an incomplete or 
perfect kind, containing the last eight orders. The first of these primary groups cor- 
responds with Lamarck’s Arachnides antennistes ; the second, consisting of the single 
genus Pulex [or the flea], appears, in some respects, to be related by means of the genus 
Hippobosca [or forest flies], with the order Diptera, although, in other respects, and in 
its metamorphoses, it is removed from the genus last named. It is, moreover, often 
difficult to distinguish these natural enchainments; and often, even when discovered, 
we are compelled to sacrifice these relations to the precision and facility of our [arti- 
ficial] methods. 

To the before known orders of insects I have added that of Strepsiptera (Kirby), 
but under the name of Rhipiptera,—the former appearing [but erroneously] to me to 
be founded upon an incorrect supposition. Perhaps, indeed, this order might be sup- 
pressed, and united with the Diptera, as Lamarck had suggested. 

For the reasons assigned in my Considérations Générales, &c., p. 46, and which I 
might support by other proofs, I have attached more weight to the characters derived 
from the organs of locomotion, and the general construction of the body, than to the 
modifications of the mouth-organs, at least when their structure is referable to the same 
type. Hence I do not divide the class first into gnawing and sucking insects, but into 
those with wings, or wing-cases, &c., nearly similar to the series of the Linnzan orders, 
using, in a secondary sense, the characters derived from the mouth-organs, which had 
been placed in the foremost rank by Fabricius, Cuvier, Lamarck, Clairville, and 
Dumeril, whose arrangements consequently differ from mine. 

I have followed Cuvier in reducing the number of families proposed in my former 
works, and in converting into subgenera the groups separated from the Linnean genera, 
although their characters appear to be sufficiently distinct. Such was also the plan of 
Gmelin, which is simple and advantageous, by bringing the subject more within the 
capacity of the student. 

All my groups are founded upon the comparative investigation of all the parts of the 
animals which I desire to make known, and upon the observation of their habits. It is 
from being too exclusive in their considerations, that the majority of naturalists entirely 
lose sight of the natural system (/’ordre naturel). 

To the facts recorded by Réaumur, Roesel, De Geer, Bonnet, the Hubers, &c., upon 
the instincts of insects, I have added many collected by myself; while the works of 
Cuvier, L. Dufour, M. Serres, Strauss, Audouin, and Milne Edwards, have furnished 
me with anatomical observations. As I have been able to describe but a very small 
number of insects, I have selected the commonest and most interesting species. 


[Such is a condensed abstract of the introductory observations of Latreille, from 
which it will be seen that the period of ten years, which had elapsed between the pub- 
lication of the first and second editions of this work, had rendered it necessary to double 
the space assigned to the Linnean Insecta, which, in the second edition, occupied up- 
wards of 1100 pages. The latter was published in 1829; and if we contrast the ten 
years which have elapsed since that period with the ten preceding, we shall be com- 

DD2 


404 INTRODUCTION TO THE 


pelled to admit that Entomology has made far more rapid strides in these days than 
heretofore. The establishment of Entomological Sccieties in France and England has 
called forth the exertions of many students, who, in every branch of the science, have 
added greatly to our knowledge of these tribes of animals; but it has been especially 
with reference to the description of new genera and species that the greatest strides 
have been made. ‘To attempt, within the very limited space devoted in this edition 
to the Invertebrated Animals, to give even a list of all the new genera established since 
1829, would be useless; and this portion of the work must therefore necessarily be 
treated in a plan somewhat at variance with that of the vertebrated portion. As we 
cannot, therefore, give the genera, subgenera, sections, subsections, and other inferior 
groups, which, in the majority of instances, rest upon isolated structural characters, 
often of trivial nature (such as the number of joints in the antenne, the number of 
cells or spaces formed by the veins of the wings, &c.), I shall confine myself more espe- 
cially to those natural groups which Latreille, in his other works, regarded as “ natural 
families,’—groups equivalent in general with the Linnean genera, to which but few 
additions of importance have been made, and of which the knowledge will afford a good 
and sufficiently general view of Entomology,—noticing, however, their sectional distri- 
bution, and the more remarkable of the groups now termed genera. 

It is in the first place, however, necessary to observe, that the limits of the sub-kingdom 
Articulata, and its primary divisions, have recently formed the subjects of much discus- 
sion. The researches of Drs. Nordmann, V. Thompson, and Burmeister have clearly 
proved, not only that the Cirrhipedes, placed by Cuvier amongst the Mollusca, are, in their 
earlier stages, active Entomostraca; but also that the Lernzze, placed by Cuvier amongst 
the intestinal worms, are similarly active, and furnished with articulated legs in their 
early state. The relation of the Annelides with some of the wingless insects has also 
been strenuously maintained by some writers, who have deemed the internal organisms 
of higher importance than the circumstance of the limbs being articulated. 

With respect to the primary divisions, or classes, into which the jointed-legged 
Articulata (or the Condylopa of Latreille) are formed, it is to be observed that Latreille 
himself, in his Cours d’ Entomologie, published subsequently to the second edition of this 
work, has modified his views herein set forth, in the following manner :— 


ConpyLopa—C(lnsecta, Linn.) 
1. Aprropopa.—With more than six feet; destitute of wings. 


Class 1. Crustacea. 
2. Arachnides. 
3. Myriapoda. 
2. Hexaropa.—Including the single 
Class 4. Insecta.* 


Here we find the Myriapoda, which Latreille had in this work united with the true 
insects, raised to the rank of a class, whilst the orders Thysanura and Anoplura (Para- 


sita, Latr.) still remained with the fourth class. 
Mr. M‘Leay, however, has united these two orders with the Myriapoda, forming 


thus indicate the Mammalia. That the Myriapoda are analogous to 
the reptiles is sufficiently evident by comparing a Scolopendra with 
nature, as some of our recent English naturalists (M‘Leay, Swainson), | the skeleton of a Snake, or an Iulus with a perfect one (whence 
we may notice that these four groups seem to represent the four pri- | Latreille named the latter Anguiformes) ; whilst the true insects, fur- 
mary groups of vertebrated animals. The Crustacea are aquatic, and, | nished with wings, at once represent the only other winged ciass— 
as such, are analogous to fishes. Yhe Arachnida are terrestrial, and | tiat of birds.] 


* (Without attaching so much weight to considerations resting 
solely upon analogical resemblances, too often of a very fanciful 


ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 405 


them, with certain worms, into a class, for which he adopted Leach’s name, Ameta- 
bola (changeless), in order to distinguish them from the true insects, which undergo 
transformations. This author retained the classes Crustacea and Arachnida, but di- 
vided the insects, from the structure of their mouth-organs, into those with mandibles 
and those with a suctorial mouth,—characters which we have seen had been employed 
in the arrangement of the orders of insects inter se. 

Other arrangements have been proposed by Kirby and Spence, Burmeister, &c., to 
which I can but refer.—I shall, therefore, only add that it appears to me most natural 
to confine the Ametabola to the Myriapoda, Thysanura, and Anoplura; to unite the 
winged insects into one class, named Ptilota, after Aristotle ; and to retain the Crustacea 
and Arachnida in the limits here detailed —Hntomol. Text-Book, p. 79; and Introd. 
to Modern Classific. of Insects, vol. i. p. 4.] 


ARTICULATED ANIMALS, FURNISHED WITH ARTICULATED FEET,* 
IN GENERAL. 


CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDA, AND INSECTA. 


These three} classes, united together by Linnzus under the common name of Insects, 
but which I name Condylopa, are distinguished by their articulated feet, of which they 
have at least six. Each joint [of the legs] is tubular, and contains the muscles of the 
following articulation, which always moves by ginglymus,—that is, in but one direc- 
tion. The first joint which attaches the limb to the body, and which is generally com- 
posed of two§ pieces, is named the coxa, or hip, [the second of these pieces, when 
present, is termed the trochanter]; the next piece, which is ordinarily in a position 
nearly horizontal, is the femur, or thigh; the third is generally vertical, and is named 
the tibia, or shank; and the terminal part of the leg, or properly the foot, is composed 
of a series of small joints, which touch the ground, and which are collectively named 
the tarsus. 

The hardness of the calcareous or horny || envelope of the majority of these animals 
is owing to that of the excretion which is interposed between the dermis and epidermis, 
or what is termed in Man the mucous tissue. It is also in this excretion that are lodged 
the often brilliant and varying colours with which these animals are sometimes adorned. 

These creatures are always furnished with eyes. ‘These are of two kinds :—Ist, The 
simple eyes, named ocelli, or stemmata, ordinarily resembling a minute lens, and of which 
there are generally three, arranged in a triangle on the crown of the head; and, 2ndly, 
the facetted or composite eyes, of which the surface is divided into an infinite number of 


* The series of [external] articulations of which the body is com- 
posed has been compared to a skeleton, or vertebral column ; but this 
is erroneous, because the supposed vertebrx are ouly hardened por- 
tions of the skin, connected by more slender membranous intervening 
portions. The researches of Strauss especially prove this, in vpposi- 
tion to Robineau Desvoidy, and others. The power of exuviation 
especially distinguishes these from other Invertebrata. 

+ Dr. Leach formed the Myriapoda into a distinct class. The tra- 
chean Arachnida might also, froin their anatomical characters, consti- 
tute another, but they are too nearly allied to the pulmonary Arach- 
nida to allow this separation. 


| t Hexapods. Those with more than six feet are the Apiropoda of 
Savigny, or my Hyperhexapods. 
§ In many Crastacea, the second piece of the coxa appears to form 
part of the femur, and the tibiw (as also in the Arachnida) are two- 
jointed. 

|| According to M. Odier, the chief substance of which this integu- 
| ment is composed is of a peculiar nature, which he names chitine. 
Phosphate of lime forms the chief port of the salts of the teguments 
of insects, whilst the carapax of the erals abounds in carbonate of 


| lime. 


406 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


minute [hexagonal] lenses or facets, to each of which there is a corresponding filament 
of the optic nerve. These two kinds of eyes may exist in conjunction or separately, vary- 
ing in the genera; and we know not whether their action, when united in the same 
individual, be essentially different. The sense of sight, however, must in all instances be 
effected in a manner quite unlike that of the Vertebrata. (Consult the Memoir of 
Serres on the Eyes of Insects, Montpelier, 1815, 1 vol. 8vo; and the Observations of 
Blainville on the Eyes of Crustacea, in Bull. Soc. Philomat.) [also the memoir of 
J. Miiller, conscisely abstracted in the “‘ Insect Miscellanies.”’] 

Other organs, which we here find, for the first time, amongst the Crustacea and 
Insecta*, and which are named antenne, are articulated filaments, varied in the greatest 
degree as to their form, even in the sexes of the same species, arising from the head, 
and appearing eminently endued with a delicate sense of touch, and perhaps, also, with 
some other kind of sensation of which we have no idea, but which has reference to the 
state of the atmosphere. 

These animals also enjoy the senses of smell and hearing. Some authors place 
the seat of the first of these senses in the antennzet; others, as M. Dumeril, in the 
These 
opinions, however, are not founded upon positive and conclusive facts. As to the sense 
of hearing, the Decapod Crustacea, and certain Orthoptera, alone possess a visible ear. 

The mouth of these animals presents a great analogy [or general uniformity], which 


orifices of the breathing pores; and others, as M. de Serres, in the palpi. 


also extends, according to Savignyt, in a relative manner, even to those species which 
subsist by suction. Those which gnaw their food [Mandibulata, Clairville] by means 
of jaws fit for trituration, have the parts of the mouth arranged in pairs laterally, and 
placed one before [or over] the other. The anterior pair are specially named mandibles, 
[the succeeding pair or pairs being termed maxille, or hind jaws]; the pieces which 
cover the jaws before and behind are the lips§, that in front being called the labrum, 
[and that behind being the labium]. The palpi are articulated filaments attached to 
the hind jaws and the hind or lower lip, and appear to assist the animal in 
recognizing its food. The form of these different organs determine [or, more properly 
speaking, indicate] the kind of nourishment with as much precision as the dental 
system of Mammalia. Within the lower lip||, the tongue (ligula) [or rather lingua] 
is ordinarily attached. Sometimes, as in the bees, and many other Hymenoptera, it is 
prolonged considerably, as well as the maxille, forming a kind of proboscis (promuscis), 
with the pharynx at its base often covered by a kind of secondary lip (sous-labre ; 
epipharynz, Savigny), and which appears to me to exist, in many beetles, in the form 


* And even in the Arachnida, but under modified forms, and with | galea by Fabricius, in Orthopterous insects. In these insects, and in 


modified functions. 

+ With reference, at least, to Insecta, and when they terminate in 
a more or less complicated mass, or are clothed with a great quantity 
of hairs. According to M. Desvoidy, the internal antenne of the 
Decapod Crustacea are organs of smell (Bull. Sci. Nat. 1827), but he 
cites no direet proof; and, indeed, in the most carnivorous crabs 
(Gecarcinus, &c.), where the organ of smell ought to be most fully 
developed, the very reverse takes place, [the inner antenne being 
very small,} 

t Mémoires sur les Animaur sans Vertebres. The original idea [of 
this uniformity] was first announced by me (but without develope- 
ment) in my Histoire Générale des Insectes. 

§ I here more particularly allude tu the Hexapod insects. 

| The labium is protected in front by a corneous piece, formed by a 
cutaneous elongation, and articulated at its base with a part of the 
under side of the head, named the mentum. Its two palpi are termed 
labial palpi. The maxillary palpi are two or four in number, in the lat- 
ter case being named external and internal, the internal palpi being a 
modification of the outer lobe of the maxilla, and which is named 


the Libellule, there is a soft vesiculose body in the middle of the 
mouth, distinct from the lower lip, and which, compared with the 
Crustacea, appears to be the true tongue (Labium, Fabr.) This 
organ is probably represented in many Coleoptera by the lateral divi- 
sions of the labium, which are termed paraglosse. The membranous 
terminal part of the lower lip, extending between the palpi in the 
Orthoptera and Libellulz, is quite distinct from this central tongue, 
although nearly all entomologists have termed this terminal extremity 
of the lip by the name of languette. It is, nevertheless, true, that this 
central tongue is often closely soldered to the [inner surfece of] the 
lower lip. [The composition of the lower lip is very complicated, 
and variable in different groups. As a whole, it is best to retain for it 
the name of lubium. Its corneous basal piece is the mentum. The 
following piece is generally called the labium, having the labial palpi 
arising at its base; but the German authors term this terminal piece 
ligula. The internal piece is the lingua. Latreille refers to the 
larve of the Dyticida, as affording a clear notion of the typical struc 

ture of the labium; but in these larve, the labium is almost obsolete. 
The perfect Silphe, or Staphylini, afford much better instances. ]} 


ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 407 


of a membranous piece beneath the labrum, which has the same reference to it as the 
mentum has to the labium. 

In Hemiptera and Diptera the mandibles and maxille are represented by scaly pieces, 
in the form of sete or lancets, received in a tubular elongated sheath, which is either 
cylindrical and articulated, or elbowed, and terminated by fleshy lip-like pieces. In 
these insects the mouth becomes a real sucker. In other suctorial insects (Lepidoptera) 
the maxillz alone are elongated, conjointly forming a tubular and very slender instru- 
ment like a long tongue, spirally folded up at rest, the other parts of the mouth being 
but very slightly developed, [except the labial palpi]. Sometimes, as in many 
Crustacea, the fore-legs approach the maxille, taking their form and exercising their 
functions, so that the maxille may in such cases be said to be multiplied, and some- 
times it may even occur that the real maxille are so much reduced in size that the 
maxillary feet or foot-jaws (pieds-machoires) entirely replace them. But, whatever 
may be the modifications of these parts, they may always be recognized, and these 
variations reduced to a primitive or general type. [This kind of reasoning may appear 
fanciful to persons who have not studied the comparative anatomy of these lower 
animals, but there are so many instances in which feet are transformed into jaws, and 
jaws into feet, that it is impossible not to arrive at the conclusion that these organs 
are but modifications of each other. For instance, in the crabs there are three pairs 
of foot-jaws and five pairs of legs, whilst in the jumping shrimps (Amphipoda) there 
is only one pair of foot-jaws, the number of legs being increased to seven pairs by the 
addition of the two outer pair of foot-jaws. The genera Sergestes, Sicyonia, and 
Acetes amongst the Shrimps still more clearly prove this, for here the typical number 
of legs is five pairs, but the same kind of modifications occur. In the winged insects 
it is quite sufficient to examine the lower lip of a grasshopper, cockroach, or white ant, 
to perceive at once that it consists of a pair of small maxille soldered together, the 
ligula (or labium, as it is restrictedly called by some authors) consisting of two inner 
lobes, and two galez, with two labial palpi: if, therefore, we consider the internal lobe 
of the maxillz as a palpus, the labium in these insects will possess four palpi and two 
inner lobes. If we adopt this principle, we must suppose that as each leg-bearing 
segment is furnished with a pair of limbs, the head is a compound segment, furnished 
with several pairs of limbs, being the analogues of legs, and such is the view entertained 
by some of the most celebrated of modern entomologists. The same principle Latreille 
considers to be equally applicable to the antenne, or at least to the inner pair of these 
organs in the Crustacea, and ‘hence the Arachnida and Myriapoda are not, in this 


respect, anomalous exceptions to the principle. | 


THE FIRST CLASS OF ARTICULATED ANIMALS WITH 
* ARTICULATED LEGS. 


CRUSTACEA. 


The Crustacea are articulated animals, provided with articulated legs, respiring by 
branchiz (a kind of gills), covered in some species by the sides of the carapax or shell, 
and external in others ; but which are not inclosed in particular cavities of the body, 
recelving the air by means of orifices in the surface of the skin. Their circulation is 


408 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


double, and analogous to that of the Mollusca. The blood is transmitted from the 
heart, situated near the back, to the different parts of the body, where it is conveyed 
to the branchiz, and thence back to the heart. These branchie are situated either at 
the base of the legs or upon the legs themselves, or upon the subabdominal ap- 
pendages, forming either pyramidal masses, composed of layers of fine plates or clothed 
with sete, or consisting of simple plates in tufts, even in some appearing to consist 
only of hairs. 

The nervous system of the Crustacea (especially investigated by Cuvier, Audouin, 
and Milne Edwards), exhibits two very different appearances, constituting the two 
extremes of the modifications it presents in this class. Sometimes, as in the leaping 
shrimps (Yalitrus), it is composed of two nervous chords, with knots or ganglions 
at equal distances along the whole length of the body, and sometimes, as in the Crab 
(Maia Squinado), it consists of only two nervous masses, of unequal size, one placed in 
the head and the other in the thorax. Other Crustacea (Cymothoa, Phyllosoma, 
Palinvrus, Palemon, and Astacus), exhibit intermediate formations, showing the 
gradual modifications.* 

The Crustacea are destitute of wings, provided with two facetted eyes, but rarely 
with simple eyes, and generally with four antenne. They have in general (the 
Peecilopoda excepted) three pairs of maxille (the upper pair or true mandibles included), 
the same number of foot-jaws, the outer pairs of which become, in many species, real 
feet; and ten legs, all of which are terminated by a single hook. When the two 
outer pairs of foot-jaws perform the office of feet, the number of legs is [increased to} 
fourteen. The mouth consists, as in insects, of an upper lip, a tongue, but no true 
lower lip comparable with that of insects, the external pair of foot-jaws [the third 
pair, or, where the two outer pairs become legs, the first pair] closing the mouth and 
acting instead of a lip, [thus proving what has been suggested above relative to the 
nature of the labium in insects]. 

Their envelope is generally solid, and more or less calcareous. 
coats several times, generally retaining their primitive form} and their natural activity. 
They are in general carnivorous, aquatic, and their life extends through several years. 
They do not become adults until after a series of moultings. With the exception of a 
small number in which these moultings somewhat modify the primitive form, and 
augment the number of locomotive organs, these animals are at their birth (size. 
excepted) such as they will remain throughout their life. 

The situation and the form of the branchiz, the manner in which the head is 
articulated with the trunk or thorax, the moveable or fixed structure of the eyes}, the 
organs of mastication, and the tegumentary system, form the bases of our distribution, 
and give rise to the following orders in the class, and which are confirmed by the 


observations hitherto made upon the nervous system. 


They change their 


* (The modifications in the structure of the nervous system of the 
larva, pupa, and imag of the same insect, fully confirm this, that of 
the larva resembling that of the Talitrus, whilst that of the imago is 
nore analogous to that of the Crab. If we regard the larva as in a 
state of immaturity or imperfection, we should be led to consider the 
Crab as far higher in the chain of nature than the Talitrus, and such 
is the station generally assigned to it, without reference to its nervous 
system. ] 

+ [This statement has been opposed by Dr. J. V. Thompson, in his 
Zoological Researches and other more recent articles, this writer 
asserting that the Crustacea undergo a series of transformations as 
striking as those of the true insects; the anomalous animals long 
known under the generic name of Zoea, and which have long perplexed 


Crustaceologists (for want of a perfect investigation of their struc- 
ture), being affirmed by him to be the young of the Crabs and other 
Decapoda. In some cases, however, where. a minute analysis of the 
eggs of different species has been made, a contrary result has been 
obtained, Rathke having dissected the egys and watched the gradual 
developement of the embryo of the crayfish, and I having dissected 
the eggs of the land crab of the West Indies, the young in both in- 
stances (and in others subsequently observed by Rathke) resembling 
the parents in general appearance. ] 

t Whence Lamarck divided the Crustacea into the Pediocles (or eyes 
on footstalks) and Sessiliocles (or sessile eyes). Leach changed these 
names (applying them only to the Malacostraca) into Podopthalma and 
Edriopthalma. Gronovius first employed this character. 


CRUSTACEA. 409 

We divide the class into two sections, Malacostraca and Entomostraca.* 

The Matacosrraca have the envelope ordinarily very solid, of a calcareous nature, 
and ten or fourteen} legs, hooked at the tip; the mouth placed in the ordinary 
situation, and composed of a labrum, a lingua, a tongue, two mandibles, often palpi- 
gerous{, two pairs of maxillz covered by the foot-jaws. Ina great number each of 
the eyes is supported upon a moveable footstalk, articulated [at its base], and the 
branchiz are hidden beneath the lateral margins of the carapax or shell; in others, how- 
ever, they are attached beneath the post-abdomen. 

The Malacostraca consist of five orders :—1. Decapoda ; 2. Stomapoda ; 3. Lemodipoda; 
4. Amphipoda; 5. Isopoda. The first four of these orders were included in the Linnean 
genus Cancer, and the last in his genus Oniscus. 

The Enromosrraca, or shell insects (énsectes & coquille) of Muller, are composed of 
the genus Monoculus of Linnzus. ‘The envelope is corneous, very slender, and the 
body in the majority is covered by a shell, composed of two pieces, not unlike that of 
the bivalve Mollusca. The eyes are ordinarily sessile, and often there is but one 
The legs, of which the number varies, are, in the majority, 
Some of them are most 


of. these organs. 
fitted only for swimming, without any terminal hook. 
nearly allied to the preceding groups by having the mouth anteriorly situated, and 
composed of a labrum, two mandibles (rarely palpigerous), a tongue, and at most two 
pair of maxillz, the outer ones not being covered by foot-jaws. In the others, which 
appear to approach the Arachnida in many respects, the organs of mastication some- 
times merely consist of the cox of the legs advanced and lobe-like, armed with 
numerous small spines, and surrounding a large central pharynx: whilst in others they 
form a small siphon or beak, used as a sucker, as in many Arachnida and Insects ; and 
even sometimes they are not, or scarcely, visible on the exterior of the body, the 
siphon itself being either internal, or the action of suction being performed by a kind 
of sucking cup (ventouse). 

Hence the Entomostraca are either dentate or edentate. The dentate species com- 
pose one order, Branchiopoda, and the edentate that of Pcecilopoda§, which, in the first 
edition of this book, I had considered as a section of the preceding order. 


favour of sections characterizea by the mouth organs) into five orders, 
Lophyropoda, Ostrapoda, Phyllopoda, Xiphosura, and Siphonostoma, 
and had characterized several sub-orders which Edwards subsequently 


* Jurine divided the class into two sections, founded upon the pre- 
sence or want of jaws,in his Memoir on Argulus. [Latreille also 
adopted this as a primary character in his Cours d’Entomologic.} 


+ The four anterior, when there are fourteen, are formed of the 
four posterior foot-jaws. In the Decapoda the six foot-jaws are ap- 
plied to the mouth, and serve as under jaws. 

t [This peculiarity never occurs in the true insects, and serves to 
prove that the mandibles are but modified maxillw, or rather, to speak 
more theoretically, the inferior appendages of one of the articulations 
of the body.] 

§In my Familles Nuturelles du Regne Animal, the Entomostraca 
were divided into four orders, namely, Lophyropoda, Phyllopoda, 
Xiphosura, and Siphonostoma. [The Entomostracous Crustacea, like 
the Invertebrata, having been proved by recent investigators to con- 
sist of several tribes of animals much more strongly modified in their 
Structure than the Malacostraca, it has become necessary to establish 
a greater number of orders and primary groups for their reception 
than were proposed in this work, and Latreille himself became aware 
of the necessity for such a step, having considerably altered the 
arrangement of the class in his Cours d’Entomologie subsequently 
published. Milne Edwards, Burmeister, and De Haan have especially 


investigated these animals during the last ten years, and it will be 
serviceable to give a short abstract of the arrangements which they 
have proposed, especially as the works of the two last-named authors 
are in the hands of so few naturalists, that even Milne Edwards has 
not mentioned them in his Review of Crustaceology (Suites de Bujfon). 
Latreille himself, in his Cours d’Entomologie, had cut up the Ento- 

mostraca (which he had sunk as a primary section of the class in 


adopted in the following sketch (Suites de Buffon, Crust. I. p. 236, 
modified from that published in the dnnales des Sci. Nat., March, 


1830). 
Subclass J.—Crustacea with maxille. 


Legion 1. Podopthalma, 
Order 1. Decapoda. 
2. Stomapoda. 
Legion 2. Edriopthalma. 
Order 3. Amphipoda. 
Order 5. Leemipoda. 
Legion 3. Entomustraca. 
Order 8. Copepoda (Cyclops) 
9. Cladocera(Daphnia,&c.) 


Order 4. Isopoda 
Legion 2. Branchiopoda. 
Order 6. Ostrapoda(Cythere). 
7. Phyllopoda. 


Legion 4, Trilobita, 


Subclass [1].—Crustacea with a sucker. 
Legion 1. Ambulatory Parasites. 
Order 10, Araneiformes (Pycnogonum). 
Legion 2. Swimniing Parasites, 
Order 11. Siphonostoma. 
12. Lerner. 
Subclass I11.—Crustacea Xiphosura. 
Order 13. Xiphosura. 
Burmeister, in his Grundriss fur Naturgeschichte, Zoologischer 
Handatlas, and Memoir on the Cirripedes, has divided the class into 


three orders only :— 


410 CRUSTACEA. 


The singular fossils called Trilobites, of which M. Brongniart has furnished an 
excellent monograph, being considered by him and many other naturalists as crus- 
taceous animals allied to the Entomostraca, we have introduced them concisely at the 
end of that section. 


FIRST GENERAL DIVISION. 


CRUSTACEA MALACOSTRACA,— 


Which are divisible into those which have the eyes placed on a moveable foot-stalk, 
and those which have them sessile and fixed. 

Those Matacosrraca with the eyes placed on a moveable foot-stalk, articulated 
[at the base, Poporruatma, Leach], composing the orders Decapoda and Stomapoda, 
have many characters in common. A large shield, sometimes divided into two parts, 
and termed the shell or carapax, covers a large portion of the front of the body. They 
have four antennz, the exterior pair being longest and simple, whilst the intermediate 
pair is shorter, and divided at the tip into two branches in the crabs, and into three in 
many of the Macrura; two mandibles, each with a three-jointed palpus near the base, 
a bilobed tongue, two pairs of maxille, three pairs of foot-jaws, the two outer pairs 
being in some [Squilla] transformed into claws, and ten or fourteen (in those species 
which have the four outer foot-jaws leg-shaped) legs. 

In the majority the branchiz, of which there are seven pairs, are hidden beneath the 
lateral margins of the carapax, the two anterior pairs being fixed at the base of the two 
exterior pairs of foot-jaws, and the others at the base of the true legs. In the other 
species [Squilla, &c.] they form brushes attached to the five pairs of sub-abdominal 
swimming legs. The under side of this post-abdomen is likewise furnished in the 
others with four or five pairs of bifid appendages. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF CRUSTACEA. 


DECAPODA (TEN-FOOTED). 


The head is compactly soldered to the thorax, and covered, as well as that part of the body, 
by a large and continuous shell or carapax, generally exhibiting on its surface various 
impressed Ines, dividing it into regions corresponding with the imternal organs, and which 
have been ingeniously named by M. Desmarest. The circulatory system differs in some 
respects from that of the other Crustacea; the blood before reaching the branchix to be 
oxygenated passing through two great reservoirs, one on each side, above the legs, analogous 
to the lateral hearts of the Cephalopods, according to Milne Edwards, Audouin, and Cuvier. 


divisions, Gammarina, Typhina, Loemodipoda, Epicarida, Cymo- 
thoade, Spheromatoda, Asellina, Idotoda, and Oniscoda. 


1. Aspidostraca, divided into five sub-orders. 
1. Parasita, including the Penellina, Lernwoda, Ergasilina, 
Caligina, and Argulina. 
2. Lophyropoda, including the Ostracoda, Cladocera, and 
Cyclopida. 
3. Phyllopoda, including the Gymnota (Branchipus), and As- 
pidophora (Apus). 
4. Cirripedia, including the Lepadea and Balauoda. 
5. Peecilopoda, including only Xiphosura. 
2. Thoracostraca (Podopthalma, Leach), divided into two suborders, 
Decapoda and Stomapoda. 
3. Arthrostraca (Edriopthulma, Leach), divided into nine minor 


De Haan, in his magnificent work npon the Crustacea of Japan, 
adopting the quinarian circular system of M’'Leay, divides the class 
into five orders,—Decapoda, Stomapoda, Tetradecapoda(Edriopthalma, 
Leach), Lophyropoda, and Phyllopoda, M. Duverney has, within the 
last few months, submitted a Memoir to the Académie des Sciences at 
Paris, proposing a new classification of the Crustacea according to the 
organs of respiration, dividing the class into three principal groups, 
Nudibranchie, Cryptobranchiz, and Lamellibranchie ; but the adop- 
tion of this, like any other single character, has had the effect of 
| breaking the most natural relations.) 


mh, 
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Bek) oe ja ‘ 


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BEETLES » 


———— 


— 


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a 


Awacephala 


Cnrvicornis - 


Drnastes 
Hardwiclai. 


Circeelhwin 
Lyeeus . 


~ } Whoo 
qe Gilding 


DECAPODA. 411 


The lateral edges of the carapax are bent downwards in order to cover and defend the 
branchiz, an aperture being left in front of the shell for the passage of the water.* The 
branchiz are situated at the base of the four exterior foot-jaws and of the legs, the four 
anterior being smallest. The six foot-jaws are of a different form, applied to the mouth and 
divided into two branches, the exterior resembling a small antenna, furnished at the tip with 
a short multiarticulate piece [and the interior composed of several joints, the two basal being 
greatly dilated in the crabs], the base being also furnished with a long pilose tendinous branch. 
The anterior pair of legs, and sometimes the two or four following, form large claws, the 
penultimate joint being dilated, with its lower extremity prolonged into a finger opposed to 
the terminal joints or true tragus, which is moveable, and is named the pollex, whilst the 
other is fixed, and is named the index. In Squilla the last joint is very short, and then the 
penultimate jomt folds back upon the preceding. The antepenultimate joint is the carpus. 
The respective proportions and situation of their limbs is such that these creatures are able to 
walk sideways or backwards [crab-like]. 

The majority of the viscera are inclosed in the thorax, which thus represents the thorax 
and greater part of the abdomen of the imsects; the terminal articulated parts of the body 
immediately following those segments to which the five pairs of true legs are attached, con- 
stitute the part which I name the post-abdomen. The stomach is armed within with five 
bony and dentated pieces which serve to triturate the food. At the time of moulting, two 
calcareous bodies, round on one side and flat on the other, are found in the stomach, 
which are ordinarily called crabs-eyes, and which, as they disappear after moulting, have 
been considered to furnish the material for the renewal of the carapax. 

The growth of these animals is slow, and they live for a long time. It is amongst these 
animals that we find the largest species of annulosa, as well as the most useful as articles of 
food ; their flesh is, however, hard of digestion. The body of some species of Palinurus is 
more than a foot in length. Their claws, as is well known, are extremely powerful. They 
ordinarily reside in the water, but are not immediately killed by being removed into the air : 
indeed, some species pass a considerable part of their existence out of the water, which they 
only seek in order to deposit their eggs init. They are, nevertheless, compelled to reside in 
damp situations and burrows. They are naturally voracious and. carnivorous : some species, 
indeed, are said to frequent the cemeteries in order to feed upon dead bodies. Their limbs 
are renewed [when injured] with great quickness, but it is necessary that the fracture should 
have been made at the junction of the joints: they, however, have the instinct to effect this if 
the wound has been of a different nature. When desirous to change their skins, they seek 
for some retired spot, where they may be at rest and secure from their enemies. The moult- 
ing then takes place, the body being at first soft and of a delicate flavour, [as in the case of the 
black crab of the West Indies, which is kept in cages expressly for the table]. The chemical 
analysis of the old shell proves that it is formed of carbonate of lime and phosphate of lime in 
different proporticns. By the action of the heat the epidermis assumes a bright red colour, 
the colouring principle being decomposed by the action of boiling water. 

The greater number of fossil Crustacea hitherto discovered belong to the order of Decapoda. 
Amongst the European fossil species, the most ancient approach nearest to the existing species 
found in tropical seas, while the more modern ones have a greater resemblance to the species 
now existing in our own climates. The fossil Crustacea of tropical regidns bear a greater re- 
lation to the existing species found in the same situations —a fact of considerable geological 
interest. [The order contains two families, or rather sub-orders, named, from the comparative 
size of the tail, Brachyura (short tailed) and Macroura or Macrura (long tailed.)+] 


* MM. Audouin and Milne Edwards have communicated to the | the blood during a considerable period]. It is on this account that 
Académie des Sciences some interesting observations upona peculiar | these crabs have the sides of the thorax more gibbose than ordinary. 
organ which exists in the Land Crabs, forming a kind of reservoir, + (M. Edwards proposed the establishment of a third sub-order under 


placed immediately above the branchiz, and capable of containing a | the name of Anomoura, forming a passage between the two other 
certain quantity of water [serving of course for the oxygenation of | groups, and composed of species belonging strictly to neither, which 


4] 


CRUSTACEA. 


THE FIRST FAMILY* OF DECAPODA,— 


Decaropa Bracuyura (Kleistagnatha, Fabricius),— 


Has the tail (or post-abdomen) shorter than the 


thorax, without appendages or swimmerets at its 


extremity, and. in a state of rest folded beneath the breast, and lodged in a sternal cavity. 


Fig. 1.—Carcinus Menas (Common small Edible Crab), upper side and under 
side of the body, with the limbs truucated.—a, lateral antenna; 6, inter- 
mediate antenna; c, eye; d, outer foot jaw; e, f, &, , base of the five pairs 


of legs; A, tail; /, sternum. 


It is triangular in the males, but rounded 
and swollen in the females, and is furnished 
in the former with four or two appendages at 
the base [on the inside], whilst in the female 
it has four pair of double filaments employed 
in carrying the eggs, and which are analogous 
to the swimming sub-abdominal appendages of 
the Macrura. The antenne are small; the 
intermediate pair, generally lodged in a cavity 
beneath the fore-margin of the carapax, are 
terminated by two very short [articulated] 
filaments. The peduncles of the eyes are 
larger thanin the Macrura. The first pair of 
legs is terminated by a claw. The branchize 
are arranged ina single row in the form of 
pyramidal plates, composed of a great num- 
ber of minute leaflets spread one upon the 
other: the foot-jaws are ordinarily shorter 


and broader than in the Decapods, the outer pair forming a kind of labium. 
This family may be regarded as constituting the single genus 


CanceR,— 


Comprising the numerous species of crabs [and consisting of a portion only of the Linnean genus 
Cancer, divisible into seven. sections and a great number of minor divisions, regarded by recent authors 


as genera]. 


Of these the majority have the legs attached at the sides of the breast, and always ex- 


posed. The species thus characterized constitute the first five sections, Pinnipedes, Arcuata, Quadri- 


latera, Orbiculata, and Trigona.{ 


had long perplexed Crustaceologists ; and M‘Leay, in order to adopt | 
his quinarian system to these animals, has divided the Decapoda into 
five tribes, Tetragonostoma and Trigonostoma (composing the 
Brachyura), and Anomura, Sarobranchia, and Caridea (composing 
the Macroura).—ZJllustr. Annulos. of South Africa, No. 3.) 

* The groups thus indicated are founded upon a general survey of 
important anatomical characters, and generally correspond with the 
Linnean genera, and sometimes also to those of the earlier works of 
Fabricius. These families are here of greater extent than in my 
other writings ; but if we regard these as primary ordinal divisions, 
and the groups here called tribes as families, the arrangement will be 
found essertially identical. In the same manner the subgenera here 
indicated ought, ina more detailed arrangement, to be regarded as 
genera, and thus, although the Decapoda are here only divided into 
two genera, it wuuld be correct, in order to bring the system tu the 
level of our present knowledge, and in order to diminish the vast 
number of sub-genera, to convert the sections into tribes or genera, 
which might then be divided into subgenera, 

+ The apparent number of segments is generally seven, varying 
occasionally in the sexes of the same species, in which case the 
females have the least number. Dr. Leach made great use of this 
character, but it appears to me to be too unimportant. 

t [Latreille regarded this arrangement of the Crabs here given as 
artificial in many respects, and he had modified it not only in his 
Familles Naturelles, in which the tribes here given were introduced 
but their relative position altered, but in his subsequent Cowrs 


@Entomologie he proposed ano her arrangement of the order, as 
follows :— 


Section 1. Homocheles, claws of equal size in both sexes. 
Division 1. All the feet attached to the body in the same line. 
Tribes.—1. Quadrilatera, 2. Arcuata, 3. Pinnipedes, 4. Christi- 
mani, 5. Cryptopoda, 


Division 2. With the two or four posterior legs dorsal. 
Tribe.—6. Notopoda, 


Section 2. Heterocheles, claws of the males larger than those of the 
females, 
Division 1, All the legs in the same line. 
Tribes.—7. Orbiculata, 8. Trigona. 
Division 2, Hind pairs of legs very small, and either dorsal or 
abortive. 
Tribe.—9. Hypopthalma. 


Pr. Leach, as above mentioned, adopted the number of abdominal 
segments, and was consequently led to distribute this order into still 
more numerous families. Milne Edwards, however, in his Hist. Nat. 
des Crustacés, now in course of publication, has, from anatomical 
considerations, considered it more natural to separate the Brachyura 
into only four great families. 

1. The Oxyrhycha (Trigona, Latr. or the families Maiade, Lithodiadee, 
and Macropodiade of Leach), consisting of the sea spiders or thorn- 
backed crabs, the legs being long, the carapax narrowed into a point 
infront, the epistoma very large and nearly square. (Three tribes, 
Macropodiens, Maiens, and Parthenopiens). 

The Cyclometopa (or the Cancerida, Portunida, and Pilumnide 
of Leach): carapax very large, arched in front, narrowed behind, legs 
moderately long, epistoma very short, transverse. (Two tribes, 
1. Canceriens, composed of three sub-tribes, Cryptopoda, Arcuata, 
and Quadrilatera; and, 2. Portuniens or Pinnipedes). 

The Catametopa (Ocypodiade, Leach), having the carapax quad- 
rilateral or ovoid, the front trausverse aud knotted, epistoma very 


Ge 


oS 


short. 

4, The Oxystoma (Corystide and Leucosiade, Leach), with the shell 
orbicular and arched in front, which is not poin'ed, epistoma ob- 
solete. 


DECAPODA. 413 


The first section, PINNIPEDES, have the hind pair of legs terminated by a flattened plate for swimming, 
and these species are accordingly met with at a distance from the coasts. 


Amongst these swimming or shuttle-crabs, as they are termed, are especially to be noticed the exotic species, 
composing the genus Matuta, Fab., having the carapax nearly circular, and armed on each side with a strong spine, 
and with the four posterior pairs of legs terminated by a dilated plate for swimming. The same is also thecase, 
but less strongly, in Leach’s genus Polybius, consisting of the single species, P. Henslowii, found on the Devon- 
shire coast. Amongst the species with only the last pair of legs dilated at the extremity into a plate for swim- 
ming, the genus Ovithyia, Fabr., consisting of a single Chinese species, is distinguished by the tail of the males 
being distinctly seven-jointed, whereas there are only five joints in the males of all the other Pinnipedes, the females 
alone having seven joints. Amongst these the genus Podopthalmus, Lamarck, has the carapax transverse, and 
armed at each side with a very long spine; the ocular peduncles are very long (P. spinosus, Latr., Isle of France) ; 
others which have the ocular peduncles short, and which are of the ordinary crab-like form, compose the genus 
Portunus, Fab., amongst which may be mentioned Cancer puter, Linn., and Cancer Meenas, Linn. (Carcinus 
Menas, Leach), two small species, commonly used as articles of food by the lower orders in London. The last- 
named species is exceedingly abundant; the terminal joint of the hind legs is much narrower than in the preced- 
ing groups, and thus this species forms a passage to— 


The second section, ARcuatTa, in which the tarsus, or last joint of all the legs, is conical, and some- 
times compressed, but never forming a swimming plate, and the carapax arched in front and narrowed 
behind, with the claws of equal size in both sexes, and the tail is composed of the same number of 
segments as in the Portuni. The true Crabs, composing the restricted genus Cancer, Fabr., are the 
types of this section, and are distinguished by having the third joint of the outer foot-jaws emarginate 
or sinuated near the inner extremity, and nearly square. The antenne scarcely extend beyond the 
front, with but few joints, and are folded backwards. 


Cancer pagurus, Linn., the common large edible crab, has the carapax very broad, and arched for a great dis- 
tance along the sides, each side having nine festoons, and the middle in front with three short teeth: the claws 
are large, and the fingers black and armed with obtuse 
points. It sometimes reaches nearly a foot in breadth, 
and is of common occurrence on the coasts of England 
and France. [It is captured by sinking pots, baskets, 
or nets, baited with decaying animal matter, to a con- 
siderable depth in the ocean, along the rocky coast. 
During the summer months it is very abundant, especi- 
ally where the water is deep; and at low tide they are 
found in holes of rocks in pairs, male and female, and if 
the male be taken away another will be found in the 
hole at the next recess of the tide. By knowing this 
fact, an experienced fisherman may twice a day take 
with little work a vast number of specimens, after hay- 
ing discovered their haunts. In the winter they are 
supposed to burrow in the sand, or to retire to the 
deeper parts of the ocean. (Ent. Compend. p. 86.) Mr. 
Bell has described some beautiful exotic species of this 

genus in the Transactions of the Zoological Society, 


i Xantho, Leach, is nearly allied to the 
Fig. 2.—Cancer Pagurus, Linn., with the tail of the male, a; and ot vol. i.] The onus 3 ¢ U 7 y 
. the female, b. preceding, but having the external antenne short, and 


inserted in the external canthus of the eye. The typical species, X. florida, Leach, inhabits our coasts. 

The genus Perimela, Leach, has a longer carapax, with the edges strongly toothed, the eight hind legs equally 
compressed, and longer antenne. P. denticulata, Leach, occurs in various parts of our coast, and in the Medi- 
terranean. ; i ‘ 

The genus Afelecyclus, Leach, has the carapax nearly rounded, and dentated at the sides, the tail narrower than 
in the preceding; the lateral antenna elongated, the claws very strong, and rather short. The type of this 
genus is the Cancer 7-dentatus of Montague, by whom it was discovered on the coast of Devonshire. Other 
genera, which it would occupy too much space to notice, have been separated by Leach, Latreille, and others. 
Amongst them, however, the two exotic genera, Mursea, Leach, and Hepatus, Lat., are distinguished by their 
claws being greatly compressed, so that they have subsequently been separated by Latreille, as a section thence 
named Cristimani, or crested-handed Crabs. 


Shell arcuated, with the ) Coyatrina 


Mr. M‘Leay’s arrangement of the Brachyura, as givenin the 3rd hod ae ; 
ge y B { Caucrina (Arched Crabs) 4 factoflen untetory inl] 


part of the Illustrations of the Zuology of Southern Africa, just pub- 


F ; : s yen, with 

lished, is as follows -— ! Parthenopina (Rocky Crabs) { pees } Calappina. 
Tribe Tetragonostoma, Analogies. Tribe Trigonostoma. 5 

Pi therina(Parasit. Crabs) Shell orbicular Dromiina. Inachina (Triangular Crabs) Hales Poets aera Lencosina.)} 
178 tal nachina (Triang generally spined G 


Grapsina (Square Crabs) Shell quadrilateral Dorippina. 


414 CRUSTACEA. 


The third section, QUADRILATERA, have the carapax nearly square, or heart-shaped, with the front 
generally elongated and deflexed, forming a kind of hood. The tail is composed of seven segments in 
both sexes, the joints being distinct throughout the entire breadth of the tail. The antenne are 
generally very short. The eyes are generally placed upon long peduncles. Many species reside in the 
ground, forming burrows for their retreats, and some frequent fresh water. They are able to 
run very fast. Some of these species have the carapax somewhat heart-shaped [thus nearly resembling 
some of the 4rcuatal, with the front margin strongly toothed, including the genera Eriphia, Lat., 
Trapezia, Lat., and Pilumnus, Leach, in which last the claws are of unequal size. 


The Thelphuse, Lat., have the lateral antenne shorter than the ocular peduncles, and few-jointed. The carapax 
is nearly of a cordate truncate form, (but broader behind than in the preceding]. There are several species of this 
genus, which reside in fresh water, but being able to exist for a considerable time out of their native element ; 
one noticed by the ancients occurs in the south of Europe; it is the Cancer fluviatilis, Belon. It is often repre- 
sented upon the ancient Greek medals. The Greek monks eat it uncooked, and it forms a common article of food 
in Italy during Lent. Delalande and De Latour discovered two other species, one in the south of Africa and the 
other in the mountains of Ceylon. [I have described and figured another species, under the name of Thelphusa 
cunicularis, discovered by Col. Sykes, in the ghauts of the Deccan, where it occurs in great abundance, and of 
which Bishop Heber thus speaks in his Journal:—‘“‘ All the grass through the Deccan generally swarms with a 
small land-crab, which burrows in the ground, and runs with considerable swiftness, even when encumbered with 
a bundle of food as big as itself; this food is grass, or the green stalks of rice, and it is amusing to see the crab 
sitting, as it were, upright to cut their hay with their sharp pincers, and then waddling off with their sheaf to their 
holes, as quickly as their side-long pace will carry them.” Col. Sykes found them on the table lands at an eleva- 
tion of nearly 4000 feet above the sea, and as they are met with of all sizes, he believes that there productive pro- 
cess is completed without the Crab having to undertake any annual journey to the sea, their migrations having 
never been noticed.— Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. i.] To this section also belong other species of Land Crabs, composing 
the genera Gelasimus, Ocypoda, and Mictyris. The first of these genera has the carapax solid, and nearly quadri- 
lateral, but rather broader in front; one of the claws is generally much longer than the other, the fingers of the 
smaller claws being spoon-shaped. The animal closes the mouth of its burrow, which it makes near the shore, 
with its largerclaw. These burrows are cylindrical, oblique, and very deep, each having a single inhabitant. It is 
the habit of this Crab to hold up the large claw in the front of the body, as though beckoning to some one, 
whence they have obtained the name of Calling Crabs. The species of Ocypoda has the eyes extended along the 
greater length of the foot-stalks. Their claws are also unequal, but not to the same extent as in the Gelasimi. 
During the day they sit in their burrows, venturing forth only after sun-set. The type Cancer cursor, Linn., inha- 
bits Syria and Northern Africa. Other species of Land Crabs are of a truncate cordate form, with the shell rounded 
and dilated at the sides. They inhabit tropical climates, and are called by the inhabitants tourlouroux, painted 
Crabs, land Crabs, violet Crabs, &c., which names seem to be applied indiscriminately. There are few travellers 
who have not mentioned their habits, often mixing up much fiction in their accounts. They pass the greater part 
of their lives in the earth, hiding themselves by day and coming abroad only at night. Sometimes they frequent 
cemeteries. Once a year, as the period for depositing their eggs draws near, they assemble in numerous com- 
panies, and following the most direct line, seek the coast without permitting any obstacle to intercept them in 
their way; after laying their eggs [in the water] they return, greatly enfeebled. It is said that they close the 
mouth of their burrows at the period of moulting, after which operation, and whilst still soft, they are reckoned 
a great delicacy. These species compose the genera Uca, Latreille, (type Cancer uca, Linn., South America), and 
Gecarcinus, Leach, (Cancer ruricola, Cuy., &c.) 

Another interesting group constitutes the genus Pinnotheres, Latr. These are of very small size [of which 
there are several native species, named pea-crabs], and which reside, during a portion of the year at least, inside 
various bivalve shells, such as muscles, &c. The carapax of the females is suborbicular, very thin and soft; 
whilst that of the males is firmer and nearly globular, and rather pointed in front; the legs are of moderate 
length, and the claws of the ordinary form; the tail of the female is very ample, and covers the whole of the 
underside of the body. The ancients believed that the Pea-crab lived upon the best terms with the inhabitant of 
the shell in which it was found; and that they not only warned them of danger, but went abroad to cater for 
them. The type is the Cancer Pisum, Lin., and Leach has investigated the species in his Malacostraca Podo- 
pthalma Britannica; [but this author has given the males and young as distinct species. See further J. V. Thomp- 
son’s Memoir on this genus in the Entomol. Mag., vol. iii.] 

The section consists of several other well-marked genera, such as Grapsus, Lamarck, Plagusia, Latr., &c. 


The fourth section, OrBrcuLaTa, have the carapax either somewhat globular, or rhomboidal, or ovoid, 
and always very solid; the ocular peduncles are always short, or but slightly elongated; the claws of 
unequal size, according to the sexes, those of the males being the largest; the tail never consists of 
seven entire segments; the oral cavity is gradually narrowed towards its superior extremity; and the 
third joint of the outer foot-jaws is always in the form of along triangle; the posterior legs resemble 
the preceding, and none of them are very long. 


Corystes, Latr., has the carapax of an ovoid-oblong form, with the lateral antenne [nearly as long as the body], 


DECAPODA. 415 


and ciliated. The tail is composed of seven segments, but three of them are confluent in the males. The type 
is Cancer personatus, Herbst., found upon the coast of England. [This genus is of very difficult location, and has 
little real relation with Leucosia: it is more nearly allied to some of the arcuated species. ] 

Leucosia, Fab., has the carapax of variable form, but generally globular or ovoid, and as hard as stone; the 
lateral antennz and eyes are very small; the tail, large and suborbicular in the females, is generally composed of 
four or five, but never of seven segments. Dr. Leach cut up this genus into many others. <A very few species 
belonging to his genus Ebalia are found on the English coast. The majority of the family inhabit tropical seas. 


The fifth section, TRicona, is of very great extent, and consists of species having the carapax 
generally irregular or subovoid, and narrowed in front into a kind of beak; ordinarily very rough and 
uneven, with the eyes lateral. The epistoma, or space between the antennz and oral cavity, is always 
nearly square, and as long as broad. The claws, at least of the males, are always large and long. 
The following legs are very long in the majority, and occasionally the posterior pair have a form dif- 
ferent from the preceding. The apparent number of joints in the tail varies, being seven in both sexes 
of the majority of species; but in others, at least in the males, it is less. Many of these crabs are 
commonly called sea spiders. Although the number of species of this section are very numerous, only 
two had been discovered in a fossil state; one of which, Maia Sguinado, exists at the present time in 
the same localities. 


Latreille divides this section into sub-sections, from the number of joints in the tail, and the form of the joints of 
the foot-jaws. Amongst those with the tail, either in both sexes, or in the females, composed of seven segments, 
Parthenope, Fabr., is distinguished by the immense size of the claws, and the smallness of the other legs; the 
fingers are suddenly bent downwards, the ocular peduncles very short, and the carapax exceedingly rough. 
A species found on the coasts of England and France (Cancer asper, Pennant) forms the genus Zurynome, Leach: 
the tail is seven-jointed. The other species of Parthenope are found in the Indian ocean. 

Maia, Leach, has the fingers not deflexed; the anterior pair of legs scarcely thicker than the others, which are 
moderately long ;, the carapax has two frontal spines, and its back and sides are also armed with many tubercles 
and spines. The typical species, Cancer Squinado, Herbst., is very common on the coasts of France and the 
Mediterranean. It is one of the largest of our crabs, and was known to the ancient Greeks under the name of 
Maia, being sometimes figured on their medals. [By the fishermen it is called the Thorn-back, or King Crab.] 
Another common British species is the Cancer araneus, Lin., belonging to Leach’s genus Hyas, having the 
carapax elongate, subtriangular, subtubercled, with the lateral margins dilated into a lanceolate projection, ex- 
ternal antenne with the first joint dilated. 

Amongst the species, which have not more than six abdominal segments, and the legs generally long and 
filiform, and the third joint of the outer foot-jaw narrower than in the preceding subsection, Hymenosoma, 
Leach, has the carapax triangular or orbicular, depressed [and soft], and the basal joint of the lateral antenne 
does not reach beyond the ocular peduncles. The species are small, and found in the Indian and Australian seas. 
The British genera, Inachus and Acheus, have the carapax subconvex and triangular, and their abdomen six- 
jointed. Their four pair of posterior legs are very long, especially the pair succeeding the claws. In the latter 
respect the British genus Stenorhynchus, Latr. (Macropodia, Leach), closely resembles them, having also the tail 
six-jointed in both sexes, and the front of the carapax notched. The type is 
the very common Cancer Phalangium, Pennant. The genus Pactolus, Leach, 
characterized by having the four hind-legs furnished with a didactyle claw [has 
been found by M. Milne Edwards to have been constructed upon a fictitious speci- 
men in the British Museum]. 

Lithodes, Latr., is at once distinguished by having the hind pair of legs so small 
as to appear almost abortive. The type is a large crab of rare occurrence in British 
seas, named Cancer Maia, Linn. The tail is membranous ; the outer foot-jaws are 
elongated and apart ; the carapax is triangular, very spinous, and terminated in a 
toothed spine. [This is a very anomalous genus, whose relations are difficult to 
Fig. 3.—Stenorynchus Phalangiam. decide.) 

[Professor Bell and De Haan have described many new and curious genera belonging to the section Trigona: 
the former, in the second volume of the Transactions of the Zoological Society ; and the latter, in his work upon 


the Crustacea of Japan.] 


The sixth section, Cryproropa, is composed of a few species remarkable for having the legs, 
except the anterior pair, concealed, when folded up, beneath the dilated lateral margin of the carapax, 
which is nearly either semicircular or triangular; the upper edge of the claws is compressed, and 
formed like a cock’s comb. The species are exotic, and compose the two genera Calappa, Fabr., and 
Athra, Leach. In the shape of their claws they resemble some of the Arcuata and Pinnipedes, such as 
Hepatus, Mursia, &c.; so that this section should be placed higher in the series. The same may also 
be said with respect to the species of the following section, some of which approach the dreuata, and 
others the Orbiculata and Trigona. 


416 CRUSTACEA. 


The seventh and last section, the Noropopa, is formed of Crabs having the four or two posterior 
legs inserted above the plane of the others, and seeming to be dorsal, and directed upwards. In those 
where they are not terminated by a sharp hook, the animal generally uses them to retain in its hold 
various marine productions, such as the valves of shells, sea-weeds, &c., with which it covers itself. 
The tail has seven joints in both sexes; the majority have the abdomen bent beneath the breast, and 
the legs terminated by a short hook, and unfitted for swimming. 

Homola, Leach, have the carapax nearly square; the.antenne long; the ocular peduncles long; the claws of 
the males larger than the females, and the posterior pair of legs directed upwards. The outer foot-jaws are long 
and exposed [as in the Macrura]. The type, H. spinifrons, Leach, is a native of the Mediterranean, and is the 
Hippocarcinus of Aldrovandus. 

Dorippe, Fab., has the four hind-legs elevated, as has also Dromia, Fab. 

Dynomene, Latr., has the carapax of the ordinary form, and the two hind legs alone elevated. 

Ranina, Lam., is-a singular genus, differing from all other Brachyura in having the abdomen extended, [but 
not furnished at the end with an apparatus for swimming]; and from the other Notopoda, in having the six 


intermediate legs dilated and natatorial. The carapax is of a reversed triangular form, the front much toothed. 
The species are exotic. 


[The Brachyurous Crustacea, here given as a single genus, Cancer, have, from the great number of 
species of which they consist, their large size, and facility of preservation, owing to their solid envelopes, 
attracted the attention of many recent authors. The Malacostraca Podopthalma Britannica, of 
Leach ; the Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés, by Milne Edwards; the Fauna Japonica, of De Haan; 
the Memoirs of Professor Bell, published in the Transactions of the Zoological Society, and by 
Mr. MacLeay, in Dr. Smith’s Illustrations of Southern Africa; together with Polydore Roux’s elegant 
work upon the Crustacea of the Mediterranean, must be consulted by those who would desire to 
become acquainted with the singular forms and multitudinous genera established in this tribe of 
animals. | 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF DECAPODA,— 


Decaropa Macrura (Exochnata, Fabricius),— 


Is distinguished by having, at the extremity of the tail, on each side, appendages*, ordinarily forming a 
swimmeret or instrument for swimming, the tail itself being at least as long as the body, extended, 
exposed, and bent under only towards the posterior extremity. Its under-side generally presents, in 
both sexes, five pairs of false feet, each terminating in two 
plates or filaments. The tail is always composed of seven 
segments. The branchie are formed of vesicular, bearded 
and villose pyramids, arranged, in many, either in two rows 
or in separate bundles. The antenne are generally long and 
exserted ; the ocular peduncles are mostly short. The external 
feot-jaws are generally narrow, long, and palpiform, and do 
not entirely hide the other [internal] parts of the mouth. The carapax is narrow and more elon- 
gate than in the Brachyura, and ordinarily terminated in front in a point. MM. Audouin and 
Milne Edwards (to whom we must refer for particulars) have noticed that in the lobster (Astacus 
marinus, Fab.), in addition to the two large lateral venous canals, there exists a third, lodged in the 
sternal cavity, in which respect the venous systems of the Macrura and Stomapoda agree. The Ma- 
crura never [or but in a very few instances] quit the water, and with a very few exceptions they are 
all marine. 

Adopting the plan of Delper and Gronovius, the Macrura may be considered as forming but a single 
genus}, Astacus, which may be thus divided :— 


Fig. 4.—Gebia stellata, Leach. 


* These appendages are composed of three pieces, namely, a base, | in the subsequent subgenera they are constantly larger, and there are 
(or support to the two others), articulating with the penultimate seg- | five pairs, supporting the eggs and being useful in swimming. In the 
ment; the terminal segment generally forming with them a fan-like | section Anomala, the peduncle of the intermediate a tenna is pro- 
swimmeret; but in the terminal species the appendages are replaced | portionably longer, and the two or four posterior feet smaller, thus 
by filaments. The sub-abdominal false legs are formed on the same | approaching the Brachyura. 
model, and vary in number, there being only three or four small + The sections which we have proposed ought rather to form +o 
pairs in the Anomala, and wanting in the males (except the antericr | many genera, based upon those of Fabricius. 
pair). In the Hermit Crabs they seem to exist only on one side. But | 


DECAPODA, 417 


Tribe A [ Aschizopoda, Westw.1.—Those which, in the proportions, forms, and uses of the feet, tlie 
anterior, or at least the second, pair being cheliferous, and which carving their eggs beneath their 
tails, approach the Brachyura, and which are ordinarily known under the names of Lobsters, Cray- 
fish, Ja:awns, and Sbrimps. Divisible into four sections :—1. Anomala; 2. Locustz ; 3. Astacini; 4. 
Carides. 

Tribe B [Sehizopoda, Latr.].—Those which have the legs slender and filamentous, accompanied by 
an external articulated branch as long as the limbs, which thus appear doubled in number; fitted for 
swimming, and not cheliferous, the eggs being carried beneath them, and not under the tail. [Opossum 
Shrimps. ]* ; 

The first section [of the tribe Aschizopoda], or the ANomMALA.—The two or four hind legs are always 
much smaller than the preceding. The under side of the tail never presents more than four pairs of 
appendages, or false legs.f The lateral swimming-pieces at the extremity of the tail, or the parts which 
represent them, are thrown back at its sides, so as not to form with the terminal segment a fan-like 
swimmeret. The ocular peduncles are generally longer than those of the Macroura of the following 
sections. [Two subsections, Hippides and Paguriens. ] 

The subsection Hrpprpes (Latr.) has all the upper teguments of the body solid. The two fore-legs 
either terminate in a monodactyle or fingerless hand, like a plate, or they terminate in a point. The 
six or four following legs terminate in a swimming-plate. The two terminal legs are filiform, folded 
back, and situated at the lower base of the tail, which is suddenly narrowed after the first segment, 
which is short and broad, and of which the last is in the form of a long triangle. The lateral appen- 
dages of the penultimate segment are in the form of bent swimming-plates. The sub-abdominal 
appendages are four pairs, and formed of a very slender filiform stem. The antennz are very pilose 
and ciliated, the lateral at first approaching the intermediate, and then being bent outwards. 


Albunea, Fabr., comprises a single species from the Indian Seas (Cancer Symnista, Linn.) 
{a singularly formed animal], with long, setaceous, intermediate antenne; the carapax flat, 
nearly square, rounded at the posterior angles; a pair of very compressed, triangular, 
monodactyle fore-legs,—the three following pairs terminated by a flat, sickle-shaped joint. 

Hippa, Fabr., Emerita, Gronovius, has the antenne short, the intermediate with two fila- 
ments longer than the external; the two fore-legs terminated by a very compressed claw, 
without fingers; the carapax ovoid. Type, Cancer Emeritus, Linn. Indian Seas. 

Remipes, Latr., differs from the last in the four antenna being very short, and nearly of 
equal length; the ocular peduncles very short, and in some other particulars. Type, R. 
testudinarius, Latr. From the seas of New Holland, 


The subsection Pacurigens has the teguments but slightly crustaceous; and 
the tail is generally soft, bag-like, and bent. The two fore-legs terminate in a 
didactyle claw; the four following terminate in a point; and the four posterior 
much shorter, in a small didactyle claw. The first joint of the peduncle of the 
Big 7 6-7 Bemlpes tants lateral antenne presents an appendage ending in a point, or in form of a spine. 

These Crustacea (which the Greeks named Carcinion, and the Romans Cancelli) 
live, for the most. part, in empty univalve shells. The tail, except in Birgus, only presents (and that 
in the female alone) three false legs placed on one of the sides, each divided into two filiform villose 
branches. The three terminal segments are suddenly narrowed. 


Birgus, Leach, has the tail solid, suborbicular, with two rows of plate-like appendages on the under side. The 
fourth pair of legs is but little smaller than the preceding ; the two posterior pair are [very small, and] hidden in 
a groove in the extremity of the carapax. The carapax is in the shape of a reversed heart, being pointed in front. 

On account of their large size, the solid consistence of their teguments, and the form of the tail, these Crabs are 
not able to lodge in shells, but must retire to crevices in the rocks, or hide themselves in burrows in the earth. 


* “It is here proper to observe, that in the recent arrangements of | 2. The Pterygura, or those which have a pair of moveable appendages 
Milne Edwards and M‘Leay, the seventh and last section, Notopoda, | at the extremity of the tail, including the Porcellaniens, Hippiens, 
vf Latreille’s arrangement of the Brachyura, and his first section of | and Paguriens. Thus it will appear that the former section is more 
the Macroura, Anomala, constitute one of the three primary divisions | analogous to the Brachyura, and the latter to the Macroura. } 
of the Decapoda, forming, as may be readily perceived, the passage + With the exception of the anterior pair, these appendages are 
between the Brachyura and the Macroura; and, as constantly occurs | either rudimental or obsolete in the males,—a peculiarity which oc- 
where nature passes from one type of furm to another, we find amongst | curs also in the Galathee, Scyllari, and Palinuri. We may also ob 
these animals some of the most striking anomalies which occur in the | serve, that in these three genera, the swimmerets at the extremity of 
class—hence the name Anomoura, or anomulous-tailed Crabs— | the body are more slender, or nearly membranous, at the posterior 
which are divided by M. Edwards into two primary sections or fami- | margin. In this section, as in Galathaa, the portion of the thorax 
lies —1. The Apterura, or those destitute of a terminal swimmeret, , which supports the hind pair of legs forms a sort of peduncle, whence 
including the Dromiens, Homoliens, Raniniens, and Pactoliens; and, | this pair of legs appears to be attached to the tail. 


EE 


en ne See ee ee SS 


418 CRUSTACEA. 


The best known species (Cancer latro, Linn.) inhabits the Isle of France; and, according to a native tradition, 
it feeds upon the fruit of the cocoa-nut, making its excursions during the night. [It is of large size, and is called 
the Purse Crab. Mr. Cuming found it in abundance in Lord Hood’s Island in the Pacific, living at the roots of 
trees. Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard fed this species for many months on cocoa-nuts ; and Mr. Cuming discovered 
that it climbs the Platanus odoratissima, to feed upon the small nuts of that tree.] 

In the Hermit Crabs (Pagurus, Fabr.), the four hind-legs are much smaller than the preceding, with the claws 
covered with small tubercles. The tail is soft, long, cylindrical, narrowed at the tip, and only furnished with one 
row of filiform, oviferous appendages. The thorax is ovoid or oblong. 

With the exception of some superficially-known species which live in sponges, serpule, alcyons, &c., all the 
others live in univalve shells, of which they close the mouth with their fore-legs and one of their claws, which is 
larger than the others. It is stated that the females deposit their eggs two or three times in a year. 

[The manceuvres of the native species, when they have outgrown their habitations, are quite ludicrous. Crawling 
slowly along the line of empty shells, &c., left by the last wave, and unwilling to part with their now incom- 
modious domicile until another is obtained, they carefully examine, one by one, the shells which lie in their way, 
slipping their tails out of the old house into the new one, and again betaking themselves to the old one, if this 
should not suit. In this manner they proceed until they have found a habitation to their liking. They feed upon 
dead fish, and all kinds of garbage thrown on the shore; and, when alarmed, they draw themselves closely into 
the shell, closing the aperture so firmly, by placing their claws over the entrance, that it is next to impossible to 
extract them without breakirg the shell to pieces. ] 

Some species, forming the subgenus Cenobita, Latr., are distinguished by the antenne stretched forward, the 
intermediate pair being nearly as long as the lateral ones ; the thorax ovoid, conical, narrow, elongated, and very 
much compressed at the sides. These lodge in land-shells on the rocks of the coasts, rolling down, with their 
houses, in moments of danger. The other species, forming the most numerous subgenus, Pagurus, have the inter- 
mediate antenne short and bent, with two short filaments. The front division of the thorax is square, or reversed 
triangular. 

Cancer Bernhardus, Linn. (Pagurus streblonyx, Leach), is very common on the coasts throughout Europe. It is 
of a moderate size. Its two fore-legs are armed with points, with the claws nearly heart-shaped, that on the right- 
hand side being the largest. Pag. Zaujasii, Desmarest, a fossil species, approaches it very closely. 

Another species from the Mediterranean differs from the rest in many characters, and forms the subgenus 
Prophylax, Latr. The tail is coriaceous, linear, and only curved at the tip; and it has two rows of subabdominal 
appendages. Probably the species which live in serpule, alcyons, &c., such as Pagurus tubularis, Fabr., belong 
to this subgenus.* 


In all the subsequent Macroura, the two posterior legs alone are smaller than the preceding. The 
subabdominal appendages are generally five pairs. The teguments are crustacecus. The lateral appen- 
dages of the penultimate segments form a fan-like swimmeret in conjunction with the terminal one. 

The two following sections have a character in common, which separates them from the fourth, or 
that of the Carides. The antenne are inserted [in a line] at the same height, the peduncle of the 
lateral pair being never entirely covered by the scale when present. Often there are only four pairs of 
the false subabdominal feet. The intermediate antennz are never terminated by two threads: they 
are ordinarily shorter, or scarcely as long as their peduncle. The external plate of the swimmeret is 
never transversely divided by a suture. 

The second section, Locusta (so named from the Latin name Locusta, given to the most remark- 
able species of this section by the Romans), have only four pairs of false legs. The extremity of the 
swimmeret at the end of the tail is always nearly membranous, or less solid than the rest. The pe- 
duncle of the intermediate antenne is always longer than the two terminal filaments, and mote or less 
elbowed. The lateral pair have no basal scale, and sometimes they are even widened to a short but 
greatly-dilated plate: sometimes they are very large, long, and much spined. The legs are all nearly 
alike, and terminate in a point,—the anterior pair being but slightly larger than the following; their 
penultimate joint, as well as that of the two posterior, is at most unidentate, but not so much so as to 
form a perfectly didactyle hand. The carapax has no frontal elongation, like a pointed beak or lance. 


Scyllarus, Fabr., exhibits, in its lateral antenne, a perfectly isolated character, the terminal filament being 
obsolete, and the basal joints greatly dilated transversely, forming a broad, flat, horizontal, and more or less 
toothed crest. The outer branch of the subabdominal appendages is terminated by a leaflet, but the inner one, in 
some males only, appears in the form ofa tooth. Leach separated them into the genera Scyllarus, Thenus, and 
Ibacus, founded upon the proportions and forms of the thorax, the position of the eyes, and other parts. They 
form burrows in argillaceous ground near the shores, in which they reside. Type, Scy//arus arctus, Linn. Sceyl- 
larus equinovialis, Fabr., is another species, the flesh of which is greatly esteemed [in the Mediterranean]. 

Palinurus, Fabr., have the lateral antenne large, setaceous, and set with sharp points. These Crustacea, called 
by the Greeks Carabos, and by the Romans Locusta, are amongst the largest animals of the class. The [common] 


* [M. Milne Edwards has published a valuable monograph upon the | Naturelles, which has been abstracted in vol. ii. of his Hist. Nat. 
Paguride in vol. vi. of the new series of the Annales des Sciences | des Crustacés.] 


DECAPODA. 419 


species of our climate [known in the fish-shops under the name of the Spiny Lobster] is found during the winter 
in deep water, approaching the coast only at the return of the spring. It prefers rocky situations. It then lays 
its eggs, which are extremely numerous, minute, and bright red. According to, Risso, they again breed in August. 
The different species are found in the seas of temperate and intertropical zones. The carapax is rough, and 
strongly armed with sharp points or teeth, especially in front. Their colours are varied with red, green, and 
yellow. ‘The tail is often banded, or marked with eyes. The flesh, especially of the females before and during the 
breeding season, is greatly esteemed. 

The common English typical species, Palinurus quadricornis, Fabr. (Astacus elephas, Leach), is of a large size; 
and, when loaded with eggs, weighs twelve or fourteen pounds. It is found upon the French coasts as well as our 
own. It is very abundant on the shores of the Mediterrartean, and has also been found in the fossil state in Italy. 


The third section, Astacini (Latr.), is distinguished from the preceding in the form of the two fore- 
legs, and often also in that of the two following pairs, which terminate in claws with two fingers. In 
some, the two or four hind-legs are much smaller than the preceding, in which respect they approach 
the Anomala; but the fan-like swimmeret at the extremity of the tail, and other characters, remove 
them from that section. The thorax is narrowed in front, which is produced into a beak or pointed 
muzzle. 

The first subsection, GALATHADE#, have, as well as the preceding Macroura, four pairs of false legs. 
The intermediate antennz are elbowed with two filaments, which are clearly shorter than their pe- 
duncle ; and that of the lateral antennz is never furnished with a scaly plate. The two fore-legs are 
alone terminated by a didactyle claw, which is often very broad and flattened. The terminal segment 
of the tail is bilobed, at least in the majority. 


Those species which have the two hind legs much more slender than the preceding, filiform, folded, and useless 
in crawling, are the two following genera. Galathea, Fabr., having the tail extended, the thorax nearly ovoid or 
oblong, the intermediate antennz exposed, and the claws long. The upper surface of the body is generally trans- 
versely wrinkled, spinose, and ciliated. 

Cancer strigosus, Linn., and C. rugosus, Pennant, are two common species on our English coasts. G. gregaria, 
Fabr. (forming Leach’s genus Grimotea), is of a red colour; and was discovered by Sir Joseph Banks in his voyage 
round the world, abounding in some parts of the ocean in such vast quantities that the surface of the water ap- 
peared as if saturated with blood. [Gray, in his Zoological Miscellany, and M. Edwards, have described many 
species of this genus. ] 

Porcellana, Fabr., forms, amongst the Macroura, a remarkable exception in respect to the structure of the tail, 
which is bent under the body, as in the Brachyura. It differs from Galathea in its broader outline, the carapax 
being often suborbicular, or square. The claws are triangular, the basal joints of the outer foot-jaws are dilated, 
and the body is very flat. They are of small size, slow in their movements, and are distributed in all the seas, 
hiding themselves beneath stones on the shore. Some species have the claws very large, villose, and very much 
ciliated: amongst which is the common English species Cancer platycheles, Pennant, of which the outside of the 
claws is alone hairy, aud the thorax naked and rounded. Others have the claws naked, including Cancer hexapus, 
Linn. 

Monolepis, Say, seems to be intermediate between Porcellana and Megalopus, Leach; (Macropa, Latr.) The 
latter differs from the preceding in having the hind pair of legs similar in form and function to the preceding 
pairs; the body much more thick and raised ; the eyes large; the lateral plates of the anal swimmeret composed 
of a single piece; and the abdomen extended, narrow, and merely curved beneath at its extremity. Four species 
are known: three found in the European seas, and the other in the Indian Ocean. [Dr. J. V. Thompson, in his 
Memoir published in the Philosophical Transactions, has expressed his opinion that these animals are the young 
of a Brachyurous Crab. The abdomen is, however, furnished beneath with a double pair of false legs, as in the 
Macroura; and the tail is terminated by a swimmeret.. The branchiz are arranged, however, as in the Brachyura. 
M. Edwards considers them as the young of some of the Anomoura. | 

The second subsection (ASTACINI proper) comprises those species which have four pairs of false [sub- 
abdominal] feet; the intermediate antennez straight, or nearly so, porrected, and terminated by two . 
filaments as long as or longer than the peduncle, and which (except in Gebia) have the four or six fore- 
legs terminated by a didactyle hand. The tail is always extended. The two hind-legs never much 
slenderer than the preceding, nor bent backwards. The peduncle of the lateral antenne is often pro- 
vided with a scale. Some species, as in some of the following sections, live in fresh water. 

Amongst those which have not more than the four fore-legs terminated by two fingers, the lateral antenne not 
furnished with a scale at the base, the outer piece of the lateral plate of the swimmeret withont any transverse 
suture, and which are marine, hiding themselves in burrows which they form in the sand, are the genera Gebia, 
Leach [comprising a small British species], and Thalassina, Latr. [a singular genus from the East Indies]; and 
in both of which the immoveable finger of the claws is very short, whilst it is as long as the moveable finger in 


the genera Callianassa, Leach, in which the fore-claws are very unequal both in their size and form (including a 
single species, C. subterranea, Leach, found on the English and French coasts); and Awiuvs, Leach, in which the 


EE 2 


CRUSTACEA. 


claws are nearly equal, consisting also ofa single species (Avius stir/ynchus, Leach) found upon the coasts of 
England and France. 

Amongst those species which have the six fore-legs forming as many didactyle claws—(a character which removes 
them from all the preceding Decapods, and in which they are related to the species at the head of the following 
section—from which, however, they differ in the fore-claws being by far the largest, the peduncle of the lateral 
antenne furnished with a scale or spines, the outer plate of the swimmeret at the extremity of the tail appearing 
in all the recent species, as though it is divided into two parts by a transverse suture,)—are the following genera. 

Eryon, Desm., comprises a single singular fossil species found in the calcareous stone used for lithography at 
Pappenheim and Aichtedt, in Anspach. The carapax is [very broad], and with very deep lateral incisions. The 
plates of the swimmeret are pointed at the tip. 

The genus Astacus, Gronovius, Fabr., have the lateral plates of the swimmeret broad and rounded at the ex- 
tremity ; the two exterior ones witha transverse suture. The two filaments of the intermediate antenne are 
longer than their peduncles, with the sides of the carapax entire. 

In the marine species of this genus, the middle plate of the tail does not exhibit a transverse suture. Of some 
of these, Leach has formed his genus Nephrops, characterized by the large scale of the Jateral antenne, and the 
long prismatic claws of the fore-legs. Type, Cancer norvegicus, Linn., a species found on our coast. The 
others having the lateral antenne only furnished with two short teeth or spines, and the fore-claws large and oval, 
form the restricted genus Astacus, Leach, the type of which is the common Lobster (Cancer gammarus, Linn. ; 
Astacus marinus, Fabr.), of which the rostrum in front of the carapax is armed with three teeth on each side, and 
a double tooth at the base; and the claws are very large, and unequal in size. The flesh is highly relished. It is 
found in the European Ocean, the Mediterranean, and on the coasts of North America. The internal structure 
has been studied with great diligence by MM. V. Audouin and M. Edwards. 

In the fresh-water species of this genus, the terminal segment of the tail, forming the middle plate of the swim- 
meret, is transversely divided by a suture*; and the claws are rough, and finely toothed on the inside of the 
fingers. The rostrum has a tooth on each side, and two at the base. It is ordinarily of a greenish-brown colour, 
[but, like the lobster, changes to bright red by boiling]. From its common occurrence it has been greatly studied, 
not only as regards its anatomy, but also its habits, 
and the peculiar power it possesses of renewing its 
antenne and legs when thrown off or mutilated. 
The stomach contains, at the time of moulting, two 
stony secretions, formerly used in medicine as ab- 
sorbents, but which are now replaced by carbonate 
of magnesia. It hides itself under stones and in 
burrows [in the banks of rivulets and streams], 
whence it only comes forth in order to search for 
its food, which consists of small mollusca, small 
fishes, and the larve of aquatic insects. It also 
feeds upon decaying flesh, and the carcases of ani- 
mals floating in the water; and which is also used 
as a bait, being placed in the middle of a bundle of faggots, or ina net. Its moulting takes place at the end of 
the spring. Two months after coupling, the female lays her eggs, which are at first collected in a mass, and 
attached, by means of a viscid liquor, to the subabdominal false legs. They are of a bright red colour, and in- 
crease in size before they are hatched. The Crayfish are at their birth very soft, and completely resemble their 
parent. They take refuge beneath her tail, where they remain several days until the different parts of their bodies 
have acquired a sufficient strength. They live to the age of twenty years, increasing in size in proportion to their 
age. Those are preferred which are found in running water. A singular Annelidous parasite (Branchiobdella, 
Odier, in Mem. Soc. d’ Hist. Nat., Paris, p. 69), first observed by Rosel, infests the branchie of the Crayfish. 

Another species inhabits the fresh water of North America; and a third, according to Le Conte, does much in- 
jury to the rice plantations of the same country.t 


Fig. 6.—The Crayfish. 


The fourth section, Cariprs (Latr.), have the intermediate antennz inserted higher than the lateral, 
and the peduncle of the latter is covered by a large scale. The body is arched, as though hunch- 
backed, and of a more slender consistence than in the preceding Crustacea. The front of the carapax 


* [Milne Edwards, from having adopted an evidently improper mode 
of nomenclature, has taken away from the two best known Decapod 
Crustacea, the old generic names which they are clearly entitled to 
retain. Thus he calls the common Crab, which is the true type of 
the genus Cancer, Platycarcinus; against which impropriety Mr. Bell 
has well remarked, that by any other term than Cancer to this genus, 
we are obliged to restrict the word Cancer to a small and compara- 
tively unimportant group, not a single species of which was probably 
distinctly known to any naturalist of early times. In like manner, he 
has taken away the name Astacus frum the Lobster, and given it to 
the Crayfish, and proposed the new name Homarus for the former: 
thus doing injustice to Dr. Leach, who, in the manuscripts 
quoted in the Entomologist’s Compendium (with which Milne 
Edwards is evidently unacquainted), had called the Lobster Astacus 
gammarus, and the Crayfish Potaumobins fluviatilis. It is proper, 


however, to observe, that the latter had been named Cancer ustacus 
by Linneus.] 

+ [The developement of the embryo Crayfish, in the egg, has been 
investigated by Dr. Rathke, in a most elaborate and satisfactory man- 
ner, in his Untersuchungen uber die Bildung und Entwickelung der 
Flusskrebsen, fol. Leipz. 1829. Some idea of the extent of the re- 
searches of this author upon the subject may be entertained from the 
fact that five large folio plates are completely filled with details of the 
structure, internal and external, of the ova, in various states of de- 
velopement, and of the newly-hatched animal, from whence it is im- 
possible to arrive at any other conclusion than that the Crayfish does 
not undergo any change of form which can in the least degree merit 
the name of metamorphosis. A full abstract of this valuable memoir 
is inserted in No. 18 of the Zoological Journal, and in the Annales 
des Sciences Naturelles for August, 1831.) 


DECAPODA. 421 


is always prolonged into a point, often forming a sharp-pointed plate, very much compressed, and 
toothed on both edges. The antenne are always advanced; the lateral ones generally very long, and 
in the form of a very slender thread: the intermediate antenna, in the majority, are terminated by 
three filaments. The eyes closely approach each other. The outer foot-jaws, longer than ordinary, 
resemble palpi or antennz. One of the two fore pair of legs is often folded back, or doubled. The seg- 
ments of the tail are dilated laterally. The outer plate of the terminal swimmeret is always divided in. 
two by a suture, as in the terminal species of the preceding section. The middle piece, or the seventh 
and last segment of the tail, is long, narrowed towards the tip, and is armed above with rows of small 
spines. The false legs, of which there are five pairs, are long and foliaceous. These Crustacea are much 
eaten in different parts of the world, and some species are salted for keeping.* 


Those which have the three anterior pairs of legs didactyle, the length gradually increasing, so that the third 
pair is the largest, compose the genera Peneus, Fabr., (having no annular divisions in the joints of the legs, and 
coinposed of numerous species, one of which, the Caramote (P. sulcatus, Oliv.), is very common in the Mediter- 
ranean, and is a great object of commerce, being salted for exportation to the Levant, and of which the English 
species (P. trtsulcatus, Leach) is considered by Latreille to be a local variety),—and Stenopus, Fabr., having the two 
penultimate joints of the four posterior legs with annular divisions. 

The remaining species have not more than the two anterior pairs of legs didactyle, and the intermediate antenne 
terminated by three filaments. 

Aiya, Leach, formed of a single North American species, A. scabra, is anomalous in the form of its four claws, 
which are small, and split to the base with long terminal pencils of hair, the preceding joint being crescent-shaped. 

The others have the claws of the ordinary didactyle form. These, with the exception of the terminal genus, have 
the legs more or less robust, but not filiform, without any appendage at the base. ‘The body is neither very soft, 
nor very much elongated. 

Crangon, Fabr., has the fixed finger or index of the two anterior and largest claws reduced to a small tooth, the 
moveable finger being hook-shaped. The superior or intermediate antennz have only two terminal filaments; the 
second legs are folded, and more or less distinctly didactyle at the tips; none of the joints are annulated; the 
rostrum is very short. Crangon vulgaris, Fabr., the Common Shrimp, is the type of this genus. It does not 
exceed two inches in length, and is of a pale glaucous green colour, dotted with grey. It is caught throughout 
the year with the assistance of circular nets. Its flesh is delicate. 

Pontophilus, Leach (Egeon, Risso), does not generically differ from Crangor. 

Processa, Leach (Nika, Risso), has one of the fore-legs terminated in a point, and the other didactyle. ‘The 
second pair of legs are of unequal length, one being very long, with the two joints preceding the claw annulaied. 
NN. edulis, Risso, found at the mouth of the Rhone. 

Hymenocera, Latr., differs in the proportions and form of the legs. 

To these succeed a number of genera in which the legs and claws do not present any anomalous structure, and 
in which the superior or intermediate antennw have only two terminal filaments, including the genus Hippolyte, 
Leach, comprising several British species of shrimps, and in which the four fore-legs 
are terminated by a didactyle claw, the second pair being longer than the first; and 
Pandalus, Leach, comprising another British species (P. annulicornis, Leach), in 
which the fore-legs are [very small and] simple, or scarcely bifid; the two following 
long, of unequal length, with the two joints preceding the claw annulated. 

The Prawn is the type of the genus Palemon, which differs from the last group 
of genera in having the upper antenna terminated by three filaments. It has 
the two anterior pairs of legs didactyle, the smaller pair being folded; and the carpus is not articulated. The 
rostrum is very long [and spined]. Some of the exotic species acquire a very large size, with the second pair of 
legs very long. The flesh of the common species is more esteemed than that of the Shrimp. According to M. 
de Brebisson (Cat. Méth. Crust. Depart. du Calvados), they are caught in the same manner as Shrimps, but only 
in summer. They swim well, especially when alarmed, and in different directions. They frequent the coast. The 
lithographic stone of Pappenheimn and SohInofen often contains the remains of a fossil species, which Desmarest 
names Palemon spinipes. Another fossil species, but of a much larger size, has been found in England. The 
species ordinarily sold in the fish-shops is the Palemon serratus. It is generally three or four inches long, and of 
a pale red colour, which is brightest in the antenna, and especially in the swimmeret of the tail. Its frontal spine 
extends beyond the peduncle of the middle antenne: it is curved upwards at the tip, with seven or eight spines 
above, and five beneath. One of the sides of the body is often distended, which is caused by a parasite of the 
genus Bopyrus beneath the carapax, affixed to the branchiw. Palkemon squilla, Linn., is another but smaller 


Fig. 7 —Hippolyte varians. 


* [The gradual developement of several species of Carides (Palw- ) and ridge of the carapax spined; the five pairs of legs extended to 
monide) has been recently described by Dr. J. V. Thompson in Jame- | their full size, but still bifid ; and the subabdominal appendages and 
son’s Edinb. Phil. Journ., Oct. 1836, and by Captain Ducane in the | the swimmerets gradually developed. These observations are as- 
Annals of Nat. Hist., Nov. 1838. On first bursting from the egy, the | serted, by M‘Leay and others, tu afford a complete confirmation of 
tail is terminated by a spatulated plate, destitute of lateral as well as | the correctness of Thompson's assertions that Zoea is the larva of the 
subabdominal appendages; the rostrum is produced into a simple | conunon Crab, and that all the Crustacea undergo transformations,— 
point; the lateral antenne exhibit only the large scale ; aud only two | these gentlemen overlooking the fact that Zoea is a Decapod animal, 
of the legs are of the ordinary length, and these are bifid, asin the | not furnished with bifid legs, but having the two pairs of outer foot- 
Schizopods ; the other legs are very minute, and incurved. In the | jaws immensely developed, but of the ordinary Macrourous construc- 


course of several moullings, the antenne are lengthened; the rostrum | tion, as are the intecnal parts of its mouth.) 


429 CRUSTACEA. 


British species, having the frontal rostrum not extending beyond the peduncle of the superior antenne, and 
nearly straight. 

[Other genera have been proposed by Risso, Leach, P. Roux, and M. Edwards, founded upon variations in the 
form and proportions of the legs.] 

Pasiphea, Savigny, is a very interesting genus, allied to the preceding in the upper antennae, terminated by 
two filaments ; the four fore-legs terminated by a didactyle claw, but [differing from all the other Carides] in 
having the external base of the legs furnished with a thread-like appendage; the claw-legs are larger, nearly equal 
in size, very slender, and filiform ; the body is very long, very compressed, and very suft. Type, P. Sivado, Risso. 
Found in the Mediterranean, especially in the Bay of Nice, where it is very abundant.* 


The fifth and last section of the Macrowra—that of the Scu1zopopaA—appears to unite them with 
the subsequent order. The legs are very slender, like flattened threads, and not furnished with. claws, 
but having a longer or shorter lateral appendage arising on their outside near the base, and [the legs 
are] fitted only for swimming. The eggs are borne between them, and not under the tail. The ocular 
peduncles are very short. As in the majority of the Macroura, the front is prolonged into a kind of 
rostrum. The carapax is very slender. The tail terminated, as is customary, in a swimmeret. These 
Crustacea are minute and marine. 

In some, the eyes are very apparent; the lateral antenne furnished with a scale; the intermediate 
ones terminated by two filaments, and composed of many minute joints, as in the preceding. 


Mysis, Latr., bas the antenne and legs uncovered; the carapax long, nearly square, or cylindrical; the eyes 
close together ; and the legs capillary, and formed of two thread-like fila- 
ments. Type, M. Fabricii, Leach; Cancer scutatus, O. Fabricius. 

(The species of Mysis are termed Opossum Shrimps, from their singular 
economy of carrying their eggs and young in a large pouch, with membranous 
envelopes, beneath the thorax and between the thoracic legs. Their structure 
has been fully investigated by Thompson in his Zoological Researches. In 
the Encyclopédie Méthodique are also some figures communicated by Dr. 
Leach to Latreille, and evidently intended for the Malacostraca Britannica 
of the former author, but which were never published by him. 

Two other genera, nearly allied to JZysis, have been proposed by Thompson, 
founded upon oceanic species, namely :— 

Cynthia, having branchie attached to the subabdominal fins ; and Noctiluea, 


Fig. 8.—Mysis vulgaris, about twice the 
mettre engin founded upon a luminous species, but not described with sufficient precision, 


a, one of the bifid legs. 


and omitted by M. Edwards. : ; 

Thysanopoda (Edwards), in which there are also eight pairs of bifid natatory feet, but the branchiz are in the 
form of many-branched, membranous appendages, at the base of the true legs. 

The genera Phasmatocarcinus, Tilesius (in the Newe Annalen Wetterausch Gesellschaft, vol. i.), considered by 
Thompson and Edwards as undescribed, and named by the former Lucifer (Leucifer, Edwards), and that of Podop- 
sis by Thompson, are amongst the most singular of known Crustacea, having a filiform body, with very large 
globular eyes placed at the extremity of very long and laterally extended fuot-stalks; and the legs are exceedingly 
slender and short. According to Slabber, whose figure of one of the species has been overlooked by all Crustace- 
ologists, there are eight pairs of legs of equal size.] 

Cryptopus, Latr., bas the carapax suboyoid, swollen, bent under at the sides, enveloping the body, as well 
as the antenne and legs, having only on the under side a longitudinal slit. The eyes are wide apart. The 


legs are like flattened threads, with a lateral appendage. Type, C. Defrancii, Latr. Mediterranean. 
In others, the eyes are hidden. The intermediate antenne conical, exarticulated, and very short. ‘The lateral 
antenne composed of a peduncle and a filament, without distinct articulations: their base is not protected by a 


porrected scale. : 
Mulcio, Latr., has the body very soft; thorax ovoid; legs like flattened threads, the majority with an ap- 


* {Many additional genera have been added to the Carides by Poly- , sophical Transactions, that it is a Decapod; and therefore the observa 
dore Roux in his Mémoire sur la Classijization des Crustacés de la | tions of Latreille, at the end of the Decapods, cannot be adopted. ] 
Tribu des Salicoques, Marseilles, 1831; and by Milne Edwards in the + [The Schizopoda having, since the publication of the second edi- 
Annales des Sciences Nuturelles, and Hist. Nat. des Crustacés. Of | tion of this work, been well investigated by Edwards and ‘Thompson, 
these it will be necessary only to notice those of Sicyonia, uearly | have been found to be more nearly allied to the order Stomapoda, 
allied to Penzus, but differing from it and all the other genera in j «lthough presenting so near a resemblance to the Carides. This inno- 
having no appendages to the fa!se subabdominal legs, and in the modi- | vation was adopted by Latreille himself in his Cours d’Extomologie, 
in which this author has proposed to give those Podopthalmous 


fications of its respiratory apparatus, there being only eleven pairs of 
Crustacea which are destitute of thoracic interna! branchiwe, but 


branchie instead of eighteen, Sergestes and Acetes—in which the 
posterior pair of true legs is almost rudimental, or entirely obsolete, | otherwise resembling the Carides, the sectional name of Caridioides, 
the outer pair of foot jaws being immensely developed, so as to consti- | indicative of their analogy with the last-named group. The typical 
tute an anterior pair of legs to supply their place. These genera are | genus Mysis is especially interesting, on accovnt of the complete 
Tounded upon exotic species. ] transformation of all the three pairs of foot-jaws into legs, so that, to- 
(Here terminates, in the system of M. Edwards, the great order of | gether with the five pairs of true legs, there are eight pairs of loco 
Decapod Crustacea, which, in his Hist. Nat. des Crustacés, is suc- | motive organs; and as each of these is divided from the base by the 
ceeded by an appendix consisting of “ Decapodes douteux,” compris- | addition of a lateral appendage, these animals may be said to have not 
ing the genera Zoea, Cerataspis, Mulcio, and Posydon. With respect | fewer than thirty-two legs.] 
to Zoea, I have clearly proved in my Memoir, published in the Philo- 


STOMAPODA. 423 


pendaze at the base, the fourth pair being the longest. I only know one species (17. Lesueurii), collected in the 
seas of North America. Olivier found, in the Penna marina, a crustaceous animal very similar at the first 
sight; but the specimens were so much injured that I was not able to study its characters. 


The Nedalie, which { had at first placed in this section, not having any natatory appendages under 
the terminal segments of the body, and their legs being very similar to those of Cyclops, I have intro- 
duced, together with Condylura, at the head of the order Branchiopoda. Nedalia, in its exposed eyes, 
which appear to be pedunculated, and in some other characters, seems, in conjunction with Zoea, to 
unite the Schizopoda with the Branchiopoda. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF CRUSTACEA,— 


STOMAPODA (commonly called SEA-MANTES), — 


Have the branchiz naked, and adhering to the five paus of appendages attached beneath the 
abdomen or tail, which this part of the body also presents to us in the Decapods, which 
appendages here, as in the majority of the Macroura, are used in swimming, or are fin-feet. 
The carapax is divided into two parts, of which the anterior bears the eyes and intermediate 
antenne, or more properly composes the head without supporting the foot-jaws. The latter 
organs, as well as the four fore-legs, often closely approach the mouth in two lines, converging 
inferiorly : whence arises the name Stomapoda, given to this order. 

The heart—to judge at least from the Squille, the most remarkable genus in the order, 
and the only one in which it has been studied—is elongated, and resembles a large vessel ex- 
tending the whole length of the back, and terminating posteriorly near the anus, in a point. 
The teguments of the Stomapoda are slender; and, in some species, almost membranous 
and diaphanous. The carapax, or shell, is sometimes formed of two shields, of which the 
anterior represents the head, and the other the thorax, sometimes of a single piece, but free 
behind, leaving generally uncovered the thoracic segments, which bear the three hind pairs of 
legs, and having in front an articulation serving as a base for the eyes and intermediate an- 
tenn: the latter organs are always terminated by two or three filaments. The eyes are 
always close together. The composition of the mouth is essentially the same as in the 
Decapods; but the palpi of the mandibles, instead of bemg adpressed to them, are always 
raised. The foot-jaws are not furnished with the whip-like appendage (fouet) which exists in 
the Decapods. They have the form of claw-legs, or small feet; and, in many at least (Squilla), 
the base externally exhibits, as well as that of the two fore-legs, properly so called, a vesicular 
body. The second pair of foot-jaws, in the same Stomapods, is much larger than the others, 
and even than the legs themselves: hence they have been generally considered legs, and the 
number of these organs has been stated to be fourteen.* The four anterior [true] legs have 
also the form of claw-feet; but are terminated, like the foot-jaws, by a hook which folds 
upon the inferior and anterior edge of the preceding joint. But in some others, such as the 
Phyllosomet, all these organs are filiform, and without any didactyle claw. Some of these, 
however, as well as the six hind-legs of the Squil/e, are furnished with a lateral appendage or 
branch. The seven terminal segments of the body—inclosing a considerable portion of the 
heart, and to which the respiratory organs are attached—cannot, moreover, in this respect, 
be considered analogous (assimilés) to that portion of the body which is called the tail in the 
Decapods, being an abdomen, properly so called. Its penultimate segment has, on each side, 
a swimmeret formed in the same manner as that of the tail of the Macroura, but often armed, 
as well as the terminal segment or intermediate piece, with spines or teeth. 

All the Stomapoda are marine, preferring tropical climates, and not going beyond the tem- 

* The second pair of true maxille of the Sguill@ has not the same | cate, and very much notched. 


form as in the Decapods, being of an elongated, triangular form, di- + In all those which have the four anterior feet claw-like, the six 
vided into four joints by transverse lines. ‘The mandibles are bifur- | posterior are formed for swimming. 


424 CRUSTACEA. 


perate zones. Although we have observed a very great number of individuals, we have never 
met with one carrying eggs. Their habits are entirely unknown. It is, however, beyond a 
doubt, that those species with powerful claws use them for the purpose of seizing their prey 
in the same manner as those Orthoptera which are named Mantes*; and it is on account of 
this conformity that these Stomapods have received the name of Sea-Mantes. They were 
named Crangones, or Crangines, by the Greeks. 

According to M. Risso, they keep in deep water, in sandy and muddy bottoms, and couple 
in the spring; but other species, forming our second family, being less favoured in respect to 
their natatory appendages, and having the body very flat and extended in its surface, are 
ordinarily found on the surface of the ocean, where they move but slowly. 

We divide the order Stomapoda into two families. In 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF STOMAPODA,— 


UNIPELTATA,— 


The carapax forms only a single shield of a quadrilateral, elongated shape, generally widened and free 
behind, covering the head (with the exception of the eyes and antennz, which are implanted upon 
common and frontal articulations), and at least the anterior segments of the thorax. Its anterior ex- 
tremity terminates in a point, and is preceded by a small plate terminating in the same manner. All 
the foot-jaws (of which the second pair is very large), and the four anterior feet, are inserted close to 
the mouth in two lines converging inferiorly, in the form of claw-feet, with a single moveable and 
folded back finger. With the exception of the second pair of legs, all these organs are externally fur- 
nished at the base with a small pedunculated vescicle. The other feet, six in number, are linear, ter- 
minated by a brush, and merely natatorial: the third joint is furnished at the side and base with a 
slender appendage. The lateral antennz have a scale at the base, and the intermediate are terminated 
by three filaments. The body is narrow and elongated. The ocular peduncles are always short. This 


family comprises the single genus 
SaurLLa (Fabr.),— 
which we divide as follows :— 


In some species, the crustaceous shield [or carapax] is preceded by a small, more or less triangular, plate, situ- 
ated above the articulation which bears the intermediate antennz and the eyes. It does not cover the anterior 
portion of the thorax, and is not bent down at the sides. The joint which serves as a footstalk to the peduncle of 
the intermediate antenne, as well as to the ocular peduncles and the exterior margins of the extremity of the 
abdomen, is exposed. j 

Squilla proper, Latr., has the entire inner edge of the penultimate joint of the two great claw-feet furnished 
with a narrow channel, denticulated on one 
side, and spined on the other; and the follow- 
ing joint is sickle-shaped, and often toothed. 
The type (Cancer mantis, Linn.) is about seven 
inches long. Its great claws have at the base 
three moveable spines; and the terminal 
joint has six long and very sharp spines, of 
which the terminal is the strongest. The seg- 
ments of the body, except the last, have six 
longitudinal elevated lines, ordinarily termi- 
nating in an acute point. It is common in 
the Mediterranean. 

Gonodactylus, Latr., has the channel of the great claws unarmed with points; and the terminal joint is dilated 
ito a knob at its base. The species are exotic. (Squilla chiragra, Fabr.; Desmarest, pl. 43.) 

Coronis, Latr., has the body very narrow and depressed, with the terminal segment square and entire, without 
teeth or spines. The lateral appendage of the six hind-legs is pailet-shaped. [C. scolopendra, Latr., regarded by 
him as synonymous with Squidia Eusebia of Risso; but the figure given by this author in his Hist. Nat. Ewop. 
Merid., tom. v. pl. 4, has the terminal segment deeply toothed. ] 

In the other species of this family, the carapax is slender, nearly membranous, diaphanous, entirely covering 
the thorax, bent down at the sides, prolonged in front into an acute spine, and advanced over the stem of the in- 
termediate antenne, and the eyes. This stem is capable of being bent downwards, and inclosed in the shield 
formed by the curve of the carapax. The posterior swimmerets are hidden beneath the terminal segment. 


Fig. 9.—Squilla Mantis. 


* Some other analogous Orthoptera (such as the genus Phyllium) resemble leaves. The Phyllosome, Crustacea of the same order, ex- 
hibit to us the same analogy. 


STOMAPODA. 425 


These minute and delicate Crustacea are peculiar to the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Seas. The fingers of the 
large claw-legs are not toothed. The second joint of the ocular peduncles is much larger than the basal joint, and 
in the form of a reversed cone. The eyes themselves are large, and nearly globular. The appendages of the 
swimming or fin-feet resemble those of the Squille. 

Erichthus, Latr. (Smerdis, Leach), has the basal joint of the ocular peduncles short, and the carapax dilated at 
the sides. Type, E. vitreus, Latr. 

Alima, Leach, has the basal joint of the ocular peduncles much longer, the body much narrower, with the sides 
of the carapax not dilated. Each of its angles forms a spine, of which the two posterior are the most acute. Type, 
A. hyalina, Latr. 

[Squillericthus, Edwards, has the claws of the great feet armed with spines. ] 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF STOMAPODA,— 


Breettata, Latr.,— 


[Comprises the Glass-Crabs, which] have the carapax divided into two shields, the anterior of which 
is very large, more or less oval, composing the head, and the second, corresponding with the thorax, is 
transverse and angulated in its outline, and bears the foot-jaws and the ordinary feet. 
Those feet, with the exception of the posterior pair, as well as the last pair of foot- 
jaws, are slender, filiform, and for the most part very long, and accompanied by a 
lateral, ciliated [short and slender] appendage. The four other [anterior] foot-jaws 
are very minute and conical. The base of the lateral antennz is not furnished with 
a scale, and the intermediate ones are terminated by two filaments. The ocular pe- 


duncles are very long. The body is very flat, membranous, and transparent, with the 
rao 10.—Phyllosoma abdomen small, and without spahes to the DOSED: swimmeret. ve respect to eee 

nervous system, they appear to be intermediate between the preceding and following 
Crustacea. 


This family comprises only the single genus Phyllosoma, Leach, of which all the species are inhabitants of the 
Atlantic and Eastern Oceans. [M. Guérin has published a monograph of this genus, with figures of all the species, 
in his Magasin de Zoologie.] 

[M. Edwards has recently added another genus, Amphion, differing from Phyllosoma in its narrower body, and 
in the carapax extending behind over the whole body, thus rendering Latreille’s name, Bipeltata, inapplicable.) 


Those Matacosrraca which have the eyes sessile and immoveable, form the second 
general subdivision, [and have been collectively named EprroprHatma by Leach]. 

The [Branchiopodous genus] Branchipus comprises the only Crustacea which remain 
to be noticed, having the eyes placed on long footstalks ; but in them the peduncles are 
neither articulated nor lodged in cavities expressly for their reception, and they are 
not only destitute of a carapax, but differ in many other natural characters [from the 
Podopthalmous Malacostraca]. 

All the Malacostraca of the present [sub] division are equally destitute of a carapax. 
The body, following the head, is composed of a series of articulations, of Which each of 
the seven anterior ones is generally provided with a pair of feet, and of which the 
following and terminal segments (not exceeding seven in number) form a kind of tail, 
terminated by a swimmeret, or appendages in the shape of styles. The head is 
furnished with four antennz, of which the two intermediate ones are superior; two 
eyes, and a mouth composed of two mandibles, a tongue, two pair of maxille, and a 
sort of lip formed by the two foot-jaws, which correspond with the fourth [or inner] 
pair in the Decapoda; as in the Stomapoda there is no flagrum. The four outer foot- 
jaws are transformed into feet, sometimes simple, sometimes terminated in a claw, 
but almost always with a single finger. According to MM. Audouin and Edwards, the 
two ganglionated nervous cords are perfectly symmetrical and distinct throughout their 
entire length, and from the observations of Cuvier the Onisci only differ in those cords 
not presenting the uniformity in all the segments of the body, and that there are fewer 


426 CRUSTACEA. 


knots. Hence the nervous system of these Crustacea is the most simple of all [yet 
examined ]. 

The branchize appear to be always attached to the two first appendages of the 
under-side of the abdomen. ‘The female carries her eggs beneath the breast, between 
certain scales, which form a kind of pouch. ‘They are there hatched, and the young 
ones remain attached to the legs, or other parts of the body of their parents, until they 
gain sufficient strength to swim and take care of themselves. ‘These Crustacea are of 
small size, and reside for the most part either upon the shores of the ocean or in fresh 
water. Some are terrestrial and others are parasites. 

These animals are divisible into three orders: those in which the mandibles are fur- 
nished with a palpus, appear to be more nearly allied in nature to the preceding 
Crustacea—these are the Ampurpopa. Those in which these organs are destitute of 
palpi compose the two other orders, Lamoprropa and Isopopa. Cyumus, a parasitic 
genus, belonging to the second of these orders, conducts us naturally to Bopyrus and 
Cymothoa, with which we commence the arrangement of the Isopoda. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF CRUSTACEA, 


[the first of the MALACOSTRACA EDRIOPTHALMA|] or the AMPHIPODA,— 


Are the only Malacostraca with sessile and fixed eyes, of which the mandibles, as in the pre- 
ceding Crustacea, are furnished with a palpus, and they are the only order in which the 
subabdominal appendages, always very apparent, resemble, im their long and narrowed 
form, their articulations, bifurcations, and the hairs or ciliz with which they are provided, 
false legs or swimming fin-feet. In the Malacostraca belonging to the following orders, 
these appendages have the form of plates or scales, and these hairs or ciliz appear to 
constitute the branchiz. Many exhibit, as well as the Stomapoda and Loemodipoda, 
vesicular bags, placed either between their feet or at their base externally, and of which we 
are ignorant of the uses. 

The first pair of legs, or that which corresponds with the second pair of foot-jaws, is always 
affixed to a distinct segment, being the one immediately behind the head. The antenne 
(with the exception of the smgle genus Phronima) are four im number. They are advanced 
in front and gradually attenuated, terminating in a point, and composed, as in the preceding 
Crustacea, of a peduncle and a single terminal filament, (or accompanied sometimes by a 
small lateral branch) and generally multiarticulate. The body 
is ordinarily compressed, and bent downwards behind. The 
appendages at the extremity of the tail most frequently resemble 
small articulated styles. The majority of these Crustacea swim 
and leap with agility, and always on their sides. Some are found 
in brooks and fountains, often united in pairs, but the greater number inhabit the salt water. 
They are of an uniform colour, varying from reddish to green. 

They may be comprised in the single genus Gammarus, Fab., which may be distributed into 
three sections, from the form and number of the legs :— 

1. Those which have fourteen feet, all of which are terminated by a hook or a point. 

2. Those which have also fourteen feet, but in which these organs, or at least the four 
posterior, are unarmed and merely natatorial. 

3. Those which have only ten feet. 

The first of these sections [Homopopa, Westw. | is divisible into two subsections :— 


Fig. 11.—Gammarus pulex. 


Pe a 
| 


AMPHIPODA. 427 


1. The Uroprera, Latr., having the head generally large, the antennz often short, and only two 
in number in some, and the body soft ; all the legs except the fifth pair simple, the anterior short or 
small, and the tail either furnished at the tip with lateral swimmerets, or terminated by appendages or 
dilated points, bidentate or forked at the extremity. They reside in the bodies of various Acalephe 
or Meduse, Linn., and some other zoophytes. 


Some, forming the genus Phronima, Lat., have only two very short and 2-jointed antenne. The fifth pair of 
legs is by far the largest, and terminated by a strong didactyle claw. There are six long slender appendages at 
the extremity of the body, each terminated by two points. There are probably various species, but which have 
not been described with sufficient care. Type, Cancer sedentarius, Forskal, Faun. Arab., found in the Mediter- 
ranean, lodged in a membranous, transparent, bell-like bag, probably the body of a Beroe. 

Others have four antenne ; ali the legs are single, and the tail is furnished at each side of its extremity with a 
plate, like a foliaceous swimmeret. 

Hyperia, Latr., having the body thickened in front, the head large and almost entirely occupied by two oblong 
eyes, somewhat notched at the inner margin, two of the antennz at least half the length of the body, with a ter- 
minal multiarticulated filament. Type, Cancer monoculoides, Montague, [found on the coast of Devonshire]. 

Phrosine, Risso, differs in having the antenne not longer than the head, and but few-jointed, the terminal fila- 
ment being conical. 

Dactylocera, Latr., has the body not thickened in front, the head of moderate size. 

Themisto, Guerin, has the third pair of foot-jaws terminated by a smal] didactyle claw; the third pair of legs is 
very much longer than the others. [Many additional subgenera have been recently proposed, belonging to the 


Uroptera, especially by M. Edwards.] 


2. The second subsection, GAMMaRIN#, Latr., have always four antennz, the body covered with 
a coriaceous elastic tegument, generally compressed and arched ; the posterior extremity of the tail is 
not furnished with swimmerets, but its appendages are in the form of cylindrical or conical styles. 


Two at least of the four anterior legs are terminated by claws. 
The vesicular bags in those species in which they have been observed (Gammarus), are situated at 


the external base of the legs, commencing with the second pair, and accompanied by a small plate. 
The pectoral scales enclosing the eggs are six in number. 


In the majority the four antenne, although occasionally varying inter se, are applied to the same purposes, and 
have the same general structure: the inferior never being leg-like. 

Ione, Latr., is an anomalous subgenus, founded upon a figure given by Montague, (Linn. Trans., vol. ix. 3, 3, 4.) 
The body is apparently 15-jointed, the joints being only indicated by lateral incisions; the four antenne are very 
short, the external longer than the two others; the two anterior segments of the body are furnished in the female 
with two elongated fleshy cirrhi, like oars; the legs are very short and hooked; the six terminal segments are 
provided with lateral, fleshy, elongated, fasciculated appendages, simple in the male but branched in the female. 
Type, Oniscus thoracicus, Montague, found beneath the carapax of Callianassa subterranea, forming a tumour on 
the sides of its body. Montague kept it alive for several days, having removed it from its native abode. The 
females are always accompanied by the males, which retain themselves firmly attached to the abdominal ap- 
pendages of their partners by means of their strong hooks. In regard to its habits, therefore, this animal approaches 
the parasitic Bopyrus. 

All the remaining Amphipods have the segments of the body distinct in their entire breadth, and are destitute 
in both sexes of the long oar-like appendages found in Ione. In some of these the moveable finger of the claw- 
legs is formed of a single joint. 

Orchestia, Leach, and Talitrus, Leach [comprising British species] have the upper antenne much shorter than 
the inferior, whilst in the following they are not much shorter, [indeed often much longer. The type of the latter 
genus is Talitrus locusta, which is very abundant on our shores, burrowing into the sand, and, unlike the majority 
of the species, seldom entering the water.] In Atylus, Leach, the upper antenne are nearly as long as the inferior, 
the head is produced above into a snout, and none of the legs are cheliferous. Type, A. carinatus, Leach. The 
typical genus Gammarus, Latr., is distinguished by the isolated character of the superior antenne, having a short 
branch at the tip of the third joint, and the four fore-legs are in the form of small claws, with the moveable finger 
folding on the under-side: Cancer pulew is the type. [It is exceedingly abundant in fresh-water brooks, where 
there is an accumulation of vegetable debris.] Various other genera, as Melita, Leach, Mera, Leach, Amphithoe, 
Leach, Pherusa, Leach, &c., have been established by Leach and M. Milne Edwards, founded upon variations in 
their legs and claws. 

Leucothoe, Leach, has the moveable finger of the two fore-claws biarticulated. The same character also exists 
in Cerapus, Say, composed of a small species found on the sea-shore of the United States, near Egg harbour, 
amongst the Sertularie, and which receives its specific name, C. tubularis, from residing in a small cylindrical 
tube. [Dr. Templeton has described a small species of Crustacea from Mauritius in the Trans. Entom. Soc., vol. i. 
p- 189, under the name of Cerapus abditus, which inhabits a little membranous tube, resembling in texture the 
papyritious covering of wasps’ nests. It is remarkable for wanting feet to the middle segment of its body. Its 
movements are very singular. ] 


428 CRUSTACEA. 


Podocerus, Leach, and Iassa, Leach, have the inferior antenne greatly elongated in the form, and occasionally 
assuming the functions of legs and organs of prehension ; their second legs are terminated by a large claw. 

Corophium, Latr., has similar lower antenne, but none of the legs are cheliferous. The type is Cancer 
grossipes, Linn., Gammarus longicornes, Fab., Oniscus volutator, Pal., and which is named Pernys on the coast of 
La Rochelle, living in burrows, which it forms in the sand, covered by hurdles, called bouchots by the in- 
habitants. The animal only makes its appearance at the beginning of May. It keeps up a continual war 
with the Nereids, Amphinome, Arenicole, and other marine annelide which take up their abode in the 
same place. Nothing is more curious than to observe these creatures at the rising of the tide assembled in 
myriads, moving about in all directions, beating the mud with their arm-like antenne, and diluting it in order to 
discover their prey. If they discover any of these annelide, often 
ten or even twenty times larger than themselves, they unite 
together to attack and devour it. The carnage never ceases 
until the mud has been turned over and examined. They 
also attack fishes, mollusca, and dead bodies on the shore. 
They mount upon the hurdles which contain muscles, as well as 
upon the latter, and the fishermen pretend that they cut the 
threads which retain the muscles, in order to cause the latter to Fig. 12.—Corophium longicorne ; a, terminal segment 0 
fall, so that they may be the more readily devoured. They appear che jell 
to breed throughout the season, as the females are found carrying eggs at different times: shore-birds and many 
kinds of fishes devour them. 


The second of the sections of the order 4mphipoda, or the Hrrrrora, Lat., is composed of those which 
have fourteen legs, the four posterior at least being unarmed at the tip, and fit only for swimming,* 
and forms two subgenera. 


Pterygoura, Latr., has the thorax divided into numerous sezments, four antenna, with long hairs; all the 
legs natatorial, and of which the posterior are large and pennated. [Type, Oniscus arenarius, Slabber.] 

Apseudes, Leach (Eupheus, Risso), has the thorax divided into numerous segments, the fore pair of legs 
terminated by a large claw, the second pair of legs with the termina! joints very broad and toothed [whence the 
specific name of the type, A. talpa, Leach, Montague, from its analogy with the Mole]; the other legs are single, 
the body is long and narrow, terminated by two long threads. 

Rhea, Edwards, differs from the preceding in having the superior antenna thicker, longer, and bifid. 


The third and last section of the order Amphipode, or the Decempops, Lat., consists of species 
having only ten feet. 


Typhis, Risso, has only two antennz; the head is large, with prominent eyes; each pair of legs is attached to 
a distinct sezment ; the four anterior are terminated by a didactyle claw. On each sideof the thorax are two 
moveable plates, forming two valves, beneath which, when at rest, the animal shuts its legs and tail, giving it the 
appearance of a ball. Type, Typhis ovoides, Risso. 

Anceus, Risso, Gnathia, Leach, has the thorax divided into the same number of segments as there are pairs of 
legs, which are simple and monodactyle. They have four antenne; the head is large and square, and furnished 
in front with two great projections, like mandibles. Type, Cancer mawillaris, Montague, Trans. Linn. Soc., 
vol. vii. pl. 6, f. 2,—found on the Devonshire coast. 

Praniza, Leach, has four antenne like the last, but the thorax from above presents only three segments, of 
which the two anterior are very short, and the third very large and oval, having the three posterior pairs of legs 
attached to it. The legs simple, the head triangular, and the tail furnished at the sides of the extremity witha 
swimmeret. [I have investigated the structure of this curious genus very minutely, and published the result 
thereof in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xxvii.] 


To this order also appear to belong various other genera, established by Savigny, Rafinesque, and 
Say, but of which the characters have not been hitherto given with sufficient decision ; and even of 
those cited above some require a re-examination. 

M. Milne Edwards has collected many valuable and detailed observations on many of these Crustacea, 
which will serve to clear up much of this obscurity. I am not able to speak with precision also of the 
genus Ergina of Risso. From the number of legs it appears to belong to the last section of the Amphi- 
poda, but the manner in which they terminate, and the number of the segments of the body, range them 
ainongst the Isopods. 

[Since the publication of the second edition of this work, the Amphipoda have received a consider- 
able share of attention. M. Milne Edwards, in the Annales des Sciences Naiurelles for 1830, published 
a revision of the order, dividing it into two principal groups, (removing the genera Rheea and Tanais to 

* This and the following section formed, in the first edition of this tous to approximate them to the Amphipoda, and not the Isopeda. 
work, the second of the Isopodous order, that of Phytibranches But | Nevertheless, these animals, of which the number is but very small, 


not only have we perceived mandibular palpi in some of these Crus ' have been very imperfectly studied. 
tacea, but also the fourm of the subabdominal appendages has appeared | 


LOEMODIPODA. 429 


the order Isopoda), namely, the Crevettines and the Ilyperines, the former divided into the saltatorial 
and ambulatory species. Some new genera were added, especially in the singular family of the Hyperines. 
Plerygocera, Latr., and some other genera, he considers not sufficiently studied, and consequently of 
doubtful character and situation. Apseudes, Ione, Anceus, and Praniza, he also regards as isopodous. 
Various additional genera have also been established by M. Guérin de Meneville, in the Magasin de 
Zoologie, especially amongst the Hyperines, and which are accompanied by figures and generic details. 
Dr. Templeton has described some curious minute species from Mauritius, in the Transactions of the 
Entomological Society. Still more recently I have received from M. Kroyer, the Danish naturalist, a 
memoir upon the Amphipoda of Greenland, published in the last part of the Copenhagen Transactions. 
Rathke has described many new species, and some new genera from the Caspian Sea, in the last volume 
of the Petersburg Memoirs, and Professor Owen has described some interesting species brought home in 
one of the late Polar expeditions. One of the most remarkable of the subgenera established, is that of 
Orio of A. Cocco, described in the Grornali di Scienze, Xc., per la Sicilia, for November 1833, which has 
been overlooked by Crustaceologists, and in which the maxillary palpi are exceedingly slender, as long 
as the body, and 4-jointed. | 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF CRUSTACEA, 


L@IMODIPODA,— 


Comprises the only Malacostraca with sessile eyes which have not distinct branchiz attached 
at the extremity of the body, which are nearly destitute of a tail, the hind pair of legs being 
attached either at the extremity of the body or to a segment, followed by one or two very 
sinall joints. They are also the only species in which the two fore-legs, which correspond 
with the second foot-jaws, form part of the head. 

All the species have four setaceous antennz, implanted on a peduncle of three joints ; 
mandibles destitute of palpi; a vesicular body at the base of at least four of the paurs of legs, 
commencing with the second or third pair, including those of the head. The body, generally 
filiform or linear, is composed (including the head) of eight or nme segments, with several 
small appendages in the form of tubercles at its posterior and mferior extremity. The legs 
are terminated bya strong hook; the four anterior, of which the second pair is the largest, are 
always terminated by a monodactyle claw. In some, the four followmg are more slender, 
with fewer articulations, without a terminal hook, or are rudimental and in no manner fitted 
for the ordinary uses. 

The females carry their eggs beneath the second and third segments of the body, in a pouch 
formed of scales closely applied against each other. 

All these Crustacea are marine. M. Savyigny considers them as approaching the Pyeno- 
gonides, and as forming, together with them, the passage between the Crustacea and 
Arachnida. In the first edition of this work, they formed part of the Isopodous order, namely, 
the section Cystibranchie. 


They may be considered as forming a single genus, for which, on account of its priority, the name of 


Cyamus (Latr.)— 


should be retained. 

Some of these (forming a first section named Filiformia, Latr.) have the body long and very slender 
or linear, with the segments longitudinal; the legs also long and very slender, and the terminal fila- 
ment of the antennz composed of minute joints. 

They are found amongst marine plants, creeping along in the same way as the Geometer or Looper- 
caterpillars, bending themselves oiten back with great rapidity, and applying their antennz to various 
parts of the body. In swimming they bend the two ends of the body downwards. 


430 CRUSTACEA. 


Leptomera, Latr. (Proto, Leach), has fourteen complete legs (including the pair attached to the head); forming 
aregular series. In some of them (as in Gammarus pedatus, Miller, forming the type of the restricted genus 
Leptomera) all the legs (except the two anterior) are furnished with a basal vesicle, whilst in the others (Cancep 
pedatus, Montague, being the type of Leach’s Proto) these appendages exist only at the base of the second and 
four following legs. 

Naupredia, Latr., has ten legs in a continuous series, the second and two following pairs having a vesicular 
bedy at the base. The typical species found on the French coast appears to me to be undescribed. 

Caprella, Lamarck, have also oniy ten legs, but the series is interrupted; the second and following 
segments being destitute of legs, but each is 
furnished with two vesicular bodies. Type, Squilla 
lobata, Miiller. 

(Dr. Johnston has published _ a monograph of 
the British species of this section in the eighth 
volunie of the Magazine of Natural History, and 
Dr. Templeton and M. Guérin have respectively 
described various additional species of this curi- 
ous group. ] 


Fig. 13.—Caprella phasma, 


The other Loemodipoda, forming a second section (Ovattra, Latr.), have the body oval, with the seg- 
ments transverse ; the terminal filament of the antenne appears to be inarticulated. The legs are short, 
or of only moderate length; those of the second and third segments are imperfect, and terminated by a 
long cylindrical joint without terminal hooks; they have at the base an elongated vesicular body. 
These Loemodipoda form the subgenus— 


Cyamus, Latr. (Larunda, Leach), of which f have seen three species, all of which live 
upon Cetacea, and of which the commonest (Oniscus Ceti, Linn.) is also found upon the 
Mackerel. The fishermen call it the whale-louse. Another species, closely allied, was 
brought home by Delalande, in his voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. The third, which is 
much smaller, is found upon the Cetacea of the Indian seas. 

[M. Roussel de Vauzéme has published a very complete and interesting memoir upon 
this singular genus in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for May, 1834, describing three 
species living upon Whales of the Southern Ocean, and also observed their respective 
habits. Sometimes these creatures are so abundant on the Whales that the individuals 
they infest may be easily recognized at a considerable distance by the white colour these 

Hig oem parasites impart to them. When removed, the surface of the body of the Whale is found 

- to be deprived of its epidermis. C. ovalis and gracilis are stationary, being found in great 

numbers agglomerated upon the corneous prominences of Balena mysticetus. C. erraticus is, however, organ- 

ized for its wandering habits, being of a slender form, and with larger legs, serving for prehension. The young 

ones appear with all the characters of their kind, only the head is rather large, and the supposed branchial i ae 
dages, instead of being long and slender, are short and somewhat globose. ] 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF CRUSTACEA, 


ISOPODA,— 


Or the Polygonata of Fabricius, (after the removal of the genus Monoculus) is allied to the 
Loemodipoda in the absence of palpi to the mandibles, but is separated from them in other 
respects. The two fore-legs are not attached to the head, but to a distinct segment, as are the 
following feet. These limbs are always fourteen in number, hooked at the tip, without any 
vesicular appendage at the base. The under-side of the tail is furnished with very distinct 
appendages, in the form of plates or vesicular bags, of which the two anterior and exterior 
ordinarily cover, either entirely or for the most part, the others. The body is generally 
flattened, or broader than deep. The mouth is composed of the same pieces as in the pre- 
ceding ; (see the general remarks on the Malacostraca) ; but here, those which correspond with 
the two superior foot-jaws of the Decapods present, even more strongly than in those 
Crustacea, the appearance of a lower lip, terminated by two palpi. The intermediate pair of 
antennz is obsolete in the terminal species in the order, which are terrestrial in their habits, 
and which [consequently] differ from the rest in respect to their respiratory apparatus. 

M. V. Audouin and M. Edwards have given (Ann. des Sciences Nat., 1827) some interesting 


ISOPODA. 431 


observations on the circulation of the Isopoda, and especially in the Ligiz. ‘The heart has 
the form of a long vessel, extended above the dorsal face of the intestine ; from its anterior 
extremity are emitted three arteries, as in the Decapods, but from their examination it would 
seem that the venous system is not so complete as in the Macroura. In respect to the 
nervous system, there are nine ganglions, not including the brain, but the two anterior and 
the two posterior are so nearly together that they may be reduced to seven. The second and 
six following send forth nerves to the legs, and the tail is furnished with nerves from the last 
ganglion. 

The females carry their eggs underneath the breast, either defended by scales, or in a pouch 
or membranous sac, which they open in order to allow the young ones to escape; these are 
born with the form and parts peculiar to their own species, and merely increase in size by 
changing their skins. [M. Milne Edwards, in his interesting ‘‘ Observations sur les change- 
mens de forme que divers Crustacés éprouvent dans le jeune dge,” (published in the Annales 
des Sciences Naturelles,) has given a detailed account of the peculiarities which distinguished 
the young individuals of Cymothoa trigonocephala and Anilocra mediterranea, which had been 
extracted from between the pectoral plates of the females. In the newly-hatched young, the 
tail is longer and narrower than in the perfect animal, and it has only six thoracic segments 
and six pair of legs. | 

The greatest number of the species reside in water. Those which are terrestrial have like- 
wise need, as is the case with other Crustacea living out of the water, of a certam degree of 
atmospheric humidity, in order to enable them to respire, and keep their branchiz in a state 
fitted for that function. 

This order, in the system of Linnzus, consists of the genus 

ONIScUs,— 
which we distribute into six sections. 

The first section, Eprcarpgs, Latr., is composed of parasitic Isopods having neither eyes nor antenne, 
of which the body is very flat, small, and oblong in the males, but much larger in the females, of an 
oval form, narrow and rather bent posteriorly, concave beneath, with a thoracic rim, divided on each 
side into five membranous lobes, the legs being inserted on this rim, very small and bent round, and 
fit neither for crawling nor swimming; the under-side of the tail is furnished with five pairs of small 
ciliated imbricated plates, answering to the same number of segments, and arranged into two longi- 
tudinal rows, but the posterior extremity of the body is not furnished with appendages. The mouth 
only distinctly exhibits two membranous plates, applied upon another of the same consistence, being 
of a ‘quadrilateral form. The hollowed part of the body is filled with eggs, and near the situation 
where they are discharged the presumed males are constantly found, but their exceedingly minute size 


seems to render the act of coupling impossible. These Crustacea form only a single subgenus,— 

Bopyrus, Latr., the common and typical species of which is the Bopyrus crangorum, Fab., which is parasitic 
upon the Common Prawns, Palemon squilla and serratus, affixing itself beneath the carapax, upon the branchie, 
when it produces on the side of the body attacked a tumour or swelling like a lens. The fishermen of La Manche 
believe that these parasites are young soles, [to which fish they bear a slight resemblance in form]. 

M. Risso has described a second species [B. Palemonis, Risso, Crust. Nice. p. 148], beneath the body of the 
female of which he observed between eight and nine hundred minute young ones, [easily visible with a lens, of a 
greyish white colour, and which the parent has always the instinct to deposit in the places frequented by the 
Palemons ; and as soon as the young are free they attach themselves to their prey}. 


The second section, CymMorHoapA, Latr., comprises those [sopoda which have four distinct antenne, 
setaceous, and ordinarily terminated by a multiarticulate filament, having eyes and a mouth composed 
of the ordinary parts (see the general observations upon the Malacostraca Edriopthaima), and vesicular 
branchie disposed longitudinally in pairs. The tail is composed of four or six segments, with a swim- 
ming plate on each side near the tip, and the five legs are generally terminated by a strong hook or 
claw. All the Cymothoada are parasites. 


In Serolis, Leach, the eyes are placed upon tubercles on the back of the head, and the tail is composed of only 
four segments. The antenne are arranged in two lines, and terminated by a multiarticulate filament. Beneath 
the three basal segments of the tail, between the ordinary appendages, there are three others, transverse, and 
terminated posteriorly in a point. Oue species was only known [to Latreille, namely, the Cymothoa paradowa, Fas. 


432 CRUSTACEA. 


This extraordinary genus has been considered as affording proof of the relation of the Trilobites to the Isopodous 
Crustacea, the body being divided into three longitudinal portions, as in those fossils. The genus has lately been 
described and figured in detail by Eights, under the name of Brongniartia Triobitoides, in the Transactions of the 
Albany Institute.) 

In the other Cymothoada the eyes are lateral, and not placed upon tubercles, and the tail is composed of four or 
six joints; of these the majority have the eyes not formed of granular ocelli; the antenne are at least seven- 
jointed, and the six fore-legs terminated by a strong hook; of these the following subgenera have the tail always 
six-jointed, and the lower antenne never exceed in length half of the body. 

Cymothoa, Fab., having the mandibles not exposed, the antenne of nearly equal length, the eyes slightly appa- 
rent, and the terminal joint of the tail transverse-quadrate. Type, Cymothoa Gistrum, Fab. [These animals were 
well known to the ancients, who gave them the name of Gistrus and Asilus, from the resemblance between their 
habits and those of the breeze-flies. Aristotle says of the species above mentioned, “‘ Fishes are attacked by a 
sea-louse, which is not produced from the fish but from the mud.’’] 

Ichthyophilus, Latr. (Nerocilaand Lironeca, Leach,) differs from the last in having the terminal segment of the 
tail nearly triangular. To these succeed various subgenera, instituted by Leach upon structural characters, such 
as the relative length of the antenne, form of the swimming plates of the tail, &c. 

In dfga, and several others, the eyes are generally large, and converge anteriorly. 

Synodus, Latr., having also six segments to the tail, differs from all the preceding in the large size of its 
exserted mandibles. 

Cirolana, Leach, and several others, have only five segments in the tai], and the length of the inferior antenne 
is greater than that of half the body. 

Eurydice, Leach, belonging to this division, naturally conducts us in the granular structure of its eyes to 

Limnoria, Leach, in which these organs resemble numerous ocelli, placed close together, which have the antenne 
inserted in a line, and not composed of more than four joints, and all the legs are formed for walking. The tail is 6- 
jointed, the terminal joint being large and suborbicular. The only known (recent) species is the L. terebrans, Leach, 
which, although not more than a sixth of an inch in length, is, in its powers of multiplication, exceedingly destruc- 
tive. It pierces the wood of vessels in different directions with astonishing alacrity, and contracts itself into a 
ball when alarmed. It is found in different parts of the British Ocean, [attacking piles of wood immersed in the 
water in our dockyards, flood-gates, timber-bridges, chain-piers, &c., and which it perforates in a most alarming 
manner. The boring of the insect having for its object the procuring of food, the contents of its stomach resem- 
ble comminuted wood. It is necessary that the hole in which it is at work should be filled with salt water. 
Coating the wood with copper-headed nails, and the use of Kyanized wood, have been suggested as remedies against 
its attacks]. 

Professor Germar forwarded to Dejean the figure and description of a small fossil crustaceous animal, which 
appears to us to belong to this subgenus. 


The third section, SpHRomiIDEs, Latr., exhibits four distinct and setaceous or conical antenne, ter- 
minated (except in dnthura) by a multiarticulate filament: the lower pair is always the longest, and 
inserted beneath the basal joint of the upper, which is thick and broad. The mouth is of the ordinary 
form. The branchiz are vesicular or soft, naked, and disposed longitudinally in pairs. The tail is only 
composed of two-complete and moveable segments, the first of which, however, exhibits impressed 
and transverse lines, indicating the vestiges of the same number of segments. On each side of the pos- 
terior extremity of the body is a swimmeret, terminated by two plates, of which the inferior alone is 
moveable, and the upper is formed by an external elongation of the common support. The branchial 
appendages are curved inwards ; the inner side of the anterior pair is accompanied in the males with a 
small linear and elongated piece. The anterior part of the head, situated beneath the antennz, is 
triangular, or in the shape of a heart reversed. The majority have the body oval or oblong, assuming 
the form of a ball when contracted. 

Zuzara, Leach (with very large swimmerets), and Spheroma, Latr. (with moderate sized-swimmerets), have the 
impressed lines on the basal segments of the tail not extended to the sides. In the following they extend to the 
margin, forming as many incisions, and the basal joint of the antenne forms a long square or linear plate. 


Nesa and Campecopea, Leach, have the sixth segment of the body considerably longer than the preceding, 
whilst it is of equal size in 

Cilicea, Leach, Cymodocea, Leach, and Dynamene, Leach, distinguished by variations in the form of the 
swimmeret and the sixth segment of the body. 

Anthura, Leach, differs from all the preceding in its vermiform body, and in having the antenn& scarcely as 
long as the head, and 4-jointed. The plates of the swimmeret form a kind of capsule. (Oniscus gracilis, Mon- 
tague.) 


In the fourth section, InorrrpeEs, Leach, the antennz are also four in number, but placed in the 
same transverse and horizontal line; the lateral ones are terminated by a multiarticulate and gradually 
attenuated filament, the intermediate short, filiform, or slightly thickened at the tip, and 4-jointed, 
none of the joints being articulated. The mouth is composed of the same parts as in the preceding. 


ISOPODA. 433 


The branchie are in the form of bladders, white in the majority, capable of being puffed up and 
used in swimming, and covered by two plates or valves of the last segment, laterally adherent to its 
sides, longitudinal, biarticulate, opening in the middle in a straight line, like a pair of cupboard doors. 
The tail is formed of three segments, of which the last is the largest, with neither appendages nor 
lateral swimmerets. All these Crustacea are marine. 


Idotea, Fab., have the legs strongly hooked, and all of the same form, and the lateral antennz are shorter than 
half the body. (Oniscus Entomon, Linn.) 

Stenosoma, Leach, has the body linear [and depressed], and the [lateral] antenne nearly equal to the bedy in 
length. (Stenosoma lineare, Leach.) 

Arcturus, Latr., is very remarkable in the form of the second and third pairs of legs, which are directed for- 
ward, and terminated by a long hirsute joint, and unarmed or feebly-hooked: the two anterior are applied to 
the mouth; the six posterior legs are long, formed for walking, directed backwards, and bifid at the tip. In 
the length of the antenne and form of the body they approach Stenosoma. 1 have only seen one species (A. tubercu- 
latus), brought from the North Seas in one of the late English expeditions to the Arctic Pole. [This species was 
published by Sabine under the name of Jdotea Baffini, but a second species exists in the north of our coast, which 
I have described in detail, with figures, in the first volume of the Transactions of the Entomological Society, under 
the name of Arcturus longicornis.] 


The fifth section, ASELLoTA, Latr., is also formed of Isopods, having four very distinct antenne 
arranged in two lines; they are setaceous, and terminated by a multiarticulate filament, two mandibles, 
four maxille, covered in general by a kind of lip formed of the first pair of foot-jaws ; vesicular branchie 
disposed in pairs, and covered by two longitudinal, biarticulated, but free plates: the tail is formed of 
a single segment, and without lateral swimmerets, but with two bifid styles, or two very short ap- 
pendages in the form of tubercles in the middle of the posterior margin. 


Asellus, Geoffroy, has two bifid styles at the extremity of the body, the eyes distinct, the superior antenne as 
long as the basal joint of the inferior, and the hooks at the tips of the legs entire. The only species of this genus 
is the Idotea aquatica, Fab. (Squilla asellus, De Geer), which is very abundant in fresh and stagnant water. It 
crawls slowly, at least, when not alarmed. In the spring it creeps out of the mud in which it had buried itself 
during the winter. After impregnation the female carries her eggs, in great numbers, inclosed in a membranous 
sac, placed beneath the breast, and opening by a longitudinal slit, in order to allow the young ones to escape. 

Oniscoda, Latr. (lanira, Leach) have the eyes contiguous, and the hooks of the tarsi bifid at the tips. (anira 
maculosa, Leach, found on the coast of England amongst the sea-weeds.) 

Tera, Leach, has only two tubercles at the extremity of the body. (J. albifrons, Leach, also found on the coast 
of England.) 


The sixth and last section of the order Jsopoda, or the OntscipEs, Latr., have also four antenne, but 
the intermediate pair is so minute as to be scarcely apparent, and never consists of more than two joints ; 
the lateral are setaceous. The tail is composed of six segments, with two or four style-like appendages 
at the posterior margin of the hind segment, and destitute of lateral swimmerets: some species are 
aquatic, but others are terrestrial. In the latter the anterior plates of the under-side of the tail exhibit 
a row of small holes, through which the air penetrates, and is brought into contact with the respiratory 
organs, which are inclosed beneath. 


Some of these are marine, and have more than nine joints in the antenna, (including the terminal annuli). 

Tylos, Latr., appears to have the power of rolling itself into a ball; the posterior segment is semicircular, and 
exactly fits the incision made by the preceding ; the posterior appendages are very minute; the antenne have only 
nine joints. 

Ligia, Fab., have the terminal annuli of the antenne very numerous, and the body is terminated by two styles, 
divided at the tip into two branches. 

The type, Oniscus oceanicus, Linn., is about an inch long, of a gray colour, with two large yellow patches on the 
back. The lateral antennz are about half the length of the body, the terminal filament being composed of thirteen 
joints. The terminal styles are as long as the tail itself. It is very common on the coast, clinging to the rocks and 
to the parapets of maritime erections. When it is attempted to be seized it immediately folds up its legs, 
and drops. Another species, Oniscus hypnorum, Fab., has the terminal division of the antenne 10-jointed, and 
the basal part of the anal styles armed with a tooth on the inside. 

The other Oniscides are terrestrial, and the lateral antennz have not more than eight joints, of which the propor- 
tions towards the extremity gradually diminish, none of them appearing to be divided into annuli. 

Philoscia, Latr., has the lateral antenne 8-jointed, and exposed at the base; the four exterior posterior appen- 
dages are nearly equal. They are always found in moist situations. (Oniscus sylvestris, Fab.; O. muscorum, Cuv.) 

Oniscus, proper, Linn., have also 8-jointed lateral antenne, but the base is concealed, and the two outer appen- 
dages at the tip of the tail are larger than the two internal. The animals of this and the two following genera 
are called wood-lice, St. Anthony’s hogs, &c. They frequent dark and concealed places, such as ceilars, caves, 
FF 


434 CRUSTACEA. 


holes in walls, under stones, &c. They feed upon decaying vegetable and animal matter, and only come forth 
from their retreat in wet and moist weather. They crawl but slowly, at least, when not alarmed. The eggs are 
inclosed in a pectoral pouch. The young, when first hatched, are destitute of one of the thoracic 
segments, and consequently of a pair of legs, which they subsequently acquire. They were formerly 
much used in medicine, but their employment has long been discontinued. (Types, Oniscus mu- 
varius, Fab.; Cloporte ordinaire, Geott.; Cloporte aselle, De Geer.) 

Porcellio, Latr., differs from Oniscus in having only seven joints in the lateral antenne. (Oniscus 
asellus, Cuv.) 

Armadillo, Latr., differs from all the preceding in the posterior appendages of the body not being 
exserted. The last segment is triangular. The lateral antenne have only seven joints, the upper sub- 
abdominal plates have a row of small apertures. (Oniscus armadillo, Linn.; O. cinereus, Panzer— 
Fig. 15.— Armadillo pustulatus, Desm.—Armadillo officinalis, Dumeril, from Italy, a species formerly much 


nadill c 
i aera employed by the apothecaries.) 


SECOND GENERAL DIVISION. 


CRUSTACEA ENTOMOSTRACA (Miller). 


Under this denomination, formed from the Greek, and signifying insects in a shell, 
Otho Frederick Miiller comprised the genus Monoculus of Linneus, to which some of 
his Lerneeze must also be added. The researches of Miiller upon these animals, of 
which the investigation is rendered the more difficult owing to their general micro- 
scopical size, together with those of Schaffer and the elder Jurine, have excited the 
admiration, and merit the thanks, of all naturalists. Other works, but of a more par- 
tial nature, as those of Ramdohr, Strauss, the younger Hermann, the younger Jurine, 
Adolphe Brongniart, Victor Audouin, and Milne Edwards, [to which we may add the 
more recent memoirs of Dr. Loven in Sweden, of Dr. Jchnston and William Baird in 
our own country, and of Dana in America], have greatly extended our acquaintance 
with these animals, especially in respect to their anatomy. M. Strauss far surpasses 
the others, although forestalled, as well as the elder Jurine, in various important struc- 
tural observations, by Ramdohr, whose memoir upon Monoculus, published in 1805, 
appears to have been unknown to those authors. Fabricius contents himself with 
adopting the genus Limulus of Miiller, which he places in his class Kleistagnatha, or 
our Brachyurous Decapoda. All the rest of the Entomostraca he reunites, after 
Linneus, in a single genus Monoculus, placed in his class Polygonata, or our Isopo- 
dous Edriopthalma. 

All these animals are aquatic, and ordinarily inhabit fresh water. Their legs, of 
which the number is variable—reaching, in some species, to beyond a hundred—are 
generally fitted only for swimming, and are sometimes ramified or divided, sometimes 
ornamented with long feathered hairs, or composed of plate-like jomts. ‘Their nervous 
system is composed of only one or two globules. ‘The heart has also the form of a 
long vessel. Their branchiz, composed of hairs or threads, either isolated or united, 
so as to form beards, combs, or tufts, form part of the legs, or at least of a certain 
number of them, as well as, occasionally, of the mandibles and upper maxille. (See 
Cypris.) Hence the origin of the name Branchiopoda, which we applied to these ani- 
mals, and which we at first united into a single order. 

Nearly all the species have a shell of one or two pieces, of very slender consistence, 
and generally nearly membranous and aimost diaphanous, or at least they have a large 
anterior thoracic segment, often soldered with the head, and appearing to occupy the 


ENTOMOSTRACA. 435 


situation of the shell. The teguments of the body are ordinarily corneous rather than 
calcareous, in which respect these animals approach the Insecta and Arachnida. In 
those which are furnished with ordinary maxille, the inferior or exterior are always 
naked ; all the foot-jaws performing the office of legs, properly so called, none of them 
being applied to the mouth. The second maxille, except in the Phyllopoda, also re- 
semble these last-named organs. By Jurine, they are sometimes called hands. 

These characters distinguish the masticating Entomostraca from the Malacostraca. 
The other Entomostraca, or those which compose our order Peecilopoda, cannot be 
confounded with the Malacostraca, being destitute of organs fitted for mastication, or 
because the organs which appear to serve as maxilla are not inserted close together 
anteriorly, and preceded by an upper lip, as in the preceding Crustacea and the man- 
dibulated insects, but merely formed by the coxz of the locomotive organs, which are 
armed for this purpose with small spines. The Peecilopoda represent, in this class, 
those species which, amongst the Insects, are distinguished by the name of Haustellata. 
They are almost exclusively parasitic, and appear to conduct us insensibly to the 
Lernze ; but the presence of eyes, the power of changing the skin, or even of under- 
going a kind of metamorphosis*, with the capability of transporting themselves from 
place to place by the help of the legs, appear to us to establish a positive line of de- 
marcation between these animals and the parasitic Lerneze. We have consulted, in 
respect to these transformations, various learned naturalists who have frequently ob- 
served the Lerneze, and none of them have ever observed the change of skin. 

The antennz of the Entomostraca vary, both in form and number, considerably ; 
and in some species are employed as organs for swimming. The eyes are very rarely 
fixed upon a footstalk ; and even when this is the case, the peduncle is merely a lateral 
prolongation of the head, and is never articulated at its base. Often the eyes are 
placed close together, and sometimes even become confluent, so as to exhibit but one 
eye. The organs of generation are placed at the base of the tail: it is a mistaken 
notion which has been entertained, that the antennz in some males perform this func- 
tion. The tailf is never terminated by a fan-shaped swimmeret, and is never furnished 
with the false feet which are seen to exist in the Malacostraca. The eggs are arranged 
in a mass beneath the back [of the shell], or are exterior, contained in a common en- 
velope, having the appearance of one or two minute bunches of grapes, situated at the 
base of the tail. It appears that they are able to remain for a great length of time in a 
dry state, without losing their properties. It is not until after the third moulting that 
these animals become adult, and capable of reproduction ; and it has been observed, in 
respect of some of them, that a single copulation is sufficient to fecundate many suc- 
ceeding generations. 

[By referring to pages 409 and 410, the distributions into orders, &c. of the Ento- 
mostraca, as proposed by Latreille, Milne Edwards, &c., will be perceived to vary 
somewhat inter se. The question as to the rank of the different groups, subsequently 
described either as orders or minor divisions, cannot be decided until naturalists are 
agreed as to the relative importance of the organs upon the variations of which these 
different classifications have been proposed. The following is of course that of the 


* The young of the Daphnia, and of some allied subgenera, such, | changes, either in the form of the body or the number of legs. These 
especially, as Cypris and Cythere, do not differ, or but very slightly, | organs also undergo changes in some species which entirely alter 
from their parents in other respects than that of size, even at the | their uses. 
period of bursting from the eggs. Those, however, of Cyclops, the + With the exception of the Phyllopoda, the posterior leys are tho- 
Phyliopoda, and Argulus, are subject, in their earlier life, to evident | racic, or are foot-jaws. (Cypris.) 


FF2 


436 CRUSTACEA. 


Régne Animal, although Latreille himself, as stated in p. 410, in his more recent work, 
had raised some of those groups, subsequently described, to the rank of orders. } 


THE FIRST ORDER OF ENTOMOSTRACA,— 
(The Sixth of the Class CRUSTACEA),— 
BRANCHIOPODA,— 


Has, for its characters, a mouth composed of an upper lip, two mandibles, a tongue, 
and one or two pairs of maxille; and the branchiz, or the first of these organs when 
there are many, always anterior. 

These Crustacea are always wandering about, generally covered by a shell in the 
form of a shield, or bivalve case, and provided with two or four antenne. The legs, 
except in a few, are only fitted for swimming: they are variable in their numbers, there 
being only six in some, but in others there are from twenty to forty-two, or even more 
than a hundred. Many exhibit only one eye. 

These Crustacea being for the most part microscopical, it will be perceived that the 
application of one of the characters of which we have made use—namely, that of the 
presence or absence of mandibular palpi—will here present nearly insurmountable dif- 
ficulties.* The form, and the number of the legs and eyes, the shell and the antenne, 
will furnish characters of more ready application, and capable of being examined by 
every inquirer. 

The order of Branchiopoda composed, in the methods of De Geer, Fabricius, and 
Linneus [with the exception of a single species, M. polyphemus], the single genus, 


Mownocoutus (Linn.),t— 


Which we separate into two principal sections: 1. Lopnyropa, divisible into three 
subsections, Carcinoida, Ostracoda, and Cladocera; and, 2. Puyuuora, divisible into 
two subsections, Ceratopthalma and Aspidiphora. 


The first section of the Branchiopoda—that of the LopHyropa —is distinguished by 
the number of the legs, which never exceeds ten, and of which the joints are cylindrical or 
conical, and never entirely lamelliform or foliaceous. The branchize are few in number, and 
the majority have only one eye. Many, also, have the mandibles furnished with a palpus. 
The antennz are generally four in number, and are used in locomotion. 

We divide the Lophyropa into three principal and very natural divisions, and of which the 
two first agree with the preceding Crustacea in their palpigerous mandibles, and some other 
characters. 


The first division of the Lophyropous Branchiopoda, or that of the Carcrnorpa, Latr., has the shell 
more or less ovoid, or oval, not shutting in two parts in the manner of a bivalve shell, but leaving the 
lower part of the body naked. Their antennz have never the appearance of branching arms. The legs 
are ten in number, and more or less cylindrical, or setaceous. The females in those species whose gesta- 
tion has been observed, carry their eggs in two external sacs situated at the base of the tail. Some of 
them have two distinct eyes, and form a first subdivision. 

Those species which have the thorax entirely covered by the shell, with the eyes large, and the inter- 
mediate antennz terminated by two filaments, compose the two following genera. 


* We nevertheless arrange, at the head, all those Branchiopoda t Strauss appears to attribute this character exclusively to Cypris 
which have the mandibles furnished with palpi. They compose the | and Cythere; but from the observations of the elder Jurine and 
‘wo first divisions of the Lophyropa. Ramdohr, it exists also in Cyclops, 


+ Together with that of Binoculus of Geoffroy. 


nnn OE EE EE 


BRANCHIOPODA. 437 


Zoea, Bosc, having the eyes large, globular, and entirely uncovered, with the thorax cornuted. Z. Pelagica, 
Bosc, found in the Atlantic Ocean; Monoculus Taurus of Slabber; and probably 
the Cancer Germanus of Linneus. [These curious creatures, of which Latreille 
observed that they had not been sufficiently studied, and at the same time re- 
gretted that he had never been able to obtain a specimen, have recently attracted 
agreat deal of attention, from having been asserted to be merely the larve of 
Decapod Brachyurous Crustacea, such as the common edible Crab, &c., by Dr. 
J. V. Thompson, who, in his Zoological Researches, and other memoirs published 
in the different scientific periodicals, has given figures of many new species, with- 
out, however, gaining a knowledge of the perfect analogy which exists between 
the organs of these animals and the Macroura. Having fortunately been enabled 
to dissect a very large species of this singular group, I have ascertained that 
the supposed legs are merely the two outer pairs of foot-jaws immensely de- 
veloped; the five pairs of true thoracic legs existing beneath the carapax. (See 
my memoir, published in the Philosophical Transactions.) M. Milne Edwards 
treats of them as Crustacés douteux, and thinks it possible that they may be the 
young of some of his Anomourous order. In this state of the question (the change 
from a Zoea to a Crab never haying been observed, although the genera Mega- 
lopus and Macropa of Latreille are affirmed to be the intermediate stage), all that 
can with certainty be arrived at is, that Zoea is a Malacostracous animal, be- 
longing to the order Decapoda, and that it must consequently be removed from 
the Entomostraca. } 

Nebalia, Leach, has the eyes flattened, and in part covered by a triangular channelled scale. The legs are 
furcate; and the appendages at the extremity of the body setaceous. N. Herbstii, Leach and Desmarest; and 
N. Geoffroyi, Edwards. The latter is described, in a very detailed manner, by M. Milne Edwards, in the Annales 
des Sciences Naturelles, [vol. xiii. pl. 15]. Therostrum in front of the shell is articulated at its base. The eyes 
are peduncled: the superior antennz are inserted beneath them, with the second joint furnished with an oval 
ciliated plate. [The terminal part is 9-annulated: these organs are elbowed, and bent down in front. The in- 
ferior antenne are longer, more slender, and equally directed downwards: they consist of four strong basal joints, 
and nine long terminal annuli. The shell is oval, and the animal considerably resembles a small short Shrimp, 
only the legs are very short, bifid, and inserted far behind. Between them and the mouth, there are, however, 
five pairs of minute, lamellose appendages, which probably represent the hinder foot-jaws and the fore-legs. The 
abdomen is long, slender, nine-jointed, and terminated by two bifid appendages. ] 

The Nebalie ventrue of Risso (Journ. Phys., Oct. 1822) probably constitutes a distinct genus in the section of the 
Schizopoda. In the Cyclops eviliens of Viviani, the thorax is divided into several segments, which excludes it 
from Nebalia. It also forms a subgenus intermediate between the preceding and following. 

Cuma, Edwards, is allied to Condylura, but the superior antenne are rudimental, and consist of a single joint. 
The head is distinct from the thorax, which is divided into four segments, of which the first supports the four 
fore-legs, and each of the three following another pair. All the legs are natatory, directed forwards, and without 
hooks at the tip. The two first pairs are alone bifid. [M. Edwards placed it amongst the Amphipoda. The 
Cancer scorpioides of Montague, overlooked by all Crustaceologists, appears to be congenerous. Type, Cuma 
Audouinii, Edwards. ] 

Condylura, Latr. The inferior antenne are longer. The anterior sides of the first segment are prolonged and 
pointed, forming two scales close together like a beak. Some of the middle feet are furnished, like the Schizo- 
pods, with an outer appendage close to the base. The tail is narrow, 7-jointed, the last being long, conical, 
and extends between the two slender, styliform, 2-jointed lateral appendages. C. Dorbignii, Latr. From the 
coast of La Rochelle.* 


The other Lophyropa of the first division, and in which the thorax is divided into several segments, 
the first being by fur the largest, are only furnished with a single eye, situated in the middle of the 
forehead between the upper antenne, constituting the genus 


Cyclops, Mill., studied by the elder Jurine and Ramdohr. The body is more or less oval, soft, or gelatinous, 
divided into two portions; the one anterior, composed of the head and thorax, and the other posterior, or the tail. 
The first segment of the latter, in the female, bears two minute feet, and is not always easily distinguishable 
from the thorax. The tail is 6-jointed: the terminal joint forked, and more or less furnished with feather-like 
filaments. The anterior part of the body is divided into four segments. The first, being the largest, composes 
the head and part of the thorax: it bears the eye, four antenne, two palpigerous mandibles, two maxillz, and four 
legs, each divided into two cylindrical stems. Each of the three following segments is furnished with a pair of 
feet. The two upper antenne are long and multiarticulate, assisting in locomotion, having nearly the action of 
feet. The inferior antenne are much shorter, filiform, and generally four-jointed. By their rapid movements, 


« Nicothoe, Aud. and Edw., would belong to this section if fur- ) two sessile eyes; four antenna, the superior [long], setaceous, and 
nished with mandibles and maxilla; but as it is a parasite, and asI | multiarticulate, the inferior leg-like, and two-branched. The thorax 
think I have observed in it the vestiges of a sucker, I have placed it | is composed of five segments, and supports five pairs of bifid swim- 
in the order Peecilopoda. Its legs, and the mode in which it carries its | ming legs. The abdomen is two-jointed, and terminated by two 
egus, agrees with Cyclups. Pontia, Edwards, appears to be allicdto | spatulated appendages. [Type, P. Savignii, Edwards. The dno 
Cyclops. The head is distinct from the trunk, and terminated bya  pherura minutissina, Templeton (Trans. Ent. Soc., vol, i. pl. 20), is 
rostrum, which i$ rather acute, and apparently two-jointed. I: has pzrozawiy auied to the above.) 


Fig. 16.—Zoea. 


438 CRUSTACEA. 


they form a current in the water. In the males, both or one of them are constricted and knotted. The upper an- 
tenne were, previous to the researches of Jurine, considered as organs of generation, from the manner in which 
they are used during coupling. The females are provided, on each side of the tail, with an oval sac, or external 
ovary, filled with eggs, and attached by a very slender peduncle. A single act of impregnation is sufticient for 
several successive generations. The female is able to produce as many as ten broods in the course of three 
months. At their birth, the young have only four feet; and the body is rounded, and destitute of a tail. These 
individuals were considered by Miiller as forming a distinct genus, named Amymone. Some time afterwards 
(fifteen days in February and March), they acquire another pair of legs, in which state they constitute Miller’s 
genus Nauplius. After the first moulting, they have the same form and organs as the perfect insect, but the 
latter are of smaller size. After two more mouitings, they are able to propagate their species. The majority of 
these Crustacea swim back downwards, darting about with great agility, and moving both backwards and for- 
wards with equal ease. In the absence of animal matter, they attack vegetable substances. 
Cyclops staphylinus—in its shorter antenne, which vary in the number of their joints, and in the gradual nar- 
rowing of the body, as well as in the curved corneous point with which the under-side of the base of the tail is 
armed—forms a separate division in the genus. 
Cyclops castor, and some other species, having the antenne and mandibular palpi divided into two branches, 
form another division. 
The subgenus Calanus of Leach is described as having no inferior antenne ;—but is this statement original? 
The type of the genus is the Cyclops quadricornis (Monoculus quadricornis, Linn.; and C, vulgaris, Leach), 
which has all the antenne single, and not divided. The body is ovoid, and the tail six-jointed. 
The colour varies considerably, some individuals being reddish, others whitish or greenish. 
The length is cne-fifth of an inch. It is very abundant. 
[W. Baird, Esq., has published a very complete memoir upon this genus in the fourth num- 
ber of the Magazine of Zoology and Botony, giving the bibliographical history, anatomy, and 
economy of the genus, with a monograph of the British species, in great detail. He has given, 
after Jurine, a calculation, whereby it appears, that at the end of one year, a female which 
gives birth to forty young at a time, may become the progenitor of 4,442,189,120 young! He 
has corrected Latreille’s observations relative to the genera Amymome and Nauplius, the 
Fig. 17.—Cyclops Species of which the former genus was composed consisting of the young of C. minutus in dif- 
vulgaris, magnified. foront states, which never assume the form of Nauplius, whereas the Nauplius is the young of 
C. quadricornis. He considers them to be decidedly carnivorous. ] 
(Mr. Templeton has described some beautiful species belonging to this genus, in the first volume of the Trans- 
actions of the Entomological Society, from the Island of Mauritius. One species (C. [Calanus] arietis) is remarkable 
for the great length of its superior antenne, which are armed near the tip with two very long recurved sete. The 
Cyclops (Anomalocera) Pattersonii, described by the same gentleman in the second volume of the same work, is 
closely allied to Cyclops castor. The males of both species are remarkable for having one of the antenne greatly 
swollen beyond the middle, the other being simple. ] 
[Cetochilus of Vauzeme is a singular genus, differing from Cyclops in having a pair of eyes. They have two very 
long, and two very short antenna; five pairs of short foot-jaws ; five pairs of swimming, bifid, and ciliated legs; 
and a small, narrow, 5-jointed abdomen. Type, Cetochilus australis (Vauzeme in Ann. Sci. Nat., 1834), a species 
found, in inconceivable profusion, beyond 42 of south latitude, in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, giving the sur- 
face of the sea a red tint, and serving as the food of the whales.—See Brit. Cyclop. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 796.] 


The second general division of the Branchiopoda Lophyropa—that in which the shell is formed 
of two valves united by a fleshy hinge, and inclosing the body when in inaction—have only six [or 
eight] legs, none of which are terminated by a branching swimmeret, accompanied by a branchial 
plate. The antennz are simple; they have only one eye; the mandibles and anterior maxillz are pro- 
vided with a branchial plate ; and the eggs are carried beneath the back. These compose our OsTRa- 
copa, or the order Ostrapoda of Strauss, and consist of two subgenera, of which the first, Cythere, 
appears to require a more minute examination than has been given to it by Miller, who is our only 
authority, especially since the elaborate researches of Strauss upon the second subgenus, Cypris. 

Cythere, Miill., Cytherina, Lam., has, according to Miiller, eight simple legs terminating in a point, and two 
antenne, also simple, setaceous, 5 or 6-jointed, with hairs scattered upon them. The species are found in 
salt and brackish water, near the shores of the sea, amongst sea-weed and conferve.* [Mr. Baird, who has care- 
fully examined the structure of these animals, states that they have decidedly eight feet and two antenne, and 
that they are only found in sea water.—Mag. of Zool. and Bot., ii. 139.] 

Cypris, Miill., has only sixt legs, and their two antenna are terminated by a pencil of [long] hairs. The shell 
is in the form of an oval body, compressed at the sides, arched and swollen at the back, or part where the hinge 
is placed; nearly straight, or a little incised and kidney-shaped, on the other side. In front of the hinge, and in 
the mid-line of the body, the single eye forms a large black and round spot. The antenne, affixed immedi- 


* If these Entomostraca be exclusively marine, itis not surprising © + Four, according to Ramdohr, but cight, according to Jurine; the 
that Jurine and other observers, in consequence of their place of resi- ! former regarding the posterior pair as organs of the inale sex, and the 
dence, should not have spoken of the species of Cythere, confining | latter considering the mandibular palpi, aud the branchial plate of 
their attention to the soft water species. the superior maxille, as legs. 


BRANCHIOPODA. 439 


ately beneath, are shorter than the body, setaceous, and 8 or 9-jointed; the terminal joints short, and pencilled 
with long hairs, form a kind of oar. The mouth is composed of a ridged labium; two large dentate and palpi- 
gerous mandibles, the basal joint of the palpi being furnished with a 5-branched branchia ; 
two pairs of maxille, the anterior pair also bearing branchial appendages, and the posterior 
palpigerous. ‘The office of the lower lip is performed by a compressed sternum. The legs 
are 5-jointed; the two anterior much larger than the others; affixed beneath the antenna, 
and directed forwards. The two following legs are directed backwards, and are situated in the 
middle of the under-side of the body; but the posterior pair never appear out of the shell, but 

Fig. 18.—Cyprie are bent upwards to give support to the ovaries. The body presents no distinct articulation, 

vidua, magnified. and is terminated behind in a tail folded beneath the breast, with two setaceous or conical fila- 

ments. The eggs are spherical. 

The laying of the eggs and the casting of the skins of these Crustacea are not less numerous than those of 
Cyclops and other Entomostraca, and their mode of life is similar. No recent author has been able to detect their 
sexual organs. Strauss, indeed, discovered the insertion of a great conical vessel, which he considered to bea 
testicle; but the individuals which he examined were furnished with ovaries, whence it would seem that the 
Cyprides are hermaphrodites. He, however, observed, in disproof of this opinion, that the males may probably 
exist at a certain period of the year, and that the vessel he describes may belong to the digestive system. 

According to Jurine, the antenne are real fins or paddles, the animais having the power of extending the threads 
at will, and according to the rapidity with which they are anxious to swim. We also are of opinion that these 
filaments may more probably be engaged in respiration, as well as the so-called branchial plates of the jaws. In- 
deed, the plates of the maxille appear to me to be a real, but greatly dilated palpus; and the other two are ap- 
pendages of the mandibular palpi. Jurine has noticed, that, in swimming, they move these antenne, and two 
fore-legs, with rapidity, but slowly whilst crawling on water plants. This pair of legs, together with those of the 
penultimate pair, at such times support the body. He supposes that those legs, which he regards as the second 
pair, serve to form a current in the water, and to direct it towards the mouth. The two filaments composing the 
tail unite, and seem to form but one when pushed out of the shell. It is conjectured that they are used in clean- 
ing the interior of the shell. The female lays her eggs in a mass, fixing them, with a glutinous secretion, to 
water-plants ; this occupation lasts twelve hours. The number of eggs, in the largest species, amounts to twenty- 
four. Having isolated a packet of eggs, Jurine observed them hatch, and obtained a second generation without 
the intervention of males. A female which had laid its eggs on the 12th April, had, by the 18th of the following 
May, changed its skin six times. On the 27th of the same month, it laid a second mass of eggs; and on the 29th, 
two days afterwards, a third. He therefore concluded that the nuinber of moultings, in the infancy of these ani- 
mals, has reference to the gradual developement of the individual, which developement can only be effected by a 
general separation of the envelope, now become too smail to lodge the animal, which has a determinate limit to 
its size.* 

{Mr. W. Baird has given a valuable and complete memoir upon this genus in the Magazine of Zoology and 
Botany, vols. i. and ii., describing a considerable number of new British species. He also states that a fossil 
species occurs in the limestone of Burdiehouse Quarry, near Edinburgh. ] 


The third general division of the Branchiopodous Lophyropa have also only one eye; and the shell 
is bent in two, but without any dorsal hinge, and is terminated posteriorly in a point. The head is not 
covered by the shell, but is inclosed in a kind of shield like a beak. They have two very large arm- 
like branched antenne, always exserted, and serving as oars. The legs, ten in number, are terminated 
by a pectinated or digitated fin, and furnished (except the anterior pair) with a branchial plate. The 
eggs are situated beneath the back. The body is always terminated by a tail, with two sete at the 
tip. The front of the body either terminates in a point, or forms an apparently distinct head, occupied 
entirely by a single large eye. 

These are our Crapocera, or the Daphnides of Strauss, and compose Jurine’s second family of 
Monoculus. From the form ofa pair of their antenne, which resemble branches, and serve as oars, 
and their power of leaping, the common species has obtained the name of the Arborescent Water-flea. 


Latona, Strauss, has the antenne oar-like, divided into three single-jointed branches. Daphnia setifera, Miller. 
Sida, Strauss, approaches the other known genera in respect to the antenna, which are, however, divided only 
into two branches, one being 2-jointed and the other 3-jointed. Daphnia cristailina, Miiller. 
In these and the other genera, there also exists another pair of antenne, very short, especially in the females, 
situated at the anterior and lower extremity of the head, composed of a single joint, with one or two sete at 
the tip. 
Polyphemus, Miller, has the antenn oar-like, as ini Daphnia and Lynceus, divided into two branches, each of 
which is 5-jointed. Moreover, the head, very distinct and rounded, and affixed upon a short neck, is almost 
entirely occupied by asingle eye of large size. The legs are entirely exposed. A single species only is known 
(Monoculus pediculus, Liun., De Geer; Polyphemus oculus, Miller; Cephaloculus stagnorum, Lamarck), [about 
the size ofa flea.] The legs are unlike those of the Monoculi of this division, being composed of a thigh, tibia, 
* See Miiller; Jurine, Hist. des Monocles, 2ud division; Ramdohr, 1 fossil species named ‘ Cypris féve,” found in great abundance near 


Mon. iv. Strauss, Wéin. du Mus, d’Hist. Nat., 7.i.; Desmarest, Con- | the mountain of Gergovia, in the departement du Puy-de-Dome, below 
sidérations and Crust. Fossiles, in which latter work is figured a | Vichy-des-Bains and Cussac. 


440 CRUSTACEA. 


and two-jointed tarsus. From the front of the head arise two very short, single-jointed antenne. The shell is so 
transparent that all the viscera may be seen through it. The matrix, when filled with eggs, occupies the major 
part of its interior; but their number, even in the most numerous broods, does not 
exceed ten. The eye is the first part of the animal which makes its appearance whilst 
in the egg. The abdomen is terminated by along tail suddenly folded back. The 


repeated motions, and executing, with the greatest ease, all kinds of evolutions. It is 
subject, in its infancy, to the disease alluded to more in detail under Daphnia, named 
the Ephippium (la Selle); but the Ephippium is always of a determinate shape. Kept 
Fig. pacha pate toh 2 in confinement, it soon dies; and its young do not live long after their first moultings. 
z Jurine was not able to detect males amongst the individuals he examined, but the 
species is rare near Geneva. It is, however, very common in the ditches and lakes of the north of France, [as well 
as in England], where it may often be seen in considerable troops. 
[Evadne, Loven, in Swed. Trans., 1835, differs from Polyphemus in having the head not detached from the body, 
with the antenne (or mandibular palpi, according to Loven) bifid. . Nordmanni. Found in the Baltic Sea.] 
Daphnia, Muller, has the antennz as long as the body, divided into two branches, of which the posterior is 
4-jointed, the basal joint being very short ; and the anterior is 3-jointed. The eye forms a small point, and is 
not accompanied, except in a few species, by an anterior black dot, mistaken by Muller and Ramdohr for a second 
eye in Lynceus. Although of such minute size, the anatomy of these animals has been elaborately investigated 
by Schaffer, Ramdohr, Strauss, and the elder Jurine,—Strauss having especially examined their structure, whilst 
Jurine closely noticed their habits. The mouth is situated beneath, at the base of the rostrum. We consider as 
an elongated clypeus the inferior portion of the head, termed labrum by Strauss, and we apply the name of 
labrum to the part which he terms the posterior lobule of the labrum. Beneath this are two very strong mandi- 
bles destitute of palpi, and applied against two horizontal maxilla, terminated by three strong corneous spines, 
like recurved hooks. Then succeed ten legs, all of which have the second joint vesiculose; the eight anterior 
terminated in a fin-like dilatation, with bearded filaments at its edges, arranged like a crown; the two anterior 
appear more especially organs of prehension. Ramdohr calls them palpi, and Jurine, hands, (as in Cyclops); from 
the bearded terminal sete, we do not see why they should not be employed in respiration*, although Strauss has 
a different opinion. The two hind-feet have a somewhat different form. The abdomen or body is divided into 
eight segments, perfectly disengaged within the shell, long, slender, and bent down at the tip, which is termin- 
ated by two recurved hooks. The sixth segment has a row of tubercles, and the fourth a kind of tail. The eggs 
remain in a large dorsal sac or matrix, between the shell and the body, for some time after they are discharged 


‘from the ovaries. Muller gave the name of Ephippium (la Selle) to a long, dark-coloured spot, which at certain 


seasons appears after the moulting of the females at the upper part of the valvesof the shell, and which Jurine 
attributes to a disease. According to Strauss, this Ephippium consists of two external plates, riveted on the back 
by a hinge, and inclosing two oval capsules, each formed of two valves or lateral plates. Each of these capsules 
incloses a corneous, greenish egg, similar in other respects to the common eggs, but remaining much longer un- 
hatched, and passing the winter in this state, the Ephippium forming a defence at the time of moulting: this 
Ephippium and its eggs are cast, and the eggs produce young, agreeing precisely with those of the ordinary eggs. 
The eggs, according to Jurine, hatch in summer in two or three days, but they are capable of remaining for a very 
long time in a state of desiccation. When the young, which have attained considerable developement in the ma- 
trix of the female, are fit to be discharged, the parent suddenly deflexes the tail and they quit the pouch. [Want 
of space prevents us from giving numerous details relative to the gradual developement of the young.] The males 
are very different from the females; the head shorter, the rostrum less extended, the valves of the shell nar- 
rower and less gibbose, the antenne much larger. Strauss was unable to detect the sexual organs of this sex. The 
two valves of the shell terminate in both sexes in a style, toothed on its under-side, curved near its base, and of a 
length equal to that of the valves. At each moulting, however, this style becomes shorter, so that in adult indi- 
viduals it forms merely an obtuse point. A single act of impregnation is sufficient for several succeeding (six at 
least) generations, as proved by Jurine. About eight days after their birth, the young moult for the first time, 
and repeat the operation every five or six days, according to the state of the weather: not only the body and the 
valves, but also the branchi, and the sete of the oars, cast off their epidermis. It is not until the third moult- 
ing that they begin to produce young, and at first they only lay a single egg, then two or three, the number 
gradually increasing to as many as fifty-eight in one species (D. magna). The following day after laying her 
eggs, the female moults, and in the shed teguments the shells of the eggs of her last brood are also found. ‘The 
eggs of each brood are almost exclusively of one sex, it being very rare to find two or three males ina female 
brood, and vice vers. In five or six broods in the summer, one at least is of males. These Crustacea cease to 
breed and to moult at the approach of winter, and are killed by the first frost. The Ephippial eggs which had 
been laid in the summer hatch in the following spring, and in a short time the ponds or ditches are again peopled 
with an infinity of Daphnie. Many naturalists have attributed the red colour of some of these waters to the 
presence of myriads of D. pulex ; but Strauss has never proved this fact, the species being generally but slightly 
coloured. In the morning and evening, and even in cloudy days, the Daphniz generally station themselves on 
the surface, but in the heat of the’ day they seek the depths of the water. They swim by taking short springs, 


* Strauss indeed considered Cypris and Cythere not to be real Bran- | as those of the palpi and anterior maxille, perform the office of 
chiopods, because their feet are not branchial; but we do not see | brauchie. 
why the hairs of the two anterior and of the antenne may not, as well 


animal always swims on its back or sides, giving to its antenne and legs quick and. 


varying according to the length of their oars and the breadth of their shells. According to Strauss, their food con- 
sists exclusively of minute particles of vegetable substances, which they meet with in the water, and often of 
conferve. They constantly refused the animal matter he gave them. It is by the action of their legs that they pro- 
duce a current on the water, which brings their food towards the mouth. The hooks at the tip of the tail are 
used in cleaning the branchie. [Mr. Baird haS published a detailed account of the anatomy and habits of this 
genus in the second volume of the Magazine of Zoology and Botany.] 

The most common species is D. pulex, (Monoculus pulex, Linn. ; Pulexw aquaticus arborescens, Swammerdam), 
or the arborescent water-flea. It has the setz of its oars plumose; its valves are notched on the lower edge, and 
terminated by a short tail, which is obtuse in the females. 

The last subgenus is Lynceus, Miller (Chilodorus, Leach), distinguished by the oars being shorter than the shell, 
and of which the lower part does not form a produced point. All the species have in front of the eye a small 
black spot, having the appearance of a second [frontal] eye. 


The second section of the Branchiopoda—that of the PayLLopa—is distinguished from 
the former by the number of feet, which is at least twenty,* and m some much more con- 
siderable ; their joints, or at least the terminal ones, are flattened, lamellar, or foliaceous, and 
ciliated. The mandibles are destitute of palpi. They have two eyes, (situated in some at 
the extremity of two moveable peduncles,) and some have also an ocellus ; the antennz, of which 
there are generally only two, are small, and not fitted for swimming. These Crustacea compose 
two principal groups. 

1. The Ceratopthalma, Latr., have at least ten pair of legs, and at the most twenty-two pairs, 
without any vesicular appendages at their base, and of which the anterior are never much longer than 
the others, nor ramified. The body is inclosed in a shield, formed like a bivalve shell, or naked, with 
each of the thoracic divisions bearing a pair of exposed feet. The eyes are sometimes sessile, small, 
and close together, but more commonly they are situated at the extremity of two moveable peduncles. 
The eggs are internal or external, and inclosed in a capsule at the base of the tail. 

In some species the eyes are sessile, immoveable, and the body inclosed in a bivalve shell; the 
ovaries are always internal. They form the genus 

Limnadia of Ad. Brongniart, which so nearly approach the preceding that Hermann placed the only species 
known [to him and Latreille] amongst the Daphniz. The shell is oval, bivalve, and incloses the body, which is 
long, linear, and inflected in front. Upon the head are placed, 1, two eyes in a transverse direction, and close to- 
gether; 2, four antenne, two much longer than the others, each composed of an 8-jointed peduncle, and two 
8-jointed setaceous branches, rather silky, and two others intermediate in situation, small, simple, and dilated at 
the tips; 3, the mouth, situated beneath, consisting of two mandibles, swollen, curved, and truncate at the 
inferior extremity, and two foliaceous maxille. These parts form together a kind of beak, placed beneath. The 
body, properly so called, is divided into twenty-three segments, each of which (except the last) bears a pair of 
branchial feet. All these feet are alike, very compressed, bifid, with the outer division simple, ciliated at the 
outer edge, and the other 4-jointed, and strongly ciliated on the inner edge. The twelve fore pairs of legs are of 
the same length, and longer than the others, which diminish gradually in length. The eleventh, twelfth, and 
thirteenth pairs have at the base a slender filament, bent upwards into the cavity between the back and the shell, 
serving as the support for the eggs. The ovaries are internal, and situated at the sides of the intestinal canal. 
The eggs, after being laid, occupy the dorsal cavity above noticed, and are there attached by means of small fila- 
ments adhering to those of the supports. They are at first round and transparent, but afterwards become 
darker, and irregular in shape. All the individuals observed by Brongniart were provided with them, so that the 
males remain unknown (if there are individuals of that sex), and are supposed to appear at a different season from 
the females. The type, Limnadia Hermanni (A. Brongniart, Daphina gigas, Hermann), has been found in small 
pools of water in the forest of Fontainebleau. 

(M. Guérin has published a monograph upon this genus in his Magasin du Zoologie for 1837, describing three 
species. ] 

(Estheria, Strauss, (Cyzycus, Audouin,) is a genus closely allied to Limnadia, found in the Red Sea. Type, Z. 
Dahalacensis, Ruppell, in Trans. Mus. Seckenberg, 1837.] 


In the other species of Ceratopthalma, the eyes are placed at the extremities of two long pedancles, 
formed by the lateral prolongation, like a nose on each side of the head. The body is naked, not in- 
closed in a shield, and annulated throughout its entire length. The females carry their eggs in an 
elongated capsule, placed at the base of the tail when present, or at the posterior extremity of the body 
and thorax in those which have no tail. 


Artemia, Leach, has the body terminated by a tail, the eyes borne at the extremity of very short peduncles; 
the head confiuent, with an oval thorax, supporting ten pairs of legs, and terminated by a long and pointed tail. 


* These animals represent in this class of Crustacea the Myriapoda in that of the Insecta. 


BRANCHIOPODA. ; 441 


449 CRUSTACEA. 


Artemia salina, (Cancer salinus, Linn., Montague, in Trans. Linn. Soc., 9. pl. 14,) [the Brine Shrimp] is avery 
small Crustaceous animal, commonly found in the salt pans at Lymington, in England, when the evaporation 
of the water is considerably advanced. [Latreille observed that we were in possession of very imperfect 
characters of this little species. More recently, however, Dr. J. V. Thompson has minutely examined its struc- 
ture, and has traced the gradual developement of this singular animal, which, when full grown, is about half 
an inch in length, with a highly polished surface. ‘ Nature having con- 
structed them with members solely adapted for swimming, they seem 
to be in perpetual quest of prey, gliding with an almost even motion 
through the water, and moving with equal indifference and facility 
on the back, belly, and sides; the shape of the animal, the undu- 
lating movements of its fins, and the glossy appearance of its coat, 
renders it an object of avery interesting description.”’—Thompson. M. 
VY. Audouin has published some additional and equally interesting 
details of it in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1837.] 

Branchipus, Latr. (Chirocephalus, B. Prevost), have the eyes placed 
at the end of elongated peduncles; the body long, narrow, and com- 
pressed, the head distinct from the thorax, with its organs varying in 

Fig. 20.—Artemia salina, in different stages. +. 4 sexes, with two horn-like projections between the eyes ; eleven pairs of 
legs, and the tail terminated by two ciliated, elongated plates. In both sexes the body is nearly filiform, composed 
of a head separated from the thorax by a kind of neck, of a thorax channelled beneath, and divided, at least on the 
upper side, into eleven segments, not including the neck, each of which supports a pair of very compressed bran- 
chial legs, generally composed of three lamellar joints, with the edges fringed with hairs, and of a long tail, 
gradually narrowed to the end, composed of nine segments, terminated by two or more less elongated filaments with 
ciliated edves. The under side of the second segment of the tail exhibits the male sexual organs, and in the female 
is furnished with an elongated sac, containing the eggs ready to be laid. The head, (of which the organization of 
the different parts, especially those of the mouth, requires a more minute investigation than has been given to it 
by Prevost and Schiffer), presents, 1, two facetted eyes, wide apart, at the end of two flexible peduncles, formed by 
the lateral prolongation of the head; 2, two frontal antenne scarcely shorter than the head, slender, filiform, and 
composed of minute articulations; 3, two produced organs beneath them, either in the form of horns, and 
composed of a single joint, or finger-shaped and two-jointed; 4,a mouth on the under side of the head, composed 
of two kinds of toothed mandibles, destitute of palpi, and’of some other pieces. We believe that these produced 
horns are only appendages (but differently constructed in the males) of the frontal antenne; the two other 
antennz may either be obliterated in the females, and may constitute in the males of C. diaphanus, Prey., the singular 
tentacles with teeth, and capable of being rolled up in a coil, which B. Prevost calls the fingers of the hands. 
The observations of Schiffer wpon the hairs of the feet, prove that they are so many aerial canals, and that the sur- 
face of the feet to which they are attached is able to absorb a portion of the air which is in contact with them, in 
the form of bubbles. 

Chirocephalus diaphanus, B. Prevost, nearly allied to our Branchipus paludosus, if indeed it be distinct, has, on 
bursting from the egg, the body divided into two nearly equal and nearly globular masses. The anterior exhibits 
a single simple eye, two short antenne, two very large oars, ciliated at the end, two short, slender, 5-jointed legs. At 
the end of the first moulting the two composite eyes appear, the body is gradually elongated, and terminates in a 
conical, articulated tail, with two filaments at the tip. The subsequent moultings gradually develope the legs, 
and the oar-like appendages disappear. The Branchipi are found, often in great numbers, in small puddles of soft, 
disturbed water, and often in those formed after heavy rains, especially in autumn and spring. The first frosts 
destroy them. They generally swim on the back, and their short, lamellar feet, unable to assist in walking, are 
then kept in an undulatory motion, very agreeable to the sight, and by which a current is produced, which, follow- 
ing the canal of the breast, bears to the mouth the minute particles of the insect’s food. When it swims it violently 
beats the water from right to left with its tail, which gives it sudden jerks. When deprived of a sufficient degree 
of moisture, it soon ceases to move. The shell of the eggs is thick and strong, which favours their preservation, 
since it appears that desiccation, unless it be too strong, does not alter the germ, and that the young are subse- 
quently hatched when a sufficient quantity of rain falls. M. Desmarest has often observed the Branchipus in pud= 
dles of fresh rain-water on the summit of the free-stone (grés) of Fontainebleau. The female Chirocephali have 
several distinct layings of eggs, after a single impregnation; each operation lasting several hours, or even an 
entire day: each brood consists of from one hundred to four hundred egys, ten or twelve being discharged at once, 
with sufficient force to embed them in the sand. The two horns, situated beneath the superior antenne in Branchi- 
pus paludosus, are composed, in both sexes, of two joints, the last of which is large and curved in the male, and 
very short and conical in the female. In Branchipus stagnalis, the 
horns are composed of but one joint, those of the male resembling, in 
their form, direction, and teeth, the jaws of the Lucanus Cervus, or Stag 
Beetle. [There is an interesting memoir on this animal and its trans- 
formation, by Dr. Shaw, in the Linnean Transactions, vol. i.] 

Eulimene, Latr., is destitute of a tail, the body, whichis nearly linear, Fig@l.— Beenclinnentecaetie 
terminating immediately behind the thorax and posterior legs: the four 
antenne are short, nearly filiform, two being smaller than the others, and nearly resembling palpi, placed at 
the anterior extremity of the head. The head is transverse, with two eyes placed upon large cylindrical pedun- 
cles, eleven pairs of branchial feet, of which the three anterior joints and the terminal one are smaller, and 


BRANCHIOPODA. 443 


gradually pointed, and immediately behind them is a terminal, nearly semiglobular joint, replacing a tail, and 
which 1s furnished with an elongated filament, probably an oviduct. I have observed near the middle of the 
fifth and four following pairs of feet a globose body, probably analogous to the vesicles which these organs present 
in Apus. The only species, #. aibida, Latr., is very small, and of a whitish colour. It is found in the River of Nice. 


2. The AsprprpHora, Latr., [or second principal group of the Phyllopodous Branchiopoda] have sixty 
pairs of legs, all of which are furnished on the outside, near the base, with a large oval vesicle, and of 
which the two anterior, much Jarger than the rest, and ramose, resemble antenne. A large shell covers 
the major part of the upper side of the body, almost entirely disengaged, (shield-like,) posteriorly emar- 
ginate, and bearing anteriorly, in a confined space, three simple sessile eyes, of which the two anterior 
are larger and lunular ; and two bivalve capsules containing the eggs, annexed to the eleventh pair of 


feet. Such are the characters of the genus 


‘ 

Apus, Scop., (forming part of the genus Binoculus, Geoffroy, and Limulus, Miill.).—The body, including the 
shell, is oval, broader, and rounded in front, and narrowed behind, forming a tail; but if we remove the shell, it is 
nearly cylindrical, convex above, concave and divided by a longitudinal canal beneath, terninating in an elongated 
cone. Itis composed of thirty joints, equally diminishing in size towards the posterior extremity, and which, 
with the exception of the seven or eight terminalones, bear the feet. ‘The ten anterior segments are membranous, 
soft, and without spines, presenting on each side a small eminence, or knob, with only a single pair of legs to 
each. The others are more solid and horny, with a row of small spines on the outer edge: the last is longer than 
the preceding, nearly square, depressed, angular, and terminated by two filaments, or articulated sete. In some 
species, composing the genus Lepidurus, Leach, there is a corneous elliptic plate. If the number of legs be one 
hundred and twenty, the terminal segments after the eleventh and twelfth must severally bear more than a pair of 
legs, (in which respect these animals approach the Myriapoda). ‘The shell, perfectly disengaged beyond its an- 
terior attachment, covers the greater part of the body, and thus defends the anterior segments, which are of a 
softer consistence than the others ; it consists of a large, corneous scale, very slender, nearly diaphanous, exhibit- 
ing the superior teguments of the head and thorax united, and forming alarge, oval shield, deeply incised at its 
posterior extremity. Its upper surface is divided by a transverse line, forming two united arcs, into two areas, 
the anterior of a semilunar form, corresponding with the head, and the other with the thorax. The anterior is fur- 
nished with the three eyes, and the posterior is carinated down the middle. The shell is only fixed to the body at its 
anterior extremity, so that the back of the animal may be distinctly seen throughout its whole length. Immedi- 
ately beneath the frontal disc are placed the antenne and mouth. The antenne are two in number, inserted on 
each side of the mandibles, very short, filiform, and composed of two equal joints. The mouth consists of a square 
labrum ; two strong, corneous mandibles, destitute of palpi, and toothed at the tip; a tongue, deeply notched ; two 
pairs of foliaceous maxille, the superior spined, and ciliated on the inner edge, and the inferior resembling small 
false legs. ‘They are terminated by a slender, elongated joint, prolonged externally at their base into an ear- 
shaped appendage, and bearing a kind of palpus. The legs, about one hundred and twenty in number, gradually 
diminish in size after the second pair; they are all compressed, foliaceous, and composed of three joints, not 
including the two long filaments at the tip of the two anterior, and the two leaflets terminating the following, 
which may be regarded as the analogues of a claw, having the two fingers elongated, and converted into antenne- 
like filaments ; upon the posterior edge of this joint is inserted a large branchial membrane, and the following, or 
the second, also bears on the same side an oval, vesicular, red sac. The opposite edge of these legs also exhibits 
four triangular, ciliated leaflets. The eleventh pair of legs is very remarkable; the first joint exhibits, behind 
the vesicle, two circular valves, applied upon each other, formed of two plates, and inclosing the eggs, which re- 
semble small, red grains. All the individuals hitherto examined have exhibited this structure, and it has, there- 
fore, been supposed that each has the power of fecundating its own eggs, and that there are no males. 

These Crustacea inhabit ditches, lakes, and standing waters, generally in innumerable quantities. Raised thence 
by violent hurricanes into the air, they have been observed to fall like rain. They are generally found in spring 
and the beginning of summer. Their food principally consists of young Tadpoles. They swim well on the back, 
and when they burrow into the sand, they elevate their tails in the water. When first hatched they have only one 
eye, four legs, like oars or arms, with whorls of hairs; the second pair being the largest. The body has no tail, 
and the shell only covers the front half of the body. The other organs are gradually developed during the succeeding 
moultings. 

The species being few in number, it is not necessary to form (as Leach has done) with those 
which have a plate between the tails, a distinct genus (Lepidurus, Leach), type, Monoculus apus, 
Linn. The ridge of the shield terminates in a small spine posteriorly, which is not the case in 
Apus cancriformis (Limulus palustris, Miill.), which latter is also destitute of a plate between the 
tail. This forms the type of the restricted genus Apus of Leach, who has also figured another 
species, 4. Montagui. 

[| Prosopistoma, Latreille, in Nouv. Mém. du Muséum, is composed of a minute species from Mada- 
gascar, exactly resembling a species of Gyrinus in its external appearance. It is figured in Guérin, 
Iconographie Crust., p\.34,14. Eurypterus, Dekay, is composed of avery remarkable fossil animal, 
allied to Apus and other analogous genera, the head not being distinct from the body, which is 
oval, but attenuated behind, with two large dorsal eyes, and four pairs of legs, the fourth being Rese Aas 
very large, and like broad oars, Annals Nat. Hist., New York, 1825, p. 375, t. 29.] Montagu 


444 CRUSTACEA. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF ENTOMOSTRACA,— 
(The Seventh and last of the Class CRUSTACEA),— 
PCECILOPODA,— 


Is distinguished from the preceding by the diversity in the form of the feet, of 
which the anterior, of an indeterminate number, are ambulatory, or fitted for pre- 
hension, and the others, lamelliform or pinnated, are branchial, and fitted for swim- 
ming. But it is especially in the absence of mandibles and maxillz of the ordinary 
form that they are separated from all the other Crustacea; sometimes these organs 
are replaced by the basal joint of the six anterior legs being armed with numerous 
minute spines ; sometimes the organs of manducation consist either in an external 
siphon in the form of an inarticulated beak, or in some other instrument fit for 
suction, but hidden, or very indistinct. 

The body is nearly always covered, either entirely or for the most part, by a 
shell in the shape of a shield, composed of a single piece in the majority, but of 
two parts in some, and always exhibiting two eyes at least when these organs are 
distinct. Two of the antenne (Chelicere, Latr.) are in many in form of hooks, 
and perform the functions as such. The number of their legs is twelve in the 
greater number*, and of ten or twenty-two in nearly all the others. They reside 
‘for the most part upon aquatic animals, and most commonly on fishes. 


We divide this Order into two families, [XypHosuRa and S1pHonostoma, | which, in 
my Familles Naturelles, composed two separate orders. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF PO@CILOPODA,— 
XyYPHOSURA,— 


Is distinguished from the following by many characters: they have no siphon; the coxe of the six pairs 
of fore-legs are beset with minute teeth, and perform the office of jaws ; the number of legs is twenty- 
two ; the ten anterior, with the exception of the two anterior in the males, are terminated by a two- 
fingered claw, and inserted, as well as the two following, beneath a large semilunar shield; the latter 
bear the organs of generation, and are in the form of large leaves, as well as the ten following, which 
are branchial, and annexed to the under side of a second shield, which is terminated by a very powerful, 
horny, moveable style, like a sword. These animals are wanderers. They compose the genus 


Limulus, Fab., of which the species have received the name of [King Crabs], or crabs of the Moluccas. The 
nearly rounded body, somewhat elongated and narrowed behind, is divided into two parts, and covered by a solid 
shell of two pieces, one for each division of the body; it is very concave beneath, and exhibits 
on its upper side two longitudinal impressions, one on each side, and a central dorsal ridge. 
The fore part of the shell, or that which covers the front of the body, is much larger than the 
other, and forms a large semilunar shield, having on its upper side two oval eyes, with very 
nunferous facets, in the form of minute grains, and situated one on each side on the outside of 
the longitudinal ridge ; and at the anterior extremity of that of the centre, which extends to the 
pieces of the shell, are two small, simple eyes, close together. Within the cavity of the anterior 
Shell is a small swollen labrum, ridged in the centre, terminated in a point, and above which 
are inserted two small antenne, in the form of small didactyle claws, and elbowed in the middle 
of their length, at the union of the first and following joint. Immediately beneath are inserted, 
close together in pairs, in two lines, twelve legs, of which the ten anterior (the two or four anterior 
in the males only excepted) are terminated by a didactyle claw, and of which the basal joint is 

Fig. 23—Limulus advanced interiorly into a lobe armed with numerous minute spines, and performs the functions 

POMTBReMn- of the maxilla. These legs progressively increase in size, and, with the exception of the fifth 
pair, are composed of six joints, including the moveable finger of the claw; the fifth pair have an additional 
joint, and also a curved appendage at the base, directed backwards, and composed of two joints; their fifth 


* i $ a PC IeS re, } . . . 7” . . . . eae 
Fourteen in some species, according to Leach; but the pair which , ferior antenne. The Arguli, which, in respect to their locomotive 
| 


he considers to be the anterior pair, appears to me to be the two in- | organs, are the most perfect, have only twelve legs, 


PQ@CILOPODA. 445 


joint of the leg being terminated on the inner edge by five small, corneous, narrow, elongated, pointed, and move- 
able plates, and the two fingers are moveable, or articulated at the base. The two pieces situated between these 
feet, considered by Savigny as a tongue, appear to me to be the two maxillary lobes of these organs, detached and 
free. The males are distinguished by the form of the claws of the two or four fore-legs, which are swollen, and 
destitute of a moveable finger. The two terminal legs of the anterior shield are united into a large, membranous 
leaflet, nearly semicircular, bearing the sexual organs on its posterior face ; the joints are indicated by sutures. 
The second piece of the shell is nearly triangular, and notched at its posterior extremity. Its sides are alternately 
notched and toothed, and with six spines on each side. In its concave under-side are situated, arranged in pairs, 
and in two longitudinal series, ten fin feet *, nearly resembling the posterior pair of legs, but united merely at the 
base, applied upon each other, and bearing on their posterior face the branchiz, which appear to consist of very 
numerous fibres. 

These Crustacea sometimes attain the length of two feet. They chiefly inhabit tropical seas, and are found near 
the shore. They appear to be peculiar to the East Indies and coast of America. In the latter part of the world 
they are called Casserole Fish,—their shells serving, when the legs are removed, to lade water with. 

According to M. Leconte, a learned naturalist, they are used for feeding pigs. The natives use the horny style 
at the extremity of the body in making their arrows, the point being dangerous. Their eggs are eaten in China. 
In walking, their legs are not seen. Fossil species have been found in strata of moderate age.—Knorr, Mon. De- 
luge, i. pl. 14; Desmarest, Crust. Fossiles, xi. 6, 7. 

One species, forming Leach’s genus Trachypleus, has the four fore-legs, at least in one sex, terminated by a 
single finger,—L. heterodactylus, which I have observed figured in Chinese drawings, and which is probably the 
Kabutogani or Unkia of the Japanese, by whom it is figured in their primitive Zodiac as the representative of the 
constellation Cancer. In the others, the two fore-claws, at most, are only monodactyle. All the ambulatory legs 
are didactyle, at least in the females. This division is composed of numerous species ; but which, in consequence 
of the slight attention which has been bestowed upon the details of them, from the differences of sex and of age, 
together with their peculiar localities, have not been yet characterized with sufficient nicety. Thus, for example, 
the young of the common American Limulus is whitish, with six strong teeth on the central ridge of the base, and 
two on each of the lateral ridges; but in others of greater age, and which are a foot and a half long, the colour is 
much darker, and the teeth have nearly disappeared. We may refer the Limulus Cyclops, Fabr., L. Sowerbii, 
Leach, L. tridentatus, Leach, and LZ. albus, Bosc, to the former; and to the latter the Monoculus polyphemus, 
Linn., which [had named LZ. moluccanus, considering it peculiar to the Moluccas. In all its states its tail is 
shorter than the body, and denticulated above, which distinguishes it from other species described by myself and 
Dr. Leach.—See Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat., second edition, and Desmarest. 

{Van der Hoeven has recently published two memoirs on this genus, in his Magazine of Natural History, pub- 
lished at Amsterdam.] 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF P@CILOPODA,— 


SIPHONOSTOMA,— 


Does not exhibit any kind of jaws. A sucker, or siphon—sometimes external, and in the form 
of an acute imarticulated beak},—sometimes concealed, or nearly indistinct—occupies the place 
of the mouth. The number of feet never exceeds fourteen. The shell is very slender, and of 
a single piece. All these Entomostraca are parasites. 

We divide this family into two tribes, [CALIGrpEs and LERN&ZIFORMES |. 


The first of these tribes—that of the Catierprs, Latr.—is characterized by the presence of a shell, 
in the form of an oval or semi-lunar shield; by the number of visible legs, which is always twelve (or 
fourteen, if, with Dr. Leach, we regard the limbs, which I consider as inferior antenne, as legs); by the 
form and size of those of the ten posteriort, which are either slit into many parts, pinnated, or termi- 
nated in a swimmeret, and well fitted, in all their stages of existence, for swimming: sometimes they 
are leaf-like, broad, ‘and membranous. The sides of the thorax never exhibit any wing-like expansions 
directed backwards, and posteriorly inclosing the body. [The tribe is divisible into two subtribes.] 

In the first subtribe, the body—exhibiting, on the upper side, several segments—is elongated, and 
narrowed posteriorly, terminating in a tail with two filaments, or two other exserted appendages, at the 
tip. This extremity of the body is not covered by a division of the superior integuments, in the shape 
of a Jarge rounded scale, deeply notched at its posterior extremity. The shell occupies at least the 
moiety of the length of the body. This subtribe comprises two genera of Miller L4rgulus and Caligus]. 


* The two fore-legs may represent the mandibles of the Decapods; ; sucker; but is it the same with the others? and what is the number 
the four following feet, their maxille, and the six hind-legs, their | of the pieces of which it is composed? This we are ignorant of, 
foot-jaws: sothat the fin-feet of the second part of the shell would | although I presame that it consists of a labrum, mandibles, and a 
thence be the representatives of the thoracic legs of the higher | tongue, which forms the sheath of the sucker. 

Crustacea. t [Latreille says, ‘ diz derniéres paires ;” but he evidently intended 

+ The composition of this beak is not well understood. It is evi- | only the jive posterior pairs, or ten posterior legs.) 
dent, from Jurine’s figure of Argulus foliaceus, that it incloses a 


446 CRUSTACEA. 


Argulus, Miill., at first named by me Ozolus, but not sufficiently described. The younger Jurine subsequently 
examined the species which is the type of the genus, with the most scrupulous attention, observing it in all its 
stages. The shield is oval, notched posteriorly, covering the body, with the exception 
of the posterior extremity of the abdomen, and supporting, on a triangular frontal 
space termed the clypeus, two eyes, four very minute antenne, nearly cylindrical, 
placed in front—of which the superior, very short and 3-jointed, have, at the base, a 
strong, toothless, recurved hook, and of which the inferior are 4-jointed, with a small 
tooth upon the basal joint. The siphon is directed forwards. The legs are twelve in 
number. The two anterior are terminated by a large limb, circularly dilated at the tip, 
and striated and toothed at the edge; exhibiting, on the inside, a kind of rosette, 

3 1 2 formed by the muscles, and seeming to act as a sucking-cup. Those of the second pair 
Fig. 24.—Argulus foliaceus. 1, are fitted for prehension, with the thighs thick and spinose, and the tarsi composed of 

PE aieitee a ean tes A three joints, the last of which is terminated by two hooks. The other feet are termi- 

ieogin” Be Siphon 4 natural nated by a swimmeret formed of two fingers, or elongated pinnule, fringed with bearded 

threads. The third pair of legs has an extra finger, but which is recurved. The last 
pair of legs is attached to that part of the body which is disengaged behind the shield, or the tail. The abdomen— 
regarding it as the part of the body extending backwards between the ambulatory feet, the beak, and a tubercle 
inclosing the heart—is entirely free from the place of its insertion, without distinct articulations, and terminates 
immediately behind the two last feet in a kind of tail, in the shape of a rounded, deeply-notched plate, without 
hairs at thetip. Itisakind of swimmeret. The transparency of the integuments permits the heart to be per- 
ceived. It is situated behind the base of the siphon, lodged in a solid tubercle, semitransparent, and in the form 
of a single ventricle. 

The eggs are oval, and of a milky white colour: they are attached by gluten to stones or other hard substances, 
either in one or two rows, to the number of from one to four hundred. The eggs hatch about thirty-five days after 
they are deposited ; and the young ones, on bursting forth, are only three-eighths ofa line long. Their general 
form is similar to that of the adult state, but the locomotive organs exhibit essential differences. Miilier described 
the animal in this state as a distinct species, named Argulus Charon. Four long oar-like arms, two placed before 
and two behind the eye, each terminated by a brush of flexible hairs, which the animal moves simultancously, and 
by the help of which it swims easily, with a jerking motion, arise from the anterior extremity of the body. The 
rudiments of the antennz are also visible. The two large sucker-like feet are replaced by two strong legs elbowed 
near the extremity, and terminated by a strong claw, with which the animal affixes itself to fishes. Of the other 
legs which appear in the adult state, those only of the second and third pairs, or the two ambulatory feet, and the 
two anterior natatory legs, are the only ones which are developed and free: the following are, as it were, lapped up, 
and applied against the abdomen. The first moulting, which is effected by means of a rupture of the skin on the 
under-side of the body, having taken place, the oar-like limbs disappear, and all the natatory legs become disen- 
gaged. Three days afterwards, the second moult takes place, which does not produce any important change ; but 
at the third moult, which takes place two days afterwards, we begin to perceive the formation of the suckers of the 
fore-legs. At the fourth moult, which also takes place at the end of two days, these legs have assumed the sucker 
shape, preserving, however, the terminal hook. At the end of six days, there is another change of the skin, when 
the organs of generation become apparent; but there still remains another moult, retarded for six days, before 
these animals are fitted for reproduction. Thus the period of their metamorphoses extends to twenty-five days. 
They have then, however, attained only half their size. Other moultings, which take place every six or seven days, 
are necessary for their arriving at their full growth. Jurine asserts that the females do not become parents with- 
out the presence of the males. Those which he kept isolated died of a disease which manifested itself in numerous 
brown globules, arranged in a semicircle towards the posterior part of the clypeus, 

The only species of this genus known [to Latreille] (Argulus foliaceus, Jurine; Monoculus foliaceus, Linn. ; 
Argulus delphinus, and A. Charon, Miiller ; Monoculus Gyrini, Cuvier ; Ozolus Gasterostei, Latr.) attaches itself 
to the under-side of the body of the young of Frogs, Sticklebacks, &c., and sucks their blood. Its body is flattened, 
of a greenish-yellow colour, and about two lines anda half long. ‘The younger Herman, who has well described 
this crustaceous insect in its perfect state, and who cites a manuscript of L. Baldaner, a fisherman of Strasburg, 
of the date of 1666, where the same animal is figured, says that, in the neighbourhood of that city, it is only found 
upon the trout, which it destroys, especially in fish-ponds. It is also found upon the perch, pike, and carp. He 
says it has never been found upon the gills of the fish. This animal turns itself about 
in the water in a similar manner to the Gyrini. He says its body is divided into five 
somewhat indistinct segments along the back. 

[A most elaborate memoir, containing the description of Argulus Catostomi, an 
American species of this genus, has recently been published by Messrs. Dana and 
Herrick, in Silliman’s Journal.] 

Caligus, Mill., are destitute of the sucker-like feet. The anterior legs are furnished 
with hooks: the others are divided into a greater or less number of pinnule, or are in 
the form of membranous leaflets. The shell leaves a considerable part of the body ex- 
posed, which is terminated posteriorly, in the majority, by two long filaments, and in 
others by appendages in the form of fins or styles. The space between these appendages Fig. 25.—Caligus piscinus, Linn. 
also often exhibits various other minute appendages. Rone Oe aed ae of eee? 

The name of fish-lice, under which these animals are collectively knowny indicates 
that their habits are the same as those of the other Siphonostoma. Many naturalists have considered the tubular 


eee aS NSN a 0 A ee i 
PCECILOPODA. 447 


filaments at the extremity of the body as ovaries. I have sometimes found the eggs beneath the posterior branchial 
legs, but never in these tubes. In other cases, the external ovaries, thus elongated, are only found in those females 
which lay their eggs in holes or deep burrows; whereas this is not the case with the Caligi. Miller and other 
zoologists have observed that these Crustacea trim and agitate these appendages. We believe, together with both 
the Jurines, that they serve for respiration, in the same manner as the anal filaments of Apus.* 

The species of the restricted subgenus Caligus (including Risculus, Leach) have all the legs free, and attached, 
with the exception of the two last, to the anterior part of the body (cephalothorax, Latr.), covered by the shield ; 
and some, at least, of the feet are furnished with nnmerous filaments. The siphon is not distinct. The abdomen 
is naked above, and terminated by two long filaments or two styles. Caligus piscinus, Latr.; C. curtus, Mill. ; 
Monoculus piscinus, Linn. The Oniscus lutosus, Slabber, ought perhaps to form a distinct subgenus, on account 
of the fin-like appendages. The Binocle a queue en plumet of Geoffroy may be introduced into this subgenus. 

[Messrs. Pickering and Dana have published an extremely elaborate description of a species of Caligus (C. ameri- 
canus) found upon the Cod, as many as forty or more individuals occasionally occurring on a single fish; but they 
are never found within the gill covers. The figures illustrating this memoir have never been surpassed. ] 

[M. M. Edwards has published a memoir upon this genus in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, especially with 
reference to the structure of the mouth]. 

In all the other subgenera of Caligus, the upper side of the abdomen is imbricated, or this part of the body is as 
though it were inclosed in a kind of case, formed by the terminal feet, which resemble membranes, and are turned 
upwards. 

Pterygopoda, Latr. (Nogaus? Leach), has the posterior extremity of the body terminated by two fin-like ap- 
pendages. It has digitated feet on the under-side of the post-abdomen, or second division of the body, not covered 
by the shield, and a distinct beak. Founded upon a single species, found on the shark. 

Pandarus, Leach, has two filaments at the posterior extremity of the body. The legs, of the first and fifth pairs, 
are unguiculated, and the others digitated. The siphon is not distinct. Pandarus bicolor, Leach; P. Boscii, 
Leach, &c. [Two other species of this genus have been described and figured by Dr. Johnston, in the Magazine 
of Natural History, vol. viii.] 

Dinemoura, Latr., has two long filaments at the anus, but in which the siphon is distinct. The two fore-legs 
are unguiculated; the two following are terminated by two long fingers; the others are in the form of membranous 
leaflets. C. productus, Miller; I. salmoneus, Fabr. 

Anthosoma, Leach, approaches the preceding, as regards the existence of the siphon and the two anal filaments ; 
but it recedes from it, as well as the two preceding, in its antenne, of which two are directed forwards, in the 
shape of small monodactyle claws, and in the six hind-legs, which are membranous, folded upwards, at the sides, 
upon the post-abdomen, which they envelope. The first and third pairs of legs are unguiculated; and the second 
terminated by two short, obtuse fingers. Anthosoma Smithit, Leach. 

[Nemesis, Risso, is a curious genus, of a narrow form, with the anal filaments many times longer than the entire 


body.—See Pol. Roux, Crust. Mediter., pl. 20.] 


In the second subtribe of the Caligides, the body is oval, without exserted anal appendages, in the 
form of filaments or fin-like scales. A portion of the superior integuments composes in front of the 
body a shield, which does not cover the anterior half, narrower than it, rounded, and notched anteriorly, 
dilated and bilobed at the other end, succeeded by three other pieces, or rounded scales, posteriorly 
notched, the second of which is.the smallest, being in the shape of a reversed heart; the last is the largest. 
The four posterior legs are in the form of plates, united in pairs ; those of the first and third pairs are 
unguiculated; the second are bifid at the tip. The siphon is apparent. The eggs are covered by two 
large, oval, contiguous, coriaceous pieces, placed beneath the abdomen, and surpassing it in length. 


Such are the characters of the genus 
Cecrops, Leach, of which a single species is only known, which has been found fixed to the branchie of the 


tunny and turbot. C. Latreillei, Leach. 


The second of the tribes of the Siphonostoma—that of the LERN@1FoRMEs, Lat.,—is composed of 
Entomostraca still nearer allied than the preceding to the Lerne. The number of the legs does not 
clearly exceed ten, (but there is perhaps another pair still more minute), and these organs are, for the 
most part, very short, and unfitted for swimming. Sometimes the body is nearly vermiform, cylindric, 
with the anterior segment simply a little wider, and furnished with two didactyle advanced claws, and 
sometimes, in consequence of two lateral expansions in the shape of lobes or wings, directed behind 
the thorax, and of the two ovaries, which are posterior, it forms a small quadrilobed mass. This tribe 


comprises two genera. 


closing a living foetus, very different from its parent, and of which he 
gives a description. From these observations, these filaments would 
seem to be exterior oviducts; but is there not some error in this 
statement? I have studied, with great care, these organs in many 
specimens—preserved, it is true, in spirits of wine—but I have never 
yet discovered any body inclosed in them. 


* In the third volume of the dnnal. Gener. des Sci. Physigq., p. 343, 
priated at Brussels, there is an extract from the observations of Dr. | 
Surriray, upon the foetus of a species of Caligus (C. elongatus?) which ! 
is very common upon the operculum of Esux Belone. This naturalist 
states, that, having crushed the anal filaments of the animal, he ob- | 
served many membranous and transparent eggs discharged, each in- 


448 CRUSTACEA. 


Dichelestium, of the younger Hermann, has the body narrow, elongated, slightly dilated in front, and composed 
of seven segments, the anterior being larger, rhomboidal, and composed of the head and part of the thorax united. 
t supports, 1, four short antenne, the lateral ones being filiform, 7-jointed, and the intermediate pair advanced 
like short arms, 4-jointed, with the last in the form of a didactyle claw; 2, a siphon on its under-side, mem- 
pranous and tubular; 3, three kinds of mis-shapen palpi (two many-cleft legs?) on each side, situated on an eie- 
vation; and, 4, four feet fitted for prehension, of which the two anterior are terminated by several unequal- 
sized, toothed hooks, and of which the second pair are terminated by a strong hook. Each of the second and third 
segments supports a pair of legs formed of a joint terminated by two kinds of fingers, toothed at the tip. To the 
fourth segment is attached a fifth pair of legs (the last), being in the form of simple, oval, and immovable vesicles, 
which Hermann regarded as ovaries rather thanlegs. The hind segment is flattened, and terminated by two minute 
vesicles. The eyes are not distinct. 

D. sturionis, Hermann, is about seven lines long. The legs are only seen when the animal is re- 
versed. It [is found upon the Sturgeon], into the skin of which it insinuates itself deeply. Hermann 
found as many as twelve on one fish. Two or three of this number, males probably, were one-third 
shorter than the others. They twist themselves about with great rapidity. They affix themselves 
very firmly by their frontal claws. 

Nicothoe, Aud. and M. Edwards, terminates the class of the Crustacea, and is distinguished 
by its anomalous form. With the naked eye, it appears to consist only of two large lobes 
united together, somewhat like a horse-shoe, inclosing two others; but, with the microscope, it 
appears that the two large lobes are two large lateral expansions of the thorax, having the appear- 
ance of wings, nearly oval, and directed backwards, and that the two others are external ovaries, 
like those of the female Cyclops, attached by a small peduncle to the base of the abdomen. The 
body consists of, 1, a distinct head, supporting two eyes widely apart; two short, lateral, seta- 
ceous, 11-jointed antenne ; the mouth formed of a circular opening, performing the office of a cup, 
accompanied, on each side, by maxilla-shaped appendages (fore-legs); 2, a thorax, composed of 
four segments, having, on the under-side, five pairs of legs, the two anterior terminated by a strong 

Fig. 26. Diche hook, and the eight others composed of a large joint, terminated by two nearly cylindrical, sub- 

equal branches, each composed of three joints; and, 3, an abdomen, pointed behind, composed 
of five joints, the first largest, and supporting the pair of large, oviparous sacs, the last termmated by two long 
bristles. The lateral expansions appear to be only the excessive developement of the fourth and last segments of 
the thorax. 

N. astaci (Aud. and M. Edwards, Ann. Sci. Nat. 1826) 1s half a line long, and about three lines wide, including 
the thoracic prolongations. It is of a rosy hue, with the lateral expansions yellowish. It attaches itself firmly to 
the branchiz of the lobster, burying itself deeply in the filaments of these organs. They occur in small quantities, 
and only upon certain individuals. All the specimens hitherto observed were furnished with these ovaries. It is 
probable, however, that, previous to becoming fixed, they are able to swim; and that, at that period, their thoracic 
lobes had not acquired their ordinary developement. 


[The animals composing the Siphonostoma are, comparatively speaking, the most imperfectly 
organized of all the Crustacea; a peculiarity probably resulting, at least to a certain degree, 
from their parasitic habits. Latreille, in his introductory observations, had noticed the rela- 
tion of some of these animals with the Lernzee, but doubted the existence of any actual affinity 
between them. Two Prussian naturalists, however, Dr. Von Nordmann, and my friend Bur- 
meister, have more recently published some elaborate memoirs upon these animals, which 
completely prove their relation: this is especially the case with such genera as Achtheres, 
Ergasilus, &c., which have not only articulated bodies and jomted members, but their young 
are active animals, very closely resembling the young of many of the more imperfect Bran- 
chiopoda. Dr. Burmeister, whose memoirs are published in the 17th volume of the Nova 
Acta Ces. Nat. Curios., accordingly unites these together into one group, which he calls 
Schmarotzerkrebse (Siphonostoma, Latr.) divided into five families: 1, PENELLINA, com- 
prismg the genera Lernea, Lerneocera, Peniculus, and Penella ; 2, LERNHODA, genera, 
Anchorella, Tracheliastes, Brachiella, Lerneopoda, Achtheres, Basanistes, Condracanthus, and 
Lernanthropus ; 3, ERGASILINA, genera, Nicothoe, Ergasilus, Bomolochus, Lamproglene, 
Anthosoma, Dechelestium, Nemesis ; 4, CALIGINA, genera, Cecrops, Chalimus, Caligus, Pan- 
darus, and Dinematura ; 5, ARGULINA, consisting of the single genus Argulus.* | 

* [I regret that want of space prevents me from giving an account | two of the great animal subkingdoms. M. Kollar has also published 


of the very elaborate details relative to these singular animals, which | the descriptions of some new species in the last number of the Vienna 
are thus rendered doubly interesting from being upon the confines of | Yransactions.) 


TRILOBITES. 449 


THE TRILOBITES. 


Near the Limuli and other Entomostraca provided with a great number of legs, 
should be arranged, in the opinion of M. Alexandre Brongniart, and other natu- 
ralists*, those singular fossil animals, at first confounded together under the common 
denomination of Hntomolithus paradoxus, but now called Trilobites, of which that 
author has published an excellent monograph, illustrated by good lithographic figures. 
According to this hypothesis, we must admit, as a positive fact, or at least as most 
probable, the existence of locomotive organs, although, notwithstanding all research, 
no vestige of them has yet been detected.| Supposing, on the other hand, these fossil 
animals to be destitute of such organs, I have supposed that they are more naturally 
allied to the Oscabrions, or rather that they formed the primitive type (da souche 
primitive) of the articulated animals, being allied, on the one hand, to the last- 
mentioned Mollusca, and on the other, to the above-mentioned Crustacea, as well 
as to Glomeris {, to which certain Trilobites, such as Calymene, make an approach 
as well as to the Oscabrions, because, like them, they are capable of contracting them- 
selves into a ball. Since the publication of the work of M. Brongniart, several natu- 
ralists have not agreed with his opinion, but, on the other hand, have either partially 
or entirely adopted mine: others still hesitate. Be this as it may, these animals 
appear to have been annihilated during the ancient revolutions of our planet. 

With the exception of the heteromorphous genus, Agnostus, the Trilobites have, like 
the Limuli, a large anterior segment, in the form of a shield, nearly semicircular, or 
lunulated, and succeeded by about twelve to twenty-two segments §, all, except 
the last, being transverse, and divided by two longitudinal furrows into three rows of 
lobes, whence the origin of the name of Trilobites.|| They are named by some 
authors Entomostracites. 


The genus Agnostus, Brong., is the only one which has the body either semicircular or kidney-shaped. In 


all the other genera it is oval or elliptic. 

Caiymene, Brong., differs from the others by the power it possessed of contracting the body into a ball, in the 
same manner as Spheroma, Armadillo, Glomeris, that is, by causing the two extremities to approximate beneath 
the breast. The shield, as broad or broader than long, exhibits, as in Asaphus and Ogygia, two eye-like eminences. 
The segments do not extend laterally beyond the body, and are united together as far as the extremity; the body 
is terminated posteriorly in a kind of triangular, elongated tail. 


*«M. E. Deslongchamps, Professor at the University of Caen, the , Spheroma, but which approximates them to Armadillo, and especially 


Count de Rasoumouski, M. Dalman, and others, have recently pub- 
lished various observations upon these fossils. M. V. Audouin, having 
adopted the opinion of Brongniart, has opposed, ina memoir upon this | 
subject, that which I had given, whereby I had approximated them to 
the Oscabrions. The most essential difficulty was to prove the ex- 
istence of legs, and this he has failed in doing. As to the application | 
of his theory of the thorax of insects to the Trilobites, it appears to | 
me the more doubtful, because, in my mode of looking at the subject, | 
the anterior segments of the abdomen of insects alone represent the 
thorax of the decapod Crustacea. 

+ Mr. [Parkinson] in his Outlines of Oryctology, nevertheless be 
lieves that he has detected these organs, and that they are unguicu- 
lated. See also the Entomostracite Granuleuw of Brongniart, Trilob., 
iii. 6. [See also the ldth vol. of the dnnales des Sciences Naturelles.} 

t (Ist edit. of this work, tom. iii. p. 150, 1.) No known Branchiopod 
contracts itself into a ball. This character is confined, amongst the 
Crustacea, to Typhis, Spheroma, Tylos, and Armadillo; and amongst 
the apterous insects, only to Glomeris, which is at the head of its 
class, and which leaves a great space between it and the terminal 
Crustacea. Calymene evidently approaches, in respect to the con- 
tractility, the last-mentioned insects, Typhis and Sphawroma; but it 


does ot appear that the hind part of its body is provided with lateral 
natatory appendages, a negative character, which separates them from 


to Tylos. The examination of a specimen well preserved has convinced 
me that they had, like the Limuli, dorsal eyes, with two elevations, of 
which the cornea was granulose or facetted. In respect to their want 
of superior antenna, they have a further affinity with Limulus. 

§ It appears that in various Trilobites, and particularly in Asaphus, 
the body is composed, in addition to the shield, of twelve segments 
detached from each other at the sides, and of another composing the 
post-abdomen or tail, of a triangular or semilunar form, exhibiting 
only superficial divisions, which do not cut the sides. In Par:doxides, 
on the contrary, its lateral lobes are terminated by acute prolonga- 
tions, quite distinct, and of which twenty-two are easily counted. A 
species of Trilobite mentioned by Count Rasoumouski (4%n. Sci. 
Nat., June, 1826, pl. xxviii. fig. 11), which he considers should form 
a new genus, is very remarkable in this respect. Its lateral lobes form 
very long points. The feet of the pup# of the gnats are in the form 
of long flattened plates, without articulations, terminated by filaments, 
and folded back on the sides ; they are in a rudimental state, and may 
be analogous to the lateral divisions of this species of Trilobite which 
is allied to the Paradoxides. 

) The Squillw, various Amphipod and Isopod Crustacea, have also 
many of their segments divided into three portions by two impressed, 
longitudinal lines, but these lines are nearer to the margin, and do 
not form deep channels. 


GG 


450 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


In Asaphus, Brong., the ocular tubercles appear to exhibit a covering, or are granular; the tail-piece ter- 

mninating the body, is less elongated than in Calymene, and nearly semicircular, or in the shape of a short triangle.* 

In Ogygia, Brong., the shield is longer than broad, with the 

posterior angles produced intoa spine. The ocular promi- 

B nences exhibit neither covering nor granulations. The body 
is elliptic. 

These eminences, having the appearance of eyes, either do 
not exist, or are not distinctly to be seen, in the genus Para- 
doxides, Brong. The segments, or at least the majority of 
them, extend laterally beyond the body, and are disengaged 
at their extremity on the sides. 

Such are the characters of the five genera established by 
M. Alex. Brongniart, and which may be arranged into three 
groups: 1, the Reniformes (genus Agnostus); 2, the Contrac- 
tiles (g. Calymene) ; 3, the Extensi (g. Asaphus, Ogygia, and 

Fig Spe a segue Canto Sh ritaadte foneaas Paradoxides). We refer for a knowledge of the species and 

ss 4 Sea: 5 their respective strata, to the work of the above-mentioned 
celebrated naturalist, who has associated with him, in respect to the fossil Crustacea, M. Desmarest, so often cited 
by us in our accounts of fossil and recent Crustacea. Other savans have proposed other genera amongst the Trilo- 
bites ; but being confined to the most general considerations, I can only cite those which appear in the best 


work yet published on these singular fossils. 


THE SECOND CLASS OF ARTICULATED ANIMALS FURNISHED WITH 
ARTICULATED LEGS,— 


ARACHNIDA,— 


Is, like the Crustacea, [composed of species] destitute of wings, and which are in a 
manner not liable to change their form, not undergoing metamorphosis, but simple 
sheddings of the outer covering of the body. ‘Their sexual organs are placed at a 
distance from the posterior extremity of the body, being (except in some males) at 
the base of the venter. But they differ from these animals as well as from the true 
insects in many respects. As in the latter, the surface of their bodies exhibits orifices 
or transverse slits, named stigmata (but which it would be better to name Pneumo- 
stomes,—mouth for the air,—or spiracles, that is, respiratory orifices), serving for the 
entry of the air, but being few in number, (eight at most, generally only two), and 
situated only on the under side of the abdomen. Respiration is effected either by 
means of aerial branchie, serving as lungs and inclosed in bags, to which these 
spiracles form the entry, or by means of radiating trachee. The organs of sight con- 
sist only of minute simple ocelli, grouped in different positions when there is a 
number of them. The head, generally united to the thorax, merely exhibits at 
the place of the antenne two articulated pieces, like small didactyle or monodactyle 
claws, which have been injudiciously compared to the mandibles of insects, and so 
named; but they move in a direction opposed to the motion of mandibles, or up 
and down, assisting, nevertheless, in eating, and replaced, in those Arachnida which 
have the mouth formed into a siphon or sucker, by two pointed plates, used as 
lancets.t A sort of lower lip (Jabium, Fab.), cr rather tongue, (/anguwette), formed 
tenne of various Crustacea, especially those of the order Poecilopoda, 


Hence it is not quite correct to say that the Arachnida are destitute 
of antenne, a negative character, by which they have been defined 


* In Asaphus, Brongniart, described and figured by M. E. Deslong- 
champs, the posterior angles of the shield, instead of being directed 
backwards, as in the other species, are recurved. 

+ Chelicere, or antennal claws, for such they are evidently, as | by preceding authors. 
proved by a comparison of these organs with the intermediate an- 


ARACHNIDA, 451] 
by a pectoral elongation; two maxille, formed of the basal joint of two small feet 
or palpi*, or of an appendage or lobe of the same joint; a piece concealed beneath 
the mandibles, and called the sternal tongue by Savigny in Phalangium copticum, 
and which is composed of a beak-like prominence, produced by the union of a very 
small epistome or clypeus, terminated by a very small triangular upper lip, and ot 
a longitudinal lower rib (caréne) generally very hairy. These, together with the pieces 
called the mandibles, generally constitute, with certain modifications, the mouth of the 
majority of the Arachnida. The pharynx* is placed in front of a sternal prominence, 
which has been considered as a lip, but which, from its situation immediately in front 
of the pharynx, and from being destitute of palpi, is rather a tongue. The legs, like 
those of the Insecta, are generally terminated by two small hooks (ungues) and 
sometimes by an additional one, and all are annexed to the thorax (or rather 
cephalothorax), which, except in a few species, is only composed of a single piece, 
and very often intimately united to the abdomen, which is soft or but weakly 
defended in the majority. 

With respect to their nervous system, the Arachnida remarkably differ from the 
Crustacea and Insecta, for, if we except the Scorpions, which, in consequence of 
their articulated tails, have some extra ganglions, the number of these knots does 
not exceed three, and even in those animals there are only seven. 

The majority of the Arachnida feed upon insects, which they seize alive, or upon 
which they fix themselves, and from which they suck their juices. Others live as 
parasites upon the bodies of vertebrated animals. There are, however, some which 
are found only in flour, cheese, and upon various vegetables. Those which sub- 
sist upon other animals often increase in a very great degree. In some species two 
of the legs are not developed before a change of skin, and in general it is not 
until after the fourth or fifth moulting that these animals become fitted for repro- 
duction.{ 

Those species which have pulmonary sacs§, a heart with very distinct vessels, 
and six or eight eyes, compose the first Order, Arachnida pulmonaria, 

The others respire by tracheze, and do not possess organs of circulation; or, if 
they be present, the circulation is not complete. The trachee are divided near their 
origin into different ramifications, and do not form, as in the Insects, two canals, 
running parallel with the entire length of the body, and receiving the air in its 
different parts by numerous breathing pores. Here we can only distinctly perceive 
two|| at most, situated near the base of the abdomen. The number of the simple 
eyes is four at the most. These form our second and last Order, Arachnida 


trachearia. 


Lepidopterous insects, and probably to others which change their 


* These organs do not differ from true legs, except in their tarsi, 
skins several times —thus, Caterpillars moult four times before 


composed of a single joint, and generally terminated by a small hook, 


similar to the ordinary legs of the Crustacea. These maxille and 
palpi appear to correspond with the palpigerous mandibles of the 
decapod Crabs, and to the two fore-legs of Limulus ; the four follow- 
ing legs of Phalangium have a basal maxillary appendage, analogous 
tothe four maxille of the preceding animals, described by me in my 
monograph of the French Phalaugia, years before Savigny’s Memoirs 
were published. Hence it is easy to refer all these articulated 
animals tu one general type, and hence the Arachnida are not a kind 
of Crustaceous animals, destitute of a head, as Savigny says. 

+ M. Strauss and mysclf have only observed one orifice, although 
Saviguy admits (but, as it seems to me, incorregtly) two. 

t We have also seen that the Argulus does not attain this power 
until after the sixth moult. The same fact is also applicable to 


} tne structure of tlhe mouth, eyes, and legs. 


assuming the chrysalis state, which is effected by a fifth moult, and 
the insect does not become an imago until after another, which makes 
six moultings. , 

§ Sacs inclosing aerial branchia, or performing the office of lungs, 
and which I distinguish from the latter organs by the name of pneumo- 
branchie. 

|| The Pycnogonides are destitute of spiracles, and thus appear to 
approach the terminal Crustacea, such as Dichelestium and other 
Entomostraca suctoria. Savigny considers them most allied to the 
Lamodipodous Crustacea, from which, however, they widely differ in 
We believe them tu be- 
long rather to the class Arachnida, near to Phalangium, considering 
they may respire by the surface of their skin. 


Gia 


ee 
LLL LLL 


452 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


[It is to be observed, that these two orders are regarded by various celebrated 
naturalists as too widely distinguished from each other to remain in the same class. 
This idea was first entertained by Dr. Leach, (Zoological Miscellany, vol. iu. 1817), 
who restricted the class to the families Scorpionide, 'Tarantulide, Phalangidee, Solpu- 
gid, and Araneide, all of which were assumed to breathe by means of pulmonary 
sacs, whilst the Trachearia of Latr. (excepting the Pycnogonide and Phalangide), 
were formed into a separate class, which he proposed to name Acari. Even Latreille 
himself, in his Cours d’ Entomologie, thought it necessary to separate the Pycnogonides 
into a distinct order of the class Arachnida, which he named Aporobranchia. 
Messrs. Kirby and Spence (ntrod. to Entomology, vol. ii. p. 21) were also of opinion 
that the Pulmonary and Trachean Arachnida should not be included in the same class ; 
but Mr. MacLeay (Hore Entomologice, p. 382) maintained that the diversity of the 
organs of respiration and circulation is not to be depended upon in the classical arrange- 
ment of the Annulosa; and more recently Dugés, in his memoir upon the Acari, 
adopted a similar view, considering that external form and general coincidence of 
characters, such as the presence of eight feet for walking, the absence of organs used 
as antenne and reticulated eyes, and the constant union of the head and thorax, are of 
more importance than the variations in the organs of respiration and circulation. This, 
which I consider as the most philosophical view of the subject, (confirming as it does 
my observation on the distribution of the Crustacea proposed by M. Duverney, anfe, 
p- 410, note,) has been still more recently confirmed by Dugés, who has read a memoir 
before the French Institution, in which the genera Dysdera and Segestria, belonging 
to the Spiders, are stated to possess four spiracles, two of which are connected with 
pulmonary, and two with trachean organs (see Guérin, Bull. Zool., No. 2). This 
author has illustrated this structure in the Crochard edition of the Régne Animal, 
livr. 10, Arachnides, pl. 10, f.4. With the view of adapting the arrangement of Leach 
to that of Latreille, 1 have proposed the following distribution of the class (Ent. Tevt 
Book, p. 131). 

Section I. Putmonarta, Latr. 
Order 1. Dimerosomata, Leach, Araneides, Latreille. 
Order 2. Polymerosomata, Leach, Pedipalpi, Latreille, (Scorpionide and Phrynide). 
Section I]. Tracuearia, Latr. 
Order 3. Adelarthrosomaia, Westw., composed of the families Solpugide, Cheli- 
feride, and Phalangiide. 
Order 4. Monomerosomata, Leach, restricted to the Acari. 
Section III. Aporosrancnia, Latr. 
Order 5. Podosomata, Leach, consisting of the single family Pycnogonide. 


The Baron Walckenaer, in his valuable Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Aptéres, 
(Paris, 1837, 8vo, tom. i.), has divided the Arachnida of Latreille, which he names 
Acéres, after Lamarck, (not adopting the views of Latreille that the chelicerz are modi- 
fied antenne), into six orders:—1.The Araneiwes (Theraphoses and Araignées) ; 
2. Puryneipes (Phrynus, Thelyphonus); 3. ScorpronipEs (Scorpio, Chelifer, and 
Obisium) ; 4. SotpucipEes (Galeodes); 5. Paatanerpes (Phalangium, Siro, Macro- 
cheles, Trogulus, and ‘‘ Mites”); 6. Acaripres (Trombidium, Hydrachna, Gamasus, 

_ Ivodes, Acarus, Eylais, Bdella, and Oribata). Thus we find that the respiratory organs 


PULMONARIA, 453 


have not been adopted as the ground-work of this arrangement, Chelifer and Scorpio 
being united together, whilst in the fifth order we find the “ Mites” (but no definition 
is given to enable us to judge what group is thereby intended) separated from the 
remainder of the Acarides, which form the sixth order. 

In this valuable work the author proposes to treat of all the Apterous insects, exclu- 
sive of the Crustacea; but the first volume only is yet published. Distinguished as 
its author has long been for his writings upon the Arachnida *, the present work, form- 
ing a portion of the Suites a Buffon, is very valuable, as containing a mass of mate- 
rials never before published, with the substance of the various works which the author 
has already given to the world. Much interesting detail relative to the habits of 
these animals is here collected, and a great number of species as well as genera of 
Spiders, are described in this volume. } 


THE FIRST ORDER OF ARACHNIDA,— 
PULMONARIA, (UNnoGaATA, Fabricius),— 


Possesses, as above stated, a system of circulation well defined, and pulmonary sacs, always 
placed beneath the belly, and externally indicated by transverse orifices (stigmata), sometimes 
eight m number, four on each side, but sometimes four or only two in number. The number 
of simple eyes is six or eight +, whilst in the following order there are not more than four, 
often two, sometimes very indistinct or even wanting. 

The heart 1s a great vessel, extending the whole length of the back, and emits branches on 
each side, and in front.{ The legs are constantly eight m number. The head is also sold- 
ered to the thorax, and exhibits at its anterior and upper extremity two claws, (mandibles of 
authors, but named chelicera or antennal claws by Latreille,) terminated «by two fingers, one 
of which is moveable, or by a single one, which forms a moveable hook.§ The mouth is 
composed of a labrum, (see the general observations on the class); two palpi, sometimes 
having the appearance of arms or claw-legs; two or four maxille, composed, when there are 
only two, of the basal joint of the first pair of legs; and of a tongue of one or two parts.|| 
By taking, as the ground of classification, the progressive diminution of the pulmonary sacs 


and spiracles, the Scorpions, in which there are eight, (whilst there are only four or two in 
other Arachnida,) ought to form the first genus in the class ; and hence our family Pedipalpi, to 
which it belongs, ought to precede that of the spimning species (Araneides), which arrange- 
ment I adopted in my Familles Naturedles, and Dufour also is of a similar opimion. But 
these last Arachnida are in some respects isolated, in consequence of their male organs of 
generation, the hook of their frontal claws, their abdomen pedunculated, the spinerets, and 
their habits. The Scorpions, moreover, seem to form a natural passage between the pulmonary 
Arachnida and the family of the Pseudo-scorpions, the first of the followmg order. We 
therefore commence with the Spinning Arachnida. 


* See his Faune Parisienne, Insectes, f.2; Tableau des Araneides, | the fixed thumb, and of a second joint, which constitutes the move- 
1805, Svo; the Fuune Francaise, and Mémoire sur une Nouvelle | able piece, either as an opposed finger or as a simple hook, 
Classification des Araneides, in the Annals of the Entomological || That of the Scorpions appears to consist of four pieces in the shape 
Society of France. of an elongated, pointed triangle, produced in front ; but the two lateral 

+ Tessarops, Rafinesque, is described as having only four eyes, but | ones are evidently formed of the first joint of the two fore-legs, and 
I suppose the lateral ones were overlooked. See Eresus. may be considered as two maxille analogous to the two first maxille, 

t According to M. Murcel de Serres, the blood in the Spiders and | In Mygale, Scorpio, &c., the palpi are 6-jointed, the first joint of which, 
Scorpions is carried first to the respiratory organs, aud thence, by | in the other Spiders, is dilated to form the maxillary lobe. This lobe, 
peculiar vessels, to the different parts of the body. But from analogy | even, in some species, is articulated at its base. If we pass over this 
with the Crustacea, the circulation is probably effected in the reverse | joint, the palpi are only 5-jointed, as ordinarily described. In the 
manner. (See Treviranus on the anatumy of these animals.) | Scorpions the terminal moveable finger of the claws forms, as in tne 

§ These organs consist of a swollen basal joint, of which one of the | claws of the Crabs, a sixth joint. 
superior angles (when the claw is didactyle), is produced, forming 


ARACHNIDA. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE PULMONARY ARACHNIDA,— 
Tue FILEUSES or ARANEIDES,— 


Consists of the genus of Spiders, ARANEA, Linn.,in which the palpi resemble small feet without a claw 
at the tip, terminated at most in the females by a small hook, and of which the terminal joint incloses 
or supports, in the males, various appendages, more or less complicated, employed in generation.* The 
frontal claws (mandibles of authors) are terminated by a moveable hook, which folds downwards, having 
on its under side, near its pointed extremity, a small slit for the emission of venomous fluid secreted 
in a gland of the preceding joint. The maxilla are never more than two in number; the tongue is of 
a single piece, always external, and situated between the maxilla, and more or less square, triangular, 
or semicircular. The thorax fT has generally a V-like impression, indicating the region of the head, 
but consists of a single piece, to which is posteriorly attached, by means of a short peduncle, a moveable 
and generally soft abdomen. This part of the body is furnished in all the species beneath the anus 
with four or six nipples, fleshy at the tips, cylindrical or conical, articulated, closely approximating 
together, and pierced at the extremity with an infinity of minute orifices} for the discharge of silken 
threads of an extreme tenuity, emitted from internal reservoirs. The legs, identical in form, but dif- 
ferent in length, are composed of seven joints, of which the first two form the haunch, the next the 
femur, the fourth § and the fifth the tibiee, and the two others the tarsus.’ The last is ordinarily ter- 
minated by two ungues, generally toothed beneath, and by a third smaller unguis, not toothed. The 
intestinal canal is straight; the first stomach is composed of several sacs, and about the middle of the 
abdomen is a second stomach-like dilatation. 

The nervous system is composed of a double chord, occupying the mid-line of the body, and of 
ganglions, which distribute nerves to the various organs. According to Treviranus, the number of 
ganglions is only two. The upper surface of the abdomen exhibits, especially in the smooth, naked 
species, various impressed spots, differing in number and situation, which, according to Dufour, are 
produced by the attachment of the filiform muscles which traverse the liver. The pulmonary orifices, 
two or four in number, are indicated externally by as many yellowish or whitish spots near the base 
of the belly, immediately after the segment, which, by means of a fleshy filament, unites the abdomen 
with the thorax. Each pulmonary mass is formed by the superposition of a great number of white, 
triangular, extremely slender plates, which become confluent around the spiracles, of which the num- 
ber is the same as that of the pulmonary sacs. The female Araneides have two ovaries, quite distinct, 
lodged in a kind of capsule formed by the liver. With respect to the simple eyes, Dufour observes, 
that they shine in the dark like those of the Cat, and that in effect the Araneides can see both by day 
and night. The abdomen of Spiders is subject to so great an alteration after death that its colours 
and even its form are not recognizable. Dufour has, however, been enabled, by means of very rapid 
desiccation (of which he has given the process), to remedy this evil in a great degree. 

According to Réaumur, the silk undergoes a first elaboration in two small reservoirs, like drops of 
glass, placed obliquely, one on each side, at the base of six other reservoirs, like intestines, situated at 
the side of each other, and folded up six or seven times, and proceeding to the nipples by a very 
It is in these latter vessels that the silk acquires greater strength, and other pro- 
perties which it possesses. On leaving the nipples the silken threads are glutinous; they require a 
certain degree of desiccation or evaporation of humidity to fit them for use. But it appears that in 
favourable weather a moment is sufficient, the animals making use of their threads as soon as they are 
discharged. The white, silky masses seen floating in the air in spring and autumn, called in France 
fils de la vierge, are certainly produced, as we have proved, by tracing them from their point of de- 
parture, from various young Spiders, especially Thomisi and Epeire. It is also probable that many of 


slender filament. 


* After all the observations which have been made upon the coupling 
of spiders, 1 am induced to believe these appendages are organs of 
geueration. I have in vain sought for any ventral organs, in a large 
male Mygale, preserved in spirits. We ought not always to decide 
upon analogy—for instance, the female organs of Glomeris and Julus 
are situated near the mouth—a fact of which there is no second 
example. 

+ The expression cephalothorar would be more correct, but it is 
netin common use. Neither do I use the term corsetet, which is 


generally used, because it is ordinarily also applied to a portion only 
of the thorax, namely, the prothorax, in Coleopterous and Orthopterous 
insects. 

t These orifices are upon the terminal joint, which is often with- 
drawn. If pressed sharply, a number of minute papilla, pierced at the 
tip (which are the real spinnerets), are protruded. Some naturalists 
are of opinion that the two small nipples placed on the iniddle of the 
four others do not supply silken threads. 

§ This joint, the first of the tibia, is a kind of rotule. 


PULMONARIA. 455 


these Spiders, not having a sufficient supply of silk, merely emit single threads, such, for instance, as 
those made by young Lycos, which are to be seen in great abundance crossing from ridge to ridge 
in cultivated lands, when they reflect the sun’s rays. When chemically analyzed, they are found to 
exhibit precisely the same characters as the silk of Spiders, and are, therefore, not formed in the air, 
as has been conjectured by Lamarck. Gloves and stockings have been made with spiders’ silk; but 
these attempts, not being capable of a general application, and being subject to great difficulties, are 
more curious than uscful. The material is, however, far more important for the Spiders themselves. 
It is by its means that the sedentary species, or those which do not chase after their prey, construct 
their webs of a more or less firm texture, capable, in some exotic species, of holding small birds, and 
of which the forms and positions vary according to the habits peculiar to each species, and which are so 
many snares in which the insects which serve them for food are captured. Scarcely is one caught 
by the hooks of the tarsi, than the Spider, sometimes placed in the centre of its web, or in a cell near 
one of its angles, darts forth, approaches the insect, uses all its efforts to wound the captive with its 
murderous darts, and to discharge into the wound an active poison. When it opposes too strong a 
resistance, and a struggle may be dangerous to the Spider, the latter retires for a time, until it has 
lost its strength, and becomes still more entangled in its ineffectual efforts to escape, when, there 
being no longer cause for alarm, the Spider returns, and endeavours to twirl it round, weaving, at the 
same time, around it a strong silken web, in which it is sometimes entirely encased. 

Lister states that the Spiders discharge their threads in the same manner as the Porcupine is fabu- 
lously asserted to do, with this difference, that the threads of the Spider remain attached to its body. 
This fact has been considered impossible. We have, however, seen the threads issue from the nipples 
of some Thomisi, extending in a straight line, and forming moveable rays when the animal moyes them 
circularly. Another use of silk common to all female Spiders is, for the construction of cocoons 
destined for the inclosure of the eggs. The contexture and the form of these cocoons are varied ac- 
cording to the habits of the various races of Spiders. They are generally spheroid ; some have the 
shape of a cap or a flat sphere ; some are placed on a peduncle, and others are terminated by a club. 
Other matters, such as earth, leaves, &c., sometimes cover them, or at least partially; a finer tissue 
often envelops the eggs in the inside, where they are loose or agglutinated together, and are more or 
less numerous. [Then follows a long passage relative to the presumed use of the male palpi as organs 
of generation, to which a note is added, that they may at least be considered as exciting organs.] From 
the experiments of Audebert, it appears that a single fecundation is sufficient for several successive 
generations; but, as in all insects and other analogous classes, the eggs are sterile if the sexes have 
not coupled. The first-laid eggs are hatched before the end of the autumn; the others remain through 
the winter unchanged. It has been observed that the females of some species of Lycos tear open their 
egg-cases when the young are ready to come forth, and the young, when first hatched, mount upon the 
back of their parent, where they remain for a considerable time. Other female Spiders carry their 
cocoons beneath the breast, or station themselves near them to act as guards. The two fore-legs are 
not developed in the young of some species until some days after their birth. Others, during this 
period, assemble themselves in society, appearing to spin a common envelope. Their colours are at 
this period more uniform, so that the inexperienced naturalist is liable to err in multiplying the num- 
ber of species. M. Saint Fargeau has observed that these animals possess, as well as the Crabs, the 
power of renewing their lost limbs. 

I have ascertained that a single bite of a moderate-sized spider will kill a house-fly in afew minutes. 
It is further certain that the bite of the great American Spiders, called Crab Spiders, belonging to the 
genus Mygale, kill small vertebrated animals, such as humming birds, pigeons*, &c., and may even 
cause in Man a violent increase of fever; even the wound of some of our southern [French} species 
has proved fatal. Without believing all the fables of Baglivi and others as to the powers of the Tarantula, 
we may dread the bite of the larger species of Spiders, especially those of warm climates. Some 
species of Sand-wasps (genus Sphew, Linn.) seize upon Spiders, which they wound, and then bury in 
burrows, in which they also deposit their eggs, in order that they may serve as food for the young 
when hatched. The majority of these animals die in the autumn, but others live through several 
seasons, including Mygale, Lycosa, and probably others. Although Pliny asserts that the Phalangiums 


* [See the supplemental observations on the genus Mygale, as to the origin of this widely-spread error. } 


456 ARACHNIDA. 


were not known in Italy, we consider with Mouffet that the Lycose, and other large Spiders which 
do not construct webs, as well as the Solpugee, are the animals collectively known under the former 
name, and of which several species were described by the ancients. Lister, who first studied the 
Spiders which inhabit Great Britain with great care, laid the base of a natural distribution, of which 
those more recently published are mostly only modifications ; our more recent acquaintance with some 
species peculiar to warmer climates, such as as the Mason Spider, described by Sauvages, and other 
analogous species, the employment of the organs of the mouth, introduced by Fabricius, a more pre- 
cise study of the eyes and their relative sizes, and the relative length of the legs, have contributed to 
perfect their arrangement. M. Walckenaer has entered into very minute details relative to these 
animals, so that it is difficult to detect a species which will not enter into the groups which he has 
proposed. The presence or absence of a third unguis at the extremity of the tarsi affords another cha- 
racter not yet sufficiently generalized, of which, however, Savigny has given a slight sketch (see 
Walckenaer, Faun. Franc., note at the end of the genus Attus). 

M. L. Dufour, who has published excellent memoirs upon the anatomy of these insects, and 
especially studied those of the kingdom of Valencia, where he has discovered many new species, has 
paid particular attention to the respiratory organs of the Arachnida, and it is after his remark that we 
divide them into those which have four pulmonary sacs, with four external spiracles, two on each side 
close together, and those which have only two.* 

The first of these groups, which includes the draneides theraphoses of Walckenaer, and some genera, 
for which he has employed the collective name of d4ranea, compose, in our method, the single genus— 


MyYGALE. 


The eyes are always situated at the anterior extremity of the thorax, generally close together. The 
chelicerze and legs are robust. The majority have only four spinneretst; the two lateral ones are situ- 
ated rather above the two others, and are longer and 3-jointed, not computing the elevation which 
forms their footstalk. They form silken tubes for their abode, which they hide either in the earth 
into which they have burrowed, or under stones, in the bark of trees, or amongst the leaves. 

The Theraphoses of Walckenaer form a first division, characterized by four spinnerets, the two inter- 
mediate and inferior generally very short, and the two exterior much exserted; the hooks of the 
chelicerze folded beneath, along the under side, and not along the inner surfaces. Eight eyes in all, 
generally arranged upon a small eminence, three on each side, forming a reversed triangle, of which 
the two upper ones are close together; the two others in a line between the preceding. The fourth 
pair of legs and then the first pair are the longest, the third the shortest. 


Those species which have the palpi inserted at the superior extremity of the maxille so that they appear to be 
six-jointed, the basal joint being long and narrow, and acting as the maxilla; the tongue, always small, 
and nearly square, and the two fore tibia of the mates with a strong spine beneath at the tip, form the restricted 


genus — 
5 
Mygale, Walck.,— some of which have not a transverse series of moveable, corneous spines at the upper 


extremity of the chelicere, above the place of insertion of the terminal hook. The hair on the under-side of 
their tarsi forms a thick cushion, generally hiding the ungues. These are the largest species of the family, sume 


* (The arrangenient of the Spiders given by M. Walckenaer, in his last work, above referred to, differs in some respects from that employed 


by Latreille. The following is an abstract of his tabular synopsis :— 
Me ynop 
Groups arranged ac- 
Genera. cording to the na- 
ture of their nests. 
Sn: Eyes near together . . Mygale, Filistata,&c. . . 
Theraphoses QV Eighteyes . yes apart... . . . Missulena. R Latebricoles . 
Sinteven Eyes frontal. . Dysdera, &c.. . - - - Tubicoles. . . « 
eA ED Eyes frontal and lateral . Uptiotes, &c. Cellulicoles . . .?Vagabondes . 
“(Byes frontal and lateral, { Lycosa, Dolophones, &e. Coureuses. : 
| unequal. . . « . Eresus, Attus, &c. . . Voltigeuses . . 
“(enemas Spacaasn, &e. Marcheuses . . .- moe 
Clubiona, &c. . . . Niditeles . .|. = 
Pholeus, &¢. 3 . Filiteles . . . "| Errantes 
Eyes frontal, equal- nied ch fanaa (Aranea), & be. i maprteles oN ih ci be ; 
Linyphia . . /s « je). .Nepiteles).) . . - Sedentaires . 
| Argus, (i SA Agito Retiteles . .. . 
Argyroneta . . 2. « « > Aquiteles . « + « Nayeuses. . Aquatiques.] 


Araignées . 


| 
Hight eyes oa 


(Mr M‘Leay, in an article upon some new forms of Arachnida, published in the dnnals of Natural History, has thrown doubts upon the 
general character given of these groups, figuring one species with only two eyes (ops Guanabacoa@) ; another, with the sternum divided into 
three distinct segments, and one pair of the eyes enormously large (Deinupis Lamia) ; another with the head, thorax, and abdomen apparently 
articulated (Myrmarachne melanocephala) ; and another with the fore-legs modified, in structure short, thickened, and composed of only six 
instead of seven joints (Otiothops Walckenueri).} 

+ I have observed in Atypus the vestiges of two other nipples, being those which in the Spiders of the following division are placed between 
the four eaterior ones, and are very visible ; but as they are here scarcely apparent, I have not counted them as such, 


— 


ee 


PULMONARIA. 457 


of which, in a state of repose, occupy a circular space of six or seven inches in diameter, and [are asserted] to 
seize Humming-birds. They form their nests in the slits of trees, beneath the bark, in the cavities of stones and 
rocks, or on the surface of leaves of various vegetables. The cell of the MM. avicularia is in the shape of.a tube, nar- 
rowed into a point at its posterior extremity. It is composed of a white web of very fine texture, semitransparent, 
like muslin. M. Goucot gave mea nest which was about seven or eight inches long, and about two inches broad. 
The cocoon of this species had the size and shape of a large nut. Its envelope, formed of the same materials as 
the nest, consists of three layers. It appears that the young are there hatched, and undergo their first moulting. 
This naturalist informs me that he has obtained as many as a hundred young ones from one cocoon. (See my 
memoir on the habits of the Mygale avicularia, Lin., in those of the Mus. d’Hist. Nat., tom. vii. p. 456.) The 
body of this species is about an inch and a half long, black, and very hairy, with the tips of the palpi, legs, &c., 
reddish. 

South America and the Antilles also furnish other species, which are known to the French colonists under the 
name of Spider-Crabs, and of which the bite is reputed very dangerous. There is also a large East Indian species 
(M. fasciata, Seba); anda species is brought from the Cape of Good Hope, nearly as large as M. avicuiaria. 
Another species (M. valentina) has been discovered in the arid deserts of Moxenta, in Spain, by M. Dufour; and 
another, from the same country, has been described by Walckenaer (MW. calpeiana). These two species form a 
particular group, having the ungues exposed. (See further our articles on this and the allied genera in the Nouv. 
Diction. d’ Hist. Nat., second edition.) ; 

The other species of Mygale (forming the genus Cfeniza, Latr., in Fam. Nat.) have a transverse row of move- 
able corneous spines at the superior extremity of the basal joint of the chelicera. The tarsi are less hairy beneath 
than in the preceding, and their ungues are always exposed. They construct, in dry shelving situations exposed 
to the sun, in the southern parts of Europe, &c., subterranean cylindrical galleries, often two feet deep, and so 
tortuous that the traces of them are often lost. They moreover construct, at the entrance, a moveable lid formed 
of silk and earth, fixed by a hinge, and which, by its precise size, inclination, and weight, closely shuts the open- 
ing, scarcely so as to permit the place of the nest to be distinguished from the neighbouring soil. The inner surface 
of the lid is lined with silk, which enables the animal to hold it down, and prevent its being pulled open. When 
taken by violence from its nest, the Mygale is stupid, and offers no resistance. A silken tube, forming the nest, 
lines the interior of the gallery. M. Dufour is of opinion that the males do not make these burrows, being gene- 
rally found under stones, and appearing less favoured with organs fitted for those works. We presume, with 
M. Dufour, that our M. carminans is only the male of M. cementaria, Latr., although M. Walckenaer is of a dif- 
ferent opinion. The latter species, described by Sauvages under the name of the Mason-Spider (Hist. de Acad. 
des Scienc., 1758), and by Dorthes under that of the Mining-Spider (Linn. Trans,. vol. ii. 17, 18), is about two-thirds 
of an inch long, and is found in the southern departments of France, Spain, &c. Another species (J/. fodiens, 
Walck., M. Sauvagesii, Duf., Rossi), is rather larger than the preceding, and. 
inhabits Tuscany and Corsica. The Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle possesses 
a block of earth in which four of its nests are arranged in a regular square. 
[M. V. Audouin has published a long account of these nests in the Annales de 
la Societé Entomologique de France.) M. Lefebvre has also brought another 
distinct species from Sicily, and another is found in Jamaica, (M. niduilais), 
which, together with its nest, has been figured by Brown in his Natural 
History of that island, pl. 44, f. 3. 

[It is to Madame Merian that we owe the origin of the story that the large 
American Mygale attacks and kills small birds; this lady, in her splendid 
work on the insects of Surinam, not only asserting this, but figuring the 
Spider in the act of feeding on a Humming-bird which it had dragged off its 
nest. Hence originated the idea that the Mygale spun the webs which are 
met with in tropical climates, of sufficient force to hold small birds, but 
which are the production of a species of Epeiva. Mr. MacLeay, in the 
first volume of the Transactions of the Zoological Society, has attacked 
this lady’s writings with great violence, giving her credit for all that subsequent compilers chose to add 
to her account. She, however, did not assert that the Mygale forms these webs, nor is such the case, 
for that spider lives in holes under ground, and in all its movements keeps close to the earth, its food 
consiting of Tuli, subterranean Crickets, and Cockroaches. On a living Humming-bird being placed into its 
hole by Mr. MacLeay, the Spider even quitted it; whence he disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching Spider ; 
but M. Moreau de Jonnés expressly mentions that it climbs the branches of trees to devour the young of Humming- 
birds, &c. Latreille published an elaborate memoir upon this genus in the Nouvelles Annales du Muséum, vol. i., 
and more recently M. Walckenaer has described thirty-six species of this genus in his Histoire Naturelle des 
Insectes Aptéres. 

The M. nidulans, which is sufficiently abundant in the West Indian islands, has been figured, together with its nest, 
by Mr. Kirby in his Bridgewater Treatise. It is also figured in Griffith’s translation of the Régne Animal, but 
regarded as an undescribed species, named N. nitida. Mr. Sells has communicated some curious observations on 
it and its nest to the Entomological Society of London.] 

Those species (of Theraphoses) which have the palpi mserted on an inferior dilatation on the outside of the 
maxilla, and 5-jointed; the tongue very small in Atypus, but which becomes longer and advanced between the 
maxille in the following genera, which is its general character: the last joint of the palpi in both sexes long and 


Fig. 28.—Mygale fodiens. 


‘ 


458 ARACHNIDA. 


narrowed to a point at the tip; the males not having a strong joint at the extremity of the anterior tibia,—constitute 
the following genera :— 

Atypus, Latr., Oletera, Walck., having a very minute tongue, and the eyes placed close together upon a 
tubercle. Type, A. Sulzeri, Latr., Aranea picea, Sulzer, about two-thirds of an inch long, and anteriorly of 
a blackish colour. This species burrows, in shelving ground, covered with turf, a cylindrical 
cell, curved below, lined with a white silken tube. The egg-case is affixed by silken threads 
attached to each end, to the bottom of this tube. It is found in the vicinity of Paris, Bordeaux, 
&c. M. Milbert has sent another species, found in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. 

Eriodon, Latr., Missulena, Walck., has the tongue long and narrow, and the eyes dispersed on 
the front of the thorax. . occatorius, Latr., from New Holland. 

Chalinura, Dalm., has the eyes placed on a very elevated frontal tubercle; four of these (the 
two anterior being very large) occupying the centre; the external spinnerets are very long. 
Founded on a species observed by Dalman, in Copal. 


Mg ees Our second and last division of the quadripulmonary Spiders (or genus Mygale) is 

characterised, as in Eriodon, by a narrow tongue, prolonged between the maxille, and 
by 5-jointed palpi, but the hooks of the chelicere are folded upon their inner face; they have six 
spinnerets ; the first pair of legs, and not the fourth, is the longest, and the third the shortest. Some 
have only six eyes. The number of their pulmonary sacs does not allow us te separate this subdivision 
from the preceding; as they lead to Drassus, Clotho, and Segestria, which have only two pulmonary 
sacs, the natural order does not permit us to pass from Mygale to the chasing Spiders, Lycosa ; 
Mygale, in fact, consists of weaving Spiders, and it is in this division that 4. avicularia was originally 
placed by Linnzeus. 


Dysdera, Latr., has six eyes, arranged in a horse-shoe, with the open part in front ; the chelicere very robust and 
advanced, and the maxille straight and dilated at the insertion of the palpi. Type, D. erythrina, Latr., Walck., 
{France, England. The Spiders of this and a new allied genus (Oonops) have formed the subject of a memoir, 
published by R. Templeton, Esq., in the last volume of the Zoological Journal.) 

Filistata, Latr., has eight eyes, arranged on a small elevation at the anterior extremity of the thorax; the 
chelicere are small, and the maxille curved on the outer edge, and forming an arch round the tongue. Type, 
T. bicolor, Latr., France. Another species is found at Guadaloupe, differing in having longer legs, &c. 


We now pass to those species of Spiders which have only a pair of pulmonary sacs and spiracles. 
All the following species possess 5-jointed palpi, inserted on the outer edge of the maxillez, near to the 
base, and often in a notch, the tongue produced between them, and either square, triangular, or semi- 
circular, and six spinnerets at the anus. ‘The last joint of the palpi of the males is more or less ovoid, 
and generally incloses in an excavation a very complicated sexual organ, but in Segestria it is simple. 
With the exception of a very few species, entering into the genus Mygale, they compose that of 


ARANEA, Lin. (Araneus of some authors), 


[Which Latreille divides into two principal groups, according to their sedentary or wandering habits. ] 
The first division comprises the sedentary Spiders, which construct webs, or at least throw out threads 
for the capture of their prey, and generally station themselves upon or near their webs as well as near 
their eggs. Their eyes are close together, upon the broad part of the forehead, sometimes eight in 
number (four or two being in the middle, and the others at the side), or sometimes only six. [This 
division comprises two subdivisions, the Rectigrades and the Laterigrades. ] 

The first of these subdivisions comprises those species which always walk straight forwards, whence 
are named RecrigrapEs: they weave close webs, upon which they remain stationary, with their legs 
elevated in repose. Sometimes the two anterior and the two posterior are longest, and sometimes the 
four anterior, or the fourth and the third pairs. The eyes are not arranged in a crescent. 

We may divide these into three sections [the 7'wditeles, Inequiteles, and Orbiteles}. 

The Tusirers, or Tapestry-weavers, have cylindrical spinnerets, placed close together in a bunch 
directed backwards. The legs are robust, with the anterior or posterior pair largest in some, but all the 
legs of nearly equal size in the others. 


In the two following subgenera, the maxille form an arch round the tongue, thus approaching Filistata, and 
receding from the following. The eyes are always eight in number, arranged four and four in two transverse lines. 
Clotho (Walck., Uroctea, Dufour,) a singular genus, with very small chelicere, capable of being but slightly 
extended, without teeth, with very small hooks, the body short, legs long, and scarcely varying in relative length ; 
the eyes are close together, and arranged in the same manner as in Mygale, Walck., three on each side, forming 
a curve, with the two other larger ones in a line between them: the maxilla and tongue are proportionably short; 


a a pt sh 


RE Ee ee 
<a ee  _ a eet 
PULMONARIA 459 


the former have a slight dilatation on the outside, the latter 1s triangular : the two upper spinnerets are long ; but, 
according to L. Dufour, instead of the two intermediate spinnerets there are two comb-shaped valves,—but I have 
distinctly seen in a well-preserved specimen six spinnerets, the two superior being the largest, and four others 
very small: the anus on each side is furnished with a pencil of retractile hairs, which L. Dufour has called comb- 
shaped valves, and which are distinct from the intermediate spinnerets. 

The only species, Ur. 5-maculata, Dufour (Cl. Durandi, Latr.), is avout half an inch long, of a brown maroon 
colour, with the abdomen black, marked with five yellowish spots. Found in the south of Europe and Egypt. 
Dufour has made some curious observations on its habits. It constructs on the under side of stones, or in crevices 
of rocks, a cocoon in the shape of a cap or patella an inch in diameter, its circumference having seven or eight 
festoons ; the points alone being fixed to the stone by means of threads, whilst the edges of the festoons are free. 
This singular. tent is of an admirable texture, the outer surface resembling the finest taffety, and composed of a 
number of folds. When young it only constructs two layers, between which it takes its station. But sub- 
sequently, perhaps at each moulting, it adds additional folds, and when the period of reproduction arrives it 
weaves another apartment expressly for the reception of the sacs of eggs and young when hatched, of a softer 
texture. The inside of its habitation is always singularly clean. The bags in which the eggs are placed are four, 
five, or six in number in each habitation ; they are about one-third of an inch in diameter, and of a lenticular form. 
It is not until the end of December or January that the eggs are deposited, and they are enveloped in fine down to 
guard them from the cold. The edges of the festoons not being fastened together, the insect is able to creep in and 
out at will by lifting them up. When the young are able to dispense with the maternal cares, they quit their com- 
mon habitation and form separate abodes, and their parent dies in her tent, which is thus the birthplace and tomb 
of the Uroctea. 

Drassus, Walck., has robust chelicere, toothed beneath, the maxilla truncated obliquely at the tip, and the 
tongue oval, truncated beneath; the line formed by the four posterior eyes is longer than that of the four anterior 
ones, the proportions of the external spinnerets scarcely differ, and they have not the comb-shaped valves which 
exist in Clotho; the fourth and then the fore-pairs of legs are evidently longer than the others. They take their 
stations under stones, in holes of walls, the interior of leaves, and form cells of a very white silk. The cocoons of 
some are orbicular, flattened, and composed of two valves applied against each other. M. Walckenaer distributed 
the species into three families, from the lines of the eyes and form of the maxille. D. viridissimus, which alone 
comprises his third division, forms on the surface of leaves a fine, white, and transparent web, beneath which it 
resides. 1 have often found on one of the surfaces of pear-leaves a similar web, but angular at the edge, like a 
tent, similar to that of Clotho, and which is, I presume, formed by this species. 

M. Dufour found another species under stones upon the highest Pyrenees (D. segestriformis). It is allied to 
my D. melanogaster, which is probably the D. lucifugus, Walck. A very pretty little species is commen near 
Paris, running on the ground ; it is nearly cylindrical, with a fulyous thorax, covered with purple down; the abdo- 
men varied with blue, red, and green metallic tints, with golden lines or spots (D. relucens). 

In all the other Tubitele the maxille do not form an arch round the tongue: they are dilated on the outside, 
beneath the base of the palpi. 

Segestria, Latr., has only six eyes, four in a curved line, and two behind the two lateral ones. The tongue is 
nearly square and oblong; the first and then the second pair of legs are of the greatest length. These Spiders spin 
in the holes of walls cylindrical silken threads, where they station themselves, with their fore-legs extended in 
front, diverging threads extended around the mouth of the tube, and form a small web for catching insects. 
S. perfida, Latr., Aranea florentina, Rossi, and other species. 

The other Tubitele have eight eyes; and in consequence of the medium in which they reside, they may be 
divided into terrestrial and aquatic species. Although M. Walckenaer has formed the latter into his last family 
of the Spiders (that of Nayades), they have so much relation with the other Tubitele that notwithstanding this 
difference in their habits they ought to be united with them. In the terrestrial species the tongue is nearly square, 
or but slightly narrowed and truncated at the tip, the maxille straight or nearly straight, and more or less dilated 
at the tip; the two eyes at each side of the ocular group are separate and not geminated, as in the aquatic 
Tubitele. 

Clubiona, Latr., differs from the next in the relative length of the external spinnerets, and in the front line or 
eyes being nearly straight. They make silken tubes to reside in, which they place under stones, in crevices of 
walls, or between leaves. The cocoons are globular (A. holosericea, Lin.; A. atrox, De Geer.) 

Aranea, which at first we had named Tegenaria, still retained by M. Walckenaer, and to which we unite his 
Agelene and Nyssi, has the two upper spinnerets evidently larger than the others, and the front line of the eyes 
forms acurve. They construct in the interior of our habitations, in the angles of walls, upon plants and hedges, 
in the ground or under stones, large webs [cobwebs] nearly horizontal, and at the upper part of which is a tube 
in which they station themselves, without motion (4ranea domestica, Linn.; Tegenaria civilis, Walck.; Ar. 
labyrinthica, Linn., &c.) 

Argyroneta, Latr. (comprising the Nayades, Walckenaer; or Tubiteles aquatiques, Latr.) has the maxille inclin- 
ing upon the tongue, which is triangular. The two eyes at each lateral extremity of the ocular group are placed 
close together on a particular eminence; the four others forma square. A. aquatica, Linn. [or diving Water- 
spider] is blackish-brown, with the abdomen darker coloured, silky, and with four impressed dots on the back. 
It resides in standing water, in which it swims with the abdomen encased in a bubble of air, and in which it forms 
for its retreat an oval cell filled with air and formed of silk, from which threads proceed to the different adjacent 
water-plants in all directions. Here it devours its prey, constructs its egg-case, which it carefully guards, and 
passes the winter, having first closed the cell. 


460 ARACHNIDA. 


The second section of the sedentary and rectigrade Spiders—that of the INrauireL& or Spinning 
Spiders (Araignées filandiéres), has the external spinnerets nearly conical, very slightly exserted, 
convergent, arranged in a rosette, and the legs very slender. The maxille incline towards the tongue, 
and are narrow at the tip, or at least are not dilated. he majority have the first pair of legs, and 
then the fourth, the longest; the abdomen is larger, softer, and more coloured than in the preceding 
tribes. They construct webs with irrregular meshes composed of threads, which cross in all directions 
and different surfaces. They whirl threads round their prey, take great pains in the preservation of 
their eggs, and do not leave them until they are hatched. They live but a short time. 


Scytodes, Latr., has only six eyes, arranged in pairs, and the ungues of the tarsi are inserted upon a supple- 
mental joint. SS. thoracica, Latr., inhabits the interior of our apartments; another species, S. rubescens, was 
found by Dufour in the mountains of Valencia. It fabricates an irregular tube of slender texture, of a milky- 
white, like that of Dysdera erythrina. 

Theridion, Walck., has eight eyes thus arranged, four in the middle in a square, the two anterior ones placed on 
a protuberance, and two on each side, also placed on an elevation common to both; the thorax is like a reversed 
heart, or nearly triangular. The species are very numerous. Type, dranea 13-guttata, Fabr., Rossi.—Found 
in Tuscany and the island of Corsica. Its bite is considered very venomous, and even mortal.*—(See the Tableau 
and the Histoire des Araneides of Walckenaer; the Annales des Sci. Natur., and the Ann. des Sci. Physiq.) 

A. mactans, Fab., an American species, is similarly dreaded. These fears seem more to originate in the black 
colour of the animals, which are marked with blood-coloured spots. 7. beniguum, Walck., takes up its abode in 
bunches of grapes, and thus defends them from the attacks of other insects. 

Epirinus, Walck.,—has also eight eyes, but which are placed close together upon a common elevation of the 
narrow and subcylindric thorax. £. truncatus, Latr. Paris, Italy. 

Pholeus, Walck.,—has the first and then the second legs the longest ; the eyes, eight in number, are placed upon 
a tubercle, and arranged in three groups, one on each side composed of three eyes placed ina triangle, and the two 
others in the middle, in a transverse row. PA. Phalangioides, Walck., has the body long and very narrow, of a 
very pale livid colour; abdomen very soft, and marked above with blackish spots; legs extremely long and very 
slender, with a white ring at the tip of the thighs and tibie. It is common in houses, where it spins a web 
composed of loose threads in the angles of walls. The female gums her eggs into a rounded naked body, which it 
bears about in its jaws. Dufour found another species in the crevices of rocks in Valencia. Like the preceding, 


it balances itself backwards and forwards upon its very slender feet. 


The third section of the sedentary rectigrade Spiders is that of the OrpireLa, or the draignées 
tendeuses of some authors, having the external spinnerets nearly conical, slightly exserted, convergent 
and arranged in a rosette, the legs slender, and the maxille straight or sensibly widened at the tip ; 
the first pair of legs, and then the second, are always the longest. The eyes are eight in number, and 
thus arranged,—four in the middle in a square and the two others on each side. They resemble the Ine- 
quitelz in the size, softness, varied colours of the abdomen, and shortness of their lives; but they make 
their webs with regular meshes, arranged in concentric circles crossed by straight radii extending from 
the circumference and meeting in the centre, where the insects remain stationary and in a reversed 
position. Some species secrete themselves in a cavity or cell which they construct near the edges of 
the net, which is sometimes horizontal and sometimes perpendicular. The eggs are agglutinated 
together, very numerous, and inclosed in a large cocoon. The threads which support the web, and 
which stretch to about a fifth their length, are used for the divisions of the micrometer, an astronomical 


instrument, as we learn from M. Arago. 

Linyphia, Latr., has four of the eyes in the middle, forming a trapezium widest behind; the two hinder eyes 
being larger than the rest, and the four others, arranged in two pairs, one on each side and in an oblique direction. 
The maxille are dilated at the tip. L. triangularis, Walck.; Aranea montana, Linn., &c. They construct upon 
various shrubs an horizontal slender web, attached by irregular threads in many points; this web is thus a 
melange of those of the Inequitele and Orbitele. The insect stations itself on the under side in a transverse 
position. 

Uloborus, Latr., has the four posterior eyes placed at equal distances in a straight line, and the two lateral ones 
of the front line nearer the front edge of the thorax than the two intermediate ones. The maxille widen from 
near the base, and are spatulated at the tip; the tarsi of the three hind pairs of legs are terminated by a single 
unguis. The body is long and subcylindrical. When stationed in the middle of their web, they stretch their four 
fore-legs forward in a straight line, and their two hind ones in an opposite direction, the third pair being laterally 
extended. They make webs like the other Orbitela, but looser and horizontally. The cocoon is narrow, long, 
angular at the sides, and suspended vertically by one end to a net; the other end is produced into two points, as 


stated to me by M. Dufour. U. Walckenaerius, Lat.; found in the woods of the environs of Bordeaux, and other 


southern departments ; five lines long. 


* This species is the type of Walckenaer’s genus Latrodectes, founded upon supposed differences in the relative length of the leys. 


PULMONARIA. 461 


Tetragnatha, Latr., has the eyes arranged, four and four, in two lines nearly parallel, and separated by 
nearly equal intervals ; the maxille long, narrow, and dilated only at the upper end, and the chelicerz are very 
long, especiaily in the males: the web is vertical—T. extensa, Walck., Linn. 

Epeira, Walck., has the two eyes on each side close together, and the four middle ones forming a square. The 
maxillz are dilated from the base, and form a rounded palette. E. cucurbitina is the only known species of which 
the web is horizontal; that of all the others is vertical or inclined. 

Some species place themselves in the centre with the head downwards; the others make in its vicinity a small 
cell, either arched over, sometimes in the form of a silken tube, and sometimes composed of leaves brought together 
and attached by threads, or opened above like a bird’s nest. The webs of some exotic species are composed of 
threads sufficiently strong to catch small birds, and even to annoy man when he may happen to come into contact 
with them. The egg case is generally globular, but that of some species is of an oval figure truncated at one end, or 
resembling a very short cone. The natives of New Holland (Voyage ala recherche de La Perouse, p. 239) and of some 
of the South Sea Islands, when in want of other food, devour a species of Epeira, early allied to E. esuriens, Fabr. 

M. Walckenaer mentions sixty-four species of Epeira, generally remarkable for the variety of their colours, 
forms, and habits. He has distributed them into various small and very natural families. of which we have endea- 
voured to simplify the study in the 2nd edition of the Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat., article Epeira. Various important 
considerations, however, such as the characters of the sexual organs, have been neglected or not sutticiently 
studied. The most interesting species are 

Epeira diadema, Lin.—This is of a large size, with the 
abdomen marked with a triple cross formed of small 
white spots; itis very abundant in autumn. The eggs 
[which the parent deposits at the commencement of the 
cold weather, in angles of the ceilings of rooms, passages, 
&c. near gardens, enveloping them with a loose white 
silken web] are hatched in the spring of the following 
year. 

E. ventricosa, De Geer, has the abdomen flattened, of a 
greyish-brown or obscure yellowish colour, with a black 
band margined with grey down the middle of the back, 
and eight or ten impressed dots. It spins its web against 
walls or other bodies, and hides itself in a nest of white 
silk, which it constructs beneath some prominence, or 
in some cavity in the neighbourhood of its web. It 
neither works nor feeds except during the night, or when 
there is but little day-light. 

E. fasciata, Walck., has the thorax covered with a thin silvery pubescence ; ‘he abdomen is of a fine yellow with 
black transverse lines. Its cocoon is about an inch long, and resembles a small balloon; of a grey colour, with 
longitudinal black ribs, with one of the extremities truncated, and closed by a flat siikenlid. The interior exhibits 
a very fine down, which envelopes the eggs. This species is found at the edges of rurfning water, where it spins 
a vertical web, of a very regular construction, in the centre of which it stations itself M. Dufour has given a very 
detailed account of this species, and of its habits, (Ann. Sci. Physig. tom. vi.,) and ha; for the first time described 
the male, [which is exceedingly small, compared with the female.] [The egg cocoon of this species is described 
and figured in the Field Naturalist’s Magazine, vol. ii. p. 57.] ’ 

Epeira cucurbitina, Lin., A. senoculata, Fabr., spins its web of small extent in a horizontal position, amongst 
the stems and leaves of plants. 

Epeira opuntie, Dufour, constantly stations itself amongst the leaves of the agave and opuntia in Catalonia and 
Valencia in Spain, where it constructs its net with loose and irregular meshes. Its cocoons are oval and of a whitish 
colour, composed of two coats, the interior of which envelopes the eggs. 

Amongst the exotic species some are very remarkable. Some of them have the abdomen cased with a yery solid 
skin, armed points, or horny spines, (A. militaris, spinosa, hexacantha, tetracantha, &c., Fabr.: E. curvicanda, 
Vauthier, (Ann. Sci. Nat. tom. i.) has the abdomen dilated behind and armed with two extremely long, curved, 
slender spines. These spined species ought to form a distinct subgenus, [Gasteracantha, Latr., in Cowrs 
@ Entomologie]. 

Other exotic species of Epeira have bundles of hairs upon the legs, (4. pilipes, clavipes, Fabr.) Dr. Leach forms 
his genus Nephisa with one of these species, named N. maculata. 


Vig. 30.—Epeira diadema. 


We now pass to Spiders, sedentary like the preceding, but which are able to walk sideways, back- 
wards, forwards—in fact, in any direction. These form the section of the Laterigrades. The four 
fore-legs are always longer than the others; sometimes the second pair exceeds the first, but some- 
times they are equal to them; the animal stretches them out, throughout their entire length, upon the 
surface upon which it is stationed. The chelicere are generally small, and their hook is folded 
transversely, as in the four preceding tribes; the eyes are always eight in number, often very unequal, 
and form, by their union, a segment of a circle or crescent ; the two lateral posterior ones are placed 
further backwards and nearer to the sides of the thorax than the others. The maxille are in a great 


462 ARACHNIDA. 


number inclined towards the tongue. The body is generally aepressed, like a Crab, with the abdomen 
broad, rounded, or triangular. 

These Spiders keep themselves immovably fixed, with the legs stretched out, upon vegetables. They 
do not make webs, merely throwing out a few solitary threads in order to catch their prey. The 
cocoon is orbicular and flattened; they hide it between the leaves of plants, of which they bring the 
edges into contact, guarding it carefully until the birth of the young. 


Micrommata, Latr., Sparassus, Walck.,* has the maxille straight, parallel, and rounded at the edge, the eyes 
arranged into two rows, the posterior row being the longest, and curved behind; the tonzue is semicircular. 
M. Smaragdula, Fab., A. viridissima, De G., of a grass-green colour, with the abdomen yellowish-green, with a 
darker line. Found common in woods near Paris, where it fastens three or four leaves together into a triangular 
pocket, lining the interior with thick silk, placing its cocoon in the middle, whichis round and white, and permits 
the eggs to be perceived within ; these are not glued together. 

M. Argelas (the name of which reminds naturalists of that of one of our most zealous savans, whom I have 
held up to their esteem as my deliverer in the revolutionary troubles), is one of our largest [French] species, being 
two-thirds of an inch long. This species was discovered near Bordeaux, by the naturalist to whom I have dedi- 
cated it. Subsequently, M. Dufour discovered it in the most arid mountains of Valentia, where he observed its 
habits. It runs with velocity, extending its legs laterally, its unguicular cushions permitting it to retain its 
station on the smoothest surfaces and in every situation. Its cocoon (which it constructs on the under side of 
pieces of rock) resembles that of Clothe Durandi. It also secretes itself there against inclement weather and its 
enemies, and in order to deposit its eggs. This is an oval tent, nearly two inches in diameter, fastened upon the 
stones, nearly like marine patelle. It is composed of an outer envelope of yellowish taffety, thin, like the peel of 
an onion, but resisting; and of an inner covering, more pliant, soft, and open at both ends. It is by these 
apertures, furnished with valves, that the animal goes out. The cocoon is globular, placed underneath its abode, 
so that it can cover it, and contains about sixty eggs. 

I believe we must also place in this genus the Aranea venatoria, Linn., figured in Sloane’s Jamaica (pl. 225, 
fol. 2; Nhamdia, 2? Pison), and another species from East India, very like the preceding, and which we see 
figured upon the drawings and tapestry imported from China. « 

Senelops, Dufour, has the maxille straight, without a lateral notch, and terminating in a point, being obliquely 
truncate; the tongue is semicircular. The eyes are thus arranged,—six in front, forming a transverse [tortuous] 
line, and two others, posterior, and situated, one on each side, behind each extremity of the preceding line; the 
legs long, and the second pair the longest, and then the third and fourth, which are longer than the first. 
S. omalosoma, Dufour, Valencia, inhabiting the rocks, and running with the quickness of a dart; also in Syria. 
Other species occur in Senegal, the Cape of Good Hope, and Mauritius. 

Philodromus, Walck., has the maxille inclined upon the tongue, which is longer than broad; the eyes, at nearly 
equal distances apart, form a crescent or semicircle, the lateral ones not being placed upon tubercles or emi- 
nences. The chelicere are long and cylindrical; the four or two hind legs do not materially differ in length from 
the preceding. According to M. Walckenaer, these spiders run with rapidity, the legs laterally extended, watch 
for their prey, throw out single threads for its retention, and hide themselves in holes, or amongst the leaves, which 
they draw together when they deposit their eggs. 

Some species have the body flat and broad, the abdomen short, dilated behind, with the four middle legs longest. 
Such is Ph. margaritarius, Clerck, which is three lines long, and is very common upon trees, wooden fences, 
walls, &c., where it sits with its feet extended ; when watched it escapes with great rapidity, or falls to the ground 
by dividing the thread by which it was held. Its cocoon is of a fine white, and incloses about a hundred eggs, 
which are yellow and loose. It is placed in the crevices of trees or posts exposed to the north, and is very care- 
fully guarded. 

The other species of Philodromus, which Walckenaer forms into several small groups, have the body, and often 
the chelicere, proportionably longer. The abdomen is pear-shaped, or oval, and sometimes cylindrical. The 
second pair of legs, and then the first or the fourth, are longest. Ph. rhombicus, Walck. ; Ph. oblongus, Walck., &c. 

Thomisus, Walck., differs from Philodromus in the chelicere, proportionably shorter and wedge-shaped, and the 
four posterior legs very evidently shorter than the four anterior. The lateral eyes are often placed on tubercles, 
while those of Philodromus are always sessile. The species of this genus are commonly called Crab-spiders. The 
males are very different in their colours from the females, and generally much smaller. 

Some species (all of which are exotic) have the eyes arranged in two transverse, nearly parallel lines, four and 
four, the posterior line being the longest. EH. Lamarcikii, Latr. (allied to Aranea nobilis, Fabr.), &c. 

In the others, forming the greatest number, the general outline of the eyes forms a crescent, with the convex 
part in front. A. globosa, Fab.; A. cristata, Clerck ; A. atrea, De Geer, &c. 

Storena, Walck., although imperfectly kuown, appears to terminate this section, and to lead to Oxyopes (which 
is as much allied to the Crab-Spiders as to the Wolf-spiders), and has the maxille inclined upon the lip, which 
is long and triangular, and nearly as long as them ; the chelicere, conical; the two fore-legs and then the second 
pair the longest ; the eyes arranged thus—2, 4, 2. 


The second general division of the bipulmonary Spiders, that of the Wanprerers (Vagabondes, 


« M. Walckenaer places this genus in the series of those which are at times wandering and sedentary, such as Attus, Thomisus, Drassus, &c., 
and which have only two hooks to the tarsi. 


i 


PULMONARIA. 463 


thus named in opposition to the former division of the Sedentary species), have the eyes, always eight 
in number, extended lengthways along the thorax rather than transversely, or at least the space they 
occupy is as long as broad, and which form, by their union, either a curvilinear triangle, or a truncated 
oval, or a square. Two or four of their eyes are often much larger than the others; the thorax is 
broad, and the feet are robust, those of the fourth pair, the two first, or those of the second pair 
generally, exceed the others in length. These Spiders do not spin webs, wait for their prey, seize it 
running or leap upon it. We divide these into two sections, the Citigrades and the Saltigrades. 

The first, that of the Citigrades, comprises the species which are called Wolf-spiders by some 
writers. The eyes form, by their arrangement, either a curvilinear or oval triangle, or a square, the 
front side of which is much narrower than the breadth of the thorax ; this part of the body is ovoid, 
narrowed in front, and with a central longitudinal ridge ; the legs are only fitted for running ; the 
maxilla are always straight and rounded at the tip; the females of most of the species sit upon their 
cocoon or carry it about with them, applied against the breast and the base of the belly, or suspended 
at the anus. They do not abandon it except in the utmost extremity, and return to hunt for it when 
they have no longer cause of alarm. They also tend their young with care for a certain period of time. 


Oxyopes, Latr., Sphasus, Walck., have the eyes arranged in four transverse lines, in pairs, the front and hind 
ones being shortest, so as to form a kind of oval. The first pair of legs is longest. S. heteropthalmus, Walck. ; 
O. variegatus, Latr., &c. 

Ctenus, Walck., has the eyes arranged in three transverse lines, gradually becoming broader (2, 4, 2,) and forming 
a kind of reversed curvilinear triangle, truncated at the front, or its narrowest part. The tongue is square; the 
fourth and then the first pair of legs are the longest. Established on a Spider, of large size, found at Cayenne. 

Dolomedes, Latr., has the eyes arranged in three transverse lines (4, 2, 2), forming a square, rather broader than 
long, with the two posterior placed on an eminence ; and which have the second paif of legs as long or longer than 
the first pair; those of the fourth pair are longest. ‘The tongue is square. 

Some species have the two lateral eyes of the front line longer than the two middle ones placed between them, 
and the abdomen terminated ina point. The females construct, on the top of trees full of leaves, a silken nest, like 
a funnel or bell, where they lay their eggs, but when they go out to hunt or are forced to abandon their retreat, 
they always carry their cocoon with them, attaching it to their breasts. Clerck says that he saw them leap upon 
flies which were flying aroundthem. Ar. mirabilis, Clerck ; A. rufo-fasciata, Fab. &c. 

The other species have the four front eyes of equal size, and the abdomen oval and rounded at the tip. They 
inhabit the sides of water, running on its surface with surprising quickness, and eyen entering into it without 
being wetted. The females make, amongst the branches of vegetables, large irregular webs, in which they place 
their cocoon, which they guard until the young are hatched. Dol. marginatus, Walck.; A. fimbriatus, Clerck, &c. 

Lycosa, Latr., which have the eyes arranged in a square, as long as or longer than it is broad, with the two 
posterior not placed upon an eminence. ‘The first pair of legs is evidently longer than the second, but shorter 
than the fourth, which is the longest. The maxille are obliquely truncate ; the tongue is square, but longer than 
broad. 

All these Spiders usually live on the ground, where they run with great swiftness. They dwell in holes, which 
they have found or formed, lining its inside with silk, and increasing its size as they grow. Some take up their 
abode in holes of walls, where they make silken tubes, the outside of which they cover with earth or sand, and in 
which they moult and hybernate, having first closed the entrance. The females also therein lay their eggs ; they 
carry their egg-case with them when they go out to hunt, and which is attached by threads to the anus. The 
young ones fasten themselves, as soon as they are hatched, upon the body of their parent, and there remain 
attached until they are sufficiently strong to seek their own food. They are very voracious, and defend the position 
of their habitation with great courage. 

A species of this genus, the Tarentula, so named from the city of Tarentum, in Italy, in the environs of which it 
is common, is very celebrated. In the opinion of the vulgar its venom occasions dangerous wounds, often 
followed by death, or by the complaint termed tarentism, which could only be cured by the aid of music and 
dancing. Judicious people think it more requisite to combat the terrors of the imagination than the effects of 
the venom, for which the medicinal art supplies various remedies. M. Chabrier has published some observations 
upon the Tarentula of the South of France (Soc. Acad. Lille, 4 Cahier). The genus is numerous in species, which 
have not yet been clearly defined. 

L. tarentula (Aranea tarentula, Linn.,) is about a foot long, with the under side of the abdomen red, witha 
transverse central black bar.* The Tarentula of the South of France (L. narbonnaise, Walck.) is rather smaller, 
with the belly black, with a red margin. JL. febvilis, Clerck, an analogous species, occurs near Paris; L. saccata 
is much smaller, and is very common near Paris [and London]. 

Myrmecia, Latr., in Ann. Sci. Nat., tom. iii. p. 27 [as the generic name implies, greatly resembles an Ant]. The 
legs are long, nearly filiform, the fourth and the first pairs being the longest ; the thorax appears as if divided 
into three parts, the anterior of which is much larger than the other two, which are knotted. The abdomen is 


* [Several species have been confounded under this name. M. | des Sciences Naturelles, 1835, translated in the Magazine of Natural 
Dufour has published an elaborate account of the habits of one of | History, vol. i., new series.) 
these, which he regards as the real M, Tarentula,in the Annales ° 


rg 


a 


464 ARACHNIDA. 


much shorter than the thorax, and covered half way from the base by a solid epidermis. MM. fulva, Brazil. There 
also appear to be other species in Georgia, in North America. 

(Myrmarachne, MacLeay, appears only to be a geographical section of Myrmecia, having the head portion of the 
cephalothorax more elongated, whereby the posterior eyes are removed wider apart. M. atra of Perty, is precisely 
of the same form as Myrmarachne melanocephala. It is likely to lead to erroneous impressions to assert that 
these Spiders prove that the order may include species with additional articulations, as they are only constricted 
in several places, and not articulated. ] 


The second section of the Wandering Spiders, that of Sarrrgrapres, has the eyes arranged in a large 
square, the front row extending the whole breadth of the thorax, which is nearly square, or semi-oval, 
flat, or but slightly gibbose above, as broad in front as in any other part, and suddenly deflexed at the 
sides. The legs are fitted for running and leaping; the fore-thighs are often greatly dilated. 

One of these insects is very common in summer (4ranea scenica, Linn.) upon walls and windows 
exposed to the sun, takes short leaps, stopping suddenly after a few steps, and raising itself on its legs. 
When it discerns a fly, or especially a gnat, it approaches it cautiously till within leaping distance, 
when it darts upon it, not fearing to take a perpendicular leap, because it always at the same time 
suspends itself by a thread, which it winds off as it advances. It also serves to suspend it in the air, 
and to mount up again to the spot whence it leaped, or to sustain it whilst the wind carries it from 
place to place. Such are the general habits of this section. Many species construct, amongst the 
leaves, under stones, &c., silken nests, in the form of oval sacs, open at each end, into which they 
retire in order to take rest, to moult, and to take refuge against the inclemency of the weather. If 
menaced with danger they quit their retreats, and run off with great agility. Some species construct, 
with the same material, a kind of tent, which serves for the birth-place of their posterity, and in which 
the young reside for some fime with their parent. Other species, resembling Ants, elevate their fore- 
legs and vibrate them with great rapidity. The males sometimes engage in contests, in which their 
manceuvres are very singular, but which do not terminate fataliy. 


Tessarops, Rafinesque, nearly approaches the next, but differs, if there be not some error, in the number of its 
eyes, which is only four. (See Annal. Gen. Sci. Physig., tom. viii.) 

Palpimanus, Dufour (in ditto, tom. v.), appears also intermediate between Eresus and Salticus, the eyes being 
arranged as in the former ; the tongue is also triangular and pointed, and the maxilie are dilated and rounded at 
the tip, but they are inclined; the terminal joint of the anterior tarsi is inserted laterally, and wants the ungues. 
P. gibbus, Dufour, does not leap, but only creeps slowly. It is found under stones in Valencia. M. Lefebvre 
brought a new Spider from Sicily, which appears to belong to this genus. 

In the two following genera there are always eight eyes, and the maxille are straight. 

Eresus, Walck., has four of the eyes arranged in a small square in front of the thorax, and the other four form- 
ing a much larger square at its sides; the tongue is triangular, and the tarsi terminated by three ungues. 
E. cinnaberinus, Walck., Aranea 4-guttata, Rossi, &c. 

Salticus, Latr., Attus, Walckenaer, has four of the eyes in across line in front of the thorax, the two middle ones 
being the largest, and the two others at the sides of the thorax, thus forming a large square open behind; the 
tongue is very obtuse at the tip, and the tarsi have only two terminal ungues. The males of many species are 
furnished with very large chelicere. Some species have the thorax thick, sloping, and very much inclined at the 
base. <Aranea sanguinolenta, Linn., South of France, and many other species. 

The others have the thorax flattened and roof-like at the base, the body being rather oval, and clothed with thick 
pubescence, with the legs robust, as in Aranea scenica, Linn., or narrow, elongated, subcylindrical, and naked, 
with the legs long and slender, as Av'anea formicaria, De Geer, 


[Since the second edition of this work many additional genera of Spiders have been published by Mr. 
Blackwall, in the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, from time to time, as well as by 
M. Walkenaer, in the work above referred to. The genera Cherses, Arkys, Erigona, and Plectanus, 
established by the latter, are extremely singular in their forms. The former of these authors has 
devoted much attention to the economy and structural peculiarities of many species of Spiders, his 

‘researches being published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society. M. Hahn also commenced 
the publication of an elegant little work, Die Arachniden, since his death continued by M. Koch, in 
which a vast number of Spiders are described and figured. M. Perty also described and figured many 
Brazilian species in his Delectus of the Articulated Animals of Brazil. A great number of European 
species are also figured by Herrick Schiffer, in his continuation of Panzer’s work upon German 
insects. M. Lucas, who is attached to the entomological department of the Jardin des Plantes, has 
made these insects his particular study, and has communicated some interesting species to Guerin’s 
Magasin de Zoologie and the Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. 


. 


PULMONARIA. — 465 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE PULMONARY ARACHNIDA,— 


THe PEDIPALPI,— 


Possesses very large palpi in the shape of extended arms, terminated by a pincer or claw. The 
chelicerz, or external pincers, have two fingers, one of which is moveable. The abdomen is 
composed of very distinct segments, without spinnerets at the tip; and the sexual organs are 
placed at the base of the belly. The entire body is clothed ina hard skin. The thorax is 
composed of a single piece, and exhibits, near each of its anterior angles, three or two eyelets, 
approximating or grouped together; and near the middle of its anterior extremity, or poste- 
riorly, but in the medial line, two other eyelets, also close together. The number of pulmo- 
nary sacs is four or eight. 


Some (which form the genus TarANTULA*, Fabr.) have the abdomen attached to the thorax by a 
peduncle, or by a portion of the transverse diameter, without comb-like plates at its base beneath, or a 
sting at its extremity. The spiracles, four in number, are situated near the base of the belly, and 
covered by a plate. The chelicerze (mandibles of authors) are clawed, or merely terminated by a move- 
able hook. The tongue is elongated, very narrow, and hidden. They have only a pair of maxille, 
formed of the basal part of the palpi. All of these have eight eyes, of which three, on each side, near 
the anterior angles, are arranged in a triangle; and two near the middle, upon the front margin, placed 
upon a common tubercle, or upon a small eminence, one on each side. The palpi are spinose. The 
tarsi of the two fore-legs differ from the others: they are composed of many joints, and resemble threads, 
without a terminal hook. These Arachnida inhabit only the hottest parts of Asia and America. We are 


unacquainted with their habits. They now constitute two genera. 

Phrynus, Oliv., has the palpi terminated by a spined hook; the body very flat; the 
thorax large, nearly crescent-shaped; the abdomen destitute of a tail; and the two 
anterior tarsi exceedingly long and slender, resembling thread-shaped antenne. 
Phalangium reniforme, Linn., Herbst. East Indies. Tarantula reniformis, Fabr. 
Antilles, &c. 

Thelyphonus, Latr., is distinguished from Phrynus by the very short, thick palpi, 
terminated by a claw formed of two fingers. The body is long; thorax oval; and the 
tip of the abdomen is furnished with a long articulated seta, forming a tail. The two 
anterior tarsi are very short, with but few joints. Phalangium caudatum, Linn. Java. 
South America produces another species, described and figured in the Journ. de Phys. 
et d’? Hist. Nat., 1777, which the inhabitants of Martinique call the “ Vinaigrier.”” A 

Fig. 31.—Phrynus reniformis, | third smaller species inhabits the Gangetic Delta. 
reaneees [M. Lucas has lately published a valuable monograph upon Thelyphonus, with 
figures, in Guérin’s Magasin de Zoologie, containing six species, the largest of which (7. giganteus) is two inches 
and a half long, and inhabits Mexico.] 


The other Pedipalpi have the abdomen intimately connected with the thorax, throughout its entire 
width, presenting, at the base beneath, two moveable comb-like plates, and terminated by a knotted 
tail, armed with a sting at its extremity. The spiracles are eight in number, exposed, and arranged 
four and four on each side, along the abdomen. The chelicere are terminated by two fingers, the outer 
one being moveable. They form the genus 


Scorpio, Linn., Fabr. 


These have the body long, and suddenly terminated by a long, slender tail, composed of six knots, the last of 
which terminates in a curved and very acute point or sting, beneath the extremity of which are two small orifices, 
by which a venomous fluid is discharged, contained in an internal reservoir. The thorax is oblong, and generally 
furnished with a longitudinal, central, compressed line, having on each side, near its anterior extremity, three or 
two ocelli, forming a curved line; and near the middle of the back are two other ocelli, approximated together. 
The palpi are very large, with a forceps-like claw at the tip: the basal joint forms a concave and rounded maxilla. 
At the base of the four fore-legs is a triangular appendage; and these pieces form, by their approximation, a kind 
of lip with four divisions, the two lateral ones being considered as maxille, and the two others as forming the 
tongue. The abdomen is composed of twelve joints, including the tail: the basal joint is divided into two parts, 
the anterior bearing the sexual organs, and the posterior the two combs, the number of the teeth of which varies 
according to the species, and even with the age of the individual, and of which the use has not yet been deter- 


« [As there is great possibility of confounding this genus with the famed Tarentula, described above, amongst the Spiders, it would have 
been better to have rejected it entirely, as it is an evident misnomer. ] 


HH 


ARACHNIDA. 


466 


mined. Each of the four following segments has a pair of pulmonary sacs and spiracles. Immediately after the 
sixth segment, the abdomen is suddenly narrowed, the six terminal knotted joints forming the tail. The tarsi are 
alike, and 3-jointed, with two terminal ungues. The two nervous cords running from the brain are united at in- 
tervals, forming seven ganglions, of which the terminal ones belong to the tail. For further details of the anatomy 
of these animals, consult the works of Treviranus, M. de Serres, and Léon Dufour (Journ. de Physique, 1817). 

These Arachnida inhabit the warm countries of both hemispheres, living in the ground, hiding themselves 
under stones or other bodies, generally amongst ruins, or other dark and cool places, and even in the mterior of 
houses. They run quickly, and curve the tail over the back. They can turn it in all directions, and employ it as 
an arm of defence or offence. ‘They seize Wood-lice, and other ground insects, such as Carabi, Weevils, Ortho- 
ptera, &c., which serve them as food, with their pincers, pricking them with their stings, and then carrying them 
totheir mouth. They are also particularly fond of the eggs of Spiders and other insects. 

The wound occasioned by the sting of the Scorpio europeus is not, as it appears, ordinarily dangerous. That 
of the Scorpion of Souvignargues, of Maupertuis, or of the species which I have named Occitanus, and which is 
more powerful than that of the preceding, produces, according to experiments which Dr, Maccary had the courage 
to try upon himself, more alarming effects. The poison appears to increase in power according to the age of the 
animal. Volatile alkali, either applied interiorly or exteriorly, is used to counteract its effects. 

Some authors assert that the indigenous [French] species produce two broods in a year, but it appears more 
correct to consider that this takes place in the month of August. According to Maccary, it changes its skin before 
coupling. The female carries her young upon her back for 
several days, at first not quitting her abode at such time, and 
takes care of them for the space of a month, by which time 
they are able to shift for themselves. 

Some have eight eyes, forming Leach’s genus Buthus. 
Scorpio afer, Linn., which is five or six inches long, and in- 
habits the East Indies, Ceylon, &c. SS. occitanus, Amoroux, 
(Tunetanus, Herbst.) Middle of Europe, Barbary, Spain, &c. 

The others have only six eyes, forming the restricted genus 
Scorpio of Leach. 8S. europaeus, Linn., Fab., Herbst. South 
of France. 

[The genus Scorpio, Linn., has been revised by Hemprich and Ehrenberg in their great work upon the animals 
of Arabia, and many new genera and subgenera separated therefrom. Many new species have also been recently 
described by Koch, in the continuation of Hahn’s Die Arachniden.] 


Fig. 32 —Scorpio occitanus. 
g Pp 


THE SECOND ORDER OF ARACHNIDA,— 


TRACHEARIA,— 
Differs from the preceding in the respiratory organs, which consist of radiating or ramified 
trachee *, which only receive the air by two spiracles; in the absence of a circulating organ, 
and in the number of the eyes{, which is only two or four. From the want of sufficiently 
generalized anatomical observations, the limits of this order are not rigorously determined. 
Some species, indeed, of these Arachnida—such as the Pycnogonide—do not exhibit any 
spiracles; and their mode of respiration is unknown. 

The trachean Arachnida are naturally divisible into those provided with cheliceree terminated 
by two fingers, one of which is moveable, or by a single one, equally moveable, in the form of 
a hook, and those where these organs are replaced by simple plates or lancets, which, together 
with the tongue, compose a sucker; but the majority of these animals bemg minute, their 
examination is attended with very great difficulties, so that these characters ought only to be 
resorted to when it is impossible to adopt others. 


* The trachee are vessels which receive and distribute the aerial 
fluid in every part of the interior of the body, and thus remedy the 
want of circulation. They are of two kinds,—tubular or elastic (formed 
of three membranes, the middle one composed of « spiral thread), and 
vesicular, formed of only two membranes these forma kind of pneu- 
matic reservoir, capable of inflation, communicating with each other 
by means of tubular trachere. The trachew are divided into two prin- 
cipal trunks, extending along the sides of the body, and receiving the 
air by orifices or spiracles. There are also, in many insects, two other 
longitudinal trunks, situated between the preceding, with which they 
communicate, and which Serres calls pulmonary trachex, giving to 
the ordinary ones the name of arterial trachew. He also distinguishes 
the kind of spiracles: the common ones are closed by membranous 
lips, opening by simple contraction the others, named trémaéres by 


Serres, are shut by corneous, moveable plates, and are peculiar to 
some Orthoptera. Some aquatic larve have a very peculiar respiratory 
apparatus. 

+ The presence of trachee excludes all complete circulation,—that 
is, the distribution of the blood to different parts, and its return from 
the organs of respiration to the heart. Hence, although certain vessels 
have been discovered in some insects (Phasme), and their existence 
is possible in the trachean Arachnida, these creatures do not the less 
euter into the general system, M. M. de Serres has observed that the 
intestinal canal of Phalangium emits a very great number of ceecums, 
or vermiform appendages, which appear analogous to hepatic vessels, 
and that the trachee ramify most extensively upon these ccecums. 

t According to Miiller, Hydrachna umbrata has six eyes; but is not 
this a mistake? 


TRACHEARIZ. 467 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE TRACHEAN ARACHNIDA,— 


THE PseuDO-ScORPIONES,— 


Has the thorax articulated, with the anterior segment largest, like a corselet; the abdomen very 
distinct, and annulated; the palpi very large, in the shape of feet or claws; eight legs in both 
sexes, with two equal-sized ungues at the tip of the tarsi,—the two anterior, at the most, excepted ; 
two apparent chelicere, terminated by two fingers; and two maxillw, formed of the basal joint of 
the palpi. All of these are terrestrial, and have the body oval or oblong. This family comprises only 


two genera. 


Galeodes, Oliv. (Solpuga, Lichtenstein, Fabr.), having two very large chelicere, with vertical, strongly-toothed 
fingers, one superior, fixed, and often furnished with a slender, elongated, pointed appendage* at its base, and the 
other moveable ; the palpi are large, projecting, and 
in the shape of feet or antennz, terminated by a 
short, vesicular joint, without any terminal hook ; 
the two fore-legs have a similar shape, and are equally 
unarmed, but smaller; the others are terminated by a 
tarsus, the last joint of which has two small cushions, 
and two long fingers, with a hook at their tips; five 
scales are attached by a peduncle upon each hind leg, 
disposed in a row upon the basal joints; two eyes are 
placed close together upon an eminence in front of 


the anterior thoracic segment, which represents a large head, supporting the mouth and two fore-legs. 

The body is oblong, generally soft, and clothed with long bristles; the knob at the tip of the palpi incloses a 
peculiar organ, which is only protruded when the animal is irritated ; the two fore-legs may be considered as a 
second pair of palpi. I have discovered a large spiracle on each side of the body, between the first and second 
legs, as well as a slit at the base of the belly. The abdomen is 9-jointed. For further details, see the description 
of a species found in Spain, by Dufour (Annales Sci. Physig., tom. v. pl. 69). 

It is supposed that the ancients designated these Arachnida under the names of Phalangium, Solifuga, Tetra- 
gnatha, &c. M. Poé discovered a species near Havannah, but the others are peculiar to the warm and sandy 
countries of the old world. They run with very great quickness, erect their heads when surprised, showing signs 
of resistance, and are reputed venomous. Solpuga fatalis, Latr. Bengal. Others are described in the monograph 
of Herbstin, and the voyages of Olivier and Pallas. ; 

[Other species are figured, with elaborate details, by Savigny, in the great work on Egypt; and M. Lucas has 
described and figured a species from Cuba (G. Cube), in Guérin’s Magasin de Zoologie. Dr. Schomburgh has 
also forwarded, this year, to the Entomological Society of London, a species, of small size, from Demerara, which 
he found in the nest of a species of Termes. ] 

Chelifer, Geoff. (Obisiwm, Mliger), has the palpi elongated like arms, with a claw-like hand with two fingers; all 
the legs are equal, and terminated by two ungues; the eyes stand at the sides of the , 
thorax. These animals resemble small Scorpions deprived of tails. The body is 
flattened, with the thorax nearly square, and having one or two eyes on each side. 
They run quickly, and often sideways, like Crabs. The eggs are united in a mass. 
The elder Hermann says that they carry them beneath the belly; and he also believes 
that these Arachnida are able to spin. The younger Hermann and Leach divide 
them into— 

Chelifer proper, having the first segment of the thorax divided in two by a trans- 
verse impressed line; a style at the tip of the moveable finger of the chelicere ; it 
has only two eyes. Fig. 34.—Chelifer fasciatus. 

Phal. cancroides, Linn., commonly called the Book Scorpion, is found in herba- 
riums, old books, &c., where it feeds upon the minute insects which frequent such situations. Scorpio cimicoides, 
Fabr. Lives under stones, the bark of trees, &c. 

Obisium, Leach, has the thorax without division ; the chelicerze without a style. It has also four eyes. 

See the monograph of Scorpionide of Leach (Zool. Miscel/. vol. iii.), and Dalman’s memoir on Copal Insects, 
where a species is described under the name of Eucarpus. [Some new species of this group are described and 
figured by M. Theis, in Annales des Sci. Nat., Sept. 1832]. 


Fig. 33.—Galeodes intrepida. 


‘ 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE TRACHEAN ARACHNIDA,— 


Tue PycNoGoNIDES,— 


Has the thorax composed of four segments, occupying nearly the whole length of the body, terminated 
at each extremity by a tubular article, of which the anterior (which is larger, and either simple or pro- 


* I do not believe this appendage is peculiar to one sex. 


HH2 


468 ARACHNIDA. 


vided with chelicerz and palpi, or one kind of these organs) constitutes the mouth.* Both sexes have 
eight feet, fitted for running; but the females exhibit, besides, two false legs, situated near the anterior 
pair, and only employed in carrying the eggs. These animals are marine, analogous either to Cyamus 
and Caprellat, or to the Arachnida of the genus Phalangium, with which Linnzus united them. The 
body is commonly linear, with very long legs, consisting of eight or nine joints, and terminated by two 
unequal ungues, appearing only to form a single one, the smaller one being slit. The anterior segment 
of the body, which replaces the head and mouth, forms a projecting tube, nearly cylindrical, or conical, 
having a triangular or trilobed orifice at its extremity. It is furnished, at the base, with the chelicerze 
and palpi. The former are cylindrical and linear, simply prehensile, 2-jointed, the terminal joint che- 
liferous, with the lower finger, which is immoveable, sometimes very short. The palpi are filiform, 
from 5 to 9-jointed, with a hook at the tip. Each succeeding segment, with the exception of the last, 
supports a pair of legs; but the anterior of those with which the head is articulated, bears, on the 
back, a tubercle, on which is placed a pair of ocelli; and on the under side, in the females alone, two 
other slender legs, folded upon each other, and bearing the eggs, which are placed all round them in 


state, tells us that he has seen, in the interior of the feet, lateral expansions of the intestinal canal, or 
ceecums. I had also perceived the traces, under the form of blackish vessels, 
in different Nymphons ; and hence I am induced to believe that these creatures 
respire by the skin,—a peculiarity which would render the establishment of a 
distinct order necessary, probably between the Arachnida and apterous para- 
sitic insects. They are found amongst marine plants, under stones near the 
beach, and occasionally also on the Cetacea. 


agin pee: Pycnogonum, Brunn., Miill., Fabr., is destitute of chelicere and palpi, and their legs 

But Binet Aue es scarcely exceed the length of the body, which is proportionately shorter and thicker 

than in the following genera. They live upon Whales. 

Phoxichilus, Latr., has no palpi, but the legs are very long, and they have two chelicere. Pycnogonum 
spinipes, O. Fabr.,—Ph. aculeatum and spinosum of Montague, Transactions of the Linnean Society,—Nymphon 
JFemoratum of the Acta of the Society of Natural History of Copen- 
hagen, 1797, &c. 

Nymphon, Fabr., resembles the last in the very narrow and ob- 
long form of the body, the length of the legs, and presence of cheli- 
cere ; but they have moreover two palpi, composed of five joints. 
N. grossipes, O. Fabr., Miller, Zool. Dan. Compare, also, Leach, 
Zool. Miscell. vol. iii. 19, f. 1, 2. 

Ammothea, Leach (A. carolinensis, Leach), differs from Nymphon 
in the chelicere being much shorter than the mouth, the basal piece 
being very small. The palpi are 9-jointed. 

{From the apparent absence of breathing pores, Latreille, in his 
Cours d’Entomologie, forms these animals into a distinct order,— 
Aporobranchia; but Leach had previously given to them the ex- 
pressive name of Podosomata. There are several British species 
described by Dr. Johnston in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, 
No. iv., wherein several new genera are proposed. It will, however, 
be necessary to change the names of some of them, as they are 
already employed for genera of Crustacea. <A still more extra- 
ordinary genus, with ten legs, is described by Eights in the 
Boston Journal of Natural History, under the name of Decalo- Fig-36.—Nymphon grossipes, end under side of its beak. 
poda australis.) 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE TRACHEAN ARACHNIDa,— 


Tue Horerra (Hermann),— 
Has the thorax and abdomen united into a mass, beneath a common epidermis. The thorax is at most 
divided into two by a strangulation; and the abdomen merely presents, in some species, the traces of 
articulations, formed by foldings of the epidermis. The anterior extremity of the body is often ad- 


* The siphon of a large Phoxichilus, hrought from the Cape by | The palpi are thence those of the maxilla. 


Delalande, exhibits longitudinal sutures, so that it appears to me to + According to Savigny, they form the passage between the Arach- 


consist of a labrum, tongue, and two maxille, all soldered together. | nida and Crustacea. I place them in this situation with doubt. 


| 
| 
i 
| 
one or two masses. The last segment is small, cylindrical, and pierced by a small orifice at the tip. 
We can discover no vestiges of spiracles. M. Edwards, who has observed these animals in a living 


TRACHEARIZ. 469 


vanced, in the form of a muzzle or beak. The majority have eight legs, the others six.* This family 
is composed of two tribes. 

The first tribe is that of the harvest-men, Puaxraneira, Latr., haying the chelicere very apparent, 
either projecting in front of the trunk or being inferior, but always terminating in a didactyle forceps, 
preceded by one or two joints. They have two filiform palpi of five joints, the last terminated by a 
small hook; two distinct eyes; two maxilla, formed by the prolongation of the basal joint of the palpi, 
and often four others, composed merely of the dilated cox of the two anterior pairs of feet. The body 
is oval or rounded, covered, at least upon the thorax, by a more solid skin. The abdomen exhibits the 
appearance of foldings. The legs are long, always eight in number, and divided distinctly, in the 
manner of those of insects. Many (Phalangium) have, at the base of the two posterior feet, two spira- 
cles, one on each side, but hidden by the cox. The majority 
live on the ground, upon plants, or at the roots of trees, and 
they are very active; others hide themselves beneath stones, or 
in moss. 


Phalangium, Linn., has the chelicere projecting, much shorter than 
the body, and the eyes placed upon a common tubercle. The legs are 
very long and slender, and, when detached from the body, they exhibit 
signs of irritability fora few moments. Ph. cornutum, Linn., male; 
x Ph. opitio, Linn., female; and other native species. Consult, also, the 

\ monographs of this genus published by Latreille at the end of his Hist. 
Fig. 37.—Phalangium cornutum. Nat. des Fourmis ; Herbst. and Hermann, Mém. Aptérolog. 

Gonyleptes, Kirby, has the palpi spined, with the two terminal joints nearly equal-sized ; 
and the coxe of the hind pair of legs are very large, and soldered together, forming a plate 
beneath the body. The hind legs are wide apart from the others. G. horridus, Kirby. 
Brazil. 

Siro, Latr., has the chelicere projecting nearly as long as the body; the eyes wide apart, 
and each placed upon an isolated tubercle, or without support. S. rubens, Latr. 

Macrocheles, Latr., has exposed and very long chelicere, but the eyes are either sessile or 
wanting. The two fore-legs are very long, and resemble antenne. The upper side of the 
body is like a scale, without distinct articulations. Acarus marginatus, and A. testudi- 
narius, Hermann. 

Trogulus, Laty., has the anterior extremity of the body projecting like a clypeus, receiving, 
in a cavity on its under-side, the chelicere and other parts of the mouth. The body is very y 
flat, and covered by avery firm skin. It is found beneath stones. T. nepeformis, Latr. 

Phal. tricarinatum, Linn. South of France. Fig. ase Gony lenis acan- 

{M. Dufour has described a genus allied to the last under the name of Ca@culus, in the 
Annales des Sci. Nat. for 1832. Many other very curious Brazilian species are described and figured by Perty, in 
the Delectus Animalium Brasilia, in which many new genera are proposed for their reception. Another very 
singular species, with exceedingly long legs, is described by Mr. Hope, in the Linnean Transactions, vol. xvii., 
under the name of Dolichoscelis Haworthii.| 


The second tribe of the Arachnida holetra is that of the AcaripEs, which has occasionally chelicere, 
but they are simply composed of a single pincer, either didactyle or clawed, and hidden in a sternal 
lip. Sometimes there is a sucker, formed of lancet-like plates united together; or the mouth consists 
merely of a cavity, without any other apparent pieces. This tribe is composed of the genus 


Acarus (Linn.),— 


The majority of the species of which are very minute, or almost microscopical. They are universally dis- 
tributed. Some are wanderers; and, amongst these, some are found under stones, leaves, the bark of trees, 
in the ground, the water, or upon provisions, such as flour, dried meat, old dry cheese, and upon putrid 
animal matters. Others subsist as parasites upon the skin, and in the flesh of different animals, often 
greatly weakening them by their excessive multiplication. The origin of certain diseases, especially the 
itch, is attributed to them. It appears, from the experiments of Dr. Galet, that the Mites of the human 
psora, placed upon the body of a perfectly healthy individual, will inoculate him with the serus of that 
disorder. Other sorts of mites are also found upon insects; and many beetles, which subsist upon 
cadaverous substances or excrement, are often entirely covered with them. They have even been ob- 
served in the brain and eyes of Man. The Mites are oviparous, and exceedingly prolific. Many of them 
are born with only six feet, and the two others are developed a short time afterwards. The tarsi are 


* Trombidium longipes, Herm., is figured with ten legs, the anterior being very long, but it is described us having only eight. 


470 ARACHNIDA. 


terminated in various ways, according to their habits. Some of these insects (Acarides, Latr.) have 
eight legs, fit only for walking, and chelicere. 


Trombidium, Fabr., has the chelicere terminated by a moveable claw; palpi projecting, pointed at tip, with a 
moveable appendage or finger beneath the extremity; two eyes, each at the top of a small fixed peduncle. T. holo- 
sericeum, Fabr., very common in gardens during spring, of a blood-red colour, with the abdomen nearly 
square, and narrowed behind. A much larger species (7. cinctorium, Fabr.) inhabits the East Indies, and emits a 
red dye. 

Erythreus, Latr., has the chelicere and palpi of Trombidium, but the eyes are sessile, and the body not divided. 
E. phalangioides, Latr. 

Gamasus, Latr., has the chelicere didactyle, and the palpi projecting, distinct, and filiform. In some, the body 
is covered entirely, or in part, by a scaly skin, but in others it is entirely soft. Some of the latter species live upon 
different birds and quadrupeds, Others, as the Acarus telarius, Linn. [or the Red Spider of the hot-houses], form, 
upon the leaves of various vegetables, especially upon those of lime-trees, very fine webs, which injure them greatly. 
This species is reddish, with a black spot on each side of the abdomen. 

Cheyletus, Latr., has didactyle chelicere ; but the palpi are thick, arm-like, and terminated by a sickle-shaped 
joint. A. eruditus, Schr. 

Oribata, Latr. (Notaspis, Herm.), has the chelicere also didactyle; the palpi very short, or concealed; the body 
covered with a hairy, scaly skin; feet long, or moderate. The front of the body is advanced like a beak. Found 
upon stones, trees, in moss, &c. They creep but slowly. 

Uropoda, Latr., has, from analogy, forceps-like chelicere ; palpi not projecting ; body covered with a scaly skin; 
legs short; anus with a long thread, by which this insect is attached to various beetles, and suspended in the air. 
A. vegetans, De Geer. 


Acarus, Fabr. (Sarcoptes, Latr.), has two didactyle chelicer ; palpi very short, or con- 
cealed; body very soft; tarsi terminated by a vesicle. Some species feed upon our ali- 
mentary substances (A. domesticus, A. farine); others are found in the ulcers of the itch 
in man, the horse, cat, dog, &c. (A. scabiei. See the Thesis of Dr. Galet upon this species). 


Other Mites or Ticks (Ricrnx, Latr.) have also eight legs, formed for walking, 

Aa we Aceusaouacdeas but destitute of chelicere, which are replaced by lancets, forming, with the tongue, 
magnified a sucker. Some have the eyes distinct. 

Bdella, Latr., having the sucker advanced and beak-like, with long, elbowed palpi, and four eyes. Scirus longi- 


rostris, Herm. 
Smaridia, Latr., with palpi short and straight, and two eyes. A. sambuci, Schr., &c. 


The other Ricinie have not the eves perceptible; the palpi are in the shape of valves, dilated at the 
tip, serving as a sheath to the sucker, of which the parts are horny and toothed; the body is clothed 
with a corneous skin, or at least with a scaly plate in front. These ticks are parasites, sucking the 
blood of various vertebrated animals; and although at first very much flattened, they acquire, by suc- 
tion, a very large size, and become swollen out like a bladder. They are round or oval. 


Tvodes, Latr. (Cynorhestes, Herm.), has the palpi casing the sucker, and forming, with it, a pro- 
jecting beak, truncated, and slightly dilated at the tip. They are found in thick woods, abounding 
in brush-wood, briers, &c., attaching themselves to low plants by the two fore-legs, extending the 
other feet. They fasten upon dogs, cows, horses, and other quadrupeds, and even upon the tortoise, 
burying their suckers so completely in their flesh that they can hardly be detached by force, and by 
tearing away the portion of skin to wlich they are fastened. ‘They deposit a prodigious number of 
eggs, discharging them from the mouth, according to M. Chabrier.* ‘Their multiplication upon the 
ox and horse is sometimes so great that these animals perish from exhaustion. The tarsi are termi- ‘A 
nated by two ungues inserted upon a plate, or are united at the base upon a common peduncle. The 
ancients appear to have known these animals under the name of Ricini. They are our well-known __ 
Ticks,—Ivodes ricinus, Linn., attacking the Dog; and Jv. reticudatus, Latr., Fabr. (Acarus reduvius, Petes 
Schr.), the Ox. The latter, when swollen, is half an inch long. The study of the species of this genus aan HO 
is not sufficiently advanced. 

Argas, Latr. (Rhynchoprion, Herm.), differs from Ixodes in the inferior situation of the mouth, and the palpi 
not encasing the sucker, and being 4-jointed instead of three. 4. reflevus, Fabr., Latr. Upon pigeons. A. persicus 
(Malleh de Mianeh), described by travellers under the name of the Venomous Bug of Miana, has been the subject 
of a curious memoir by M. Fischer de Walldheim. [This insect formed the subject of much discussion at the 
Liverpool meeting of the British Association]. 

(M. Audouin has described and figured some species of the two preceding genera, and of those of Tetranychus 
and Pteroptus, in the Annales des Sci. Nat. for 1832.] 


Other Mites (Hydrachnelle, Latr.) have also eight legs, but theyare ciliated, and fitted for swimming. 
They form the genus Hydrachna of Miiller (Atax, Fabr.), and live only in the water. The body is oval 


“ [The anal orifice being minute, and close to the mouth, has been mistaken for the latter in this observation. ] 


eee ee 


—_—_ 


TRACHEARLE. 471 


or rounded, and generally soft: in some males, it is narrowed behind into a cylindrical tail. The 
number of eyes is either two or four, and even six, according to Miiller. 


Eylais, Latr., has the chelicere terminated by a moveable claw. A. extendens, Fabr. 

Hydrachna, Latr., has the mouth composed of plates, forming a projecting 
sucker, and the palpi have a moveable appendage beneath the extremity. 
A. geographicus, Fabr., A. globator, Fabr. 

Limnochares, Latr., has the mouth sucker-shaped, but the palpi are simple. 
A. aquaticus, Linn. [Other species of these water-mites have been described 
by M. Theis, in the Annales des Sci. Nat. for 1832]. 

[From the very valuable discoveries lately made by M. Dugts, it appears 
that these water-mites undergo metamorphoses, accompanied by a complete 
change of form, the larve having a very large head and six legs, whilst the 
pup are inactive, attaching themselves, by a single pair of legs, to the 
eg etre Sera etave eee % maxni- bodies of other aquatic insects, and consisting, as it were, simply of an oval 

bag with a narrow neck, the insect in this state having been formed, by 
M. V. Audouin, into the genus Achlysia, and specifically named A. Dytici, from taking up its residence beneath 
the elytra of the Water Beetle (Dyticus marginalis). They also attach themselves to the slender filaments com- 
posing the tails of the Water Scorpions (NVepa and Ranatra).] 


Other Mites (Micropthira, Latr.) differ from all the foregoing, in having six legs. They are all parasites. 

Caris, Latr., has the sucker and palpi distinct; the body rounded, very flat, and coyered with a scaly skin. C. 
vespertilionis, Latr. On Bats. 

[M. V. Andouin has figured an insect which he considers may be identical with Cavis vespertilionis, in the 
Annales des Sci. Nat., 1832; and which, notwithstanding its possessing only six legs, he considers as more pro- 
perly belonging to the genus Argas.] 

Leptus, Latr., has also a sucker and palpi, but the body is soft and ovoid. A. autumnalis, Shaw (Misc. Zool., 
vol. ii. pl. 42), is very common, in autumn, upon grass and other herbage. They crawl upon our bodies, and in- 
sinuate themselves into the skin at the roots of the hairs, occasioning as painful an irritation as the itch. [It is 
the well-known Harvest Bug], but it is so minute as rarely to be observed. 

The other species are found upon different insects, and enter into the division of the Trombides hexapodes of 
Hermann. T. insectorum, Herm., T. Libellule, Herm., T. Culicis, Herm., &c. 

{Aelysia, Aud., here placed by Latreille, is now proved to be the immature state of Hydrachna.] 

Atoma, Latr., has neither suckers nor palpi visible; the mouth consists only of a small orifice, situated upon the 
breast; the body is soft, oval, with the feet short. Acarus parasiticus, Herm. 

Ocypete, Leach, belongs to this section, from the number of its legs; but, according to him, it has mandibles. 
O. rubra, Leach. Upon Tipule. 

[From the recent observations of Audouin, Dugés, and others, it seems questionable whether this terminal sec- 
tion of the Mites can be retained, consisting, as it is now supposed to do, entirely of the young states of various 
groups of Acaridz.] 

[The Senator Van Heyden has lately published a distribution of the Acaride in the Isis ; and many very minute 
species are figured in the continuation of Panzer’s Fauna Insectorum Germania, by Herrick Schiffer, distributed 
into many new genera. At the same time, M. Dugés, in his more elaborate and complete memoir, published in 
the Annales des Sci. Nat., has revised the entire group, dividing it into numerous genera, arranged into the fol- 
lowing groups:—1. Trombidiei; 2. Hydrachniei 3 3. Gamasei; 4. Ixodei; 5. Acarei; 6. Bdellei; and, 7. Oribatei.] 


THE THIRD CLASS OF ARTICULATED ANIMALS FURNISHED WITH 
ARTICULATED LEGS,— 


INSECTS (Insrcra),— 
Which have articulated legs, a dorsal vessel occupying the place of the vestige of a 


heart, but without any branch for circulation*; which respire by means of two principal 


is the true heart of insects, being, as in the higher animals, the loco- 
motive organ of the blood, which, instead of being contained in vessels, 


* Anatomists are divided in their opinion as to the nature of this 
organ, many regarding it asa distinct heart, whilst others (including 


Cuvier, whose opinion appears to have been fully confirmed by the 
researches of M. de Serres, inserted in the Mémoires du Mus. d'Hist. 
Nat.) deny it this quality. Sume recent observstions appear to esta- 
blish the existence of several small vessels, but besides that, this cir- 
culation must be very partial, as Insects differ materially from the 
Crustacea, the blood not returning to the heart. According to Herold, 
as quoted by Strauss (Bulletin. de Univers Ferussac), the dorsal vessel 


extends through the general cavity of the body. This heart occupies 
the entire length of the bulk of the abdomen, and terminates ante- 
riorly in a single artery, which is not ramified, and which carries the 
blood to the head, whence it returns to the abdomen by the mere 
effect of its accumulation in the head, to re-enter the heart; and it is 
in this that the entire circulation of the blood of insects consists, and 
which are consequently destitute of veins, According to M. Strarss. 


472 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


trachez, extending parallel to each other throughout the entire length of the vody, 
having, at intervals, points from whence numerous branches extend, and which corre- 
spond with certain external orifices, or stigmata* [or, as they have been termed in a 
previous passage, spiracles], for the entry of the air. All of them have two antenne, 
and the head distinct. The nervous system of the majority of insects (those with six 
feet) is generally composed of a brain, formed of two ganglions opposed to each other, 
united at their base, and emitting eight pairs of nerves and two single nerves, and of 
twelve ganglions, all of which are in the inferior part of the body. The two anterior 
are situated near the union of the head and thorax; the second and two following are 
appropriated to the three segments of which the thorax is composed, and the remaining 
ganglions belong to the abdomen, each ganglion emitting nerves to the organs of their 
respective segments. The two nervous cords which form, by their reunion, the ganglions, 
are tubular, and composed of two tunics, the exterior of which exhibits trachee. A 
medullary substance fills the central canal. The fine work of M. Herold upon the 
anatomy of the caterpillar of the Great Garden White Butterfly, examined during its 
growth, and until the period of its transformation into the pupa, proves that the nervous 
system and the digestive organs undergo decided modifications, the nervous cords being 
at first longer and wider apart, which confirms the opinion of De Serres upon the origin 
and developement of the nervous system. We have already, in the general observations 
on the three classes of articulated-legged Articulata, stated the different sentiments of 
physiologists upon the seat of the senses of hearing and smell: we shall therefore 
merely add, that, in respect to the former, the small nervous ganglions situated upon 
the forehead, of which we have spoken, appear to confirm the opinion of those who, 
like Scarpa, place this sense near the base of the antenne. In some Lepidoptera, I 
have detected two small apertures near the eyes, which may perhaps be the auditory 
channels. If, in many insects, especially those with filiform or setacecus and long an- 
tenn, these organs are used as tactors, it appears difficult for us to account for their 
extraordinary developement in certain families, and more particularly in males, if we 
do not admit that they are actually the seat of the organ of smell. Probably, also, as 
regards the taste, the palpi, in those cases where they are very dilated at the tip, take 
the heart, or the abdominal portion of this organ, is divided, inter- | to which they belong, form part of the thorax. Thus, in genera., all 
nally, into eight chambers in the Cockchafer, separated from each | hexapod insects have eight pairs of spiracles to the abdomen, the two 
other by two convergent valves, which permit the blood to be pro- | last being often obsolete. In the Locusts and Dragon-flies, the sides 
pelled forwards, but prevent its returning. The definition given by | of the mesothorax exhibit a pair of spiracles (¢rémueres, M. Serres). 
this naturalist of the dorsal vessel, whatever may be the interior com- | In these and some other insects with uncovered wings, the two first 
position of this organ, evidently proves that it is nota real heart: | thoracic spiracles are placed above, between the pro- and meso-thorax. 
moreover, his observations do not determine the nature of this fluid, | Except in Libellula, the true thorax does not exhibit any other spira- 
nor how it is directed into the other parts of the body, to effect their | cles. I say the true thorax, because, in some, the two anterior abdo 
nutrition. [The still more recent observations of Carus, Bowerbank, | minal spiracles are transferred to the thorax. The metathorax of the 
and some others, have made us still better acquainted with the nature | Pentatome and Scutellere exhibits, on its under side, a pair of spira- 
of this dorsal vessel, and its uses, confirming the views of Herold as to | cles. In the wingless spectre insects {Phasmidw], the mesothorax 
the existence of a decided circulation in insects, although it is of a | has none, but the metathorax has two pairs. 
nature very dissimilar to that of the higher animals]. [We thus see that Latreille was perfectly aware that each of the 
* The number of the segments of the body of the Myriapoda being | three thoracic segments was occasionally provided with spiracles ; 
variable, that of their spiracles is so likewise, and extends sometimes | and yet his theory, which has been noticed above (that the hind part 
to more than twenty. In hexapod insects, it is often eighteen,—nine | of the thorax of the petiolated Hymenoptera and Diptera is abdo- 
on each side. This is, however, more the case with the larva than the | minal), is founded upon the supposition that the metathorax cannot, 
perfect insect. Caterpillars, and most other larvae, have a pair of spi- | of itself, possess spiracles, and that consequently the spiracles which 
racles in the segment which bears the first pair of feet. The second | we see on the hind part of the thorax of those insects, must be those of 
and third segments are deficient, because, as I presume, the develope- | the anterior abdominal segment, transferred to the thorax. The common 
ment of wings upon these segments renders the presence of spiracles | Earwig,as I have shown in a memoir upon the anatomy of that insect, 
unnecessary. Each of the fourth and seven following segments ex- published in the Zansactions uf the Entomological Society, exhibits 
hibits a pair; but in the perfect Beetles, in addition to the twoanterior | an instance in which the pro-, meso-, and metathorax, are respectively 
spiracles which are hidden in the cavity of the prothorax or corslet, | furnished with a pair of spiracles. I have also entered fully into this 
and which have not been noticed, two others are to be perceived, situ- | question in the Hymenopterous portion of my introduction to the 
ated between the base of the elytra and wings, being those of the | modern classification of insects, with a view to prove the general uni- 
mesothorax; but there are none to the metathorax, unless we consider | formity of the structure of the Hymenoptera with sessile and petio- 
those of the first abdominal segment as supplementary to the thorax, | lated abdomens.] 


relying upon what takes place in the pedunculated Hymenoptera and + Some lamellicorn Beetles, in the perfect state, are exceptions. 
Diptera, where these two segments, together with the demi-segment 


a 


a 
a 


INSECTA. 473 


the chief part. The tongue, also, cannot be a stranger to this function. The prepara- 
tory apparatus of the mouth; the intestinal canal; the biliary or hepatic vessels, and 
those which are called salivary, but which are less general; those free and floating 
vessels which have received the name of excremental; the epiploon, or fatty matter ; 
and probably also the dorsal vessel,—such are the considerations embraced by the 
digestive system. It is singularly modified, according to the diversity of the food, 
whence arise a great number of particular types, of which we shall give the description 
in treating upon the different families. We will only say a few words upon the organs 
of the mouth [2nstrumenta cibaria, or trophi, as they have been collectively termed], 
and the principal divisions of the intestinal canal, commencing with the latter. In those 
in which it is most complex, such as the carnivorous Beetles, there may be distinguished 
the pharynx, cesophagus, crop, gizzard, stemach or chylific ventricle, and intestines, 
which may be divided into the slender intestines, the ccoecum, and the rectum. In those 
insects which have the tongue applied upon the anterior or internal surface of the lip, 
or not disengaged, the pharynx is situated upon this surface: this is its general situ- 
ation. It is questioned by M. Gaede whether the so-called biliary vessels are in fact 
secretors, as commonly considered; but the more recent observations of L. Dufour 
[published in a valuable series of memoirs in the Annales des Sci. Nat.| seem to dis- 
prove the opinion of M. Gaede. 

Some insects (few in number, and destitute of wings, such as the Myriapoda, or 
Centipedes) are allied to many of the Crustacea, either in the number of their segments 
and legs, or in certain points of analogy in the structure of the parts of the mouth; 
but all the rest have only six legs, and the body, of which the number of segments never 
exceeds twelve, is always divided into three principal divisions,—the head, trunk 
[or thorax], and abdomen. Among the latter individuals, some are destitute of wings, 
preserving, throughout their whole life, the form which they had at their birth, in- 
creasing in size only by changing their skins, and which I have named Homoténes, 
“alike to the end,” or the Ametabolia of Leach. They have, in this respect, certain 
relations with the animals of the preceding classes. 

The other insects with six legs are almost universally winged; but the last-named 
organs, and often also the legs, do not appear at first, and are only developed at the 
close of a series of changes more or less singular, termed metamorphoses, and which 
we will shortly explain in a following page. The head* bears the antenne, eyes, and 
mouth. The composition and form of the antenne vary much more than in the 
Crustacea, and these organs are often much more developed and longer in the males 
than in the females. 

The eyes are composite or simple. The former, according to the researches of Cuvier, 
Marcel de Serres, and others, are formed, lst, of a cornea divided into a multitude of 
small [hexagonal] parts, and which is more convex according to the carnivorous pro- 
pensities of the insect, its inner face being spread over with an opaque, scarcely fluid, 
various-coloured (although generally black, or of a dark violet colour) substance; 2nd, 
of a choroid, attached, by its contour and edges, to the cornea, covered with a black 
varnish, exhibiting a great number of aerial vessels, proceeding from large trunks of 
the trachez situated in the head, and of which the branches form around the eye a cir- 


* Its surface is divided into numerous small regions named clypeus | other recent anatomists, consider the head as formed of a series of 


{chaperon, nusus, Kirby), face, forehead, crown, and cheeks. The | segments soldered together, the mandibles, maxille, &c., represent 
denomination of “chaperon” being equivocal, I have changed it to | ing the limbs attached to each. See also a memoir on the head of in 
epistoma: it supports the labrum, or upper lip. [M. Strauss, and som sects, by Mr. Newman.) 


474 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


cular trachea: this, however, as well as the choroid, is wanting in various darkling 
insects; 3rd, of nerves, which arise from a large trunk proceeding immediately from 
the brain, which there dilates in a reversed conical form, the broad base being towards 
the cornea, and of which the threads, running through the choroid and inner plaster of 
the cornea, terminate separately in each of the facets. There is no crystalline nor 
vitreous tumour. 

Many insects have, in addition to these composite eyes, simple eyes [ocelli], the 
cornea of which is smooth. They are generally three in number, and arranged in 
a triangle upon the crown of the head. In the majority of apterous insects, and 
the larve of those which gain wings, the ocelli replace the eyes, and are often in- 
serted in a group: judging from the eyes of the Arachnida, they are evidently fitted 
for vision. 

The mouth of Hexapod insects is in general composed of six principal pieces, their 
form being lateral, arranged in pairs, and mostly transversely ; and two others, opposed 
to each other in a direction contrary to that of the preceding, filling up the space be- 
tween the former: one is situated above the upper pair, and the other below the lower 
pair. In the masticating insects, or those which feed upon solid materials, the four 
lateral pieces perform the office of jaws (mdchoires), and the two others are considered 
as lips; but, as we have already observed, the two upper jaws have been distinguished 
by the particular name of mandibles, whilst the two others have alone retained the 
name of maxille (mdchoires): the latter are also provided with one or two articulated 
filaments which are called palpi,—a character which is never possessed, in this class, by 
the mandibles. The extremity of the maxillz is often terminated by two divisions, or 
lobes, of which the outer, in the Orthoptera, is termed the galea. We have already 
said that the upper lip is called the labrum. The other lip, or the labiwm (levre, pro- 
perly so called), is formed of two parts: the one, solid and inferior, is the mentum ; 
the upper, which cften bears two palpi, is the tonguelet (/anguette), [or ligula].* 

In the suctorial insects, or those which derive their food from fluid aliments, these 
different organs of manducation appear under two general modifications. In the 
first, the mandibles and maxille are replaced by small, setaceous, lancet-like plates, 
forming, by their union, a kind of sucker, which is received in a sheath which takes 
the place of the labium, and is either cylindrical or conical, and articulated, in the 
form of a beak (rostrum), or membranous and fleshy, inarticulated, and terminated 
by two lips (proboscis). The labrum is triangular and arched, covering the base of 
the sucker. 

In the second of these modifications, the labrum and mandibles are nearly obsolete, 
or extremely small. The labium is no longer a detached piece, and is only distin- 
guished by the presence of a pair of palpi, of which it is the support. The maxille 
have acquired a very great length, and are transformed into two tubular threads, which, 
uniting by the edges, forms a kind of proboscis which is rolled up in a spiral manner, 
and is named the tongue, but which, to avoid misconception, it would be preferable to 
term the spirignatha: its interior presents three canals, of which the middle one forms 


* According to what I have said in the introductory observations | anterior abdominal segments of hexapod insects will represent ihe 
upon the Articulata in general, I consider the lower lip to be but a modi- | segments which bear the true legs in the decapod Crustacea, or the 
fication of the second maxille of the decapod Crustacea, combined | third and four succeeding segments of the amphipod and isopod 
with their tongue (languette). The gradual changes which take place | Crustacea. The various works published in respect to the thorax of 
in the form of these organs, in the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Myria- | insects will necessarily require revision when this part of the body is 
poda, naturally lead to this supposition. In this hypothesis, the six ] compared throughout the three annulose classes, its nomenclature 
thoracic legs must be analogous to the foot-jaws of the Crabs; and as | being far from fixed in this respect. 

has been shown, in the crustaceous genus Apus. Moreover, the five 


nner 


INSECTA. 475 
the canal of the nutritive fluids. At the base of each of these filaments there is a palpus. 
ordinarily very minute, and scarcely visible. 

The Myriapoda are the only species of which the mouth exhibits another type of con- 
struction, which I shall describe when treating upon those insects. 

The trunk* of insects, or that intermediate portion which bears the feet, is generally 
designated by the Latin name thorax, which the French term corselet. It is formed of 
three segments, which were not at the first carefully distinguished, and of which the 
relative proportions greatly vary. Sometimes, as in the Coleoptera, the anterior is by 
far the largest, separated from the following by an articulation, moveable, and alone 
exposed ; which alone appears, at first sight, to compose the trunk, and bears the name 
of the thorax, or corselet. Sometimes, as in the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, &c., it is 
much shorter than the following, and constitutes, with the two others, a common 
body, attached to the abdomen by a peduncle, or closely united to it throughout its 
entire posterior breadth, and which is called the thorav. 

These distinctions, thus established, were insufficient, and often ambiguous, as they 
did not rest upon a ternary structure of the thorax, as I had clearly noticed in the first 
edition of this work, as a character proper to hexapod insects. Mr. Kirby has em- 
ployed the name of metathorax for the hind part of the thorax.t Those of prothoraxr 
and mesothorax naturally presented themselves to the mind when the ternary division 
of the thorax was once adopted, and the celebrated Professor Nitzsch was the first who 
used them. Some naturalists have since named the prothorax, or anterior thoracic 
segment which bears the anterior pair of legs, collar (collare). Wishing to preserve 
the name corselet, but to restrain its application in proper limits, we shall employ it in 
all those cases where this segment greatly surpasses the others in size, and where the 
latter are united to the abdomen so as to appear to constitute an integral part of it,— 
a peculiarity proper to the Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and many Hemiptera. When the 
prothorax is short, and forms, with the succeeding segments, a common and exposed 
mass, the trunk, composed of the three segments together, will retain the denomination 
of thorax. We shall also continue to call the inferior surface of the trunk the breast 
(poitrine), dividing it, according to the segments, into the fore-breast [antipectus], 
middle breast [medipectus], and hind breast [postpectus]. "The middle line is the 
sternum, which we also divide into three:—The fore sternum [prosternum], middle 
sternum [mesosternum], and hind sternum [metasternum]. 

The teguments of the thoracic segments, as also those of the abdomen, are generally 
divided into rings or semi-rings: one dorsal, or superior, the other inferior, and united 
laterally by means of a soft and flexible membrane, which is indeed but a less solid 
portion of the same teguments in many insects, especially the Coleoptera. We also 
observe, at the reunion of these rings, a small space, more solid, or of the substance of 


* To avoid all confusion, it would be better to restrict the term 
trunk to those Aptera of Linnzus which have more than six leys, and 
where these limbs are borne upon distinct segments, with the head 
distinct from the trunk. In the Crustacea, where these two parts of 
the body are soldered together, the thorax might take the name of 
thoracida, and in the Arachnida, cephalothorax, being here still more 
simple, with fewer appendages, that of thorax being reserved for the 
hexapod insccts. 

+ This segment ought not to be restricted, in the Hymenoptera, to 
the upper, very short, transverse division of the thorax, at the sides of 
which the second pair of wings are inserted, being further composed 
of that portion of the thorax which extends to the base of the abdu- 
men, as is proved by the position of the two last spiracles of the trunk. 
l even think this observation is applicable to all winged insects, the 


metathorax being divided, on the upper side, into two parts, one 
bearing, in the four-winged species, the second wings, and being des- 
titute of spiracles, and the other being furnished with the latter. This 
second part appears to be dependent upon the abdomen, as in nearly all 
insects, except the petiolated Hymenoptera, Rhipiptera, and Diptera. 
Sometimes it is incorporated with the thorax, and closes it posteriorly, 
as in these last insects: hence I have named this second division of 
the metathorax, the medial segment. Thus, all the segments would 
have a pair of spiracles, but those of the mesothorax, scarcely distinct, 
or obsolete, in the Hymenoptera and Diptera, and the two metatho- 
racic, situated upon the segment which immediately follows that which 
bears the second wings. The abdomen will thus be composed of nine 
segments, of which the last three compose the organs of generation. 


476 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 

the teguments themselves, each of which bears a breathing pore, so that the sides of 
the abdomen exhibit a longitudinal series of small pieces, or each segment is, as it were, 
divided into four. Other pieces, also corneous, occupy the lower sides of the meso- 
thorax and metathorax, immediately beneath the insertion of the elytra and wings, 
which are supported by another piece, placed longitudinally. The relations of these 
parts, the size and form of the first joint of the cox, or haunches, the manner in which 
they articulate with the semi-ring to which they are attached, and the extent and 
direction of this variable semi-ring, furnish the thorax, considered in this respect, with 
a combination of characters which is very serviceable in a systematic point of view. 
Some naturalists, especially Knoch, had already made use of them, but without any 
determined principle, and with arbitrary names. It was, however, necessary to study 
the composition of the thorax carefully, in all the classes of insects—a task commenced 
by the late Lachat, and followed up by M. Victor Audouin, who presented a memoir 
on this subject to the Académie des Sciences. It is, however, only known to us by 
the general sketch of it given by Cuvier in his Report*, and by the extract published 
by its author in the article Iysxcr in the Dictionnaire Classique d’Hist. Nat. 'To 
adopt this nomenclature, and give it a general application, we must wait for this memoir 
and its illustrative figures; but in practice, the denominations already introduced will 
suffice. Another memoir, upon the same subject, by M. Chabrier, with admirable 
figures, and one by the elder Jurine upon the wings of the Hymenoptera, must also be 
mentioned. 

As insects inhabit all kinds of situations, they have all the kinds of locomotive organs: 
namely, wings and legs, which last, in many species, are used as oars. The wings are 
membranous, dry, elastic, generally transparent, pieces attached to the sides of the back 
of the thorax; the anterior pair, when there are four, or when they are the only pair, 
being upon the mesothorax, and the posterior pair upon the following segment, or 
metathorax. They are composed of two membranes applied upon each other, and tra- 
versed, in various directions, by more or less numerous nervures, which are so many 
trachean tubes, forming sometimes a network, and sometimes simply veined. The elder 
Jurine has advantageously employed the disposition and crossing of these nervures in 
systematic arrangement. The Dragon-flies, Bees, Wasps, Butterflies, &c., have four 
wings; but those of Butterflies are covered with small scales, which at first sight re- 
semble dust, and which give these insects the colours with which they are ornamented. 
They easily come off on being touched by the finger, and the portion of the wing from 
which they have been taken is transparent. With the microscope, these scales appear 
of varied figures, and are implanted upon the wing by means of a footstalk, and 
arranged regularly in rows like the tiles of a roof. In front of the fore-wings of these 
insects are a pair of pterygoda (a kind of epaulettes), which extend backwards along 


a part of the back, upon which they are applied. In certain insects, the wings remain 


* [A long note is here given in the second cdition, containing the | whilst the third piece of the flank is placed, in the meso- and meta- 


details of M. Audouin’s researches. I can, however, only introduce 
the following slight abridgment:—The trunk, or thorax, is always 
typically divisible, on the outside, into three segments, each bearing 
a pair of feet,—namely, the prothorax, mesothorax (bearing the fore 
wings), and metathorax (bearing the hind wings). Each segment is 
composed of four parts: one inferior, two lateral (these three forming 
the breast), and one dorsal, forming the back. The inferior part is 
the sternum; the lateral picces, or flanks, are each divisible into three 
principal pieces; one (the episternum) attached to the sternum, 
another (the epimeron), articulating with the coxa. Another small 
piece (the trochantine) assists in the union of the epimeron and coxa, 


thorax, beneath the wing, and is called the hypoptera, since changed 
by Audouin to paraptera. The dorsal part, or tergum, is divided into 
four pieces, named, from their position in each segment, the pre- 
scutum, scutum, scutellum, and postscutellum: the first of which is 
often, and the last nearly always, internal. Thus the thorax is divi- 
sible into thirty-three principal pieces, or forty-three, including the 
hypoptera. The epimera had been previously called scapule, and 
parapleure, by Knoch. The posterior coxa of the Coleoptera, forming 
a transverse plate, is his merium. Mr. M‘Leay has subsequently pub- 
lished an elaborate memoir upon the structure of the thorax in the 
Zoological Journal.) 


a 


INSECTA. 477 


straight, or are folded up transversely ; in others they are doubled up, or folded longi- 
tudinally, like a fan; sometimes they are horizontal, sometimes inclined like a roof; in 
many they meet upon the back, and in others they are wide apart.* The two-winged 
insects, of the dipterous order, have also, beneath their wings, two small moveable 
threads, terminated by a mass, and which, according to the ordinary opinion, replace 
the pair of wings which are deficient; they are called balancers+ (halteres). Other 
two-winged, very extraordinary insects, have also two balancers, but situated at the 
anterior extremity of the thorax, and which we name, to distinguish them from the 
others, prebalancers (prehalteres). Above the true balancers is a small membranous 
scale, formed of two pieces, united at one of the edges, and resembling the two shells 
of a bivalve mollusc: this is the alulet, or cueilleron [a/ula]. Some aquatic Beetles 
also exhibit it beneath the elytra, inserted at their base. 

Many insects, such as the Cockchafers, Cantharides, &c., have, instead of the two 


upper or anterior wings, two scale-like pieces, more or less thickened, and more or less 
solid and opaque, which open and shut, and beneath which the wings are transversely 
folded in repose. These scale-like pieces have received the name of elytra.t The in- 
sects which are furnished with these organs are called Coleoptera, or insects in a sheath. 
These pieces are never wanting§, but this is not always the case with respect to the 
wings themselves. In other kinds of insects, the extremity of these scales is entirely 
membranous, like the wings; and in this case these pieces are called hemelytra: [hence 
the name of the Linnzan order Hemiptera]. 

The scutellum, or escutcheon, is ordinarily a triangular piece, situated upon the back 
of the mesothorax, between the places of insertion of the elytra, or wings. It is some- 
times very large, and then covers the greater portion of the upper side of the abdomen. 
Various Hymenoptera exhibit behind it, upon the metathorax, a small space called the 
false escutcheon (post-scutellum). 

The legs are composed of a haunch of two joints [coza and trochanter], a thigh 
[ femur], a shank of a single joint [tibia], and a finger, commonly called the tarsus, 
which is divided into several phalanges, or joints, the number of which varies from 
three to five, depending chiefly upon the changes which the first and penultimate joints 
suffer in their relative proportions. Although the counting of these joints may some- 
times prove difficult [from their minuteness], and the numerical series may not always 
be in relation with the natural system, it nevertheless forms a gcod character for the 
distinction of genera: the last joint is generally terminated by two hooks. The form 
of the tarsi is subject to some modifications, according with the habits of the insects. 
Those of the aquatic species are generally flattened, very much fringed, and resemble 
oars. || 

The abdomen, which forms the third and last part of the body, is confounded with 


* That is, when the insect is in inaction. The rapidity of the vibra- 
tions of the wings appears to us to be one of the chief causes of the 
humming noise which many make. The explanations which have been 
given of it are not satisfactory. (Burmeister, and some others, have 
considered, more recently, that it is by the action of the air passing 
rapidly through the metathoracic spiracles, during flight, that this 
noise is produced}. 

+ These are appendages, in my opinion, of the trachea of the first 
abdominal segment, and correspond to the space pierced with a small 
hole adjacent to the anterior edge of an orifice, with a membranous, 
internal diaphragm on each side of the same segment in the Locusts. 
(See my memoir on the articulated appendages of insects in the Mém. 
du Mus. d’Hist. Nat.) (On the supposition that the terminal part of 
the thorax of the Diptera is in fact thoracic, and not abdominal, as in- 


sisted upon by Latreille, these balancers will necessarily become 
metathoracic, and, as such, must be considered analogous to the 
posterior pair of wings. The large size of the true wings, and of the 
mesothorax, is in favour of this view of the subject, the alula, as it 
seems to me, being nothing but a portion of the fore-wing.] 

t See M, Odier’s memoir on the chemical composition of these 
organs, inserted in the Mém. Societé d’Hist. Nat. de Paris (translated 
in the Zoological Journal). 

§ (Latreille has evidently overlooked the female of the Glow-worm, 
that of Drilus flavescens, and of Pachypus excavatus, all of which have 
neither elytra nor wings, although belonging to the order Coleoptera.] 

§ Mr, Kirby, in his monograph of the Bees of England, and in his 
excellent Introduction to Entomology, calls the tarsi of the fore-leys 
the hand, the first joint being the palm, 


ee eee | 


478 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 


the thorax in the Myriapoda; but it is distinct in all the other insects which are fur- 
nished with six legs. It incloses the viscera, the sexual organs, and exhibits nine or 
ten segments, but of which some are often concealed, or very considerably reduced in 
size. The organs of generation are situated at its posterior extremity, except in the 
Dragon-flies and Iuli. The terminal segments of the abdomen compose, in many 
females, an oviduct (oviscapt, Marcel de Serres), which is either retractile or always 
exserted, and more or less complicated, and which is employed as a borer or augur. 
It is replaced by a sting in the females [and neuters] of many Hymenoptera. 

After coupling, which ordinarily takes place but once, the female deposits her eggs 
in the places best suited for their preservation, so that when the young are hatched they 
find themselves in the midst of suitable food. The female also frequently collects pro- 
visions for them. ‘These maternal cares often excite our surprise, and most clearly 
exhibit to us the instinct of insects. In the very numerous societies of many of these 
creatures—such as the Ants, White Ants, Wasps, Bees, &c.—the individuals com- 
posing the majority of the assembly, and which, by their labours and vigilance, support 
these societies, have been considered as neuter individuals, or without sex: they have 
been consequently named workers, or mules. It is, however, now ascertained that 
they are females, of which the sexual organs, or ovaries, are not fully developed, but 
which may become fruitful if a modification of their food, at a certain period of their 
early existence, takes place, whereby these organs are developed. 

The eggs are sometimes hatched in the abdomen of the mother, which is then termed 
viviparous. The number of generations in a year, of a species, depends on the dura- 
tion of each: more commonly, there is but one or two in the year. A species, under 
similar circumstances, is the more common in proportion as its generations succeed 
each other in rapidity, and the female is more fruitful. 

A female Butterfly, after coupling, deposits her eggs, from which are hatched, not 
Butterflies, but animals with a very long body, divided into rings, a head provided with 
jaws, and several little eyes, having very short legs, of which six are scaly and pointed, 
placed in the front of the body, and the others, variable in number, membranous, and 
attached to the hind rings. These animals, called Caterpillars, live a certain time in 
this state, and change the skin several times. At length, however, a period arrives, 
when, from this skin of the Caterpillar, issues a very different being, of an oblong form, 
without distinct limbs, and which soon ceases to move, and remains a long time appa- 
rently dead, and dried up, under the name of a Chrysalis. On regarding it, however, 
mere closely. we perceive, in relief, upon the outer surface of this Chrysalis, the lines 
which represent all the parts of the Butterfly, but in proportions different from those 
which these parts will, at a future day, acquire. After a longer or shorter period, the 
skin of the Chrysalis bursts; the Butterfly comes forth, moist, soft, with flaccid and 
short wings, but in a few instants it dries, its wings grow, become stronger, and it 
becomes fitted for flight. It has six long legs, antenne, a spiral proboscis, composite 
eyes: in a word, it does not in the least resemble the Caterpillar from which it had 
sprung, for it is ascertained that the changes in its state are nothing else than succes- 
sive developements of the parts contained within each other. Such are the metamor- 
phoses of insects. The first state is named the larva, the second the nymph [pupa], 
and the third the perfect state [imago]. It is only in the last-mentioned state that the 
insect is fitted for propagation. 


EE 


INSECTA. 479 


All insects do not pass through these three states. Those which have no wings 
come forth from the egg with the forms they are always to maintain,—the Flea, female 
Mutille, Worker Ants, and a few others, excepted. ‘These are called insects without 
a metamorphosis. Among those which have wings, a great number undergo no other 
change than that of acquiring them. These are said to undergo a demi-metamorphosis, 
their larva resembling the perfect insect, with the exception of the wings, which are 
entirely wanting. The pupa differs only from the larva in having rudiments of wings, 
which are developed at the last moulting, which brings the insect to the perfect state. 
Such are the Cimices, Grasshoppers, &c. Finally, the other insects provided with 
wings are said to undergo a complete metamorphosis, appearing, at first, under the 
form of a caterpillar or worm, and subsequently becoming an inactive nymph, but 
which exhibits all the parts of the perfect insect contracted, and, as it were, enveloped 
in a bandage. 

These parts are free, although very closely approximated and applied against the 
bedy, in the pupe of the Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, &c.; but this is not 
the case in those of the Lepidoptera, and many of the Diptera. An elastic or still more 
solid skin is moulded over the body, and its exterior parts form for it a kind of case. 
The skin of the chrysalides of Lepidoptera, consisting only of a simple pellicle applied 
upon the external organs, following all their directions, and forming for each of them 
so many moulds, like the envelope of a mummy, permits them to be recognized and 
distinguished [pupa obtecta, Linn.]; but that of the two-winged flies, being formed of 
the dried skin of the larva, has merely the appearance of a cocoon in the shape of an egg. 
It is a kind of capsule, or case, in which the animal is inclosed (pupa coarctata, Linn.) 

Many larve, previous to passing to the pupa state, construct for themselves, with 
silk which they draw from the interior of their own bodies, by means of the spinnerets 
of their lower lip, or with other materials which they have collected, a cocoon, in which 
they are inclosed. The perfect insect comes forth from the pupa by a slit or fissure 
which it makes down the back of the thorax. In the pupa of two-winged flies, one of 
its extremities is detached, in the form of a cap, for the passage of the insect. 

The larve and pup of the insects with a semi-metamorphosis, differ only from the 
perfect state of the same insects in respect to their wings. ‘The other outer organs are 
identical. But in complete metamorphosis, the form of the body of the larva does not 
always bear a constant relation with that which these insects have in their final state. 
It is generally more elongated; the head is often very different, both in its consistence 
and figure, and has only the rudiments of antennz, or else wants them absolutely, and 
never exhibits composite eyes. The organs of the mouth are also very different, as may 
be at once perceived by comparing the mouth of a Caterpillar with that of a Butterfly, 
or the mouth of the larva of a Fly with that of the same insect perfectly developed. 
Many of these larvee have no feet; others, such as those of Caterpillars, have many ; 
but these, with the exception of the six anterior, are entirely membranous, without 
hooks at the tip. Some insects, such as the Ephemere, exhibit a singular exception in 
the metamorphosis: arrived at their perfect state, they again cast off another skin 
from their wings. 

The insects which compose our first three orders, preserve, throughout life, the form 
which they have when born. The Myriapoda, however, exhibit the rudiments of meta- 
morphosis, having at first only six feet, or being even, according to Savigny, entirely 


480 ARTICULATED ANIMALS. | 


destitute of them. The other fcet, as well as the segments to which they are attached, 
are developed as the insect increases in age. 

There are but few vegetable substances which do not fall under the attacks of insects; 
and as those which are useful or necessary to man are not less liable to them than the 
others, they often cause great damage, especially in seasons favourable for their multi. 
plication. Their destruction depends greatly on our knowledge of their habits, and on 
our own vigilance. Some are omnivorous, such as the White Ants, Ants, &c., of which 
the ravages are too well known. Many among these are carnivorous; and the species 
which feed upon carcases or excrement are a benefit conferred on us by the Author of 
Nature, and compensate, in some respect, for the losses and inconveniences which the 
others cause to us. Some species are employed in medicine and in the arts, as well as 
our domestic economy. They have also many enemies: fishes destroy a great quantity 
of aquatic species; many birds, bats, lizards, &c., rid us of many of those which live 
upon the ground or in the air. The majority strive to avoid the dangers which menace 
their existence, by flying or running away; but there are some which employ for this 
purpose particular stratagems or natural arms. 

Arrived at their last transformation, and enjoying all their faculties, they hasten to 
propagate their race; and when this is performed, their existence soon terminates. 
Thus, in our climate, each season of the year (winter excepted) presents to us many 
species which is peculiar to it. It nevertheless appears that the females, and neuters 
of those which live in society, have a longer existence. Many individuals bred in the 
autumn, conceal themselves during the rigours of winter, and reappear in the following 
spring. 

Like vegetables, the species of insects are subject to geographical limits. Those, 
for example, of the New World (with the exception of a small number of the northern 
species), are essentially peculiar to it: it also possesses many genera equally peculiar. 
The Old World, on the other hand, possesses others unknown in America. The insects 
of the south of Europe, North Africa, and the west and south of Asia, have great 
general resemblance. It is the same with those of the Moluccas, and the more eastern 
islands, including those of the South Sea. Many species of the north are found in the 
mountainous regions of more southern climates. Those of Africa differ greatly from 
those of the opposite countries of America. The insects of Southern Asia, commencing 
from the Indus or Sind, and going to the east as far as the confines of China, have 
features greatly resembling each other. The intertropical regions covered with immense 
damp forests, are the richest in insects ; and, in this respect, Brazil and Guiana are the 
most highly favoured. 

All the general systematic arrangements, relative to insects, may be essentially re- 
duced to three. Swammerdam took the metamorphosis as the base of his system ; that 
of Linnzus is founded upon the presence or absence of wings, their number, con- 
sistence, superposition, nature of their surfaces, and upon the presence or absence of a 
sting; whilst Fabricius only employed the parts of the mouth. The Crustacea and 
Arachnida, in all these distributions, are considered as insects; and they are the ter- 
minal ones in that of Linneus, which has been generally adopted. Brisson, however, 
had separated the Crustacea as a distinct class, which he had placed before that of the 
Insects, and which comprehended all those species which have more than six feet,— 
namely, the Crustacea and Arachnida of Lamarck, or the Insecta Apiropoda of Savigny. 


INSECTA. 481 


Although this order was more natural than that of Linnzus, it has not been followed ; 
and it is only recently that anatomical observations, and a more rigorous exactitude of 
the applications thence derived, have led us to the natural system.* 

I divide this class into twelve orders, of which the first three, composed of species 
destitute of wings, do not essentially change their forms and habits, and are merely 
subject either to simple moulting or to a rudimental metamorphosis, whereby the number 
of feet and of the segments of the body are increased. These correspond with the 
Arachnides antennistes of Lamarck. ‘The organs of sight, in these animals, ordinarily 
consist of an assemblage of simple eyes, of greater or less extent. The following orders 
compose the class of Insects of the same naturalist. From its natural relations, the 
order Suctoria, which only consists of the genus Pulex [or Flea], appears to terminate 
the class; but as I place at its head the insects which have no wings, this order, 
keeping up the regularity of the system, ought to succeed immediately after that of 
the Parasita. 

Some of the English naturalists have established, from the consideration of the wings, 
several new orders; but I do not see the necessity for their admission, with the excep- 
tion of that of the Strepsiptera, of which the denomination (twisted wings) appears to 
me to be defective, such not being the case, and which I consequently term Rhipiptera, 
or fan-shaped wings. 

The first order, Myrrapopa, has more than six legs (twenty-four, and beyond), 
arranged along the whole length of the body, upona series of rings, each of which bears 
one or two pairs, and of which the first, and also the second in many species, appears 
to form part of the mouth. They are apterous,—that is, deprived of wings and 
scutellum. 

The second order, Tuysanura, has six feet, and the abdomen furnished, at the sides, 
with moveable pieces, invthe form of false legs, or terminated by appendages fitted for 
leaping. 

The third order, Parasrra, has six legs; is destitute of wings; exhibits no organs of 
sight, except ocelli; the mouth is for the most part interior, and only consists of a muzzle 
inclosing a retractile sucker, or of a slit situated between two lips, with two hooked 
mandibles. 

The fourth order, Sucroria, has six legs; is destitute of wings; and the mouth is 
composed of a sucker, inclosed in a cylindrical sheath of two articulated pieces. They 
undergo metamorphosis, and acquire thereby locomotive organs which they did not at 
first possess. This character is common to the following orders; but, in them, wings 
are always developed by metamorphosis. 

The fifth order, Cotzorrera, has six legs; four wings, the superior pair having the 
form of sheaths ; mandibles and maxillz for mastication ; the lower wings folded simply 
crosswise, and the sheaths crustaceous, and always horizontal. ‘They undergo a com- 
plete metamorphosis. 

The sixth order, Orruoprera, has six legs; four wings, of which the two upper are 
in the form of sheaths; mandibles and maxille for mastication, the latter covered at 

“ Cuvier, Tubl. Elem. de VU Hist, Nat. des Anim., and Lecons d’ Anat, | sects, may also be alluded to, as offering many details relative to the 
Comparée; Lamarck, Syst?me des Anim. suns Vert®bres; Latreille, | natural arrangement of this class]. 
Précis des Caract. Gen., and Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum. See + [It is true that the wings are not twisted, but the prébalanciers, 
also, for further details, the excellent Introduction to Entomology | as Latreille terms them, are; and, as it is now proved that these organs 
by Messrs. Kirby and Spence. [The Hore Entomologice of M‘Leay, | are mesothoracic organs, the propriety of Mr. Kirby’s naine is esta- 


the Handbuch der Entomologie by Hermann Burmeister, translated | blished.) 
by Shuckard, and my Introduction to the Modern Classification uf In- II 


a 


a 


482 INSECTA. 

the extremity with a galea; the lower wings folded in two directions, or simply longi- 
tudinally, and the sheaths ordinarily coriaceous, mostly crossing at the inner margin. 
They only undergo the semi-metamorphosis.* 

The seventh order, Hemiprera, has six feet; four wings, the two upper having the 
form of coriaceous sheaths, membranous at the extremity, or similar to the inferior pair, 
but larger and stronger; the mandibles and maxille are replaced by sete, forming a 
sucker, inclosed in a sheath of a single, articulated, cylindrical, or conical beak-like 
piece. 

The eighth order, Neurorrera, has six feet; four membranous, naked wings; and 
mandibles and maxille for mastication. ‘The wings are finely reticulated, the lower pair 
generally of the size of the anterior, or more extended in one of their diameters. 

The ninth order, Hymenoptera, has six feet; four membranous, naked wings ; man- 
dibles and maxille for mastication; the lower wings smaller than the superior; the 
abdomen of the females nearly always terminated by a borer, or sting. 

The tenth order, Leprporrera, has six feet; four membranous wings, covered with 
little coloured scales, like dust; a horny piece, like an epaulette, directed backwards, 
inserted in front of each of the fore-wings; the maxille replaced by two tubular fila- 
ments united, and composing a kind of tongue rolled up in a spire. 

The eleventh order, Ruiprerera, has six feet; two membranous wings, folded like a 
fan; two crustaceous, moveable bodies, in the form of small elytra, situated at the fore 
extremity of the thorax{; and the organs of manducation consist of a pair of simple, 
setiform maxille, with two palpi. 

The twelfth order, Diprrra, has six feet; two membranous wings, extended, and 
accompanied, in nearly all, by two moveable bodies, in the form of balancers, situated 
behind them ; and the organs of manducation consist of a sucker, containing a variable 
number of setze, inclosed in an inarticulated sheath, often under the form of a proboscis, 
terminated by two lips. § 


THE FIRST ORDER OF INSECTS,—- 


MYRIAPODA (MirTosatTa, Fab.),— 


Commonly called Centipedes or Millepedes, are the only animals of this class which have more 
than six feet in the perfect state, and in which the abdomen is not distinct from the trunk (or 
thorax). Their body, destitute of wings, is composed of a generally extensive series of seg- 
ments, nearly of equal size, each generally bearing, with the exception of the anterior segments, 


* De Geer first established this order, which he called Dermaptera, , systems proposed by different celebrated authors, as Fabricius, Leach, 


changed, without propriety, by Olivier, into Orthoptera. I retain the 
latter, because the French naturalists have generally adopted it. [Dr. 
Leach, to add to the confusion, employed the name Dermaptera for an 
order consisting of the family of the Earwigs. The name ought cer- 
tainly to be restored to the mandibulated Hemiptera of Linneus]. 

+ The thorax of the Lepidoptera has more analogy with that of the 
Neuroptera than with the Hymenoptera, the medial segment appearing 
to form part of the abdomen, whilst in the latter and the Diptera, it is 
incorporated with ttre thorax. 

t Formed, as I presume, of pieces analogous to the pterygoda of the 
Lepidoptera. [Such is not the case, as is proved by the dissections of 
the thorax published by Curtis and myself, being rudimental elytra, 
similar to those of Sitaris, Atractocerus, and certain Phasme}. 

§ [It would be cut of place to enter into a review of the various 


Kirby, M‘Leay, Laporte, and others; but as the school of English 
Entomologists adopt various orders not employed by Latreille, it will 
not be improper to observe, that the orders Myriapoda, Thysanura, and 
Parasita, are generally, by most English authors, excluded from the 
class of Insects, forming a distinct class—Ametabola. The family of the 
Earwigs is raised to the rank of an order by Kirby and Leach, under 
the name of Dermaptera, which, to prevent further confusion, I have 
changed to Euplexoptera. The genus Thrips has been formed into an 
order by Mr. Haliday, named Thysanoptera; Phryganea, or the Cad- 
dice-flies, compose the order Trichoptera of Kirby; the suctorial 
Hemiptera, with the fore-wings entirely of a membranous consistence, 
are separated as the order Homoptera of Latreille; whilst the Forest- 
flies (Hippobosce, Linn.) form the order Homaloptera of Leach, sepa- 
rated from the Diptera. ] 


MYRIAPODA. 483 


two pairs of legs, mostly terminated by a single hook, whether these segments may be undivided 
or separated into two semi-segments, each having a pair of these organs, and of which one 
alone presents two spiracles.* 

The Myriapoda resemble, for the most part, small Serpents or Nereides, having the legs 
closely placed together throughout the whole length of the body. The form of these organs 
is also extended to the parts of the mouth. The mandibles are biarticulate, and immediately 
succeeded by a piece in form of a lip, divided into four parts, with the divisions articulated, or 
similar to small feet, and which, from its situation, corresponds with the tongue (/anguette) of 
the Crustacea: then follow two pairs of small feet, of which the second pair is in the form of 
large hooks in many, appearing to replace the four maxille of the latter animals, or rather the 
two maxillz and lower lip of the Insects, being a kind of mouth-feet. The antennz, two in 
number, are short, and rather thickened to the tip, or nearly filiform, 7-joimted in some, much 
more numerously jointed in others, and setaceous. The eyes are generally formed of an union 
of minute ocelli; and if in some species they exhibit a facetted cornea, these facets are propor- 
tionably larger, rounder, and more distinct than in the eyes of Insects. The spiracles are 
often very small, and their number, in consequence of that of the segments, is often greater 
than in the latter, where it never exceeds eighteen ortwenty. The number of these segments 
and that of the legs, increases with their age, a character which distinguishes the Myriapoda 
from the Insects, the latter being always born with the number of segments which is proper 
to them, and with all their true unguiculated feet developed at the same period, or at the time 
of their quitting the pupa state. M. Savi, jun., Professor of Mineralogy at Pisa, has par- 
ticularly studied the luli, and observed that they are destitute, on quitting the egg, of these 
organs, so that these animals undergo a real metamorphosis. The situation of the sexual 
organs, compared with the Crustacea and Arachnida, seems to point out the separation of the 
thorax and abdomen. 

The Myriapoda live and grow longer than the other insects, and, according to M. Savi, at 
least two years are required by some (Iuli), before the organs of generation appear. 

From these particulars we may conclude that these animals approach the Crustacea and 
Arachnida, on one side, and the Insects on the other; but, from the consideration of the 
presence, form, and division of the trachez, they belong to the latter class. 

[The relations of this tribe of animals are very difficult. Whilst Latreille and Kirby regard 
them as entering the class of Insects, other authors have considered them as forming part 
of the Arachnida; and M‘Leay has separated them from both these classes, and formed 
them into two orders, Chilopoda and Chilognatha, raismg them, together with the two other 
orders, Thysanura and Anoplura (or Parasita, Latr.), and certain annulated Vermes, into a 
distinct class, to which he applied the name of Ametabola (changeless), which Leach had 
proposed only for the spring-tailed insects and lice. ] 

We divide them into two families, quite distinct, both in their organization and habits, and 
formed by Linnzus into two generic groups. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE MYRIAPODA,— 
CuitoGNnaTnHa, Latr. (or the genus /ulus of Linn.),— 


Has the body generally crustaceous, and often cylindrical, the antennz rather thickened at the tips, or 
nearly of equal thickness, and consisting of seven joints, two thick mandibles without palpi, very dis- 
tinctly divided into two portions by a central articulation, with the teeth imbricated and planted in a 
cavity at its upper extremity; a kind of lip (danguetée, or lower lip, composed, according to Savigny, 
of the two pairs of maxille of the Crustacea) situated immediately beneath and covering them, being of 
a crustaceous texture, flat, and divided at the outer surface, by longitudinal sections and notches, into 


* The rings of the body of insects have generally two spiracles. If | tively they are only to be considered as demisegments. Hence each 
he segments of a large Scolopendra are examined (one of those with | complete segment has two pair of feet, one pair being supernumerary, 
*wenty-one pairs of feet), it will be seen that they are alternately | each segment in the other insects having only a pair of feet. 
provided with, or deprived of, the two spiracles, and thus compara- 9 
iI 


484 INSECTA. 


four principal divisions, tubercled at its superior edge, the two middle divisions being narrower and 
shorter, and situated at the upper extremity of another piece, serving as a common base; the legs are 
very short, and always terminated by a single claw; four legs situated immediately beneath the pre- 
ceding piece of the form of the following, but placed nearer together at the base, with the basal joint 
proportionately longer, and the majority of the remainder attached, in double pairs, to each of the 
succeeding joints. The male organs are placed behind the seventh pair of legs, and those of the 
female behind the second pair. The spiracles are placed alternately above the base of the feet, and of 
a very small size. 

The Chilognatha crawl very slowly, or, as we may rather say, glide along, rolling themselves into a 
spire or ball. The first segment of the body, and in some also the 
second, is largest, and represents a corselet, or small shield. It is only 
at the fourth, fifth, or sixth segment in different species, that the dupli- 
cation of the legs commences ; the two or four first legs are entirely 
free to the base, or they do not adhere to their respective segments but 
by a middle or sternal line. The two or three terminal segments are 
riers ran Pee mide aioled, wit destitute of feet. We observe on each side of the body a series of pores, 

the antenna magnified. which had been regarded as spiracles, but which, according to M. Savi, 
are merely orifices for the discharge of an acid fluid of a disagreeable odour, which appears to serve 
for the defence of these animals; the respiratory apertures, discovered by him, are placed upon this 
sternal piece of each segment, and communicate interiorly with a double series of pneumatic pouches, 
disposed in a chain throughout the whole length of the body, whence extend trachean branches which 
are extended upon the other organs. According to M. Strauss, these vesicular trachez are not con- 
nected together by a principal trachea, as is customary. 

The form of individuals just hatched is like a kidney, perfectly smooth and without appendages ; 
eighteen days afterwards they undergo a first moult, when they assume the adult shape, but they have 
only twenty-two segments, and the total number of their legs is twenty-six pairs. M. Savi appears 
to contradict the assertion of De Geer, that the young have only three pairs of legs and eight rings 
in the young individuals; but is it certain that the moulting 
of which Savi speaks is really the first —or ought we not, 
on the contrary, to conclude that these young do not sud- 
denly pass from a state exhibiting no locomotive organs to 
one with so many as twenty-six pairs, or in other words, 
that there are intermediate changes, which have escaped : 
the notice of M. Savi? Do not the observations of the Fig. 43.—Transformations of Iulus, from De Geer. 
Swedish Reaumur confirm these intermediate changes? Be this as it may, the eighteen outer legs 
alone serve for locomotion. At the second moulting the animal exhibits thirty-six pairs, and at 
the third moult forty-three ; at this time the body consists of thirty segments. In the adult state the 
male has thirty-nine, and the female sixty-four ; two years afterwards they again moult, at which period 
the generative organs first appear. From their birth, which takes place in March, until November, 
when Savi ceased his observations, these changes of the skin took place nearly monthly. In the 
exuvie, even the membrane which lines the interior of the elementary canal and trachez is to be 
perceived, the organs of the mouth being the only parts which M. Savi could not discover. 
(Osservazioni per servire alla storia di una specie di Iulus communissima, Bologna, 1817 ; and another 
memoir upon Julus fetidissima, published in 1819, noticed in the Bulletin of Ferussac, December, 1823). 

These insects feed upon decaying animal and vegetable matter, and they deposit a great number of 
eggs under ground. According to Linnzus they form the single genus 


oh 


Rasy 
ES Sr. =S 
7 bpd FH 


Ivivus, Linn.,— 
which we divide as follows :— 
Some have the body crustaceous, without appendages at the tip, and the antenne thickened towards 
the extremity. 
(Fam. 1.—GLomeErRID&, Westw., or the Onisciformes of Latreille, in the Cours @’ Entomologie.} 
Glomeris, Latr., resembles Wood-lice, being of an oval form, and rolling themselves into a ball; the body 


convex above, concave beneath, with a row of small scales along each side of the body beneath, analogous to 
each of the lateral divisions of the Trilobites. They are only composed of twelve segments, exclusive of the 


MYRIAPODA. 485 


head. These animals are terrestrial, and uve under stones in hilly places. ulus ovalis, Linn. ; 
Glomeris marginata, Leach. 

(Fam. 2.—IuLIp&, Westw., or the Anguiformes of Latr., Cowrs.] 

Iulus proper, Linn., has the body cylindric and very long; they roll themselves up spirally, without 
any prominent edge or rim at the sides of the segments. ‘he larger species live on the ground, par- 
ticularly in sandy places and woods, and emit a disagreeable scent. The smaller ones feed upon fruits 
and the leaves and roots of esculent vegetables; others are found under the bark of trees, in moss, &c. 
I. maximus, Linn., a native of South America, reaches seven inches in length. Judus sabulosus, Linn. 
1 (fasciatus, De Geer), about sixteen lines long, blackish-brown, with two reddish lines down the back; 

Fig. 44 Glo. body with fifty-four segments, the penultimate pointed,—Europe; and other species described by Savi 
meris mar- and Leach (Zool. Misc.) 

pe Polydesmus, Latr., resembles Iulus in its linear form and habit of rolling itself in a coil, but the 
segments are compressed at the sides beneath, with a produced margin. Found under stones in damp places. 
I. complanatus, Fabr., and others. 

The species with distinct eyes form Leach’s genus’Craspedosoma, and appear to be proper to England, not having 
been noticed by any prior author. 

[Fam. 3.—POLLYXENID&, Westw., or the Penicillata of Latr., Cowrs.|— Pollyxenus, Latr.—Has the body mem- 
branous, very soft, and terminated by pencils of small scales. The antenne are of equal thickness throughout. 
Scol. lagura, Lin., very minute: it has twelve pairs of legs, placed on the same number of semisegments. Found 
in crevices of walls and under old bark. 

(Dr. Leach has given an excellent monograph of the British species of this family or order, in the third vo'ume 
of the Zoological Miscellany, illustrated by figures. M. Brandt has more recently given a distribution of the tribe, 
in the Bulletin Soc. Imper. Naturalistes de Moscou, tom yi., 1833, dividing them into three sections,—a, Penta- 
zonia (a, Glomeridea, genus Glomeris, 11 species; 6, Spherotheria, gen. Sphxrotherium, 5 species; and 
Spheropizus, 2 species); B, Trizonia, (a, Julidea, gen. Iulus,13 species; and Spirobolus, 2 species; &, Spiro- 
streptidea (gen. Spirostreptus, 2 species ; Spiropeus, 1 species; Spirocyclistus, 1 species); 3, Monozonia (gen. 
Strongylosoma, 1 species; Craspedosoma, 2 species ; Polydesmus, 6 species ; also, probably, Pollywenus, Latr., 
and Callipus, Risso). Gray, in Griffith’s translation of the Régne Animal; Perty, in the Delectus Animal. Articul. 
Brasilie, and Guérin, in the Iconographie of the Régne Animal, have added various other species or genera. 
Rafinesque also described numerous other genera, which have been entirely neglected by systematists. ] 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE MYRIAPODA,— 


CurLopopa, Latr. (or the genus Scolopendra, Lin.),— 


Which has the antennz more slender towards the extremity, of at least fourteen joints or more, a 
mouth composed of two mandibles furnished with a smail palpiform appendage, exhibiting, in the 
middle, the appearance of a soldered articulation, and terminated like a spoon, with toothed edges ; a 
quadrifid lip*, of which the two lateral divisions are the largest, annulated transversely, resembling the 
membranous feet of Caterpillars; two palpi, or small feet, united together at the base, and hooked at 
the tip; and a second lipt, formed by a second pair of Jegs, dilated and united at the base, and termi- 
nated by a strong hook, moveable, and pierced beneath the extremity with a canal for the discharge 
of a venomous liquid. 

The body is depressed and membranous ; each of its rings is covered with a coriaceous or eartila- 
ginous plate, and only bears, in general, a single pair of feet, the last of which is directed backwards, 
and prolonged like a tail. The organs of respiration are composed entirely, or in part, of tubular 
trachez. 

These animals run quickly ; they are carnivorous, shun the light, and hide themselves beneath stones, 
logs of wood, the bark of trees, in the earth, &c. The inhabitants of hot climates dread them greatly, 
the species inhabiting those regions being very large, and their poison much more powerful. 
Scolopendra morsitans is called, in the Antilles, the Malfaisante. Some of them exhibit a luminous 
property. : 

The spiracles are more like those of Insects than those of the preceding family, and are either 
lateral or dorsal. 

This family (in the arrangement of Dr. Leach composing the order Syngnatha) may, from the last- 
mentioned characters, and the nature of its respiratory and locomotive organs, be thus divided. Some 


* Analogous to the lower lip of the Chilognatha, and representing, in | may also represent the lower lip of masticating insects. From these 
my opinion, the tongue of the Crustacea, but able to perform also the | and numerous other relations furnished by the Entomostraca and 


office of maxillw. Saviguy names it the first auxiliary lip. Arachnida, I consider that the legs of the hexapod Insects are ana- 
+ Second auxiliary lip of Savigny. It is not articulated with the | logous to the six foot-jaws of the decapod Crustacea. 
head, out with the anterior extremity of the first semtsegment. It |  ¢ In this case they are only se:misegments. 


486 INSECTA. 


have only fifteen* pairs of feet; and their body, when seen from above, exhibits fewer segments than 
« 


when seen from beneath. 

Scutigera, Lamarck (Cermatia, Mliger), forming a genus very distinct from the rest of this family, has the body 
covered by eight shield-like plates, beneath each of which M. de Serres has observed two pneumatic sacs, or vesi- 
cular trachee, communicating with tubular, lateral, and inferior trachee. The under side of the body is divided 
into fifteen semi-segments, each bearing a pair of legs terminated bya very long, slender, and multiarticulated 
tarsus: the hind pairs are very long. The eyes are large and facetted. They form the passage from the preceding 
family to the present. They are very active, and often lose some of their legs when touched. The French 
species (Scolopendre a vingt-huit pattes, Geoft.,—S. coleoptrata, Panzer?) hides itself under the beams and joists 
of the wood-work of houses. S. longicornis, Fabr., and other species. 

Lithobius, Leach, has the spiracles lateral; the body di- 
vided, both above and below, into the same number of seg- 
ments, each of which bears a pair of legs; and the dorsal 
plates are alternately longer and shorter. Scolopendra forci- 
pata, Linn., and others described by Fabricius, Panzer, and 
Leach (Zool: Miscel. vol. iii.) 


The others have at least twenty-one pairs of feet, 
and the segments are of equal size and number, both 
above and beneath. 


Fig. 45.—a, Lithobius forcipatus ; 6, Geophilus longicornis. 


Scolopendra proper, Linn. Those species which have only twenty-one pairs of feet, after the two 
hooks forming the lower lip and the antennz, and have seventeen joints, form Leach’s genera Scolo- 
pendra and Cryptops. In the former, comprising the largest species, the eyes are distinct, eight in 
number, four on each side. In the latter, the eyes are wanting, or very slightly perceivable. The 
southern departments of France, and other countries of the south of Europe, produce a species (Scol. 
cingulata, Latr.) which is occasionally nearly as large as the common species of the Antilles, but 
haying the body flatter. Also, Scol. morsitans, Linn.; Scol. gigantea, Linn. ; and others described 
by De Geer, Leach, &c., but incompletely. 

Cryptops has the joints of the antenne more globose, subconic, and the two hind legs more slender. 
Two species, found near London—C. hortensis and Savignii, Leach. 

Geophilus, Leach, has more than forty-two legs, often much more numerous ; antennz 14-jointed, 
not so slender at the tip; body proportionately longer and narrower; eyes scarcely distinct. Some 
species are electrical (Scol. electrica, Linn.) ; and others, especially described by Leach in Zool. \ 
Miscell. vol. iii., Scol. phosphorea, Linn., fell from the clouds upon a vessel at the distance of one yg. 46.—Scolo- 
hundred miles from the main land. pendra, 


[Dr. Leach published a valuable memoir upon these animals, illustrated by figures, in the third 
volume of the Zoological Miscellany. M. Brullé, also, in the French national work upon the Morea, and 
Koch, in Schaffer’s continuation to Panzer, have published various detached species. Say described 
many American species; and M. Gervais has also published several memoirs on this tribe in the Magasin 
de Zoologie, the Annals of the French Entomological Society, and especially in the Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles for January, 1837, in which he has given a complete revision of the order, and has made 
some observations on the young state of some of these animals, and the changes they undergo. | 

{In the Bulletin of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, tom.i., No. 23, p. 182, Brandt has 
established another order amongst the Myriapodous Insects, dividing them into two orders:—1. Gnatho- 
gen, including all the previously known Myriapoda, with the two groups, Chilopoda and Chilognatha; 
and, 2. The Siphonozantia, which have the parts of the mouth produced into a proboscis. This new 
order is divided into two sections and three genera: namely, Polyzonium, Brandt; type, P. germani- 
cum, found in Germany; and Siphonatus and Siphonophora, founded upon Brazilian species. | 


THE SECOND ORDER OF INSECTS, — 
: THYSANOURA,— 


Comprises those apterous insects furnished with six legs, which do not undergo a metamor- 
phosis, and have, moreover, at the sides of the body, or its extremity, peculiar organs of 
locomotion. 


* Leach counts two more pairs, because he includes also the palpi, and hooked feet of the head, in the number. 


Sa a 
ee ee 


EE SORE IT IEE ED 
THYSANOURA. 487 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE THYSANOURA,— 


LEPISMEN2, Latr., 


Has the antennz like threads, and divided, from the base, into a great number of minute joints; palpi 
very distinct and exposed; the abdomen furnished on each side, beneath, with a row of moveable 
appendages, like false legs, and terminated by articulated sete, of which three are more remarkable ; 
and the body is clothed with minute, shining scales. It composes the single genus 


Lepisma, Linn.,— 


Which has the body elongated, and covered with small scales, silvery and shining, whence the most 
common species has been compared to a small fish. The antennz are setaceous, and often very long. 
The mouth is composed of a labrum, two nearly membranous mandibles, two maxille, with two divi- 
sions, having a 9 or 6-jointed palpus, and a labium with four divisions, bearing two 4-jointed palpi. 
The thorax is composed of three segments. The abdomen, which is gradually narrowed towards its 
posterior extremity, has, at the sides, a row of small appendages arising from a short joint, and termi- 
nated in setose points: the posterior are the longest. A kind of scaly style, compressed, and formed ef 
two pieces, arises from the anus; then follow three articulated seta, which extend beyond the body. 
The legs are short, with the cox often very large, and strongly compressed and scale-like. 

Many species hide themselves in the crevices of sashes which remain closed, or are but rarely opened, 
under damp boards, in wardrobes, &c. Others lie hidden under stones. 

Macnilis, Latr. (Petrobius, Leach), has the eyes very much facetted, 
nearly contiguous, and occupying nearly all the head; the body convex, 
arched above; the abdomen terminated by small threads fitted for leaping, 
the middle one placed above the other two, being much longer than 
them. They leap very well, and frequent stony places. The species 
are entirely European. Lepisma polypoda, Liun., &c.; Petrobius mari- 
timus, Leach. 

Lepisma, Linn. (Forbicina, Geoff.), has the eyes very small, wide apart, composed of a small number of grains ; 
the body flat, and terminated by three threads of equal length, inserted in the same line, and not fitted for leaping; 
the cox very large. The majority of the species are found in the interior of houses. Lep. saecharina, Linn., 
four lines long, of a leaden, silvery colour, without spots, said to be a native of America, and other species. 


Fig. 47.—Machilis polypoda. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE THYSANOURA,— 


PopuRELL#&, Latr.,— 


Have the antennz composed of four joints; the mouth not exhibiting distinct and exserted palpi, and 
of which the abdomen is terminated by a furcate tail, applied, in inaction, against the belly, and used 
in leaping. These, also, only form the single genus 

Popura, Linn. 

These insects are very small, soft, elongated, with the head oval, and two eyes, each formed of eight 
minute tubercles. The legs have only four distinct joints. The tail is soft, flexible, and composed of 
a basal piece, moveable at its insertion, and terminated by two branches forming the prongs of the fork, 
which are capable of opening and shutting. They can unfold their tail, striking it with force against 
the plane of position, and thus raising themselves into the air, and leaping like the Fleas, but to a more 
moderate height. 

Somé species are found upon trees and plants, or beneath bark or stones, and sometimes upon the 
snow itself, at the time of a thaw. Many species unite into numerous societies, upon the earth, in 
sandy paths, and resemble, at a distance, a small quantity of gunpowder. The propagation of some 
species appears to take place in the winter. 


Podura, Linn., has the antenne of equal thickness throughout, without minute #33 
joints at the tip; the body is linear or cylindrical, with the thorax distinctly articu- 
lated, and the abdomen narrow and oblong. Podura arborea, Linn.; P. aquatica, 
Linn., &c. 

Smynthurus, Latr., has the antenne slenderer at the tip, and terminated by an 
annulated joint; the thorax and abdomen form a globular or oval mass. Podura 
atra, Linn., &c. 


Fig, 48.—Podura villosa, 


488 INSECTA. 


[These insects have been greatly neglected by naturalists, but Dufour has described various species ; 
anda valuable memoir is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Entomological Society of 
London, upon the Irish species, by R. Templeton, Esq., R.A., comprising several new genera, and accom- 
panied by beautiful figures. Some of his species, however, appear to me to be established upon the 
immature states of these insects. M. Guérin has also very recently presented to the Académie des 
Sciences, a memoir, in which he announces the existence of branchiz in the Machilis polypoda, Latr. ; 
the breathing apparatus * consisting of minute plates placed under the abdominal segments, and by the 
side of those appendages which are compared to the false legs of the Crustacea. They are inclosed in 
little membranous bags, of a similar organization to those of the respiratory organs of a great number of 
the inferior Crustacea. M. Guérin has still more recently figured them in his /conographie. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


PARASITA, Latr., (ANopLURA, Leach),— 


(Or the Lice), thus named from its habits, have only six legs, and are apterous, like the Thysa- 
noura; but the abdomen is destitute of articulated and moveable appendages. Their organs 
of sight merely consist of four or two small ocelli. The mouth is, for the most part, internal, 
and exhibits, on the outside, either a snout or fleshy porrected tubercle, inclosing a retractile 
sucker, or two membranous lips, close together, with two hooked mandibles. They compose, 
according to Linnzus, the single genus 


Prpicuuus, Linn. 

The body is flattened, nearly transparent, divided into eleven or twelve distinct segments, of which 
three, forming the trunk, have a pair of legs attached to each. The first of these segments often forms 
a kind of corselet. The spiracles are very distinct. The antenne are short, of equal thickness through- 
out, composed of five joints, and often inserted in an excavation. Lach side of the head exhibits one 
or two minute ocelli. The legs are short, and terminated by a very strong nail, or by two opposing 
hooks, whereby these animals easily fasten themselves to the hairs of quadrupeds or feathers of birds, 
of which they suck the blood, and upon the body of which they pass their lives, and there multiply, 
attaching their eggs to those cutaneous appendages. Their generations are numerous, and succeed each 
other very rapidly. Particular causes, unknown to us, are very favourable to their production; and 
this is especially the case in respect to the common Body Louse, in the disease named phthiriasist, and 
also in infancy. They always live upon the same quadrupeds and birds, or at least upon the animals 
of those classes which have analogous characters and habits. One bird, however, often supports two 
kinds of Lice. They generally crawl very slowly. 


Some species form the tribe Pediculidea of Leach, including 
Pediculus, De Geer, which has, in the place of a mouth, a very 
small tubular tubercle, situated at the anterior extremity of the 
head, in the form of a snout, and inclosing, in inaction, a sucker. 
The tarsi are composed of a joint, in size nearly equal to the tibia, 
and terminated by a very strong hook, folding upon a prominent 
tooth at the extremity of the tibia, acting with it asa pincers. In 
those which I have examined, I have only seen two ocelli, one on 
each side. Man supports three kinds, their eggs being known under 
— the name of Nits. The Body Louse (P. humanus corporis, De Geer), 
~ white, without spots, which multiplies excessively in the disease 
called phthiriasis, and the Head Louse (P. humanus capitis, De Geer), 
; ashy colour, with darker spots, found only on the head of man, and 
Fig. feeiccaee maaan eae Dear oo f especially of children, form Leach’s genus Pediculus, having the 
thorax quite distinct fromthe abdomen. The Pediculus pubis, Linn., 
or Morpeon [Crabs, or €rab-lice], forms Dr. Leach’s genus Phthirus, having the thorax very short, nearly con- 


* [Latreille, in his elaborate memoir upon the organization of the | Burmeister, collect in great numbers upon the skin at particular parts 
Thysanoura, was unable to detect the ordinary spiracles for breathing.] | of the breast, neck, and back, where the epidermis peels off. Bur- 
+ [Alt, in his Dissertvtio de Phthiriasi, Bonn, 1820, attributes this | meister attributes their appearance to equivocal generation. 
disease to another species (P. tubescontium), which, according to 


"Tc acaba ala lsc acc cS 
nn 


SUCTORIA. 489 


founded with the abdomen, and the four hind legs very robust. (See Dr. Alibert’s fine work upon the maladies 
of the skin.) 

Other species, found upon different quadrupeds, have been figured by Redi, but in a coarse manner. That which 
lives upon the Pig has the thorax very narrow, with the abdomen very broad (Pediculus Suis, Linn., forming Leach’s 
genus Hematopinus). The Louse of the Buffalo, figured by De Geer (Ins. vol. vii. pl. 1, f. 12), is more singular. 
(Pediculus Cervi, Panzer, belongs to the dipterous genus Melophagus.) 


The other species (Nirmidea, Leach), such as Ricinus, De Geer, Nirmus, Herm. & Leach, have the 
mouth on the under side of the head, and composed, on the outside, of two lips, and of two hooks and 
mandibles, The tarsi are very distinct, articulated, and terminated by two equal nails. 

With the exception of a single species, that of the Dog, all the rest are found exclusively upon birds. 
The head is generally large, sometimes triangular, or in the others in the form of a semicircle or crescent, 
and has often angular projections. It differs sometimes in both sexes, as well as the antennee. I have 
perceived, in many species, two simple eyes close together, on each side of the head. 
According to observations communicated to me by M. Savigny, these insects have 
maxillz, with a very small palpus upon each, hidden by the lower lip, which has also 
similar organs. They have, also, a kind of tongue. 

M. Leclere de Laval has stated to me that he discovered, in their stomach, morsels 
of the feathers of birds, which he believes is their only food. De Geer asserts, never- 
theless, that he found the stomach of the Ricinus of the Chaffinch filled with blood, 
with which it had gorged itself. It is also known that these insects can subsist but a 
very short time upon dead birds. They are then observed crawling, with uneasiness, 
upon the feathers, particularly upon those of the head, and near the beak. Redi has figured a great 


number of species, [as has also Lyonnet, in his posthumous memoirs]. 

Some species have the mouth situated near the anterior extremity of the head; the antennz are inserted at the 
side, at a distance from the eyes, and are very small. Pediculis Sterne, Hirundinis, Linn., &c. 

In the other species, the mouth is nearly central; the antenne placed very near the eyes, and their length is 
nearly equal to that of half the head. Ricinus Galline, De Geer, &c. 

A celebrated German naturalist, Dr. Nitzsch, deeply studied the internal and external anatomy of these animals, 
of which he published a memoir in Germar’s Magazine. 'The true genus Pediculus, or the species provided with a 
suctorial mouth, is arranged by him with the Epizoical Hemiptera. The genus Ricinus, De Geer (Nirmus, Herm.), 
or the species provided with mandibles and maxilla, are referred to the order Orthoptera, and collectively named 
Mallophaga. Two genera of the latter are allied to the former, in being found upon various Mammalia. They are 
Trichodectes, having the maxillary palpi obsolete, and living upon the Dog, Badger, &c.; and Gyropus, having 
distinct maxillary palpi, and living upon the Guinea-pig. The last-named genus has the mandibles entire, and the 
labial palpi obsolete, thus differing from Liothewm, which has the mandibles bidentate, the labial palpi distinct, 
and the tarsi terminated by two nails. The species are found on various birds, as are also those of the last genus, 
Philopterus, which have 5-jointed antenne, the third often branched in the males, and the maxillary palpi are in- 
distinct. We have not space to enumerate the subgenera into which Nitzsch has divided these genera, in all of 
which the pro- and mesothorax compose the trunk, the metathorax being soldered to the abdomen. The subgenus 
Goniodes is restricted to the gallinaceous birds. We have described a species of Philopterus in detail, in the col- 
lection of memoirs at the end of our History of Ants. 

M.L. Dufour has formed a new genus (Triongulinus) for the Pediculus Melitte of Kirby, previously observed by 
De Geer, who regarded it as the larva of Meloe proscarabeus. If it be not the larva of this insect, as Kirby sup- 
posed, doubtless it would form a distinct subgenus in the order Parasita; but Messrs. Serville and Saint Fargeau 
have confirmed De Geer’s statement, [as it has also been by numerous recent English observers, as Doubleday, 
Newport, Newman, Jenyns, &c.] 

{In addition to the species figured by Redi, De Geer, and Lyonnet, and those indicated (from the species of ani- 
mals attacked), but not specifically described, by Nitzsch, various species have been described by L. Dufour in the 
Annales de la Société Entomologique de France; and by J. G. Children, Esq., in the Appendix to Captain Back’s 
Voyage to the North Pole. Mr. Denny has also announced an illustrated monograph of the order.] 


Fig. 50.—Ricinus 
Pavonis. 


THE FOURTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 
SUCTORIA, De Geer, (SIPHONAPTERA, Latr., [APTERA, M‘Leay; APHANIPTERA, Kirby]),— 
Terminates the Apterous Insects, and has the mouth formed of a sucker of three* pieces, in- 


closed between the articulated plates, forming together a rostrum or beak, either cylindrical 


« Resel only represents two, but Kirby and Strauss have observed one more, According to the latter, the scales covering the base of the 
beak are the palpi. 
| 
LLL SSS 


490 INSECTA. 


or conical, the base of which is covered by two scales. These characters exclusively distin- 
guish it from all other insects, including the Hemiptera, with which it was ranged by Fabricius. 
The Suctoria, moreover, undergo real metamorphoses, analogous to those of many two-winged 


insects, as the Tipulide. 
This order is composed of the single genus of Fleas,— 


Putex, Linn. 

The body is oval, compressed, inclosed in a tough skin, and divided into twelve segments, of which 
three compose the trunk, which is short, and the others the abdomen. The head is small, very com- 
pressed, rounded above, truncate, and ciliated in front. It has, on each side, a small, round eye, be- 
hind which is a cavity, in which is placed a small, moveable body, furnished with minute spines. At 
the anterior edge, near the base of the beak, are situated the pieces which have been considered as the 
antenn, which are scarcely so long as the head, and are composed of four nearly cylindrical joints. 
The sheath of the beak is composed of three joints. The abdomen is very large, and each of its seg- 
ments is divided in two, being formed of two plates, one superior and the other inferior. The legs are 
robust, particularly the posterior, fitted for leaping, spinose, with the coxe and thighs very large, and 
the tarsi composed of five joints, the last terminated by two long nails. The two fore-legs are inserted 
almost beneath the head, and the beak is placed between them. 

The female lays about a dozen white, slightly viscid eggs, whence emerge small larve, destitute of 
legs, very much elongated, resembling minute worms, very active, coiling themselves up in a circle or 
spire, serpenting in their progress, at first white and afterwards reddish. Their body is composed of a 
scaly head, without eyes, bearing two very minute antenne and thirteen segments, with small tufts of 
hairs and a pair of little hooks at the tip of the last. The mouth exhibits a few small, moveable parts, 
of which the larve make use in pushing themselves forwards. After living about twelve days under 
this form, these larva inclose themselves in a small silken cocoon, where they become pupe, and from 


whence they make their escape in the perfect state, at the expiration of a similar period. 

Every one knows the common Flea (Pulex irritans, Linn.), which 
feeds on the blood of Man, the Dog, and Cat. Its larva lives amongst 
dirt, and beneath the nails of filthy persons; also in the nests of birds, 
such as Pigeons, attaching itself to the necks of the young, and gorging 
itself till it becomes red. Well figured by Dumeril (Consid. Générales 
sur la Classe des Insectes.)\—Pulex penetrans, Linn., probably forms a 
peculiar genus. Its beak is of the length of the body. It is known in 
America under the name of the Chigoe [or Jigger]. It introduces itself 
beneath the nails of the feet and the skin of the heel, where it soon ac- 
quires the size of a small pea, by the quick growth of the eggs, which 
it bears in a large membranous bag beneath the abdomen, the nume- 
rous family from which occasions, by remaining in the wound, an 

ulcer, very difficult to heal, which even sometimes becomes mortal. Frequent washings, and rubbing the feet 

with fresh tobacco leaves, or those of other bitter plants, are preventives against its attacks. The negroes [or 
more commonly the negresses] are in the habit of extracting the insect, with great skillfrom its lodgement. 
Various quadrupeds and birds nourish Fleas, which appear to differ specifically from the two preceding. 

[The structure of the head and mouth of these insects has been investigated by recent entomo- 
logists, especially by Curtis, Duges, and myself. The moveable organs noticed above, implanted in a 
cavity at the back of the sides of the head, are proved to be antenne, varying considerably in form in 
various species. Their variations have led to the proposal of another genus for certain species, by 
Mr. Curtis. The two flat pieces noticed by Reesel, are the lancet-like mandibles ; the two conical scales 
at the base of the mouth are the maxillz, the long antenna-like organs in front of the head being the 
maxillary palpi; the third piece, noticed above as described by Kirby, is the slender setiform tongue, 
and the two articulated plates above described are the labial palpi, arising from a common labium. 
Thus the mouth is seen to consist of all the essential parts, except an upper lip, which is obsolete in 
many other tribes. M. Duges has also detected two scales on each side of the meso- and metathorax, 
which he considers as the real analogues of the two pairs of wings. 

Various species of Fleas have been described by Curtis, Duges, &c. The Chigoe has also been in- 
vestigated by Duges, Guérin, and myself, from whence it appears that the large mass of eggs causes 

“the abdomen to become immensely swollen. The mouth is of the ordinary type, but the lower lip is 
destitute of labial palpi, whence I have proposed for it the generic name of Sarcopsyllus, or Flesh-flea. ] 


Fig. 51.—The Flea (Pulew irritans). 


COLEOPTERA. 491 


THE FIFTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


COLEOPTERA, Linn, (ELEUTHERATA, Fabr.),— 


Have four wings, of which the upper pair is crustaceous, in the form of scales, horizontal, 
and meeting [when at rest] along the imner edge by a straight line. They have, likewise, 
mandibles and maxilla, and the lower wings are folded only transversely, and covered by the 
other two, which form a kind of case, and which are generally known under the name of elytra. 

These insects [generally known under the English name of Beetles] are the most numerous 
and the best known of the insect tribes. Their singular forms, the brilliant colours exhibited 
by many of their species, the size of their bodies, the more solid texture of their teguments, 
which renders their preservation much more easy, and the numerous advantages to be derived 
from the investigation of such a variety of forms of their external organs, have merited for 
them the particular attention of naturalists. 

The head is provided with two antennz of variable form, and of which the number of joints 
is generally eleven ; two facetted eyes; no ocelli; and a mouth composed of an upper lip, two 
mandibles, mostly of a scaly consistence, two lower jaws (maxillz), each bearing one or two 
palpi, and a lower lip formed of two pieces, namely, the mentum and the tonguelet (/anguette), 
and accompanied by two palpi, generally inserted upon this latter piece; those of the 
maxille, or the outer maxillary palpi (when they bear two), have never more than four joints, 
whilst those of the lower lip have, ordinarily, only three joints. 

The anterior segment of the trunk, or that which is in front of the wings or elytra, and 
which is commonly named the corselet [prothorax], and which bears the first pair of feet, 
and greatly surpasses in extent the two other segments, which are compactly united together, 
as well as to the base of the abdomen: their under part, or the sternum or breast, serves 
asa point of attachment to the two other pairs of feet.* The second of these segments [or 
the mesothorax], upon which is placed the scutellum, is narrower in front, so as to form a 
short peduncle, which is received into the inner cavity of the first segment [or prothorax], 
and which serves as a pivot to assist in all its movements. 

The elytra and wings arise upon the lateral and superior margins of the hinder division of 
the thorax, [or the meso- and metanotum]. The elytra are crustaceous, and in repose are 
applied one against the other in a straight line along the inner margin, or suture, and are 
always in a horizontal position. In almost every instance they hide the wings, which are 
large, and folded transversely. Many species are wingless; but the elytra are always present. 
The abdomen is sessile, or united to the thorax by its greatest width : it is composed on the 
outside of six or seven segments; membranous above, or of a consistence less firm than on 
the under side. The number of joints on the tarsi varies from three to five. 

Beetles undergo a complete metamorphosis. The larva resembles a worm, with a scaly head 
and mouth, analogous in the number and functions of its parts to that of the perfect msect, 
and also with six legs: some species, however, few in number, are destitute of these appen- 
dages, or have only simple fleshy tubercles. 

The pupa is inactive, and does not take any nourishment. The habitation, mode of life, 
and other habits of these insects, both in their immature and perfect states, vary very much. 

I have divided this order into four sections, after the number of joints of the tarsi. t 


* The mesothorax is always narrow and short, and the metathorax, , tarsi), and the Staphylinide, which have 5-jointed tarsi. Some 
often of larger size, is longitudinally impressed down the centre. species are also anomalous in the number of the joints of their tarsi 

+ Judging from analogy, the Coleoptera described as monomerous | varying in the sexes. Another objection has been raised to the tarsal 
have probably three joints to the tarsi, but of which the two basal | system, on the ground, that the so-called Tetramera have, in effeet, 
joints escape the view: this section, as well as the Dimera, have been | 5-jointed, instead of 4-jointed tarsi; and the Trimera, 4-jointed, and 
suppressed in this edition. not 3-jointed tarsi, as those names indicate. But these objeetions 

t [The distribution of the Coleoptera, founded upon the number of | appear to me insufficient ; due allowances must be made for certain ex- 
joints in the tarsi, has been objected to by some authors, as it has the 
effect, if rigidly adhered to, of separating certain groups nearly related 
together: as, for instance, the Pselaphidw (which have only 3-jointed 


ceptions against every rule ; and the peculiar structure of the tetrame 
rous or trimerous tarsi,equally merits their retention as distinet groups. 
Mr. M‘Leay has proposed a classification of the Beetles, founded upon 


1 a nn ee 


492 


and which consist of six families, of which the first two are distinguished by the possession of 
a double excrementitial apparatus.* 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA — 
Carnivora, Cuv. (Adephaga, Clair.),—t 


Which has two palpi to each maxilla, or six in the whole. The antenne are almost always thread- 
like or setaceous, and simple. The maxillz are terminated by a scaly piece or slender hook ; and the 
inner edge is furnished with hairs or small spines. The tonguelet is received in a notch of the 
mentum. ‘The two fore-legs are inserted upon the sides of a compressed sternum, by means of a 
large rotule; the posterior pair have a strong trochanter at the base ; their basal joint is large, and 
appears to be soldered with the post-sternum, in the form of a curvilinear triangle, with the outer 
edge excavated. ° 

These insects hunt after and devour other insects; many have no wings under the elytra. 
anterior tarsi in many of the males are dilated. 

Their larve are also very carnivorous. They have, in general, the body cylindric, elongated, and 
composed of twelve joints; the head (not counted in this number) is large, scaly, armed with two 
strong mandibles bent upwards at the point, with two short conical antennz, two maxillz, divided into 
two branches, of which one is formed by the palpus; a tonguelet, bearing two short palpi; and six 
small smooth eyes on each side. The first segment is covered by a scaly plate: the others are softer. 
Each of the anterior segments bears a pair of feet, of which the extremity is curved in front. These 
larve differ according to the genera. Those of the Cicindele, and dristus bucephalus, have the upper 
side of the head deeply impressed in the middle, with its under side very globose. They have on each 
side two of the small smooth eyes much larger than the rest. The upper plate of the fore segment is 
large, and like a semicircular shield. The eighth segment has upon the back two hooked tubercles. 
The last segment has no particular appendages. 

In the other larve of this family with which we are acquainted, with the exception of Omophron, 
the head is not so strong and regular on its upper side. The ocelli are very small, and all alike. 
The scaly back of the first segment is square, and does not extend beyond the side of the body. The 
eighth segment is destitute of tubercles, and the last is terminated by two conical appendages, as well 
as a membranous tube, formed of the elongation of the anal apparatus. These conical appendages are 
corneous and toothed in the larve of Calosoma and Carabus: they are fleshy, articulated, and longer in 
the Harpali and Licini. The form of the mandibles approaches that of the perfect Beetles. The larvae 
of Omophron limbatus, according to Desmarest, is of a conical form, with a large head, and two very 
strong mandibles, and with only two eyes: the extremity of its body, which is gradually narrowed, is 
I have only counted two in those of the larve of the 


The 


terminated by an appendage of four joints. 
Licini and Harpali. 

These insects are either terrestrial or aquatic. 

The terrestrial Carnivora have the legs fit only for running; the four posterior are inserted at 
equal distances apart : the mandibles are entirely exposed; the terminal piece of the maxille straight 
beneath, and bent only at the tip; the body generally oblong, with the eyes prominent. All the 
trachez are tubular or elastic. The intestine is furnished with two small sacs, which secrete an acrid 
humour. M. L. Dufour has presented (in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. viii. p. 36,) a 
resumé of the anatomical characters of these insects, [from which it appears that the digestive tube is 
not more than twice the length of the body; the gizzard is armed interiorly with moveable corneous 


catory orgaus of the Adephaga, and especially upon the circumstance 
of their possessing two pairs of palpi to each of the maxilla. Mr. 


the forms of their larve ; he has, however, only given a slight sketch, 
which recent discoveries do not seem tu support. Mr, Kirby has 


also proposed another arrangement in the Fauna Borealis Americana, 
founded exclusively upon the general structure of the perfect insect. ] 

* Linneus, Fabricius, and their followers commence the arrange- 
ment of the Beetles with the genus Scarabeus: which comprises 
some of the most bulky of the insect tribes, as, for instance, the Rhi- 
noceros, Elephant, and Goliath Beetles. The arrangement of Latreille 
is founded upon the supposed superior developement of the masti- 


A“ ——————————E—————E—E— 


Hope, in the preface to the second part of his Coleopterist’s Manual, 
has supported the Linnwan arrangement with various arguments. } 

+ This family, one of the most extensive of the insect tribes, has 
been illustrated by Weber, Clairville, Bonelli, and especially by Dejean 
in his Species Genera?, [now completed by himself, as regards the land 
Carnivora, and continued by Dr. Aubé, as regards the aquatic species}. 


INSECTA. 
The first section comprises the Pentamera, or those which have five joimts in all the tarsi, 


Di ee 


COLEOPTERA. 493 


pieces, fitted for trituration ; and that the existence of a complicated apparatus: for an excrementitial 
secretion, possessing ammoniacal qualities, is one of the most striking features of the Carabi.] 

They are divided into two tribes. 

The first, that of the Cicindelete, Latr., comprises the genus 


CictnDELA, Linn.,— 


Which have the tip of the maxillz furnished with a corneous, slender hook, articulated at its base with 
these under jaws. The head is robust, with great eyes, jaws very advanced and toothed, and a very 
short tonguelet hidden behind the mentum. The labial palpi are distinctly composed of four joints ; 
they are commonly hirsute, as well as the maxillary palpi. The majority of the species are 


exotic. 

Some species have a tooth in the middle of the notch of the mentum, with the labial palpi wide apart at the 
base. 

Manticora, Fab., has the tarsi alike in both sexes, with cylindrical joints. Manticora mavillosa, Fab. [and M. la- 
tipennis, Waterh.] from Caffraria. M. pallida, Fab., forming M’Leay’s genus Platychile, [figured in Klug’s 
Jahrbucher]. 

Those species which have the three basal joints of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males, with the body oblong 
or oval, and the thorax nearly square, compose the genera Megacephala, Latr., (with a transverse short upper lip) ; 
Oxycheila, Dej. (with a large triangular upper lip); Euprosopus, Latr., and Cicindela proper, which has the labial 
palpi not longer than the maxillary, the third joint of the former not manifestly thicker than the following joint, 
and the three dilated basal joints of the anterior male tarsi elongated. 

The body of the last-named insects is generally of a darker or lighter green colour, varied with shining metallic 
tints, and with white spots upon the elytra; they frequent dry situations exposed to the sun, run yery quickly, 
fly off when they are approached, and alight at a short distance; if again disturbed, they have recourse to the 
same means of defence. 

The larve of two indigenous species, the only ones yet observed, burrow in the earth, forming a cylindrical hole 
of considerable depth, using their jaws and feet in its construction, and loading the concave back of their heads 
with the grains of earth which they have detached, with which they ascend backwards, resting at intervals, 
fixing themselves to the inner walls of their burrow by the assistance of the two hooked tubercles upon the back ; 
when arrived at the orifice, they jerk off their load to a distance. Whilst lying in ambush the flat plate of the head 
exactly stops the mouth of the hole, forming a flat surface with the surrounding soil. They seize their prey with 
their jaws, and even rush upon it, precipitating it to the bottor: of their burrows, with a see-saw motion of the 
head. They likewise descend them with equal quickness at the least danger. If they find them too narrow, or the 
nature of the earth is not favourable to them, they make a new burrow. Their 
voracity is even extended to other larvz, even of their own kind, stationed in the 
" same situations. They close the orifice of their burrow when they change their 
skin, or undergo their change to the pupa state. These observations have in part 
been communicated to me by M. Miger, who has greatly studied the larve of 
Coleoptera. 

Cicindela campestris, Lin., is half an inch long, of an obscure green above, with 
the upper lip white, and with a slight tooth in the middle ; each of the elytra with 
five small white dots. Very common throughout Europe, especially in the spring. 

Cicindela germanica, Lin. [the smallest British species], and some others, are 
of a narrower form; they fly less than the foregoing. All these species are winged, 
but other exotic species are apterous, forming Dejean’s genus Dromica. 

Clenostoma, Klug, has the body long and narrow, the thorax long and knotted, 

Fig. 52.—Cicindela campestris, and and the third joint of the male tarsi is produced on the inside into a plate. The 

oe species are from tropical America. 

Therates, Latr. (Eurychile, Bonelli); Colliuris, Latr. (Collyris, Fab.) ; and Tricondyla, Latr., are three genera 
which have no tooth in the middle of the notch of the mentum, and the labial palpi are contiguous at the base. 
Therates has the form of Cicindela proper, but in the two others the body is long and narrow, and the thorax knotted. 
All the species of these three groups are peculiar to the East Indies and the islands of the adjacent Archipelago. 


[The investigation of the family Cicindelide*, corresponding with the Linnean genus Cicindela, or 
Cicindelete of Latreille, has been greatly pursued by modern continental authors, who have described 
a great many new species, chiefly exotic, and have added several new genera. Dejean’s Spécies Général, 
Vander Linden’s Memoir on the Insects of Java, Laporte de Castelnan, in various memoirs, Gory, Say, 
Klug, Guérin, Gist], &c., have particularly studied this family ; and in our own country M‘Leay, Kirby, 
and Hope, in the 2nd part of The Coleopterist’s Manual, have described many new species. ] 

* [English authors have generally adupted the plan first proposed | treille, and for which they retain the old Linnean generic name, but 


by Mr. Kirby, in his “ Century,” of forming the Linnean genera into | with an uniform termination ide.] 
natural families, corresponding with the ‘‘ familles naturelles” of La- 


494 INSECTA. 


The second tribe, that of the Carabici, Latr., comprises the genus 


Carasus, Linn.,— 


Which has the maxille terminated simply in a point or hook, not articulated at its base. The head is 
generally narrower, or at least not broader, than the thorax ; the mandibles, except in a few instances, 
are destitute of or with very slight teeth; the tonguelet is generally exposed, and the labial palpi are 
only distinctly three-jointed, (the basal joint, which in Cicindela is detached, forming a fourth 
joint, being here entirely fixed, and forming a support to the palpus, and is accordingly not reckoned 
as a separate joint). Many species are destitute of wings, and have only elytra. They often emit 
a fetid odour, and discharge from the anus an acrid and caustic liquid. 

Geoffroy considered that the ancients designated these insects under the name of Buprestis, and 
which they regarded as a dangerous poison, especially to oxen. (See the genus Meloe). 

The Carabici conceal themselves in the earth, under stones, the bark of trees, &c., and are for the 
most part very active. Their larvee have the same habits. This tribe is very numerous, and of diffi- 
cult investigation. 

We form a first general division with those in which the exterior [maxillary] palpi are not terminated 
by a minute conical joint, the last joint forming, with the preceding joint, an oval or conoid mass, 
with a sharp point at its tip. 

Some of these have a deep notch on the inner edge of the anterior tibic, separating the two acute 
spurs, which are ordinarily placed at the apex of the limb. These constitute several [five] sections.* 

1. The TRUNCATIPENNES, thus named from their elytra being almost invariably truncate at the 
posterior extremity. The head and thorax are narrower than the abdomen. Some have the ungues 
of the tarsi simple, or without teeth beneath. Of these the three following are destitute of wings. 


Anthia, Weber, Fab., with the tonguelet horny, oval, and nearly as long as the palpi; the abdomen is oval, often 
convex, and the elytra are nearly entire, or scarcely truncate. These, as well as those of the next subgenus, have 
the body black, and with spots of white down. They inhabit the deserts and other sandy places of Asia and 
Africa. From an observation of De Latour, they eject from the anus, when disturbed, a caustic hquid. The 
species are generally of large size, and in the males of some the thorax is dilated more or less behind, and termi- 
nated by two lobes. 

Graphipterus, Latr. long confounded with the preceding, but differing in the tonguelet, entirely membranous 
except in the centre ; the abdomen is always flattened and orbicular. The species of this subgenus are exclusively 
African, and are much smaller than the preceding. 

Aptinus, Bonelli, has the last joint of the exterior palpi, and especially of the labial palpi, evidently dilated, and 
a tooth in the middle of the mentum. But that which more particularly distinguishes them, and also the Brachini, 
is, that their abdomen, which is oval and thickened, contains organs which secrete a caustic fluid, escaping with an 
explosion from the anus, and instantly evaporating, with a penetrating scent. This fluid, when the animal is held 
between the fingers, produces upon the skin a spot similar to that made by nitric acid, and even, if the species be 
large, a painful burn. Dufour first made us acquainted with the organs by which it was secreted (in Annal. du 
Mus. @ Hist. Nat., tom. xvii.). These insects are often found assembled in societies, especially in the spring, 
under stones. They make use of this defence to alarm their enemies, and they are able to repeat the explosion a 
considerable number of times. The larger species are found in the tropics and other hot countries, as far as the 
limits of the temperate zone. A. Balista, Dej. (Brachinus displosor, Dufour), inhabits Navarre and various parts 
of Spain and Portugal. 

Brachinus, Weber, Fabr., differs only from Aptinus in being provided with wings, and the middle of the emar- 
gination of the mentum not toothed. Brachinus crepitans, Fabr., is found common in the environs 
of Paris [as well as in various parts of England]. It is generally four lines long, fulyous-orange, 
with the elytra dark blue or greenish blue, and the antenne fulvous, the third and fourth joints 
being black. The breast, with the exception of the middle of the abdomen, is also fulvous. Other 
species are named, from their explosive powers, B. bombarda, B.exhatans, B.causticus, B. sclopeta,&c. 

(Catascopus, Kirby, appears to us to belong to the section Simplicimani, from a recent investi- 
nA acne gation, rather than to this section.) 

é Corsyra, Stev., is placed by Dejean between Brachinus and Catascopus. The claws are simple; 
body flat, short, broad ; palpi filiform. 

The other Carabici of the same division have the ungues also simple, but the head is narrowed behind the eyes 
into a neck. In some the tarsi are nearly identical in the two sexes, subcylindrical or linear, the penultimate 
joint being alone deeply bilobed. 


* [Mr. M‘Leay and seyeral more recent writers have cut up the ! of the primary group Carabiques, which is itself regarded, as a whole, 
Linnzan genus Carabus, or the family Carabidae, into several divisions, | of equal rank with the Cicindeletw, correspund with those of Linnaeus 
each of which they have regarded as equivalent in value to the family | and Kirby.] 

Cicindclide. The views of Latreille, in regarding them as divisions 


COLEOPTERA. 495 


Casnonia, Latr. (having the thorax long and conical), Leptotrachelus, Latr., and Odacantha, Payk. (with the 
thorax nearly cylindrical, the elytra truncate, and the tarsal joints entire), are distinguished by haying the outer 
maxillary palpi filiform, or scarcely thickened at the tip. Od. melanura, Fabr., Clairville, is three lines long, of a 
bluish green colour, with the elytra, except at the tip, of a reddish yellow; the tip of the elytra is bluish black. 
This species frequents aquatic places, and is commonly found in the departments of the north of France, Germany, 
and Sweden. [It is plentiful in similar situations in the fens of Lincolnshire, Whittlesea Mere, &c., and is found 
in quantities in the sedge boats which go to Cambridge. ] 

Those which have the outer maxillary palpi terminated by an enlarged triangular or obconical joint, and which 
have the body flattened and the tarsal joints entire, compose the three following subgenera, namely, Zuphium, 
Latr., Polistichus, Bonelli (consisting of a single British species, P. fasciolatus), and Helluo, Bon. [the last of 
which consists of numerous exotic species, the type being H. costatus of New South Wales]; whilst those which 
differ from the last in having the penultimate joint of the tarsi deeply bilobed, the jaws long and porrected, and the 
body thick, form the genus Drypta, Latr., Fabr., the type of which is the D. emarginata, Fabr., four lines long, of 
a fine blue colour, with the mouth, antenne, and legs fulvous. It is more common on the south than the north 
of France. M. Blondel, however, found it abundantly near Versailles. [It is very rare in England, and has been 
found on the southern coast. ] 

Trichognatha, Latr., Galerita, Fabr., and Cordistes, Latr., are exotic genera [chiefly American], differing from 
the preceding in having the four basal joints of the anterior tarsi of the males greatly dilated, the fourth being 
constantly bilobed in both sexes. 

The remaining Truncatipennes have the ungues of the tarsi finely toothed beneath, like a comb. 

Ctenodactyla, Dej., and Agra, Fabr., have the head oval, and separated from the thorax by an abrupt neck; the 
fourth tarsal joint is always bilobed. The latter genus has the body very long and narrow, with the thorax of an 
elongated conical form, narrowed in front. The species are numerous, and inhabitants of South America. 

The four following subgenera have the head not separated from the thorax by a distinct narrow knot or rotule ; 
the body is flattened and elongated, and the thorax is longer than broad, heart-shaped, posteriorly truncated. 

Cymindes, Latr. (Tarus, Clairv.), with the outer maxillary palpi filiform, the last joint cylindrical, but being in 
the labial palpi very large and hatchet-shaped, at least in the males, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire and 
nearly cylindrical. [The type is the Carabus humeralis, Fabr., a rare British insect ; there are also several other 
British species.] 

Calleida, Dej., having the fourth joint of the tarsi bifid. Peculiar to America. 

Demetrias, Bon. Similar to the last in the tarsi, but with the palpi filiform, and the last joint nearly ovoid or 
subcylindrical. This and the following subgenera consist of very small species [many of which are British], and 
which for the most part frequent aquatic, moist, or shady places, and are nearly all natives of Europe. 

Dromius, Bon. Generally apterous, with the tarsal joints entire, but in other respects agreeing with Demetrias. 

In the rest the thorax is broader than long, broadly truncate behind. 

Of these, Ledia, Latr. (and Lamprias, Bon.), have the middle of the posterior edge of the thorax prolonged into 
a transverse lobe; the four basal joints of the tarsi are nearly triangular, and the fourth is more or less bifid or 
bilobed. These insects are agreeably diversified in their colours, [being in fact some of the most elegant of the 
whole family. The type of Lebia is the Carabus crux minor, Lin., of a fulvous colour, with a black head, and an 
irregular-shaped black cross on the back of the elytra. It is very rare in England.] The type of Lamprias, the 
Carabus cyanocephalus, Lin., is about three lines long’, of a shining blue or green colour above, with the basal joint 
of the antenne, the thorax, and feet, reddish yellow, and the tips of the thighs black. It is a rather common 
species throughout Europe. Others have the thorax terminated in a straight line, without an advanced lobe, 
namely, Plochionus, Dej., Orthogonius, Dej., and Coptodera, Dej., all consisting of exotic species; near the last 
of which ought probably to be arranged the subgenus Hexagonia, Kirby. 


[‘‘ The subfamily Truncatipennes [or the Brachinide of M‘Leay] as at present constituted, is, per- 
haps, the most incongruous of all the subfamilies of the Carabidz, the term Truncatipennes, applied to 
it by Latreille, by no means indicating a constant character, as many of the species have the elytra 
rounded at the tips. The tarsi are indeed generally alike in both sexes, or, if dilated in the males, 
the dilatation is of a different character from that of the other subfamilies. It may indeed be rather 
regarded as a convenient receptacle for such groups as have not the bipartite and palmated structure 
of the Scaritides, the simple tibie of the Carabides, the dilated male tarsi of the Harpalides and its 
subdivisions, or the minute conical terminal joint of the maxillary palpi of the Bembidiides.” (Jntrod. 
to Mod. Class. of Insects, vol. i. p. 75.) The family has been greatly studied, and a vast number of 
new species described, together with many new genera; but these have been established upon slight 
structural characters, and as they are for the most part exotic, | have not thought it advisable to 
detail them. ] 

2. The second section, that of the Breartiri, or the ScaritipEs, Dej., and which may from their 
habits be also called Fossores or Burrowers, is formed of Carabici with the elytra entire or slightly 
sinuated at the posterior extremity, the antenne often necklace-like and elbowed [at the extremity 
of the long basal joint], the head broad, the thorax large, ordinarily in the shape of a cup, or nearly 


496 INSECTA. 


semiorbicular, separated from the abdomen by an interval, which makes it appear pedunculated ; the 
legs are generally but slightly elongated, with the tarsi often short, alike or scarcely different in the 
two sexes, without a cushion on the under-side, and merely furnished with the ordinary hairs or ciliz ; 
the two anterior tibis are toothed on the outside, as though palmated, or furnished with fingers, in 
many species, and the mandibles are often strong and toothed; the notch of the mentum is armed 
with a tooth. They are all found on the ground, hiding themselves either in burrows which they have 
dug, or under stones, and often quitting their retreats only during the night ; their colour is generally of 
an uniform black. The larva of Ditomus bucephalus, the only one yet observed, has the form and 
mode of life of the Cicindele. They are particularly natives of hot climates. 


The three following subgenera have the labial palpi terminated by a large hatchet-shaped joint. 

Enceladus, Bon., has the anterior tibia without any internal notch, and not palmated externally. ‘The thorax 
is heart-shaped, broadly truncated. Type, E. gigas, Bon., from the coast of Angola. 

Siagona, Lat. (Cucujus and Galerita, Fabr.), has the fore tibiz# not palmated, but the notch on the inside is 
distinct ; the basal joint of the antenne is elongated. Some species have the abdomen oval, and are apterous 
(S. rufipes, &c.). Tn others, it is oval, truncated at the base, and these species are winged. They inhabit northern 
Africa or the East Indies. 

Carenum, Bon., has the antenne moniliform, the anterior tibie toothed on the outside, thus resembling 
Scarites ; the maxille are straight, without any terminal tooth. Type, Scar. cyaneus, Fabr., from New Holland. 

All the remaining Scaritides have the labial palpi terminated by an elongated, nearly cylindrical joint, narrowed 
at the base; the last joint of the maxillary palpi is also subcylindrical. 

A first very natural subdivision comprises the Scarites of Fabricius (except the last-mentioned species), which 
have the two fore-legs palmated or fingered at the tip, that is, terminated exteriorly in along point or spine, 
opposed to a very strong innerspur. The antenne are moniliform, with the second joint as long and often longer 
than the following. The mandibles are robust, advanced, and toothed on the inside. 

Some of these have the mandibles very strong, protruded, and toothed, the upper lip crustaceous, and very much 
toothed on the fore margin; the fore tibie are always palmated, and the species are generally of large size. 

Pasimachus, Bon., approaches the last in respect to the maxille, which are straight, and without any terminal 
hook; the body is very flat, thorax heart-shaped, broadly truncate behind. This subgenus is confined to 
America. 

Scapterus, Dej., is placed by its author next the preceding, but the form of the body is long and cylin- 
drical. I do not, however, know if the maxille are similar. It is founded upon a species from the East 
Indies, named Scapterus Guerini. 

The following have the maxilla arched and hooked at the tip; the thorax is always separated behind from the 
base of the elytra by a decided space. 

The three following subgenera are distinguished by the external palpi being terminated by a nearly cylindrical 
joint, not narrowed at tip. 

Acanthoscelis, Latr. (distinguished by the four posterior curved and flattened tibiz, covered with minute points ; 
Type, Scarites ruficornis, Fabr.; an inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope. 

Scarites, Fabr. (having the four hind tibie straight and naked, the mandibles ot a triangular form, strongly 
toothed at the base). Type, Scarites Pyracmon, Bon. (Sc. gigas, Oliv.); about one inch long, found on the shores 
of the Mediterranean, the south of France, &c.; Scarites terricola, Bon., found with the preceding ; Scarites 
sabulosus, Oliv., &c. 

Oxygnathus, Dej., essentially like Scarites, but with long, narrow mandibles, without teeth, closing like a pair 
of pincers, and the body long, narrow, and cylindrical. Type, Scarites elongatus, Wiedeman ; an inhabitant of the 
East Indies. 

Oxystomus, Latr. (with the labial palpi nearly as long as the outer maxillary, with the last joint spindle-shaped, 
—type, O. cylindricus, Dej., Brazil) ; and Camptodontus, Dej. (with the labial palpi considerably shorter than the 
outer maxillary, with the last joint spindle-shaped,—type, C. cayennensts, Dej.), are both distinguished by their 
elongated, cylindrical body, and long, narrow, toothless mandibles. 

The others have the anterior tibia not dentated on the outer edge, but simply didactyle at the tip; the man- 
dibles short, but slightly advanced beyond the labrum, which is coriaceous and entire, and the outer palpi termi- 
nated by an oval joint, sharpened at the tip. They are of small size, frequent damp places, and occur in our 
northern regions. 

Clivina, Latr., has three strong teeth on the outer edge of the two anterior tibiw, and one on that of the two 
following. Type, Tenebrio fossor, Lin., (Scarites arenarius, Fabr.). [A very common British species, about a 
quarter of an inch long. | 

Dyschirius, Bon., which has only small teeth or small indistinct spines on the outer edge of the two anterior 
tibie, the tip of which is produced into a long point; the thorax is nearly globose. The Clivine, Nos. 8—21 of 
Dejean, but the eighth, or C. arctica, appears to possess the characters of Cephalotes. [These species, of which 
D. gibbus is the type, are amongst the most minute of the Carabide; the species are rather numerous, and 
very difficult to be determined. The C. arctica has been formed by Eschscholtz into the genus Miscodera 
(Leiochiton, Curtis, Oncoderus, Stephens), and belongs, as Latreille indicates, to the family Harpalide.] 

Our second and last subdivision of the Scaritides comprises those which have the anterior tibiz neither 


FL EdadEaE a neeeerereeeereeeeeeeeee =e eee 
Se 


COLEOPTERA. 497 


toothed on the outside nor bidigitate at the tips, and tne second joint of the antennz 1s evidently shorter than the 
following. They nearly approach, in the organs of the mouth, the two last subgenera; and have been confounded, 
by some writers, with Scarites, of which they have the appearance. 

Morio, Latr. (with the antenne of equal length throughout, thighs oval, and tibie triangular, Harpulus monili- 
cornis, Latr. &c.), and Ozena, Oliv. (with the antenne thickened at the tips, and the femora and tibiz narrow and 
elongated, Ozena dentipes, Oliv. &c.), have the body narrow, elongated, nearly parallelopiped, the thorax nearly 
square, and the last joint of the external palpi nearly cylindric. All the species are exotic. 

Those which have the body oval or oblong, with the thorax nearly cup or heart-shaped, or orbicular, the last 
joint of the outer palpi nearly oval or fusiform, and the labrum notched, compose the remaining genera. 

Ditomus, Bonelli, have the palpi shorter than the head, the thorax cup or heart-shaped, and the tarsi short. 
Some species, to which Zeigler restricts the generic name, have the body more elongated, the head separated at 
the sides from the thorax by an angular space, and often armed in the males with horns; whilst the others, which 
form the genus Avistus, Zeigl., have the body shorter, broader in front, and the head and thorax nearly continuous. 

Apotomus, Hoffm., have the anterior palpi very long, the thorax orbicular, and the tarsi filiform and elongated. 
Type, Scarites rufus, Oliv. [South of Europe.] 

[The typical insects of this section, from the observations of M. Lefebvre de Cerisy, appear to be 
nocturnal in their habits; and hence their colours are, for the most part, black or obscure. The larger 
species are chiefly inhabitants of the Old World. They burrow in the earth, or sand of the sea-shore, 
for which their palmated fore-legs well fit them. They are insects of prey, lurking by day in holes 
and under stones, and feeding at night upon Melolonthidz, or other soft-bodied insects. No generic 
additions of importance have been made to this group. ] 

3. Our third section of the Carabici—that of the QUAPRIMANI, or HaRPALIENS of Dejean—comprises 
those which, in other respects similar to the last in the elytra terminated posteriorly in a point, have 
the four anterior tarsi dilated in the males, the three or four basal joints being in the shape of a heart 
reversed, or triangular, and nearly all of them terminated by acute angles. Their under-side is generally 
(except in Ophonus) furnished with two rows of papille or scales, with a broad space between. The 
body is always winged, generally oval, and arched or convex above, with the thorax broader than long, 
or at most nearly isometrical; the head is never suddenly narrowed behind; the antennz are of equal 
thickness throughout, or but very slightly thickened towards the tips; the mandibles are not very 
strong; the tooth in the notch of the mentum is always entire, but it is wanting in some species; the 
tonguelet is truncated at the tip, and accompanied by two ear-like membranous paraglosse; the legs 
are robust, and the ungues of the tarsi simple; the intermediate tarsi, as in the females, are short, and, 
with the exception of the dilatation, are similarly formed to the anterior pair. 

These Carabici frequent sandy situations exposed tothe sun. This section is composed of the genus 
Harpalus, as restricted by Bonelli. New groups have since still further diminished its extent. They 
consist of the three following divisions :— 

The first of these divisions has for its characters,—notch of the mentum with a single tooth, labrum 
notched, and the head and fore part of the thorax as broad as, or broader than, the abdomen. 

Acinopus, Zeigl., with filiform antenne, the joints short but cylindrical, the thorax narrowed gradually from 
the front to the back, and the hinder angles very obtuse. Type, Harpalus megacephalus, Latr. [South of Europe.] 

Daptus, Fischer, with the antenne moniliform after the fifth joint, and the thorax narrowed suddenly towards 
the posterior angles, which are pointed. Type, D. pictus, Fischer: Russia. Pangus, Megerle (P. pensylvanicus), 
does not appear to me to differ essentially from Daptus. 

The second of these divisions is composed of Harpaliens having also the notch of the mentum one- 
toothed, but of which the body is more or less ovoid or oval, and narrowed in front, with the labrum 
entire, or slightly concave. These are the true Harpalus, Dejean, of which one of the most common 
species is the Harpalus eneus, Fabr., about one-third of an inch long, of a shining black colour, with 
the antenne and legs yellowish, the upper surface generally green or coppery, and very brilliant. It has 
also been called Proteus, from the numberless changes in its colours. [The genus, even in its restricted 
state, is very numerous, and requires revision. There appear to be several British species still unde- 
scribed, in addition to the great number recorded by Stephens, Curtis, &c. ] 

The third of these divisions is distinguished by the absence of a tooth in the notch of the mentum. 
In other respects, however, it agrees with the preceding division. 

Ophonus, Zeigi., has the four anterior tarsi of the males strongly dilated, or evidently larger, and generally fur- 
nished beneath with numerous hairs, forming a continuous brush. The penultimate joint is not bilobed, and the 
uvver surface of the body is finely punctured. [There are numerous British species (including the Harpalus 
obscurus, Fabr.), chiefly found on the sea-coast. } 


498 INSECTA. 


Stenolophus, Zeigl., differs in having the penultimate joint of the four anterior tarsi—at least in the males, and 
the same in the posterior tarsi in some species—divided to the base into two lobes. Type, Carabus vaporario- 
rum, Linn., &c. 

Acupalpus, Latr., in which the four anterior tarsi differ but slightly from the posterior, with the intermediate 
joints rounded, nearly moniliform, and villose. The outer palpi are terminated by a joint pointed at the tip. They 
are very small, and seem to unite with Trechus. Type, Carabus meridianus, Linn., [a very common little English 
species]. 

[Many additional genera, allied to Harpalus, have been separated by Dejean, Laporte, Chaudoir, 
Erichson, and other continental Entomologists ; but they are, for the most part, founded upon minute 
structural characters, not requiring notice in this edition. | 

4. The fourth section, StMPLICIMANI, approach the preceding in the manner in which the elytra 
are terminated; but the two anterior tarsi are alone dilated in the males, without forming a square or 
orbicular plate. Sometimes the first three joints are evidently larger, and the following is always 
much smaller than the preceding. Sometimes this and the two preceding are broader, nearly equal, in 
the shape of a heart reversed, or triangular. The basal joints of the four succeeding tarsi are slenderer 
and longer, nearly cylindrical, or in the shape of a long reversed cone. Some have the ungues of the 
tarsi simple, or without teeth. 

In a first subdivision, of considerable extent, the third joint of the antenne is at most as long again 
as the preceding joint; the legs robust; and the thorax, in its broadest part, as wide as the elytra. 
Sometimes the mandibles are evidently shorter than the head, and do not extend beyond the labrum 
more than half their length. i 


We commence with those which have all the outer palpi filiform. 

Zabrus, Bonelli, has the last joint of the maxillary palpi sensibly shorter than the preceding, and the two anterior 
tibie are terminated by two spines. Type, Carabus gibbus, Fabr., [a species of not very common occurrence in 
this country, and which has been ascertained to feed upon growing corn]. 

Pogonus, Zeig]., which in the natural order appears allied to Amara, has the two basal joints alone, of the ante- 
rior tarsi, dilated in the males, the basal joint being the largest. The body is more oblong. These insects appear 
exclusively to inhabit the sea-coast, or the shores of salt water. [Harpalus luridipennis, Germar.] 

Tetragonoderus, Dejean, has the anterior tarsi of the males proportionately less dilated than in the following, the 
basal joints being narrower and more elongated, and rather in the shape of a reversed cone than a heart. They 
are peculiar to South America. [Harpalus circumfusus, Germar.] 

Feronia, Latr., has the anterior tarsi of the males, with the three first joints strongly dilated, obcordate, with 
the second and third rather transverse than longitudinal. This subgenus comprises a great number of generic 
groups, indicated by Dejean in his Catalogue, which are as follow :—Amara, Pecilus, Argutor, Omaseus, Platysma, 
Pterostichus, Abax, Steropus, Percus, Molops, and Cophosus. Dejean, however, having perceived the difficulty of 
characterizing them, united them all, with the exception of the first, into a great generical group, for which he re- 
tained my name Feronia. But as to Amara, I have in vain searched for characters to distinguish it from the 
other genera, That derived from the tooth of the notch of the mentum, not to speak of its unimportance, is a very 
equivocal character. This tooth, in all these Carabici, appears to me to have a notch at its tip, but rather more 
distinct and deep in some than in others. The moniliform structure of the antenne of some of the groups appears 
to me not to be assignable with precision to the limits of such groups. I may say the same of the concavity of 
the front margin of the labrum, and the form of the thorax. 

The Feronie may be arranged in three sections.—lst. The species generally winged, which have the body more 
or less oval; slightly convex or arched above, with the antennez more filiform; the head proportionally narrowed, 
and the mandibles rather less exposed. In their habits they appear to approach Zabrus and Harpalus. Such are 
Amara*, with the thorax transverse ; Pacilus, in which it is nearly as long as broad, and the antennz are short, 
with the third joint compressed and angular; and Argutor, similar to Pacilus, but with longer antenne, of 
which the third joint is not angulated.—2nd. The species generally winged, but with the body straight, flat, or hori- 
zontal above, and the head nearly as broad. Such are Platysma, Bon.; to which we may unite that of Omaseus 
and Catadromus, Macl.—3rd. The species analogous to the preceding in their general characters, but which differ 
in wanting wings. The majority of these have the thorax not uniformly cordate or truncate, and the elytra have 
a transverse fold at the base. Sometimes the thorax is nearly square or truncate-cordate, with the posterior 
angles acute; (genera Cophosus, Zeigl.; C. cylindricus, Austria, having the body oblong, square, or cylindrical, 
and Abav, Bonelli, having the body generally oval, depressed, or slightly convex—type, Carabus striola, Fabr., 
{a common British species], found in the cold and moist parts of forests, &c.), whilst sometimes the thorax is 
terminated behind in two acute angles, and evidently narrowed. Those species with the body depressed 
on the upper side form the genus Pterostichus, Bonelli; whilst those with the upper side of the body more convex 
form the genus Molops ; from the former of which Steropus has been detached, having the posterior angles of the 
thorax rounded. We terminate the subgenus with species of large size, in which the thorax is always truncate-cor- 
date, and the base of the elytra has not the transverse fold. Suchis the chief character of Pereus, Bonelli —type, 


* Some species of very short stature form the genus Leirus of some | to him to be more so on the outside than on the inner edge. Hence 
writers. Scolytus flexuosus, Fabr., appeats to belong to this division, | it may form a separate genus, Cyclosomus. 
but Dejean says that the four anterior tarsi are dilated, but they appear 


COLEOPTERA. 499 


Carabus Paykullii, Rossi. ‘The species exclusively inhabit Spain, Italy, and the isles of the Mediterranean. 
(The genus Feronia, as here described, is of very great extent, and on this account the characters which separate 
the different groups of which it is composed (and which are considered by many writers as so many distinct 
genera) blend so into each other that it is almost impossible to assign their limits with precision. Hence Dejean 
united them all into one genus, (for which Mr. Hope proposes the name of Thalia, Feronia having been long 
previously used by Leach for a genus of Diptera,) although, in examining a local collection of small extent, as that 
of England, the paucity of the number of species renders the assigning of characters apparently much more easy. ] 

Myas, Zeigl., resembles Abav (Cheporus, Latr.) metallicus ; but the thorax is more dilated at the sides, with a 
slight notch in front of the posterior angles. M. chalybeus, Hungary. Here are also to be arranged the genera 
Trigonotoma, Dej., formed of large Indian species, and Pseudomorpha, Kirby. 

Sometimes the mandibles are as long as the head, and the body always oblong. The first two genera resemble 
Scarites, and the others Lebia. 

Cephalotes, Bon. (Broscus, Panz.), with the antenne not longer than half the body; with short joints, and the 
labrum entire. [Type, Carabus cephalotes, Fabr.} 

Stomis, Clairy., with the antenne longer than half that of the body, with long joints, and the upper lip notched. 
[Type, Stomis pumicatus, Clairv., a common British species.] 

Catascopus, Kirby, differs from the preceding in having the body flattened and broader, with the thorax 
shorter, the elytra strongly emarginated at the tips, and the upper lip elongated. ‘The eyes are large and promi- 
nent. They are of brilliant colours, and resemble at first sight Cicindele or Elaphri. The species are from 
India. Type, C. Hardwickii, Kirby. The genus is closely allied to Pericalus, M‘Leay, which have also the eyes 
very prominent, but the proportion of the joints of the antenne is different. Type, P. cicindeloides, M‘Leay ; Java. 

In a second subdivision, of much smaller extent, the length of the third joint of the antenne is triple that of the 
preceding ; these organs and the legs being slender. 

Colpodes, M‘Leay, has the four basal joints of the anterior tarsi of the males large, the penultimate being 
bilobed. Type, C. brunneus, M‘Leay ; Java. The others have the tarsal joints entire in both sexes. 

Mormolyce, Hagen., has the body very flat, like a withered leaf; very much narrowed in front ; the head is very 
long; the thorax oval, truncate at both ends ; the elytra are very greatly dilated, and curved on the outside with 
a very deep notch at the tip. The only species, M. phyllodes, Hagenb., is from Java. [It is one of the most sin- 
gular of known Coleopterous insects. Its true relations are, however, to be found amongst the Truncatipennes, 
as proved by the researches of Count Mannerheim and M. Serville.] 

Sphodrus, Clairv., has the body depressed, but not foliaceous ; the head ovoid, and the elytra not laterally 
dilated. Type, Carabus leucopthalmus, Linn. [A common British species, of large size.] 

The terminal Simplicimani are distinguished from all the others by the minute teeth on the under-side of the 
ungues, at the tips of the tarsi. 

Pristonychus, Dej. (Ctenipus, Latr.), has the body elongated, with the thorax heart-shaped, truncate behind. 
Types, Sphodrus janthinus and complanatus ; but this genus insensibly blends into the preceding. 

Calathus, Bon., has the body oval, arched above, and with the thorax square. Type, C. pan Fab. 
[A very abondant and pretty British species. ] 

Taphria, Bon. (Synuchus, Gyll.), differs from the preceding in having the labial palpi terminated in a mass like 
a reversed cone, and the thorax nearly orbicular. Type, Carabus nivalis, Mlig. 


5. The fifth section, PATELLIMANTI, is distinguished from the preceding only by the manner in which 
the two anterior tarsi of the males are dilated, the basal joints (generally the first three in some, or 
the first two only in others) being either square, or partially of this form, and the others in form of a 
heart or reversed triangle, but always rounded at their extremity, and not terminated, as in the pre- 
ceding sections, by acute angles, forming an orbicular or oblong plate, of which the under-side is most 
commonly furnished with brushes of hairs, without any central naked space. The legs are commonly 
long and slender, and the thorax is often more narrowed throughout its whole length than the abdo- 
men. They frequent, for the most part, the sides of rivers, or other aquatic places. 

We divide the Patellimani into two divisions. In the first, the head is insensibly narrowed behind at 
the base. Some of these have the mandibles always terminating in a point, and the plate of the [fore 
male] tarsi is always narrow, elongated, and formed of the three basal joints, of which the second and 
third are square. The labrum is entire, or without an evident notch; and one or two teeth in the 
notch of the mentum. The following have the under-side of the tarsi furnished with two rows of 
papilla, as in the preceding :— 

Dolichus, Bon., has the body very flat, and the tarsal claws are toothed beneath. The thorax is in the form of a 
truncated heart. Type, Carabus flavicornis, Fabr. 

Platynus, Bon., similar to Dolichus in the form of the thorax, but with the ungues of the tarsi simple. The wings 
are wanting, or are imperfect, in some species. Type, Carabus angusticollis, Fabr., [a common British species. | 

Agonum, Bon., has the thorax nearly orbicular. Type, Harpalus viduus, Gyll. and others ; [a common British 
species. | 

Anchomenus, Bon., differs from the three preceding genera in having the body of the ordinary thickness, and 


the thorax always in the shape of a truncated heart. Type, Carabus prasinus, Faby. and others. 
K K 2 


500 INSECTA. 


The following nave the under-side of the plate of the tarsi furnished with a close and continued brush. The 
outer palpi, and those of the labium, are terminated, in many, by a thicker or broader joint, like a reversed 
triangle :— 

Callistus, Bon., has the tooth of the mentum entire, and the outer palpi terminated by an oval joint, pointed at 
‘the tip. Type, Carabus lunatus, [a rare British species]. 

Oodes, Bon., differs in having the last joint of the outer maxillary palpi cylindrical, and of the labial palpi oval 
and truncated. The thorax is trapezoidal, and narrowed in front. Type, Carabus helopioides, Fabr. 

Chlenius, Bon., has the tooth of the mentum bifid, the outer maxillary palpi terminated by a nearly cylindrical 
joint, and the labial by a reversed conical and elongated joint. Carabus cinctus, Fabr., and many others, belong 
to this subgenus; as does also the Carabus saponarius, Oliv., used in Senegal by the natives instead of soap. 

Epomis, Bon., has the outer palpi terminated by a broader compressed joint, in the shape of a hatchet, and is 
most dilated in the males. The tooth of the mentum is always bifid. Type, H. circumscriptus, Dejean, and many 
others. Dinodes and Lissauchenius, M‘Leay, also nearly approach Epomis. 

The others have generally the mandibles very obtuse and truncated, and bidentate at the tip. The upper lip is 
distinctly bilobed, the notch of the mentum is not furnished with a tooth, and the dilated portion of the tarsi is 
broad, and nearly orbicular. Some have the mandibles terminated in a point, without any notch or tooth near the 
tip; and the plate of the male tarsi is formed of the three basal joints. 

Rembus, Latr., has the upper lip bilobed; the outer maxillary palpi re filiform; and the last joint of the labial 
is slightly thickened, and in the form of a reversed cone. Type, Carabus politus, Fabr. 

Dicélus, Bon., has the upper lip merely emarginate, with a central impressed line. The last joint of the outer 
palpi is nearly hatchet-shaped, and the body almost parallelopiped. The species are from America. 

Others have the mandibles very obtuse, notched at the tip, or with a tooth below it. 

Licinus, Latr., has the last joint of the outer palpi almost hatchet-shaped. The plate of the male tarsi is broad 
and suborbicular, formed of the two basal joints. Type, Carabus silphoides, Faby.; C.depressus, Paykull: [rare 
British species]. 

Badister, Clairv. (Amblychus, Gyll.), has the last joint of the outer palpi oval; that of the labial palpi is slightly 
longer, and often pointed. The plate of the male tarsi is long and square, formed of the three basal joints. Type, 
Carabus bipustulatus, Fabr., [a common British species]. 

In the second division of the Patellimani, the head is narrowed suddenly behind the eyes, as though 
attached to the thorax by a peduncle. It is often small, with the eyes prominent. 

Pelecium, Kirby, has not a tooth in the notch of the mentum; the mandibles are robust, and the upper lip nearly 
bilobed. The four basal joints of the anterior male tarsi are in the shape of a reversed triangle. Type, P. cyanipes, 
Kirby; South America. In the following, there is a tooth in the notch of the mentum, and the upper lip is nearly 


straight. 
Cynthia, Latr., has the outer palpi terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint. The head is small, and the basal 
joints of the male tarsi are of a reversed triangular form. Founded upon a Brazilian species, having the appear- 


ance of Abax. 

Panageus, Latr., has the tarsal plate of the males formed only of the two basal joints. The head is very small, 
with the eyes globular. The parts of the mouth are also very small, and the thorax often suborbicular. Type, 
Carabus Crux major, Fabr., [a rare British species]. 

In the two following subgenera, the outer palpi are filiform :— 

Loricera, Latr., is very remarkable, having the second and four following joints of the antennez furnished with 
strong bristles. The maxille are bearded on the outside, the labial palpi are longer than the maxillary, and the 
three basal joints of the fore tarsi are dilated in the males. Type, L. enea, Latr. (Carabus pilicornis, Fabr.), [a 
very common British insect]. 

Patrobus, Megerle, has the antenne filiform, straight, and without whorls of hairs; the mandibles are of the 
ordinary size; the length of the labial palpi does not exceed that of the maxillary; the two basal joints of the 
anterior tarsi are alone dilated in the males. Type, Carabus rufipes, Fabr., [a species very abundant on the 
summit of Snowdon, and other high mountains]. 

We now pass to those Carabiques which have the anterior tibie destitute of a notch on the inside ; 
or which, if they do exhibit one, commences very near the tip of these tibize, or does not extend upon 
the fore face, but forms only an oblique and linear canal. The tonguelet is often very short, termi- 
nated in a point in the middle of the tip, and furnished with paraglossz, also pointed. The mandibles 
are robust. The last joint of the outer palpi is generally very large, compressed in the form of a re- 
versed triangle or hatchet in some, or nearly spoon-shaped in others, and often more swollen in the 
males (Procerus). The eyes are very prominent; the elytra are entire, or simply sinuated at the 
posterior extremity; and the abdomen is generally voluminous, compared to the rest of the body. 
These Carabiques are, for the most part, of large size, omamented with brilliant metallic colours. They 
run very quickly, and are very carnivorous. They constitute a peculiar section (the sixth) in the group, 
and which we name GRANDIPALPI. 

Those which have the body robust and wingless, with a bilobed labrum, the last joint of the outer 
palpi always very large, the notch of the mentum without a tooth, the inner edge of the mandibles 


COLEOPTERA. 501 


toothed throughout, or nearly throughout, its whole length, compose a first division, consisting of the 
following subgenera :— 

Pamborus, Latr., has the mandibies curved, and strongly toothed throughout the whole length; and the outside 
of the tibia is produced at the tip into a point. ‘The last joint of the outer palpi is semi-ovaland longitudinal. P. 
alternans, Latr., from New Holland. [Several other species are described in a monograph by M. Gory, in Guérin’s 
Magasin de Zoologie.] ‘ 

Cychrus, Latr., has the mandibles straight, and simply curved at the tip; the anterior tibie are not produced 
ito a point at the tip; the tarsi are alike in both sexes; the thorax is in the form of a truncated heart, or nearly 
orbicular, with the posterior angles obsolete. [Type, C. rostratus, Fabr.; a not uncommon British species. ] 

Scaphinotus, Latr., has the three basal joints of the fore tarsi of the males dilated but slightiy, and in the 
form of a plate; the thorax trapeziform and broad, with the posterior angles acute, and turned upwards. Cychrus 
elevatus, Fabr.; North America. 

Spheroderus, Dejean, has the aspect of Cychrus; but with the two basal joints of the anterior male tarsi very 
broad, and forming a broad plate. [S. Lecontei, Dejean; North America. ] 

[Dr. Harris has just published (1859) a memoir on Cychrus in the Boston Nat. Hist. Soc. Transactions, in which 
he suggests that the different genera separated therefrom ought to be expunged.] 


A second division is formed of those species which have also the body robust, generally wingless, but 
with the mentum furnished with an entire or bifid tooth, and the mandibles armed with one or two 
teeth situated at the base; the thorax is in the form of a truncated heart; the abdomen is often 


oval. 

Teffius, Leach, has the labrum entire, and the tarsi are alike in both sexes. 7. Megerlei, nearly two inches 
long. From the coast of Guinea. The last joint of the maxillary palpi is very large, and hatchet-shaped. [M. 
Brullé has removed this genus to the group containing Panageus, with which it agrees in the majority of its 
characters. ] 

Procerus, Meg., has the labrum bilobed, with the tarsi alike in both sexes. Carabus scabrosus, Fabr. &c. 

All these species are of large size, entirely black or blue, or green above, with the elytra very much chagrined. 
They inhabit the mountains of the east of Europe, Caucasus, Libanus, &c. 

Procrustes, Bon., has the labrum bilobed, and the tooth of the notch of the mentum bifid; the fore tarsi of the 
males is dilated. Carabus coriaceus, [a reputed British species]. 

Carabus, Linn. (Tachypus, Web.), has the labrum simply notched or bilobed, and with the tooth of the mentum- 
notch entire; the fore tarsi dilated in the males; they are destitute of wings. 
Dejean describes one hundred and twenty-four species, divided into sixteen sec- 
tions. The majority of these species inhabit Europe, Caucasus, Siberia, Asia 
Minor, Syria, and the north of Africa. Some have been brought from the two 
extremities of America; and it is probable that the intermediate countries possess 
others. Carabus auratus, Linn., Panz., isa common continental species, which 
has received the ordinary name of the Gardener, [being found in gardens, where 
it feeds upon Worms. There are nearly twenty British species, the nomenclature 
of several of which is very confused in its synonymes. One of the largest 
and best characterized species is C. clathratus, a rare Irish insect, here figured. ] 

Colosoma, Weber (Callisthenes, Fischer), is generally winged ; the mandibles are 
without distinct teeth on the inner edge; the thorax is transverse, equally dilated 
and rounded at the sides, without elongated posterior angles; the abdomen is 
nearly square; the four posterior tibiz are curved in the males of several. The 
species are fewer than in Carabus, but they extend from the north to the equator. 
Type, Carabus sycophanta, Linn., three-fourths of an inch long, of a velvet black, 
with the elytra golden green, or brilliant copper, very finely striated, cach having 
three lines of fine impressed dots. Its larva lives in the nests of the processionary 
Caterpillars, upon which it feeds, devouring many in the course of a day. Other larve of its own species, smaller 
and younger, attack and devour it when its voracity has overcome its activity. They are black; and are some- 
times found running on the ground, or upon trees, especially the oak. [An elaborate anatomical memoir upon 
this larva, by Dr. Hermann Burmeister, is published in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, in the last 
part of which Mr. Hope has also published the descriptions of some species brought home by Mr. Charles Darwin, 
the celebrated naturalist of the expedition of the Beagle. ] 


Fig. 54.—Carabus clathratus, 


A third and last division of the Grandipalpi is at once distinguished from the former by a series of 
characters. The majority are winged; the basal joints of the fore tarsi of the males are always 
dilated ; the labrum is entire ; the outer palpi are very slightly dilated at the tips; the inner edge of 
the mandibles is not armed with distinct teeth; and the tooth of the mentum-notch is bifid. The fore 
tibia of many species have a short notch at the inner side, where one of the spines is inserted higher 
than the other: so that these Carabiques, as well as those of the following section, might come imme- 
diately after the Patellimani. They generally frequent humid and aquatic places. Some of them, 
such as Omophron, seem to unite this tribe with the following, or the aquatic carnivorous species. 


502 INSECTA, 


Some have the eyes of ordinary size, the antenne linear, with elongated joints, and the two spurs of the fore 
tibiz close together,—the tibie having only a longitudinal canal. 

Pogonophorus, Latr. (Leistus, Froehl., Manticora, Panz.), is remarkable for the elongation of the outer palpi, 
and the labial ones, which are longer than the head; the mandibles are bulged out into a flat angle at the base 
outside, and the tonguelet is terminated by three spines. Type, Carabus spinibarbis, Fabr., [a common British 
species. ] 

Nebria, Latr., differs from the preceding in the palpi being much shorter; the outside of the mandibles is 
scarcely dilated, the tonguelet is short. Type, Carabus brevicollis. [One of the most abundant species. ] 

Alpeus, Bon., are apterous Nebriz, merely more oblong, and which frequent high mountains. Carabus Hell- 
wigii, Panz. 

Omophron, Latr. (Scolytus, Fabr.), differs from the three preceding in having the body gibbose above, and nearly 
orbicular; the thorax very short, transverse, and the scutellum is not visible. This subgenus is composed of a 
smal] number of species found on the margin of waters in Europe, North America, Egypt, and the Cape of Good 
Hope. M. Desmarest has described the larva of the common species, [S. limbatum, Latr., found on the border of 
streams in France.] This larva approaches that of the Dytici in its form. 

The remainder of this division have the body thick, with large prominent eyes; antenn# rather thickened at 
the tips, with short joints ; one of the spurs of the fore tibiz is inserted above the other; the four or three basal 
joints of the anterior tarsi of the males are but slightly dilated in the majority. These insects are found on the 
banks of rivers in Europe and Siberia. 

Blethisa, Bon., has the thorax broader than long, nearly square, being only slightly narrowed near the posterior 
angles, with the four basal joints of the Carabus multipunctatus, Fabr., Panz. 

Pelophila, Dej., has the three basal joints of the fore tarsi of the males strongly dilated. Carabus borealis,Fabr., 
{a species recently detected in Ireland], 

Elaphrus, Fabr., has the thorax at least as long as it is broad, convex and heart-shaped ; the four basal joints 
of the fore tarsi of the males slightly dilated. 

Carabus uliginosus, Fabr., four lines long, has the elytra ornamented with deep circular impressions running 
into each other, with an elevated disc. 

Cicindela riparia, Linn., is another common British species, smaller than the preceding. 

Notiophilus, Dum., differs from the preceding in having the labrum nearly semicircular, (instead of short and 
transverse,) and the outer palpi are terminated by a suboval joint pointed at the tip; the tarsi are alike in both 
sexes. Cicindela aquatica, Linn., [a very common British species found on the banks of streams and in damp 
situations, running about with very great agility. Mr. Waterhouse has published a monograph on the genus in 
the Entomological Magazine, where he has described eighteen British species ; but subsequent Coleopterists have 
greatly reduced the number of the species. ] 

Our second general division of this tribe, the Sudulipalpi, is distinguished by the form of the outer 
palpi, of which the penultimate joint is in the form of a reversed cone, and is united to the following, 
with which it forms an oval or spindle-shaped mass, terminated in a point. The two anterior tibize 
are always notched. These insects closely resemble the last, both in their form and habits. 

Bembidion, Latr. (Bembidium, Gyll.), has the penultimate joint of the outer maxillary palpi swollen, and the 
last very slender and conical. The basal joint of the two anterior male tarsi is dilated in the males. Messrs. 
Ziegler and Megerle divided this subgenus into several others, but without giving their characters; founding 
them, as it seems, entirely on the change of form of the thorax. These are Tachypus, Bembidium, Lopha, Nota- 
phus, Peryphus, and Leia, [the last of which (being previously used for a genus of Diptera) has been changed by 
Stephens into Philochthus.] The type given by Latreille (considered by Dejean as a Tachypus) is the Cicindela 
Jlavipes, Linn., one-fifth of aline long, a very abundant species. [This genus comprises a considerable number of 
species, all of which are of very small size, being the most minute of all the Carabiques, and generally of brassy 
or coppery tints. Another pretty species is the Cicindela quadri-maculata, Linn.; of a brassy colour, with four 
white spots on the elytra. ] 

Trechus, Clairv., has the last joint and the outer palpi as long or longer than the preceding, and as thick at its 
base, so that together they form a fusiform mass. Trechus rubens, Clairv., masoreus, Zeigl., is allied to Trechus, 
with palpi fusiform at the tip, but with the penultimate joint shorter than the following ; the fore tarsi of the males 
is slightly dilated. Harpaleis collares, Gyll., Blamus, Zeigl., is composed of narrowed Trechi with the thorax of a 
reversed-triangular form, and mandibles proportionably larger, and extending beyond the labrum. 


[In terminating the terrestrial carnivorous Beetles, it is necessary again to refer to the many works 
recently published, containing either isolated descriptions or more complete monographs of these 
insects. Dejean, Klug, Hope, Kirby, Gory, Laporte, Brullé, Erichson, Mannerheim, and many other 
recent Entomologists have devoted their attention to this tribe, many seeming to prefer them from 
the circumstance of their standing at the head of the order. Some of them have cut up the several 
groups given by Latreille into a great number of smaller groups, for which they have retained the 
family names terminating in ide. It is of course impossible to give any synopsis, or even notice, of 
the many generic or subgeneric groups which have been proposed, chiefly founded upon exotic insects, 
of which nothing is known except their existence as cabinet specimens.] 


COLEOPTERA. 503 


The aquatic, carnivorous, pentamerous Coleoptera, form a. third tribe, that of 


THe HyprocanrHaArt, or Swimmers. 


Their feet are formed for swimming, the four posterior being compressed and ciliated, or in the form 
of plates, and the two hind ones are far apart from the others. The mandibles are nearly covered [by 
the upper lip], the body is always oval, with the eyes slightly prominent, and the thorax much broader 
than long ; the hook which terminates the maxillz is curved from the base ; the ungues are often unequal. 

These insects compose the genera Dytiscus and Gyrinus of Geoffroy. They pass the first and the 
last state of their existence in fresh water, such as lakes, pools, and ditches. They swim well, and 
rise to the surface of the water from time to time to respire, ascending easily by holding their feet 
still and suffering themselves to float. The body being turned upside down, they slightly elevate the 
tip of the body above the surface of the water, raising the extremity of the elytra or bending down the 
abdomen, so that the air introduces itself into the spiracles, which they cover, and from thence into 
the trachee. They are very voracious, and feed upon small animals which, like themselves, ordinarily 
reside in the water, which the Hydrocanthari only leave at the approach of or during the night. When 
taken out of the water they emit avery disagreeable odour. They are sometimes attracted by the 
light into the interior of houses. Their larve have the body long and narrow, composed of twelve 
segments, of which the first is largest, with the head strong, and armed with two powerful mandibles, 
which are curved into an arch and pierced near the tips ; they have also short antenne, palpi, and six 
simple eyelets close together on each side of the head. They have six feet of moderate length, often 
fringed with hairs, and terminated by two small hooks. They are active, carnivorous, and respire 
either by the anus, or by a kind of swimmerets resembling gills. They quit the water in order to 
undergo their metamorphosis into pupe. 

This tribe is composed of two principal genera. 


Dytiscus, Geoff.,*— 

Which have thread-like antenne longer than the head, two eyes, the fore legs shorter than the fol- 
lowing, and the posterior often terminated by a compressed tarsus finishing in a point. They swim 
with great quickness by the assistance of their feet, fringed with long hairs, especially the posterior 
pair. They dart forward upon other insects, aquatic worms, &c. In the majority of the males the 
four anterior tarsi have the three basal joints dilated and spongy beneath ; those of the first pair are espe- 
cially remarkable in the large species, in which these three joints form a broad plate, the under surface of 
which is covered with small bodies, some of them like warts and others like small suckers. Some females 
are distinguished by their elytra being furrowed. The larvz have the body composed of eleven or twelve 
segments covered by scaly plates ; they are long, swollen in the middle, and slenderer at each end, especially 
when the terminal segments form an elongated cone fringed at the sides with floating hairs, with which 
the animal beats the water and thus propels the body forwards, which is ordinarily terminated by two 
conical bearded and moveable filaments, between which are two small cylindrical bodies pierced with 
a gutter, at the extremity which are aerial channels, to which are attached two trachez ; moreover, the 
sides of the body are provided with spiracles: the head is large, oval, attached to the thorax by a neck 
with strongly-armed mandibles, beneath the extremity of which De Geer observed a longitudinal slit, so 
that these organs resemble the mandibles of the larve of the Myrmeleons, or Ant-lions, and serve them 
for suckers: the mouth offers besides a pair of maxille and a lip with palpi: each of the three first 
segments supports a pair of moderately long legs, of which the tibia and tarsus are fringed with hairs, 
which are serviceable in swimming ; the first segment is the broadest or longest, and defended beneath, 
as well as above, by a scaly plate. 

These larvze suspend themselves at the surface of the water by means of two appendages at the sides 
of the tail, which they keep dry by raising them above the surface. When they wish to change their 
place suddenly, they give their body a quick and vermicular movement, beating the water with the 
tail. They especially feed upon the larve of Dragon-flies, Gnats, Tipula, Aselli, &e. When the period 
of their transformation has arrived, they quit the water and bury themselves under the earth of the ad- 
jacent banks, keeping, however, in very damp situations, where they form an oval cavity in which they 


* [Latreille is incorrect in giving Geoffroy as the author of the | contrary, corrected it to Dyticus, being derived from the Greek 
name Dytiscus, it having been proposed by Linnzus. Geoffroy, on the | Deutikos, urinatorius. } 


NS 


504 INSECTA. 


inclose themselves. According to Reesel, the eggs of the Dytiscus marginalis hatch ten or twelve 
days after being deposited: at the end of four or five more, the larva is already four or five lines long, 
and moults for the first time. The second change of skin takes place at the expiration of a similar 
interval, and the animal is now as large again as it was before: when full grown it is two inches long. 
In summer it has been observed to become a pupa at the end of fifteen days, and a perfect insect in 


fifteen or twenty more days. 

This great genus is divisible as follows :— 

The majority have the antennz composed of eleven distinct joints; the outer palpi filiform, or 
slightly thickened at the tips, and the base of the hind-legs exposed. 


Dytiscus, has all the tarsi composed of five distinct joints ; the three basal joints of the fore-legs being very 
large, and forming an oval or orbicular plate. Type, D. marginalis, Linn., a very common British species, an inch 
and a quarter long, being of a dark olive colour with a 
buff-coloured margin entirely round the thorax, anda 
line of the same colour on the outer margin of the elytra, 
which are not dilated at the sides; those of the female 
are furrowed from the base about two thirds of the whole 
length. Fabricius says, that the species when laid upon 
its back gains its ordinary position by taking a leap. 
Esper kept a specimen of this insect for three years and 
a half in good health in a large bottle of water, feeding it 
every week and sometimes oftener with bits of raw beef 
about the size of a nut, upon which it precipitated itself 
and sucked the blood entirely from it. It was able to fast 

Fig. 55. —Dytiscus marginalis and its larva. fora month at a time. It killed a specimen of Hydro- 
philus piceus, although as large again as itself, by piercing it between the head and thorax, the only part of the 
body without defence. According to Esper, it is sensible to the changes of the atmosphere, which it indicates by 
the heights at which it keeps in the bottle. 

Dytiscus Reselii, Fab., [the type of Curtis’s genus Cybister, or Trogus of Leach], is much more depressed than 
the preceding, and has the outer margin of the thorax and elytra yellowish ; these elytra are finely striated in the 
female; the hind legs have the tibiz very short and broad. It is found in the neighbourhood of Paris and in Germany, 
but is extremely rare in England. 

Dytiscus serricornis, Paykull, is very remarkable for the antenne of the male having the four terminal joints 
forming a compressed and toothed mass, whence Dr. Leach formed it into his genus Agabus; other characters, 
such as the form and relative proportions of the joints of the outer maxillary palpi, have also led him to form other 
genera, namely—Hydaticus (Dyt. Hybneri, transversalis, &c.) and Acilius (D. sulcatus). [These various groups, 
here reduced by Latreille to the subgenus Dytiscus, are far better marked than many of the groups admitted amongst 
the Carabiques possessing characters, not only in the imago, but also in the larva states, amply sufficient to warrant 
their separation. ] 

Colymbetes, Claiv., has all the tarsi distinctly 5-jointed, but the four antericr tarsi in the males are equally dilated 
into one small oblong plate, and the antenne are at least as long as the head and thorax; the body is perfectly 
oval, and broader than deep, and the eyes are not exposed. Types, Dyt. fuscus, Panz., D. cinereus, Fabr., Panz., 
&e. [These insects are of an intermediate size between the foregoing and following species, and form a very exten- 
sive group. Erichson, Eschscholtz, and Aubé, have particularly studied this group, and have proposed various 
dismemberments from it, which have been partially adopted by more recent authors.] Some of the smaller species 
without a visible scutellum, and with the anterior tarsi scarcely dilated in the males, compose Leach’s genus 
Laccophilus ; such are the D. hyalinus, Marsh., D. minutus, Linn., &c. 

Hygrobia, Latr. (Hydrachna, Fabr., Pelobius, Schonh.), have the four anterior tarsi in the males also equally 
dilated into a small oblong plate, but the antenne are shorter than the head and thorax ; the body is ovoid, very 
thick in the middle, and the eyes very prominent. Type, H. Hermanni, Latr., [a common British species]. 

Hydroporus, Clairv., has the four anterior tarsi spongy beneath in both sexes, with only four distinct joints, the 
ordinary fourth joint being obsolete or very small, and hidden, as well as the base of the following, in a deep notch 
of the third. The scutellum is not visible. The body is oval. Types, Dytiscus inequalis, picipes, &c. 

Hyphydrus, Latr., consists of such species of the latter as have the body nearly globular, and the last joint of the 
four anterior tarsi is very small, and scarcely extending beyond the preceding. H. gibba, ovalis, scripta, Fabr. 

Noterus, Clairy., differs from all the preceding by having the antenne dilated in the middle, and the last joint of 
the labial palpi is notched, so as to appear forked. Dytiscus crassicornis, Fabr. 

Haliplus, Latr., (Hoplitus, Clairy., Cnemidotus, Mlig.) forms a distinct section having only two distinct joints in the 
antenne ; the palpi terminated by a small joint pointed at the tip, and the base of the hind legs covered by a large 
plate. Types, Dytiscus fulvus, impressus, obliquus, and many other species of very small size. 


[The family Dyticide of English authors has been investigated by several recent authors, especially 
by Leach, in the Zool. Miscell., vol. iii; Erichson, in his Genera Dyticeorum, and Kafer der 
Mark Brandenburg; Laporte in the Etudes Ertomologiques; Say in the American Phil. Trans. 


COLEOPTERA. 505 


new. set. vol. ii. and iy.; and stil! more recently by M. Aubé in his continuation of the Species générat 
des Coléopterés of Dejean, and in the Coléoptéres d’Europe. In the former of these two works, pub 
lished in 1838, he divides the Hydrocanthari into three groups, Haliplides, Dytiscides, and Hydroplorides ; 
the first comprises two genera, Haliplus, 20 sp.; and Cnemidotus, 3 sp.: the Dytiscides are divided into 
Pelobius, 1 sp. ; Cybister, 36 sp.; Dytiscus, 17 sp. ; Eunectes, 1 sp.; Acilius, 17 sp. ; Hydaticus (in four 
sections), 44 sp.; Colymbetes, 39 sp.; Ilybius, 11 sp. ; Agabus, 60 sp. ; Copelatus, 17 sp. ; Matus, 1 sp. ; 
Coptotoma, 1 sp.; Anisomera, 1 sp.; Noterus, 3 sp.; Hydrocanthus, 7 sp.; Suphis, 1 sp.; Laccophilus, 
22 sp.; and the Hydroporides comprise the genera Celina, 3 sp.; Vatellus, 1 sp.; Hyphydrus, 11 sp.; and 
Hydroporus, 122 sp. Besides these, Mr. Babington has read the descriptions of the species brought 
home by Mr. C. Darwin in a paper before the Entomological Society of London. ] 
The second principal genus, that of 


Gyrinus, Linn.,— 

Comprises those which have the antennz in a mass, and shorter than the head ; the two fore-legs are 
long, advanced like arms, and the four others very short and depressed, broader and oar-like. The eyes 
are four in number, the body is oval, and generally very shining; the antenne, inserted in a cavity before 
the eyes, have the second joint exteriorly elongated like an ear, and the following joints (of which 
seven are only distinctly visible) very short, and closely united into a mass nearly like a spindle, and 
rather bent; the head is inserted into the thorax as far as the eyes, which are large, and divided by a 
ridge on the sides, so that there appear two above and two below; the upper lip is rounded, and very 
much ciliated in front ; the palpi are very small, and the inner pair of the maxillary are wanting in many 
species, especially the large exotic ones. The thorax is short and transverse, the elytra are obtuse or 
truncated at the posterior extremity, leaving the anus exposed, which is terminated by a point. The 
two fore-legs are slender, long, folded up, and held nearly at right angles with the body when shut up, 
and terminated by a very short compressed tarsus, of which the under-side is clothed with fine plush in 
the males. The four other feet are broad, very thin like membrane, and the joints of the tarsi form 
small leaves. 

These insects [which are called Whirlwigs, from their peculiar motions] are in general of small or 
but moderate size. They are to be seen, from the first fine days of spring till the end of the autumn, 
on the surface of quiet waters, and even upon that of the sea, often assembled in great numbers, and 
appearing like brilliant points. They swim or run about with extreme agility, curvetting in a circular 
or oblique, or indeed in every direction: whence their ordinary French name of Tourniquets, or their 
English name given above. Sometimes they remain stationary without the slightest motion; but no 
sooner are they approached than they escape by darting under the surface of the water, and swimming 
off with the greatest agility. The four hind-legs are used as oars, and the fore ones for seizing the 
prey. Ordinarily stationed upon the surface of the water, the upper side of the body is always dry ; 
and when they dart down, a bubble of air like a silvery ball remains attached to the hind part of the 
body. When seized, they discharge a milky fluid, which spreads over the body, and probably produces 
the disagreeable odour which they then emit, and which lasts a long time upon the fingers. Some- 
times they remain at the bottom, holding upon plants, where also they possibly hide themselves 


through the winter. 

Gyrinus natator, Linn., is three lines long, oval, very smooth and shining, ofa bronzed black 
colour above, black beneath, with the legs fulvous ; scutellum triangular, and very pointed; elytra 
with small impressed dots in regular longitudinal lines. The larva is long and linear, 13-jointed, 
each of the first three segments supporting a pair of feet; the fourth and following segments have 
on each side a conical membranous filament, flexible, and bearded at the sides; tbe twelfth seg- 
ment has four, but they are longer, and bent backwards. This larva lives in the water, coming 
forth at the beginning of August to undergo its changes. It forms a cocoon of an oval form 
pointed at each end, which it affixes to rushes. This is a very abundant species [throughout 


Fig. 56,—Gyrinus 
natator. Europe. | 


(Messrs. Laporte, Brullé, and Aubé, have especially studied this family, and have proposed several additional 
genera. The last of these authors, in his Spécies Général above mentioned, has described the following genera: 
namely,—Enhydrus with three species, Gyrinus with forty-five, Patrus with one, Orectochilus with fourteen, 
Gyretes with eight, Porrorhynchus with one, and Dineutes with twenty-one. ] 


505 INSECTA, 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA,— 


BracHe.ytTra, Cuv. (Microptera, Grav.),— 
Have only one palpus to each maxilla, or four in all, [two maxillary; the outer lobe of the maxilla not 
being palpiform, as in the foregoing tribes, and two labial]; the antenne, either of equal thickness 
throughout, or a little thickened at the tip, are generally composed of oval or lenticular joints ; the 
elytra are very much shorter than the body, which is narrow and elongated, with the coxee of the fore- 
legs very large, and two vesicles near the anus, which the insect protrudes at will. 

These Coleoptera compose the genus 

STAPHYLINUS, Linn.,— 

Which have been regarded as forming the passage from the Beetles to the Earwigs, the first genus in 
the following order. In some respects, they approach the insects of the preceding family, and in many 
others, the Silphe, &c., belonging to the fourth family. They have in general the head large and flat, 
strong mandibles, antennz short, the thorax as broad as the abdomen, the elytra truncate at the tip 
but still covering the wings, which are of the ordinary size ; the dorsal semi-segments of the abdomen 
are as scaly as the ventral ones; from the anal vesicles a subtle vapour is discharged, which in some 
species smells very strongly of sulphuric ether. M. L. Dufour (Ann. Sei. Nat., vol. viii. p. 16.), has 
described the apparatus by which it is secreted. 

These Beetles [one of the largest of which is well known under the name of the Devil’s Coach-horse], 
when touched turn up the end of the body, bending it in all directions; they also use it for the 
purpose of assisting in folding up their wings under the short elytra. The tarsi of the fore-feet are 
often broad and dilated, and the coxe of the four fore-legs are very broad. The majority live in the 
earth, on manure and excrement; others are found in boleti, rotten wood, under stones; and others 
only are met with near water; some again, of small size, are only found in flowers. All are very 
voracious, run with great quickness, and take flight with ease. 

Their larve greatly resemble the perfect insects, being of an elongated conical form, of which the 
base, or the widest part, is occupied by the head, which is very large ; the terminal segment of the body 
is prolonged into a tube, and accompanied by two conical hirsute appendages. These larve feed upon 
the same substances as the perfect insects. 

The genus being very numerous, we divide it into five sections, 

The first section, that of the Fissilabra, has the head entirely exposed and separated from the thorax, 
(which is sometimes square or semi-oval, and sometimes rounded, or in the shape of a reversed trun- 
cated heart)by a neck or evidently narrowed part. The upper lip is deeply slit, and divided into two lobes. 

Oxyporus, Fab., has the maxillary palpi filiform, and the labial terminated by a large crescent-shaped joint ; 
antenne short and compressed, and fore-tarsi not dilated. Type, Staph. rufus, Linn., about one-third of an inch 
long, varied with red and black ; [a not uncommon British species. ] 

Astrapeus, Gray., has all the palpi terminated by a large, nearly triangular joint, and fore-tarsi much dilated. 
Staph. ulmi, Clairv. 

Staphylinus, Fabr., has all the palpi filiform, and the antenne inserted between the eyes. Some of these, 
especially the males, have the fore-tarsi very much dilated, the antenne wide apart at the base, the basal joint not 
exceeding one fourth of their entire length, and the head slightly elongated ; these compose the restricted genus 
Staphylinus of some systems. Another species, S. dilatatus, Fabr., has been separated on account of its dilated 
serrated antenne, to form another [Velleius, Leach]. According to M. Chevrolat, this species feeds upon caterpillars, 
which it seeks upon trees. [It is now known to feed in Hornets’ nests. ] 

[This genus, Staphylinus as here restricted, is very numerous, and has been divided by Kirby, Leach, Stephens, 
and others, into several genera, such as Emus, Creophilus, Goerius, Ocypus, Philonthus, Gabrius, &c.] 

Staphylinus erythropterus, Linn., is from two-thirds to one inch long, of a velvety black colour, 
with the elytra, base of the antenna, and feet fulvous, [and with golden hairs on the side of the 
thorax and abdomen. It is very abundant in the spring.] 

The others are of amore linear form, with the head and thorax elongate-quadrate ; the antenne 
close at the base, strongly elbowed; and the fore-tarsi but slightly dilated. These form the 
genus Xantholinus, Stap. fulgens, &c. 

Pinophilus, has filiform palpi, and the antenne inserted behind the eyes. P. latipes, North 
America. 

Lathrobium, Grav., has the palpi terminated suddenly by a minute pointed joint, often indis- 
tinct ; the antenne are inserted before the eyes ; the fore-tarsi are dilated in both sexes. Staph. 


elongatus, Linn. 
Fig. 57.—Staphylinus ~The second section, Longipalpi, has, also, the head entirely exposed, but the labrum 


erythropterus. 


COLEOPTERA. 507 


is entire, and the maxillary palpi are almost as long as the head, terminated in a mass formed of the 
third joint, the fourth being concealed or very indistinct, and forming a small point terminating this 
mass, when present, the preceding being very much swollen. These insects live upon the margins of 


water. 

Pederus, Fabr., has the antenne inserted before the eyes, filiform, or gradually increasing in size, and longer 
than the head; body long and narrow; and mandibles toothed and pointed at the tip, with the penultimate joint 
of the tarsi bifid. Type, Staph. riparius, Linn., [a pretty little common British species]. 

Stilicus, differs in having all the joints of the tarsi entire. 

Procirrus, Latr., has the last joint of the maxillary palpi distinct, and forming a terminal mass ; the head is 
attached by a long peduncle; thorax long and narrow; and the fore tarsi dilated. P. Lefeburi, Latr., Sicily. 

Evesthetus, Gray., has the antenne inserted before the eyes, but not longer than the head, and moniliform ; body 
slightly elongated. E. scaber, Grav. 

Stenus, Latr., has the antenne inserted near the inner margin of the eyes, and terminated by a mass formed of 
the last three joints; the eyes are large, and the mandibles furcate. Staph. boguttatus, Linn.; black, with a red 
dot on each elytron; [very common.] 


The third section, Denticrura, differs from the preceding in having the maxillary palpi much shorter 
than the head, with four distinct joints ; the tibize at least of the fore-legs are toothed or spined ; the 
tarsi fold back on the tibiz, and have the last joint as long as all the preceding together, some of which 


are more or less obsolete. The front of the head is cornuted in the males of some species. 

Oxytelus, Gray., differs from all the rest in having the palpi terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint, the antennz 
moniliform and gradually thickened, with only three distinct joints to the tarsi. [A very numerous genus. ] 

Osorius, Leach, has the palpi filiform, the body cylindric, and the mandibles much shorter than the head. The 
species are from South America. 

Zirophorus, Dalm. (Ireneus, Leach; Piestus, Grav.), has the body depressed, the fore tibiz alone toothed on the 
outside, the antenne at least as long as the head and thorax, and mandibles as long as the head. (See Dalman’s 
Anal. Entomol., p. 23.) 

[Leptochirus, Germar, differs from the last in the antenne being very short. The species of both are tropical.] 

Prognatha, Latr. (Siagonium, Kirby) [not Siagona], differs from Zirophorus in the antenne being filiform, and 
composed of elongated joints. [S. quadricorne, Kirby: a rare British species. ] 

Coprophilus, Latr. [Elonium, Leach], has the body flattened, but all the tibia are toothed on the outside; the 
antenne much longer than the head, and the mandibles not toothed. Omalium rugosum, Grav. 


The fourth section, Depressa, has the head free, the labium entire, and the maxillary palpi short, with 
four distinct joints; but the tibize are simple, without teeth or spines, and the tarsi distinctly 5-jointed. 

Omalium, Gray. (having the thorax as broad as the elytra, and transverse-quadrate), Lesteva, Latr. (Antho- 
phagus, Grav., having the thorax narrower than the elytra, and in the form of a truncated heart), have the palpi 
filiform, but the following have them hatchet-shaped :— 

Micropeplus, Latr., has the antenne terminated by a solid club, and received into channels of the thorax. MM. 
porcatus, [a minute British species]. 

Proteinus, Latr., has the antenne perfoliated, and thickened towards the tip, but free, and inserted before the 
eyes. [P. ovalis, a common insect found in moss. ] 

Aleochara, Gray., has the antenne inserted between the eyes, or near their lower edge, and free; the thorax is 
nearly oval, or square, with the angles rounded. [A very extensive group of insects, now cut up into a great 
number of genera and subgenera by Stephens, Erichson, and others, ] 


The fifth section, Microcephala, has the head received into the thorax as far as the eyes, not being 
attached by a neck, nor an evident narrowed space; the thorax is trapeziform, and enlarged from the 
front to the hind part; the body is less elongated than in the preceding, and approaches more an 
elliptical form; the head is much narrower, and sharpened in front; the mandibles of moderate size, 
without teeth, and simply curved to the point; the elytra, in many, cover more than the half of the 


abdomen. Some of the species live in fungi, or upon flowers, and others in dung, 

Lomechusa, Grav., has no spines to the tibiae ; and the antenne (often shorter than the head and thorax), after 
the fourth joint form a perfoliated mass; and the palpi are terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint: some have 
the sides of the thorax not raised. Aleochara bipunctata, Gray., &c.; and the others have them elevated: these 
form Gravenhorst’s genus Lomechusa ; L. paradowxa, &c. 

Tachinus, has the tibie spiny, the joints of the antenne are pear-shaped, and the palpi filiform. Type, Oxry- 
porus subterraneus, and many other Oxypori, Fabr. 

Tachyporus, Grav., is like Tachinus in the tibie and antenne, but the palpi are terminated by a hatchet-shaped 
joint. Oxyporus rufipes, Fabr., Chrysomelinus, Fabr., and a great many others. 

Callicerus, Gray., stated by Latreille to be unknown to him, [is oblong depressed ; with the last joint of the 
antenne disproportionately long ; the third joint of the maxillary palpi swollen; and the last minute. Type, S. 
Spencii, K. Curtis, Brit. Ent., pl. 443.) 

Stenosthetus, Meg., and Dej. Cat., must be suppressed, being a true Pselaphus, [or rather an Euplectus]. 


508 INSECTA. 


[The Brachelytra have been investigated oy several recent authors, who have published either com- 
plete monographs, or descriptions of the species belonging to various countries. In addition to Paykull’s 
monograph of the Swedish species, published in 1789, and Gravenhorst’s Coleoptera Microptera, at 
Brunswick in 1802, and Monogr. Coleopt. Micropt., 1806, we may mention Count Mannerheim’s 
revision of the tribe, published in the Transactions of the Imperial Acad. St. Petersburg, 1831 ; Latreille’s 
memoir on the Denticrura, in the Nouv. Annales du Museum, vol. i.; Laporte’s descriptions of many 
new species in his Etudes Entomologiques ; Nordmann’s work on the Brachelytra, published at Berlin in 
1838 ; Erichson’s description of the Coleoptera of Brandenburg, and his Genera et species Staphylinorum, 
just published, (December 1839); and Mr. Stephens’s British Entomology ; in all which works, as well 
as in numerous detached memoirs by other authors, to which we cannot refer in detail, are contained 
the descriptions of numerous new species and many new genera,—to speak according to the text of ¢his 
work, subgenera,—amongst which some remarkable variations of structure occur, especially in some just 
figured by Erichson, and Diglossa, Hal., and Centroglossa and Deinopsis, Mathews, described in the Ento- 
mological Magazine. We have collected all that relates to the natural history of these insects in the 
Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects, vol. i. p. 162. The family Pselaphide, placed in 
this work at the end of the Beetles, ought in a natural system to be placed in immediate contact with 


the Brachelytra.] * 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA,— 


THe SERRICORNES,— 


Also possesses only four palpi, but the elytra entirely cover the abdomen, which, with other characters, 
distinguishes them from the Brachelytra ; the antennz (with some exceptions,) are of the same thickness 
throughout, or slender at the tip, and toothed, serrated, or fan-shaped; being most developed in these 
respects in the males. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is often bilobed or bifid. These characters 
are rarely found in the next family, the Clavicornes, to which we approach so gradually that it is diffi- 
cult to assign its limits rigorously. 

Some of the Serricornes, having the body always of a solid consistence, and often oval or elliptic, with 
the feet partly contractile, have the head vertically introduced as far as the eyes into the thorax, and 
the prosternum, or the middle part of this portion of the body, elongated, dilated, or advanced in front 
as far as the mouth, (generally distinguished on each side by a canal, in which the antenne, always 
short, repose,) and posteriorly prolonged into a point which is received in an impression of the anterior 
extremity of the mesosternum. These fore-legs are at a distance from the anterior extremity of the thorax. 
These Serricornes form a first section, that of the Sternowi. 

Others, having the head also received posteriorly into the thorax, or at least covered by it at the 
base, but of which the prosternum is not dilated and advanced anteriorly like a necklock, nor ordi- 
narily terminated (except in Cebrio) behind in a point received into a cavity of the mesosternum, and 
in which the body is generally entirely or partly of a soft and flexible consistence, compose the second 
section, Malacodermi. 

A third and last section, the Xylotrogi, comprises those Serricornes in which the prosternum is not 
elongated at its posterior extremity, and in which the head is entirely free, and separated from the 
thorax by a narrowed neck. 

We divide the first of these sections, the Sternoxi, into two tribes. 

The first, Buprestides, has the posteriorly produced part of the prosternum flat, not terminated by a 
laterally compressed point, and simply received in a depression or notch of the mesosternum. The 
mandibles are often terminated in an entire point without a notch; the posterior angles of the thorax 
are not, or but slightly, elongated; the last joint of the palpi is generally cylindric, and not thicker 
than the preceding ; the majority have the tarsi dilated and cushioned beneath. They do not leap, 
which eminently distinguishes them from the following tribe. They compose the genus 


BuprestIs, Linn.,— 
And have been termed Richards by the French, in allusion to their splendid colours, many being 


«The Silphe, in respect to their internal structure, oaght, mm conjunction with the other clavicorn Beetles, immediately to follow 


Brachelytra, 


COLEOPTERA. 509 


remarkable for the spots of gold colour on an emera.a ground ; in others, azure glitters upon the gold, 
or various other metallic colours are exhibited. The body is in general oval, broad and obtuse, but 
narrowed from the base to the tips of the elytra; the thorax is broad and short; the scutellum small 
or wanting ; the elytra often toothed at the tips, and the legs short. They creep slowly, but their 
flight is very active in hot weather ; when attempted to be seized they fall to the ground. The females 
have at the extremity of the body a corneous or leathery conical plate, composed of the last three 
Joints, which is probably the instrument with which they deposit their eggs in dry wood, upon which 
the larve feed ; the small species are found upon leaves or flowers, but others are only found in forests 
or timber yards ; they sometimes make their appearance in houses, having been introduced into the wood 


whilst in the larva or pupa state. 

Buprestis, has the antenne of equal thickness throughout, and serrated from the third or fourth joint ; some of 
the species [which are extremely numerous, of large or moderate size, and chiefly extra-European,] have no 
[visible] scutellum. Such are B. fasciculata, Linn., from the Cape of Good Hope, remarkable for the bundles of 
hair with which it is clothed ; B. sternicornis, Linn., from the East Indies, having the mesosternum produced into 
along porrected horn; B. vittata and ocellata, splendid Indian and Chinese species. The other species have a 
[distinct visible] scutellum; such are B, gigas, Linn., from Cayenne, two inches long; and B. viridis, Linn., 
[belonging to the subgenus Agrilus,] a small English species, about a quarter of an inch long, and of a green colour. 
Found upon trees. 

Trachys, Fab., has the body short and broad, or almost triangular; the front excavated; and the thorax lobed 
behind. B. minuta, Linn., [a very minute, and not uncommon British species]. 

Aphanisticus, Latr., has the antenne terminated by an oblong, compressed, sudden mass, formed of the last 
four joints ; the forehead is deeply notched. They are of minute size, and of a linear form. Bupr. emarginata, 


Fabr., [a rare British insect]. 
Melasis, Oliv., differs from al) the rest in the antenne being strongly pectinated in the males and serrated 


in the females; the tarsal joints are cylindrical and entire. MJ. Buprestoides, Oliv., [a very local British species, 
and found in Windsor and the New Forests]. 


[The Buprestide, notwithstanding the splendour of their colours,] have attracted, until lately, but 
very little attention as respects their structural classification. Schonherr, and more recently Esch- 
scholtz, in the Zoological Atlas, in which fifteen genera are described; Solier, who has divided the 
species into thirty-four genera in the Annals of the French Entomological Society, 1833; Gory and 
Laporte, in their beautiful Histotre Naturelle et Iconographique des Insectes Coleoptéres, in which they 
are describing and figuring all the species of this brilliant family ; Laporte, in Silbermanns Revue Ento- 
mologique ; Count Mannerheim, in a memoir published in the Bulletin Soc. Imperiale des Naturalistes de 
Moscou, and several other modern authors, have investigated this beautiful but difficult tribe. The larve 
have also been recently observed by Messrs. Audouin, Aubé, and Dr. Ratzeburg, [see my Jntroduc. to 
Mod. Classific., vol. i. p. 230, 231]; they are of a flattened form, and are distinguished by their large, 
flat head. 

The second tribe, that of the Elaterides, differs essentially from the preceding only in having the 
posterior produced part of the prosternum laterally compressed, and often slightly curved and unidentate, 
and capable of being lodged at the will of the animal in a cavity of the breast, situated immediately 
above the place of insertion of the second pair of feet, whereby these insects, when placed upon their 
back, possess the power of leaping ; their mandibles are generally notched at the tip ; the palpi terminated 
by a joint, much longer than the preceding, and of a hatchet-shape; and the joints of the tarsi are 
entire. This tribe comprises only the genus 


Evater, Linn.,— 


Which has the body generally narrow and more elongate than in Buprestis, and the posterior angles 
of the thorax are prolonged into an acute point. They are called Skip-jacks; in Latin Notopoda and 
Elater ; and when laid upon their backs, being unable to raise themselves in consequence of the shortness 
of their feet, they spring perpendicularly into the air, so as to fall upon their feet ; this is effected by 
folding the legs close against the body, depressing the head and thorax, and then suddenly bringing the 
point of the prosternum against the sides of the impression of the mesosternum with a jerk ; the body 
being thus violently brought against the plane of position, is by its elasticity elevated into the air. The 
sides of the prosternum have a canal, in which the insects conceal their antennz either partially or 
entirely ; these organs are pectinated or ramose in some males. The females have at the extremity of 
the body an elongated ovipositor, formed of two lateral pointed pieces, between which is the true oviduct. 


510 INSECTA. 


These insects are found upon flowers and plants, or on the ground; they depress the head whilst 
creeping along, and fall to the ground when alarmed, applying the feet to the outside of the body, [which 
has particular impressions for their reception]. 

De Geer describes the larva of one of the species, Z. undulatus : itis long, nearly cylindrical ; furnished 
with short antenne, palpi, six feet, twelve scaly segments, the last of which forms a flattened rounded 
plate, angular at the sides, with two recurved points at the end; beneath is a large fleshy retractile 
lobe, which performs the office of a foot. It lives in soft rotten wood and in the ground. It appears, 
also, that the larva of £. striatus, Fab., dgvours the roots of corn, and often does much injury where it 
propagates extensively. [The Wire-worm, so well and objectionably known to the English farmer, is 
the larva of one of the commonest of our species, Elater (Cataphagus) sputator, 
which is probably but a variety of the &. lineatus, mentioned above; this larva is 
much more slender than that described by De Geer, and has the terminal segment of 
the body entire and long, (resembling, in fact, a bit of wire,) with two dark points 


Sow at the base above.] 


Fig. 58.—Elater sputator | We may refer the different subgenera which have been formed in this tribe to two principal 
and its larva. divisions ; those in which the antenne are entirely lodged in the canals on the under-side 
of the prothorax compose the first. 
Galba, Latr., (having the mandibles terminated in a simple point), and 
Eucnenis, Arh., (in which they are bifid at the tip), have the antennz received on each side of the prosternum 
in a longitudinal canal close to the lateral margins of the thorax, and the basal joints of the tarsi are always without 
elongated lobes beneath. (See the monograph of the last genus, by Count Mannerheim.) 
Adelocera, Latr., has filiform antenne ; the tarsal joints have no elongated lobes, and the two fore-legs are lodged 
in repose in lateral impressions on the under-side of the thorax. later ovalis, and others from East India. 
Lissomus, Dalm. (Lissodes, Latr., Drapetes, Meg.), has also the antenne of equal size throughout ; tarsal joints 
entire, but with the lobes on their under edges advanced like small plates ; the head is exposed. See Dalman, 


Ephem. Ent. 
Chelonarium, Fab., has the seven terminal joints of the antenne minute, and the body ovoid. [Exotic insects of 


small size.] 

Throscus, Latr. (Trixagus, Kug.), has the antenne terminated by a three-jointed mass, and lodged in a cavity on 
the under-side of the thorax ; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is bifid, and the mandibles are entire at the tip. 
Type, Elater dermestoides, Linn., Dermestes adstrictor, Fab. [a rare British insect, of minute size and dull 
brown colour, but especially interesting on account of its relations, being considered by some authors as allied to 
the Dermestide from the structure of its antenne. Its larva, according to Latreille, feeds upon the wood of 
the oak]. 

Our second division of this tribe comprises those species which have the antenne always free. 

Cerophytum, Latr., has the four basal joints of the tarsi short and triangular, and the penultimate joint bifid: 
the antennz of the males are branched. . 

All the other genera have the joints of the tarsi cylindrical and entire. 

Cryptostoma, Dej., bas the inner terminal angle of the third and seven following joints of the antenne, prolonged 
into a tooth with a straight branch at the base of the third joint. Elater denticornis, Fab., Cayenne. 

Nematodes, Latr., has the body nearly linear, and the antennz have the second and four following joints reverse- 
conic, and the five terminal joints thicker and nearly perfoliated. Hucnemis filum, Mann. 

Hemirhipus, Latr., has the male antenne terminated like a fan. These are exotic [and of large size]. later 
flabellicornis, Fabr. 

Ctenicerus, Latr., has the male antenne pectinated throughout their whole length. later pectinicornis, 
Latr., [a common British species]. 

Elater proper, has the male antenne simply serrated. later noctilucus, Linn., South America,—about an inch 
long; of a dark brown colour, with two pale dots on the thorax, which emit a very strong light during the night, 
sufficient to enable a person to read the smallest writing, especially when several of the insects are placed together. 
The Indian women ornament their head-dresses with these insects. Brown asserts that all the inner parts of the 
insect are luminous, and that it can suspend its light at will; but M. Lacordaire informs me that the principal 
reservoir of the phosphorescent matter is situated on the under-side, at the junction of the abdomen withthe 
thorax. One of these insects, which had been carried in wood to Paris, in the larva state, caused great alarm to 
the inhabitants of the Faubourg St. Antoine, who were ignorant of the cause of the light. 

Campylus, Fischer, Exopthalmus, Latr., differs from all the preceding in haying the head free, and the eyes large 
and globular; the body is long and linear. later linearis, Linn. 

Phyllocerus, Latr., is distinguished by having the palpi filiform [not clavate], and antenne pectinated after the 
fourth joint. [P. flavipennis, south of Europe, figured by Guérin in his [conographie.] 

[The family Elateride, on account of the general uniformity of their appearance and dullness of their colours 
have only recently any attention in respect to their structural distribution into genera and subgenera. Dr. 
Eschscholtz, however, in the second yolume of Thon’s Entomologische Archiv.; Latreille, in the Annals of the 
Entomological Society of France for 1834, and still more recently, Dr. Germar, in the second number of his 


[a a ee eee 
ee ee 


COLEOPTERA. 511 


Zeitschrift fur die Entomologie, haye minutely investigated their structure, and have proposed a great number of 
groups in addition to those given in the text, often, it is true, resting upon very minute and obscure characters.] 


Our second section, Malacodermi, is divisible into five tribes. 

The first, Cerionites, so named from the genus Cedrio, Oliv., to which some others are added, has 
the mandibles terminated in a single point ; the palpi of equal thickness throughout, or slender at the 
tip; the body rounded and swollen in some; oval or oblong, but arched above and bent down in front, 
in others. It is often soft and flexible, with the thorax transverse, broadest at the base, with the 
lateral angles elongated and acute in some; the antenne are ordinarily longer than the head and 
thorax. The feet are not contractile. Their habits are unknown; many are, however, found upon 
plants in moist places. They may be united into a single genus, 

CEBRIO, Oliy., Fabr. 


In a first subsection, establishing a connexion between this and the preceding tribe, the species have the body 
of a consistence as solid as in the Sternoxi, and of an oblong-ovate form ; the mandibles advanced beyond the 
labrum, narrow, very much bent; the antenne fiabellate or pectinated in the males of most of the species, or 
rather thickened at the tips. This subsection consists (with one exception) of species not inhabiting our country, 
and comprises several genera, including Physodactylus and Cebrio, in which the prosternum is produced into a 
point, and received into a notch of the mesosternum ; and Anelastes, Kirby ; Callirhipis, Latr.; Sandalus, Knoch. ; 
Rhipicera, Latr., and Ptilodactyla, Wliger ; most of which are formed of South American insects, the males of 
many of which are remarkably distinguished by their branched or pectinated antenne. These also differ from the 
preceding in the prosternum not being remarkably prolonged into a point, and in the mesosternum wanting the 
frontal impression. In several of the last-named genera the joints of the tarsi are lobed beneath, and in the genus 

Dascillus, Latr.; Atopa, Fabr., which has the 11-jointed antennz simple in both sexes, the three basal join s of 
the tarsi are without these membranous lobes, but the fourth joint is deeply bilobed, and the terminal joint 
without an appendage between the claws. Type, Atopa cervina, Fab. A common British insect. 

In the second division of the Cebrionites the mandibles are small, but little or not at all extended beyond the 
labrum; the body generally soft, nearly hemispheric or ovoid, and the palpi pointed at the tip. The antenne are 
simple, or but slightly toothed; in many the hind-feet are used for leaping. They frequent aquatic places. 
[These are minute insects. ] 

Elodes, Latr.; Cyphon, Fab., Dej., has the posterior thighs scarcely differing in size from the others. [Several 
minute British species. ] 

Scyrtes, Latr., has the hind thighs very large, and used for leaping. These two have the penultimate joint of 
the tarsi bilobed; in the two following it is entire. 

Nycteus, Latr., has the third joint of the antenne very minute, and the spurs of the hind tibie distinct. 

Eubria, Zeigl., has the second joint of the antenne minute, and the spurs of the hind tibia almost obsolete. 
Cyphon palustris, Germar. [A minute species, recently captured in Scotland.] 


The second tribe of the Malacodermi, that of the Lampyrides, is distinguished from the preceding 
by the thickened tips of the palpi, or at least of the maxillary palpi; the body always soft, straight, 
depressed, or scarcely convex ; and the thorax, either semicircular or nearly square, advanced over the 
head, which it wholly or partly covers. The mandibles are generally small, terminated in a slender 
curved point, entire at the tip; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is always bilobed, and the ungues of 
the tarsi are neither toothed nor furnished with any appendage. The females of some species are desti- 
tute of wings, or have only short elytra. When seized, these insects fold their antenne and feet close 
to the body, without making any movement, as if dead; many also bend down the abdomen. They 


form the genus 
LAMpPyris, Linn. 

A first division has the antenne arising close together; the head either free and produced into a muzzle, or 
entirely concealed beneath the thorax, with the eyes of the males very large and globular, and the mouth small. 

Lycus, Fab., having the muzzle very long ; 

Dictyoptera, Latr., with the muzzle very short; and 

Omatlisus, Geoffr., without any distinct muzzle ; are distinguished for the want of the power of emitting light. 
[There is one British species, L. minutus, Fabr., belonging to the second of these groups; it is small, of a black 
colour, with red elytra.] 

The other Lampyrides of this first division differ from the former, not only in not having a muzzle, and in 
having the head, which is occupied almost entirely by the eyes in the males, entirely or nearly hidden beneath 
the semicircular or square thorax; but also ina very remarkable property which they \possess, either common to 
both sexes or peculiar to the females alone—that of being phosphorescent; whence these insects have obtained 
the names of Glow-worms and Fire-flies. The body of these insects is very soft, especially the abdomen: the 
luminous matter occupies the under-side of the two or three terminal segments of this part of the body, which are 
differently coloured, and generally yellow or white. The light they emit is more or less bright, and of a greenish- 
white, or white colour, like that of different kinds of phosphorus. It appears that these insects are able at will 


512 INSECTA. 


to vary its action, which is especially the case when they are seized or held in the hand. They live for a very long 
time in a vacuum, or in different gases, except nitric, muriatic, and sulphuric acid gas, in which they die in a few 
moments, Their immersion in hydrogen gas renders them, at least sometimes, detonating. When deprived by 
mutilation of this luminous part of the body they survive, and this detached part preserves for some time its 
luminous powers, either when submitted to the action of different gases, in vacuo, or in the open air, its phospho- 
rescence depending upon its moistness rather than on the life of the animal, as it is easily re-lighted on moistening 
the substance with water; it appears much more bright also when immersed in warm water, which is the only 
fluid capable of dissolving it. 

These insects are nocturnal in their habits, the males being occasionally seen flying, like moths, round lights ; 
whence we conclude that the luminous property of the females has for its object the attraction of individuals of 
the other sex ; and if, as De Geer states, the larve and pup of the common Glow-worm are luminous, it is only 
to be attributed to the developement of this phosphoric substance from the earliest age. The males themselves 
also possess this power, but in a very slight degree. Nearly all the species of hot climates have both sexes 
winged, and as they occur in great quantities, they exhibit a brilliant spectacle to the inhabitants. 

Amydetes, Hofim., comprises some Brazilian species, having the antenne composed of more than eleven joints, 
and strongly piumose. 

Phengodes, Hoftm., also consists of other South American species, with only eleven joints in the antenna, the 
third and following joints emitting two long ciliated and curled filaments. 

The remaining species compose the restricted genus : 

Lampyris, divisible, from the form of the antenne, the presence or want of elytra and wings, &c., into many 
minor groups. [See Laporte’s revision of this genus in the Annals of the French Ent. Soc.) 

L. noctiluca, Linn., the male of which is nearly half-an-inch long, and has simple antenne; a semicircular 
thorax entirely covering the head, with two transparent spots ; 
belly black; last segments of a pale yellow. The female is 
destitute of wings and elytra, and is of a blackish colour; the 
apex paler; the latter are more especially called Glow-worms. 
They are found in the country, at the side of roads, in hedges, 
amongst grass, &c., in the months of June, July, and August. 
They lay a great number of eggs, which are large, spherical, 
and of a citron colour. The larva nearly resembles the female, 
but is black, with a pale spot at the hinder angles of the seg- 
ments; the antenne and legs being much shorter, they crawl 
slowly, and are able to shorten and lengthen their bodies. They 

Fig. 59.—Male and female Glow-worm. are probably carnivorous. 
In our second division of the Lampyrides the antenne are 
wide apart at the base; the head is not formed into a muzzle, and the eyes are of the usual size in both sexes. 

Drilus, Oliv., has the antennz pectinated in the males, and shorter and subserrated in the females; the maxil- 
lary palpi are thickened towards the end, which is pointed. The males are alone winged, the female of the typical 
species, D. flavescens, only recently discovered, being apterous, and nearly three times the size of the male. 
M. Mielzinsky has lately observed the transformations of this species, the larva of which feeds upon the common 
snail, Helix nemoralis, Linn., and resembles that of a Glow-worm ; but the sides of the abdomen have a row of 
conical tubercles, and two series of pencils of hairs. Not having traced the transformations of the other sex, 
M. Mielzinsky regarded the female as forming a distinct genus, which he named Cochleoctonus. 

All the other species belonging to this section or division of the Lampyrides are winged, and their maxillary 
palpi are nct much longer than the labial. 

Telephorus, Scheff.; Cantharis, Linn., has the palpi terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint, and the thorax has 
not lateral notches. ‘The species are carnivorous, and crawl about on plants. Cantharis fusca, Linn., is one of 
the commonest species of this numerous group, [which are called Soldiers and Sailors by children}. Its larva is 
subcylindric, elongated, soft, and of a velvety black colour ; the head is furnished with strong mandibles. Beneath 
the terminal segment of the body is a fleshy tubercle, used in walking. 1t lives in damp earth, and feeds upon 
prey. In certain years large spaces of ground in Sweden, covered with snow in the winter, have been observed 
covered with great numbers of these larve and other living insects, supposed to have been raised and transported 
thither by violent gales of wind, whence the origin of insect rain, “pluie d’insectes.” 

Silis, Meg., has the thorax notched at the sides behind. S. spinicollis, Charp. 

Malthinus, Latr., has the palpi terminated by an ovoid joint, and the elytra are shorter than the abdomen. The 
species are very small, and are found upon plants. 


The third tribe of the Malacodermi, or the Melyrides, has the palpi generally filiform and short; the 
mandibles notched at the point; the body generally long and narrow; the head only covered at the 
base by a flat or slightiy convex thorax, which is generally square or oblong; the joints of the tarsi 
are entire; the ungues unidentate, or furnished with a membranous appendage. The antenne are 
mostly serrated or pectinated in some males. The majority are very agile, and are found upon leaves 
of flowers. This tribe, which is only a dismemberment of the genera Cantharis and Dermestes, Linn., 
composes that of Melyris, Fabr. 


COLEOPTERA. 513 


Malachius, Fabr., has beneath each of the anterior angles of the thorax and each side of the base of the abdomen 
a retractile vesicle capable of dilatation, and which the animal protrudes when it is alarmed, but of the use of which 
we are ignorant. The body is shorter than in the following genus, with the thorax broader than long. One of the 
sexes has in some species a hook at the tip of the elytra; the basal joint of the antenne is often dilated and irre- 
gular-shaped in the males; their colours are agreeable. [These are active, pretty little insects, found in the spring 
and summer months, especially frequenting umbelliferous plants to prey upon the weaker insects which inhabit 
those flowers.] Types, Cantharis enea, Linn., and Cantharis bipustulata, Linn. [two very common British species]. 

Dasytes, Fabr., has filiform palpi; the thorax is not furnished with vesicles; the antenne at least as long as 
the head and thorax, and the body generally narrow, and sometimes linear. D. ceruleus, Fabr. 

Zygia, Fabr., and Melyris proper are composed of exotic species, having the ungues unidentate; the antenne 
shorter than the head and thorax, and the body shorter and of a more solid consistence. 

Pelecophorus, Dejean, has the maxillary palpi terminated by a large hatchet-shaped joint. Notoxus Illigeri, Sch. 

Diglobicerus, Latr., has the antenne only distinctly 10-jointed, the last two joints being large and globular. 


The fourth tribe of the Malacodermi, that of the Clerii, so named from the typical genus Clerus, is 
distinguished by the following characters :—Two of the palpi at least are advanced, and terminated in 
a mass ; the mandibles are dentate; the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed, and the first very short, 
or indistinct in many species; the antennz are either filiform or serrated, and sometimes clavate, or 
gradually thickened to the tips; the body is ordinarily almost cylindrical, with the head and thorax 
narrower than the abdomen, and the eyes notched. The majority are found upon flowers, and the 
others upon the trunks of old trees, or in dry wood. Such of the larvae as have been observed are 
carnivorous. This tribe comprises the genus 


Cuierus, Geoft.,— 
Some of which have the tarsi, when seen either from above or below, distinctly 5-jointed; and the 


antennz are always dentated like a saw. 
Cylidrus, Fabr., having long entire mandibles (type, Trichodes cyaneus, Fabr., from the Isle of France); and 
Tillus, Oliv., having the mandibles of moderate size, and notched at the tip (type, Tillus elongatus, Oliv., a 
rare British species), have the maxillary palpi filiform, or but slightly thickened at the tips; whilst 
Priocera and Aina, Kirby, founded upon Brazilian insects, have all the palpi terminated by a mass, the last 
joint of the labial palpi being always hatchet-shaped. 
Eurypus, Kirby, differs from the last two in having only the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed. This is also 
founded upon a Brazilian species. 
In others the tarsi, when seen from above, only appear to be composed of four joints, the first of the five ordi- 
nary joints being very short, and concealed beneath the second. 
Thanasimus, Latr., Clerus, Fabr., having the maxillary palpi filiform (type, Attelabus formicarius, Linn.) ; and 
Opilo, Latr., Notoxus, Fabr., having all the four palpi terminated by a large hatchet-shaped joint (type, Atte- 
labus moilis, Linn.), have the antenne gradually thickened to the tip, but in the remaining 
groups the last three joints form a sudden mass. 
Clerus, Geoff. (Trichodes, Fabr.), has the maxillary palpi terminated by a reversed triangular 
} compressed joint, whilst that of the labial is larger, and hatchet-shaped; the joints of the club 
D ee ca of the antenne are close together; the thorax is depressed in front. The perfect insects are 
si found upon flowers, but the larve feed upon the grubs of some kinds of Bees. 
Trichodes alvearius, Fabr.—Blue, with red elytra banded with blue; lives in the nest of 
Mason Bees (G. osmia, Reaum.), and feeds at the expense of their posterity. The larva of Afte- 


AT 

ww | labus apiarius, Linn., devours that of the Honey Bee, and often does much damage in hives. 
Necrobia, Latr. (Corynetes, Fabr.), has the four palpi terminated by a joint of the same size, 
Fig. 60.—Clerus alve- in the form of an elongated and compressed triangle; the joints of the club of the antenne 
ee apart, and the thorax is not depressed in front. Necrobia violacea, Oliv.; Dermestes violacea, 


Linn. Very common in houses and upon carcases. 
Enoplium, Latr., has the ninth and tenth joints of the antenne produced on the inside into a long tooth. Tillus 


serraticornis, Oliv. 

The fifth tribe of the Malacodermi, that of the Ptiniores, has for its type the genus Péinus, Linn., 
and some others which are derived from, or most nearly approach it. The body of these insects is of 
rather solid consistence, sometimes ovoid or oval, or sometimes cylindrical, but generally short, and 
rounded at each end; the head is almost orbicular, and received in the thorax, which is very much 
swollen, or hood-shaped; the antenne of some are filiform, or become gradually slender to the tip, 
either simple or flabellate, pectinated or serrated, and those of others terminate in three joints abruptly 
thicker and longer than the preceding joints; the mandibles are short, thick, and toothed; the palpi 
are very short, and terminated by a larger joint, almost oval, or reverse triangle-shaped; the tibia are 
not toothed, and the spurs at their tips are very small; their colours are always obscure and but slightly 


23 


514 INSECTA. 


variévated. All these insects are of small size. When touched, they counterfeit death by lowering the 
head, inclosing their antennz, and contracting their feet, remaining in this position for some time. 
Their movements are in general rather slow; the species which have wings seldom use them for escape. 
Their larvee are very injurious, and bear a great resemblance to those of the Scarabei; their body, 
which is generally curved, is soft and whitish, with the head and feet brown and scaly; their mandibles 
are strong; they construct, with the fragment of the materials they have gnawed, a cocoon, in which 
they change to pup. Other species take up their abode in old wood-stakes or under stones: in other 
respects their habits are similar. Such are the general characters of the genus 


Prinus, Linn. 
Some have the front of the body narrower than the abdomen, and the antenne simple or slightly 
serrated, and at least as long as the body. 


Pitinus, Linn., has the antenne inserted below the eyes, and the body is oblong. These insects frequent houses, 
and especially granaries, and the uninhabited portions of the former. Their larve devour dried plants, and the 
prepared dry skins of animals. The antenne of the males are longer than those of the females, and in many 
species the latter are wingless. Pt. fu, Linn. 

Gibbium, Scop., has the antenne inserted in front of the eyes, and the body is short, nearly globular. Pt. scotias, 
Pt. sulcatus, Fabr. [This last is the type of Leach’s genus GidSbium, having the thorax sulcated. ] 

The others have the body either oval or ovoid, or nearly cylindric; the thorax as broad as the abdomen; the 
antenne either uniform and serrated, or pectinated, or terminated by three large joints ; they are also shorter than 
the body. 

Ptilinus, Geoff., has the male antenne strongly pectinated, and the female serrated. Pt. pectinicornis, Fabr. 

Xyletinus, Latr., and Ochina, Zeigl., have the antenne simply serrated in both sexes. 

Dorcatoma, Herbst., has the antenne suddenly terminated by three large joints, and only 9-jointed. D. dres- 
densis, Herbst. 

Anobium, Fabr., has the antenne also terminated by three large joints, but they are 1l-jointed. Many species 
of this genus inhabit the interior of our houses, where they do much 
injury, in the larva state, by gnawing furniture, books, &c., which they 
pierce with little round holes, like those made by a fine drill. Their 
excrement forms the fine white powder observed in the holes of worm- 
eaten wood. Other larve feed upon flowers, wafers, collections of birds, 
insects, &c. The two sexes, when calling each other during the period 
of their amours, beat with their jaws upon the wood-work on which 
they are stationed, for a succession of times, mutually replying to each 
other. This is the cause of the noise, similar to the quickened ticking 


Fig. 61.—Anobium striat i 0 3 = “ 5 : 
ES Gicaaviined:; natural size and OF 4 watch, which is often heard [especially in old houses], and which 


has received from the superstitious the name of the Death-watch. 
Anobium striatum, Oliv. (A. pertinax, Fabr.), is of an uniform brownish-black colour, and is very common in houses. 
A, pertinax, Linn. [derives its specific name from the pertinacity with which it maintains its attempt at deception], 
preferring, according to De Geer, to suffer death under a slow fire, rather than give the least sign of life. 


The third and last section of the Serricornes, forming also a last tribe—that of the Xylotrogi—is 
distinguished, as above stated, from the two preceding sections, by having the head entirely free, and 


is composed of the genus Lymexylon, Fabr., which we thus divide :— 

Some have the maxillary palpi much longer; the labial pendent and brush-like in the males, terminated by a 
large ovoid joint in the females; the antenne are short, and slightly thickened at the middle. 

Atractocerus, Palis de Beauy., has the elytra very minute; the antenne compressed, sub-fusiform; the thorax 
square, and the abdomen depressed. A. necydaloides, Pal. Guinea. 

Hylecoetus, Latr., has the elytra nearly as long as the abdomen, the antenne compressed, and the thorax nearly 
square. H. dermestoides, Linn. Inhabits Germany, England, and the north of Europe. 

Lymexylon, Fabr., differs from the last in having the antenne simple and sub-moniliform, and the thorax nearly 
cylindrical. ZL. navale, Fabr. This insect is very common in the oak forests of the north of Europe, but rare in 
the neighbourhood of Paris [and in England]. Its larva is very long, almost like a Filaria. Some time ago, it 
multiplied to such an extent in the dock-yards at Toulon that the injuries it committed in the wood-works were 
very great. 

The others have the maxillary palpi very short, and alike in both sexes. The antenne are always simple, and of 
equal thickness throughout. 

Cupes, Fabr., has the antenne composed® of nearly cylindrical joints, and the penultimate joint of the tarsi is 
bilobed. C. capitata, Fabr. North America. 

Rhysodes, Latr., has the antenne moniliform, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire. R. exaratus, Dalm. Not- 
withstanding the number of joints in the tarsi, this genus approaches Curwjus and certain Brenti with a short 
rostrum in both sexes. Their habits are similar to those of the Xylophagi. 


COLEOPTERA. 515 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA,— 


THe CLAVICORNES,— 


Has, like the preceding family, four palpi; the elytra entirely cover the upper side of the abdomen, or 
its greater portion; the antenne almost always thicker at the tips, and often terminated by a perfo- 
liated or solid mass. They are larger than the maxillary palpi, with the base naked or but scarcely 
covered; the legs are not fitted for swimming, and the joints of the tarsi, or at least those of the 
posterior feet, are ordinarily entire. They feed for the most part in the larva state on animal matter. 

We divide this family into two sections, the first of which has the following characters :—Antennz 
always composed of eleven joints; longer than the head, but forming after the third joint a fusiform 
or cylindrical mass; the second joint not dilated into an ear-shaped appendage ; terminal joint of the 
tarsi, as well as the ungues, small, or of moderate size. 

These Clavicornes live out of water, whilst those of the second section are aquatic or subaquatic, 
and thus lead to the Palpicornes, which are for the most part aquatic, and of which the antenne have 
not more than nine joints. The first section comprises several small tribes. 

The first tribe, that of the Palpatores, appears to approach, in a natural series, the Pselaphi and 
Brachelytra, [in respect of their mouth-organs and habits]. Their antenne (at least as long as the 
head and thorax) are slightly thickened to the tips, or are nearly filiform, with the two basal joints 
longer than the following; the bead is separated from the thorax by a narrowed part; the maxillary 
palpi are long, advanced, and thickened at the tips; the abdomen is large, oval, or ovoid, and laterally 
embraced by the elytra; the legs are long, with the thighs clavate, and the tarsal joints entire. They 
are found on the ground under stones, &c. Some (Seydmenus) frequent damp places. We unite 


them into one genus,— 
Masticus, Hoff. 


Mastigus, has the antenne [elbowed], with the basal joint very long; the last two joints of the maxillary palpi 
form an oval mass; the thorax is ovoid. M. palpalis, Latr. 

Scydmenus, Latr., has the antenne scarcely elbowed, [the basal joint not being long]; the maxillary palpi are 
terminated by a minute pointed joint, and the thorax nearly globose. S. Helwigii, Latr. M. Duros discovered 
S. clavatus, Gyll., in an ant’s-nest, which tends to confirm my views of the relation of this genus with the 
Pselaphi, at the end of the Brachelytra. 


In all the Clavicornes following, the head is generally received into the thorax; and the maxillary 
palpi are never porrected and clavate at the same time. The whole of their appearance exhibits other 
distinguishing characters. 

The genus Hister forms our second tribe, named Histeroides. The four hind legs are wider apart 
at their insertion than the two anterior, which character alone distinguishes this genus from all the 
others of this family; the feet are contractile, and the outer edge of the tibiz is toothed or spinose ; 
the antenne are always elbowed, and terminated by a solid mass, composed of joints very close to- 
gether; the body is of a very solid consistence, generally square, or parallelopiped, with the prosternum 
often dilated in front, and the elytra truncate; the mandibles are strong, advanced, and often of un- 
equal size; the palpi are nearly filiform, or slightly thickened at the tips, and terminated by an oval or 
ovoid joint. In relation to their habits, the toothing of their tibie, &c., these insects approach the 
Coprophagous Lamellicornes ; but in other respects, chiefly anatomical, they naturally approach the Silphe. 

These animals feed on cadaverous or stercorareous matters, rotten vegetable substances, such as 
manure, old fungi, &c. Others reside under the bark of trees. They creep slowly; they are of a 
very shining black or bronzed colour. Such of the larve as have been observed feed upon the same 
substances as the perfect insects. Their bodies are of a linear form, depressed, nearly smooth, soft, 
and of a yellowish white colour, with the exception of the feet and first segment of the body, of which 
the skin is scaly, and of a brown or reddish colour; it is furnished with six short feet, and terminated 
behind in two articulated appendages and an anal tubular elongation ; the scaly plate of the first segment 
is longitudinally channelled. 

This tribe exclusively comprises, as above said, the genus 

Hister, Linn. 


Some of these have the tibia, at least those of the fore-legs, triangular, and toothed on the outer edge; the az - 


tenne always exposed and free; the body generally square, and but little if at all thickened. 
or oO 
aba 


516 INSECTA. 


Hololepta, Payk., has the body very much flattened; the prosternum is not advanced over the mouth, and the 
four posterior tibiz have only a single row of spines. These insects are found beneath the bark of trees. The 
larva figured by Paykull as that of one of these insects, belongs to the genus Syrphus or Musca. 

Hister is composed of species having the prosternum adyanced over the mouth, with the maxille terminated by 
a short lobe, and the palpi but little advanced ; some of which have only a single row of spines on the four hind 
tibia. These also live under the bark of trees, and compose Leach’s genera Platysoma and Dendrophilus ; the 
first of which has the body flattened, H. picipes, Fabr. Those species which have two rows of spines on the four 
hind tibiz compose Leach’s restricted genus Hister. Ex., H. unicolor, Linn., one-third of an inch long; entirely 
black and shining, and extremely common. M. Paykull has employed the num ber of teeth 
in the tibia, and of the striz and punctures of the thorax and elytra, as well as the form of 
the body, to distinguish the species. 

A terminal division of this tribe comprises those Histeroides of very small size, having 
a nearly globose thick body, with the prosternum but slightly compressed at the sides ; 
not advanced over the mouth, and straight in front. 

Abrus, Leach, has the prosternum prolonged as far as the anterior angles of the thorax, 
entirely concealing the antennz when retracted. H. globosus, Payk. 

Onthophilus, Leach, has the prosternum narrowed, and the club of the antenne lodged 
in an orbicular cavity situated beneath the anterior angles of the thorax. H. sulcatus, Pk. 

Ceutocerus, Germar, appears to approach Hister in the form of the antenne, feet, &c., 
but the elytra entirely cover the abdomen, and the jaws are not exserted. 

[The monograph of the genus Hister, by Paykull, published at Upsal, 1811, and Sturm’s Deutschlands Fauna, 
contains descriptions and figures of a great number of species; whilst Dr. Erichson has added considerably to 
the number of generic groups in the tribe, in an admirable memoir published in Dr. Klug’s Jahrbucher.] 


Fig. 62.—Hister unicolor. 


The other Clavicornes have the feet inserted at equal distances apart. Such of these insects as 
have these organs not contractile, or with the tarsi merely folded upon the tibiz, the mandibles gene- 
rally exposed and flattened, or but little thickened, and the prosternum dilated in front, compose five 
other tribes. 

The third tribe, Silphales, possesses five very distinct joints in all the tarsi, and the mandibles are 
terminated in an entire point, without notch or slit. The antenne are terminated generally in a per- 
foliated club of four or five joints. The maxilla have generally a horny tooth on the inner edge; the 
anterior tarsi are often dilated, at least in the males ; the elytra of the greater number have a depressed 
line along the outer edge, which is turned up. This tribe consists of the genus 


StipuHa, Linn. (Peltis, Geoffr.). 

Spherites, Duftsch., Sarapus, Fisch., has the antenne suddenly terminated in a short solid mass, formed of the 
last four joints; the second is larger than the following. The body nearly square; elytra truncate: tibiz dentate. 
These insects so nearly resemble Hister, that Fabricius united them with that genus. Type, Hister glabratus, Fabr. 
{an insect of small size, lately detected in Scotland]. 

The rest have the antenne terminated in a perfoliated mass. 

Some of these have the body oblong, with the head narrowed into a neck behind the eyes; as broad, or scarcely 
narrower, than the front margin of the thorax ; the elytra are oblong; truncate behind; the hind thighs, at least 
in the males, are generally thickened, and the anterior tarsi are dilated in the males. 

Necrophorus, Fabr., has the antenne terminated by a nearly globular 4-jointed mass; the body is parallelopiped, 
and the maxilla want the horny tooth. The instinctive habits which these insects possess of burying small quad- 
rupeds, has caused them to be named Sexton, or Burying Beetles. When a dead Mouse or Mole, &c. is observed, 
these insects creep beneath it, dig away the earth until the hole is sufficiently deep to receive the animal, which 
they pull in towards them, and in which they then deposit their eggs, the larve feeding upon the carcase. These 
larve are long, of a greyish white, with the upper side of the anterior segments armed with a scaly plate of a 
brown colour, and with small elevated points upon the posterior. They have six legs and strong mandibles. 
Previous to assuming the pupa state they bury themselves deeply into the earth, where they construct a cell, 
which they line with a glutinous secretion. These insects, like many others equally carnivorous, have a strong 
smell of musk. It appears that their powers of scent must be very great, as in a very little time after a Mole 
has been killed some of them are seen hovering over the body, although they had not been previously observed 
in the vicinity. The digestive canal of the Necrophori and Silphe is at least three times as long as the body; the 
intestinal canal is very long. 

Necrophorus vespillo, Linn., is from two-thirds to seven-eighths of an inch 
long; black, with the three terminal joints of the antenne red, and two orange- 
coloured bands on the elytra; the coxe of the hind-legs armed with a strong 
tooth. [There are several species closely allied to this insect, which is very 
common in England; and it is to be observed that they occasionally frequent 
rotten fungus and boleti, as wek as animal matter in a decaying state.] Some of 
the species from North America surpass the rest in size. 

Necrodes, Wilkin; Silpha, Linn., has the antenne evidently longer than the 
head, and terminated by an elongated 5-jointed mass; the body is oval oblong ; Fig. 63.—Necrophorus vespillo, 


COLEOPTERA. SL yi 


the thorax nearly orbicular, and the spurs of the tibie of ordinary size. The species are found in Europe, the 
equatorial parts of the New World, India, and Australia. [The type, Silpha littoralis, Fabr., is a very common 
English insect. ] 

Others of this subdivision have the body oval or ovoid, with the head not, or scarcely, narrowed behind, and 
narrower than the thorax, which is nearly semicircular ; the elytra are rounded, or slightly emarginate at the tip} 
the legs scarcely differ in the sexes, and the maxille have an inner horny tooth. 

Silpha, Linn., has thebody nearly shield-shaped, depressed, with the thorax semicircular and the palpi filiform. The 
majority reside in [and feed upon] carcases, and thus diminish the quantity of obnoxious vapour which they emit. 
Some creep upon the stems of plants, especially of corn on which small Snails have crawled, in order to devour 
these animals; others mount high trees to feed on Caterpillars. Their larve are equally active, live in the same 
manner, and are often found collected in great numbers. They bear much resemblance to the perfect insect ; the 
body is depressed, composed of twelve segments, with the posterior angles acute, the extremity of the body being 
narrowed, and terminated by two conical apppendages. In the majority of the species the two anterior tarsi of the 
males are alone more dilated than the rest. The species with the extremity of the antenne distinctly perfoliated 
or with transverse joints, forming a sudden club, with the elytra notched at the tips, forms Leach’s genus Thana- 
tophilus (S. sinuata, Fab., &c.), whilst those with similar antenna, but with the elytra entire, form his genus 
Oiceoptoma (type S. thoracica, Linn., of a black colour, with the thorax red, silky, and with three elevated lines ; is 
chiefly found in woods.) Those species which have the antenne perfoliated, but with the club gradually formed, 
are retained under the generic name of Silpha by Leach. They are generally found in fields, on the borders of 
paths, &c.: example, Si/phalevigata, Fab.; shining black, with the thorax much narrowed in front, and the elytra 
without elevated lines: S. obscura, Linn., S. reticulata, Linn., &c. In some the terminal joints of the antenne 
are globular and not perfoliated ; these form the genus Phosphuga of Leach: ex. S. atrata, Fab., &c. 

A German species (S. subterranea, Illig.), having the four anterior tarsi alike dilated at the base in the males, 
and the five terminal joints of the antenne forming a perfoliated club, may be formed into another subgenus, Necro- 

philus, Latr. 

Agyrtes, Froehl., has the body thick, convex above, not shield-like, thorax nearly square, and the edge of the 
elytra not margined. A. castaneus, Gyll. 


Those Clavicornes which appear to us to approach Agyrtes, both in respect to their characters and 
habits, but which have the mandibles notched or bidentate at the tip, form the fourth tribe, Seaphidites. 
Their tarsi have five distinct and entire joints, the body is oval, narrowed at both ends, convex above, 
thickened in the middle, with the head low, and received posteriorly in a trapezoidal thorax. The 
antenne are generally as long as the head and thorax, and terminated by an elongated 5-jointed mass; 
the legs are long and slender. Except in the Cholevz, the tarsi are identical in the sexes. This tribe 


consists of the genus 
ScaPHiDIUM, Oliv. 

Scaphidium proper, has the five terminal joints of the antenne nearly globular, and forming the club. The 
maxillary palpi are but little porrected, and terminate gradually in a point ; the body is navicular, and the elytra 
truncate. ‘They reside in boleti. Few species are known, one inhabiting Cayenne, the others the north of Europe. 
[S. quadrimaculatum, a very pretty and rare British species ; black shiny, with four red spots on the elytra. ] 

Choleva, Latr., has the club of the antenna composed of more or less perfoliated joints; the maxillary palpi are 
much exposed, and suddenly terminated like an awl; body ovoid, thorax flat; the four basal joints of the anterior 
and the basal joint of the intermediate tarsi are dilated as in the males of some species. (Catops blapoides, Germ ) 
In Choleva proper, the antenne are about as long as the head and thorax, the eighth joint is evidently shorter 
than the preceding and following, and sometimes scarcely distinct, and the last is pointed. In Mylechus, Latr., 
Catops, Payk., Gyll., the antenne are shorter, the eighth joint being longer than the preceding, and the last 
rounded at the tip. (See the monograph on Choleva, by W. Spence, published in the Transactions of the Linnean 
Society of London.) 

The fifth tribe, Nitidularie, approaches the Silphales in the shield-shaped, margined body, but the 
mandibles are bifid at the tips, the tarsi appear only 4-jointed, the basal and following joint in some 
being only visible on the under-side ; the penultimate joint in others is very small, nodose, and hidden 
between the lobes of the preceding ; the club of the antennz is always perfoliated, and composed of 
three or two joints, and generally short, or but little elongated. The palpi are short and filiform, the 
elytra short and truncated in somespecies. The habitation of these insects varies according to the species, 
being found in flowers, boleti, fungi, waste victuals, and under the bark of trees. They form the genus 

NITIDULA. 

Colobicus, Latr., has the club of the antenne only 2-jointed ; the front of the head is produced like a semicircular 

clypeus, covering the mandibles and other parts of the mouth; the tarsi appear only 4-jointed, the real basal joint 


being only visible on the under-side. 
All the other Nitidulaires have the antenne terminated by a 3-jointed club, and the front of the head is not pro- 


duced over the mouth. 
Thymalus, Latr., agrees with Colobicus in having the basal joint of the tarsi very short, and the three following 
long and entire. In the nearly hemispherical species (7. limbatus), the club of the antenne is shorter. 


ES 5 LS ee Dee ete RENE nG 0S hei ier al eS 
518 INSECTA. 


The following have the three basal joints of the tarsi, at least in the males, short, broad, and bilobed, the fourth 
being very small and scarcely apparent, with the maxillary palpi filiform. 

Ips, Fab., having the body oval-oblong, depressed, with the posterior extremity of the body exposed, and with 
one of the mandibles (the left) truncated and tridentate at the tip, and the other broadly notched. [The species are 


mostly small, of a black colour, with red spots on the elytra.] 

Nitidula, Fab. (Strongylus, Herbst.), have both the mandibles narrowed at the tip and terminated in a bifid point. 
Some are flattened, oblong, or ovoid, others orbicular and gibbose, or proportionately more convex than the pre- 
ceding. NV. nea, Fabr., is found very abundantly in flowers : it is very small, of a shining bronzed green colour, 
with the antenne black, and the feet brownish black or fulvous. [N. grisea is one of the commonest British 
species, larger than the preceding, and generally found under the bark of willow-trees, where 


its larva also resides. | 
Cercus, Latr. (Catheretes, Herbst.), differs from the two preceding in having the second and 


third joints of the antenne nearly of equal size, the club elongated and pear-shaped, (and not 
suddenly formed and orbicular or oval); the body is depressed, and the elytra are truncate. 
[Very small species, found in flowers. ] 

Byturus, Latr., differs from all the preceding by having the tibiae Jong, narrow, and nearly 
Fig. 64.—Nit. grisea: Jinear, the elytra covering the body, and not truncated at the tip, the body oval, and the club 
of the antenne oblong. [B. tomentosus, a small species of very common occurrence, the larva of which feeds in 


the interior of ripe raspberries. ] 

The sixth tribe, Engidites, agrees with the last in having the mandibles notched at the tip, but differs 
in these organs scarcely extending beyond the sides of the labrum; the body is oval or elliptic, with 
the anterior extremity of the head slightly advanced into an obtuse point. The tarsi have five distinct 
joints (some male Cryptophagi excepted, which are heteromerous), entire, and merely slightly villose 
beneath ; the penultimate joint is but a little shorter than the preceding, the antennz terminate ina per- 
foliated mass of 3 joints, the elytra entirely cover the abdomen, the palpi are slightly thickened at the 
Some of the species, of very small size, live in the interior of houses. These Clavicornes may be 


tips. 
united into a single genus, 

DACNE. 

Daene, Latr. (Engis, Fabr.), has the antenne terminated suddenly in a large orbicular, or ovoid, and compressed 
close mass. 

Cryptophagus, Herbst., has the antennz moniliform, with the second joint as large or larger than the preceding, 
and terminated less suddenly by a narrower club with more distinct joints. [Minute domestic insects. ] 

Antherophagus, Knoch, has the antenne proportionably thicker, composed of transverse joints, and terminated 
gradually by a club, the second and the eighth joints being nearly equal-sized. 

Triphyllus, Meg:., Dej., differs only from Cryptophagus in the number of the joints of the tarsi. 


We now pass to some tribes having the prosternum often dilated in front like a cravat, and which 
differ from the preceding in having the feet more or less contractile, the tibiz being folded against the 
thighs, even though the tarsi may be free. The mandibles are short, thick, and toothed, the body is 
ovoid, thick, and clothed with scales, or hairs, easily abraded, which give it a diversified colour. The 
larvee are hairy, and feed for the most part on the skins or carcases of animals, many of them being 
very injurious in collections of insects. Such of them as have not the feet perfectly contractile, the 
tarsi remaining free, with the tibiz long and narrow, form our seventh tribe, Dermestini, and the genus 


DERMESTES, Linn. 

Aspidiphorus, Zeigl., has only ten distinct joints in the antennae, the palpi very short, and the body orbicular. 
Nitidula orbiculata, Gyll., [a minute British species]. 

The following have eleven distinct joints in the antenne, and the palpi are filiform, or thickened at the tips. 
Some of these have the antenne not received in particular cavities on the under-side of the thorax. 

Dermestes proper, has the antenne smaller in both sexes; the length of the terminal joint scarcely exceeding 
that of the preceding. Some of these insects commit great ravages in fur-warehouses, cabinets of natural history, 
&c., D. lardarius gnawing to pieces the insects in collections into which it may happen to make its way ; others 
feed upon carcases. 

Dermestes lardarius, Linn., is black, with the base of the elytragray spotted with black ; its 
larva is long, gradually narrowed from the front to the extremity of the body; dark brown 
above, white beneath, with long hairs, and two horny hooks on the last segment of the body. 

Megatoma, Herbst., has the club of the antenne greatly elongated in the males, the last 
joint of a lanceolate form. D. pellio, Linn., is 24 lines long, black, with three white spots on - 
the thorax, and one on each elytra. Its larvais very long, red brown, shining, with red hairs, 
those of the extremity of the body forming a tail. 

Limnichus, Zeigl., differs from the last two subgenera in having the antenne gradually 


clubbed ; they are granular, and are lodged under the anterior angles of the thorax ; the labial _ Fig, 65.—Dermestes 
lardarius 


palpi are very small. Byrrhus sericeus, Dufts. 


a a tee, 
COLEOPTERA. oS) 


In all the following subgenera, the antennz or their clubs are lodged in lateral cavities on the under-side of the 
thorax. The prosternum is always dilated like a cravat. 

Attagenus, Latr., has the club of the antenne very large, lax, and three-jointed, and the body short and slightly 
convex. Dermestes Serra, Fab. 

Trogoderma, Latr., has the club of the antenne lax, 4-jointed, and the body oblong. Anthrenus elongatus, Fab. 

Anthrenus, Geoff., has the antenne terminated in a solid obconigal mass, lodged in short cavities beneath the 
fore angles of the thorax. The species of this genus are very small, living upon flowers in the perfect state, but 
feeding in the larva state on dried animal matters, especially preserved collections of insects. These larve are 
oval, clothed with hairs, which are sometimes denticulated, forming brushes, the posterior ones being elongated 
behind like a tail. The last skin of the larve serves as a cocoon for the pupa. Byrrhus verbasci, Linn. 

Globicornis, Latr., has the antenne terminated by a solid globular mass. Megatoma rufitarsis, Latr. 


The eighth tribe, Bérrhii, differs from the preceding in having the feet entirely contractile, the tibie 
folding upon the femora, and the tarsi upon the tibiw, so that when these limbs are thus contracted 
and closely applied to the body, the animal seems absolutely destitute of feet and lifeless; the tibize are 
ordinarily broad and compressed, the body is short and convex. This tribe is composed of the genus 


Byrruus, Linn. 

Nosodendron, Latr., differs from the rest in having the mentum entirely exposed, wide, large, and shield-like, the 
antenne suddenly terminated in a short 3-jointed mass. The species are found under the bark of trees. 

Byrrhus proper, differs in having the mentum of the ordinary size. In some the antenne increase gradually, or 
terminate in an elongated 5 or 6-jointed mass. JB. pilula, Linn., three or four lines long, black beneath, bronzy 
black and silky above, with small black spots separated by paler coloured lines ; {a very common species, found in 
the earth, and in sand-pits, &c.] 

A species with similar antenne differs in having the fourth joint of the tarsus minute, and 
hidden between the lobes of the third. B. striato-punctatus, Dej. [This is the genus O. 
omorphus, Curtis. ] 

Another small and very hairy species has the club of the antenne 3-jointed, (Trinodes 
hirtus, Cuv.) 

Others have the club of the antenne only 2-jointed, the last large and nearly globular. 

: 4 (B. erinaceus, Zeigl., B. setiger, Illig.) [These form the genus Syncalypta, Dillw.] All the 
Fig. 66.—Byrrhus pilula. Byrrhii are generally found in the ground and in sandy places. Murmidius belongs, 
according to Dr. Leach, to this family, but the antenne are only 10-jointed, the last forming a club. 


Our second section of the Clavicornes, although very natural, is only to be distinguished by a reunion 
of several characters. Some differ from the other Clavicornes in having only nine or six joints in the 
antenne, in this respect approaching the next family. The antenne of others are 11- or 10-jointed, 
but sometimes they are not longer than the head, forming after the third joint a sub-cylindrical, serrated 
mass : sometimes they are filiform, and as long as the head and thorax, but here the tarsi are terminated 
by a large joint with two strong hooks. Those of Heterocerus and Georyssus are only 4-jointed. 

The body is generally ovoid, with the head immersed up’to the eyes in a trapezoidal corselet, with 
the sides elevated, and terminated behind in acute angles; the prosternum dilated in front and the 
feet imperfectly contractile. They are found in water or under stones at its edge, often buried in the 
earth: some in the form of the antennz approach the Gyrini. 

I divide this section into two tribes. 

The first tribe, 4eanthopoda, is distinguished by its flattened feet, which are broad, and armed on the 
outside with spines, the tarsi short and 4-jointed, with ordinary sized claws, and the body depressed ; 
the prosternum is dilated; the antenn are rather longer than the head, curved, 11-jointed, the last 
six forming a nearly cylindrical serrated mass. This tribe is composed of a single genus, 


HETEROCERUS, Bosc. 

These insects are found in the ground at the edge of water, rushing from their retreats when the earth is shaken 
by the feet ; the form of their feet allows them to dig in the ground, where they conceal themselves, the tarsi folding 
back. It is here where the larve also reside, as first observed by M. Miger. 

H. emarginatus, Fab., is a small (common) insect, of a silky black colour, with paler buff variable markings ; 
Gyllenhall has observed that the tarsi are in reality 5-jointed, the basal joint being minute. 

The second tribe, Macrodactyla, comprises such Clavicornes as have the tibiz simple, narrowed, with 
long tarsi composed of five joints (except in Georyssus), the last joint being large, with two strong 
ungues at the tip; the body is thick and convex; the thorax less rounded, and often with acute pos. 


terior angles. The chief type of this tribe is the genus 


Dryors, Oliv. (Parnus, Fabr.), 
Whicn is divisible as follows :— 


520 INSECTA. 


First,—Those with very short 10 or 11-jointed antenne, the third and following joints forming a subcylindrical, 
serrated mass. 

Potamophilus, Germ. (Hydera, Latr.), have the antenne not lodged in cavities, and rather longer than the head, 
with the first joint nearly as long as all the rest, and the second short and globular ; the palpi are exserted and the 
mouth is naked. Parnus acuminatus, Fabr. 

Dryops, Oliv., has the antenne shorter than the head, and received ina cavity beneath the eyes, nearly covered by 
the second joint, which is large, dilated, and ear-like ; the palpi are not exserted. Leach applies this generic name to 
Dryops Dumerilii, which differs from the others (which he names Parnus) in the length of the feet and form of the 
thorax, &c. } 

Second,—Those with filiform 11-jointed antenne, at least as long as the head and thorax. 

Elmis, Lat. (Limnius, Il.), [insects of very small size], found in water, under stones, or the leaves of the water-lily. 

Third,—Those with very short 9 or 6-jointed antenne, terminated in a nearly solid, oval, or globular mass, 

Macronychus, Mull., has five distinct joints in the tarsi, the body oblong and antenne 6-jointed. WM. 4-tubercu- 
latus, Mull. 

Georissus, Latr., has only four distinct joints in the tarsi, the body short and nearly globular, and the antenne 
g-jointed. Pimelia pygmea, Fab., [a very minute shining black insect, with deep rows of dots on the elytra ; 
rather rare]. 


THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA,— 


THE PALPICORNES,— 


Possesses, like the last, antennse terminated in a club, which is ordinarily perfoliated, but of not more 
than nine joints in any species, inserted beneath the lateral and advanced margins of the head; never 
longer than it and the maxillary palpi, and often shorter than the last-named organs; the mentum is 
large and shield-sbaped. The body is generally ovoid, or hemispherical and convex. The feet are in 
the majority proper for swimming, and have only four or five distinct joints, the basal joint being 
much shorter than the following ; all the joints are entire. 

Those species which have the feet fitted for swimming, with tke basal joint of the tarsi much 
shorter than the following, and the maxillz entirely corneous, compose a first tribe, Hydrophili, which 


embraces the genus 
Hypropuitvs, Geoffroy,— 


Which Linnzus regarded only as a first division of his genus Dytiscus, but the anatomy of the two 
groups differs materially : the digestive canal of the Hydrophili, in its great length and texture, having 
much analogy with that of the Lamellicornes, approaching the carnivorous tribes only in its 


biliary vessels. 

Some of these have the body either oval, oblong, and depressed, or long and narrow, with the thorax rough and 
narrowed behind; the legs slender; the tarsi filiform, but slightly ciliated ; the antennz (always 9-jointed) termi- 
nating in an obconical and nearly solid club. These Palpicornes are all very small; they swim but little and 
badly, inhabiting stagnant water, which they occasionally quit in order to hide themselves in the earth or under 
stones. They compose the family Helophoridea of Leach, corresponding with the Fabrician genus Elophorus. 

Elophorus, Fab., having the body oval, thorax transverse, and eyes slightly elevated; and 

Hydrochus, Germ., having the body long and narrow, the thorax oblong, and the eyes prominent (H. elongatus, 
Fabr.), have the maxillary palpi terminated by an oval joint ; whilst in 

Ochthebius, Leach, the maxillary palpi are terminated by a more slender, short, and conical joint, and the 
thorax is nearly semiorbicular. KH. pygmeus, Fabr.; Hydrena riparia, Latr. 

Hydrena, Kug., has the maxillary palpi much longer than the head and antenne, with the terminal joint larger 
than the preceding, fusiform, and pointed at the tip. They have the aspect of Ochthebius. HE. minimus, Fab. ; 
Hydrena riparia, Kugel. 

The other Hydrophiliens have the body ovoid or subhemispherical, and generally convex, with the thorax much 
broader than long, the tibia and tarsi generally with long hairs. They compose the family Wydrophilidea of 
Leach, or the genus Hydrophilus, Fabr. 

Spercheus, Fabr., has only six joints in the antenne, and the clypeus is notched. S. emarginatus, Fabr. [a very 
rare British species]. 

Globaria, Latr., has the body nearly spherical, laterally compressed, and capable of being rolled into a ball like 
Agathidium. Its antennz appear to be only 8-jointed, the fifth being dilated internally into a spine, the terminal 
joints forming avery elongated, nearly cylindrical club, pointed at the tip; the elytra entirely embrace the abdo- 
men, the four posterior tibia having a brush of long hairs at the tip. The only species, G. Leachii, is small and 
exotic: I believe it to be from South America. 

All the remaining Hydrophiliens have nine joints in the antenne, with the club oval or ovoid, and the body not 
contractile into a ball. 

Hydrophilus, Geoff., comprises the largest species in the tribe, with the two intermediate joints of the club of 
the antennz obtuse at one end, and elongated, arched, and pointed at the other; the first joint of the club is 


COLEOPTERA. 52] 


saucer-shaped, more elongated on the front side; the sternum 1s etevated in the middle into a keel, which is pro- 
duced behind into a longer or shorter acute spine; the maxillary palpi are longer than the antenne; the tarsi, 
especially of the hind legs, have a long row of fringes, and are terminated by small ungues of unequal size. 
In some the sternal spine is very much elongated behind, and the last joint of the anterior male tarsi is triangu- 
larly dilated. These are the Hydrous of Leach; one of which, H. piceus, Fab., is an inch and a half long, oval, 
and of a black brown colour and highly polished. [It is acommon British species, frequenting ponds and ditches] ; 
it swims and flies well, but walks badly ; its sternal point is capable of inflicting a severe wound. The anus of the 
female is furnished with two spinnerets, with which it constructs an ovoid cocoon of silk, surmounted by a point 
like a curved horn; its outer surface is coated with gum, which renders it impervious to the water; and in its 
interior the eggs are symmetrically arranged. These cocoons float on the surface of the water. 

The larve resemble worms, being soft and of an elongated conical form, with six feet ; the head large and scaly, 
more convex below than above, and armed with strong mandibles ; they respire by the extremity of the body, are 
very voracious, and feed on the young fry in fish-ponds. That of H. piceus is depressed, blackish, wrinkled, with 
the head reddish brown, round, and capable of being thrown back upon the back; by which means it is able to 
seize small shells floating on the surface of the water, its back serving it as a point d’appui for breaking the snail 
shell. They swim well, and have two fleshy appendages at the extremity of the body, used in enabling the insects 
to suspend themselves at the surface while in the act of respiration. Other larve of Hydrophili are destitute of these 
appendages, and are not able to swim, and do not suspend themselves in the same manner as the preceding. The 
females of these species swim with difficulty, and carry their eggs beneath the abdomenin a silken tissue; but 
these species belong to the extreme genera. 

Hydrophilus proper, of Leach, consists of species having the tarsi alike in both sexes and 
not dilated, with the sternal spine not extending beyond the metasternum. [Hydrophilus 
caraboides, a most abundant British species, of an olive-black colour.] 

In the three following subgenera the middle joints of the club of the antennz are not dilated 
and prolonged in front into a spine. 

Limnebius, Leach, has the maxillary palpi much longer than the antenne; the last joint 
shorter than the preceding, and cylindrical, and the tip of the elytra truncate. H. griseus, 
truncatellus, &c. 

Hydrobius, Leach, has the maxillary palpi scarcely longer than the antenne; the body 
convex ; the eyes depressed, and the front of the head not suddenly narrowed. H. scarabe- 

Fig. 67.—Hydrophilus ozdes, melanocephalus, &c. 
cormoides: Berosus, Leach, differs from the last in having the eyes very prominent; the front of the 
head suddenly narrowed, and the thorax narrower at the base than the elytra; the body is very gibbose. 
Hydr. luridus, Fab. 


The second tribe, Spheridiota, is formed of terrestrial Palpicornes, with the tarsi composed of five 
distinct joints, the basal joint being at least as long as the second. ‘The maxillary palpi are rather 
shorter than the antenne. The body is nearly hemispherical, with the prosternum prolonged into a 
point at its posterior extremity, and the tibie spinose, the anterior being palmated or digitated in the 
larger species. The antennz have always nine joints, or simply eight, if the last is considered as an 
appendage of the preceding. (See the Elaterides, and some other genera of Coleoptera.) These insects 
are small, and inhabit cow-dung and other excrementitial matter, and some species are found near the 
margins of water. They compose the genus 


SpH2RIpDIUM, Fabr. 

Spheridium proper, of Leach, comprises only those species which have the anterior tarsi of the 
males dilated. Dermestes scarabeoides, Linn., is shining black, smooth, with very spiny feet, a spot 
of blood-red at the base of each elytron, and the tip reddish. These spots vary, and even disappear in 
some specimens [of this very common British insect]. 

The species which have the tarsi alike in the two sexes, with the mass of the antennz loosely imbri- 
cated, form the genus [Cercyon, not] Cercydion of Leach; Sph. unipunctatum, Linn. The form of 
the tibiz and the arrangement of the spines or teeth would enable us to divide Spheridium into 
several other groups, which would facilitate the study of the species, which have probably been too 
much multiplied. 


THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA PENTAMERA,— 


THe LAMELLICORNES,— 
Has the antennz inserted in a deep impression beneath the lateral margins of the head, always short, 


mostly composed of nine or ten joints, and terminated in all by a mass generally formed of the last 
three joints, which are lamellar; sometimes arranged like a fan, or the leaves of a book, opening and 


gh et Se il Sa a 


nn 


522 INSECTA. 


shutting in the same manner ; sometimes forming a concentric, contorted club, the first or the basal 
joint of the mass being in such case semi-infundibuliform, and receiving the others; sometimes 
arranged perpendicularly to the axis, and forming a kind of comb. The body is generally ovoid or 
oval, and thick, the outer edge of the anterior tibie is toothed, and the joints of the tarsi, except in 
some males, are entire, and without any brush or cushion beneath; the anterior extremity of the head 
is advanced and dilated, generally in the form of a shield; the mentum is generally large, and covers 
the tonguelet, or is incorporated with it, and bears the palpi; the mandibles of many are membranous, 
a peculiarity not found in any other coleopterous insect. The males often differ from the females 
either in the horns or tubercular elevations of the thorax or head, or in the size of their mandibles. 

This family is of very great extent, and one of the most beautiful of the order, in respect to the 
size of the body, the variety in the form of the head and thorax in the different sexes, and often also 
in those species which in the perfect state live upon vegetable substances, in respect to the brilliancy 
of the metallic colours with which they are ornamented. But the majority of the other species, which 
subsist on decomposing vegetable matter, as manure, tan, or excrementitious matter, are generally of 
an uniform brown or black colour; some of the coprophagous species, nevertheless, are not inferior 
in this respect to the preceding. All have wings, and they crawl but slowly. The larve have the 
body long, nearly semicylindrical, soft, often transversely wrinkled, whitish-coloured, 12-jointed, with 
the head scaly, armed with strong jaws and six scaly feet. Each side of the body has nine spiracles ; 
the posterior extremity is thickened, rounded, and generally curved beneath, so that these larvae 
having the back convex or arched, are not able to extend themselves in a straight line, and crawl but 
badly on a smooth surface, and tumble sideways or back downwards at every step. A general idea of 
their form may be obtained from that of the grub so common in gardens and pastures, which produces 
the common Cockchaffer. Some species do nct change to pupe until they have passed three or four 
years as larve ; they form for themselves in their retreats, with the earth or the debris of the mate- 
rials they have gnawed, a cocoon of an ovoid form, or in the shape of an elongated ball, of which the 
particles are fastened together with a glutinous secretion. Their food consists of dung, manure, tan, 
the roots of vegetables, including some which are useful to Man, whence these insects occasionally 
cause much loss to the cultivator. The nervous system, considered in the larva and imago states, 
exhibits remarkable differences. 

We divide this family into two tribes, the anatomy of which, according to Dufour, is so different as 
to raise them to the rank of two distinct families,—[ Scarabeides and Lucanides]. 

The first, that of the 


SCARABAXIDES,— 
Possesses antenne terminated in the majority by a club composed of leaflets capable of being shut up, 
and in the others consisting of box-like joints, either in the form of a cone reversed, or nearly globu- 
lar ; the mandibles are alike, or nearly alike, in the sexes, but the head and thorax of the males often 
exhibit prominences of peculiar form ; sometimes also their antenna are more developed. This tribe 
corresponds with the genus 
ScaraBazus, Linnzus. 

We divide this genus into numerous small sections, founded upon the consideration of the mastica- 

tory organs, antennz, and habits, the distinction of which sections has been confirmed by the anato- 


mical researches of M. Dufour. 

1. The Coprophagi, or the Scarabeides of our first section, have the antennz generally composed of 
eight or nine joints, the last three of which form the knob; the labrum and mandibles are membranous 
and hidden. The terminal lobe of the maxille is also of this consistence, broad, and curved on the 
upper edge; the last joint of the maxillary palpi is always largest, and the last joint of the labial is 
slenderer than the preceding, or very small, behind each of which last palpi is a membranous produc- 
tion, or tonguelet. The sternum offers no particular prominence, and the claws of the tarsi are simple ; 
the fore tarsi are often wanting, either naturally or from being worn away. 

Some of the Coprophagi have the two middle legs much wider apart at the base than the others ; 
the labial palpi very hairy, with the last joint minute; the scutellum wanting, or very small. 


Aleuchus, Weber (Scarabeus of the Latins and Mac Leay, Heliocantharus of the Greeks), consists of species' 
peculiar to the old world, with the body rounded, generally depressed above, alike in both sexes ; antenne 9-jointed,, 


COLEOPTERA. 523 


with a leaf-like club; four posterior tibia, slender, elongate, not thickened at the tip, truncated obliquely and ter- 
minated by a single spur, and with the outer margin of the elytra not sinuated near the base ; the clypeus is gene- 
rally divided into three lobes, its edge presenting six teeth. 

These insects (which Mr. Mac Leay has described in his excellent Hore Entomologice) inclose their eggs in balls 
of dung, or even of human excrement, like large pills, (whence they have been called Piludarii,) which they roll 
along with their hind feet (often in company), until they reach the hole in which they are to be deposited. Two of the 
species were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, and introduced into their hieroglyphical writings. Their 
effigy is represented on all their monuments, models of them were made of the most precious materials, and 
formed into amulets, &c., suspended round the neck, and which were buried with the mummies. The insect itself 
has been found in some of their coffins. 

Scarabeus sacer, Linn., found not only in the whole of Egypt, but in the south of France, Spain, and other 
southern parts of Europe, has until lately been regarded as the object of this superstition ; but another species, dis- 
covered in Sennari by M. Caillaud, appears, from its more brilliant colours, and the country where it is found, 
and which was the first residence of the Egyptians, to have attracted their earliest attention. I have named it 

Ateuchus dgyptiorum. (See my Memoir on the Insects painted and sculptured 
by the Egyptians, and the Works of Champollion.)—Some Ateuchi, having the 
thorax and abdomen shorter, more rounded, and more convex, form the genus 
Pachysoma, Kirby, (S. Aisculapius, Oliv. and Hippocrates). [Mnematium, 
Mac Leay, is closely allied to these. MM. Ritchii, from the interior of Africa.] 

Gymnopleurus, Illig., differs in having the outer edge of the elytra strongly 
notched near the base. The four posterior tibiz are very slightly spined. Ateu- 
chus sinuatus, pilularius, &c. 

Other Coprophagi, closely atlied to the preceding, have the middle tibia (which 
as well as the posterior are often thickened at the tips) furnished with two spurs. 
The clypeus has in many species only four or two spines. 

Sisyphus, Latr., has only 8-jointed antenne, and the abdomen triangular, with 
very long hind legs. At. Schefferi, Fab., and others [described by M. Gory in 
his Monograph on this genus]. 

S 2 Circellium, Latr., has the body hemispherical, the abdomen semicircular, scu- 
Fig. 68.— Ateuchus (Scarabeus) tellum wanting, and clypeus 6 or 4-toothed. At. Bacchus (Cape of Good Hope]. 
£gyptiorum. * E : 
Coprobius, Latr., is composed of New World species, without a scutellum ; body 
ovoid, not convex, and the sides of the thorax angular. 

Cheridium, Serville and St. Fargeau, has shorter legs. We also unite their Hyboma with Coprobius. 

Eurysternus, Dalm. (4schrotes, Serv.), possesses a scutellum, with the body oval-oblong. 

Oniticellus, Zeigl. (with the body oblong and scutellum distinct), and Onthophagus (without a scutellum, and the 
body short and broad), are exclusively distinguished by having the third joint of the labial palpi scarcely distinct, 
and the preceding larger than the first. The last-named group is further distinguished by the males having the 
head and thorax often cornuted. S. taurus, Linn. [a very rare British species], the male of which has two long 
curved horns on the head. [There are several other British species.] All the species are of small size. 

Onitis, Fab. (having the second joint of the labial palpi largest, the scutellum distinct, and the fore tibiz of the 
males long and curved), and Phaneus, Mac Leay, (having the first joint of the labial palpi largest, the scutellum 
replaced by a sutural space, the males cornuted, and the legs of equal size in both sexes, and composed of many fine 
and large exotic species,) differ from the rest in having the second joint of the club of the antenne encased between the 
two outer joints, and the thorax large. (See the Monograph of this genus by Mac Leay, in the Hore Entomologice.) 

Copris, Geoffr., as now restricted, comprises only such as have the club of the antenne formed of three plates ; 
the four hind tibie greatly dilated and truncate at the tip; the scutellum wanting ; the body thick and differing 
in the sexes. The largest species inhabit the tropical parts of Africa and the East Indies. Scarabeus lunaris, 
Linn. [is a local British species]. Eight lines long ; black and shiny, with an erect horn on the head of the males. 
{It is found under dung in sandy places near London.] ‘ 

The terminal Coprophagi have the legs inserted at equal distances apart, the scutellum very distinct, and the 
elytra covering the abdomen. In other respects they nearly approach the preceding subgenus, but the sexual 
differences are less strongly marked, consisting only in slight tubercles. They appear at the commencement of 
spring, [hovering over every fresh deposit of animal excrement. This is the family of Aphodiide, Macl.] 

Aphodius, Illig., has the inner lobe of the maxille not corneous nor dentate, the body is rarely short, and the 
thorax not transversely strigose. Scar. fimetarius, Linn. [a very common British insect, and many other species]. 

Psammodius, Gyll., has the inner lobe of the maxilla corneous and with two teeth, the body short, and the thorax 
transversely rugose. 

Euparia, St. Farg. and Serv., also belongs to this section, apparently allied to Eurysternus. 


Psammodius naturally conducts us to the following section, Arenicoli, which, with Aphodius and 
Psammodius, are the only species in which the elytra entirely cover the abdomen: the mandibles are 
horny, exposed, and curved; the terminal lobe of the maxill is straight, with few exceptions ; the 
antenne are 10 or 11-jointed. These Beetles also live in dung, and form deep burrows in the earth; 
they fly about in the twilight after sunset, and counterfeit death when alarmed. [The Arenicoli form 
two sections, corresponding to the families Geotrupide and Trogide, Mac Leay.] 


524 INSECTA. 


In the Geotrupides the antenne are generally 11-jointed, the mandibles are generally exposed and 
curved, and the upper lip more or less exposed ; the species are generally of black or red colours, with 
the elytra smooth or simply striated; the males are often cornuted. They chiefly feed upon 


excrementitious matter. 

ABgialia, Latr. (having the body short, thorax transverse and abdomen gibbous, and composed of [a single small 
British species, found upon our sandy coasts.) Ps. arenarius, Gyll., &c.) and 

Chiron, Mac Leay, (Diasomus, Dalm.), having the body narrow, long, and subcylindric, [and consisting of severai 
exotic species, and placed by Mac Leay amongst the Lucanide], are both distinguished by having only nine joints 
in the antenne; the others have eleven joints, which are, however, sometimes difficult in computation, the joint 
preceding the club being sometimes apparently confounded with the basal joint of the club. ’ 

Lethrus differs from the rest in having the club obconical and the mandibles exposed, very large, serrated inter- 
nally, and with a large tooth inthe males. Lethrus cephalotes, Fabr., according to Fischer, is destructive to young 
buds and leaves, which it bites off, whence, in Hungary, it is called “‘ the Schneider,’ and where it does much 
injury to the vines, crawling backwards, with its food in its jaws, into its hole, each of which is occupied by a male 
and female ; but in the pairing time a strange male sometimes intrudes, when a battle ensues which only ends in 
the death or flight of the stranger. 

The others have the joints of the club of the antenne of the ordinary form, and leaf-like. 

Geotrupes, Latr., has the labrum advanced and transversely square, the jaws are curved and very compressed, and 
with the club of the antenne oval or ovoid, the anterior tibie long and multidenticulate, and the clypeus lozenge- 
shaped: Scarabeus stercorarius, Linn., [the common Dor, or Shard- 
borne Beetle. One of the commonest British insects ; there are several 
others, natives of this country.] Those species which have the thorax 
of the males cornuted form the [genus Typheus, Leach], Ceratophyus, 
Fischer. Type, Scarabeus typheus, Linn., [or the common English 
Bull-comber]. : 

Ochodeus, Meg., has the labrum strongly notched, the mandibles 
elongate, triangular, and the fore-tibie with only two teeth on the 
outer edge. Melolontha chrysomelina, Fab. [Germany]. 

Those species with the club of the antenne large, orbicular, or sub- 
globose, the middle joint being encased between the two outer ones, 
form three subgenera. 

Athyreus, Mac Leay, approaches the Coprophagi in having the middle 
feet wider apart than the others. 

: Fig. 69.—Geotrupes stercorarius. Elephastomus, Mac Leay, has the clypeus produced into a thick, 
square horn, furcate at tip, and the maxillary palpi very long. Scarab. proboscideus, Schr. [New Holland]. 

Bolbocerus, Kirby (Odonteus, Zeigl.), has one of the mandibles simple, and the other bidentate at the tip; the 
maxillary palpi scarcely larger than the others. S. mobilicornis, Fabr., a small [rare British species, the male of 
which has a long erect horn on the head]. 

Hybosorus, Mac Leay, (naving the basal joint of the antenne obconical and elongated, the tibi# narrow and elon- 
gated), and 

Acanthocerus (having the basal joint of the antenne very large, dilated above, and the tibiz lamellar and con- 
cealing the tarsi), have ten joints in the antenna, the last joint of the palpi elongate, and the mandibles not or but 
slightly toothed. The species of both are very small [and exotic]. 


In the second division of the Arenicoli, or the Trogides, the antenne are always composed of ten 
joints, the labrum and mandibles but slightly exposed, the mavxille armed with teeth; the body is 
dingy-coloured, and tubercular above; their fore-legs are advanced, their thighs covering the head 
beneath. These insects produce a stridulation by the action of the mesothorax against the sides of the 
prothoracic cavity. 

Trox, Fabr.—These insects are found in the earth or sand, where they appear to devour the roots of vegetables. 
[Trox arenarius and two other British species, of small size.] Mr. Mac Leay has separated the apterous species 
with the sides of the thorax dilated, under the name of Phoberus. 

Cryptodus and Mechidius, Mac Leay, have the extremity of the body not covered by the elytra, and nine joints 
to the antenne: Mechidius appears to me to approach the Melolonthe. [Mr. Mac Leay has subsequently discovered 
that Cryptodus belongs to the Cetoniide. Both subgenera are Australian.] 


A third section, Xylophili, (Geotrupes and certain Cetonie, Fabr.), has the scutellum distinct, the 
extremity of the abdomen not covered by the elytra, the claws of the tarsi often unequal, the antenne 
always 10-jointed, the last three forming a leaf-like mass, the middle leaf never being entirely concealed 
by the outer ones; the mandibles horny as well as the maxillz, which are straight and often toothed. 
All the feet are inserted at equal distances apart. [This section comprises two divisions, corresponding 
with the families Dynastide and Rutelide, Mac Leay.] 

The first division (comprising the Geotrupes of Fabricius) comprises those species, the males of which 


COLEOPTERA. 525 


differ from the females in being armed with peculiar horns or tubercles either on the head or thorax ; 
the labrum is generally entirely concealed ; in some species the maxillz are terminated by a simple coria- 
ceous or crustaceous lobe, without teeth ; in others they are scaly, pointed, and armed with a few teeth; 


the sternum is not prominent ; the tarsal ungues are generally equal, the colours generally black or brown. 

Oryctes, Illig. (having the legs scarcely differing in length, with the four hind tibiz thick and toothed, [a very 
numerous genus]—type, Scar. nasicornis, Linn., a reputed British species, 14 inch long, the male having a curved 
horn on the head,) and 4Sgacephala, Mann. (having the fore-legs in the male considerably elongated, and the four 
posterior tibia slender, and comprising a few Brazilian insects), differ from the following in having the maxille 
terminated by a coriaceous lobe without teeth. The others have them horny, and more or less toothed. 

Scarabeus proper (Geotrupes, Fabr.), has the body very thick, and the outside of the mandibles sinuated or 
toothed. The equatorial countries of both hemispheres produce some very remarkable species. 

{Mr. Mac Leay, considering that the name Scarabeus ought to be retained for the sacred Scarabei, or the Ateuchi 
of this work, and that the name Geotrupes ought to be given to the species which strictly merit that name, from 
their habits of burrowing into the ground, has proposed the name of Dynastes for these giant beetles here described 
under the name of Scarabeus. Mr. Kirby has further separated some species, especially in his manuscripts 
presented to the Entomological Society, founded upon the structure of the mouth, and which Mr. Hope has made 
use of in his Coleopterist?s Manual, part i., in which many new genera are described and illustrated, with figures 
mostly drawn by me from Mr.Kirby’s own dissections, so that the observation of Latreille, that the study of thisgroup, 
in respect to the structure of the mouth, has not 
been sufficiently profound, is no longer to be made. 
The species are very numerous ; one of the largest is] 

Scarabeus hercules, Linn.—Five inches long; 
from South America, black, with grey elytra spotted 
with black. 

Phileurus, Latr., has the body depressed, and the 
mandibles narrow, without teeth on the outside. 
[Composed of exotic species. ] 


Our second division [Rutelide, Mac L.] is 
nearly allied to the preceding in some respects, 
and also to the Melolonthe and some Cetoniz, 
of which they have the appearance, but the mouth is different. The body is shorter, rounder, and more 
polished than in the Scarabei, and ornamented with brilliant colours. The head and thorax are 
identical, and not cornuted in either sex; the maxille are scaly, truncated at the tip, with five or six 
strong teeth. The mesosternum is often porrected, the scutellum large, and the tarsal claws unequal- 
sized. With few exceptions, they are confined to the equatorial regions of the New World. 

Hexodon, Oliv., has the mesosternum simple, the body sub-orbicular, depressed, legs slender, and tarsal claws 
minute and equal. [Composed of two African species.] 

Cyclocephala, Latr. (Chalepus, Mac Leay), has the sternum also simple, the body ovoid, the tarsal claws unequal. 
Numerous South American species. In the following the sternum is advanced between the middle feet. 

Chrysophora, Dej., has the hind legs of the males enormously dilated and elongated. Scarabeus macropus, 
[Francillon, from South America]. 

Rutela, Latr. (and Pelidnota, Mac Leay, Oplognathus, Kug.), has the feet not remarkably differing in the sexes, 
the scutellum small, or moderate. 

Macraspis, Mac Leay, differs in having a greatly developed scutellum, and the mandibles nearly triangular. 

Chasmodia, Mac Leay, has a large scutellum and sternal point, but the mandibles are narrow, and obtuse at the 


tip: all the tarsal claws are entire. 
Ometis, Latr., differs from the above in having the epimera developed between the hind angles of the thorax 


and shoulders of the elytra. 

The genus Melolontha, of Fabricius, constitutes our fourth and fifth sections. 

The fourth section (Phyllophaga), is formed of Scarabzides, nearly allied to the last described sub- 
genera, but the mandibles are concealed above by the clypeus, and beneath by the maxille, the outer 
edge being alone exposed ; they are destitute of any sinus or tooth on the outside; the number of joints 
in the antenne varies from eight to ten, that of the club also varies, and, in this respect, the sexes often 
differ ; the elytra are united along the whole length of suture. 

[This section comprises Mac Leay’s two families, Anoplognathide and Melolonthide.] 

The first division (Anoplognathides) has the clypeus thickened in front, forming alone, or with the 
labrum, a vertical triangular face, the point of which is applied to the mentum; the maxille of some 
are terminated by a coriaceous or membranous lobe, very long, and without teeth, or having but very 
small ones, and situated near the middle of the internal margin; in others they are entirely horny, 
resembling mandibles either entire at the tips, or terminated by two other teeth. 


Fig. 70.—Scarabeus hercules. 


526 INSECTA. 


Pachypus, Dej. (the males of which have only 8 joints in the antenne, the club being 5-jointed, P. excavatus) 
{South of Europe], and 

Amblyterus, Mac Leay (having the antenne 10-jointed, the club being 3-jointed), have the mentum nearly ovoid 
and very hairy, and the maxillz terminated by a triangular hairy lobe, without teeth, or with very small ones. 

Anoplognathus, Mac Leay, (and Repsimus, Leach), have a sternal point, the claws of the tarsi entire and unequal 
in size, the antenne 10-jointed. [These are splendid Australian insects, with bronzed bodies, apparently of very 
common occurrence, from the numbers brought to England. ] 

Leucothyreus, Mac Leay, has the antenne 10-jointed, one of the tarsal claws entire and the other bifid; the 
anterior tarsi are dilated, and spongy beneath in the males. (Brazilian insects.] 

Apogonia, Kirby, differs in having all the tarsal claws bifid. [Exotic species of small size.] 

Geniates, Kirby, has the antenne 9-jointed, and the extremity of the maxille with three teeth, the mentum of 
the males witha beard, the claws as in Leucothyreus. G. barbatus, Kirby, (Brazil). Melolontha obscura, and others, 
appear to form a different subgenus, the tarsi not being dilated. 


A second division of the Phyllophagi [called by mistake Xylophiles in the text], and which comprises 
the Melolonthide of Mac Leay, has the labrum transverse, with a notch in the middle; the mentum is 
as long as, or longer than broad, either nearly square or heart-shaped. The maxille are scaly, and 
mostly armed with five or six teeth. This division comprises two subdivisions, Melolonthides and Hoplides. 

The Melolonthides have more than three plates in the club of the antenne: the body is generally 
thick, mandibles robust, entirely, or for the greatest part, horny, the upper extremity strongly truncate, 
with two or three teeth, the labrum generally visible, the maxillary teeth robust, and all the tarsi have 
two claws. 


Melolontha proper, has 10-jointed antennz, the last fiveor seven in the males, and four or six in the females, 
form the club; the labrum is thick and deeply notched in the middle; the tarsal claws are equal; the abdomen 
is generally pointed at the end, at least in the males. 

Melolontha vulgaris (Scarabeus melolontha, Linn.), [the common Cockchaffer,] is too well known to require 
description, and has formed the subject of elaborate anatomical works by Strauss Durckheim, Leon Dufour, and 
Chabrier. This insect (as well as another closely-allied species, M. hippocastani) [which last, however, is of very 
rare occurrence in this country] appear in certain seasons in so great abundance that they defoliate in a very 
short time large spaces of our forests and woods, devouring the leaves. The larva is also equally destructive to 
the roots of grass, &c., in our pastures and gardens, being a white grub [with a scaly head, six legs, and the body 
thick, fleshy, white, and curved, so that the creature ordinarily lies upon its side]. 

Rhisotrogus, Latr., differs only from Melolontha in haying the antenne 9 or 10-jointed, with the club 3-jointed. 
As it is not always possible to distinguish the number of joints immediately preceding the club of the antenne, 
1 reunite the genus Amphimallon, which I had first formed, and in which there are only nine joints in those 
organs. M. solstitialis, ‘the July Chaffer, a very common British species,] and others. 

Ceraspis, Lep., Serv., has the hind margin of the thorax with two notches, the intermediate space forming a 
point ; antenne 10-jointed ; tarsal claws, except the anterior, unequal; body clothed with small scales ; consisting 
of afew Brazilian species, C. pruinosa, &c. 

Areoda, Leach, has 10-jointed antenne ; the sternum pointed ; all the tarsal claws equal in the supposed females, 
and unequal in the males. These are of brilliant colours. [A. Janigera, a handsome but common North Ameri- 
can insect.] In all the following Melolonthides the antenne have only nine joints. The four following have all the 
tarsal claws equal. 

Dasyus, Lepel. and Serv., has the ungues of the two fore-feet, at least in the males, bifid, the others entire. 

Serica, Macl. (Omaloplia, Dej.), has all the ungues bifid; the body ovoid, swollen, silky, with the thorax much 
broader than long. S. brunnea [a common British species of small size, mostly found in Spiders’ webs}. 

Diphucephala, Dej., has all the tarsal claws bifid; fore-tarsi more or less dilated in the males; body narrow, 
and the front of the head deeply notched. [Small species of a shining green colour, proper to Australia; mono- 
graphed by Waterhouse in Trans. Ent. Soc. vol. i.] 

Macrodactylus, Latr., resembles the last in the length of the body, but the thorax is nearly hexagonal, and the 
tarsi alike in both sexes. Small insects, peculiar to the New World. 

The remainder have the ungues of the middle tarsi alone unequal. 

Plectris, Lep., Serv., has the largest of the middle ungues, and both in the other tarsi bifid. 

Popilia, Leach, has the sternum advanced. [See Newman’s Monograph of this genus, an abstract of which has 
appeared in the Mag. of Nat. Hist.) 

Euchlora, Mac Leay (Anomala, Meg.), has no sternal point ; one of the ungues of the four anterior tarsi is bifid 
in the males ; body convex; clypeus short and transverse. [Latreille cites a species, M. viridis (which is the true 
type of Euchlora, of which group, confined to the Asiatic species, Mr. Hope has given a monograph in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Zoological Society,) and also M. Vitis, Julii, Frischii, &c., which are retained as species of Anomala 
by English writers. The allied genus, Mimela, K.) has also been monographed by Mr.Hope in Trans. Ent. Soe. vol.i.] 

Anisoplia, Meg., has also no sternal point, but the clypeus is narrow in front, with the extremity elevated. 
M. horticola, agricola, [British species]. 

Lepisia, Lepel. and Sery., have no sternal point, but the four anterior tarsi have both ungues bifid. 


COLEOPTERA. - (oO 


The Hoplides haye the mandibles small, depressed, and apparently divided longitudinally into two 
parts; the inner membranous and the outer horny. The extremity is not sensibly toothed; the 
labrum is scarcely visible ; the maxilla have rarely only minute teeth; the two hind tarsi have gene- 
rally only one claw. 

Dicrania, Lepel. & Serv., have two ungues, alike, and bifid in all the tarsi; body polished; species inhabiting 
Brazil. 

Hoplia, MWlig., has but a single unguis to the hind tarsi ; those of the other feet are unequal and bifid; the hind 
tibie are terminated by a coronet of minute spines; the body squamose. [Hoplia argentea, Oliv. H. pulveru- 
lenta is the only British species. ] 

Monocheles, Wlig., differs from Hoplia in the clypeus being in form of a triangle, truncated in front; thighs of 
hind legs very robust ; tibiz short, with a strong curved spur. 


The fifth section, Anthodii, is composed of species closely allied to the Hoplides, but having the two 
divisions of the lower lip produced considerably beyond the mentum, and the elytra gaping at the tips, 
which are rounded ; the antennz have nine or ten joints; the last three compose the club; the ter- 
minal lobe of the maxillz is membranous, silky, and pencil-like, but leathery in others; the upper lip 
and mandibles are more or less solid as they are more or less exposed. These insects live upon 
flowers or leaves. [None of these insects are found in England; they chiefly inhabit the southern 
parts of Europe and the warm parts of both hemispheres. ] 

Some have the labrum and mandibles exserted, and two equal and entire claws in all the tarsi. 

Glaphyrus, Latr. (having the inner edge of the mandibles toothed, the club of the antennz ovoid, and the hind 
legs large), and 

Amphicoma, Latr. (having the mandibles without teeth on the inner edge, and the club of the antenne globular, 
and all the legs of ordinary size), have the basal joint of the club of the antenne concave, and inclosing the others. 

Anthipna, Esch., has the club of the antenne composed of five leaflets. 

The others have the labrum and mandibles covered or not exserted, and some at Jeast of the ungues of, the tarsi 
are bifid, and in some of these all the tarsi have two ungues. 

Chasmatopterus, De}. (having all the tarsal ungues bifid), and 

Chasme, Lepel. & Serv. (having the larger unguis alone of the two posterior tarsi bifid), have the hind legs 
scarcely differing from the others, whilst in 

Dicheles, Lepel. & Servy., the hind feet, at least in the males, have the thighs very thick and toothed ; the tibize 
thick, and terminated by a strong claw. 

Those which have but one unguis in the two posterior tarsi are Lepitrix, Lepel. and Serv., having nine joints in 
the antenne, and the terminal lobe of the maxilla very small—Pachycnemus, Lepel. & Serv. (with 10-jointed 
antenne, the maxillary lobe long and narrow, and the elytra narrowed behind), and Anisonyx, Latr., haying the 
elytra oblong, rounded behind, with the hind tibie subcylindric or elongate-conic. 


The sixth and last section of the Scarabzides (Melitophili) is composed of insects having the body 
depressed, often of an oval form, brilliant, without horns, the thorax trapeziform or nearly orbicular ; 
an axillary piece occupies in the majority the space between the posterior angles of the thorax and 
the shoulders of the elytra; the anus is not covered; the sternum is often prolonged into a point or 
advanced horn ; the claws of the tarsi are equal and simple; the antennz have ten joints, the last 
three of which form the club, always leafed. The labrum and mandibles are concealed, and in the 
form of flattened plates, entirely or partly membranous; the maxilla are terminated by a hairy lobe 
like a brush, without horny teeth; the mentum is ordinarily ovoid, truncated above or nearly square, 
with the middle of the upper edge more or less concave. The larve live in old rotten wood: the 
perfect insect is found upon flowers, as well as on the trunks of trees, in places where the sap 
exudes, and which they greedily lap up. 

This section is divisible into three principal divisions, which correspond to the genera Trichius, 
Fabr.; Goliathus, Lamarck ; and Cetonia, Fabr., in its restricted state. The Melitophili of the two first 
divisions have not the sternum much porrected, and the lateral or axillary piece of the mesosternum 
(Epimera, Aud.) is not generally exposed above. Another character, which appears still more rigorous, 
consists in the labial palpi being inserted in lateral cavities on the anterior face of the mentum, the 
sides of the mentum extending behind them, and thus guarding them, 

The Trichides have the mentum either nearly isometrical, or longer than broad, with the maxille 
exposed. This division comprises the single subgenus 

Trichius, Fabr. [which has been cut up by Kirby, Gory, and others, into various minor subgenera]. Trichius 


nobilis, Linn., and T. fasciatus, Linn. [are British species; the latter exceedingly rare]. The female of T. hemi- 
pterus, Linn., and some others from North America, are distinguished by having a long and slender horny instru- 


528 INSECTA. 


ment at the extremity of the abdomen, with which they deposit their eggs. These species are commonly found 
on the ground, where they crawl about slowly. [They form the subgenus Valgus of Scriba.] 


The second division, Goliathides, is distinguished by having the mentum much broader, covering 


the maxille. 

Platygenia, Macl. (having the body very flat, the thorax subcordate, and the maxilla terminated by a pencil of 
hairs), and 

Cremastocheilus, Knoch (having the thorax transverse-quadrate, the maxille terminated by a strong tooth, 
with small spines; composed of several small curious exotic species), have the mentum concave in the middle, and 
the anterior extremity of the clypeus never cornuted nor toothed. 

Goliath, Lam., Kirby, has the mentum without any discoidal concavity, emarginate at the top edge, and the 
anterior extremity of the clypeus of the males is divided into two lobes like truncated and obtuse horns. The 
thorax is nearly orbicular. This genus is composed of large and splendid species, from Africa and the East Indies. 
Some species from South America have been separated by St. Fargeau and Serville under the name of Inca, having 
the fore femora armed with a tooth. All the known species are of large size, but one sent from the Cape of Good 
Hope is not larger than C. gagates ; the fore thighs are not toothed in the Goliathi, and the tibiz have not a notch 
in the inside. An insect from Java, considered as a Goliath by Serville and St. Fargeau, has all the characters of 
Cetonia, only the thorax is rounder, and the male has a forked horn on the head. [This is the Goliath rhino- 
phyllus, Weid. These splendid insects have recently attracted considerable interest in this country, several of 
the gigantic African species having been received by several Entomologists. Mr. Hope, in the Coleopterist’s 
Manual ; Mr. Mac Leay, in his Memoir on the Cetoniide ; Messrs. Waterhouse and White, in the Mag. of Nat. 
History, as well as myself in the new edition of Drury, have described various species, or distributed them into 
subgenera. Various new species have also recently been described by the French Entomologists. ] 


The third division of the Melitophili, named Cetoniides, [thus named, although not corresponding 
with the Cetoniide of Mac Leay, as stated in the text,] has the sternum more or less prolonged into 
an obtuse point between the second pair of legs; the axillary piece is always visible above, occupying 
the space between the posterior angles of the thorax 2 -d the shoulders of the elytra; the thorax ordi- 
narily triangular, but truncated in front; the mentum never transverse; its front edge more or less 
notched in the middle; the maxillary lobe is pencil-like; the body is nearly ovoid, and depressed. 

Gymnetis, Mac Leay, has the hind margin of the thorax produced over the scutellum: the New Word produces 
several species. Others, from Java and other parts of the East Indies, have the thorax elongated in the same 
manner, but not entirely covering the scutellum, and the clypeus is more or less bifid. Other species, from the 
Fast Indies or New Holland, with the clypeus similarly bifid, or armed with two horns in the males, the abdomen 
nearly triangular, and the club of the antennz very elongate, compose the genus Macronata of Wiedemann; but 
all these groups will possess no solidity until the numerous 
species of the genus Cetonia have been investigated. 

The European species possess a scutellum of the ordi- 
nary size. 

Cetonia aurata, Linn.—Nearly an inch long; of a 
shining-green colour above, coppery-red beneath, with 
white marks on the elytra; [is one of our commonest 
insects, frequenting flowers, especially those of the 
Rose, whence its common name, the Rose-beetle. It is 
here figured with its larva, pupa, and cocoon, formed of 
small particles of chips, &c.] 

[The splendid Monographie des Cétoines by Messrs. 
Gory and Percheron, although not sufficiently precise 
either in its structural details or bibliographical refer- 
ences, is indispensable to the student, as well as Mr. 
Mac Leay’s Memoir on the Cetoniide, in Dr. Smith’s 
work on the African animals collected by him; Mr. 
Hope’s Coleopterist’s Manual, and the general works on 
insects recently published, must also be consulted for 
descriptions of many new species, as well as genera, of 
Lamellicorn Beetles. The larve of this tribe have also 
been admirably illustrated in an enatomical Memoir by 
De Haan, published in the Mémoires Nourelles du Mu- 
séum a’ Hist. naturelle.) F 


Fig. 71.—Cetonia aurata. 


The second tribe of Lamellicorn Beetles, the 
LucANIDES,— 
So named after the Linnazan genus Lucanus, or Stag-beetles, has the club of the antenne composed of 
teeth arranged perpendicular to the axis, like a comb; they are always 10-jointed, the basal joint 
being mostly very long, [the second being so inserted as to form an elbow with the preceding] ; the 


COLEOPTERA. 529 


mandibles are always horny, often very much porrected, largest, and very diversified in form in the 
males. The maxilla are commonly terminated by a long, narrow, hairy lobe, but in some they are 
entirely horny, and toothed : the tonguelet consists of two small hairy setz extending beyond the large 
horny mentum ; the fore-legs are often elongated, with the tibiz externally denticulated ; the tarsi are 
terminated by two equal and simple claws, with a small appendage between them, terminated by two 
bristles; the elytra entirely cover the body. 

We divide them into two sections, the first of which has the antenne strongly elbowed, naked ; 
labrum very small, united to the clypeus ; maxillz terminated by a membranous or coriaceous lobe, very 
hairy like a pencil, without teeth, or with only one ; the tonguelet either entirely concealed, or incorpo- 
rated with the mentum, or divided into two narrow, long, hairy lobes: this section forms the genus 


LucANUS. 

Those which have only three or four joints in the club of the antenne form a first division. 

Sinodendron, Fab., has a strong resemblance to Oryctes: the body nearly cylindrical, the mandibles hidden, 
without teeth, and alike in both sexes; the head of the males has anerect horn. Scarabeus cylindricus, Linn., 
acommon British insect. Those with the body convex, ovoid, and the mandibles elevated vertically, and shorter 
than the head, form two subgenera,— 

salus, Fab. (having the body short and convex, the mandibles terminated above in a horn, and the maxille 
covered by the mentum, composed of a single European species, 4s. scarabeoides, Fabr.), and 

Lamprima, Latr. [composed of splendid metallic Australian insects, Lethrus eneus, Fabr., &c.], with the body 
more elongated, the mandibles much longer than the head in the males, and very much toothed and hairy within. 
Those with the body flatter, especially in the females, the mesosternum prolonged and advanced, and head nar- 
rower than the thorax, are 

Ryssonotus, Mac Leay, having the mandibles of the males formed as in Lamprima, comprising a single Aus- 
tralian species, Lucanus nebulosus, Kirby, and 

Pholidotus, Mac Leay (Chalcimon, Dalm.), with the mandibles of the males greatly elongated, narrow, curved, 
and serrated on the inner edge. Lamprima Humboldtii, Schonh., and a few other beautiful species from South 
America. 

[The magnificent genus Chiasognathus, Steph., is closely allied to the last. It is composed of a large and splendid 
species found in the Island of Chiloe, on the west coast of South America. Another species has been recently dis- 
covered on the Continent of America. ] 

In the following, the mesosternum is not pointed, and the head is as wide as, or wider than the thorax. 

Lucanus proper, having the eyes not divided by the sides of their head, the body depressed, and the maxille 
terminated by a very long lobe. 

Lucanus cervus, Linn., the common Stag-beetle, is one of our largest insects, the males being two inches long, 
or even longer, with the mandibles very large, curved, and toothed (like stag-horns) ; the females have the head 
narrower and the jaws smaller ; the size of this species and of its horns varies considerably. This insect flies about 
in the evening in the middle of the summer, [especially round the oaks], upon the wood of which the larva feeds, 
remaining in that state for several years before undergoing its final transformation. It is supposed that this larva 
was the Cossus of the Romans, a worm-like animal, which they esteemed as a delicious treat. 

I unite the Ceruchus and Platycerus of Mac Leay, to Lucanus. 

Platycerus, Latr. [Dorcus, Mac Leay], has the eyes entirely divided transversely 
by the margins of the head; the maxille are terminated by a shorter and broader 
lobe. Lucanus parallelipipedus, Fab. [the small Stag-beetle, commonly found 
in England]. 1 also reunite to Platycerus the Nigidius, Bgus, and Figulus of Mac 
Leay. 

Syndesus, Mac Leay, differing from all the preceding in having the club of the 
antenne composed of the last seven joints. S. cornutus, Fab. [New Holland]. 

[Hexaphyllum, Gray, is a Brazilian genus, closely allied to Syndesus in the an- 


tenne. | 
The Lucanides of our second section have the antenne but slightly 
elbowed and villose; the labrum always exposed, horny, and transverse ; 
the mandibles robust, and very much toothed ; without remarkable sexual 
Fig. 72.—Dorcus parallelipipedus.  isproportions; maxilla entirely horny, with at least two strong teeth; 
the tonguelet also horny, and situated in a notch of the mentum, and terminated by three points. 
The abdomen is attached by a peduncle, which has the scutellum on its upper part. These insects 


compose the genus 
PASSALUS, — 


Which Mac Leay restricts to the species with the club of the antenne 3-jointed, the maxille armed with three 
teeth at the tip, and two on the inside. The species with a 5-jointed club to the antenna, and with only two teeth 
to the maxille, compose his genus Pavillus. He also places in this same family the genus Chiron, which we have 


placed amongst the coprophagous Lamellicornes. These insects are strangers to Europe and also Africa, being 
MM 


ee a ee eS ee SS Oe ee ee 
eee 


530 INSECTA. 


confined to the eastern countries of Asia, and particularly to America; Madame Merian says that the larva of 
the species she figured feeds upon the roods of the batatas : the perfect insect is not rare in sugar grounds. 
{Eschscholtz, Sadoyski, and Percheron, have recently published monographs of the genus Passalus. Mr. Hope 
has described various new species of Lucanidz in the Trans. Zool. Society, vol. i., Coleopterist’s Manual, &c. 1 
have also described somenew genera and speciesin the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. i., and in the Entomol. 


Magazine, No. 23.] 


The second general section of the Coleoptera, named HETEROMERA, has five joints in the 
four anterior tarsi, and one joint less in the two hind tarsi. These insects entirely subsist on 
vegetable substances, and are divided by us into four great families, the two first of which, in 
respect to certain portions of their internal organization, have some analogy with the first of 
the pentamerous Beetles. Some of the Heteromera have the elytra generally hard, the tarsal 
claws almost always simple, the head ovoid or oval, capable of being posteriorly received into 
the thoracic cavity, or sometimes narrowed behind, but never forming a sudden neck at its 
base: many of them avoid the light. This division comprises the three following families, 
[Melasoma, Taxicornes, and Stenelytra]. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA HETEROMERA,— 


THe MELAsoMA,— 


Is composed of insects of a black or ashy colour, and unvaried, whence the name of the family; they 
are for the most part apterous, with the elytra often soldered together; the antenne entirely or partly 
moniliform, nearly of equal thickness throughout, or slightly thickened at the tip, inserted beneath 
the produced margins of the head, and having the third joint generally elongate; the mandibles bifid 
or notched at the tip ; and having also a horny tooth at the inner edge of the maxille ; all the joints of 
the tarsi are entire, and the eyes oblong and but slightly elevated, which, according to Marcel de Serres, 
indicates their nocturnal habits. They live for the most part in the ground, beneath stones, or in the 
sand ; often also in low and dark parts of buildings, such as cellars, stables, &c. 

The adipose tissue of these Heteromera is so much more abundant than in the following, that even 
when stuck upon a pin they are able to live nearly six months without food, as I ascertained in some 


specimens of Akis. 

We divide this family, which corresponds with the genns Tenebrio of Linnzus, from the absence or 
presence of wings. Amongst those which are destitute of these organs, a first tribe, Pimeliaria, is 
composed of those which have the palpi subfiliform, and not terminated by a distinctly hatchet-shaped 
joint. This tribe is named from the very numerous genus,— 


PIMELIA, Fabr. 

[None of the species are found in this country.] 

Pimelia proper, consists of species peculiar to the shores of the Mediterranean, Western and Southern Asia 
(except India), and Africa, which have the body more or less oval, with the thorax narrower behind than the * 
elytra; the front margin of the head straight, without a tooth in the middle, or a deep notch for the reception of 
the antennz ; the two terminal joints of the antennz distinct, and the mentum more or less heart-shaped. M. 
Fischer has divided the species into three genera, but the characters do not appear to be sufficiently marked. A 
very remarkable species,— 

P, coronata, is peculiar to Upper Egypt, where it is found in the tombs; it is about an inch and a half iong, 
black, with a row of short spines bent backwards along the edges of the elytra. 

Trachyderma, Latr., consists of Pimeliz with a narrower abdomen. 

Cryptochile, Latr., differs in their shorter form, with the mentum concealed by the prosternum. They are pe- 
culiar to the southern extremity of Africa. 

The three following subgenera differ from Pimelia in having the body short, gibbous above, with the thorax 
short, and as broad behind as the elytra. 

Erodius, Latr., has the last two joints of the antenne united into a small club, the body generally swollen, and 
the fore tibia with a spur in the middle. 

Zophosis, Latr., has the antenne nearly. filiform, or slightly thickening to the tip, with the tenth joint distinct 
from the preceding, and the third scarcely larger than the second. 

Nyctelia, Latr., differs from the last in the much greater length of the third joint of the antenne. The species 
are from South America, whilst those of Erodius and Zophosis are found in the Old World. 

Hegeter, Latr. (having the thorax trapeziform), and 

Tentyria, Latr. (with the head rather broader than the thorax, and antenne longer than in Akis), are separated 


COLEOPTERA. 531 


from the preceding in having the head more or less narrowed in front, the middle of its great margin having a 
notch to receive the upper lip; the antennz are always 11-jointed, and the thorax cordate-truncate. 

Eurychora, Thunberg (with the body oval, the edges acute and ciliated), and 

Adelostoma, Duponch. (with the body narrow and elongated), differ from all the foregoing in having the 
front edge of the mentum slightly emarginate, (not divided into two lobes,) or concave, with the lateral angles 
acute, 

We terminate the Pimeliaires with such as have the mentum square, without any notch or impression in the 
front edge; the body is always oblong, the antenne have always eleven distinct joints, the anterior femora are 
often thickened, and sometimes toothed. 

Tagenia, Latr. (having the third joint of the antenne scarcely longer than the following, and the eleventh very 
small), and 

Psammetichus, Latr. (with the third joint of the antenne much longer than the following, and the last joint as 
large as the preceding), have the thorax narrow, and the sides of the head dilated. 

Scaurus, Fabr., with the thorax nearly isometrical, or square, composed of Old World species. 

Scotobius, Germar, has the thorax broader than long, with the sides rounded ; composed of South American 
Species. 

Sepidium, Fabr., has the sides of the thorax angular, or with a strong tooth, and the middle of the back is chan- 
nelled; the sides of the head are but slightly dilated. The species are found in the South of Europe and Africa. 

The two last genera have the antenna composed of nearly cylindrical joints, the three or four terminal joints 
alone being rounded or ovoid ; the species are inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope. 

Trachynotus, Latr., has the eyes round or oval, and the thorax depressed. 

Moluris, Latr., and Psammodes, K., have the eyes narrow and long, and the thorax convex. 


The second tribe of the Melasoma, that of the Blapsides, is named from the genus Blaps, Fabricius, 
in which the maxillary palpi are terminated by a joint evidently dilated like a hatchet or triangle. 


This tribe is formed of a single genus,— 
BLAPs. 

Those species which have the body generally oblong, with the sides of the abdomen embraced by the elytra, 
which are mostly narrowed behind, and the tarsi alike in both sexes, form a first division, some of which have the 
mentum small, occupying not more than a third part of the under-side of the head. 

The four following subgenera have the tibie slender, without strong teeth, and the thorax is not dilated in 
front. 

Oxura, Kirby, has the body long and narrow, and the thorax longer than broad. 

Acanthomera, Latr., has the thorax nearly orbicular and transverse, and the abdomen nearly globular. 

Misolampus, Latr., has the thorax nearly globose, and the abdomen nearly ovoid. [These three groups do not 
occur in England.) 

Blaps, Fabr., has the thorax nearly square, flat, or but slightly convex ; the abdomen oval, transversely truncate 
at its base; the elytra in many are narrowed into a point, especially in the males, and the third joint of the an- 
tenne is longer than the following. 

Blaps mortisaga, Linn., is black, but little shining, and the tip of the elytra forms 
a short obtuse point. It is found in dark and dirty places about houses. {A very 
common British insect.i 

Fabricius states that the Turkish women which inhabit Egypt, where BI. sulcatais 
common, eat that species cooked with butter in order to make themselves fat. It is 
also said that it serves as an antidote against the ear-ache, and the sting of the 
Scorpion. 

Gonopus, Latr., has all the tibie angular, the two anterior broad, and strongly 
toothed on the outside, and the thorax is dilated in front. [Exotic species.] 

The other insects of this tribe, which have the feet alike in both sexes, differ in the 
large size of the mentum, which occupies the greater part of the under-side of the 
head in the form of a heart truncate behind, 

Heteroscelis, Latr., has the outer edge of the four fore feet armed with two strong 

Fig. 73.—Blaps mortisaga. teeth, one in the middle and the other at the tip, and the body oval, rounded at each 
end. 

Machla, Herbst., has the antenne terminated by a small club, formed of the last three joints, and lodged in canals 
on the under-side of the thorax. 

Scotinus, Kirby, has the antenne terminated in a small club, but the last two joints are nearly united, and not 
lodged in canals. [These three subgenera consist of exotic insects. ] 

Asida, Latr., differs from the last three subgenera in having the thorax nearly trapezoid, and the mentum 
covers the base of the maxille. 

In the remainder of the Blapsides, the body is oval and but little elongated, the lateral fold of the elytra is narrow 
and extends but slightly beneath, and the feet are unlike in the sexes, the two fore anterior tarsi being dilated in 
the males, the under-side being generally silky, or furnished with a brush. These insects inhabit sandy districts, 
the two fore tibiae being generally broad and dilated triangularly, so as to be fitted for burrowing. 

Pedinus, Latr., has the fore margin of the head always notched ; the two anterior tarsi of the males are alone 


532 INSECTA 


evidently more dilated than the following. Megerle and Dejean have cut this up into several other subgenera, 
without, however, characterizing them. Such are their genera,— 

Opatrinus (in which the males have the four basal joints of the anterior tarsi of equal breadth, composed of 
American species); Dendarus, Meg., in which the basal, and especially the fourth joint, are evidently narrower 
than the intervening joints, the tibiz long and narrow, but little dilated at the tip; Weliophilus, Dej., in which the 
sides of the thorax are suddenly narrowed near the posterior angles; Hurynotus, K., with the thorax large, 
scarcely broader than long, and strongly margined ; Isocerus, Meg., with the body distinctly more convex above, 
and the thorax transverse, and Pedinus proper, in which the males have the three basal joints of the two anterior 
tarsi always very much dilated, diminishing gradually in breadth, the fourth being very small; the hind thighs 
of the same individual are concave and silky beneath. [We possess a species of this genus found on the sea coast, 
of small size and black colour,—P. maritimus.] 

Blapstinus, Dej. (with the front margin of the head notched,) and. 

Platyscelis, Latr. (with the head entire in front), have the four anterior tarsi of the males equally dilated. 


We are now arrived at Melasomata furnished with wings, having the body generally oval or oblong, 
depressed, or but slightly elevated, with the thorax square or trapeziform, as broad behind as the ab- 
domen ; the palpi are largest at the extremity; the last joint of the maxillary palpi is hatchet-shaped ; 
the mentum is but little extended in breadth, leaving the base of the maxille exposed. 

These Melasomata compose the third and last tribe, that of the Tenebrionites, formed of the single 
genus 

TENEBRIO,— 
Such as it was at first formed by Fabricius, to which we reunite those which he has named Opatrum 
and Orthocerus. They serve as types for the same number of peculiar sections. 

1. Those with the body oval, the thorax nearly trapezoid, curved at the sides or semi-oval, broader 


behind than the abdomen; the maxillary palpi terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint. 

Crypticus, Latr., has the body convex and polished above, with the head exposed ; the antenne are nearly as long 
as the thorax ; the tibiw are long and narrow. Type, Pedinus glaber, Latr. [a species found in England on the sea 
coast, of a small size and black colour]. 

Opatrum, Fabr., has the body generally less elevated and often depressed, the head and eyes received into the 
deep prothoracic cavity ; the antenne are shorter than the thorax, the elytra are rough, the fore tibie are broad in 
some, 

Silpha sabulosa, Linn., about one third of an inch long, of an ashy grey colour. Very common throughout 
Europe [including England] in sandy places, appearing in the first fine days of the spring. 


2. Those with the body narrow and elongated, nearly of the same width or wider behind, with 


the thorax nearly square, and at least as long as wide, the antennz forming a thick mass. 

Corticus, Dej. (having cylindric antennez), and 

Orthocerus, Latr. (with spindle-shaped antenne), have these organs thick, perfoliated, hairy, and apparently only 
10-jointed ; Hispa mutica, Linn. [The type of the last subgenus is found in sand pits in various parts of England. ]} 

The antenne of the others are of the ordinary thickness, not visibly perfoliated, and with ten distinct joints. 

Chiroscelis, Lam., with the fore-tibiz palmated. Ch. bifenestra, Lam., [a large African insect]. 

Toxicum, Latr., with simple fore-tibie, and with the head triangular, and thorax nearly square. [Exotic species 
of moderate size.] 

Boros, Herbst., with simple fore tibia, and with the head oval, and thorax somewhat oval. 


3. Those with the body long and narrow, the thorax nearly square, the antenne of the ordinary 
size, and not suddenly terminated by a club; the thighs of the two fore-legs are thick, and the tibie 


bent and narrow. 
Calear, Dej., has the thorax oblong, the body linear, of equal breadth throughout, the front of the head notched. 
Upis, Fab., has the thorax oblong, the body narrow but not linear, the front of the head straight. U. ceram- 
boides, Fabr. [a German species]. 
Tenebrio, Linn., Fabr., differs only from Upis in having the thorax broader than long. 
Tenebrio molitor, Linn., about two-thirds of an inch long, of a black brown colour, is of very common occurrence 
{in England], being found, especially in the evening, in unfrequented parts of houses, bake-houses, 
and corn-mills, &c. Its larva [known under the name of the Meal-worm] is long, cylindric, and 
of an ochre colour, scaly, and very smooth; it lives in barley and wheat [biscuits, flour, &c.] 
and is given to Nightingales. The Brazilian, 7. grandis, is found under the bark of trees, and 
discharges from the anus a caustic fluid to the distance of a foot. 
_ Heterotarsus, Latr., has the penultimate joint of all the tarsi minute, and received in a cana] 
of the preceding joint. 
[The student will find the descriptions of many new genera in this and the two preceding sections 
of Melasoma, described by M. Solier in the Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, and Fig. 74.—Tenebrio 
by M. Guérin in his Magasin de Zoologie, and in the Voyage de la Coquille.} molitor. 


COLEOPTERA. 533 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA HETEROMERA,— 


THE T'AxIcoRNES,— 


Have no corneous hook on the inner edge of the maxille; they are also furnished with wings; the body 
is often square ; the thorax trapezoid or semicircular, and concealing or receiving the head; in some the 
antennz, generally inserted beneath the produced margin of the sides of the head, are short, more or 
less perfoliated, gradually thickened, or terminating in a mass. The feet are fit only for running, and 
all the joints of the tarsi are entire, and terminated by simple hooks; the fore-tibie often broad and 
triangular ; many males have the head furnished with horns. The majority of these beetles are found 
in fungi growing on trees, or beneath the bark ; others live in the ground, under stones. 

Some, forming the first tribe, Diaperales, have the head entirely exposed, and never entirely received 
in a deep notch of the front of the thorax, which is either trapezoid, square, or subcylindric, its sides 
like those of the elytra, not forming a decided margin to the body. This tribe has for its type the 


genus 
DtaPERIS,— 
Of which some have the antenne thick, straight, and perfoliated or clavate. 

Phaleria, Latr. (Uloma and Phaleria, Dej.), has the fore-tibie broad and triangular, the body ovoid, and the an- 
tenne not terminated by a club. A numerous subgenus, divided by Dejean into several others, the type, Tene- 
brio cadaverinus {the only British species found on the coast], being retained as the type of Phaleria. 

Diaperis proper, has the fore-legs narrow and nearly linear, with the maxillary palpi terminated by a sub- 
cylindrical joint. Type, Diaperis boleti [a handsome but rare British species], nearly one third of an inch long, 
* black, with three dentate bands of orange on the elytra. 

[The insects of this genus have formed the subject of a valuable monograph by Laporte and Brullé, in the An- 


nales des Sci. Nat.] 
Hypophleus, Fabr., differs from the preceding in the linear form of the body. They are found under the bark 


of trees. H. castaneus, [a rare British species]. 
The three following have the antenne terminated by an abrupt club, composed at least of four joints. 
Trachyscelis, Latr., with the antenne scarcely larger than the head, having a 6-jointed club ; body thick, convex, 
and tibiz broad and fossorial. [T. Aphodioides, a reputed British species of small size.] 
Leioides, Latr. (Anisotoma, Ilig.), differs in having the tibiz narrow and spinose, club of antenne 5-jointed. [A 


very numerous genus, of minute species. ] 
Tetratoma, Herbst., has the body longer, and the club of the antenne 4-jointed. [7. fenigorwm, and several other 


British species of small size, found in fungi.] 
The antenne in the others are curved, and terminated by a 5 or 3-jointed perfoliated club; the palpi filiform, 
the head of the males oftencornuted. They are found in boleti growing on trees : they form the genus Eledona, 


Latr., Boletophagus, Fab. 

Cowxelus has the three terminal joints alone of the antenna forming the club. (C. spinulosus.) 

The second tribe of the Taxicornes, the Cossyphenes, is formed of species resembling, in the general 
form of the body, Peltis, Nitidula, and Cassida, being ovoid or subhemispherical, margined all round 
by the dilated edges of the thorax and elytra; the head entirely hidden beneath the thorax, or received 
into a very deep notch in the frout of this part of the body ; the maxillary palpi are hatchet-shaped. 
This tribe is composed of the genus 


CossyPHus, Oliv. 
Cossyphus proper, having the front of the thorax entire and produced over the head, (consisting of exotic 


species,) and 
Heleus, Latv., with the head received in a deep frontal notch of the thorax, or exposed through a central aperture 


(composed of Australian species), have the body flattened and shield-shaped, whilst in 
Nilio, Latr., it is nearly hemispherical, with the head also exposed. [Composed of exotic species, having much 


the appearance of Lady-birds.] 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA HETEROMERA,— 


THe STENELYTRA,— 


Differs from the preceding only in the antennz, which are neither moniliform nor perfoliated, and in 
which the tip is not generally thickened. The body is often oblong, arched above, with the feet long; 
the males closely resemble the females. These insects are generally much more active than the preceding ; 
some are found under the bark of old trees, but many frequent the leaves and flowers; the greater num- 
ber were united by Linneus with the genus Tenebrio; but he arranged others with Necydalis, 


534 INSECTA. 


Chrysomela, Cerambyx, and Cantharis. In the first edition of this work, I had united the whole into 
one genus, Helops, but their internal as well as external anatomy indicates that this family constitutes 
five tribes, composed of the same number of genera, namely, Helops, Cistela, Direwa, Fabr., demera, 
and Mycterus, Oliv. In respect to their digestive organs and other characters, Helops and Cistela ap- 
proach Tenebrio; but the Cistele have the mandibles entire, and generally live amongst leaves and 
flowers, in which respect they differ from Helops; the majority of the Direwe have the faculty to 
leap, and the penultimate joint of the tarsi is bifid in many. Some live in fungi, &c., and others in 
rotten wood. These are allied on one hand to Helops, and on the other to @idemera, and especially to 
Nothus, belonging to the same tribe. Such are the principles upon which I have distributed this family. 

Those which have the antenne inserted near the eyes, and the head not produced into a long muzzle, 
form the first four tribes, [ Helopii, Cistelides, Serropalpides, and demerites]. 

The Helopii have the antenne covered at the base by the margin of the head, nearly filiform, or 
slightly thickened at the tip; generally composed of nearly cylindrical joints, the terminal one being 
always the longest; the extremity of the mandibles is bifid ; the last joint of the maxillary palpi is 
largest, and hatchet-shaped; the eyes oblong, and kidney-shaped: none of the legs are formed for 
leaping; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is either entire or not deeply bilobed; the ungues entire ; 
the body often arched above, and of a solid consistence; the larva, so far as known, are filiform, 
smooth, and shining, with very short feet like those of the Tenebrionide ; they are found in old wood ; 
the perfect insects are also met with beneath the bark. This tribe nearly corresponds with the genus 


HEvops, Fabr. 

Epitragus, Latr. (naving the base of the maxilla hidden by the mentum), 

Cnodalon, Latr. (with the head narrower than the thorax), and 

Campsia, Lepel. and Serv. (Camaria, L. & S., with the head as broad as the hind part of the thorax), are American 
groups, having the hinder extremity of the prosternum produced into a small point, received into a notch of the 
mesosternum. In all the other Helopii the mesosternum is not notched, nor the prosternum pointed. 

Spheniscus, Kirby (Brazilian insects, having the appearance of Erotyli), 

Acanthopus, Meg. (with the fore thighs thick and toothed, A. dentipes, Germany), 

Amarygmus, Dalm. (with simple fore-legs and antenne), 

Spherotus, Kirby (with the thorax narrower throughout than the abdomen, and with simple antenne and 
slender tibiz), and 

Adelium, Kirby (being of an oval form, with the thorax nearly orbicular, composed of New Holland insects), have 
the body nearly ovoid or short, with the thorax transverse. [None of these subgenera occur in this country.] 

Helops proper, has the thorax transverse, scarcely as long as wide, and closely applied to the base of the elytra. 
H. ceruleus, lanipes, and caraboides, [British insects, the last being exceedingly abundant]. 

Lena has the last joint of the antenne thicker than the preceding, and ovoid, the thorax truncate-cordate, 
separated from the abdomen by a visible space ; anterior femora thickened. [European species of small size.] 

The following Helopii have the body long and narrow, the thorax nearly square, or truncate-cordate. 

Stenotrachelus, Latr. (Dryops, Pk.), with the head narrowed behind into a neck, the three terminal joints of 
the antenne short and thick. D. @nea, Payk. [a continental species]. 

Agnathus decoratus, Germar, appears to approach the last very closely, as does also Pelmatopus Hummelii, Fisch. 

Strongylium, K., and Stenochia, K., have the head not narrowed into a neck, and the terminal joints of the 
antenne scarcely differing from the preceding. [Brazilian insects, mostly gaily coloured.] 

Pytho, Latr., has the body flattened and the thorax narrowed behind. [P. depressus, found in the northof Europe. 
The larva is very flat.] 


The second tribe, Cistelides, is exceedingly close to the preceding, but the antenne are not concealed 
at the base; the mandibles are entire; the tarsal ungues denticulated: many of these insects live in 


flowers. This tribe forms the genus 
CIsTELA, Fabr. 
Lystronichus, Latr., has the thorax thick, narrow, and suborbicular. [Brazilian insects.] 
Cisteia proper, has the thorax depressed trapezoid, the head produced into a short muzzle, the 
antennal joints mostly serrated, and the body ovoid or oval. 
Cistela ceramboides, five lines long; black, with orange-colonred, striated elytra; the larva 
resides in the decomposed wood of the oak. 
Mycetochares, Latr. (Mycetophila, Gyll.), has the head not produced into a muzzle, and the 
body narrow and elongated. H. barbatus. 
Allecula, Fabr., differs from the preceding in having the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed, 
and the last joint of the maxillary palpi hatchet-shaped. 
Fig. 75—Cistela [M. Solier has revised this tribe, and added several new genera, in the Annales de la Société 
ceramboides Entomol. de France.) 


COLEOPTERA. 535 


The third tribe, Serropalpides, is distinguished by the maxillary palpi being serrated, very large, and 
drooping ; the antennz are inserted in a notch of the eye, often short and filiform; the mandibles are 
generally bifid at the tip, and the tarsal ungues simple ; the front of the head is not produced, and the hind 
thighs are not thickened, in which they differ from the following; the penultimate joint of the tarsi, of the 
four fore-feet at least, is bilobed, and in those in which it is entire, the hind feet are fitted for leaping, 
being long, compressed, with slender tarsi. This tribe has for its type the genus— 

Dirc#a, Fabr. 
Orchesia,Latr., differs from the rest in having the antenne clavate, the maxillary palpiterminated by a hatchet- 
shaped joint, and the hind feet are formed for leaping. [O. micans, Latr., a minute British species.] 

Eustrophus, Mig. (with the body ovoid, and the amtennz shorter than the thorax), and 

Hallomenus, Payk. (with the body elongate oval, and the antenne longer than the thorax), have the palpi but 
slightly thickened at the tip. The remainder have the body narrow and elongated, with the maxillary palpi hat- 
chet-shaped, and some of these have the antenne thick and short. 

Dircea proper (Xylita, Payk.), has the maxillary palpi not serrated, the antenne thick, the body oval-shaped, 
and the scutellum very small. 

Melandrya, Fabr., with the maxillary palpi evidently serrated, the thorax depressed at the sides, and the 
scutellum moderate-sized. (MM. caraboides, a common British species. ] 

Hypulus, Pk., has the body narrow and nearly linear, with the thorax oblongand narrow behind. D. quercinus, 
[a very rare British species]. 

Serropalpus, Hellw., has the antenne slender, subcylindric, the body of a firm consistence, and the maxillary 
palpi strongly serrated. 

Serropalpus, Gyll., differs from the last in having the body soft, the maxillary palpi scarcely serrated, and the 
penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed. [Two very rare British species. ] 


The fourth tribe, @demerites, is nearly allied to the preceding in the insertion of the antenne, bifid 
mandibles, bilobed penultimate joint of the tarsi, and securiform maxillary palpi ; but (with the excep- 
tion of Nothus, which, although nearly allied to some of the preceding, differs in having the hind 
femora thickened) exhibits a series of characters which does not allow them to be confounded with 
any other Heteromera. The body is long, narrow, nearly linear, with the head and thorax rather nar- 
rower than the elytra; the antenne are longer than these parts of the body, serrated in some, but 
composed of long cylindric joints in the others; the anterior extremity of the head is more or less 
produced into a short muzzle, with the eyes more prominent ; the thorax is at least as long as broad, 
nearly square or cylindrical; the elytra are linear, narrowed behind, and often flexible. These insects 
are related to the Telephori and Zonites. They are found in flowers or trees ; their metamorphoses 
are not known. They form a single genus,— 

CEDEMERA, Oliv 

Nothus, Zeig]. (Osphya, Mig.), hasthe antennz short, simple, and inserted in a notch in the eyes ; the hind thighs 
thickened in one sex, the thorax as broad as the base of the abdomen, and the tarsal claws bifid. [. clavipes, a 
very rare insect, found in Huntingdonshire. } 

Rhebus, Fischer, ought probably in a natural system to be placed here. 

Calopus, Fab., has the antenne very long and serrated, the hind legs simple, with the second joint very short. 
C. serraticornis, [a common continental species]. 

Sparedrus, Megerle, differs from Calopus in having the antenne simple. 

Dytilus, Fisch., has the antenne also filiform, inserted in front of the eyes} the elytra are not narrowed at the 
tips. D. helopioides, [a continental species]. 

CGidemera, Oliv., has the hind legs thickened in one sex, the antenne long and slenderin one sex, and the 
elytra very much narrowed at the tips. [@@d. cwrulea,a very common British insect. Several of the species 
have been separated as distinct subgenera by Stephens. ] 


The fifth and last tribe of the Stenelytra, that of the Rhyncostoma, is composed of insects some of 
which are nearly allied to the (idemerites, whilst the others appear to belong in a natural order 
to the family of the Weevils (Rhyncophora). The head is evidently prolonged in front, in the shape of 
a muzzle or flattened rostrum, having the autenne at its base and in front of the eyes, which are al- 
ways entire. These insects form a single genus 

MycTEervus,— 


Some of which have the antenne filiform, and the muzzle not dilated at the tip. 
Stenostoma, Latr. (Leptura, Fabr.), has the body narrow, the thorax conical, truncated, the elytra flexible, nar- 


rowed to a point. Gd. rostrata, Latr., [South of Europe}. 
Mycterus, Clairv., has the body ovoid, solid, silky, [with the elytra entire] ; the antenne appear to be 12-jointed. 


(1. griseus, a continental species. } 


a a EEE EE Eee 
a ee eae ee 


536 INSECTA. 


Rhinosimus, Latr. (Salpingus, Mlig.), has the antenne terminated by an elongated mass, formed of three or five 
joints ; the muzzle very flat, witha produced angle on each side before the tip. They reside beneath the bark of trees, 
and require in a natural order to be arranged near to Anthribus of Fabricius, by whom indeed they were united 
therewith. The body is depressed and the palpi thicker at the tips. [S. roboris, a pretty minute British species. ] 


Our second general division,— 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA HETEROMERA,— 


Tue TRACHELIDES,— 


Have the head triangular or heart-shaped, carried on a kind of neck, which, being as wide as the 
front of the thorax, prevents it from being immersed therein up to the eyes; the body is often soft, 
with the elytra flexible, not striated, and often very short, one partially lapping over the other; the 
maxilla are never hooked; the tarsal joints are entire, and the ungues bifid. The majority live in 
the perfect state upon different vegetables, devouring the leaves or sucking the honey of the flowers : 
many, when seized, depress the head, and contract the feet, as if they were dead ; others are very active. 

We divide this family into six tribes, forming the same number of genera. The first tribe, Lagriarie, 
has the body elongated, narrower in front than behind, with the thorax either subcylindric or square, or 
ovoid and truncated ;. the antennz inserted near a notch of the eyes, simple, filiform, or thickened gra- 
dually to the tips; generally moniliform, with the last joint longer than the preceding in the males ; 
the palpi thickened at the tips, and the last joint of the maxillary palpi long and triangular ; the tibic 
‘ong and narrow; the two anterior curved ; the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed, and the ungues 
neither bifid nor toothed. The indigenous species inhabit woods, and are found upon different vegetables ; 
the body is soft, the elytra flexible, and, like the Cantharides and Meloes, they feign death when taken. 

Lagria proper, is composed of species which have the antenne gradually thickened, and partly or entirely moni- 
liform, the last joint ovoid or oval, the head scarcely advanced in front, and the thorax subcylindric or square. 
(L. hirta, a very common British insect, of small size; found in hedges, in which also I have found its larve, 
which is hairy, with the-extremity of the body bifid.) 

Statira, Latr., is formed of exotic species resembling the genus Agra; prolonged in front, and suddenly nar- 
rowed behind the eyes. 

Hemipeplus, Latr., doubtfully belonging to this tribe, has the antenne filiform, short, and elbowed, the body 
linear and depressed, and the head heart-shaped. F 


The second tribe, Pyrochroides, approaches the preceding in respect of the tarsi, the length and 
slenderness of the anterior part of the body, which is however depressed, with the thorax nearly orbi- 
cular or trapezoidal; the antenna, at least in the males, are pectinated or feathered ; the maxillary palpi 
are but slightly serrated, and terminated by a subsecuriform joint; the labial filiform ; the abdomen 
elongate, entirely covered by the elytra, and rounded behind. They are found in the spring in woods, the 
larvee living beneath the bark of trees; they form the genus— 

PyrocHroa, Geoffr. 
Dendroides, Latr., has long feathery branches to the antenne. (Exotic species.) 


Pyrochroa proper, has the antenne simply pectinated. [Pyrochroa rubens,avery abundant 
British species, of a scarlet colour, with black legs and antenne. ] 


The third tribe, Mordellone, although not distinguished by any constant cha- 
racter, derived from the tarsi, ungues, antenne, or palpi, is easily to be distinguished 
by the general form of the body, elevated and arched, with the head low, the tho- 
rax trapezoid or semicircular, the elytra very short, or narrow and pointed at the 
tips, as well as the abdomen. In their antennz, many approach the Pyrochroides 3 
Fig. 76. Pyrochroa others, in their maxilla, ungues, tarsi, and parasitic habits, are allied to Nemognathz 


and Sitaris, subgenera of the last tribe of this family, but they are removed from both by their extreme 
agility, and the firm texture of their integuments. They form the genus— 


MorpDELLA, Linn. 

Some have the palpi of unequal thickness throughout, the antenne of the males strongly pectinated or fan- 
shaped, the extremity of the mandibles not notched, and the tarsal ungues denticulated. 

Ripiphorus, Bosc., has the wings extended beyond the elytra, which are as long as the abdomen; the tarsal un- 
gues bifid; the antennz strongly bipectinated in the males, wniserrated in the females. Some naturalists have 
found in the nests of the common Wasp, many living individuals of the [English species}, Ripiphorus paradoxus 
which has been thence inferred to be parasitic in the larva state in such situations. Nevertheless, from an obser- 


COLEOPTERA. 537 


vation of M. Farines, the larva of the two-spotted Ripiphorus hves and undergoes its changes in the stalk of 
the Eryngium campestre. 

Myodites, Latr. (Ripidius, Thunb.), has the wings also extended, but the elytra are very short ; the antenne are 
very strongly feathered ; the tarsal claws are toothed. 

Pelecotoma, Fisch., has also the tarsal claws toothed, but the wings [and abdomen] are entirely covered by the 
elytra. [Exotic insects, of moderate size.] In the others the palpi are terminated by a large hatchet-shaped 
joint; the mandibles are bifid at the tips, and the antenneof the males are only serrated. 

Mordella, Linn., has the antenne of equal thickness throughout, and slightly serrated in the males ; the eyes are 
not emarginate, [and the abdomen is terminated by a long point. MW. aculeata, Linn., and many other smail 
British species]. 

Anaspis, Geoffr., has the antenne simple, and rather thickened to the tips, the eyes notched, [andthe abdomen 
not pointed]. A. frontalis [and numerous other minute British insects]. 


The fourth tribe, Anthicides, possesses simple or but slightly serrated and filiform antenne, or but little 
thickened at the tips; the joints very nearly alike, except the last, which is rather longer, and oval; the 
maxillary palpi are terminated by a hatchet-shaped joint ; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobed ; the 
body narrower in front, with the eyes entire or scarcely emarginate. Some of these species are found 
upon plants, but the majority live on the ground, and run with great quickness; their larvee are probably 


parasites. They compose the genus,— 
Noroxus, Geofir. 


Soraptia, Latr., has the thorax nearly semicircular, and the antenne inserted in a notch of the eyes, filiform. 
They haveagreat analogy with Mordella, Cistela, &c., in their form. (S. fusca, a minute British species.) 

Steropes, Stev. (Blastanus, Illig.), has the antenne terminated by three long joints. 

Notoxus proper, has the antenne gradually thickened, the joints conical, and the thorax of a reversed ovoid form, 
narrowed, and truncated behind, or divided into two globose knots. Some species [to which English Entomologists 
restrict the name Notoxus], have the thorax produced into a horn over the head. WN. monoceros, Linn. [a small 
British species found in sand banks]. Those with the thorax unarmed [form the restricted genus Anthicus of En- 
glish authors. A. fuscus, and many other minute species], some of which are apterous. 


The two following tribes, which terminate the Heteromera, have several characters in common: 
mandibles terminated by a simple point ; palpi filiform, or but slightly thickened at the tips; abdomen 
soft ; elytra flexible; possessing vesicatory powers ; ungues generally bifid. In the perfect state, many of 
them are herbivorous ; but many amongst them are parasites whilst larve. 

The fifth tribe, Horiales, differs from the succeeding by having the ungues denticulated, and furnished 
with a seta; and the antennz are filiform, not longer than the thorax; the labrum small; mandibles 
strong and exposed ; palpi filiform ; thorax square, and the two hind legs very robust, at least in one sex. 
The transformations of Horia maculata are described in the Trans. Linn. Soc. of London, [by the late 
Lansdown Guilding]. The larva destroys that of a large Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa teredo, which 
makes its nest in the trunks of trees in St. Vincents) : this is effected, as the author supposes, by the 
larva of the beetle devouring the provisions laid up in store for the larva of the Xylocopa, which is of 
course starved to death. This tribe is composed of the genus— 


Horta, Fabr.,— 


Species of which inhabit the intertropical parts of South America, and East India. 
Cissites, Latr., has the head narrower than the thorax, and the posterior femora greatly thickened. 


The sixth and last tribe, or the Vesicatory Beetles (Cantharidic), is distinguished from the preceding 
by the tarsal ungues, which are very deeply divided, so as to appear double; the head is generally 
‘arge, broad, and rounded behind ; the thorax is generally narrowed behind, approaching the shape of 
a truncated heart; in others it is nearly orbicular ; the elytra are often slightly inclined at the sides ; 
they counterfeit death when seized, and many at such times emit a yellowish liquid from the joints of 
the feet, which is caustic, and of a penetrating odour, the organs for the secretion of which have not 
been observed. Several species (Meloe, Mylabris, Cantharis,) are employed externally as vesicants, and 
internally as a powerful stimulant; the latter is however very dangerous in its application. 


This tribe is formed of the genus— 
MELOE, Linn.,— 
Which has been divided into various others. The anatomical researches of Messrs. Léon Dufour and Bretonneau 
upon the epipastic powers of these insects, enable us to arrange these generic groups in a natural order, only slightly 
differing from that already adopted. ‘The latter has discovered that Sitaris does not possess this property ; it also 
resembles Zonitis in its general structure, and the latter are contiguous to Cantharis. These insects therefore 


Te aah ae ee eT 
a ee ee ere!) SS. i ae ar ee 


538 INSECTA. 


occupy One extremity of this tribe, whence it becomes easy, from a comparative study of other relations, to pursue 
the series to the other extremity ; this is also in accordance with the progressive changes of the antennx. 

-Cerocoma, Geoff., has only nine joints in the antenne of both sexes, those of the males being of a very irregular 
construction. The species appear towards the summer solstice in great abundance at the same place; they are 
found upon flowers, especially the wild chamomile. N. Schdéfferi, Linn. [None of the species are found in 
England.] 

Hycleus, Latr. (Dices, Dej.), has the two or three terminal joints of the antenne united (at least in the females), 
into a thick ovoid mass, the number of joints being nine orten. Mylabris impunctata, Oliv. [Exotic species.] 

Mylabris, Fabr., has longer antenne, with eleven distinct joints in both sexes, gradually terminating in a club ; 
the eleventh or last joint being large and ovoid. 

Megerle has separated some species, from the variation in the length of the intermediate joints of the antenne, 
into the genus Lydus, some of which are better characterized by having one of the divisions of the ungues toothed. 

Mylabris chicorii, Linn., inhabits the south of Europe, and its vesicatory properties are as powerful as the Can- 
tharis of the shops, with which, no doubt, it is mixed in Italy. The Chinese use MM. pustulata. 

Gnas, Latr., has the antenne not longer than the thorax, and of equal thickness throughout, with the last joint 
conoid. 

Meloe, Linn., has the antenne composed of short rounded joints, the middle ones being the thickest, and some- 
times arranged so that these organs make a strong crescent in some males; the wings are wanting, and the oval 
elytra partially cover the abdomen. They crawl slowly on the ground and low plants [in the spring], emitting an 
oleaginous reddish fluid from the joints of the feet. In some parts of Spain they are used instead of, or mixed with, 
the common Cantharides. I have regarded them as the Buprestes of the Ancients, who attributed to them very 
pernicious properties, such as destroying oxen when eaten by them. 

M. proscarabeus, Linn. [the common British species], is about an inch long, and of a black colour, shining, very 
punctate, the sides of the head and thorax, antenne, and feet, tinged with violet. According to De Geer, the 
female deposits in the earth a great number of eggs unitedintoa mass. The larve have six feet, two filaments at the 
extremity of the body, and attach themselves to flies, which they suck. Mr. Kirby thought this larva was an ap- 
terous insect or parasite, to which he gave the name of Pediculus melitte, and at first ] adopted this opinion. Dufour 
also formed it into a distinct genus, Triungulinus. But the recent researches of Lepeletier and Serville, who have 
reared these Triungulini from the eggs of isolated females of Meloe, do not permit us to doubt that they are the 
young of the Meloe. We know, indeed, that many Heteromera deposit their eggs in the nests of various Bees— 
may it not be the same with these Meloes, the larve of which attach themselves to the Bees until they have com- 
pleted their provisioned nests, in which they then take up their abode? 

The remaining subgenera have ordinary-sized wings and elytra. 

Tetraonyx, Latr., has short maxilla, and the penultimate tarsal joint is bilobed. [Exotic insects, chiefly Brazil.] 

Cantharis, Geoff. (Lytta, Fabr.), has short maxillz, entire tarsal joints, and the head is larger than the thorax. 


Cantharis vesicatoria [the common Blister-fly], is of a shiny green colour, with black antenna. M. V. Audouin 
has studied its anatomy with great care, [Ann. 


Sci. Nat. vol. ix.) This insect appears in our cli- 
mate [Trance] towards the summer solstice, and 
is found most abundantly on the ash and lilac, of 
which it consumes the ieaves; it emits a most 
penetrating odour. Its larva lives in the earth, 
and feeds upon the roots of vegetables. [It has 
lately been found in immense numbers in Eng- 
land, but very locally.] In the United States of 
America, another species, C. vittata, is employed 
for the same purpose. It is found in abundance 
Fig. 77 —Cantharis vesicatoria, upon the potato. 
Zonitis, Fabr., has the antenne slenderer than in Cantharis; the maxillary palpi are filiform, and the maxille 


short. 
In the two following subgenera the maxilla are terminated by a very long silky filament. 


Nemognatha, Latr., having filiform antenne, and the thorax nearly square. 

Gnathium, Kirby, with the antenne rather thickened at the tip, and the thorax narrowed in front. [Both con- 
sisting of exotic species. ] 

Sitaris, Latr. (Apalus, Fabr.), has the elytra suddenly narrowed, so as to expose part of the wings. They reside 
in the larva state in the nests of Mason-bees. [S. Aumeratis, a rare British species, beautifully figured by Curtis.] 

Apalus proper, Fabr., has the elytra not so strongly narrowed, and the middle joints of the antenne rather 


dilated. 


The third general section of the Coleoptera (TETRAMERA) exclusively comprises those species 
which have four [distinct] joints to all the tarsi, [a minute joint, overlooked by most authors, 
being affixed at the base of the terminal jomt, and between the lobes of the so-called penul- 
timate jot ; hence the supposition of Latreille that the loss of the fifth jomt was caused by the 
basal joint becoming coalescent with the second joint, cannot be maintained. | 


ee 
a 


COLEOPTERA. 539 


All these insects feed upon vegetable substances. Their larve have generally short feet, or 
they are wanting and replaced by fleshy lobes in a great number. The perfect insect is found 
upon the flowers or leaves of plants. I divide this section into seven families ; the larve of the 
first four or five live mostly hidden in the interior of vegetables, and are generally deprived of 
feet, or have them very minute; many of them devouring the hard and ligneous particles. These 
beetles are the largest of the section. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


Tue WeeEvILs (Rhyncophora),— 


Is distinguished by the anterior elongation of the head, which forms a sort of muzzle or proboscis ; the 
majority have the abdomen thick, and the antenne elbowed and often clavate ; the penultimate joint 
of the tarsi is nearly always bilobed, and the posterior femora are toothed in the majority. 

The larve have the body oblong, like a very soft white worm, with a scaly head, and destitute of 
feet, or having only small fleshy tubercles in their stead. They devour different parts of vegetables; many 
live entirely in the interior of fruits or seeds, and often commit great havoc ; their pupe are inclosed 
in a cocoon. Many Rhyncophore also injure us in the perfect state, when they happen to become very 
numerous in certain limits. They puncture the buds or leaves of various cultivated plants, and feed 
upon their parenchyme. 

{If Latreille, in the second edition of this work, found it necessary to state that he was compelled 
to omit many minute details occasioned by the works of Germar and Schonherr, the latter published 
in 1826, how much more necessary is it to do this now that Schonherr’s great work has appeared upon 
the Weevils, occupying ten thick octavo volumes. ] 

Some have the labrum distinct; the anterior elongated part of the head short, broad, depressed, and 
muzzle-shaped ; the palpi very distinct, filiform, or thickened at the tip. They compose the genus— 


Brucuus, Linn.,— 
Which is thus divided :—Those species with the antenne thickened at the tips, the eyes not notched, and which 
have five joints in the four anterior tarsi, form the subgenus Rhinosimus, which we have from the latter character 
placed in the Heteromera. 

Those with similar antenne and eyes, but with only four joints in all the tarsi, the penultimate joint being bilobed, 
form that of 

Anthribus, Geoff., of which the species are found in old wood, or amongst flowers. 

Bruchus proper, has the antenne filiform, often serrated or pectinated, and the eyes entire; the anus is naked, 
and the hind feet generally very large. 

The female deposits an egg in the young and tender germ of various leguminose or cereal plants, palms, &c., 
upon which the larva feeds, and within which it undergoes its transformations : the perfect insect, in order to 
make its escape, detaches a portion of the epidermis like a small cup ; hence the small holes too often observed in 
peas, dates, &c. The perfect insect is found upon flowers. 

Bruchus Pisi, Linn., is two lines long, black, with grey spots on the elytra; it does great mischief in certain 
years [to peas], especially in North America. [The genus is very extensive. ] 

Urodon, Sch. [Bruchela, Meg.], differs in having the three terminal joints of the antenne thickened. 

Rhebus, Fischer, has the elytra flexible, and the tarsal ungues bifid. RK. gebderi, Fis. (a minute beautiful green 
species]. 

Xylophilus, Bonelli, has the palpi terminated by a mass (Anthicus populneus, oculatus, pygmeus). [Some of these 
have been separated by me into the genera Aderus and Englenes in the Zoological Journal ; they appear nearer 
allied to Nothus and other Heteromera.] 


The others have no visible labrum; the palpi are short, scarcely visible to the naked eye, and of a 
conical form; the anterior prolongation of the head forms a beak or proboscis. 
Sometimes the antenne are straight, inserted upon the proboscis, and composed of from nine to 
twelve joints. 
Those which have the three or four terminal joints forming a mass, compose the genus— 
ArTTELABUS, Linn., and particularly of Fabricius. 


They devour the leaves or tender parts of vegetables, the females of the majority rolling up the leaves, in which 
they lay their eggs, furnishing also a retreat for their young during the period whilst they are feeding. 

The proportions of the proboscis, the manner in which it is terminated, the tibie and abdomen, have afforded 
characters for the establishment of four subgenera. 


540 INSECTA. 


Apoderus, distinct by the head affixed to the thorax by a rotule. 

Abus, has the head immersed to the eyes in the thorax. 

Riynchites, has the proboscis dilated at the tip, and the abdomen nearly square. 
R. Bacchus [a splendid but very rare British species], lives on the vine, the larve 
inhabiting the rolled-up leaves, which it devours, and thus sometimes commits 
great damage. 

Apion, Herbst., has the body pear-shaped. See the monographs of Germar and 
Kirby, in Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xii. [Some of the species do much damage, 
devouring the seeds of clover.] 

Rhinotia, Kirby [Belus, Sch.], has the body almost linear, and the antenne 
thickened, but not clubbed. 

Eurhinus, Kirby, has the antenne terminated by a long mass, the last joint 
being greatly elongated in the males. 

Tubicenus, Dej. (Auletes, Sch.), has the antenne terminated by a perfoliated 


mass, and the abdomen is oblong. 


Fig. 78.—1, Attelabus curculionoides ; 
2 Apoderus avellane ; 3, Rhyuchites 
cavifrons. 


Those which have the antenne filiform, with the last joint alone forming the mass, the proboscis 
often longer in the males than in the females, and often differently terminated, and always stretched 
out in front, the body elongated, and the penultimate tarsal joint bilobed, compose the genus— 


BRENTUS, Fab. (Curculio, Linn.) 

These insects are peculiar to warm climates. Some of them, which have the body linear, and the antenne filiform, 
and 11-jointed, form the subgenus 

Brentus proper, Linn., whichhas been greatly cut up by Schonherr. From thestatements of Savi and Lacordaire, 
it appears that these species are always found beneath the bark of trees ; the only European species is the Brentus 
italicus. 

Ulocerus, Schon., has the body linear, and the antennz 11-jointed. 

Cylas, Latr., has only 10-jointed, and the thorax nodose. 


Sometimes the antenn are distinctly elbowed, the basal joint being much longer than the following. 


These form the genus Curculio, Linn. 
We divide them into Brevirostres and Longirostres, according as the antenne are inserted—near the 


tip of the rostum, close to the mandibles,—or further back, either near the middle or at the base. 
The Brevirostres form, according to Fabricius, two genera, [Brachycerus and Curculio]. 


BRACHYCERUS, Fabr.— 
Has all the joints of the tarsi entire, without cushions beneath; the antenne are short, scarcely elbowed, and only 
9-jointed, the last forming the mass; they want wings; the body is very rugose, or unequal. They are peculiar to 
the south of Europe and Africa, living on the ground in sandy places, and appearing early in the spring. According 
to M. Cailliaud, the Ethiopian women suspend one of the species round their necks as an amulet. 


CuRCULIO,— 
Has nearly all the under-side of the tarsi cushioned, and the penultimate joint bilobed. The antenne are 11 
or 12-jointed, comprising the false joint by which theyare sometimes terminated. Although here much more re- 
stricted than in the Linnzan system, this genus comprises an immense number of species, particularly described 
by Schonherr and Germar, who have greatly divided it. They may be divided, according to our own observations, 


into two principal divisions. 
1. Those in which the mentum, more or less orbicular, occupies all the oral cavity, and hides the maxilla and 


mandibles, which are not distinctly toothed. 

Cyclomus, (including Schonherr’s Cryptops, Deracanthus, and Amycterus), has the tarsi not pulvillose, and the 
penultimate joint scarcely bilobed. In all the rest the tarsi are pulvillose, and the penultimate joint bilobed. 

Curculio proper (including a very great number of genera of Schonherr), is winged, and has the lateral impres- 
sions of the rostrum oblique, and directed downwards; the fore legs scarcely differ from the rest. The South 
American species, forming the genera Entimus, Chlorima, &c., are remarkable for their splendour, and often for 
their size. The Diamond Beetle, (Curculio imperialis,) isone of them. Other small species peculiar to our climate, 
of amuchsmaller size, but scarcely lesssplendid, [especially under a lens,] and of asilvery or green colour, form the 
genus Polydrusus, Schonherr, Cure. sericeus, micans, Betule, &c. 

Leptosomus, Sch., has the head very long behind, the rostrum very short, the thorax subcylindic, and the elytra 
produced into two divergent spines. A single species, C. acuminatus, Fabr. New Holland. 

Leptocerus, (including many of Schonherr’s genera), differs in having the fore-legs elongated, the tibie curved, 
the thighs thick and spined, and the tarsi often dilated and ciliated; the antenne are long and slender. (Chiefly 


Brazilian species.) 
Phyllobius (including also many other genera of Schonherr), is winged, but the rostral fossula is straight and 


short. 
The Brevirostres with the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed, the wings wanting, as well as the scutellum 


form various other genera, such as Otiorhychus, Omias, Pachyrhynchus, Psalidium, Thylacites, Suzygops, 


Hyphanius, &c. 


eee nee Pee eee te, Cee 


peuimetietie  N  e e 


EEE er 
COLEOPTERA. 541 


Our second general division of the genus Curculio of Fabricius difters in the narrowness of the mentum, which, 
from not occupying the whole breadth of the oral cavity, leaves the sides of the maxille and mandibles (which 
are toothed) exposed ; the club of the antennz is formed of five or six joints. 

Those with only two teeth in the mandibles, and the labial palpi distinct, and which are destitute of wings, com- 
pose the sub-genera Myniops, Rhytirrhinus (which have simple tarsi), and Liparus (which has pulvillose tarsi). 
Those which have wings form the sub-genera Hypera and Hylobius. Those with three or four teeth in the mandi- 
bles, and the labial palpi nearly obsolete, form the subgenus Cleonus, including various other genera of Schonherr. 


The Longirostres, or those with the antennz inserted at a distance from the insertion of the man- 
dibles, often near the middle of the rostrum, which is generally long, nearly correspond to the genera 
Lixus, Rhynchenus, and Calandra, Fabr. In the first two the antenne are at least 10-jointed, but oftener 
1l-or 12-jointed ; the club being at least composed of the last three joints. 


Lixus, Fabr.— 
Nearly resembles Cleonus in the trophi, the long fusiform club of the antenne, the narrow elongated form of the 
body, and the armature of the feet. It is nearly linear in L. paraplecticus [a common British species], the larvae of 
which live in the stems of Phellandrium, and produce in horses which may happen to eat them [with the plant], 
the disease called “ paraplégie.”’ 
Rhinocyllus, is composed of a species with the antenne scarcely elbowed, and which, from its supposed efficacy 
in the toothache, [has been specifically named R. anti-odontalgicus). 


RHYNCHANUS, Fabr.— 
Tias not such general characters. In some the sternum has not a cavity for the reception of the rostrum ; and of 
these some have the antenne 11- or 12-jointed, and the legs not fitted for leaping. 
Thamnophilus, is winged, the antenne short and scarcely elbowed, and the tibie armed with a strong hook at the 
tip. 
Bagous, has the tibia curved, with a strong hook at the tip ; the tarsi long and filiform. These are small insects, 
found in marshy places. 


Brachypus, differs from the last in having the penulti- 
mate joint of the tarsi very much dilated; the last joint 
sometimes without claws. 

Balaninus, has the rostrum very long, sometimes longer 
than the whole body. B. nucum [the common Nut Weevil], 
the larva of which feeds on the kernel of the nut. : 

Rhynchenus, differs from the preceding by negative cha- 
racters; and from the following by having 12-jointed an- 
tenne. 

Sibynia, having only 11-jointed antenne ; the club com- 
posed of seven. 

Myorhinus, differs in having no wings. Many of Schon- 
herr’s genera are here united together. 

We now pass to those which have only nine or ten joints 

i" in the antenna, and are able to leap. 
Ree a branch of the filbert tree; 2, a healed wound caused Cionus, Clairv., has the body nearly globular, but they do 


the introduction of the egg of the nut weevil ; 5, extremity of 
the nut; e, exit hole of the grub; a, the grub of the nut weevil ; not leap. The following are able to leap, having thick hind 


c, the pupa of the same; p,the perfect insect (Balaninus nucum.) 
thighs. 
Orchestes, has the antennz fixed upon the rostrum. [Many minute British species. ] 
Ramphus, has the antenne fixed between the eyes. 
In the remaining Rhyncheni the legs are apart at the base, and the sternum has a cavity for the reception of the 
rostrum. 
In Amerhinus and Baridius, the latter is however wanting. 
Those which possess this cavity have been distributed into a very great number of genera by Schonherr. 
Camptorhynchus (Eurhinus, Sch.), differs in having the terminal part of the antenna forming a thick perfoliated 
mass. 
Centrinus, has the scutellum distinct, the club of the antennz elongated, and the prosternum with two spines. 
Zygops, has the eyes united above, and the legs very long. 
Ceutorhynchus, has the scutellum scarcely visible, the antenne 12-jointed. 
Hydaticus, has 11-jointed antenne. 
Orobites, has the body very short and sub-globose, the antenne 12-jointed. 
Cryptorhynchus, has the body oblong-convex ; the fore-legs longest, especially in the males ; antenne 12-jointed. 
Tylodes, is apterous or sub-apterous, with the scutellum wanting. 


CALANDRA, Fab.— 
Comprises the terminal Longirostres which have only nine joints to the antenne, the last, or the two last, forming 
the club, with the tip spongy. They feed in the larva state on seeds or woody substances. 
Anchonus, Sch. (with 10-jointed antenne), and 
Orthochetes, Germ. (with 9-jointed antenne), are both apterous. 


542 INSECTA. 


Rhina, Latr., is winged, and the antenne are inserted near the middle of the rostrum ; the fore-feet in the males 


are very long. 

Calandra proper, has the antenne much elbowed, but inserted at the base of the rostrum. 

Calandra granaria, the Corn Weevil, commits great havoc in granaries, its larva feeding on the grain; that of 
C. palmarum feeds on the palm. Its larvais esteemed a delicacy by the natives of South America. 

Cossonus, has short antenne, inserted near the middle of the rostrum. 

Dryopthorus, Sch., has only 6-jointed antenne, and 5- jointed tarsi; none of the joints being bilobed. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


THE XYLOPHAGI,— 


Have not the head produced into a muzzle; the antennz are thickened towards the tips, or perfoliated 
from the base; always short, with fewer than eleven joints in the majority; the tarsi (which 
appear to be 5-jointed* in some), generally entire, or having the penultimate joint dilated and heart- 
shaped ; in the latter case the antenne are always terminated by a club, either solid and ovoid, or 
divided into three plates, and the palpi are short and conical. These insects generally live in wood, 
which their larve pierce, forming burrows in every direction ; and when abundant in forests, especially 
those of firs and pines, they destroy the trees in a few years, rendering them unfit to be used in 
the arts. Some are also very destructive to the olive ; others feed on fungi. 

We divide this family into three sections. 

1. Those which have the antennze composed of ten joints at least, either terminated in a thick mass, 
generally solid, or having three elongated plates ; or forming a cylindric and perfoliated mass from the 
base, and the palpi are conical; the anterior tibiz in the majority are toothed, and armed with a strong 
hook; and the tarsi have the penultimate joint generally bilobed. Some have the palpi very short, and 
the antenne terminated in a solid or trilamellar mass, preceded by five joints at the least. These 
Xylophagi compose the genus— 

ScoLytus, Geoffr. 
In some the penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobed, and the 
antenne have seven or eight joints preceding the club. 
Hylurgus, Latr., has the club of the antenne solid, globular, 
and annulated. [H. piniperda, and numerous other species 
of minute size, some of which are very destructive to pine 
forests. ] 

Hylesinus, Fabr., has the club of the antennz solid and 
annulated ; but pointed at the tip. 

Scolytus proper (Eccoptogaster, Herbst.) has the antenne 
Fig.80—1, 2, Tomicus typographus—3, 4, 5, 6, Hylurgus piniperpa straight, naked; the club solid, very compressed, its annuli 
(natural size and magnified) . forming concentric constrictions. [S. destructor, and several 

other species, the former of which is exceedingly injurious, destroying the elms in great quantity round London.] 

Camptocerus, Dej., has the male antenne furnished below the club with long filaments. 

Phloiotribus, Latr., differs from all the rest inthe club of the antenne being formed of three long filaments. 

In the others the tarsal joints (apparently five in number) are entire, and the club of the antenne commences at 


the sixth or seventh joint. 

Tomicus, Latr., has no notches at the sides of the thorax, and the tibie are not striated. [Numerous minute, 
cylindric species. ] 

Platypus, Herbst., has the sides of the thorax notched to receive the femora, and the tibie are transversely 
striated. 

(The insects of this genus, or rather family, have been recently described by Dr. Erichson in Weigmanns Archiv., 
and figured in Dr. Ratzeburg’s Forst Insecten, Several new genera are established in these works. ] 


The others have the palpi large, very visible, and of unequal length. The body is depressed and 
narrowed in front ; the antenne either 2-jointed, the second joint being very large and irregular-shaped, 
or 10-jointed, and entirely perfoliated ; the tarsi are entire. These are exotic insects [of the most 
singular appearance and greatest rarity], which compose the genus 

Paussus, Linn.,— 
{Of which I have published a monograph in the Trans. Linn., and Entomol. Society, proposing several 
new genera]. 


* Latreille observes, that these appear to be allied to Cryptophagus, | are extremely close in their relations to the Curculionidae, others 
and other analogous Pentamerous Coleoptera. [The fact is, that possess no other relation than that of being minute in size, and 
whilst some of the species here placed at the head of the Xylophagi, | xylopbagous in habits.) 


a I hy i a Dee -.. le 


COLEOPTERA. 943 


Paussus proper, has only two joints to the antenne, the second very large and compressed. 

Hylotorus, Dalm., composed of a single species apparently with ocelli, and with the antenne scarcely longer than 
the head, and 2-jointed. 

Cerapterus, Swed., has the antenne 10-jointed and perfoliated. 


2. Those which have only 10-jointed antennz, and the maxillary palpi are not narrowed to the tips. 
but are of equal thickness throughout, or thicker at the tips; the joints of the tarsi are always entire. 
They are divisible into two principal genera; those with the three terminal joints forming a perfoliated 


mass compose that of— 
Bosrricuus, Geoftr. 

Bostrichus proper, has the body cylindrical, the thorax forming a kind of hood over the head. The species are 
found in old wood and timber. [B. capucinus, a rare British species. ] 

Psoa, Fabr., has the body narrower, and thorax flat. 

Cis, Latr., has the body oval, depressed, or but little elevated; the last joint of the tarsi uch longer than the 
others; the head of the males often horned. [Many minute species, found in fungi.] 

Sphindus, scarcely appears to me to differ from the last. 

Nemosoma, Desmar., has the body long, linear, and the mandibles robust and exserted. [N. elongata, a singular 
small and very rare British species, found under the bark of old palings.] 

The second principal genus,— 

Monotroma,— 

Has the club (or tenth joint) of the antennz solid, and button-shaped; the body is elongated, with the front of the 
head narrowed into an obtuse muzzle; the palpi are very small, and, as well as the mandibles, not prominent. 

Synchita, Helw., has not the front of the head prolonged, and the two basal joints of the antenne are alike. 

Cerylon, Latr., has the front of the head produced into an obtuse triangle; the first joint of the antenne much 
longer than the second; the body nearly oval or parallellipiped, and the elytra not truncate behind. [C. histeroides, 
a small species found under the damp bark of trees. ] 

Rhyzophagus, Herbst., differs from Cerylon in its narrow elongated form and elytra truncate at the tip; the 
tarsi appear to me pentamerous. 

Monotoma, Herbst., differs from all the preceding in having the head as largeas, and separated from, the thorax, 
by anarrowed part. Cerylon picipes [and other small species, of which Aubé has given a monograph in the 
Annales de Soc. Entomol. de France). 


3. Those which have eleven distinct joints to the antenne; the palpi filiform, or thickened at the 
tips in some, or slender at the tips in others, the tarsal joints are entire. 
In some of these the club of the antenne consists only of two joints. These form the genus 


Lyctus. 

Lyctus proper, Fab., has the mandibles and basal joints of the antenne exposed. 

Diodesma, Megerle, has the basal joint of the antenne hidden by the side of the head: the body oval, oblong, 
convex. D.subterranea. 

Bitoma, Herbst., differs in having the body long, narrow, depressed. [B. crenata, a small British species, found 
under the bark of trees. ] 

In the others the three or four terminal joints of the antenne form the club, the last being larger than the pre- 
ceding joints. 

In some the mandibles are concealed or scarcely visible; these are the genus 

MycETorHAGus,— 

Colydium, Fabr., has the antenne scarcely longer than the head, and inserted beneath the advanced sides of the 
head, and terminated by a perfoliated mass. 

Mycetophagus proper, has the antennz at least as long as the thorax, the body oval, thorax transverse, and the 
club of the antenne commencing at the sixth or seventh joint. [M. quadripustulatus, and several other species of 
small size, found under old stumps of trees, bark, &c.] 

Triphyllus, Meg., has the club of the antennz shorter, and formed suddenly by the last three joints, thelast being 
globular. 

Meryx, Latr., has the maxillary palpi exserted, and terminated by an enlarged joint, of a reversed triangular 
form. [M. rugosus, Latr., New Holland.] 

Dasycerus, Brongn., has 3-jointed tarsi ; the antenne have all the intermediate joints capillary, and very setose ; 
the abdomen is nearly globular. 

Latridius, Herbst. has the palpi very short, pointed at tip; the head and thorax narrower than the abdomen, 
which is subquadrate, or subovate ; the basal joint of the antenne is very thick. [Z. porcatus, and other species 
of minute insects, having domestic habits. ] 

Silvanus, has the body nearly linear, the thorax longer than broad, and as broad as the base of the elytra; the 
palpi nearly filiform. [T. dentatus, a small flat insect, often found floating in tea and coffee, introduced with the 
sugar. ] 

In others the mandibles are entirely exposed, and large ; the body often narrowed and depressed. These insects 
compose the genus— 


a er ne a er ey — B 


44 INSECTA. 


Troaosira, Olivier. 
Trogosita proper, has the antennez shorter than the thorax, the mandibles shorter than the head, and the max- 


ill with a single lobe. 
Trogosita mauritanica, Linn., a flat beetle, four lines long, of a pitchy black colour, found in nuts, bread, and in 


the bark of trees: its larva, known in Provence under the name of the Cadelle, attacks grain. 

Prostomis, Latr. (Megagnathus, Meg.), has the mandibles very long, and two lobes to the maxille; the body is 
long and narrow. Trogos mandibularis, [a continentai species}. 

Passandra, Dalm., has the antenne nearly as long as the body, with the eleventh joint alone of the antenne en- 
larged, in form of a reversed triangle. [Exotic species, lately monographed by Mr. Newman. ] 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


THe PLratysoma,— 


Approaches the iast in respect to its internal anatomy, entire tarsi, and habits; but the antenne are of 
equal thickness, or slendered at the tips ; the mandibles are always exposed; the palpi short, body 
depressed, and thorax nearly square. These insects are found under the bark of trees, and may be 
united into the single genus 
Cucusus, Fabricius,— 

Cucujus proper, has the antenne shorter than the body in many species, with the basal joint shorter than the 
head. [C. clavipes, depressus, &c. See my memior on these insects in Zoolog. Journal.] 

Dendrophagus, Gyll., has the antenne longer, and cylindrical, with the basal joint longer than the head. 

Uleoiota, Latr. (Brontes, Fabr.), has similar antenne, but the third joint is as long as the following ; the mandi- 
bles, in the typical species, are furnished with a long horn-like appendage. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


Tue LONGICORNES,— 


Has the three basal joints of the tarsi furnished beneath with short brushes; the first and second [not 
the second and third, as described by Latreille], being heart-shaped, and the third [not the fourth] 
deeply bilobed, with a small nodule, representing a joint, at the base of the terminal joint; the labium, 
placed upon a short transverse mentum, is generally membranous, heart-shaped, or bifid ; or horny, and 
in shape of a very short transverse segment of a circle, in others (Parandra). The antenne are fili- 
form or setaceous, generally at least as long as the body, either simple in both sexes, or serrated, 
pectinated or fan-shaped in the males; the eyes of the greater number are kidney-shaped, surrounding 
the base of the antenne ; the thorax is trapeziform or narrowed in front; in those which have the eyes 
rounded entire, or scarcely emarginate; in which case the legs are long and slender, with the tars 
elongated. 

The larve, nearly all of which reside in the interior of trees, or under the bark, are destitute of feet, 
or have them only very small; the body is soft, whitish, thickest in front, with the head scaly, and 
furnished with robust mandibles, the other parts not being prominent. They do much injury to trees, 
especially those of large size, piercing them very deeply, or forming burrows in them. (See the memoir 
of Lansdown Guilding, in the 13th vol. of the Linnean Transactions). Others devour the roots of 
plants; the females have the abdomen terminated by a tubular and horny oviduct. These insects 
produce a slight sharp sound, by the friction of the peduncle of the base of the abdomen against the 
inner recess of the thorax, when they alternately cause it to enter and withdraw it. 

In the system of Linneus, these insects form the genera Cerambyx, Leptura, Necydales, which 
Geoffroy, Fabricius, and other naturalists have endeavoured to arrange and simplify by the transposition 
of species, or by establishing other generic groups. From the immense quantity of species discovered 
since the days of Linnzus, and the insufficiency of the characters assigned to these genera, a complete 
revision of the family had become necessary, [which, since the publication of the last edition of 
this work, has been effected by Serville, in the Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, in 
which a series of long memoirs has been published by this author, containing numerous new genera, 
the number of which has been greatly augmented by Messrs. Hope and Newman, in recent memoirs 
published in this country]. 

We divide the Longicornes into two primary sections. 

The first section has the eyes either deeply notched or crescent-shaped, or long and narrow; the 


ee ely 


COLEOPTERA. 545 


head is immersed as deep as these organs in the thorax, not being separated by a sudden neck ; in many 
it is vertical. 

Some of these have the terminal joint of the palpi either conical or triangular, or cylindric and 
truncated at the tip; the terminal lobe of the maxille is straight, (not inwardly curved at the tip); the 
head is generally porrected, or but slightly inclined ; and in those few which have it vertical (Dorcacerus), 
it is nearly as broad as the body, and the antenna are very wide apart at the base, and spinose; the 
thorax often very rough, and rarely cylindrical. These Longicornes compose two principal groups or 
tribes, [ Prionii and Cerambycini]. 

1. The Prionii have, for their characters, labrum wanting or very small, and scarcely distinct ; man- 
dibles very strong and large, especially in the males; inner lobe of the maxillz wanting, or very small ; 
antennz inserted near the base of the mandibles, or the notch of the eyes, but not encircled by them at 


the base ; thorax often trapezoid or square, crenulated, or toothed at the sides. 

Parandra, Latr., has the antenne simple, nearly moniliform, compressed, not longer than the thorax, and the 
terminal lobe of the maxilla small, scarcely reaching beyond the basal joint of the palpi; it is more especially 
distinguished by the horny tonguelet in the form of a very short transverse segment of a circle, neither notched nor 
lobed in front, and by the tarsi having the penultimate joint scarcely bilobed, and the last joint longer than all the 
rest, with two sete at the tip of a small appendage between the claws. The body is parallellipiped, [and very shining]. 
The species are peculiar to America. Type, P. levis, Latr. 

Spondylis, Fabr., approaches Parandra in the form of its antenne and maxillary lobes, but it has the tonguelet 
as in all the rest of the Longicornes, membranous, heart-shaped; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is deeply bilobed, 
and itis destitute of the setigerous appendage between the claws. S. buprestoides, Linn., 6 or 7 lines long. [In- 
habits the North of Europe.] 

Prionus.—The third and last genus of this tribe has the antenne longer than the head and thorax, serrated or 
pectinated in some, simple and slender at the tips, and with elongated joints in others; the terminal lobe of the 
maxillz is at least as longas the two basal joints of the palpi ; the body is generally depressed, with the thorax square 
or trapezoid, and either toothed, spined, or angular at the sides. 

These insects only fly in the evening or during the night, and always settle upon trees. Some exotic species are 
remarkable for their size, and the enormous developement of their mandibles. The larve of Prionus cervi- 
cornis, which lives in the wood of the Gossampinus tree, is eaten [by the natives of South America]. 

This genus comprises a very great number of species, which, from the variety in the form and size of their 
mandibles, antenn, thorax, and abdomen, are divisible into many smaller subgenera, described by M. Serville, {in 
the memoir above alluded to]. Some of the species have the body elongated, straight, with the thorax much shorter 
than the abdomen, and greatly curved at the sides, and the mandibles of large size in the males. Amongst these 
are the continental species, P. scabricornis, and many large exotic species. 

Others have the body not so oblong, somewhat depressed in front, and with moderate-sized mandibles in both 
sexes, and the antenne strongly serrated in the males. Amongst these is 

Prionus coriarius [the only British species], an inch and a half long, and of a brown black colour. It lives in the 
larva state in the rotten trunks of oaks, &c.: when ready to undergo its transformation, it forms a hole in the 
earth. 

Anacolus, Lep. aud Serv., has the elytra small and triangular. [Brazilian insects. } 

Other species, of varied and often metallic colours, have the body shorter and broader, nearly oyal, the antenne 


simple, the head prolonged behind the eyes, &c. 

The Cerambycini have the labrum very distinct, and extending across the entire front of the head; 
the two maxillary lobes are very distinct and exserted ; the mandibles of the ordinary size, and ali¥e 
or scarcely differing in the two sexes; the eyes always notched; the antenne ordinarily as long as, 
or longer than the body; the thighs, or at least the four anterior, are generally clavate, being slen- 
der at the base. 

We arrange in the first place those which have the last joint of the palpi evidently thicker than the 
preceding, of a triangular or conical form; the head not being materially narrowed, and prolonged in 
front like a muzzle, the thorax not dilated fromm the front to the hind part, and the elytra not in the 
shape of small scales, nor suddenly narrowed from the base and terminated like an awl. These con- 
stitute the normal group of the Cerambycini, the others being in several respects anomalous, the last 
of which appear to connect this tribe with the following. They compose the genera Cerambyz, Clytus, 
Calldium, and part of Stenocorus, Fabr. They are the Cerambyx of Linnzus, to which some of his 
Lepture are to be united. Modern Entomologists [especially Serville,] have greatly augmented the 
number of their generic groups, but their characters are so slight that they may be reduced to one,— 


CEKAMBYX. 
A great number of species, all from South America, proportionably shorter and broader than the followmg, wien 
the antenne often pectinated, serrated, or spined, are remarkable for the extent of the thorax, of which the length 


546 INSECTA. 


nearly equals half of that of the elytra, sometimes smooth, semiorbicular, with a single tooth at the posterior 
angles, sometimes very unequal and tubercular ; the prosternum is either carinated or terminated in a point, 
either flat, truncated, entire, or notched at its posterior extremity, which is applied to a produced lobe of the meso- 
sternum ; the fore-legs at least are wide apart at the base, The scutellum is large in some, the tarsi short and 
dilated. 

Lissonotus, Dalm. (with the antenne greatly compressed and serrated, or semi-pectinated and long), and 

Megaderus, Dej. (with simple antenne, shorter than the body), forma first division, having the thorax nearly 
semi-orbicular and very large, with a single tooth on each side at the hind angles, and the scutellum very 
large. 

Those with the thorax very rough and multidentate, the antenne long, simple, or slightly spined, and the thorax 
very large, form four subgenera. 

Dorcacerus, Dej., having the head vertical, large, and nearly as broad as the thorax, and the scutellum small. 
Type, Cerambyx barbatus, Oliv. 

Trachyderes, Dalm., with the thorax large and much broader than the head; the posterior extremity of the 
prosternum, and also the opposite part of the mesosternum, elevated and keeled. 

Lophonocerus, Latr., has the head much narrower than the thorax, and with the third and three following joints 
of the antenne furnished withhairs. Cerambyx barbicornis, Oliv., &c. 

Ctenodes, Klug, differs from the preceding in having the antenne much shorter than the body, and pectinated or 
serrated ; the thorax toothed at the sides. (Ctenodes zonata, &c.) 

In the following the thorax, either square or cylindrical, orbicular, or nearly globular, is much shorter than the 
elytra; the prosternum is neither carimated nor pointed atits posterior extremity, and the scutellum is always 
small. 

Phenicocerus, Latr., differs from all the rest in having the third and following joints of the male antenne pro- 
longed into flattened plates, forming a large fan. P. Dejeanii; Brazil. In the rest the antenne are only simple 
or serrated. 

Callichroma, Latr., comprises many species, remarkable for their colours, and the agreeable odour they emit, 
and these exhibit a curious anomaly in the maxillary palpi being very much smaller than the labial, and even than 
the maxillary lobe, which is advanced; the posterior 2 
tibiz are often compressed. [The only British species,] 
Cerambyx moschatus, Linn. [or the Musk Beetle as it has 
been erroneously named, the scent it emits being more 
like otto of roses than musk], is about an inch long, en- 
tirely green, or shaded with blue, some specimens being 
of amore golden colour. [This handsome species is very 
common upon willows, and may be easily detected by its 
scent.] There are numerous other species found on the 
Continent and in America. 

Other Longicornes of the same division, but with 
ordinary-shaped maxillary palpi, are distinguished from 
the following by possessing twelve distinct joints in the 
antennae, at least inthe males ; we unite them into the 
single subgenus— 

Acanthopterus, Latr.—Some American species, with 
the thorax nearly square or subcylindrical, and the elytra 


ordinarily terminated by one or two spines, are called 
Stenocorus, by Dalman; others, peculiar to the western parts of the Old World, with the thorax nearly globular, 


and the antenne simple and not fasciculated, form the subgenus Purpuricenus. Types, Cerambyx Kahleri, Des- 
fontainii, &c. Another species, 

Cerambyx alpinus, Linn., has the body depressed, and the third and three following joints of the antennz ter- 
minated by a little bundle of hairs. 

The following Cerambycini have only eleven joints to the antenne ; some, or at least the males, have the antenne 
long and setaceous ; the last joint of the palpi in the form of a reversed cone; the thorax is either nearly square 
and a little dilated in the middle, or oblong and nearly cylindrical ; it is often rugose, and tubercled at the sides. 
These compose the subgenus 

Cerambyx proper, some of which have been further separated under the name of Hamaticherus, having the 
thorax very rough, and spined or tubercled at the sides in the middle, with the third, fourth, and fifth joints of the 
antenne evidently thicker than the following, thickened, and rounded at the tip. C. heros, Fab., is an abundant 
continental species, the larva of which forms deep burrows in oak wood, and which is probably the Cossus of the 


Fig. 81 —Callichroma moschata 


ancients. 
We unite in the same subgenus different species of Callichroma of Dejean, having the thorax entire or scarcely 


unequal, and either oval or subcylindrical. These are exotic, and nearly all from America, being of small size. 
We further unite in the same genus the Gnome of Dejean, having the thorax very long and cylindrical. 
The Cerambycini with the antenne generally scarcely longer than the body, the thorax always unarmed, and 
sometimes nearly globular or orbicular, and sometimes narrower and subcylindrical, the palpi always very short, 
terminated by a thicker joint than in the preceding, form the genus Callidium, which now constitutes three :— 


Se ah nn bon ceo mom icecream ce eee 
—— EE ee — eee 


COLEOPTERA. 547 


Certallum, Dej., has the head at least as broad as the thorax, which is cylindrical, or slightly dilated in the 


middle. Type, C. ruficolle, Fabr. [a French species]. 
Clytus, Fab., has the head narrower than the thorax, nearly globular. Clytus arcuatus, [a rare British species, 


and others]. 
Callidium, has the thorax in like manner broader than the head, flattened, and orbicular. [Callid. Bajulum, a 


very common insect, very destructive to wooden posts and rails. ] 


We terminate this tribe by insects which, in respect to the palpi, the form of the head, thorax, and 
elytra, as well as their respective proportions, offer various exceptions or anomalies, commencing with 
those in which the thorax has a form analogous to that of Certallum. It is of the breadth of the head 
and of that of the base of the elytra, or scarcely narrower, and either subcylindrical, round, or orbicular, 
and is broader towards the middle. All the thighs are clavate, and placed upon a suddenly formed 
slender and elongated pedicle. The elytra in the majority are either very short, or suddenly narrowed 
at a short distance from the base, and then subulated. Those of the first groups however do not exhibit 
such diversity in the elytra. 

Obrium, Meg., has the head rounded, and not prolonged in front into a muzzle ; the palpi with the last joint 
thickened, and truncate at the tip; antennz shorter than the body, and thorax long and narrow. 

Rhinotragus, Germ., has the head produced into a muzzle; the thorax suborbicular. They evidently approach 
the next subgenus. 

Wecydalis, Linn., are the only species which have the elytra contracted into a pair of very short scales, or extended 
to the tip of the abdomen, but narrowed suddenly at a little distance from the base, thus (alone) resembling Cide- 
mera ; the abdomen is long and narrow, and apparently pedunculated at the base. The species with subulated 
elytra compose the subgenus Stenopterus, (S. rufa, Linn.) [a reputed British species.] Those with very short, 
scalelike elytra form the subgenus Necydalis proper, or Molorchus, Fab. Type, N. major, Linn. [a rare British 
species, figured by Curtis]. 


Certain species, for the most part peculiar to the African islands, New Holland, New Ireland, and 
New Zealand, anomalous in several respects, and which in a natural order ought probably to be 
placed between the Lamiariz and Lepturetz, will terminate the division of the Cerambycini. These 
have the palpi nearly filiform, with the last joint subcylindrical, slightly narrowed towards the base ; 
the thorax mostly smooth, or slightly unequal, without acute tubercles, dilated from the front to the 
hind part, trapeziform or truncate conical, as in the last tribe of this family ; the abdomen is nearly 
in form of a reversed triangle in many, and the elytra are truncate. 

Distichocera, Kirby, has the male antenne dilated to the tip, and with furcate joints. [New Holland.] 


Tmesisternus, Latr., has simple setaceous antenne, longer than the body; the thorax is lobed behind, proster- 
num prolonged behind, truncate, and received into a notchof the mesothorax. (Undescribed species, from New 


Ireland.) 
Tragocerus, Dej., has notthe prosternum produced; the antenne filiform, and rather shorter than the body, sub- 


serrated ; thorax unequal, and elytra oblong. 
Leptocerus, which have not the prosternum produced behind ; antenne setaceous, much longer than the body, 


especially in the males, and the elytra subtriangular. Cer. scriptus, Linn. Isle of France. 


The Longicornes of our third tribe, the Lamiarie, are distinguished by having a vertical head; 
the palpi filiform or scarcely thickened at the tips, and terminated by a more or less ovoid joint, 
pointed at the tip. The outer lobe of the maxille is slightly narrowed at the tip, and bent over 
the inner division. The antennz are often setaceous and simple, and the thorax, exclusive of its 
tubercles or spines, is nearly of equal breadth throughout. Some of the species are apterous, a pecu- 


liarity which occurs in no other division of this family. 

This tribe is composed of the genera Lamia and Saperda of Fabricius, and some of his Stenocori. 

Cerambyx longimanus, Linn., neither belongs to this genus nor to Prionus, where it was at first placed, but to a 
distinct one belonging to the Lamiariz, namely, 

Acrocinus, Ilig. (Macropus, Thunb.), distinguished from all other Longicornes by having the thorax furnished 
on each side with a moveable tubercle, terminated by a point or by aspine. The body is flattened, the thorax trans- 
verse, antenne long and slender, the fore-legs longer than the others, and the elytra truncated at the tips and 
terminated by two spines, the outer one being the longest; the most remarkable species is the A. longimanus, in 
which the thighs and tibie of the fore-legs are very long and slender ; the upper side of the body is agreeably diver- 
sified with grey, red, and black colours, 

All the other Lamiariz compose but a single genus,— 

LAMIA,— 
Which we divide into two sections,—those with the sides of the thorax tubercular or spined, and those in which 
it is entire and cylindric. The first is again divided into those with and those without wings. A great number of 
NN 2 


Se i Ad 
nn 


548 INSECTA. 


the former, from South America, having the body shorter, broader, and depressed, with the thorax transverse, the 
Ante pearly square, scarcely longer than broad, the feet robust, and the tarsi much dilated, form the genus— 

- Acanthocinus, Megerle, of which we possess only three European species. 
One (LZ. edilis, Fabr.) is remarkable for the male antenne being more than 
four times the length of the body. 

Others of a similar form, with the antenne bearded or fasciculated, form 
the subgenus Pogonocherus, of which there are several British species, 
nearly all of which are remarkable for having the elytra obliquely truncate 
at the tips. 

Tetraopes, is but slightly elongate, and has each eye entirely divided into 
two parts by the tubercle, from whence arises the antennz. 

Monochamus, Dej., has the body narrow and long, the antenne exceed- 


ingly long, a strong spine on each side of the thorax, middle tibie slightly 
Fig. 82.—Acanthocinus speculifer. bent. 


In Dejean’s catalogue, if we except the apterous species, the other Lamie of Fabricius are retained under the 
generic name Lamia, but Dahl has separated C. curculionoides and nebulosa, (French species), under the name of 
Mesosa, which is nearer to Saperda, in having the thorax not spined at the sides. 

Lamia textor, [a very rare British species], an inch long, and of a dull black colour, conducts to— 

Dorcadion, Dalm., composed of the species which have no wings, a group peculiar to Europe and the adjacent 
parts of Asia, and of which the larva probably feeds upon the roots of vegetables. 

Parmena, Megerle, has been separated from the last from having the antennz longer than the body. 

The other Lamiariz have the thorax not armed at the sides with tubercles or spines, but cylindrical, the body 
always elongated, and nearly linear in many species. These compose the genus— 


SAPERDA, Fabricius. 

Gnoma, Fabr., restricted to some species from Java, New Holland, Sumatra, &c., resemble Lamia in the position 
of the head and the parts of the mouth, but thethorax is as long as the abdomen, cylindrical, and more slender in 
the middle ; the fore-legs are very long. C. longicollis, Giraffa, &c. 

Adesmus, Dej., has the first and third joints of the antenne greatly elongated, exceeding more than one third of 
the whole antennz. 

Apomecyna, Dej., has the body cylindric, antenne filiform, short, terminated in an acute point ; the third and 
fourth joints very long, and the following very short. [Species proper to the East Indies and Isle of France.] 

Colobothea, Dej., has the antenne close together at the base, the body compressed, the elytra notched or trun- 
cate at the tips, with the outer angle produced into a spine. This group is peculiar to South America, and to the 
most eastern of the Islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. 

Other Saperde, from Brazil, with the thorax as broad as or scarcely narrower than the elytra, have the 
third and fourth joints of the antenne very elongated and dilated, and the elytra dilated behind. (Saperda amicta, 
togata, &c.) Many other Saperde with the body very long and narrow have the antenne 12-jointed, thus forming a 
distinct group. (Saperda Cardui, &c.) 

Amongst the species considered by all Entomologists as true Saperde, may be mentioned Saperda carcharias, 
Linn. {a British species lately discovered in the fens of Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire, in great quantities, 
and which is figured in the Entomologist’s Text Book], the larva of which lives in the trunks of poplars, and some- 
times destroys young plantations. 

Some species have the body still more narrow, and the antenne excessively long. 


The fourth and last tribe, that of the Lepturete, is distinguished by having the eyes rounded, entire, 
or scarcely emarginate; the antennz inserted more in front, or at the anterior extremity of the slight 
emargination of the eyes; the head is posteriorly prolonged behind the eyes in many, or suddenly nar- 
rowed into a neck at its junction with the thorax, the latter being conical and narrowed in front. The 
elytra gradually diminish in width to the tip. 

This tribe composes the genus 

LeptTuRA, Linneus,— 
Except such species as belong to the preceding tribes and to the Donacie. Thus modified, the genus corresponds 
to Stenocorus, Geoffr., and to those of Rhagium and Leptura of Fabricius. In some species the head is elongated 
immediately behind the eyes ; the antenne often shorter than the body, and close together at the base, inserted at 
a distance from the eyes upon two small eminences like tubercles, and separated by an impressed line; the 
thorax is ordinarily tubercular, and spined at the sides. 

Desmocerus, Dej., has the palpi filiform, with the last joint of the maxillary nearly cylindrical ; the thirdand two 
following joints of the antennz are dilated at the external angle, especially inthe males. D. cyaneus, Fab.; North 
America. 

The following differ in having the palpi dilated at the extremity, and terminated by aconical joint; the antenne 
regular. 

Vesperus, Dej. [consisting of a few species from the south of Europe], differs in the males alone being winged ; 
the thorax is conical, entire, and without spines or tubercles ; the elytra of the females [which sex is very broad 
and convex], are short, and gaping at the tip. 


a ee EE Ee ee ee eee 


COLEOPTERA. 449 


Rhagium, Dahl. {and the three following, having wings in both sexes], has the antenne simple, not more than half 
the length of the body, and the last joint of the palpi forms a triangular mass. The head is large, nearly square, 
with the eyes entire; the sides of the thorax have a triangular tubercle. [R. bifasciatum, and two or three other 
British species. ] 

Rhamnusium, Meg., has the antennz rather shorter than the body, serrated, with the third and fourth joints 
shorter than the following; the eyes are evidently emarginate. R. Salicis, Fab., [an European species]. 

Toxotus (and Pachyta, Dej.), has the antenne at least as long as the body, simple, with the basal joint much 
shorter than the head ; the eyes are entire, or very slightly emarginate. 

Euriptera, Sery. & Lep., has the antenne 12-jointed. {A Brazilian insect. ] 

Distenia and Cometes, Serv. & Lep., have the thorax spined at the side, palpi short, antenne villose. The 
former has the elytra narrowed and terminated by a spine, in the latter they are linear and unarmed. Both are 


Brazilian. 
Stenoderus, Dej., has the antenne long, the basal joint at least as long as the head, and the body long, narrow, 


and linear; the eyes are entire. [Exotic insects]. 

In the other species the head is suddenly narrowed immediately behind the eyes; the antenne, inserted near 
the anterior extremity of their internal notch, are wide apart at the base ; the two prominences from which they 
spring are nearly on the same plane; the thorax is mostly entireat the sides. These form the genus— 

Leptura proper, some of which have the thorax conical, as in Lept. armata, Gyll. (L. calcarata, Fab.), [a very 
common British species, ofa black colour, with yellow marks in the elytra], whilst in others the thorax is nearly 
globular, as in LZ. tomentosa, [another common British species, of smaller size and black colour]. 


THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


THE Evpopa,— 


Is composed of insects, the first of which (the Donacie) so closely approach the last of the Longicornes, 
that Linnzeus and Geoffroy united them together, and the last of which are so close to the Chrysomele, 
the types of the following family, that the first of these naturalists placed them in this genus. The 
parts of the mouth exhibit the same relations: thus, in the first, the tonguelet is membranous, bifid, 
or bilobed, as in the Longicornes; the maxillz also greatly resemble theirs; but in the terminal 
Eupode the tonguelet is nearly square or rounded, like that of the Cyclica. The lobes of the maxilla 
are however membranous, or but slightly coriaceous, whitish, or yellowish ; the exterior is dilated at the 
tip, and has not the appearance of a palpus, which thus more nearly resembles that of the Longicornes 
than of the Cyclica. The body is more or less oblong, with the head and thorax narrower than the 
abdomen; the antenne are filiform, or thickened at the tips, and are inserted in front of the eyes, 
which in some are entire, round, and prominent, and in others slightly notched; the hind part of the 
head enters into the thoracic cavity ; the thorax is cylindrical or transversely square ; the abdomen is 
larger compared to the other parts of the body, oblong, or in the form of a long triangle; the joints of 
the tarsi, except the last joint, are cushioned beneath, and the penultimate joint is bifid or bilobed ; 
the hind legs are thickened in a great number, whence the origin of the family name. All these insects 
have wings, and fix themselves to the stems or leaves of plants, more especially to the Liliacez in respect 
to many of our native species; the larvze of some (Donacie), devour the interior of the stems of water 
plants, upon which the perfect insect is found; those of others feed externally, but covered with their 
own excrements, which forms a kind of mantle, as in the Casside. 
We divide this family into two tribes, [Sagrides and Criocerides]. 
The first, Sagrides, is composed of the genus— 


SaGRA,— 

The mandibles of which terminate in an acute point. The tonguelet is deeply bilobed. Some have 
the palpi filiform, the eyes emarginate, and the hind thighs very thick, with the tibia curved. 

Megalopus, has the front of the head produced into a muzzle; the mandibles strong and crossing each other ; 
the antenne are thickened at the tips. Handsome Brazilian beetles. See the monographs of Klug, Mannerheim, 
{and Gistl]. 5 

Sagra, Fabr. [first named Alurnus], is exclusively confined to South Africa, Ceylon, [Java], and China, and 
has the palpi terminated by an ovoid joint, the antenne nearly filiform, and the four anterior tibiz straight ; they 
are splendidly coloured, being golden, green, or copper-coloured. 

The others have the palpi thickened at the tips, the eyes entire, and the thighs of nearly equal thickness; the 
body is narrow and depressed. 

Orsodachna, Latr., has the antenne filiform, composed of reversed-conical joints ; the last joint of the palpi alone 
is rather larger than the preceding, and nearly of an ovoid truncate shape. [Several small British species. ] 

Psammoecus, Boudier [Crypta, Kirby], has the antenne composed of short joints, thickening to the tips, and 


550 INSECTA. 


the maxillary palpi suddenly terminated in a large triangular joint. <Anthicus 2-punctatus, Fab., placed in 
this situation by Latreille, with doubt [and inserted by English Entomologists near Latridius and other pesudo- 
Xylophaga.] [The genera Carpophagus and Megamerus, Macleay, are composed of New Holland insects, allied to 


Sagra.] 

The second tribe, Criocerides, is distinguished from the preceding by the mandibles having the tip 
truncated, or with two or three teeth, and by the tonguelet, which is either entire or but slightly 
notched. It is composed of the genus 


CriocERts, Geoffr.— 
which we divide as follows :— 


Sometimes the mandibles are pointed, and with two or three teeth at the tips. The palpi are filiform. The 
antenne, of the ordinary thickness, are nearly moniliform in some, and composed of reversed conical joints in 
others, with the tips evidently thickened. 

Donacia, Fab. (Leptura, Linn.), has the posterior thighs large and thickened; the antenne of equal thickness 
throughout; the eyes entire, and the last joint of the tarsi almost entirely received between the lobes of the third 
joint. These insects are often brilliantly coloured, and bronzed or gilt. Many also exhibit a silky coating, which 
must be useful to them when they fall into the water. They ordinarily live upon aquatic plants, as the Sagittaria, 
Nymphea, &c., upon which they take firm hold. It is in their roots that their larve reside. Their pupx, according 
to M.A. Brongniart, are attached to their filaments by only one side, and thus form knots or bulbs. The larve are 
naked and hidden, like those of the Lepturide. [The genus comprises a great number of British species.] 

Hemonia, Meg. [Macroplea of the British Catalogues], are Donacie with the penultimate joint of the tarsi 
very small and nearly entire, and the last very long. [D. Equiseti and Zostera, [rare British species]. 

Petauristes, Latr., has the hind thighs large, but the eyes are notched; the antennz composed of shorter joints, 
and the lobes of the third tarsal joint only receiving the base of the last joint. [Lema varia, Fabr.] 

Crioceris proper (Lema, Fabr.), differs from the preceding in having the hind thighs scarcely different from the 
others. The antenne are slightly thickened at the tips, and are nearly moniliform, the joints being scarcely 
longer than thick; the eyes are prominent and notched ; the hind part of the head forms a kind of neck. 

These insects live upon Liliacee, Asparagus, &c., and, like those of the preceding family, make a slight noise 
when seized. Their larve feed upon the same plants, on which they take firm hold by means of their six scaly 
feet. They have the body soft, short, and swollen; their excrements are occasionally used by them to form a 
covering over the back, defending them from the action of the sun; the anus is for this purpose placed upon the 
back. They descend into the earth to become pup. 

Crioceris merdigera, the Lily Beetle, is three lines long, with the thorax and elytra red. It is found throughout 
Europe upon the White Lily. M. Boudier has published some observations upon the French species, L. brunnea, 
in the Memoirs of the Linnean Society of Paris. 

Crioceris Asparagi, [the Asparagus Beetle, is of asmaller size], being blue, with the thorax red with a spot in the 
middle, and the elytra are yellowish white with blue markings. [Its larva feeds upon the young sprigs of 
asparagus, and sometimes does damage to the plants. See my memoir on this insect in the 
Gardener’s Magazine.| Cr. 12-punctata, Linn., also feeds on this plant. 

Auchenia, Thunb. [Crevia, Kirby], differs in having the eyes entire; the palpi pointed at the tip ; 
the seven terminal joints of the antennz thickened, and the thorax with the sides dilated in the 
middle—(Crioceris subspinosa, Fab.) 

Megascelis, Dej., differs from the preceding in having the mandibles truncate ; the palpi termi- 
nated by a swollen truncate joint, with a small joint-like prolongation. The species are of small 


Fig. 83.—Crioceris | : - A 
. Asparagi. size, and peculiar to South America. 


THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


Tuer Cyciica,— 


Has also the under-side of the three basal joints of the tarsi spongy or pulvillose, the third being 
bilobed, and the antennez filiform, or slightly thickened at the tips ; the body is also generally rounded, 
with the base of the thorax as broad as the elytra in the species, few in number, in which the body 
is oblong ; the maxilla have the outer lobe of a narrow form, nearly cylindrical and palpiform, and 
the inner lobe is broader, and without a scaly hook. The tonguelet is nearly square, or oval; entire, 
or slightly emarginate. All the larve with which we are acquainted are furnished with six feet; the 
body is soft, coloured; they feed like the perfect insect upon the leaves of different vegetables, where 
they ordinarily affix themselves by a glutinous secretion; it is there also where many of them become 
pupe, the exuvice of the larve being crumpled up at the extremity of the body of the pup, which are 
often varied in their colours. Other larva enter the earth. 

These insects are generally of small size, often ornamented with metallic and brilliant colours, with 
the body naked and without hairs. They are generally slow in their motions, timid, and fall to the 


COLEOPTERA. 551 


earth when attempted to be seized, folding the antenne and legs beneath the body. Many species 
leap well. The females are very prolific. 

In respect to the different habits of the larva, the Cyclica are divided into four principal groups :— 
1. Larva which cover themselves with their own excrement; 2. Larve living in tubes, which they 
bear about with them; 3. Naked larvae; and, 4. Larve which live in the interior of leaves, feeding on 


their parenchyme—(Cyclica saltatoria.) 
Such are the principles which have influenced us in our arrangement of this family. We divide 
them into three tribes, from the mode of insertion of the antenne, [Cassidarie, Chrysomeling, and 


Galerucite}. 
The Cassidarie, [or Tortoise Beetles,] which form the first tribe, have the antenn inserted at the 


upper part of the head, close together, straight, short, filiform, and nearly cylindrical, or gradually 
thickened towards the tip; the mouth, entirely placed beneath, with short, nearly filiform palpi, is 
sometimes arched round and sometimes partially received in a cavity of the prosternum ; the eyes are 
ovoid and round; the feet contractile, short, with the tarsi flattened, the lobes of the third joint 
entirely receiving the terminal joint. The body being flat beneath, these insects, by means of the 
arrangement of the tarsi, lie close upon the leaves, where they generally remain immoveable. In other 
respects the body is generally orbicular or oval, and margined all round by the dilated thorax and elytra. 
The head is hidden beneath the thorax, or received in an anterior notch. Their colours are very varied, 
and prettily arranged in spots, points, rays, &c. Such of their larve as we are acquainted with cover 
themselves with their own excrements. The Cassidariz form two genera. The first, or that of 


Hispa, Linn.,— 
Has the body oblong, with the head entire, exposed, and free, and the thorax trapeziform. The mandibles have 
only two or three teeth; the outer lobe of the maxille is shorter than the inner; the antenne are filiform. 

Alurnus, Fabr., has the extremity of the mandibles prolonged into a strong tooth, with a shorter tooth on the 
inside; the tonguelet is horny. These are South American insects of large size. 

Hispa, Linn., has the mandibles terminated by two or three small teeth of nearly equal size. There are a great 
number of American species. Many have the upper surface of the body, as well as a portion of the antenne, 
armed with many spines. Such is Hispa atra, Linn., a small black species [of very rare occurrence in England], 
which is found upon grass. 

Chalepus, Thunb., has the tibie longer, slender, and curved, and the two anterior armed with a long spine in 
the male (H. spinipes, Fabr.). Some species of Hispa have a frontal horn. H. rostratus, Kirby, forming another 
subgenus. 

CassipA, Linn.— 
Is distinguished from Hispa by having the body orbicular, or subovoid, or nearly square in a few species. The 
thorax, more or less semicircular, entirely hides or covers the head, or receives it in a deep frontal notch; the 
elytra, often elevated in the scutellar region, form a broad margin to the body ; the mandibles offer at least four 
teeth, and the outer maxillary lobe is at least as long as the internal lobe. 

Imatidium, Fabr., differs only in having the head exposed, and received in a notch of the thorax. The body in 
all the Casside is depressed, nearly round, shield or tortoise-shaped, often elevated pyramidically in the middle 
of the back, and margined all round by the sides of the thorax and elytra. The under-side of the body is flat, 
so that these insects fix themselves quite close to the plants on which they are stationed. 

Cassida viridis, is about 1-6th of an inch long; is of a green colour, with black thighs. Its larva lives on thistles 
and artichokes. Its body is very flat, and furnished with 
spines all round the edges, and entirely covered by its own 
excrement, which it attaches in a mass together, and carries 
on a kind of fork fixed near the anus. The pupa is also very 
flat, with thin toothed appendages at the sides of the body ; 
the thorax is broad, rounded in front, and covers the head. 
In the larvaof a species from St. Domingo the excrements 
form small numerous articulated filaments like a wig. 

(The genus is very numerous, and comprises many sin- 
Fig. 84.—Cassida viridis, in its different states. gular forms, some of which have been recently separated as 


subgenera by the Rev. F. W. Hope, in the Annals of Natural History. ] 


91? Og 


awh 


The second tribe (Chrysomeline) has the antennz inserted in front of the eyes, or near their inner 
extremity, and wide apart. These insects do not leap; they form, with the following tribe and some 
of the preceding family, the genus Chrysomela of Linnzus; but which, from its actual extent, we 
have restricted by the adoption of some other. The species which possess the above characters form, 
as in the early works of Fabricius, two genera. 


552 INSECTA. 


The first of these genera,— 
CRYPTOCEPHALUS,— 


Is composed of Chrysomeline in which the head is inserted vertically into a swollen thorax like a hood, so that 
the body, generally in the form of a short cylinder, or nearly oyoid, and narrowed in front, appears from above to 
be truncated and deprived of a head. The antenne in some are more or less serrated or pectinated; in others 
they are long and filiform. The last joint of the palpi is always ovoid. 

In some the antenne are short, pectinated, or serrated after the fourth or fifth joint. 

Clythra, Fabr., has the outer margin of the elytra straight, or with but a slight notch ; the posterior angles of the 
thorax are rounded and not arched, and the anterior are not inflexed beneath. The body is always in form of a 
short cylinder ; the antennz are always free; the eyes entire, or scarcely emarginate. The males have the head 
generally large, with the mandibles large and porrected, and the fore-legs long. C. quadripunctata, Linn., [a 
common British species]. Its larva lives in a coriaceous kind of tube, which it bears about with it. 

The following differ in having the elytra much dilated externally at the base, with a deep notch. The posterior 
angles of the thorax are acute and arched, and the anterior are greatly inflexed. The eyes are often notched. 
These are peculiar to the New World. 

Chlamys, Knoch., has the body short, cylindric, or cubic, and the surface of the body is very unequal. [See the 
monographs of Klug and Kollar.} 

Lamprosoma, Kirby, has the body globular [and very smooth]. 

In others the antenne are evidently longer than the head and thorax, simple, filiform, or thickened to the tips. 

Cryptocephalus, Geottr., has the body cylindric; the thorax as broad as the abdomen, and the antenne and palpi 
of equal thickness throughout. C. sericea, Linn. [a common British species. The genus is extremely numerous]. 

Choragus, Kirby, has the antenne terminated by three large joints. C. Sheppardi, [a small British species. 
This genus is more allied to Anthribus and Bruchus.] 

Euryope, Dalm. (having the mandibles very strong, and the second joint of the antenne longer than the 
third), and 

Eumolpus, Klug (with the mandibles of ordinary size, and the second joint of the antenne shorter than the third), 
differ in having the body narrowed in front and nearly ovoid. 

Ewmolpus Vitis, a small continental species, does much injury to the vine. This genus passes, by nseans of 
Colaspis, in a very gradual manner, to the genus 


CHRYSOMELA,— 
In which the body is generally ovoid or oval; the head exposed, advanced, or slightly inclining forwards; the 
antenne simple, about half the length of the body, and often moniliform and slightly thickened to the tips. 

Some, having the body ovoid, or oval, and winged, and the palpi pointed at the tips, approach Eumolpus, and 
are distinguished from all the following by the filiform antennae, longer than half the body. 

Colaspis, Fabr., has not the mesosternum pointed. [A very numerous exotic genus. ] 

Podontia, Dalm., has the mesosternum produced into a short conical point. [Exotic insects. ] 

In the following Chrysomeline of the same tribe the antenne are shorter, and composed of reversed-conical 
joints, or more or less moniliform, and thickened to the tips; the false joint, or appendage, at the end of the last, 
is very short, and scarcely distinct. 

Some have the maxillary palpi thick, and truncated at the tip. 

Amongst these some have the two terminal joints of the palpi united into a truncated mass, the last shorter 
than the preceding, and either transverse or in the form of a short truncated cone. 

Phyllocharis, Dalm., has the mesosternum not pointed. [Exotic species], peculiar to New Holland and Java. 

Doryphora, Mllig., has the mesosternum pointed like a horn. Composed of South American species. 

Cyrtonus, Dalm., composed of two Spanish species, has no mesosternal point, but the joints of the antenne are 
longer, the body more globose, and the thor'ax more elevated transversely. 

Apamea, Leach, is allied to Doryphora, but has the antenne of the male 8-jointed, the last two forming a club, 

[Trochalonota, Westw., is also globose. Type, Chrysomela badia, Germ. South America.] 

Paropsis, Oliv. (Notoclea, Marsh.), is peculiar to New Holland, and is distinct by having the last joint of the 
maxillary palpi hatchet-shaped. [See the monograph on this genus, published by Marsham in the Transactions of 
the Linnean Society of London.] 

In the two following subgenera the same joint, quite distinct from the preceding, and as large or larger than it, 
is more or less semi-ovoid. These insects are widely distributed over the Old World, and particularly Europe. 

Timarcha, Meg., is composed of apterous species, having the body gibbose ; the antenna moniliform, especially 
towards the base; the elytra united together, and the tarsi very dilated, especially in the males. These insects 
are found on the ground in woods, upon turf, and low herbs at the sides of foot-paths, crawling slowly, and emit- 
ting a yellow fluid from the joints of their feet when disturbed. They especially inhabit the south of Europe, and 
the northern countries of Africa. Amongst those which have the thorax narrowed behind, and nearly of a 
crescent-shape, and which are the largest of the tribe, is the (Tenebrio) levigatus, Linn. [a common British species], 
from four to eight lines long; black, with the thorax and elytra smooth, finely punctured, and the antenna and 
feet violet-coloured. Its larva is green or violet-coloured, very swollen, with the extremity yellow. It is found 
on the Lady’s bed-straw. It undergoes its transformations in the earth. 

Chrysomela proper, comprises those species of Olivier which are furnished with wings, and in which the maxil- 
Jary palpi, according to the subdivisions established above, have the last joint as large as or larger than the pre- 
ceding, of an ovoid-truncate or conic-reversed form. Such is. 


ETT. 


COLEOPTERA. 953 


Chrysomela sanguinolenta [a common British species], four lines long, black or blue-black, with the sides of the 
thorax thickened, and the elytra with a broad meargin of red. It is found on the earth in fields, at the sides of 
oot-paths. 

Chrysomela populi, Linn., is blue, with red elytra, having a small 
black mark at the tip. It is found in the willow and poplar, on 
which its larva lives, often in society. [It is very abundant in 
England], and forms, with some others, the genus Lina of 
Megerle. 

We finish this tribe with those Chrysomeline which have the 
maxillary palpi slender at the tips, and terminated in a point. 

Fig. 85.—Chrysomela populi. fig. 1, Larva; 2, Pupa; Phedon, Meg. (and Colaphus, Meg.), have the body ovoid or 
o, Imago: orbicular. 

Prosocuris, Latr. (Helodes, Fabr.), has the body narrow, more elongated, and the terminal joints of the antenne 
forma straight mass. [P. phellandrii,a common British species. Several other subgenera have been separated by 
recent authors, and of which the British species are described by Mr, Stephens, in his Idlustrations of British 
Entomology.) 

The third and last tribe of the Cyclica, Galerucite, has the antenne always at least as long as half 
the body, of equal thickness throughout, or gradually thickened to the tips, inserted between the eyes 
at a little distance from the mouth, and generally close together at the base, and near to a small longi- 
tudinal elevated line; the maxillary palpi, thickened in the middle, are terminated by two joints in 
form of a cone, but united together at the base, the last being short, and either truncated, obtuse, or 
pointed ; the body is either ovoid or oval, and sometimes nearly hemispherical. Many, especially 
amongst the smaller species, have the hind thighs thickened, which gives them the power of leaping. 


This tribe is composed of the genus 


GALERUCA,— 
Which we divide into two principal tribes—those which do not leap, Isopoda [having equal-sized feet], and those 
which leap, Anisopoda, [or having unequal-sized feet}. 

Adorium, Fabr. (Oides, Weber), is composed of exotic species having the penultimate joint of the maxillary palpi 
dilated, and the last much shorter, and truncate. 

Luperus, Geoff., has the last two joints of the maxillary palpi scarcely differing in size, and the antennz com- 
posed of cylindrical joints as long as the body. [Small British species. ] 

The others, which have the palpi terminated in the same manner, and the antenne shorter, and composed of 
reversed-conical joints, are the 

Galeruca proper [composed of numerous species, including] Chrysomela Tanaceti, Linn., which is oval-oblong, 
black, but slightly shining, and with the elytra strongly punctured. It lives on the tansy. 

The Saltatorial Galerucite, or those which have the posterior thighs thickened, arranged by Fabricius in his 
genera Chrysomela, Galeruca, and Crioceris, are reunited into a single genus (Haltica), in the systems of Geoffroy, 
Olivier, and Illiger. These beetles are very small, but adorned with varied and brilliant colours, and leap with 
great agility and to a great height when disturbed. They often devastate the leaves of such vegetables as serve 
them for food, their larve devouring the parenchyme, and undergoing their transformations within the leaf. 
Some species, especially those which have been called in France puces des jardins, Garden-fleas [and in England 
Turnip-fieas], do much damage in the two states [of larva and imago], to pot-herbs, [and especially to turnips just 
sprung up.] South America is the country which, above all others, abounds with the greatest number of these 
insects. Illiger has published, in his Entomological Magazine, an excellent monograph on these insects, which 
he has distributed into nine families, some of which appear to us to form distinct subgenera. 

Octogonotes, Drapiez, differs from all the rest in having the maxillary palpi with the third joint swollen, and 
the last very short and truncate ; the labial are terminated in a point, as in the following subgenera, but in these 
the maxillary palpi are similarly terminated, or subulated at the tip. The last joint of the hind tarsi of Octogonotes 
is suddenly swollen and rounded above, with the claws very small. 

Gidionychus, Latr., differs from all the following by possessing the last-mentioned character, and includes the 
first two families of Illiger. The only European species is A. marginella, Olivier, found in Spain and Portugal. 

In the following subgenera, the last joint of the hind tarsi is gradually thickened, and terminated by two 
ordinary-sized claws. 

Psylliodes, Latr., has the first joint of the hind tarsi very long, inserted above the posterior extremity of the 
tibia, which is produced into a conical appendage, compressed, toothed at its edges, and terminated by a small 
tooth. It corresponds with Hliger’s ninth family Aléitarses. H. chrysocephala, &c.—H. dentipes, aridella, &c., 
having the posterior tibie dilated in the middle into a tooth, form another subgenus. 

Dibvolia, Latr. (previously Altitarsus, Latr.), has the head for the most part received into the thorax, and the 
posterior tibia terminated by a furcate spine. (Llliger’s eighth family, 4. echii, Oliv., &c.) 

Altica, Latr., has the head exposed, the posterior tibia truncate at the tips, without any prolongation or fork, 
and the tarsi terminal and short. Type, Chrysomela oleracea, Linn. {and numerous other British species, arranged 
by Stephens into several new subgenera, forming Illiger’s third, fourth, fifth, and sixth families. ] 

Longitarsus, Latr., has all the characters of Haltica proper, but the posterior tarsi are at least as long as the 
posterior tibiz. (llliger’s seventh family.) 


ee 
Eee Me te 


554 INSECTA. 


THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TETRAMERA,— 


THE CLAVIPALPI,— 


Is distinguished from all the others of the same section, which, like these, have the underside of the 
three basal joints of the tarsi furnished with cushions beneath, and the third joint bilobed, (the ter- 
minal joint also having a node at its base, which is also observed in the Coccinelle,) by having their 
antenne terminated by a very distinct and perfoliated mass, and by their maxille being armed on the 
inner edge with a horny tooth ; in a few, the tarsi are entire, but they recede from the other Tetramera 
which have similar tarsi, by having the body nearly globular, and contractile into a ball. The body is 
often of a rounded form, generally very gibbose and hemispherical, with the antennz shorter than the 
body ; the mandibles notched or toothed at the extremity ; the palpi terminated by a much thicker joint ; 
the last joint of the maxillary palpi being very broad, compressed, and nearly crescent-shaped. The 
form of the organs of the mouth indicates that the species are not carnivorous: the indigenous species 
are, in fact, found in fungi growing on the trunks of trees, beneath the bark, &c. 
They may be reunited into the single genus 


Eroty.us, Fabr.— 
Some of which have the the maxillary palpi terminated by a large hatchet- or crescent-shaped joint. 

Erotylus proper (including 4gethus, Fabr.), has the intermediate joints of the antennz subcylindric, and the 
club of the antenne formed of the terminal joints, oblong; the inner and corneous lobe of the maxille having 
two teeth. The species are confined to South America. [They are very numerous, a considerable number having 
been described by M. Godart in his monograph on this genus. ] 

Triplax (and Tritoma, Fabr.), differ in having the antenne submoniliform, and terminated by a shorter ovoid 
club, and by the maxillz having a single small toothon the inner edge. In Tvitoma, the body is nearly hemisphe- 
rical—T.. bipustulatum [a small British species, of rare occurrence on fungi],—and in Triplax, the body is oval, or 
oblong. {Several small British species.] The others have the last joint of the maxillary palpi elongated, and more 


or less oval. 
Languria, Latr., has the body linear, and the club of the antenne [3- to] 5-jointed. [Exotic insects, having 


somewhat the appearance of Elateride. ] 
Phalacrus, Payk. (Anisotoma, Illig.), has the body sub-hemispherical, and the club of the antenne only 3-jointed. 


The species [are very numerous, and of small size. They are found upon fiowers, and beneath the bark of trees]. 
Agathidium, llig. (Anisotoma, Fabr.), differs from all the rest of the family by having all the joints of the tarsi 
simple, and the body nearly globular. {Minute British species.] 


The fourth section of the Coleoptera, that of the TRimERA, has only three [ordinary-sized] 
joints in the tarsi; [a fourth, however, but very minute, exists at the base of the last or fourth 
joint]. They compose three families ; those of the first two are closely allied to the last of the 
Tetramera. Their antenne, always composed of eleven joimts*, are terminated by a club 
formed of the last three, compressed, and of a conical or reversed triangular form. The basal 
joint of the tarsi is always distinct ; the second joint ordinarily bilobed, and the last, presenting 
a knot at its base, is always terminated by two ungues; the elytra entirely cover the abdomen, 
and are not truncated. The last of the Trimera, or the third family, approach in this respect, 
and in many other characters, the pentamerous Brachelytra, and some others of the same 
section, such as Mastigus, Scydmenus, and have habits very different from those of the other 


Trimera. 
THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TRIMERA,— 


THE FuNGICcOoLzZ,— 


Have the antenne longer than the head and thorax ; the body oval, with the thorax trapezoid ; the 
maxillary palpi filiform, or rather thickened at the tips, but not terminated by a very large hatchet- 
shaped joint ; the penultimate joint of the tarsi is always deeply bilobed. This family may be reduced 


to the single genus 
EuMoRPHUS,— 
Some of which have the third joint of the antenne much longer than the preceding and following. Such are 
Eumorphus, Weber, which has the club of the antenne suddenly formed, solid, and very compressed ; the max- 


* I, however, only count nine in Clypeaster, but from the smallness of those insects, I may have fallen into some error, 


COLEOPTERA. 555 


ilJary palpi are filiform, and the two terminal joints of the labial palpi form, when united, a triangular mass. They 
inhabit India and America. 

Dapsa, Zeigl., has the antennal club narrow, elongated, with the joints apart at the side. [Exotic species. } 

The others have the third joint of the antenne scarcely longer than the adjoining joints. Many of the species 
are indigenous [to France and England], and live in Lycoperdons, or beneath the bark of trees. 

Endomychus, Weber, has the four palpi thicker at the tips; the last three joints of the antenne apart at the 
sides, longer than the preceding, and forming a reversed triangular mass. [E. coccineus, a pretty little English 
species. ] 

Lycoperdina, Latr., has the maxillary palpi filiform; the last joint of the labial larger than the preceding, and 
the two last joints of the antennz forming a reversed triangular club. JZ. Boviste, {a small British species, found 


in puff-balls]. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TRIMERA,— 


THe APHIDIPHAGI,— 


Is composed for the most part of insects of a hemispherical form; the thorax very short, transverse, 
almost crescent-shaped ; the antenne terminated by a compressed mass in the form of a reversed cone, 
composed of the three terminal joints, and shorter than the thorax ; the last joint of the maxillary palpi 
is very large, hatchet-shaped ; and the second joint of the tarsi deeply bilobed. In the other Trimera, 
of the same family, the joints of the tarsi are simple, or the second is but slightly bifid, a character 


which, with some others, distinguishes these insects from the Fungicolz. 

Some have the body more or less thick, and never flattened and shield-shaped ; the thorax transverse ; the head 
exposed ; the antenne distinctly 11-jointed; the terminal joints forming a reversed conical club, 

These insects compose the genus 

CoccINELLA. 

Lithophilus, Frohl., has the body ovoid, with the thorax strongly margined at the sides and narrowed behind, 
with the second joint of the tarsi very slightly bifid. ZL. ruficollis, Dahl. [a minute European species}. 

Coccinella proper, has the body nearly hemispherical; the thorax very short, nearly crescent-shaped, scarcely 
margined ; and the second joint of the tarsi deeply bilobed. 

Many species of this genus are widely dispersed upon trees and plants in our gardens, and enter our houses ; they 
are well known under the name of Lady-birds, or Lady-cows. The generally hemispherical form of their bodies, 
the number and arrangement of the spots on their elytra, which resemble a kind of inlaid work of black upon 
yellow or orange, or vice versa, as well as the agility of their motions, cause them to be easily known. They 
are the first to appear in the spring; when seized, they fold up their legs against the body, and emit a mucilaginous 
humour from the joints of the legs, as in the Chrysomele, and which is of a yellow colour and very disagreeable 
scent. They feed upon plant-lice, as well as their larve, of which the form and metamorphoses closely resemble 
those of the Chrysomeline. Occasionally, individuals, differing greatly from each other, are found coupled to- 
gether, but the results of such unions have not been observed. 

Coccinella 7-punctata, the common Lady-cow, is about three lines long ; black, with the elytra red, 
with three black dots on each, and one in the middle. It is the commonest species in this country, 
as well as in France. 

Clypeaster, Andersche, (Cossyphus, Gyll.), has the body very flat and shield-shaped, with the 
head hidden beneath a nearly semicircular thorax; the antenne do not distinctly possess more 
Mg. 86.—Cocci- than nine joints; the joints of the tarsi are entire, and the prosternum forms a kind of cravat 


nella 7 pun- 2 3 
Ctata. beneath the mouth. [The species are of very minute size], and are found beneath the bark of 


trees, and under stones. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE COLEOPTERA TRIMERA,— 


Tue PSELAPHI,— 


Has the elytra short and truncated, covering only a part of the abdomen, thus possessing a certain re- 
semblance to the Brachelytra, and especially to the Aleochare ; this last part of the body is, however, 
much shorter, broad, very obtuse, and rounded behind; the antennz, terminated in a club, or thickened 
to the tips, sometimes formed of only six joints; the maxillary palpi are ordinarily very large; all the 
joints of the tarsi are entire, and the first is much shorter than the following, and scarcely visible at 
first sight ; the last is often terminated by a single unguis. 

These insects are found on the ground, under the debris of vegetables, and some inhabit ants’ nests. 

[By English entomologists, this extremely interesting family, placed by Latreille at the end of the 
order Coleoptera (on account of the structure of the tarsi exhibiting a greater simplicity than that of 
any other Beetles), is arranged in immediate connexion with the Staphylinide. The monographs of 
Reichenbach, Denny, and Leach, and the more recent works of Aubé, Stephens, and Erichson, have 


556 INSECTA. 


made us acquainted with a great number of species, and some new genera, of this minute and curious 


tribe. ] 
Those which have eleven joints to the antenne form the genus 
PsELAPHUS, Herbst. 


Some, few in number, have two ungues to the tarsi. 
Chennium, Latr., has the ten basaj joints of the antenne equal-sized, and the palpi not exserted. C. bitubercu- 


latum, {a continental species]. 
Dionix, Dej., has the third and four following joints of the antennz very minute ; the eighth and three following 


thicker than the preceding, and as long as the seven preceding together; the maxillary palpi exserted, and the 
labial palpi short, stretched forwards, and 3-jointed, with a point at the tip. 

The others have but a single tarsal unguis, and some of these have the maxillary palpi very long and elbowed, 
the second and fourth joints being especially elongated. 

Pselaphus proper, differs from the two following by having the antenne evidently longer than the head and 
thorax, and terminated by a club formed of the last three joints, which are evidently longer than the preceding. 
[Ps. Herbstii, and several other British species. ] 

Bythinus, Leach (having the second joint of the antenne thick and dilated into a lateral tooth—Ps. securiger, 


Reich.), and 
Arcopagus, Leach (having the second joint of the antenne slender, and the basal one sometimes dilated—Ps. 


glabricollis, Leach), have the ninth and tenth joints of the antenne scarcely thicker or larger than the preceding, 


but the eleventh very large. 
In others the maxillary palpi are shorter than the head and thorax, and the fourth joint, at least, is short, and 


ovoid or triangular. 
Ctenistes, Reichenb., has the three terminal joints of the maxillary palpi armed with a tooth of the outside. 


[Ct. palpalis, a continental species. ] 
Bryavis, Leach (and Euplectus and Tychus, Leach), have the maxillary palpi of the ordinary form, the last joint 


longer, conical, or hatchet-shaped ; the thorax is short, and scarcely longer than broad; the form of the last joint 
of the palpi and of the joints of the antenne, although offering good characters, does not appear sufficiently 


important for the establishment of [Leach’s] genera. 
The terminal Pselaphiens have the antenne composed of only six joints, or are even inarticulate. 


CLAVIGER. 

Claviger proper has distinctly 6-jointed antenna, the eyes appear wanting, and the maxillary palpi are very 
short. The species are found under stones, and in the nests of small yellow Ants. [Claviger faveolatus, a minute 
species, first detected by me in England in 1838, in Whychwood Forest, Oxfordshire.] See the monographs of 
Germar in the third volume of his Magasin der Entomologie, Aubé, Gylienhall, [and particularly the recently pub- 


lished memoir of Schmidt. ] 
Articerus, Dalm., has the antenne apparently composed of a single joint, forming a long cylinder, truncated at 


the tip; the eyes are distinct. A. armatus, observed by Dalman in gum copal. 


Note.—The tarsi of Dermestes atomarius, De Geer, having appeared to M. Leclere de Laval to be 
composed of only a single joint, we had formerly established for its reception a new primary section 
of the Coleoptera, which we had thence named Monomera. Fischer adopted this section, giving 
the generic name of Clambus to the insect; Schuppell had also proposed for it that of Ptilium ; 
M. Gyllenhall has, however, reunited the species to Scaphidium, and, in fact, we consider that this 
new genus ought to be placed near that genus; the section Monomera must, therefore, be suppressed. 
[Having carefully examined these minute insects, I am able to state that their tarsi consist of 
several joints. | 


THE SIXTH ORDER OF INSECTS.— 


ORTHOPTERA, (ULONATA, Fabr.), [DERMAPTERA, De Geer],— 


United, for the most part, by Linnxus with the Hemiptera, and by Geoffroy with the Cole- 
optera, but forming a peculiar division, exhibit a body generally less firm than the last men- 
tioned order ; soft, semimembranous, wing-covers much nerved, and not uniting at the suture 
in a straight line; wings folded longitudinally, and often fan-like, divided by transverse 
nervures ; maxillze always terminated by a corneous denticulated piece, and covered by a 
galea, corresponding with the outer division of the maxillz of the Coleoptera; and lastly, a 
kind of tongue, or epiglottis. 


ORTHOPTEROUS INSECTS. 


Prisopus horridus, W 
{Mexico 


ys. ~~ 
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nt 

His y 

4 Wf 

\ \ 
~ 4 iN \ 
x A Si 
\ \ H Metallyticus splendens. W. 
4 > j Malabar 
Tripetaloceraferruginea. W. \ / 
Malabar | \ 
\ 
\ 


Y el 

4 Ea ON 
; TN Ved 
] gs ie 


Seapbura Krrbii. W. 
(Brazil J 
Schizodactylus monstrosus. 
(India| 


‘* 
London, Publidud by Orr kSimith, dren Corner, Faternoster Faw, 


ORTHOPTERA. 557 


The Orthoptera are msects* which undergo a semicomplete metamorphosis, all the changes 
being reducible to the increase and developement of wing-covers and wings, which begin to 
appear under a rudimentary form in the pupa. This pupa and the larva resemble the perfect 
insect in other respects, walking and feeding in the same manner. 

The mouth of the Orthoptera is composed of a labrum, two mandibles, two maxilla, and 
four palpi; those of the maxille have always five joints; the labial palpi, as in the Coleoptera, 
have only three. The mandibles are always very strong and horny; the tonguelet is con- 
stantly divided into two or four plates. The form of the antennz varies less than in the Cole- 
optera, but they are generally composed of a much greater number of joints. Many, in 
addition to the composite eyes, have two or three ocelli. The under-side of the basal joints 
of the tarsi is often fleshy, or membranous; the basal joint in the Grasshoppers with short 
untennze, presents three lobes, or divisions, on the under-side. [In these insects, however, the 
tarsi consist but of three joints; these lobes, therefore, indicate the other two joints, which 
are evidently soldered with the first.] Many females are furnished with a real borer, formed 
of two plates, for depositing their eggs, which are often covered by a common envelope. 
The posterior extremity of the body is generally armed with appendages. 

The intestines of the larvee resemble those of the perfect insects. 

All the known Orthoptera are, without exception, terrestrial, both in their perfect and twa 
previous states. Some are carnivorous, or omnivorous; but the greater numbers feed upon 
living plants. The species which inhabit our climate have but a single generation in a year, 
the eggs being deposited towards the end of the summer. This is also the period of their 
last transformation. 

We divide the Orthoptera into two great families, [Cursoria and Saltatoria], a mode of dis- 
tribution confirmed by their anatomy ; the insects of the first having only tubular trachee, 
whilst those of the second have vesicular trachez. [We are indebted to M. Serville for a 
revision of the generic division of this order, published in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles. 
Dr. Burmeister, in 1838, also worked out the order, adding many new genera, in his Hand- 
buch der Entomologie. In 1839, M. Serville, unacquainted with Burmeister’s work, published 
his Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Orthoptéres, in which he introduced many new genera, as 
well as some established by Burmeister, but with other names; which of course must rank as 
synonymes. Dr. Burmeister has just published, in the third number of Germar’s Zeitschrift 
der Entomologie, a revision of these two works, with a view of pointing out the synonymes. | 

In the first family all the legs are alike, and solely fitted for running; in the second, the 
thighs of the hind legs are much larger than those of the other feet, which gives them the 
power of leaping; the males, moreover, make a sharp noise, or a kind of stridulation. These 
are the leaping, or musical Orthoptera. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ORTHOPTERA,— 


Tue CursoriA,— 


Has the hind legs solely fitted, like the others, for running. They have generally the wing-covers and 
wings resting horizontally on the body; the females do not possess a horny ovipositor. These form 
three genera, [Forficula, Blatta, and Mantis]. The first, that of 


Tue Earwies (Forficula, Linn.),— 
Has three joints tothe tarsi, the wings folded like a fan, and shutting up transversely beneath crus- 
taceous wing-covers, which are very short, and meet in a straight suture ; the body is linear, with two 
large scaly moveable appendages, which form a forceps at the posterior extremity of the body. The 
head is exposed; the antenna are filiform, inserted in front of the eyes, and composed of from 
twelve to thirty joints, in different species. The galea is slender, elongated, and nearly cylindrical 


* This order, the Lepidoptera and Strepsiptera, and the apterous hexapod insects, do not possess any aquatic species. 


558 INSECTA. 


the tonguelet is furcate; the thorax is plate-like. The second joint of the tarsi is simply dilated 
beneath, near the tip, or in form of a reversed heart, and not notched. These insects have been very 
carefully investigated in respect to their internal anatomy, by Messrs. Ramdohr, Posselet, Marcel de 
Serres, and especially by Léon Dufour, in the Annales des Sci. Nat., vol. xiii. From their anatomical 
characters they appear to L. Dufour to constitute a distinct order, which he names Ladidoures. 
Mr. Kirby had also previously proposed the name of Dermaptera for them as an order. * 

These insects are very common in damp situations, where they often assemble in troops under 
stones, and the bark of trees; they do much injury to the fruits of our gardens, [devouring also the 
petals of flowers], as well as the bodies of their dead companions, defending themselves with their 
forceps, of which the form varies according to the sex. It is a vulgar notion that they creep into the 
ear of sleeping persons ; this, however, is the origin of their French name, Perce-oreille [English name, 
Earwig ; German name, Ohrwurm, &c.] 

(The species has been distributed into a considerable number of subgenera by Leach, Serville, and Burmeister. ] 
Latreille divides them, in a note, into 

Forficula proper, which has not more than 14 joints to the antenne. 

Forficula auricularia, is more than half-an-inch long, brown, shiny, with a reddish head, the 
sides of the thorax grey, and the feet yellow-ochre coloured. The female guards her eggs with 
much care, as well as her young, for a considerable time. 

Forficula minor (the small Earwig), is much smaller, and has 11- or 12-jointed antenne ; it 
forms Leach’s genus Labia. 

Forficesila, Latr., has more than 14 joints to the antenne. ([F. gigantea, the type of Leach’s 
genus Labidura, with 30 joints to the antennz.] 

Chelidura, Latr., is wingless. 


The second genus, that of 
Buatra, Linn., 


Fig. 87.—Forficula Ys * . . . 
EBSA Has five joints to all the tarsi; the wings are only folded longitudinally ; the head 


hidden beneath the large plate of the prothorax, and the body is orbicular, or oval, and flattened. 

The antennz are filiform, inserted in an inner notch of the eyes, long, and composed of a very great 
number of joints; the palpi are long; the prothorax shield-like; the wing-covers are ordinarily as 
long as the abdomen, coriaceous or semimembranous, and crossing each other slightly at the suture. 
The posterior extremity of the abdomen presents two conical and articulated appendages ; the tibie 


are very spinose. 

The Blattz [or Cockroaches] are nocturnal insects, exceedingly active, some living in the interior 
of our houses, especially kitchens, bake-houses, and corn-mills. Others are found in the country. 
They are very voracious, consuming all kinds of provisions. The species found in the French colonies 
are there termed Kakerlacs, and greatly annoy the inhabitants by the mischief they commit, attacking 
not only eatables, but gnawing also woollen and silk materials, and even shoes; they will also eat 
other insects. Some species of Sphex make war 


upon them. 

[The species are very numerous, and have lately been 
formed into a considerable number of genera by Serville 
and Burmeister ; Latreille, however, retained them under 
the single genus Bilatta.] 

Blatta orientalis [the common Cockroach] is an inch 
long; the male is furnished with wings shorter than the 
abdomen; the female has only short rudiments. The 
eggs, 16 in number, are symmetrically arranged in an 
oval compressed case, which is at first white, but subse- 
quently brown and solid, denticulated on one side; the 
female carries it about with her for some time at the 
extremity of the body; she then attaches it to various 
substances by means of a gummy secretion. This species 
is a scourge both to the inhabitants of Russia and Fin- 
land. It has been supposed to have come from South 
America, whilst others give Asia as its native country. 


Fig. 88.—Blatta orientalis, male and female. 


Those with the wings folded longitadinally, and with the wing covers | order Dictyoptera (Blatta). 


* Dr. Leach divided the other Orthoptera into two other orders. | elytra crossing each other, and the wings similarly placed, form his 
meeting in a straight line, were bis Orthoptera; and those with the 


eee 


ORTHOPTERA. 559 


Blatia lapponica, devours the cured fish which the Laplanders have provided for their sustenance, in lieu of 
bread. In our country it inhabits woods, [which leads to the suspicion that the species thus named are not 
identical]. M. Hummel has published a series of very interesting observations on Blatta germanica, in his 
‘Essais Entomologiques. 


The third genus, that of 
Mantis, Linn.,— 


Has also five joints in all the tarsi, and the wings simply folded longitudinally, but the head is 
exposed, and the body long and narrow; the palpi are also short and pointed, and their tonguelet 
quadrifid. 

These insects are found only in temperate or hot climates, and reside upon trees or plants, often 
resembling their leaves or twigs in the form and colour of the body, and seeking the full sun-light.. 
Some are rapacious, whilst the others are herbivorous. The eggs are ordinarily inclosed in a capsule 
of a gummy secretion, which hardens in the air, and is divided internally into a number of cells, and is 
sometimes in the form of an oval cocoon, sometimes like a pod with angles, and sometimes spined. 


The female fastens it to plants, or other substances elevated from the ground, 

Some have the two fore-legs much larger and longer than the others, with the coxz long, the thighs very strong, 
compressed, and armed beneath with spines, the tibia curved, and terminated by a strong hook; they have 
Ocelli distinct, and close together in a triangle ; the first segment of the thorax is very large; the four lobes of the 
tonguelet of nearly equal length; the antenne inserted between the eyes, and the head triangular and vertical. 

These species are carnivorous, seizing their prey with the fore-feet, which they elevate in front of the body, and 
quickly folding the tibia upon the under-side of the femur [which thus becomes a most powerful raptorial instru- 
ment, not only fitted for capturing the prey, but also exactly formed for conveying it to the mouth]. The eggs 
are very numerous, and are inclosed in the same number of cells disposed in regular series, and united in an oyoid 
mass or cocoon. 

(These Orthoptera, which are very numerous, have been distributed by Serville and Burmeister into a great 
number of genera, founded mostly upon external characters of form.] Latreille, however, retains them in the 
single subgenus 

MANTIS proper, restricting it, however, to 
those which have no frontal horn on the head. 

Mantis religiosa, Linn. (the Praying Mantis, or 
Sooth-sayer), is regarded by the Turks as an 
object of religious respect. Another species is 
still more venerated by the Hottentots. The 
former is very common in the south of France 
and Italy. See the work of Stoll, and the memoir 
of Lichtenstem, in the Transactions of the Lin- 
nean Society, [also the works of Serville and Bur- 
meister]. 

Those species which have the forehead pro- 
longed into a horn, with the antenne of the males 
pectinated, form the genus Empusa, Mliger. 

The others have the fore feet similar to the hind 
ones; the ocelli very indistinct, or wanting; the 
first segment of the thorax shorter, or of the same 
length as the following; the interior divisions of 
Fig. 89.—Mantis, in the act of seizing a fly, with a young one just hatched. the tonguelet shorter than the lateral; the an- 


tenne inserted in front of the eyes, and the head nearly ovoid, porrected, with the mandibles thick, and 
the palpi compressed. ‘These insects are of very sin- 
gular form, and resemble either the twigs or leaves of 
trees. They appear to feed only on vegetables, and, 
like many of the Grasshoppers, their colours resemble 
those of the plant on which they ordinarily reside; 
the two sexes often differ very widely from each other. 
They form the subgenus 


SPEcTRuUM, Stoll,— 

Which has been divided into two others. 

Phasma, Fab., comprises the species which have the 
body filiform or linear, similar to a stick, many of 
which are entirely destitute of wings, or have the wing- 
covers very short. Many large species are found in the 
Moluccas, and South America. P. Rossia, Fab., in- Fig. 90.—Phaama (Bacteria) fragilis. 
habits the South of France. 

Phyllium, Mllig., has the body very flat and membranous, and the feet furnished with broad membranes. 


560 INSECTA 


Mantis siccifolia [or the Walking Leaf], a species peculiar to the Sechelles Islands, Mauritius, &c., of which the 
female has very short antenna, with the wing-covers as long as the abdomen, but destitute of wings; the male 
is much narrower, with long filiform antenne ; short wing-covers, and wings as long as the abdomen. 

[Latreille, in the Familles Naturelles, Saint Fargeau and Serville, in the Encyclopédie méthodique, the latter in 
his Histoire naturelle des Insectes Orthoptéres, and Gray in his Synopsis of Phasmide, have constituted a great 
number of generic groups detached from those given above, and which are founded upon the variations 
in the developement of the wings in the different sexes; the proportions of the thoracic segments, antenne, &c. 
Messrs. Burmeister and Brullé have considerably reduced the number of these groups in their works upon this 


order. ] 
THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE ORTHOPTERA,— 


THE SALTATORIA,— 


Has the two hind feet remarkable for the size of their thighs, and for the very spined tibiz thus formed 
for leaping. The males call their females by making a chirping noise, which is sometimes produced 
by rubbing an inner part of the wing-covers like a talc-like mirror, against each other with rapidity, 
and sometimes by a similar alternate motion of the hind thighs against the wings and wing-covers, 
the thighs acting the part of the bow of a violin. The majority of the females lay their eggs in the 
ground. 

This family is composed of the genus 


Grytuuvs, Linn.,— 
Which we divide as follows :— 


Some have the organ of sound in the males consisting of an inner part of the wing-covers in the 
shape of a mirror; the ovipositor of the females is very long, exserted, and often sabre-shaped, and the 
antenne are either very long and slender at the tips, or of equal thickness throughout, but very short. 

In some of these, the wings and wing-covers are horizontal, the wings when folded up in repose 
forming long filaments, extending beyond the wing-covers, and the tarsi have only three joints, as in 


the genus 
GRYLLUS, Geoffroy & Oliv. (Acheta, Fabr.), [and Achetide of English authors]. 


They live in burrows, and ordinarily feed upon insects ; many are nocturnal. They form four subgenera. 

Gryllotalpa, Latr., having the tibie and tarsi of the two fore-legs very broad, flat, and toothed, like hands 
proper for burrowing ; the other tarsi of the ordinary form. 

Gryllotalpa vulgaris [the Mole-cricket}, is an inch and a half long, and of a brown colour. It is too well known 
from the injuries it commits in gardens and cul- Z 
tivated fields, living in the earth, where its fos- 
sorial fore-legs, like those of a Mole, enable it to 
form a burrow. It cuts or detaches the roots of 
plants, but less with the intention of feeding upon 
them as to forma passage, for it feeds, as it would 
seem, upon other insects or worms. The song 
of the male, heard only in the evening or night» 
is soft, and not disagreeable. [It is thence, in 
some parts of England, called Chur-worm.] The 
female forms, in June and July, at the depth of 
about six inches, a subterranean rounded cell, Fig. 91.—Gryllotalpa vulgaris. 
smooth in the interior, in which she deposits from 200 to 400 eggs; the cell with its gallery resembles a bottle 
with along bent neck. The young live for some time in society. See for further details the observations of 
M. le Feburier in the Nouv. Cours d’ Agriculture. [From more recent observations, it appears certain that the 
Mole-cricket is obnoxious in gardens, &c., from its herbivorous habits. One species, G. didactyla, in the West 
Indies, does great injury to the plantations of young sugar canes. See, also, the work of Kollar on injurious 
insects, translated by Miss Loudon.] , 

Tridactylus, Oliv. (Xya, Mlig.), are also fossorial in their habits, but only with the anterior tibiz ; the posterior 
tarsi are replaced by narrow, bent, moveable appendages ; the antenne are very short, and 10-jointed. Minute 
exotic insects. [The genus Ripipterya, Newman, is closely allied to this genus. } 

Gryllus proper [Gryllus acheta of Linneus, Acheta of English authors], have not the feet fitted for burrowing, 
and the females have the ovipositor long and exserted; the antenne are greatly elongated, pointed at the tip; the 
Ocelli are indistinct. The Field-cricket, Gryllus campestris, Linn., and the common House-cricket, G. domesticus, 
belong to thisgenus. The first forms deep retreats in dry and hot situations, in which it stations itself to surprise 
other insects upon which it preys. The female deposits about 300 eggs; the House-cricket inhabits the interior 
parts of houses, especially in the neighbourhood of fire-places, in which it makes its burrows, and breeds. The 
male produces aharsh noise; that made by G. megacephalus can be heard at the distance of a mile. 


I 


ORTHOPTERA. 563 


Myrmecophila (Spherium, Charpent.), is destitute of wings, and has the body oval. M. acervorum is of very 
small size, and lives in Ants’ nests [on the Continent]. 


Others [having, like the last, a tale-like spot at the base of the wing-covers in the male], have these 
organs disposed like a roof, and the tarsi have four 
joints ; the antennz are very long and filiform. The 
females have the ovipositor always exserted, com- 
pressed, and sabre or cutlass-shaped. These insects 
are herbivorous, and form the genus 


Locusta, Geoffr. [Gryllus, or Gryllide, of English 
authors]. 
(The Great Green Grasshopper, with long antenna], 
. L. viridissima, is two inches long, green, without spots ; 
=- the ovipositor’ of the female is straight. 
Fig. 92.—L. viridissima. Many species of this genus are destitute of wings, or 
have wing-covers only, but of very small size. 
[The species of this genus, or rather, family, have been distributed into a considerable number of generic groups 
by Thunberg, Serville, Latreille, Burmeister, and others, founded upon external variations of form. ] 


The others have the antennz filiform and cylindric, sword-shaped, or thickened at the tips, and as 
long as the head and thorax ; the wings and wing-covers are roof-shaped when inactive, and the tarsi 
are 3-jointed. The tonguelet, in the majority, has only two divisions; the ocelli are three in number, 
and constantly distinct ; the mandibles much toothed; the abdomen conical, and compressed at the 
sides. They leap with much more energy than the preceding, and have a much longer sustained 
flight. They feed upon vegetables with great voracity. They may be united into a single genus, that of 


AcryYDIUM, Geoffr. — 
Which [has been greatly divided into genera and subgenera by Serville, Burmeister, and Thunberg, but which] 
Latreille divides as follows. 

Some have the mouth exposed, the tonguelet bifid, and a membranous pulvillus between the tarsal ungues. 

Pneumora, Thunb., has the hind-legs shorter than the body, and scarcely fitted for leaping ; the abdomen is 
bladder-shaped in one of the sexes. These species are only found in the southern parts of Africa. 

Proscopia, Klug, is wingless ; the body is long and cylindrical; the head, without ocelli, is prolonged in front 
into a point or cone, bearing two very short 7-jointed antenne, pointed at the tip ; and the hind-legs are large and 
long. These insects are peculiar to South America, and have been well monographed by Klug. 

Truxalis, Fab., has the antenne compressed, and of a prismatic form; the head elevated into a pyramid. 
Gryllus nasutus, Lam., and many other exotic species. 

Xyphicera, Latr. (Pamphagus, Thunb.), is composed of species which, in respect to their antenne, are interme- 
diate between Truxalis and the following genus. 

Acrydium proper, Gryllus, Fab. (Gryllus locusta, Linn.), [Locustide of British authors], differs from Pneumora 
in having the hind feet longer than the body; the abdomen solid, and not bladder-like: and from Truxalis, in 
having the head ovoid, and the antenne filiform, or terminated by a knot. Many species have on each side of the 
body, near the base of the abdomen, a large cavity, closed on the inside by a very thin pellicle. I have described 
this organ in the eighth volume of the Mémoires du Muséum, which has some influence either in the production of 
the chirping, or in flight. From analogy with the Cicada, I have compared it toa kind of tambour. The species 
fly high in the air, and often in troops. Their hind wings are often agreeably coloured, especially with red and 
blue. Amongst the exotic species the thorax is often crested, warty, or otherwise singularly formed. Certain 
species have been termed Migratory, from their uniting themselves in troops of incalculable numbers, and mi- 
grating through the air in thick clouds, and in an astonishingly short time transform the places where they alight 
into an arid waste. Their death even becomes a scourge, the air being infected by the immense masses of their 
dead bodies. M. Miot, in his excellent translation of Herodotus, conjectures that the mass of dead bodies of 
winged serpents which the historian relates to have seen in Egypt, was a mass of the bodies of these migratory 
locusts. This opinion perfectly accords with my own. These insects are consumed in different countries of 
Africa, the inhabitants using them for their own food, and as an article of commerce. They tear off the wings alc 
wing covers, and then bake them. A great portion of Europe is often overrun by 

Gryllus migratorius, which is two inches and a half long, with brown wing-covers spotted with black, and a 
slightly elevated crest on the thorax. The eggs are enveloped in a glutinous secretion, forming a cocoon, which 
the insect is said to fasten to plants. [This is, however, refuted by the observations of Mr. Smirnove upon the 
locusts of Russia, published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London.| It is common in Poland. 

The south of Europe, Barbary, Egypt, &c., suffer similar devastations from some other species, of which some 
are of larger size, as G. egyptius, tataricus, Lam., &c., and which scarcely differ from G, lineola, Fab., which is 
found in the south of France; a species peculiar to the same countries, and which is that which is eaten and pre- 
pared in Barbary, in the manner above detailed. The natives of Senegal dry another species, of which the boily +s 


00 


fn — —— 


perenne tape a Te eee 


562 INSECTA. 


yellow, spotted with black, and which Shaw and Denon have figured in the accounts of their voyages in Africa ; 
they then reduce them to powder, which they use as flour, as 1 learn from M. Savigny. These two species, and 
some others, have a conical prominence upon the prosternum, and compose the genus Acrydium. Amongst 
those which do not present this character, and in which the antenne are equally filiform, some have the 
wing-covers and wings perfect in the two sexes, and belong to the genus which I have named Cfdipoda. In this 
number are G. stridulus, G. cerulescens, [G. flavipes, and a great number of smaller species found in this country, 
usually called Grasshoppers, but distinguished by their shorter antenn.] 

Other Acrydia, similarly winged and with filiform antenne, have the upper part 
of the prothorax strongly elevated, very compressed, forming a sharp crest, rounded 
and prolonged into a point behind. Foreign countries possess numerous species, 
one only of which, and of smaller size, is found in the south of France (4, arma- 
tum, Fischer. ] 

In the others, one of the sexes, at least, has the wing-covers and wings very short, 
and in no wise fitted for flight. I have formed for these a new generic group, named 
Podisma. 

The Acrydia which have the antenne thickened at the tips, either in both sexes or in only one of them, are 
formed also into a peculiar genus, Gomphocerus, by Thunberg. G. sibiricus, and other small British species. 

In the second division of the genus Acrydium, the prosternum receives in a cavity a part of the under-side of 
the head; the tonguelet is quadrifid, and the tarsi have no pulvillus between the ungues; the antennz have only 
13 or 14 joints; the thorax is prolonged behind like a large scutellum, which is sometimes longer than the entire 
body, and the wing-covers are very small. These Orthoptera form the genus 

Tetrix, Latr. (Acrydium, Fab., part of Gryllus bulla, Linn.), which is composed of very small species. 


Fig. 93.—G. flavipes. 


THE SEVENTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


THE HEMIPTERA (Ruynoorta, Fabr.),— 


Terminate in our system the numerous division of insects furnished with wing-covers, and 
being the only ones among them which have neither mandibles nor maxille, properly so 
called, [that is, fitted for biting]. A tubular articulated tongue, cylindrical or conical in its 
form, curved downwards, or directed under the breast, having the appearance of a kind of 
rostrum ; presenting throughout its whole upper face, when stretched forward, a gutter, or 
canal, out of which three scaly, stiff, slender, and pointed setee may be withdrawn, and which 
are covered at the base by a tonguelet; these setee form unitedly a sucker, resembling a sting, 
having for its sheath the tubular piece above described, and in which it is kept by means 
the superior tonguelet [or labrum], situated at its base.» The mferior seta is composed of two 
threads united into one at a short distance from their origin; thus the number of the p’eces 
of the sucker is, in reality, four. M. Savigny considered that the two superior sete, or those 
which are separate, represent the mandibles of the biting insects, and that the two threads of 
the inferior seta answer to the maxillz (or rather, as it appears to me, to their terminal lobes, 
which in the Bees and Butterflies are transformed 
into an elongated filament); hence the lower lip 
is replaced by the tubular sheath of the sucker, and 
the triangular piece at the base becomes the labrum. 
The tonguelet, properly so called, also exists, and 
under a form analogous to that of the preceding 
piece, but bifid at the tip (see Cicada); the palpi 
are the only organs which have entirely disappeared, 
and vestiges of them are perceived in Thrips, [which, 
however, are now proved to belong to an order dis- 
tinct from the present; palpi, small and inarticulate, 
also exist in some of the Hydrocorisz ]. 
ey ocellig, SAU AAGE acibaee GREER DL oa The mouth of the Hemiptera is, therefore, fitted 
lip, or canal; m, mandibular, and ma, maxillary set.) only for extracting by suction fluid matters: the 
delicate threads of which the sucker is formed pierce the vessels of plants and animals, and the 


|S, ee ne ee, See ae ee ee ee 


ee  —————————————— 


HEMIPTERA. 563 


nutritive fluid, successively compressed, is forced up the main canal, and arrives at the ceso- 
phagus ; the sheath of the sucker is often elbowed, or forms an angle. Like other sucking 
insects, the Hemiptera possess salivary vessels. 

In the majority of the insects of this order the wing-covers are coriaceous, or crustaceous, 
with the posterior extremity membranous, and forming, as it were, a kind of supplemental 
piece; they nearly always cross each other: those of other Hemiptera are merely thicker and 
larger than the hind wings, semi-membranous, like the wing-covers of the Orthoptera, and 
sometimes opaque and coloured, sometimes transparent and vemed. The wings have several 
longitudinal folds. 

The composition of the thorax begins to exhibit the modifications which we meet with in 
the following orders. Its anterior segment, hitherto known under the name of corselet 
[thorax, or more strictly, prothorax], is in many of much less extent, and is incorporated with 
the second, which is equally exposed. 

Many possess ocelli, but their number is generally only two. 

The Hemiptera [like the Orthoptera] exhibit to us, in their three states, the same forms 
and habits. The only change they undergo consists in the developement of wings, and an 
increase in the size of the body. 

I divide the order into two sections [Heteroptera and Homoptera, regarded as distinct 
orders by many English authors, under the names of Hemiptera and Homoptera}. 

In the first section, Heteroptera, the rostrum arises from the front of the head, the wing- 
cases are membranous at the extremity, and the first segment of the thorax is much longer 
than the others, and forms by itself the corselet. 

The wing-covers and wings are always horizontal, or slightly inclined. 

This section is composed of two families [ Geocorise and Hydrocorise]. The first, 


Grocoris (or Land-bugs),— 


Have the antenne exposed, longer than the head, and inserted between the eyes, near their inner 
margin ; the tarsi have [generally] three joints, the first of which is often very short. They form 
tne genus 

Cimex, Linn.,— 


Some of which, Longilabres, have the sheath of the sucker composed of four distinct and exposed 
joints ; the upper lip is considerably prolonged beyond the head, like an awl, and transversely striated 
on the upper side; the tarsi have always three distinct joints, the first equal in length to, or longer 
than the second. These species emit, in general, a very disagreeable scent, and suck other insects. 
Sometimes the antennz, always filiform, are composed of five joints ; the body is generally short, oval, 


or rounded. 
ScUTELLERA, Lam.,— 
In which the scutellum covers the abdomen. Cimew lineatus, Linn. [a reputed British insect]. 

Pentatoma, Oliv., in which the scutellum covers only a portion of the upper-side of the abdomen. This genus, 
as proposed by Olivier, comprises five others in the Systema Rhyngotorum of Fabricius; but his 
groups are imperfectly characterized and badly arranged. His genera 4lia and Halys are Pen- 
tatome, which have the head more prolonged, and advanced in front like a snout, more or less 
triangular. The type of the former is lia acuminata [a rare British species], which differs 
from the rest in having the antenne covered at the base by the anterior and detached margin 
of the under-side of the thorax, and by the scutellum of much larger size, whereby this species 
more nearly approaches Scutellera. His genus Cydnus has the head seen from above, broad, 
semicircular ; the thorax transversely square, scarcely narrower in front than behind, and the 
tibie are often spinose. These species are found on the ground ; some other species may also 
be united, which have the sternum neither keeled nor spined: such are Cimexv ornatus and 
oloraceus, (handsome rare British species, forming Hahn’s genus Eurydema]. 

Other Pentatome, having the mesosternum elevated in the manner of a keel, or exhibiting a point like a spine, 
are generically distinguished under the name of Edessa, employed by Fabricius. Many of the species which he 
introduces into this genus possess this character, which is also found in some of his species of Cimex, as P. he- 
morrhoidalis, Linn. [the type of Curtis’s genus Acanthosoma, and P. griseus, the type of Laporte’s genus 
Raphigaster). 


Fig. 95.—Pentatoma 
Baccarum. 


002 


564 INSECTA. 


The female of the last-named species protects her young with great care, leading them about as a hen does her 
chickens. 

Heteroscelis, Latr., is formed for the reception of a species from Cayenne, having the head cylindrical, the 
anterior tibie broad and palette-like. 

Canopus, Fabr., as shown by the recent observations of M. Alexandre Lefebvre, is composed of small South 
American insects, not yet arrived at their full developement, having the body rather compressed, and very convex 
above, concave beneath, and the ocelli, as well as the wings, wanting]. 

[The preceding insects form the family Pentatomide, Leach; Pentatomites and Scutellerites, Laporte; and 
Scutati, Burmeister. The number of genera into which they have been divided by these authors, as well as by 
Hahn, in his Die Wanzenartigen Insecten, is very greatly increased, and has probably been carried too far.*] 

Sometimes the antenne have only four joints, and the body is ordinarily oblong. In some of these the antenne 
are filiform or clavate. 

Some exotic species approach the preceding in the general form of the body, being rather ovoid than oblong, 
and are distinguished from all the following by being either very flat, membranous, with the margins very strongly 
dilated and angular, or by having the prothorax posteriorly prolonged into a truncated lobe, and the sternum 
cornuted. Such is 

Tesseratoma, Lepel and Serv. Type, Edessa papillosa, Fab. 

Dinidor, Latr., has similarly 4-jointed antenne, but the thorax is not posteriorly lobed. (Edessa obscura, 
mactans, &c.) 

Phiea, Lep. and Serv., is quite flat and membranous, with the sides of the body dilated and angular, the ante- 
rior extremity forming a flattened, truncated hood, hiding the antennz, which are very short, apparently 3-jointed, 
and elbowed. [P. corticata, a singular Brazilian insect.] 

All the others have the body generally oblong, and do not exhibit such characters as the last group. Some of 
these have the antenne inserted near the lateral and superior margin of the head; the ocelli are close together, 
or at the same distance apart as they are from the eyes. 

Coreus, Fab., has the body oval; the last joint of the antennz ovoid or fusiform, often thicker and not longer 
than the preceding. C. marginatus, Geoff. [a common English species]. From the proportions of the joints of 
the antenne the species may be thus subdivided. Gonocerus, with the third joint of the antenne compressed and 
angular at the sides,—C. sulcicornis, insidiator, &c. ; Syromastes, with the third joint of the antenne simple, and 
longer than the fourth,—C. marginatus, &c.; Coreus, with the last joint of the antenne much longer than the 
fourth, and compressed,—C. hirticornis, &c. 

Holhymenia, Lep. and Sery., has the second and third joints of the antenne plate-like. [Exotic species. ] 

Pachylis, Lep. and Sery., has the third joint alone of this form. 

Anisoscelis, Latr., has the antenne filiform, without dilatation ; some have the posterior tibie with a broad mem- 
brane,—L. membranaceus, F., &c. The others, L. valgus, &c., have not, [but the hind femora are often grotesquely 
thickened. These are exotic species of large size.] Some of the species, with long slender antenne, form my 
genus Nematopus. 

Alydus, Fab., has the body long and narrowed ; the eyes prominent; the ocelli close together, and the thorax 
slightly broader behind. (A. calcaratus, a rare British species]. 

Leptocorisa, Latr. [part of Gerris, Fab.], has the body long and filiform; the antenne and legs are also greatly 


elongated, and the former straight. 
Neides, Latr. (Berytus, Fab.), has the antenne elbowed. [Small singular insects, three or four species of which 


occur, but rarely, in thiscountry. C. tipularius, Linn. ] 

We now pass to the Geocorise which have the antenne similarly filiform, or thickened at the tips, and 
4-jointed, but inserted lower than in the preceding ; the ocelli are close to the eyes, and the apical membrane of 
the hemelytra has only four or five nerves. [These form the family Lygeide.] 

Lygeus, Fabr., has the head narrower than the thorax, which is narrowed in front,—C. equestris, Linn. C. ap- 
terus, Linn. ; red, with the head, a spot on the thorax, and two on the hemelytra, black; the wing-covers without 
apical membrane, but occasionally this, as well as the wings, is fully developed. [The ocelli are wanting in this 
species, which forms the type of the genus Pyrrhocoris, Fall.; Platynotus, Schill. ; or Astemma of Lep. and Serv. 
It is occasionally found in this country. ] 

The species with the fore-legs thickened form the genus Pachymerus, Lep. and Serv., but which name having 
been previously used, must be changed. [The species are very numerous, and form Hahn’s genus Rhy- 
parochronus. | 

[Geocoris, Fallen, Opthalmicus, Schill.] Salda, Fab., has the head as broad as the thorax, and often dilated 
behind, with large eyes, S. atra, grylloides, &c., Fabr. 

Myodatha, Latr., has the hind part of the head elongated into a neck. 

We now arrive at those Geocorise longilabres with four-jointed antenne, slender, and often capillary at the tips. 

Astemma, Latr. has the second joint of the antenne of equal thickness, the thorax scarcely broader behind than 
in front, transverse, quadrate, or cylindrical. Salda pallicornis, &c. 

Miris, Fab., resembles Astemma in the antenne, but has the thorax narrowed in front. 

Capsus, Fab., has the thorax trapezoid, and the second joint of the antenne slender at the base, pilose and thick 
at the tip. [C. ater, and a great number of English species. ] 


« The Rey. F, W. Hope has published a catalogue of the species | species. Germar has also added many new genera and species in the 
belonging to this tribe, with the description of a great number of new ! first part of his Zeitschrift fur die Entomologie, 1839, 


HEMIPTERA. 565 


Heterotoma, Latr., has the two basal joints of the antenne very thick and setose. The typeof thiscurious genus 
is Capsus spissicornis, Fab. [a common British species]. 

The other Hemiptera of this family have only two or three joints in the sheath of the proboscis ; the labrum is 
short, and not striated ; the basal and often the second joint of the tarsi are very short; the legs inserted in the 
middle of the breast; the ungues apical. Some of these have the proboscis straight, and generally resting in a 
canal; the eyes of ordinary size, and the head not narrowed into a neck. The body is generally entirely or partly 
membranous, and often flattened. They compose the majority of the Fabrician genus Acanthia, from which the 
following have been separated. 

Syrtis, Fab. (Macrocephalus, Swed., Phymata, Latr.), has the fore-legs very large and claw-like, serving to seize 
their prey. In Macrocephalus the scutellum is distinct, and covers nearly the whole abdomen. In Phymata 
(S. crassipes, F.), the [scutellum is minute], and only covers part of the upper side of the abdomen. 

Tingis, Fab., has the body very flat, and the antenne terminated by a short knob, the third joint being elong- 
ated; the majority live upon plants, puncturing the leaves of flowers, and sometimes producing galls. The leaves 
of the pear are often gnawed by 7. pyri. [These are minute insects, many of which are English, having the body 
membranous, and covered with small cells; the thorax is extended behind, over the scutellum.] 

Aradus, Fab., resembles Tingis in the form of the body, but has the antenne cylindrical, with the second joint 
as long as the third, or longer. They are found under the bark of trees, in crevices of old wood, &c. [Small 
insects, of which several are found in this country. 4. depressus, Betule, &c.] 

Cimex proper, Acanthia, Fab., has the body very flat, but the antenne terminate in a setaceous joint. The 
typical species, C.lectularius, Linn., the Bed-bug, is too well known to need description. It is said not to have existed 
in England before the great fire in 1666, and that it was imported in wood from America; Dioscorides, however, 
mentioned it. It has also been asserted that this species sometimes gains wings. It also infests young Pigeons, 
Swallows, &c.; but that which attacks the latter birds appears to me to form a distinct species, 
[The Rev. L. Jenynshas recently described it as distinct, C. Hirundinis ; as wellas one from Pigeons, 
>  €. columbarius ; and one found ona Bat, C, Pipistrelli. (Annals of Nat. Hist., June, 1839.) ] 

N Various plans have been proposed for their extirpation, but the best is extreme cleanliness. 
oo) The other Geocorise of this subdivision have the proboscis exposed, arched, or sometimes 
Fig. 96.—Cimex straight, with the labrum prominent and the head suddenly narrowed behind into a neck. The 
‘ectularius- Tatter form the primitive genus 


ReEpvuvius, Fabricius,— 
In which the proboscis is short, very acute, and capable of pricking strongly, the pain of which lasts for a long 
time. The antenne are very slender at the tips ; many species produce a noise similar to that made by Crioceris 
and the Capricorn Beetles, which is more quickly repeated. This genus has been thus subdivided. 

Holoptilus, Lep. and Sery., which have only three joints to the antenne, the last two furnished with very long 
hairs, arranged in two rows, and verticillated in the last joint. 

Reduvius proper, has the antenne 4-jointed, and smooth, or but slightly pubescent, and the body is oblong- 
oval, with the feet of moderate size. R. personatus, Linn., inhabits the interior of houses, where it lives upon 
flies and other insects, which it approaches stealthily, and then darts itself, immediately killing them by piercing 
them with its proboscis. In the preparatory states it looks like a Spider, covering itself with particles of dust 
and dirt. 

Nabis, Latr., in which the thorax is but slightly divided transversely, and Petalocheirus, Pal. Beauv., in which 
the fore tibiz form a round plate, may be united therewith. 

Zelus, Fab., has the body linear, with the legs very long, slender, and alike, [consisting of a great number of 
exotic species]. 

Ploiaria, Scop., differs from the last in having the two fore-legs [short] with elongated coxe, formed as in 
Mantis for seizing the prey. Gerris vagabundus, Fabr. fan insect of small size, not uncommon in England]. 

We are now arrived at Geocorise remarkable for the large size of the eyes, and the head not formed into a 
neck, with the head transverse. They live at the sides of water, where they run with great agility, and often take 


short leaps. 
Leptopus, Latr., has the proboscis short and arched, and the antenne setaceous ; [small species, several of which 


are found on the Continent]. 

Acanthia, Latr. (Salda proper, Fabr.), has the proboscis long and straight, and the antenne filiform. Salda 
litoralis, Fabr., &c. [several British species of small size]. 

Pelogonus, Latr., differs from Acanthia in having the antenne very short, and folded beneath the eyes. The 
species are small, and approach Naucoris, to which they conduct with the following. 

Sometimes the four hind legs, very long and slender, are inserted upon the sides of the breast, and wide apart ; 
the tarsal ungues are very small, indistinct, and fixed in a fissure at the side of the tarsi. These feet serve either 


for rowing or creeping on the water. They are peculiar to the genus 


HYDROMETRA, Fabr.,— 


Which Latreille divides into three others. 
Hydrometra proper, with setaceous antenne, and the head produced into a muzzle, with the rostrum received 


in a canal on the under side. [H. stagnorum, a small, very slender, and common species, found crawling on the 


surface of water. ] 
Gerris, Latr., has filiform antennz, with the sheath of the proboscis 3-jointed, and the second pair of legs wide 


Ed a de See a 
ee eee SL ee) ee 


566 INSECTA. 


apart from the anterior, and twice as long as the body. [Common insects, often seen skimming along the surface 


of the water. ] 
Velia, Latr., with the antenne also filiform, but with the sheathof the sucker only 2-jointed; the legs mode- 


rately long, and placed at equal distances apart. V. currens, [a common British insect, seen running on the 
surface of brooks. ] 

[The works of Laporte Comte de Castelnau, the Encyclopédie Méthodique, Burmeister’s Manual of 
Entomology, vol. ii., Spinola’s Essay on the Heteropterous Hemiptera, and Hahn’s work, Die Wanzen- 
artigen Insecten, must be consulted for many new genera established in this division of the order.] 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE HEMIPTERA,— 
Tae Hyprocorise, or Water-bugs,— 


Has the antennz inserted beneath the eyes, by which they are concealed, being shorter than the head, 
or scarcely longer than it. 

All these Hemiptera are aquatic and carnivorous, seizing other insects with their fore-legs, which 
fold upon themselves, and serve them as claws. They prick very sharply [with the proboscis]. The 
tarsi have only one or two joints; the eyes are generally of a remarkable size. 

Some of the Hydrocorisx, forming the subfamily Nepides, have the two fore-legs formed into claws 
composed of a very thick or very long thigh, channelled on the under side to receive the under surface 
of the tibia and of the tarsus, which is very short, or is united with the tibia, forming with it a strong 
hook ; the body is oval and very depressed in some, and of a linear form in others. These insects form 


the genus 
Nepa, Linn.,— 
Which may be thus divided :— 

Galgulus, Latr., in which all the tarsi are alike cylindrical, with two distinct joints, the last of which is furnished 
with two hooks at the tip; the antenne appear to have only three joints, the last of which is large and ovoid. 
(Naucoris oculata, Fab.; North America.) 

The antenne in the following genera are composed of four joints, and the anterior tarsi are terminated simply 
in a point, or by a hook. 

Naucoris, Geoff., has the labrum exposed, large, and triangular ; the body is nearly oval and subdepressed ; the 
eyes flattened ; the extremity of the body is not furnished with elongated processes ; the four hind feet are ciliated 
with 2-jointed tarsi, and two ungues at the tip. NV. cimicoides, Linn., [a common British insect, half an inch long]. 

In the three following subgenera, the labrum is hidden in the canal, and the extremity of the abdomen furnished 
with two filaments. 

Belostoma, Laty., has all the tarsi 2-jointed, and the antennz semi-pectinated. [Exotic species.] 

Nepa, Latr., has the fore tarsi formed of a single joint, and the four hind tarsi 2-jointed; the antenne appear 
forked ; the fore coxe are long, and the thighs thicker than the other parts. The abdomen 
is terminated by two long filaments, which are employed in respiration ; the eggs resemble 
the seed of some plant, being oval, surmounted by acoronet of hairs. M. L. Dufour has 
published an elaborate memoir on their internal anatomy. WN. cinerea, Linn., of a dirty 
ash-colour, with the upper surface of the abdomen bright red, [is a very common insect. } 

Ranatra, Fabr., differs from Nepa in its linear form, and the more elongated form of the 
legs. J. linearis, Linn. [a common British species in certain localities]. The coronet at 
the top of its eggs is formed of only two threads. 


The others, Notonectides, have the two fore-legs simply incurved, with the thighs 
of the ordinary size; the tarsi diminishing to a point, and very much ciliated or 
similar to the others ; the body is nearly cylindric or ovoid, and rather thick, or not 
so much depressed as in the preceding ; the hind legs are very much ciliated, in 
the form of oars, and terminated by two very minute claws: they swim or row 
with great quickness, and often on their backs, [whence their generic name]. They 
Fig. 97.—Nepa cinerea. compose the genus 


Noronecta, Linn.,— 
Which may be thus divided :— 

Corixa, Geoff., which has no scutellum, the elytra horizontal ; the fore-legs very short, with 
the tarsi composed of a single compressed and ciliated joint ; the other legs are elongate, and 
the two middle ones terminated by two very long ungues. J. striata, Linn. [and several other 
small British species]. 

Sigara, Leach, founded upon N. minutissima, Fabr., has the fore-tarsi 1-jointed, but possesses 
a distinct scutellum, and the body ovoid. 

Notonecta, Linn., has a distinct scutellum ; a rostrum elongate-conic; the wing-covers de- 
flexed at the sides, and all the tarsi 2-jointed ; the fore tarsi are cylindric, simple, and terminated by two ungues. 


Fig. 98.—N. glauca. 


HEMIPTERA. 567 


N, glauca, Linn., more than half an inca long, [is one of our commonest water insects]: it swims upon its back in 


order the better to seize its prey, and is able to prick sharply. 
Plea, Leach, is founded upon Notonecta minutissima, Linn., which has the ungues of the hind feet large, and 


the elytra entirely crustaceous- 


The second section of the Hemiptera, that of the 


Homoptera, Latr.,— 

Is distinguished from the preceding by the following characters :—The proboscis arises from the 
lowest part of the head, near the breast, or even, as it appears, between the two fore-feet. 
The wing-covers (nearly always roof-like) are throughout of the same consistence and semi- 
membranous, sometimes even nearly like the wings. The three segments of the thorax are 
united into a mass, and the first is often shorter than the following. All the Hemiptera of 
this section feed only upon the fluids of vegetables ; the females have a sealy ovipositor, gene- 
rally composed of three denticulated plates, and lodged in a scabbard of two valves: they use 
this instrument as a saw to make notches in vegetables, in order to deposit their eggs. The ter- 
minal insects of this section undergo a kind of complete metamorphosis. 

I divide it imto three families, [Cicadarie, Aphidii, and Gallinsecta.] 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE HOMOPTEROUS HEMIPTERA,— 


THE CIcADARIZ,— 


Comprises those which have three joints in the tarsi, and the antenne generally very small, conic, or 
awl-shaped, from 3- to 6-jointed, including a very slender seta, with which they are terminated. The 
females are provided with a denticulated, saw-like ovipositor. Messrs. Ramdohr, Marcel de Serres, 
Léon Dufour, and Strauss, have studied the anatomy of different insects of this family with great care; 
the latter has not yet however published his researches. Amongst the others, M. Léon Dufour is the 
author whose investigations are the most extended and complete, at least as regards the digestive and 
generative systems, as is easily proved on referring to his memoir intitled Recherches anatomiques sur 
les Cigales, inserted in the fifth volume of the Annales des Sciences naturelles. 

Some of the Cicadariz are named Chanteuses, and have the antennz composed of six joints and three 
ocelli. The mesothorax, seen from above, is much more spacious than the prothorax, and is narrowed 
towards its extremity, where it forms a kind of scutellum. It is nearly of the same form in the Ful- 
gore and other genera separated therefrom. The mesothorax is often of a reversed triangular form, 
and the prothorax is generally very short and transverse. In Membracis, Cicadella, &c., it is, on the 
contrary, much more extensive than the other thoracic segments, and very much developed in one or 
the other direction, and the mesothorax appears only in the form of an ordinary triangular scutellum. 
In the whole of the family, the mesothorax is very short and concealed. Considered in respect to other 
insects, the head of the Cicadariz, seen in front, exhibits immediately above the labrum a triangular 
space, answering to the epistome or clypeus, above which is another space, often swollen and striated ; 
above this is the forehead, and which is succeeded by the vertex or superior part of the head. 

The Chanteuses comprise the Cicade mannifere, Linn., or the genus Tettigonia, Fabr., and form 


with me the genus 
CicapA, Oliv. (Tettigonia, Fabr.). 

These insects, in which the wing-covers are almost always transparent and veined, differ from the following not 
only in the structure of their antenne, and the number of the ocelli, but also in not possessing the power of 
leaping ; the males also produce in the hottest part of the day a kind of monotonous and noisy music, whence they 
have been termed by authors “ chanteuses,”’ or singers. The organs of sound are placed at each side of the base 
of the abdomen, internal, and covered by a cartilaginous plate like a shutter, and which is an appendage of the 
under side of the metathorax. The cavity which incloses these instruments is divided into two partitions by a 
scaly and triangular edge; seen from the under side of the body, each cell exhibits anteriorly a white and folded 
membrane, and in the hollow part, a stretched-out slender membrane, which Réaumur calls the mirror : if this 
part of the body be opened from above on each side, there is seen another folded membrane, which is moved bya 
very powerful muscle, composed of a great number of straight and parallel fibres extending from the scaly ridge; 
this membrane is the timbale. The muscles, by contracting and relaxing with quickness, act upon the timbales, 
stretching them out, or bringing them into their natural state, whereby the sounds are produced, and which, even 
after the death of the animal, may be repeated by moving the parts over each other in the manner they act whilst 
alive. 


568 INSECTA. 


The Cicade are found upon trees, or shrubs, of which they suck the sap. The female pierces the small twigs of 
dead branches of trees as far as the pith with its ovipositor, iodged in a semi-tubular sheath formed of two valves, 
and composed of three scaly pieces of a narrow and elongated form, two of which are terminated like a file, in 
order to deposit their eggs therein, the number of which being great, the female makes a succession of slits, the 
place of which is indicated by so many elevations on the exterior. The young larve quit their birth-place, how- 
ever, in order to descend into the ground, where they increase in size and become pup. Their fore-legs are short, 
the fore thighs being very strong, and armed with teeth, fitted for burrowing in the earth. The Greeks devoured 
the pup, which they called Tettigometre, as well as the perfect insect. Before coupling the males were preferred, 
but afterwards the females were selected, being filled with eggs. The Cicada Ormi, by puncturing the elm, causes 
it to discharge the saccharine purgative fluid which has been termed manna. 

(The genus is very numerous, and the species are found in all the warmer regions of the globe, some being of 
large size. In England we, however, possess but a single species, which has been figured by Curtis under the 
name of C. anglica. It has only occurred in the New Forest, in Hampshire. ] 

The species which have a slit on the upper side of the abdomen, exposing the timbale, such as C. hematodes, &c., 
compose the genus Tibicen of my Fam. Nat. C. orni, Fab., may in this respect form another genus. [See 
the monographs of Germar.] 


The other Cicadarie (Muettes) have only three distinct joints to the antenne, and two small ocelli. 
Their legs are in general fitted for leaping; neither of the sexes is furnished with organs for the pro- 


duction of sound. 
The wing-covers are often coriaceous and opaque; many of the females envelope their eggs in a 


white cottony mass. : 
Some of these (Fulgorelle) have the antenne inserted immediately beneath the eyes, and the fore- 


head is often prolonged into a muzzle, varying in figure according to the species. This is the distin- 
guishing character of the genus 


Fuxueora, Linn. 


The species in which the forehead is advanced, with two ocelli, and which have no appendage beneath the 
antenne, are the true Fulgore of Fabricius. Such is Fulgora laternaria, Linn., a very large species, varied with 
yellow and red, with a large eye-like spot on each of the hind 
wings; the muzzle is very much dilated, and vesicular. <Ac- 
cording to some travellers, this insect is affirmed to emit a very 
strong light during the dusk. [It is an inhabitant of South 
America. The statement of its luminous properties, originating 
with Madame Merian, requires confirmation. The species of 
the true genus Fulgora are rather numerous, extraordinary in 
their forms and colours, and widely dispersed. I have published 
a monograph, with figures of many new species, in the last part 
of the Linnean Transactions. | 

The south of Europe possesses a small species belonging to 
the same genus, F. ewopea: [belong to the subgenus Dictyo- 
phara, Burm.] 

Other Cicadariz, with the forehead advanced, but wanting ocelli, and having two slender appendages beneath 
each antenna, compose the genus Otiocerus, Kirby (Cobax, Germar). [Small American insects, monographed 
by Kirby.] ; 

Those in which the head is not remarkably produced in front are formed by Fabricius into several genera, to 
which others subsequently established, [especially by Germar, Guérin, and Burmeister,] must be added. 

Sometimes the antennz are shorter than the head, inserted at a distance from the eyes, in some of which the two 
ocelli are distinct. 

Lystra, Fab., similar, at first sight, to small Cicade. The body and wing-covers are elongated, the second joint 
of the antennz is nearly globular, and granular, as in the Fulgore. 

Cixius, Latr., resembles Lystra, but the second joint of the antenne is cylindric and entire. The genns Achilus, 
K. [founded upon an Australian species, A. fammeus, K.] scarcely differs from Cixius. 

I have separated, under the generic name of Tittigometra, insects analogous to the preceding, but in which the 
antenne are lodged between the posterior and lateral angles of the head and those of the anterior extremity of 
the thorax. The eyes are not prominent. [Small European insects.] Celidea, Germar, appears to be closely 
allied to Tettigometra, of which they have the aspect, and are described as having the antennz inserted beneath 
the eyes. 

In the others the ocelli are wanting. 

The species which have the wing-covers large, and the prothorax evidently shorter in the middle than the 
mesothorax, compose the subgenus Peéciloptera, Latr., Flata, Fabr. 

Issus, Fab., is composed of those species in which the prothorax is at least as long as the mesothorax, and 
the wing-covers, shorter, or as long as the abdomen, are dilated at the base, and subsequently narrowed. 


Fig. 99.—Fulgora laternania. 


HEMIPTERA. 569 


In others, the antenne are at least as long as the head, and often inserted in a notch below the eyes. 

Anotia, Kirby, allied to Otiocerus, and which approaches the preceding in the mode of insertion of the 
antenne. [Small exotic insects.] 

Asiraca, Latr. (Delphax, Fab.), has the antennez inserted in a notch below the eyes, as long as the head and 
thorax, with the first joint generally longer than the second, compressed, and angulated; the ocelli are 
wanting. [A. clavicornis, Latr., a small, exceedingly active species, and several others, inhabitants of this 
country. ] 

Delphax, Fab., has the antenne similarly inserted, but not longer than the head, with the first joint much 
shorter than the second; the ocelli are present. [Numerous very small species, found by sweeping grass at the 
sides of roads, commons, &c. Some of the species occasionally have the wing-covers only partially developed. 
These constitute the genus Criomorphus, Curtis.] 

Derbe, Fabr., are unknown to me, but I presume they come near the preceding insects, and especially 
to Anotia. 


In the terminal Cicadarie the antenne are inserted between the eyes. These compose the genus 


CicaDELLA (or the Cicade Ranatre, Linn.),— 
Which may be thus divided :— 

We commence with the species which, with the exception of a small number, (Ledra,) formerly com- 
posed the genus Membracis of Fabricius. The head is very much deflexed, or low in front, and pro- 
longed into an obtuse point under the form of a clypeus, more or less semicircular. The antenne are 
always very small, terminated by an inarticulate seta, and inserted in a cavity under the margins of 
the head; the prothorax is sometimes dilated, and horned on each side, and prolonged behind into a 
simple or composite horn, and sometimes it is elevated longitudinally down the back, compressed like 
a crest, sometimes porrected and pointed in front; the legs are seldom spined. 

[This genus comprises three principal groups,—the Membracides, Cercopides, and Cicadelline]. 


Some [the Membracides] have no scutellum, properly so called, exposed. 

Membracis, Fab. (having the prothorax elevated, compressed, and leaf-like along the middle of the 
back), and 

Tragopa, Latr. (where this part of the body is horned, or pointed on each side, without any intermediate eleva- 
tion, and posteriorly produced into a point as long as the abdomen), have the tibi, especially of the fore-feet, 
foliaceous. 

In the following the tibiz are of the ordinary form, and not foliaceous. 

Darnis, Fabr., in which the prolongation of the prothorax 
is in the shape of a long triangle, covering the wings and 
abdomen. 

Bocydium, Latr., has the prolonged part narrowed so as 
to expose the wings and sides of the abdomen, and more 
or less lanceolate, or spear-shaped. [Such are Bocyd. glo- 
bulare, and B. cruciatum, two extraordinary Brazilian in- 
sects, of small size, here figured. The majority of the species 
of Membracides are exotic, of small or but moderate size, and 
amongst them are to be found some of the most anomalous 
forms. } 

In others the scutellum, although the prothorax is prolonged, is exposed, at least in part, the posterior 
extremity of the prothorax exhibiting a transverse suture, which distinguishes it from the scutellum. These 
form the subgenus Centrotus proper. Types, C. cornuta and C. geniste. [Two small species, of rather common 
occurrence in woods in this country, the last of which is figured in the Entomologist’s Text Book, pl. 3. f. 2.] 


Fig 100.—a, Bocydium globulare ; }, B. cruciatum. 


We now pass to the species in which the head is but little lower than, or on the same plane as, the 
prothorax ; horizontal, or but little deflexed when seen from above, and in which the prothorax is 
neither elevated in the middle, nor posteriorly prolonged, offering only lateral dilatations, and in which 
the mesothorax assumes the form of a triangular scutellum, of the ordinary size ; the wing-covers are 
always exposed ; the posterior tibize are more or less spined. 

In many, such as the following [which compose the tribe Cercopides], the thorax has the form of 
an irregular hexagon, being prolonged and narrowed behind, and terminated by a truncature fitting to 
the base of the scutellum, and often receiving it; this truncature being concave, or emarginate. 

Astalion, Latr., has the crown of the head transverse, the forehead being suddenly deflexed in front, and the 


antenne are inserted above a line drawn between the eyes. [Brazilian insects.] 
In the three following subgenera the vertex is triangular and bears the ocelli, and the antenne are mserted in a 


line drawn between the eyes. 
Ledra, Fab., has the head very flat between the eyes, like a transverse clypeus; the sides of the prothorax are 


570 INSECTA. 


dilated into short wing-like appendages, and the hind tibie are very compressed, and margined by a membrane. 
C. aurita, Linn., [a species not uncommon in the woods in Kent]. 

Ciccus, Latr., has the antenne terminated suddenly after the second joint in a seta composed of four distinct 
cylindric and elongated joints; the anterior extremity of the head is generally advanced. [Exotic species.] 

Messrs. Serville and Saint Fargeau [as well as Drs. Germar and Burmeister] have established numerous additional 
genera inthis group. The Eurymela fenestrata, Serv. and St. F., described by them as Brazilian, is a native of 
New South Wales, the description given of which by these authors being inexact, the insect possessing ocelli, 
although difficult to be detected. Hence this genus ought to be introduced at the genus Issus. 

Cercopis, Fab., Germ. (Aphrophora, Germ.), has the third joint of the antenne conical, and terminated by an 
articulated seta. 

[C. vulnerata, Rossi, the only British species closely allied to C. sanguinolenta, Linn., is a common 
insect, and the handsomest in the family; being black, with 
blood-red spots.] C. [Aphrophora] spumaria, Linn., is an ex- 
tremely abundant species, the larva of which is found upon 
leaves and twigs in the midst of a frothy secretion, of a white 
colour, which has been commonly called Cuckoo-spit. 


In the other Cicadariz, terminating this family, [and 
forming the tribe Cicadellines, and which in the earlier 
- works of Fabricius formed his genus Cicada], the pro- 

Fig. 101.—Aphrophora spumaria ; @, imago; 5, frothy secretion ; 3 a 
€ pupa, thorax is not at all, or scarcely, prolonged posteriorly, 
and is terminated by a straight, or nearly straight, line, as long as the breadth of the body, the 


scutellum, at its base, occupying a great portion of this breadth. 

Eulopa, Fallen, has the eyes very prominent, the head but little advanced beyond the eyes, but depressed, 
and forming a kind of ridge round the face ; two ocelli placed on the posterior and superior part of the head, and 
legs destitute of spines or teeth. C. Erice, a small species, [found on heaths]. 

Eupelix, Germar, has the head in the form of an elongated and very flat triangle, with the ocelli situated in 
front of the eyes, upon the edges of the head, which are prolonged, nearly cutting through the eyes. C. cuspidata, 
Fab. [a rare British species, found with the preceding]. 

Penthimia, Germ., has the antenne inserted in a large channel, reducing the space between the eyes more than 
ordinary ; the head, seen from above, appears semicircular, and gradually deflexed in front ; it is rounded, and its 
edges are extended above tliese channels ; the body is short. These insects have some resemblance to Cercopis, 
with which Fabricius united them. C. sanguinicollis, Faby., [a very rare British species]. 

Gypona, Germar, appears to be closely allied to Penthimia, but I have seen no specimen of that subgenus. 

Tassus, Fabr., has the superior surface of the head comprised between the eyes, very short, transverse, and 
linear, or arched, and very little advanced even in the middle beyond the eyes. The plates at the sides of the 
clypeus are large; the antennz terminate in a long seta; the ocelli are situated near or below the anterior margin 
of the head. [Numerous small British species, divided by Curtis, Lewis, Burmeister, and Germar into various 
subgenera. ] 

Cicadella proper, or Tettigonia, Fabr., Oliv. ; Cicada, Linn., has the head, seen above, triangular, without being 
either very long or very flat, whereby it is distinguished from Eupelix ; the eyes also are not cut into by the sides 
of the head; the ocelli are situated between them. These insects are, in other respects, very nearly related to 
Tassus, as well as in respect to the extent of the plates at the sides of the face, and the length of the seta of the 
antenne, which appears to be articulated at its base, as in Ciccus, from which it chiefly differs in the form of the 
thorax. [This is also a very numerous group, which has been likewise much cut up by late writers.] Some of the 
species, as C. grisea, transversa, striata, Fabr., appeared to Latreille to form a distinct subgenus, from the flat- 
tened form of the head, and the ocelli inserted near its edge. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE HOMOPTEROUS HEMIPTERA,— 


Tue Araripi, commonly called Plant Lice,— 


Which are distinguished from the preceding by having only two joints in the tarsi, and the antennz 
filiform, or like a thread, and longer than the head, composed of from six to eleven joints. 

The winged individuals have always two wing-covers and two wings. These are very small insects, 
having the body generally soft, and the wing-covers very similar to wings, differing only in being larger 
and somewhat thicker. They multiply with exceeding rapidity. 

Some have ten or eleven joints in the antennz, the last of which is terminated by two sete. They 
leap well, and form the genus 


Psyuua, Geoff. (Chermes, Linn.). 


These Hemiptera, which are also termed by the French False Plant-lice, live upon trees and plants, 


HEMIPTERA. 571 


from which they obtain their nourishment ; the two sexes are winged ; the iarvee have the body gene- 
rally very flat ; the head broad, and the abdomen rounded behind. Their legs are terminated by a 
membranous vesicle, accompanied beneath by two ungues. Four broad pieces, which are the sheaths of 
the wing-covers and wings, distinguish the pup: many in this state, as in that of the larva, are 
covered by a white cottony secretion, arranged in flakes. Their excrements.form threads or masses, of 


a gummy saccharine nature. 

Some species, by puncturing vegetables to extract the sap, produce in various parts, especially in the flowers and 
buds, monstrosities, having the appearance of galls. In this number is Psylla Buxi, figured by Réaumur, 
Mem. Ins., vol. iii. pl. 19, fig. 1—14, which is found on the box. The alder, fig, nettle, &c. produce other 
species. 

Latreille has formed with the species which lives in the flowers of Juncus articulatus, a genus, under the name 
of Livia. The antenne are much thickened at the base. 

(Mr. Curtis has published the figure of another genus under the name of Livilla, founded upon a small, inter- 
esting British species. ] 


The other Aphidii have only six or eight joints in the antenne, the last of which is not terminated 
by two sete. 

Sometimes the wing-covers and wings are linear, fringed with hairs, and carried horizontally upon 
the body, which has nearly a cylindrical form ; the proboscis being small, or scarcely distinct. The tarsi 
are terminated by a vesicular joint without ungues; and the antenne have eight somewhat moniliform 
joints. Such is the genus 


Turips, Linn.,— 
The species of which are extremely active, and appear to leap rather than fly. When much irritated, 
they elevate and bend the extremity of their bodies into an arch in the same manner as the Staphylini. 
They live upon flowers and plants, and under the bark of trees. The largest species scarcely exceed a 
line in length. 

Latreille observes in a note that the structure of the mouth exhibited to him characters 
which appeared essentially to distinguish the species of Thrips from the other insects of 
this order. M. Strauss also, who had studied them with admirable precision, considered 
that they belonged to the order Orthoptera. [Subsequently, the genus has been raised 
to the rank of a distinct order by Mr. Haliday in a valuable memoir published in the En- 
tomological Magazine, under the name of Thysanoptera, and I have illustrated the structure 
of the mouth in my Modern Classification of Insects, vol. ii. p. 1, with figures. Mr. 
Haliday has established a number of generic and subgeneric divisions. | 

Sometimes the wing-covers and wings are oval or triangular, without a fringe of hairs, and are 
deflexed at the sides like a roof ; the rostrum is very distinct ; the tarsi are terminated by two ungues ; 
and the antenne have only six or seven joints: these form the genus 


¥F. 102.--Thrips. 


Aputs, Linn. 


Aphis, proper, has the antenne longer than the thorax, 7-jointed, the third being elongated; the eyes are entire, 
and the posterior extremity of the abdomen is furnished with two horns or tubercles. 

They live mostly in society upon trees and plants, which they suck with their proboscis. They do not leap, and 
crawl but slowly. The two horns at the extremity of the body in many species are 
tubes, from which frequently exude small drops of a transparent saccharine fluid, 
[termed honey-dew], of which the ants are very fond. Each society consists in spring 
and summer of plant-lice always apterous, and of pup [demi-nymphes], of which the 
wings ought to be developed; all these individuals are females, which produce living 
young, which are ejected tail foremost, without any previous coupling. The males, Fig. 103.—Aphis Rose, 
amongst which some are winged and some wingless, appear only at the end of the summer or in autumn. They 
fecundate the last generation produced from the preceding individuals, consisting of wingless females which 
require impregnation, after which they deposit eggs upon the branches of trees, which remain in that state all 
through the winter, from which young plant-lice are produced in the spring, capable of multiplying without union 
with the males. 

The influence of a single impregnation thus extends through several successive generations. Bonnet, to whom 
we are indebted for the majority of the facts observed upon this subject, obtained, by the isolation of females, 
nine generations in the space of three months. The punctures which the plant-lice make in the leaves and young 
twigs of vegetables, often cause these parts to assume different forms, as may be seen in the young buds of the 
lime, the leaves of the gooseberry, pear, and especially of the elm, poplar, &c., where they produce a kind of vesi- 
cles or excrescences, containing whole families of plant-lice, and often a saccharine fluid, in the interior. The 


ge INSECTA. 


majority of these insects are covered with a mealy matter, or with cottony threads, sometimes arranged in rows. 
The larvee of the Hemerobii, those of many Diptera, and Coccinelle, destroy a great number of plant-lice. M. 
Aug. Duvau has communicated to the Academy of Sciences the interesting result of his observations on these 
insects, and his memoir has been inserted in the collection of those of the Muséum d’ Hist. Nat. 

The Aphis of the oak (4. Quercés, Linn., Réaumur, 3, pl. 28, f.5), is remarkable for having the proboscis at 
least three times as long as the entire body. 

M. Blot has published, in the Memoirs of the Linnean Society of Caen, 1824, various curious observations upon 
a species found in the Departement du Calvados, which is very injurious to the apples, destroying the young 
shoots. He considers it as the type of a new genus, which he calls Myzovyle. [It is probable that this insect is 
identical with that so well known in England under the name of Apple-blight, which is covered entirely with a 
white cottony secretion, and which multiplies in vast numbers in the crevices of the bark of diseased apple-trees.] 
De Geer also described a species of Aphis found upon the apple, but which differs materially from that described 
by M. Blot, which last has no horns on the abdomen, the antenne are shorter, and, according to M. Blot, only 
5-jointed, the second joint being the longest. [The species of this family, Aphide, are extremely numerous, 
almost every plant possessing a distinct species. They however require a more minute investigation than has yet 
been given to them. The Senator Van Heyden has described several new genera recently in the Memoirs of the 
Museum Seckenbergeanum. | 

Aleyrodes, Latr., (Tinea, Linn.), has the antenne short, 6-jointed, andthe eyes notched. Type, 7. proletella, 
Linn.; Réaumur, Mémoires, vol. ii. pl. 25, fig. 1—7, resembles a small white moth, having a small blackish spot 
on each wing-cover. It is found on the leaves of the Chelidonium, cabbage, oak, &c. Its larva is oval, very flat- 
tened, like a minute scale, and resembles that of Psylla. ‘The pupa is fixed, and inclosed in an envelope, so that 
this insect undergoes a complete metamorphosis. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE HOMOPTEROUS HEMIPTERA,— 


THE GALLINSECTA,— 


Of which De Geer formed a distinct order, have only a single joint* in the tarsi, with a single hook at 
the tip. The male is destitute of a proboscis, has only two wings, which shut horizontally upon the 
Q body; the abdomen is terminated by two threads. The female is without wings, and 
3 ie furnished with a proboscis. The antenne are filiform, or thread-like, and often eleven- 
jointed (nine in the species described by Dalman in the memoir noticed below). These 

QY $ insects compose the genus 


Fig. 104.—Cuceus Coccus, Linn. (or Scale-insects). 
aceris, male & 
female. The bark of many of our trees appears often warty, by reason of a great number of small 


oval or rounded bodies, like a shield or a scale, which are fixed to them, and in which no external 
traces of the insect are to be observed. They nevertheless belong to this class of animals, and to the 
genus Coccus. Some of these are females; the others are young males, and which are similar to 
them in form. But a period arrives when all these individuals undergo singular changes. They fix 
themselves to the plant, the larve of the males for a determinate period necessary for their trans- 
formations, and the females permanently. If observed in spring, their bodies are noticed gradually to 
increase in size, ending in their acquiring the appearance of a gall, being either spherical, kidney- 
shaped, boat-shaped, &c. The skin in some is entire and very smooth ; in others it is incised, or offers 
traces of segments. It is in this state that the females are impregnated, shortly after which they 
deposit their eggs, of which the number is very great; these they deposit between the ventral surface 
of their bodies and a layer of a cottony secretion, with which they had previously lined the spot on 
which they had stationed themselves. Their bodies subsequently dry up and become a solid cocoon, 
which covers the eggs. Other females envelope their eggs in a very abundant cottony secretion, which 
equally defends them. Those which are of a spherical form become a kind of box, inclosing the eggs. 
The young Scale-insects have the body oval, very flat, and furnished with the same organs as their 
mother. They disperse themselves over the leaves, and reach by the end of the autumn the branches, 
on which they affix themselves in order to pass the winter. Some, the females, prepare at the com- 
mencement of summer to become parents ; and the others, or the larvze of the males, are transformed 
into pup beneath their own skin. These pupz have the two fore-feet directed forwards, and not 
backwards, like the four hind legs, and like all the legs of the other inactive pupa. Having acquired 


* Dalman, in a memoir apon some species of Coccus, considers that the number of the joints in the tarsi is three. 


NEUROPTERA. 573 


wings, the males make their escape from the posterior extremity of their cocoons backwards, and then 
seek the females, which are much larger than them. Réaumur observed two small points like ocelli 
at that part of the head which corresponds with the mouth. I have discovered in the head of the male 
of the Coccus of the elm ten small similar points, as well as two balancers on the sides of the thorax. 
Geoffroy states that the females have at the extremity of the body four white filaments, which appear 
only on pressing the body of the insect. 

Dorthez observed upon the Euphorbia Characias a species which appears to differ in several respects 
both of structure and habits from the other species, and which determined M. Bosc to form this insect 
into a distinct genus, named Dorthesia. The antennz have nine joints, much longer and slenderer in 
the male than in the female ; the latter continues to live and to be active for some time after depositing 
her eggs; the male has the extremity of the body furnished with a thick brush of long white threads : 
hence this insect is nearer allied to the Aphides than to the Cocci. 

The Cocci appear to injure the trees, by causing by their punctures a too abundant overflowing of 
the sap. Hence they require the attention of those persons who cultivate peaches, oranges, figs, and 
olives. Some species attack the roots of plants ; some are precious on account of the splendid scarlet 
colour they furnish for the dyer. Further researches on these insects might detect others equally 


useful in this respect. 

Geoffroy divided these insects, which are called by the French Galle insectes, or, by contraction, Gallinsectes, 
into two genera, Chermes and Coccus ; the latter was called by Réaumur, Progall-insecte. 

The Mealy-bug, C. adonidum, is somewhat of a rosy hue, with the body covered with a white mealy powder; 
the wings and anal setz of the male are of the latter colour. The female has the sides of the body furnished with 
appendages, of which the two posterior are longer, and form a kind of tail. The female envelopes its eggs ina 
white cottony secretion, which serves them as a nest. It is naturalised in our hothouses, where it does much 
mischief. 

The female of Coccus Cacti [the Cochineal insect of commerce], is of a dark brown colour, covered with a white 
down, flat beneath, convex above, margined, with the segments rather distinct, but becoming obliterated at the 
period of oviposition. The male is of a dark red, with white wings. It is cultivated in Mexico upon a species of 
Cactus or Opuntia, and is distinguished by the name of Mesteque, or fine cochineal, from another closely allied 
species, smaller and more cottony, called the wild cochineal. It is celebrated for the crimson dye that it pro- 
duces; it also furnishes carmine. This production is one of the chief riches of Mexico. 

Coccus polonicus [or the Scarlet Grain of Poland], was also employed in Poland as a considerable object of com- 
merce, before the introduction of the Coccus Cacti as a dye. It lives upon the roots of Scleranthus perennis, and 
some other plants. The colour produced from this species is almost equal to that of the Coccus Cacti. 

Coccus Ilicis, Linn., which lives upon a smaJ] kind of oak in the south of Europe, and of which the female 
reaches the size of a pea, was employed before the introduction of cochineal. It is also still employed in 
medicine. 

A species from the East Indies produces gum lac, and another is employed in China for the manufacture of 
wax tapers. 

A male Coccus, from Jaya, remarkable for having the antennz composed of about 22 joints, moniliform, and 
very pilose, having two thick and nearly coriaceous wings, composes the genus Monophileba of Leach. 

[These insects have recently been divided into several other genera by Llliger, Bouché, Burmeister, &c.] 


THE EIGHTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


THE NEUROPTERA (OponatA, and the major part of SyNistTaTa, Fabr.),— 


Is distinguished from the preceding orders by the fore-wings being membranous, generally 
naked, transparent, and similar to the two posterior in respect to their consistence and uses ; 
from the 10th and following, by the number of these organs as well as by the structure of the 
mouth, which is fitted for mastication, or furnished with true mandibles and maxillx, that 
is, formed ou the ordinary plan [for biting], a character which separates this order from the 
tenth, or that of the Lepidoptera, of which the fore-wings are, moreover, mealy. In the 
Neuroptera these wings have their surface furnished with a very fine net-work ; the inferior 
being mostly as large as the superior, or sometimes larger, sometimes narrower, but longer. 
The maxille and the inferior piece of the lower lip, or the mentum, has never a tubular 


nn nn nnn ne EE EEEUIEE ESSERE? 


574 INSECTA. 


formation ; the abdomen is not furnished with a sting, and 1s but seldom provided with an 
ovipositor. 

They have for the most part the antennz like a thread, and composed of a great number of 
joints; two or three ocelli; the thorax is formed of the three segments intimately soldered 
into one mass, distinct from the abdomen, and supporting the six feet; the first of these seg- 
ments is generally very short, and like a collar. The number of the joints m the tarsi is 
variable ; the body is generally elongate, with the integuments soft, or but slightly scaly; the 
abdomen is always sessile. Many of these imsects are carnivorous in their first and 
last states. ’ 

Some undergo only a demi-metamorphosis, the others are subject to a complete one; but 
the larvee have constantly six feet with hooks, of which they commonly make use in searching 
after their food. 

I divide this order into three families, which, in their progressive arrangement, exhibit the 
following natural relations :—1st. Carnivorous insects undergoing a demi-metamorphosis, with 
aquatic larvee. 2nd. Carnivorous insects undergoing a complete metamorphosis, with terres- 
trial or aquatic larvee. 3rd. Carnivorous, or omnivorous and terrestrial insects, undergoing a 
demi-metamorphosis. 4th. Herbivorous insects undergoing a complete metamorphosis, with 
aquatic larvee, constructing for themselves portable cases. We finish with such as have the 
wings less net-like, and which resemble Phalznz, or Moths. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE NEUROPTERA,— 


THE SUBULICONES, Latr.,— 


Is composed of the order Odonata of Fabricius, and of his genus Ephemera. The antenne are in the 
form of an awl, scarcely longer than the head, 7-jointed at the most, the last being in the form of a 
seta. The mandibles and maxille are entirely covered by the labrum and labium, or by the anterior 
and advanced extremity of the head. The wings are always very much reticulated, extended some- 
times horizontally and sometimes elevated perpendicularly ; the posterior are as large as the anterior. 
or sometimes smaller, and even obsolete. In all, the ordinary eyes are large and very prominent, and 
they have two or three ocelli situated between the preceding. They pass the first two stages of their 
existence in the water, where they feed upon living prey. 

The larvee and pupe, of which the form approaches that of the perfect insect, respire by means of 
peculiar organs, situated upon the sides of the abdomen, or at its extremity. They creep out of the 
water in order to undergo their final transformation. 

Some of them have the mandibles and maxille corneous, very strong, and covered by the two lips ; 
the tarsi are 3-jointed ; the wings of equal size, and the posterior extremity of the body terminated 
simply by hooks, or leaf-like appendages. They form the order Odonata, Fabricius ; or the genus 


LipeLLuta, Linneus, [Dragon-flies or Adder-bolts]. 


The slender form of the body, their varied colours, their large gauze-like wings, the rapidity of flight 
with which they pursue other insects upon which they feed, easily distinguish these Neuropterous 
insects. They have a large and rounded head, or in the form of a broad triangle, two very large lateral 
eyes—(see M. Cuvier’s memoir on their composition in the Mem. de la Soc. d’ Hist. Nat. de Paris)— 
three ocelli, situated upon the vertex; two antenne, inserted upon the forehead behind a vesicular 
elevation, and composed, in the greater number, of five or six joints, or three at least, of which the 
last is compound, and becomes gradually slender like a style; the upper lip is semicircular; the two 
mandibles scaly, very strong, and.toothed ; the maxille are terminated by a picce of the same consist- 
ence, toothed, spined, and ciliated on the inside with a palpus composed of a single joint applied upon 
it dorsally, resembling the galea of the Orthoptera ; the under lip is large, and composed of three leaves ; 
the lateral pair, being the labial palpi, greatly dilated; a kind of epiglottis, or elongated vesicular 
tongue, in the interior of the mouth; the thorax thick and rounded; the abdomen very long, and 
flattened or cylindric, terminated in the males by two lamellar appendages, of which the figure varies 


NEUROPTERA. 575 


according to the species, and which have been carefully studied by Messrs. Van der Linden and 
Charpentier ; the legs short, and directed forwards. 

The female, in order to deposit her eggs, places herself upon plants close to the edge of the water, 
into which she repeatedly thrusts the extremity of her body. The larve and pupe reside in the water 
until the period of their final transformation, and are somewhat like the perfect insect, except in 
wanting wings. But the head, upon which we perceive no ocelli, is remarkable for the singular form 
of the piece which occupies the place of the lower lip. This is a kind of mask, covering the mandi- 
bles, maxille, and nearly all the under side of the head. It is composed, Ist, of a principal triangular 
piece, which Réaumur calls the mentonniére, and which articulates hy a hinge with a peduncle 
attached tothe head; 2nd, of two other pieces inserted at the lateral and anterior angles of the pre- 
ceding piece, moveable at the base, transverse, and entire, in the form of broad and denticulated 
plates, similar, in their mode of closing the mouth, to a pair of shutters, or in the form of small 
hooks. The insect is able to close or extend this very quickly, seizing its prey by means of the claws 
at its upper part. The posterior part of the abdomen is sometimes furnished with five unequal-sized 
conical plates, capable of opening or closing, and forming a kind of pyramidal tail, and sometimes 
with three elongated villose plates like oars. These insects may be seen every instant opening the 
rectum in order to take in a supply of air, when they close it again, and shortly afterwards eject the 
water with force and mingled with bubbles of air, this action appearing to assist them in their motions. 
[Its more immediate object is, however, in order to obtain a supply of fresh oxygen from the water 
thus introduced into the rectum.] When arrived at the period for their final change the pup quit 
the water, crawl up some adjacent stem, where they fix themselves by their claws, and scale off their 
pupa-skin. 

M. Poey, who has particularly studied the insects of Cuba, has informed me, that at a certain season 
of the year the northerly winds bring to the city of Havannah and its neighbourhood an innumerable 
quantity of specimens of one of the spe- 
cies of Libellule. [Other instances of 
their periodical flight or migrations in Eu- 
rope have been observed. See Dr. Weis- 
senborn’s memoir on this subject in the 
new series of the Mag. of Nat. Hist.] 

Fabricius, preceded in this respect by Réau- 
mur, divided the Dragon-flies into three genera. 

LTibellula proper, has the wings extended 
horizontally in repose; the head nearly globu- 
lar, with the eyes very large; a vesicular eleva- 
tion, having on each side an ocellus, upon the 
vertex; the other ocellus, or the anterior one, 
is much larger, and the middle division of the 
lower lip much smaller, than the lateral ones, 
which, closing by a straight suture, exactly 
shut the mouth. The abdomen is generally 
broad and flat. The larve and pupe have five 
appendages at the extremity of the body, which 
is short. Type, LZ. depressa, Linn., [a very 
common British species, as well as L. cancel- 
lata, here figured, the males in both of which Ne 
are remarkable for the fine leaden-blue colour Fig. 105.—Libellula cancellata. 
of their abdomen]. The memoir of Van der Linden on the Libellule of Bologna, and subsequently upon those 
of Europe, as well as the Hore Entomologice of M. Charpentier, and a series of memoirs by M. Boyer de Fonsco- 
lombe in the Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, may be consulted. The British species, distributed 
into various genera, have been described by Mr. Stephens.] 

“Eshna, Fabr., is similar to Libellula in the manner in which the wings are carried when at rest, and in the form 
of the head, but in which the two posterior ocelli are situated upon a simple transverse elevation, having, more- 
over, the middle lobe of the lower lip larger, and the two others wide apart, and armed with a strong tooth or 
spine; the abdomen is always long, narrow, and cylindric. The body of the larva and pup is also more elongate 
than in those of Libellula; the mask is flat, with its two hooks narrow, and armed with a moveable hook at the 
tip. Libellula grandis, [a common English species, two inches and a half long, and many others]. They fly with 
astonishing rapidity over the margin of waters, pursuing flies and other insects in the same manner as swallows. 


576 INSECTA. 


Agrion, Fabr., has the wings elevated perpendicularly in repose ; the head transverse, with the eyes apart; the 
form of the lower lip is similar to that of Aishna, but its middle lobe is slit to the base. The forehead is not fur- 
nished with a vesicle; the ocelli are nearly equal in size, and arranged in a triangle on the vertex; the abdomen 
is very slender and filiform, and occasionally very long. The body in the larva and pupa states is also long and 
slender, and the abdomen terminated by two oar-like appendages ; the mask is flat, with the superior extremity of 
the chin-piece elevated into a point in some, and forked in others. Libellula virgo, Linn., is of a golden-green 
or bluish-green colour, with the wings blue, either entirely or partially, and sometimes pale brownish-yellow. 
[This and several other species of smaller size, belonging to the subgenera separated from Agrion by Leach, are 
of very common occurrence in this country.] 


The other Susuticorn Nevroprera haye the mouth entirely membranous or very soft, and com- 
posed of parts very indistinct ; they have 5-jointed tarsi; the lower wings are much smaller than the 
superior, or even wanting ; and the abdomen is terminated by two or three long threads. They form 


the genus 
EpHEMERA, Linn.,— 


Thus named from the short duration of their life in the perfect state. The body is soft, long, slender, 
and terminated behind by two or three long articulated filaments. The antennz are very small, and 
composed of three joints, of which the last is very long, in the form of a conical thread. The front of 
the head is advanced like a hood, often keeled and notched, and covers the mouth, of which we cannot 
trace the organs on account of their softness and smallness. These insects carry their wings almost 
always elevated perpendicularly, or but slightly deflexed, like the Agrions. The legs are very slender, 
with the tibia very short and united to the tarsi, which have often only four joints, the first being 
nearly obsolete. The two ungues of the terminal joint are very compressed, and the fore-legs are much 


longer than the others. 

The Ephemere generally appear at sunset in the fine days of summer and autumn, along rivers, lakes, &c., and 
sometimes in such numbers that the ground, after their death, is covered with them, so that they are carted away 
asmanure. The falling of one species, with white wings, resembles that ofa fall of snow. 

These insects unite in swarms in the air, where they fly up and down, extending the threads of their tails. It is 
there also that the sexes unite, the males being distinguished by two hooks at the extremity of the body; their 
fore-legs and anal threads are also longer, their eyes larger, and some males possess four eyes, two being much 
larger, and elevated on columns. The females deposit their eggs in a gelatinous mass, and, as the propagation of 
the species is the only object of the existence of the individual, they very soon perish, often on the day in which 
they undergo the final change, sometimes living only a few hours. Those which fall on the water are greedily 
seized by the fishes, and fishermen give them the name of Manna. But if we consider them in the larva state, 
we find their existence extending through two or 
three years. In this, and the pupa state, they reside 
in the water, concealed during the day under stones, 
or in horizontal burrows, which they form in the 
banks, from which it is supposed that these larve 
derive their food. Although resembling the perfect 
insect in several respects, they differ materially in 
having longer antenne, wanting ocelli; by possess- 
ing horn-like mandibles; the abdomen has, more- 
over, on each side, a row of plates, mostly in pairs, 
which are a kind of false branchiw, and which are 
employed not only in respiration, but also as paddles. 
The pupa differs from the larva by possessing scales 
inclosing the wings. At the moment when they un- 
dergo this change they quit the water, and appear, 
after casting their skin, under a new form; but, by 
a singular exception, they have to undergo another moulting before they are fit for propagation. Their last exuviz 
are often found fixed to trees, and upon walls. 

De Geer formed these insects and the Phryganee into a distinct order, in consequence of the minuteness or 
absence of the parts of the mouth. In the Tableau Elementaire of Cuvier they also form a peculiar group, named 
Agnatha, but which formed part of the order Neuroptera, 

The number of the wings and of the anal filaments lead to the establishment of various divisions in the genus 
Ephemera; some having four wings and two tails (EZ. Swammerdamiana); others four wings and three tails 
(Ephemera proper, E. vulgata, Linn.) ; some with two wings and three tails, and the eyes of the male doubled, one 
pair placed in foot stalks. [Others again have only two wings and two tails. These various groups have been 
formed into separate genera by Leach, and other subsequent authors, E. vulgata, the commonest species, and 
which is well known to fly-fishers under the name of the Grey Drake, being retained as the type of the restricted 
genus Ephemera.] 


Fig. 106.—Ephemera vulgata : larva, pupa, and imago, 


NEUROPTERA. yi 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE NEUROPTERA,— 
THE PLANIPENNES,— 

Which composes, with the following, the greater portion of the order Synistata of Fabricius, com- 
prises those Neuroptera which have the antenne always composed of a great number of joints, and 
longer than the head; the mandibles are distinct, and the lower wings nearly equal to the upper, 
extended, or simply folded under at the inner edge. 

They have generally the wings very much reticulated and naked, with the maxillary palpi ordinarily 
filiform, or rather thickened at the tips, shorter than the head, and composed of four or five joints. 

I shall divide this family into five sections, composing, on account of their habits, so many small 
distinct sub-families. 

1. The Panorpate of Latreille, which have five joints in all the tarsi, and the anterior extremity 
of the head prolonged, and narrowed in the form of a beak or rostrum. They constitute the genus 


Panorpa, Linneus,— 
And have the antennz setaceous, and inserted between the eyes; the clypeus prolonged into a 
corneous conical plate, grooved beneath to receive the mouth ; the mandibles, maxilla, and lower lip 
nearly linear ; four or six short filiform palpi; those of the maxille appearing to me to consist of only 
four joints. The body is long, the head vertical, the first segment of the thorax very small and collar- 
like. The two sexes differ greatly in many species. Their transformations have not been observed. 

Nemoptera, Latr., Oliv., has the hind-wingss exceedingly long and linear, and the ocelli are wanting. These 
singular insects have hitherto been only observed in the hottest parts of Europe, Africa, and the adjacent parts of 
Asia. [See the recent monograph of Klug in the Berlin Transactions.] 

Bittacus, Latr., has the four wings of equal size, as well as ocelli; the abdomen is alike in both sexes, and the 
legs long and terminated by a single tarsal unguis. [Exotic species. ] 

Panorpa, Latr., has wings and ocelli like those of Bittacus, but the abdomen of the male is terminated by a 
long, jointed, recurved tail, with a claw at the tip; and that of the female is long, and pointed at the tip. The legs 
are of moderate length, and the tarsi have two ungues. 

Panorpa communis, Linn., is a very abundant species, found in hedges and woods. 
[Several other British species, ] 

Boreus, Latr., differs from the preceding in the large size of the prothorax; the 
wings of the males are short, curved, and awl-shaped, and the females are wingless. 
The only species, B. hiemalis, Linn., is found in winter under moss in the north of 
Europe, and on the Alps. [It is small, and has occurred, but rarely, in this country.] 


2. The Myrmeleonides, having also five joints in the tarsi, but in which 
the head is not prolonged in the form of a beak or muzzle, and the antennz 
are thickened at the tips. The head is transverse and vertical, having only 
compound eyes, which are round and prominent; six palpi, those of the 
labium being longer than the others, and thickened at the tips; the first segment of the thorax is 
small; the wings of equal size, long, and roof-like ; the abdomen mostly long and cylindric, with two 
filiform appendages at its extremity, in the males; the legs are short. They inhabit hot situations in 
the southern climates of both hemispheres, clinging to plants, where they remain stationary during the 
day. They fly swiftly. Their pupz are inactive. These insects compose the genus 


Fig. 107.—Panorpa communis. 


re 


SS MyrMELEon, Linn.,— 
Which Fabricius has divided into two. 

Myrmeleon proper, has the antenne gradually thick- 
ened, curved at the tips, and much shorter than the 
body, and the abdomen is long and linear. 

The destruction which the larva of the common Eu- 
ropean species makes amongst Ants, has gained for it 
the name of the Ant Lion. Its abdomen is very large, 
proportioned to the rest of its body; its head is very 
small, and armed with two long horn-like mandibles, 
toothed on the inside and pointed at the tip, which serve 
it both for pinchers and suckers. Although furnishea 
with six legs it walks but slowly, almost always vacx- 
wards: not being able, therefore, to follow its prey, 1 
resorts to stratagem, and forms in the sana a conicas 


Fig. 108.—Pitiall of Myrmeieon. 
ks 


578 INSECTA. 


pit-fall, by crawling backwards in a spiral direction and throwing out the sand with its head, and at the bottom 
of which it stations itself, leaving only its jaws exposed, its body being buried in the sand, and thus waiting 
patiently until an insect falls to the bottom of the pit, when it isinstantly seized by the jaws and sucked to death ; 
if it endeavours to escape, the Ant Lion showers sand after it, which rarely fails to bring it to the bottom of the 
pit. The nutritive fluid thus obtained is never converted into excrement, the insect having no orifice analogous 
to the anus. When full grown, and ready to assume the pupa state, it spins a perfectly round cocoon of a silky 
matter, the exterior of which it covers with sand. Its spinnerets are placed at the extremity of the body. The 
perfect insect makes its appearance at the end of fifteen or twenty days, leaving the exuvie of the pupa in the 
opening it has made in the cocoon. } 

The common European species, M. formicariwm, Linn. [which has not, 
however, been discovered in England], is about an inch long, with the 
wings transparent, with black veins dotted with white, and with dark 
spots, one of a whitish colour near the anterior extremity. {The species 
are very numerous}. 

Ascalaphus, Fab., has the antenne long, and suddenly terminated by a 

Fig. 109.— M. formicarium. knob, with the abdomen oblong, oval, and scarcely longer than the 
thorax. The wings are shorter and broader than in Myrmeleon. 

Bonnet observed a larva near Geneva similar to that of Myrmeleon, but which neither crawled backwards nor 
formed a pit. The posterior extremity of its body was furnished with a bifid plate, truncated behind. This larva 
is probably that of Ascal. italicus, a south of Europe species, which begins to be found in France in the environs 
of Fontainebleau. [This is probably doubtful, the larva being more likely to be that of Myr. Libelluloides. See my 
Introd. to Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. p. 45, in which I have figured a larva of Ascalaphus, and subsequently 
Mr. Swainson has figured that of Asc. Macleayanus, from L. Guilding’s drawings.] 


3. The Hemerobii, Latr., similar to the preceding in the general form of the body and wings, but 
with filiform antennz and only four palpi. They form the genus 


Hemerosius, Linn.,— 
Some of which have the prothorax very small, the wings roof-like, the last joint of the palpi thickest, 
ovoid, and pointed. The larve are terrestrial. 

Hemerobius proper, has the eyes globose and brilliantly metallic, the wings large and deflexed. They fly slowly, 
and many of them emit a disgusting scent. The females deposit their eggs upon leaves, to the number of ten or 
twelve, fixing each of them by a long and very slender footstalk. The larva resemble those of Myrmeleon, but are 
more elongate, and are wanderers. They feed upon the plant-lice, which they seize with their mandibles, and suck 
their juices, destroying them very quickly. The pupa is inclosed in a cocoon of close silk, spun from the anus 
of the larva. Hemerobius (Chrysopa, Leach,) Perla, Linn., is pale yellowish-green, with golden eyes, transparent 
wings, and green nerves. [A common species in this country]. 

Osmylus, Leach, is composed of those species which possess three ocelli, of which the preceding are destitute. 
H. maculatus, Fabr., [a local British species, of large size]. 

Nymphes, Leach, founded upon an Australian species, has the same character, but the antenne are filiform and 
shorter. [N. myrmeleonides, Leach.] 


The others have the first segment of the thorax large and corselet-like, the wings generally carried 
flat on the back, and the palpi filiform, with the terminal segment conical or nearly cylindric, and often 
shorter than the preceding. Their larve are aquatic. 

Semblis, Fabr., is composed of the genera Corydalis, Chauliodes, and Sialis, Latr. 

Corydalis, is distinguished by the mandibles, which are very large and like horns in the males. [C. cornuta, a 
North American insect. } 

Chauliodes, Latr., has the antennz pectinated; and 

Sialis, has ordinary-sized mandibles, and the antennz are simple and the wings roof-like. S. lutarius, Linn., 
{the May-fly, a well-known bait for anglers]. The larva lives in the water, and creeps or swims slowly, like those 
of the Ephemere : it has false branchie at the sides of the abdomen, aud the tail is elongated into a point ; but it 
changes into an inactive pupa. 


4, Another division, that of the Termitine, is composed of Neuroptera which undergo demi-meta- 
morphoses, all being terrestrial, active, carnivorous or omnivorous, in all their stages. If we except 
Mantispa, (distinct from all the insects of the order in the form of the fore-legs, resembling those of 
Mantis), the tarsi have at most four joints, which distinguishes them from the preceding genera of the 
same family. The mandibles are always strong and horny, the hind wings are of the size of the fore 


wings, and without folds, or are smaller. 

Some have from five to three joints in the tarsi, the labial palpi exserted and distinct, and the an- 
tenn multiarticulate. 

Mantispa, Mlig., has five joints in all the tarsi; the fore-legs formed as in Mantis ; the antenne are very short, 


NEUROPTERA. 579 


the eyes large, the prothorax very long, and the wings roof-like. Exotic species, [recently monographed by Erich- 
son, of great interest from their apparent relationship with the order Orthoptera]. 

Raphidia, Linn., has 4-jointed tarsi, the wings roof-like, the head elongated and narrowed behind, prothorax 
long, narrow, and subcylindric, and the abdomen of the females terminated by a long, exserted ovipositor, formed 
of two valves. R. ophiopsis, [the Snake-necked Fly, of rare occurrence in this country. See the monograph of 
Schummel]. The larva lives in the fissures of the bark of trees, and has the form of a small snake: it is very 
active. 

Termes, Linn. (Hemerobius, Linn. [the winged males]), has aiso 4-jointed tarsi, but the wings are carried hori- 
zontally on the body, and very long; the head rounded, and the prothorax short and square. The body is de- 
pressed, with the antenne short; the mouth very similar to that of the Orthoptera, with a four-cleft lower lip ; 
three ocelli, one rather indistinct; the wings generally but slightly 
transparent, coloured, with the nervures not forming a close net- 
work, and the legs short. 

The Termites peculiar to the tropical and adjacent countries, are 
known under the name of White Ants, and commit most extraor- 
dinary ravages, especially in the larva state, in which they are called 
Workers, and are like the perfect insect, but with the body softer and 
without wings, and the head generally larger, and destitute of eyes, or 
nearly so. They are united into colonies of incalculable numbers, 
and live concealed in the interior of the earth, trees, and other 
wooden matters, such as furniture, shelves, &c., in which they form 
galleries, forming routes conducting to the centre of their nests, so 
that these objects, of which the outer surface is [with surprising instinct] left untouched, fall to pieces on the 
slightest touch. The nests of some species are external, but without any evident exit. Sometimes they are elevated 


Flg. 110.—White Ants: 1, Worker; 2, Soldier. 


Fig. 112.—7, Sectien of the nest of Termes fatale, on a scale of one 
of Termes atrox. inch to eight feet 

to agreat height above the surface, like pyramids, and are sometimes surrounded by a solid roof, which, from the 
height and number of these insects, appear at a distance like a small village. Sometimes they affix their nests to 
the branches of trees. Another sort of individual, termed Neuters or Soldiers, and which Fabricius mistook for 
pupz, defend the nest. They have the head much larger and longer, and the mandibles are very long and cross 
over each other. They are far less numerous than the larve, and live near the outer surface of the nest, so that 
they make their appearance first when it is attacked; they are also stated to compel the Workers to labour. The 
demi-nymphs have the rudiments of wings, and in other respects resemble the larve. 

When arrived at the perfect state, the Termites quit 
their habitation, fly abroad during the evening or 
night in great numbers; they lose their wings before 
morning, which dry, and falling to the earth, they 
become the prey of birds, lizards, &c. The couples are 
then collected by the larve, which inclose each of them 
in a large cell ; but Latreille conjectures that the act of 
coupling takes place in the air, as in the Ants, and that 
the females alone occupy the attention of the larve in 
order to the establishment of fresh colonies. The ab- 
domen of the female subsequently acquires an enor- 
moussize, from the innumerable eggs which it contains. 
The royal chamber occupies the centre of the habita- 
tion, and around it are distributed those which con- 
tain the eggs and provisions. 

Some larve of Termes viarwm have eyes, and appear Fig. 113.—Queen in the winged state, and fillet with eggs 
to have habits somewhat different to the rest, and to approach our Ants. 

Negroes and Hottentots are very fond of these insects. 


Pups 


580 TNSECTA. 


T. lucifugus and flavicollis inhabit the south of France, living in the interior of trees. The exotic species have 
been but imperfectly characterised, Linnzus having confounded several under the name of 7. fatale. 

Embia, Latr., comprises several insects allied to Termes, butwith the head larger than the thorax ; tarsi 3-jointed ; 
wings scarcely extending beyond the abdomen. [See my monograph on this exotic genus, published in Transac- 
tions of the Linnean Society of London.) 


The other Termitines have the tarsi 2-jointed ; the labial palpi indistinct, or very short ; the antennz 
about 10-jointed ; the first segment of the thorax very small, and the hind wings smaller than the fore 


ones. They form the genus 
Psocus, Latr. (Termes, Hemerobius, Fabr.), 
These are insects with a short, soft, and gibbose body ; the head large ; the antennz setaceous ; wings roof-like, 
and but slightly veined. They are very active, and live on the bark of trees. We generally find in 
x books of collections of plants, the P. pulsatorius, of a whitish colour, and which has been believed 
to produce the slight noise like the ticking of a clock, often heard in houses, whence its specific 
name. 


5. The Perlides, which have three joints in the tarsi, the mandibles almost always 
membranous and small, with the hind wings broader than the fore wings, and folded 


at the inner edge. They consist of the genus 
Fig. 114. — Atrop os PERLA, Geoff.,— 
pulsatorius. In which the body is elongate, narrow, and flattened ; the head rather large; antenne setaceous ; 
prothorax nearly square ; the wings shutting horizontally onthe body ; and the abdomen generally 
terminated by twosete. Their larve are aquatic, and are stated [by Latreille, but erroneously,] to reside in cases 
which they bear about with them. [They are naked, and resemble the imago, but are wingless.] 
Perla bicaudata, Linn. (Phryganea), is a rather common species, found on the margin of rivers. 
Nemoura, Latr., differs from Perla in its corneous mandibles, and in the abdomen not being terminated by seta. 
{See the monograph of this group, published by Mr. Newman in the Magazine of Natural History.] 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE NEUROPTERA,— 


THE PLICIPENNES, Latr.,— 


Are destitute of mandibles, and their hind wings are generally broader than the superior, and folded 
throughout their whole length. They comprise the genus 


PurRyYGANEA, Linn. 

They have at the first sight the appearance of small Phalane, and De Geer observed that the internal 
structure of their larvee has great resemblance to that of caterpillars. In the systems of Kirby and 
Leach, they form the order Trichoptera, which is connected with the Lepidoptera by means of the 
Tinez. But as we naturally pass from the Plicipennes to the Perlides, we should be compelled to ter- 
minate the Neuroptera with Libellula and Ephemera, of which the structure and habits greatly differ 
from those of the Hymenoptera, which succeeds them in this system. The Libellulz and other adjacent 
Neuroptera, appear to us nearest allied to the Orthoptera. 

The head of the Plicipennes is small, with two long setaceous and porrected antenne ; the eyes are 
round and prominent; two ocelli, placed in the forehead ; a conical or bent labrum ; four palpi, the 
maxillary pair being often very long, filiform, or nearly setaceous, 5-jointed, and the labial 3-jointed ; 
the maxillz and lower lip membranous and united ; the body is generally very hairy, and forms with 
the wings an elongated triangle, as in many Noctuz or Pyralides ; the prothorax is small ; the wings are 
simply veined, silken, or hirsute in many, and always roof-like. The legs are long, furnished with 
small spines, with five joints to all the tarsi. These insects chiefly fly in the evening or night, often 
entering our houses, attracted by the light, and being extremely active in all their movements. They 
emit a disagreeable smell when touched. The smaller species fly in troops over water. Many females 
carry their eggs united into a pacquet at the posterior extremity of the abdomen. Their larvae [which 
are the well-known bait of the angler, called Caddice, or Cad-bait,] reside, like the larvee of some moths, 
in cases generally cylindrical, covered with various substances they collect in the water, such as bits of 
straw, leaves, sticks, sand, and even small shells, often symmetrically arranged, and which they affix to 
their cases by silken threads, spun from internal reservoirs similar to those of caterpillars ; the interior 
of this habitation forms a tube, which the larva bears about with it, protruding the anterior part 
of its body when it creeps forward, never quitting it of its own accord, and immediately re-entering it if 
forced out of it. 


HYMENOPTERA. 581 


These larvae are elongate, nearly cylindric, with a scaly 
head furnished with strong mandibles, and a small eye on 
each side ; six feet, of which the two anterior are shortest 
and thickest, and the other four longer; the body is com- 
posed of twelve joints, of which the fourth has a conical 
tubercle on each side in the majority of the species; the 
terminal segment is furnished with two moveable hooks ; the 
majority also possess two series of white flexible filaments, 
which appear to be respiratory organs. When ready to $3 
assume the pupa state, they fix their cases to some sub- | 
stance under water, closing each end with an open grating, 
which, as well as the cases itself, varies in the different 


z Fig. 115.—Phryganea grandis.—a. Larva in its case; 
species. B. grating ; .. Imago. 


The pupz have in front two hooks, which cross each other like a beak, and with which they make 
their way through the grating, [immediately before they assume their final form,] when, although pre- 
viously immoveable, they walk or swim with agility, by means of their four fore-legs, which are free and 
fringed. The pupz of the larger species crawl up plants out of the water, where they throw off 
their skin, but the smaller ones merely come to the surface, and are there transformed into winged 


insects in the same way as Gnats, their old envelope serving them for a boat. 

Some have the hind wings evidently larger than the fore ones, and folded. 

Sericostoma, Latr., has in one of the sexes the maxillary palpi dilated into a mask covering the face ; in the 
other sex they are filiform, and 5-jointed. 

Phryganea proper, has the mouth alike in both sexes, and the palpi shorter than the head and thorax, and 
slightly villose. P. grandis, [and a great number of other species, well known to the angler and fly-fisher]. 

Mystacida, Latr., has the antenne exceedingly long, as well as the maxillary palpi, which are very hairy. (P. 
filosa, quadrifasciata, &c.) 

The others have the fore wings narrow, lanceolate, subequal, and not folded. 

Hydroptila, Dalm., with short antenne of equal thickness throughout. 

Psychomyia, Latr., has similar wings, but the antenne are Jong and setaceous, founded upon a minute, appa- 
rently undescribed species. 

(This tribe has recently been thoroughly investigated by M. Pictet, whose memoir forms a thick quarto volume, 
with many plates. Messrs. Stephens and Curtis have also described many new English species, as well as addi- 
tional genera. 

Dr. Burmeister has published an entire revision of the order Neuroptera in the last part of his Handbuch der 
Entomologie, in which he has also established many additional genera.] 


THE NINTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


THE HYMENOPTERA, Linneus (P1EZATA, Fabricius),— 


Also possesses four membranous, naked wings, a mouth furnished with mandibles, maxilla, and 
two lips; but the wings (of which the anterior are always the largest) have fewer nervures 
than those of the Neuroptera, and are only veined [and not net-like]; the females have the 
abdomen terminated by an ovipositor or a sting. All possess, im addition to their compound 
eyes, three minute ocelli; their antenne are of variable form, not only differing in the genera, 
but also in the sexes of the same species; they are nevertheless filiform or setaceous in the 
majority ; the maxille and lower lip are generally narrow, elongated, attached in a deep cavity 
of the head by long muscles* ; semitubular at the base; often folded back at the extre- 
mity; more fitted for conducting the nutritive tluids than for mastication, and united in many 
in the form of a proboscis; the tonguelet is membranous, and either widened at the tip or 
long and filiform, having the pharynx at its base, and often covered by a sort of sublabrum or 
epipharynx ; two labial and two maxillary palpi; thorax composed of three segments united in 


* Hence the mentum partakes of this general movement; in other biting insccts it is fixed. 


582 INSECTA. 


a mass, the anterior being very short and the two others united into one.* The wings are 
crossed horizontally upon the body; the abdomen mostly suspended to the hind part of the 
thorax by a slender thread or peduncle; the tarsi are 5-jomted, none of the joints being 
bilobed. The borer or sting [both of which are described in a note as being typically com- 
posed on the same model], are formed for the most part of three long and slender pieces, 
two of which serve as a sheath to the third in those which have a borer, and of which the 
upper has a groove at its under side to encase the two others. 

M. Jurine has found in the articulation [of the nerves] of the wings good auxiliary charac- 
ters for the distinction of genera, making use of the presence or absence, number, form, and con- 
nexion of the two kind of cells situated near the external apex of the fore wings, which he 
terms radial for marginal], and cubital [or submarginal] cells. The middle of the fore mar- 
gin of the wings has often a callous spot, termed the stigma, whence a nerve extends which 
runs to the tip of the wing, and forms with the fore-edge of the wing the radial cell, some- 
times divided into two; a second nervure also extends from the stigma, which also extends to 
the apex of the wing, leaving between it and the first-mentioned nerve a space occupied by the 
cubital cells, of which the number varies from one to four. 

The Hymenoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis; the majority of their larve are 
vermiform, and are destitute of feet, such as those of the second and following familes; those of 
the first family have six hooked feet, and often from twelve to sixteen others, which are simply 
membranous ; the head m all is scaly, with mandibles, maxille, and a lower lip, at the extre- 
mity of which is a spinneret for the passage of the silken matter of which the cocoon of the 
pupa is composed. Some feed upon vegetable substances; others, always footless, upon the 
dead bodies of insects, in all their states of egg, larva, pupa, and imago. In order to supply 
their weakness, the female supports them with provisions, sometimes carrying their food to 
the nests which they have prepared for them, often with surprising skill, and sometimes 
by placing their eggs im the bodies of larvae and pupz of insects, upon which their young feed. 
Other equally footless larvae of Hymenoptera are fed on more elaborated animal and vegetable 
food, and more constantly renewed. These are reared in common by individuals destitute of sex, 
united in societies, charged exclusively with such works, and whose labours and regime are the 
theme of continual admiration. The Hymenoptera in the perfect state subsist almost exclu- 
sively on flowers, and are commonly most abundant in southern climates. The extent of their 
existence, from their birth till their final change, is confined to a year. 

[The natural classification of these insects has been but comparatively little attended to. 
Various plans of arrangement, founded not only upon the structure of the imago, but also 
upon its habits, and the peculiarities of the preparatory states, have recently been proposed 
by Saint Fargeau, Dahlbom, Hartig, Haliday, &e. I must however refer to the 2nd vol. of 
my Introduction to Entomology for an investigation of these arrangements. 

I divide this order into two sections, [TEREBRANTIA and ACULEATA ]. 

The first, that of the Terebrantia, is characterized by possessing a borer in the females. 

I divide the Terebrantia into two great families, [the Securifera and Pupivora]. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE HYMENOPTERA,— 
THE SECURIFERA,— 


Is distinguished from the following by the sessile abdomen, of which the base is united to the thorax 
by its entire width, and appears to be but a continuation of it, without any proper motion. The 
females have an ovipositor, for the most part like a saw, which is used not only in depositing the eggs, 
but also in preparing a place for their reception. The larve have always six scaly feet, and often 


* In a note Latreille adopts the theory that the metathoraxis a very | that in the pedunculated Hymenoptera, the peduncle is the second 
narrow segment, and that the hind part of the thorax which has two | and not the first abdominal segment. 
spiracles at the sides, is in reality the first abdominal segment, so 


HYMENOPTERA. 


others, but which are membranous. This family is composed of two tribes, [the Tenthredinete and 
Urocerata]. 


THe TENTHREDINETA—, 


Or Saw-flies [as they are commonly called, from their saw-like ovipositor], have the mandibles long and 
compressed, the lower lip divided into three lobes, the ovipositor composed of two plates, toothed like 
a saw, united, and lodged in a channel beneath the anus ; the maxillary palpi are always composed of 
six joints, and the labial of four; the wings are always divided into numerous cells. This tribe is 
composed of the genus 


TENTHREDO, Linn. 


The abdomen is cylindric, rounded behind, 9-jointed; the form of the antennz varies; the mandibles 
are strong and toothed ; the maxillary palpi are filiform and 6-jointed ; the lower lip is divided at the apex 
into three lobes; the labial palpi are only 4-jointed. It is with the alternate motion of the saws of the 
ovipositor that these insects make a succession of small holes in the branches or other parts of trees, 
in each of which an egg and a drop of frothy liquid are discharged, the latter of which has the effect of 
closing the hole. The wound thus made becomes more and more convex by the increase in size of the 
egg, and sometimes these parts assume the form of a gall, either woody or pulpy, according to the parts 
injured; these tumours form the abode of the larve which reside within them, and the insect makes 
with its teeth a circular hole for its escape. But in general these larve are external feeders, devouring 
the leaves. They greatly resemble the Caterpillars of Lepidopterous insects, but have from eighteen 
to twenty-two feet, or only six, which distinguishes them from caterpillars, which have from ten to 
sixteen feet. Many of these false caterpillars roll themselves into a spire, and others have the 
extremity of the body elevated in the air. In order to undergo their change, they spin, either on the 
earth or on the plants upon which they have fed, a cocoon, in which they remain unchanged for many 
months, changing to pupz only a few days before they become perfect Sawflies. 


Some, in many of which the antenne are not more than nine-jointed, with two spurs at the tip of the fore tibia, 
have the ovipositor not exserted, the labrum apparent, the inside of the four hind tibia without spines in the 
middle, or with only one; the larve have from twelve to sixteen false legs. 

Cimbex, Oliv. (Crabro, Geoftr.), comprises those species which have the antenne 
alike in both sexes, and terminated by a knob or a reversed cone rounded at the 
rD tip, preceded by four or five joints, and the two subcostal nerves are contiguous 
without a wide intermediate space. The larve have 22 feet; some when disturbed 
discharge from pores of the body, often to the distance of a foot, drops of a 
greenish liquid. Dr. Leach has divided this genus into numerous others [adopted 
by English authors], founded upon the number of joints in the antenne preceding 
hig WIG: ciebee eur Gees the club, their relative sizes, and the arrangement of the cells of the wings. 

-fasciata, Leach). Perga, Leach, (one of these genera), peculiar to New Holland, differs from the 
rest by having the four posterior tibia furnished with a moveable spine in the middle, the posterior angles of the 
scutellum produced into short obtuse teeth, the antennz very short and 6-jointed. 

Syzygonia, Klug, has also 6-jointed antenne, and the radial cell is appendiculated. The species are Brazilian, 
as well as those of Pachylosticta, Klug, which have antenne composed of five joints, and the fore-wings dilated 
near the apex. 

Saint Fargeau, in his work on the Tenthredinide, adopts only the genus Perga, and we also consider the genera 
of Leach as simple divisions in the genus Cimbex, the type of which is the Tenthredo femorata, (a large and rare 
British species]. 

Hylotoma, Latr. (Cryptus, Jur.), has the antenne apparently only 3-jointed, the third forming a long prismatic 
or cylindric mass; the greater number have a spine on the inside of the four hind tarsi, in the middle. The larve 
have from eighteen to twenty feet. Type, Tenthredo Rose, Linn., [a common British species]. 

Schizocerus, Latr. (Cryptus, Leach), has four submarginal cells, and the male antenne forked. 

Ptilia, St. Farg., differs from Hylotoma in having only three submarginal cells. Sometimes the antenne have 
at least nine joints, and do not terminate in a mass. 

Tenthredo proper, have nine simple joints in both sexes ; the larve have from 18 to 22 feet. The number of teeth 
in the mandibles varies in the perfect insect from two to four; the wings also vary in the number of the cells, and 
hence various subgenera have been established, such as Allantus, Dolerus, Nematus, Jur., and Pristiphora and 
some others of Leach, [such as Selandria, Fenusa, Dosytheus, Emphytus and Cresus). Type, T. Scrophularie, 
Linn., a common species, much resembling a Wasp, the larva of which feeds on the Water Betony. De Geer has 
described a singular species, which in the larva state infests the leaves of our fruit trees under the form of a small 
black slug, and to which he refers the Tenthredo Cerasi, Linn.; this larva is black, and covered with a slimy 
seereuon. Peck, an American naturalist, has given the complete history of another species, which has a 
similar larva. 


584 INSECTA. 


Cladius, Klug, has also 9-jointed antenne, but those of other males are pectinated on one side. [C. difformis, 
a small black species, rather uncommon.] 

Athalia, Leach, has the body short, and the antenne from 10 to 14-jointed, and simple in both sexes. [A, centi- 
folie, Panz., is extremely destructive to turnips, its larva being known under the name of the Nigger, or 
Black Jack.] 

Pterygophorus, Klug, has the antenne more than 16-jointed, with a single row of teeth in the males, and serrated 
in the females, [composed entirely of Australian insects]. 

Lophyrus, Latr., has the male antenne furnished with a double row of long branches, and serrated in the 
females. The larve have twenty-two feet, and live in society, especially upon firs and pines. 

In the following genera the labrum is hidden, or but little exposed; the inner edge of the four posterior tibiz 
has often two spurs in the middle, and often a third above the preceding pair. The antenne are always composed 
of a great number of joints. 

Megalodontes, Latr. (Tarpa, Fab.), have the antenne serrated or comblike. 

Pamphilius, Latr. (Lyda, Fab.), has the antenne simple in both sexes. Their larve have no membranous feet, 
and the posterior extremity of the body is terminated by two horns. They feed upon leaves, which they often 
roll up and fasten together. 

The terminal Tenthredinete have the ovipositor extended beyond its sheath, and exposed posteriorly ; the inner 
extremity of the two fore-tibiz has only a single spur, which is bent, and terminated by two teeth; the antenne 
are always composed of a great number of joints, and are simple. 

Xyela, Dalm. (Pinicola, Breb., Mastigocerus, Klug), is very distinct, from its elbowed antenne suddenly 
attenuated towards the tip, 11-jointed, the third joint being exceedingly long, as well as the maxillary palpi; the 
stigma is replaced by a cell. The larve live in the interior of vegetables, or in old wood. [These are small and 
singular insects, one species of which, X. pusilla, has occurred, but very rarely, in this country. ] 

Cephus, Latr. (Trachelus, Jur.), has the antenne inserted near the forehead [not elbowed], and thickened at tip. 
From some observations published in the Bulletin Universel of Ferussac, it appears that the larva of the most 
common species, C. pygmeus, lives in the stems of wheat. 

NXiphydria, Latr. (Urocerus, Jur.), has the antenne inserted near the mouth, aud more slender at the tips. 
[This genus naturally belongs to the family Urocerata, the construction of its ovipositor agreeing with that of 
Urocerus; the larve also live in solid wood. The imago is remarkable for the great length of its neck, whence 
the names of the typical species, X. camelus and Dromedarius. 


[The student must especially consult the monograph on this family published by Saint Fargeau, the 
numerous memoirs of Klug in the Berlin Magazine, various works of Dahlbom and Hartig, the two last 
of whom have studied the family with great care, and especially with reference to their transforma- 
tion. Mr. Stephens has described the British species in his British Entomology. ] 


The second tribe, that of the 
UrocEeratTa,— 


is distinguished from the preceding by the following characters: The mandibles are short and thick ; 
the lower lip entire ; the ovipositor of the females is either very much exserted, and composed of three 
threads, or spirally coiled in the interior of the abdomen and capillary. This tribe is composed of 
the genus 

Srrex, Linn.,— 


The body of which is nearly cylindric, the head nearly gobular. The females deposit their eggs in old 
trees, especially of fir; the ovipositor is lodged at its base, between two valves, forming a sheath. 


Oryssus, Latr., has the antenne inserted near the mouth, 10 or 11-jointed; the mandibies are without teeth ; 
the maxillary palpi long and 5-jointed; the posterior extremity of the body nearly rounded, and the ovipositor 
capillary, and spirally coiled within the abdomen. The two species [known to Latreille] are found in Europe 
upon trees early in spring, and are very active. [The typical species, O. coronatus, has been found in this 
country.] 

Sirex proper (Urocerus, Geoffr.), has the antenne inserted near the forehead, with from 13 to 25 joints; the man- 
dibles toothed internally ; the maxillary palpi very small, nearly conical, and 2-jointed, with the extremity of the 
abdomen prolonged into a horn, and the ovipositor exserted and formed of three threads. These insects are of 
large size, and generally inhabit pine forests in cold and mountainous countries, and produce during flight a buz- 
zing noise like that of the Humble Bees. In certain seasons they appear [in such countries] in such abundance 
that they become objects of popular dread. The larve have six feet, with the posterior extremity of the body 
terminated in a point ; they live in wood, where they spin a cocoon and undergo their transformations. [Saint 
Fargeau, contrary to the statements of the German naturalists, who have such abundant opportunities of studying 
the manners of this genus, has endeavoured to show that these insects are parasites. Typical species, Sirex 
gigas, Linn. (S. mariscus, L., the male); it has occurred in this country, but very rarely, and is as large as 
a Hornet.} 

Tremex, Jur., differs in having shorter antenne, composed of only thirteen or fourteen joints, and in the fore- 
wings having only two cubital cells. 


HYMENOPTERA. 585 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE HYMENOPTERA,— 


THe Puprvora,— 


Has the abdomen attached to the thorax by a small portion only of its transverse diameter, and often 
by a slender peduncle, so that its mode of insertion is very distinct, and it is easily bent over the thorax. 
The females are armed with a borer, which serves them as an oviduct. 

The larvee are footless grubs, and are, for the most part, parasites, and carnivorous. 

I divide them into six tribes. 

The first tribe, Evantaxes, Latr., has the wings veined, and the superior, at least, areolated; the 
antenne, filiform or setaceous, 13-or 14-jointed; the mandibles toothed internally ; the maxillary palpi 
6-jointed, and the labial 4-jointed ; the abdomen implanted high on the thorax, and often beneath the 
scutellum, with the ovipositor generally exserted, and composed of three threads. This tribe may be 


formed into a single genus, 
Fanus. 


Evania, Latr., has the ovipositor internal, the antenne elbowed, and the abdomen very minute, compressed, 
pedunculated, and attached at the upper and posterior extremity of the thorax, close to the scutellum. [E. appen- 
digaster, Latr., a small species, regarded as parasitic upon the Cockroach. ] 

Pelecinus, Latr., has the abdomen sometimes very much elongated, filiform, and arched, sometimes narrowed 
gradually towards the base and terminated in a club; the posterior tibie are thickened, and the ovipositor not 
exserted. [Singular American insects. ] 

Fenus, Fabr., has the ovipositor long, exserted, and formed of three long and equal threads, and the abdomen 
and posterior tibiz clavate, and the antenne filiform. [Two British species. ] 

Aulacus, Jur., has the abdomen compressed, the tibiz slender, and the antenne setaceous. [Several continental 
and American insects. ] 

Paxylloma, Brebisson, has the abdomen sickle-shaped. [This genus is arranged by subsequent authors 
amongst the Zchneumones adsciti. Latreille had noticed its great relation with Ophion. P. buccata, the type, 
has occurred in this country.] 


The second tribe, the IcHNEUMONIDEs, have the wings also veined, the superior always exhibiting 
in the dise perfect or closed cells ; the abdomen is affixed between the two hind feet ; the antenne are 
generally filiform or setaceous, (very rarely clavate,) vibratile, and composed of a great number of 
joints (16 at least). In the majority the mandibles have no tooth on the inside, and are terminated 
in a bifid tooth. ‘The maxillary palpi are always apparent, or prominent, and have mostly only five 
joints. The ovipositor is composed of three threads. 

This tribe embraces nearly the whole of the genus 


IcHNEUMON, Linn.,— 


Which destroy the progeny of Lepidopterous insects, so injurious to the agriculturist, under the form 
of Caterpillars, in the same manner as the Ichneumon quadruped was supposed to destroy the Croco- 
dile, by depositing its eggs in its entrails. 

The old authors named these insects Musce tripiles, on account of the three threads of the 
ovipositor; and Musce vibrantes, because they continually vibrate their antenne, which are often 
curved, with a white or yellow ring in the middle. They have long maxillary palpi, nearly setaceous, 
5- or 6-jointed, the labial being shorter, and 3- or 4-jointed. The tonguelet is generally entire, or 
simply emarginate. The body has generally a narrow and elongated or linear form, with the ovipositor 
sometimes exterior and like a tail, and sometimes very short, and hidden in the interior of the abdo- 
men, which is terminated in a point, whereas it is thickened and obliquely truncate in those which 
have the ovipositor exposed. Of the three pieces of which it is composed the middle piece is the only 
part which penetrates into the body, in which the eggs are deposited ; its tip is often slit like the point 
of a pen. The females, when ready to deposit their eggs, run or fly about in order to discover the 
larve, pupe, or eggs of insects, and even of Spiders, Plant Lice, &c., destined to receive the eggs and 
to nourish the young Ichneumons, exhibiting in these searches an admirable instinct, in order to find 
the objects of their search in their most concealed retreats. It is [in caterpillars, &c., which live] 
beneath the bark of trees, or in their crevices, that those with an elongated ovipositor place their 
eggs [in the manner represented in the annexed figures]; whilst those with a short ovipositor place 


586 INSECTA. 


their eggs in or upon the bodies of naked caterpillars, or pupz, to which they can obtain easy access. 
The larve of the Ichneumons have no feet, and thus resemble those of the following families. Those 
which reside, like intestinal Worms, inside 
the bodies of other insects, sometimes in so- 
ciety, devour only the fatty parts of the body, 
being the portions not absolutely necessary 
for existence ; but when ready to assume the 
pupa state they pierce through the outer 
skin, or else they kill their victim and un- 
dergo their own changes in its body. The 
majority spin a silken cocoon, in which the 
pupa is inclosed. These cocoons are some- 
times united in a mass, sometimes naked, and 
sometimes enveloped in a common cottony 
Imass, often seen attached to the stems of 
plants. Their union and arrangement forms 
a mass sometimes resembling a piece of 

Fig. 117.—-Pimpla manifestator, depositing its eggs. honey-comb. These cocoons are sometimes 
of a uniform whitish colour, and sometimes banded ; some cocoons are suspended to the leaves of trees 
by a long thin thread. 

This family is extremely numerous in species. [Gravenhorst, in his Ichnewmonologia Europea, 
describes nearly 1650 species of European Jehnewmones genuini ; and Stephens and others have added 
greatly to their number. The Jehnewmones adsciti are probably as numerous; so that, supposing the 
number of species in the world to be double that of those found only in Europe, we shall have more 
than 6,000 Ichneumonide ; a number which, although very extraordinary, is probably far below the 
actual amount. ] 


The variation in the number of joints in the palpi may serve as the basis for the principal divisions in the 
family. [This character has been proved by Haliday and Nees von Esenbeck to be inapplicable to the Ichneumo- 
nides adsciti. | 

The first comprises those species which have the maxillary palpi 5-jointed, and the labial 4-jointed; the second 
cubital cell is very minute, and nearly circular, or wanting. 

A first subdivision is formed with the species which have the head not prolonged into a beak; the labrum not 
deeply notched ; the maxillary palpi very long, and the ovipositor not covered at the base by a large vomeri- 
form plate. 

Some of these have the ovipositor exserted. 

Stephanus, Jur. (having the thorax very narrow in front, and the antenne attached to the posterior and superior 
part of the metathorax, as in the Evaniaw,—exotic insects), and 

NXorides, Latr. (having the metathorax convex and armed at the apex, so that the abdomen is attached in the 
ordinary manner with a distinct peduncle), differ from the others by having the head nearly globular, the mandibles 
terminated in an entire point or slightly emarginate. The second cubital cell is often obsolete. 

The others have the head transverse, and the mandibles distinctly bifid at the tip. Some, as 

Pimpla, Fab., have the abdomen cylindrical and very shortly peduncled. [Numerous British species.] Type, 
Ichneumon persuasorius, Linn. Another species (P. ovivora, Bull. Ferussac), destroys the eggs of Spiders. 

Cryptus, Fab., has the abdomen nearly oval, with a long curved peduncle. Some of the species are apterous, 
whence, as well as from the form of the thorax divided into two nodes, they should constitute a distinct subgenus. 
They are always found on the ground. [They constitute the subgenus Pezomachus, Gravenhorst, who has pub- 
lished a monograph upon them. ] 

Others have the ovipositor of the females hidden, or but little extended beyond the anus. 

Ophion, Fab., has the abdomen sickle-shaped, the antenne filiform or setaceous; the ovipositor is slightly ex- 
serted. The second cubital cell is very small. Type, Ichneumon luteus, Linn., {a common British species], the 
female of which deposits her eggs on the body of the larva of the Bombyx vinula, fixing them by means of a long 
peduncle. The larva of O. moderator, Fab., destroys that of another Ichneumon, Pimpla strobilelle, Fab. 

Banchus, Fab., has similar antenne, but the abdomen is gradually narrowed to the tip. [B. pictus, Fab., a com- 
mon British species.] 

Hellwigia, Gravenh., have the appearance of the preceding, but the antenne are clavate. [A continental 
species. } 

Joppa, Fab., differs from the following in having the antenne dilated in the middle, and pointed at the tip. 
[Exotic species.] 


=e Ee 
a ae a 


HYMENOPTERA, 587 


Ichneumon proper, has the head transverse, the abdomen oval, nearly equally narrowed at each end. {Numerous 
British species.] Panzer has separated, under the name of Trogus, those species which have the scutellum in the 
form of a conical tubercle, and the abdomen marked by deep transverse impressions. 

Alomyia, Panzer, has the head narrower and more rounded, with the abdomen more dilated towards the poste- 
rior extremity. 

Hypsicera, Latr. [Tryphon (Exochus) Gray.], has the appearance of Alomyia, but is remarkable for its pyramidal 
head, with a frontal elevation supporting the antenne. 

Peltastes, Mig. (Metopius, Panzer), has the abdomen united to the thorax by the greater part of its transverse 
diameter, subsessile, and slightly dilated towards the extremity. Ichn. necatorius, Panz. {and two or three allied 
British species]. They have a circular elevation beneath the antenne. 

The second and last division of the species with 5-jointed maxillary and 3-jointed labial palpi has the labium 
deeply notched, and the ovipositor is exserted and covered at the base by a vomeriform plate ; the hind thighs 


are thick. 
Acenitus, Latr., has the front of the head not produced into a beak. In 


Agathis, Latr., it forms abeak. ‘These insects approach in their wings the following subgenera. 


Our second division of the Ichneumons differs from the preceding in respect to the joints of the 
palpi only, in consequence of the labial palpi having only three joints, as in the majority of the species 
of the following division ; the second cubital cell is nearly as large as the first, and nearly square; the 
ovipositor is exserted; the tip of the mandibles is bifid or notched. 


Bracon, Jur., has an evident hiatus between the mandibles and clypeus; the maxille are prolonged inferiorly 
beneath the mandibles; the second cubital cell is square and rather large ; the ovipositor is long; the antennz 
are setaceous, as long as the body, and the maxillary palpi are much longer than the labial. 

Vipio, Latr., has the antenne shorter and filiform ; the maxille are proportionably larger, and forma kind of 
beak, and the maxillary palpi are not much longer than the labial. 

Microgaster, Latr., does not exhibit any decided hiatus between the mandibles and clypeus; the maxillz and 
lower lip are not prolonged; the second cubital cell is small. The ovipositor as well as the abdomen is short, 


Our third and last division, corresponding with the genus Bassus of M. Esenbeck, has like the 
preceding, four joints in the labial palpi, but the maxillary palpi are 6-jointed; the abdomen is 
semi-sessile. 

In some the mandibles are gradually narrowed to the tip, and terminated by two teeth. 

Helcon, Nees, has the abdomen, seen from above, composed of several joints, and terminated by a long ovi- 
positor. 

Sigalphus, Latr., has the abdomen vaulted beneath, and only 3-jointed above, with the ovipositor withdrawn and 
sting-like. 

Chelonus, Jur., has the abdomen similarly formed beneath, but inarticulated on its upper suface. 

Alysia, Latr., has the mandibles nearly square, with three teeth at the tip, one in the middle, and the two others 
formed by the produced angles of the terminal margin. 

[The investigation of the Ichneumonide, since the death of Latreille, has been greatly attended to; the great 
work of Gravenhorst has made us acquainted with the Ichneumones genuini, or those which composed Latreille’s 
first division, whilst the Ichnewmones adsciti, or those composing the two other divisions of Latreille, have been 
described by Dr. Nees Von Esenbeck, Professor Wesmael of Brussels, and Mr. Haliday, in various memoirs and 
separate publications, in which a great number of genera are added to those noticed in the text.] 


The third tribe, GaLLicoL& (Diploleparia, Latr.) has only a single nerve in the hind wings; the upper 
wings possess a few cells or areolets: namely, two brachial cells at the base, the internal one being 
generally incomplete or but slightly distinct, one radial and triangular, and two or three cubital; the 
second in those which have three, being always very small, and the third very large, triangular, and 
closed by the external margin of the wing. The antenne are thickened at the tip, but not forming a 
mass, and mostly from 13- to 15-jointed; the palpi are very short, [not very long, as described by 
Latreille]. The ovipositor is rolled spirally up in the interior of the abdomen, with the posterior 
extremity lodged in a slit of the belly ; the Gallicole form the genus 


Cynipes, Linn.,— 


Which Geoffroy inconsiderately named Diplolepis, and gave the name of Cynips to insects of the 
following family, united by Linnzus with the terminal division of the Ichneumons. 

The abdomen is compressed, the thorax very much elevated, the ovipositor of the females appears to 
consist of a single long and very delicate piece, rolled up spirally at the base, and the terminal part 
being lodged beneath the anus, between two elongated valves, each forming a demi-sheath. The 
extremity of this ovipositor is channelled with lateral teeth, with which the insect enlarges the slits 


588 INSECTA. 


made in various vegetables in order to deposit its eggs; the fluid accumulating in the wounded part of 
the plant forms excresceuces or tumours, which have been termed galls or nut-galls, the latter of which 
is employed with a solution of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, in producing a black dye. 

The form and solidity of these galls vary according to the nature of the parts of the plants which 
have been attacked, as the leaves, petioles, 
buds, bark, roots. Many are spherical, and 
resemble fruits, such as gall-apples, &c. ; others 
are hairy, as the bedeguar of the rose; others 
resemble small artichokes, fungi, &c. The eggs 
inclosed in these galls increase in size and con- 
sistence. They give birth to small larve 
destitute of feet, but furnished with tubercles to 
supply their stead; sometimes they live singly, 

ee an a get eae ue cee mato and sometimes in societies. [I have obtained 
more than eleven hundred gall-flies from a single gall, found at the root of an oak]. They devour the inte- 
rior without stopping its growth, and remain five or six months in that state. Some undergo their changes 
within the galls, but others quit them in order to descend into the earth. The small round holes 
observed in the sides of the galls, show that the insect has made its escape: various insects of the 
following family are also found within, but these have taken the place of the real inhabitants, having 
destroyed them in the same manner as the Ichneumons. 

An insect [considered to belong to this family] deposits its eggs in the seeds of the most forward 
wild figs in the Levant. The modern Greeks, following a custom handed down to them by their 
forefathers, fasten several of these fruits, amongst the later figs, the insects escaping from which, 
covered with the fecundating dust, inake their way into the eye of the fruit of the latter, and thus pro- 


voke the maturity of the fruit. This operation is termed caprification. 

Ibalia, Latr. (Sagaris, Panz.), has the abdomen very compressed, like the blade of a knife; the antenne filiform; 
the radial cell is Jong and narrow, and the two brachial ones very distinct ; the two anterior cubital cells are very 
small. [J. cultillator, Latr., a very rare British species.] 

Figites, Latr., has the abdomen ovoid, thick, and rounded above, compressed beneath ; the antennez moniliform, 
and thickened to the tips. There is only one complete brachial cell; the radial cell is far from the tip of the 
wing, and the second cubital is wanting. 

Cynips proper (Diplolepis, Geoff.), has the abdomen similar, but the antenne are filiform, and there are three 
cubital cells ; the radial cell is also more elongate. C. Galle tinctoric, Oliv., resides in a sound hard tubercular 
gall found upon aspecies of oak in the Levant, and which is used in commerce, [and which is our chief ingredient 
in the manufacture of ink]. By breaking the galls, the perfect insect may occasionally be obtained. C. Quereus 
pedunculata, punctures the male flower-stalks of the oak, and produces small galls in bunches, like bunches of 
currants. [See, for numerous additional genera and species, the memoirs of Boyer de Fonscolombe, Walker, 
Westwood, and especially Hartig, published in the 3rd number of the Zeitschrift fur die Entomologie.] 


The fourth tribe (CHALcIpL&, Spin.), differs only from the preceding in having the antennz elbowed 
(except in Eucharis), and forming beyond the angle an elongated or fusiform mass; the basal joint is 
often lodged in a groove [of the face] ; the palpi are very short; the radial cell is generally wanting, 
and there is only a single cubital cell, which is not closed. The antenne have not more than twelve 
joints. The genera hitherto established may be referred to that of 


Cua tects, Fabr. 


These insects are very small, ornamented with brilliant metallic colours, and possess, in general, the 
power of leaping. The ovipositor is mostly composed of three threads, as in the Ichneumons, and 
exserted. The larvae are similarly parasites. Some, in consequence of their minute size, feed on the 
eggs of insects which are scarcely perceptible ; many others live in the larve and chrysalides of 
Lepidoptera. I presume that they do not weave a cocoon in order to become pupz. 

Some, having always 11- or 12-jointed antenne, have the hind thighs very thick, lenticular, with the tibia curved; 
of these, some have the abdomen attached to the thorax by a foot-stalk, with the ovipositor straight, and rarely 
exserted. 

Chirocera, Latr, has the male antenne feathered like a fan. C. pectinicornis, Latr. 

Chalcis, Fabr., has the antenne single in both sexes ; of these some have the peduncle elongated. [C. sispes, a 
British species.) In others, the peduncle is very short, (Vespa minuta, Fabr.) {a British species]. C. annulata, 


HYMENOPTERA. 589 


which resides in the card-nests of one of the wasps of South America, and which Réaumur considers as the 
female of this wasp. 

Dirhinus, Dalm., has the head deeply bifid and prolonged in front, as well as the mandibles. [D. excavatus, 
Dalm., an African species. ] 

Palmon, Dalm., composed of species found in copal, has the antenne terminated by three thick joints, and the 
Ovipositor exserted. 

Leucospis, Fab., has the abdomen applied against the hind part of the thorax, rounded behind, with the ovi- 
positor curved over the back. The female of L. dorsigera places its eggs in the nests of Mason Bees; that of L. 
gigas oviposits in Wasps’ nests. 

The others have the antenne mostly only from 5- to 9-jointed, with the hind thighs oblong, and the tibiae 
straight. 

Eucharis, Latr., with straight 12-jointed antenne, and, according to Latreille, without any vestige of palpi. 

Thoracantha, Latr., Brazilian insects, with the scutellum extended over the abdomen. 

The remainder have the antenne at least 9-jointed, simple, and elbowed, and scutellum small. 

Of those which have the antenne not inserted close to the mouth, some have the abdomen nearly oyoid, com- 
pressed at the sides, and the ovipositor mostly exserted. 

Agaon, Dalm., has the head very large and flat, and the basal joint triangular. [4. paradoxum, Dalm., from 
Sierra Leone, closely allied to the insect which is used in caprification.] 

Eurytoma, Mlig., has the male antenne nodose and verticillated, and the ovipositor short. [Numerous small 
British species. 

Miscocampus, Latr. [Torymus, Dalm., or more properly Cadlimome, Spinola], has the antenne not verticillated, 
and the ovipositor long. One species is parasitic upon the Cynips of the Rose bedeguar, [a very numerous British 
genus}. 

The others have the abdomen flat above, triangular and pointed in the females, or subcordate or suborbicular. 
The ovipositor is mostly concealed. 

In some of these, the stigmal branch arises at a distance from the union of the costal nerve with the costa of the 
fore wings. 

Perilampus, Latr., has the abdomen short and cordate, and not prolonged, with the scutellum thick and promi- 
nent. {Several British species. ] 

Pteromalus, Latr., has the thorax short, with the collar not narrowed in front, and the abdomen of the females 
terminated in a conical point. [A very numerous genus. ] 

Cleonymus, Latr., has the collar elongated and narrowed in front; the abdomen is also much longer. [C. de- 
pressus, Latr., a rare British species, &c.] 

In others, the stigmal branch arises from the union of the costal nerve with the costa; the middle legs are longest, 
with a long spur at the apex of the tibie. Z 

Eupelmus, Dalm. [has the ovipositor exserted], and the basal joint of the middle tarsi broad and ciliated, and 
the stigmal branch removed from the costal nerve. 

Encyrtus, Latr., has the stigmal branch arising from the apex of the costal nerve; the club of the antenne is 
compressed and truncate. [A very numerous genus, of minute species. ] 

Spalangia, Latr., differs from all the preceding in having the antenne inserted quite close to the mouth. 

Eulophus, Geof. (Entedon, Dalm.), has the antennez from 4- to 8-jointed, those of [some] males being branched. 
[A very extensive genus. ] 


[This family, Chalcidide, has recently received much attention, and a great number of additional 
genera have been established, especially by Spinola, Dalman, Walker, Esenbeck, Haliday, and my- 
self. Those found in this country are described in the generic synopsis of my “ Modern Classifi- 
cation.’’] 

The fifth tribe, Oxyuri, resembles the preceding in the absence of nerves in the lower wings, but 
the abdomen of the females is terminated by a tubular ovipositor of a conical form, and either internal, 
exsertile from the anus like a sting, or external, and forming a kind of tail or terminal point. The 
antenne are from 10- to 15-jointed, and either filiform or rather thickened to the tips, or clavate in 
the females. The maxillary palpi in many are long and pendent. We reunite the different genera of 


which it is composed to that of 
Betuyius, Latr. & Fabr. 


Their habits are probably the same as those of the Chalcidites, but as the majority of these insects 
are found upon the ground or low plants, I conjecture that their larve live in the earth. 


Some have the wings furnished with veins and cells, and a portion of these have the antenne inserted near the 
mouth. 

Dryinus, Latr. (Gonatopus, Klug), has the antenne straight, 10-jointed, in both sexes ; the thorax binodose, and 
the fore tarsi terminated [in the females only] by two large reflexed hooks. Some females are apterous. [See the 
monographs of Esenbeck and Walker. ] 

Anteon, Jur., has only 10-jointed antennz, at least in the males, but the thorax is continuous, and the tarsi are 
terminated [in the males only] by ordinary-sized claws. 


590 INSECTA. 


Bethyllus, Latr. (Omalus, Jur.), has the antenne eibowed, 13-jointed, in both sexes, the head flattened, and the 
prothorax elongated and subtriangular. 

Another portion has the antenne 13- to 15-jointed, and inserted near the middle of the face. 

Proctotrupes, Latr. (Codrus, Jur.), have them 13-jointed and straight in both sexes. [Numerous British spe- 
cies, monographed by Haliday.] 

Helorus, has the antenne distinctly elbowed, and 15-jointed; the first joint of the abdomen forms a sudden 
long peduncle. [H. anomalipes, a singular British insect. ] 

Belyta and Cinctus, Jur., have the antenne 14- or 15-jointed, filiform in the males, and thicker at the tip in the 
females. 

The other Oxyuri have neither cells nor brachial or basal nerves. Some of these have the antennz inserted in 
the forehead. These are 

Diapria, Latr. (Psilus, Jur.), which has no cell in the wings. The males have 14-, and the females 15-jointed 
antenne. 

Others have the antenne inserted near the mouth. 

Ceraphron, Jur., has a radial cell, the maxillary palpi prominent, the antennz filiform and 11-jointed, and the 
abdomen ovate-conic. , 

Sparasion, Latr., is similar to Ceraphron in the radial cell and maxillary palpi, but with the antenne 12-jointed 
in both sexes. 

The two following subgenera differ from Sparasion in haying the palpi very short, and not exserted or pendent. 

Teleas, Latr. having 12-jointed antenne. 

Scelio, Latr., with 10-jointed antenne. 

In the terminal subgenus Platygaster, Latr., the radial cell is wanting, the antenne in both sexes are 10-jointed, 
the first and third being very elongated ; the palpi are very short, and the abdomen spatulate. I refer to this sub- 
genus the Psilus Boscii, Jurine, a very curious insect, in which the basal segment of the abdomen supports a 
strong horn, which extends over the back of the head and thorax, and which, according to Leclerc de Laval, is a 
tube for the ovipositor. [This opinion is certainly incorrect. The insect is remarkable for its habits, and has been 
described by the Canon Schmidberger, under the name of the Paradoxical Pear-fly. See Kollar, Obnow. Ins., 
translated by Miss Loudon.] The species is very minute, and black. 

[See the monographs of Platygaster, and several of the preceding genera, published by Mr. Walker in the Ento- 
mological Magazine, in which work, as well as in Esenbeck’s work on these families, various additional genera 
are described. ] 


The sixth tribe, Curysipes, Latr., like the three preceding tribes, have the hind wings not veined, 
but the ovipositor is formed by the terminal segments of the abdomen, like the sliding tubes of a tele- 
scope, and terminated by a small sting. The abdomen, which in the female appears to be formed of 
only three or four segments, is vaulted or flattened beneath, and capable of being folded against the 
breast, when the insect assumes the appearance of a ball. This tribe is composed of the genus 


Curysis, Linn.,— 


Which in the richness of their colours vie with the Humming-birds; hence they have been termed 
Golden-tailed Flies. They may be observed walking, but in a constant agitation and with great agility, 
upon walls and palings exposed to the heat of the sun. They are also found upon flowers. The body 
is elongated, and covered with a solid skin; the antenna filiform, elbowed, and vibratile; the maxillary 
palpi long and 5-jointed, the labial 3-jointed; the abdomen in the majority is semi-oval, truncated at 
the base, so as to appear sessile; the terminal segment has often a deep row of impressed dots, and 
the apex is denticulated. They deposit their eggs in the nests of Solitary Mason-bees, or other 

lymenoptera, their larvee destroying those of these insects. 

Parnopes, differs from the rest in having the maxillz and lower lip very long, forming a proboscis, P. carnea, 


a continental species, places its eggs in the nest of Bembew rostrata. 

The others have not an elongated proboscis. 

In some the thorax is not narrowed in front, the antenne semi-ovate, and only with three segments, as in 

Chrysis proper, which may be thus divided :— 

Those with the four palpi equal, and the labium deeply notched, form the genus Sti/bum, Spin., to which we may 
unite Euchreus, Latr.,—[and Pyria, St. Fargeau]. Those with the maxillary palpi much longer than the labial, 
with the labium notched, and the abdomen rounded at the tip, form the genus Hedychrum. Those with the palpi 
as in Hedychrum, but with the labium rounded and entire, form the genera Elampus and Chrysis, the first of 
which has the mandibles with two teeth within, and the abdomen entire at the tip, and the second has the man- 
dibles with one tooth within, and the extremity of the abdomen is spined, and has a row of deep spots. To 
this last group belongs C. ignita, Linn., the commonest species in Europe, of a blue colour, with the abdomen 
fiery-red. 

Cleptes, Latr., has the mandibles short and toothed, and the thorax narrowed in front: the male has the 
abdomen 5-, and the female 4-jointed. 


591 


HYMENOPTERA. 


(See the monograph of British Chrysides published by Shuckard in the Entomological Magazine, and the more 
recent one of Klug, and Spinola’s memoir in the French Entomological Society’s Transactions, as well as Saint 
Fargeau’s, in the Mémoires du Muséum. 


The second section of the Hymenoptera, the AcuLEaTA, differs from the first in wanting 
a borer; a sting, composed of three pieces, which is concealed and retractile within the 
abdomen, ordinarily replaces it in the females and in the neuters of such species as are 
united in societies. Sometimes, as in some Ants, this sting does not exist, and the insect 
defends itself by ejecting an acid liquid secreted in special reservoirs under the form 
of glands. 

The Hymenoptera of this section have always the antennz simple, and composed of a con- 
stant number of joints, namely, thirteen in the males and twelve in the females; the palpi 
are ordinarily filiform ; the maxillary palpi often longer, have six joints, and the labial four. 
The mandibles are smaller, and often more toothed in the males than in the other individuals. 
The abdomen, united to the thorax by a peduncle, or slender thread, is composed of seven 
joints in the males and six in the females. The four wings are always veined, and offer the 
different sorts of ordinary cells. 

The larvee have never any feet, and subsist upon food which the females or neuters provide 
them with, consisting either of the dead bodies of insects, or the honey of flowers; and in 
some species of a mixture of pollen, stamens, and honey. 

This section is divided into four families, [Heterogyna, Fossores, Diploptera, and 
Anthophila]. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE ACULEATED HYMENOPTERA, 


Tue HETEROGYNA— 


Is composed of two or three kinds of individuals, of which the most common, or the neuters, or 
females, have no wings, and rarely ocelli distinct. All of them have the antennz elbowed, and the 
lower lip small, rounded, and vaulted or spoon-like. 

Some of these live in society, and present three kinds of individuals, of which the males and females 
are winged, and the neuters wingless; in the last two kind of individuals the antennz are thickened 
to the tips, and the length of the basal joint is at least equal to one-third of their entire length ; the 
second is nearly as long as the third, and in the form of a reversed cone. The upper lip of the 
neuters is horny, and shuts perpendicularly beneath the mandibles. These Hymenoptera compose 
the genus 

Formica, Linn. (or the Ants),— 


So celebrated for their foresight, and of which some are so well known for the injury they commit in 
our gardens and the interior of our houses, where they attack saccharine matters, preserved viands, &c., 
giving them a disagreeable scent of musk; whilst others are equally obnoxious to trees, by gnawing 
the interior, in order to make for themselves a habitation where they may breed. 

The Ants have the peduncle of the abdomen like a scale or knot, either single or double, whereby 
they are easily distinguished. They have the antenne elbowed, generally rather thicker at the tips ; 
the head triangular, with the eyes oval or rounded, and entire; the clypeus large; the jaws very 
strong in a great number, but of which the form varies in the neuters; the maxilla and labium are 
small: the palpi filiform, those of the maxille being longest ; the thorax compressed at the sides, and 
the abdomen nearly oval, furnished in the females and workers either with a sting or with glands 
situated near the anus, which secrete a peculiar acid, called formic acid. 

They live in society, often of great extent, each species consisting of males and females, which have 
wings which are much less veined than in the majority of this section, and which easily fall off; as 
well as of neuters, which are destitute of wings, and which are only females with the ovaries imperfect. 
The two former kind of individuals are only found temporarily in the Ants’ nest, from which they 
make their escape almost as soon as they have gained their wings. The males are much smaller in 
size than the females, as are also their heads and mandibles, and the eyes larger. The union of the 


592 INSECTA. 


sexes takes place in the air, where the winged individuals form large swarms, after which the males 
soon die, without again entering their former abode. The females, now ready to become mothers, quit 
the neighbourhood, and, having first pulled off their wings with their feet, become the foundresses of 
new and distant colonies. Some are, however, made prisoners by the neuters of the parent colony, 
who strip them of their wings, in order that they may deposit their eggs, after which it is believed 
that they are driven off. 

The neuters, distinct not only by their want of wings and ocelli, but also by the size of the head, 
the strength of the jaws, the thorax more compressed and often nodose, and the legs proportionably 
longer, are alone charged with the works of the nest and rearing of the young, the nature and form of 
the former of which varies according to the instinct of the different species. They are more generally 
established in the ground, some using only particles of earth, and having their nests entirely hidden, 
and others covering their nests with bits of stick, straws, &c., forming a conical mound. Some inhabit 
the trunks of old trees, which they pierce in every direction. The neuters feed the young grubs, and 
move them on fine days to the outer surface of the nest, in order to give them heat, and removing 
them back again at the approach of night or bad weather; they defend them from their enemies, and 
take the greatest care of them and of the pupa, especially when the nests are disturbed. Some of the 
latter are inclosed in a cocoon, whilst others are naked: the neuters also tear open the cocoon when 
the period of the final change arrives. 

Different nests have exhibited to me neuter individuals (few in number) remarkable for having a 
much larger head than the ordinary neuters; M. Lacordaire also gave me a neuter Ant allied to dtta 
cephalotes, Fab., assuring me that the individuals of this kind are the defenders of the society, and 
appear to perform the duty of captains in their excursions. 

The name of Ant-eggs is commonly given to the larve and pupe. Those of 7. flava are used for 
feeding young Pheasants. The neuters prevent the perfect insects, which have recently acquired their 
wings, from leaving the nest until a favourable opportunity, dependent upon the heat of the 
atmosphere. 

The majority of Ants’ nests are entirely composed of a single species, but Nature has departed from 
this plan in F. (Polyergus) rufescens, or the Amazon Ant, and F. sanguinea. The neuters of these two 
species seize by violence auxiliaries or slaves of their own caste (neuters), but of different species, 
namely, F. ewnicularia, Latr., and F. fusca, Linn. When the heat of the day begins to decline, and 
regularly at the same hour, at least during several days, the Amazon Ants quit their own nests in a 
close and numerous column, and direct their course to the ant-hill they intend to attack, and which 
they enter, in spite of the opposition of the owners, and carry off in their jaws the larve and pupe of 
the neuters of these Ants, and which they take to their own nest, where they are tended by other 
neuter slave Ants of the same species, which have been previously stolen in a similar manner, and 
which also take charge of the young of these amazon conquerors. Such is the composition of a 
mixed Ant-nest. 

It is known that Ants are very fond of the saccharine liquid which exudes from the bodies of Aphides 
and Coccide ; four or five species also collect the Aphides, and even their eggs, which they keep at 
the bottom of their nests, especially in bad seasons. Others construct galleries of earth from their 
nests along the stems of branches of trees, as far as the twigs peopled by the Plant-lice. 

The winged Ants perish at the commencement of the cold weather, but the neuters pass the winter 
dormant in their nests ; their prudence, so much celebrated, has no other end than to augment and 
consolidate their habitation with all kinds of matters; for a store of food would be useless in a season 
when the insects could not use it. 

The habits of exotic, and especially tropical Ants, are almost unknown. The Visiting Ant performs 
some service to our colonists by driving away Rats, and a quantity of other obnoxious insects ; but 
other species are obnoxious from the destruction which they make, and which it is impossible to prevent. 


I divide the genus Formica in the following manner :— 

1. Formica proper, destitute of a sting ; the antenne inserted near theforehead ; mandibles triangular and den- 
ticulated ; the abdominal peduncle consists of a single knot. Formica rufa, Linn. [the great Horse Ant, or Pis- 
mire], common in woods, where it forms nests like a large sugar loaf or dome, composed of earth, fragments of 
wood, &c., and which are often of large size ; the winged individuals appear in spring. F. fusca, cunicularia, and 
a great number of species. 


HYMENOPTERA. 593 


2. Polyergus, Latr., whichis also destitute of asting, but with the antenne inserted near themouth, and the man- 

dibles narrow, curved, or very much hooked. P. rufescens, the Amazon Ant above described, not yet discovered in 
' this country. 

3. Ponera, Latr., the neuters and females armed with 
asting. Peduncle of abdomen formed of a single knot ; 
antenne in these individuals thickened at the tip; mandi- 
bles triangular ; head subtriangular. P. contracta, Latr., 
a very small species, [first discovered in England by me]. 

Odontomachus, Latr., has the peduncular node spined 
above ; the antenne of the neuters filiform; the head 
oblong, and deeply emarginate behind; and the mandibles 
long and narrow; all the species are exotic. 

4. Myrmica, Latr., has also a sting, but the peduncle 

: le of the abdomen is composed of two knots; the antenne 
A Sens Formica fusca and its jaws; B, Polyergus rufescens and exposed; the maxillary palpi long and 6-jointed; and 
the mandibles triangular. F'. rubra [misprinted rufa by Latreille], Linn., a very common British species. 

Eciton, Latr., differs from Myrmica only in having linear mandibles. 

Atta, Fabr., differs from Myrmica only in having very short palpi; the head 
of the workers is generally very thick. A. cephalotes, Fab., the Visiting Ant 
of the West Indies, above mentioned. 

Cryptocerus, Latr., furnished with a sting, with the peduncle of the abdomen 
formed of two knots ; the head very large and flat, with a groove on each side 
to receive the antenne. South American insects, [monographed by Klug]. 
[The excellent monograph of the ants by Latreille, and, as relates to their 
habits, the memoirs of Huber, ought to be consulted in this family.] 


The other Heterogyna are solitary in their habits, each species being 
only composed of winged males and apterous females, the latter always Fig. 120.—Atta cephalotes. 
armed with a powerful sting ; the antenne are filiform or setaceous, vibratile, with the first and third 
joints elongated ; the length of the first never equalling one third of these organs. They form the genus 


Morti.ua, Linn. 

Some, of which males have only been observed, have the antenne inserted near the mouth ; the head small, and 
the abdomen long and nearly cylindric. Genera, Dorylus, from Africa and India, and Labidus, from South 
America, [to which must be added two others, described by Mr. Shuckard in his monograph on these genera, pub- 
lished in the Annals of Natural History, May and June, 1840). 

The others have the antenne inserted near the middle of the face ; the head is more robust than in the preceding, 
and the abdomen either conic or ovoid. These form the genus Mutilla proper, the species of which are found in 
hot sandy districts. The females run quickly, and always on the ground. The males often alight upon flowers, 
but we are ignorant of their precise economy. 

Some have the thorax nearly cubical, and not nodose in the females. 

Apterogyna, Latr., has the two basal segments of the abdomen in the form of knots ; the male antennz are very 
long ; the fore-wings have only basal cells, and a single cubital small and rhomboidal cell. [Exotic insects.] 

Psammotherma, Latr., has three cubital cells, with two recurrent nervures ; and the males have the antennz 
pectinated. [Mutilla flabellata, Fabr., Cape of Good Hope.] 

Mutilia proper, has also three cubital cells, with two recurrent nerves, but the antennz are simple in both sexes, 
and the second segment of the abdomen does not form aknot. Type, Mutilla europea, [a rather common British 
species]. 

Myrmosa, Latr., differs from the preceding in having the thorax in both sexes equal, but divided into twodistinct 
segments, with the abdomen conic in the females. 

Myrmecoda, Latr., has the thorax of the females also equal above, but divided into three segments by sutures, 
and the maxillary palpi very short. [These insects are now proved to be the females of the genus Rianne: placed 
by Latreille in the family Scolietes.] 

Scleroderma, Klug, differs only in the maxillary palpi being elongated, and the antenne has the second join 
not inclosed in the tip of the preceding. [Small continental species. See my monograph on this genus, published 
in the Transactions of the Entomol. Soc. of London, vol. ii.} 

Methoca, Latr., has the thorax nodose. [M. ichneumonides, a very interesting insect, found but rarely in this 
country, resembling an Ant, and now proved to be the female of the genus Tengyra, placed by Latreille in the 
next family. } 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE ACULEATED HYMENOPTERA,— 


Tue FossorEes,— 


Comprises those aculeate Hymenoptera which have all the individuals winged, and of two kinds only 
[males and females], and which live solitarily, their legs being fitted only for walking, and in many for 


aa 


594 INSECTA. 


digging ; the labium is always more or less notched at the tip, and never filiform or setaceous; the 
wings are always extended. They compose the genus 


SpHEx, Linn.,— 


The majority of the females of which deposit with their eggs, in nests formed for their reception, in 
earth or wood, various insects or their larva, and sometimes Spiders, which they have previously pierced 
with their stings, and which serve for the food of their young, when hatched; the latter resemble worms, 
having no feet, and are transformed in a cocoon which they have spun previous to becoming pup ; 
the perfect insect is generally very active, and lives upon flowers ; the maxille andlabium are elongated 
and proboscis-like in many species. 

We distribute the numerous subgenera separated from the primitive genus Sphex, into seven principal 
groups [Scoketes, Sapygites, Sphegites, Bembecides, Larrates, Nyssoniens, Crabronites]. In the two first 
of these, the eyes are often notched ; the body of the males narrow, long, and terminated by three anal 


points, or teeth. 
1. The Scolietes, comprising those which have the first segment of the thorax sometimes arched, and 


extended at the sides as far as the wings, sometimes transverse-quadrate, or like a knot ; the legs short, 
thick, very spinose, with the tibiz curved near the base, and the antenne of the females shorter than 
the head and thorax. They are named after the genus 


Scoxra, Fab. 

Some have the maxillary palpi long, with unequal-sized joints, and the basal joint of the antenne sub-conical. 
Such are 

Tiphia, Fab., with which we may associate Tengyra, Latr. 

The others have the maxillary palpi short, and the basal joint of the antenne long. 

Myzine, Latr. (with the mandibles dentate), and 

Meria, Latr. (with the mandibles simple), have the basal joint receiving and hiding the second. 

Scolia, proper, has the second joint of the antennz exposed. [This is a numerous genus, composed for the most 
part of large exotic species. ] . 


2. The Sapygites, Latr., have the first segment of the thorax formed as in the preceding, with the 
legs short but slender, neither spined nor strongly ciliated, and the antenne in both sexes as long as 


the head and thorax; the body is generally naked. This subdivision is named after the principal 
genus 
Sapyea, Latr. 

Some have filiform or setaceous antenne. 

Thynnus, Fab., has the eyes entire, [New Holland insects] ; and Scotena, Klug [Brazilian species}. 

Polochrum, Spin., has them notched, and the mandibles toothed. 

Others have the antenne thickened at the tips, or clavate in some males. 

Sapyga proper, the species of which fly about walls and trees exposed to the sun, on which they appear to 
deposit their eggs. [It now appears that they are parasites in the nests of Bees which inhabit those situations]. 

Ceramius, Latr., from the form of the prothoracic collar and the extended wings, belongs to this subdivision ; 
but from more important characters it ought naturally to be united with the Diploptera. 


3. The Sphegites are Fossores, which nearly approach the preceding in respect to the prothoracic 
collar, but the hind legs are at least’as long again as the head and thorax, and the antenne are often 


slender, formed of loose joints, and much curved in the females. They are named after the 
dominant genus 
SPHEX. 

Some have the first segment of the thorax square, either transverse or longitudinal, and the abdomen attached 
to the thorax by a very short peduncle; the upper wings have generally two or three complete cubital cells, and 
another imperfect and terminal. They now form several subgenera. 

Pepsis, Fab., has the labrum apparent ; the antennz in the males straight; the maxillary palpi not much longer 
than the labial; the males have the hind tibiz and tarsi compressed. All the species are exotic, especially South 
American, and have the wings coloured. 

Ceropales, Latr., has the labrum and antenne of Pepsis, but the maxillary palpi are much longer, with very 
unequal-sized joints. 

Pompilus, Fab., resembles Ceropales in the latter respect, but the antenne of both sexes are convoluted and 
composed of loose joints; the labrum is but slightly exposed. Type, S. viatica, Linn. [a common species}. These 
insects provision their nests with Spiders, having first pricked them with their stings. 

Salius, Fab., is established upon the males of some species which have the pro- and metathorax proportionably 
more elongated than in Pompilus, and the mandibles are not toothed. 

Planiceps, Latr., differ from Salius in having the head flat, with the posterior margin concave, the ocelli very 


HYMENOPTERA. 595 


small and distant; the fore-wings have only two complete cubital cells, the second of which receives the first 
recurrent nerve. 

Aporus, Spinola, has also two complete cubital cells, but the second receives the two recurrent nerves ; in other 
respects they entirely resemble Pompilus. 

The others have the first segment of the thorax narrowed in front like a knot, and the first abdominal segment, 
and sometimes part of the second, narrowed into an elongated peduncle; the upper wings have always three perfect 
cubital cells, and the commencement of a fourth. 


Ammophila, Kirby, has the mandibles dentate, and the 
maxille and labium very long and proboscis-like ; the second 
cubital cell receives the two recurrent nerves. Type, Sphex 
sabulosa, Linn. [a very common British species], the female 
of which provisions her nest with caterpillars. 

Miscus, Jur. (Fam. 1), differs only in having the third cu- 
bital cell petiolated in front. 

Others have the mandibles and palpi similarly formed, but 
the maxillz and labrum are much shorter. 

In Proneus, Latr., the second cubital cell receives, as in 
Bip Tales Ararionhilatsabulonas Ammophila, the two recurrent nervures. [A large African 
. species]. 

In Sphex proper the same cell receives only the first recurrent nerve; the third is inserted beneath the other. 
[S. flavipennis, the only British species, but very rare.] 

In Chiorion, Latr., the first recurrent nerve is inserted beneath the first cubital, and the second beneath the 
third. C. compressum, a splendid green species with red thighs, which is very common in the Isle of France, 
where it provisions its nest with Blatte. 

Dolichurus, Latr., has the maxillary palpi much longer than the labial, and nearly thread-like. 

The last Fossores of this third division have no teeth to the mandibles. 

Ampulex, Jur., resembles Chlorion in the insertion of the recurrent nerves. 

In the two following the second cubital cell receives the two nerves. 

Podium, Latr., has the maxillary palpi scarcely longer than the labial. [Exotic species. ] 

Pelopeus, Latr., has them longer, with unequal joints; the antennz are inserted higher. P. spirifea, a conti- 
nental species, makes its nests of mud in the angles of rooms, arranging them spirally, covering them with mud, 
and provisioning them with Spiders, dipterous insects, &c. 


4. The Bembecides have the collar linearly transverse, the sides not extending to the base of the 
wings ; the legs short, or of moderate length; the abdomen semiconical and elongate ; the labrum 
naked and exserted. This family is named after the genus 


BEeMBEx, Fabricius,— 
The species of which are peculiar to warm climates. The body is elongated, pointed behind, mostly 
varied with black and yellow, or reddish and glabrous; the mandibles narrow, elongated, toothed 
inside, and crossing each other; the fore-tarsi of the females furnished with spinose ciliz ; the males 
have generally one or two elevated teeth on the under-side of the abdomen. The species are rapid in 
their flight, and make a sharp buzzing noise; many emit a strong scent of roses. 
Some have the proboscis long, and the labrum forms a long triangle. 
Bembex proper has very short palpi. B. rostrata, Linn. [a reputed British species], forms deep burrows in the 
sand [for its nest], which it provisions with two-winged flies, as Syrphide, Muscide, &c. 


Monedula, Latr., has the palpi long. [Exotic species. ] 
Stizus, Jur., has the proboscis not elongated, and the labrum short and rounded. [Exotic species.} 


5. The Larrates have the appearance of the Bembecides, but the labrum is concealed, and the man- 


dibles have a deep notch within at the base. 

Some have three complete cubital cells. 

Palarus, Latr. (Gonius, Jur.), has short antenne thickened at the tips, and the second cubital cell is petiolated. 
[A continental species]. 

Lyrops, Mil., has filiform antenne, and the mandibles have a tooth within. 

Larra, Fab., differs from Lyrops in the mandibles not having a tooth within. 

The others have only two complete cubital cells. 

Dinetus, Jur., has both cubital cells sessile, and the mandibles 3-dentate within. 

Miscophus, Jur., has the second cubital cell petiolated, and the inside of the mandibles not toothed. 


6. The Nyssoniens have the labrum more or less completely hidden, the maxillz and labium not 
forming a proboscis ; the mandibles without a notch at the base within ; the head of ordinary size, and 
the abdomen gradually attenuated and never peduncled. 


ea 


596 INSECTA. 


Astata, Latr. (Dimorpha, Jur.), has three complete sessile cubital cells, and the radial is appendiculated; the 
eyes are contiguous, [especially in the males]. 
Nysson, Latr., has the same number of cubital cells, but the second is petiolated ; the radial is not appendicu- 


lated, and the eyes are wide apart. 
Oxybelus, Latr., has only one complete cubital cell, receiving a single recurrent nerve ; the mandibles terminate 
in asimple point, and the scutellum is spined. 
Nitela, Latr., has also only a single cubital cell, the mandibles terminate in teeth, and the scutellum 1s not spined. 
Pison, Jur., differs from all the rest in having the eyes emarginate. 


7. The last division of the Fossores, that of the Crabronides, differs from the preceding only in 
having the head generally larger and nearly square, the antenne often thickened at the tip, the 


abdomen oval or elliptic, with the base narrower than the middle, and often pedunculated. 


Some have the antenne inserted below the middle of the face, with the clypeus short and wide. 

Trypoxylon, Latr. (Apius, Jur.), differs from the rest in having the eyes notched. T. figulus, [a very common 
British species, having the abdomen long and slender at the base]. The female makes use of burrows formed by 
other insects, in order to deposit her own insects therein, together with spiders for their support, closing the hole 
with fine earth. 

Of those with entire eyes, some have the mandibles narrow, aud mostly terminated by a point, and the antenne 
close together at the base. 

Gorytes, Latr. (Arpactus, Jur.), has three complete submarginal cells; the mandibles of moderate size, and 
unidentate within ; the anterior tarsi are often ciliated. [See the monograph of Saint Fargeau in the Annal. Soc. 


Entomol. de France.] 
Crabro, Fab , has only asingle closed cubital cell; the mandibles terminate in a bifid point ; the antennz elbowed, 


filiform ; the clypeus often glitters with silveror golden hairs. Some males are remarkable for the great dilatation 
of the anterior tibiz and basal joint of the tarsi. The female of C. cribrarius provisions its nest with the larve of 
a Tortrix found in the oak. Others employ dipterous insects for the same purpose. [See the monograph of Saint 


Fargeau and Brullé in the same Annales. ] 
Stigmus, Jur., is so named from the great size of the stigma of the fore wings, which have two closed cubital 


cells. 
In others the mandibles, at least in the females, are stronger, and bidentate within, and the antenne are wide 


apart at the base. 
Pemphredon, Latr., has two complete cubital cells, anda third commenced. One species, P. unicolor, feeds its 


larva with plant lice. 
Mellinus, Fabr., has three complete sessile cubital cells, and often the commencement of a fourth, not extending 


to the tip of the wing. 
Alyson, Jur., have also three complete cubital cells, but the second is petiolated. 
The terminal Crabronites have the antenne inserted nearer the middle of the face, and thickened at the tips. 


Psen, Latr., has the clypeus nearly square, and the abdomen peduncled. 

Philanthus, Fabr., has the clypeus trilobed ; the basal segment of the abdomen is narrowed into a knot; the 
antenne suddenly thickened, [and the abdominal segments not constricted], and all the cubital cells sessile. 

Cerceris, Latr. (Philanthus, Jur.), has the antenne gradually thickened, [the abdominal segments constricted], 


and the second cubital cell peduncled. 
The females of these insects make their nests in the sand, burying the dead bodies of Bees, Andrene, and Wee- 


vils, as food for their progeny. 
Trachypus, Klug, scarcely differs from the last. 
[The British species of Fossorial Hymenoptera have been monographed by Mr. Shuckard, in a volume published 


upon that tribe. Van der Linden and Klug have also especially studied these insects]. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ACULEATED HYMENOPTERA,— 


Tue DIPLopreRA,— 


Is the only one in this section which (with very few exceptions, Ceramius) has the fore-wings folded 
longitudinally ; the antennz are ordinarily elbowed and clavate, and thickened at the tips; the eyes 
are notched; the collar extends at the sides as far as the wings; the fore-wings have two or three 
complete cubital cells, the second of which receives two recurrent nerves: the body is glabrous and 
black, more or less varied with yellow or fulvous. Many live in temporary societies, composed of 
males, females, and neuters. The females which have withstood the severity of the winter, com- 
mence the nest and take care of the young which they produce; they are subsequently assisted by 


the neuters. 

We divide the Diploptera into two tribes, [Masarides and Vesparie]. 

The first, or the MAsarrwes, have the antenne at first sight only composed of eight joints, the 
eighth forming with the following a nearly solid mass, with indistinct articulations; the upper wings 


HYMENOPTERA. 597 


have only two complete cubital cells; the middle and tne fore margin of the clypeus is emarginate, 
receiving the labrum in the emargination. The tribe is named after the typical genus, 


Masaris, Fabricius. 
Masaris proper, has the antenne rather longer than the head and thorax, and the abdomen long. 
Celonites, Latr., has the antenne scarcely longer than the head, and the abdomen scarcely longer than the 
thorax. 


The second tribe of the Diploptera, that of the Vesparra, is composed of the genus 


Vespa, Linn.,— 

The antenne of which are distinctly 13-jointed in the males, 12-jointed in the females, and terminated 
by an elongated mass, which is pointed and sometimes hooked at the tip (in the males) ; they are 
always elbowed, at least in the females and neuters. The lower lip is sometimes divided into four 
plumose filaments, and sometimes into three lobes, with four glandular points at the tip, the middle 
lobe being notched at the tip. If we except a very few species, the upper wings have three complete 
cubital cells. The females and neuters are armed with a powerful sting. Many live in societies, 
consisting of males, females, and neuters. 

The larve are vermiform, without feet, and each is inclosed in a cell, where they feed either upon 
the dead bodies of insects which the parent Wasp had deposited at the same time as the egg, or upon 
the honey of flowers, the juice of fruits, or of animal matters, elaborated in the stomach of the females 
or neuters, and which these individuals feed them with daily. M. Saint Hilaire discovered a species 
in Brazil which makes an abundant provision of honey, which, like common honey, is under some 


circumstances poisonous. (Mém. du Mus. Hist. Nat.) 

Ceramius, Latr., has the fore wings extended and flat, and only two cubital cells. [Exotic species, one of which, 
C. lusitanicus, appears to be allied to Masaris.j In all the rest the fore wings are doubled [longitudi nally when 
at rest], and have three complete cubital cells. 

Some have the mandibles longer than broad, and beak-like ; the labium is narrow and elongate, with the clypeus 
cordate or oval. 

These are solitary Wasps, each species consisting of males and females, which last lay up a store of provisions 
for their young before they are born, and for the whole period of their larva state. Their nests are formed of 
earth, sometimes concealed in holes in walls, in the earth, or old wood, and sometimes they are fixed upon planis, 
the parents storing them with caterpillars or spiders, having previously wounded them with their stings. 

Synagris, Latr., has the labium divided into four long plumose filaments, without glandular points at the apex. 
[S. cornuta, and other African species.] 

Eumenes, Latr., has the labium divided into three pieces ; the middle one bifid, and all glandular at the tips. 

In some of these the abdomen is ovoid, or conic, and thick at the base, as in 

Pterochilus, Klug, having an elongated proboscis. (Pt. phalerata, a German species). 

Odynerus, Latr. (and Ryggchium, Spin.), in which the lower parts of the mouth are short. The female of 
V. mureria forms burrows in the sand several inches deep, at the mouth of which she constructs a curved earthy 
tube; she provisions her nest with six or eight green larvae without feet, and with them deposits an egg, and then 
closes the mouth of the ceil, and destroys the tube. [There are numerous British species. ] 

In the others the abdomen has the basal joint narrow, long, and pear-shaped, and the second bell-shaped. 

Eumenes proper (E. coarctata, Fab.), the typical species, constructs its spherical nest upon the stems of plants, 
especially heath, in which it deposits an egg, together with a supply of honey, according to Geoffroy. 

In Eumenes the mandibles form a long and pointed beak ; in Zethus they are shorter, and the maxillary palpi 
not longer than the maxille. In Discelius, which resembles Zethus in the mandibles, the maxillary palpi 
are longer. 

The remaining species of Wasps have the mandibles scarcely longer than broad, with a broad and oblique trun- 
cation at the tip; the labrum is short, and the clypeus nearly square. They form the genus 

Vespa proper (and Polistes, Latr.), and are united in societies, often very numerous, composed of males, 
females, and neuters. The two latter kinds of individuals form, with bits of old wood or bark, and which they 
detach with their jaws and reduce to a pulp-like paper, horizontal layers of hexagonal cells, like honey-comb, 
suspended from above by several short pillars and opening downwards, and which are solely used to lodge, in an 
isolated manner, the larve and pupe. The number of these layers in a Wasp’s nest varies. The nest is some- 
times open and sometimes enveloped in a covering, with apertures leading to the cells. Its figure is varied in the 
different species. 

The females commence the nest [in the spring], and deposit eggs, which produce neuters, or workers, which 
assist in enlarging the nest, and tending the subsequent broods, until the beginning of autumn. The society con- 
sists only of these two kinds of individuals; at that period, however, the young males and females appear, all the 
larve and pupe which do not undergo their final change before November are destroyed by the neuters, which 
likewise perish, as well as the males, with the cold; a few females alone remain, to become the foundresses of fresh 
colonies in the following spring. Wasps feed upon other insects, meat, fruit, and feed their young with the juices 


398 INSECTA. 


of those substances. The larve, owing to the position of their cells, have the head downwards; and, when ready 
to become pupe, spin a cocoon for themselves. The males neither work [nor sting.] . 

Some species (forming the genus Polistes, Latr.), have the portion of the inner edge of the mandibles which is 
beyond the angle shorter than that which precedes this angle, and the middle of the clypeus is pointed. Some of 
these, as the Brazilian P. morio, have the abdomen formed as in Eumenes, whilst in others, as in the French 
P. gallica, Linn., it is of an oval form. ‘The former of these two species makes a large inclosed nest in the form 
of a truncated cone, with a hole at the bottom, [fixed to the branches of trees]; the second makes its nest, con- 
sisting of about twenty or thirty cells, exposed and arranged like a bouquet, the outer cells being smallest. Others 
have the abdomen ovoid, or conical, as in the South American V. nidulans, which suspends its nests to the boughs 
of trees by a ring, the nests being ofa conical form, with a convex bottom, having an opening init. In proportion 
to the extent of the community the nest is enlarged, by a fresh layer of cells being added to the under-side of the 
old bottom. 

The other Wasps, forming the genus Vespa proper, have the upper portion of the inner edge of each mandible 
as long as, or longer than, the posterior, which precedes it, and the middle of the front edge of the clypeus is 
truncate, with a tooth on each side. Vespa crabro, the Hornet; V. vulgaris, the common Wasp, and other 
species. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ACULEATED HYMENOPTERA,— 


Tue ME.uirera, or ANTHOPHILA, Latr. (the Bees),— 


Exhibits, in the peculiar circumstances of the two hind feet, that of collecting the pollen of flowers, an 
unique character, which distinguishes it from all the other families of insects. The first joint of the 
tarsi in these feet is very large, much compressed, in the form of a square plate, or of a reversed 
triangle. The parasitic species are, however, destitute of this peculiar property; but the form of their 
feet is always essentially the same; they are merely deprived of hairs, or pollen brushes. 

The maxillz [and lower lips] are generally very long, and form a kind of proboscis; the lower lip 
has often the form of a Jance-head, or a long filament, the extremity of which is silken or hairy. Their 
larve feed exclusively on honey, and the fecundating farina of flowers; the perfect insect, in like 
manner, only subsists on honey. These Hymenoptera embrace the genus Apis, Linn., which I divide 
into two sections, [Andrenete and Apiarie]. 

The first section, ANDRENET#, Latr., has the middle division of the lower lip in form of a heart, or 
lance-head, shorter than its sheath and folded above in some, and nearly straight in others. It is 
composed of the genus , 

Anprena, Fab. (Proabeille, Réaumur; Melitta, Kirby]. 

These insects live solitarily, and only possess two kinds of individuals, males and females. The man- 
dibles are simple, or terminated by not more than two teeth; the labial palpi resemble the maxillary, 
which are always 6-jointed; the lateral lobes of the labium are very short. The majority of the 
females collect upon the hairs of the hind-feet the farina of flowers, and form it, with a little honey, 
into a kind of paste, for the food of their larve. Thay form in the earth, and often in beaten foot- 
paths, deep burrows, in which they place this paste, with an egg, and then close the aperture 
with earth. 

Some have the middle division of the lower lip heart-shaped, and folded in repose. 

Hyleus, Fab. (Prosopis, Jur.), has the body glabrous, the upper wings with only two complete submarginal 
cells. They do not gather pollen, and appear to deposit their eggs in the nests of other Bees. [Several British 
species. ] 

Colletes, Latr., has the body villose, with three complete cubital cells; these collect pollen. Type, 4. succincta, 
Latr. [a common British species]. 

The others have the labium in the form of a lance-head, and some of them have this part folded upon the 
upper side of the sheath, as in 

Andrena, {having the hind feet not remarkably pilose, consisting of very numerous British species], and 

Dasypoda, the last of which has the hind tarsi clothed with very long hairs. The upper wings in both these 
subgenera have only two submarginal cells. 

In the others, the labium is nearly straight, or slightly folded beneath at the tip; the maxille more elbowed, and 
the cubital cells three in number, as in 

Sphecodes, having the male antenne nodose, and the middle labial lobe short ; 

Halictus, in which the females have a longitudinal slit at the apex of the abdomen ; and 

Nomia, Latr., in which the legs of the males are swollen or dilated. 


The second section of the Mellifere, that of the Ap1aR1a2, comprises those species which have the 
middle division of the lower lip at least as long as the mentum or tubular sheath, and like a filament. 


a ee 
HYMENOPTERA. 599 


The maxilla and labium are greatly elongated, and forma kind of proboscis, elbowed and folded beneath, 
in inaction. The two basal joints of the labial palpi have often the form of a compressed scaly seta ; 
the two others are very minute, and affixed obliquely near the end of the second. 

The Apiarie are either solitary or social in their habits. 

The Solitary Bees have never more than the two ordinary kinds of individuals, males and females, 
each female providing alone for the support of her posterity. The hind feet of these females are fur- 
nished with neither pollen baskets, nor silken pollen brushes. They are provided on the outside with 
numerous close hairs. 

A first division of Solitary Bees comprises those which have the second joint of the posterior tarsi in- 
serted in the middle of the extremity of the preceding joint. 

The <Andrenoides approach the Andrenetz in having the labial palpi composed of slender joints, 
placed end to end, and similar to the 6-jointed maxillary palpi; the females have no ventral brush, but 
their hind legs are provided with bundles of hairs, with which they collect pollen. 


The three following have the mandibles of the females narrowed at the tip. 

Systropha, Illig., has a tooth beneath the apex; three complete cubital cells, and the male antenne curled. 

Rophites, Spin., with similar mandibles, but haying only two complete cubital cells, and the antenne never 
curled. 

Panurgus, with the mandibles not toothed ; the wings with two complete cubital cells. 

Xylocopa, Latr., or the Carpenter Bees, have the mandibles nearly spoon-shaped ; the labrum is ciliated in front; 
the upper wings have three complete cubital cells, the first of which is cut in two bya transparent line. The male 
in many species differs greatly from the females, which resemble great Humble Bees ; their wings are often violet, 
copper, or golden-coloured, and brilliant. Type, Apis violacea, Linn. [a continental species,.the female of which 
forms long burrows in wood, palings, &c., in which it makes several cells, in each of which it deposits an egg and 
a supply of pollen paste. The species are numerous, and chiefly inhabitants of tropical climates. 

The labial palpi of the other Apiarie resemble scaly plates ; the two basal joints very long; the maxillary palpi 
short, and often with fewer than six joints. 


The Dasygastre are remarkable for the under side of the abdomen of the females being furnished 
with a stiff, silky coat of hairs ; the labrum is as long as broad, and square ; the mandibles of the females 
strong, triangular, and toothed. 


Ceratina, Latr., approaches Xylocopa, the only subgenus which has 6-jointed maxillary palpi, and three complete 
cubital cells. The abdomen is oval, and destitute of a ventral brush, as well as in Stelis and Celioxys, which never- 
theless ought, from their general characters, to form part of this group. 

All the other Dasygastre have never more than four joints in the maxillary palpi, and two complete cubital 
cells. 

Chelostoma, Latr., has the body long and subcylindric ; the mandibles advanced, narrow, and curved; and the 
maxillary palpi 3-jointed. 

Heriades, Spin., has the body also long and subcylindric, but the mandibles are triangular, and the maxillary 
palpi 2-jointed. 

In the four following subgenera, the abdomen is shorter and subtriangular, or semi-oval. These are Mason Bees 
and Leaf-cutter Bees. 

Megachile, Latr., has the maxillary palpi 2-jointed; the abdomen flat above, and capable of being elevated so as 
to be able to use their sting above their bodies. M. muraria [a continental species], with violet-coloured wings, 
makes its nests of fine earth, and fixes them against walls exposed to the sun, each nest containing from twelve to 
fifteen cells. Other species, named Leaf-cutter Bees, employ in the construction of their nests portions of leaves, 
perfectly oval or circular, which they cut out of leaves with their jaws with surprising dexterity ; these they carry 
to their burrows made in the earth, or sometimes in walls, or the trunks of old trees, forming cells of them of the 
size of a thimble, and inclosing an egg in each cell, with a supply of pollen paste, the cover of one cell forming the 
bottom of the next above it, and so on until the burrow is filled. Of this number is Apis centuncularis, Linn., [a 
common British species]. 

Lithurgus, Latr., has 4-jointed maxillary palpi, and the abdomen depressed above. [Exotic species.] 

Osmia, Panzer, has also 4-jointed maxillary palpi, but the abdomen is convex above. Some of the species of 
this genus, [which is numerous,] are Mason-bees, and others Leaf-cutters ; amongst the latter is the Tapestry-bee 
of Réaumur, which uses portions of the wild scarlet poppy to form its nests. It belongs to Saint Fargeau’s genus 
Anthocopa, differing from Osmia in having tridentate instead of bidentate mandibles. Some species make their 
nests in the galls of trees. 

Anthidium, Fabr., has the abdomen convex, and the maxillary palpi only 1-jointed. The females strip off the 
cottony matter growing upon various wild plants, in order to form their nests therewith. 

Stelis, Panz. (with the scutellum simple and the abdomen semicylindrical), and 

Celioxys, Latr. (with two teeth or spines to the scutellum, and the abdomen triangular), differ from the prece- 
ding and agree with the following in wanting the yentral brush, which leads to the supposition that they are 


parasites. 


Se et ee ee a ee Oe RD SCRE tt. AY 
es a a a ee ea ek 


600 INSECTA. 


Other Apiarie, forming the subdivision Cuculine, are similar to the preceding in their posterior 
tarsi, and also in the labial palpi, which are like scaly sete; but they are destitute in both sexes of a 
ventral pollen-brush, and have the labrum in the form of an elongated, truncated triangle, or short 
and nearly semicircular. The scutellum is emarginate, bidentate, or tubercular. They appear to de- 
posit their eggs in the nests of other Bees, whence I have given them the name of Cuckoo-bees. 

Some, nearly glabrous, have the paraglosse much shorter than the labial palpi. 

Ammobates, Latr. (with 6-jointed maxillary palpi), and 
Phileremus, Latr. (with 2-jointed maxillary palpi), have the labrum elongate-triangular. In others it is short, 
semicircular, and semi-oyate. 

Epeolus, Latr. (with three complete cubital cells, and 1-jointed maxillary palpi), and 

Nomada, Fab., have three complete cubital cells; the last has 6-jointed maxillary palpi. [A very numerous genus, 
the species of which greatly resemble small Wasps. ] 

Pasites, Jur., has only two cubital cells and 4-jointed palpi. 

Other Cuculine have the body hairy in spots, and the paraglosse nearly equal the labial palpi in length. 

Melecta, Jur., with 5- or 6-jointed maxillary palpi. [M/. punctata, a common, handsome British Bee.]} 

Crocisa, Jur., with 3-jointed maxillary palpi, and the scutellum elongated and notched. 

Oxea, Klug, has the labrum oblong, and the maxillary palpi obsolete or only 1-jointed, and very minute. 


The terminal subdivision of the Solitary Bees, named Scopulipedes from the thick coating of hairs of the 
hind legs, in which also the basal joint of the tarsi has its outer edge dilated, so that the following joint is 
inserted nearer to its inner angle. The under side of the abdomen is naked, or destitute of a pollen brush. 

In some the maxillary palpi are composed of four or six joints, and in many of these the mandibles have only one 
tooth in the inside. They fly with great rapidity, and make a loud buzzing. 

Kucera, Latr., comprising those species which have the two lateral divisions of the labium as long as the labial 
palpi, and the males have very long antenne. Apis longicornis, Linn. [a common British species]. 

Macrocera, Spin., differs from Eucera, having only 5-jointed maxillary palpi, and only two cubital cells. 

Melissodes, Latr., an American Eucera, with 4-jointed maxillary palpi, and three cubital cells. 

The others of this subdivision have the paraglosse much shorter than the labium, and always three cubital cells ; 
and some have 6-jointed maxillary palpi. 

Melitturga, Latr., (with the male antenne clavate, and the palpi continuous). 

Anthophora, Latr., (with the antenne filiform, and the two terminal joints of the labial palpi minute and oblique). 
(A. retusa, acommon British species, and) 4. parietina, make their nests in walls, the latter forming a perpendi- 
cular curved tube at its orifice, composed of grains of earth, which it destroys when it has finished laying its eggs. 

Saropoda, Latr., have only five joints in the maxillary palpi, and those of the labial palpi are continuous. 

Ancyloscelis, Latr., has only 4-jointed maxillary palpi ; the females have a strong toothed spine at the tip of the 
posterior tibia. Brazilian insects. My genus Melitoma, having been established upon females of this genus, 
must be suppressed. Tetrapedia, Klug, also enters into the preceding genus. 

Centris, Fabr., differs from the preceding in having the mandibles generally with several teeth within, and the 
maxillary palpi, as in the preceding, have only four joints. American insects. 

In the two following subgenera the maxillary palpi have only a single joint, which is obsolete in some species. 

Epicharis, Klug, has the labial palpi continuous, and each of the second and third cubital cells receives a 
recurrent nerve. 

Acanthopus, Klug, has the two terminal joints of the labial palpi forming a small oblique branch, and the third 
cubital cell receives two recurrent nervures. 


The terminal Apiariz are social in their habits, the societies consisting of males, females, and neuters, 
the feet of the last of which have the outer face of the tibiz furnished with a smooth excavation, or 
pollen basket, in which they place the pollen mass, which they have collected with the silken coating 
of the inside of the basal joint of the hind tarsi. The maxillary palpi are very minute, and composed 


of a single joint. The antenne are elbowed. 

Some have the posterior tibiz terminated by two spines. 

Euglossa, Latr., has the labrum square, andthe proboscis 
as long asthe body. Some of these have the body nearly 
glabrous, as H. dentata, cordata. The hind surface of the 
basal joint of the two posterior tarsi is nevertheless coated 
with a brush. Their habits are unknown. Others have 
the hind tibiz convex: we also observe near the outer edge 
a narrow longitudinal impression. <Aglae, St. Farg., seems 
established upon such individuals. 

Bombus, has the labrum transverse, with the proboscis 
shorter than the body ; the body is robust and very hairy ; 
Fig. 122.—Humble Bee, with jaws of the male and female. the bairs often arranged in coloured bands. The Humble 


Bee, B, lapidarius, so well known to children, is the type of this genus, the species of which live in underground 


HYMENOPTERA. 601 


habitations in societies of fifty or sixty, but sometimes two or three hundred individuals: the society is, however, 
broken up at the approach of winter [like that of the Wasps]. The males are distinguished by their small size, the 
mandibles narrower, bidendate, and bearded, and the body often differently coloured. The females are the largest, 
and have the mandibles spoon-shaped, as they are also in the neuters, which are intermediate in size between the two 
others. Réaumur and Huber have observed two varieties amongst the neuters, differing in size from the ordinary 
ones : according to the latter author, several of the workers which are produced in the spring, couple in June 
with males which are produced from the common parent, and soon afterwards deposit eggs, which produce only 
males, which fecundate the females which only appear towards the end of the summer, and which are destined to 
become the foundresses of fresh colonies in the following year; all the rest perish. ‘These females, which survive 
the winter, employ the first fine days in spring to commence their nest, which is formed in the earth, often at one 
or even two feet deep. One species, B. lapidavia, builds it on the surface of the ground, under stones. The cavi- 
ties in which these nests are formed, are vaulted with earth and moss, which the Bees card with their hind legs. 
A layer of rough wax lines the interior of the nest. Sometimes an opening is merely made into the bottom of the 
nest, but sometimes it is one or two feet long, and lined with moss. A layer of leaves lines the floor of the nest, 
on which the female deposits masses of brown wax, their inner spaces being destined to inclose the eggs and 
larve. These larve there live in society until the period when they are ready to change to pupe, when they separate, 
and each forms for itself a silken cocoon of an oval form, attached to each other vertically, the pupe being always 
head downwards ; hence they always make their escape out of the bottom of the cocoon on arriving at the imago 
state. Réaumur asserts that the larve feed upon the wax which forms their abode ; but in the opinion of Huber, 
it simply protects them from the cold ; the food of these larve consisting of a large supply of pollen paste moist- 
ened with honey, with which the pupe provide them: there are, moreover, found in the nests two or three small 
cups of honey always open. 

The larve appear four or five days after the eggs are deposited, and undergo their changes in the months of May 
and June. The workers remove the wax around the cocoon in order to facilitate the escape of the Bee. It has 
been supposed that these produced only neuters, but we have seen above that they also produce males. These 
workers assist the female in her works. The number of the cocoons, which serve for the abode of the larve and 
pup, increases, forming irregular layers of cells, one above another, on the sides of which the brown matter, which 
Réaumur names patée, is ordinarily found. The wax which these insects make, has, according to Huber, the 
same origin as that of the Domestic Bee, being only an elaborated kind of honey, which exudes from between the 
segments of the abdomen; several females live on good terms together in the same nest ; the females are far less 
productive than the queen of thehive. [The species are very numerous. Types, Apis muscorum, Linn., the Moss- 
carder Humble Bee} ; Apis lapidaria [the Lapidary Humble Bee, which builds amongst stones, but also uses moss]; 
and A. ¢errestris, [which builds in the ground without using moss. The females of some Humble Bees are desti- 
tute of apparatus for carrying pollen paste on the hind legs, and are consequently considered as parasites. They 
form the genus Psithyrus, St. Farg., changed by Newman to Apathus.] 

The other Social Bees have no spurs at the extremity of the posterior tibie. 


Apts, Linn.,— 
The workers of which have the basal joint of the hind tarsi oblong, and furnished on the inside with transverse 
rows of short hairs. 
Apis mellifica, Linn., or common Hive Bee, is much smaller and more oblong than the Humble Bee; the body 


Fig. 123.—Drone Bee. Fig. 124.—Queen Bee. Fig. 125.—Neuter Bee. 


is clothed with a plush in some parts, and its colours are bat little varied ; the Hive consists of neuters or Workers, 
of which the number is from 15,000 to 20,000, or even sometimes 30,000,—of about 600 or 800, or even sometimes 
more than 1000 males, and which are commonly called Drones, and generally of a single female, which the ancients 
called the King, and the moderns term the Queen. The workers, smaller than the other individuals, have 
12-jointed antennz and 6-jointed abdomen ; the basal joint of the hind tarsi dilated into a pointed ear at the outer 
basal angle, and covered on the inside with a short, fine, close silken coating, and armed withasting. The female 
exhibits the same characters, but the workers have the abdomen shorter, the mandibles spoon-shaped, without 
teeth; the outside of their hind tibie are also furnished with the pollen basket ; the coating of the basal joint of 
the hind tarsi has seven or eight transverse strie. The males and females are larger, with the mandibles notched 
beneath the tip, and pilose; the proboscis is shorter, especially in the males. These differ from the two other 
kinds in haying 13-jointed antenne ; the head rounded; the eyes large, and united on the crown; the mandibles 
smaller and more hairy ; the want of a sting ; the four hind feet short. 

The ventral segments of the workers, with the exception of the first and last, have within two pockets, where the 
wax is secreted and moulded into plates, which are discharged between the ventral segments. The wax, according 


602 INSECTA, 


’ 


to the younger Huber, is but an elaboration of honey; and the pollen, mixed with a little of this substance, serves 
only for the food of these insects and their larve. 

Huber distinguishes two kinds of Worker Bees: the first, which he calls Wax Workers, are charged with the 
gathering of food and other materials for the building, and in their employment ; the others, or Nurse Bees, are 
smaller and weaker, formed for retreat, and employed solely in the nourishment of the young, and the interior 
economy of the hive. 

We have seen that the workers resemble the females in various points; various curious experiments have proved 
that they are of the same sex, and that they may be transformed into Mother Bees, if, whilst larve, and during 
the three first days of their existence, they receive a peculiar nourishment, such as is alone given to the larve of 
the future queens ; but they cannot in such cases acquire all the faculties of the latter, unless they are then placed 
in a large cell, similar to the royal cell of the queen larve. If, fed with this kind of food, their abode is not changed, 
they become capable of laying only male eggs, and differ from the true queens by their smaller size ; the worker 
Bees are therefore nothing else than females, of which the ovaries, on account of the nature of the food with which 
they are fed whilst larve, remain undeveloped. 

‘The matter of which the honey-comb is composed not being able to resist the inclemencies of the weather, and 
these insects not possessing the instinct to form a general envelope, they establish themselves in cavities where 
their labours find a natural defence. The workers, on whom alone the labours of the hive devolve, form with the 
wax honeycombs consisting of double layers of hexagonal cells, which latter are opposed to each other, base to 
base, the base of each cell being pyramidal, and consisting of threerhombs. The combs are always perpendicular, 
parallel, and fixed either by the upper part or side, and separated from each other by spaces which permit the 
passage of the Bees: hence the direction of the cells is always horizontal. Mathematicians have demonstrated that 
their form is at once the most economical in respect to the quantity of wax required, and the most advantageous 
in respect to the space occupied by the cells. The Bees, however, have the instinct to modify their form according 
to circumstances. If we except the cell fitted for the larva and pupa of the queen, these cells are nearly of equal 
size; some contain the young brood, and others the honey and pollen of flowers; amongst the honey-cells, some 
are open, others closed for reserve. The royal cells, of which the number varies from two to forty, are much larger, 
nearly cylindrical, rather thickened at the tip, with small cavities on their outer surface. They are generally sus- 
pended like stalactites upon the edges of the comb, so that the larva is always in a reversed position ; some weigh 
as much as 150 ordinary cells. The males’ cells are of an intermediate size between those of the queens and 
workers, and are placed irregularly here and there. The Bees always extend their comb from the top down- 
wards. They stop up the small apertures of the habitation with a kind of mastic, which they collect from different 
trees, called propolis. 

The coupling takes place at the beginning of summer, out of the hive, and it is supposed that a single fecundation 
suffices for all the eggs which the female deposits during the course of two years, and probably during all her life. 
The deposition of eggs takes place rapidly, and ceases only in autumn; Réaumur calculates that the female de- 
posits 12,000 eggs in the course of twenty days in the spring. Guided by her instinct, she makes no mistakes in 
the choice of the cells which are proper for the different eggs ; sometimes, however, when there are not sufficient 
cells, she places several eggs in one, which the neuters subsequently remove. Those which are deposited on the 
return of spring, are always the eggs of workers, which hatch at the end of four or five days. The Bees take care 
to give their larve the necessary paste proportioned to their age and sex ; and seven days afterwards they are ready 
to become pupz, when their cells are closed with a convex lid by the workers, whereupon the larve line the interior 
with a layer of silk, spin a cocoon, and become pupe. In about twelve more days they become Bees, and disen- 
gage themselves from these cells. The workers then clean out the cells they have left in order to be ready to 
receive another egg. It is, however, otherwise with the royal cells, which are destroyed, and the Bees construct 
new ones if necessary. The eggs containing the males are deposited two months later, and those of the females 
soon after the latter. 

This succession of generations forms so many particular societies, capable of forming fresh colonies, and which 
are known under the name of swarms; a hive sometimes produces three or four in the year, but the last are 
always weakest. Those which weigh from six to eight pounds are the best. When they become too numerous in 
the hive, these swarms quit their old abode. Various particular signs indicate to the cultivator the loss which he 
is about to sustain, and which he endeavours to prevent, or rather, to turn the emigration to his own advantage. 
Bees sometimes undertake violent combats amongst themselves: the males also, after they have impregnated the 
females, from June to August, are destroyed by the workers, which also kill the male larve and pupe. 

Bees have both internal and external enemies, and are subject to different diseases. 

Tre Bee-keeper pays much attention to these insects, choosing the most approved hives, namely, such as are 
the least expensive in construction, the most favourable for the rearing of the Bees, and the best adapted for their 
preservation. He studies their habits, prevents the occurrence of accidents to which they are liable, and, in 
return, finds that he is well repaid for his trouble. The origin of bee-keeping is hidden in the darkness of anti- 
quity ; with the ancients they were the hieroglyphic symbol of royalty. 

All the species of Apis proper are confined to the old world: those of the south and east of Europe, as well as 
of Egypt [and India], differ from our species, which has been transplanted to America and other colonized parts, 
where it has become acclimatised. 

The terminal subgenus of Social Bees is 

Melipona, Mig. (Trigona, Jur.), which differs from the preceding by having the basal joint of the hind tarsi of 
the workers of a reversed triangular form, and without transverse strie; the fore-wings have only two cubital 


LEPIDOPTERA. 603 


cells. The species inhabit South America; they build their nests on the summit of trees, or in their cavities. 
The honey of M. Amailthea is very agreeable, but very fluid, and soon becomes corrupt. It furnishes to the Indians 
a spirituous liquid, of which they are very fond. It appears that some species of Melipona have been found in 
the island of Sumatra. M. Cordier possesses a piece of amber, inclosing a specimen of M. Amalthea. [I ques- 
tion whether this insect was not inclosed in gum copal, or anime, and not in amber. J have seen many Meli- 
pone inclosed in the gum anime. | 

The species without teeth in the mandibles are Melipona proper; those with teeth form the genus Trigona. 

[The recent work of the Comte de Saint Fargeau, forming part of the Suites de Buffon, must be consulted, as 
well as the tenth volume of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, for many additional facts and genera established 
relative to the family of the Bees. Also the work of Dr. Bevan on the Honey Bee, and the volume on Bees in the 
Naturalist’s Library; whilst the Monographia Apum Anglie of Mr. Kirby may be mentioned as one of the most 
perfect examples of an entomological monograph which has ever been published. ] 


THE TENTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


LEPIDOPTERA, Linn. (GLossaTA, Fabr.),— 


Terminates the series of those which have four wings, and presents to us two characters which 
are especially peculiar to it. 

The wings are covered on both surfaces with small coloured scales, similar to a farinmose 
powder, which comes off on being touched. A proboscis, or tongue, rolled up in a spiral 
direction between two palpi, clothed with scales or hairs, forms the most important part of 
the mouth, and with which these insects draw up the nectar of flowers, which is their only 
nourishment. We have seen, in the remarks on insects in general, that this proboscis is 
composed of two tubular filaments, representing the maxille, each bearmg at its base exter- 
nally a very small palpus, like a tubercle. The visible palpi, or those which form a kind of 
sheath to the tongue, replace the labial palpi of masticatory insects, being cylindrical, or 
couical, generally turned upwards, 3-joimted, and inserted upon a fixed labinm, which forms 
the portion of the lower part of the oral cavity below the proboscis. Two minute pieces, 
situated one on each side, at the anterior and superior edge of the front of the head, near the 
eyes, seem to be the vestiges of mandibles; and we also discover, in an equally rudimental 
form, the labrum. . 

The antennz are variable, and always composed of a great number of joimts. In many two 
ocelli are visible, but hidden beneath the scales of the head. The three segments of which 
the thorax of hexapod insects is composed, are united into a single body, the first being very 
short, and the two others confounded together. The scutellum is triangular, but pointed 
towards the head ; the wings are simply veined, and variable in figure, size, and position. In 
many the hind pair have several longitudinal folds towards the inner edge ; at the base of 
each of the upper wings is a piece like an epaulette, prolonged behind, which corresponds 
with the tegula of the Hymenoptera ; but, in its more developed state in this order, I call it 
the pterygoda. The abdomen, composed of six or seven joints, is attached to the thorax by a 
very small portion of its diameter, and is furnished with neither sting nor ovipositor analogous 
to that of the Hymenoptera. In many females, however, as in Cossus, the terminal segments 
are elongated and narrowed, so as to form an oviduct, like a pointed and retractile tail. The 
tarsi have constantly five joints. The species always consist only of males and females; the 
latter ordinarily deposit their eggs. which are very numerous, upon vegetable substances, 
upon which the larvee feed, and after which the females soon die. 

The larve of Lepidopterous insects are known under the name of Caterpillars. They have 
six scaly feet, corresponding with those of the perfect insect, besides from four to ten 
membranous feet, of which the two last are situated at the posterior extremity of the body, 
near the anus: those with only ten or twelve feet are called Geometers, or Loopers, from 


604 INSECTA. 


their peculiar mode of walking. Seizing fast hold of the objects on which they are stationed 
with these six fore-legs, they elevate the intermediate segments of the body into an arch, until 
they bring the hind-feet close to the others; these they disengage, and, retaining hold with 
the hind feet, thrust forward the body to 
its full length, and then recommence the 
same manoeuvre. Many of these Looper- 
caterpillars resemble, im their mode of 
standing, fixed for a great length of time 
only by their hind legs to twigs, as well as 
in their form and colours, small pieces of 
stick. Such an attitude necessarily requires 
a prodigious muscular force, and Lyonnet 
has, in effect, discovered that the caterpillar 
of the Goat Moth posseses 4041 muscles. 
Some Caterpillars with fourteen or sixteen 
feet, (some of the intermediate membranous 
legs being, however, smaller than the others,) have been named Semi-geometers. The mem- 
branous feet are mostly terminated by a more or less perfect coronet of little hooks. 

The body of these larvee is generally long, subcylindrie, soft, variously coloured, sometimes 
naked, and sometimes hairy, tubercled, or spined, and consists of twelve segments, exclusive 
of the head, with nine spiracles on each side ; the skull is horny or scaly, with six small 
granular shining points, which seem to be ocelli, on each side: it has moreover two very short 
conical antenne, a mouth composed of a pair of strong mandibles, two maxilla, a labium, 
and four smali palpi; the silky material which it uses is elaborated mm two long, tortuous, 
internal vessels ; a tubular and conical point, situate at the tip of the labium, is the spinneret, 
whence the silk is discharged. The majority of Caterpillars feed upon the leaves of vegetables; 
others devour flowers, roots, buds, seeds ; others eat the hard and solid parts of the wood; 
this they soften with a secretion which they discharge from the mouth: certain species de- 
stroy our woollen cloths, stuffs, furs, &c., and are the most obnoxious of our domestic insects ; 
others feed on grease, fat, bacon, wax, &c.; many feed upon a single material, but others, less 
delicate, attack different kinds of plants. One of the most striking instances of providence 
is the perfect coincidence between the appearance of the Caterpillar and the vegetable upon 
which it is destined to feed. Some kinds of Caterpillars are social, and often live together 
under a kind of tent of silk, which they spin in common, and which serves them as a defence 
against bad weather; many fabricate cases, either fixed or portable; some are lodged in the 
parenchyme of leaves, where they make galleries; the greater number however delight in 
daylight ; others, on the other hand, only come forth at night. Winter, notwithstanding its 
rigours, so uncongenial to nearly all insects, is the period when some moths make their appear- 
ance. Caterpillars generally moult four times before passing to the chrysalis state. The majority 
then spin a cocoon in which they are inclosed ; a kind of meconium or red liquid, which these 
insects discharge at the moment of their final transformation, softens one end of the cocoon, 
and allows the escape of the moth. Generally one end of the cocoon is weaker, or even fitted by 
the arrangement of the threads for the escape of the insect. Other Caterpillars merely con- 
tent themselves with attaching together leaves, or particles of earth, &c., with silken thread, 
thus forming a rough kind of cocoon. The Chrysalides of diurnal Butterflies are ornamented 
with golden spots [whence their name of Aureliz or Chrysalides], and are naked, and fixed 
by the posterior extremity of the body; these Chrysalides are of the peculiar kind which 
Linneus termed Pupa obtecta, and which are mummy-shaped; the sheaths of the feet and 
antennz being fixed. Those of many species, especially of Butterflies, are hatched in a few 
days; and thus there are two broods of these in a year. But in respect to others, these Cater- 


Fig. 126.—Caterpillar and Chrysalis of the Magpie Moth. 


“ 


\ 


~ 


Jj CV 


° 


Vachaon 


LEPIDOPTERA. 605 


pillars or Chrysalides pass the winter, and the insect only undergoes its change in the spring 
or summer of the following year. In general the eggs deposited in the autumn are not 
hatched till the next spring. They escape from the chrysalis in the ordinary manner, or by a 
slit down the back of the thorax. 

The larve of Ichneumonide and Chalcidides rid us of a great number of these destructive 
insects. 

[The arrangement of this order cannot be considered as arrived at an equal degree of per- 
fection with that of the Coleoptera, or some other orders. Dr. Horsfield, in his Lepidoptera 
Javanica, has attempted a more natural classification, founded especially upon the transforma- 
tions of these insects, but his work is incomplete ; as is also the case with Boisduval’s Histoire 
naturelle des Insectes Lepidoptéres. The British species have been described in detail by 
Mr. Stephens, in whose work, as well as in that of Curtis, great numbers of new genera are 
introduced ; there still, however, requires a more minute investigation of the generic characters 
of these insects, and especially of the exotic species, than has yet been given to them ; authors 
having generally contented themselves with describing or figuring the beautiful marking of 
the wings, without attending to the real generic or structural peculiarities. | 

We divide this order into three families, which correspond with the three genera of which 
the order is composed in the Linnzan system. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA,— 


Tue Divrna [or Butterflies ],— 


Is the only one in which the outer edge of the hind-wings is not furnished with a scaly and stiff bristle 
like a bridle, to retain the two fore-wings, which, as well as the others, generally, are elevated perpen- 
dicularly in repose ; the antennz are terminated either by a knob, or are nearly of the same thickness, 
or even more slender, and terminated in a bent hook at the tip. This family corresponds with the 
genus 

PaPiLio, Linneus. 

The caterpillars have always sixteen feet. The chrysalides are nearly always naked, attached by 
the tail, and mostly angular. The perfect insect, always furnished with a proboscis, only flies by day, 
and the colours of the under side of the wings are equal in beauty to those of the upper. 

We divide them into two sections. 

The first have only a single pair of spurs to the tibiz, placed at the tips ; the fore-wings are elevated 
perpendicularly in repose; the antenne are mostly clubbed at the tip, which is truncated, or 
rounded, or are sometimes nearly filiform. This very numerous section may be further divided as 
follows. 

1. Those with the third joint of the palpi either obsolete, or if present, clothed with scales as 
thickly as the preceding joint, and the tarsal claws very distinct. Their caterpillars are elongate, 
subcylindric ; the chrysalides are almost always regular, sometimes smooth, but inclosed in a rough 
cocoon ; some of these (Hexapoda) have all the legs fit for walking, and nearly alike in both sexes: 
the pupa is not only attached by the tail, but by a thread round the middle of the body; the central 
cell of the hind wings is closed externally. 

The four following genera have the inner edge of the hind wings concave or folded. 

Papilio proper, or the Equites of Linnzus, have the lower palpi very short, scarcely reaching the clypeus, with 
the third joint scarcely distinct. Their caterpillars, when alarmed, throw out a forked horm from the neck, which 
emits a disagreeable scent. 

These Butterflies are remarkable for their size and the variety of their colours. They areg erally found in the 
equatorial regions of both worlds; many have the hind wings prolonged into a tail, as in vn ilio Machaon, 
or the Swallow-tail Butterfly. 

Zelima, Fabr., differs from Papilio only in having the club of the antenne shorter and Wf ae (Two exotic 
species. | 

Parnassius, Latr. (Doritis, Fabr.), have the palpi elevated above the clypeus, and pointed, with three distinct 
joints; the caterpillars have a retractile tentacle in the neck, but they form a kind of cocoon with leaves. P. 
Apollo, [a reputed British species], which, with the others, is only found in mountainous districts. 

Thais, Fab., has palpi like Parnassius, but the club of the antennz is elongated and curved; the caterpillars 
are appardtly destitute of the retractile tubercle in the neck. The species are found in the South of Europe. 

. 9 


« 


606 INSECTA. 


In the following the lower wings extend beneath tae aodomen, and form a kind of gutter for it ; their larve 
are destitute of a tentacle in the neck; and many of them subsist on cruciferous plants. These Lepidoptera 
(Papilio Danai candidi, Linn.), form two subgenera, d 

Pieris, Schrank. (Pontia, Fab.), has the palpi subcylindric, slightly compressed, with the last joint nearly as 
long as the preceding, and the club of the antenne ovoid. PP. brassice, Linn., the Great Garden white 
Butterfly, &c. 

Colias, Fab., having the antennal club elongate, obconic, and the palpi very compressed; with the last joint 
much shorter than the preceding. C. edusa, and Hyale, Linn., the Clouded yellow Butterflies, &c. 


The other Butterflies of the same division are named 7'etrapods, from having the two fore-legs 
very small, and folded up, and not fitted for walking, either in both sexes, or only in the males; the 
chrysalis is suspended only by the tail, and hangs with the head downwards. In some of these, the 
fore-legs, although small, scarcely differ in form from the hind ones ; the hind wings have the central 
cell always posteriorly closed; the palpi are wide apart, slender and cylindric, and short. All these 
subgenera are exotic. 


Danais (Euplea, Fab.), has the wings triangular, and the antenne terminated by a long and curved knob. 

Idea, Fab., has the wings nearly oval, elongated, with the antenne nearly filiform. 

The two following subgenera differ in having the wings more elongate and narrow, and the abdomen is 
very long. 

Heliconia, Latr. (Mechanitis, Fab., P. Heliconii, Linn.), has the antenne long and gradually thickened. 

Acrea, Fab., has them shorter, and suddenly clubbed. 


In the others (P. nymphaiis, Linn.), the two fore-legs are more strongly bent, and either visible and 
very hairy, or concealed and minute. The hind wing has the central cell open in many, the palpi are 
longer, and often thicker and close together. 


Those with the palpi rather compressed, apart in their whole length, and terminated by a slender joint, [are 
known under the name of Fritillary Butterflies,] having the under-side of the wings ornamented with silver, or 
yellow spots on a buff ground. The caterpillars are very spinose. 

Cethosia, Fab., has the tarsal ungues simple, and the club of the antenne oblong. 

Argynnis, Fab., has pearly spots on the under- 
side of the wings; the caterpillars are very spinose, 
with two longer spines on the neck, and the tarsal 
claws are unidentate. 

Melitea, Fab., has the caterpillars furnished with 
small villose tubercles; the wings are spotted, the 
pearl being replaced by yellow. 

Those with the palpi contiguous throughout their 
whole length, and gradually pointed to the tip, and 
very compressed, compose five other subgenera. 

Vanessa, Fab., are separated from the following 
by the antenne suddenly terminated by a short 
knob. The caterpillars are very spinose. [This 
subgenus comprises some of the most beautiful of 
our British Butterflies, such as Papilio Antiopa, 
Linn., or the Camberwell Beauty ; Pap. Io, Linn., the Peacock; Pap. Cardui, Linn., the Painted Lady; Pap. Ata- 
lanta, Linn., the Red Admiral; P. Polychloros;-Linn., the Large Tortoise-shell; Pap. Urtice, Linn., the Small 
Tortoise-shell; Pap. C. album, the Comma Butterfly], the chrysalis of which last rudely represents a human 
face, or the mask of a satyr. 

In the four following subgenera the antenne are terminated by an elongate mass, or are nearly filiform. The 
caterpillars are either naked, or armed with but few spines. 

Libythea, Fab., in which the males alone have the fore-legs minute, and the palpi very advanced like a beak. 

Biblis, Fab. (Melanitis, Fab.), have the palpi also longer than the head, but obtuse at the apex ; the fore-legs 
short, and folded up in both sexes; the wings broader and simply toothed ; the nerves of the fore-wings dilated 
at the base. 

Nymphalis, Latr., is similar to Biblis in the feet, but with the palpi shorter, and differing from Vanessa only in 
the longer club of the antenne; but the caterpillars have fewer spines, or merely fleshy prominences; they are 
narrowed to the extremity of the body, which is rather forked. These Butterflies are generally beautifully orna- 
mented, and have a rapid and high flight. The males of some have changeable reflexions in their hues, [as in the 
Purple Emperor, Papilio Iris, Linn.]. The form and size of the club of the antennz vary a little, as well as the 
relative proportions of the wings, which have given rise to the establishment of several other subgenera ; but their 
characters are very equivocal. The species which approach nearest to Biblis form the genus Neptis, Fab., whilst 
the furthest removed are P. Jasius, and the allied species, [forming the genus Charares, Bdv.] 

Morpho, Fab., has nearly filiform antenna, being but slightly thickened at the tips. All the species are South 
American, and of great size, with eye-like spots on the wings. 


Fig. 127.—Argynnis Paphia. 


* 
a 


LEPIDOPTERA. 607 


Pavonia, God., has the central cell of the hind wings closed, and the innermost nerve of the fore wings curved 
like an S. One of the species, P. Phidippus, from the East Indies, with the hind wings tailed, 18 the type of the 
genus Amathusia, Fabr. 

The following have the discoidal cell of the hind wings closed behind. 

Brassolis, Fab., has the antenne suddenly clubbed, and the palpi short; the males have a longitudinal slit at 
the inner edge of the hind wings, covered with hair. 

Eumenia, God., with the palpi longer, and the antenne at a short distance from the base, gradually thickening, 
and forming an elongated mass. 

Eurybia, Mig., has short palpi, but they are thicker, and the club of the antennz is fusiform and bent. 

Satyrus, Latr. [Hipparchia, Fabr., and of English authors], 
has the palpi extending beyond the clypeus, very compressed, 
the antenne terminated by a small club, or by a slender elong- 
ated mass; the two or three basal nerves of the fore-wings are 
swollen. The caterpillars are naked, or nearly smooth, with 
the extremity of the body forked. The chrysalides are bifid in 
front, and the back is tubercled. [This is a very numerous 
British genus, the majority of which are ornamented with eye- 
like spots. Such are Pap. Galathea, Janira, Figeria, &c.] 


We terminate this first section of the diurnal Lepi- 
doptera by those which have the palpi 3-jointed, but the 
third joint is nearly naked, and much less clothed with 
scales than the preceding; the tarsal claws are very 
minute. The caterpillars are oval, or like Wood-lice. The chrysalides are short, entire, and always 
attached by a thread round the middle of the body, like those of Papilio or Pieris. Linnzus united 
them in his Papiliones plebeii, and division Rurales. They are the G. Argus of Lamarck, and Fabricius 
has divided them into many genera, which have need of revision. 

Some of these have the antenne terminated by a knob. 

Erycina, Latr., has the fore feet, at least in the males, much shorter than the others. [These are almost exclu- 
sively South American Butterflies. ] 

In the others the fore-legs are like the others in both sexes. 

Myrina, Fab., is distinguished by the great length of the palpi. [Exotic species.] 

Polyommatus, Latr., thus named from the numerous eye-like spots on the wings, has the palpi not much extendi ng 
beyond the clypeus. [The species are numerous, of small size, and are known under the names of Blues or 
Coppers.] The most abundant species of the former is Pol. Alexis, the Common Blue. 

Other Lepidoptera of this division are furnished with antennz of a completely isolated form. 

Barbicornis, God., has the antenne in both sexes setaceous and plumose. [Established upon a Brazilian species, 
which Latreille considered fictitious, but which is now well known to be real. Latreille here added the genus 
Zephyrius, Dalman, which he described as having the antennz terminated by ten or twelve globular joints; the 
genus is, however, identical with Polyommatus. See Boisduval, Hist. Nat. Lep. i. p. 114.] 


Fig. 128.—Satyrus (Hipparchia) pamphilus. 


The second section of the Diurnal Lepidoptera is composed of species in which the posterior tibize 
have two pairs of spurs, one pair at the tip and another above, as in the two following families: 
the lower wings are generally placed horizontally in repose, and the extremity of the antennz is 
often suddenly bent and pointed. Their caterpillars, of which, however, but a few are known, roll 
up leaves, in which they spin a thin web of silk, within which they are transformed to chrysalides, 
which have smooth bodies, and are without angular eminences. They form the division of the Plebeii 
urbicole of Linnzus, and were united with the Polyommati under the name of Hesperia, by Fabricius. 
But we must further add some exotic Lepidoptera, whose natural station has not yet been discovered. 
These different Lepidoptera conduct us very well to the second family. They compose two sub- 


genera. 
HEspPeErRtIA, Fab.,— 

Which have the antenne distinctly terminated by a club, and the palpi short, broad, and very squamose in front. 

[The species are very numerous, of small size, and are known to collectors under the name of Skipper Butterflies, 

from their peculiar flight.) H. Malve, Fab., is a common species. Itscaterpillar is elongated, with the first 

segment behind the head narrowed, a character familiar to this group. 


URANIA, Fab.,— 
Has the antennz filiform at the base, and gradually slender and setaceous at the tips, and the palpi long, slender, 
with the second joint very compressed, and the last long, slender, and naked. Pap. Rhipheus, Leilus, Lavinia, 
Orontes, &c. They form Dalman’s genera Cydimon, Nyctalemon, and Sematura. [See the memoir of Mac Leay 
on the transformations of a species which inhabits Cuba, in the Trans. Zool. Soc., and my observations on the 
affinities of these interesting insects, in the new edition of Drury’s Exotic Entomology.) 


pensation SRO ED cL PONT IU A ls a Sas ee 
608 INSECTA. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA,— 


THe CrREPUSCULARIA,— 


Has, near the origin of the external edge of the hind wings, a stiff bristle, which passes through a hook 
on the under side of the fore-wings, maintaining them whilst in repose in a horizontal or inclined 
position ; according to Godart, however, some of the Smerinthi are nevertheless destitute of this in- 
strument, which is also found in the following family, but the Crepuscularie are distinguished by their 
antenne forming an elongated mass, either prismatic or fusiform. Their caterpillars have always sixteen 
feet ; their chrysalides are not angulated like those of the Diurnal Lepidoptera, and are mostly in- 
closed in a cocoon, or are concealed either in the earth or beneath some substance. They mostly fly 
either in the morning or evening [twilight]. This family composes the genus 


Spuinx, Linn.,— 
Which has derived its name from the peculiar attitudes of the larve, which resemble the fabled Sphinx. 
They make a humming noise during flight. I divide this genus into four sections, corresponding to the 
Fabrician genera Castnia, Sphinx, Sesia, and Zygena. 

The first, HESPERI-SPHINGES, is composed of Lepidoptera which evidently seem to connect the Hes- 
periz and true Sphinges. The antenne are always simple, thickened in the middle, or towards the tip, 
which forms a pointed hook without a bundle of hairs at the end. All have a very distinct proboscis, 
and the palpi are composed of three distinct joints. In some, the terminal joint is long, slender, and 


nearly naked, as in Urania; in others they are shorter and broader. 

Agarista, Leach, has the palpi long, with the terminal joint nearly naked; the antenne gradually thickened in 
the middle, and terminated by a long hook, [New Holland insects.] 

Cocytia, Boisduval, has glass-like wings; the palpi are as in Urania, and the antenne as in Agarista. 

Coronis, Latr., bas the palpi similar, suddenly terminated in a club, with a hook at the tip. [A Brazilian species. ]} 

Castnia, Fabr., has the antennz like those of Agarista, but the palpi are shorter, broader, and cylindric. [See 
the monographs of Dalman, Gray, and the Encyclopédie Méthodique.] 


The second section, SPHINGIDEs, has the antennz always terminated by a small brush of scales; the 
palpi are broad or transversely compressed, very squamose, with the third joint mostly indistinct. The 
majority of the caterpillars have the body smooth, elongated, with a horn on the back, near the ex- 
tremity of the body ; and the sides oblique or longitudinally striped. They feed on leaves, and 
undergo their changes in the earth without weaving a web. Such are the species of 


Spuinx, Linn. [or the Hawk Moths],— 
Properly so called, which have the antennz prismatic, simply ciliated, or striated on one side, and which 
have a distinct proboscis. They fly with great swiftness, hovering over flowers, and making a humming 
sound ; the chrysalides of some species have the tongue-case exserted like a nose, as in Sphina Convol- 
vuli, the Unicorn Hawk Moth. 

The species are numerous, and of very large size. 
One of the largest, is the Death’s Head Moth, Sphinx 
Atropos, Linn. [belonging to the subgenus Acherontia, 
Och.], remarkable for the skull-hke patch on the back 
of the thorax, and for the squeaking kind of noise it 
emits, which has been supposed by Réaumur to be 
caused by rubbing the palpi against each other, and 
by Lorey to be owing to the rapid escape of the air from 
two ventral cavities ; the caterpillar is of a very large 
size, and feeds on potatoes, jasmine, &c. 

The larve of other species [forming the subgenus 
Eumorpha, Hb., or Metopsilus, Duncan], have the power of thrusting out the front of the body to a great 
length, [whence they have obtained the name of Elephant Hawk Moths,]j such as Sph. Elpenor, Porcellus, &c. 

Other Sphingides have the body terminated by a tassel of scales. Scopoli formed them into a distinct genus, 
Macroglossum. Such are the Humming-Bird Hawk-Moth (Sph. stellatarum), and the Broad and Narrow-bordered 
Bee-Moths (Sph. fuciformis, Bombyliformis, &c.), the two last of which have the wings glassy. [This group of 
Hawk Moths is remarkable for flying in the hottest sunshine. ] 

Smerinthus, Latr., has the antenne serrated, and the tongue wanting. The species are sluggish in their flight, 
and the hind wings extend beyond the fore ones in repose, asin many moths. Sph. Tilie, Populi, and ocellata. 


Fig. 129.—Acherontia atropos ; reduced. 


a DAD 


LEPIDOPTERA. 609 


The third division of Sphinx, Szsiapes, comprises those with the antennz always simple, elongate- 
fusiform, and often terminated by a small bundle of scales ; the palpi are slender, and distinctly 3-jointed; 
the abdomen is generally terminated by a tassel. The caterpillars devour the interior of twigs, or the 
roots of vegetables, like those of Zeuzera or Cossus; they are naked, without any posterior horn, and 
construct a cocoon with the particles of the materials on which they have fed. 

SeEs1A, Latr.,— 
Has the antenne terminated by a small brush of scales; the wings are horizontal, and have glassy spaces; the 
tail is tasselled. Many of the species resemble Wasps and other hymenopterous and dipterous insects. [Nu- 
merous small British species, which fly about in the hottest sunshine. ] 

Thyris, Hoff., differs in the antenne being nearly setaceous, and the abdomen pointed. 

Zgocera, Latr., has the antenne without a bundle of scales at the tip, but thickest in the middle; the abdomen 
also pointed at the tip. The wings are entirely clothed with scales. 


The fourth and last division of Sphinxes, Zy¢#Nipgs, has the antenne always terminated in a point 
without a brush, and either simple in both sexes and fusiform, or thickest in the middle; setaceous 
and pectinated, at least in the males; the palpi of moderate size, or small, subcylindric, 3-jointed; the 
wings are deflexed, and have, in many, vitreous spots ; the abdomen is not tasselled; the spurs of the 
hind-tibia are small; the larve are exposed, and feed on various leguminose. They are cylindric, 
without a posterior horn, pilose, like those of many Bombyces, and form a silken cocoon, which they 
attach to stems of grass, &c. Their habits are well described by Boisduval, in a monograph on this 


tribe. 
ZYGENA,— 


The typical genus, 1s not found in the New World; the antenne are simple in both sexes; suddenly terminated 
by a fusiform mass, and the palpi reach beyond the clypeus, and are attenuated at the tip. [The species are 
numerous. 

Sphinx filipendule, [the Hornet Moth, a very common and handsome species, is the type]. 

Syntomis, Mlig., differs in having the antenne slender and gradually dilated; the palpi are shorter. [Exotic 
species. ] 

Atychia, Hoff., has simple antennz in the females, or bipectinated in the males ; the palpi very pilose, and ex- 
tending considerably beyond the clypeus ; the spurs large. 

Procris, Fab. (Ino, Leach), approaches Atychia in the antenne, but the palpi are shorter, the wings longer, and 
thespurssmall. SS. statices, Linn., [the Forester Sphinx, a very common small species, of a shining green colour], 

The other Lepidoptera of this division have the antennz in both sexes bipectinated. 

Glaucopis, Fab., has a distinct proboscis. 

Aglaope, Fabr., has not a proboscis. Many species of these two subgenera occur in tropical climates ; they seem 
to connect the Crepuscularie with Callimorpha. 


THE THIRD [AND LAST] FAMILY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA,— 


THe NocturNAa,— 


Presents to us ordinarily the wings bridled in repose by a bristle or bunch of hairs #ising at the base 
of the outer edge of the lower pair, and passing through a ring on the under side of the upper. The 
wings are horizontal or deflexed, and sometimes rolled round the body. The antenne gradually di- 
minish to the tips, or are setaceous. This family is composed in the Linnean system of the single 


genus 
PHatana [or Moths]. 


These insects in general fly only during the night, or after sunset ; many are destitute of a proboscis; 
some females are destitute of wings, or have only very small ones. The caterpillars generally spin a 
cocoon; the number of their feet varies from ten to sixteen; the chrysalides are always rounded, and 
not angulated nor pointed. 

The classification of this family is exceedingly embarrassing, and our systems are yet but imperfect 
sketches. We divide it into ten sections. 

The first section, Hepiaites, has for its types the genera Hepialus and Cossus of Fabricius. The 
caterpillars are naked and fleshy, and reside in the interior of vegetables, upon which they feed ; their 
cocoons are for the most part formed of the particles of these vegetables. The segments of the abdomen 
of the pup are denticulated ; the antennz are always short, with only a single sort of small short teeth. 
In others they are terminated by a single filament, but furnished at the base in the males with a double 


RR 


610 INSECTA. 


row of pectinations ; the proboscis is always very short and indistinct ; the wings are roof-like and elon- 


gated ; the females have the ovipositor long ; their caterpillars commit much havoc in different trees, &c:. 
In some, the antenne are nearly alike in both sexes, with only very short teeth. 


HEPIALUS, Fabr.,— 
Which has these organs nearly moniliform, and much shorter than the thorax ; the hind wings are generally des- 
titute of a bridle. The caterpillars live in the earth, and eat the roots of plants. The Great Swift or Ghost Moth 
(Hepialus Humuli), is a very common insect; the male with silvery white wings, and the female buff, with reddish 
marks. 

Cossus, Fab., has the antennz longer, with a row of short denticulations ; the caterpillars live in the interior of 
trees, forming their cocoons of the sawdust they make. The chrysalis, immediately before undergoing its final 
change, works itself to the outer opening of its cell, in order to make its escape. The Goat Moth, Cossus ligniperda, 
is the type of the genus. Its larva is like a thick, short, red worm; it lives in the interior of various trees, and 
discharges a fetid liquor when alarmed, and which serves to soften the wood. 

Stygia, Drap., has a double row of teeth in the antenne. [Exotic species. ] 

Zeuzera, Latr., differs from the preceding in having the male antenne furnished at the base with a double row 
of long pectinations, and subsequently terminated by a thread ; those of the females are simple, but cottony at the 
base. Z. disculi, the Wood Leopard, a handsome rare species, of a white colour, with numerous steel-blue spots. 
‘The larva lives in the interior of various trees. 


Our second division, BomsBycirss, differs from the first and third, by having the proboscis always 
very short and rudimental ; the wings are extended and horizontal, or roof-like, the lower ones ex- 
tending beyond the upper ones at the sides ; and the male antennz entirely pectinated. The larve are 
exposed, and feed upon the tender parts of vegetables; they mostly make a cocoon of pure silk ; the 
chrysalides have no rows of teeth on the margins of the abdominal segments. 


We form with the species which have the wings expanded and horizontal, a first subgenus, or the Phalena Atta- 
cus of Linnzus, to which we restrict the name of 

Saturnia, Schrank., including that of Aglaia. It comprises the largest species, which have the wings mostly 
ornamented with glass-like spots. Such are the Great Atlas Moth of China, B. Cecropia, Luna, &c. The silk of 
which the cocoons of two of the species are formed, has been employed from time immemorial at Bengal. I am 
assured by M. Huzard, that in a Chinese manuscript these caterpillars have been termed the wild Silk-worms of 
China, and I conjecture that the silken materials, obtained by the ancients in commerce, were produced from these 
caterpillars. Europe furnishes five species of this subgenus, the largest of which is the Great Peacock, D. pavonia 
major: the only British species is the Emperor Moth, [B. pavonia minor]; the cocoon of this species is curious, 
being formed internally with stiff, convergent, elastic threads, which facilitate the escape of the inclosed insect, 
but prevent the entrance of others. 

The other Bombycites have the upper wings inclining at the side, or roof-like, the outer edge of the lower 
extending beyond that of the upper wings. 

Lasiocampa, has the palpi porrected like a beak, and the hind-wings often notched. The perfect insect often 
resembles a packet of dead leaves. B. quercifolia, potatoria, &c. {divided by the German and English entomologists 
into numerous subgenera]. 

Bombyx proper, has the palpi not remarkably prominent. 

B. Mori, Linn., the Silk-worm Moth. This well-known insect is a native of the northern provinces of China. 
It was imported bygthe Greek missionaries, in the time of Justinian, to Constantinople; whence, at the time of 
the crusades, it passed from Morea into Sicily and the kingdom of Naples, and subsequently, especially under 
Sully, into France. But the ancients also obtained their silks, both by sea and land, from Pegu and Ava, or the 
ancient Seres, which are the more generally alluded to in the writings of the earlier geographers. It is known 
that silk was anciently sold at its weight in gold, and that it has become an important source of national riches. 

B. neustria, the Lackey Moth, the larva of which lives in society, under webs of large size, upon our fruit-trees ; 
and B. processionea, the Processionary Moth, the caterpillars of which are also social, and which often change 
their abode, marching in procession, one being in front serving as a guide, followed by two, and then three, four, 
five, and so on. 


The third section of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, that of the Pseupo-Bomsycss, is composed of 
species in which the hind wings, like those of all the following, are furnished with a bridle, which 
fixes them to the anterior in repose, by which they are also then covered. The proboscis in the ter- 
minal species is elongated, differing only from the following tribes by being rather shorter. The 
antenne are entirely pectinated, or serrated, in the males. The larve of all feed on the exterior parts 


of vegetables. 

The first of these have the proboscis short, and unfitted for suction. In some of these the caterpillars do not 
form portable cases, and are long, and furnished with ambulatory feet. 

Sericaria, Latr., has both sexes winged, and the upper wings are not denticulated on the inner margin. B. dis- 
par, Fab. (the Gipsy Moth]. B. versicolor, Bucephala, Coryli, pudibunda, &c., forming the genera Endromis, 
Pygaera, Liparis, &c. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 611 


Notodonta, Ochs., has the inner margin of the wing denticulated, [whence these insects are called Promi- 
nent Moths]. 

Orgyia, Ochs., differs from the preceding by having the females almost wingless. B. antiqua, Fab. [the 
Vapourer Moth]. 

Limacodes, Latr., differs from all in having the caterpillars like Wood-lice, and which seem also to represent 
the Polyommati amongst the diurnal species. H. Testudo and Asellus, Fab. 

Psyche, Schrank., the caterpillars of which form portable cases of silk, to which they affix bits of stick, thus 
resembling the nests of the Caddice-flies. Some of the species, from the East Indies and Senegal, are very remark- 
able in their forms. ‘ 

The terminal Pseudo-Bombyces have the proboscis very distinct and elongated. 

Chelonia, God. (Arctia, Schr., Eyprepia, Ochs.), 
has the wings roof-like; the antenne pectinated in 
the males; the palpi very hirsute, and the proboscis 
short. 

B. caja, the Great Garden Tiger Moth, having 
brown upper-wings marked with white, and red 
under-wings spotted with blue black. The larve are 
very common, and are termed Woolly Bears. 

Callimorpha, Latr. (Eyprepia, Ochs.), has the 
wings roof-like, but the antennz are only serrated 
in the males; the palpi only slightly squamose, and 
the proboscis long. B. Jacobee, a very common 
species, black, the upper wings having a line and two carmine red spots; the under wings of the latter colour, 
bordered with black. 

Lithosia, Fab., has the wings horizontal in repose. 


The fourth section of the Nocturna, that of the Aposur#, differs at once from all the rest of the 
order in the caterpillars being destitute of any anal feet, the extremity of the body terminating in a 
point, which in many is forked, or furnished with two long articulated appendages, forming a kind of 
tail. In respect to the proboscis, palpi, and antennz, the Moths differ but little from the preceding. 

Dicranoura, God. (Cerura, Schr., Harpyia, Ochs.), have the external habit of Chelonia or Sericaria, and the 
extremity of the body of the larva is terminated by two tails. [C. Vinula, the Puss Moth.j 

Platypteryx, Lasp. (Drepana, Schr.), more resembles Phalna, having the fore-wings hooked at the tips and the 
body slender; the body of the larve terminates ina point. In respect to the latter state, these Moths therefore 
resemble the Dicranoure ; but, in their perfect state, that of Phalenites. Ph. falcataria, lacertinaria, &c. 


Fig. 130.—Chelonia villica. 


The fifth section of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, that of the Nocruzuires, Latr., resembles the pre- 
ceding in the wings, but differs in having a corneous proboscis rolled up in a spiral direction, and 
mostly very long; palpi terminated suddenly by a very small joint, slenderer than the preceding, which 
is much larger, and very compressed. The body is generally clothed with scales rather than with 
wool; the thorax is often crested above, and the abdomen is of an elongate conic form; the antenne 
are generally slender and simple. Their flight is very rapid, and some species fly during the day. 

The caterpillars have mostly sixteen feet; some have two or four less, but the anal pair is never 
wanting; and in those with only twelve feet the anterior pair of the membranous legs is as large as 
the following. The majority of these caterpillars inclose themselves in a cocoon. They compose the 
section Phalena-Noctua, Linn. All the generic groups established recently, and which are cbaracter- 
ized rather from the caterpillar than the perfect state, may be reduced to the two following 


subgenera. 
Erebus, Latr. (Thysania, Dalm., Noctua, Fab.), has the wings always extended and horizontal, and the last joint 
of the palpi long, slender, and naked. These are very large moths, all of which are exotic except one Spanish 


species. 
Noctua, 


Has the last joint of the palpi very short, and clothed with scales, like the preceding. The majority have the 
larve 16-footed, as the Red Under-wing Moths, Noctua [Catocala] sponsa, &c. Others have only twelve feet, 
and the imago is ornamented with golden or silvery spots, such as the Burnished Brass Moth, Noctua [Plusia] 
Chrysites, &c. The larve of some, as N. Verbasci, Absinthii, &c., feed on the flowers of the plants after which 
they are named. Others have the antenne feathered, as N. graminis, the larva of which is very destructive to 
pastures in Sweden [and elsewhere]. This genus is divided by Ochsenheimer into forty-two genera, being for the 
most part equivalent to the groups proposed in the systematic catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Vienna, of which, 
however, the nature of our work does not allow the details. After the removal of Erebus, Latreille, in a note, 
suggests that the Noctua form two series; the first having partially geometrical larve, and the others having 
16-footed larve, both, however, terminating with species conducting to Herminia and Pyralis. 
Bombyx Cyllopoda, Dalm., forms a new and anomalous subgenus. 


612 INSECTA. 


The sixth section of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, that of the PHAL&/NA TorTRIx, Linn., has the 
greatest relation to the preceding species, the upper wings having the outer margin curved at the base, 
and subsequently narrowed ; and their short, broad form, like a truncated oval, gives these insects a 
remarkable appearance ; the proboscis is distinct, and the palpi generally nearly similar to those of the 
Noctuz, but rather more advanced. They are small Moths, agreeably coloured, with the wings nearly 
horizontal, or rather slightly deflexed at the sides; the upper pair slightly crossing the lower. The 
caterpillars are 16-footed, the body being generally smooth, or but slightly hairy; they roll up the 
leaves, fixing them by threads in a parallel direction, and thus forming them into cases, whereby they 
devour the parenchyme of the leaves at leisure; others make retreats by fastening several leaves or 
flowers together, and some reside inside fruits ; some of these caterpillars have the body slender at the 
tip, and their cocoons are in the figure of a boat turned upside down; these cocoons are sometimes en- 
tirely of silk, and sometimes of silk mixed with other matters. They form the subgenus 

Pyrattis, Fab. [ Tortrixv of English authors]. 
P. pomana, Fab., the Codling Moth, P. vitis, P. prasinaria, [and a great number of species, divided by more 
recent authors into a great number of subgenera]. Latreille in a note adds indications of the additional sub- 


genera Xylopoda (Tortrix dentaria, Hb.), Volucra (P. rutana, umbellana, Heracleana), and Procerata (P. saldo- 
nana, Fabr.). 


The seventh section of the Nocturna, that of the PHatanires, Latr. (Phal. Geometra, Linn.), has 
the body generally slender, with the proboscis either wanting or but little elongate, and nearly mem- 
branous ; the palpi small and subcylindric ; the wings ample, extended, or like a nearly flat roof; the 
antennz in many of the males are pectinated; the thorax smooth; the caterpillars have generally only 
ten feet; sometimes, however, they have an extra pair; the anal feet always exist. From their mode 
of walking, they are called Geometers, or Loopers, described above (p. 604). Their attitude of repose 
is singular ; fixed to a branch or twig, and holding only by the hind pair of feet, the body is stretched 
in a straight line, and at an angle with the branch immoveably. In their colours, also, and the rugo- 
sities in their bodies, they also resemble branches: in this position they will remain for many hours, 
and even for entire days. The chrysalides are naked, or are inclosed in a very slender cocoon. When 
the caterpillars are not taken into consideration, this section only forms a single genus,— 


PHALENA. 

The caterpillar of P. margaritaria, Fab., the type of my subgenus Metrocampa, has twelve feet, but the rest 
only ten, such as P. sambucaria, the Swallow-tailed Moth, formed 
by Leach into the subgenus Ourapteryx ; P. grossulariata, Linn., 
the Magpie Moth, [a very abundant species, the larva and pupa of 
which are figured in a preceding page. The femalesof P. brumata, 
and some others, have only very slight rudiments of wings. The 
latter species appear only in winter. One species, P. sewalisata, 
is remarkable for the males possessing a small appendage at the 
inner edge of the hind wing. These species form my subgenus 
Hybernia. 

(This is a very extensive tribe, formed into the family Geome- 
tride, and divided by recent authors into a very great number of 
genera. ] 


Fig. 131.—Phalena grossulariata. 


The eighth section of the nocturnal Lepidoptera, that of the DeLrorpss, presents to us species very 
nearly allied to the Phalzene proper, but of which the caterpillars have fourteen feet, and roll up leaves. 
In the imago, the palpi are elongated and recurved. The wings form with the body, at the sides of 
which they are horizontally extended, a kind of delta, of which the posterior edge has at the middle 
an indented angle, or appears furcate. The Deltoid Lepidoptera form the subgenus 

Herminia, Latr., belonging to the division of the Phalena Pyralis of Linn., Hyblea and part of Crambus, Fabr. 


The ninth section of the Nocturna, that of the Trne1rTEs, Latr. (Phalena Tinea, Linn.), and the major 
part of his Pyralides, comprises the most minute species of the order, and of which the caterpillars are 
always furnished with sixteen feet at least, are rectigrade, and live hidden in fixed or moveable cases 
which they form. In some, the wings form a kind of elongated triangle, nearly flattened; such are the 
Ph. Pyralides, Linn., which have four distinct palpi, and generally exposed. In others, the upper wings 
are long and narrow; in all, the hind wings are always broad and folded; the four palpi of these are 
also often exposed. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 613 


The substances upon which the caterpillars feea, or on which they mostly dwell, provide them with 
materials for their cases. Among the cases formed of vegetable matters, some are very singular: the 
Adele, for instance, make their nests of bits of leaves, arranged upon each other. In some the material 
is transparent. The caterpillars of the true Tinee clothe themselves in cases formed of hair, fur, &c., 
which they cut off with their jaws, as well as of the hair of the skins of animals, and which they fasten 
with silken threads. They have the instinct to elongate or widen these cases by slitting them, and 
introducing a new piece. They undergo their transformations in these cases, having first closed the 
orifice with silk. Réaumur, Rosel, and De Geer have especially investigated the habits of these insects. 

Other species burrow into the interior of the vegetable and animal substances upon which they 
subsist, forming simple galleries, where they construct cases either of these materials or of silk; these 
habitations are always fixed, and serve only as retreats. Others, again, pierce the interior of leaves 
upon which they feed, producing dried-up patches either in spots or undulating lines, to be observed 
on many leaves: buds, fruits, seeds, and often grains of wheat, as well as the resinous galls of some 
fir trees, serve for food and abode to others. 

These Moths are often ornamented with very brilliant colours, the upper wings having gold or silver 


spots. 

Some, the Pyralides, having the four palpi always distinct, exposed, or slightly hidden by the scales of the clypeus, 
porrected, have their wings roof-like, but more flattened. Some of these have the proboscis very distinct, and the 
caterpillars live upon different plants. 

Botys, Latr., has leaf-rolling caterpillars, with ordinary organs of respiration. Phal. urticata, Linn. {the Small 
Magpie Moth], the caterpillar of which feeds on the nettle. 

Hydrocampe, Latr., is composed of nearly allied species, but of which the caterpillars are aquatic, with long, 
filamentous appendages for respiration, the interior being furnished with trachee. They form tubes with the 
leaves of aquatic plants, or are exposed. 

Others have the proboscis obsolete, or nearly so. 

Aglossa, Latr., has the four palpi exposed, the wings forming a flat triangle. P. pinguinalis, Linn., the larve 
of which feeds on grease or buttery substances. According to Linnzus, it has been found but rarely in the human 
stomach, where it produces more violent effects than ordinary intestinal worms. A medical man has sent me 
some caterpillars of this species, which had been vomited by a young female. P. farinalis, Linn., feeds 
on flour. 

Galleria, Fab., has the palpi covered by the scales of the front of the head ; the fore-wings narrower than in 
Aglossa, and notched at the hind margin, and greatly deflexed at the sides. G. cereana, Fab., the Honeycomb 
Moth, the larva of which commits much mischief in hives, by burrowing through the comb, and constructing a 
silken web, mixed with grains of excrement ; the cocoons are sometimes found united in a mass. G. alvearia, Fab. 
{also feeds on honeycomb], but is more allied to Tinea than this genus. Crambus erigatus, Fabr., and Tinea tri- 
bunella and colonella, are allied to the preceding, but the palpi are longer, whence they are nearer allied to 
Crambus. They form several subgenera. 

The others have the maxillary palpi not always distinct, the upper wings long and narrow, sometimes rolled round 
the body and sometimes extended perpendicularly at the sides. In this state the insect has always a narrow and 
elongated form, approaching that of a cylinder, or cone. 

Some have the labial palpi large and porrected, the last joint at most being recurved; the maxillary palpi are 
distinct. 

Crambus, Fab., has a distinct proboscis, and the palpi beak-like ; they frequent dry pastures. 

Alucita, Latr. (Ypsolophus, Fab.), has also the distinct proboscis, but the last joint of the palpi is recurved. 

Euplocamus, Latr. (Phycis, Fab.), has the proboscis very short, with the last joint of the palpi recurved; the 
male antenne have a double row of beards. 

Phycis, Fab., similar to Euplocami, but with the antenne only ciliated. Others have the labial palpi entirely 
recurved over the head in many. In the two following subgenera the palpi scarcely extend beyond the forehead, 

Tinea, has the proboscis short, formed of two membranous filaments ; the head is very hairy. P. tapezana, Fab., 
the larva of which gnaws clothes and other stuff materials, concealed in a case formed of particles of these sub- 
stances, which it gnaws off. 

Other species, 7. sar'citella, F., pellionella, Fab., flavifrontella and granella, feed on clothes, woollen stuffs, 
furs, objects of natural history, and grains of wheat in granaries. 

Ilythia, Latr. (Crambus, Fab.), has the proboscis distinct, and of the ordinary size, and the last joint of the 
palpi shorter than the preceding. 

Yponomeuta, Latr., has the proboscis distinct, and the last joint of the palpi as long as the preceding joint. 
These insects are allied to Lithosia, T. evonymella (the Small Ermine Moth), and 7. padella, the last of which 
lives upon fruit-trees, in vast numbers, the larve covering the branches with webs. 

Q:cophora, Latr., has the palpi extending over the head as far as the middle of the thorax. The Corn Moth 
belongs to this genus, as well as 7. Harrisella, the larva of which forms a kind of hamoc. 

Adela, Latr., differs from the preceding in the very small and pilose palpi, the very long antenne, and the eyes 
contiguous. The species are found in wood, and appear as soon as the oak leaves expand. The wings are generally 


614 INSECTA. 


very ortlliant. [They are called Japan-Moths.] A. De Geerella, Reaumurella, &c. [The former figured in the 
plate of Moths in the Entomologist’s Text Book.]} 


The tenth and last section of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, that of the PreropHorirtss, has great 
affinity with the preceding in the narrow form and length of the body and wings, but differs in having 
the wings slit through their whole length, like branches, or bearded fingers, like feathers. Their wings 
thus imitate those of birds. Linnzeus united them in his division of Phalena Alucita. De Geer named 
them Phalene-Tipule. 

We form them, with Fabricius and Geoffroy, into the subgenus Pferophorus, the caterpillars of which have sixteen 
feet, and feed on leaves and flowers, and do not form a case. The palpi are recurved from the base, and not longer 
than the head; the chrysalides are naked, setose, or tubercular. P. pentadactylus, Linn., the White Plumed 
Moth. A very common species. 

Orneodes, Latr., has the palpi advanced, longer than the head, and the chrysalis is inclosed in a silken cocoon, 
P. hexadactylus, Linn., &c. 


THE ELEVENTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


THE RHIPIPTERA,— 


Previously established by Mr. Kirby under the name of Strepsiptera (or Twisted Wings), 
[and which has been fully proved by recent observations to have been correctly named, and 
that Latreille’s name, Rhipiptera, ought no longer to be applied to it], is composed of some 
very singular insects, anomalous both in their structure and habits. 

At the sides of the anterior extremity of the thorax, near the neck, and at the outer base of 
the two fore-legs [but in reality originating upon the very short and collar-like mesothorax], 
are attached a pair of small, crustaceous, moveable organs, like small elytra, bent backwards, 
narrow, elongated, clubbed, and curved at the tip, and terminating at the origin of the wings. 
[Latreille then contends that these pre-balancers are not representatives of the elytra, but of 
the pieces termed ptergodes, observed at the base of the wings of the Lepidoptera; but it 
has been proved that they are the real representatives of elytra.] The wings of the Rhipiptera 
are large, membranous, divided by longitudinal nervures, and folding lengthwise, like a fan. 
The mouth is composed of four pieces, of which two are short, and appear like a pair of two- 
jointed palpi; and the other two are inserted near the inner base of the preceding, in the form 
of small linear plates, pointed, and crossing each other at the tip, like the mandibles of many 
insects; they more nearly resemble the lancets of the mouth of some Diptera than true man- 
dibles. According to Savigny, the mouth is composed of a labrum, two mandibles, two maxille, 
each supporting a pair of small exarticulate palpi, and of a lower lip without palpi.] The head 
is further furnished with a pair of large hemispherical eyes, somewhat pedunculated ; two 
antenne, approximating at the base on a common elevation, nearly filiform, short, and com- 
posed of three joints, the two first bemg very short and the third very long, divided from its 
base into two long compressed branches, which are applied against each other. The ocelli 
are wanting. The thorax [supposed by Latreille to bear] in its form and divisions much 
resemblance to that of many Cicade, Psylla, and Chrysis, [is now shown to be quite anomalous 
in its structure, consisting of a ring-like pro- and meso-thorax, and an immense metathorax] ; 
the abdomen is subeylindric, 8- or 9-jointed, and terminated by appendages analogous to 
those of the above-mentioned Hemiptera. The legs, six im number, are nearly membranous, 
compressed, of nearly equal size, and terminated by filiform tarsi composed of four mem- 
branous joints, vesiculose at their tips, the last being rather larger than the others, without 
terminal ungues. The four fore-legs are close together, but the two others are placed far 


DIPTERA. 615 


behind, the space between them being very ampie, and divided by a longitudinal impression 
in the middle. The posterior extremity of the metathorax is prolonged into a large scutellum 
over the abdomen. 

These insects live in the larva state between the scales of the abdomen of some Andrenz 
and Wasps, belonging to the subgenus Polistes. They move their prebalancers at the same 
time as their wings. Although apparently far removed, in many respects, from the Hymen- 
optera, I nevertheless consider them nearest allied to some of these insects, such as the 
Kulophi. 

M. Peck has observed the larvee of Xenos Peckii, which is found in Wasps ; it is oval-oblong, 
without feet, annulated, with the anterior extremity dilated into a head, and the mouth formed 
of three tubercles. These larve are transformed to pupz in the same situation, and beneath 
their own skin, as it appears to me from an ex- 
amination of Xenos Rossii, and without changing 
its form. (See the memoir of M. Jurine upon this 
insect.) Probably the two prebalancers are ser- 
viceable in enabling the insect to disengage itself 
from between the scales of the abdomen of the in- 
sects in which they have lived. 

They are a kind of Gstri of insects. We shall 
subsequently see that a species of Conops under- 
goes its changes in the interior of the abdomen of 
Boméi. 

They compose [four genera] Xenos, Rossi; 
Stylops, Kirby [and Elenchus and Halictophagus, 
Curtis]. They chiefly vary in the form of the 
|] : antenne. The species of the first-named genus live 
Fix. 130.—a, Stvlops Dalii, nat. size; s, magnified; c, An- in Wasps, and those of Stylops in Andrene. See 

drena, with the heads of two of its larve exserted between + 5 e F; 

the abdominal rings a; p, larva extracted and magnifed. on these insects the memoir of Kirby, in the 
eleventh volume of the Linnean Transactions ; [also the work of Curtis, and several memoirs 
which I have published in the Entomological Transactions]. 


THE TWELFTH ORDER OF INSECTS,— 


THE DIPTERA (AnTLIATA, Fab.),— 


Has for its characters six feet, two membranous extended wings, having almost always beneath 
them two moveable slender bodies named halteres, or balancers, (which Latreille, in a note, 
endeavours to prove cannot be the representatives of hind wings, but rather of a pair of 
spines observed in the metathorax of some Hymenoptera, such as Cryptocerus). The sucker is 
composed of scaly, setiform pieces, of variable number (from two to six), and either inclosed in 
a canal on the upper side of the proboscis, which is terminated by two fleshy lip-like lobes, or 
covered by one or two inarticulated plates, which serve it for a sheath. 

The body is composed, as in other hexapod imsects, of three principal pieces; the ocelli, 
when present, are [almost] always three in number, [two in some Tipulide]. The antenne 
are ordinarily inserted on the forehead; those of our first family have much relation, both in 
their form, composition, and appendages, with those of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, but in the 


616 INSECTA, 


following families they are only composed of two or three joints, the last of which is generally 
fusiform or lenticular, with a sinall styliform appendage, or hair, either simple or bearded. 
The mouth is only fit for extracting and drawing 
forth fluid matters, and when these are inclosed 
in proper vessels, with an envelope easily pierced, 
the pieces of the sucker act as lancets, piercing 
WE this envelope, and forming a passage for the 
es liquid, which ascends by the pressure of these 
Pak lancets together, to the pharynx, situated at the 
== base of the sucker, the sheath of which serves 
Fig. 131.—a, head of Tabanus; B, head of Musca. only as a defence to these lancets, and is gene- 
rally folded upon itself in their action. This sheath appears to represent the lower lip of mas- 
ticatory insects, and the set, at least in those with the most complicated mouth, represent 
the other parts, such as the labrum, mandibles, and maxilla. The clypeus, or epistome as I call 
it, is represented by the basal part of the proboscis preceding the sucker and palpi; the base 
of the proboscis mostly bears two filiform or clavate palpi, composed in some of five joints, 
but in most of only two. The wings are simply vemed, and generally horizontal. As in the 
Hymenoptera, their veins furnish good secondary characters of groups. 

The use of the balancers is not known; the insect moves them with great rapidity. Many 
species, especially those of the terminal families, have above the balancers two membranous 
pieces, like the two valves of a shell, attached together at one side, and which are termed 
alulets. One of these pieces is united to the wing, and partakes of its movements, at which 
time the two valves are upon the same plane. The size of these winglets is in inverse propor- 
tion to that of the halteres; the prothorax is always very short, and often its lateral portions 
are alone visible. In some species of Scenopinus, Culicide, and Psychoda, they are very 
prominent, like tubercles. The mesothorax alone occupies the greatest part of the thorax ; 
in front of which, on each side, and behind the prothorax, are two spiracles, and two others 
are observed near the base of the balancers. As in the Hymenoptera, those of the meso- 
thorax are hidden or obliterated. 

The abdomen is attached to the thorax only by « portion of its transverse diameter ; it con- 
sists of from five to nine segments, and is generally terminated by a point in the females: in 
those which have it composed of the smallest number of joints the termimal ones often form 
a kind of ovipositor, composed of tubular pieces, entering into each other like those of a 
telescope. The male sexual organs are external in many species, and curved beneath the 
abdomen. The legs, which are long and narrow in the majority, are terminated by a 5-jointed 
tarsus with two ungues, and often with two or three vesicular pulvilli. Many of these insects 
do us much damage, either in sucking our own blood or that of our domestic animals, by 
depositing their eggs upon their bodies, so that their larva may there obtain nourishment ; 
or by infecting our viands and cereal plants with the same intention. Others, in return, are 
useful, by devouring obnoxious insects, consuming dead carcases, or other decaying animal 
matter, which would otherwise render the air we breathe impure, as well as by hastening the 
decomposition of putrid water. 

The duration of the life of dipterous insects arrived at the final state is very short. They 
all undergo a complete metamorphosis, but modified in two material ways. The larve of 
many change their skin in order to undergo their transformation to pup, and some spin a 
cocoon; but the others do not moult; their skin hardens, contracts, and generally shortens, 
becoming a strong cocoon, of an egg-like form, for the inclosed pupa. The body of the larva 
is detached, leaving its own proper organs attached to the skin within, such as the parts of the 
mouth, &c.: shortly afterwards the inclosed insect assumes the form of a soft and gelatinous 
mass, without any of the parts of the future msect being visible ; some days afterwards, how- 


de ee 


DIPTERA. 617 


ever, these organs become distinct, and the insect has then assumed the real state of pupa 
[inclosed within its old skin]. It scales off the anterior extremity of its cocoon, like a cap, 
when it makes its escape. 

The larve of dipterous insects are destitu.e of feet, but some possess appendages which 
resemble them. This is the only order in which the head is soft and variable; but this cha- 
racter is confined to such as are transformed beneath their own skin. The mouth is generally 
furnished with two hooks, which serve them to gnaw their food. The principal organs of 
respiration in the majority of the larvee of this order are placed at the posterior extremity of 
the body ; many have also a pair on the segment immediately behind the head. 

Messrs. Fallen, Meigen, Wiedemann, and Macquart, have lately rendered signal service by 
the establishment of numerous generic groups, by the description of many new species, or by 
correcting the synonomy of those previously described. They have also employed the cha- 
racters founded upon the arrangement of the nerves of the wings which I first used in my 
“Genera.”’ [Latreille here overlooks the previous claims of Harris. ] 

The work of Macquart upon the Diptera of the north of France appears to me to be the 
best treatise yet published on these insects. [M. Macquart has lately published a general 
classification of the order, in two volumes, in the Suites de Buffon, as well as a distinct work 
on Exotic Diptera. Messrs. Haliday and Walker have added much to our knowledge of 
British Diptera. | 

We divide this order into two principal sections, which form distinct orders in the works of 
[several] English authors. 

The Diptera of the first section have the head always distinct from the thorax, the sucker 
inclosed in a sheath, and the tarsal claws simple, or unidentate. The transformation of these 
insects from the larva to the pupa state never takes place within the abdomen of the 
parent fly. 

A first subdivision is composed of Diptera having the antenne divided into a great number 
of joints ; they form 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


THE NEMOocERA,— 


The antennz of which are mostly composed of from fourteen to sixteen joints, or from six or nine to 
twelve in others. They are filiform or setaceous, often villose, especially in the males, and much 
longer than the head. The body is elongated, with the head small and rounded; the eyes large; the 
proboscis exserted, short, and terminated by two large lips, or prolonged into a beak; two external 
palpi inserted at its base, generally filiform or setaceous, and composed of four or five joints; the 
thorax thick, elevated, and gibbose; the wings oblong; the balancers entirely exposed, and not 
accompanied by large alulets ; the abdomen elongated, mostly formed of nine segments terminated in 
a point in the females, thicker at the tip, and armed with hooks in the males; the legs very long and 
slender, and often enabling these insects to balance themselves. 

Many of the smaller species assemble in great troops in the air, where they form a sort of dance. 
They are found at almost all seasons of the year. Many deposit their eggs in the water; others in the 
earth, or upon plants. 

The larve, always elongated and worm-like, have a scaly head, of a constant form, and the mouth 
is furnished with parts analogous to maxillw, and lips. They always shed their skins on assuming the 
pupa state. These pupz, which are sometimes naked and sometimes inclosed in cocoons spun 
by the larva, approach the perfect insects in their figure, being furnished with external organs, and 
undergoing their transformations in the ordinary manner. They have often near the head and thorax 
two respiratory organs, in the form of tubes, or ears. 

This family is composed of the genera Culex and Tipula of Linneus. 

Some have the antennz always filiform, as long as the thorax, thickly clothed with hairs, and 


618 INSECTA. 


composed of fourteen joints; and the proboscis is long, porrected, filiform, inclosing a punctorial 
sucker, composed of five sete, [according to Latreille, but in reality of six, exclusive of the palpi]. 
They constitute the genus 
Cutex, Linn. (Culicides, Latr.),— 


And have the body and legs very long, the antenne very hairy, forming a thick pencil, in the males ; 
the eyes large, convergent above; the palpi porrected, filiform, villose, as long as the proboscis, and 
5-jointed in the males, shorter and fewer-jointed in the females; the proboscis is composed of a 
membranous cylindrical tube, terminated by two lips, forming a kind of knob, and of a sucker consisting 
of five [six] scaly filaments, producing the effect of a sting, the wings resting horizontally upon 
the back, with small scales. 

These insects are very annoying, especially in damp situations, where they most abound. Thirsting 
for our blood, they pursue us every where, entering our habitations, especially in the evening, 
making a loud buzzing, and piercing our skins, which our clothes cannot even always protect, with 
the delicate sete of their proboscis, which are denticulated at the tips. In proportion as they thrust 
it into our flesh the sheath of the proboscis hecomes elbowed towards the breast. They discharge a 
venomous fluid into the wound, which is the cause of the pain felt. It is observed that we are only 
attacked by the female gnats; [the males indeed have the mouth organs, fewer in number and 
weaker]. The gnats are known in America under the names of Maringouins or Musquitoes. They 
are only to be guarded against by enveloping the bed with a Musquito curtain. The Laplanders drive 
them away by fire, and by coating the naked parts of the body with grease. The females deposit their 
eggs on the surface of the water, crossing their hind legs near the anus, and by degrees extending 
them as the eggs are discharged from the body, and which they place side by side, the entire mass 
resembling a small boat: each female deposits about 300 eggs in the course of the year. These 
insects are able to withstand the strongest frosts. The larve live in stagnant water, and are es- 
pecially to be found in the spring. They suspend themselves at the surface of water, head downwards 
for respiration ; they have a distinct rounded head, furnished with a pair of antenne, and of ciliated 
organs, which serve by their continual motion to form a kind of current, which brings their food to the 
mouth; a thorax with bundles of hairs; an elongated, nearly cylindric abdomen, much narrower than 
the anterior part of the body, 10-jointed, the antepenultimate joint being furnished with a respiratory 
organ on its back; the terminal joint is also terminated by sete and by radiating pieces. These larvae 
are very active, swimming with great agility, often descending, but quickly coming again to the 
surface of the water. After having undergone several moultings, they are transformed into pupe, 
which continue moveable with the assistance of their tails and two oar-like pieces at its extremity. 
They also suspend themselves at the surface of the water, but in a contrary direction to that of the 
larva; the organs of respiration being now placed at the thorax, and consisting in a pair of tubular 
horns. It is then also that the imago is developed, the exuvize of the pupa becoming a kind of raft 
for it, which preserves it from submersion. All these changes are effected [in the summer], in three 


or four weeks, so that there are several generations in the course of the year. 

Culex proper, comprises those species which have 
the male palpi longer than the proboscis, and very 
short in the females. C. pipiens, Linn., the Common 
Gnat. 

Anopheles, Meg., has the male palpi as long as 
the proboscis. 

Ajdes, Hoffm., has the palpi in both sexes very 
short. Robineau Desvoidy, in bis essay on this 
family, has added three other genera. 

Sabethes, with the palpi shorter than the probos- 
cis, and the middle tibiz and tarsi dilated. 

Megarhina, with the proboscis long and recurved 
Figs aa aealee pipiens, female, natural size and magnified, with the head o¢ the tip; the palpi short, with the basal joint 

thick. 

Psorophora, with the ocelli distinct ; the legs of the female ciliated, and two small appendages at the sides of 
the prothorax. C. ciliatus, Fabr. 


The other Nemocera have the proboscis either very short, and terminated by two large lips, or like 


DIPTERA. 619 


a perpendicular or incurved beak ; the palpi are curvea under, or recurved, but in the latter case they 
have not more than two joints. Linnzus united them in his genus 


Treuta (Tipularia, Latr.), 

Which we divide in the following manner :— 

A first section is composed of species with antennz longer than the head, at least in the males, 
slender, filiform, or setaceous, more than 12-jointed in the majority, and with long and slender feet. 

Some, having always wings, are destitute of ocelli, the palpi always short, the head scarcely 
prolonged in front, the wings horizontal or roof-like, with but few nerves; the eyes crescent-like, and 
the tibiz not spined. These are small species which reside, in the early states, either in water or in 
the galls of vegetables. 

The Tipulides Culiciformes resemble Gnats, having the antenne entirely pilose, but with the hairs 
much longer in the males than in the females. Their larve live in the water, and resemble those of 
Gnats. Some of them have false feet ; others have arm-like appendages at the posterior extremity of 
the body; they are generally of a red colour. The pupz are also aquatic, and respire by two outer 
appendages placed at the anterior extremity of the body. Some have the power of swimming. 


Corethra, Meg., has the antenne composed of fourteen oval joints, the terminal ones scarcely differing from the 
preceding, and the wings horizontal. T. culiciformis, De Geer [the Straw-coloured Midge]. 

Chironomus, Meig., has the wings inclined, the antenne 
13-jointed in the males, and 6-jointed in the females, with short 
hairs, the last joint, as inthe males, being very long. 7. annulata, 
De Geer, [a very numerous genus of Midges]. 

Tanypus, Meig., has the wings also deflexed, but the antennze 
are 14-jointed in both sexes; the penultimate joint very long in 
the males; the rest, as also all the joints of the female antenne, 
nearly globular; the larve have four false feet,—two near the 
head, and two at the extremity of the body. 


The Tipules Gailicoles have the antenne composed in 
both sexes of at least thirteen joints, fnrnished in the 
majority with short hairs ; at the most with a pencil of 
hairs at the base in some males. 

Ceratopogon, Meig. (Culicoides, Latr.), has a bundle of hairs at the base in the males; the proboscis, as in 
the two following subgenera, has the form ofa pointed beak; the wings are incumbent on the body, and their 


larve live in vegetable galls. 
Psychoda, Latr., has no brush or hairs to the antenne ; the wings are roofed, and have a great number of 
nerves; one species has two appendages at the side of the thorax, which appear to be formed by the lateral extre- 


inities of its front segment. 
Cecidomyia, Meig., has the antenne, as in Psychoda, moniliform, and furnished with verticillated hairs; the 


wings horizontal on the body, with only three nerves. 


Fig. 133.—Chironomus, with its Pupa and Larva, magnified. 


Lestremia, Macquart, has the antenne formed of 
five globular, pedunculated joints in the males, the 
legs long and slender, and the basal joint of the 
tarsilong. C. destructor, Say, appears to belong 
to this subgenus. 

Macropeza, Meg., is also closely allied to these 
insects. 


The Tipules Terricoles comprise the largest 


species in the family, with the antenne longer 


SOR Ae ee Cecounle MOREE Ler ae C. Tritici, with the larve of the latter thanthe head, and slender ; destitute of Grell ; 
eeding in wheat flowers, magnified. 


the eyes round and entire; the wings, extended in many, have always membranous nerves, united 
together transversely, and closed discoidal cells. The front of the head is narrowed, and prolonged 


into a muzzle, with a basal prominence; the palpi generally long, and the extremity of the tibiz 


spinose. : Bei 
The larve of many species live in the earth, the rotten parts of trees, &c. The thorax is not distinct, 


and they have no false feet. They exhibit at the superior extremity of the body two more evident 
apertures for respiration. The pup are naked, with two respiratory tubes near the head; and the 
edges of the abdominal segments spinose. These insects are well known under the name of Daddy 


Long-leys, Tailors, &c. 


620 INSECTA. 


In many, the wings are always extended, and the palpi long ; with the last joint very long and annular. 

Ctenophora, Meig., has filiform antenne, pectinated in the males, and serrated in the females. Tipula pectini- 
cornis, Fabr. 

Pedicia, has them nearly setaceous, simple, with the two basal joints thicker, and the seven terminal ones 
slender and subcylindric. 

Tipula, Latr., has also the antenne nearly setaceous and simple; but all the joints, except the second, are nearly 
cylindric ; the first is largest, the third elongate. T. oleracea, the Common Crane Fly, or Daddy Long Legs, very 
common in pastures; the larva feeds on the roots of dying plants, [and many other species]. 

Nephrotoma, Meig., has 19-jointed antenne in the males, and fifteen joints in the females, the third and following 
being arched. 

Ptychoptera, Meig., has simple sub-setaceous antenne, 16-jointed; the third much longer than the others, and 
the following oblong. 

In the following, the terminal joint of the palpi is scarcely longer than the others, and presents no appear- 
ance of annuli; and the wings are often incumbent on each other. Some of these have more than 10-jointed 
antenne. 

Rhipidia, Meig., has the male antenne pectinated. 

Erioptera, Meig., has, like the preceding, many nerves, but they are pilose. 

Lasioptera, Meig., has the wings villose, but only with two nervures. 

Limnobia, Meig., has the wings glabrous, and the antenne simple in both sexes. 

Polymera, Weid., has 28-jointed antenne. 

Trichocera, Meig., has the basal joints of the antenne oval, and the terminal ones very slender, long, and pu- 
bescent. TJ. hiemalis, the Winter Midge. 

Macropeza, Meig., has the hind feet exceedingly long; the basal parts of the antennz are hairy. 

Dixa, Meig., appears allied to Trichocera, but the basal joint of the antenne is very short, second nearly globular, 
and the following more slender. 

Megistocera, Weid., has only 10-jointed antenne. 

Hexatoma, Latr., has 6-jointed antennz, and consists of the Anisomere and Nematocere of Meigen, the first of 
which has the third joint of the antenne much longer than the second. 

Chionea, Dalm., differs from all the rest in wanting wings ; the abdomen of the females is terminated by a bivalve 
ovipositor ; the eyes are rounded, and the ocelli obsolete. The only species {known to Latreille] is found in winter 
onthe snow. C. araneoides, Dalm. 

The Tipule atome of De Geer forms another apterous subgenus, but the antenne have at least fifteen joints. It, 
as well as the preceding, is very small. 


Another division, the Tipules fungivores, is distinguished by possessing two or three ocelli; the 
antenne, much longer than the head, slender, 15- or 16-jointed; the eyes entire, or notched; the last 
joint of the palpi not articulated ; the wings horizontal, with much fewer nervures than in the preceding; 
the legs long and slender, with the tips of the tibia spinose ; some have the palpi curved, and composed 
of four joints. 


Rhyphus, Latr., has the eyes entirely occupying the head ; the ocelli of equal size, and the muzzle advanced, and 
not longer than the head. 
Asindulum, has the eyes occupying only the sides of the head, and the muzzle prolonged beneath the breast. 
Gnoriste, Meig., differs from the last only in having the palpi apparently inserted near the tip of the proboscis. 
In the following, the head is not produced into a muzzle. 
Bolitophila, has long antenne, and the eyes arranged in a transverse line. Guérin has published a complete 
memoir on a species of this genus. 
Macrocera, Meig., has the male antenne very long, and the ocelli arranged in a triangle. 
In the rest, the antenne are never longer than the head and thorax. 
Mycetophila, Meig., has spined hind tibia, and only two ocelli. 
Leia, Meig., differs from Mycetophila in having three ocelli; the front one being very small. 
Sciophila, Meig., has the joints of the antenne more distinct; and a small cubital cell. 
Amongst the subgenera with simple tibia, and three ocelli close together, some have 16-jointed antenne, and 
the eyes entire. 
Platyura, Meig., approaches Sciophila, but the first cubital cell is much larger ; the abdomen of the females is 
broader behind. 
Synapha, Meig., has only a single cubital cell, closed by the hind margin of the wing ; the middle discoidal cell 
is furcate in the middle, forming a closed oval cell. 
Others have the eyes notched in the inside. 
Mycetobia, Meig., has 16-jointed antenne, and the wings have a large closed cell, extending from the base to the 
middle. 
Molobrus, Latr. (Sciara, Meig.), has similar antenne, and the middle of the wing exhibits a cell, extending from 
the base to the hind margin, and closed only by this margin. 
Campylomyza, Wied., has only 14-jointed antenne, at least in the females; the inner portion of the wings has 
no nervures; and the eyes are entire. 


DIPTERA. 


Ceroplatus, Bosc., has the palpi apparently composed of a single joint, and the antenne fusiform and compressed. 


Our last general division of the Tipulaires, is the 7. florales, consisting of species having the an- 
tennz scarcely longer than the head in both sexes, thick, and 8- or 10-jointed, forming a perfoliated 
mass ; nearly cylindric in the majority, but fusiform in others, or terminated by a large joint ; the body 
is short and thick ; the head is generally almost entirely occupied by the eyes in the males. From the 


nervures of the wings and palpi, these Diptera approach the Tipulaires fungivores. 

Cordyla, Meig., differs from all the rest in having 12-jointed antenne ; the eyes are round, entire, and apart, and 
the ocelli wanting ; the legs are long, and spiny at the tips of the tibie. The others have 11-jointed antenne, and 
the eyes of the males very large. 

Simulium, Latr. (Culex, Linn.), has no ocelli, and the eyes of the females are internally notched, and crescent- 
shaped. The species are very small, frequenting damp places, and are very troublesome, from their biting, or 
rather pricking the flesh; they also sometimes penetrate into the generative parts of cattle, and killthem. Like 
some of the Culicide, they are also called Musquitoes. 

In the others, there are three ocelli. 

Scatopse, Geoft., approaches the last in having the eyes emarginate, but differs from all in having the palpi very 
small, and apparently composed of but a single joint. T. latrinarum, De Geer, a small fly, commonly found in 
privies. 

Penthetria, Meig., has the eyes entire, and separate in the two sexes; the Jegs are long, and not spinose. 

Dilophus, Meig. (Hirtea, Fabr.), has the eyes contiguous in the males, often occupying almost the whole of the 
head ; the tips of the tibiz have a coronet of spines. 

Bibio, Geoff. (Hirtea, Fabr.), has 9-jointed antenne, forming a perfoliated mass. The species are very sluggish, 
flying but little. Some of them are very common in gardens ; the two sexes often differ greatly in appearance and 
colours. Tip. hortulana, Linn. Their larve live in dung, earth, and manure, and have small rows of spurs on the 
segments of the body. The pupz are not inclosed in cocoons. 

Aspistes, Hoffm., has only 8-jointed antenne ; the last joint forming an ovoid mass. 


All the following Diptera (a very small number excepted), have the antennz composed [at first sight] 
of only three joints, the first of which is sometimes so short, that it is scarcely to be reckoned as such ; 
the last is in many transversely annulated, but without distinct separations. It is often accompanied 
by a seta, generally lateral, or placed at the top of the joint in others; having at its base one or two 
joints, and sometimes simple, sometimes hairy. If this seta is terminal, it happens in many that its 
length diminishes and its thickness increases, forming a kind of style. Although this style is, 
in effect, a continuation of the antennz, it would create confusion in the nomenclature by adding the 
number of its joints to that of the ordinary joints of the antenne. The palpi have never more than two 
joints. Some of these (asmall number excepted) cast their larva-skin on becoming pup, and have 
the sucker composed of six or four pieces; the proboscis, or at least its lips, is always exserted; the 
palpi, when present, are external, and inserted near the margins of the oral cavities, and the sucker arises 
near this cavity. The larva, in those which retain the larva skin, serves as a cocoon for the pupa, 
without changing its primitive form. This subdivision comprises three families, [ Tanystoma, Nota- 
cantha, and Athericera]. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


THE TANYSTOMA,— 


Is distinguished by having the last joint of the antenne (not reckoning the style), not transversely 
annulated, and the sucker consists of four pieces. 

Their larve resemble long worms, nearly cylindric, and without feet, with a scaly head of constant 
form, always furnished with hooks or retractile appendages, which serve them for gnawing or sucking 
the substances on which they subsist. The majority live in the earth, and change their skin on 
assuming the pupa state. The pupz are naked, and exhibit many of the external parts of the imago, 
which escapes from its exuvie by a slit down the back. 

A first division comprises those Diptera which have the proboscis always entirely, or almost entirely, 
exserted, with the sheath of a rather solid, nearly horny consistence, being more or less porrected, 
and either cylindric, conic, or filiform, terminating without any marked dilatation; the palpi 


are small. 
Some of these live by rapine, and have the body oblong, with the thorax narrow in front; the wings 


incumbent on the body; the proboscis short, or but slightly elongated, and forming a kind of beak; 
the antenne are close together, and the palpi exposed. 


> Ses 


622 INSECTA. 


Astuus, Linn.,— 


Has the proboscis porrected in front. They make a buzzing noise whilst flying, and seize Flies, 
Tipula, Humble-bees, and even Beetles, which they suck. Their larve live in the earth, having a 
scaly head armed with two moveable hooks, and being there transformed into pupe, which have 
hooked teeth on the thorax, and small rows of spines on the abdominal segments. 

A first subdivision, Asiricr, Latr., has the head transverse; the eyes lateral and wide apart, even in 
the males; the proboscis at least as long as the head, and one complete cell, of an elongated trian- 
gular form, near the inner margin of the wing, and terminating at the hind margin. The epistome 


is always bearded. 

Some of these (with two pulvilli, and two ungues at the tips of the tarsi) have the antenne scarcely longer than 
the head; the style scarcely distinct, or very short. 

Laphria, Meig., has the style not at all, or scarcely visible, and the proboscis straight. [Numerous handsome 
exotic species. ] 

Ancilorhynchus, Latr., has the style scarcely exserted, and pointed, and the proboscis like a compressed, curved 
and hooked beak. 

Dasypogon, has the style distinct and conical, and the proboscis straight. 

In the two next subgenera the antenne are evidently longer than the head. 

Ceraturgus, Wied., has the antenne not arising on a peduncle. 

Dioctria, Meig., has them inserted on a common peduncle. 

In others, the style at the tip of the antenne is prolonged like a seta. 

Asilus proper, has the style simple. The species are very numerous. A. crabroniformis |the largest British 
species], is not uncommon at the end of summer in sandy places. The transformations of A. forcipatus have 
been observed. 

Cyrtoma, Meig., differs from all the rest in having 2-jointed antenne, the palpi resting on the proboscis, the 
conic-elongate form of the last joint of the antennz, and the smallness of the palpi. 

Ommatius, Ilig., differs from all the foregoing in having the style of the antenne plumose. 

Gonypus, Latr. (Leptogaster, Meig.), has three ungues at the tips of the tarsi, the middle one replacing the two 
pulvilli. 


The second subdivision, Hysorrnt, Latr., has the head rounder, nearly occupied by the eyes in the 
males, with the clypeus rarely bearded ; the proboscis is very short ; the wings have fewer nerves than 
the preceding insects, and their inner portion does not exhibit the complete triangular cell, or it is 
only rudimental. 


CEdalea, Meig., has the last joint of the antenne large, elongate-fusiform, and terminated by a very 
small style. 

Hybos, Meig. (Damalis, Fab.), (with thick hind-thighs), and 

Ocydromia, Hoffm. (with the hind-thighs of ordinary size), have the last joint of the antenne short, ovoid, or 
conic, with a long seta. 

Microphora, Meig., has the third joint of the antennz, as well as the style, long. 

Lemtopeza, nearly allied to Ocydromia, but with the style terminal, and not dorsal. 


Empts, Linn. (Empides, Latr.),— 

Are closely allied to Asilus in the form of the body and position of the wings, but with the proboscis 
perpendicular, or directed backwards. The head is rounded, nearly globular, with the eyes greatly 
extended. The species are of small size; live by rapine and on the honey of flowers. The last joint 
of the antenne is always terminated by a short biarticulate style, or by a seta. The males of some 
species have the basal joint of the fore-tarsi very dilated. 

Some have 3-jointed antenne, of which the last is sometimes in the form of an elongate cone. 

Empis proper, has the proboscis much longer than the head, the bi-articulate style at the tip of the antenne 
being always short ; the palpi always recurved. Empis pennipes, Fab., remarkable for the hind legs of the females 
being very hairy. 

Ramphomyia, Meig., differs from Empis in wanting the small transverse nerve at the tips of the wings. 

In the following, the proboscis is scarcely longer than the head. 

Hilara, Meig., has the antenne terminated by a small 2-jointed style. In 

Brachystoma, Meig., they are terminated by a long seta. 

Gloma, Meig., differs from the preceding in having the last joint of the antenne terminated by a seta, and 
forming, with the preceding joint, a spherical body. 

The rest have only two distinct joints in the antennz, the last joint being ovoid or subglobose, and 
terminated by a seta, forming the second joint of the style. The proboscis is generally short, with 
the palpi resting upon it. 


DIPTERA. 


Hemerodromia, Hoffm., has the two fore coxe very long. 

Sicus, Latr. (Tachydromia, Meig.), has the first or second pair of thighs thickened. 

Drapetis, Meig., has the last joint of the antenne subglobose, and the proboscis scarcely exserted. 

M. Macquart [as well as Mr. Haliday and Professor Zetterstedt] have established several additional genera, 
which it would occupy too much space to notice in detail. 


The other Tanystoma of our first division have the body generally short, broad, with the head 
exactly applied to the thorax; the wings extended, and the abdomen triangular. They have, in a 
word, the appearance of Domestic Flies. The proboscis is often very long. 


Cyrtus, Latr. [Vesiculosa, Latr.],— 

Intermediate between Empis and Bombylius, with the wings deflexed at each side of the body; the 
alulets very large, and covering the balancers; the head small and globular; the thorax very gibbose ; 
the abdomen vesiculose, and the proboscis directed backwards, or wanting. 

Some have a proboscis directed backwards. 

Panops, Lam., with antenne longer than the head, cylindric, and 3-jointed, without a terminal seta. 

Cyrtus proper, with antenne very small, 2-jointed, with a seta at the tip. 

The others have not an extraordinary proboscis. 

Astomella, Duf., has the antenne 3-jointed, with the last joint forming a compressed, elongated knob, without 
a seta. 

Henops, Wig. (Ogcodes, Latr.), has antennz inserted before the eyes, small, and 2-jointed, with a terminal seta. 

Acrocera, Meig., differs in having the antenne inserted behind the eyes. 


Bompytivus, Linn. (Bombyliers, Latr.),— 
Has the wings extended horizontally on each side of the body, with the balancers naked; the thorax 
higher than the head, or gibbose, as in Cyrtus; the antenne close together, and the abdomen trian- 
gular, or conical. The proboscis is porrected in front, and very long in many species. The antennz 
are always 3-jointed, the last being elongated, compressed, fusiform, generaily terminated by a very 
short style, and never by an elongated seta. The palpi are slender, filiform; the legs are long and 
slender. These insects fly with wonderful rapidity, hovering over flowers without settling, and intro- 
ducing their long proboscis in order to suck up the honey, and making a sharp buzzing noise. I suppose 


that their larve, like those of Anthrax, are parasites. 

Some have the proboscis evidently longer than the head, very slender, and pointed at the tip. 

Toxophora, Meig., has the antenne as long as the head and thorax, filiform, pointed at the tip, and the body 
elongated. 

Xestomyza, Wied., has shorter antenne, but the first joint is elongated, and longer than the other joints, and 
fusiform, as is also the third. 

Apatomyza, Wied., has the first joint also very long, but cylindrical. In the subsequent subgenera the last 
joint [of the antenne] is the longest, and sometimes the two basal joints of the antenne are short, and of nearly 
equal length. 

Lasius, Wied., has the head nearly occupied in one sex by the eyes, and the last joint of the antenne very long, 
nearly linear, compressed, and without a terminal style; the abdomen is voluminous; the proboscis occa- 
sionally extends beneath and beyond the extremity of the body, whieh seems to connect this genus with [Cyrtus 
or] the tribe of Vesiculose. 

Usia, Latr., has the last joint of the antenne ovoid, conic, obtuse, or truncated at the tip, and terminated by a 
style; the palpi not apparent. [South of Europe, or Africa. ] 3 

Phthiria, Meig., resembles Usia in the antenne, but with distinct palpi; sometimes the second joint is evidently 
shorter than the first ; the last is long, generally almost cylindric, and pointed at the tip. 

Bombylius proper, has very distinct palpi, and the body is clothed with a thick woolly coating of hairs. B. major, 
Linn., a very abundant species [in this country]. 

Geron, Meig., has the last joint of the antenne longer, terminating like an awl, and the wings wanting one of 
the transverse nerves near the hind margin. 

Thlipsomyza, Wied., is allied to the preceding, and Phthiria; and I presume that 

Amictus, Wied., also approaches them. Both have the basal joint of the antenne longer than the second, and 
cylindrical ; the wings of Amictus, however, differ from the preceding subgenera. 

The other species have the proboscis not longer than the head, and thickened at the tip, and the basal joint of 
the antenne is the largest. 

Ploas, Latr. (Conophorus, Meig.), has this joint much thicker than the rest. 

Cyllenia, has this joint merely longer, but not thicker, and the abdomen is more elongated, and nearly conical. 


ANTHRAX, Scop. (Anthracii, Latr.),— 
Similar to the Bombylii, with the body depressed, or but slightly elevated above ; not gibbose, with 
the head as high and broad as the thorax. The antenne are always very short, and, except in 


624 INSECTA. © 


Stygides, wide apart, terminated by an awl-shaped joint; the proboscis is ordinarily very short, scarcely 
advanced in front of the head, often received into the oral cavity, and terminated by a small thickened 
part formed of the lips. The palpi are generally hidden, filiform, and each is attached to one of the 
sete of the rostrum. The abdomen is squarer than in Bombylius. These insects are generally very 
hairy. Their habits are very similar to those Diptera. They often alight on the ground, upon walls 
exposed to the sun, along which they are often observed flying, as well as upon leaves. 

Stygides, Latr. (Lomatia, Enc. Méth., Stygia, Meig.), has the antenne wide apart at the base. 

In all the others they are wide apart at the base. 

Some of these have the head subglobose, with the proboscis short, and the extremity of the wings not 
retioulated. 

Anthrax proper, with the ocelli contiguous; [a very numerous genus, having the wings generally spotted]. 

Hirmoneura, Wied., with the anterior ocellus at a distance from the other two, and the proboscis retracted. 

The others have the head shorter, subhemispherical, the proboscis longer than the head, and the extremity of 
the wings often strongly reticulated. 

Mulio, Latr., has the wings reticulated in the usual manner, and the proboscis but little longer than the head. 

Nemestrina, Latr. (Cytherea, Fabr.), has the extremity of the wings reticulated, as in the Neuroptera, and the 
proboscis much longer than the head; the two basal joints of the antenne very nearly equal, and the Jast very short 
and conical; the tarsi have three pulvilli. 

Fallenia, Meig., is formed of two species of Nemestrina, which scarcely differ from Anthrax in the reticulation 
of the wings. 

Colax, Wied., also appears to us to approach the terminal Anthracii in the antenne and wings, but the oral 
cavity is closed, as in Gistrus, and the ocelli are wanting. 


Our second general division of the Tanystoma has the proboscis membranous, with the basal part 
generally very short, terminated by two lips, very distinct, and ascending. The larve of the terminal 
Diptera of this division have the head of a variable form. 

Some of these (Leptides) have the wings extending, and exhibiting many complete cells; the 
antenne do not terminate in a plate, and the palpi are filiform or conical. 

Thereva, Latr. (Bibio, Fab.), has the palpi withdrawn into the oral cavity ; the antenne are fusiform or elongate- 
conic at the tips, with a small articulated terminal style. Type, Bibio plebeia, Fab., which is found on plants. 
The larva of T. hirta, De Geer, lives in the earth, and resembles a small Serpent; its body is white, and pointed 
at each end. It entirely strips off its skin on assuming the pupa state. 

In the others the palpi are exterior, and the last joint of the antennz is either globose or kidney-shaped, ovoid 
or conic, and terminated in all by a long seta. The tarsi have three pulvilli. Such is 

LEpTIs,— 
Which is divided into numerous subgenera. 

Atherix, Meig., has the basal joint of the antenne larger than the second; thick, at least in one sex, and with 
the third joint lenticular and transverse ; the palpi are porrected, 

Leptis, Fab., formerly Rhagio, Fab., has the terminal joint of the antenne subglobose, or ovoid, always termi- 
nated in a point, and never transverse. In Leptis, Macquart, the antenne are shorter than the head, with the 
three joints nearly equal in size, and the palpi porrected. Type, Musca scolopacea, Linn., a very common species. 

Chrysopilus, Macq., differs from the last in having the palpi perpendicularly elevated. 

[Vermileo, Macq.], has the antenne as long as the head, with the first joint cylindric, the second short, the third 
conical, and the palpi recurved. Type, Musca Vermileo, Linn. [Vermileo De Geeri, Macq., a species common in 
France, but not discovered in England]. The larva is cylindrical, with the front of the head attenuated, and four 
fleshy lobes at the other end of the body. It gives to its body all kinds of curvatures, crawling on the sand, in 
which it forms a conical burrow, at the bottom of which it conceals itself, either entirely or only in part, suddenly 
starting when an insect falls into the hole, and twisting itself round it, thrusting the hooks of its head into its 
body and sucking its juices. It then throws the carcase away, as well as the sand, by curving its body into an 
arch, and then suddenly letting it go. The pupa is concealed beneath a layer of sand. I have kept some of these 
lary, sent me by M. de Romaud, for nearly three years unchanged. 

Clinocera, Meig., from its wings, appears to belong to the next division. 


The other Tanystoma of our second division have the wings incumbent on the body, and only exhibit 
two complete or closed cells. The antennz terminate in a palette, nearly always furnished with a seta. 
The palpi, in the majority, are flattened, and rest on the proboscis. 

These characters, a compressed body, triangular head, slightly advanced like a muzzle; the abdomen 
curved beneath, and long slender legs armed with spines, particularly distinguish the genus 


Do.icuopus, Fab., Latr.,— 
Which now forms a small tribe, distributed by Macquart in a very natural manner, which we have 
adopted, except in reversing it, whereby Orthochile is brought to the head. 


DIPTERA. 625 


The male organs in some are accompanied by plate-like appendages. 

Orthochile, Latr., has the proboscis forming 4 small beak. 

In the rest the proboscis is short, or scarcely prominent. 

Dolichopus proper, has the third joint of the antenne nearly triangular, but little elongated, with a seta of 
moderate length, without a thickened knot between the middle and extremity. 

These insects are often of green or copper colours; the legs are long, and very delicate. They station them- 
Selves on walls, the trunks of trees, leaves, &c. Some run with celerity on the surface of water. The male organs 
of generation are always external, large, complicated, and folded beneath the abdomen. D. ungulatus, Fab., the 
larva of which lives in the earth: it is long, cylindric, with two points in form of two recurved hooks. The pupa 
has two curved horns in front of the thorax, 

Sybistroma, Meig., has the last joint of the antenne nearly ia the form of the blade of a knife, with a very long 
seta, knotted beyond the middle. ; 

The male organs in the others are furnished with filiform appendages. In some the hind part of the antenne is 
either oval, triangular, or very long. 

Rhaphium, Meig., has it very long, and nearly lanceolate. 

Porphyrops, Meig., has it hatchet-shaped or triangular, with a villose seta, the first joint of which is indistinct. 

Medeterus, Fisch., has the seta simple and dorsal, with the basal joint distinct and elongated, and the last joint 
of the antennz oval. 

Hydrophorus, Macq., differs from Medeterus in having the seta entirely terminal. 

In the others, the third joint of the antenne is nearly globose, and the seta always villose. 

Chrysotus, has it terminal. * 

Psilopus, has it inserted rather above. 

Diaphorus, has it inserted lower, and the head nearly spherical, and entirely occupied by the eyes, in the males, 
thus appearing to conduct us to the next family, Platypezine. ‘The wings, ocell, and other characters derived 
from the parts of the head, corroborate those which we have mentioned, but it is impossible for us to enter into 
such details. 

The Platypezine of Meigen, from which Macquart has judiciousiy removed the genus Cyrtoma, and 
to which we have added that of Scenopinus, and his family Megacephali, is composed of Diptera very 
similar in the proboscis, antennz, and wings to Dolichopus, but the body is depressed, with the head 
hemispherical, and almost entirely occupied by the eyes, at least in the males. The legs are short, 
without spines, and with the posterior tarsi often flat and broad. 

These Diptera are very small. Some of them have a seta in the last joint of the antenne. Those 
in which it is terminal, and the eyes contiguous above in the males, form two subgenera. 

Callomyia, Meig., has the basal joint alone of the posterior tarsi dilated, but as long as all the rest united. 

Platypeza, Meig., has the four basal joints of the posterior tarsi flattened. 

Pipunculus, Latr., (Cephalops, Fall.), has the seta inserted on the back of the third joint, near its base; the 


tarsi are not dilated, the eyes not united above in either sex, and the head nearly globose. 
Scenopinus, Latr., has no seta to the terminal joint of the antenne, which is narrower and longer than in the 


preceding. 
THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


Tur TABANIDES,— 


Has, for its characters, a proboscis exserted, and generally terminated by two lips; with the palpi 
, P cs ) y P palp 
porrected, the last joint of the antennz annulated, and a sucker of three pieces. It comprises the 


genus 
TaBanus, Linn.,— 


And is composed of large flies, well known for the torments they inflict upon horses and cows, of 
which they pierce the skin, in order to suck their blood. The body is generally but slightly hairy ; 
the head is as wide as the thorax, nearly hemispherical, and covered, except in a narrow space, particu- 
larly in the males, by the eyes, which are generally golden-green, with purple stripes. The antenne 
are nearly as long as the head, 3-jointed; the last joint being terminated in a point without seta or 
style at the tip, often notched at the base above, with transverse divisions, in number from three to 
seven. The proboscis in the greater number is nearly membranous, perpendicular, of the length of 
the head or rather shorter, nearly cylindrical, and terminated by two elongated lips; the two palpi 
mostly rest upon it, and are thick, villose, conical, compressed, and 2-jointed; the sucker, inclosed in 
the proboscis, is composed of six pieces like lancets, and which from their number and respective situ- 
ation represent the parts of the mouth of the Coleoptera. [It is only the females which possess this 
number of lancets; the mouth of the males is much weaker, and has only four. This sex is harmless, 
ss 


626 INSECTA. 


it being only the females which bite.] The alulets generally cover the halteres; the abdomen is de- 


pressed and triangular ; the tarsi have three pulvilli. 

These insects appear towards the end of spring, and are very common in woods and pastures, flying 
with a buzzing noise. They even attack man, to suck his blood; and cattle in some parts are some- 
times nearly covered with blood from the continued attacks of these insects. That of which Bruce 
has spoken in his Travels, under the name of Tsaltsalyia, and of which even the lion is afraid, is prob- 
ably a species of this genus. 

Pangonia, Latr. (Tanyglossa, Meig.), has the proboscis much longer than the head, slender, scaly, generally 
pointed at tip, and with very short palpi: the last joint of the antennz is divided into eight rings. The species 
are only found in hot climates, and subsist on the honey of flowers. 

The rest haye the proboscis shorter, or scarcely longer than the head; membranous; terminated by two large 
lips, and with the palpi at least equal to half the length of the proboscis; the last joint of the antenne is divided 
into five or four rings. 

Tabanus proper, has the antenne scarcely longer than the head; the last joint is rather crescent-shaped, and 
divided into five rings, the first largest, with a tooth above. T. bovinus, De Geer, the Large Gad-fiy, the larva of 
which lives in the ground: itis long and cylindric, narrowed towards the head, which is armed with two hooks; 
the pupa is naked, nearly cylindric, with two tubercles in front; the segments of the abdomen ciliated ; and six 
points at its posterior extremity. 

Tabanus maroccanus, Faby., according to Desfontaines, attacks camels, which are sometimes covered with them. 

The others have the antenne evidently longer than the head, and terminated by 2 joint of an elongate-conic form, 
or nearly cylindric ; and generally only with four annuli. The ocelli are wanting in many. 

Siivius, Meig., has three ocelli, and the first joint of the antennz is longer than the following, and cylindric. 

Chrysops, possesses three ocelli, but the two basal joints of the antennz are nearly of equaliength. C. cecutiens, 
Fabr., a common species, which greatly torments horses. 

Hematopota, Meig., wants ocelli, and the basal joint of the antennz is thick, and nearly oval in the males. 

Hexatoma, Meig. (Heptatoma, previously), has the antennz larger than the preceding, and cylindric, with the last 
joint very long; ocelli wanting. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


Tue Noracanroa,— 


Has, like the last, the third and last joint of the antennz transversely annulated, or composed of five 
distinct joints (Chiromyza) ; the sucker is formed of only four pieces ; the proboscis, of which the stem 
is very short, is nearly withdrawn into the oral cavity: the membranous consistence of this organ, and 
its reflexed lips ; its clubbed palpi, also reflexed ; the arrangement of the wings, which are mostly crossed 
over each other; the oval or orbicular form of the abdomen; and the scutellum often armed with 
points, distinguish the Notacantha from the Tabanides. But few of their larvee have been observed : 
those hitherto observed, and which have been described by Swammerdam, Réaumur, and Rosel, are 
aquatic (see below), and approach those of the Athericera by their soft head of a variable form, [?] and 
by their habit of changing to pup beneath their own skins; but they preserve their former size and 
form, which is not the case with the Athericera. The larvee of other Notacantha (Xylophagus), live in 
the rotten and moist parts of trees. 

We divide the Notacantha into three principal sections, [ Mydasii, Decatoma, and Stratiomydes]. 

The first, Mypasu, have no teeth or spines on the scutellum; the body is oblong, with the abdomen 
long, triangular, and conical; the wings are extended; the antennz, which constitute the chief 
character, are composed either of five distinct joints, two of which form in some a club, and in others 
the extremity of a cylindrical stem; or of three joints, the last of which is largest, nearly cylindrical, 
gradually pointed, and divided into three annuli; so that these organs are always divided into five. 
If we except Mydas, in which we have the rudiments of a style, neither the latter nor the seta exists 


in any of these Notacanthe ; probably the two terminal joints represent them. 

Some have the antenne much longer than the head, 5-jointed, terminated in an elongate mass formed of the 
last two joints, with a very short terminal seta; the hind thighs are strong, and toothed or spiny beneath. The 
tarsi have only two pulvilli. The posterior cells are closed before reaching the apex of the wing. These Diptera 


compose the genus 
Mypas,— 


Which is divisible into two subgenera. 

Cephatocera, Latr., has the proboscis long, and advanced. 

Mydas proper, has it short, and terminated by two large lips. 

Others have the antennz scarcely longer than the head, and cylindric; the tarsi have three pulvyilli, and the 
posterior cells extend to the hind margins of the wings. 


DIPTERA. 627 


Chiromyza, Wied., has the antenne with five aistinct joints. 
Pachystomus, Latr., has the antenne 3-jointed, the third joint divided into three annuli. The larva of P. syr- 
phoides, Pz., lives beneath the bark of the pine; its pupa resembles that of the Tabani. 


The second section, Decatoma, Latr., has the antenne always composed of three joints, the last 
being longer, without a style or seta, and divided into eight annuli, clavate in some, and nearly 
cylindric, or elongate-conic in others. The wings are generally incumbent on the body, and the tarsi 
have three pulvilli. They may be united into a single genus— 


XYLOPHAGUS. 

Hermetia, Latr., has the antenne much longer than the head, with the two first joints very short, and the third 
very long and compressed ; the scutellum is narrowed. 

The antenne in the others are never much longer than the head, and terminated by a nearly cylindric, or 
elongate-conic joint. Some have the scutellum not spined. 

Xylophagus proper, has the body long and narrow, with the antennz rather longer than the head, terminated 
by a subcylindric joint. X. ater, Latr. 

Acanthomera, Wied., has the antennz at least as long as the head, and terminated by a joint in the form of an 
elongate cone; the first joint larger than the others; the abdomen broad and flattened; the face with a pointed 
beak ; the two joints of the palpi of equal size. 

Raphiorhynchus, Wied., has the basal joint of the palpi very short, and the second much longer, and terminated 
ina point. The species of this and the preceding are of large size, and inhabit South America, 

The others have the scutellum armed with spines. 

Cenomyia, Latr. (Sicus, Fabr.), are closely allied to the two preceding subgenera; the antenne scarcely longer 
than the head; the palpi very visible, cylindric, pointed at the tip, with two equal-sized joints. The scutellum 
has two spines. S. ferrugineus, Fab. 

Beris, Latr., has the antennz rather Jonger than the head, with the two basal joints of equal size, and the third 
elongate-conic. The scutellum has four or six spines. 

Cyphomyia, Wied., has the antennz still more elongate, and the basal joint longer than the second; the third 
linear and compressed. ‘The scutellum has two spines. 

[Ptilocera, Wied.], (not Ptilodactylus, as written by Latreille), has the antenne emitting three or four linear, 
villose filaments, the tips being nearly setaceous. The scutellum has four teeth. 

Platyna, Wied., has the antenne filiform ; the two basal joints elongate-cylindric ; the scutellum with one spine, 
{and the abdomen very greatly dilated]. 


The third section, SrratiomypEs, Latr., has also the antennz 3-jointed, the last joint offering not 
more than five or six annuli, the style, or seta, not included. The latter exists in nearly all; and in 
those which do not possess it the third joint is long, elongate-fusiform, and always divided into five 
or six joints ; the wings are always incumvent upon each other. In some of the species, which have 
the antennz terminated by an oval or globular mass, and always aristate, the scutellum is not spined. 


This section corresponds with the genus 
Srratiomys, Geoff. 

Some have the third joint of the antenne elongate, fusiform, or conical, without a terminal seta, and mostly 
terminated by a 2-jointed style. The scutellum armed with two teeth, or spines, in the majority. 

In the four following subgenera the proboscis is short, and the front of the head does not form a beak. 

Stratiomys proper, has the antenne much longer than the head, the first and last joint greatly elongated; the 
last with at least five distinct joints, without a sudden style at the tip. The larve have the body long, flat, cori- 
aceous, and annulose ; the three terminal joints, long and slender, form a tail, terminated by a coronet of hairs ; 
the head is scaly, small, oblong, and furnished with a number of small hooks, serving to disturb the water, in 
which these larve reside. They respire by extending their 
tails to the surface, a spiracle being situated between the 
scales, at the extremity of the body. The skin, unchanged in 
form, serves as a cocoon to the inclosed pupa, which, however, 
only occupies one extremity of the larva skin. The perfect 
insect escapes by a slit made through the second segment. 

S. chameleon, Fab., a very common species. 

Odontomyia, Meig., have the antenne scarcely longer than 
the head, with the first two joints short, nearly equal, the third 
forming an elongate cone, slender, with at least five distinct 
joints ; the last conic, suddenly compressed, and recurved. 

Ephippium, Latr. (Clitellaria, Meig.), has the antenne 
scarcely longer than the head, with the two basal joints short, 
the third forming a shorter cone, thicker, the fourth joint 
truncate-conic, suddenly narrowed at tip, and terminated by a 
2-jointed style. S. ephippium, Fab. (E. thoracicum, Latr.). 
Oxycera, Meig-, similar to Ephippium in the shortness of the antenne, which are also styliferous, but with 

ss 2 


Fig. 135.—S_ chameleon. 


62% INSECTA. 


the third joint shorter, nearly ovoid, and the fourth joint shorter, the style not terminal, but dorsal. O. Hy- 
poleon, Fab. 

Nemotelus, Geoff., differs from the preceding in having the proboscis long, siphon-shaped, elbowed at the 
base, and lodged in a frontal protuberance of the head, like a beak. 

In the others the third joint of the antenne forms, with the preceding, an ovoid or globular mass, terminated 
by along seta. The scutellum is rarely spined. 

Chrysochlora, Lat. (Sargus, Fab.), has the third joint of the antenna conic, and terminated by a seta. 

Sargus, Fab., has the same joint subovoid, or nearly globose, rounded, or obtuse at the tip, with the seta dorsal. 
The first joint is nearly cylindrical ; the scutellum rarely spined ; the body often elongate, green, or coppery, and 
brilliant. Musca cupraria, Linn., a very common species, the larva of which resides in cow dung, and is of an 
oval, oblong form, narrowed and pointed in front, with a scaly head furnished with two hooks. It becomes a pupa 
beneath its own skin, and without materially altering its form. 

Vappo, Latr. (Pachygaster, Meig.), differs chiefly from Sargus in the antennx being shorter, with the basal joints 
transverse. 


Our second general division of those Diptera which have a sucker received in the proboscis, 
or sheath, and the antenne only 2- or 3-jomted, comprises those which have the proboscis 
generally membranous, bilabiate, long, elbowed, and bearing two palpi implanted a little 
above the elbow, and most commonly received into the oral cavity, and has only two pieces 
in the sucker, when it is always protruded. The last joint of the antenne, always furnished 
with a style or seta, has no annular division. The palpi are hidden in repose. This division 
forms 

THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


Tue ATHERICERA,— 


The proboscis of which is generally terminated by two large lips; the sucker has never more than 
four, and often only two pieces. The larvee have the body very soft, contractile, annulated, narrower 
in front, with the head of a variable figure, and its external organs consisting of one or two hooks, 
accompanied in some genera with fleshy lobes, and probably in all with a sort of tongue destined to 
receive the nutritive fluids. The spiracles are four in number; two placed in the prothorax, and two 
at the extremity of the body, on scaly plates; each of the latter is formed, in many, of three small 
spiracles close together. These larvee do not change their skins ; that which they first possess hardens, 
and becomes a kind of cocoon for the pupa. It also shortens, and assumes an oval form; the anterior 
part, which was slenderest in the larva, thickens. We also discover in it traces of articulation, and 
often vestiges of spiracles, although they no longer serve for respiration. [The manner in which the 
transformation to the pupa state is effected, is described in the general observations on the order, and 
need not be repeated. ] 

Few of the Athericera are carnivorous in the perfect state. They are found, for the most part, on 
flowers, leaves, and sometimes on human excrement. 

This family comprises the genera Conops, (Estrus, and the major part of that of Musca, of 
Linneus. 

We naturally commence with those species of the latter genus, which have the sucker formed of 
four pieces and not of two, as in all the other Athericera. They form a first tribe, SyrpHID&. 

The proboscis is always long, membranous, elbowed near the base, terminated by two large lips, and 
the sucker inclosed in an upper canal; the upper piece of the sucker is thick, and notched at the tip, 
the others are slender; to each of the two labial ones, representing maxille, is attached a small, 
slender palpus ; the head is hemispherical, and occupied for the most part by the eyes, especially in 
the males. Its anterior extremity is mostly produced like a muzzle, or beak, receiving the proboscis 
when it is folded in inaction. Many species resemble Humble-bees, and others Wasps. This tribe 


comprises but a single genus, 
SyrRPHUS,— 

A first general division of which is composed of those with the proboscis shorter than the head and thorax. 

Some of these have the front of the head produced into an eminence above the oral cavity; at the head of 
these are placed such as have the seta of the antenne plumose ; the body short and hairy, resembling Humble-bees. 

Volucella, Geoffr., has the third joint of the antennz oblong, its outline forming a curvilinear and elongate 
triangle. 

Musca mystacea, Linn., a very common species, the larva of which lives in the nests of Bombi, its body being 


DIPTERA. 629 


gradually widened behind, with small points on the sides, and terminated by six filaments. It is furnished beneath 
with two spiracles and six fleshy lobes, each armed with three long hooks. 

Sericomyia, Meig., has the third joint of the antenne semiorbicular. 

Eristalis, Meig., restricted to the species which have the seta villose, and which differ from Volucella in the 
wings, which have the outer cell closed by the posterior edge of the wing. 

Others differ from the preceding by having the seta of the antenne simple, or without distinct hairs ; the body 
short, and the abdomen triangular. 

The two following subgenera have the last outer cell of the wings strongly sinuated on the outer edge, and the 
body is generally hairy. 

Mallota, Meig., has the last joint of the antennz transversely trapeziform. 

Helophilus, Meig., has the same joint of a semi-oval form; the body less hairy than in the preceding. The 
larve of many have the body terminated by a long tail, which they can elongate and elevate perpendicularly until 
it reaches the surface of the water or cloaca in which they reside, in erder to respire by means of the aperture at 
its extremity. Their interior presents two large and very brilliant trachew, which, near the tail, are much folded, 
and kept in constant agitation; vessels filled with rain-water often contain many of these larvae. Type, Musca tenaz, 
Linn., a very common species, resembling in size and colour the maleof the Hive Bee. Its larva is rat-tailed ; and 
it is said to be so tough, that the strongest pressure will not destroy it. 

Others differ in having the outer cell of the wings closed by the posterior margin of the wing, its outer edge being 
straight, or but feebly sinuated ; the frontal prominence is very short, and the abdomen narrower than in the pre- 
ceding. 

Syrphus proper, (Sceva, Fabr.), has the abdomen narrowed from the base to the apex. Their larve feed only 
upon all kinds of Aphides, which they often hold up in the air, and suck them very quickly ; the body of these 
larve is of an elongate-conic form, uneven, and even sometimes spinose. When ready to metamorphose, they fix 
themselves to leaves or other substances by a gintinous secretion ; the body shortens, and its anterior end, which 
was the slenderest, becomes the thickest. Sceva Ribesii, Fabr., 'a very common species]. 

Chrysogaster, Meig., has the forehead of the females channelled on each side; and the nasal eminence is thicker. 

Baccha, Meig., differs from the last in having the abdomen narrow at the base, and swollen at the tip. Ithink 
the Syrphus conopseus [genus Doros], ought to be added to this, although the palette of its antenna is less 
orbicular. 

We now pass to other subgenera, agreeing with the preceding in the form of the muzzle, but the antennz are at 
least as long as the face. 

Paragus, Linn., has the antenne not fixed on a common fcotstalk, and their length does not exceed that of 
the head. 

In the five following, they arise from a common elevated footstalk, and are larger than the head. 

Sphecomyia, Latr., has the seta lateral, and inserted on the second joint; the third joint being very short. A 
species from Carolina, 

Psarus, has the seta inserted on the back of the third joint, near the top; this joint is nearly oval, of the same 
length as the second joint; the peduncle of the antenne is more elevated than in the analogous genera, 

Chrysotoxum, Meig., has the seta inserted on the third joint, near the base; this joint is the longest, forming a 
narrow and elongate triangle; the two others are nearly equally long. 

Ceria, Fabr., has the seta terminal; the body narrow and elongate, like that of a Wasp; the second and third 
joints of the antenne form a fusiform mass ; the abdomen is long and cylindric. 

Callicera, Meig., has the seta terminal, and the body short, broad, and silky. The nasal prominence does not 
exist in the following subgenera; the antennal seta is nearly always simple, and the wings incumbent on each 
other. 

Ceratophya, Wied. (with an unarmed scutellum), and 

Aphrites, Latr. (Microdon, Meig., with the scutellum armed with two teeth), agree with the last subgenera in the 
length of the antenne, close together at the base. In the following, they are shorter than the head; and the hind 
legs are often large, especially in one sex. 

Merodon, Meig. (having the abdomen triangular and conical), and 

Ascia, Meig. (with the abdomen narrowed at the base, and clavate), have the palette of the antenne oblong-tri- 
angular. In the following it is short, or but slightly elongated, sub-orbicular, or sub-ovoid. 

Sphegina, has the abdomen clavate, as in Ascia. In the others, it is triangular, conic, or subcylindrical. 

Some of these have the wings not extending beyond the extremity of the abdomen; and some have the hind 
thighs thickened, and armed with numerous small spines. 

Eumerus, Meig., to which we add his Xylota, which differs only in having the abdomen narrower, and almost 
linear. J. pipiens, Linn. 

Milesia, Latr. (Tropidia, Meig.), has the two hind legs much longer than the others, with the thighs much thicker, 
and armed with a single tooth; in many, the abdomen is conical, 

Pipiza, Meig. (and Psilota, Meig.), have the hind legs little longer than the others; the abdomen depressed and 
semi-elliptic. These Diptera have much affinity with the Syrphi and Chrysogasteri. 

Brachyopa, Hottm., differs from all the preceding in the wings extending far beyond the abdomen, [in consequence 
of the shortness of that part of the body]. They otherwise resemble Milesia, and appear to lead to Rhingia. 

Rhingia, Scop., forms the second general division of the Syrphies, having the proboscis longer than the head and 
thorax, and nearly linear. 


630 INSECTA. 


PelecocerawHoff., is unknown to me, but is at once distinguished from all with the antenne shorter than the 
head, by the short, thick seta of the antenne. 

The sucker of all the other Athericire is only composed of two set, of which the upper represents 
the labrum, and the lower the tongue. 

These Athericere form three small tribes, which correspond with the genera Gstrus and Conops 
of Linnus, and with that of Musea of Fabricius, as at first proposed by him. 

As Stomoxys and Bucentes are connected with the last of these genera, we shall commence with the 
tribe Gisrripes, Latreille, which is composed of the genus 


Cstrus, Linn.,— 
Well characterised by possessing, in the place of a mouth, only three tubercles, or but slight rudiments 
of a proboscis and palpi. 

These insects have the appearance of large meat-flies, very hairy, their hairs being generally coloured 
in rings, like Humble-bees. Their antenne are very short, each inserted in an excavation below the 
forehead, and terminated by a rounded palette, bearing on its back, near the base, a simple seta; the 
wings are generally apart ; the alulets large, and hiding the balancers ; the tarsi are terminated by two 
ungues, and two pulvilli. 

These insects are found but rarely in the perfect state, the time of their appearance being very 
limited. As they deposit their eggs on the bodies of various herbivorous quadrupeds, it is in woods 
and pastures frequented by these animals that they are to be sought after. Each species of Cstrus is 
ordinarily parasitic upon a single mammiferous animal, selecting, as the situation for its eggs, that part 
of the body which is best fitted for the larvee, which either remain in that particular situation, or are 
passed from thence to a more favourable place of developement. The Ox, Horse, Ass, Rein-deer, Stag, 
Antelope, Camel, Sheep, and Hare, are the only quadrupeds hitherto known to be subject to the 
presence of the larve of @stri. These animals appear to have a strange dread of the insect, when it 
seeks to lay its eggs upon them. 

The nature of the abode of these larva is of three kinds, which may be distinguished as cutaneous, 
cervical, or gastric, according as they reside either in tumours formed in the skin, or in some parts of 
the head or stomach of the animal destined to support them. The eggs, whence the larve of the first 
kind are hatched, are placed by the parent fly beneath the skin [of oxen, &c.], which it [is stated by 
some authors, including Latreille, but evidently erroneously,] to pierce with its ovipositor, composed of 
four tubes, entering into one another, and armed at the tip with two hooks, and two other pieces ; this 
instrument is formed of the terminal segments of the abdomen. ‘These larvae, called ¢aons by the 
French peasantry [and wordéles or wornils by the English], have no need to change their situation, 
finding themselves, as soon as born [or rather as soon as they have buried beneath the skin], in the 
midst of a purulent humour, which serves them for nourishment. The eggs of the other species are 
merely stuck upon various parts of the body, either close to natural and internal cavities, into which 
the larva easily penetrate, and there fix themselves, or where the animal is in the habit of licking itself, 
whereby the larve are carried by the tongue into the mouth, and so pass to the place [in the stomach] 
destined to receive them. It is thus that the Sheep Bot-fly places its eggs at the inner edge of the 
nostrils of that quadruped, which becomes agitated, stamps the ground with its fore feet, and hurries 
away with its head to the ground; the larva insinuates itself into the maxillary and frontal sinuses, 
and fixes itself to the internal membrane with which they are lined, by means of two strong hooks 
with which its mouth is armed. It is thus, also, that the Horse Bot-fly deposits its eggs, without 
settling, by hovering in the air at intervals over the inner part of the legs, at the sides of the shoulders, 
and sometimes on the withers. Cstrus hemorrhoidalis, the larva of which also lives in the stomach of 
the Horse, places its eggs upon the lips; the larve, attaching themselves to the tongue, pass by the 
cesophagus into the stomach, where they subsist on the humour secreted by its inner membrane. They 
are generally found round the pylorus, and rarely in the intestines. They often exist in great numbers, 
hanging like a bunch of grapes: Mr. Clark, nevertheless, considers that they are rather serviceable than 
otherwise to the Horse. 

These larvee have, in general, a conical form, and are destitute of legs. Their body is composed of 
eleven segments, exclusive of the head, furnished with small tubercles and spines, often arranged in 
bands, and which facilitate their progression. The principal organs of respiration are situated in a 


on  —————————— 


DIPTERA. 631 


scaly plate at the posterior extremity of the body, which is thickest. It appears that their number 
and arrangement are different in the gastric larve: it also appears that the mouth of the cutaneous 
larve is only composed of fleshy lobes, whilst that of the internal larve is armed with two strong, 
bent hooks. 

When the larve have obtained their full size, they quit their former abode, fall to the earth, and 
there hide themselves, in order to undergo those transformations to pup beneath their own skin, like 
the other Diptera of this division. The gastric larve pass through the intestines and escape by the 
anus, probably with the excrement. It is generally in June and July that these changes take place. 

M. Humboldt has observed, in South America, Indians with the abdomen covered with small 
tumours, produced, as he believed, by the larve of (stri; and later observations appear to confirm 
this opinion. These larve probably belonged to the genus Cuterebra of Clark, the larva of which 
reside beneath the skin of several mammiferous animals. It also appears, from various testimony, 
that larvee analogous to those (stri have been extracted from the maxillary or frontal sinuses of 
Man ; but these observations have not been pursued. 

Some have a small and retractile proboscis. 3 

Cuterebra, Clark, has the seta of the antenne plumose, and the palpi not visible. Cstius buccatus, Fab. ; 
Cuniculi, Clark ; and Ephippium, Latr.; all from America. 

Cephenemyia, Latr., has the seta simple, and the palpi evident. Gstrus Trompe, Fab., the larva of which infests 
the frontal sinus of the Rein-deer. 

The others have no proboscis, and the seta of the antennz is always simple. 

(Edemagena, Latr., has two palpi. Qstrus Tarandi, the Bot of the Rein-deer. 

The following have no palpi. 

Hypoderma, Latr., with a small oral aperture like a Y. Cistrus Bovis, the larva of which resides in tumours on 
the back of Oxen. 

Cephalemyia, Latr., has two small tubercles like points, which are the vestiges of palpi; the alulets cover the 
balancers. (strus Ovis, the Sheep Bot-fiy, the larva of which lives in the frontal sinuses of the Sheep. 

Estrus proper (Gastrus, Meig., Gasterophilus, Leach), has two similar tubercles, 
but the wings cross each other, and the alulets only partially cover the halteres. 

Gstrus Equi, the Great Horse Bot, hemorrhoidalis, veterinus, &c. This differs 
in the cells, extending to the hind edge of the wings, whereas in all the rest (which 
Leach and Meigen retain under the name of @strus) the cells are closed before reach- 
ing the hind margin. 


The third tribe of the Athericera, that of the Conopsarra, is the only 
one in which the proboscis is always exserted and siphon-shaped, either cylin- 


dric, conical, or setaceous. The reticulation of the wings is the same as in 
our first division of Muscides. The majority of these insects are found on 


plants. They compose the genus 
Fig. 136.—Gasterophilus equi Conops, Linnezus. 
Some have the body long and narrow; the abdomen long, clavate, and bent under ai the tip, with 


the male organs exposed. 

One portion of these has the proboscis only elbowed at the base. 

Systropus, Wied. (Cephenes, Latr.), has the antenne much longer than the head, the last joint alone forming 
the club, without a style, and the abdomen long and slender. South American insects, like small species 
of Sphex. 

Conops proper, has the antenne much longer than the head, and the last two joints form together a mass, with 
a terminal style. 

Conops rufipes, Fab., which undergoes its transformations in the interior of the body of living Bombi, escaping 
between the segments. An apod larva, found in Bombus lapidarius, being probably that of this species, has fur- 
nished Messrs. Audouin and Lachat materials for some fine anatomical observations. 

Zodion, Latr., has the antenne shorter than the head, terminating in an oyoid mass. 

Myopa, Fab., has the proboscis elbowed at the base, and again near the middle, the apex being bent under, and 
the antenne shorter than the head. [Several British species. } 


The others (Stomoxryde, Meig.), resemble domestic Flies in their general form, the arrangement of 


their wings, the antennz terminated by a palette shorter than the head, and furnished with a seta, 


and the abdomen short and conical, without external appendages. 

Stomoxys proper, has the proboscis only elbowed at the base. Type, Conops calcitrans, Linn. [a very common 
insect, often observed on windows, and which is the species] which pricks our legs so sharply, especially 
betore rain. 


632 INSECTA. 


Bucentes, Latr. (Stomoxys, Fab., Siphona, Meig.), has the proboscis elbowed twice, as in Myopa. 
Carnus, which Nitzsch refers to this family, is distinguished by having only the rudiments of wings ; the direc- 
tion of the proboscis, and the form of its antenne and body, seem to indicate that it comes near Stomoxys. 


The fourth and last tribe, Musciprs, is distinguished from the preceding by having a proboscis 
always very apparent, membranous, and bilabiate, generally bearing two palpi (except in Phora), and 
capable of being entirely withdrawn into the oral cavity, and a sucker of two pieces. The antenne 
always terminated by a palette with a lateral seta. 

These Athericera embrace the ancient genus Musea of Fabricius, which the works of Fallen and 
Meigen (without speaking of our own) have singularly modified. The difficulties, however, which 
oppose its investigation, are nevertheless far from removed; for although these authors have estab- 
lished a great number of genera, there are, nevertheless, some, such as Tachina and Anthomyia, which 
can only be regarded as magazines. In the work of Meigen, which is confined to the European 
Diptera, the first of these genera comprises 315 species, and the second 213. Dr. Robineau Desvoidy, 
anxious to complete these researches and serve science, has undertaken with much zeal the special 
study of the Muscides, which he terms Myodaires, and has presented a memoir upon the subject to the 
Royal Academy of Sciences, [since published]. As Latreille, however, was only acquainted with the 
general distribution of this tribe through the report of M. de Blainville, presented to the Academy, he 
was not able to make use of it: indeed, it would too far exceed the limits of this work to do so, and 
probably alarm young naturalists by the multitude of genera which he has established, and which 
appeared to the reporter to be too slightly characterized. We think that the work of Meigen, except 
in respect to the revision of the two genera above mentioned, is quite sufficient, in the actual state of 
the science. [The vast extent of this tribe, which probably equals that of all the other Diptera united 
together, has, notwithstanding the remarks of Latreille, rendered the establishment of many additional 
genera requisite. M. Macquart, in his Histoire Naturelle des Diptéres, and Messrs. Haliday and 
Walker, in various detached memoirs, have added to the number of those proposed by Meigen, although 
they have materially reduced the number proposed by Robineau Desvoidy, which amounted to 354, 
divided into ten primary groups, two of which still remain unpublished, and which will of course 
increase the number of his genera. | 

This tribe comprises the genus 

Musca. 

The first section comprises those species which have the antenne inserted near the forehead; the 
palpi placed upon the proboscis, and retractile with it into the oral cavity, and transverse nerves to the 
wings. This section comprises eight principal groups, or subtribes. 

The first division (CREopHIL#) has very large alulets, nearly covering the balancers. The wings are 
generally apart, with the two terminal and external cells of the posterior limb closed by a transverse 
nervure. 

Some of these have the epistome not beak-like, and the sides of the head not advanced into horns. 

A portion of these have the seta of the antenne naked. 

Echinomyia, Dumeril, has the second joint of the antenne longest ; the last is nearly trapezoidal, with the seta 
biarticulate at its base. Musca grossa, Linn., the largest known species, nearly as large as a Humble-bee. It is 
black, very bristly, with the head buff, eyes brown, and base of the wings reddish. It makes a loud buzzing, 
settles upon flowers in woods, and often upon cow- dung, on which its larva resides ; the body of which is yellowish, 
shining, conical, with a single hook, and two fleshy horns at its anterior extremity; the other being terminated 
by a circular plate, upon which are two spiracles, each placed upon a lenticular lobe, elevated in the middle. 
The segment after the head is also furnished on each side with a spiracle. In the cocoon of the pupa, which is 
also conical, the posterior extremity also presents two more distinct spiracles ; its contour formed by a plate with 
nine flaps. [It appears to me that Latreille has erred in referring Réaumur’s figures to Echinomyia grossa. They 
seem to me to be those of the transformations of Mesembrina meridiana. I presume that the larva of Echinomyia 
grossa is a parasite. ] 

In the other Creophile the third joint of the antennz is never shorter than the second. Sometimes the face is 
nearly naked, and never clothed with long bristles. 

Gonia, Meig., has the seta of the antenne elbowed, and the abdomen with distinct segments, and convex. 

Miltogramma, Meig., has the abdomen also convex, with distinct joints, and the seta of the antennez straight. 

Trixa, Meig., differs from Miltogramma in haying the third joint of the antenne scarcely longer than the 
second. 

In the four following subgenera the abdomen is swollen, with the articulations indistinct, or flattened. 


a 


DIPTERA. 633 


Gymnosoma, Meig., has the abdomen vesicular, with indistinct articulations, and the antennez as long as 
the head. 

Cistogaster, Latr., has the abdomen similar, but the antenne much shorter. 

Phasia, Meig., has the abdomen very flat and semicircular, and the tibiz but slightly bristly. 

Trichiopoda, Latr., has the abdomen flat but oblong, and the hind tibiz with a row of lamelliform bristles. 

Sometimes the face has two rows of long bristles, like moustaches, two being larger than the rest. 

The three following have the wings vibratile, and the abdomen narrow and elongate; the antenne are not 
shorter than the face. 

Lophosia, Meig., has the last joint of the antenne forming a large triangular palette. 

Ocyptera, Meig., has the third joint of the antenne seldom much larger than the preceding, and forming a linear 
or oblong square. M. Dufour has observed the transformations of two species ; the larva of O. casside, residing 
in the visceral cavity of Cassida bicolor, and that of O. bicolor, in the same cavity of Pentatoma grisea: both these 
larve feed on the fatty matter of the insects they infest; their bodies are oblong, soft, whitish, perfectly glabrous 
and contractile, and terminated by a sort of siphon one third of the length of the body, of amore solid consistence, 
and unchangeable in its form, with two hooks at the tip: the posterior extremity of this siphon, occupying one 
of the metathoracic spiracles [of the insect infested}, and in contact with the air, enables the parasite to respire. 
Neither antenne nor eyes have been observed. Itisin the same situation that the larva changes to the pupastate. 
This [or rather the old larva skin] is ovoid, without any trace of segments, with several tubercles at one end. It 
quits its abode before assuming the perfect state, either without destroying the insect, or the larva infested, or 
after it has killed it. 

Melanophora, Meig., has the antenne much shorter ; the antennz not extending lower than the middle of the 
face ; the outer terminal cell is more advanced posteriorly than the inner one. 

The abdomen of the other Creophilz is but little elongated, triangular; and the wings are not vibratile. 

Phania, Meig., has the abdomen 4-jointed; the tip being elongated, narrowed, and folded beneath; the third 
joint of the antenne is long and linear. 

Xysta, Meig., has the abdomen 5- or 6-jointed, and the antenne short, with the last two joints nearly equal ; the 
hind tibiz are rather curved, compressed, and ciliated. 

Tachina, Fabr., has the abdomen 4-jointed, but not recurved at the tip; the antennz as long, or nearly as long, 
as the head; the last joint longer than the preceding. Some of the species, forming a peculiar group, live whilst 
larve in the bodies of different caterpillars, which they destroy. 

We now pass to Creophile which have the seta of the antenne evidently villose or plumose; the third joint 
always forms an elongated palette, and is longer than the preceding joint. 

Dexia, Meig., has the habit of Ocyptera, with the abdomen narrow and elongated, especially in the males. 

Musca proper (Mesembrina, Meig.), has the abdomen triangular, the eyes contiguous, or very close together in 
the males. Here are to be arranged the majority of the flies of which the larve feed upon meat, carcases, &c., and 
others in manure. They have all the form of soft worms ; whitish in colour; destitute of feet ; thickened and truncate 
at the posterior extremity, and pointed at the other end, where are one or two hooks, with which these Jarve gnaw 
their food, and of which they hasten the corruption. They undergo their changes in a very few days [in the 
summer]; the females have the extremity of the body narrowed, and elongated into a tube, to enable them to bury 
theireggs. Musca vomitoria, Linn., the Common Meat Fly, with the forehead fulvous; the thorax black, and ab- 
domen blue, with black marks. It possesses a remarkably fine sense of smelling, and makes a loud buzzing noise, 
when it enters our houses in order to deposit its eggs on meat. Deceived by the odour of Arwm dracunculus 
when in flower, it sometimes deposits its eggs in that flower ; when ready to assume the pupa state, it quits its food 
and descends into the earth, or else undergoes its change in some dry and retired situation. M. domestica, Linn., 
the small Common Domestic Fly, the larva of which lives in moist manure. 

Sarcophaga, Meig., differs from Musca, by the eyes being wide apart in both sexes; the eggs in some species 
are hatched within the abdomen of the parent, as is the case with M, carnaria, Linn. [a very abundant species], 
which is larger and longer than the Meat Fly: the female deposits her young larve upon flesh, carcases, and 
sometimes in the wounds of persons. 

We terminate the Creophilz by some subgenera contrasting with the preceding in the form of the head, situation 
of the wings, or of their external cells. 

Achias, Fabr., remarkable for the horn-like elongations of the sides of the head ; with the antenne inserted high 
in the forehead. 

Idia, Meig., has the front of the head produced into a beak. 

The two following have the terminal cells of the wings extending to the posterior edge; the abdomen is 
flattened. 

Lispe, Latr., has the body oblong; the antenne nearly as long as the face; and the style plumose. 

Argyritis, Latr., has the body short; the abdomen very flat, nearly semicircular ; the head short and broad; the 
antennez very short; with the seta elbowed. 


In all the remaining Muscides, the alulets are small, or nearly obsolete ; the balancers exposed; and 
the principal nerves of the wings extending to the outer edge of the wings, which closes the posterior 


cells. 
A second general division of the Muscides, that of the ANruoMyYzIDEs, is composed of species having 


634 INSECTA. 


the appearance of Common Flies; the wings not vibratile; the antenne inserted near the forehead, 
always shorter than the head, terminated by a long or linear joint, with the seta mostly plumose ; the 
legs are of moderate size, and the abdomen composed of four joints, 

Anthomyia, Meig., has the seta of the antenne plumose ; the abdomen in both sexes pointed at the tip, and the 
proboscis not terminated like a hook. Musca pluvialis, Linn. 

Drymeia, Meig., has the proboscis exhibiting this character, and the eyes united behind, in the males. 

Cenosia, Meig., has the abdomen of the males swollen at the tip. The iarve of C. fungorum live in boleti, and 
often in the edible mushroom. De Geer observed, also, that these larve will destroy each other. 

Eriphia, Meig., has the antenne shorter, with a simple style, and the eyes of the males united behind. 


Our third division, Hypromyzrpes, has the head almost triangular, with the eyes very prominent ; a 
swollen and yaulted muzzle ; a very thick proboscis; and the sides of the face not bristly ; the antennx 
are very short, with the style plumose: the legs are strong. All the indigenous species are found in 


aquatic situations. 

Ropalomera, Wied., has all the thighs swollen, and the face has a frontal tubercle. 

Ochthera, Latr., has the thighs of the fore-legs very robust, denticulated beneath ; the tibiw curved, and applied 
against the thighs, and terminated by a strong spine. In the following Hydromyzides, the thighs are not 
swollen. 

Ephydra, Fall., has the eyes very prominent ; the muzzle thick ; and the seta of the antenne thick at the base, 
and simple. 

Notiphila, Fall., has the head rounder, without a frontal muzzle. 


The Muscides of the three following divisions have the body oblong; the wings incumbent, not vi- 
bratile ; the head nearly spherical, and the face covered by a white membrane, with an impressed line 
oneach side. The antenne are sometimes inserted in fossule, but oftener porrected, and in many 
as long or longer than the head. 

The fourth division, ScaToMyzIDEs, are distinguished by the head being never longer than broad, 
nearly spherical ; the hind legs not greatly elongate ; the antenn, with the third joint longer than the 
preceding, and, except in Lowocera, always shorter than the head. 


Some have the hind legs large, with thick compressed thighs; and the antenne very short ; with a simple seta. 

Thyreophora, Latr., has the antenne lodged beneath a frontal prominence; and the second and following joints 
of the tarsi nearly alike. TJ. cynophila, Panz., has the scutellum bispinose; it is almost always found on the dead 
carcases of dogs, and M. Percheron has assured me it is sometimes phosphorescent. 

Spherocera, Latr. (Borborus, Meig.), has the antenne exposed, with the palette hemispherical ; the hind thighs 
are compressed, with the two basal joints of the tarsi evidently larger than the following. It is almost always 
about manure that these Diptera are found, and it is probably there that their larve reside. 

Sometimes the hind legs do not materially differ from the others; the antenne are nearly as long as the face, 
deflexed, and terminated by an elongated, narrow palette. 

Dialyta, Meig., has the face bristly ; the abdomen 4-jointed, and the seta of the antenne simple. 

Cordylura, Fall., has the face bristly ; the abdomen 5-jointed, and the wings scarcely extending beyond the 
abdomen. 

Scatophaga, Latr., differs from the last in having the wings longer than the abdomen, which is never clavate. 
Musca stercoraria, Linn., a very common brff-coloured species, found in great numbers upon excrement, in which 
the females deposit their eggs. 

Loxocera, Latr., has the face not bristly ; the body long, narrow, and the antennz much longer than the head. 

Chyliza, Fall., has the antenne shorter than the head, with the seta thick, like a style. 

The others have the antenne always much shorter than the face, with the palette either oblong, ovoid, or 
nearly globose. 

Some of these have the body narrow and elongate, and the abdomen pointed or stylate; sometimes the face 
is naked. 

Lissa, Meig., has the upper side of the head with an elevation, and the abdomen is almost linear. 

Psilomyia, Latr. (to which Geomyza, Fall., may be added), has the body less elongate, and the abdomen ter- 
minated by an articulated style. 

Tetanura and Tanypeza, Meig., are allied to the preceding; the legs in both seem longer, and the abdomen of 
Tetanura is obtuse at the tip, and that of Tanypeza pointed or stylate in the females. 

Lonchoptera, Meig., has the face bristly at the sides, and the basal joint of the antenne is verv slender; the 
wings have no transverse nerve, except close to the base. 

The body in the other Scatomyzides is thicker and more oblong, and its form is more like that of the common 
House-fly, 

Heleomyza, Fall., has the head bristly. 

Dryomyza, Fall. (with the face concave beneath the antenne), and 

Sapromyza, Fall. (with it straight), differ from the following in having the antennal seta plumose. 


== pees eeemeeenere re 
ee ee 


DIPTERA. 635 


The terminal Scatomyzides have the seta simple; the antenne acways short and straight; they are small and 
glabrous Flies, black, and more or less varied with buff; the legs strong, and the eyes large. The upper side of 
the head is flat, with a brown, triangular mask, in which the ocelli are placed. They are found in flowers. Many 
of their larve mine the interior of vegetables, and some are very injurious to agriculturists, destroying various 
cereal plants previous to their fructification. The larve of Musca Frit sometimes destroy the barley crops in 
Sweden, to the amount of 100,000 golden ducats in a year, being one-tenth of the produce. The larve of Oscinis 
pumilionis and lineata, Fab., are equally obnoxious. They constitute our genus 

Oscinis, Latr., to which we add the genus Chlorops, 
Meig., and Piophila, Fallen. 


The fifth division (DoLicnocEera), which em- 
braces the genus Te/anocera, Dum., is closely allied 
to the preceding, but the length of the second 
joint of the antenne, which equals or surpasses 
that of the third, at once distinguishes it. These 
organs are porrected, as long as, or longer than, 
the head, and pointed at the tip. The upper 
surface of the head forms a triangle, obtuse at the tip. 

Some have the antenne shorter than the head. 

Otites, has the seta simple, and the lower part of the face is not produced. 

Euthycera, Latr., has the seta plumose, and the lower part of the face produced into a truncated muzzle. 
The others have the antennz as long as, or longer than, the head. 


Sepedon, Latr., has the antenne evidentiy longer than the head, and the seta simple. 
Tetanocera, Dum., has the antenne as long as the head, and the seta sometimes plumose. 


Fig. 137.— Piophila Casci. 


The sixth division, Leprovopirrs, is remarkable for the length and slenderness of the feet. the 
hind ones being at least as long again as the body, which is also slender and filiform ; all the tarsi are 
short. The head is spherical or ellipsoid, and terminated in a point. The antenne are yery small. 


They are found on plants, and many frequent aquatic places. 

Micropeza, Meig., has the head ellipsoid, terminated in a point, and the seta of the antenne simple. Calobata 
filiformis, Fabr. 

Calobata, Fabr., has the head spheroidal, and the seta often plumose. 

Nerius, Fabr., has the habit of Micropeza, but differs in the antennz being as long as the head. 


The seventh division, Carpomyz, has the wings vibratile, spotted with black or yellow, an appear- 
ance very like that of the Domestic Flies, but with the eyes apart, and the abdomen with four or five 
external segments, mostly terminated in the females by a cylindric or conic ovipositor ; the antennz 
always short, with the seta rarely villose. The larve of many species live in fruits or seeds, in the 


germ of which the parent fly had deposited its eggs. 

Many species approach the preceding subgenera in the narrow and elongated form of the body, and long legs, 
as well as in the globular or more elongated form of the head. 

Diopsis, Linn., distinct from the very elongated horns into which the sides of the head are produced, and the 
scutellum with two spines. These singular exotic insects have been monographed by Dalman, [and subsequently 
by me, in the Transactions of the Linnean Society]. 

Cephalia, Meig., has the palette of the antennz narrow and long, and the palpi spatulate. 

Sepsis, Fall., has the palette much shorter, with a naked seta, and the palpi nearly filiform, (Small, active Flies, 
with wings spotted with black. ] 

The other Carpomyze have the appearance of Common Flies, with the head short and hemispherical, and the 
legs of moderate length. 

The three following subgenera have the upper surface of the head almost horizontal, so that the antenne appear 
inserted on a level with the top. 

Ortalis, Fall., has the abdomen not terminated by an external ovipositor in the females. M. Fallen refers the 
Musca cerasi, Linn., to this subgenus, the larva of which generally feeds inside the fruit of the cherry, quitting 
the fruit and entering the earth when ready to undergo its transformations. 

Tetanops, Meig., has an exserted ovipositor in the females, like a tail; the head, seen from above, appears nearly 
triangular. 

Tephrites, Latr. (Trypeta, Meig.), has the abdomen similarly terminated, but the head is rather transverse than 
longitudinal, and rounded. Musca Cardui, Linn., the larva of which lives in galls, on the common thistle, on 
the substance of which it feeds. 

Dacus, Fab., comprises those Tephrites which have the palette more elongate, including the species which 
attacks the olive. ‘The inhabitants of the Isle of France are scarcely able to obtain any sound lemons, in conse- 
quence of the attacks of a species of this genus. 


636 INSECTA. 


Platystoma, Meig., differs in having the head more compressed transversely, so that the upper surface is more 
slanting, and the antennz appear inserted in the middle of the face. 
This naturally conducts us to Timia, Wied., and Mosillus, belonging to the next division. 


The eighth division, GyYMNOMYZIDES, 1s composed of small Museides, with a short body, curved, 
nearly glabrous, of a shining black colour, the head much compressed transversely, as in Platystoma, 
without any inferior prominence ; the scutellum advanced; the abdomen short, depressed, and some- 
times terminated by a small point, and the legs nearly glabrous. 

Celyphus, Dalm, (having the scutellum extended over the body), and 

Lauxania, Latr. (with the scutellum of ordinary size and the seta plumose), have the antenne longer than the 


head. The others have them shorter. 
In some of these they are very short and wide apart, and lodged in impressed fossule, the space between them 


being elevated. 

Mosillus, Latr., has the first cell of the posterior edge of the wings almost closed; Meigen divides them into two 
subgenera,—Timia, with the abdomen 6-jointed, and Ulidia, with it 5-jointed. 

Homalura, Meig., with the abdomen 5-jointed, and 

Actora, Meig., with it 6-jointed, have the first cells of the posterior limb of the wings entirely open and 
longitudinal. 

In others the antenne are nearly contiguous, and the cells of the posterior edge of the wing are always open. 

Gymnomyza, Fall., has the antennz inserted beneath a sort of arch, and near the middle of the face. 

Lonchea, Meig., has them inserted higher, without any appearance of an arch. 


The second section of the Muscides, and which forms our ninth and last sub-tribe, the Hyrocrra, 
consists of a single subgenus, distinct from all the preceding in many respects. The palpi are always 
external ; the antennze inserted near the oral cavity, very short, terminated by a large globular joint, 
with a very long seta; the wings have only three oblique discoidal nerves, whence the name T'rineura 
given to them by Meigen; the legs are very short and spiny, with the thighs large and compressed, 
especially in the hind legs. They are extremely active, and form the genus Phora, Latr.; Tri- 


neura, Meig. 


Our second general section of the Dipterous insects differs from the preceding in the 
mouth, antenne, and transformations, and other less important characters ; whence Dr. Leach 
was induced to form them into a distinct order, Omaloptera. ‘Those which terminate this 
section have a certain relation with the hexapod wingless insects, composing our order of 
Parasites, or the genus Pediculus of Linnzeus. 

This section forms 

THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE DIPTERA,— 


Tue Pupipara (or the Nymphipara of Réaumur). 


The head of these insects, seen from above, is divided into two principal portions, the posterior 
being the principal, supporting the eyes and receiving the anterior part in an emargination in front. 
This is also divided into two parts, the posterior being the largest, and supporting the antennz at its 
sides; and the other constitutes the mouth organs. The inferior and oral cavity of the head is occu- 
pied merely by membrane, out of the extremity of which the sucker protrudes, arising from a small 
bulb, or advanced peduncle, composed of two sete close together, and covered by two coriaceous, 
narrow, elongate and villose plates, which act as sheaths. Whether these valves represent, as I pre- 
sume, the palpi of other Diptera, or whether they are pieces of a sheath properly so called, as regarded 
by M. Dufour, who has discovered two small bodies, which he takes for palpi; it is not less certain 
that the proboscis of these insects differs materially from that of the preceding Diptera, and that the 
proboscis has in this case more resemblance to that of the Fleas, from which it is, however, removed 
by the absence of articulations. In Melophagus the base of the plates of the sucker is covered by two 
small, coriaceous, triangular pieces, united, and forming a kind of labrum; they seem to represent, in a 
small degree, the two pieces which cover the base of the rostrum of the Flea. 

The body is short, broad, flat, and defended by a solid or leathery-like skin. The head is more 
intimately united to the thorax than in the preceding families. The antenna, always situated at the 
lateral and anterior extremity of the head, appear either under the form of a tubercle bearing three 
seta, or that of small hairy plates. The size of the eyes varies, being very small in some species. In 


DIPTERA. 637 


general the pupipare are destitute of ocelli; the thorax is furnished with four spiracles, two anterior 
and two posterior; the latter pair, overlooked by Dufour, are situated, as in other Diptera, near the 
base of the balancers. The abdomen of //. ovina is furnished with ten spiracles, in the shape of 
small, round, corneous tubercles, the four posterior being close to the anus. The wings are always 
apart, and accompanied by balancers; their [fore-edge] is more or less margined with sete; the supe- 
rior nerves, which are nearest it, are strong and well defined; but those which extend to the hinder 
edge are weak, and not transversely united. In the terminal Diptera of this family these organs 
are wanting, or simply rudimental; the balancers are also obsolete. The legs are terminated by two 
robust claws, which have one or two teeth on the under side, which makes their appearance double 
or triple. The covering of the abdomen is continuous, so that this part of the body can be distended, 
and acquire a considerable volume, as becomes necessary in the body of the female Hippodosce, for 
their larve are hatched and are nourished therein until the period of their transformation into pupe. 
They are then discharged under the form of a soft, white egg, nearly as large as the abdomen of the 
female ; the skin hardens, and becomes a solid cocoon, brown at first, but subsequently black ; round, 
and often notched at one end, exhibiting a shiny plate or operculum, which becomes detached like a 
cap at the period of the final transformation. This cocoon has neither rings nor transverse incisions 
by which it is distinguished from those of other Diptera, especially the Athericera, which it most 
resembles. It is in the fine works of Réaumur, De Geer, Leon Dufour [and Lyonnet], illustrated as 
they are by figures in detail, that we must look for a complete account of these transformations, and 
of the changes which take place in the female at the period of her delivery. According to L. Dufour, 
the ovaries in their configuration and position singularly resemble those of the human female. The 
matrix, at first small, becomes enormously dilated, until it occupies the whole of the abdominal cavity. 

These Diptera are known under the name of Spider-flies, and live almost exclusively upon some 
quadrupeds and birds. They run very quickly, and fly sideways. 

Some, or the Coriacea, Latr., have the head distinct, and articulated with the anterior extremity of 


the thorax. They form the genus 
Hippoposca, Linneus, 

Hippobosca proper, has wings, distinct eyes, and antenne in the shape of tubercles, with three sete on their 
upper side. H. equina, Linn., the Horse- or Forest-fly, a species common in some places on Horses, which it 
infests, especially fixing itself in great numbers beneath the tail. 

Ornithomyia, Latr., has the antenne in the shape of villose plates, and the nerves of the wings extending to 
the hind edge. 

These insects form, in the monograph of Leach, four genera. 

Feronia (Nirmomyia, Nitzsch.), distinct by the antenng-like tubercles, and the claws of the tarsi double, and 
not treble. 

Ornithomyia, with ocelli and tridentate claws, plate-like antenne, and wings of large size, and rounded. 

Stenepterya, similar to Feronia, but with very long acute wings. 

Oxypterum, with acute wings, but with the antenne in the form of teeth, eyes small, ocelli wanting. They live 
on various species of Birds. Hippobosca avicularia, Linn. 

Strebla, Wied., has the wings incumbent on the body, with longitudinal nervures united by some transverse 
nervures. The eyes are very small, and situated at the posterior angles of the head. Found on a South American 
species of Bat. 

Melophagus, Latr. (Melophila, Nitzsch.), destitute of wings, and with the eyes scarcely distinct. Hippobosca 
ovina, [the common Sheep-tick]. 

A species of Melophagus, which lives on the Stag, exhibiting rudiments of wings, and with the thorax a little 
larger than the head, forms the subgenus Lipoptena, Nitzsch. Near Melophagus ought also to come the genus 
Braula, Nitzsch., of which the only known species lives on the Honey-bee, and is absolutely blind. Its thorax 
is divided into two transverse parts, and the last joint of the tarsi is furnished with a row of small bristles. 
Réaumur had long ago figured this, or a closely-allied animal. 


The other Pupipare, Phthiromyie, Latr., have the head very small, or almost obsolete, forming near 
the anterior and dorsal extremity of the thorax a small body, which is elevated vertically. They 
compose the genus 

NyctTerisiA, Latr. (Phthiridium, Hermann),— 
And have neither wings nor balancers, and more nearly resemble Spiders than Hippobosce. They live on Bats. 
Linnzus places the only species with which he was acquainted with the Pediculi. See the article Nycteribia, in 
the Encyclopédie Methodique, and in the Nouv. Dictionn. d@ Hist. Naturelle, (and also my memoir in the Transac- 
tions of the Zoological Society of London, in which I have described numerous species]. 


— 


638 


FOURTH GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


THE RADIATA (Ranpiatep Animats, or ZoopuyrTes). 


[Nerrruer of these names is literally applicable, for all the animals in the division are 
not radiated ; and the very name Zoophyte, ‘ plant-animal,” is a contradiction. In 
England, the term Zoophyte is much more restricted than in France, but it is equally 
inapplicable, excepting, perhaps, to those species, about which there are still disputes 
as to whether they are animals or vegetables. ] 

These animals have no mesial plane, but may be variously divided into symmetrical 
parts, radiating from one or more axes. ‘Their organs of motion, when they have any, 
are moveable spines attached to the skin, or flexible papille, capable of inflation. They 
have no true system of circulation, and their nervous system is always obscure, and 
sometimes cannot be traced. Some have a mouth and vent, others only one opening, 
and others, again, appear to be nourished through pores. Some are of distinct sexes ; 
some bisexual, and some are produced by buds or division. [Some very minute ones, 
as Volvow, consist of a globular tunic inclosing a vast number of smaller globes, each 
of which is also a tunic inclosing another generation.] Many grow in clusters upon 
stalks, or Polypidoms—dwellings of potypi, which are sometimes leathery or horny, and 
sometimes calcareous. [The individuals produce the polypidoms, and are connected 
with it; and when they are alive, it is probably always covered with an epidermis. ] 
According as their organization is more or less complicated, they are divided into five 
classes :— 

1. EcuryopEermMata [Spiny Skins], have, besides these, the intestine and organs of 
respiration, reproduction, and partial circulation, floating in a large cavity. The Ho- 
lothurie are united to them; because, although they have no spines on the skin, 
the internal structure is even more complicated. 

2. Enrozoa [Intestinal Worms], inhabit the viscera of other animals. They are 
long and flattened; have no visible organs of circulation or respiration ; and some have 
a distinct alimentary canal, while others have not. [A species which infests the intes- 
tines of the Eel was, for a long time, regarded as the young of that animal. ] 

3. AcaLepua [Sea Nettles], are round and radiated, with only one opening to the 
body, and no organs of respiration or circulation. They approach the Polypi, only 
their organic tissues are more developed. 

4. Poryp1[Many Tentacula, once consideredas plants]. These are gelatinous animals, 
with a mouth and digestive organs more or less complicated. Many of them live in 
clusters upon branched or expanded polypidoms, which made them be considered as 
animal plants. [Individually they are minute, and some of them microscopic ; but still 
they fabricate vast reefs of hard rock, consisting of salts of lime cemented by animal 


eee 


ee ee ee MO a ee 
PEDICELLATA. 639 


matter. The Thethye and Sponges nave been joined to this class, though their 
animals have not yet been observed. 

5. Inrusoria [Animalcule], the most minute members of the Animal Kingdom, and 
for the most part microscopic. Some have a very complicated organization, and some 
appear to be mere particles of animated jelly. [They exist in countless myriads, 
principally in stagnant water, and some are so tenacious of life, that, after having 
been for some time dried to powder, they revive again when moistened. ] 


THE FIRST CLASS OF THE RADIATA. 


THE ECHINODERMATA. 


These have a well-organised skin; sometimes a sort of skeleton; a digestive and a 
vascular system ; and a sort of radiating nerves. There are two orders: those with 
feet, or vesicular appendages answering the same purpose, and those without. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE ECHINODERMATA, 
PEDICELLATA. 


These have the skin pierced with numerous small holes, through which protrude cylindric 
tentacula, terminating in suckers. These are extended or retracted by a humour distinct from 
that of the intestines, discernible in some of the species, and answer the purpose of feet, by 
which they perform their locomotion, or adhere to the rocks. Vessels from these continue to 
unite in a trunk for each row, which trunk terminates near the mouth. The order consists of 


three very natural families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE PEDICELLATA,— 


Tue Asrertas [Star-fish],— 


So called, because the body is generally in the form of a star with five rays. Some, however, as 
A. discoidea, have the body a pentagon, with straight sides; others, as 4. membranacea, have a re- 
entering angle in each side ; and others, again, as 4. tesselata, have the sides concave. 

The frame-work of the body is composed of horny pieces, variously arranged. In those which have 
distinct rays, there is a longitudinal groove in the upper surface of each 
ray, perforated on both sides, for allowing the action of the feet; and 
all the surface is covered with pores leading to small tubes which admit 
water, probably for the purpose of respiration. On the central dise, but 
toward one side of it, there is a stony plate, and below it a canal filled 
with caleareous matter; and it is probable that this is the apparatus by 
which the hard matter of the body is elaborated. There is a sort of verte- 
brated osseous column in each ray; and some of the species have osseous 
i plates, and spines on the sides of the rays. Internally, they have one 

Mp ASSES stomach, with two branched cceca extending to each ray; each ray, 
also, contains two ovaries, and it is understood that they propagate by self-impregnation. The rays 
are easily reproduced, for the central disc and one ray will reproduce all the others. The mouth, which 
is the only opening to the alimentary organs, is on the under side of the central dise. According to 
Tiedemann, the principal nerve surrounds the mouth, and sends off a filament to each arm. Such are 


640 ECHINODERMATA. 


the general characters of the genus Asterias, the Star-fish, properly so called; and, in proportion as 


they deviate from the Five-rayed Star, their coeca and ovaries are more numerous. 

A. rubens, is very common in the European seas. A. glacialis, is much larger, often a foot in diameter; and 
it has tufts of fleshy tubes round the bases of the spines on the body. A. aurantia, is still larger, and has the 
edges of the rays paved with osseous plates, bearing strong and moveable spines. Some, as 4. paposa, have 
more than five rays. Some have the rays solid, and without the groove, and they are called Ophiwre, because 
their rays have some resemblance to the tails of Serpents. These move by flexures of the rays, which have spines 
on the sides in some, and are covered with imbricated scales in others. In them the pores are between the bases 
of the rays. The only feet which these have are in fine short grooves round the mouth. By some authors they 
have been made a separate genus. Some have the rays branched, and of them some have the division near the 
end of the rays, and seldom repeated; but in others it begins at the base, and each division is branched again 
and again, till the whole resembles a bunch of Serpents’ tails ; each branching is into so many lateral parts: there 
are two points at the base of each ray. Those branched ones have been called Gorgonocephale, or Medusa’s 
Heads. 

Alecto, or Comatula, have five large articulated rays proceeding from a stony plate on the upper part of the 
disc; their rays are often divided into two or three branches, and both rays and disc are furnished with articu- 
lated threads. The cavity of the body has a star-shaped mouth, and a tubular opening, both on the under side. 


EncriNus [the Encrinites],— 

Resemble the last, but have the plate on the disc prolonged toa stem of many articulations. They are named 
from the form of the stem, and the number of rays. Pentacrinus europeus, is the only species in the European 
seas; but there are others in the tropical oceans. Ina fossil state they are exceedingly numerous, and varied in 
their appearance. The fossil Entrochites are portions of the stems or branches of Encrinites. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE PEDICELLATA. 


Tue Ecuinus [Sea Hedge-hogs, or Sea Eggs]. 


These have the body covered with a crust of calcareous matter, in segments nicely adapted to each 
other, and perforated by regular rows of holes for the membranous feet. The crust is also pierced by 
a number of smaller holes with four membranous tubes, which seem to be the breathing apparatus ; 
and where not perforated, the crust is armed with broad spines, articulated upon tubercles, and move- 
able. The mouth is furnished with five flat, calcareous teeth, in a very complicated apparatus, and 
having strong muscles ; and, as these wear away at their cutting edges, they extend by growth at the 
opposite extremity. The intestine is long, and attached spirally to the interior of the crust. The five 
ovaries, which are edible, are arranged round the vent, in the separate openings. Their motions 
are slow; and they feed upon the smaller shelled Mollusca and Crustacea, which they seize with their 
membranous feet. Great numbers of them, including many not now found alive, are met with in a 
fossil state, especially in the chalk, where they are usually filled with flint earth, the same as the 
sponges. 

They are either regular or irregular,—the regular ones having the mouth in the middle of the under 
side, and the vent opposite; and the others are irregular in proportion as they deviate from this 
character. 

Echinus, properly so called.—Figure generally an oblate spheroid, with two bands of apertures, dividing the 
surface from the mouth to the vent into segments, resembling those formed by the meridians ona globe. Some 
have the spines stout, with smaller ones at the base, and others have them slender. Among the latter, is E. escu- 


Zentus, found in the European seas. It is about the size of an ordinary apple, closely set with short spines, gene- 
rally of a violet colour. The ovaries are of the same colour; and in the spring months they are edible, and have 


a very agreeable flavour. 
They vary in shape, and in the number and arrangement, and also the form of the spines. Some are depressed, 


some compressed, some have the spines unequal, and one species, H. atratus, has the spines unequal and trun- 
cated, resembling small paving-stones. 


None of the irregular ones have the two apertures of the body opposite to each other in the middle 
of the under and upper sides. The spines upon them are straight and slender; and the chief distinc- 


tions are the number, arrangement, and extent of the holes for the feet. 

Chironeus, have the general form of the last, but the mouth and vent are both on the under side. 

Nucleolites, have the vent above, but near the margin. 

Galerites, have a flat base, and a conoidal body, with the mantle in the centre of the disc, and the vent near its 
margin. 

Scutella, have the openings as in the last, but the form of the body much depressed, and disc-like. Some have 
no openings to the crust but the pores, and in others again these seem to be obliterated, or at all events do not 


PEDICELLATA. 641 


penetrate into the cavity. Rotula has one of the margins toothed like a wheel; and some have large pores, and 


some not. 

Cassidulus, are oval, with the vent above the margin on one side, and the lines of pores incomplete. They are 
distinguished by the number and extent of the lines of pores, which in some species form only a rosette on 
the back. 

Clypeaster, have the vent near the margin, the body depressed, the base concave, and the outline sometimes 
angular and sometimes round. 

Fibularia, small in size, mostly globular, with the openings on the under side, and a rosette of pores above. 

Spatangus, have the openings below, and the rosette on the back. Some have the outline round or oval, and 
sometimes with a deep groove on one side, making the section heart-shaped. 

Of the last, two specimens are found in the European seas; and the last, especially, has branched tentacula 
surrounding the mouth, in which character it bears some resemblance to Holothuria. The other irregular ones 
are chiefly fossil, and abound in various marine strata, especially in the chalk formation. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE PEDICELLATA. 


Tue Hotornurta (Sea-slug). 


These have the body oblong, with a leather-like covering, and an aperture at each end. The mouth 
is without teeth, or has only bony plates instead; but it is surrounded by curiously-branched tenta- 
cula, which the animal can, at pleasure, retract entirely; and it is also furnished with sacs for the 
secretion of saliva. The reproductive organs are also situated near the mouth, composed of a number 
of ramified culs-de-sac, all opening into one oviduct. The impregnating parts are understood to be 
some very elastic chords near the other extremity of the animal; thus each individual is bisexual. 
The intestine is long, convoluted, and fixed to the covering of the body by a kind of mesentery. 
Along the intestine there is also a double system of complicated vessels, which appear to be the organs 
of circulation. The opposite extremity is not less curious; for, besides the vent, it contains the respi- 
ratory organ, or gill, which is in the shape of a hollow tree very much branched, and the animal can 
receive or expel water by means of this apparatus, which possibly thus assists it in its locomotion, as 
well as supplies air from the inhaled water. In the breeding season the ovaries become very much 
extended, and contain a reddish matter, which is understood to be the spawn, or eggs. These animals 
are exceedingly sensitive, as is the case with the Leeches among dnnelide ; and when disturbed, they 
sometimes contract so violently that the integuments are ruptured, and the intestines protrude. The 
subdivisions are made according to the arrangement of the feet. 

Thus, in some, as in H. phantapus, which inhabits the European seas, and has the body almost scaly, all the feet 
are on a soft disc in the middle of the body ; and when they crawl, the extremities are turned up. When extended, 


the tentacula of these are very large. 
Some, as H. squamata, a small species of the European seas,—but there are much larger ones in hot climates,— 


have all the under surface soft, with numerous feet; and the upper surface convex, sometimes supported by bony 
plates, and the opening of the mouth in the form of a star. 

In others, again, the body is cartilaginous, flattened horizontally, and sharp at the edges, with the mouth and 
feet on the inferior surface. Of these, H. regalis, found in the Mediterranean, is more than a foot long, three or 


four inches broad, and crenulated at the edges. 

Others still, have the body cylindrical, and capable of being inflated with water. All the under side is furnished 
with feet, and the remaining parts roughened in various ways. H. tremula, common in the European seas, the 
Mediterranean especially, is an instance of this peculiarity of form, It is of a black colour; more than a foot 
long when inflated with water ; has the back bristled with soft conical points, and the mouth furnished with twenty 


branched tentacula. 
Yet, in others, the feet are arranged in five rows, like the ridges on a melon, of which the European species, 


H. penacta, is more than a foot long, and of a brown colour. 
There are also some, as H. papillosa, which have the body equally furnished with feet round its whole surface. 


{The Holothurig of the European seas, even of the Mediterranean, are not very numerous, neither 
are they brilliant in colours ; but in more tropical seas, where coral reefs rise within a moderate distance 
of the surface, as in the Red Sea, and the seas to the north and east of Australia, they are exceedingly 
numerous, and many of them splendidly coloured ; so that, together with other Radiata of this and of 
other orders, they make the sea-bottom, when seen by the light of an almost vertical sun, as gay as a 
tropica] garden. The Holothuriz resemble cucumbers ; and various Actinis, when their tentacula are 
expanded, have as gay an appearance as the flowers of almost any plants. Many of this species are 
esculent, and of a very gelatinous nature. When properly prepared, the Chinese are exceedingly fond 

TT 


a ee = 


642 ECHINODERMATA. 


of them as a principal ingredient in restorative soups. The Malays catch and dry them in great quan- 
tities for the Chinese markets, where they fetch a high price, and are called tre-pang.] 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE ECHINODERMATA. 
APODA. 


The number of known species in this order is but few. They resemble Holothuriz, but want 
the feet; and their leather-like skin is quite unarmed. 


Mo.papia,— 
Have the form of the body and the internal structure similar to those of Holothuria, but they have no 


feet or tentacula, and the bony parts of the mouth are less complicated than in the Echini. 
M. holothurioides, of the Atlantic ocean, was the only species known to Cuvier. 


Minyas,— 
Have the body without feet, but of a spheroidal form, and furrowed like a melon. 


M. cyanea, is a beautiful species, of a dark blue colour, inhabiting the warmer parts of the Atlantic ; the mouth 
in this genus has neither tentacula nor bony plates. 


PRIAPULUS,— 
Have the body cylindrical, with deep annular rugz, and terminated anteriorly by an elliptical and longi- 
tudinally wrinkled mass, in the centre of which is the mouth, with numerous teeth arranged in quin- 
cunx, and having the points turned backwards. The muscular system resembles that of Holothuria. 
P. vulgaris, the only known species, inhabits the northern seas, and is from two to three inches in length. 


LiTHODERMIS,— 
Have the body oval, compressed in the hinder part, and covered above with an extremely hard granu- 
lated crust; the mouth has tentacula, but Cuvier discovered no second opening to the body. 


Only one species, L. cuneus, from the Indian seas, about two inches long, and of a blackish colour, was known 
to Cuvier. 


SIPHUNCULUS,— 
Have the body long and cylindrical, and wrinkled both longitudinally and across; the mouth is an 
extensile and retractile proboscis; the intestine straight for nearly 
the whole length of the body, and then returning in a spiral upon 
itself. In these, and indeed in most of the order, there are threads 
which appear to be nerves, and in this genus the breathing apparatus 
Fig, 159 Sipnunculas. are on the sides, and open near the vent. 

There are a good many species, most of which live in the sand, though some small ones perforate submarine 
rocks, and lodge in the cavities. S. edulis, which is eaten by the Chinese in the Oriental islands, occurs also in 
the salt lakes of Languedoc. They are used by the fishermen as bait. Some Indian species are nearly two feet 
long. They used to be classed with worms, but their organization is quite different. 


BonELLIA,— 
Have the body oval; the proboscis very extensile, and forked at the extremity: their intestinal canal 
is long and convoluted. What appear to be the organs of respiration are situated near the vent; and 
the ovary is an oblong sac which opens near the base of the proboscis. They inhabit the sand at a 
considerable depth, and can elevate their proboscis to the water, or even to the air, where the water is 


very shallow. 
B. viridis, of a green colour, and is found in the Mediterranean. 


THALASSEMA,— 
Have the body oval or oblong, and the proboscis in the form of lamin, resembling the bowl of a spoon, 
but not forked. The intestinal canal resembles that of the preceding genus, but they have only one 


abdominal thread. 
They are distinguished into Thalassema proper, which have two lateral hooks placed considerably in advance, 


ee 
— ea at 


APODA. 643 


and no thread-like appendages at the posterior extremity, of which 7. Neptuniisan example ; and Echiurus, which 
have bristly hairs at the posterior extremity. They inhabit the sands, and are much sought after by fishermen 
as bait. Sternaspis, has bristles as in the last, anda disc of a horny texture, and surrounded with hairs on the 
anterior part of the body. The habits of all these are very much the same. 


THE SECOND CLASS OF THE RADIATA. 


THE ENTOZOA, or INTESTINAL Worms. 


This class is remarkable for by far the greater number being inhabitants of the 
internal parts of other animals, in which alone they can continue their species,—so 
that it must be regarded as their natural habitat ; and they must have a use in the 
economy of nature with which we are quite unacquainted. There is scarcely one 
animal, especially of the vertebrated classes, which is not infested by several kinds ; and 
those which inhabit one animal, are rarely found in one of another genus. They are 
met with most abundantly in the alimentary canal, and the ducts which empty their 
contents into it; but they occur also in the cellular tissue, and in the parenchyma of 
the most closely invested viscera, such as the liver and the brain. They are most fre- 
quent in diseased states of the viscera, and they themselves occasion disease, or, at all 
events, annoyance; but they occur even in healthy states. The difficulty of con- 
ceiving how they could get into places so obscure, and apparently so well protected, 
and the fact of their never having been found alive except in the interior of living 
animals, caused it for a long time to be believed that they were products of spon- 
taneous generation. It has been found, however, by actual observation, that most of 
them either produce ova or living young ones, and that many of them have the sexes 
in different individuals. Though some of them attain a very large size, we must sup- 
pose that the germs are exceedingly minute, and capable of being transmitted through 
capillary vessels, and apertures too small for being discerned by the naked eye ; and, 
from the early age at which they are found in some animals, there is reason to con- 
clude that the germs have been in these anterior to their birth, [though how trans- 
mitted through the placental decidua is, and probably must remain, an unexplained 
and unexplainable mystery. As is the case with all mysteries, the Intestinal Worms, 
more especially those which inhabit the human viscera, have led to a great deal of 
mystification and quackery, and nostrums innumerable are recommended to the public ; 
nor are there wanting fabricated imitations of some of the more formidable species, 
usually prepared from the intestines of other animals. ] 

The Entozoa are true parasites, and cannot assimilate matter for their own growth 
and nourishment unless they receive it from the body of a living animal. They have 
no vestige of breathing apparatus, which shows that they must receive their nourish- 
ment aerated by the breathing of the animals upon which they are parasitic. This 
supersedes all necessity of a circulating system; and the traces of a nervous one are 
so very obscure that many naturalists have doubted its existence. When we find 
the character and the form of these animals in any species, we include it along with 
those which it most resembles, though it should not be parasitical within the body of 
any other animal. The injury which these Intestinal Worms occasion to the animals 

yh 


644 ENTOZOA. 


upon which they live, when their numbers become excessive, are well known; and we 
may mention, that the best remedy for those infesting the human intestines, appears 
to be animal oil mixed with spirits of turpentine. 

The class admits of division into two orders, of which the organization is so dif- 
ferent that they might, perhaps, be considered as two distinct classes ; or, at all events, 
subclasses. These are,—Enrtozoa Nemartorpka, or Cavitied Entozoa, which have the 
intestine floating in a distinct abdominal cavity, and commencing at a mouth and ter- 
minating at a vent; and Enrozoa Parencuymara, which have the viscera obscure, 
generally in the form of vascular ramifications, and sometimes not at all discernible. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE ENTOZOA. 


NEMATOIDEA. 


The members of this order have an external skin, more or less provided with muscular 
fibres, and striated transversely. They have an intestinal canal running distinctly through 
the whole length, and attached to the skin or tunic of the body by many filaments, which 
appear to transmit nourishment. There is no circulation; but, in some species, there are 
two cords extending from a ring round the mouth, which are understood to be nerves. Re- 
productive organs are apparent in all, and in some they are 
greatly developed; nor is the reproductive energy of the 
et animals under circumstances favourable to its developement 
Fig. 140.—Pentastoma tenoides. less active than the organs would indicate. This order forms 

only one family, but contains several genera. 


Fizaria (Thread-worm),— 
Has the body long, slender, and thread-like, resembling that of the Gordii among Annelide, but 
with mere marks on the body instead of the rings. The mouth is a circular opening at the anterior 
extremity. They are not found in the open cavities, but are imbedded in the parenchyma of the 
cellular tissues, between the coats of the viscera, and in other situations: they often exist in numerous 
bundles, contained in a common cyst or tunic. They are not confined to the larger animals, but are 
found in insects and their larve, and even in various Mollusca. 

The most common, or at all events the most dreaded by Man, is the Guinea Worm, F’. Medinensis. This trou- 
blesome animal is very common in hot climates, where it insinuates itself under the skin, generally of the leg, and 
is said to gnaw to the length of ten feet, or more. According to the accounts it will, if undisturbed, remain in the 
body for a long time without causing much uneasiness; but, if it is disturbed, it is said to cause the most excru- 
ciating pain, especially if it finds its way to a very sensitive part of the body. When it shows itself externally, it is 
extracted very slowly for fear of breaking it, as, if that takes place, its position in the body retreats more inwardly, 


and causes great agony and convulsions. It is about the size of the tube of a Pigeon’s quill, and has the tail ter- 
minated by a sharp trunk. The sexes are in separate animals, but the mode of propagation is a little obscure. 


TRICHOCEPHALUS,— 
Have the body round, thread-like in the anterior part, and terminating in a round mouth; and the 


posterior part of the body is considerably thicker. 

T. dispar, is the most common species. It is from an inch to two inches in length, and thick for about the last 
third. The thick part of the male is spirally convoluted, and the organ of generation is conspicuous. In tie 
female it is more straight, and has a simple opening. It is one of the worms of most frequent occurrence in the 
human intestines ; and, in some diseases, it multiplies very rapidly. 

Trichostoma, have the anterior part of the body tapering gradually to the mouth; and Oryuris, has the tail 
slender and thread-like. One species of the latter, O. cwrvata, from an inch to three inches long, is found in the 
coecum of the Horse. 

Cucullanus, has the body cylindrical, but thinner in the anterior portion. The head is blunt, and enveloped in 
asort of hood. This genus has hitherto been found in the intestines of Fishes only. One species, C. lacustris, is 
common in the Perch, the Pike, and other Fishes. It is about an inch long, about the thickness of a thread, and 


NEMATOIDEA. 


appears red from the blood with which the intestine is usually gorged. An analogous species, found on the Eel, 
was long mistaken for the young of that animal. 

Ophiostomus, have the body formed as in the preceding, but the mouth cleft across, which gives the appearance 
of two lips. O. cystidicola, is found in the air-bladder of some Fishes. 


Ascaris (the Ascarides),— 
Have the body round, and slender toward each extremity. The mouth is furnished with three fleshy 
tubercles, among which there is a short tube, which the animal can protrude as occasion requires. 


The species are numerous, and inhabit the intestines of many animals. The females, which are far more 
numerous than the males, have the intestinal canal straight, and an ovary divided into two branches, which is 
several times longer than the body, and opens by a single oviduct at about one-fourth of the length from the 
anterior extremity. The males have also a single vessel, very long, and with the external organ, which is near 
the tail, sometimes double. Two white filaments, one extending along the back, and another along the belly, 
have been considered as nerves ; and two thicker ones, extending along the right and left sides, have been con- 
sidered as muscles, as a circulating system, and even as a breathing apparatus. Some species, as A. lumbricoides, 
have the head without lateral membranes. This species is found, without any remarkable difference, in Man, in 
the Ox, the Hog, and all the varieties of the Horse family ; it has sometimes occurred fifteen inches in length. It 
is naturally of a white colour; and, from what has been said of its reproductive organs, its power of multiplication 
is excessive. It occasions disease, and even death, especially in children, or in all cases where it ascends from 
the intestines into the stomach. A. vermicularis, which has a small membrane on each side of the head, is very 
common in children, and also in adults, when afflicted with certain diseases. It chiefly inhabits the rectum, at 
the extremity of which it causes intolerable itching. Its length is not more than half an inch, and its body is 
thickest in the anterior part. It is an exceedingly active little animal, and derives its name from the Greek verb, 
“to leap, or move.” 

STRONGYLUS,— 
Have the body round, and the vent of the male inclosed in a sort of purse variously formed, which is 
regarded as the sheath of the organ of generation, which can be protruded from it. The female is 


without this apparatus, and thus more nearly resembles the Ascarides. 

Some species have the mouth ciliated, or toothed, among which is S. equinus, which is about two inches long, 
with a hard spherical head, small soft spines round the mouth, and three lobes in the caudal appendage. It is 
very common in the intestines of the Horse; and, so far as is known, in those of all the solipede family of pa- 
chydermatous animals. Sometimes it makes its way to the arteries, and there occasions aneurisms, and other 
unpleasant diseases. 

Other species have the mouth with tubercles, or papilla, and among these one of the most remarkable is 
S. gigas, the largest worm which is known to inhabit the intestines of any animal. It grows to the length of two 
or three feet, and is as thick as the little finger. It is usually found in the kidneys of various animals, as the 
Wolf, the Dog, the Marten, and even Man; where it is coiled up, and inflates the organ, causing great pain. 
Sometimes small ones pass off with the urinary discharge. It is not, however, confined to the kidneys, but is 
met with in other viscera. Its usual colour is a fine red; the mouth has six papillz#; the intestine is straight, 
with cross furrows; the ovary is simple, and three or four times the length of the body. It is understood to have 
a posterior opening, and also one near the mouth. M. Otto has considered a slender white thread, which passes 
along the abdomen, as being the nervous system. 

Spiropterus, have been separated from the Ascarides. They have the termination of the body spiral, with two 
wing-like membranes, between which is the reproductive organ. One species is occasionally found in the human 
bladder, and another in the stomach of the Mole,—to the villous coat of which it attaches itself by a small tubercle. 
Physoloptera, has a small bladder between the wing-like membranes. Sclerottoma, has the mouth furnished 
with six small scaly plates. It is found in the Horse and the Hog, Liorhynchus, has the mouth in the form of a 
small proboscis, with which it penetrates the cavity of the viscera. 

Pentastoma, have the body flattened, and sharp in the sides, and the transverse rug crenulated. The skin is 
thin and weak ; the head broad and flat, with the mouth beneath, and a longitudinal slit on each side, from which 
issue the hooks whereby the animal adheres. The intestine is straight, and the reproductive organs long and 
tortuous. A white filament surrounding the mouth, and two filaments which proceed from it, appear to be the 
nervous system. One species, P. tenioides, occurs in the frontal sinuses of the Horse and Dog, and attains a 
length of about six inches. Prionoderma, resemble the former, only the mouth is terminal, and has two 


small hooks. 
Cuvier includes the following genera of intestinal worms in this order, but gives it as his opinion that, 
when they are better known, they will require subdivision as a distinct family. 


LERNZA,— 
IIave the body resembling the former both in its external and its internal organisation ; but it is pro- 
longed into a sort of neck of a horny consistency, at the end of which is the mouth, variously armed 
with plate-like appendages. It insinuates the mouth and these appendages into the gills of fishes, 


646 ENTOZOA. 


rema.ns fixed there, and lives upon their blood. They contain two cords, sometimes of equal length 


and at others long, and even doubled, which appear to be ovaries. 

Lernea, properly so called, have the body oblong ; the neck long and slender, and the head surrounded by a sort 
of horns. L. branchialis, is the best known; it infests the common Cod, and other fishes of the same family. 
Its neck and head, the latter furnished with three hooks, are dark brown. It fixes itself firmly in the gills, and 
adheres with the body bent in the form of the letter S. JL. acularis, which is more slender, and has two long and 
two short horns, attaches itself to the eyes of Herrings and other fishes. LZ. multicornis has been found on the 
gills of a Serranus in the eastern seas. 

Penella, have the head inflated; the neck horny, with two short hooks on the nape; the body long, furrowed 
across, and ending in slender filaments resembling the plume ofa feather. P. filosa, which is seven or eight 
inches long, insinuates itself into the flesh of the Sword-fish, the Tunny, and other species, and causes them such 


torment that they often dash themselves on the shore. 
Sphyrion, have hooks at the mouth; the head extended longitudinally like a hammer ; the neck slender ; and 


the body flattened and heart-shaped. 
Anchorilla, attaches itself to the gills of fish by means of a single hook on the under part, which is directed 


backwards. 
Branchiella, has two protuberances supporting the hook, by which it attaches itself. [One species, B. Salmonia, 


infests Salmon, while they are in the sea, but drops off after they come into the fresh water.] 
Clavella, attach themselves by the mouth only; and Cuvier was of opinion that these two groups may be united 


with the Lerneomyze, or Sucking Lernza, of De Blainville. 
Chondracanthus, besides the hooks at the mouth, have the edges of the body variously notched, or toothed: 
some have a sort of two arms on each side ; some have many branched ones ; and others have a slender neck, and 


deep notches in the sides of the body. 

Nemertus, which may one day require to be made a separate order, are very soft-mouthed, slender, and long, 
with the anterior extremity blunt, and the mouth large. The intestine extends the whole length of the body, and 
is accompanied by the ovaries, which open near the mouth. One species, N. Barlasii, is more than four feet long; 
it lurks in the sand, and sucks various Mollusca out of their shells. It occurs on the coast of Cornwall. 

Tubularia and Cerchrotula, of Renieri, and Ophiocephalus of Quoy and Gaymard, appear to be analogous; but 
little concerning them is known. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE ENTOZOA. 


PARENCHYMATA. 


This order includes all these Entozoa which have the body filled with a parenchyma, or 
pulpy matter, either in a cellular tissue, or simply in the cavity, in which there is no alimentary 
apparatus to be discovered, except a few canals, which carry nourishment to all the parts, and 
which, in the majority of cases, originate in external suckers. The ovaries are also imbedded 
in the parenchyma ; there is no abdominal cavity, no intestine, and no vent; and the signs of 
a nervous system are few and doubtful. The order admits of division into four families. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE PARENCHYMATA. 


THE ACANTHOCEPHALA. 


These have a prominence, which appears to act as a sort of proboscis, and they attach themselves to 
the coats of the intestines by means of the recurved spines with which the proboscis is beset. They form 


but one genus, 
EcHINORHYNCHUS,— 


Which have the body round, in some instances long, and in others shortened to a kind of sac. The 
proboscis, by the hooks on which they attach themselves, is extensile, and contains a papilla, which 
may be an organ of absorption; but the animal appears to absorb moisture by its whole surface. The 
only vestiges of internal viscera are two small cceca attached to the base of the proboscis, and a longi- 
tudinal thread which some regard as a nerve, and others not. Some species have an oviduct, but in 
others the ova are diffused through the parenchyma. In the males, the organs are more distinct ; and 
they most likely impregnate the ova after they are excluded. They often perforate the coats of the in- 
testines, and are found in their substance, or adhering to their external surfaces. 


PARENCHYMATA. 


E. gigas, is the largest known species ; it is found in tne Hog and the Wild Boar, and the females are sometimes 
fifteen inches long. E. heruca is a smaller species, with only one row of spines on the proboscis. It has been 
found in the liver of the Cat. 

THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE PARENCHYMATA,— 


THe TREMADOTEA,— 


Have the under part furnished with cup-like discs, or suckers, by which they adhere. Those which are 
parasitical in other animals, may all be included in one genus,— 


FAscIoLa,— 
But it admits of subdivision, according to the form and arrangement of the suckers. 


Festucaria, with only one sucker upon or under the anterior part. They are found in various birds, reptiles, 
and fishes. 

Amphistoma, with a sucker at each end, in various vertebrated animals. 

Caryophylleus, have the head broad, winged at the margin, with a two-based sucker underneath, and sometimes 
another on the opposite end of the body. One species is known, and it infests fresh-water fishes, especially the 
Bream. 

Distoma, has a sucker at the anterior extremity, and another on the under part, alittle farther back. The species 
of this genus, or rather subgenus, are very numerous, and inhabit many animals ; some of them even the wrinkled 
membrane surrounding the eyes of birds ; but there appear. to be others in salt water or fresh, which are not para- 
sitical upon any animal. 

Distoma hepatica (the Fluke, so called from its shape, is but too well known as infesting the liver of the Sheep, 
and if not occasioning “ the rot,” at least greatly aggravating its symptoms, and accelerating its progress.] Itis 
also found in other ruminants, in the Horse, the Hog, and even in Man. It is from three quarters of an inch to 
an inch and a quarter in length, and its form is that of an oval leaf, pointed at the posterior extremity, and with 
a narrow portion at the anterior. The first sucker is at the base of this narrow portion, and leads to two branched 
tubes. Behind the sucker, there is an erectile tentaculum, which appears to be the male organ ; and behind this 
is the second sucker. The mineral vessels are convoluted through the middle portions ; and the ovaries are also 
diffused through the body, and open near the male organs. Asin many of the Mollusca, all the individuals appear 
to be bisexual, and have a mutual coitus. [The eyes are placed on the most conspicuous part of the head, and 
like the eyes of birds, they are provided with horny rings, by means of which they command a great range of 
focal lengths. Some naturalists have considered the ramified tubes which proceed from the sucker as circulating 
vessels ; but this seems a mistake, as the convoluted vessels which the same naturalists have looked upon as in- 
testines, are the seminal vesicles and ovaries. The power of multiplication in these animals is immense ; and 
the ducts of a single liver have been found to contain more than a thousand, while the germs are quite innumerable. 
Though they accompany the rot in sheep, they do not appear to cause it, neither does their multiplication appear 
in all cases to render it more mortal, for sheep have died of rot with not more than a dozen of Flukes in the liver, 
while others have been alive with hundreds. Those sheep which are in the best condition, always have Flukes in 
them in the autumn ; but they are also the ones most subject to the rot. It is probable that these Flukes, or at 
all events the germs of them, exist in the water, or on the plants of humid and marshy places; at all events, even 
the healthy sheep drop a few of them in the winter months ; and the deceased ones vast numbers ; and thus the 
rotten sheep taint both the flock and the pasture.] Echinotoma, have hooks on a projecting tubercle. 


Ho.ostoma,— 
Have one half of the under surface of the body concave, and acting as a sucker. They are found in 
some Mammalia and birds. 


Hexastoma, have the body flattened underneath, with six suckers on the under part. They are found in fishes, 
in reptiles, and even in the human body, in very peculiar situations. 


CycLocoruLa,— 
Have eight cups ranged in a circle on the lower part of the body backwards, and a small proboscis in 
front. One small species, C. deloni, has been found parasitical upon the common Sea-pike, Belone 


vulgaris. 

Tristoma, is another subgenus, which resembles the Flukes. The body is broad and flat, with a pedunculated 
sucker on the under part, and two small ones anteriorly a little in advance of the mouth. There is a circular 
ramified vessel, the function of which is not well known, embedded in the parenchyma of the body. T. coccinea, 
about an inch broad, and of a bright red colour; attaches itself to the gills of the Sword Fish, and other large 
species. 

Hectocotylus, is one of the most singular genera in this family. The individuals are long worms, thick, but 
compressed in the fore part, and having the whole of the under surface covered with suckers, arranged in pairs ; 
and there is a sac at the posterior extremity, containing the folds of the oviduct. Some of the species are four or 
five inches long, and they are chiefly parasitical upon the Cuttle-fishes. 


RE ESR aS a SAL TUF PI La yy a PT aN ee adil ely 


648 ENTOZOA. 


Apsidogaster, should best occupy this place in the system. It has the under-side formed into projecting lamin 

by four rows of little furrows. One small species, found on Mussels. 
PLANARIA. 

This genus, though not inhabitants of the interior of other animals, but of the waters, are yet so 
similar to the Flukes in appearance and organisation, that this was the best station for them. Some 
inhabit fresh water and others salt. 

Their body is depressed, parenchymatous, and has no distinct abdominal cavity. The mouth, 
which is in the middle of the lower part of the body, or a little nearer the tail, is, as in the Fluke, 
dilated into a sort of proboscis, and leads to ramified vessels. They are bisexual, and in their manner 
of reproduction have very much similarity to the Flukes, and they appear also to be similar in the 
structure of their eyes. They are exceedingly voracious, and will even feed upon their own species. 
They multiply rapidly in the ordinary way, and also by division of the body—even spontaneous divi- 
sion, as is alleged. Mutilated parts are also very readily reproduced, and a partial division of the 
body will even produce an animal with two heads or two tails, according as the anterior or posterior 
end is cleft. Several species inhabit the fresh waters ; but larger ones are met with on the sea-shores. 
[Their appendages vary ; but it is not easy to say what is specific and what accidental.] 

M. Dugés separates from the true Planaria, Prostoma, which have an opening at each end of the 
body; and Derastoma, in which there is one opening, nearer the anterior than in Planaria. 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE PARENCHYMATA,— 


TanioiwEa (The Tape-worm Family). 


This family includes all the Intestinal Worms which have two or four suckers on the head. The 
space between these is, in some cases, marked by a pore; and in others, drawn out into a sort of pro- 
boscis, naked, or armed with spines. In some instances, there are four little probosci armed im this 
manner. 

T&NIA,— 

The Tape-worms, commonly so called, form the most numerous genus, and are, unfortunately, but too 
well known. They have the body long—often exceedingly so, flat, and composed of a number of 
joints, or articulations, more or less marked ; they are thinner anteriorly, and generally have a square 
head, with four small suckers. Some have thought that they have discovered canals ramifying from 
the suckers, and winding along the joints of the body. Each joint has two pores, differently situated 
in the different species, which appear to be the orifices of ovaries, situated in the thick parts of the 
joints, sometimes simple and sometimes ramified. The Tape-worms are among the most cruel enemies 
of those animals in which they breed, as they completely absorb their nourishment and exhaust their 
substance. Some have no projecting part among the four suckers. Among these is 

Tenia lata, or Tenia vulgaris, the Common Tape-worm, which has the joints broad and fiat, with a double 
pore in the middle of each flat side. They are often twenty feet long, and specimens of more than a hundred feet 
have been observed. The principal part of the length is about an inch broad; but the portion toward the head 
is considerably narrower. They are exceedingly annoying, and so tenacious of their hold that the most violent 
remedies are sometimes unable to expel them. 

Other species have the prominence between the suckers, but with little radiating points. Of these, 

Tenia solium, the Solitary Worm, is one of the most annoying to the human species. The joints, with the 
exception of those in the anterior part, are longer than in the Common Tape-worm, and they have the pores alter- 
nately on the opposite sides. The most common length is four or five feet; but much longer ones are some- 
times met with. The detached joints are called cucurbitini. That only one can exist in one human body at 
the same time is a vulgar error. Of all Intestinal Worms, they are the most dangerous, and the most difficult 
to expel. 

Several genera, or subgenera, are distinguished from the true Tenia by the form of the head, and others by a 
vesicle at the termination of the body. About five genera have the head different. 

TRICUSPIDARIA,— 
Have the head formed into tubes, and each side has, instead of a sucker, three very sharp-pointed 
spines. 

Only one species, T. nodulosa, is known. It infests the Perch, the Pike, and various other fishes. 


BoTHRYOCEPHALUS,— 
Have two longitudinal grooves on the head instead of suckers. They infest various fishes, and 
some birds. 


PARENCHYMATA. 649 


DIBATHRYORHYNCHUS,— 
Have two little probosci, or tentacula, on the head, bristled with small hooks. 


FLAVICEPS,— 
Have four tentacula, with curved spines, with which they penetrate the substance of animals. Some 
have the body retractile into a membrane, and others not. One, which infests the Skate family, is 
several inches long, and has the head shaped like a flower. 


TETRARHYNCHUS,— 
Resembles the head and the first two joints of the preceding. One species of it infests the tongue of 
the Turbot. Tentacularia differ only in wanting the spines on the tentacula. 
Those which have the head with four suckers, but the body terminating in a sort of bladder, and 
the joints very obscure, are also with propriety separated from the true Tape-worms. 


CystIcERCcUS,— 
Or Hydatids, have the bladder supporting one body and head. They are very numerous, and found in 
the membranous and cellular substances of many animals. They are very common in Ruminants, and 
many other Mammalia, as in the Hare, the Rabbit, the Hog, various species of the Quadrumana, and 
even in Man. 

One species, C. cellulosa, occurs in yast numbers among the muscular fibres of the Hog, and produces, or 
accompanies, the disease in that animal which is known by the name of the Measles, and renders the flesh both 
unpalatable and unwholesome. It is small, breeds rapidly, and finds its way to all parts of the body, even to the 
heart and the eyes. It is said, however, that they have never been found in the Wild Boar, which proves that 
they, or the disease which favours their developement, are induced by the very artificial manner in which tame 
Hogs are bred. Those found in the Quadrumana and in Man are very analogous. Acrostoma, found in the 


amnios of the Cow, is very nearly allied. 
Cenurus, have several bodies and heads attached to the same bladder. C. cerebralis, is well known as infecting 


the brain of the Sheep, consuming the substance, and occasioning the disease called the ‘‘ staggers,”’ in which the 
animal totters round and round toward the affected side, but without any alleviation of its suffering. Other 
species infest the Ox and other ruminants, and they all produce the same sort of effect; but, as scarcely any 
ruminant is so susceptible of change by artificial means as the Sheep, they are most severe upon it. In some 
instances the bladder is as large as an egg, with thin walls, susceptible of contraction ; but the bodies and heads 


are small, and can be almost entirely withdrawn into it. 
Scoiex, Linn. 
The body round, contracted toa point posteriorly, and have a variable head, with two or four suckers. 
The inflated part is very contractile. Most of the species are small, and live on fishes. 


THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE PARENCHYMATA,— 


THE CESTOIDEA,— 
Comprises those which are destitute of external suckers. This consists of only a single genus,— 
Licura. 

These are the simplest in their organization of all the Entozoa. The body is like a long, flat ribbon, 
with one longitudinal stria, and numerous cross ones; and the internal parenchyma appears to contain 
nothing but the ova distributed through its substance. They are chiefly found in the abdomen of birds 
and fresh-water fishes, whose bowels they envelope and contract in such a manner as to destroy them; 
and at certain periods they perforate the abdomen, and leave it. 

One species, L. abdominalis, infests the Bream ; and, in some parts of Italy, it is considered agreeable food. 

[It will be perceived that the whole of the Entozoa are remarkable for the great developement of 
their reproductive system; and not a few of them for the great and rapid growth of the individual; 
and this is exactly what analogy would lead us to suppose. Living, not only in the bodies, but upon 
the living, or already assimilated substance of other animals, the labours which they have to perform are 
few and simple, compared with those of most of the animal creation. They have but little use either 
for locomotion or sensation; and they have probably less for circulation, respiration, or digestion, 
excepting in the Planarii and any others which do not live in the bodies of other animals. As their 
habitations are obscure, their habits are equally so; and the purpose which they answer in the economy 
of nature is quite a mystery. ] 


ACALEPHA. 


THE THIRD CLASS OF THE RADIATA,— 


THE ACALEPHA,— 


Includes all those Radiated Animals which swim in the waters of the ocean; and in 
which we can still perceive vessels, though these vessels are, in truth, little else than 
intestinal tubes, ramified through the parenchyma of the body. They admit of a natural 
division into two orders,—Simple and Hydrostatic. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE ACALEPHA. 


THE ACALEPHA SIMPLICIA. 


These float and swim in the water, by alternate contractions and dilatations of the body, 
although their substance is merely gelatinous, and without any apparent fibres. The apparent 
vessels found in some of them are only hollows in the gelatinous substance originating from the 
stomach, and offering no proof of a true circulation. There are obvious points of resemblance 
among them all; but still they admit of division into genera and subgenera. 


Mepusa,— 

Have a central disc, more or less convex, on the upper surface, something like the head of a mushroom, 
and termed the umbrella. The contractions and dilatations of this dise con- 
tribute to the locomotion of the animal; [but they are not powerful enough for 

oof stemming rapid currents of the water.] The margins of the umbrella, and those 
[TSM oof the mouth, or of the suckers which supply the place of a mouth, in the middle 
pply Pp 
get of the under surface of the disc, are furnished with tentacula, very much varied 
in form and size, and these variations are the basis of many subdivisions of the 
in genus. [They are very numerous; and the small ones give the seas in which they 
Fig. 141.—Medusa. abound the appearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. Some 
of these show fine prismatic colours ; and in not a few the gelatinous matter which fills the integument 
of the dise is of so acrid a nature as to irritate and blister the skin, even after it has been dried.] 

Medusa, properly so called, includes all those that have a true mouth on the under side of the disc; but this 
mouth is sometimes a simple opening, and at other times placed on a peduncle. 

/Equorea, includes those in which the mouth is simple, and not on a peduncle, or furnished with arms or ten- 
tacula. When there are no tentacula round the disc, they form the Phorcynia of Lamarck. When the disc is 
furnished with tentacula all round, they are the 4quoree strictly so called, and one of the most numerous in the 
warm seas. Some have the under surface covered with laminz, and others have the margins of the umbrella 
diversified by furrows. 

Pelagia, comprehends those which have the mantle produced into a peduncle, or divided into arms or ten- 
tacula. 

In all these subgenera, there are no lateral cavities ; but in the majority of those with a simple mouth, there are, 
in the substance of the umbrella, four organs inclosed in furrowed membranes, which, at certain seasons of the 
year, are tinged with a dark-coloured substance, understood to be the germs of the young. They are lodged in four 
cavities, which open near the mouth, or the sides of the peduncle ; and as small animals are sometimes entangled 
in them, some have regarded them as mouths, and others as organs of respiration. That they are not mouths is 
evident, and the respiration appears to be performed by the margin of the umbrella. The tentacula, whether on 
the margin of the umbrella, or round the mouth of the animal, vary not only in different species, but in the 
different ages of the same species. 


CyaNEA,— 
Includes all the species which have a central mouth, and four lateral ovaries. 


C. aurita, is one of the most common and widely distributed species. With age, it acquires four very long 
arms: the margin of the umbrella iz finely ciliated all round; and within it are observed reddish vessels origin- 


SIMPLICIA. 651 


ating in the stomach, and proceeding by ramifications toward the circumference. Another species, C. chrysaora, 
has the margin furnished with long tentacula, and rows of brown or yellow spots, forming rays on the convex 
surface. It is very common, and there are great varieties in the spots. 


Cuvier distinguishes under the name of 


RHIZOSTOMA,— 
Those Medusz which have no central opening or mouth, and which are thence supposed to draw their 
nourishment by suction by the ramifications of the peduncle, or by the tentacula. They have four 
ovaries or more. 

Rhizostoma, properly so called, have a central peduncle, more or less ramified according to the species. The 
vessels which. arise in the small protuberances of the peduncle, unite in a cavity at its base; and from this, other 
vessels are ramified to all parts of the umbrella, or disc. The most common species is the blue Rhizostoma, which 
is often left on sandy shores by the ebbing tide. The umbrella is sometimes two feet in diameter. The peduncle 
is composed of four pairs of arms, which are very much branched and toothed, and each is furnished with two 
auricles or appendages at the base, which are also toothed. A fine network of vessels, occupying the thickness of 
the margin, extends all round the umbrella. According to the observations of MM. Audouin and Milne Edwards, 
these Medusz are social, or at least they are always met with in numerous shoals, swimming in the same direction, 
and with the body obliquely inclined. 

The Cephee of Peron differ from the other Rhizostoma only by having filaments intromixed with the denta- 
tions, or papille of the peduncle. The Cassiopeie have no peduncle; and their arms, which are usually eight in 
number, and sometimes branched, rise directly from the under surface. 


AsTOMA,— 
Might be the general name for those which have no central mouth, no ramifications of the peduncle, 


and no cavities for the ovaries. 

Some, however, have the peduncle furnished on each side with filaments that may act as suckers. Others have 
no filaments, but the extremity of the peduncle is hollowed out like a funnel, which seems to be the sucker, as 
from it vessels ascend the peduncle, and others are ramified from its base all over the body. Others again, want 
the funnel-shaped membrane, or it may have been mutilated before the specimens were obtained. There are still 
others, which have no vestige of a peduncle; but merely little suckers distributed over the under surface, on the 
lines of the vessels which are ramified below it ; [and these suckers are, of course, so many little mouths]. Some 
have no vestiges of suckers or any other external apparatus, but have both sides smooth; and there are yet others 
which haye no trace even of internal vessels. The under surface of these is usually concave, and may act asa 
stomach. These last are very simple animals, and differ from Hydra in scarcely anything but size. 


BEROE. 

This genus should be separated entirely from the Meduse. It has a globular body, provided with 
salient ribs, extending from the centre of the upper surface to that of the under, and bristled with 
points or filaments, which appear to be connected with vessels in which there is some appearance of 4 
fluid circulating. The mouth is on the one extremity, and leads to a stomach, which occupies the axis 
of the body. There are also on the sides two organs, which are probably analogous to what are con-: 
sidered the ovaries of the Medusz. 


B. pileus, a species very common in the Channel, has the body spherical, with eight ribs, and two ciliated 
tentacula, which become very long by prejection of their inferior extremities. MM. Audouin and Milne Edwards 
have described its natural organization with considerable minuteness, and have traced various sets of vessels, 
but without being able very clearly to explain their functions. This species is understood to constitute great part 
of the food of the common Whale. Naturalists have referred to the same genus very simple species, which consist 
of only a sac, furnished with ciliz, and open at both ends. The Doliolwm of Otto have not even projecting ribs, 
but resemble barrels without bottoms. 

Callianire of Peron, differ from Beroe only in having the ribs more salient, and united two and two, so as to 
form two sets of a sort of wings. Janira, resemble the last; but they have upon each side three long ciliated 
ribs, and two filaments. Alcinace, have a cylindrical body, open at the one end, and two large wings at the other, 
which when folded up completely cover the body. The cylindrical part is marked with four salient ribs, which 
end in points, and have eight braces of ciliz. Ocyrace, have similar wings; but they have no ribs, and only 
four rows of ciliz on the cylindrical portion. 


CrestuM,— 
Bears, perhaps, the nearest resemblance to Beroe than to any other genus. It is a very long gelatinous 
ribbon, having one of the sides furnished with two rows of ciliz, and there are fainter traces of the same 
on the other side: the mouth is in the middle of the inferior edge, and the stomach is embodied in the 
gelatinous substance of the ribbon; from the anal extremity there proceed vessels which ramify toward 
both extremities of the ribbon; and near the sides of the mouth there are two vessels which are pro- 


a 


Se ea a a le ee Le ae Bay 


ACALEPHA. 


bably ovaries. Notwithstanding its very singular shape, this animal may be considered as resembling 


a Callianira, in which the wings are excessively developed. 

There is but one known species, C. Veneris, ‘‘the Girdle of Venus,’’ which, considered as a ribbon, is five feet 
long, and two inches broad; but as an animal, it is five.feet broad, and two inches high. It inhabits the Medi- 
terranean; but its substance is so tender, that it is difficult to preserve an entire specimen. 

The two genera following, though long included among the Medusz, ought rather to form asmall separate family 
of the order, on account of the interior cartilage which supports the gelatinous substance of their body. 

Porpita, have a circular cartilage, and the surface marked with concentric striz, crossed by radiating ones. 
The upper surface is simply invested with a thin membrane, which projects beyond it; but the under surface is 
furnished with many tentacula, the external ones long, and beset with small cilia terminating in little globes ; 
these sometimes contain air; and those toward the middle are the shortest, simplest, and most fleshy. In the 
middle of these tentacula the mouth is situated, in the form of a small projectile proboscis. It leads to a simple 
stomach, surrounded by a coat of glandular substance. There is only one known species, which is of a black 
colour, and found in the Mediterranean and the warmer seas. 

Velella, have the mouth and tentacula like the preceding, only the latter are not ciliated. The cartilage is oval, 
and has acrest of some elevation passing obliquely across it, and it is transparent, without striz. There is but one 
known species, which inhabits the same seas as Porpita. It is fried and eaten. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE ACALEPHA. 


THE HYDROSTATICA. 


The members of this order are distinguished by one or more vessels filled with air, by means 
of which they keep themselves suspended in the water. Appendages, exceedingly membranous, 
and varied in their forms, some of them probably suckers, and others ovaries, are attached to 
the air vessels, and with these constitute the whole visible organization of the animal. 


PHYSALIA,-— 
Consists of a large oblong air vessel, with an oblique and wrinkled salient crest on the upper surface, and 
furnished below, near one of the ends, with a number of cylindrical appendages, which have their 
extremities of different forms, but they all communicate with the air vessel. The middle ones are 
beset with groups of little filaments ; and the lateral ones end in two threads each, one of which is 
usually very long. There is apparently a very small opening at one end of the air vessel; but there 
are no intestines visible, though there is an inner vessel, with a thinner tunic, from which cceca 
proceed to the processes of the crest ; and no nervous, or circulating, or glandular system is visible. 
They float upon the surface of the sea when smooth, and the crest answers the purpose of a sail. 
When living, it has two filaments much larger than the others, which are gemmed with a sort of pearly- 
looking drops. When touched it stings or burns the fingers, like those Medusz which are called “ sea 
nettles.” They are found in all the warm seas, and have been, strangely enough, confounded with 


Holothuria. 
PuyssoPHORA,— 


Resemble Physalia in their general characters ; but the air vessel is much smaller, has no crest, and is 
often accompanied by lateral ones still smaller. The tentacula, which are very numerous, are suspended 


in a bunch under the air vessels. 

The Physsophora, properly so called, have the secondary air vessels placed laterally under the principal one; 
and the tentacula are conical, cylindrical, or terminating in thread-like appendages, the last being susceptible of 
considerable elongation. 

Hippopus, have only lateral vesicles, semicircular, or resembling the foot of a Horse. These are arranged in 
two rows like the grains on the spikes of certain grasses ; and by their united contraction and dilatation, the 
animal can move with considerable velocity. [As the Physalia have been compared to little sailing boats, so these 
may be looked upon as a sort of steamer in miniature.] Capulite, have vesicles attached in two regular rows, 
often of a pretty long axis. Racemida, have the vessels small and globular, and united into an oval mass. 
Rhizophyza, have a single air vessel on the top of a stem, on the sides of which the tentacula are attached. 
Stephanomia, have the secondary air vessels blended with the tentacula around the stem. 


DipHyes,— 
Are curious animals, different from the Hydrostatic Acalepha, and yet, perhaps, resembling them more 
than any other animals in the system. Two of them are always found together, one within the cavity 


HYDROSTATICA. 653 


of the other; but they can in every case be separated without injury to the life of either. They are 
gelatinous and transparent, and move nearly in the same manner as the Meduse. The containing 
animal produces from the bottom of its cavity a chaplet, which passes along a semi-canal in the con- 
tained one, and which chaplet appears to consist of ovaries, tentacula, and suckers, analogous to those 


of the preceding genera. 

(These singular animals are inhabitants of the tropical and southern seas; and we are indebted for most of what 
we know concerning them to MM. Quoy and Gaymard.] The following are their distinctions as grounds of 
classification :— 

Diphyes proper, in which the two individuals are similar and pyramidal, with a few points round the aperture, 
which is in the base of the pyramid. 

Calpes, in which the received is pyramidal, and the receiver small and square. 

Abyles : the received oblong, or oval; the receiver small and bell-shaped. 

Cuboitdes : the received small, and bell-shaped ; the receiver larger, and square. 

Navicula: the receiver bell-shaped, and the received large, but something in the shape of a wooden shoe. 

There are other combinations besides these; [but we know too little of the habits of the animals to be able to 
understand the purpose of their yery irregular economy. We do not even know whether any one form is adapted 
for being only a received or a receiver, or whether the same form of animal may not be sometimes the one and 
sometimes the other ; neither do we know when, how, or for what purpose the one takes possession of the other 
as a dwelling.] 


THE FOURTH CLASS OF THE RADIATA,— 


THE POLYPI,— 


The Polypi are so named, because the tentacula which surround their mouths have 
a slight resemblance to the arms of the Cuttle-fish (Sepia), which was called Polypus 
by the ancients. The form and number of these tentacula vary. The body is always 
cylindrical, or conical, frequently without any viscera but its cavity, and frequently 
with a visible stomach, and with intestinal tubes which are hollowed out of the sub- 
stance of the body, as in the Meduse ; and along with these tubes ovaries are usually 
found. The greater part of them are capable of producing new individuals by putting 
out a sort of buds; but they propagate also by eggs. [This twofold means of propa- 
gation appears to answer a double purpose,—the buds being produced for the enlarge- 
ment of an established colony, and the eggs committed to the waters for the purpose 
of forming new ones.] The Polypi form three orders, which are again divided and 
subdivided into families, tribes, and genera. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE POLYPI,— 


THE CARNOSI—(FLEsHyY POLyYPi). 


This order includes all those fleshy animals that have the power of fixing themselves by 
their base ; but many of them can also crawl upon that base, or detach it, and swim, or, at 
all events, allow themselves to be moved along by the current of the water; but the motion 
which they most usually perform is that of expanding or retracting the tentacula, and opening 
and shutting the single aperture of the body. This aperture, which is of course both mouth 
and vent, opens immediately to the stomach, which is a simple cul-de-sac. It has, however, 
a proper membrane of its own; and between this and the external skin there is a rather com- 
plicated, but obscurely known organization, consisting of vertical and fibrous leaflets, to which 


ne te 


Loe Seam eT Roe Om eee aneMnRnT  TancT aaa 
654 POLYPI. 


the ovaries are attached in the form of tangled threads. The intervals between the leaflets 
have communications with the tentacula; and it should seem that water enters by these, per- 
vades the space between the leaflets, and ultimately escapes by small openings in the cireum- 
ference of the mouth; at least, some of the Actiniz eject water in this manner. 


ACTINIA. 

These have the body fleshy, often brilliantly coloured; and the tentacula are arranged in several 
rows round the mouth, somewhat like the petals of a double flower, for which reason they have been 
called “ Sea-anemonies.” They are very sensitive to light, and expand or close 
their tentacula according to the fineness of the day. When the tentacula are 
retracted, the aperture from which they proceed closes like the mouth of a purse, 
and the animal appears a simple fleshy tubercle, adhering to the rock. Their 
reproductive powers are scarcely inferior to those of the Hydra. Amputated 
parts are speedily re-produced ; and the numbers may be multiplied by simply 
dividing the body; though their usual mode of reproduction is by bringing forth 

Fig. 142.—Actinia. — the young alive. These young pass from the ovary into the stomach, make their 
escape by the mouth of the parent animal, and find localities for themselves. There are several dis- 
tinctions among them, besides those of size and colour. All the Actiniz are voracious, and miscel- 
laneous feeders. Small Fishes, Crustacea, and shelled Mollusca are, however, their usual food, and 
they very speedily extract the contents, and eject the empty crusts and shells. 

Actinia proper, fix themselves by a broad and flat base. There are very many species, especially in the warmer 
seas, where some of them are of large size, and equal in brilliancy of colour to any flowers of the garden. The 
species most common in Europe are, among others, A. senilis, which is three inches wide, with a leathery and 
rugged envelope of an orange colour, and two rows of tentacula of moderate length, marked with a ring of 
rose-colour. It is found on the sands, into which it sinks if disturbed. A. equini.—Skin soft, finely striated, of a 
bright purple, often spotted with green ; body smaller than the last, but the tentacula longer and more numerous. 
It abounds on the coasts of the Channel, and has a beautiful appearance. A. plumosa.—White, more than four 
inches wide, mouth in lobes beset with small tentacula, and with a row of larger ones within the lobes. A. effwta. 
—Light brown with whitish streaks, smooth, iengthened,and often thickest at the upper part. Inhabits the Medi- 
terranean, and usually fixes itself to shells. Those which have been enumerated are a mere specimen out of many 
species, the distinctions of which are, however, often obscure. 

Thalassiantha and Discosoma of Ruppel, are Actiniz, the first with branched, and the second with very short 
tentacula. 

Zoanthus, have the same texture, mouth, and tentacula as Actinia, and differ little in their general organization; 
but they occur in groups adhering to a common base, which is sometimes broad and flat, and at other times a sort 
of creeping stem. 


LucERNARIA,— 
Resemble Actinia, but are of softer substance. They fix themselves by a slender peduncle to sea-weeds 
and other bodies. The upper part expands like a parasol, and is surrounded by numerous tentacula, 
arranged in bundles; and between these are eight cceca proceeding from the stomach, and containing 
a red granulated matter. 


L. quadricorna, has the edge in four forked branches, with two bundles of tentaculain each. JZ. auricula, has 
the border octagonal, with a bundle of tentacula in each division. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE POLYPI. 
GELATINOSI. 


These have no firm envelope, and no ligneous, fleshy, or horny axis within the body. They 
are wholly gelatinous, more or less conical, and the simple cavity serves for a stomach. 


Hypra. 

These are the simplest of all animals in their organization, the whole of which consists of a small, 
gelatinous horn, beset with filaments which serve as tentacula. Even the microscope finds nothing in 
their bodies but a transparent parenchyma, containing mere opaque granules ; still they can swim and 
crawl, and even walk, by attaching the ends of the body alternately in a manner similar to Leeches and 
geometrical Caterpillars. They disturb the water with their tentacula, and thus bring their prey within 


GELATINOSI. 655 


their reach. Light affects them very powerfuuy, and they are fond of it. By division of the body 
they may be multiplied to an indefinite extent; but their natural production is by buds, which shoot 
out from various parts of the parent animal, and drop off when they are matured. They are found in 
stagnant waters, usually under the floating leaves of aquatic plants ; and it is understood that they tend 
to purify the waters. Some are green, others of a grey colour, and they vary also in size. 

Corine, have a fixed stem and oval body, open at the summit, and covered with little tentacula. Their texture 
is firmer than that of Hydra; some of them carry the ova on the under part of the body, in a manner similar to 
that of some Crustacea and Arachnide. 

Cristatella, have over the mouth a double range of numerous tentacula, forming a sort of plume in the shape of 
a half-moon, the regular motion of which brings food to the animal. These mouths are on short necks attached 
to a gelatinous body, which moves somewhat similar to Hydra. They inhabit stagnant waters; but to the naked 
eye, they appear only as little spots of mould. 

Vorticella, have the stem fixed, often much branched and divided, with a bell or horn-shaped termination to 
each branch, and two opposite groups of filaments, which agitate the water. They abound in stagnant fresh 
waters, and are arranged as bushes, shrubs, plumes, and other agreeable forms ; but they are too minute for being 
seen by the naked eye. 

Pedicellaria, are found between the spines of Echini, and by some considered as organs of these animals, but the 
probability is that they are Polypi, which seek shelter there. They consist of a slender stem, with a horn on the 
tip, furnished with tentacula like minute threads or leaves. 


THE THIRD ORDER OF THE POLYPI, 


CORALLIFERI. 


These include all those numerous species, which were for a long time regarded as marine 
plants, and in which numerous individuals are so united as to form compound animals, for the 
most part fixed like plants by a branched stem, or by simple expansions of a solid substance, 
at the base, or in the middle of the group. The individual animals, which are more or less 
analogous to Actinia and Hydra, are all connected in a common body, and have a general 
nutrition, so that whatever one eats, tends to the nourishment of the common body, and of all 
the individuals. Their instincts appear also to be common, at least in those species which 
have free motion in the water, for they swim by the joint action of the general body, and of 
allthe Polypi. Polypidom (the House of the Polypi), is the name usually given to the common 
part of these compound animals ; but the name is not quite correct, inasmuch as the common 
part is sometimes internal, and sometimes external. These polypidoms are formed in layers 
by deposition, somewhat similar to the ivory of teeth; and they are of various degrees of 
hardness; the hind parts being composed of salts of lime, but always united by means of 
animal matter, in the same manner as the lime in bones, crusts, and shells. The differences 
of form and situation in the polypidoms, gives rise to many divisions and subdivisions. 


THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE CORALLIFERI. 


THE TUBULARIA. 


These inhabit tubes which have acommon gelatinous stem pervading the axis, like the pith of a tree; 
and the tubes open sometimes on the summit, and sometimes at the sides, for allowing a passage to the 
Polypi. These Polypi are individually very simple, and resemble in their organization Hydra and Cris. 
tatella. 

They form three principal genera, but each admits of subdivision. 


TuBIPORA,— 
Have the tubes simple, and of stony consistence, each containing a simple Polype, and arranged parallel 
like the pipes of an organ. 
T. musica, abundant in the Oriental Archipelago, has the tubes of a fine red, and the polypi green and like Hydra. 


Some fossil polypidoms, such as Catenipora, in which the tubes are disposed in meshes, and Favosites, where they 
are crowded and hexagonal, resemble this genus. 


otto 


656 POLYPI. 


TUBULARIA,— 


Have the tubes of a horny substance, and simple, or branched; and the polypi come out at the 
extremities only. Many of them are found in stagnant fresh water, on the surfaces of plants. 

Tubularia marina, have two ranges of tentacula, the exterior as rays, and the interior atuft. 7’. indivisa, 
found in the European seas, have the tubes about two or three inches long, resembling bits of stone. Tibiana, 
have the tubes in zigzag, with a small opening at each angle. Cornularia, have the tubes conical, and the polypi 
have eight toothed tentacula. Anguinaria, have small cylindrical tubes, adhering to acreeping stem, with an 
opening near the extremity for the polypus. Campanularia, have the terminal habitations of the polype bell- 
shaped. Some have the branches of the bell smaller, and others have climbing stems. 


SERTULARIA,— 
Have a horny stem, simple or branched, with the cells for the polypi on the sides. The common 
gelatinous stem forms the axis of the horny one. They propagate by buds, which are produced in 


larger cells. The dispositions of the cells have caused various subdivisions. 

Aglaophenia, have the cells on one side of the branches. Amatia, have the cells partially united, and in some 
cases forming a sort of spire. Antennularia, have the cells in horizontal whirls; and Sertularia proper, have 
them alternate or opposite, on both sides of the stem. 


THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE CORALLIFERA,— 


THe CeLLULARIA,— 


Have each polype adhering to a horny or calcareous cell with thin walls, and no apparent connection 
with each other, except by a very thin epidermis, or by pores in the walls of the cells. The polypi in 


general resemble Hydra. 

Cellularia, have the cells arranged in the form of branched twigs, but no communicating axis, and the substance 
of their stems is more calcareous. There are several subdivisions. 

Crisia, with cells in two ranks, generally alternate, and opening on the same side. Acamarchus, with a vesicle 
at each opening. Loricula, with two cells opposite, placed back to back. Eucratea, with one oblique cell on each 
articulation. Salecorniaria, with the joints of the stem hollow, and their surfaces studded with ceils in quincunx. 

Flustra.—This genus consists of many cells, united in clusters like a honeycomb, sometimes covering various 
bodies, and sometimes forming Jeaves or stems. Some species have cells on one side the leaves only. 

Cellepora, have numerous small calcareous cells, crowded upon each other, and each pierced by a small open- 
ing. Tubulipora, are masses of little tubes with wide openings. 


There are bodies in the sea, which resemble the Coralliferi, or Polypi having stems or polypidoms, 
in which no polypi have yet been discovered. Pallas, and other naturalists of name, have considered 
them as plants; but others regard them as polypidoms, in which case they belong to this order. They 
form one.great genus, with many subdivisions. This genus is 


Cora.ina (the Corallines),— 
Which have articulated stems, supported on a kind of roots, and branching again and again, but having 


no pores in their substance, or visible polypi. 

Corallina proper, have the calcareous joints of uniform appearance, and there is no sign of epidermis or bark. 
The bottom of the sea on certain coasts is covered with these like a thicket of bushes, having the joints oboval, 
and the sprays arrayed like pinnate leaves. The colour is white, or reddish, or greenish. It was once used in 
medicine, though only on account of the salts of lime which it contains. Amphirea, has the joints elongated. 
Jania, have them slender, and with less calcareous matter. Cymapolia, has the calcareous joints separated from 
each other by portions of horny matter, and pores more distinctly marked than most of the others. Peniciila, 
have the interior of the stem composed of a tissue of horny threads, with an external calcareous crest investing 
the whole. The stem terminates in a bundle of articulated branches, resembling those of the other Corallines. 
Halymeda, have the stems and branches composed of joints externally, like the others; but internally they have 
acorneous tissue, from which the cutaneous matter is easily separable by acids. Flabellarius, have no distinct 
joints ; but consist of large leaf-like expansions, which have their stems of the same consistency as those of 
Halymeda. Galarura, have the stems hollow, and branching into two. Lingora, resemble the last, but have no 
articulations in the stems. Anadiomena (Corsican Moss), is articulated and branched, and consists of a horny 
substance, with a gelatinous covering. It is much used for expelling worms. <Acetabulum, is in form one of the 
most singular of the Corallines. It consists of a slender stem, supporting a round thin plate Jike a parasol, which 
has around smooth disc surrounding the central pores, the outer portion marked with strie, and the margin 
crenulated. No polypi have been discovered in their pores; but the rays of the striated disc are hollow, and con- 
tain greenish granules, which led Cavalini to conclude that it isa vegetable. Polyphysa, have a hollow stem, 
with a bundle of small closed vesicles on the summit. This has also been considered a vegetable. 


CORALLIFERI. 657 


[As the Corallines are situated on the very border, the indefinite border we may say, which separates the animal 
kingdom ; and as many zoologists and botanists are fully as zealous for an extension of territory, as for under- 
standing and governing well that which unquestionably belongs to them, the Corallines are, like sponges, claimed, 
and taken and retaken by both parties. The real cause of this, is the apparent impossibility of arriving at a true 
definition of what constitutes a plant or an animal, or what is the specific and unequivocal difference between the one 
and the other. Baron Cuvier, who was one of the most cautious as well as the most profound of zoologists, rarely 
speculates beyond the facts, and never enters into warfare on debateable ground. There is enough, however, even 
in his short synopsis, to show that the Corallines are really animals, although their polypi have not been discovered, 
and even although there should be none to discover. From the exceedingly varied structures of animals, and 
more especially from the extremely simple organization of some of those of the present grand division, we can 
easily see that no one organ of the higher animals is necessary for carrying on the functions of animal life, in 
some manner or other. The Hydra is a remarkable instance of this; for, simple as it is in its structure, it is far 
more instinct with life than those which, according to our types, we are disposed to consider as the most perfect 
animals; and, from the functions which it can perform with its simple organization, we cannot help concluding 
that there may be animals still more simple, and that a mere epidermis, or fibre, or any other nameable part 
however simple, may contain in it all the principles of life and reproduction. In addition to this, which we grant 
is only hypothesis, though very probable hypothesis, we may remark, that it cannot have failed to strike the atten- 
tive reader that all the substances elaborated by these Corallines are of an animal nature, not a vegetable one. 
The hard parts of them are always composed of salts of lime, the cement of which is an animal gelatine, and the 
soft parts are also animal. In the most plant-like of them there is no substance in the least resembling that of the 
plants with which they agree most in form; and as little is there any substance similar to theirs in the most 
analogous of the true vegetables. This may be considered as coming as near to absolute proof of the animality of 
these productions, as analogical reasoning can come. Indeed, what need we more? For, though we should dis- 
cover Polypi upon the Corallines, all that we could conclude from that would be that they were compound animals, 
with a sort of heads and mouths; whereas, according to our present knowledge of them, they are animals without 
either: and, as we find animals of other genera equally deficient of those parts, we have no reason to conclude 
that the Corallines may not be also without them. The fact is, that the subtle arguments which are sometimes 
raised to prove the animality of animals, always tend to the proof of quite another position, namely, that the 
animal in question is not itself, but some other one, having different organs, or parts, of some kind or other. 
For want of the fundamental definition to wnich we have alluded, it is impossible to argue upon what is animal 
or what is vegetable, abstractedly from the description of that matter of which the subject in question is composed. 
Therefore we have no foundation upon which to build, but the matter of which the subject under consideration 
is composed ; and though there are some difficulties even here, yet the line of distinction is, upon the whole, pretty 
broad and definite, although, perhaps, it is not easily described in words. No man, however, who possesses ordi- 
nary discernment, can confound the hard matter of a plant with that of an animal; and though, externally, many 
of the Corallines resemble bushes, or branches, the substance of them is no more like wood than it is like the 
horns of a Deer. The argument now used is equally applicable to the Sponges; and though it is not demonstra- 
tive in the present state of our knowledge, and probably never will become so in any state of it, yet it comes as 
near to demonstration as any thing that we can obtain upon mixed questions, in which life, either animal or 
vegetable, is involved.] 


THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE CORALLIFERI,— 


THE CorTICATI. 


This family includes all the genera in which the whole of the Polypi of any one Polypidom are 
obviously connected by a common substance, of a thick, or fleshy, or gelatinous consistency, in cavities 
of which the individual developements of the polype are contained ; and they, and the containing 
membrane, or skin, are supported by an internal axis, or core, varying in form and consistency, in the 
different members of the family. The polypi of such as have been observed are a little more complex 
in their organization than those of the preceding families of this order, and bear a good deal of resem- 
blance to Actinia. They have a distinct stomach, from which eight intestinal tubes proceed; and of 
these two long ones penetrate the common mass, and two shorter ones appear to be ovaries. They 
are divided into four tribes, Ceratophyta, Lithophyta, Natantia, and Spongia, chiefly on account of 
the form and texture of the supporting substance. 


CERATOPHYTA,— 
Which compose the first tribe, have the interior axis fibrous, like wood, but resembling horn in its 
substance and consistency ; there are two genera of them, both very numerous, and the last admits of 
subdivision. 


Antipathes, black coral. These have the axis branched, and fibrous, so as to have a ligneous appearance. The 
bark, or integument which contains it, is so soft, that it shrivels or comes off after death ; and then the axes have 
the appearance of dry sticks. 

Gorgonia, have the horny or fibrous part of the axis invested with a covering so thick, and so full of calcareous 

UU 


ee 


658 POLYPI. 


granules, that it dries entire on the axis, and retains its colours, which are often very bright and beautiful; but it 
is soluble in acids. The Polypi of several species have been examined, and found to have eight toothed tenta- 
cula, and a stomach and other viscera, like those of Corollium. 

Among them, M. Lamouroux distinguishes Plexaures, which have the covering membrane thick, with the cells 
not prominent, and it effervesces but slightly with acids ; Hvmicen, which have the same back, but the cells of 
the polypi prominent ; Mwrisen, which have the covering of moderate thickness, with projecting mammille covered 
with rough and imbricated scales ; and Primnoa, in which the mamille2 become imbricated by the one hanging 
partially over the other. 

LiTHOPHYTA,— 


The second tribe, have a fixed internal axis of stony consistency. The leading genera are, Isis, 


Madrepora, and Millipora ; but they admit of subdivision. 

Isis, have the axis branched, and no cells or cavities on its surface; and the internal tunic of gelatinous matter 
is mixed with calcareous particles, as in Gorgonia. 

Corallina [Isis nobilis of Linnzus], is the Coral of commerce, so much admired for its fine red colour, and the 
high polish of which it is susceptible, and so often made into trinkets. There are very profitable fishings (or 
divings) for it in different parts of the Mediterranean. The covering is of a reddish colour, and contains cal- 
careous matter. The polypi have eight toothed arms, or tentacula. Melita, has the stony axis interrupted by 
nodes full of a substance of the consistency of cork. Jsis, properly so called, has the horny part knotty; and 
the bark thick, soft, and easily removed after death. Mopsia, has the bark much thinner, but also stronger. 


Maprepora (the Madrepores),— 
Have their stony substance sometimes branched, and sometimes in rounded masses, or in leaves; but 
it is always furnished with laminze, concentrated toward points in the form of stars, or terminating in 
lines more or less serpentine. During life the stony part is enveloped in a horny bark, which is soft 
and gelatinous, and roughened by rosettes of tentacula, which are the Polypi, or rather the Actiniz, for 
they have more than one row of tentacula. The lamine of the polypi have some slight resemblance 


to those on the stony case; and the covering and polypi contract a little upon being touched. 

The varieties of their general form, and the figures which are produced by the combinations of their lamine, 
have been made the foundation of numerous subdivisions ; but several of these run into others, so that they are 
not absolutely specific, and it will be impossible to fix them definitely until the relations between their forms 
and the polypi are known. 

When there is only a single star, circular or elongated, with many lamine, they are the Fungia of Lamarck; 
and their polype resembles a single Actinea, with numerous tentacula; and the opening of the mouth corresponds 
exactly with the point toward which the lamine converge. 

There are found among fossils stony polypidoms consisting of a single star, which appears never to have 
adhered to others. These are the Turbinata and Cyclolithus of Lamarck, and the Turbinolopsis, Lamouroux. 

When the Madrepore is branched, and the stars are confined to the extremities of each branch, it is the Caryo- 
phyllia of Lamouroux. The branches are striated, and each star answers to a mouth surrounded by many 
tentacula. 

Oculina, have the small lateral branches very short, which gives them the appearance of having stars along the 
branches, as well as on the extremities. Madrepora, or Madrepores properly so called, have the whole surface 
roughened by little stars. Pocillopora, have little stars with pores in the intervals ; and Serialopora, have their 
stars in lines. Astrea, have a broad and generally convex surface, hollowed by crowded stars, each having a 
polype with numerous tentacula ina single row, in the centre of which is the mouth. Hxplanaria, are broad, 
with the stars on one side. Porites, has the stony substance branched. Meandrina, have the surface formed into 
little hills and valleys. In each valley there are mouths ; but the tentacula, instead of forming stars or rosettes 
around them, are ranged along the sides of the valley. In some, however, the mouths are merely festooned. If 
the hills which separate the valleys are raised into crests furrowed on both sides, they are called Pavonia ; and 
mouths, usually without tentacula, are found in the valleys, the crests probably acting as substitutes for the latter. 
There are also others, which have these hills conical or star-shaped, and the principal distinction of them is 
having the polypi on the projecting parts or in the hollows. <Agaricina, are composed of lamin, having valleys 
only on the one side, and the sides of the valleys furrowed. It is probable that we should consider as nearly 
allied to the Madrepores, certain polypidoms composed of cylinders, the sections of which form stars. These are 
Sarcinula, and when they have a solid axis, they are perhaps nearly allied to Tubipora, in the first family of the 
order. 


MILLIPORA,— 
Which compose the third genus, have the stony portion much diversified in shape, and the surface 
scooped only into small holes or pores, and sometimes there are no apparent perforations. Disticho- 
pora, have strongly marked pores on two sides of the branches. Millipora proper, are solid and 
variously branched. Sometimes the pores are not discernible, and they are Nullipores. Eschora, have 
flattened and leaf-like expansions. Retepora, are Eschore pierced like a net-work. ddeona, are 
Eschore on articulated stems, entire, or pierced like a net-work. 


CORALLIFERI. 659 


NATANTES,— 
Which form the third tribe of the coral family, have the axis stony, but not fixed. They consist of 
two principal genera, but each admits of subdivision. 


PENNATULA. 

This genus have a common body, perfectly free, and susceptible of locomotion by the contractions of 
its fleshy part, and the joint action of all the polypi. The contractions and dilatations are produced 
by fibrous layers, which are embedded in the fleshy substance. The axis is a single stony column, and 
the polypi generally have eight toothed tentacula. Whatever may be their form, one extremity is 
always without polypi, and resembles the barrel of a feather—hence the name. Most of them can 
emit a bright phosphorescent light; and though their general habit be to swim freely in the water, some 
species fix themselves in the sand, or get entangled in the folds of submarine bodies; but they never 


form an adhesion. 

Pennatula, properly so called, have the portion without polypi cylindrical and with a blunt point; and the other 
part furnished on both sides with lamine of various length and breadth, which are supported by tough bristles ; 
but these bristles are not articulated upon the stony axis. The polypi are situated between these lamine. Several 
species are found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Virgularia, have the lamine much shorter. Scirpearia, 
have the body slender, and the polypi detached and alternate. Pavonaria, are also slender, but the polypi are 
arranged in quincunx on one side only. Renilla, have the body short with filaments, and a kidney-shaped disc on 
one side, bearing the polypi. Veretillwm, are cylindrical, but without any branches; and the axis is usually small 
and the polypilarge. Ombellularia, have a very long stem with a tuft of polypi at the end. 


There are many small and porous stony bodies found in a fossil state, and in the sea, which, if they 
were invested with a living integument and polypi, would rank very nearly with this tribe. They are 


Ovolites, Lunulites, Orbulites, and others. 
ALCYONIUM, 


Which, with Spongia, forms the fourth tribe, has the polypi with eight arms, and the intestines in a 
common mass with the ovaries. It is not, however, supyro.ced by a stony axis; but always fixed to 
the body ; and when it is drawn out into trunks and branches, these present nothing internally but 
gelatinous matter. The covering is hard, and marked with furrows, into which the polypi retire. 

A. digitatum, the Sea Hand, divided into short and thick branches, and A. exos, with the branches smaller, and 
of a fine red, are the most common in the European seas. Linnzus and his followers included with this genus 
the Thethya, which have the interior roughened by long spiral lines of silicious matter, which unite in an equally 
silicious nucleus. The crust, like that of the Sponges, presents two kinds of openings, one for admitting water, and 


another for ejecting it. 
Spone1a (Sponges),— 


Are well known as fibrous marine bodies, whose only sentient portion appears to be a sort of thin gela- 
tine, which soon dries off. No polypi have been observed in them; and our knowledge of their real 
nature is very obscure. All the analogies, however, point them out as being animal, and not vegetable. 
The forms which they assume are almost innumerable. 


THE FIFTH CLASS OF THE RADIATA. 


THE INFUSORIA. 


It is usual to place at the close of the Animal Kingdom, these beings, which are so small 
as to be in general inscrutable by the naked eye ; and which have been known only since 
the microscope brought, as it were, a new world within the scope of our observation. 
[Every increase of extent of magnifying power and clearness of view, which the suc- 
cessive improvements of the microscope have enabled us to obtain, has been rewarded 
by new discoveries in the numbers, the forms, and the organization of these minute 
animals. Farther improvements in the structure of the instrument, and the mode of 
using it, may enable the observers of a future age to obtain information relative to this 
part of the Animal Kingdom, of which we of the present age can form no adequate 


oe 


660 INFUSORIA. 


idea. But, even in the present limited state of our information, this department of 
nature is a very extensive one, and requires the study of a whole lifetime to obtain even 
a moderate knowledge of all its branches. ] 

The greater part of the Infusoria have a gelatinous body, and a very simple organ- 
ization ; but some naturalists have included among them other animals, which are far 
more complex in their organization, and which agree with them only in the smallness 
of their size, and the habitats in which they are usually found :—these will constitute 
our first order ; but we must retain the doubts, which are not yet cleared up, respecting 
their organization. 


THE FIRST ORDER OF THE INFUSORIA. 
ROTIFERA. 


These are, as we have stated, distinguished by a more complicated organization. Their body 
is of an oval shape, and gelatinous , and we can observe that they have a mouth, a stomach, 
an intestine, and a vent near the foot. The body usually terminates in a sort of tail, variously 
formed; and it has on the fore part a very singular organ, variously divided into tubes with 
toothed edges, the teeth of which vibrate in various ways, and give the organ the appearance 
of one or more toothed wheels, revolving with greater or less rapidity. The apparently revolving 
organ does not appear to convey food to the mouth; and so it may be, in some way, con- 
nected with the function of respiration. 

FURCULARIA,— 
Or the Rotifera properly so called, have the body unarmed, and the tail composed of articulated portions, 


which enter into each other. 

Trichocerca, have the rotatory organs a little less developed. Vaginales, are said to resemble the former, 
inclosed in a transparent membrane; but that is doubtful. 

Tubicolaria, form for themselves little habitations of foreign substances, out of which the rotatory organs are 
protruded, in a manner similar to the tentacula of polypi. Branchionus, are distinguished by a sort of membranous 
shield on the back. 


THE SECOND ORDER OF THE INFUSORIA. 


HOMOGENEA. 


The body of these shows no viscera, or other complex organization, and in many there is 
not even a vestige of a mouth. 


The first tribe comprehends those which, with a gelatinous body, more or less contractile in several 


parts, has yet ciliz#, or some other simple external organs. 

Urcolaria, have the shape of a horn, but with cilie. Trichoda, have a flat body, ciliated at one extremity. 
Leucophora, have cilie all round the body. Kervona, have the cilie like little horns. Hiantopa, have them 
prolonged in a sort of threads. 


The second tribe have no external organ, except a tail. 

Cercarea, have an oval body, with a thread-like termination. The seminal animalcule, which have given 
occasion to so many whimsical hypotheses, belong to this genus. 

Vibrio, have the body round, like a very minute bit of thread. The “ Eels in paste and in vinegar,”’ as they are 
called, belong to this genus. 

Enchelis, have the body oblong, more soft, and less defined than that of Vibrio. ‘here are various other forms. 

Proteus, are so constantly changing their shape, that no definition or description of it can be given. 

Monas, are, even under the microscope, mere points, which move with great rapidity, though they have no appa- 
rent organs of motion. 

Volvox, are globular bodies, revolving on their axes, and containing more minute globes, each of which also, in 
all probability, contains a numerous embryo race. 


FIRST DIVISION, FOURTH CLASS.—PISCES 


PROFESSORS AGASSIZ AND MULLER’S CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES. 


THE classification of Fishes proposed by Cuvier has been found to require considerable modification, 
in consequence of the more complete knowledge since obtained regarding their internal structure ; and 
also, because it is found inapplicable to the arrangement of the numerous extinct forms which Geo- 
logical research has brought to light. The attentive study of these has suggested to Professor Agassiz 
a method of arrangement founded upon their sca/y covering, which affords characters well adapted for 
an easy subdivision of the class, and which enables us to assign a place with little difficulty to the 
numerous fossils which the examination of even a single stratum often brings into view; the scales 
being usually among the best-preserved parts of the entire animal, and being often in a state of perfect 
preservation, when every part of the internal skeleton has disappeared by decay. As this classifica- 
tion is much in use at the present time, especially amongst those who are engaged in the study of 
Fossil Fishes, we shall give a brief sketch of it; although, as we shall show, it is far from being 
perfect. The entire class is divided into the four following orders :— 


I. Ganomeans; from the Greek yavos, splendour. The fishes of this Order have a complete bony armour, 
usually covered by a coating of enamel, which gives them a peculiarly lustrous appearance. This armour 
generally consists of scales of small size, and of angular shape, somewhat overlapping each other, and arranged 
with great regularity, as in the Lepidosteus, or Bony Pike. In other instances, it is composed of plates of large 
size and irregular shape, with jagged edges that lock together, asin the Sturgeon. The former of these fish has 
a bony internal skeleton, and the latter a cartilaginous one; and a similar difference appears to have existed among 
the several extinct tribes of the Order. 

II. Pxacorpeans; from the Greek 7AQ&, a broad plate. This Order contains the fishes whose skin is covered 
irregularly with plates of hard bony matter, or of enamel; these are sometimes of large size, but are more fre- 
quently reduced to small points, as where they form the shagreen on the skin of many Sharks, and the prickly 
tubercles of the skin of most Rays. In this group, which comprehends the Sharks and Rays and their allies, 
the skeleton is for the most part cartilaginous. 

III. CrenomeEans; from the Greek KT6lS, (Gen. KTEVOS), acomb. These fishes have scales composed of horny 
matter, or of bone destitute of enamel, each scale being composed of several layers arranged one beneath an- 
other, They are distinguished from those of the next order, in which the structure of the scaleis nearly the 
same, by having the posterior edge (that which is directed towards the tail of the fish, and which overlaps the 
succeeding scale,) beset with projections like the teeth of acomb. The Perch may be taken as the type of this 
Order. 

IV. CyctomeEans; from the Greek x¥xAos,a circle. The scales of these fish have a rounded form, with 
smooth and simple edges. The Carp, Salmon, and Herring, are familiar examples of this Order, 


If we compare this classification of Agassiz with that of Cuvier, we shall find that the Cycloid fishes of the 
former are for the most part the Malacopterygii of the latter; and that the Ctenoid fishes of the former are, 
speaking generally, the Acanthopterygii of the latter. Further, the Placoid fishes of Agassiz correspond with the 
principal section of the Cartilaginous fishes of Cuvier; the Sturgeons and Chimera being alone excepted. The 
existing Ganofd fishes of Agassiz, however, were distributed by Cuvier amongst several different families; and 
there can be no doubt that, in bringing them together, Agassiz has effected an important improvement in classi- 
fication, since they present a general correspondence in internal structure, as well as in the nature of their 
external covering. 

The application of this method of arrangement to the various forms of extinct fishes which Geological 
research has brought to light, has given some extremely curious results ; of which a sketch will now be given,— 
In the first place it may be stated as a general fact, that of the CycLoip and CrENorp Orders, there are no remains 
whatever in any formation anterior to the Chalk; and that, consequently, the whole assemblage of ewisting fishes 
included in those two orders, probably about four-fifths of those now living, had apparently no representative 
whatever in the more ancient seas. Even in the chalk there seem to have been only two or three of the largest 
of the existing families, such as the Herring and Salmon tribes, the Mackerel tribe, and the Perch tribe, which 
attained any considerableimportance. The others are either but slightly represented at that epoch, and have sub- 
sequently increased very considerably, such as the Ecls and the Pleuronectide ; or first came in during the Tertiary 
‘period, such as the Carps and the Mullets; or present themselves for the first time in our own own epoch, which is 
the case (strange to say) with the large and important Cod tribe. Further, no family belonging to these Orders 


662 PISCES. 


has aisappeared from the ocean subsequently to its nrst introduction; nor is there any that seems to have under- 
gone any diminution; so that the Ctenoid and Cycloid Orders may be said to be presenting their highest develup- 
ment at the present time. 

When we survey the Geological distribution of the other two Orders, howeyer, we see a most extraordinary 
contrast. Although they now form so small a part of the inhabitants of our seas, we look back to a time when 
they were the sole Vertebrated tenants of the globe; and we see that in the period anterior to that of the 
predominance of the great extinct aquatic Reptiles, whose remains abound in the Lias and Oolite formations, 
certain tribes of each Order had attained a very high degree of importance. Of several families, moreover, which 
existed in the earlier periods of the history of the globe, some of them even having been the most numerous and 
important tribes in the whole class as then existing, not a single representative now remains. Of these, the most 
remarkable among the Ganorp fishes is the family of Lepidoids ; which was characterized by the possession of 
numerous rows of brush-like teeth, and by the covering of flat rhomboidal scales arranged parallel with the body. 
Remains of this family present themselves in nearly the oldest fossiliferous strata; it first began to abound, how- 
ever, in the Carboniferous period; attained its fullest development in the period of the Triassic formation; 
slightly diminished during the Jurassic period; underwent a still greater diminution during the deposition of the 
Chalk; and disappeared completely in the Tertiary epoch. Scarcely less remarkable is the history of the family 
of Sauroid fish, sonamed from the numerous points of resemblance to Saurian reptiles, which occur in their 
internal structure. This family seems to have commenced somewhat later than the preceding, but to have 
attained its fullest development at about the same part of the series. Its existence, however, has been continued 
downwards to the present time; though it is now represented by only two genera, both of them restricted to fresh 
water,—viz. the Polypterus, an inhabitant of the rivers of Western Africa, and the Lepidosteus, a tenant of the 
rivers and lakes of North America, 

In the Pracorp Order, the family of Cestracionts corresponds very closely in its history with the Sauroid and 
Lepidoid Ganoideans. This family bears a general resemblance to the Sharks in the form of the body and in 
internal structure; but the teeth, instead of being sharp and lancet-shaped, are flat and pavement-like, adapted 
for crushing instead of for cutting. Remains of Cestraciont fish are among the earliest that present themselves 
in the Paleozoic rocks; the family increased in importance through the Carboniferous series, and attained its 
greatest development in the Triassic ; after which it progressively diminished, and is now represented by only a 
single species, the Cestracion Philippi, or Port Jackson Shark. 

The families of GANoID and PLacoiD fishes, which are now most numerous, may, for the most part, be traced 
backwards to the remoter epochs. Thus the Sturgeons and the Rays have existed, nearly in the same proportion 
as at present, from the beginning of the Lias formation; the Chinceroid fish date from the commencement of the 
Secondary period; whilst the Squaloids, or true Sharks, make their first appearance in the seas of the Carboni- 
ferous epoch, and have been gradually increasing in importance down to the presenttime. It is very instructive 
to compare the present predominance of these sharp-toothed Sharks, with the former high development of the 
Cestracionts or blunt-toothed Sharks ; and to note how closely the gradual increase of the one tribe corresponds 
with the decrease of the other. When we view these facts in connection with the general condition of the class 
at each epoch, we find the explanation of it perfectly easy; for the period of highest development of the Cestra- 
ciont family was that at which nearly all other existing fish were of the Ganoid order; thatis, were covered 
with an armature of bony or enamelled scales or plates, quite impenetrable to any simple cutting instrument, and 
requiring powerful crushing teeth to make any impression upon them; whilst, on the other hand, itis only since 
the introduction of the Ctenoid and Cycloid fish, whose thin horny scales present no such impediment, that we 
find the family of sharp-toothed Sharks, to which they furnish appropriate food, rising into importance. 

Omitting from the Ganoid Order the Siluroid family, which more properly belongs to the Cycloids, and omitting 
from the Placoid Order the Cyclostome fish, which cannot be appropriately ranged under any one of the primary 
divisions of Professor Agassiz, it may be stated as a general fact, that all the existing GaNomp and Pacoip fishes 
are representatives of families, whose first appearance dates back at least as far back as the commevcement of 
the Tertiary epoch, most of them being of much older date. The principal development of these Orders shows 
itself in the Palzozoic and Secondary periods, that is, during the formation of all rocks older than the Chalk; 
and the class being then entirely destitute of Ctenoid and Cycloid fishes, must have possessed, as a whole, a very 
different aspect from that which it now presents. 

Another general fact of much scientific interest is brought into view by the study of the fishes of the older 
Geological formations. In all the Ctenoid and Cycloid fishes, the caudal fin is equally expanded above and below» 
and commences from the end of the vertebral column, which does not pass into it. This form of tail is called by 
Professor Agassiz, the homocercal tail. But in the Sharks, Sturgeons, and Lepidosteus of the present time, we find 
the caudal fin composed of two unequal branches, of which the upper one is supported upon a prolongation of 
the vertebral column, whilst the lower and shorter is given off from its under side. This form of tail is called 
the heterocercal. All the earlier Placoid and Ganoid fish seem to have possessed this latter form of tail; the 
homocereal confirmation not manifesting itself until after the commencemeut of the Secondary period. Both 
varieties present themselves in the Sauroid and Lepidoid fish; the heterocercal in the older, and the homocercal 
in the more recent. It is a curious fact that all fishes haye the heterocercal character of tail at an early period 
of their embryonic development; so that this may be considered as the more general form, which gives place, in 
certain cases, to one more specially adapted to the conditions of their existence. 

Although the classification of Professor Agassiz has thus been of the greatest service to the Geologist, and was 
a great advance upon that of Cuvier as regards its adaptation to the reception of the extinct forms of the class, 
it has the faults to which all classifications that are based on single characters are liable; dissimilar tribes being, 


PISCES. 665 


brought togetner, ana tripes that are really allied being widely separated. The following classification, whicnis 
that of Protessor Miiller, slightly modified by Professor Owen, being founded on the general organization of the 
animals it includes, has more title to be considered a natural one, and represents the nearest approach to a perfect 


arrangement which the present state of knowledge admits. 


OrpEer I.—DERMOPTERI. 


Internal skeleton unossified; integument and vertical fins muco-dermoid; vermiform, or abrachial and apodal; 
no pancreas, no air bladder. 
Sub-order 1, PHARYNGUBRANCHUH, (or Cirrhostomi.) Gills free, pharyngeal, inoperculate; no heart. 
Family.—Amphioxide. Example.—Lancelet. 
Sub-order 2. Marsiposrancuit, (or Cyclostomi.) Gills fixed, bursiform, inoperculate, receiving the respiratory 
streams by apertures usually numerous and lateral, distinct from the mouth; a heart. 
Family. —Myxinoidei. Lrample.—Myxine or Hag, Family.—Petromyzontide. Example.—Lamprey. 


OxpEr II.—MALACOPTERI. 


Internal skeleton ossified ; external skeleton in most as cycloid, in a few as ganoid, scales; fins supported by 
rays, all, save the first sometimes in the dorsal and pectoral, soft or jointed; abdominal or apodal; gills free, 
operculate ; a swim-bladder and air duct. 


Sub-order 1. APpopes. 
Family.— Symbranchide. Example.—Cuchia. Family.— Murenide. Example.—Eel. 


Famity.—Gymnotide. Example.—Gymnotus. 
Sub-order 2. ABDOMINALES. 
Family.— Heteropygit. Example.—Amblyopsis. Faniy.—Galaxride, Example.—Galaxias, 
Clupeide. Herring. Esocide Pike. 
Salmonide. Salmon. Mormyrida Mormyrus. 
Scopelide. Saurus. | Cuprinodontide Umber. 
Characini. Myletes. | Cyprinide Carp. 


Family.—Siluride Example —Sheat Fish. 


OnvER III.—PHARYNGOGNATHI. 


Internal skeleton bony; external skeleton in some as cycloid, in others as ctenoid, scales; inferior pharyngeal 
bones coalesced ; swim-bladder without duct. 


Sub-order 1. MaLacoprEryGit. 
Family.— Scomber-esocide. Example.—Saury-pike. 


Sub-order 2, ACANTHOPTERYGII. 
Family.— Chromide. Example.—Chromis. Family.— Cyclo-Labrida. Example —Wrasse. 


Family.— Cteno-Labride. Example.—Pomacentrus. 


Oxnper I1V.—_ANACANTHINI. 


Internal skeleton ossified ; external skeleton in some as cycloid, in others as ctenoid, scales ; fins supported by 
flexible or jointed rays; ventrals beneath the pectorals, or none; swim-bladder without air duct. 


Sub-order 1. APoDEs. 
Fanily.— Ophidide Ezxample.—Ophidium. 


Sub-order 2. THORACICI. 
Family.— Gadide. Example.—Cod Family.—Pleuronectide. Example.—Plaice. 


Orper V.—ACANTHOPTERI. 


Internal skeleton ossified ; external skeleton as ctenoid scales ; fins with one or more of the first rays unjointed 
or inflexible spines; ventrals in most beneath, or in advance of the pectorals; swim bladder without duct. 


Family. Example. Family. Example. 

Percide. Perch, | Squamipennes. Cheetodon. 

Sclerogenide. Gurnard. Teenioidet. Riband-fish. 

Scienide. Maigre. Theutyide. Lancet-fish. 

Labyrinthibranchit Anahas. Fistularide. Pipe-mouth-fish. 

Mugilide. Mullet. | Gobiide. Goby, Remora, and Lump-fish, 
Notacanthide. Notacanth. Blenniide. Blenny and Wolf-fish. 
Soomberida. Mackerel. LInphiide. Angler. 


Orpver VI.—PLECTOGNATHI. 


Internal skeleton partially ossified; external skeleton as ganoid scales or spines; maxillaries and pre-maxilla- 
ries fixed together ; swim-bladder without air ducts. 
Family.—Balistine. Example.—F ile-fish. Family.— Ostraciones. 
Family.—Gymnodontes. Eaample.—Globe-fish. 


Example —Trunk-fish. 


664 PISCES. 


OxpEr VII.--LOPHOBRANCHII. 


Internal skeleton partially ossified ; external skeleton ganoid; gills tufted; opercular aperture small ; swim- 


bladder without air duct. 
Family.—Hippocampide. Example.—Sea-horse. Fanily.— Syngnathide. Example.—Pipe-fish. 


Orver VIII.—GANOIDEI. 


Internal skeleton in some osseous, in some cartilaginous, in some partly osseous partly cartilaginous; external 
skeleton ganoid; fins usually with the first ray a strong spine; a swim-bladder and air duct. 


Lepi : ily.— ionidee. a _ 
Family —Salamandroidei. Example.— f episeutens Family Bturionidee, Example.—Sturgeon. 
( Polypterus. Acanthodet. Acanthodes, 
Pycnodontide. Pycnodus. Dipteride, Dipterus. 
Lepidoidet. Dapedius. Cephalaspide. Cephalaspis. 


Orpver IX.—PROTOPTERI. 


Internal skeleton partly osseous, partly cartilaginous; external skeleton as cycloid scales; pectorals and 
ventrals as flexible filaments ; gills filamentary, free; no pancreas ; swim-bladder as a double lung, with air duct, 
intestine with a spiral valve. 

Family.— Sirenoidei. Example.—Lepidosiren. 

{N.B.—This curious animal, for the reception of which this order has been constituted, combines in a very 
remarkable degree the characters of the Fish and of the Reptile, and has been placed by many naturalists in the 
latter class.] 


Onper X.—HOLOCEPHALI. 


Internal skeleton cartilaginous ; external skeleton as placoid granules; most of the fins with a strong spine for 
the first ray ; ventrals abdominal; gills laminated, attached by their margins; a single external gill aperture; no 
swim bladder ; intestine with spiral valve. 

Family.— Chinveroidei. Example.—Chimera, Family.—Edaphodontide Example.—Edaphodon, 


Orpver. XI.--PLAGIOSTOMI. 


Internal skeleton cartilaginous, or partially ossified ; external skeleton placoid; gills fixed with five or more 
gill apertures; no swim bladder; scapular arch detached from the head; ventrals abdominal; intestine with 
spiralvalve. 


Family. Example. Family. Example. 
Hybodontida. Hybodus. Squatine. Monk-fish. 
Cestraciontide. Cestracion. Zygenide. Hammerhead-shark, 
Notodanide. Gray-shark. Pristide. Saw-fish. 

Spinacide. Piked Dog-fish. ! Rhinobatide. Rhinobates. 

Scylliide. Spotted Dog-fish. i Torpedinide. Electric-ray. 
Nictitantes. Tope. Raiide. Ray, or Skate. 
Lamnide. Porbeagle. Trygonide. Sting-ray, or Fireflaire. 
Alopeciide. Fox-shark. Myliobatide. Eagle-ray. 

Scymniide. Greenland-shark. Cephalopteridee. Cephaloptera. 


The additional information recently gained respecting the curious little Amphioaus or Lancelet (p. 334), has left 
no doubt as to its claim to be regarded as a fish; butits peculiarities of organization are such as to separate it 
completely from all other members of the class. The nervous system consists almost solely of a spinal cord, with 
scarcely any traces of a brain or of organs of sense; and this is enclosed in a fibrous sheath, the only represen- 
tative of the vertebral column. This sheath, with a series of fine transparent threads of cartilage on either side, 
representing the ribs, and with a framework around the pharynx, constitutes the entire skeleton; of a proper 
cranium there is not the slightest vestige. The blood is colourless, like that of Invertebrata; and instead of 
a single heart for its propulsion, we find numerous bulb-like enlargements scattered over the system of blood- 
vessels, reminding us of the circulating apparatus amongst the inferior Worms. The water which is taken in for 
respiration, and which passes through the slits in the dilated pharynx, is not thence transmitted directly outwards 
through the gill-chambers by orifices in the neck; but is sent into the general cavity of the abdomen, from which 
it finds its way out by a single aperture, the “abdominal pore.” This arrangement closely corresponds to that 
which exists in the Ascidian Mollusks. The alimentary canal is lined with cilia; there is no distinct trace of a 
liver. Thus the Lancelet is quite isolated from all other existing fishes; being removed even from the group of 
Cyclostomi to which it is most nearly allied, by differences which are greater than those which separate fishes 
from some of the Batrachian Reptiles. Perhaps we are to regard it as a relic of some order of fishes now all but 
extinct, which, in consequence of the softness of their skeletons, have left no fossil traces of their existence. 


SECOND DIVISION, FIRST CLASS.—MOLLUSCA. 


THE general account of the organization of the Mollusca, given by Cuvier (pp. 335, 336,) does not 
require any important alteration or addition, save in one particular,—the structure of the Shell, which 
has recently been made the subject of careful microscopic investigation by Dr. Carpenter (Reports of 
the British Association, 1844 and 1847,) and Mr. Bowerbank, (Transactions of the Microscopical 
Society, Vol. I.) 

In order that the structure of Shell and its relations to the tegumentary covering of other animals 
should be properly understood, it will be desirable to give a brief account of what is now known of 
the latter. The skin of Man, and of Vertebrata in general, is essentially composed of two parts, 
which are entirely distinct from each other in structure and offices, namely, the coriwm, dermis, cutis- 
vera, or true-skin; and the epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin. The true-skin is made up of fibrons 
tissue, interwoven with a texture made up of an assemblage of blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, 
which are very copiously supplied to this part. The cuticle, on the other hand, is entirely destitute of 
vessels or nerves, and is thence said to be ewxtra-vascular. But it is not on that account a mere 
inorganic glue exuded from the surface of the skin, as some have supposed. For it is made up of an 
assemblage of ced/s, resembling those of which the greater part of the fabric of plants is composed, 
and of which other parts of the animal body contain a large amount. ‘These cells are most distinctly 
seen on the internal surface of the epidermis, that is to say, on the outer surface of the true skin; 
it is here that the growth and renovation of the epidermis are effected; new layers being continually 
formed to replace those which are worn off on the exterior. The cells of the outer surface of the 
epidermis are dried up by the evaporation of their contents, and are flattened into scales, which adhere 
to one another, so as to form a continuous membrane. This membrane in most animals is continually 
undergoing renewal; for as it is worn off from the exterior, it is replaced by the deeper layers, which 
then come to the surface and assume the characters of those which preceded them ; whilst the layers 
last formed on the surface of the true skin are pushed outwards by the production of others still newer. 
What has been called the rete mucosum, which was supposed to be a distinct and peculiar layer, con- 
taining the colouring matter of the skin, and intervening between the true skin and the epidermis, is 
now known to be nothing else than the newest layer of the epidermis, through the whole thickness of 
which the colouring matter is diffused. The nails, hair, horns, scales, and teeth, all belong to the 
category of epidermie appendages ; being originally generated by the growth of epidermic cells on the 
surface of the true skin, or within a little follicle or bag formed by a pit or depression of that surface, 
These cells, however, subsequently undergo various transformations, especially in the horny textures, 
by which their original character becomes obscured; buat they may be well seen, in a nearly un- 
changed state, in the central portion of most feathers, and of many hairs. 

Now the Shell of Mollusca is an epidermie structure, which is formed on the surface of their 
mantle, or thick spongy muscular skin, just as the cuticle of higher animals is formed upon the cutis 
vera. In its original state, it appears to consist of cells, similar to those of the ordinary epidermis: 
but these cells have the peculiar power of filling themselves as they grow, with carbonate of lime, 
which they draw in from the fluids of the mantle; and by coming into contact with each other, and 
adhering closely, they form the solid calcareous shell, In many shells, when the carbonate of lime 
has been removed by the action of dilute acid, a tenacious cellular membrane is left; the cells being 
held together by the interposition of horny matter, which gives considerable firmness to the texture. 
This is the case for example, in Pinna and its allies. In most other cases, however, the horny matter 
is exuded as a distinct layer on the surface of the calcareous shell; forming what has been termed (but 
incorrectly) the epidermis, the more appropriate term being the periostracum. ‘This layer sometimes 
presents the appearance of cellular structure, but this is probably rather the impression of the layer o 
true shell beneath ; it is not at all improbable, however, that it is produced by the agency of cells in 
the first instance, although no trace of structure is usually discernible in it. 

In a large proportion of the Bivalve Shells of the class ACEPHALA, a distinct layer of cellular 


666 MOLLUSCA. 

structure may be detected on the surface; and this is frequently so thick as to make up a great part of 
the shell, as in Pinna, Avicula, and a large proportion of Cuvier’s family Ostracee. The internal 
layer is usually more compact, and presents less distinct traces of cellular structure. In the shells of 
the Cuvierian families, Camacee, Cardiacee, and Inclusa, the greater part of the thickness is formed 
by the internal layer. In the Mytilacee, both layers are usually well seen, the inner layer, however, 
being usually the thicker. The successive additions to the shell are not made on the same plan in the 
two layers. The outer layer is merely extended by the junction of an additional portion to its margin; 
but the inner layer receives an addition to its whole internal surface, so that its thickness is increased, 
as wellas its extent. This is well seen in the common Oyster, in which the successive layers of the 
shell remain unusually distinct. The white inner portion, of which the greater part of each valve is 
composed, is made up of a number of lamin, each of which extends beyond the one external to it ; 
and thus the outer laminz are at the same time the oldest and smallest. Each of the layers of this 
substance is covered at its edge by an elastic yellowish-brown margin, which is so arranged that if 
the successive layers were closely adherent to each other, this substance would form a complete ex- 
ternal covering tothe shell. A section of the shell of an Unio, in which the layers do thus adhere, 
shows that the mode of growth of the two layers of a compact shell is essentially the same. 

In many Bivalve shells of the class BRACHIOPODA, especially belonging to the genus Terebratula 
and its allies, a very curious arrangement exists; the shell being perforated by a number of minute 
apertures, extending from the internal to the external surface; and these canals being filled with 
prolongations of the soft tissue of the animal itself. 

A number of curious varieties of shell-structure have been described by Dr. Carpenter (loc. cit.) ; 
who has also shown that, in many families and. genera of bivalves, the structure of the shell affords 
characters of great importance in classification; and that it is possible in several instances to recog- 
nize the family, or even the genus, to which a specimen belonged, by the microscopic examination of 
but a very minute fragment of it. 

In the Univalve shells formed by Mollusca of the class GasTEROPODA, the arrangement is generally 
different, especially in the porcellanous shells of many of the Pectinibranchiata. These are of great 
density, and contain very little animal matter, They have three layers instead of two, and these three 
layers are similar to each other in structure, being composed of a series of rhomboidal plates, disposed 
vertically to the surface of the shell, and giving an appearance of crystalline structure when the shell is 
broken across. The direction of these plates is the same in the inner and outer layers; but it is 
transverse in the middle layer, by which arrangement a greatly increased strength is gained. Each 
plate is made up of a set of long narrow cells filled with carbonate of lime, and adherent to each other 
at their edges. The shells of Gasteropoda do not, for the most part, undergo any thickening by suc- 
cessive additions; the enlargement required by the growth of the animal being effected by the exten- 
sion of the margin, with no further addition to the previous internal layer than is sufficient to give it 
the requisite smoothness along the line of junction of the new and old portions. 

In the General Classification of the Mollusca, given by Cuvier, the chief alteration required by the 
progress of knowledge is the entire removal of the CIRRHOPODA to the sub-kingdom ARTICULATA; their 
affinity to which, perceived by Cuvier, has been since placed beyond doubt by the discovery, that they 
issue from the egg in a condition resembling that of certain low forms of Crustacea, having eyes and 
active powers of locomotion, and only acquiring the form and condition of Cirrhopods after a series of 
metamorphoses, in which the eyes are lost, the locomotive organs altered in character, and the shell 
formed. This shell, in the Balanus and other sessile Cirrhopods, is composed of an outer and an 
inner plate, separated by a diplée or cancellated texture, which is sometimes of considerable thickness. 
Perhaps the best primary division of the true Mollusca is into the encephalous, or those provided 
with a head, and the acephalous, or headless ; in which last the mouth is not placed on a prominent 
portion of the body, but is concealed by the projection of the mantle. 

The first division includes the three classes of CEPHALOPODA, PTEROPODA, and GASTEROPODA, 
from which last the HeTEROoPoDA are detached by some Zoologists, to he ranked as a distinct class. 
The second division may also be arranged into three classes, namely—the CONCHIFERA, forming 
the testaceous division of the Acephala of Cuvier; the BRacu1opopa; and the TuNIcATA, forming 
the naked or shell-less division of the Acephala of Cuvier, The first two of these classes both possess 
bivalve shells; but the structure of the animal is very different, the respiration being carried on in the 


MOLLUSCA. 667 


former py means of four branchial leaflets, whence they are distinguished as Lamellibranchiata ; 
whilst in the latter the function is performed by means of the mantle itself, whence they are called 
Palliobranchiata. In many respects, the Conchifera are intermediate between the other two classes ; 
being connected with the Brachiopoda through the genera Placuna and Anomia, and with the Tunicata 
through the order Inclusa. The Conchifera and Tunicata being thus raised to the rank of classes, 
their primary subdivisions will be orders instead of families. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


The researches of Professor Owen upon the structure of the animal of Nautilus, and upon its rela- 
tions to the other Cephalopoda, have led him to propose a new arrangement of this class, which is 
wb cs ue as b now generally adopted. The entire class 

Fi is divided into two orders ; of which the 
S first, including nearly all existing spe- 
cies of Cephalopods, approaches most 
nearly to vertebrated animals ; whilst the 


second, which contains only one existing 
genus, but to which a great number of 
fossil forms are to be referred, is more 
closely allied to the Gasteropodous Mol- 
lusks. These orders are named according 
to the difference in the number of their 
gills, which is one of their best marked 
characters; but they differ alsoin many 
other particulars, 


OrpeER I.—D1IBRANCHIATA. In this order, 
only one genus, Argonauta, has been hitherto 
found, in which the body is protected by an 
external shell ; this consists of but one cham- 
7 ' ber, and does not adhere to the body of its 
vv av @ cs vv occupant, either by a siphon or by muscular 
attachment. All the other genera of this 

Fic. 1.—ORGANS OF CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION IN CUTTLE-FISH; r : 
c, Sree ventricle of heart, propelling the blood by the systemic artery as, and its order are naked ; but they are provided either 
branches b, &c.; the blood returns from the system by vc, the vena cava, which di- * = , . * 
vides into two branches, ab, to enter the gills; on these vessels are seated, at the hase with an internal chambered and siphonifer- 
of the gills. the inuscular and contractile dilatations, cb, which serve the purpose of ous shell, as in Spirula and Belemnosepia, or 


accessory hearts, to propel the blood through the gills, 67,47’. The blood returning F és : 
from the gills is conveyed back to the central heart by the branchial veins, vb. the remains of a shell are found in various 


stages of degradation, lodged in the substance of the dorsal part of the mantle. The arms of the Dibranchiata 
are, properly speaking, eight in number ; but in many genera, two longer tentacles are superadded. Both kinds 
of prehensile organs are provi- 
ded with acetabula, or suctorial 
disks for adhesion. The jaws are 
horny, and their margins tren- 
chant. The eyes are sessile, and 
of a structure approaching those 
of fishes in perfection. The or- 
gan of hearing is distinctly deve- 
loped. The gills never exceed two 
innumber (Fig. 1, br, brl,) ; but 
the branchial circulation is aided 
by two muscular ventricles, situ- 
ated one at the base of each gill 
(cb.) ; hence there are three dis- 
tinct hearts inthis order. There 
is an organ, the ink-bag, for secre- 
ting and expelling a black fluid, 
used as a means of concealment. 
The parietes of the funnel are ‘ 
entire. ae a 
This order is divided by Pro- "Fig. 2.-OcToPUS oR POULT. 
fessor Owen into the following families, which are arranged under two tribes, the Ocropopa, or eight-armed, 


668 MOLLUSCA. 


and the DEcApopa, or ten-armed Cuttle-fish. The Octopod tribe consists of the two families Testacea and Nuda ; 
to the former belongs the genus Argonauta, with (perhaps) the fossil genus Bellerophon ; to the latter the genus 
Octopus, represented in the preceding figure (2) as creeping on 
the shore with its mouth downwards. The Decapod tribe, which 
includes the greater proportion of the existing Cephalopoda, is di- 
vided into four families ;—the Teuthidw or Calamaries, including the 
genera Loligo, Septoteuthis, Onychoteuthis, Sepiola, Cranchia, and Loli- 
gopsis (Fig. 3) ; the Sepiade, or common Cuttle-fish, comprised under 
the single genus Sepia ; the Spirulide, consisting of the single genus 
Spirula, which isa Decapodous Cephalopod, with an internal spiral 
chambered shell, furnished with a siphon; and the Belemnitida, a 
group known only by fossil remains, but determined from these to 
have been Decapodous Cephalopods, possessing conical chambered 
shells of which a description has been given in the text. From cer- 
tain markings on the surface of these shells, and from the fact that 
distinct remains of an ink-bag have been frequently met with in the 
last or largest chamber of the cone, it has been argued that, not- 
withstanding the strong resemblance of the shell to that of many 
genera allied to the true Nautilus and belonging to the Tetrabran- 
chiate group, the animal must have been Dibranchiate, and must have 
included the shell, together with its massive sheath, in the same 
manner asthe Cuttle-fish includes the ‘‘pounce-bone.” The Nau- 
tilus possesses no ink-bag, its power of completely withdrawing the 
body into its shell rendering such a means of protection unneces- 
é sary ; and the ink-bag seems to be wanting in the several fossil 

Fic. 3.—Loricopsis. genera, whose shells bear a strong resemblance to that of this genus. 
If, then, the ink-bag be peculiar to the Dibranchiate order, and its presence indicates the general organi- 
zation of that order, the Belemnite must have belonged to an animal more or less closely allied to the Sepia. 
The justice of this view has been made evident by the recent discovery of speci- 
mens of Belemnite, in which the soft parts of the animal are so well preserved 
as to enable their form and general structure to be distinctly traced. From 
these it has been ascertained that the arms were furnished with hooks, as in the 
Onychoteuthis ; and that the body had a pair of small lateral fins, situated at 
about the middle of its length. From the weight of its dense internal shell, the 
Belemnite may be supposed to have commonly maintained a vertical position ; 
and, as its chambered portion was provided with a siphuncle analogous to that 
of Nautilus, the animal probably had the power of ascending and descending in 
the water with facility. It would rise swiftly and stealthily to fix its claws in 
the belly of a fish swimming at the surface above ; and then, perhaps, as swiftly 
dart down and drag its prey to the bottom and devour it. Wecannot doubt 
that, like the hooked Calamaries of the present seas, the ancient Belemnites were 
the most formidable and predaceous of their class. [See Professor Owen’s Me- 
moir on the Belemnite in the Philosophical Transactions for 1844.] 

Orper II.—TETRABRANCHIATA. The Cephalopodes of this order are provided 
with a large external univalve shell, symmetrical in form, straight, or convoluted 
on a vertical plane, and divided by a series of partitions into numerous cham- 
bers, of which the last-formed is the largest, and alone contains the body of the 
animal; a dilatable and contractile tube or siphon is continued from the pos- 
terior part of the animal through all the partitions and chambers of the shell ; 
but the attachment of the shell to the body is effected by means of two strong 
lateral muscles, which are inserted into the walls of the lastchamber. The arms 
are very numerous, short, and hollow, each containing a long, slender, retractile 
tentacle ; they are destitute of suckers. The head is provided with a large flat- 
tened disk, which, besides acting as a defence to the orifice of the shell, serves 
also, in all probability, as an organ for creeping along the ground, like the foot 
in the Gasteropods. The jaws of the Tetrabranchiata are strengthened by a 
dense, exterior, calcareous coating, and have thick dentated margins. The eyes 
are pedunculated, and of a simple structure like those of the Gasteropoda. There 
is no organ of hearing. The gills are four in number, and without branchial 
hearts. The circulating system is provided with but one ventricle, which is 
systemic, or propels arterial blood. There isnoink-bag. The inferior parietes 


6 ° 6 2 A Fic. 4.— BELEMNITE RESTORED; 
of the funnel are divided longitudinally. a, a, outer chamber of cone; 6, cham- 
bered portion; c, spathose guard ; d, ink- 


ANG : ° bag; e, e, mantle; /, f, fins; 
Of the TrrRABRANCHIATE order, the only existing representative is the genus hooked ‘arms; i, funnel. sig i) 


Nautilus, (Fig. 5,) whose general organization has been described in the previous account of the group. The 


MOLLUSCA. 669 


fossil remains of this order are very numerous, and are classed according to the structure of their chambered 
shells. Those which, like the Nautilus, have the 
septa smooth and simple, and the siphon either 
penetrating the centre of the chambers or running 
along the inner margin, are grouped into the 
family Nautilide, the principal genera of which are 
Nautilus, Clymenia, Campulites, Lituites, and Ortho- 
ceratites. Those, on the other hand, which have 
the septa sinuous and with lobated margins, and 
in which the siphuncle runs along their outer 
margin (in some instances, however, near their 
centre) are grouped into the family Ammonitide, 
of which the principal genera are Ammonites, 
Baculites, Hamites, Scaphites, and Turrilites. 


The following tabular arrangement will bring 
this classification at once under the eye. 


I.—OrDER DIBRANCHIATA, 
Tribe A.—OcTopoDaA. 
Family 1. Testacea Family 2. Nuda. 


Argonauta Octopus 
Bellerophon 2? 


Fic. 5.—PEARLY NAUTILUS; with the shell laid open; t, tentacula; e, fun- 
nel; p, foot; m, portion of mantle; 0, eye; g, siphon. 


Tribe B.—Dercapona. 


Family 1. Teuthide, Calamaries | Family 1. Cranchia | Family 3. Spirulide 
Loligo Loligopsis Spirula 
Onychoteuthis | Family 2. Sepiade, Cuttle-fishes Family 4. Belemnitide 
Sepiola Sepia Belemnites 


II.—OrpER TETRABRANCHIATA. 


Family 1. Nuutilidee | Family 1. Lituites | Family 2. Baculites 
Nautilus Orthoceratites Hamites 
Clymenia Family 2. Ammonitide | Scaphites 
Campulites | Ammonites Turrilites 


It may be well to add, with reference to the family of Camerines (the Foraminifera of D’Orbigny) with which 
Cuvier’s description of this class terminates, that itis now universally rejected from the Cephalopoda, though 
its true place in the animal scale cannot be determined until more shall be known of the animals by which the 


shells are formed. 


No very important change has been made in the classification of the PrERopoDA, GASTEROPODA 
ConcHIFERA, and Bracutopopa. The principle advanced by Cuvier and Lamarck, however, that 
the classification of all Mollusca ought to be primarily based on the structure of the animals,—the 
characters of the shell, however useful for recognition, not being those on which a natural arrange- 
ment ought to be founded,—is now generally admitted; and the attention of Naturalists has been of 
late much directed to the increase of our acquaintance with the anatomy of the animals of the testa- 
ceous Mollusca. Many changes in the classification of Cuvier haye been proposed, the grouping of the 
genera into orders being varied according to the principles of arrangement adopted by each systematist. 
But no one classification has met with such general acceptance, as to be entitled to replace that of 
Cuvier, 


Much has been added, however, to our knowledge of the class TunicaTa, chiefly through the re- 
searches of Professor Milne Edwards. And it is now considered by many Naturalists (See the History 
of British Mollusca, by Forbes and Hanley, p. 1,) that this class should comprehend, not merely the 
animals included in the Cuvierian group of Acephala nuda, but also a large and important assemblage 
of compound animals hitherto ranked as Zoophytes, viz.—the Bryozoa. Referring to the Appendix to 
the Radiata for an account of the organization of these animals, which differ in some important parti- 
culars from the ordinary Tunicata, we shall at present confine ourselves to a review of the latter. 

The ordinary Tunicata are divided by Professor Milne Edwards, who has made them an object of 


670 MOLLUSCA. 


specia: study, and wno nas added greatly to our knowledge of their organization, and especially of 
their development, into three orders, viz.—the SaLpip&, the Ascrp1aD&, and the PyRosomID&. 


I. The SaLrip# are, in some particulars of their organization, the highest of the Tunicata. They differ from the 
true Ascidians, as well in their habits as in their structure. They are not attached to solid bodies, but habitually 
swim in the waters of the ocean, sometimes singly, sometimes in clusters ; their movement being due to the res- 
piratory current presently to be described. In form they resemble short but rather wide tubes, with an opening 

re P at each end ; the respiratory 
, , ‘ apparatus, instead of being 
formed by the entire dilated 
pharynx, here consists of 
two distinct branchial leaf- 
M lets, and the branchial ori- 
fice is provided with a valve 
which permits the free en- 
trance of water, but pre- 
vents its return. The vis- 
cera are collected into a 
single mass at the posterior 
extremity of the body ; and 
this mass is very conspicu- 
ous, owing to the brilliant 
orange, brown, or reddish 


Fic 6.—BiPHORA, ONE OF THE SALPA; a, mouth; p, posterior or anal orifice; f, liver, inclosing other x ; 
viscera; c, heart; 67, branchial sac; m, muscular bands; ”, nervous ganglion. hue of the liver, of which 


a large part of it is composed, and to the transparency of the remainder of the body. As in the other Tunicata, 
a continual stream of water is drawn in through the branchial orifice by the vibration of the cilia with which 
the respiratory and digestive surfaces are clothed ; and a current as constant is ejected from the anal orifice. 
These two orifices being opposite to each other in the Salpw, and the animals being perfectly free, they acquire 
a progressive movement through the water, the branchial orifice being directed forwards. The Salpw are met 
with in two states, solitary and aggregated. The latter are simply adherent to each other by little suckers, not 
being organically united like the compound and social Ascidians. The adhesion, however, is so strong in some 
species, that it is easier to tear the bodies of the animals than to separate them from each other; in other 
species, however, the adhesion is less powerful, so that when a mass is placed in a vessel of water, the sides of 
which are smartly struck, the individuals fall asunder. The curious observations of Chamisso, mentioned in the 
text (p. 382,) have been fully confirmed, especially by the researches of Krohn; who has further shown that 
there exists in these animals, as in the Ascidians, a double mode of propagation. He found that the solitary 
Salpz produce chains of aggregate Salpze by a kind of internal gemmation from a sort of stolon or creeping stem, 
resembling that of the social Ascidians, (Fig. 7,) but contained within their bodies, instead of extending on the 
outside. These aggregate Salpz differ from the solitary individual from which they have sprung, in several 
points of their conformation, so that they have been described as distinct species. But from the several indi- 
viduals of the chain of aggregate Salpx, eggs are produced, each of which developes itself into original form 
of the solitary Salpe. According to Krohn, every species of Salpa thus exists under two dissimilar forms ; and 
on this fact, and others of a similar nature, the doctrine of an “alternation of generations” has been built up 
by Steenstrup and his followers. According to this doctrine, in those tribes in which such a series of phenomena 
is presented as that just described, we are to interpret them as follows.—Generation A (e. g. a solitary Salpa,) 
produces generation B, a being of a different form (e¢. g. an aggregate Salpa) ; and the offspring of generation B 
resemble generation a ; so that each individual is unlike its own immediate parents and offspring, but resembles 
its grandparents and grandchildren. In this statement, however, the fact is too much lost sight of, that the two 
modes of reproduction alternate, as well as the two forms produced. The solitary Salpe give origin to the 
aggregate forms, not by the sexual process and the development of ova, but by gemmation ; so that the relation 
of the two is in reality the same, as that of the several individuals of the social and aggregate Ascidians (pre- 
sently to be described) to the original founder of the colony ; the only essential difference being, that in the case 
of the Salpx, the individuals thus budded off become completely detached from their stock, and exhibit a 
difference of organization adapted to the difference of life which they are tolead. Itis only when the sexual 
process intervenes, and ova are developed from which new stocks originate, thata new generation can be 
properly said to commence, unless we give to the term generation a much wider acceptation than it has 
hitherto possessed. We shall have to return to this subject, when considering the curious relations which subsist 
between certain Polypes and Medusa, in the Appendix to the Radiata. 

II. In the Ascip1ap#, the body is either fixed immediately to some solid mass, or is attached by a peduncle ; 
the two orifices of the mantle are usually near each other (Fig. 8); the greater part of the internal cavity is 
occupied by the branchial sac, which may be regarded as a dilated pharynx ; and the viscera occupy a compara- 
tively small space at the bottom of this sac. (See Fig. 7.) This order may be divided into the three families of 
simple, social, and compound Ascidiauns. 

1. The Simple Ascidians are completely detached from another ; for, although frequently met with in groups or 
clusters, the individuals composing these have no organic union. They generally approach the oval form. They 


MOLLUSCA. 671 


have only one method of multiplication ; namely—oy means of eggs. To this division belong the genera Ascidia, 
Cynthia, Phallusia, Boltenia, with some others. 

2. The Social Ascidians adhere to solid bodies by a sort of root or creeping stem, which runs along their surface, 
and which puts forth reproductive buds that develope new individuals ; whence it results that these animals live in 
clusters or colonies, of which the several individuals are organi- 
cally united. Each animal has its own heart, respiratory ap- 
paratus, and system of nutrition ; but a common circulation 
of blood extends through the stem and branches, connecting 
them all with each other. The relation between the separate 
animals thus bears a strong resemblance to that which sub- 
sists among the individual polypes of a Sertularia or other 
compound polypidom, in whose stem and branches a circulation 
of fluid takes place, To this family belong the genera Clavellina 
and Porophora, 


3, The Compound Ascidians are united in a much more intimate 
manner, a great number of individuals (usually of very minute 

Fra, 7.—PoroPHoRA, a social Ascriian, 3, branchial size) being grouped together in a single mass, and imbedded in 
pe ead ata) a ep aA Ne acer a gelatinous or almost cartilaginous tissue, which has sometimes 
a very firm and even leathery integument, that serves as a mantle common to the entire cluster ; the covering of 
the individual animals being a very delicate membrane. On the surface of the mass are a number of small 
orifices, which have usually the form of six-rayed stars ; these are, some the oral or branchial, and others the 
anal openings, of the individuals imprisoned in the mass. Sometimes, however, the anal orifices of all the indi- 
viduals are united into acommon cloaca. The propagation of these singular beings, which possess a high or- 
ganization, although looking like masses of inert jelly, takes place like that of the preceding family, in two dis- 
tinct modes—namely, by gemmation or budding, and by the sexual production of ova. The reproductive buds are 
formed in the connecting tissue, and thus the number of individuals in a cluster is progressively increased. The 
eggs, on the other hand, give birth to individuals of an entirely new generation ; these in their young state have a 
form very different from that of the adults, and have an active power of locomotion, by which they are carried 
to a distance from the parent stock, to establish a new colony at a distance. Having become attached to some 
fixed body, they begin to undergo a series of metamorphoses, by which the Ascidian form is gradually evolved ; 
and from each single individual a cluster may ultimately be generated by the process of gemmation. In addition 
to the genera Botryllus, Polyclinum, and Synoicum, noticed by Cuvier, we have to mention Aplidiwm and Sidnyum of 
Savigny ; Leptoclinum, Amaroucium, and Botrylloides of Milne Edwards ; and Distoma of Gaertner. It is to the ex- 
position of the structure and relations of this most interesting group, that the admirable memoir of Professor 
Milne Edwards, in the Eighteenth Volume of the ‘‘ Memoirs of the Institute of France,” is especially devoted. 

III. The Pyrosomip®, as Cuvier has remarked (p. 383), are nearly allied to the Botrylli in the organization of 
the individual animals, but the individuals are united into tubes, each of which may be said to consist of 
a pile of the star-shaped clusters of the Botryllus; and the entire tube is as free as are the bands of aggregate 
Salpx, instead of being attached like the clusters of the Compound Ascidians. Like the Salpz, the Pyrosoma 
tube acquires a progressive motion through the water from its respiratory current ; for whilst the branchial or 
oral orifices of the animals all lie on the outside of the tube, the anal orifices are all directed inwards, and open 
into the central channel, whichis common toall. This central channel being closed at one end, the water is 
compelled to issue from the other ; and the continual stream in which it flows occasions a movement of the mass 


in the opposite direction. 


THE attention which has been given of late to this tribe of animals, has caused a great increase of our know- 
ledge as to their structure and actions ; and as the group is one of remarkable interest both to the Zoologist and 
to the Naturalist, a few particulars will be added to what has been already stated as to their structure, actions, 
and development. The attached species present us with a most remarkable contrast between the apparent 
inertness of their life, and the activity of the operations taking place within. If we keep some of the Compound 
Ascidians (which we may have found on a broad-leaved fucus cast ashore after a storm,) in a vessel of sea-water, 
“‘we find them lie there as apathetic as sponges, giving few signs of vitality beyond the slight pouting-out of tube- 
like membranes around apertures which become visible on their surfaces ; though a closer and microscopic ex- 
amination will show us currents in active motionin the water around these apertures, streams ejected, and 
whirlpools rushing in ; indicating that however torpid the creature may externally appear, all the machinery of 
life, the respiratory wheels, and circulatory pumps, are hard at work in its inmost recesses.” All these active 
operations belong, however, to the vegetative life, and do not indicate any consciousness or yoluntary exertion on 
the part of these beings. The currents of water are produced, as already mentioned, by the agency of the cilia 
clothing the internal membranous surfaces ; and this action we have every reason to believe to be quite inde- 
pendent of the animal’s will, and even beyond its control. It is a curious fact that Salpw are sometimes found 
making their way through the water, after they have been deprived of their visceral mass by birds or fishes. 
The entire nervous system is here reduced to a single ganglionic centre (Fig. 8, c), which is situated between the 
two orifices, sends filaments to each of them, and also distributes its branches over the general surface of the 
mantle. Noorgans of special sensation are perceptible, and the only indication of common sensibility shown 


672 MOLLUSCA. 


by these animals, is the contraction of the mantle when the surface is touched, or when some irritating 
particle is drawn into the branchial orifice; by this contraction a jet of water is spurted out, sometimes 
+a to a considerable distance. No beings possessed of a complex internal structure, a 
F distinct stomach and alimentary tube, a pulsating heart, and ramifying vascular 
apparatus, with branchial appendages for aerating the blood, and highly-developed 
secretory and reproductive organs, can be imagined to spend the period of their ex- 
istence in a manner more completely vegetative than these. 

All the Tunicata above described appear to participate in a very remarkable peculi- 
arity in the function of circulation. The heart is very simple in its structure, being 
merely a contractile dilatation of the principal trunk, without any distinct division into 
an auricle and ventricle, or a receiving and impelling cavity. This trunk first supplies 
blood, as in other Mollusca, to the mass of viscera, from which the fluid proceeds on- 
wards to the respiratory surface, to be distributed over this for aeration ; another por- 
tion, however, in some Ascidians, is sent direct to that surface. The whole fluid, after 
being thus exposed to the oxygenating influence of the streams of water continually 

x ZZ passing over the branchial membrane, is collected by vessels which unite into a single 
ae trunk that conveys it back to the heart. This may be said to be the direct course of the 
ea econ circulation, because it is that which takes place in the Mollusca generally. But it is 
fice or mouth ; }, vents ¢, gan= not constant in any of the Tunicata. After the heart has constituted its pulsations 
glion; d, mantle (the external . 5 
coat being removed), for a time, so as to propel the blood which it has received from the gills through the 
systemic trunk, its action becomes feebler, and the movement of the blood slower; a slight pause then 
occurs ; and the pulsations then recommence, but in the opposite direction. The end of the heart which is 
connected with the systemic trunk now begins to contract first, and propels the blood towards the other 
extremity, into which opens the channel that previously brought it back from the gills; through this channel 
it now passes to the branchial surface ; and thence it returns to the heart through the vessels which distribute 
it to the viscera. After continuing in this reversed direction for a time, the circulation again returns to its 
original eourse. The period of alternation varies considerably even in the same individual ; from thirty 
seconds to two minutes intervening between every change. The average time of the flow in each direction 
is, however, the same. In the Social Ascidians, the circulating apparatus of all the individuals of a cluster 
is connected by trunks passing along the stem and branches (Fig. 7). The trunk that carries back the 
blood from the branchial surface does not at once proceed to the heart, but enters the footstalk, and joins the 
main trunk contained within the stem; anditis a branch proceeding from this trunk, and passing along the 
footstalk, that enters the heart. The alternation of the circulation takes place in these asin the solitary spe- 
cies ; and it is curious that, if the flow of blood through the footstalk of any individual be prevented by a liga- 
ture, the circulation then takes place after the manner of the solitary species,—the blood being returned at 
once from the branchial surface to the heart, or being propelled directly from the heart to that surface. 

The metamorphosis undergone by the simple and compound Ascidians is not one of the least curious parts of 
their history. They do not begin life as fixed animals ; but as independent, free-moving, tadpole-like embryos. 
The larva, asit appears in the egg, is at first an oval disk ; a sort of tailis then formed, by a prolongation ofa portion 
of this disk, round which, however, it is at first wrapped ; arm-like projections spring from the head, which may 
then be likened to a hydroid zoophyte; and in this condition it comes forth from the egg, and swims freely 
through the water by means of its rapidly-vibrating tail. It then becomes attached by its arms to rocks or sea- 
weeds ; the tail disappears ; that which was the head now becomes the base, sending out root-like projections by 
which it is firmly held ; the visceral mass is gradually developed in the neighbourhood of this ; the two orifices 
are formed at the opposite extremity ; and the final form of an Ascidian begins to be manifested. The production 
of the cluster, in the compound species, by gemmation from the first individual, takes place subsequently to the 
full development of the latter ; and the buds usually proceed from the root-like processes which it has sent forth. 

One other remarkable fact concerning these curious animals deserves special mention. It has been lately dis- 
covered that the gelatinous mass in which the individuals of the compound Ascidians are imbedded, consists al- 
most entirely of a substance cellulose, which has been usually regarded as peculiar to vegetables ; being composed 
of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon alone ; and being identical with the material of which the greater part of their 
issues is composed. Even the tunics of the solitary Tunicata are found to contain a large proportion of the same 
material. The presence of this substance probably depends upon its abundance in the food of these animals, 
which appears to consist of particles of sea-weeds, and also of a number of vegetable bodies (formerly regarded 


as animalcules) of extreme minuteness, which float in the waters of the ocean and are drawn in by the ciliary 
current. 


Although at first sight the peculiarities of these animals might seem to detach them from the other classes of 
the Molluscous sub-kingdom, yet the separation is not so wide as might appear. If the membranous, cartilagi_ 
nous, or leathery integuments of an Ascidian were to be converted into a hard shell, symmetrically divided into 
two plates or valves, held together by a hinge on one side, and open at the other so as to expose the mantle, 
whilst the two orifices protruded at one extremity, it would present the closest similarity with many bivalve 
shell-fish. The similarity would be in many respects closer, were a Salpa to be thus transformed ; since its 
branchial leaflets bear a near resemblance to the branchial lamelle of the Conchifera. On the other hand, the 


gemmiparous production, which is so remarkable a feature of this class, connects it with Zoophytes ; as does 
also the peculiarity of its circulation. 


THIRD DIVISION, CLASSES—CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDA, 
AND INSECTA. 


CRUSTACEA. (P. 407—448.) 


Tue British Malacostracous Crustacea form the subjects of two valuable works; one, by Dr. Leach, in quarto, 
with beautiful coloured plates, representing each species of the natural size ; and the other now in course of pub- 
lication by Professor Thomas Bell, forming part of Mr. Van Voorst’s beautiful series of works upon British 
Natural History. 

An inyaluable series of illustrations of the whole of the class Crustacea, has been published by Milne Edwards, 
in the Crochard edition of the Regne Animal. 

The Crustacea of D’Orbigmy’s Voyage have also been more recently described and beautifully figured by Milne 
Edwards, and those of the voyage of the Samarang, by Mr. A. White (now in course of publication). Other new 
species have also been described by Mr. White in detached papers in the Annals of Natural History. 

The periodical casting of the shell by these animals after their arrival at their adult form, led to the long-received 
opinion that they had not previously undergone any decided metamorphosis. The recent investigations of several 
authors have, however, clearly proved that the young fry in many species are quite unlike their parents, and that in 
fact they are the animals which had been previously considered as distinct Entomostracans, under the name of 
Zoea. It is singular, however, that the fry of the common Cray-fish (as observed by Rathke), and of the land Crabs, 
do not materially differ from the adult state. 

A new and remarkable genus, named Calocaris by Professor Bell, belongs to the Decapod Macroura and subsection 
Astacini (p. 420), but with elongated limbs, a very thin crust to the body, destitute of all colouring pigment, and of 
cornez in the eyes. C. Macandrex, a species foundin Loch Fyne and the Mull of Galloway, inhabits a depth 
of no Jess than 180 fathoms, where of course distinct vision would be useless and unavailing, which accounts for the 
rudimental character of the eyes, which are entirely white. 

Dr. Erichson has recently published a memoir on the genus Astacus (p. 420), describing a number of additional 
species of Cray-fish from various parts of the world. 

Several other new and interesting British genera allied to Mysis (p. 422), have been described by H. Goodsir in 
the New Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 

Zeuxo, Templeton in Trans. Ent. Soc. (Z. Westwoodiana) ; and Crossurus and Liriope of Rathke (Nova Acta, Vol. 
XX.) are small but remarkable genera closely allied to Rhza, p. 428. 

Many additional species as well as several new genera of Amphipoda (p. 429), have also still more recently been 
described by Rathke, in Nova Acta, Vol. XX., and in Kroyer’s Tidsskrift; and in avery interesting genus named 
Chelura terebrans, which burrows into submerged wooden structures in the same manner as Limnoria, has also 
been described by Philippi in the fourth Volume of Wiegmann’s Archives. 

H. Goodsir has also added some new and very distinct British species of Amphipods in the Edinburgh New Philo- 
sophical Journal, Vol. XX XIII. 

H. Goodsir has described a third species of Bopyrus (p. 431) in the Annalsof Nat. Hist., Vol. XV., found beneath 
the carapace of Hippolyte ensiferus; and Rathke has described and figured, with all its details, a new allied genus 
named Phryxus, also found beneath the shells of different Macrourous Crustacea (Nova Acta, Vol. XX.) of which I 
possess a British specimen. 

A very elaborate paper upon the destructive Limnoria terebrans (p. 432), has been published by Dr. Coldstream 
in the seventeenth volume of the Edinburgh New Philos. Journal. 

Two additional British species of Arcturus (p. 433), have also been described by H. Goodsir. 

The development of the eggs and young of Asellus aquaticus (p. 433), has formed the subject of a very elabo- 
rate memoir by Rathke, published in the second volume of the second series of the Annalés des Sciences Natu- 
relles. 

H. Goodsir has described several new British species of the singular genus Cuma (p. 437), as well as two new 
and allied genera, named Bodotria and Alauna, in the thirty-fourth volume of the Edinburgh New Philos, 
Journal, 

Dr. Baird’s Papers on different portions of the Entomostraca, published in the Annals of Natural History, must 
be consulted, and also a paper by the same gentleman, in the first volume of the Zoologist, upon other species 
which are luminous, and inhabit the ocean ; including the genera Oithona and Cyclopsina. Amongst the minute 
luminous oceanic species, and probably, in the present order of Branchiopoda, must also be ranged the genus 
Sapphirina of Edwards, as well as several other minute species and genera recently described by Goodsir, pecu- 
liar for possessing a double eye in a single dark spot, with the body depressed as in the Isopoda, and the posterior 
thoracic legs double. They are very active in their habits, and swim about in company with other allied forms. 
They constitute the genera Zaus, Sterope, and Carillus. The Oniscus fulgens of Tilesius seems to belong to the 


674 ARACHNIDA. 


same tripe. Here also appear to belong the genera Hersilia, Psamathe, Thyone, and Peltidium, described by Phi- 
lippi in Wiegmann’s Archives and in the Annals of Nat. Hist., Vol. VI. 

The remarkable Evadne Nordmanni, has been added to the British funna by H. Goodsir, who has given some 
additional details of it in the thirty-third volume of the Edinburgh New Philos. Journal. 

An excellent memoir upon the development of the eggs and larve of Caligus piscinus (p. 447), has been pub- 
lished by H. Goodsir in the thirty-third volume of the Edinburgh New Philos. Journol. 


THE TRILOBITES. (P. 449—450.) 


The question as to the structure, or even of the existence of locomotive organs in the Trilobites, still remains 
undecided ; although the recent researches of several celebrated comparative anatomists lead to the belief that 
such organs did exist in the form of thin membranous plates, of which the nearest analogies occur in the genus 
Branchipus. Dr. Burmeister has especially treated upon this analogy in his fine work upon the Trilobites, of 
which a Translation has been published by the Ray Society. The relationship of these anomalous animals with 
other Articulata has also been insisted upon at great length by Dr. Buckland, in his Bridgewater Treatise. If in 
these respects we have not arrived at definite views, our knowledge of the species has greatly increased; whilst 
many new genera have also been defined. The most recent and comprehensive works on these fossil animals, are 
Dr. Burmeister’s volume above referred to, Hawle and Corda’s Prodrom einer monographie der Bohmischen Tri- 
lobiten, 4to. Prague, 1847; and Beyrich’s Memoir iiber einige Bohmischen Trilobiten, Berlin, 1845, 

A paper on the relations of these animals with other articulata, by Mr. W. S. Mac Leay, may also be re- 


ferred to. 


ARACHNIDA. (P. 450—471.) 


Since the first edition of this Translation was published, the work of the Baron Walckenaer has been completed 
in four volumes, forming a most invaluable summary of our knowledge of the Apterous insects (exclusive of the 
Crustacea), the third volume containing the Phrynidz, Scorpionidx, Solpugide, Phalangiide, Acari, Pediculi, 
Pulicide and Thysanura, having been contributed by M. Paul Gervais. The Myriapoda, also described by M. 
Gervais, occupy half of the fourth volume ; the remainder of which consists of additions to the whole work. As 
the additions to our knowledge of the Arachnida, consist for the most part of new genera characterized by diversities 
of structure, without any addition to our knowledge of the economy of the species on which they have been 
founded, we shall merely refer in this general manner to the sources where they have been described. 

Many curious facts connected with the Natural History of different species of British Spiders, (Araneides 
p. 454), have been recorded by Mr. Blackwall, who communicated an interesting paper on the subject to the 
British Association of Science, which has since been published in the Annals of Natural History. In one of his 
papers, published in the eighteenth volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society, he proposes to divide the 
whole of the Araneides into three primary groups, from the number of eyes—named OcTonocuLina, eight-eyed ; 
SENocULINA, six-eyed; and Brnocutrna, two-eyed. Another paper by the same author, in the nineteenth volume 
of the same Transactions, contains descriptions of a great number of new British species. 

An important memoir on the Physiology and Natural History of the Araneides, has been published by Menge, 
in the fourth volume of the Natural History Society of Dantzig. 

The West Indian Mygale nidulans (p. 467), belongs to the genus Actinopus of Perty (Sphodros Walck.) Another 
closely allied species of trap-door spider was sent from Barbary by Mr. Drummond Hay, which I described in 
detail in the third volume of the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Mr. S. S. Saunders also 
described a new species of trap-door spider from Ionia, in the same volume, giving a detailed account of its habits. 

Mr. A. White, of the British Museum, has also described several new forms of exotic Spiders in the Annals of 
Natural History ; and Mr. Adams has collected some interesting observations on the economy of various exotic 
species, which will be published in the zoological portion of the voyage of the Samarang. 

The Scorpionide (p. 466), have recently formed the subject of a memoir published by M. Gervais, in the fourth 
volume of the Archives du Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle. Eighty species are now known, and which are divided 
by this author into two groups and eight genera, Androctonus, Sentrurus, Atreus, Telegonus, Buthus, Chactas, 
Scorpius, and Ischnurus. 

The genus Galeodes (p. 467), has been revised by Koch in Wiegmann’s Archives, and its species, twenty-nine 
in number, divided into various sub-genera. Captain Hutton and Colonel Hearsey have noticed the carnivorous 
habits of a large Indian species, (Ann. Nat. Hist., 1843.) The anatomy of the genus has been studied by Blan- 
chard, (Comptes rendus, XXI.) 

Koch (Arachniden X Band.), has described many new species and several new genera of Cheliferides, (p. 467), 
and Mr. Tulk has noticed a peculiarity in its anatomy, (Ann. Nat. Hist., XIII.) A very remarkable species has 
been found in the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, and described by Tellkampf, (Wiegm. Arch., 1844.) 

The Pycnogonide (p. 468), have been investigated by Kroyer, (Naturhist. Tidsskr., Vol. III, and new series, 
Vol. I), and several new genera and species proposed by Goodsir, (Edinburgh New Philos. Mag., XXXII, and 
Ann. Nat Hist., XIV and XV). Also by Philippi(Wiegmann’s Arch., 1843), and Quatrefages (Comptes rendus, 
XIX, and Annales Sci. Nat..third series, Vol. IV), has investigated their internal anatomy, with the view of de- 
termining their natural position. 

The Phalangita (p. 469), have received many additional new species described by Koch (Arachniden), and 
Gervais. A remarkable blind species from Guinea, is described by Guérin, (Rey. Zool]., 1838.) Mr. Tulk has 


INSECTA. 975 


published a valuable memoir on the Anatumny ot this group, 1 toe twelfth volume of Annals of Natural History. 
The extensive tribe of Mites, Acarides (p. 469), has received great additions, especially by Koch and Gervais, 
the latter of whom has arranged the numerous genera of which it is now composed into seven groups, having for 
their types, the genera Bdella, Trombidion, Hydrachna, Gamasus, Ixodes, Tyroglyphus and Oribates. The 
Bdellides have been revised by Van Heyden and Koch; the water Mites, Hydrachne, Gamasi and Oribatides 


by Koch (Uebersicht, &c., Part III). Anda valuable memoir on the Anatomy of the Acari, has been published 
by Dujardin. (Ann. Sc. Nat. third series, Vol. III.) 


A singular discussion has been published in the Annals of the French Entomological Society, Vol. VIII, rela- 
tive to a species of Oribates, regarded by M. Robineau Desvoidy as a Coleopterous insect, to which he gave the 


name of Xenillus clypeator. Another species of Mite has also been the subject of much discussion, it having been 
asserted by Mr. Weekes that it was developed by the means of galvanic action. 


Several other species of great singularity have lately been described, which have also attracted much attention 
from their infesting the bodies of man and the ‘higher animals ; the Acarus folliculorum found within the pores 
of the nose, discovered by M. Simon, has been generically named Simonea by Gervais; Entozoon by Erasmus 
Wilson; and Demodex by Professor Owen. A second species has been described by Mr. Tulk, found upon a dog. 

Another very singular animal described by Doyere, under the name of Tardigradus, found upon the ochre- 
coloured slime covering the eggs of frogs, and capable of being brought to life again, after being completely dried 


up, and which was long regarded as one of the Infusory Zoophytes, has more recently been considered as a very 
degraded type of the present tribe. 


INSECTA IN GENERAL. (P. 471—472.) 


Since the publication of the former edition of this translation, a great number of Entomological 
works have been published, in many of which the classification of the orders of insects laid down by 
Latreille, has been departed from ;* the greater portion of these works, however, are treatises more 
or less extended, upon the various natural families or higher groups of insects, elaborated with great 
care; and which, in consequence of the vast additions to our collections received from distant coun- 
tries, for the most part previously unvisited by the collector of insects, would render a complete re- 
vision of the work before us necessary, modifications in the arrangement of almost every group, often 
toa very great extent, having been proposed. It will be impossible of course, in a short supplement 
like the present, to do more than direct the attention of the student to the chief of these works, no- 
ticing where possible, and as concisely as can be, the more material alterations which have been 
proposed. 

Of these recently published works, several of the most valuable consist of treatises which have 
appeared in the pages of periodical works expressly devoted to Entomology. These are the Transac- 
tions of the Entomological Societies of London and France; the Entomologische Zeitung of the 
Stettin Entomological Society ; the Zeitschrift fur die Entomologie of Dr. Germar; the Linnea Ento- 
mologica; and the Entomologist, edited by Newman; besides the more general periodicals, such as 
the Annals of Natural History; the Annales des Sciences Naturelles; the Revue Zoologique; the 
Zoologist ; the Bulletin of the Natural History Society of Moscow; the Transactions of the Boston 
Society of Natural History; and the Linnean Society of London; as well as of various Continental 
and American Societies and Academies, 

Other works expressly devoted to the insects of various orders in general, or confined to separate 
localities, are also especially to be mentioned, amongst these are the insects of the Voyage of D’Or- 
bigny, undertaken by order of the French Government, described by Brullé and Blanchard. The 
insects of the Canary Islands, by Webb and Berthelot; the insects of Algeria, collected and de- 
scribed by Lucas, and also published in the great French National Work on that country ; the Ar- 
cana Entomologica, and the Cabinet of Oriental Entomology, published by the author of the present 
supplement; the insects of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, described by Mr. A. White; and 
the Indian insects collected by M. Delessert, described by Guérin Meneville. 

The continuation of the great work of Panzer on the insects of Germany, by Koch and Herrich 
Schaffer, contains representations of a vast number of new species, and many new forms, especially 
among the more obscure tribes of insects. The insects of Van Diemen’s Land and other parts of Aus- 
tralia, have been described by Erichson in his Archives ; Dr. Germar in the Linnza Entomologica ; and 


* This is singularly the case in a work on the natural arrangement of insects, by Swainson and Shuckard, 
published in the Cabinet Cyclopzedia, to review which, would be a waste of labour. The Same may be said with 


respect to the septenary system developed in Mr. Newman’s Introduction to the History of Insects and System 
of Nature. 


676 INSECTA. 


Mr. Hope in the proceedings of the Entomological Society. Those of Angola are described by Ericason 
in his Archives; and those of Congo by White, in the Annals of Nat. Hist., Vol. XII. The last- 
named author, with Mr. Doubleday, has also described the insects of New Zealand in the supplement 
to Dieffen’bach’s Travels. Many new species from Cape Palmas, on the Gold Coast of Africa, are 
described by Mr. Hope in the Annals of Nat. Hist. The Symbola Physics contains a great number 
of species from Arabia and Egypt, beautifully figured and described by Dr. Klug. A great number 
of new species from the Himalayan regions of India, are described by Kollar and Redtenbacher in 
Hugel’s Travels in Cachmere &c., lately published. Many new forms which it will be impossible 
for me to particularize in this supplement, are described and figured by Dr. Burmeister in his 
Genera Insectorum, recently completed. The insects of Russia, Siberia, &c., have been greatly 
investigated, and descriptions of them published by Fischer, Gebler, Kolenati, &c., in the Bulletin of 
the Moscow and Petersburgh Societies. 

The investigation of the transformations and natural history of various insects, more especially 
such as are obnoxious to mankind by their devastations upon the products of the garden or orchard, 
or upon other materials, has especially been attended to within the last few years. A very beautiful 
work on the species injurious to forest and fruit trees, by Ratzeburg, has appeared in three volumes, 
4to., with a great number of splendid plates. Another valuable work by Dr. T. W. Harris, has ap- 
peared in America, entitled a Report upon the Insects of Massachusets injurious to Vegetation, 
in one volume, Svo.; whilst in our own country, a number of papers by Mr. Curtis, have appeared in 
the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, on the insects which attack the turnip, 
wheat, oats, barley, and other crops. The pages of the Gardener’s Chronicle have also contained a 
series of articles upon Garden Insects, by Mr. Curtis and myself. Many papers on the Transforma- 
tions of Insects, by Dufour, Perris, &c., have appeared in the Annals of the French Entomological 
Society. Anannual series of reports on the Progress of Entomology, published by Dr. Erichson in 
his Archives and the Annual Addresses of the Presidents of the Entomological Society of London, 
contain a great fund of instruction, and must be referred to by every one wishing to keep au courant 
with the rapid progress of entomological science. 

Various important memoirs on the Anatomy of Insects have also recently appeared, chiefly by Leon 
Dufour, especially his Anatomical and Physiological Researches upon the Hemiptera, Orthoptera, 
Hymenoptera, and Diptera, in two volumes, 4to., and many other detached memoirs by the same 
author, as well as several hy Mr. Newport, in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 
A series of anatomical monographs has also been commenced by Stein, the first of which is devoted 
to the female organs of generation in the Coleoptera; a memoir by the same author on the organs of 
generation of the Myriapoda, appeared in Miiller’s Archives, 1842. ‘The uses of the Antenne have 
also formed the subject of several memoirs by Duponchel (Revue Zoologique); Newport (Trans, 
Ent. Soc.); Goureau (Annales Ent. Soc. France); and especially by Erichson, in his excellent Dis- 
sertatio de Fabrica et Usu Antennarum in Insectis, Berlin, 1847, 4to., in which the opinions that 
these organs are instruments of smelling, is maintained and supported by their minute anatomy. 

A paper upon the animals found in the underground Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, by Dr. Tell- 
kampf, announces the singular fact, that most of the insects found in this locality are either entirely 
blind, or have the eyes almost rudimental; and the same fact has also been discovered by M. 
Schiodte with respect to a number of insects found in the caves of Adelberg, in Styria, inhabited by 
the Proteus. 

Another curious circumstance affecting a considerable number of species of different orders, has lately 
formed the subject of numerous articles by different German writers, namely, the connexion which 
exists between these insects and ants, in the nests of which they are generally found. Such has also 
been found to be the case with the singular beetles forming the family Pausside. 

Two papers by the Rev. F. W. Hope, upon insects which infest the interior of the human body, 
and on the various species used as food by man, are worthy of notice in this place. 

The discovery of great numbers of fossil species of insects in different parts of Europe, has also 
led to the publication of several works on this branch of the subject, especially Mr. Brodie’s History 
of the Fossil Insects, in the Secondary Rocks of England; a paper by Dr. Germar, in the Nova 
Acta, and a work by O. Heer on the Insects of CEningen; and by Unger and Charpentier on those 
of Radoboj in Croatia. Mr. Hope has also published a paper on fossil insects in Trans. Ent. Soc. Lon. 
don, Vol. 1V. 


INSECTA. 677 


THE ORDER MYRIAPODA. (P. 482—486.) 


The classification as well as the characters of this tribe of insects has advanced towards perfection with rapid 
steps since the days of Latreille ; although Naturalists are still as much at variance with respect to their real 
relations. Thus, whilst M. Brandt adopts the views of Latreille, and even M, Gervais (Hist Nat. Ins. Apt., III, 
p. 54), seems inclined to prefer regarding them as vermiform insects rather than as forming a separate class, 
equal in value to the Insecta, Arachnida and Crustacea, Mr. Newport, taking up the views of Strauss, (Cons, 
gener. surl’anat. des an. art. p. 16) and some earlier authors, considers them as most nearly allied to the An- 
nelida, placing the sub-kingdom Articulata at the head of the Invertebrata, commencing with the Hexapod 
insects, followed by the Spiders, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Annelida, and the remainder of the Articulata, (Trans. 
Linn. Soc., XIX, 271.) 

The three authors above-mentioned, Brandt, Newport, and Gervais, have especially studied these insects. 
Newport has retained the binary division and names Chilognatha and Chilopoda of Latreille, but Gervais has 
adopted the views of the Baron Walckenaer, and employed the name of Diplopoda for that of Chilognatha. 

The arrangement of Mr. Newport of the class given in the Linnean Transactions is as follows:— 

Order I.—Chilopoda Latr ; Syngnatha Leach. 

Tribe 1. Schizotarsia; Fam. 1. Cermatiide, 1 genus. 
Tribe 2. Holotarsia ; Fam. 2. Lithobiide, 2 genera. 
Fam. 3. Scolopendride, 8 genera. 
Fam. 4. Geophilide, 5 genera. 
Order II.—{Diplopoda Walckenaer] ; Chilognatha Latreille, Newport. 
Tribe 3. Pentazonia ; Fam. 5. Glomeride, 3 genera. 
Tribe 4. Monozonia ; Fam. 6. Polyxenide. 1 genus. 
Fam.7. Polydesmide, 6 genera. 
Tribe 5. Bizonia ; Fam. 8. Julide, 8 genera, 
Fam. 9. Polyzonidz, 2 genera. 
Fam.10. Siphonophoridz, 1 genus. 

The works of the authors above mentioned, must be referred to not only for descriptions of the 300 known spe- 
cies of the order, but also for many valuable observations on their structure, anatomy, and development from the 
egg state, as well as a memoir by M. Waga, on the Myriapoda of the environs of Warsaw ; various detached 
memoirs by M. Lucas ; the article Myriapoda by R. Jones, in Dr. Todd’s Cyclopzdia of Anatomy and Physiology. 
Also a memoir on the genus Scutigera Lam. (Cermatia Illiger), published by R. Templeton, in the Transactions 
of the Entomological Society of London, Vol. III; anda memoir by Mikan, on the Iuli of South America, 
published in the Isis for 1834, 

In the Supplement to the 4th Volume of the Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Apteres, the Baron Walckenaer 
has introduced a new mode of discriminating the difficult species of the genera Heteristoma and Scolopendra, by 
the number of jointsin the Antenne, varying from twenty-five to eleven. 


THE ORDER THYSANURA. (P. 486—488.) 


The researches of the Abbé Bourlet on the Thysanurex of the North of France, and of M. Nicolet on those of 
Neufchatel in Switzerland, must be consulted. The former have been published in the Memoirs of the Societies 
of Lille, (1839), and of Douai, (1843), andthe Revue Zoologique, 1845 ; and the latter in the Memoires de la Société 
Helvet. des Sci. Natur, 1842, and inthe Annales of the French Entomological Society for 1847. These works, 
(except the last), with various detached articles on the subject, have been employed by M. Gervais in his work on 
these insects, introduced into the 3rd Volume of the Hist. Nat. des Apteres, in which the genus Podura is divided 
into eight groups or sub-genera, several of which have received synonymical names by the different authors 
above named. Several other genera are added in M. Nicolet’s last memoir. 

The Lepismenz have received the addition of two singular genera, Nicoletea and Campodea, both having the 
body destitute of scales, and very much resembling the larvee of Staphylinide. 

The relations of this order have also been the subject of consideration ; Burmeister ranging them next to the 
Orthoptera, whilst Gervais regards the Lepismid# as Neuropterous insects stopped in their development. 


THE ORDER PARASITA. (P. 488.) 


The fine Monograph of Mr. Denny upon the British species of Parasita, has materially increased our knowledge 
of these insects; a great number of species being for the first time described and beautifully figured in the 
twenty-six plates with which the work is illustrated. The species are here arranged according to Nitzsch’s dis- 
tribution, as published in Germar's Magazine, one sub-genus only being added for the reception of the species 
found on the common Swift, and named Nitzschia Burmeisteri. Burmeister’s articles on this order in his Genera 
Insectorum, must be consulted, as well as a valuable article on the structure of the mouth of the Pediculi, in the 
Linnza Entomologica by the same writer. 


THE ORDER SUCTORIA., (P. 489.) 


A summary of the species of Pulex has been given by (rervais, in the 3rd Volume of the Histoire Naturelle des 
¥Y 


678 INSECTA. 


insectes Apteres, the last of which (Mycetophila nigra Haliday), must, however, be expunged, being a Dipterous 
insect, compared by Mr. Haliday with Pulex. Several detached species have also been published by Denny, 
Kirby, Bouché, Macquart, and Guérin. 


THE ORDER COLEOPTERA, (P. 491). 


This order of insects has lately received a much greater share of attention and examination than any other, a 
considerable number of detached memoirs or special works having been published either upon local species, or 
upon particular families. Several memoirs have also appeared with reference to the general arrangement of the 
order, Thus the disposition of the veins of the wings has been studied by Burmeister (in his article on Paussus), 
and by Heer (Entomol. Zeit., 1843), with a view toits affording a satisfactory plan of arrangement ; whilst the 
numerical development of the segments of the abdomen has also been studied by Heer (in the same work), and by 
Schiodte (in Germar’s Zeitschrift, Vol. V.) with the same view. 

The investigation of the preparatory states of the Coleoptera has been continued by Dr. Erichson, who has 
published several articles on that branch of the subject in his Archives. 

A general catalogue of the order has been published by Sturm, on the plan of Dejean’s catalogues, but such a 
work requires annual supplements, from the great number of species which are continually described. 

The Coleoptera of Europe are illustrated by Kuster in Die Kafer Europas. 

The Coleoptera of our own country have been described by Stephens in the Manual of British Beetles, and 
outline figures of each genus, published in Spry and Shuckard’s British Coleoptera. The beautiful work of Sturm 
on the Coleoptera of Germany (Deutchslands Fauna), is still continued at intervals. A valuable little work on 
the genera of the Coleoptera of Germany, has also been published by Redtenbacher. A more important work, how- 
ever, on the Coleoptera of Germany, is now in course of publication by Dr. Erichson,* who enjoys ample opportu- 
nities for determining most of the continental species. Moreover, in this work, the author has added notes of 
the characters, and tables of the allied exotic genera. The work of Schiodte on the Coleoptera of Denmark, illus- 
trated with numerous anatomical plates and generic details, must also be consulted, as well as that by Heer on 
the Coleoptera of Switzerland. The Coleoptera of Russia, Siberia, &c., have been described by Faldermann, 
Gebler, Motchoulsky, Mannerheim, Fischer, &c., in the Petersburgh and Moscow Transactions. 

The extra European Coleoptera has also been recently much investigated. Those of India, by Kollar and Red- 
tenbacher ; those of Sylhet, by Mr. Hope (Trans. Linn. Soc.) ; those of Assam, by Hope and Parry ; those of 
Canton and Chusan, collected by Dr. Cantor, by Mr. Hope, in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society ; 
those collected at Hong Kong by Mr. Bowring, by Mr. White, in the Annals of Natural History ; those of 
Western Africa, by Hope, Imhoff and Erichson; those of Port Essington and Port Philip, by. Hope, (Proc. 
Ent. Soc.), and Newman (Entomologist) ; those from Adelaide, by Dr. Germar ; those from Van Diemen’s Land, 
by Erichson ; those of the Mozambique, by Bertolini; those collected by Captain King in his voyage to the 
Straits of Magellan, by Mr. Curtis (Linn. Trans. Vol. XIX.) ; those of the Aleutian Islands, by Count Manner- 
heim ; and many fine species brought from the southern parts of South America, by Mr. Charlés Darwin, have 
been described by Waterhouse, in the Annals of Natural History ; many of the Coleoptera of North America 
have been described by Leconte, Haldemann, and others, in the Transactions of the Boston Natural History and 
Philadelphia Societies. Mr. Hope’s Coleopterist’s Manual, in Three Volumes, 8vo., contains descriptions of 
many new species, and various excellent remarks on the species described by Linnus and Fabricius. I have 
also just received the first part of Bohemann’s work on the Coleoptera of Caffraria. 


The tribe C1icINDELETZ (p. 493), has been revised by Lacordaire in the memoirs of the Royal Society of Liege, 
Vol. I, in which the author divides it into five families—l. Manticoride with four genera. 2. Megacephalidz 
with seven genera. 3. Cicindelide with sixteen genera and sub-genera 4. Collyride with three genera. 5. Cte- 
nostomidze with four genera. Many new species of this tribe have been described by Reiche, Hope, Parry, Kollar, 
Chevrolat, the Marquis de la Ferté; and several new genera by Germar, Guerin, and Chaudoir, amongst which 
the most remarkable are Dromochorus and Callidema from Central America. The work of Schmidt Gobel on the 
Insects of India, and Chaudoir’s memoir on these insects just published, also contain many new species. 

The tribe Carasici (p. 494), has, notwithstanding the great work of Dejean, received considerable additions, as 
well as suggested modifications in its arrangements. Mr. Haliday has proposed that the variable insertion of the 
second spur of the fore tibia may be replaced to better purpose by the character which the structure of the 
sternum offers, and which appears to afford a more precise line of demarcation. If adopted, the tribe will fall 
into three primary groups. (Entomologist, p. 186.) 

I. Amphibii, Presternum dilated and truncated, forming a continuous level with the Mesosternum, (viz., the 
structure of Haliploini), Gen. Omophron. 

II. Abdominales, Mesosternum in front with a short, longitudinal ridge received into the posterior cavity of 
Prosternum, limiting the motion of the prothorax, and giving rigidity to the frame, (approaching the structure of 
the Dyticide in general). Genera, Cychrus, Carabus, Calosoma, Leistus, Nebria, Notiophilus. 


* We have received intelligence, during the progress of this Supplement through the Press, of the decease of 
this most excellent author. 


ee ee ee 


INSECTA. 679 


fil. Pedestres, Mesothorax in front, contracted ; retiring from the prosternum and permitting a freer motion 
of the prothorax, approaching the structure of the Cicindelidz ; including the Harpalide, Scaritide, and Brach- 
inidz of Mac Leay. 

The Carabici of Denmark have been carefully revised by Schiodte. 

The Premices Entomologiques of Putzeys (Mem. Soc. Liege, Vol. II), contains a monograph of Pasimachus, 
and an allied genus and a great number of new species belonging to this tribe. The same author has also more 
recently published a very extensive monograph on the genera allied to Clivina. 

A remarkable genus allied to Procrustes from Xanthos, has been described by White (Ann. Nat. Hist. Vol. XV), 
Various new African species allied to Anthia are described by Bertoloni, the American species allied to Scarites 
subterraneus, by Le Comte, (Boston Journal); and many new Russian species by Kolenati (Meletemata En- 
tomologica). A group of small extent, but very singular structure, and remarkable for the strong resemblance 
to aquatic beetles, has been proposed under the name of Heteromorphidz to include the American genus 
Drepanus, and the Australian Adelotopus and Silphomorpha (Westwood in Linn, Trans. Vol. XVIII). The 
Carabide of the Voyage of the Beagle, collected by Mr. C. Darwin, have been described by Waterhouse in various 
papers in the Annals of Natural History. The Scaritide of New Holland, several of which are of singular 
beauty, have been illustrated in my Arcana Entomologica, andthe Australian Promecoderi, by Guérin, (Reyue 
Zool.) ; the Carabici of India are carefully described by Schmidt Gobel in the first part of his work upon the 
collection in the Museum of Prague ; the species allied to Helluo (p. 495), have been revised by Reiche, and divided 
into nine genera. (Annales of the French Ent. Soc.) Many additional exotic genera and species have also been 
described by Bohemann and by Chaudoir, in the Bulletin of the Moscow Society, 1842 and 1843. Hope, Newman, 
Lucas, Chevrolat, Menetries, Gebler, Redtenbacher, Erichson, White, and others, have also described many new 
detached species and genera. The species of California and Sitka have been monographed by Mannerheim, and those 
of Columbia by Reiche. The British species have been revised by Schaum, in the Entomol. Zeitung. Amongst the 
most remarkable of these new genera, is Anopthalmus of Sturm, founded on a blind species which inhabits the 
Luegger Caves, in Krania, A second blind species was also found in the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, by 
Tellkampf. 

The family Dyricip# (p. 504), has reczived some additions of Danish species by Schiodte, in ‘‘ Danmark’s 
Eleutherata.” The species found near Erlangen have been monographed by Rosenhauer, and various detached 
species have been described by other authors. The singular external marks of distinction in the sexes of some of 
the species have been described by Count Mannerheim ; and Dr. Schmidt has investigated the causes of the sound 
emitted by Pelobius Hermanni. Dr. Schaum has revised the British species, and also published notes on the 
synonymy of many of the European ones in the Entomol. Zeitung. 

The Gyrinip&, (p. 506). The German species have been revised by Suffrian (Entomol, Zeit.), and Von Keisen- 
wetter has published some interesting observations on the habits of Orectochilus Villosus in the same work. 

The BRACHELYTRA (p. 506), have received great additions since the first edition of this work. Erichson’s 
Genera and Species Staphylinorum has been completed in two 8vo. volumes. In this work, the Brachelytra are 
divided into eleven primary tribes, characterized chiefly by the conspicuous or hidden position of the breathing 
pores of the prothorax, the insertion of the Antennz, the form of the anterior and posterior cox, and of the 
posterior trochanters. These tribes are named from their typical genera.—l. Aleocharini; 2. Tachyporini ; 
8. Staphylinini; 4. Peederini; 5. Pinophilini; 6. Stenini; 7. Oxytelini; 8. Piestini; 9. Phlwocharini; 10. Oma- 
lini; 11. Proteinini. The Linnzan species of this tribe have been revised by mein an article published in the 
Transactions of the Entomological Society. Mr. Holme has also published some interesting notes in the 3rd 
Volume of the same work; and Mr. Haliday has published some valuable ‘‘ Notes on the Staphylinidz,” in the 
Entomologist. The numerous species of this tribe which reside in ant’s nests, have formed the subject of many 
papers in Germar’s Zeitschrift, and in the Entomol. Zeitung by different authors. Numerous species from Sitka 
Island, are described by Count Mannerheim ; others from Angola by Erichson ; and others from New Granada hy 
Guérin. The German species have been revised by Kiesenwetter, in the Entomol. Zeitung. An excellent article on 
the curious genus Micralymma Westw., has also been published by Schiodte, (Linnzea Entomol.) 

The BurreEsTIDEs (p. 508), have been enriched with many new and beautiful exotic species by Spinola, Guérin, 
Chevrolat, Buquet, Erichson, Lucas, and White. The transformations of various species have been described by 
Pechioli, Lamotte Barace, Lucas, Leon Dufour, and Bertolini. A discussion on the structure of these laryze 
between L. Dufour, Goureau and Blanchard, has been published in the Annals of the French Entomol. Society. 

The splendid (but as regards its generical anatomical details, carelessly executed) work of Gory and Laporte, 
has been brought to a conclusion, and a review of it been published by Spinola in the Revue Zoologique. 

The ELATERIDEs (p. 510), have undergone an extensive revision by Germar and Erichson, in the Zeitschrift fur 
die Entomologie. The luminous species allied to E. Noctilucus, of which the number is now known to be consi- 
derable, have been formed into a separate genus named Pyrophorus. Various detached exotic species have been 
described by different authors. The splendid genus Campsosternus, and the remarkable gigantic species with fla- 
bellate antennz, have been monographed by Mr. Hope in the Trans. Entomol. Soc., and Proceedings of the Zool. 
Society ; and some very beautiful Indian species have been figured in my Cabinet of Oriental Entomology. The 
Natural History of many species injurious to the Agriculturist, has been published by Mr. Curtis in the Journal 
of the Royal Agricultural Society. 

The sub-genera allied to Galba and Eucnemis (p. 510), have been revised by Guérin in the Annals of the French 
Entomological Society, in which the species, all of which are highly interesting, are divided into seventeen 


genera. 
The CEBRIONITES (p. 511), have been investigated with much care by M. Guérin, in the first three numbers of 


680 INSECTA. 


his Species et Ieonographie des Animaux Articulés, in which careful figures, with dissections, are given of the 
genera Rhipicera, Sandalus, Scyrtes, Eucinetus, Ptyocerus, Selasia, Chamzerhipis, Basodonta, Elodes, Bradytoma, 
Octoglossa and Cladotoma all of which are accompanied by excellent monographs. 

The Lampyripes (p. 511), have received an additional number of new species, and several new genera, including 
Anisoftelus, Hope, and Podistra and Thelodria, Motchoulsky. The species allied to Lycus (p. 511), have been 
examined by Erichson in his Zool. Archives. 

The light of the glowworm has formed the subject of articles by Peters in Miiller’s Archiy., by Matteuci (in a 
letter to M. Dumas), and by Deickhoff (Entomol. Zeit., 117.) 

The genus Malachius, Fabricius, belonging to the tribe Mretyriprs (p. 513), has been monographed by Dr. 
Erichson, who has described a great number of new species; the whole being divided into sixteen different ge- 
nera. (Entomographien, Part I.) 

The Clerii (p. 513), have received considerable additions, and have been monographed both by Dr. Klug, and the 
Marquis Spinola, the latter of whom has figured every species known to him; but Dr. Klug has been able, from 
the rich stores of the Berlin Museum, to describe and figure a great number of species not contained in Spinola’s 
work. Dr. Klug has adopted only twelve genera in the tribe regarding most of the groups of Laporte, Spinola, 
Cheyrolat, Newman, &c., as sections. The genera adopted, and the number of species in each, respectively con- 
tained in the Berlin Cabinet, are as follows :—Cylidrus, five species ; Tillus, twenty-eight species ; Priocera, four 
species ; Clerus, seventy species; Ptychopterus Klug (a new genus), one species from Cafiraria; Axina, one 
species; Opilus, nineteen species; Erymanthis Klug (a new genus), one species from Caffraria ; Trichodes, 
twenty species; Corynetes, nineteen species; Cylistus Klug (a new genus), one species from Caffraria ; and 
Enoplium, fifty species—Total, 219 species, of which, more than half are new. A supplement contains descrip- 
tions of fifty-nine other species, described by previous authors, and not seen by Dr. Klug. The following is a 
summary of the geographical range of the species—120 are natives of the New World, and ninety-nine of the Old. 
Of the Asiatic species, only four are from India ; one from Ceylon; and six from Java. Of the African species 
only two are from Central Africa, but eight are described in the supplement from Senegal; seventeen are from Ma- 
dagascar ; twenty-three from South Africa ; and two from Arabia. Only eight species are contained in the Berlin 
Museum, from New Holland, but fourteen others are given in the supplement described by other writers. The 
English collections are much richer in the Asiatic and New Holland species. A number of the latter have been 
described by Mr. Newman. M. Chevrolat has also described a number of additional new species from various 
localities, in the Annals of the French Entomological Society, and Revue Zoologique. The generic arrangement 
of M. Spinola appears to me far from satisfactory. 

The Scydmenide (p. 515), have been studied by Schaum, who has published memoirs upon the family in his 
Analecta Entomologica, and in Germar’s Zeitschrift, and in the Entomologische Zeitung ; and Chaudoir has 
described the Livonian species in the Bulletin of the Moscow Society. 

The Histeroides of North America have been monographed by Leconte, accompanied by a series of outline 
figures very carefully executed. 

The Silphales (p. 516), have been investigated particularly in respect to their anatomical details by Matzek, in 
his Necrophororum particula prima, Breslaw, 1839, and by Schmidt in his Inaugural ‘‘Dissertatio Silpharum 
monographiz particula prima,” Warsaw, 1841. Some curious genera apparently allied to this tribe, have been 
described and figured, but not in a sufficiently precise manner, by Motchoulsky, in the Bulletin of the Moscow 
Society. 

A blind insect belonging to this family, found in the Mammoth cave in Kentucky, has been described under the 
name of Adelops, by Tellkampf, in Wiegmann’s Archives. 

The Nitidulariz (p. 517), have been revised by Erichson, in Vol. XV. of Sturm’s German Fauna, and in 
Germar’s Zeitschrift, Vols. [V and V, where the tribe is divided into six primary groups, and a number of new 
genera added, founded chiefly upon exotic insects. The Engidites and Dermestini have been also revised by the 
same author, in his work on the Coleoptera of Germany, now in course of publication. 

The Byrrhii (p. 519), have been monographed by Steffhany in Germar’s Zeitschrift, Vol. IV, where several new 
genera are proposed. 

The Acanthopoda (p. 519), consisting of the single genus Heterocerus, has been monographed by Von Kiesen- 
wetter in Germar’s Zeitschrift. Vols, 1V and V, where twenty-five species are described. A monograph on the 
genus Georyssus, is given by Motchoulsky in the Moscow Transactions, 1841. 

The Palpicornes (p. 520), have been very carefully investigated by M. Mulsant, of Lyons, who has published a 
treatise upon them in his work on the French Coleoptera. In this work the Palpicornes are divided into two 
primary sections, 

1. The Hyproruiives, having the basal joint of the tarsiof the hind legs shorter than the second joint. 

Fam. I.—Sperchéens, consisting of the genus Sperchius, with one species. 

Fam. II.—Helophoriens, genus Helophorus, eight species ; Hydrochus, five species ; Ochthebius, eleven species 
Hydrzna, seven species. i 

Fam. III.—Hydrophiliens, genus Limnebius, four species ; Berosus, four species ; Hydrophilus, one species ; 
Hydrous, two species; Hydrobius, three species ; Laccobius, one species; Helophilus, one species; Philhydrus, 
two species ; Cyllidium, one species. 

2. The Greopuitipes, with the first joint of the hind tarsi longer than the second. 

Fam. IV. Spheridiens. Genus Cyclonotum, one species ; Spheridium, two species; Cercyon, fifteen species ; 
Pelosoma, one species ; Megasternum, one species ; Cryptopleurum, one species. 

The family LAMELLICORNES (p. 521), has received very numerous and valuable additions, several works 


INSECTA. 681 


haying been recently published especially devoted to tnis great tribe of insects. Of these, the most important are 
the volumes devoted to the Lamellicornes, in Mulsant’s Histoire Naturelle des Coléoptéres de France, and Dr. Bur- 
meister’s Handbuch der Entomologie, Vols. III, 1V, and V. Mulsant adopts the two groups of Scarabzides or 
Petalocerides, and Lucanides or Priocerides, and divides the former into eight families, from the structure of the 
perfect insect and larva, namely—the Copriens, Aphodiens, Trogidiens, Geotrupins, Oryctesiens, Calicnemiens, 
Melonthens, and Cetoniens. These families are chiefly characterized by the position of the legs, the exposed or 
concealed scutellum and terminal segment of the body ; the texture and position of the mandibles ; form of the 
prosternum and number of joints in the antennz. A more interesting plan of distribution of the Lamellicornes 
derived from the habits of the insects, is also given by Mulsant as follows :— 

1, Coprophages, feeding upon excrementitious or stercorarious matters. 

a. Copromorges, deriving their subsistence from the more succulent portions of excrementitious 
matters. (Copriens, Aphodiens.) 

b Xerophages, feeding on dry animal or partially decomposed vegetable matter. (Trogidiens.) 

c. Coprophages, devouring excrementitious matters. (Geotrupins.) 

2. Saprophages, feeding upon decomposed vegetable matters. (Oryctesiens.) 
3. Phyllophages, devouring leaves, divided into 
ria Phytobies, feeding chiefly upon decomposed vegetables (Calicnemiens.) 
b. Phyllophages, leaf-eaters. (Melolonthins.) 
c. Anthobies, feeding upon the petals of flowers. (Hopliz.) 
4. Melitophiles, feeding on the honey of flowers, divided into 

a. Dendrobies, generally residing upon trees. 

b. Melitophiles, generally feeding upon the honey of flowers. 

Dr. Burmeister’s plan of arrangement differs from that of any of his predecessors, by the introduction of the 
Lucanides into the midst of the other Lamellicornes, and by reversing the order of the groups His plan of dis- 
tribution, given in Vol. III of his Handbuch der Entomologie, is as follows :— * 

1. Thalerophaga, divided into a Melitophila, b Anthobia, c Phyllophaga. 
2. Saprophaga, divided into 

A. d Xylophila ; e Pectinicornia ; and f Arenicole. 

B. g Stercoricolx, h Coprophaga. 

Many excellent remarks upon and descriptions of new species of the Lamellicornia will be found in Mr, 
Hope’s Coleopterist’s Manual, and in the text of Guérin’s Iconographie du Regne Animal. 

The typical Coprophaga with the middle legs wider apart than the rest (p. 522), have been revised by Reiche in 
the Annals of the French Entomological Society, and various additions thereto made by myself in the Trausac- 
tions of the Zoological and Entomological Societies of London ; in which I have also described various species 
from New Holland. Others from the same country have also been described by Hope (Proc. Ent. Soc.), and 
by Erichson in Wiegmann’s Archives. 

The Phanzi have been divided by Klug into thirteen groups, in the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy in 1841. 
The same author has described various African Ateuchi in his splendid Symbolz Physic. 

The Coprophagi, with the legs inserted at equal distances apart, have been carefully investigated by Mulsant in 
his work on the Coleoptera of France, by whom the family Aphodiide is divided as follows :— 

1st Branch, Aphodiaires. Divided into three groups :— 

A. The Aphodiates composed of ten genera. 1. Colobopterus (A. erraticus) ; 2. Coprimorphus (A. 
scrutator) ; 3. Eupleurus (A. subterraneus); 4. Otophorus (A. hemorrhordalis) ; 5. Teuchestes 
(A. Fossor) ; 6. Aphodius (A. scybalarius, and thirty-four other species, including a great number 
of named varieties) ; 7. Acrossus (A. rufipes Linn. and four other species) ; 8. Melinopterus (A. prod- 
romus, contaminatus, and two other species) ; 9. Trichonotus (A. scropha) ; 10. Heptaulacus 
(A. sus and two other species.) 

B. The Ammeciates, comprising the genus 11, Ammezcius (A. elevatus), 

C. The Pleurophorates composed of five genera. 12. Plagiogonus (A. arenarius) 13. Oxyomus (A, 
porcatus) ; 14. Platytomus (A. sabulosus, new species) ; 15. Pleurophorus (A. czsus) ; 16. Rhysse- 
mus (A. asper and one new species.) 

2nd Branch, Psammodiaires containing the two genera Diastictus (A. sabuleti) and Psammodius (A. sulci- 
eollis and another species). 

The genera Euparia, Ryparus, Chetopisthes, and Corythoderus are singular exotic genera allied to Aphodius, 
described by myself in the Trans. Ent. Soc., Vol. IV., and by Dr. Klug in the Symbol Physic. 

The Arenicoli (p. 523), with exserted mandibles and ten-jointed antennz, have been revised by myself in the 
Transactions of the Entomological Society, in which many new genera are described. A beautiful mongraph of 
the Athyrei and Bolbocerata has been published by Dr. Klug in the Berlin Transactions, and a number of addi- 
tional species by myself in a paper read before the Linnzan Society. All the species are exotic, and of great 
variety and singular forms. The Acanthoceri have also been monographed by Germar in his Zeitschrift. 

Mechidius (p. 524), placed in the Trogide by M‘Leay, belongs to the Melolonthide and Cryptodus (p. 524), 
which Mr. M‘Leay gave in his paper on the Cetoniide of Southern Africa as the type of the Cremastocheilides, 


} Cetoniens, 


* This distribution has been modified in his Fifth Volume so as to unite the Xylophila with the Thalerophaga, 
(under the new name Phaneropyga), leaving the four remaining families of the Saprophaga together, under the 
new name of Stegopyga. 


682 INSECTA. 


belongs to Latreille’s Xylophili, See my papers on these two genera in the fourth volume of the Transactions of 
the Entomol. Soc. of London. 

The Xylophili (p. 524), have been entirely revised by Dr. Burmeister in his Handbuch der Entomologie, and a 
great number of new genera and species described. His distribution of the Xylophili is as follows :— 

Section 1. Head in both sexes unarmed or with a minute tubercle. 

Families 1. Cyclocephalid (corresponding with the genera Hexodon and Cyclocephala, placed by 
Latreille at the head of the Rutelide, with numerous additional allied genera) ; 2. Strategidse 
(composed of eleven genera. chiefly described by Kirby and Hope.) 

Section 2. Head of the males, horned or tubercled. 

Families 3. Phileuride, 4. Oryctide, 5. Dynastide, 6. Agaocephalide, each being typified by the 
genus of the same name, but now divided into numerous geuera and with great additions. 7. 
Amphibola, consisting of the three new anomalous genera, Pantodinus, B. Cryptodontes Dej 
(Leptognathus Westw.), and Xenodorus De Breme. 

The Dynastid have been further illustrated with figures in Dr. Burmeister’s Genera Insectorum, whilst Latreille’s 
second division (Rutelide) has been revised in his Handbuch and divided into seven families—Chasmodiide, 
Macraspidide, Parastasiide (typified by Parastasia Westw. a singular Eastern genus) Rutelide, Pelidnotide, 
Chrysophoridze, and Areodide. The genera allied to Chrysophora have also been investigated by Guérin (Revue. 
Zool. 1844), and some beautiful species figured by Sturm in his new Catalogue of the Coleoptera. 

The genera allied to Anoplognathus have also been monographed by Dr. Burmeister, who has divided them into 
two families—Anoplognathide and Geniatidz : the former consisting of four sub-families—Anoplognathi genuini, 
Platycoeliide, Brachysternide, and Adoretid ; and the latter into the Leucothyreidz and Geniatide genuine. 

The Melolonthides have been carefully studied by Mulsant, who has divided them into fifteen genera divided into 
four branches, namely, the Melolonthaires, Sericaires, Anomalaires, and Hopliaires. 

Dr. Burmeister’s great division, Phyllophaga, is of wider extent than that so named by Latreille, being formed 
of two primary groups characterized primarily by the structure of the claws of the tarsi and named Phyllophaga 
Systellochela and Ph Chenochela. The first of these groups is also divided into two sections, 

A. Farinos, having the body generally covered with scales and composed of four families, 1. Heterochelide, 
2. Gymnolomide, 3. Lepisiide, and 4. Hopliade. 

B. Metallicz, also composed of four families, 5. Anisopliade (including Anomala, Euchlora, Mimela, &c.), 
6. Rutelide (divided as above mentioned into seven sub-families) ; 7. Anoplognathidz (divided as above 
mentioned), and 8. Geniatide. 

The second group Chenochela has not yet been published by Dr. Burmeister, but it includes the Melolonthz and 
other genera forming the first half of Latreille’s Melolonthides. 

A number of genera allied to Melolontha, collected by Mr. C. Darwin, has been described by Mr. Curtis in the 
nineteenth volume of the Linnwan Transactions, and others from New Holland by Dr. Erichson. A monograph of 
the genus Popillia is publised by Newman in the Trans. Entom. Soc. 

Some splendid insects of doubtful affinity, having Scarabeus longimanus for the type, have been formed by Mr. 
Hope into a family Eucheiride. It has been considered by Mr. Hope as allied to the Dynastide, by Klug and 
Erichson to the Melolonthidz, and by Burmeister to the Trichii. Figures of both sexes of two of the most remark- 
able species (Mac Leayii and Dupontianus) with details, are given in my Cabinet of Oriental Entomology. 

The splendid section of the Melitophili has received many fine additions, and the synonymy of the species des- 
cribed by previous authors, especially those contained in Gory and Percheron’s monograph, has been thoroughly 
sifted. The chief works to which (in addition to those noticed in our former edition) reference must be made, are 
Dr. Burmeister’s Handbuch der Entomologie, to numerous papers by Dr. Schaum published in the Annals of the 
French Entomological Society, in Germar’s Zeitschrift, and separately, and to my Arcana Entomologica, in which 
the Goliathides have been especially illustrated, and many new forms described and figured. A number of new 
species of Melitophili have also been described by Hope and Schaum in the Transactions of the Entomolog. Soc. 
of London. The Cremastocheilides have also been carefully illustrated in Dr. Burmeister’s Genera Insectorum, 
and in conjunction with Dr. Schaum in Germar’s Zeitschrift. 

The second tribe of the Lamellicorn beetles, Lucanides Latreille, has been monographed by Burmeister in the 
fifth volume of his Handbuch, in which it is divided into two families, Lucanide and Passalide ; the former divided 
into seven sub-families, Sinodendride, Msalidae. Syndeside, Chiasognathidw, Lucanide genuini, Lamprimide, 
and Figulide ; and the latter consisting of the single genus Passalus. The Lucanides are separated by Burmeister 
into twenty-six genera. 

A catalogue of the Lucanides, with descriptions of the new species in the splendid collection of Mr. Hope, has 
been published by that gentleman, in which a new plan of distribution of the species composing Burmeister’s 
group Lucanide genuini has been proposed, and in which the whole of the species are retained under the old 
generic name of Lucanus. Many species of this family have also been described by Mr. Hope and myself in the 
Linnean Transactions, and in the Transactions of the Entomological] Society of London. Two remarkable genera 
from New Zealand, Mitophyllus and Dendroblax have been described by Parry and White. Two supplements to 
the monograph on the Passalidz has also been published by M. Percheron. 

The investigations of the HETEROMEROUS MELASOMATA (p. 530—532), has been continued by M. Solier in 
the Annals of the French Entomological Society, and in the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Turin. A number 
of valuable papers have also been published by Mr. Waterhouse in the Annals of Natural History, and descrip- 
tions of many species from South America, described by Mr. Curtis in the Linnean Transactions. 

The Blapsides have been reviewed by Fischer von Waldheim in the Bulletin of the Moscow Society. 


Te ee Ee dy 


INSECTA. 683 


The gigantic Tenebrionide of tropical Africa have oeen monographed by myself in the Transactions of the 
Zoological Society, and in the Arcana Entomologica, Vol. II., and the singular Australian Helzus, by the Marquis 
de Breme, in his series of monographs on the Heteromera, and by Mr Hope in the fifth volume of the Transac- 
tions of the Entomological Society. De Breme has also monographed the genera Misolampus and its allies, and 
Cossyphus. Many Russian, Persian, and Siberian species are described by various Russian Entomologists, in 
the Bulletin of the Moscow Society, and by Faldermann in his Fauna Transcaucasica. The Pedinites have been 
revised by Waterhouse in Annals of Nat. Hist., Vol. XVI. 

The Stenelytra (p, 533), have also received considerable attention ; the @idemeridz of Europe having been mo- 
nographed by Schmidt in the Linnwa Entomologica, whilst the transformations of Helops ater, Melandrya ser- 
rata, Pyrochroa coccinea, Mordella fasciata, demera seladonia, Boletophagus agaricola, and Diaperis Boleti have 
been observed by Dufour and Perris in the Annals of the French Entomol. Soc., and those of Orchesia micans by 
Brasellmann. 

The Notoxides (p. 537), of Europe have also been monographed by Schmidt in the Entomol. Zeitung, others have 
also been described by the Marquis de la Ferté in the Annales of the French Ent, Soc., Vol. XI., and by Lucas in 
the Revue Zoologique. 

The Mylabrides (p. 539), of Barbary have been described by Chevrolat, in Silbermann’s Reyue Entomol., Vol. Vics 
and some beautiful Australian species of Helopidw represented in my Arcana Entomologica. The transformations 
of the genus Meloe, have been investigated by Siebold in the Entomol. Zeitung ; by Newport in the Transactions of 
the Linnzan Society; and by myself, in the Trans. of the Entomol. Society; and it is now ascertained that the 
Triungulinus or Pediculus Melitte is the real larva in its youngest state. Its form, however, is very greatly altered 
before arriving at full size. 

The great work of Schonherr upon the Weevils, RHYNCHOPHORA (p. 539), has been continued, and at length 
concluded (with the life of its author), in sixteen thick half yolumes, and two supplemental Mantisse. Of this 
work it will be impossible for us to give even the slightest abstract. In fact, from the circumstance that the latter 
volumes consist of a revision of the early ones, with great additions inserted into their places ; and from the entire 
work being deficient in tabular synopses of the numerous genera, the investigations of this great tribe of Beetles 
is more intricate than ever. Great assistance is, however, to be obtained from the work of Labram and Imhoff, 
which contains coloured figures of one species of each genus, but as the work appears in numbers at wide inter- 
vals, and with numerous additional genera, it will be long before the Iconography of this family can be before us. 
Waterhouse has published various papers containing descriptions of exotic species, in the Annals of Natural His- 
tory, the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, and the Transactions of the Entomological Society. Other exotic 
species are described by Chevrolat and Guérin in the Revue Entomologique. Many remarkable forms from New 
Zealand are described and figured by White in the Zoology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror. Many 
Australian species by Erichson in Wiegmann’s Archives, and by Germar in the Linnea Entomologica. Many 
valuable remarks on the North American species are published by Harris, in his work on the injurious insects of 
Massachusets; whilst the Curculionide of our own country have been revised by Mr. Walton in a valuable series 
of articles in the Annals of Natural History. About 7500 species are now known. 

The Silesian species have been revised by Schilling, and the Russian ones by Gotsch in the Bulletin of the 
Moscow Society for 1847, 

The Xylophagi (p. 542), have been studied to a great extent, and the greater portion of the genera (in fact the 
whole, with the exception of those forming the genus Scolytus in the text), have been removed from their position 
in this work and placed nearer to the Silphidz and other clavicorn tribes, notwithstanding the numerical variation 
in the joints of their tarsi. Many of these groups have been revised by Dr. Erichson in his work on the Cole- 
optera of Germany, in which tables are added containing the characters of the exotic genera. 

The natural history of Scolytus destructor, a species injurious to the elms, has been studied by Andouin, 
Spence, and others. The Pausside have been remonographed in my Arcana Entomologica, and the number of 
the species nearly doubled, with the addition of various new genera. A remarkable memoir on this genus is 
published by Burmeister in Guérin’s Mag. de Zoologie, in which the Pausside are considered as most nearly allied 
to the Carabide ; the species being now ascertained to crepitate like the Brachini, and to reside in ant’s nests, 
The Bostrichi have been investigated by Guérin, Bul. Soc Ent, de France, Vol. III. p. 16, by whom ten genera are 
admitted into the group. 

Several very remarkable genera have been lately added to the group, especially Acropis Burmeister, haying the 
eyes placed on foot stalks, Langelandia Aubé, destitute of eyes ; and Stemmoderus Spinola, having the thorax di- 
lated into rounded tubercles cencealing the head 

Other singular forms are represented in my Cabinet of Oriental Entomology chiefly from India. 

Some additions of great interest to the Loneicornes (p. 544) have also been made. Here, approaching Spondylis 
(p. 545) must most probably be arranged the South American genus Hypocephalus, one of the most singular of 
known Coleoptera. It will, however, be necessary to establish a separate section forits reception, as is also re- 
quired for that of Trictenotoma, an equally remarkable genus from the East, which I have also illustrated in the 
Cabinet of Oriental Entomology. 

A valuable work upon the Longicornes of France has been published by M. Mulsant, who divides these insects as 


follows :— 
Group 1. Procephalides (head slanting) divided into three families—Spondyliens, Prioniens, and Cerambycins, 
Group 2. Clinocephalides (head vertical) divided into two families—Lamiens and Saperdins. 
Group 3. Derecephalides (head fixed upon a distinct neck) divided into two families—Rhagieus and Lepturins. 
Many new and beautiful exotic species of Longicorn beetles are figured and described by Blanchardin the Voyage 


684 INSECTA. 


of D’Orbigny, by White in tnat of the Erebus and Terror, by myself in the Arcana Entomologica and Cabinet of 


Oriental Entomology (the former work containing a monograph of the New Zealand species and those of tropical 
rj ied to Sternotomis). 

ee eenieae ees of Trachyderes and allied genera has been published by Dupont, in Ens SITES, de 

Zoologie, and a number of new exotic species has been described by Newman, White, Buquet, Beene Snes &e. 

and a memoir in the Australian Stenochoride by Mr. Hope, by whom also a number. of splendid a species 

has been published in the Transaction of Linnzan Society. The Philippine Island species are described by New- 

man in the Entomologist. In all these works the number of genera has been greatly increased. 

The EUPODA and CYCLICA (p. 549—553) under the general name of Phytophaga, proposed by Dumeril, form the 
subject of a work of great extent undertaken by M. Lacordaire, entitled a ‘‘ Monographie des Coléoptéres subpen- 
taméres de la famille des Phytophages,” of which two volumes have appeared. In this very valuable work the 
phytophagous insects are divided into two primary groups :— : 7 ' 

ist. The Apostasicerides, or those which have the antennz wide apart at the base, containing the following 
tribes, each named after the typical genus—l. Sagrides, 2. Donacides, 3. Criocerides, 4. Megalopides, 5. 
Clythrides, 6. Cryptocephalides, 7: Eumolpides, 8. Chrysomelides. , 

gnd. The Metopocerides, or those who have the antenn close together at the base, consisting of 9, Galerucides 
(including the greater part of the Halticides), 10. Hispides, 11. Cassidides. 

The First Volume is occupied with descriptions of the species composing the first four tribes. 

The Second Volume which is just published, is confined to the Clythrides, of which the author describes as 
many as 697, (nearly three times as many as are given in Dejean’s Catalogue des Coléoptéres.) The Clythrides 
are divided into five sub-families or tribes, namely :-— 

1. Clythride, containing only one genus Clythra with 255 species, but divided into forty sub-genera. 

2. Babidew, containing ninety-three species, divided into ten genera. 

3. Megalostomidez. containing sixty species, divided into five genera. 

4. Lamprosomide, containing seventy-nine species, divided into three genera, and containing, as a species of 
Lamprosoma, the British Oomorphus Concolor, generally placed in the Byrrhide. 

5. Chlamydew, containing 209 species, divided into seven genera, 

This volume contains some very interesting observations on the cases formed by the larve of the different 
species, and composed of particles of their own excrement. 

The careful revision of such of these tribes, as have been already published by M. Lacordaire, merits the highest 
praise, the genera having been rigorously examined, and the species minutely described. It may suffice, in order to 
show the extent of the materials in the hands of the author, to state that he has described as many as 273 
species of the genus Lema inits present restricted state. 

A great number of species of these tribes are described by Faldermann in his Fauna Transcaucasica. Some 
beautiful new forms are also described and figured by Mr. Hope in his Coleopterist’s Manual. A memoir on the 
genera of exotic Casside has also been published by Mr. Hope, in the Annals of Natural History, and many 
species of Hispa and the allied genera by Guérin (Revue Zool.), and Newman, (Entomologist.) A series of 
papers on the Australian species of Cryptocephalides has been published by Mr. Saunders in the Transactions of 
the Entomological Society. The European species of Lema and Cassida have been carefully monographed by 
Suffrian in the Entomol. Zeitung, and those of Cryptocephalus by the same author, in the Linnea Entomologica. 
The transformations of various species have also been studied, namely, those of Clythra and Cryptocephalus, by 
Rosenhauer and Chevrolat ; Colaspis ater by Joly, (Ann. Sci. Nat., Vol. II.) ; Cassida, by Gravenhorst and 
Scholtz, in Nova Acta ; Hispa, by Dr. Harris ; and Haltica, by Le Keux. 

The relations of the Clavipalpi (p. 554), have been much discussed, and their affinity with the Engide among 
the Necrophagous Coleoptera, maintained by several authors. This is also the opinion adopted by M. Lacordaire 
in his very excellent ‘‘ Monographie des Erotyliens,” in which the Latreillian Erotylus, Triplax, and Tritoma are 
comprised. Languria is to be referred to the Engide, and Phalacrus and Agathidium forma family in the 
neighbourhood of the Silphide and Hydrophilide. These views, of course, materially interfere with the tarsal 
system, but they may be regarded as the exceptions to it, and not as proofs of its inaccuracy, 

M. Lacordairein his monograph, described 576 species of Erotyliens, being more than six times the number 
described by Duponchel in his monograph published only seventeen years previously. Of these 570 species, nine- 
tenths are natives of the New World. Only three species are described as natives of Asia; only two of New 
Holland ; and sixteen of Africa. The family is divided by Lacordaire into two tribes— 

1. The Engidiformes, with the inner lobe of the maxilla unarmed, or with one tooth, composed of fourteen 
genera, including Dacne, Triplax, Tritoma, 

2. The Genuini, with the inner lobe of the maxilla armed with two teeth, including the genera Hgithus, 
Erotylus, &c. 

The species are for the most part elegantly coloured and marked with spots of different colours, and they 
generally reside in boleti, agarics and other fungi. 

A careful revision of the German Anisotomidz has been made by Schmidt in Vol. III. of Germar’s Zeitschrift, 
and by Erichson in his German Coleoptera. The minute genus Trichopteryx related to these insects, has also 
attracted great attention. See Heer in Entomol. Zeitung, 1843. Allibert in Guérin’s Revue Zool., 1844. Schiodte 
in Kroyer’s Naturh. Tiddskrift, 1845. Gillmeister in Sturm’s German Fauna, Vol. XVII, and also Erichson’s 
German Coleoptera. The transformations of Trichopteryx intermedia have been observed by Perris, (Annales 
Soc. Ent. France), and appear to prove that the genus is nearly allied to the Brachelytra. 

The French species of the Fungicole (p. 554), haye also been excellently monographed by M. Mulsant, by whom 


_ 


a ae a ne MR IIb 
INSECTA. 685 


three additional genera have been proposed, namely Polymus, Mycetina, and Golgia. Trochoideus Westw. is a 
very remarkable genus belonging to this tribe, having the antenne terminated by a large, solid mass, like those 
of the genus Paussus, with which the typical species was at first arranged. Redtenbacher has also reviewed the 
European species in Germar’s Zeitschrift, Vol. V. A curious little genus which has been referred to this family, 
has excited considerable attention on account of the singularity in the variation of the number of joints of the 
antenne, it has received the names of Holoparamecus Curtis, (Calyptobium Villa). Its proper relations appear, 
however, to be toward the Necrophaga. See Guérin’s Revue Zool., Westwood in Trans. Entomol. Soc., and Aube 
in the French Annales, 

Thefamily of the Ladybirds (Aphidiphaga, p. 555) has been also revised, so far as the French species are con- 
cerned, by M. Mulsant, in his work upon the Coleoptera of France ; whilst M. Redtenbacher has also reviewed those 
of Germany, adopting for the Trimera the name of Coleoptera Pseudotrimera, proposed by me in the ‘ Introduction 
to the Modern Classification of Insects,’ and dividing the Securipalpes or Aphidiphagi into two primary groups :— 

1. Those with simple or bifid mandibles, divided into ten genera, = 

2. Those with multidentate mandibles, two genera. 

Whilst M. Mulsant divides them into two primary groups, from the hairy or naked upper surface of the body, 
thus :— 

1. Gymnosomides, with naked bodies, divided into three tribes, Coccinelliens (subdivided into sub-tribes 
and groups, and containing sixteen genera) ; Chilocoriens, with two genera ; Hyperaspiens, with one 
genus. 

2. Trichosomides, with hairy bodies, divided into three tribes; Epilachniens, with two genera ; Scymniens, 
with four genera; and Cocciduliens, with one genus. 

A number of Russian species of Ladybirds have been described by Faldermann and Motchoulsky. 

A careful revision of the Pselaphi (which are now regarded by most writers, as most nearly allied to the Bra- 
chelytra, has been made by Aubé, in the French Annales for 1844 ; and Dr. Schaum has published a notice of the 
Synonymes of the British species, in the Zoologist for 1847. A remarkable Australian species with one-jointed 
antenne, has been described by Hope, in the Trans. of the Entomol. Society of London. 


THE ORDER ORTHOPTERA. (P. 556.) 


In addition to the systematic works of Burmeister and Serville noticed in p. 557, we are indebted to M. De Haan 
for another general revision of the order in the great work published by the Dutch Government, illustrating the pro- 
ductions of the Dutch settlements in the Indian Archipelago. In this fine work the author has gone back to the Lin- 
nan system of names, and instead of families, sub-families, &c., has consequently adopted the following primary 
divisions as genera :—Blatta, Mantis, Phasma, Acrydium, Locusta, and Gryllus, regarding all the genera of which 
each of these families (or genera) is composed, as sub-genera, and giving under each genus a list of the names 
adopted for these minor divisions, by Burmeister and Serville. The species are very carefully described, and 
many of them beautifully represented, some of the forms being very singular, and constituting new sub-genera. 
The Earwigs are regarded as a separate order. Another fine work on the Orthoptera of Russia has been pub- 
lished by the Count Fischer de Waldheim, in his Entomographie de la Russie, Tome IV, 1846, 4to., with thirty- 
seven plates. In this work the same general division is retained, each group being regarded as a family, and a 
considerable number of new genera and species described. Two papers by Charpentier, on the Synonymes of the 
species, in Germar’s Zeitschrift, Vols. 1V and V, must be referred to. Charpentier has also published a beautiful 
work entitled ‘Orthoptera descripta et depicta,’ containing figures of a great number of new and remarkable 
exotic species. Von Siebold has also published a treatise upon the Prussian species, forty in number, in Vol. 
XXVII of the Preuss. Provin. Blatt. A number of remarkable exotic species belonging to the different families 
are represented inmy Arcana Entomologica, and Cabinet of Oriental Entomology, and descriptions of numerous 
North American species are given by Harris, in his work on the Injurious Insects of Massachusets. 


THE ORDER HEMIPTERA—SECTION HETEROPTERA. (P. 563.) 


The introduction of this order of suctorial insects between the masticating Orthoptera and Neuroptera, is at 
variance with the arrangements adopted by most recent Entomologists, who have considered the characters de- 
rived from the perfect state of the insect, to be of greater weight than the nature of its metamorphosis; the 
consideration of which led Latreille to place the Hemiptera in the situation which they hold in this work, 

Several valuable works upon the classification of the Hemiptera have been recently published, the most im- 
portant of which must now be concisely noticed. In the ‘‘ Essai sur les gernes d’insectes, appartenants a ordre 
des Hémiptéres, Linn. ; on Rhyngotés Fab. et ala section des Hétéroptéres, Dufour,” by the Marquis Spinola, 
these insects are divided into five primary groups :— 

1. Nepides. 2. Hydrocorizes, [Notonectide]. 3. Galgulites. 4. Amphibicoryzes, [Hydrometridz], and 
5, Geocoryzes, or the species residing on the ground, or on plants, and corresponding with the Linnzean 
genus Cimex; divided into ten families, namely, the Reduvites, Coreites, Phymatites, Aradites, Tingi- 
dites, Cimicites, Astemmites, Anisoscelites, Lygwites, and Pentatomites, each being named after its 
chief genus, and containing a considerable number of new genera and species. 

In the “Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Hémipterés,” by Messrs. Serville and Amyot, the tabulation of the 
groups and the generic division is carried to a mnch greater extent than in any preceding work. Thus the He- 
teropterous Hemiptera are divided into 355 genera, and the progression of the groups corresponds with that of 
Latreille in the text, being the reverse of that adopted by the Marquis Spinola. The first section, Geocorises, 


686 INSECTA. 


containing eight families—l. Longiscutes, [Scutelleride and Pentatomide]. 2. Supericornes, [Coreid], 
3. Infericornes, [Lygeide and Anthocoridz]. 4. Cecigenes, [Pyrrhocoris]. 5. Bicellules, [Capsidi]. 6. Duc- 
tirostres, [Tingidx, Cimex]. 7. Nudirostres, (Reduviidee, Hydrometride, Salda, Acanthia]. And 8. Rameurs, 
{Gerride]. Whilst the second section, Hydrocorises, contains three families, typified by the three genera, Gal- 
gulus, Nepa, and Notonecta., Each of these families is subdivided to a great extent, and a number of new spe- 
cies described. 

The principle of subdivision has been carried out to its utmost extent, in a more recent work upon the French 
species of the order by M. Amyot, with a view to the establishment of a new system of nomenclature in which 
every animal shall be known only by one name; thus doing away with the generic nomenclature, established by 
Linnzeus. M. Amyot’s work first appeared in the French Annales, and has subsequently been published sepa- 
rately. The Wanzenartigen Insecten of H. Schaffer has been continued, and a great number of new species 
represented in it. Vol. VII contains a revision of the Pentatomidz. The publication of the descriptive catalogue 
of the Hemiptera in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Hope, has been continued, and many new genera added 
to the family Coreidw. Schiodte has given a revision of the Fabrician species of Tetyra, in Kroyer’s Danish 
Journal of Natural History ; and A. White has described many new species of Scutelleridx# in the Transactions 
of the Entomological Society, and in Gray’s Zoological Miscellany. Costa has published descriptions of nu- 
merous Italian and Sicilian species, whilst Kolenati has described a great number of Caucasian species in his 
Meletemata Entomologica, and Germar, many Cape of Good Hope species in Silbermann’s Revue Entomol., 
Vol. V. An excellent monograph of the curious genus Opthalmicus, is contained in Fieber’s Entomological 
monographs, as well as a complete iNustrated monograph of the Tingide. A monograph of the Capside has also 
been published by Meyen, accompanied by numerous plates. Monographs of the genera Phyllomorpha, 
Phymata, and allied genera, as well as descriptions of numerous singular new genera, have been published by 
myself, in the Arcana Entomologica, and Transactions of the Entomological Society. 

Fieber has also monographed the genera Sigara and Ploa in his Entomologische Monographien. 


THE SECTION HOMOPTERA, (P. 567.) 


In the work of Messrs. Serville and Amyot, above noticed, the Homoptera are divided into two sections from the 
place of insertion of the rostrum or promuscis, Sect. I. The Auchenorhynches, in which the rostrum arises from 
the chin or middle of the under part of the head, divided into three families—l. The Chanteurs, (Cicada Linn., 
divided into twenty-one genera). 2. The Subtericornes, (Fulgora Linn., and the numerous genera separated 
therefrom), and 3, the Antericornes, (consisting of Membracis, Centrotus, and Cercopis, with the numerous genera 
separated therefrom) ; and Sect. iI. The Sternorhynches, in which the rostrum appears to arise from the breast, 
divided into two families, corresponding with the Linnean genera Aphis and Coccus. Thrips and its genera 
forms an appendix to the volume, being regarded asa distinct order under the name of Physopoda. Each of 
these families is subdivided into a number of sub-sections, down to the genera, which are very numerous, 

Numerous new Swedish species of Homoptera are described by Bohemann, in the Swedish Transactions 
for 1845. 

The Cicadidz have been enriched with three fine genera, namely, Cystosoma, with the body like a large swollen 
bladder, and Tettigarea, both from New Holland, and Polyneura, with the fore wings thickly reticulated, from 
Tndia. Many splendid additions have been made to the Fulgoride, by Mr. Hope, in the Transactions of the Lin- 
nan Society, and by myself, in the Arcana Entomol, and Cabinet of Oriental Entomology, and the family 
Fulgoride has been entirely revised, and many new additional genera described by the Marquis Spinola, in the 
Annales of the French Entomol. Society. Mr. White has also described several beautiful species in the Annals 
of Natural History. Mr, Bowring, who has had the most abundant opportunities of observing the Chinese species 
Fulgora Candelaria, has never found it emit the slightest trace of luminosity. 

The singular genus Derbe of Fabricius has been monographed by Boheman, in the Swedish Trans., and by 
myself in the Linnean Transactions. 

The very singular tribe of Membracides has been carefully studied by M. Leon Fairmaire in the Annals of the 
French Entomol. Society, and many new and curious species and genera described. Dr. Burmeister has also 
illustrated many of the genera, both of Fulgoridz and Cercopidx, in his Genera Insectorum, and Mr. White has 
described many large eastern species of the latter group. 

The Aphidii have lately been revised by Kaltenbach and Hartig, in Germar’s Zeitschrift ; and in our own 
country by Mr. Walker in the Annals of Natural History and the Zoologist. In Kaltenbach’s ‘“‘ Monographie der 
Pflanzenlause,’”’ Aachen, 1843, the one hundred and sixty-one species known to the author are arranged under 
twelve genera, divided into two chief sections—Ist. the winged species, with the genera Aphis, Lachnus, Schi- 
zoneura, Vacuna, Pemphigus, Tetraneura, Chermes, and Phylloxera ; 2nd. the wingless subterranean species, 
forming four genera, Rhizobius, Forde, Trama, and Paracletus. Many beautiful figures of these insects are 
given in Ratzeburg’s Forst Insecten. A monograph of the curious genus, Monophlebus, is giveniin the Arcana 
Entomologica ; Bouche has also described numerous species of Coccide in the Entomol. Zeitung tor 1844. 


THE ORDER NEUROPTERA (P. 574.) 


The relations of the Neuroptera, as arranged in the “ Animal Kingdom,” have recently been much discussed, 
and several of the families of which it is here composed have been removed to the order Orthoptera, especially 
by some of the recent German Entomologists, whilst Brulle and Laporte have cut it up into several separate 


a i a a AA 
a 


INSECTA. ~ 687 


orders. We must, however, here restrict ourselves to a notice of the chief works which have appeared on these 
different families. 

The “‘ Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Néuroptéres,”’ by M. Rambur, forming portion of Roret’s ‘‘ Suites a Buffon,” 
appeared in 1842, and contains an entire monograph of the order, some portions of which, the Libellulide, 
Myrmeleonidez, &c. have been very carefully investigated by the author (the Linnean genus Libellula alone 
oceupying nearly three hundred pages). In this work the author has nearly followed the arrangements of Pictet 
and Barmeister, retaining, however, the whole of the divisions as portions of the order Neuroptera. His seven 
divisions are as follows :— 

1. The Corrodentia, containing the Termetide and Embiide. 

2. The Psocide, including Psocus and Coniopteryx. 

3. The Subulicornia, consisting of the Odonata [Libellula] and Agnatha [Ephemera]. 

4, The Planipennes, containing the Panorpide, Nemopteride, Myrmeleonide, Nymphide, Hemerobiide, and 
Mantispide. 

5. The Semblides, containing Raphidia, Semblis, &c. 

6. The Perlides. 

7. The Trichoptéres [Phryganea, Linn.] 

Each of these divisions is subdivided into families and genera, and a great number of species described 
especially in the groups separated from Libellula, Linn. An excellent paper on the anatomy of some of the 
genera of this family is given by Loew in the third volume of the Linnwa Entomologica ; and the anatomy of 
many species is also illustrated in Dufour’s Recherches Anatomiques et Fhysiologiques sur les Orthoptéres, les 
Hymenopteéres et les Néuroptéres, 4to, 1841. 

In addition to Rambur’s work aboye noticed, the student must also consult the following works upon the 
Libellulidz :— 

Hagen Synonymia Libellularum Europxarum. 

Charpentier Libellulinee Europex, descripte ac depict, tabulis XLVIII. 

Selys Longchamp Monographie des Libellulidées d’Europe, followed by numerous detached articles on the 
family in the Bulletin of the Brussels Academy, the French Annals, &c. The same author has also 
published a complete revision cf the Synonyms of the British Species of Dragon Flies. 

Boyer Fonscolombe, Monograph of the Agrionides in Annales Soc. Ent. France, Vol. VII. 

Eyans’s British Libellulinw, or Dragon Flies, illustrated in a series of lithographic drawings, 8vo, 1845, 
twenty-one plates. 

The Ephemeride have formed the subject of a fine monograph by Professor Pictet, Geneva and Paris, 1843, 8vo 
with forty-seven plates. In this work the author adopts seven genera, Ephemera, Palingenia, Baetis, Pota- 
manthus, Cloe, Cenis, and Oligoneura, founded not only on the characters of the perfect insect, but on those of 
the transformations of the species of which each is composed. An excellent memoir on the anatomy and trans- 
formation of Palingenia Virgo has been published by Cornelius. 

The Perlides have been monographed by Newman, and by Pictet in his Histoire Naturelle generale et parti- 
culiere des Insectes Néuroptéres ; famille des Perlides, Geneva, 1841, 8vo, fifty-three plates, in which work the 
author admits only six genera, Kollaria, Eusthenia, Pteronarcys, Perla, Capnia, and Nemoura The whole of 
these species are described and figured with great care. A remarkable peculiarity has been observed by Newport 
in a species of Pteronarcys, namely, the retention in the perfect state of the external branchiz of the larva in 
addition to the ordinary series of spiracles of the Imago, 

The Hemerobiida, of Belgium, have been monographed by Wesmael in the Bulletin of the Brussels Academy, 
and the British species have been illustrated by Evans in the Trans. of the Entomol. Society of London, Vol. V. 
A remarkable insect which inhabits the fresh water sponge has formed the subject of communications by myself, 
and by Professor Grube and Mr. Haliday, by whom it is regarded as the larva of Hemerobius fuscus. 

A systematic distribution of the Ascalaphides has been published by A. Lefebvre in Guérin’s Magasin de 
Zoologie ; a monograph on Nemoptera by myself in the proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Dr. Klug has also 
given a monograph on Panorpa and Nemoptera in the Berlin Transactions ; the Panorpide have also been 
revised by myself in the Transactions of the Entomol. Society of London. Dr. Erichson has published a mono- 
graph of the singular genus Mantispa, in his Entomographien; and a monograph on Raphidia has also been pub- 
blished by Schneider. 

In addition to the fine monograph of Pictet upon the Phryganez (Order Trichoptera Kirby; family, Plicipennés, 
Latreille) noticed in our former supplementary notes, and the general works of Rambur, Burmeister, the first 
part of a work by Kolenati has recently appeared at Prague, entitled Genera et Species Trichopterorum, Pars 
prior, 4to, with three plates. This work promises to be of great service in the investigation of this difficult family. 
The first part comprises only the first family, Heteropalpoidea, containing the species having the maxillary palpi 
of the two sexes dissimilar, divided into three tribes—l. Limnophiloidea, divided into thirteen genera ; 2. Phryga- 
neoidea, three genera ; 3. Sericostomoidea, twelve genera. The family Isopalpoidea, or those species having the 
maxillary palpi alike on both sexes will form the subject of a second part. 


THE ORDER HYMENOPTERA. (P. 581.) 


The Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Hymeneoptéres, commenced by Count Saint Fargeau (in which the 
system proposed by him of arranging the families according to their habits) has been completed in four thick 
volumes, 8vyo. The first of these volumes contains the groups which live in societies which are either perennial 


688 INSECTA. 


(ants and honey bees), or annual (humble bees and wasps). The second volume contains the solitary nest-making 
species (the majority of the genera of Apidz and Andrenide), and the parasitic bees as well as the solitary wasps, 
The third volume (in which the author found it impossible to carry out his theory respecting the working or 
parasitic habits of the species as exhibited by the structure of the fore legs of the female) contains the various 
families of sand wasps, namely, the Crabronites, Bembecides, Sphegides, and Scoliides, including the Mutillide. 
The fourth volume is by M. Brullé, M. Saint Fargeau, owing to his great age (—he is since dead)—having 
renounced the authorship of the Terebrant Hymenoptera, and contains the families Chrysides, Ichneumonides, 
Braconides, Evaniides, Chalcidites, Proctotrupides, Cynipides, Oryssides, Urocerides, and Tenthredinides. In this 
yolume the author has especially devoted his attention to the Ichneumonides and Braconides, in which families 
a great number of new genera and species, for the most part exotic, are described. 

The Hymenoptera of Spain bave been described by Erichson in Waltl’s Travels; those of Algeria in Wagner’s 
Travels, and many Australian species in Wiegmann’s Archives; and a considerable number of Spanish, 
Egyptian, and Cayenne species by the Marquis Spinola, in the French Annalés, The Symbole Physicw of Dr. 
Klug contains a considerable number of beautiful Egyptian species. Many of the Tenthredinidze have been 
beautifully illustrated in Ratzeburg’s Forst Insecten. Dr. Hartig’s Blattwespen must also be studied. A remark- 
able collection of Cocoons, of a Brazilian species, has been figured by Mr. Curtis in the Transactions of the 
Linnean Society, and the economy of several interesting species described by myself in the Gardener’s Chronicle 
for 1847 and 1848. 

Memoirs on the Evaniide by Mr. Shuckard, in the Zoologist, and by myself in the Trans. Entomol. Society 
must be referred to. The Belgian Ichneumonide have been investigated by Professor Wesmael in the Transactions 
of the Berlin Academy. The Ichneumonid have also formed the subject of one of the volumes of Ratzeburg’s fine 
work on the Forst Insecten. An interesting paper on the Economy of the Ichneumonida, especially with reference 
to the species of insects upon which each subsists, is given by Boye in Kroyer’s Natural History Tidsskrift, Vol. 
III. The genus Alysia has been revised by Mr. Haliday in his usual careful manner. The Cynipide have been 
studied by Hartig in Germar’s Zeitschrift, and Dahlbom in his ‘‘Onychia and Collaspidia,” and various new 
genera proposed. The Chalcididw have been reviewed by Forster in his ‘ Beitrage zur Monographie der 
Pteromalinen,” Part I., and by Mr. Walker in ‘‘ Monographs on the Chalcidide,” published in two volumes, and 
in detached articles in the various Natural History periodicals. Many of the species are beautifully figured in 
Ratzeburg’s Forst Insecten, and outline figures of the British genera are given in the Entomologist, drawn by 
Mr. Haliday. 

Many species of Chrysidide have been described by Guérin, in the Revue Zoologique, and by Dr. Klug, in the 
Symbole Physice. A synopsis of this family is given by the latter in the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy. 

The Linnean genus Sphex, has been revised by Dahlbom in his excellent work entitled ‘‘ Hymenoptera Eu- 
ropa precipue Borealia, &c., disposita atque descripta,” in which the sand wasps are distributed into the ten 
following families.—1. Sphecide. 2. Ampulicide. 3. Pompilide. 4. Larride. 5. Nyssonide. 6, Bembecidx, 
7. Philanthide. 8. Mellinide. 9. Pemphredonide; and 10. Crabronide. A vast number of new species, and 
many new genera are described in this work. Some new genera allied to Chlorion are illustrated by me, in the 
Arcana Entomologica. 

The Mutillidze of New Holland are illustrated in my Arcana Entomologica, as well as the Dorylide, and a 
great number of new species of Thynnide. Monographs on the latter family have also been published by Dr, 
Klug and M. Guérin. Mr. Shuckard also published a monograph on the Dorylide, in the Annals of Natural 
History. Observations on the habits of various species have also been published ; by L. Dufour, on Cerceris bu- 
presticida, Ann. Sciences Natur., XV; by Siebold, on Oxybelus uniglumis ; and by Passerini, on Scolia, with a 
supplement detailing the interesting economy of the large Italian species. 

A paper by myself, on some new genera of Ants, has appeared in the Annals of Natural History, and Mr. 
White has published some interesting observations on a Brazilian species of Wasp, which collects honey, in the 
same work. Mr. Curtis has also described some Wasps in the Trans. Linn. Soc. 

A valuable series of papers containing descriptions of the British species of Bees, has been published by Mr. 
F. Smith, in the Zoologist, and one on the genus Hylezus, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of 
London. The Natural History of Osmia, Ceratina, Stelis, and other Bees, has been given by L. Dufour, in the 
Annals of the French Entomol. Society. A paper on the economy of the Brazilian Meliponites, has been pub- 


lished by Spinola, in the Annalés des. Sci. Nat. 


THE ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. (P. 603.) 


The classification of this order has received much attention since the publication of our former edition. 
A discussion of considerable extent has been carried on between Messrs, Duponchel and Guenée as to the relative 
importance to be given to the characters of the insect in its preparatory states, or to those derived from the 
imago. M. Boisduval has adopted both these views to a certain extent in his several works. The distribution of 
the order into three primary divisions has been rejected by the last-named author, as well as the names Diurna, 
Crepuscularia, and Nocturna, by which they were known. Inhis ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Lépidopteres,” 
he has employed for the first of these three groups the name of Rhopalocera, first proposed by Dumeril for the 
butterflies, and being unable to discover any real limits for the two other Latrellian groups, he has united them 
together under the name of Heterocera. from the varied structure of the antenne. The same method is also 
adopted by Boisduval in his ‘* Genera et Index Methodicus Europworum Lepidopterorum,” 8vo, 1840. In the 
former of these works he divides the butterflies as follows :— 


INSECTA. 689 


Sect. 1. Succincti. Chrysalis attached by the tail and girt round the body, divided into six tribes—Papilio- 
nides, Pierides, Eumenides, Lyczenides, Erycinides, and Peridromides. 

Sect. 2. Suspensi. Chrysalis only suspended by the tail, divided into eight tribes—Danaides, Heliconides, 
Nymphalides, Brassolides, Morphides, Satyrides, Biblides, and Libythides. 

Sect. 3. Involuti. Chrysalis enclosed in a Cocoon, consisting of only one tribe, Hesperides. 

The Heterocera are divided in the latter work into the following tribes—Sesiarie, Sphingides, Zygenides, 
Lithosides, Chelonides, Liparides, Bombycini, Saturnides, Endromides, Zeuzerides, Psychides, Cocliopodes, 
Drepanulides, Notodontides, Noctuw, divided into Noctuo-Bombycini. Bombycoides, Amphipyrides, Noctuides, 
Hadenides, Leucanides, Caradrinides, Orthosides, Xylinides, Calpides, Plusides, Heleothides, Acontides, 
Catocalides, and Noctuo-phalenides. Geometrz (not divided into tribes). The Micro-Lepidoptera are not con- 
tained in this work of Boisduyal. 

Other general works upon the order are— 

Freyer’s Neue Beitrage zur Schmetterlingskunde, in numbers. 

Fischer Edler von Rosslerstamm’s Abbildungen zur Berichtigung and Erganzung der Schmetterling- 
skunde, in numbers. 

Ratzeburg’s Forst Insecten, Vol. II., and in the Nova Acta, Vol. XIX. 

British Butterflies and their Transformations, one vol. 4to, and British Moths and their Transformations, 
two vols. 4to, by J. O. Westwood, with plates drawn by Humphries. 

H. Doubleday’s List of British Lepidoptera, October, 1847. 

Eversmann, in the Bulletii of the Moscow Society, and Fauna Lepidopterologica Volgo-Uralensis, a 
valuable work which has almost entirely been destroyed by fire. 

Herrich Schaffer’s Systematische Bearbeitung der Schmetterlinge von Europa. 

Duponchel Catalogue Methodique des Lépidoptéres d’Europe, Paris, 1845. 

Guenée Europxorum Microlepidopterorum, Index Methodicus, Paris, 1845. 

Selys Longchamps Enumeration des Insectes Lépidoptéres de la Belgique. s 

A valuable memoir by M. Lefebvre, on the arrangement of the veins of the wings in this order, has been pub- 
lished in the Annals of the French Entomological Society. A paper on the same subject has also been published 
by Mr. E. Doubleday in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 

Many interesting exotic species have been described by White in Gray’s Travels in New South Wales, and by 
Doubleday in Dieffenbach’s Travels. Kollar has described many species in Hugel’s Travels in Cashmere and the 
Himalayas. Others from Egypt are figured by Klug in the Symbole Physics. A beautiful work on the Lepidop- 
tera of North America was commenced by Boisduval, but it extended only to the butterflies. A number of inte- 
resting exotic species have also been figured in the volumes of Lepidoptera in Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library. 

A magnificent work on the genera of butterflies has been commenced by E. Doubleday, of which twenty-two 
numbers have appeared, Itcontains a complete list of the species of each genus, with figures of one or more types 
ineach. The species of Papilio inhabiting the Dutch Settlements in the East, have been described by De Haan 
in the great national work on the Eastern possessions of Holland. 

A great number of new species, chiefly belonging to the genus Papilio, have been figured in my Arcana Ento- 
mologica and Cabinet of Oriental Entomology. Mr. Edward Doubleday has also published descriptions of a great 
number of new species of butterflies in the Annals of Natural History. A remarkable and extremely beautiful 
genus from India has been first described and figured by Mr. Hope under the name of Teinopalpus, which mczits 
notice, as its situation in the system is at the head of the order. 

A memoir by Herrick Schaffer, on the distribution of the Satyridz, is also deserving of notice. 

Some singular North American Bombycide have been described by E. Doubleday in the Entomologist. The 
same author has described a number of beautiful species of Gymnautocera in the Annals of Nat. Hist. Many 
fine species of Saturnia are figured in the Cabinet of Oriental Entomology. 

The classification of the Noctuide has been undertaken by Guenée in the Annals of the French Entomological 
Society, and a list of the British species has been published by H. Doubleday in the Zoologist. The Micro 
Lepidoptera have recently been carefully studied; and numerous papers by Zeller in the Linnea Entomologica 
Entomologisches Zeitung, and Isis, and by Mr. Stainton and others in the late numbers of the Zoologist are to be 
noticed. The Pterophoride have also been revised by Zeller in the Isis, 1841, 


THE ORDER RHIPIPTERA. (P. 614.) 


The natural history of these very singular insects has been studied by Westwood (Trans. Ent. Soc.), Von Siebold 
(Wiegmann’s Arch.), and Newport (Trans. Linn. Soc.), and the supposed lary with the head protruded between 
the rings of the abdomen of the bees and wasps, are now proved to be the females which produce living young 
from their heads. A paper by Mr. Thwaites and one by Dr. Templeton on a Brazilian species, have been pub- 
lished in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, and Mr. Newman has commenced a memoir on the order 
with a view to the determination of its situation in the system, in which he has overlooked the real nature of 
the transformations of the male insect, and has consequently erred in the situation assigned to the order. 


THE ORDER DIPTERA. (P. 615.) 


The completion of M. Macquart’s work on Exotic Diptera, and the publication of a valuable work by Zetterstedt 
in seven volumes, 8vo, on the Diptera of Scandinavia, are especially to be mentioned, as well as the Insecta 


690 INSECTA. 


Lapponica of the latter author. The classification proposed in the ‘‘ Diptera Scandinavie” (which is a modifi- 
cation of that in the Insecta Lapponica, is as follows :— 
Class I. Brachycera. Antenne, two- (or three-) jointed ; Paipi, two- (or three-) jointed. 
Order 1, Polychoeta. Haustellum, with four or six lancets, &e. 
Section 1. Antenne with the third joint annulated, without any apical style. This section comprises 
the families—l. Tabanii. 2. Xylophagii. And 3. Stratiomyde. 
Section 2. Antenne with the third joint not annulated (generally without a dorsal seta). Families— 
4. Asilici ; 5. Bombyliarii; 6. Anthracides ; 7. Leptides ; 8. Acrocerine ; 9. Hybotide ; 10. Tachy- 
dromides ; 11. Empidiz ; 12. Dolichopodes ; 13. Syrphici (this family having a dorsal seta to the 
antennz). / 
Order 2. Dichoeta. Haustellum with only two lancets. 
Section I. Athericera. Haustellum with a proboscis, claws simple. 
Subdivision 1. Wings with a distinct angulated cell, Families—14. Scenopinii; 15, Platypezine ; 
16 Conopsarie; 17. Myoparie ; 18. Pipunculini. 
Subdivision 2, Wings without a distinct angulated cell. Families—19. Oestrides; and nineteen 
other families separated from the genus Musca of this work (p. 632 —636). 
Section 2. Haustellum, covered by two palpi, but without a terminal proboscis. Family—39. Coriacee 
[Hippoboscide. } 

Class Il. Nemocera. Antenne, with not fewer than six joints. 

A. Winged. Families—40. Hirteides ; 41. Scatopsides ; 42. Simulides$ 43. Rhyphii; 44. Culicides; 45. 
Chironomii; 46. Cecidomyzides; 47. Psychodides ; 48. Sciarine ; 49. Tipulides ; 50. Mycetophiline. 
B. Wingless in both sexes. Family—5l. Chioneides. 

The genera and species are admirably worked out in these works by Zetterstedt, which are a model for the 
monographer. 

Other general works on the Diptera are the following :—Loew’s Bemerkungen tiber die in der Posener Gegend, 
Zweiflugler—Gattungen, and Dipterologische Beitrage, in 4to., and various papers in the Linnza Entomologica, 
and Entomologische Zeitung, of the Stettin Society; Zeller’s Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Dipteren, and Dipterolo- 
gische Beitrage. Staeger,on Danish Diptera, in Kroyer’s Natural History Journal, and on the Diptera of Green_ 
land, in ditto. Gimmerthal, Ubersicht der Zweiflugler Lief, and Kurland’s (Bulletin Moscow Soc.), and on 
Russian Diptera, also in Bulletin Moscow, 1845, Rondani Memorie per servire alla Ditterologia Italiana, (nine 
separate memoirs in the Transactions of the Bologna Academy). 

Various anatomical memoirs by Loew and Leon Dufour have also been published. 

Of detached monographs on the families or genera of this order, the following are the most important :— 

In the Nemocera (p. 617—621) ; 

The genus Anopheles (p. 618), is monographed by Loew, in the first part of his Dipterologische Beitrage, 
and three new genera established, allied to Cecidomyia. The genera Seatopse and Bibio are treated 
in like manner by the same author, in the First Volume of the Linnza Entomologica, 

Two admirable papers by Dr. Asa Fitch, on the Wheat and Hessian flies belonging to the genus Cecidomyia, 
have been published in the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, Vols. Vand VI. The 
economy of other species of Cecidomyia have been illustrated by Perris and L. Dufour, inthe French Annales ; 
and by Ratzeburg, in his Forst Insecten. Perris has also given the Transformations of Psychoda nervosa, in the 
same Annales. An excellent monograph on the Asilide is given by Loew, in Vol. III of the Linnea Entomo- 
logica, in which a great number of new species and several new genera are proposed. Various new genera of 
Bombyliide are also described by the same author, in the above-mentioned works. An illustrated monograph of 
the fine family Mydasida, is given in my Arcana Entomologica, and the singular family Vesiculosa, or bladder- 
flies, have been monographed by Erichson, in his Entomographien; and many additional species described by 
myself, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society. The Dolichopodes, monographed by Mr. Haliday, in 
the Zoological Journal, have been again revised by Staeger, in Kroyer’s Journal, 

The genera Oxycera, Thereva, and Conops, are also monographed by Loew, in his Dipterologische Beitrage, as 
well as several genera of Muscidz. The Italian species of Merodon and Chrysotoxum, have been described by 
Rondani, and a monograph of the genus Ceria, published by Saunders, in the Transactions of the Entomological 
Society. 

The parasitic (stride have formed the subjects of several valuable memoirs, namely~a paper on the anatomy 
of Gastrus Equi, by Van der Kolk; a memoir by Dr. Schwab, Die @straciden Bremsen der Pferde, Rinder und 
Schafe, Munich, 1840. A supplementary paper by Bracy Clark, in Vol. XIX of the Linnwan Transactious, and a 
paper by Goudot, on Cuterebra noxialis, in the French Annales. A fine monograph has also been published in 
the Annals of the Lyons Academy. 

The great family Muscide, has been specially investigated by Robineau Desvoidy and Macquart, in the French 
Annals, between whom a discussion on the principles of classification of the family has taken place, the latter 
author having reduced many of the species proposed by the former, to varieties of other established species. 
Many detached genera have been monographed by Loew ; and the splendid genus Rutilia, by Guérin, as wellas the 
interesting Ceratites, the type of which commits so much damage to the cargoes of oranges. The Ephydrini 
have also been revised by Stenhammer, in the Transactions of the Stockholm Academy, and many Danish 
groups have been monographed by Staeger, in Kroyer’s Journal. The beautiful genus Trypeta, has been mono- 
graphed by Walker, in the Entomological Journal, and by Loew, in the Linnea Entomologica ; and a valuable 
memoir on the anatomy of the Hippoboscidz, has been published by Leon Dufour, in the Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles. 


a Ee ee ee een wee ete ete re | 


a 


FOURTH DIVISION.—THE RADIATA. 


THE group of Radiata, asleft by Cuvier, isa very heterogeneous one; for it includes, with the truly- 
radiated animals, others which have no affinity with them. The designation is only correctly appli- 
cable to the EcHINODERMATA, the ACALEPH4, and the Potypr; all of which are characterized by a 
more or less regular disposition of similar parts round a common centre. In the last of these classes, 
there is a tendency to the production of compound structures, resembling those of plants, by a process 
of gemmation or budding; in these compound structures the radial symmetry would seem altogether 
lost, but it is always discoverable in the individual polypes, although not exhibited by the mass. Itis 
to this group, that the term Zoophyte is properly restricted ; since it isin this alone that the plant-like 
growth is exhibited, The Acalephe occasionally increase, like Polypes, by gemmation; but the gem- 
mz become detached, and do not form a composite structure. In the Echinodermata, multiplication 
by gemmation has not yet been observed. 

Even when thus restricted, however, the Radiated sub-kingdom will not include all the animals be- 
longing to the Cuvierian classes of Echinodermata, Acalephw, and Polypi; for there is a large and 
important section of the last of these divisions, which ought, as will be explained hereafter, to be 
tather associated with the Mollusca, forming the connecting link between Tunicata and Zoophytes. 

The class of EnrTozoa for the most part consists of animals which should he regarded as degraded 
forms of Articudata ; their form, structure, mode of progression, &c., being essentially worm-like. 
Other genera, however, especially those ranked under the family Tremadotea, would seem to be rather 
Molluscan in their character; the Planarie especially approximating very closely in their form, 
structure, and habits, to certain degraded tribes of Nudibranchiate Gasteropoda. In fact, nothing 
but the general simplicity of organization prevalent amongst the Entozoa, and their community of 
habitation (to which, however, the Planari@, whose habits resemble those of Leeches, constitute 
an exception) could have caused the union into one group of forms so heterogeneous. 

The class of INFusoRtA is now divided into two groups, which agree in nothing but the minuteness 
of their size, and the similarity of their habitation. The first of these, the RoTIFERA, ought to be 
placed among the ArTIcULATA. ‘The second, the PoLyGasTrica, must be regarded as forming the 
lowest class of the Animal Kingdon, if, indeed, it should be admitted into it at all. As they present 
no approach to a radiated structure, they have no title to be ranked amongst the RapiarTa, and must 
form a group altogether distinct. 


CLASS ECHINODERMATA. 


The classification of this group proposed by Cuvier partook of the imperfections that necessarily 
result from an insufficient acquaintance with the form and structure of the animals which it is desired 
to arrange. The great increase of our knowledge in this respect has led to a much truer appreciation 
of the value of the different groups, and of the characters according to which they should be subdivided. 
It is remarkable, however, that notwithstanding the close gradation by which one group passes into 
another, so that there can be no question as to their mutual affinity, it is extremely difficult, if not 
impossible, to give any simple definition which shall include the entire class; for even the characters 
that are most typical of particular groups disappear entirely in others. Thus the prickles or spines 
upon the surface, from which the class takes its name, are especially characteristic of the Echinus 
and its allies ; they are less developed, but still recognizable, in the various Asteroid tribes; but they 
disappear altogether in the Crinoide@, which constitute the lowest order of the class, and in the 
Holothuride and Sipunculide, which in many points of their organization are the highest. Again, 
the skeleton, whose peculiar structure will be presently described, is fully developed in the Crinoidee, 
in the Echinus, and in Star-fish ; but nothing more than a mere rudiment of it exists in the Holothu- 
rid@, and it disappears altogether in the Sipunculide. The most universal character, perhaps, is the 


ET TEE En nSnEEE EE SISSIES 


692 RADIATA. 


presence of cirrhi, or tubular tendril-like suckers, capable of being projected from the surface; of 
these, a rudiment is to be traced in the existing representatives of the Cr/noidee ; they are more fully 
developed in the Star-fish ; attain their highest development in the Echinus; are less numerous and 
efficient in the Holothuride ; and disappear in the Sipunculide, the softness and flexibility of whose 


worm-like bodies render them unnecessary for locomotion. 

The minute structure of the skeleton is essentially the same throughout the group ; whether it forms 
a branching stem with a more or less massive body as in the Crinotdee, a complete globular shell 
as in the Echinus, or a regular series of detached plates as in the Star-fish ; or is only represented by 
a few isolated patches of calcareous deposit as in the Holothuria. It is chiefly composed of carbonate 
of lime, the proportion of animal matter being very small; and the material forms a very regular net- 
work, with open spaces which communicate freely with each other.- The skeleton is thus rendered 
very light, whilst at the same time it possesses very considerable firmness, each part supporting the rest 
and deriving support from it. Jn certain situations, where increased strength is required, it is derived 
from the interposition of solid ribs o; pillars ; this is the case, for example, in the spines of the Echinus, 
in which the solid ribs and the intervening net-work are arranged in patterns of great regularity and 
beauty. [See Dr. Carpenter on the Structure of Shells, &c., in Report of British Association for 1847.] 

The classification that seems in most complete harmony with the characters of the group and with 
its principal varieties of form, is that of Professor E. Forbes [British Echinodermata], which is 
founded especially upon the organs of locomotion. He divides the entire class into six orders; to 
which a seventh must now be added, in order to comprehend some very remarkable extinct forms 


recently discovered. 


I. CrinoipE#. The existing forms included in this order are few; but it was extremely abundant in former 
periods of the earth’s history, and its remains form no inconsiderable portion of the solid crust of the globe. The 
one of its representatives whose structure has been most completely investigated, is the Comatula; an animal 
which, at first sight, does not depart very widely from the type of the Star-fish, with which it was associated by 
Cuvier. But it differs from it in several important particulars. The digestive cavity is confined to the 
central disk, and has two orifices, a mouth and ananus. The arms arising from this disk are solid, being com- 
posed of the calcareous frame-work already described ; but they are covered with a thick and soft integument, 
in the substance of which the ovaries are dispersed, forming many thousand distinct spots. The arms are five 
in number ; but they speedily subdivide, each usually separating into four. To the central stem of each arm, 

ointed lateral appendages of a similar structure are attached ; and these also are clothed with the fleshy integu- 
ment, which extends on either side in a sort of fin-like expansion. By the simultaneous movement of the 
arms, and the stroke of these numerous pinna, or fin-like appendages, against the water, the Comatula swims 
through the ocean yery much after the manner of a Medusa. Hence this order may be termed PINNIGRADA. 
Sometimes, however, the Comatula attaches itself to sea-weeds or other floating bodies; and employs its long 
arms in bringing food to its mouth. It is not always, however, so completely free in its movements ; for it begins 
life in the attached condition of a true Crinoid animal, having a long slender stalk which proceeds from the side 
of the disk opposite to the mouth, and which terminates in an expanded suctorial disk whereby it is fixed on a 
solid basis. This stem is made up of the same kind of structure as the remainder of the skeleton, and is en- 
closed by the same irritable integuments, by the contraction of which the head may be made to turn in any 
direction. When arrived at their full growth, the disk and arms quit the stem, and pass the remaining term of 
their existence in a state of freedom. A trace of the original attachment, however, may still be detected on the 
disk. The pinne are not developed on the arms, until near the close of the period of attachment ; and their 
membranous expansions are probably peculiar to the free-moving species of this order. The Comatula in its 
- attached state has been described as the Pentacrinus Europaus. It is very minute, and has only been discovered 
hitherto in the Cove of Cork. 

A much larger Pentacrinus (P. Caput Medusee) has been found, however, in the West Indian seas ; which 
probably passes its whole life in the attached condition, and is thus a truer representative of the vast assemblage 
of extinct Crinoids. The disk and arms are formed like those of the Comatula ; the latter are very numerous, 
and are thickly set with jointed pinnz. The stem is more than a foot long, and is composed of a large number 
of pieces similar to those of the arms. From this stem there arise, at regular intervals, several verticils of se- 
condary arms, which do not subdivide and are destitute of lateral appendages. The ovaries are not so dispersed 
as in the Comatula ; but they are still external to the central disk, being seated on the arms near their base. 
In some of the fossil species of Pentacrinus, which are especially abundant in the Lias formation, the subdivision 
and ramification of the arms is carried to a much greater extent than in either of the existing forms. The num- 
ber of pieces in the skeleton thus becomes very large. In the P. Briareus it has been calculated that at least 
100,000 exist, exclusively of the joints of the lateral appendages, which are probably more than 50,000 additional. 
The base of the stem of the recent P. Caput Meduse has not yet been obtained, so that its mode of attachment to 
solid bodies has not yet been clearly made out ; but from the circumstances under which fossil remains are some- 
times met with, there is reason to believe that the animals of this genus were not permanently adherent to solid 
masses, but had the power of occasionally detaching themselves. ; 


RADIATA 693 


The Pentacrinus, however, must not be regardea as the true vype of the Crinoid order, but rather as a link of 


transition which connects it with the higher forms of Echinodermata. For the bulk of the group is made up of 


the very numerous tribe of Encrinites, which seems to have been in many respects of lower 
organization, connecting the free Echinodermata with Zoophytes. The body and jointed 
stem exhibit a rounded instead of a pentagonal form ; the latter is usually destitute of se- 


hangs: 


IgE condary arms ; and the principal branches do not ramify with the same minuteness as those 
Mis S2 of many Pentacrini. The stalk seems to have been attached by a sort of spreading root, re- 
es sembling that of many Corals ; and we must therefore believe this tribe of Crinoidez to have 
<=s 4 been entirely fixed. It contains a numerous series of forms; some of them almost re- 
at 4 sembling stalked Echini, whilst others in like manner seem to connect the order with the 
=e 4 two following. 
=e II. Opnruripm. These Star-fishes are so named from the long serpent- or worm-like arms, 


which are appended to their round, depressed, urchin-like bodies. Although commonly as- 
sociated with the true Star-fish, they are very distinct in their structure. The viscera are 
entirely confined to the central disk ; and the arms are solid, like those of the Crinoidex, 
4 being covered with a muscular integument, by which the joints are caused to move freely upon 
{ one another. On the other hand, they differ from the Crinoidez in having but a single aper- 
ture to the digestive cavity ; and also in the position of the ovaries, which are here situated 
within the disk, opening by separate orifices near the base of the arms. The arms are some- 
times simple and undivided from their base to their free extremity, gradually tapering to a 
point, as in the ordinary Ophiure ; whilst in Euryale they ramify minutely, dividing regu- 
Fic. 1.—ENCRINUS. larly into branches, which again subdivide so as to form a most complex series of appendages. 

The arms in this order very commonly bear scales or spines on their surface ; and these 
appear to be of great use to the animals, their roughness giving to the arms a point of rest, from which 
they can push the body onward in any direction. Their movements are very active, in comparison with those 
of Star-fishes ; and as they depend upon their spines for locomotion, they may be properly designated SpPini- 
GRADA. Their cirrhé are not sufficiently developed to assist in locomotion; although those near the mouth are 
enlarged into tentacula, which seem to draw the food towards the orifice. 

III. Inthe AsTERIAD#, or true Star-fishes, the real arms altogether disappear ; the rays being merely lobes of 
the body. In some instances there is scarcely any central disk, the body being almost entirely divided into rays ; 
whilst in other cases there is but a slight division of the margin of the disk. The general structure of the 
Asterias, which is the type of the order, is described in the text (p. 639). The movement of these animals is 
sluggish, and is accomplished by means of the cirrht, which form rows along the under side of the rays, and 
which serve as suckers for taking an attachment to any solid body. Hence the order may be designated C1rRul- 
@RADA. The development of the Star-fishes has been recently studied by Sars and others ; and it appears that 
they are attached in their embryonic condition, by a sort of footstalk divided at its base into three lobes, 
This pedicle contracts, however, as the disk is developed, and is at last entirely withdrawn into the body of the 
animal. A trace of it still remains, however, in what has been termed the madreporiform tubercle. 

IV. The order Ecuinip# curresponds with Cuvier’s Second Family of Pedicellata (Text, p. 640). The type of the 


order is the genus Echinus, f d Ff b 

in which the shell is of globu- WI YW ty, 4 
tilde 

lar form, having the oral wits iff a 4 a 

orifice at one pole, and the elit LS Y. 


‘ ANA: 
SOQ 
anus at the other. The \ ee 


< 

\ 
mouth is furnished with a WS A 
complex dental apparatus c . 
(c, Fig. 2); and there is a 
regular intestinal tube, g 
which makes two turns 
within the shell. The ova- 
ries open by distinct orifices 
around the anus. The 
movenient of these animals 
is partly accomplished by 
their spines, which are fre- 
quently very large and 
strong; and partly by their 
cirrhi, which are always ca- 
pable of being extended 
further than the spines, and 
of taking an attachment to 
fixed bodies beyond. In this 
manner the globular shell 


Ss 


$s f 


Fic. 2.—ANATOMY OF ECHINUS: a, mouth, surrounded by the teeth and Jaws, ¢,c; 5, esophagus; s, 
may be drawn onwards in stomach, or first portion of the intestine; d, intestinal tube; ¢, ovary; /, /, ambulacral vesicles; g, g, shell. 


any direction ; the movement being effected by the contraction of the tubes, but the body being supported upon 


the spines. From this compound mode of progression, the Echinidee: may be termed Crmrui-SpinteRapa. In 


ZZ 


694 RADIATA. 


Clypeaster and Scutella we have an approach towards the Asteriad@ ; the shell being more or less flattened, and 
divided at its margin so as to resemble the body of a Star-fish ; whilst the anus leaves its central position on the 
upper surface, and approaches the mouth, which stiil retains its central position below. In the Spatangus and 
its allies, the radiated form is considerably departed from ; the shell being oval instead of globular, and the 
mouth and anus being neither of them central. In fact the radiated arrangement shows a tendency to give 
place to a bi-lateral symmetry ; andin this and some other particulars, the Spatangacez may be considered as 
leading towards the next group. 

Y. The order HoLorHuRIADz corresponds with Cuvier’s Third Family of Pedicellata (p. 641). They combine, in 
a very curious manner, the radiated ar- 
rangement of the surface and oral appen- 
dages, which is characteristic of the Echino- 
dermata, with the bi-lateral symmetry of 
the internal organs, which is characteristic 
of Articulated animals. Many of them, 
moreover, exhibit indications of an obscure 
transverse division of the soft body into 
segments, asin the Annelida. The movement 
of the body is partly effected by the cirrhi, 
and in part by the contraction of the in- 
teguments in the manner of a worm; so 
that they may be designated C1RRHI-VERMI- 
GRADS. Thecirrhi are not always developed 
equally on all sides of the body, being some- 
times confined to one side on which the 

Fic. 3.—HOLOTHURIA- animal creeps; so that in this position it 
presents, as it were, a back anda belly. Itis a very extraordinary fact in regard to these animals, that, when 
they are irritated, the whole of the viscera are frequently discharged from the interior, the body remaining as 
an empty sac ; and yet that, after a time, the whole of the complex digestive, circulating, and respiratory appa- 
ratus is regenerated. 

VI. In the order Srpuncutip®, which corresponds with Cuvier’s Second Order Apoda, the radiated arrange- 
ment still more completely gives place to the annular. In their external appearance they are worms ; they have 
no cirrhi; and their progression is entirely accomplished, like that of worms, by the contraction of their inte- 
guments ; whence they may be designated VERMIGRADA. In the general structure of their internal organs, how- 
ever, they bear a much closer resemblance to the Holothuriadx than to Annulose animals, and must therefore 
be properly regarded as belonging to the class Echinodermata, which it links with the Articulate series. 


The recent discovery of an entirely new series of forms of Echinodermata, which abounded in the early ages of 
the earth’s history, but which seems to have become entirely extinct before the Pentacrinites were called into 
existence, has rendered it necessary to institute a new order, the CysTIDE#, the place of which seems to be inter- 
mediate between the Crinoidew, the Echinidw, the Asteriadw, and the Ophiuride ; for it combines within itself, 
in a most remarkable manner, some of the distinctive characters of each of these groups. ‘‘ The Cystidem are 
more or less spherical bodies covered with polygonal plates, varying in number according to the genus, closely 
fitting together so as to invest the entire surface with a compact coat of mail, except at four points, viz. in- 
feriorly, where the body unites with a stem ; centrally, or above the centre on one side, where there is an opening 
closed by valves, supposed with good reason to be the orifice of the reproductive system ; and superiorly, where 
the mouth is found, usually if not always with a small perforation, supposed to be a vent, alongside of it. These 
parts, viz. the plates investing the body, the three orifices (for the fourth perforation, that of the base, is con- 
tinuous with the canal of the stem where the latter is well developed), and probably the stem, are common to all 
Cystidew. There are other parts, apparently of great consequence in the organization of the animal, which are 
common only to certain members of the order. These are the brachial appendages (arms and tentacula) and 
certain curious organs or appendages connected with the plates, to which the name of pectinated rhombs may be 
appropriately given.” [Professor E. Forbes on the British Cystidew, in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of 
Great Britain, Vol. II.] Thus in the attachment of the body by a stem, the Cystidew resemble the Crinoidec ; 
and some of the aberrant forms of these two orders come into very close approximation with each other. In the 
complete enclosure of the body within a shell composed of polygonal plates, they correspond with the Echinide. 
In the division of the body of certain genera into lobes, the approach the Asteriad@ ; and the arms, where they 
are present, are more nearly allied, as regards their structure and origin, to those of the Ophiuride than to those 
of the Crinoidee. 

The Cystidee: and the Crinoidew seem to have been abundant in the earliest age of organic life on the earth, 
namely, the Palcozoic period ; whilst the remains of the more highly organized Star-jish and Echini are but rarely 
found in the rocks of that series. During the Secondary period, on the other hand, we find the latter 
gradually becoming more numerous, and their forms more varied ; the lower forms of Crinoidex give place to the 
higher, and these in their turn all but disappear; whilst the Cystidew seem to have become altogether extinct 


very early in that series. In the Tertiary period we find a close approximation to the existing distribution of 
Echinodermata. 


| 


RADIATA. 


CLASS ACALEPH#. 


The classification of this group proposed by Cuvier was founded upon a very imperfect acquaintance 
with the animals it includes ; and it is now altogether abandoned. Much remains to be known, how- 
ever, with respect to the internal structure of many of the tribes with whose external forms we are 
familiar ; and it is probable that no classification yet proposed will remain without considerable modi- 
fication from future discoveries. That which is at present most generally received is based on the 
mode of locomotion peculiar to the different tribes; according to which the class is divided into the 
four orders, PULMOGRADA, CILIOGRADA, CIRRHIGRADA, and PHysoGRaDA. 


I, The order PuLMocrapa, or DiscopHor#®, including all the ordinary Medusew, is characterized by the regular 
discoidal or circular form of the animals composing it. The body is of gelatinous texture, without any in- 
ternal solid skeleton ; the stomach is placed under the centre of 
the disk, and usually opens by a single central mouth ; round 
the stomach are placed the ovaries, opening by separate aper- 
tures ; the margin of the disk is usually furnished with cirrhi or 
tendril-like appendages, but these are not extensible nor contrac- 
tile ; whilst from the centre of the disk there usually proceeds 
another set of appendages, which sometimes take the form of 
separate tentacula (as in the accompanying figure), but are fre- 
quently united into a sort of proboscis which forms a prolonga- 
tion of the mouth. The body moves through the water by a sort 
of flapping movement of the disk, which is furnished with mus- 
cular fibres. This order is again subdivided by Professor E. 
Forbes (On the British Naked-eyed Medusz) into two sub-orders, 
the Steganopthalmata, or hooded-eyed, and the Gymnopthalmata, 
or naked-eyed ; the former consisting of those which have the 
ocelli or eye-like bodies of their margin protected by membranous 
hoods or coverings more or less complicated, whilst the latter 
have the oceUi unprotected. This character may seem trivial; 
but it serves as the indication of a very important difference of 
internal structure ; for whilst the first of these divisions possesses 
a much ramified and anastomosing system of vessels spreading 
over the surface of the disk, the second has a very simple vas- 
cular apparatus, the circulating canals proceeding to the margin 
either altogether unbranched, or, if divided, not anastomosing 
with one another. In the first of these families are included all 
the larger Medusz, such as those belonging to the genera Aurelia, 
Pelagia, Chrysaora, Rhizostoma, Cassiopea, and Cyanea ; whilst the latter comprehends numerous smaller and 
more delicate forms, such as those belonging to the genera Oceania, Aquorea, Geryonia, and Thawmantias. 

II. The form of the body in the Crttograpa is extremely various. Thus in the Cydippe (formerly called Beréec) 
it is nearly globular ; whilst in the Cestum Veneris it is a long flat riband. The cha- 
racter of the order, however, is derived from the fact that all the animals composing 
it are propelled through the water, not by the movement of one part of their bodies 
upon another, but by the vibration of the cilia with which certain parts of their 
surface are covered. In Cydippe the cilia form eight bands, which extend like 
meridian-lines from pole to pole of the globular body. In Cestum Veneris, both edges 
of the long riband-shaped body are fringed with these curious filaments. Notwith- 
standing the wide difference in form between the two genera just named, they are 
connected together by intermediate links. Thus in Callianira, the globular body is 
extended laterally, so as to form wing-like appendages on either side ; in other genera 
these appendages are still more extended, and the central globe is lost in them ; 
until at last the flat riband-like form of Cestum Veneris is attained. The position of nares 

Fic. 5. CYDIPPE: a, a, tenta 
the alimentary canal, which has here two orifices, is the same throughout this series ; cula; 6, mouth; ¢, terminal of 
for whilst in Cydippe it runs from pole to pole of the globe (Fig. 5), in Cestum Veneris ‘"*°"P 
it is equally short and straight, running across the body at the middle of its length. Inno animal of this order 
is there anything like an internal skeleton, the whole body being gelatinous. In Cydippe, however, the bands 
upon which the cilia are seated are of firmer texture than the rest. Many of these animals are very active in 
their movements, contrasting strongly with the sluggish Pulmograda. The Cydippe pileus, a species very abun- 
dant on many parts of the British coast, is particularly energetic. It is provided with two long tendril-like 
filaments, arising from the bottom of two cavities in the posterior part of the body ; and each of them is furnished 
with lateral branches. These filaments can be entirely retracted within the two cavities of the body, so that 


Fic. 4.—PELAGIA. 


696 RADIATA. 


they are not visible externally ; and are put 1orth at tne will or tne animal, the main filaments being first ejected, 
apparently by the contraction of the cavity, and the lateral tendrils then uncoiling. 

III. The Crrruicrapa form a small group, distinguished by the presence of a cartilaginous internal skeleton, 
and by the possession of very numerous contractile cirrhi or tentacula surrounding the mouth, by the movements 
of which the animal is slowly propelled through the water. In Porpita, the body forms a circular disk, and the 
cartilaginous skeleton is flat. In Velella the body is oval, and the cartilaginous disk has a vertical plate rising 
from it, which acts as a sail when these beautiful little animals are floating on the surface of the water. The 
stomach in these animals is a simple flask-like cavity, placed under the centre of the disk, and having but one 
orifice, which is furnished with a sort of proboscis. 

IV. The order Poysocrava corresponds with the Hydrostatica of Cuvier. In this group we lose altogether the 
radiated form, but have a lateral symmetry ; the two halves of the body, divided by a plane passing from one 
end to the other, being similar to each other. The anatomy of the Physalia has been carefully investigated 
of late, and has been proved to be in some respects different from the description given by Cuvier. There isa 

b proper digestive cavity, entirely distinct from the air-sac, and situated underneath 
one of its extremities ; this has no single mouth, but receives its supplies of aliment 
through a number of flask-shaped appendages which hang down beneath, each 
having an orifice at its extremity, surrounded by a sort of sucker. These are en- 
tirely distinct from the long contractile tentacula, which are employed for grasping 
prey, atthe same time paralyzing it by means of their peculiar stinging power 
These tentacula can be drawn up to within half-an-inch of the air-bladder, and may 
be then suddenly shot forth to a length of eighteen or twenty feet. In this manner 
they attack small fishes, even at a considerable distance, and then probably draw 
them within reach of the suctorial appendages. It is not peculiar to this animal to 
have the single mouth replaced by numerous minute orifices ; for the same is the 
case with the Rhizostoma among the Pulmograda. 


A most unexpeetcd connection has been recently discovered between the Pulmo- 
grade Acalephe, and the Hydraform Polypes ; which shows that the two classes, how- 

Fic. 6.—PFYSALIA; ac, orifices ever dissimilar in their aspect and structure, are very closely united to each other, 
ete ee ae and should even be included in the same group. It has been ascertained that many 
species of the Pulmograde Acalephe, both hooded-eyed and naked-eyed—and therefore, probably, the whole order— 
begin life in a true polypoid state, and only acquire the Medusan character after a series of very remarkable meta- 
morphoses, On the other hand it would appear that many of the animals known as Hydraform Polypes produce, 
by gemmation, bodies which are in all respects true Medusz, and which are charged with the production of ova, 
frum which a new generation of Polypes shall arise. The latter part of this interesting series of phenomena 
will be described under the head of Polypifera ; of the development of the Medusw, as made known by the obser- 
vations of Sars, Siebold, Steenstrup, and Sir J. G. Dalyell, a brief account will now be given. 

From the egg of the Medus@ is first produced a minute disk, very much resembling an infusory animalcule, 
and moving through the water by the action of the cilia with which its body is fringed (Fig. 7, a); at one ex- 
tremity of the body is a minute depression, by which it afterwards becomes attached. After about three days, 


the embryo attaches itself to some fixed object 
(as at b) ; the form of the body begins to change wat 
from the cylindrical to the club-shaped (c, d) ; OY 
and the cilia of its surface disappear. The upper @ 
end is now flattened ; the position of the mouth 
is marked out by a depression in its centre, 
which is surrounded by an elevated margin; and c d Gi 
four indistinct tubercles, the rudiments of ten- é 
tacula, are seen around it, (This is shown ate, s 
which represents an individual in the condition ( f)\ /) “) di () HW, 
of d, but seen from above.) The tubercles gra- \ ae 
dually elongate into tentacula ; atrue mouthis \ aN ey 
seen in the centre, and tentacula spring up be- \ IK = 
\4 a ; k 

are represented in Figs. f, g, h, i, j, andk; Fig. h z / 

being a view tak i 
= the nee ifs anaes aes ee re ea ee alee ae Sai teenstias yh 2 
view of the stage j. Now inthis condition, the animal is in every essential particular, a true Polype; and has 
been repeatedly so described. It remains attached by its base to one spot, draws its food into its mouth by 
means of its arms, and these contract when the stomach is distended, and cannot then be irritated to movement. 
Not only does it live as a Polype, butit also reproduces itself as a polype ; for polype-buds are not unfrequently 
seen to issue from its sides (Fig. 7, 1) ; these become detached and form new individuals, just as in the Hydra. Thus 
from a single individual, a whole colony may be produced ; and these may all continue in the polypoid condition 
for many months, or even years. But under some peculiar circumstances, whose nature has not yet been deter- 
mined, an entirely new series of changes atlast takes place. The body assumes a more elongated cylindrical form 


tween the preceding ; and the body gradually \ 
assumes the form of the Hydra. These changes C 


RADIATA. — 697 


than it previously possessed ; and a constriction or indentation is seen around this cylinder, just below tne ring 
that surrounds the mouth and gives origin to the tentacula (Fig. 8,4.) Similar constrictions are soon repeated 
around the lower parts of the cylinder, so as to give to the whole 
somewhat the appearance of a rouleau of coins (b). Still, how- 
ever, a sort of fleshy bulb,—somewhatin the form of the original 
polype, is left at the base. The number of the circles is indefi- 
nite, and all are not formed at once ; new constrictions appear- 
ing below, after the upper portions have been detached. As 
many as twenty-seven disks have thus been progressively sepa- 
rated in one animal. The constrictions then gradually deepen, 
so as almost to divide the cylinder into a pile of distinct saucer- 
like bodies ; the divisions being most complete above, and the 
upper disks often presenting a considerable increase in their 
diameter. As the disks thus become more distinct from each 
other, and of enlarged dimensions, their edges are no longer 
plain but lobed (c); and the lobes soon present the clefts and 
ocelli characteristic of the detached Medusz. Up to this period 
the tentacula of the original polype surmounted the highest of 
the disks ; and a general contraction and relaxation of the whole 
cylinder, causing the intervals between the disks to be diminished 
or increased, might be occasionally seen to take place. But before 
the detachment of the topmost disk, the circle of tentacula by 
which it was originally surrounded disappears,—in what precise 
manner has not been ascertained ; and meanwhile a new circle 
of tentacula is developed upon the summit of the bulb that re- 
mains below the pile of disks. At last, a sort of convulsive 
movement takes place in the topmost and largest disk, which 
becomes detached and swims freely away; and the same series 
of changes takes place from above downwards, until the 
whole pile of disks is detached and converted into free-swim- 
a ming Medusew. (Atdis shown the lower part of the compound 
Fro. 8.—PropucTION OF Mrpvsa—Bups From Structure, the disks of which have nearly separated from each 
POLYPE& BoDIES; a, b, c, d, successive stages other.) But the original polypoid body still remaing. and may return 
to its polypoid life and gemmiparous production, becoming the progenitor of a new colony of hydrw, each one 
of which may develope in its turn a pile of medusa-disks. This last fact, which we owe to the patient and long- 
continued observations of Sir J. G. Dalyell, is of fundamental importance ; as proving that the curious process 
now described is not, as maintained by some, a subdivision of the polypoid body into medusa-disks ; but that it is 
a gemmiparous production of Medusa-buds from the polypoid body, of the same kind as that of which examples 
will hereafter be described under the head of Hydraform Polypes ; save that the buds are here developed between 
the body and the tentacular circle, instead of being protruded, as in the latter case, from the sides of the body. 

The disks thus detached, although Medusan in their character, are far from possessing the form or structure 
they are ultimately to present. This is attained during the progress of their growth, by a difference in the rate 
of development of different parts, rather than by i 
an entire metamorphosis. The segments or lobes uz, 
of the margin increase very little in size, whilst the xO 
intervals between them gradually fill up; tubular a 
prolongations of the stomach extend themselves 
over the disk, and its border becomes furnished 
with long pendent prehensile tentacles. The mouth, 
which even in the youngest detached animal allows 
of being greatly extended and protruded, is quad- 
rangular, and presents four extensible angles. 
These angles grow more rapidly than the four- 
sided oral tube or proboscis ; so that, in the more 
advanced animals, the mouth appears as if it had at 
split during the growth into four lobes ; and the 4) 
minute serratures which appear on the edges of (i 
these are the commencement of the lobes and 
fringes which are observed on the tentacula of the Fic. 9.—Dr&VRLOPMENT OF MEDUSA—DISKS; a,6,¢,d, e, J, Successive stages 
adult animal. The reproductive organs are atlast evolved, the sexes being kept distinct; and by their agency 
ova are produced, from which the animalcular embryo is developed as before into a polypoid body. 

The propagation of the Medusc is not only effected by ova, but also in some instances by gemmation ; another 
indication of their close alliance to Zoophytes. This has been observed by Sars in Cytais octopunctata (Lizzia of 
Professor E. Forbes, op. cit.), and by Professor E. Forbes in two species of Sarsia. In the former case, the 
gemme are produced from the external wall of the stomach; in Sarsia gemmifera, they grow from the lower part 
of the peduncle, or proboscis-like prolongation of the mouth ; and in Sarsia prolifera they spring from the bases 
of the tentacula that hang from the margin of the disk. 


698 RADIATA. 


CLASS POLYPI. 


OF this class, now more commonly termed POLYPIFERA, much more is now known than was known 
to Cuvier; and his classification has altogether given place to one in which the primary characters are 
drawn from the structure of the animal, that derived from the compound mass or polypidom being of 
secondary importance. The separation of the Carnosi or Actiniform polypes from the Gelatinosi or 
Hydraform polypes, was, as we shall see, quite correct; but, on the other hand, the separation of 
the solitary genera from the compound forms of the same groups was altogether erroneous. Thus 
among the Coralliferi of Cuvier, the greater part of the first family is composed of Hydraform 
polypes; the second is made up of one genus (Cellularia) which is not a Zoophyte at all, but a Mollus- 
can, and of another (Corallina) which is now well ascertained to be of vegetable character; whilst 
the third is a heterogenous assemblage of Molluscans, with Actiniform and Alcyonian Polypes, and 
Sponges. 

The primary division of the Cuvierian Polypifera is now generally admitted to be into BRyozoa and 
ANTHOZ0A ; the former being truly Molluscans, and properly forming part of the class TuNIcATA; 
whilst the latter are true Radtated animals, To the latter alone, therefore, ought the name of Zoo- 
phytes to be restricted. An outline view of the structure and classification of each group will now 
be given. 


BRYOZOA. 


Ir we imagine the minute tentacula which fringe the oral orifice of many Ascidians to be greatly 
prolonged and clothed with cilia, whilst on the other hand, the respiratory chamber or dilated pharynx 
is contracted, we shall have the likeness in its most important characters, of the animal of the Flustra, 
Bowerbankia, or any other Bryozoon. It is not surprising that, until the structure of these animals 
had been investigated, the stony and horny fabrics which they form should have been regarded as poly- 
pidoms. And even since the wide differences in conformation between the Bryozoa and the Anthozoa 
have been made known, the former as well as the latter have been frequently ranked among the Poly- 
pifera. The discovery of the gemmiparous development of the true Tunicata, however, has removed 
one of the great boundaries that seemed to divide them from the Bryozoa ; whilst, 
on the other hand, the existence of forms among the latter that present a very 
near approach to the former, and more espeeially the discovery that their nervous 
system is not formed upon the radiated type, but consists of a single ganglion 
placed between the two orifices, as inthe Tunicata, have led to their entire 
detachment from the class Polypifera, and their removal to the Molluscan series, 
The grounds of this separation, and the relations of the Bryozoa to the 
Tunicata and Polypifera respectively, will be better understood when the 
structure of the animals has been examined. ‘To this, therefore, we now 
proceed, taking as our type a very common British species, the Bowerbankia 
densa, in which, from the isolation and transparency of the shell or sheath, 
the internal arrangement can be very distinctly seen. The animal of the 
Bowerbankia, when the tentacula are fully expanded, is about half an inch in 
length, and the cell does not nearly extend to the base of the tentacula; the 
animal can be retracted, however, so as to be completely protected by the cell, 
the edges of which are drawn in so as to close the aperture. The cells of the 
Bowerbankia are horny in their texture, and arise separately from a sort of 
stolon or creeping stem, very much after the manner of the separate individuals 
of the Porophora (see Appendix to Mollusca, Fig. 7): in many other genera, 
Fic. 10.—Bowersanx1a; however, a solid calcareous fabric is produced, in which the cells are imbedded a 
% Saye one t's whilst in other instances, again, this fabric is soft in its texture, being sometimes 
ae gelatinous as in the compound Ascidians, in other instances spongy as in the 
Aleyonian Polypes. The tentacula, of which there are ten in the Bowerbankia, but a greater 
number in many other genera, are always furnished with cilia; by this character these animals are 


RADIATA. 699 


at once distinguished from the minute Hydraform Polypes which most resemble them, the arms of the 
latter being never furnished with these appendages. The mouth leads to a wide funnel-shaped tube, 
the pharynx, which soon contracts into a narrower canal or esophagus, that terminates at its lower 
end in the digestive cavity. The first part of this is an organ which seems closely to resemble a 
gizzard; it is a globular form, and has two dark spots upon its sides, from which radiating lines are 
seen; and these seem to be composed of muscular fibres, whose office it is to effect the trituration 
of the food, by means of teeth projecting from the inner wall of the cavity. ‘The gizzard opens at its 
lower end into a larger bag, which is the true digestive stomach. Its walls are thickly studded with 
spots of a rich brown colour; these appear to be caused by minute follicles or sacs opening from its 
cavity and secreting bile, thus constituting the most rudimentary form of liver. From the upper part 
of the stomach, and by the side of the entrance from the gizzard, arises the intestine, the entrance to 
which is surrounded by vibratile cilia. This passes up as a straight tube by the side of the eso- 
phagus, and terminates by a proper anal aperture outside the circle of tentacula. The whole of this 
complex digestive apparatus floats freely within the general cavity formed by the membrane that lines 
the cell; the intervening space being occupied by a clear fluid, and by the muscles which project the 
animal from the cell, and which retract it within that envelope. This space communicates with the 
cavity of the stem, and also with the interior of the tentacula. There would appear to be no definite 
circulating system, neither heart nor blood-vessels being discoverable. The propagation of these ani- 
mals takes place in two ways—by gemme or buds—and by ova or eggs. The buds are developed in 
Bowerbankia, and in other genera whose cells arise separately from a stolon, from the stem itself; but 
in those in which the cells are in contact with each other, and there is no common stem, as in the 
Flustra, the cells bud off from each other. 

Now if we scrutinize these characters, we shall see that the greater number of them are rather 
Molluscan than Zoophytic. Jn the first place, allthe true Polypes use their arms to grasp their food and 
to convey it to the mouth, and the arms are destitute of cilia. On the other hand, in the Ascidians 
and all other Acephalous Mollusca, the nutritive matter is drawn in by a ciliary current, which also 
serves to aerate the fluids. Thus, although the arms of the Bryozoa very commonly present a circular 
arrangement, they may be considered as representing, in their relation to the economy of the animal, 
the ciliated branchial sac of the Ascidian. Butthey do not hy any means constantly present this radial 
symmetry. Thus in the Pluwmatella, a beautiful freshwater genus belonging to the order HIPPOCREPIA, 
the ciliated arms are set upon two lobes or projections, one on either side ofthe mouth, The structure 
of the digestive apparatus is decidedly Molluscan. In no true Polype is there a separate intestine or 
anal orifice ; and the existence of a gizzard-like organ, and of the rudiment of a liver (exactly resembling 
that found in the lowest Tunicata) are also characters of elevation. The most important of all the single 
characters furnished by the anatomy of these animals is their nervous system ; which, as already pointed 
out, is decidedly Molluscan, The absence ofa heart and distinct circulating system is, it is true, a Zoo- 
phytic character; but we have found that, even in the true Tunicata, the circulation possessed a want 
of constancy which indicated a tendency towards degradation. The propagation by gemmation, al- 
though formerly supposed to be a character exclusively Zoophytic, is now known to belong also to the 
Tunicated Mollusca; from this, therefore, no argument can be drawn in favour of the Zoophytic 
nature of these animals. And although many of their compound fabrics have a stony density, and 
closely resemble the solid polypidoms of the Anthozoa, yet in others, especially among the freshwater 
species, we find a very close resemblance to the gelatinous bed or leathery crust in which the compound 
Ascidians are lodged. And if we imagined calcarous matter to be deposited in this bed or crust, we 
should have a strong fabric resembling that of many Bryozoa. In their power of projecting their 
bodies from their cells, the Bryozoa must be admitted to resemble Polypes rather than Tunicata; but 
this is a character of no particular importance; and some approaches to il are seen among the com- 
pound Ascidians. 

The following is the arrangement of the Bryozoa given by Dr. Johnston (British Zoophytes, second 
edition). It must be borne in mind that the terms polype and polypidom are not properly applicable to 
these animals and their compound fabric. 


Orper I.—INFUNDIBULATA. 


Natives of the sea. Polypes compound, the mouth surrounded with ciliated, filiform, retractile tentacula, 
which form an uninterrupted circle ; ova ciliated. 


i 


700 RADIATA 


Section A. Po.ypiaoms calcareous ; the cells tubular with a cound terminal aperture uncovered by an operculum, 

Family 1. Tubuliporida. Polypidoms multiform, massive or crustaceous. 

Family 2. Crisiade. Polypidoms confervoid, jointed. 

Section B. Polypidoms calcareous or membrano-calcareous, multiform, composed of oblong or oviform cells, 
whose subterminal aperture is closed by a membranous fold or operculum. 

Family 3. Eucratiade. Polypidoms branched in a confervoid manner; cells oblong; no ovarian capsules. 

Family 4. Celleporide. Polypidoms massive or crustaceous, composed of ovate cells in juxta-position, the 
aperture terminal, often furnished with a globular capsule. 

Family 5. Escharide. Polypidoms multiform, composed of oblong sub-quadrangular cells, disposed in a 
semi-alternating series ; the cells conjunct, horizontal to the plane of axis, with a subterminal or 
lateral aperture, usually covered with an ovarian capsule. 

Section C. Polypidoms sponge-like, fleshy, polymorphous ; the cells irregular in disposition, immersed, witha 
contractile aperture ; no external ovarian capsules. 

Family 6. Huleyonellea. 

Section D. Polypidoms confervoid, horny, fistular ; the polype-cells free. 
Family 7. Vesiculariade. Body of the Polype separate from the parietes of the cell, which is deciduous. 
Family 8. Pedicelline. Body of the Polype adnate to the cell. 


ORvDER II.—HIPPOCREPIA. 


Lacustrine or natives of fresh water. Polypes compound, the mouth surrounded with ciliated retractile tenta- 
tula, interrupted or depressed on one side, so as to assume a crescentic or horse-shoe form ; ova unciliated. 
Section A. Polype-mass floating. 

Family 1. Cristatellide. 
Section B. Polype-mass rooted. 

Family 2. Plumatellidw. Poiype-mass massive or conferyoid ; inarticulate. 

Family 3. Paludicellide. Polype-mass confervoid, jointed. 

It would seem that with the Bryozoa should be associated the very curious group of Foraminifera, placed by 
Cuvier among the Cephalopoda. The structure of the animals has not been yet made out, however, with sufficient 
precision to enable their exact position in the zoological scale to be determined. 

The Bryozoa are diffused through all latitudes, and they appear to have existed at a very early period of the 
earth’s history ; many of the (so-called) corals of the palwozoic series belonging to this division. Their massive 
stony structures would seem to have been formerly more abundant in our own seas than they are at present ; 
whole reefs haying been produced by their growth, as they are in the tropical seas by the growth of the existing 
corals of the lamelliform kind presently to be described. 


ANTHOZOA. 


The Anthozoa, or true Polpyi, are distinguished from the preceding by the perfect radial symmetry 
of their internal structure, as well as of their external conformation. ‘Their nervous system has not 
been clearly made out; but there can be no doubt that, if it really exist in a distinct condition, it 
forms a ring surrounding the mouth, The digestive cavity has no 
intestine nor anal orifice; but in many compound Polypefera it is 
prolonged into the interior of the mass, and joins a system of canals by 
which the stomachs of the several Polypes are connected with each 
other. The tentacula are never clothed with cilia. The class may 
be divided into the orders Hyproipa, or Hydraform Polypes ; 
HELIANTHOIDA, or Actiniform Polypes ; and ASTEROIDA, or Alcyo- 
nian Polypes. By some, however, the two latter orders are regarded 
as forming one group, equivalent to the Hydroida. 


Onper I.—HYDROIDA. 


This order is made up of simple and composite structures, of which the Hy- 
dra is the type (see text, p. 654). It is distinguished by the absence of any 
cavity around the stomach ; the wall of the digestive cavity and the ex- 
ternal integument of the body being merely the inner and outer layers of 
the same membrane. The mouth is surrounded by slender tentacula, which 
are beset with little points that seem to have a stinging power; and by 

Fic. 11.— HyDRA ; a, mouth. the agency of these arms the food is grasped and conveyed into the stomach. 
{ 
| 
| 
| 
| 


They are nearly all marine, and are found in all latitudes. In some of the solitary and nearly all the com- 
posite species, the external integument possesses a horny consistence ; and thus are formed more or less perfect 
polype-cells, within which the body is lodged. The mode in which these structures are increased by gemmation 
frequently gives them a yery plant-like aspect. The Hydra produces buds, which at first project from the side 


RADIATA. 701 


ot its boay as littie knoos or protuberances, owe graduatly acquire the form and structuce of the original ; and 
these, when they have arrived at maturity and are able to maintain their own existence, become detached and 
live independently. Before this separation takes place, however, but after their stomach and tentacula are fully 
developed, the digestive cavities of the young Hydre (of which several may exist at once upon one stock) are 
connected with that of the parent by an aperture in their footstalks; and fluids can pass readily from one to the 
other. Now this is, in fact, the essential condition of such a com- 
pound structure as the one represented in Fig. 12; for all the polypes 
in such a structure have been in reality produced by gemmation from 
a single individual; and their digestive cavities are united by tubes 
which proceed from the base of each, along the stalk, to communicate 
with the cavity of the central stem. There is this peculiarity, however, 
in the compound polypes of this order—vyiz. that the vitality seems 
rather to exist in the stem and branches than in the polypes seated 
upon them; for the polypes not unfrequently die, are cast off, 
and then renewed, like the leaves of a tree. A circulation of fluid 
may be seen to take place within the stem and branches of many of 
the compound Hydroida. Like that of the Ascidians, it is reversed 
at intervals ; the flow being sometimes very rapid, then slackening 
and stopping, and then recommencing in the opposite direction, 
sometimes after an interval, sometimes immediately. 

The study of the reproduction of the Hydroida has disclosed some 
very curious facts. Besides propagating itself by buds, in the manner 
just described, the Hydra, towards the approach of winter, forms 
ovisacs in the membranous. substance of its body near the foot; 
whilst spermatic vesicles are formed in like manner near the oral 
extremity. These discharge their contents—ova and spermatozoa— 
at the same time; and from the fertilized ova it is probable that a 
new generation of Hydra is developed. In the compound Hydroida, 
however, we do not find either eggs or gemmz produced from the 
bodies of the individual polypes. For the extension of the parent 
structure, new polype-cells and polypes are evolved from the stem 
and branches; whilst for the production of an entirely new genera- 
tion, we find a very distinct and most remarkable provision. In 
many of the solitary or slightly branching genera of the marine 

Fro. 12.—CAMPANULARIA. Hydroida, belonging to the family Tubularide, the body of the polype 
produces buds altogether unlike itself; these buds are, in fact, true Medusw, and have been described as such after 
their detachment and their attainment of their complete form. Itis by the Medusw which freely swim through 
the water, and which thus go to form new colonies elsewhere, that the true ova are produced, which are developed 
at first into polypes; these polypes evolve Medusa-buds ; and from the mature Medus, ova are again produced, 
from which a new generation arises, to go through the same curious series of phenomena. There is little diffi- 
culty in perceiving here a close analogy with the history of vegetable development. The seed and the egg are 
essentially the same thing; from it spring in the one case a stem and leaves, in the other a stem and polypes ; 
these may extend by gemmation to any degree, producing new leaves or new polypes ; but aftera time a different 
set of buds appears, the flower-buds and the Meduse, containing distinct sexual organs, by which seeds and ova 
are again generated. The only difference that even seems essential, lies in the detachment of the Medusa-buds; 
but this is only that they may possess locomotive powers which shall carry them to a distance, in order that the 


ova may be widely scattered through the ocean. 
In other Compound Hydroida, however, there is a distinct apparatus for the development of the Medusa-buds. 


This consists of a large cell or capsule, which was formerly designated as an ‘ovarian vesicle,” being supposed 
to produce ova from which new polypes arise. But it is now known that in many cases, at least, the bodies 
really generated in them are Medusa-buds, which become detached (sometimes in a very immature form), and 
swim forth to deposit their ova, from which a new generation of polypes will arise, in some distant spot. This 
is certainly the case with the Campanwaride ; but whether the ‘“‘gemmules” which issue from the ovarian 
vesicles of the Sertularide are of the same nature, has not yet been ascertained. 

Thus we have seen that the Hydraform Polypes are so closely connected with the Pulmograde Meduse, that 
they cannot be justly separated from each otier. For whilst the animals best known to us as Meduse can be 
shown to pass the early part of their lives in the Polypoid condition, the animals best known to us as Hydraform 
Polypes are sexually propagated by Medusan bodies springing from them by gemmation. 

The following is Dr. Johnston’s classification of this order :— 

Section A.—Ovisacs or bulbules naked, bud-like, pullulating from the bases of the tentacula, 

Family 1. Corynide. Polypes naked, or with only a rudimentary polypidom. 
Family 2, Tubwaride. Polypidom fistular; the tentacula whorled. 
Section B. Ovisacs in the form of horny capsules or vesicles scattered on the polypidoms, and deciduous. 
Family 3. Sertularide. Cells of the polypes sessile. 
Family 5. Campanularide. Polype-cells on ringed stalks. 
Section C. Polypes propagating by buds and ova, which develope themselves on and in the body of the parent. 


Family 5. Hydraide. 


iE Eee nee eat An) IE) ara an I OE Cuts Soe Se Tae 
702 RADIATA, 


Ornprr IIL—HELIANTHOIDA. 


This order derives its designation from the resemblance borne by the polypes it includes to a sun-flower or 
other composite blossom. The common Actinia may be taken as its type; and all the animals which it includes 
are constructed nearly upon the same model, The body is composed of a stomach possessing walls of its own, 
and suspended by vertical partitions which pass in a radiating direction between the outer surface of the stomach 
and the general integument, so as to divide the intervening space into numerous chambers. The stomach is closed 
at the bottom, as are also the surrounding chambers; and this is equally 
the case in the compound species as in the solitary. The radiating parti- 
tions have openings, by which the chambers communicate with each other; 
and there is also a free passage from them into the hollow tentacula, which 
are provided with orifices at the extremity, that can be opened or closed by 
the animal. Water is sometimes taken in by these orifices, so as to distend 
the radiating chambers and the tentacula; and is then ejected with consi- 
derable force through the same apertures. There is reason to believe that 
this is a respiratory process; the whole interior of.the chambers, into which 
the water is received, being covered with vibratile cilia. These chambers, 

however, are specially intended for the development of the ova. The ovaries 

Fig. 13.—SEcTION OF SEA-ANEMONE 5 Z : : 

a, cavity of stomach, 6 surrounding chambers. form plaited masses, attached along the inner border of some of the vertical 
leaflets which do not extend as far as the stomach. The ova appear to be developed in the substance of these 
masses, and to escape, by the rupture of the membranous envelope of the ovarium, into the interseptal spaces. 
The embryo is sometimes discharged through the tentacular orifices, as a mere ‘‘gemmule;” but it is not 
unfrequently retained within the body of the parent until it has undergone a further development, and ac- 
quired a stomach, mouth, and tentacula of its own. Young Actinie in this condition seem to be discharged, 
not by the tentacular orifices, which are too minute to give them passage, but by the mouth ; although the 
manner in which they pass from the ovarial chambers into the stomach is yet an unsolved mystery. Besides the 
ovaria, these radiating chambers contain numerous long convoluted tubuli, which are believed to be the male 
organs. According to some, however, the sexes are distinct. 

The Actinie proper do not usually increase by gemmation; but this mode of increase has been observed by Sir 
J. G@. Dalyell in one species, from the expanded base of which small portions occasionally detach themselves, 
which subsequently become perfect Actinic. In numerous other species of the order we meet with some form of 
gemmiparous production, which gives rise to compound structures, resembling those of the other polypes, but 
usually much more massive. Thus in the Zoanthus, we find animals that agree with the Actinie in their general 
organization, springing from a common base, which is sometimes broad and flat, but more commonly a sort of 
creeping stem, In the arborescent species with a stony axis, however, the multiplication of the individual po- 
lypes of the compound mass seems to take place by the division of the bodies of those already existing, very much 
after the manner of the Polygastric Infusoria (page 708). The polypes of these compound masses are connected by 
a sort of gelatinous flesh; but this would not seem to have the same degree of organization as that of the Alcyonian 
Polypi; and there is no communication established between the digestive cavities of the individual polypes, by 
means of a system of anastomising canals, as there isin the group next to be described. 

All the Corals which are distinguished as lamelliform, are formed by Helianthoid polypes ; deriving their cha- 
racter from the deposit of stony matter, not merely in the bases of the animals, andin the substance of the 
gelatinous flesh that connects them, 
but also in the radiating partitions 
around the stomach. If the stony mass 
be the product of a single animal, as 
in the Caryophyllia or Fungia, it is 
marked on its upper surface bya single 
series of these plates (Fig. 14), strongly 
resembling the gills of the mushroom ; 
but if the coral have been the axis of 
a compound mass, the radiating la- 
mellx will be seen in every one of the 
individual polype-cells (Fig. 15), which 
are sometimes very numerous and mi- 

§ nute, especially in the Madreporidz. 

Ftc. 14.—CARYOPHYLLIA. These cells are not by any means con- 
stantly circular ; but still the laminated plates project inwards from 
their circumference towards a common centre, Sometimes anumber of 
cells unite into a groove or furrow; asin the Meandrina or brain Fic. 15.—MASS OF ASTRA VIRIDIS; a, a, ex- 
stone coral, In all these cases, the stony structure is produced by BENS ee ea antoishelr 
the consolidation of the lower and older portion of the animal, by means of a deposit of carbonate of lime, 
whilst the softer or membranous portion undergoes a corresponding extension above. The stony axis, and its 
lamellated cells, are thus really parts of the animal structure, and grow instead of being built up by the agency 
of the coral polypes. The portion which has undergone consolidation, however, ‘although continuous with the 


RADIATA. 703 


soft tissues of the animal, no longer participates in its vita: operations, and may be almost said to be dead; in 
fact the gelatinous flesh is frequently withdrawn from the lower part, so that it remains as an inert stony mass, 
whilst the upper portion is actively growing. In some of the arborescent corals ( Madrephyllide), the stony matter 
appears to be entirely deposited in the substance of the polypes themselves ; which are seated only at the ex- 
tremities of the branches ; but in the more massive species (Madreporidw), it is deposited also in the connecting 
gelatinous flesh, and the polype-cells are scattered over the entire surface. 

The Order may be divided into the following families :— 

Section A. Body coriaceous or fleshy. 

Family 1. <Actiniade. Polypes separate and single. 
Family 2. Zoanthide. Polypes gemmiparous, and associated by a common base. 
Section B. Body secreting a calcareous polypidom. 
Family 3. Madrephyllide. Coral with terminal cells. 
Family 4. Madreporide. Coral cellular throughout, the cells connected by a calcareous network, their 
own walls also being porous. 

All those massive corals, to which the formation of coral reefs and islands is chiefly due, belong to the second 
section of this order ; and most of them tothe family Madreporide. Whilst the animals of the first section are 
abundant in nearly all latitudes, those of the second are at present almost entirely restricted to tropical seas. 
The large amount of coral limestone , however, found interposed amongst various other stratified rocks, from the 
oldest even almost to the most recent, shows that they must have formerly had a much more extensive distribu- 
tion. Only one small species (Pocillopora interstincta) belonging to the third family, and three ( Turbinolia bo- 
realis, T. milletiana, and Caryophyllia Smithii) belonging to the fourth, have been until recently known in British 
seas. At the last meeting of the British Association, however, Mr. Mac Andrew announced the very inter- 
esting discovery of a living Fungia dredged up off the coast of Zetland. 


Oxzpexr III.—ASTEROIDA. 


This division receives its designation from the star-like appearance of the short thick tentacula, six or eight in 
number, when expanded around the mouth. These tentacula are unpro- 
vided with cilia ; but a number of little projections may be seen along their 
margins, which probably increase their prehensile power. The mouth 
leads to a stomach, which is suspended in the midst of the general cavity 
of the body by partitions radiating from its walls ; the number of these 
partitions, and consequently that of the chambers surrounding the 
stomach, being the same with that of the tentacula. Instead of being 
closed at its lower extremity, however, like that of the Actiniform polypes, 
the stomach of the Aleyonians opens into the canals that ramify through 
the fleshy massin which they are imbedded ; the orifice being surrounded 
by a circular muscle or sphincter, by the actions of which it may be ex- 
panded or entirely closed. The chambers which surround the stomach 
communicate above with the cavity of the tentacula, each of which has 
a small orifice at its extremity; whilst below they are continuous with 
the ramifying canals just mentioned; and the membranous septa which 
support the stomach do not cease at its lower extremity, but are prolonged downwards as plaits or folds of the 
lining of these canals, until they gradually disappear. Here, too, the life of the individual polypes is subordinate 
to that of the general mass ; and it is from the latter that all 
the extensions of the fabric by gemmation take place. On 
the other hand, the ova are developed in the substance of 
the membranous folds, and make their way outwards 
through the mouth. 

In this order we find a remarkable diversity in the charac- 
ter of the polypidom, together with a great general similarity 
in the structure of the polypes themselves, It contains no 
solitary species ; and the essential character, by which it is 
most distinguished from the Helianthoida, is the intimate 
connection of the individuals of the same mags. Inthe com- 
mon Alcyonium, the polypidom has something of a spongy 
texture ; being composed of a gelatinous flesh burrowed by 
a network of canals, and strengthened by a multitude of 
spicules of mineral matter, which form a sort of loose skeleton 
that extends throughout the mass, especially strengthening oh ip 
its surface. In the Tubipora musica, or organ-pipe coral, the Fro. 17.—ALCYONIUMs A, portion enlarged, showing 
external integument of each polype is completely consoli- Ciena 
dated into a calcareous tube. On the other hand, in the Red Coral, it is the centre which is thus hardened, 
forming a very dense stony axis, on the smooth surface of which not a vestige of polype-cells can be detected. 
This axis is clothed in the living state with a gelatinous flesh that is channelled out, like that of the Alcyonium, 


Fic. 16.—ALCYONIAN POLYPR. 


704 RADIATA. 


by the canals which connect the stomachs of tne polypes impeddea in its supstance. In the Jsis Hippuris, the 
2 Wy 


stem has a jointed character, being composed alternately of 
calcareous and of horny matter. And in the Gorgonia (Sea- 
Fan) and Antipathes (Black Coral) it is altogether horny ; the 
investing substance, however, being furnished with a large 
number of spicules, forming a friable crust, in jwhich the 
orifices for the polypes may be frequently discerned, when 
dried upon the horny axis. In some few cases, instead of 
being attached by roots to fixed bodies, the Alcyonian poly- 
pidoms are free, being carried about by the action of the 
waves and currents of the ocean. This is the case with the 
Pennatula, or sea-pen, and with the Veretillum, which is nearly 


allied to it (Fig. 14). 


The order may be subdivided into the following families :— 
Section A, Polype-mass fixed. 

Family 1, Alcyonide. Polype-mass coriaceous or some- 
what carneous, without any distinct axis, but 
strengthened by variously-disposed calcareous 
spicula ; polype-cells subcutaneous, scattered over 
the surface. 

Family 2. Corallide. Polype-mass arborescent; polypes 
scattered over the whole surface, imbedded in a 
thick cretaceo-gelatinous celluliferous crust; the 
axis solid, horny, or calcareous. 

Family 3. Tubiporide. Polypary composed of calca- 
reous tubes, arranged in successive stages; polypes 
terminal. 

Section B. Polype-mass free. 

Family 4. Pennatulide. Polype-mass pennated, carneous ; the skin spiculiferous ; the axis bony, simple, con- 

tinuous; polypes arranged along a part only of the polypary, of which a portion is sometimes embedded- 


Fie. 19.—V BRETILLUM 


In order to bring the enumeration of families and genera contained in the text into harmony with modern views, 
the following table of Cuvier’s arrangement, showing the real situation of each principal group, may be useful. 


Order L.—Canwost ; Actinia. } Order II.—Hetrantnowa; Fam. 1 and 2. Actiniade and Zoanthide. 
Lucernaria. 
Order II.—GeELATINOSI ;* Hydra. Order I.—Hypzoipa; Fam. 1. Hydraide. 
Order III.—CorALLiFERt. ; 
Tubipora. Order IIJ.—AsTEROIDA ; Fam. 3. Tubiporida. 
Tubularia. Order I.—Hyproipa ; Fam. 2. Tubularide. 
Sertularia. Order I.—HyproipA ; Fam. 3. Sertularide. 
Cellularia. BRYOZOA of various families. 
Corallina. Belong to the Vegetable kingdom. 
Ceratophyta. Order III.—AsTERoipA ; Fam. 2. Corallida. 
Lithophyta,—Isis, &c. Order III.—AsTEROIDA ; Fam. 2. Corallide. 


Madrepora. Order IJ.—Hewiantsorwa ; Fam, 3 and 4. Madrephyllide and Madreporide. 
Millipora. Chiefly BRYOZOA of various families. 

Pennatula. Order Il.—AstTERoIDA; Fam. 4. Pennatulida, 

Aleyonium. Order IIl.—AsTerorpA ; Fam, 1, Alcyonide. 

Spongia. PORIFERA. 


* Of the genera associated by Cuvier under this order, Coryne is the only one that is really allied to Hydra ; 
Cristatella being a Bryozoon; Vorticella being an Infusory Animalcule; and Pedicellaria not being a separate 


animal, but an appendage of certain Echinodermata. 


RADIATA 705 


CLASS PORIFERA. 


THERE can be no question that, if the Sponges and their allies be admitted into the Animal kingdom, 
they must form a distinct group, below the class of Polypes. Not only is the radiated disposition of 
parts altogether wanting, but even that definiteness of form is absent, which so peculiarly distinguishes 
the higher groups of Animals from the members of the Vegetable kingdom. The internal structure 
is no less deficient in Animal characters. There is no stomach or digestive cavity for the reception of 
the food,—no nervous system or organs of sensation and locomotion,—and nothing beyond the very 
simplest apparatus for reproduction. No movements of a decidedly animal nature can be observed in 
them ; the gradual change of form of the orifices of the canals, which is sometimes witnessed, having 
at least an equal resemblance to the movements of many Plants: neither is there any decided indication 
of the presence of sensibility. Perhaps the strongest argument in favour of their animal nature is to 
be found in the resemblance of their structure to the general mass of Alcyonia, which may be likened 
to a sponge with polype mouths; and it is an interesting fact that, in the extension of these structures, 
the spongy mass is the part first produced, the polypes not appearing upon it until a subsequent period. 
The exterior of every Sponge is covered with minute orifices or pores (whence the name of the 
class), thickly set together; and between these are seen the larger openings or vents, which, if traced 
Ave downwards into the substance, are found to be 
,,. the mouths of large canals or vessels that ra- 
Wi’, mify through it. The pores open into a less 
regular arrangement of tubes and minute cavi- 
ties, of which the spongy mass is principally 
composed; these freely communicate with one 
another throughout the mass; and the canals 
arise from the midst of them, by small tubes 
which unite into larger ones, these again meet- 
ing to form the wide channels which terminate 
in the vents. Through these canals, in the li- 
ving Sponge, a constant stream of fluid issues 
Rico seonron or Live! SPONGE. forth ; the supply being kept up by absorption 
through the pores. The cause of this movement is unknown. From these vents also issue forth the 
reproductive gemmules, which are minute ciliated gelatinous bodies, resembling Animalcules. They 
are first seen as minute opaque yellow points, irregularly distributed in the gelatinous substance of the 
body, and usually at some distance from the surface. As their development proceeds, they project 
from the walls of the canals into their cavities; and at last become altogether detached, and are 
carried forth by the current. 
The substance of the Sponge is chiefly composed of tubular fibres of a horny character, which form 
a network that possesses considerable elasticity ; this network forms, as it were, a skeleton, which is 
clothed with a gelatinous flesh. In the greater proportion of Sponges, it is strengthened by spicules, or 
needle-shaped crystals of earthy matter; these, which are sometimes composed of silex, in other cases 
of carbonate of lime, are disposed at intervals throughout the mass; but are especially abundant in 
the neighbourhood of the canals, and around the external orifices both of these and of the pores, each 
of which is strengthened by a regular framework of spicules. 
No classification of Sponges that has yet been proposed is likely to have a permanent value; so 
little being yet known of their real nature, and of the characters which should serve as the guide in 
their systematic arrangement. 


CLASS INFUSORIA. 


THE improvements recently made in the Microscope, and the large amount of attention that has been 
devoted of late to the natural history of this class, has vastly added to our knowledge of it. One result, 
however, of this increase of knowledge, which is mainly due to the researches of Professor Ehrenberg, 
has been to show that the two groups of which the Cuvierian class consists are really very distinct 
from one another, resembling each other in nothing but their minuteness of size, and the softness and 


706 RADIATA. 


transparency of their textures; and that the order Rotifera ought to constitute a separate class, and 
to have a place in the Articulated series. 
ROTIFERA. 

The animals of this class have usually an elongated form, and are perfectly symmetrical on the two 
sides. At the anterior extremity, we observe one or more rows of vibratile cilia; these are frequently 
arranged (as in the common Wheel Animalcule, Fig. 21, 6), in a circular manner, and when they are 
in motion, an appearance of revolving wheels is produced, from which the class derives its appellation. 
In many species we find a prolongation of the body in front, extending beyond the ciliary apparatus ; 
this, which sometimes bears one or more red spots that are supposed to be eyes, may be regarded as a 
head (Fig. 21, a). The body is covered with a double envelope, both layers of which are extremely 
thin and flexible in many species, whilst in others the outer one seems to possess a horny consistence, 
and may even contain siliceous matter. In the Stephaniferos Eichornii, this is so far detached from 
the body, as almost to form a sort of polype-cell, like that of the Bowerbankia ; and the cilia, instead 
of being disposed in circular rows, are mounted on arms like those of a polype; so that the whole 
animal bears a strong resemblance to the Bryozoa, with which it forms the connecting link. 

The body of the Rotifer vulgaris not being enclosed in any such 
dense envelope, is capable of considerable extension, and has much 
of the Vermiform aspect; this is increased when a slight contraction 
draws the external membrane into transverse wrinkles, that seem 
to indicate the segments of the trunk. The posterior extremity 
is prolonged into a tail, possessing three joints, which can be 
drawn up within each other. Within the external integument 
there are four longitudinal bands running from end to end; these 
are probably bundles of muscular fibre, by the contraction of 
which the body may be shortened. On the under surface of the 
head is a projecting orifice, which is believed to act as a syphon 
for the introduction of water into the general cavity for the pur- 
pose of respiration; the ciliary movement being destined to bring 
food to the mouth, which is situated between the wheels. The 
wide esophagus terminates in a sort of gizzard (d), provided with 
regular teeth at its entrance. These teeth are two in number on 
each side, and are fixed upon hard jaws, moved hy powerful mus- 
cles, so as to work between each other. All the food which is 
swallowed is submitted to their action, before it enters the first 
stomach, and when the cilia are in operation, these jaws are al- 
ways in regular movement. From the first stomach or gizzard 
there passes off, in the Rotifer, a long straight intestine ( f f,) 
which terminates without any dilatation except near its close at 
g, just at the commencement of the tail; this tube is surrounded 
Fro. 21.—WHEEL ANIMALCULES; A, mth the by a glandular apparatus, 4, which may be regarded as a liver. 


wheels expanded ; B, with the wheels folded up and . . * 
drawn in; a, the head with the eye-spots; o, then many other Rotifera, however, we find the gizzard opening 


Nel se lei Pa ncel le tee Sali into a larger cavity, which may be regarded as the true digestive 
Pine oy oe ae ee ts stomach. Near the termination of the intestine is the oviduct, 
py which are extruded the eggs, &, which are formed in the large ovaria. Besides the longitudinal 
muscular bands, transverse lines may be observed to cross the body at intervals, which are 
believed by Ehrenberg to be blood-vessels, passing off from a trunk that runs along the back, like 
the dorsal vessel of Insects. A distinct nervous system unquestionably exists in the Rotifera; though 
it cannot be seen in the Rotifer vulgaris so clearly as in some others of the group. 

The movements of these animals are very active and varied. Sometimes they attach themselves by 
the tail, and set their ciliary apparatus in motion for the purpose of obtaining food; in which condition 
they bear a strong resemblance to Bryozoa. But they also swim freely about through the water, the 
ciliary apparatus being folded up (as in Fig. 21, B), and they then resemble aquatic Worms. And 
sometimes they crawl along a solid surface, after the manner of a Leech, Yet with all this complex 


organization and these active powers, many Rotifera may be completely dried up, and preserved for an 


a aaa 
RADIATA. 707 


indefinite period, without the loss of their vitality; being revived again by moisture, and returning to 
their original activity. 

The reproduction of the Rotifera is not accomplished by gemmation, nor by the subdivision of the 
body, but only by eggs. Of these, not many are produced at once; they attain a large size in propor- 
tion to the body of the parent (Fig. 21, 4); and the development of the embryo often proceeds so far 
before the egg is extruded, that its ciliary movements are visible. The egg-capsule frequently bursts 
when the egg is passing forth, so that the young may be said to be born alive; heing capable of active 
locomotion, and of obtaining its own food, as soon as it quits the body of the parent. Notwithstanding 
that the number of eggs undergoing development at one time seldom exceeds three or four, the re- 
productive powers in this tribe are very extraordinary, in consequence of the rapidity with which the 
young arrive at maturity, and become the parents of anew generation. From the observations of 
Professor Ehrenberg on the rate of propagation of the Hydatina senta, one of the largest of the 
Rotifera, he calculates that, from a single individual, more than a méllion might be generated in ten 
days, and nearly seventeen millions in twenty days. This rapidity of multiplication, taken in connec- 
tion with the power which these animals possess of being revivified after entire desiccation, is quite 
sufficient to account for their sudden appearance in various situations in which they were not previously 
known to exist, and for their extraordinary abundance whenever the conditions in regard to food, 
temperature, &c,, are favourable, 


The class is subdivided by Professor Ehrenberg in the first place, according to the arrangement of the ciliary 
apparatus, into two sections, each of which contains two orders; and every one of these four orders is subdi- 
vided into two families, according as the external skin is soft or naked, or forms a dense lorica or sheath. 

Section A. MonorrocnHa. A single, continuous, ciliated wheel. 

Order I.—Hotorrocna. Margins of the wheels entire. 
Family 1. Icthydina. Skin naked. 
Family 2. @cistina. Skin loricated. : 
Order II.—Scuizotrocua. Margins of the wheels crenated. 
Family 3. Megalotrochea. Skin naked. 
Family 4. Floscularia. Skin loricated. 
Section B. Sorotrocua. A compound, or divided, ciliated wheel. 
Order III.—Potytrocna. Many-parted wheels. 
Family 5. Hydatinea. Skin naked. 
Family 6. Euchlanidota. Skin loricated. 
Order IV.—Zycorrocnua. Two-parted wheels. 
Family 7, Philodinea. Skin naked. 
Family 8. Brachionea. Skin loricated. 


HOMOGENEA. 


THIS group 1s now more commonly known under the name PoLy@astrRIca, conferred upon it by Pro- 
fessor Ehrenberg, from the idea that the animals composing it are distinguished by the possession of 
numerous digestive sacs or stomachs. In this view, however, many very competent observers are far 
from coinciding ; and the previous designation may, therefore, be properly retained, until the organi- 
zation of these beings shall have been more fully ascertained, and their true relations shall have 
become more completely apparent. At present there is a strong tendency to transfer a large propor- 
tion of them to the Vegetable kingdom ; it being now certainly known that an active movement, oc- 
casioned by the vibration of cilia, is visible in many of the humbler Plants; so that the power of thus 
making its way through water, even with considerable activity, is by no means that certain and 
distinctive attribute of an Animal, which it was at one time supposed to be. Moreover, it is certain 
that many of them are allied to Plants in their chemical constitution, and also in their power of 
growth and increase under the influence of light, at the exvense of water and carbonic acid merely. 
It has lately been ascertained, too, that the Desmidee and Diatomace@ reproduce themselves by 
conjugation, after the manner of the Zygnemata, which are undoubted plants ; so that, although these 
are described and represented by Professor Ehrenberg as Infusory Animalcules, they are now trans- 
ferred by most Naturalists to the Vegetable kingdom. It seems not improbable that a large proportion 


708 RADIATA. 


of the group will have to undergo a similar transference ; but it would ve premature to attempt the 
separation at present. 

The forms presented by these Animalcules are extremely various. In some we can scarcely detect 
gor definite BEBE! their bodies appear composed of a mass of gelatinous matter destitute of any 
solid support, which may project itself into almost any figure. In others there is still a considerable 
variety in the forms assumed by the same 
individual under different circumstances (Fig, 
626, d); but stilla prevailing shape can be re- 
cognized. In others, again, the body, although 
still unprotected by any firm envelope, appears 
to undergo little change in figure, except when 
affected by temporary pressure. But there are 
Qe" many species which cannot be influenced even 
We by this; their soft bodies being enclosed in a 

: delicate but firm integument, strengthened by 

a deposit of siliceous matter. These are termed 

Fic. 22“ ViAnrous FORMS Or ANIMALCUCES: loricated Infusoria; and their envelopes are 

often preserved after the death of the Animaleules, accumulating by their multiplication into vast 

masses. In these loricated tribes, however, were included many forms now transferred to the Vege- 
table kingdom. 

Those seem most entitled to the designation Animalcules, which have a distinct mouth, surrounded 
by vibratile cilia. By the agency of these cilia, food is taken into the cavity of the body ; and refuse 
matter is sometimes expelled through a separate orifice. When these Animalcules have been allowed 
to remain for a short time in water, in which finely-divided particles of colouring matter are sus- 
pended, the whole of the transparent body is seen to be studded with coloured globules of a tolerably 
uniform size, each of them composed of an aggregation of particles. 

From this class of facts it has been inferred by Professor Ehrenberg that a large number of globular 
cavities exist in the substance of the body, into which the food is received; and he considers that 
these all sometimes communicate directly with the mouth; but that in general they are arranged 
along an intestinal tube, into which they open by a short neck. Notwithstanding the high authority, 
however, which Prof, E. has acquired from his patient and long-continued study of these Animalcules, 
this doctrine has not received very general assent from those most competent to judge of its merits, 
being regarded as rather an hypothesis founded on observations, than as itself entitled to rank as 
an observed fact. 

It is to the action of the vibratile cilia, also, that the great variety of movements exhibited by these 
beings is entirely due; and this fact would seem to indicate that these movements are not directed by 
consciousness. Noa organs of sensation have been shown to exist in this classy of Animalcules; nor 
has any indication of a nervous system been discovered. 

Several modes of propagation are seen in this class of Animalcules. Not unfrequently we observe 
a reproduction by the development of gemme or buds, as in the Vorticella (Fig. 22, a); but in other 
species the multiplication is effected by the separation of the body into two parts, the division some- 
times taking place longitudinally, as at 4, sometimes transversely, as atc. This process takes place 
with such rapidity under favourable circumstances, that it has been calculated that from a single Pa- 
ramecium (Fig. 22, e), no fewer than 268,000,000 might be produced in a month. In other tribes, 
however, propagation takes place by ova or germs evolved within the body of the parent, the greater 
part. of whose bulk is often made up of them. 

When the gemme remain adherent, instead of becoming detached, compound structures are pro- 
duced, more or less resembling those of Zoophytes in miniature. The groups of Vorticella are 
examples of this; but a still more remarkable instance is the Volvox, formerly designated the globe- 
animalcule, but now known to be composed of a congeries of Monads produced by gemmation from a 
single individual, and invested by a common envelope. 

The classification of this group proposed by Ehrenberg is principally founded on the various forms 
under which he believes the alimentary canal to exist in them; and until the existence of these shall 
be generally admitted, the classification cannot be regarded as having any permanent value. 


Abramis 
Abranchia 
Abrocoma C 
Acalepha ° 
Acanthocephala . 
Acanthocinus 
Acanthopis 
Acanthopoda 
Acanthopterygil 
Acanthurus 
Acarides 
Acarus c 
Acasta 
Accentor 
Accipenser 
Accipitres 
Acelepha 
Acephales 
Aceres O é 
Achatina . 6 
Acherontia 
Acheta 

Acheus 5 
Achirus 
Acoetes 
Acontia A 
Acrochordus 
Acrydium 
Actinia : 
Actinocamax . 
Aculeata . 
Adephaga 
fégithalus . 
#Egotheles . : 
Agama . : 
Agathistigues  . 
Ageniosus 
Aggregata 
Aglaura 
Ailurus 5 
Alabes 

Alauda 
Albiones 5 
Alca 5 
Alcedo . 
Alciope 
Alcyonium 
Alector . 
Alectura 
Alepocephalus 
Alligator 
Alosa 

Aluteres 
aAmadina 
Ambassis 
Amblotis 
Amia 7 
Ammocetes 
Ammodytes 
Ammonites 
Ammophila : 
Ampelis”. . 
Amphibia 2 
Amphinome C 
Amphioxus 


INDEX OF SYSTEMATIC NAMES. 


Page Page 
Amphipoda 426 
Amphisbena 280 

313 Amphisile 312 
397 Amphitrion 290 
121 Amphitrite 392 
650 Amphiuma 288 
646 Ampullaria 300 
548 Anabas 304 
284 Aniabates 206 
519 Anableps 314 
292 Anampses 310 
303 Anarrichas . 306 
469 Anas. ‘ 261, 263 


469 Anastomus . 241, 319 


386 Anatifa 385 
191 Anatina C 380 
330 Ancillaria . . 364 
163 Ancylus . 353 
650 Andrena 598 
369 Andrenoides 599 
355 Anguilla 325 
349 Anguis 3 280 
608 Annelides . . 389 
560 Anobium . 5 514 
123 Anodon ° A 375 
324 Ancema ° 119 
396 Anolius 277 
280 Anomala 417 
283 Anomia > . 372 
561 Anoplognathides 525 
654 Anoplotherium 131 
342 Anoplura 488 
591 Anser 262 
492 Anthicides 537 
198 Anthobii 527 
196 Anthomyzides 633 
275 Anthophila 598 
343 Anthrax 623 
317 Anthropoides 238 
383 Anthus 193 
394 Antilope 139 
84 Antipathes 657 
325 Antliota 615 
196 Aphaniptera 489 
400 Aphidii 570 
254 Aphidiphagi 555 
210 Aphis : 571 
395 Aphrodita 396 
659 Aphrophora 570 
224 Apiarie é 598 
226 Apidophorus 295 
315 Apis. - 601 
273 Aphysia 354 
320 Apoda 642 
329 Aposure 611 
200 Aptenodytes 255 
293 Aptera 489 
106 Apteryx 234 
321 Apus 443 
334 Aquila 167 
326 Arachnida 450 
342 Arachnotheres 207 
595 Aramus ° ° 239 
182 Aranea . 454, 458 
97 Arca . 5 374 
393 Arctictis . c 8+ 
334 Arctocephalus . 100 


Arctomys 
Arcuata 
Ardea 
Arenaria 
Arenicola 
Arenicoli 
Argala 
Argentina . 
Argonauta . 
Argulus 
Argus - 
Argynnis . 
Aricia C 
Armadillo 
Artemia 
Arvicola 
Asaphus 
Ascalabotes 
Ascalaphus 
Ascaris 
Aschizopoda 
Ascidia 
Asellota 
Asema 
Asilici 
Asilus 
Aspergillum 
Aspidiphora 
Aspredo - 
Astacini 
Astacus 
Asterias 
Astoma 
Astrodermus 
Astur 
Asturina 
Ateles 
Ateuchus 
Athericera 
Atherina 
Atherura 
Atilophus 
Atlanta 0 
Atropos 
Atta. 
Attagis 
Attelabus 
Atypus 
Auchenia . 
Aulacodus 
Aulopus 
Aulostomus 
Auricula 
Auxis 
Aves . . 
Avicula 
Axinea 
Axinurus 
Axolotls 


B. 


Baculites 
Balena - 
Balenoptera 
Balaninus 
Balantia 


Page 
Balanus 386 
Balearica . . 238 
Balistes 328 
Barbastellus 75 
Barbus 313 
Barita 179 
Basiliscus . 276 
Bassaris 85 
Bathyergus 116 
Batrachia 285 
Batrachus . 309 
Bdellia 399 
Belemnites " 341 
Belidea 105 
Belone 315 
Beluga é 147 
Bembex 595 
Beroe 651 
Bethylus 180, 589 
Bimana 44 
Bipartiti 495 
Bipeltata 6 425 
Bipes 279 
Biphores 382 
Blaps : 531 
Blatta 558 
Blennius A 305 
Blepharis - 300 
Boa 281 
Bocydium . 569 
Bombinator . 287 
Bombus . 600 
Bombycella 182 
Bombycitis 610 
Bombylius 623 
Bombyx 610 
Bonasia 228 
Bonellia : 642 
Boops 297 
Bos 5 143 
Bostrichus 543 
Bothryocephalus 648 
Botryllus : 383 
Brachelytra 506 
Brachinus . : 494 
Brachiopodes 384 
Brachycerus 540 
Brachylophus 275 
Brachypteres 251 
Brachyura 412 
Bradypus 122 
Brama ; > 298 
Branchiobdellia . 400 
Branchiopoda 436 
Branchipus 425, 442 
Brentus 540 
Breviceps 287 
Brevipennes 232 
Brevirostres 540 
Brosmius 322 
Brotula 322 
Bruchus 539 
Bubo . 174 
Buccinoides : 362 
Buccinum 364 
Buceo . 216 
Buceros - ° 211 

3A 


710 


Budytes  . 
Bufo . 
Bulimus 
Bulla 
Bullea 5 
Buphaga 
Buprestis 
Bursatelles 
Busiris 
Buteo 
Buterinus 
Byrrhus 


C. 


Cecilia c 
Calamophilus 
Calandra 
Calidris 
Caligides 
Caligus ; 
Callichroma 
Callichthys 
Callidium 
Callionymus 
Callithrix 
Callitriche 
Callomys 
Calocephala 
Calotes 
Calyptomena 
Calyptrea . 
Camacea 
Camelus . 


. 


Cameleopardalis 


Campophaga 
Cancer 4 
Cancroma . 
Canis 
Cantharidiz 
Cantharus 
Capra’ . 
Capras ' 
Caprella. 
Caprimulgus 
Capromys 
Capsa 5 
Capuloides 
Capulus 
Carabus . 
Carabici . 
Carabus 
Caranx 6 
Carapus 
Carcharias . 
Carcinoida 
Carcinus 
Cardita 
Cardium . 
Carduelis . 
Carides 
Carinaria . 
Carnaria . 
Carnivora 
Carnivora . 
Carnosi 
Carpomyza 
Caryocatactes 
Casmarynchus 
Cassicus 
Cassida 
Cassidaria . 
Cassidarize 
Cassis 
Castor 
Casuarius 
Catarrhactes 
Catarrhini 
Cathartes 
Catoblepas . 
Catostomus 
Cavia . 3 
eee 
eblepyris 
Gino: a 
Cebus 
Cecidomya 


Cecrops 


Cellularia z 


Centenes . 
Centracion + 
Centrina 
Centriscus 
Centronotus : 
Centropus 
Cephalopodes 
Cephaloptera 
Cephalopterus 
Cephalotes 
Cephus 
Cerambycini 
Cerambyx 
Cerastes 6 
Cerathopthalma . 
Ceratophyta 
Cercolabes 
Cercoleptes 
Cercomys 
Cercopides 
Cercopithecus 
Cercyon 
Cereopsis 
Cerithium 
Certhia 5 
Cervus 
Cestoidia 
Cestum 
Cetacea 
Cetharinus 
Cetonia 
Cetoniides . 
Ceyx . 
Chetodon 
Chetopterus 
Chetura 
Chalceus 
Chalcis 
Chalybeus 
Chama 
Chamelio . 
Chanteuses 
Charadrius 
Chatoessus 
Chauliodus . 
Cheilinus . é 
Cheilodactylis 
Cheirogaleus 
Cheiromeles 
Cheiromys 
Cheiromys 
Cheironectes 
Cheiroptera 
Chelicerz 
Chelifer 
Chelmon . 
Chelonia . 
Chelonia . 
Chelydra 
Chelys : . 
Chermes . ° 
Chersydrus 
Chilognatha 
Chilopoda . 
Chimera 
Chimera . 
Chinchilla . 
Chiones 
Chirocentrus 
Chironectes 
Chironomus 3 
Chirotes 
Chirus 6 
Chiton 
Chitonellus 
Chizeris . 5 
Chlamyphorus 
Chloromys 
Cholzepus 


Chondropterygii- 


Chondrus 
Chromis 
Chrysis 
Chrysochloris 
Chrysomela 


279, 


269, 


INDEX. 


Chrysophris 
Cicada 
Cicadarie 
Cicadella 
Cicadellines 
Cicindela 
Cicindelide 
Ciconia 
Cimbex ‘4 
Cimex 
Cinclus 
Cineras 
Cinnyris 
Circaetus  . 
Circus 
Cirrhatula 
Cirrhibarba 
Cirrhinus 
Cirrhopodes 
Cissopus 
Cistela 
Citigrades . 
Cladobates 
Cladocera 
Clangula 
Clausilia 
Clavicornes 
Claviger 
Clavipalpi 
Cleodora 
Clepsines 
Clepticus 
Clerus 
Climene 
Clinus 9 
Clio . 
Clupea : 
Clupeidz 
Clytus 
Cobites 
Coccinella . 
Coccothraustes 
Coccus : 
Coccyzus 
Ceelogenys 
Coenurus . 
Colaris 5 
Coleoptera 
Colius 
Coluber 
Columba 
Colymbus 
Comephorus 
Concholepas 
Condylura 
Conger 
Conia A 
Conirostres 
Conopophaga 
Conops ' 
Conus . 
Coprophagi 
Coracias 
Coralliferi 
Corallina 
Corbis 4 
Corbula . 
Cordylus 
Coregonus 
Coriacea . 
Coricus A 
Corine 6 
Coriocella . 
Corophium 
Corticati . 
Corvus 
Coryphena 
Corythaix 
Corythus 
Cossus 
Cossyphus 
Cottus 
Coturnix 
Crabronides 
Crania 
Crassatella 
Crax 


310 
655 
362 
428 
658 
203 
301 
220 
201 
610 
533 
295 
229 
596 
385 
376 
224 


Crenilabrus - 
Creophile c 
Crepidula ‘ 
Crepuscularia 


Creusia 3 
Crex . ° 3 
Cricetus . e 
Crimata 6 . 
Criniger . . 
Crispus 2 
Crioceris . 
Cristatella 
Crithoderes 
Crocodilurus 
Crocodilus 
Crossarchus 
Crotalus 
Crotophaga 
Crustacea 
Crypsirina 
Cryptocephalus . 
Cryptonyx 5 
Cryptopoda ; 
Cryptoprocta 
Cryptostoma 
Crypturus 
Ctenodactylus 
Ctenomys 
Cucujus 
Cuculine . 
Cuculus 

Culex y 
Culicides . 5 
Cultrirostres 
Curanxamores 
Curculio 
Curruca 
Cursoria F 
Cursorius . : 
Cuscus 
Cyamus . 
Cyanea : 5 
Cybium : 
Cychla : A 
Cyclas cE : 


Cyclica 4 * 
Cyclobranchiata 
Cyclostoma 
Cyclostomata 
Cyclocotula 
Cyclops i 
Cyclopterus 
Cygnus 
Cymbulia . 
Cymindis 
Cymothoada 
Cynips 0D 
Cynocephalus 
Cynogale 
Cynomys . ° 
Cyprza 5 5 
Cyprina ; 
Cyprinide . 
Cyprinodon 
Cyprinus . 
Cypris Z 
Cypselus . 
Cyrena : < 
Cyrtus 
Cysticercus 
Cystophora 

D. 
Dacne : & rc 
Dacnis : 
Daphne 9 
Daphnia 
Dasyprocta . 
Dasypus 
Dasyurus 
Decapoda 
Decatoma A 
Decempoda . 


Delphinapterus . 
Delphinula . 
Delphinus 


¥: 


374 
440 
120 
124 
103 
410 
627 
428 
147 
358 
140 


Delphinorhynchus 146 
Delttoides . ~ 612 
Dendrocolaptes . 206 
Dendronessa 266 
Dendrophis 282 
Dentalium 393 
Dentex 297 
Denticrura 507 
Dentirostres 178 
Depressa . . 507 
Dermaptera : 556 
Dermestes . 518, 521 
Desmodus 6 71 
Diadema 386 
Diaperis 533 


Dibathryorhynchus 648 
Diceum ss. 5 207 


Dicerates 377 
Dichelestium 448 
Dicrurus 5 183 
Didelphis 102, 104 
Didus : 234 


Digitigrada . 87 
Digramma 
Dinops : 5 70 


Diodon 148, 328 
Diomedea 257 
Diphyes. . 652 
Diphyllides 353 
Diplolepariz 587 
Diploptera 596 
Diplostoma 116 
Diptera 615 
Dipterodon 298 
Dipus 115 
Dircea 535 
Discine 385 
Discoboli 324 
Diurna o 605 
Dolabella . 354 
Dolichocera 635 
Dolichopus 624 
Dolychonyx 199 
Donacia 550 
Donax 378 
Doras 0 G 317 
Dorcus 5 5 529 
Doris 351 
Dorsibranchiata . 393 
Dorthesia 573 
Doryphorus 5 275 
Draco 3 ; 276 
Drimophilus 182 
Dromas 241 
Dryinus : 283 
Dryophis  . 5 283 
Dryops 4 519 
Dycoteles . 5 131 
Dynastes_ . > 525 
Dysopus . 6 70 
Dysporus . 260 
Dytiscus 503 
E. 
Echeneis  . : 324 
Ecphimotes 277 
Echidna 127 
Echinodermata 639 
Echinops  . “ 78 
Echinorhynchus 646 
Echinosorex . 78 
Echinus 640 
Echis : 284 
Echymys . . 112 
Eclacates 300 
Edentata 122 
Edolius 183 
Edriopthalma 425 
Elanus 170 
Elaps 284 
Elater ° 509 
Elenchus . 615 
Eleotris 307 
Elephas 128 
Eleutherata 491 
Elops . . 321 


Emarginula 
Emberiza 
Empis a 
Emys 

ine llosiiories 
Encrinus 
Engidites 
Engraulis 
Enterion 


Entomostegues . 


Entomostraca 
Entozoa. 
Eolidia : 
Epeira c 
Ephemera 
Ephippus 
Epibulus 
Epicardes 
Epimachus 
Eques © 
Equula 
Equus 4 
Erebus 
Erethizon 
Erinaceus 
Erinomys 
Eriomys 
Erolia 
Erotylus 
Erpeton . 
Erythrinus 
Eryx . 
Esocide . 
Esox 
Estrilda 
Etheria . 
Eudytes 
Eulabes 
Eumorphus 
Eunice : 
Euphonia 
Euphrosine 
Euplocomus 
Eupoda 
Eurinorynchus 
Europyga 
Eurylaimus 
Euryotis . 
Evaniales . 
Exocetus . 
Exochnata 


Falco . . 
Falcunculus 
Fasciola 
Felis. 
Feronia A 
Fiber . . 
Ficedula . 
Fileuses 
Filaria 
Filiformia . 
Firola : 
Fissilabra . 
Fissirostres 
Fissurella . 
F.stularia 
Fistularia 
Flabellines . 
Flaviceps 


Florales, (Tipules) 


Forficula 
Foenus 
Formica 
Foraminiferes 
Fossores  . 
Fratercula . 
Francolinus 
Fregilus. 
Fringilla 
Fulgora . 
Fulica . A 
Fuligula 
Fungicola 


369 
198 
622 
270 
343 
640 
518 
321 
397 
343 
434 
643 


166 
180 
647 

94 
498 
ll¢ 
189 
454 
644 
429 
357 
506 
194 
368 
311 
381 
353 
649 
621 
557 
585 
591 
343 
593 
254 
229 
208 
198 
568 
249 
264 
554 


F ung ivores,(Tipules) 619 


INDEX. 


| 


Fungulus . 
Furcularia 
Fusus 


Gadide 

Gadus 4 
Galeopithecus 
Galathadex 
Galaxius . 
Galbula 
Galeodus  . 
Galius 4 
Galeruca 
Gallicole 


Gallicoles, (tip ules) 6 


Galline 
Gallingecta. 
Gallinula 
Gallus : 
Gammarine 
Gammarus 
Garrulus  . 
Gasteropteron 
Gastrochena 
Gasteropodes 
Gastrobanchus 
Gastropelicus 
Gastroplax 
Gebia 
Gelatinosi 
Gempylus . 
Genetta 
Geocorise 
Geometride 
Geomys 
Georychus 
Geospiza 
Geotrupides 
Gerbillus 
Glaucopis 
Glareola 
Glaucus  . 
Globicephalus 
Glomeride 
Glossata 
Glossophaga 
Glossoporis 
Glossus 
Glyceris 
Gupisedon 
Gobia 
Gobiesox 
Gobiode 
Gobius 
Goliathus 
Gomphosus 
Gonorynchus 
Gonocephalus 
Gonyleptes 
Gordius 
Gorgonia 
Graculus 
Gralle 
Grallaria 
Grallina 
Grandipalpi 
Graphyurus 
Graucalus 
Grus 
Gryllotalpa | 
Gryllus 
Gryphea 
Guarica 
Gulo ° 
Gymnarchus 
Gymnetrus 


©. (OR ouaite canes e9 


Gymnocephalus . 


Gymnoderes 
Gymnodontes 
Gymnops 


Gymnomyzides . 


Gymnotus . 
Gymnura 
Gypaetos 


314 


Gypogeranus 
Gyrinus 


H. 


Habia : 
Hematopus 
Hematornis 
Hzmocharis 
Hemopis 
Hemulon 
Haladroma 
Halcyon 
Halizetus 
Halicherus 
Halicore 
Halictophagus 
Halieus 
Haliotis 
Halithea 
Halmaturus 
Haltica 
Hamites 
Hapale 
Harpagus 
Harpaliens 
Harpalus . 
Harpyia 
Helamys 
Helianus 
Helicostegues 
Helictis 
Heliornis 


“Helix 


Helops 
Hemerobius 
Heniochus 
Hemipodius 
Hemiptera 
Hemiramphus 
Hepialites 
Hepialus 
Heptratemus 
Herpethotheres 
Herpestes 
Hesione 
Hesostoma 
Hesperia. 
Heterobranchus ~ 
Heterocerus 
Heterodon 
Heterogyna 
Heteromera 
Heteropa 
Heteropoda 
Heteroptera 
Hians ce 
Himantopus 
Hippides  . 
Hippobosca 
Hippocampus 
Hippoglossus 
Hippolyte 
Hipponyx 
Hippopotamus 
Hippopus 
Hirudo 
Hirundo 
Hispa 
Hister 
Hoazin 
Holetra 
Holocanthus 
Holostoma 
Holothuria 
Homogenea 
Homopoda 
Homoptera 
Hoplides 
Horia 
Hurria 
Hyena 
Hyalea 
Hybotini 
Hydra : 
Hydrachna 
Hydrachnelle 


69, 


712 


Hydrobata 
Hydrocanthari 
Hydrocherus 
Hydrocorise 
Hydrocyon 
Hydrometra 
Hydromys 
Hydrophilus 
Hydrophis 
Hydromyzides 
Hydrostatica 
Hydrus : 
Hylobates 
Hymenoptera 
Hyodon 
Hyperoodon 
Hypocera 
Hypostomus 
Hypsiprymnus 
Hypudeus 
Hyrax P 
Hystrix 


Ibis : 
Ichneumon 
Icthyosaurus 
Icterus o 
Ictides ‘ 
Idoteides  . 
Iguana : 
Inclusa 5 
Indicator . 
Ineguitele 


Ot Ono 0 


Je at ye Senet 


Inferobranchiata 


Infusoria . 
Insecta 5 
Insectivora 
Inuus c 
Inis . 5 
Isocardia . 
Isopoda. 
Istiophorus  ~ 
Istiurus : 


Tulide 

Tulus 5 
Ixodes 

Je 
Jacapa : 
Jacchus 6 
Janthina 
Julis . o 
K. 


Kerodon . 
Kleistagnatha 


Kurtus 5 
1. 
Labeo . 
Labias C 
Labrax 5 
Labride . 
Labrus . 
Lachnolaimus 
Lemodipoda 
Lagomys . 
Lagopus. 
Lagostomus 
Lagothrix 


Lagotis 5 
Lagriari# 
Lamellicornes 
Lamellirostres 
Lamia 3 
Lamna 
Lampris 
Lamprotornis 
Lampyristes 
Langaha 
Lanio ; 
Laniogerus 
Lanistes 


oie) ey eho! (6 wt Wie! ot oe, el 


© 18) pce 


Om Wie eee ee 


Lanius 
Larrates . 
Larus 
Laterigrades 
Latraria 
Leiolepis . 
Lemmus 
Lemur 
Leparus 
Lepas . 
Lepidogenys 
Lepidogaster 
Lepidoleprus 
Lepidoptera 
Lepidopus 
Lepisma . 
Lepisosteus 
Leposoma 
Leptimus 
Leptis é 
Leptocep halus 
Leptonyx 
Leptopodites 
Leptosomus 
Leptura 
Lepus 
Lernea 6 
Lernziformes 
Lestris 
Leuciscus . 
Libellula. 
Lichanotus 
Lichia 4 
Ligula . 
Lima 
Limacine . 
Limax 
Limictis . 
Limnadia 
Limneza 
Limneus 
Limnoria 
Limosa 
Limulus 
Lingula 
Linaria 
Lipurus 
Lithobius 
Lithodermis 
Lithodomus 
Lithophyta 
Lithotrya . 
Litiopa 
Littornia 
Lituus 
Lixus 
Loarcus 
Lobipes 
Lobotes 
Locusta 5 
Locustella 
Locuste ° 
Loligo 
Lombrinereis 
Loncheres 
Longicornes 
Longipalpi 
Longipennes 
Longirostres 
Lophiodon 
Lophius. 
Lophobranchii 
Lophophorus 
Lophotes . 
Lophura . 
Lophyropa . 
Lopbyrus 
Loricaria . 
Loripes 
Lota: : 
Loxia a 
Lucanus 
Lucernaria 
Lucina 
Lumbricus 
Lutra 6 
Luvarus 


Oe ete cel er ie 


al ‘e) <@) of ve 


©) Jee #)ce: le) erie: ks 


INDEX. 

178 Lycidice . 
595 Lycoris 2 
257 Lyctus < 
461 Lymexylon 
380 Lyriocephalus 
275 Lytta 5 
114 

63 

324 a 
385 Macacus . 
167 Machetes . 
324 Machilis . 
322 Macrodactyla 
603 Macrodactyli 
302 Macropodus 
487 Macropteronotes 
321 Macropus 
275 Macrorhinus 
624 Macroscelides 
624 Macroscus 
326 Macrura 

95 Mactra é 
635 Madrepora 
234 Magelus 5 
548 Maia 6 
118 Makaira. 
645 Malacanthus 
447 Malacodermi 
258 Malacopterygii 
313 Malacostraca 
574 Malaptheurus 
64 Malleus 

300 Mallotus 
649 Malthus 

372 Malurus 
344 Mammalia . 
347 Manatus 

93 Mangusta 
441 Manis C 
375 Manorrhinus 
350 Mantis é 
432 Margarita . 
244 Marsupiata 
444 Martes : 
384 Masaris 5 
199 Mastigus . 
106 Mastodon . 
486 Mecistura . 
642 Medusa : 
375 Megacephali 
658 Megaderma 
386 Megalonyx 
360 Megalops 
359 Megalopterus 
341 Megalotis 
541 Megapodius 
306 Megatherium 
246 Melampes 
296 Melanie . 
561 Melasoma 
191 Meleagris . 
418 Meles 

340 Meliphaga 
395 Melithreptus 
112 Melitophili 
544 Melitta 

506 Mellifera 
255 Mellivora 
540 Meloe . 
133 Melogale . 
308 Meloiontha 
326 Melolonthides 
225 Melyris 0 
303 Membracis 
275 Menide . 
436 Menobranchus 
275 Menochirus 
317 Menopoma 
378 Mephitis . 
322 Mergus 6 
201 Meriones 
52¢ Merlangus 
654 Merluccius 
378 Merops 
397 Microcebus 
89 Microcephala 
301 Microdactylus 


. 


oe © we ew 


21 elieehire 


‘959, 


Microptera 
Micropteres 
Micropthira 
Microstoma 
Micrurus . 
Midas 
Milavis 
Miliobatis 
Milltpora 
Milvus 2 
Mimus 
Minas “ 
Minyas : 
Modiolus. 
Mcenura 
Molenesia 
Mollusca . 
Molossus . 
Molpadia 
Monacanthus 
Monas 
Monasa ° 
Moiuitor 5 
Monoculus 
Monodon 
Monophores 
Monopteras 
Monotoma 
Monotremata 
Mordella . 
Mormoops 
Mormyrus 
Morphnus 
Morrhua 
Moschus . 
Motacella . 


Motella 
Muettes ° 
Mugil 5 
Mulleria 
Mullus C 
Murena z 
Murenoides 
Murex - 
Mus 
Musca 3 
Muscicapa 
Muscipeta 
Musophaga 
Mustela 6 
Mustelus 
Mutilla , 
Mya . : 
Mycetes : 
Mycetophagus 
Mycteria . 
Mycterus . 
Mydas c 
Mydaus : 
Mygale - 
Myodaires 
Myopotamus 
Myothera 
Myoxus 
Myriapoda 
Myrmecobius 
Myrmecophaga 
Myrmeleon 
Mysis 
Mystus 
Myteles 
Mytelus 
Myxine 5 
Myxodes . 
N. 
Naia 
Nais . 
Naseus 
Nasua : 
Natantes . 
Natica 5 
Naucrates 
Nautilus 
Necrophorus 
Nectarinea 


mitt a 


148, 


perieye) tes Te yee: (6) sins: ie 
oo 
LZ) 
. 


80, 


2) Jest pt te 


ee 
Tr 


Nematoidea 
Nemocera 
Neophron 
Nepa C 5 
Nephelis  . . 
Nephthys 
Nereiphylla 
Nereis ‘ 
Nerita : 5 
Nerpestus 
Neuroptera 
Nirmidea 
Nisus & 
Nitidula 
Nocthorus 
Noctilio 
Noctua 
Nocturna 
Noctuelites 
Nomeus 
Notacantha 
Notacanthus 
Notarchus 
Notidanus 6 
Notonecta C 
Notopoda 5 
Notopterus 
Notoxus . & 
Nucula _ : 
Nudibranchiata . 
Numenius 
Numida . 
Nummulites 
Nycteribia 
Nycteris 
Nyctebius 
Nycticeus 
Nyctiornis 
Nyctocleptes 
Nyctonomus 
Nyctophilus 5 
Nymphipara é 
Nymphon 5 
Nyssoniens : 


O. 


Schthosia ‘ 
Octodon . : 
Octopus. 6 
Oculina é ‘ 
Ocypterus 
Odonata. 3 
Odontognathus . 
Cidemera 
CEdicnemus A 
Cistrus c 
Oidemia 
Oligodon 
Olistus 
Omaloptera 
Onchidium 
Ondatra. 
Ongulina . 
Oniscides 
Oniscus 
Onocrotalus ‘ 
Opatrum : 
Ophelina 
Ophicephalus 
Ophidia 
Ophidinm 
Ophisaurus 
Ophisurus 
Ophyressa 
Opisthocomus 
Opistognathus 
Opistolophus 
Oplocephalus 
Oplurus 
Orbicula F 
Orbiculata 3 
Orbitelz 
Orbulites 
Orcynus 
Oridlus 3 
Ornithorhynchus 


‘175s 


431, 


Ortalida 
Orthoceratites 
Orthocerus 
Orthogoriscus 
Orthonyx 
Orthoptera 
Ortygis 

Ortyx 
Orycteropus 
Osmerus 
Osphromanus 
Osteopera 
Osterglossum 
Ostracion 
Ostracoda 
Ostrea : 3 
Otaria : . 
Otion 

Otis 

Otolicnus 
Otolithus 
Otomys 

Otus 

Ourax 

Ovalia 

Ovis . 
Ovula . 
Oxyrynchus 
Oxyuri . 


Pp. 


Pachydermata 
Pachyptela 
Padolla 

Pagelus 

Pagrus 
Paguriens 
Pagurus 
Palemon - 
Paleotherium . 
Palamedea 
Palathea 
Palinurus 
Palmipedes 
Palmyre 2 
Palpatores . 
Palpicornes 
Paludina 
Pandion 

Pandora 

Panorpa 

Papilio 
Paradisea 
Paradoxornis 
Paradoxurus 
Parasita > 
Pardalotus o 
Parenchymata 
Parmacella 
Parmophorus 
Parnus 

Parra 

Parus 

Passalus 
Passerine 

Patella . 
Patellimani 
Paussus 

Pavo : 
Pecten f ; 
Pectinibranchiata 
Pectunculus 
Pedetes 
Pedicellaria 
Pedicellata 
Pediculus 
Pedipalpi 

Pedum 

Pegasus 

Pelagius . 
Pelamides 
Pelicanus 

Peloris 

Peltis 

Pemphoris 
Penelope 


‘116, 


INDEX. 
224 Pennatula 
341 Pentalasmis 
532 Pentamera 
328 Pentastoma 
187 Pentatoma 
556 Pentobdella 
229 Peprilus 
229 Perameles 
125 Percidz 
319 Perdix : 
304 Periopthalmus 
120 Peripatus 
321 Perna 
329 Pernis 
438 Peronza 
371 Perodicticus 
99 Petaurus 
386 Petromyzon 
235 Phenicopheus 
65 Phenicopterus 
296 Phaeton 
115 Phalacrocorax 
173 Phalena 
224 Phalena-tortrix 
430 Phaienites 
142 Phalangista 
363 Phalangium 
203 Phalaropus 
589 Phascalomys 
Phaleris 
Phascocheres 
Phascogale 
128 Phascolarctos 
257 Phasianella 
368 Phasianus 
297 Phasma 
297 Phibalura 
417 Philedon 
418 Philomela 
421 Phoca 
132 Phocena 
248 Pholas 
378 Phora 
418 Phryganea 
251 Phrynus. 
396 Phthiridium 
515 Phthiromyiz 
520 Phycis 
359 Phyllidia 
168 Phylliroes 
380 Phyllodoce 
577 Phyllopa 
605 Phyllophaga 
205 Phyllosoma 
201 Physa 
93 Physalia 
488 Physeter 
180 Physignathus 
646 Physsophora 
348 Pica . : 
369 Picumnus 
519 Picus 
247 Piezata 
197 Pileolus 
529 Pileopsis 
177 Pimelepterus 
369 Pimelia 
499 Pimelodes 
542 Pimpla 
225 Pinna 
371 Pinnipedes 
357 Pinnigrada 
374 Pinnotheres 
115 Piophila 
655 Pipa 
639 Pipra 
488 Pisces 
465 Pithecia 
372 Pitta 
327 Pitylus 
99 Plabucus 
284 Placuna 
259 Placunomia 
371 Planaria 
516 Planaxis 
298 Planipennes 
224 Planorbis 


609, 


Plantigrada 82 
Platalea 242 
Platax 298 
Platurus 284 
Piatypezine 625 
Platypus. « 1az 
Platyrrhini 60 
Platyrynchus 181 
Platysoma . 544 
Plecotus . é 75 
Plectognathi 327 
Plectrophanes 198 
Plesiops 311 
Plesiosaurus 279 
Pleurobranchea . 354 
Pleurobranchus . 354 
Pleuronectes 323 
Pleurotoma 358 
Plicipennes 580 
Ploceus é 199 
Plocobranchus 353 
Plotus 260 
Pneumodermon . 344 
Podargus 196 
Podiceps 252 
Podoa 252 
Podophthalma 410 
Podura : 487 
Podurellze 487 
Peecilia 314 
Pecilopoda $44 
Poephagomys 121 
Pogonias 215 
Poliodon 330 
Polistes 597 
Pollicipes 386 
Polyacanthus 304 
Polychrus 276 
Polyergus . ° 593 
Polygonata 430 
Polynemus ° 294 
Polynoe 396 
Polyphemus ° 439 
Polyplectron 225 
Polypi 653 
Polyxenidz 485 
Pomacanthus 298 
Porphyria 249 
Porypterus 321 
Potamides 365 
Pressirostres 234 
Priapulus 542 
Priodon 303 
Prionii 545 
Prionites 209 
Prionodon 92 
Prionurus 333 
Pristigaster . 320 
Pristipoma 296 
Pristis 333 
Proboscidea 128 
Procellaria é 255 
Procnias 183 
Procyon 84 
Producta 385 
Promerops 209 
Proteles : 94 
Proteus 288, 660 
Psaris : 180 
Pselaphus . 556 
Psettus - . 298 
Pseudoboa 282, 28+ 
Pseudo-bombyces 610 
Pseudomys 113 
Pseudopus : 280 
Pseudo-scorpiones 467 
Psilopus 377 
Psittacus 218 
Psocus 580 
Psophia 237 
Psylla 570 
Pteraclis 302 
Pteroceras 367 
Pterocles 228 
Pterodactylus 276 
Pteroglossus 217 
Pteromys 1¢9 


———————— 


Pterophorites 
Pteropodes 
Pteropus . 
Pterotrachea 
Ptiloris 0 
Ptiniores 
Ptinus 
Puffinus 
Pulex 
Pulmonaria 
Pulmonea . 
Pupa 6 
Pupipara. 
Pupivora. 
Putorius 
Pycnogonides 
Pyralis 
Pyranga 
Pyrgita 
Pyrgo 
Pyrgoma 
Pyrochroa 
Pyrosoma 
Pyrrhocorax 
Pyrrhula . 


Q. 


Quadrilatera 
Quadrimani 
Quadrumana 
Querula 


OO Wy mk o 4 


R. 


Radiata é 
Raia . E 
Rallus o 
Ramphastos 
Rana 5 
Ranella : 
Raniceps . 
Rectigrades 
Recurvirostra 
Rediurus  . 
Regulus. 
Reithrodon 
Remipes . 
Reptilia. 
Rhagium . 
Rhinella. 
Rhinobatis 
Rhinoceros 
Rhinolophus 
Rhinopoma 
Rhipiptera 
Rhizomys 
Rhizostoma 
Rhombus . 
Rhyncaspis 
Rhynchea 
Rhynchenus 
Rhyncobdella 
Rhyncophora 
Rhyncops . 
Rhyncostoma 
Rhyngia 
Rhyngota . 
Ricinize s 
Ricinus : 
Ripiphorus 
Rissoa 
Rodentia 
Rostellaria 
Rotifera 
Ruminantia 
Rupicola . 
Rutilide 
Rytina 
Ryzena 4 


s. 


Saccomys 
Saccopharynx 
Sagra 4 
Sabella 


. 


Cece p thet Oral Ow) 


Saimiri 
Salamander 
Salanx 
Salarias S 
Salmo 
Salmonide 
Salpa 
Saltatoria 
Saltigrades 
Sanguisuga 
Saperda 
Sapyga 0 
Sarcoramphus 
Sarda 5 
Sargus 
Saturnia 
Satyris 
Sauria 
Saurothera 
Saurus 5 
Saxicola. 
Scalaria 
Scalops S 
Scalpellum 
Scansores 
Scaphidium 
Scaphites . 
Scarabeus 
Scarabes 
Scaritides . 
Scarus 
Scatomyzides 
Schilbus . 
Schizopoda 
Sciena 
Scienide . 
Scincus 0 


Sciuropterus 
Sciurus 5 
Sclerodermi 
Scolelepe . 
Scolex 2 
Scolia é 
Scolopax 
Scolopendra 


Scolopsides 
Scolytus . 
Scomber . 
Scomberesox 
Scopelus 
Scops 
Scopulipedes 
Scopus . 
Scorpena . 
Scorpio C 
Scotophilus 
Scutellaria 
Scutibranchiata 
Scyllea . 
Scyllium 
Scymnus . 
Scyris 
Scythrops 
Securifera 
Segrevata . 


Selachii 
Sepia 0 
Sepola 

Seps . d 
Septaria 
Seriola 5 


Serpula : 
Serrasalmus 
Serricornes 
Serropalpides 
Sertularia 
Seserinus 
Sesia . 5 
Setigera 
Siderolithes 
Sigalion 
Siganus 
Sigaretus 
Siliquaria 
Silpha ¢ 
Siluride 
Silurus 


INDEX. 

: 61 Simia . . 54 
6 287 Simnopithecus . 58 
: 315 Simplicia, (Acalepha) 650 
5 306 Simplicimani. 498 
; 318 Siphonaria 5 361 
5 318 Siphonostoma . 445 
5 382 Siphunculus 642 
q 560 Sirex . : 584 
: 464 Sitana 6 276 
5 399 Sitta 6 4 206 
° 548 Solarium : 358 
. 594 Solea - 324 
7 165 Solen 5 é 380 
° 299 Solenodon 80 
C 297 Solenostomus . 327 
5 610 Solidungula 5 133 
c 607 Somateria S 264 
C 272 Sorex C . 79 
0 214 Spagebranchus . 325 
4 319 Spalax . i 115 
189 Sparide s 297 
359 Spectrum j 559 
81 Spermophilus . 111 
: 386 Spheridiota 6 521 
; 211 Spheridium 5 521 
° 517 Spheromides , 432 
5 342 Sphargis mn 271 
c 522 Spheniscus : 255 
D 351 Sphex a 0 594 
: 495 Sphingides ° 608 
2 311 Sphinx : : 608 
C 634 Sphyrezna ; 294 

316 Spinax 5 33 
417, 422 Spio . , 395 
3 296 Spirifer . 384 
‘ 295 Spirobranchus . 304 
9 278 Spiropterus : 645 
. 110 Spirorbis A 392 
: 109 Spirula : ‘ 340 
: 328 Spondylus 3 372 
5 395 Spongia C : 660 
: 649 Squalus . 331 
, 594 Squamipennes . 297 
c 242 Squatina . é 332 
6 485 Squilla ‘ 0 424 
6G 296 Staphylinus 3 506 
: 542 Steatornis 196 
6 298 Stellio : 275, 277 
: 315 Stemmatopus . 99 
‘ 320 |° Stenarchus : 326 
é 176 Stenelytra : 533 
: 600 Stenocorus 2 548 
5 241 Stenops : 64 
295 Stenorhynchus . 98 
. 465 Sterna : 258 
C 75 Sternoptyx ; 320 
3 563 Sternoxi . é 508 
d 368 Stomapoda 423 
5 352 Stomatia . 5 368 
: 331 Stomias . : 315 
c 332 Stomoxys A 631 
: 300 Stratiomys 5 627 
= 215 Strepsilus 245 
> 582 Strepsiptera : 614 
‘ 382 Strepsirrhini A 63 
c 331 Strix : = 173 
5 339 Stromateus ; 301 
5 303 Strombus 5 366 
° 279 Strongylus : 645 
> 361 Struthio . . 232 
: 300 Sturnus 4 203 
: 391 Stycostegues  . 343 
: 319 Stygides . é 624 
5 508 Stylaria A 398 
c 535 Stylephorus : 302 
C 656 Stylops ; 5 615 
: 301 Subulicornes . 574 
« 609 Subulipalpi A 502 
. 397 Succinea . 4 349 
342 Suctoria. é 489 
396 Sudis 5 321 
303 Sula. 4 : 260 
362 Surnia 2 175 
368 Sus. 0 ; 130 
516 Syllis . 395 
316 Sylvia 189 
316 Synallaxis 206 


Synbranchus 
Syndactyli 
Synetheres 
Syngnathus 
Synistata . 
Synodontis 
Syphostoma 
Syren ¢ 
Syrnium , 
Syrphus. 
Syrrhaptes 


T. 


Tabanides 
Tabanus . 
Tachyglossus 
Tachypetes 
Tachyphonus 
Tadorna. 
Tenia : 
Tenide c 
Tenioidea 
Talpa . 
Tamia 5 
Tanagra. 
Tanatia ° 
Tantalus. 
Tanystoma 
Taphozous . 
Tapir 
Tarantula 
Tardigrada 
Tarentula 
Tarsius 5 
Taxicornes 
‘Taxidea 5 
Tectibranchiata 
Tellina : 
Temnodon 
Tenebrio 
Tenioides 
Tenthredo 
Tenuirostres 
Terebella . 
Terebellum 
Terebrantia 
Terebratula 
Teredo 6 
Tergipes 
‘Termes A 
Termitine 
‘Terrapene 


Terricoles (Tipules) 


Tersina 3 
Testacella . 
Testudo ; 
Tetanocera 


‘Tetragonopterus 


‘Tetragonurus 
Tetrapturus 
Tetralismis 

Tetramera 

Tetrao ° 
Tetraodon 

Tetraogallus 
Tettigonia 

Tetyra . 
Thalacomys 
Thalassidroma 
Thalia c 
Thamnophilus 
Thalassema 
Thelphuse 

Theraphoses 
Thethys C 
Theutyes . 
Thrips : 
Thryssa 0 
Thylacinus 

Thylacis 

Thymallus . 
Thynnus . 
Thysanoura 
Tichodroma 
Timoriennes 
Tinca ° 


P: 6 @) <0.-2e nel 8 


Wevewey emia ele Telia ie 


Oe ele: Henle: 


Of. cer 8 Oe OD Gao 


. 
. 
. 

. 


«PS 0 enne is! fe) (6) oyeel. 6: 


S] Legietseie) 6) ey epic: Je 


eo  ————————————— 


Tineites . 
Tipula : 
Todus é 
Tomicus 
Torpedo : 
Torquatrix 
Tortrix c 
Totanus 
Totipalmati 
Toxotes 
Trachearie 
Trachelides 
Trachinus 
Tragopan 
Trapelus”. 
Tremadotea 
Triacanthus 
Trichecus 
Trichides  . 
Trichiurus 


Trichocephalus 


Trichocerca 
Trichonotes 
Trichopodus 
Trichotropis 
Tricuspidaria 
Tridacna 


Trigla : 
Trigona a 
Trigoniz 
Trigonocephalus 
Trimera : 
Trineura. 
Tringa S 
Triodon a 
Actinia 


Aleyonium . 
Amphioxus . 
Aphidii 5 
Araneides . 
Arenicoli 

Argonauta . 
Ascidia . 


Balanus 5 
Belemnite . 
Biphora. 
Botryhi 
Bowerbankia 
Brachelytra 


Uamerines . 


oe Kee el ee Me 


Page 
702 
703 
664 
686 
674 
681 
667 
672 


666 
668 
670 
671 
698 
679 


669 


| 


INDEX. 
Trionyx . eee) Umbrina 
Triton 287, 385 Unio . : 
Tritonia ‘4 352 Unipeltata . 
Trochelus . : 207 Unogata . 
Trochetia . 399 Upupa : 
Trochoides 358 Urania 
Trochus 358 Uranoscopus 
Trogides 5 524 Uria . 6 
Troglodytes 192 Urocerata 
Trogon : 216 Uromastix 
Trogosita . 2 544 Uropeltis 
Tropidolepis : 275 Uroptera . 
Truncatipennes . 49+ Ursotaxus 
Trygon A 5 333 Ursus 
Tubicole . c 391 
Tubicolaria 5 661 Vv 
Tubifex 3 398 ; 
‘Tubipora 393, 655 Vagabondes 
Tubitele . 6 458 Vaginulus 
‘Tubulana 5 656 Valvata 
Tubulibranchiata 367 Vanellus . 
Tupaia : : 78 Vampyrus 
Turbinella A 366 Vanga : 
Turbo ; E 358 Velia : 
Turdus 5 18+ Venericardia 
Turrilites. ¢ 342 Venus 
Turritella . . 358 _| Vermetus 
Typhlops . z P1281 Vesiculosa 
Tyrannus . fi 181 Vespa 0 
veeetale 
etrura 
wh Vibrio 6 
Ulonata 5 : 556 Vidua : 
Ulula . 6 174 Vinago 2 
Umbrelia  . C 355 Vipera ° 


Cie Se thecr Or oO 


st 


COMO.OrPO tran OU ty oO 


INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 


Page 
Campanularia . 701 
Caryophyllia. 702 
Cebrionites . 6 679 
Cestracionts : 662 
Cieadide ., 686 
Clerii . ° : 680 
Comatula . 692 
Cyclica ° . 684 
Cydippe 695 
Echinus C : 693 
Elaterides . e 679 
Encrinus . * 693 
Ephemride 687 
Eupoda : 4 684 
Hydra. 2 : 700 


Lepidoids 
Loligopsis 
Lucanidse 


Medusa 

Melitophili . 
Muscide . 
Mutillide . 
Myriapoda . 


Nautilus. 


Octopus . 
Parasita . é 
Pectinibranchiata 
Pelagia ° . 


Viverra 
Voluta 
Volvox 
Vomer 
Vorticella 
Vulsella 
Vulpus 


a? fe) phe; ere! 10 


X. 


Xanthornus 
Xenopeltis 
Xenops . 
Xenos . 
Xiphias ; 
Xirichthys . 
Xylocopa . 
Xylophagi 
Xylophagus 
Xylophili . 
Xylotrogi . 
Xyphosura 


Yunx ‘ 


Z. 


Zapornia . 
Zeus . 
Zoea 
Zygena ' 
Zygodactyli 


Pentacuuus 
Perlides 

Physalia . 
Porophora . 


Rhynchophora 


Rotifer vulgaris 


Sauroid 5 
Squaloids . 
Suctoria . 


Trilobites . 
Thysanura . 


Zoanthus . 


rn 


(15 

s 92 
E 363 
- 661 
300 

. 655 
+ 373 
° 91 
202 

6 282 
«206 
615 

5 299 
: 310 
3 599 
4 542 
5 627 
e 524 
508, 514 
c 444 
ale 
: 249 
* 300 
437 

332, 609 
° 211 
Page 

. 693 
657 

5 696 
2 671 
. 683 
: 706 
° 662 
. 662 
: 677 
674 

: 677 
. 702 


INDEX OF POPULAR NAMES. 


Page | Page Page Page 
i Birds - 154 Civet 5 92 Douroucouli : 62 
Birds of Prey 6 163 Class, meaning of 15 Dove 0 é 231 
Addax * 3 139 Bison . 5 143 Coaita fs : 61 Dragon : E 276 
Adjutant. at 24 Bittern 0 - 240 Coal-fish . 3 1322 Dragoon-bird 182 
Agami 6 : 237 Black-bird : 185 Coatimondi P 85 Dragonet . 274, 308 
7s . , 120 Blenny 5 5 306 Cochineal insect. 573 Dragon- fly 4 574 
i : ;: 123 Blood, the .. 22 Cockatoo . - 219 Dromedary S36, 
Albatvis 4 $ 257 Oat oie 5 : 281 Cockle 5 : 377 Drongo < 2 183 
INVEVAMN ag EN) Boar-fish . . 301 Cockroach - 558 Duck 4 Bee Fe 128k} 
Alligator . s 273 Boat-bill . 3 239 Codie: : 5 322 Duckbill . A 127 
Amaduvat oe 200 Bobalink . 199 Coendou . 3 118 Dugong 2 145 
Amazon-ant S 592 Bombardier Beetle 494 Colin c ¢ 229 Dunnock : 191 
ANCHOVY i) 1821 Bongar 3 | Jee SBE Colugo a Le 76 Dzegguetai ass 
Angel-fish 4 332 Bot A o 630 Coly 3 9 201 
Angler ‘ . 308 Bottlehead 3 148 Condor 3 : 165 E, 
ie 216 Bottletit . 0 197 Condylure 81 Eagl 
Animals, general de- Bream 5 313 Conger . 325 Ragle! h : 167 
scription of . 19 | Breve Alpe e186) |p Coot - 249 | FF e-hawk 169 
Animal Kingdom, ge- Briley ee S2are ee Coral ee as M657 Rarwig a) gs! BO 
neral description of 32 | Brine-shrimp . 442 | Cormorant p59 Eel MSE 2 397 
Ant. 4 59) Bubow - 5 174 Coronard . 3 169 Eels vee c ° 325 
Ant-catcher 186 Butfalo Save 143 Coryphene ae #302) Ee S a paste . 660 
Ant-eater . . 126 Bur Ease clan epee 65 Gotingsa’ 5 2 482 Eide, - + 240 
Ant-lion. ; 577 Bulfinch =. : 201 Courser . - 237 El nek : ; zee 
Antelope . . 139 | Bunting . . 198 | Coua fre 1g 1d Electri He 170 
Apara 04: Burbot Sai BAAS Couasea 5 8 34 Bechace e - 326 
Roples blight | 572 Burying-beetle 516 Coucal Soe ees Ei EG oR 
Argali 5 142 Bustar« : 5 235 Courlan : c 239 E : ‘ B 137 
Argus : 5 227 Butterfly. : 605 Courol 0 : 214 ate OTe ae 
Aricari ; $ 217 Buzzard. ‘ 171 Cowries . . 362 ra ea “mot ° 10 
; yr ncoubert A 124 
Armadillo = 124 Coypu 5 117 Encrinit 
Articulated Animals 387 | Cc Crab . 5 ' 412 Bee c : 640 
Raspes) Saya ; Crab-louse aa ass Bue is CaS 
Assaphan . . 110 Cabassou . 5 125 Crake 5 A 249 F 
Atherure . 4 118 Cachalot . 5 148 Crane 5 5 237 ; 
Attagen. : 230 Cachicame ; 124 Crayfish. - 420 Falcinelle . 245 
Auk . : « 254 Caddice_ . 5 bitty Creeper. co 206 Falcon , ; 166 
Aulacodon 3 118 Cwing Whale . 147 Cricket 5 ; 560 Falconet i 180 
Averano : ; 183 Camel 3 : 135 Crinon 5 5 186 Falcopern é 167 
Avocet 5 5 247 Campanero : 183 Crocodile ; 272 Fauvette . E 190 
Aye-aye : f 110 Canary-bird 6 200 Crossbill  . : 201 Fennec : i 91 
Azurine. A 197 Canet : 5 116 Crow ° ; 203 Fieldfare , x 185 
Capelin 0 CLS Cuckoo : eels File-fish z 328 
B. Capuchin . D 61 Curassow 224 Finch i i 198 
Capybara 5 119 Curlew r 6 243 Finch-tanager . 184 
Babbler : : 190 Cardinal-finch . 201 Cuttlefish 339 Finfoot ‘ Fe 252 
Baboon C 59 Cariama : 237 Cymindue 6 169 Fire-fly x 2 / 516 
Babyroussa S150 Carle a eit MOBO Pa Flamingo . 250 
Badger : : 85 Carp . . 5 313 D. Flatbill 2 i 181 
Bald Tyrant C 182 Cassican . C 202 | Flea. i : 490 
Baltimore . 2 202 Cassowary : 233 Dab. 323 Flounder : 323 
Balysaur . : 86 Cat ; 94 Daddy Long-legs 619 Fluke PF i 647 
Bandicoot . : 104 Caterpillar- hunter 182 | Daman A 132 Fly E 632 
Banxring . : 78 Cavy . : 119 ! Death’s head Moth 608 Biventeiier Z 180 
Barbacou . : 215 Cedar-bird ” c 183 | Death-watch 514, 580 Forest-fly ¢ 637 
Barbel . 5 313 Cellular membrane 21 Deer . 5 137 Fowl 3 4 226 
Barbet . 215 Cephalot . ; 68 Delundung . 92 Fox . ¥ 91 
Barbican . 5 215 Chaffinch . : 199 Demoiselle . 238 Frigate- seal . 260 
Baritah 3 ° 179 Chameleon 5 278 Desman 9 80 Frog , 286 
Barnacle. A 263 Chamois . : 141 Diamond- beetle . 5 540 Functions, bodily, of 
Bathyergue : 116 Chat = : 5 189 Dipper : A 187 animals, 25. Intel- 
Basilisk. 5 276 Chauna . 5 248 Dingo c . 90 lectual , 28 
Bate 7. : 67 Cheirogale 5 65 Diver . . °C 251 
BE gg 83 Chigoe “1 490 Dodo : - 234 | G. 
Beaver 4 : 117 Chimpanzee 5 56 Dog . 3 lis 90 | 
Bee . a 3 601 Chincha. , 120 Dog-fish  . : 331 Gad-fly : S 626 
Bee-eater . oe, 209 Chinchilla : 120 Dolphin 2 : 146 Galago A 3 65 
Bethule : : 180 Chocard . é 188 Dor . ¢ : 524 Galet é > 92 
Bharsiale . 4 86 Choucari . 5 180 Dormouse 111, 113 Gallinazo J 105 
Binturong . 84 Chough . . 208 Dory Se SKID Gallinule - 249 
Bird-of-Paradise 205 Circulation 0b 37 Douc : = 58 | Gambet : é 246 


pment i 


Ganga 

fsannet . 
Gar-fish C . 
Garrot e 
Gastromargue 
Gauffre 

Gavial 0 
Gazelle 5 
Gecko 

Genet 

Genus, meaning of 
Gerbil ; 
Gibbon 
Gipsy-moth 
Giraffe 
Glow-worm 
Glutton : ° 
Gnat : 
Gnu 

Goat . 

Goat- moth — 


Goldfinch . 
Goliath-beetie 
Goose 6 
Gordian 

Gorfew 

Goulin = 
Goura b : 
Grackle O . 
Grampus c 
Grasshopper i 
Grayling . 
Great Atlas Moth 
Grebe 4 
Green-finch’ 
Griffin o 5 
Grison C 5 
Grosbeak . 3 
Ground Hog 
Groundling 
Grouse : 
Guacharo 

Guan 

Gudgeon . 
Guerlinguet 
Guillemot 
Guinea-fowl 
Guinea-pig 
Guinea-worm 
Gull C 6 
Gurnard : 
Gurniad 

Gyall 

Gymnode 


H. 


Haddock 
Hematorn 
Hake 
Halibut 
Halket 
Hamster 
Hare 
Harfang 
Harrier 


Hawk-moth 
Hedgehog f 
Hedge-sparrow . 
Heron - 
Herring. 
Hibou ° 
Hog 

Honey- guide 
Honey-sucker 
Hoodcap 

Hoopoe 2 
Hootia 

Hornbill 

Hornet : 
Hornet Moth 
Horse 

Howlet 


INDEX. 


Human species, va- 
rieties of 49 
Humble-bee 600 
Humming-bird . 207 
Hydra ¢ 284 
Hyena 94 
Ie 
Ibex 142 
Ibis 242 
Ichneumon 93 
Iguana 276 
Impeyan 225 
Indri 64 
Inia 148 
Instinct 30, 31 n. 
Intestinal Worms 643 
dis 
Jabiru 241 
Jacamar . 211 
Jacana 247 
Jackal 91 
Jackdaw 204 
Jaguar 95 
Jaguarondi 96 
Jay . c 204 
Jerboa 4 115 
Jerfalcon 167 
Jumping Hare 115 
K. 
Kangaroo . 105 
King-crab 444 
Kingfisher 210 
Kinglet 192 
Kinkajou , 85 
Kite 170 
Koala 106 
L. 
Lackey-moth 610 
Lady-bird 555 
Lama 136 
Lamprey 334 
Lancelet 334 
Lancet-fish 303 
Langarey 179 
Lapwing 236 
Lark . 196 
Leech 399 
Lemming . 114 
Lemur 63 
Leopard . 95 
Lily-beetle . 550 
Limpet 369 
Lindo 184 
Ling 322 
Linnet 199 
Lion . 95 
Lizard 274 
Lizard-seeker 214 
Loach 314 
Lobefoot 246 
Locust 56] 
Locustelle 191 
Loon 252 
Looper 612 
Lori 64 
Louse : 488 
Lump-fish 324 
Lycaon 91 
Lynx 96 
Lyre-tail 189 
M. 
Macaque 58 
Macartney 227 
Macauco 64 
Maccaw 219 
Mackerel 298 
Magot 59 


Magpie - - 204 
Magpie-moth 604, 612 


Maigre ; 296 
Malkohah - 215 
Malmac 5 : 65 
Man . _ 44 
His peculiar confor- 
mation 45 
Physical and moral 
developement 47 


Manakin . ¢ 193 
Manati 5 : 145 
Mandrill . A 59 
Mangue 5 ° 93 
Marinot = ‘ 110 


Marmoset C 62 
Marten 3 s 88 
Martin 5 . 195 
Mastodon . 3 129 
Matamata : 272 
Mealy-bug : 573 
Meat-fly  . 4 633 
Medullary matter 21 
Merganser c 266 
Midge . 5 619 
Mina C ° 187 
Minnow. 7 314 
Mite 5 ; 469 
Mocker : 185 
Moco c ° 119 


Mole . & 5 80 
Mole-cricket * 560 
Mole-rat . & 115 


Molossine sy. 69 
Monk. . 5 99 
Monkey 54, 57 


Morse ; 100 
Mosquito . 5 618 
Moth . A ; 608 
Moth-hunter : 195 
Mot-mot . 5 209 
Moucherolle ; 181 
Mouffion . : 142 
Mouse : é 112 
Mullet : > 304 
Muntjac. ° 138 


Musang 5 . 93 
Muscular fibre . 21 
Musk 6 ~ 136 
Musk-duck : 265 
Musk-ox . : 144 
Muskquash : 114 
Mussel x A 375 
Myrounga : 99 
N. 
Nandou : i 233 
Nape-crest : 220 
Narwhal : 148 
Natural History, de- 
finition of 13 


Natural method . 16 
Nereid ' 2 394 


Nerves, the 5 23 
Nicagua 2 - 170 
Nightingale : 190 
Noctules . . 70 
Noddy = - 258 
Nutcracker = 204 
Nuthatch . - 206 
Nutrition . 3 22 
Nut-weevil . F 541 
Nyctibune . 2 196 
Nyentek . a 89 
Nylghau. ° 141 
oO. 
Onagga . . 134 


Opossum. . 102 
Opossum Shrimp = 422 
Order, meaning of 15 


Organization ' 16 
Oriole - : 188 
Orthonet . : 187 
Ortygan . ° 229 
Orvet a 2 280 


Oryx 140 
Osprey 168 
Ostrich 232 
Otary 99 
Otter . 89 
Ouistiti 62 
Ounce 95 
Ourang 54 
Oviparous Vertebra- 
caer . a 153 
Owl i 173 
Ox ° “ 143 
Oxpecker 202 
Oyster c 5 371 
Oyster-catcher 236 
yee 
Paca\ = 3 120 
Panda ; C 84 
Pangolin . 126 
Panther fs 95 
Pardalote 180 
Parraqua . . 224 
Parrot 5 218 
Partridge 229 
Pauxi . 224 
Peafowl 225 
Peccary 131 
Pelican 259 
Penduline . 198 
Penguin 255 
Perch ‘ 293 
Periwinkle 358 
Pern 171 
Petaurist 105 
Petrel 255 
Pettychaps 192 
Phalanger 104 
Pheasant 226 
Philander 104 
Phyllostome . 70 
Piauhau 3 O 182 
Piculet O 213 
IRipviaets : C 130 
Pigeon 2 230 
Pika é 119 
Pike . ° 314 
Pilchard 320 
Pilot-fish 299 
Pine-finch 201 
Pintail-duck 266 
Pipe-fish  . 327 
Pipe-mouth 312 
Pipit 193 
Pitpit 203 
Plaice 323 
Plantain-eater 220 
Plover 235 
Plumage of Birds 159 n. 
Pochard = 264 
Pogge 295 
Pollock 322 
Pongo 55 
Porbeagle 332 
Porcupine 117 
Porpoise 147 
Potoroo 105 
Potto 64, 85 
Poultry 223 
Prairie Dog . lll 
Prawn 421 
Prion 257 
Pseudostome 116 
Ptarmigan . 228 
Puff-bird 216 
Puflin 254 
Puma 96 
Puss-moth 611 
Python 282 
Q. 
Quail 229 
R. 
Rabbit 119 
Raccoon 84 


718 

Raila 
Rain-fowl 
Rat = 
Ratel . 5 


Rattle-snake 
Raven 


Ray, |: 3 
Razorbill . 
Razor-fish 
Redstart 
Redwing 
Reedling 
Reindeer 
Respiration 
Roach 
Robin 
Rockling 
Roe . 
Role é 
Rolle . C 
Roller . 
Rook ; 
Rorqual 
Rose-beetle 
Roussette 
R 


e. 


Sagouin 
Saki . Q 
Salamander 
Salmon 5 
Sanderling 
Sandpiper . 
Sapajou : 
Sardine 
Sawfish 6 
Scabbard-fish 
Scale-insect 
Scinque 
Scorpion . 
Scoter 
Screamer 
Scytal 
Sea-bream 
Sea-devil 
Sea-hedgehog 
Seal A 
Sea-pike 
Sea-siug . 
Sea-wolf . 
Secretary 
Secretion 
Senses, the 
Serpent 
Sersine 
Shad 
Shark 


110, 112 


bie (6 6 %6 fo: fe (oe 6 0. e 


NDEX. 


Shearwater 256 Surn 175 
Sheathbill 250 Swallow 194 
Sheep : 142 Swan 261 
Shieldrake 265 Swift : . 194 
Shoveller 265 Sword-fish 2 299 
Shrew 79 
Shrew-mole 81 
Shrike 178 T. 
Shrimp 421 
Silk-worm 610 Tagnan a 
Skate 333 Tamandua 126 
Skimmer 258 Tamarin 62 
Skipjack 509 | Tanager 184 
Skua 258 | Tapeworm 648 
Skunk A 88 Taxel 86 
Sleeve-fish 340 Teal F 3 3 266 
Slow-worm at Teeth of Mammalia, 
Sloth 122 general remarks on 150 
Slug 348 Teledu 88 
Smelt 319 Temia 204 
Snail - 348 Tench 313 
Snipe | =-Gillien ge289 Tenrec 78 
Snipe-fish 312 Tern 258 
Snowfleck 198 Terrapin : 271 
Sokinak - {78 | ‘Thick-knee 235 
Sole = + nee Thread-worm 644 
Solitary-bee 599 Thrush : 184 
Sora . : 249 | Thunder-fish 317 
Souslik lll Tver 5 95 
Sparrow 199 Tiger-cat 95 
Sparrow-hawk 170 Tiger-moth 611 
Species =) 19589me Mano 230 
Spheniscan 255 Tit ‘ ‘ 197 
Spider e . 454 Toad 287 
Spider-catcher . 207 Tody 210 
Sponge ° ° 659 Tope 332 
Spoonbill 242 Tortoise 270 
Sprat - 320 Toucan a are 
Spring-bok 139 Touraco) + = 220 
Squirrel - + 109 | @ree-creeper . 206 
Stag - > -: 137 | trilobites . 449 
Stag-beetle . 529 Troopial 202 
Star-fish . 639 Trout é A 318 
Barling (2) ees) otrank-tish 329 
Stellarine 5 145 Tunny 299 
Steen-bok 5 140 Turbot ; 303 
Stentor, - + 60 | Turkey . . 296 
Sterrinck . C = Turnip-flea 553 
Stilt - + 24 Turnstone - 245 
Stilt-birds . 231 Turtle 271 
Stone-curlew . 235 Tyrant i 181 
Stork 240 
Storm-petrel ° 256 
Sturgeon 5 330 U. 
Sucking-fish - 324 
Sultana C a 249 Unau = 123 
Sunbird = 207 Urchin : 77 
Sun-fish 328 Ursal 100 
Surikate 93 | Urson 118 
THE END. 


Vv. 


Vampyre 
Varieties 


Vertebrate Animals 


Vicugna 
Viper 
Viscacha 
Vole . 
Volutes 5 
Vultern 4 
Vulture 


Waders 2 
Wagtail . 
Walrus 5 
Wapiti 
Wart-hog 
Wasp . 
Water-flea . 
Water-wagtail 
Waxbill ~~. 
Waxwing 
Weasel 
Weaver 
Weever 
Weevil 
Whale 5 
Whelk . 
Whidah , 
Whirlwig 
White Ant 
White Bait . 
Whiting . 
Widgeon 
Wire-worm 
Wolf 
Wolverine . 
Wombat 
Woodcock . 
Wood-leopard 
Woodpecker 
Worbles’ . 
Wrasse 
Wren . 
Wryneck 


Yak . : 
Yapach : 


Zebra . 
Zerda 
Zoophytes . 


71 
19 
35 
136 
284 
120 
114 
363 
226 
164 


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