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THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

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rG. & C. & H. CARVILL,

ee : IN FOUR VOLUMES OCTAVO,

ee

"THE ANIMAL KINGDOM,

ARRANGED IN CONFORMITY WITH ITS ORGANIZATION,
Ley THE BARON CUVIER.

Pp. RIELLE, i

yn, TRANSLATED F1 FROM THE F nit WITH NOTES 1 ADDITIONS

BY H. M. MMOURTRIE, MD, “ke, hes
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THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

ARRANGED IN CONFORMITY WITH ITS ORGANIZATION,

BY THE BARON CUVIER,

PERPETUAL SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF 8CIENCES, ETC. ETC. ETC. ?

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH,

AND ABRIDGED
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, &e.

BY H. M’MURTRIE, M.D. &c. é&c.

iy il Vee hile % & wl ‘

8 NEW YORK:
G. & C. & H. CARVILL.

MDCCCXXXITI,

Entcred according to the act of congress, in the year 1832, by G. & C. & H.
Carvill;in the clerk’s ‘office of the southern district-of NéWw -¥ rk: °

Philadelphia :
Printed by James Kay, Jun. & Co.
Printers to the American Philosophical Society.

- Nowc4, Minor Street.

1%

ae! oe,

aa wT

Is MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,

‘ iy

‘

IN THE FIRM BELIEF

ey ‘ *

. ‘
& ote. 's

THAT WHILE rr WILL BE roux ) TO AMUSE, AS CAR AS mesenger, is

BRING ALL THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES INTO A STATE
OF THE GREATEST ACTIVITY, IT WILL ALSO TEND TO.
PRODUCE THAT ELEVATION OF CHARACTER

WHICH INEVITABLY RESULTS

be

REMARKS.

In presenting this abridgement of the well known « Animal
Kingdom” of the Baron Cuvier to those who.are charged with
one of the most honourable and responsible offices of the
Republic, that of directing the education and forming the

minds of those into whose keeping its future prosperity and —

happiness must be inevitably committed, I beg leave: to
anticipate the possible charge of interested adulation, by de-
claring that I have no pecuniary concern in the work, which
is, exclusively and entirely, the property of its enterprising
publishers. .

To say that I am not interested in its adoption by our
Teachers, would be false, for 1 must confess I look anxiously

_ for that event, but from other motives than the “ auri fames.”?

The schools of continental Europe have long been supplied
with works on the Natural Sciences, more particularly so call-
ed, expressly prepared for that purpose by order of Govern-
ment, while here they are as yet among the desiderata. A
little reflection will soon convince every intelligent mind, that
an elementary course of Zoology may be pursued by the pupil,
without interfering with the usual matters to which alone his
attention is at present directed, and that of course the argu-
ment of ‘time lost’’ falls. te the ground. But when care-
ful Investigation shall have convinced it, that while of all
studies the one in question tends most powerfully tostrengthen
the n emory, , exercise the judgment, discipline the mind, and
brin; every intellectual faculty of the pupil into a state of the
greatest activity, it also tends to elevate his moral character to

7 $y. | WE 59634 |

pa

vl - REMARKS.

that lofty standard which is the necessary result of that train of

thought and inquiry which finally leads him from the creature to

the Creator, it will admit it to be ‘‘ time gained” and with the

- most usurious interest. The vast number and variety of facts

to be retained in this study, and the necessity of classing them
in the mind, begets a habit of mental activity, analysis, and
order, that is of incalculable value to the possessor in the com-
mon business of life, enabling him to disentangle and arrange
the most confused and chaotic matters with certainty and
despatch.

In compressing the four large volumes of my edition of the
“ Animal Kingdom” into its present form, I have endeavour-
ed to retain the whole of what I consider its great and leading
points, and as much of such of the details of the organization,
instincts and habits of the animals of which it treats, as could
with propriety be presented to the consideration of those
youthful minds for whose use it is intended. The whole has
been sedulously, and I hope so thoroughly expurgated, that
it may be placed in the hands of females, without the slightest
fear of their encountering a word or idea that could offend the
most fastidious delicacy, or sully that purity of imagination
and thought which forms one of the brightest ornaments of the
sex.
H. M’MURTRIE.

Pine Street, Philadelphia,
December 1831.

EXPLANATIONS.

Ir is always customary with writers on Natural History to
affix to every genus and species the name of its founder and
describer, and for.the sake of. brevity, when it is long, to
signify the same either by the first letter or syllable, where
that name is well known, and by putting it in full in the op-
posite case. Thus SIMIA, Lin., or L. means that Linnzus
is the founder of the genus Simia, and S. troglodytes, L.~ °
means that he first described that particular species of Ourang.
Most frequently, however, the contracted name refers to the ’
discoverer and describer of the species which precedes it.

L. or Lin. stands for ‘ : . Linneeus.

Fab., : , ‘ ; Fabricius.
Lat., ie ‘ . © Latreille.
Geoff, . , ‘ ' Geoffroy.

Illig., . sy A hes o *% a iiger.

Cuv., é a SO Mgt os Cuvier.

Fr. Cuv., . ‘ ; ; Frederick Guvier.
i ee : ; : Buffon.

Pall., : ; ; ; Pallus. é
Lam., ; : ; : _ Lamarck.

Gm., Gmelin,

‘wc. &, He.

> INTRODUCTION.

AS correct ideas respecting natural history are not very generally —

formed, it appears necessary to begin by defining its peculiar ob-
ject, and establishing rigorous limits between _ it and. Spiehbonrg

sciences. © ‘ge if

ee J. a ;
In our language and in’ most others, the word NATURE is vari-

ously employed. At one time it is used to express the qualities a
being derives from birth, in opposition to those it may owe to art ;
at another, the entire mass of beings which compose the universe ;

and at a third, the laws which govern those beings. It isin this —

latter sense particularly that we usually personify Nature, and,
through respect, use its name for that of its Creator.

Physics; or Natural Philosophy, treats of, the nature of these
three relations, and is either general or particular, General phy-

sics examines abstractedly each of the properties of those movable’

and extended beings we call bodies. That branch of them, styled
Dynamics, considers bodies in mass; and proceeding from a very
small number of experiments, determines mathematically the laws
of equilibrium, and those of motion and of its communication. Its
different divisions are termed Statics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics,
Mechanics, &c. &c., according to the nature of the particular bo-
dies whose motions it examines. Optics considers the particular
motions of light, whose phenomena, which, hitherto, nothing but ex-

periment has been able to determine, are becoming more numerous. °

Chemistry; another branch of general physics, exposes the laws

by which the elementary molecules of bodies act on each other; the
_ combinations or separations which result from the general tendency
of these molecules to re-unite; and the modifications which the va-

rious circumstances capable of separating or approximating them
B ,

~10— ; INTRODUCTION.
produce on that tendency. It is purely a science or experiment,
and is irreducible to calculation.

The theory of heat and that of electricity belong either to Dyna-
“mics or Chemistry, qreording to the point of view in which they are
considered.

_ * The ruling method in all the branches of general physics consists
~ in insulating bodies, reducing them to their greatest simplicity, in
bringing each of their properties separately into action, either by
reflection or experiment, and by observing or calculating the results;
and finally, in generalising and connecting the laws of these pro-
_ perties, so as to form codes, and, if it were possible, to refer them
_.to one single principle into which they might all be resolved.

' ‘The object of Particular Physics, or of Natural History—for
the terms are synonymous—is the special application of the laws .
recognised by the various branches of general physics to the numer-
ous and varied beings which exist in nature, in order to explain the
phenomena which each of them presents.

‘Within this extensive range, Astronomy also would be included;
but that science, sufficiently elucidated by Mechanics, and completely
subjected to its laws, employs methods differing too widely from
those required by Natural History, to prewes it to be cultivated by the
~ students of the latter.

Natural History, then, is confined.to objects which do not allow of
exact calculation, nor of precise measurement in all their parts.
Meteorology also is substracted fromut and united to general phy-
sics; so that, properly'speakingy-it considers only inanimate bodies
called minerals, and the different kinds of living beings, in all of
which we may observe the effects, more or less various, of the laws of
motion and chemical attraction, and of all the other causes analysed
by general physics.

- Natural History, in strictness, should employ similar methods with
the general sciences; and it does so, in fact, whenever the objects
it examines are sufficiently simple to allow it. This, however, is
but very rarely the case.

An essential difference between the general sciences and Natural
History is, that in the former, phenomena are examined, whose con-
ditions are all regulated by the examiner, in order, by their analysis,
to arrive at general laws; whereas in the latter, they take place under.
. circumstances beyond the control of him who studies them for the
purpose of discovering amid the complication, the effects of known

pwrRopuerroN. oe ee

sitios laws. He is not, like the experimenter, allowed to saieet
them successively from each condition, and to reduce the problem
to its eleménts—he is compelled to take it in its entireness, with all ©
its conditions at once, and can perform the analysis only in thought.
Suppose, for example, we attempt to insulate the numerous pheno-
mena which compose the life of any of the higher orders of animals; —
a single one being suppressed, every vestige of life is annihilated.

Dynamics have thus nearly become a science of pure calculation,
Chemistry is still a science of pure experiment; and Natural History,
in a great number of its branches, will long remain one of pure
observation.

These three terms TicGojontly designate the methods employed in
the three branches of the natural sciences; but in establishing be-
tween them very different degrees of certitude, they indicate, at the
same time, the point to which they should incessantly tend, in ig: &
to attain nearer and nearer to perfection.

Calculation, if we may so express it, thus commands Nature, bad te

determines her phenomena more exactly than observation’ can make —

them known; experiment compels her to unveil; while observation
pries into her secrets when refractory, and éndeavours to surprise
her.

There is, however, a principle peculiar to Natural History, which
it uses with advantage on many occasions; it is that of the conditions
of existence, commonly styled final causes. As nothing can exist
without the re-union of those conditions which render its existence
possible, the component parts of each being must be so arranged j
to render possible the whole being, not. only with regard to itse Es
but to its surrounding relations. ‘The analysis. of these conditions
frequently conducts us to general laws, as certain as those that are
derived from calculation or experiment.

It is only when all the laws of general physics and those which
result from the conditions of existence are exhausted, that we are
reduced to the simple laws of observation.

The most effectual method of obtaining these is that af compa-
rison. This consists in successively observing the same bodies in the
different positions in which nature places them, or in a mutual com-
parison of different. bodies; until we have ascertained invariable
_. relations between their structures and the phenomena they exhibit.

“These various bodies are kinds of experiments ready prepared by
Nature, who adds to or deducts from each of them different parts,

54
we
wi

Ce ee ae “ INTRODUCTION.

just as we might wish to do in our laboratories; showing us, herself,
at the same time their various results.

Tn this way we finally succeed in establishing certain laws by which

these relations are governed, and which are employed like those
that are determined by the general sciences.
_ (The incorporation of these laws of observation with the general
“a laws, either directly or by the principle of the conditions of exist-
“ence, would complete the system of the natural sciences, in render-
ing sensible in all its parts the mutual influence of every being. To
this end, should those who cultivate these sciences direct all their
efforts. _ :

All researches of this nature, however, pre-suppose means of dis-
tinguishing clearly, and causing others to distinguish, the bodies they
are occupied with; otherwise we should be continually confounding
them. Natural History then should be"based ‘on what is called a
System of Nature; or a great catalogue, in which all created beings
have suitable names, may be recognised by distinctive characters,

and be arranged in divisions and subdivisions, themselves named and
characterised, in which they may be found.
_ In order that each being may be recognised in this catalogue, it
must be accompanied by its character: habits or properties which
are but momentary cannot, then, furnish characters—they must be
drawn from the conformation.

There is scarcely a single being which has a simple character,
or can be recognised by one single feature of its conformation; a
union of several of these traits are almost always required to dis-
tinguish one being from those that surround it, who also have some
but not all of them, or who have them combined with others of
which the first is destitute. The more numerous the beings to be
distinguished, the greater should be the number of traits; so that to
distinguish an individual being from all others, a complete descrip-
tion of it should enter into its character.

It is to avoid this inconvenience, that divisions and. subdivisions
have been invented. A certain number only of neighbouring beings
are compared with each other, and their characters need only to
express their differences, which,, by the ‘supposition itself, are the.
least part of their conformation. Such a re-union is termed a genus.

The same inconvenience would be experienced i in distinguishing
genera from each other, were it not for the repétition of the opera-
tion in uniting the adjoining genera, so as to form an order, the

$ Sees Dg ae
ANTRopUCTION. © ~* 13

erders to form a class, gprs Intermediate subdivisions may also be
established. :

This scaffolding of divisions, the superior of which contain the
inferior, is called a method. It is in some respects a sort of dic-
tionary, in which we proceed from the properties of things to arrive
at theirnames; being the reverse of the common ones, in which we
proceed from the name to arrive at the property. eS

When the method is good, it does more than teach us names. — if
the subdivisions have not been established arbitrarily, but are based
on the true fundamental relations, on the essential resemblances of
beings, the method is the surest means of reducing the properties of
beings to general rules, of px pigeons them i in the fewest iy ters and
of stamping them on the memory.

To render it such, we apply an assiduous comparison of bellies,
directed by the principle of the subordination of characters, which
is itself derived from that of the conditions of existence. The parts
of a being possessing a mutual adaptation, some traits of character
exclude others, while on the contrary, there are others that require -
them. When, therefore, we perceive such or such traits ina being,
we can calculate before hand those that co-exist in it, or those. that
are incompatible with them. The parts, the properties, or the traits
of conformation, which have the greatest number of these relations
of incompatibility or of co-existence with others, or, in other words,
that exercise the most marked influence upon the whole of the being,
are called the important characters, dominating characters 3 the
others are the subordinate characters, all varying in degree.

ei

ics

by the consideration of the nature of the organ. When this is:im-
practicable, we have recourse to simple observation; and a sure mark
by which we may recognise the important characters, and one which
is drawn from their own nature, is their superior constancy, and
that in a long series of different beings, approximated according to
their degrees of similitude, these characters are the last to vary.

That they should bepreferred for distinguishing the great divisions,
and that in proportion as we. descend to the inferior subdivisions, we -
can also descend to subordinate‘and variable characters, is a rule
resulting equally from their influence and constancy.

‘There can be but one perfect method, whichis the natural method.
“We thus name an arrangement, in which beings of the same genus
are placed nearer to each other than to those of the other genera; the

&

“44 ha. ‘INTRODUCTION.

genera of the same order nearer than those of the other orders, &c.
&c. This method is the ideal to which Natural History should tend;
_ for it is evident that if we can reach it, we shall haye the exact and
complete expression of all nature. In fact, each being is determined

by its resemblance to others, and difference from them; and all these

relations would be fully given by the arrangement in question In
a word, the natural ‘method would be the whole science, and every
~ step towards it tends to advance the science to perfection.

Life being the most important of all the properties of beings, and
the highest of all characters, it is not surprising that it has in all ages
been made the most general principle of distinction; and that natu-
ral beings have always been separated into two immense divisions,

_ the living and the inanimate. .
Of Living Beings, and Organization in general.

If, in order to obtain a correct idea of the essence of life, we
consider it in those beings in which its effects are the most simple,
we quickly perceive that it consists in the faculty possessed by cer-
tain corporeal combinations, of continuing for a time and under a
determinate form, by constantly attracting into their composition a
part of surrounding substances, and rendering to the elements, por-
tions of theirown. —

Life then is a vortex, more or less rapid, more or less complicated,
the direction, of which is invariable, and which always carries along

“molecules of similar kinds, but into which individual molecules are
continually entering, and from which they are continually departing;
so that the form of a living body is more essential to it than its

matter.

As long as this motion subsists, the body in which it takes place is
living—it lives. When it finally ceases, i¢ dies. After death, the
elements which compose it, abandoned to the ordinary chemical
affinities, soon separate, from which, more or less quickly, results the
dissolution of the once living body. It was then by the vital motion
that its dissolution was arrested, and its elements were held in a tem-
porary union.

All living bodies die after a certain period, wine extreme limit
is fixed for each species, and death appears to’be a necessary conse-
quence of life, which, by its own action, insensibly alters the struc-
ture of the body, so as to render its continuance impossible.

INTRODUCTION. «© oy 15 P

In fact, the living body undergoes gradual, but continual changes, |
during the whole term of its existence. At first, it increases in
dimensions, according to proportions, and within limits, fixed for
each species and for each one of its parts; it then augments in den- -

sity in the most of its parts:—it is this second kind of change tbat 4 ‘2s ,

appears to be the cause of natural death.

If we examine the various living bodies more closely, we find thes
possess a common structure, which a little reflection soon causes us
to perceive is essential to a vortex such as the vital motion.

Solids, it is plain, are necessary to these bodies, for the mainte-
nance of their forms; and fluids for the conservation of motion in
them. Their tissue, accordingly, is composed of network and
plates, or of fibres and solid laminz, ,within whose interstices are
contained the fluids; it is in these fluids that the motion is most con-
tinued and extended. Foreign substances penetrate the body:and
unite with them; they nourish the solids by the interposition of their
molecules, and also detach from them those that are superfluous. _
It is in a liquid or gaseous form that the matters to be exhaled tra-
verse the pores of the living body; but in return, itis the solids which
contain,the fluids, and by their contraction communicate to them
part of their motion.

This mutual action of the fluids and solids, this transition of mole:
cules, required considerable affinity in their chemical composition;
andsuch is the fact—the solids of organized bodies being mostly
composed of elements easily convertible. into.fluids or gases.

The motion of the fluids needing also a constantly repeated action
on the part of the solids, and communicating one to them, required
in the latter both flexibility and dilatability; and accordingly we ving
this character nearly general in all organized solids. i

This structure, common to all living bodies; this areolar tissue,
whese more or less flexible fibres or lamine intercept fluids more or
less abundant; constitutes what is called the organization. Asa
consequence of what we have said, it follows, that life can be enjoyed
by organized bodies only...

Organization, then, results from a great variety of arrangements,
which are all conditions of life; and it is easy to conceive, that if its”
effect be to alter either of these conditions, so as to arrest even one
of the partial motions. of which it is composed, the general move-
ment of life must cease.

Every organized body, independently of the qualities common to

| 16 eo INTRODUCTION.

; its tissue, has a form peculiar to itself, not merely general and exter-
nal, but extending ‘to the detail of the structure of each of its parts;
and it is upon this form, which determines the particular direction of
~ each of the partial movements that take place in it, that depends the
A ecthieion of the general movement of its life—it constitutes its
- species and renders it what it is. Each part co-operates in this
general movement by a peculiar action, and experiences from it
_ particular effects, so that in every being life is a whole, resulting from
the mutual action and re-action of all its parts.

Life, then, in general, pre-supposes organization in general, and
the life proper to each individual being pre-supposes an organization
peculiar | to that being, just. asthe movement of a clock pre-supposes
the clock; and accordingly we» behold life only in beings that are
organized and formed to enjoy it, and all the efforts of philosophy
‘have never been able to discover matter in the act of organization,
neither per se, nor by any external cause. In fact, life exercising
_ upon the elements which at every moment form a part of the living
body, and upon those which it attracts to it, an action contrary to
that which, without it, would be produced by the visual chemical
affinities, it seems impossible that it can be produced by these affini-
ties, and yet we know of no other power in nature capable of re-
- uniting previously separated molecules.

The birth of organized beings is, therefore, the greatest mystery
of the organic economy and of all nature: we see them developed,
but never being formed; nay more, all those whose origin we can
trace, have at first been attached to a body similar in form to their
own, but which was developed before them—in a word, to a parent.
So long as the offspring has no independent existence, but partici-
pates in that of its parent, it is called a germ.

_ The place to which the germ is attached, and the cause which
detaches it and gives it an independent life, vary; but this primitive
adhesion to a similar being is a rule without exception.» The sepa-
ration of the germ is called generation.

Every organized being re-produces others that are similar to itself,
otherwise, death being a necessary consequence of life, the species
would become extinct. .

Organized beings have even the faculty of reproducing, in degrees
varying with the species, particular parts of which they may have
been deprived—this is called the power of rep#oduction.

The development of organized beings is more or less rapid, and

INTRODUCTION. | gt 17

more or less extended, siuiehvtiimstances are more or rae favourable.
Heat, the abundance and species of nutriment, with other causes, —
exercise great influence, and this influence may extend to the whole
body in general, or to certain organs in particular: thence arises the —
impossibility of a perfect similitude between the offspring and parent.

Differences of this kind, between organized beings, form what
are termed varieties.

There is no, proof, that all the differences which now distinguish-
organized beings are such as may have been produced by circum-
stances. ~All that has beensadvanced upon this subject is hypothe-
tical. Experience, on the contrary, appears to prove, that, in the
actual state of the globe, varieties are confined within rather narrow
limits, and go back as far as we may, we still find those limits the
same. | | }

We are thus compelled to admit of certain forms, which, from
the origin of things, have perpetuated themselves without exceeding
these limits; and every being, appertaining to one or other of these —
forms, constitiiteswilatits termed a species. Wampees are aeen:
tal subdivisions of species.

Species should be defined, the re-union of individuals ‘eecadi
one from the other, or from common parents, or from such as resem-
ble them, as strongly as they resemble each other. But although this
definition is strict, it will be seen that its application to particular
individuals may be very difficult, where the ‘necessary experiments
have not been made.

Thus then it stands—absorption, assimilation, exhalation, develop-
ment and generation are functions common to all living bodies; birth
and death the universal limits of their existence; an areolar, con-
tractile tissue, containing within its lamin fluids or gases in motion,
the general‘essence of its structure; substances almost all suscepti-
ble of conversion into fluids or gases, and combinations capable of
an easy and mutual transformation, the basis of their chemical com-
position. Fixed forms that are perpetuated by generation distinguish
their species, determine the complication of the secondary functions
proper to each of them, and assign to them the parts they are to
play on the great stage of the universe. These forms are neither
produced nor changed by their own agency—life supposes their ex-
istence, its flame can only be kindled in an organization already

prepared, and the most profound meditation and lynx-eyed and deli-
Cc

™,

i SS ae eS oltl & R: a Say Se * x ha” sh ac
“— al Si ya Qe ;

: 18 | INTRODUCTION.

ddepbisryation ean penetrate no farther than the mystery of the
‘i — of ses paige |

Ps: Os

"Divisions of organized beings into Animals and Vegetables.

ulhiving or organized beings have: always been subdivided into ani-
mate beings, that is, such as are possessed of sense and motion, and

- into inanimate beings, which are deprived of both these faculties,

and-are reduced to the simple faculty of vegetating. Although the

leaves of several planks shrink from the touch, and the roots are
ge steadily directed towards moisture, the leaves to light and air, and

though parts: of vegetables appear to oscillate without any apparent
external cause, still these various motions have too little similarity
to those of animals, to enable us to find in them any proofs of per-
ception or will.

The spontaneity in the motions of animals required essential mo-
difications even in their purely vegetative organs. Their roots not
penetrating the earth, it was necessary they should be able to place
within themselves a supply of aliment, and to carry its reservoir
along with them. Hence is derived the first character of animals,

or their alimentary canal, from which their nutritive fluid penetrates
all other parts oe pores or vessels, which are a kind of internal
~~ roots.

The copaninetion of this cavity and its appurtenances required
varying, according to the’nature of the aliment, and the operation it
had to undergo, before it could furnish juices fit for absorption;
whilst the air and earth present to vegetables nought but elaborated
juices ready for absorption.

The animal, whose functions are more numerous and varied than
those of the plant, consequently necessitated an organization much
more complete; besides this, its parts not being capablewof preserv-
ing one fixed relative position, there were no means by which exter-

_ pal causes could produce the motion of their fluids, which required

an exemption from atmospheric influence; from this originates the
second character of animals, their circulating system, one less essen-
tial than that of digestion, since in the more simple animals it is
unnecessary: ‘The animal functions required organic systems, not

_ needed by vegetables—that of the muscles for voluntary motion, and ;

serves for sensibility; and these two systems, like the rest, acting
only through the motions and transformations of the fluids, it was

—" bad *
Ph
rs

ws

INTRODUCTION. Be ae. 4? ‘

necessary that. these should be most numerous in animals, and that
the chemical composition of the animal body be more ‘complex than

that of the plant; ah so it is, for one substance more (azote) enters we
into it as an essential element, whilst in plants itis a mere acciden-

tal junction with the three other general elements of organization,

oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. | This then is the hee character of

animals. ——~ a dees
From the sun and Mihpaphepe: vegetables receive for hal putri-

tion water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen; air, which

contains oxygen and azote; and carbonic acid, which is a combina- ©

tion of oxygen and carbon, To extract their own composition from
these aliments, it was necessary they should retain the hydrogen
and carbon, exhale the superfluous oxygen and absorb little or no
azote. saat in fact, is vegetable life, whose essential function is

the exhalation of oxygen, which is effected through the agency of

light.

Animals also derive Scaiisbaiaeis directly or indirectly, from the
vegetable itself, i in which the hydrogen and carbon form the principal
parts. To assimilate them to their own composition, they. must get
rid of the superabundant hydrogen and carbon in particular, and
accumulate more azote, which is performed through the medium of
respiration, by which the oxygen of the atmosphere combines with
the hydrogen and carbon of their blood, and is exhaled with them in
the form of water and carbonic acid. The azote, whatever part of
the body it may penetrate, seems always to remain there.

The relations of vegetables and animals to the surrounding atmos-
phere are therefore in an inverse ratio—the former reject water and
carbonic acid, while the latter produce them. The essential func-
tion of the animal body is respiration; it is that which in a manner
animalizes it; and we shall see that the animal functions are the more
completely exercised, in proportion tothe greatness of the powers
of respiration possessed by the animal. This difference of relations
_ constitutes the fourth character of animals.

Of the forms iid to the ‘aes elements of the animal body,
and of the prince combinations of its chemical elements.

An areolar tissue ee three chemical elements are essential to
every living body; there is a fourth element peculiarly requisite to

20. INTRODUCTION.

that of an animal; but this tissue is composed of variously formed
‘meshes, and these elements are variously combined.

There are three kinds of organic materials or forms of texture,
the cellular membrane, the muscular fibre, and the medullary matter,
and to each form belongs a peculiar combination of chemical ele-
ments, as well as a particular function. Y

The cellular substance is composed of an infinity of small fibres
_and lamin, fortuitously disposed, so as to form little cells that com-
municate with each other. Itis a kind of sponge, which has the same
form as the body, all other parts of ;which traverse or fill it, and
contracting indefinitely, on the removal of the causes of its tension.
It is this power that retains the body ina aes form and within cer-
tain limits.

~ When condensed, this sabeldaee forms those laminz called mem-
haat the membranes, rolled into cylinders, form those more or
’ Jess samified tubes named vessels; the filaments called fibres are
resolved into it, and bones are nothing but the same thing indurated
by the accumulation of earthy. particles.

The cellular substance consists of a combination well known as
gelatine, characterised by its solubility in boiling water, and forming,
when cold, a trembling jelly.

‘We have not yet been able to reduce the medullary matter to its
organic molecules; to the naked eye, it appears like a sort of soft
bouillie, consisting of excessively small globules; it is not suscepti-
ble of any apparent motion, but in it resides theyadmirable power of
_ transmitting to the mind the impressions of the external senses, and
conveying to the muscles the orders of the will. It constitutes the
greater portion of the brain and the spinal marrow, and the nerves
which are distributed to all the sentient organs are, essentially, mere
fasciculi of its ramifications. |

The fleshy or muscular fibre is a peculiai sort of filament, whose
distinctive property, during life, is that of contracting when touched
or struck, or when it experiences the action of the will through the
medium of the nerve.

The muscles, direct organs of voluntary motion, are mere bundles
of fleshy fibres. All vessels and membranes which have any kind
_ of compression to execute are armed with these fibres. ‘They are
always intimately connected with the nervous threads, but those
which belong to the purely vegetative functions contract, without

INTRODUCTION. — 21

the knowledge of* the individual, so that, although the will is ful) a
means of causing the fibres to act, it is neither general nor unique.

The fleshy fibre has for its base a particular substance called
jibrine, which is insoluble in boiling water, and which seems natu-
rally to assume this filamentous disposition. oh ere

The nutritive Suid or the blood, such as we find in the vediels
of the circulation, is not only mostly resolvable into the general
elements of the animal body, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and azote,
but it also contains fibrine and gelatine, almost prepared to contract
and to assume the forms of membranes or filaments peculiar to
them, all that is ever wanted for their manifestation being a little
repose. The blood also contains another combination, which is
found in many animal fluids and solids, called albumen whose cha-
racteristic property is that of coagulating in boiling water. Besides
these, the blood contains almost every element which may enter into
the composition of the body of each animal, such as the lime and.
phosphorus which harden the bones of vertebrated animals, the iron
from which it and various other parts receive their colour, the fat
or animal oil which is deposited in the cellular substance to supply
it, &c. All the fluids and solids of the animal body are composed
of chemical elements found in the blood, and it is only by possessing
a few elements more or less, that each of them is distinguished;
whence it is plain, that their formation entirely depends on the sub-
straction of the whole or part of one or more elements of the blood,
and in some few cases, on the addition of some element from else-
where.

These operations, by which the blood nourishes the fluid or ‘solid
matter of all parts of the body, may assume the general name of
secretions: ‘This name, however, is often appropriated exclusively
to the production of liquids; while that of nutrition is more espe-
cially applied to the formation and deposition of the matter necess-
ary to the growth and conservation of the solids.

The composition of every solid organ, of every fluid is precisely
such as fits it for the part it is to play, and it preserves it as long as
health remains, because the bicod renews it as fast as it becomes
changed. The blood itself by this continued contribution is changed
every moment, but is restored by digestion, which renews its matter
by respiration, which delivers it from superfiuous carbon and hydro-
gen, by perspiration and various other excretions, that relieve it
from other superabundant principles.

” Fas * 7, e. =) Say:
: é a

2, * INTRODUCTION.

_ ‘These perpetual changes of chemical composition form a part of
the vital vortex, not less essential than the visible movements and

F those of translation. ‘The object of the latter is, in fact, but to pro-
; - duce the former. ) hat ,

aes ie

~ of the forces which act in the Animal Body.

The: ae fibre is not only the organ of voluntary motion, for
we have. just seen that it is also'the most powerful of the agents
employed by nature to produce thosé transmutations so necessary
to vegetative life. Thus the fibres of the -intestines produce the
peristaltic motion, whieh ‘causes the, alimentary matter therein con-
“tained to pass through: them ; the fibres of the heart and.arteries are
the agents of the circulation and through it of all the secretions, &c.
Volition contracts the fibre through the medium-of the nerve ; and
the involuntary fibres, such as those we have mentioned, being also
animated by them, it is probable that these nerves are > the cause at
their contraction.
All contraction, and generally oriiolciniel every i of dimen-
sion in nature, is produced by a change of chemical composition,
though it consist merely in the flowing or ebbing of an imponderable

fluid, such as caloric ; thus also are produced the most violent move-
ments known upon‘earth, explosions, &c.

‘There is, consequently, good reason to suppose that the nerve
acts upon the fibre through the medium of an imponderable fluid,
and the more so, as it is proved that this action is not mechanical.

The medullary matter of the whole nervous system is homoge-

neous, and must be able to exercise its peculiar functions wherever
it is found; all its ramifications are abundantly supplied with blood

vessels.

_ All the animal fluids being drawn from. the blood by secretion,
we can have no doubt that such is the case with the nervous fluid,
and that the medullary matter secretes it. |

On the other hand, it is certain that the medias matter is the
sole conductor of the nervous fluid; all the other organic elements
restrain and arrest it, as glass arrests electricity.

The external causes which are capable of producing sensations
or causing contractions of the fibre are all chemical agents, capable
of effecting decompositions, such as light, caloric, the salts, odorous
vapours, percussion, compression, &c. &e.

Ras Ss “s z .
OTI a : 23°

It would appear then that these” ‘causes act on the a fuuid’
chemically, and by changing its composition ; this appears the more
likely, as their acti n becomes weakened by continuance, as if the
nervous fluid needed the resumption of its i ei ‘comipbeition, #8 to
fit it fora fresh alteration. ae a fal

The external organs of the senses may be oii to sieves,
which allow nothing to pass through to the nerve, except that species
of agent which should affect it in that particular place, but which
often accumulates it soas to increase its effect. » The tongue has its
spongy papille which imbibe saline solutions ; the ear, a gelatinous
pulp which is violently agitated by sonorous vibrations; the eye,
transparent lenses which concentrate the rays of light, d&&c. &c.

“It is probable, that what are styled irritants, or the agents which
occasion the contractions of the fibre,-exert this action by producing
on the fibre, by the nerve, a similar effect to that produced on it by
the will; that is, by altering the nervous fluid, in the way that is re-
quisite to change the dimensions of the fibre which it influences:
s the will has nothing to do, and very often the
ME is entirely ignorant, of it, The muscles separated from the body
preserve their ‘susceptibility of irritation, as long as the portion of
- the nerve that remains with them preserves the power of acting on
them—with this phenomenon the will has evidently no connexion.

The nervous fluid is altered by muscular irritation, as well as by
sensibility and voluntary motion, and the same necessity exists for
the re-establishment of its primitive composition. |

The transmutations necessary to vegetable life are oceasioned by
irritants; the aliment irritates the intestine, the blood irritates the
heart, bi. These movements are all independent of the will, and
generally (while in health) take place without the knowledge of the
individual ; in several parts, the nerves that produce them are even
differently arranged from those that are appropriated to sensation or
dependent on the will, and the very object of this difference appears
to be the securing of this.independence.

The nervous functions, that is, sensibility and muscular irritability,
are so much the stronger at every point, in proportion as their ex-
citing cause is abundant ; and : as this cause or the nervous fluid is
produced by secretion, its-abundance must be in proportion to the
quantity of medullary or secretory matter, and the amount of blood
received by the latter.

{In animalsthat have a circulating system, the blood is senpelied

24 INTRODUCTION,

through the arteries which convey it to its destined parts, by means
of their irritability and that of the heart. If these arteries be irri-
tated, they act more strongly, and propel a greater quantity of blood;
the nervous fluid becomes more abundant and augments the local
sensibility ; ; this, in its turn, augments the irritability of the arteries,
so that this mutual action may sometimes be carried to a great ex-
tent. It iscalled orgasm, and when it becomes painful and perma-
nent, inflammation. The irritation may also originate in the nerve
| when exposed to the influence of acute sensations.

- This mutual influence of the nerves and fibres, either intestinal or
Bh a is the real spring of vegetative life in animals. 3

As each external sense.is permeable only by such or such sensible

_ substances, so each internal organ may be accessible only to this or
that agent of i irritation. Thus, mercury irritates the salivary glands,
cantharides irritate the bladder, &c. These agents are called spe-
cifics.
_ The nervous system being homogeneous and continuous, local
sensations and irritation debilitate the whole, and each function, by
excessive action, may weaken the others. Excess of aliment
weakens the power of thought, while long continued meditation
impairs that of digestion, &c.

Excessive local irritation will enfeeble the whole body, as if all
the powers of life were concentrated in one single point.

A second irritation produced at another part may diminish, or
divert, as it is termed, the first : such is the effect of blisters, pur-
gatives, &c. _

Brief as our sketch has been, it is sufficient to establish the poss-
ibility of accounting for all the phenomena of physical life, from the
properties it presents, by the simple admission of a fluid such as we
have defined.

Summary idea of the Functions and Organs of the bodies of
Animals, and of their various degrees of complication.

~ After what we have stated respecting the organic elements of the
body, its chemical principles and acting powers, nothing remains
but to give a summary idea of the functions of which life is composed,
| and of their appropriate organs.
The functions of the animal body are divided into two elndeont :

Py

wv
ai
Pa
ra

INTRODUCTION. 25

The animal functions, or those proper to penal, that is to say,
sensibility and voluntary motion.

The vital, vegetative functions, or those common to animals and
vegetables, i. e., nutrition and generation.

Sensibility resides in the nervous system. a

The most general external sense is that of touch ; it is seated in
the skin, a membrane that envelopes the whole body, which is tra-
versed in every direction by nerves whose extreme filaments expand
on the surface into papille, and are protected by the epidermis and
other insensible teguments, such as hairs, scales, &c. &c. Taste
and smell are merely delicate states of the sense of touch, for which
the skin of the mouth and nostrils is particularly organized: the first,
by means of papille more convex and spongy; the second, by its
extreme delicacy and the multiplication of its ever humid surface.
We have already spoken of the ear and the eye. In fine, sensations
more or less painful may originate in every part of he body i |
accident or disease.

Many animals have neither ears nor nostrils, several are without :
eyes, and some are reduced to the Pres, sense of touch, which is
never absent.

The action received by the external organs is continued by the
nerves to the central masses of the nervous system, which, in the
higher animals, consists of the brainand spinal marrow. The more
elevated the nature of the animal, the more voluminous is the brain
and the more is the sensitive power concentrated there ; the lower
the animal, the more the medullary masses are dispersed, and in the
most imperfect genera, the entire nervous substance seems to melt
into the general matter of the body.

That part of the body, which contains the brain and principal
organs of sense, is called the head.

When the animal has received a sensation, and this has occasioned
volition, it is by the nerves, also, that this volition is transmitted to
the muscles. .

The muscles are bundles of fleshy fibres whose contractions pro- |
duce all the movements of the animal body. The extension of the
limbs and every elongation, as well as every flexion and abbreviation
of parts, are the effects of muscular contraction. The muscles of
every animal are arranged, both as respects number and direction,
according to the movements it has to make ; and when these motions -

require force, the muscles are inserted into hard parts, articulated
D

nee

26 "INTRODUCTION.

one over another, and may be considered as so many levers. These
parts are called: bones in the vertebrated animals, where they are
internal, and are formed of a gelatinous mass, penetrated by particles
of phosphate of lime. In the Mollusca, the Crustacea, and Insects,
where they are external, and composed of a calcareous or horny
substance that exudes between the skin and epidermis, they are
called shells, crusts and seales.

The fleshy fibres are attached to the hard parts by means of other
fibres of a gelatinous nature, which seem to be a continuation of the
former, constituting what are called tendons.

The configuration of the articulating surfaces of the tard parts
limits their motion, which are also restrained by cords or envelopes,
attached to the sides of the articulations, called ligaments.

It is from the various arrangements of this bony and muscular
apparatus, and the form and proportion of the members therefrom
resulting, that animals are capable of executing the innumerable
movements that enter into walking and leaping, flight and natation.
, The muscular fibres, appropriated to digestion and the circulation,

‘are independent of the will; they receive nerves, however, but the

chief of them are subdivided and arranged in a manner which seems

_to have for its object their independence of the will. It is only in
“paroxysms of the passions and other powerful affections of the soul,

which break down these barriers, that its empire is perceptible,
and even then it is almost always to disorder these vegetative func-
tions. It is, also, in a state of sickness only that these functions
are accompanied with sensations : digestions is usually performed un-
consciously.

The aliment divided by the jaws and teeth, or sucked up when
liquids constitute the food, is swallowed by the muscular movements

“of the hinder parts of the mouth and throat, and deposited in the
first portions of the alimentary canal that is usually expanded into

one or more stomachs; there it is penetrated with juices fitted to
dissolve it. Passing thence through the rest of the canal, it receives
other juices destined to complete its preparation. The parietes of
the canal are pierced with pores which extract from this alimentary
mass its nutritious portion; the useless residuum is rejected.

The canal in which this first act of nutrition is performed is a

_continuation of the skin, and is composed of similar layers ; even the
fibres that encircle it are analogous to those which adhere to the

internal surface of the skin, called the fieshy pannicle. Throughout

Be ae ae, Bs

27

the whole interior of this canal there is a transudation which has
some connexion with the cutaneous perspiration, and which becomes
more abundant when the latter is suppressed ; the absorption of the
skin is even very analogous to that of the intestines. It is in the
lowest order of animals that the useless residuum is rejected by the
mouth, their intestines resembling a sac, with but the one opening.

Even among those where the intestinal canal has two orifices,
there are many in which the nutritive juices being absorbed by the
parietes of the intestine, are immediately. diffused. throughout the
whole spongy substance of the body: such, it would appear, is the
case with all Insects. But from the Arachnoides and Worms up-
wards, the nutritive fluid circulates in a system of closed vessels,
whose ultimate ramifications alone dispense its molecules to the
parts that are nourished by it; the vessels that convey it are called
arteries, those that bring it beth to the centre of the circulation,
veins. The circulating vortex is here simple, and there double and
even triple (including that of the vena porte); the rapidity of its”.
motion is often assisted by the contractions of a certain fleshy appa-
ratus called a heart, which is placed at one or the other centres of
circulation, and sometimes at both of them. ‘

In the red-blooded vertebrated animals, the nutritive fluid exudes
from the intestines, white or transparent, and is then termed chyle ;
it.is poured into the veins where it mingles with the blood, by two
peculiar vessels called lJacteals. Vessels similar to these lacteals,
and forming with them an arrangement called the lymphatic system,
also convey to the venous blood the residue of the nutrition of the
parts and the products. of cutaneous absorption.

Before the blood is fit to nourish the parts, it must experience
from the circumambient element the modification of which we have
previously spoken. In animals possessing a circulating system, one
portion of the vessels is destined to carry the blood into organs in
which they spread it over a great surface to obtain an increase of
this elemental influence. When that element is air, the surface is
hollow, and is called lungs; when it is water, it is salient, and is
termed branchiz. There is always an arrangement of the organs
of motion for the purpose of propelling the element into, or upon,
the organ of respiration,

_ In animals destitute of a circulating system, air is diffused through
every part of the: body by elastic vessels called trachee ; or water
acts upon them, either by penetrating through vessels, or by simply

28 INTRODUCTION,

bathing the surface of the skin. The respired, or purified blood is
properly qualified for restoring the composition of all the parts, and
to effect what is properly called nutrition. This facility, which the
blood possesses, of decomposing itself at every point, so as to leave
there the precise kind of molecule necessary, is indeed wonderful ;
but it is this wonder which constitutes the whole vegetative life.
For the nourishment of the solids we see no other arrangement than
a great subdivision of the extreme arterial ramifications, but for the
production of fluids the apparatus is more complex and various.

Sometimes the extremities of the vessels simply spread themselves
over large surfaces, whence the produced fluid exhales; at others it
oozes from the bottom of little cavities. Before these arterial ex-
tremities change into veins, they most commonly give rise to parti-
cular vessels that convey this fluid, which appears to proceed from
the exact point of union between the two kinds of vessels; in this
case the blood vessels and these latter form, by interlacing, particu-
lar bodies called conglomerate or secretory glands.

In animals that have no circulation, in Insects particularly, the
parts are all bathed in the nutritive fluid: each of these parts draws
from it what it requires, and if the production of a liquid be neces-
sary, proper vessels floating in the fluid take up by their pores the
constituent elements of that liquid.

_ It is thus that the blood incessantly supports the composition of
all the parts, and repairs the injuries arising from those changes
which are the continual and necessary consequences of their func-
tions. The general ideas we form with respect to this process are
tolerably clear, although we have no distinct or detailed notion of
what passes at each point, and for want of knowing the chemical
composition of each part with sufficient precision, we cannot render
“an exact account of the transmutations necessary to effect it.
_. Besides the glands which separate from the blood those fluids that

~. are destined for the internal economy, there are some which detach

~~ others from it that are to be totally ejected, either as superfluous,
or for some use to the animal, as the ink of the cuttle-fish, and the
purple matter of various Mollusca, &c.

There is a process or phenomenon, infinitely more 5 difficult to
conmpiolend than that of the secretions—the_ production of the germ.
_* We have even seen that it is to be considered as almost incompre-
-hensible ; but the existence of the germ being admitted, the subject
presents no particular difficulties. As long as it adheres to the

INTRODUCTION. | 29

, a
parent, it is nourished as if it were one of its organs, and when it
detaches itself, it possesses its own can which: is essentially similar
to that of the adult.

The germ, the embryo, the foetus, and the new-born animal, have
never, however, exactly the same form as the adult, and the differ-
ence is sometimes so great, that their assimilation has been termed a
metamorphosis. Thus, no one not previously aware of the fact
would suppose that the caterpillar i is to become a butterfly.

Every living being is more or less metamorphosed inthe course
of its growth; that is, it loses certain parts, and developes others.
The antennz, wings, and all the parts of the butterfly were enclosed
beneath the skin of the caterpillar ; this skin vanishes along with the
jaws, feet, and other organs, that do not remain with the butterfly.
The feet of the frog are enclosed by the skin of the tadpole; and
the tadpole, to become a frog, parts with its tail, mouth, and bran-
chie. The child, at birth, loses its placenta and membranes; ata
certain period its thymus gland nearly disappears, and it gradually
acquires hair, teeth, and beard; the relative size of its organs is
altered, and its body augments in a greater ratio than its head, the
head more than the internal ear, &c.

The place where these germs are found, and their germs them-
selves are collectively styled the ovary; the canal through which,
when detached, they are carried into the uterus, the oviduct; the
cavity in which, in many species, they are compelled to remain for
a longer or shorter period previous to birth, the uterus.

Of the Intellectual Functions of Animals.

The impression of external objects upon the individual, the pro-
duction of a sensation or of an image, is a mystery into which the
human understanding cannot penetrate; and materialism an hypo-
thesis, so much the more conjectural, as philosophy can furnish no
direct proof of the actual existence of matter. The naturalist,
however, should examine what appear to be the material conditions
of sensation, trace the ulterior operations of the mind, ascertain to
what point they reach in each being, and assure himself whether
they are not subject to conditions of perfection, dependent on the

organization of each species, or on the momentary state of each . |

individual body. :
To enable a being to perceive, there must be an uninterrupted:

30 INTRODUCTION.

communication between the external sense and the central masses
of the medullary system. It is then the modification only expe-
rienced by these masses that the mind perceives: there may also be
real sensations, without the external organ being affected, and which
originate either in the nervous chain of communication, or in the
central mass itself; such are dreams and visions, or certain acci-
dental sensations. :

By central masses, we mean a part of the nervous system, that is
so much the more circumscribed, asthe animal is more perfect. In
Man, it consists exclusively of a limited portion of the brain; but in
Reptiles, it includes the brain and the whole of the medulla, and of
each of their parts taken separately, so that the absence of the
entire brain does not prevent sensation. In me inferior classes this
extension is still greater.

The perception acquired produces the image of the sensation
experienced. We trace to without the cause of that sensation, and
thus acquire the idea of the object that has produced it. Bya
necessary law of our intelligence, all ideas of material objects are
in time and space.:

The modifications experienced by the medullary masses leave
impressions there which are reproduced, and thus recal to the mind
imagesiand ideas; this is memory, a corporeal fnoully that varies
greatly, according to the age and health of the animal.

Similar ideas, or such as have been acquired at the same time,
recal each other; this is the association of ideas. The order, ex-
tent and quickness of this association constitute the perfection of
memory.

Every object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities or
with all its accessary ideas.

Intelligence has the power of separating these accessary ideas
of objects, and of combining those that are alike in several differ-
ent objects under a general idea; the object of which no where
really exists, nor presents itself per se—this is abstraction.

Every sensation being more or less agreeable or disagreeable,
xperience and repeated essays soon show what movements are re-
uired to procure the one and avoid the other; and with respect to.
his, the intelligence abstracts itself from the pox rules to direct
he will. ;

An agreeable sensation being liable to consequences that are not

'so, and vice versa, the subsequent sensations become associated with

INTRODUCTION. a 31

the idea of the primitive one, and modify the siti rules framed
by intelligence—this is prudence.

From the application of these rules to general ideas, result cer-
tain formulae; which are afterwards easily adapted to particular cases
—this is‘called reasoning.

A lively remembrance of primitive and associated sensations, and
of the impressions of pleasure or pain that belong to them, consti-
tutes imagination.

One privileged being, man, has the faculty of associating his gene-
ral ideas with particular images more or less arbitrary, easily im-
pressed upon the memory, and which serve to recal the general ideas
they represent. These associated images are styled signs; their
assemblage is a language. When the language is composed of
images that relate to the sense of hearing or of sounds, it is termed
speech, and when relative to that of sight, hieroglyphics.. Writing
is a suite of images that relate to the sense of sight, by which we
represent the elementary sounds, and by combining them, all the
images relative to the sense of hearing of which speech is composed;
it is therefore only a mediate representation of ideas.

Although, with respect to the intellectual faculties, the most per-
fect animals are infinitely beneath man; it is certain that their intel-
ligence performs operations of the same kind. They move in
consequence of sensations received, are susceptible of durable affec-
tions, and acquire by experience a certain knowledge of things, by
which they are governed independently of actual pain or pleasure,
and by the simple foresight of consequences. When domesticated,
they feel their subordination, know that the being who punishes them
may refrain from so doing if he will, and when sensible of having
done wrong, or behold him angry, they assume a suppliant and depre-
cating air. In the society of Man they become either corrupted or
improved, and are susceptible of emulation and jealousy: they have
among themselves a natural language, which, it is true, is merely the
expression of their momentary sensations, but Man teaches them to
understand another, much more complicated, by which he makes
known to them his will, and causes them to execute it.

To sum upall, we perceive in the higher animals a certain degree
of reason, with all its consequences, good and bad, and which ap-
pears to be about the same as that of children ere they have learned
to speak. The lower we descend from Man the weaker these facul-
ties become, and at the bottom of the scale we find them reduced

32 ; INTRODUCTION.

to signs (at times equivocal) of sensibility, that is, to some few slight
movements to escape from pain. Between these two extremes, the
degrees are infinite.

In a great number of animals, however, there exists another kind
of intelligence, called instinct. This induces them to certain actions
necessary to the preservation of the species, but very often alto-
gether foreign to the apparent wants of the individual; often also
very complicated, and which, if attributed to intelligence, would sup-
pose a foresight and knowledge in the species that perform them
infinitely superior to what can possibly be granted. These actions,
the result of instinct, are not the effect of imitation, for very fre-
quently the individuals who execute them have never seen them
performed by others: they are not proportioned to ordinary intelli-
gence, but become more singular, more wise, more disinterested, in
proportion as the animals belong to less elevated classes, and in all
the rest of their actions are more dull and stupid. They are so
entirely the property of the species, that all its individuals perform
them in the same way without ever improving them a particle.

-The working Bees, for instance, have always constructed very
ingenious edifices, agreeably to the rules of the highest geometry,
and destined to lodge and nourish a posterity not even their own.

_ The solitary Bee, and the Wasp also, form highly complicated nests,

in which to deposit theireggs. From this egg comes a worm, which -
has never seen its parent, which is ignorant of the structure of the
prison in which it is confined, but which, once metamorphosed, con-

‘structs another precisely similar. é

‘The only method of obtaining a clear idea of instinct is by admit-
ting the existence of innate and perpetual images or sensations in
the sensorium which cause the animal to act in the same way as
ordinary or accidental sensations usually do. It is a kind of perpe-
tual vision or dream that always pursues it, and it may be considered,
in all that has relation to its instinct, as a kind of somnambulism.

There is no visible mark of instinct in the conformation of the
animal, but, as well as it can be ascertained, the intelligence is always
in proportion to the relative size of the brain, and perupaigrly of its
hemispheres.

e

Of Method, as applied to the Animal Kingdom.

From what has been stated with respect to methods in general, we

>

Ee eges: eT 4 33

have now to ascertain what are the ‘aed characters in animals,
on which their primary. divisions are to be founded. It is evident
they should be those which are drawn from the animal functions, that
is from the sensations, and motions; for both these not only make
the being an animal, but in a manner establish its degree of ani-
mality. |

Observation confirms this position by showing that their degrees
of development and complication accord with those of the organs of
the vegetative functions.

The heart and the organs of the circulation form a kind of centre
for the vegetative functions, as the brain and the trunk of the nervous
system do for the animal ones. Now we see these two systems
become imperfect and disappear together. In the lowest class of
animals, where the nerves cease to be visible, the fibres are no longer
distinct, and the organs of digestion are simple excavations in the
homogeneous mass of the body... In insects the vascular system even
disappears before the nervous one; but, in general, the dispersion of,
the medullary masses accompanies that of the muscular agents: a
spinal marrow, on which the knots or ganglions represent so many
brains, corresponds to a body divided into numerous rings, supported
by pairs of limbs longitudinally distributed, &c.

This correspondence of general forms, which results from the
arrangement of the organs of motion, the distribution of the nervous
masses, and the energy of the circulating system, should then be the
basis of the primary divisions of the animal kingdom. We will

afterwards, ascertain, in each of these divisions, what. characters -

should succeed immediately to those, and form the basis of the \ ow
mary subdivisions.

General distribution of the Animal Kingdom into Pas Great Di-'

VISiONS.

If, divesting ourselves of the prejudices founded on the divisions
formerly admitted, we consider only the organization and nature of
animals, without regard to their size, utility, the greater or less
knowledge we have of them, and other accessary circumstances, we
shall find there are four principal forms, four general plans, if it may
be so expressed, on whichrall animals seem to have been modelled,
and whose ulterior divisions, whatever be the titles with which natu-

ralists have'decorated them, are merely slight modifications, founded
E

34 INTRODUCTION.

on the:development or addition of certain parts, which produce no
essential change in the plan itself.

In the first of these forms, which is that of Man, and of the ani-
mals most nearly resembling him, the brain and principal trunk of
the nervous system are enclosed in a bony envelope, formed by the
cranium and vertebrae; to the sides of this intermedial column are
attached the ribs, and bones of the limbs, which form the frame
work of ‘the body; the muscles generally cover the bones, whose
motions they occasion, while the viscera are contained within the
head.and trunk. Animals of this form we shall denominate

Animalia Vertebrata,

Or vertebrated animals. They have, all, red blood, a muscular
heart, a mouth furnished with two jaws, one situated either above or
before the other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste
placed in the cavities of the face; never more than four limbs, the
sexes always separated, anda very similar distribution of the me-
dullary masses and the principal branches of the nervous system.

By a closer examination of each of the parts of this great series
of animals, we always discover some analogy, even in species the

©» most remote from each other; and may trace the gradations of one

same plan from Man to the last of the Fishes.

In the second form there is no skeleton; the muscles are merely
attached to the skin, which constitutes a soft contractile envelope, in
which, in many species, are formed stony plates, called shells, whose
position and production are analogous to those of the mucous body.
The nervous system is contained within this general envelope along
with the viscera, and is composed of several scattered masses con-
“nected by nervous filaments; the chief of these masses is placed on
‘the esophagus, and is called the brain. Of the four senses, the
organs of two only are observable, those of taste and sight, the lat-
ter of which are even frequently wanting. One single family alone
presents organs of hearing. There is always, however, a complete
system of circulation, and particular organs for respiration. Those
of digestion and secretion are nearly'as complex as in the Vertebrata.
We will distinguish the animals of this second fom by the appella-
tion of

¢ oon
INTRODUCTION. _ 85
Animalia Mollusca, -
ot ree 4

Or soft animals. Although, as respects the external configura-
tion of the parts, the general plan of their organization is not as
uniform as that of the Vertebrata; there is always an equal degree
of resemblance between them in the structure and the functions.

The third form is that remarked in Worms, Insects, &c. Their
nervous system consists of two long cords, running longitudi-
nally through the abdomen, dilated at intervals into knots or gan-
glions. The first of these knots, placed over the cesophagus, and
called brain, is scarcely any larger than those that are along the ab-
domen, with which they communicate by filaments that encircle the

esophagus like a necklace. The covering or envelope of ‘the body © |

is divided by transverse folds into a certain number of rings, whose
teguments are sometimes soft, and sometimes hard; the muscles,
however, being always situated internally. Articulated limbs are
frequently attached to the trunk; but very often there are none.
We will call these animals

Animalia Articulata,

Or articulated animals, in which is observed the transition from _
the circulation in closed vessels, to nutrition by imbibition, and the -
corresponding one of respiration in circumscribed organs, to that
effected by trachez or air-vessels distributed throughout the body.
In them, the organs of taste and sight are the most distinct; one
single family alone presenting that of hearing. Their jaws, when
they have any, are always lateral.

The fourth form, which embraces all those animals known by the
name of Zoophytes, may also properly be denominated

Animalia Radiata,

Or radiated animals.. We haye seen that the organs of sense and
motion in all the preceding ones are symmetrically arranged on the
two sides of an axis. There is a posterior and anterior dissimilar
face. In this last division, they are disposed like rays round a cen-

a sort 0 of. homogeneous

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FIRST GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL
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ANIMALIA. VERTEBRATA.
The bodies and limbs of vertebrated animals being supported by
a frame-work or skeleton composed of connected pieces that are
movable upon each other, their motions are certain and vigorous.
The solidity of this support enables them to attain considerable size,
and it is among them that the largest animals are found.

The great concentration of the nervous system, and the volume of .
its central portions, give energy and stability to. their sentiments, cy.

whence result superior intelligence and perfectibility.

Their body always consists of a head, trunk and members. __

The head is formed by the cranium which contains the train and
by the face which is composed of two jaws and of the receptacles of
the senses.

The trunk is supported by the spine and the ribs. ‘

The spine is formed of vertebrz, the first of which supports the
head, that move upon each other, and are perforated by an annular
opening, forming together a canal, in which is lodged that. medullary
~ production from which arise the nerves, called the spinal marrow.

¥

The spine, most commonly, is continued into a tail, extending © .

beyond the posterior members.

The ribs are a kind of semicircular hoops which protect the sides
of the cavity of the trunk; they are articulated at one extremity with
the vertebree, and most generally at the other with the sternum: |

Hm, I
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Hepes -

23 | ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA.

sometimes, St they do not encircle the trunk, and there are
genera in which they are hardly. visible.

There are never more than two pairs.of members, but sometimes
one or the other is wanting, or even both. Their forms vary ac-

; .. cording to the movements they have to execute. The superior
: * members are converted into hands, feet, wings or fins, and the infe-
“ rior into feet or fins. :

The blood i is always red, and appears to be so composed as to
sustain a peculiar energy of sentiment and muscular strength, but in
various degrees, corresponding to their quality of respiration: from
which originates the subdivision of the: Vertebrata into four classes. —

The external senses are always five in number, and reside in two

+, eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the teguments of the tongue, and those
of the body, generally. In some species, however, the eyes are
| » obliterated. ~ | | | 3
» The nerves reach the medulla through'the foramina of the ver-
tebree or those of the cranium; they all seem to unite with this
medulla, which, after crossing its filaments, spreads out to form the
“ various lobes of which the brain is composed, and terminates in the
two medullary arches called hemispheres, whose volume is in pro-
portion to the extent of the intelligence.
There are always two jaws, the greatest motion is in the lower
_ one, which rises and falls; the upper jaw is sometimes immovable.
Both of these are almost always armed with teeth, excrescences of
‘i ‘a peculiar nature, which in their chemical composition. are very
similar to that of bone, but which grow by layers and transudation;
one whole class, however, that of Birds, has the jaws invested with
horn, and the genus Testudo, in the class of Reptiles, is in the same
case.

The intestinal canal traverses the boda, experiencing various
enlargements and contractions, having appendages and receiving
solvent fluids, one of which, the saliva, is discharged into the mouth.
The others, which are poured: into.the intestine only, have various
names: the two principal ones are the juices of the gland called the
pancreas, and bile, a product of another very large gland named the
liver.
ss ‘While the digested aliment is traversing its cate, that portion of
“il ‘it which is fitted for nutrition, called the chyle, is absorbed by par-

__ ticular vessels styled lacteals, and carried into the veins ; the residue

ANIMALIA. YERDEDRATA, pe 39

of the nourishment of the parts is nwthating iéto. < veins by vess-
els analogous to these lacteals, and foaming: with them one same
system called the lymphatic system.

The blood. which has served to nourish the parts, and which has
just been renewed by the chyle and lymph, is returned to the:heart
by the veins—but this blood is obliged, either wholly or in part, to -
pass into the organ of respiration, in order to regain its arterial na-
ture, previous to being again sent through the system by the arteries.
In the three first classes this respiratory organ consists of lungs, that
is, a collection of cells into which air penetrates. In Fishes only,
and in some Reptiles, while young, it consists of branchie or a series
of laminz, between which water passes.

In all the Vertebrata, the blood which furnishes the liver with the A
materials of the bile is venous blood, which has circulated partly in
the parietes of the intestines, and partly in a peculiar body called © ~
the spleen, and which, after being united in a trunk called the vene * € 3
porta, is again subdivided at the liver. ace

Subdivision of the Vertebrata into Four Classes.

We have just seen how far vertebrated animals resemble each
other; they present, however, four great subdivisions or classes,
characterised by the kind or power of their motions, which depend
themselves on the quantity of their respiration, inasmuch as it is
from this respiration that the muscular fibres derive the strength of,
their irritability.

The quantity of respiration depends upon two agents: the first is
the relative amount of blood which is poured into the respiratory
organ in a given instant of time; the second is the relative amount
of oxygen which enters into the composition of the surrounding
fluid. ‘The quantity of the former depends upon the disposition of
the organs of circulation and respiration.

The organs of the circulation may be double, sc that all the
blood which is brought back from the various parts of the body by
the veins, is forced to circulate through the respiratory organ, pre-
vious to. resuming its former course through the arteries; or they

may be simple, so that a part only of the blood is obliged to pass
through that organ, the remainder returning directly to the body.

The latter is the case with Reptiles. The quantity of their respi.

40 - ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA.

" ration, and all their qualities which depend on it, vary with the

amount of blood thrown into the lungs at each pulsation.

Fishes have a double circulation, but their organ of respiration
is formed to execute its function through the medium of water; and
their blood is only acted on by the portion of oxygen it contains, so

‘that the quantity of their respiration is perhaps less than that of

reptiles. © Ma

In the Mammalia the circulation is double, and the aerial respi-
ratibnihiple, that is, it is performed in the lungs only; their quan-
tity of respiration is, consequently, superior to that of Reptiles, on
account of the form of their respiratory organ, and to that of Fishes
from the nature of their surrounding element.

The quantity of respiration in Birds is even superior to that of
Quadrupeds, not only because they havea double circulation and an
aerial respiration, but also because they respire by many other cavi-
ties besides the lungs, the air penetrating throughout their bodies,
and bathing the branches of the aorta, as well as those of the pul-
monary artery.

Hence result the four different kinds of motion for hich the four
classes of vertebrated animals are more particularly designed:
Quadrupeds, in which the quantity of respiration is moderate, are
generally formed to walk and run, both motions being characterized

by precision and vigour; Birds, which have more of it, possess the

muscular strength and lightness requisite for flight; Reptiles, where
it is diminished, are condemned to creep, and many of them pass a
portion of their lives in a kind of torpor; Fishes, in fine, to execute
their motions, require to be supported in a fluid whose specific gra-
vity is nearly as great as their own.

All the circumstances of organization peculiar to each of these
four classes, and those especially which regard motion and the ex-
ternal sensations, have a necessary relation with these essential

characters.

The Mammalia, however, have particular characters in their

. viviparous mode of production, in the mamme by which they suckle

their young, &c.

_ The other classes, on the contrary, are oviparous, and if we com-
pare them to the first, we shall find such numerous points of resem-
blance’as announce a peculiar system of organization in the great
general plan of the Vertebrata.

s 2
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| sonatas y " ae yg? 41
Bs
CLASS I. sea
MAMMALIA.

The Mammalia are placed at the head of the animal kingdom,
not only because it is the class to which Man himself belongs, but
also because it is that which enjoys the most numerous faculties, the
most delicate sensations, the most varied powers of motion, and in:
which all the different qualities seem combined in order to produce
a more perfect degree of intelligence, the one most fertile in resources,
most susceptible of perfection, and least the slave of instinct.

As their quantity of respiration is moderate, they are designed
in general for walking onthe earth; but with vigorous and continued
steps. The forms of the articulations of their skeleton are, conse-
quently, strictly defined, which determines all their motions with the
most rigorous precision.

Some of them, however, by means of limbs considerably sari.
gated, and extended membranes, raise themselves‘in the air; others
have them so shortened, that they can move with facility in water —
only, though this does not deprive them of the general characters of
the class.

The upper jaw, in all these atinale is fixed to the cranium;
the lower is formed of two pieces only, articulated by a projecting
condyle to a fixed temporal bone; the neck consists of seven verte-
bre, one single species excepted which has nine; the anterior ribs
are attached before, by cartilage, to a sternum consisting of several
vertical pieces; their anterior extremity commences in a shoulder-
blade that is not articulated, but simply suspended in the flesh, often
resting on the sternum by means of an intermediate bone, called a
clavicle. This extremity is continued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a
hand, the latter being composed of two ranges of small bones called
the carpus, of another range called the metacarpus, and of the
fingers, each of which consists of two or three bones, termed pha- ©
langes.

‘With the exception of the Cetacea, the first part of the posterior

extremity, in all animals of this class, is fixed to the spine, forming
Fy :

< Bo a : a

42 ‘ ee MAMMALIA.

2

st “a girdle or pelvis, whieh, in youth, consists of three pairs of bones,
~ the ilium which is attached to the spine, the pubis which forms the
anterior part of the girdle, and the ischium, -the posterior. At the

_ point Of union of these three bones is situated the cavity with which
the thigh is articulated, to which, in its turn, is attached the leg,
‘formed of two: bones, the tibia and fibula; this extremity is termi-
nated by parts § ‘similar to those of the hand, i. e. by | a tarsus, meta-
tarsus and toes.

The head of the’ mammalia is always articulated ne two condyles,
» with the atlas, the first vertebra of the neck.

The brain is always composed of two hemispheres, united by a

» medullary layer, called the corpus callosum, containing the ventri-
‘ cles, and enveloping four pairs of tubercles, named the corpora
striata or striated bodies, the thalami nervorum opticorum or beds
of the optic nerves, and the nates, and testes. Between the optic
beds is a third ventricle, which communicates with a fourth under
the cerebellum, the crura of which always form a transverse promi-
nence under the medulla oblongata, called the pons Varolit, or
bridge of Varolius.

* The eye, invariably lodged in its orbit, is protected by two lids
) and a vestige of a third, and has its crystalline fixed by the ciliary
ra _ processes—its sclerotic is simply cellular.

Be The ear always contains a cavity called the tympanum, or drum,
ye | which communicates with the mouth by the Eustachian tube; the
me cavity itself is closed externally by a membrane called the membrana

tympani, and contains a chain of four little bones, named the incus
or anvil, malleus or hammer, the os orbiculare or circular bone, and
the stapes or stirrup; a vestibule, on the entrance of which rests the

“stapes, and which communicates with three semicircular canals; and
finally, a cochlea, which terminates by one canal in the vestibule, and
_ by the other in the tympanum.

Their cranium is subdivided into three portions; the anterior is
acs by the two frontal and ethmoidal bones, the middle by the
two ossa parietalia and the os ethmoides, and the posterior by the

_. 08 occipitis. Between the ossa parietalia, the sphenoidalis and the
. 08 occipitis, are interposed the two temporal bones, part of which

belong properly to the face. .

In the foetus, the occipital bone is divided into four parts: the sphe-

- ‘noidal into two halves, which are again subdivided into three pairs

of lateral wings; the temporal into three, one of which serves to

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complete the crhingtaia Puck to close the hier the ear,” ,
the third to form the parietes of the tympanum, &c. ~ These bony” =
portions, still more numerous in the earliest period of the foetal ex-
istence, are united more or less promptly; according to the species,
and the bones themselves finally become consolidated in the adult.

Their face consists of the two maxillary bonés, between which pass
the nostrils; the two intermaxillaries are situated before, and the two
ossa palati behind them; between these descends the vomer, a’ bony
process of the os-ethmoides; at the entrance of the nasal canal are
placed the ossa nassi; to its external parietes adhere the inferior
turbinated bones, the superior ones which occupy its upper and pos-
terior portion belonging to the os ethmoides. ~The jugal or cheek
bone unites the maxillary to the temporal bone on each side, and
frequently to the os frontis; finally, the os unguis, and pars plana of
the ethmoid bone occupy the internal angle of the orbit, and some-
times a part of-the cheek. In the embryo state these bones also '
are much more subdivided. 3 Mollet

Their tongue is always fleshy, connected with a bone called the or
hyoides, which is composed of several pieces, and suspended from
the cranium by ligaments.

Their lungs, two in number, divided into lobes, and composed of
an infinitude of cells, are always enclosed, without any adhesion, in
a Cavity formed by the ribs and diaphragm and lined by the pleura;
the organ of voice is always at the upper extremity of the trachea;
a fleshy curtain, called the velum palati, establishes a direct com-
munication between their larynx and nasal canal.

Their residence on the surface of the earth rendering them less
exposed to the alternations of cold and heat, their tegument (hair)
is but moderately thick, and in such as inhabit warm climates, even.
that is rare.

The Cetacea, which live exclusively in water, es the only ones
that are altogether deprived of it.

The young are nourished for some time after birth by a fluid (milk) .
peculiar to animals of this class, which is produced by the mammx
at the time of parturition, and continues to be so as long as is necess-_
ary. It is from the mamme that this class derives its name, and —_

_ being a character peculiar to it, they distinguish it better than any.
other that is external.

*

44 MAMMALIA.

~ Division of the Mammalia into Orders.

The variable characters which form essential differences among
the Mammalia are taken from the organs of touch, on which depends
‘their degree of ability or address, and from the organs of manduca-
tion, which determine the nature of their aliment, and are all closely
connected, not only with every thing relative to the function of di-
gestion, but also with a multitude of other differences relating even
to their intelligence.

The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is estimated by
the number and the pliability of the fingers, and from the greater or
less extent to which their extremities are enveloped by the nail or
the hoof. 3

A hoof which sia pletely envelopes the end of the toe, blunts its
sensibility, and renders the foot incapable of seizing.

The opposite extreme is when a nail, formed of one single lamina,
covers only one of the faces of the extremity of the finger, leaving
the other possessed of all its delicacy.

The nature of the food is known by the grinders, to the form of
which the articulation of the jaws universally corresponds.

To cut flesh, grinders are required as trenchant as a saw, and
jaws fitted like scissars, having no other motion than a vertical one.

For bruising roots or grains, flat-crowned grinders are necessary,
and jaws that have a lateral motion; in order that inequalities may
always exist on the crown of these teeth, it is also requisite that
their substance be composed of parts of unequal hardness, so that
some may wear away faster than others.

Hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and have flat-
crowned grinders, inasmuch as their feet preclude the possibility of
their seizing a living prey.

Animals with unguiculated fingers were susceptible of more
variety; their food is ‘of all kinds, and independently of the form of
their grinders, they differ greatly from each other in the pliability
and delicacy of their fingers. There is one character with respect
to this, which has immense influence on their dexterity, and greatly
multiplies its powers; it is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the
finger for the purpose of seizing minute objects, constituting what is
properly called a hand; a faculty which is carried to its highest per-

fection in man, in whon ‘the i “anterior y nate ee and

capable of prehens x. | :
These variol : com inations, which strictly determine the nature

of the different mammalia, | have given rise to the following orders:

ORDER I. Pe
BIMANA(1).

Man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its
order. As his history is the more directly interesting to ourselves,
and forms the point of comparison to which we refer that of aoher
- animals, we will speak of it more in detail.

We will rapidly sketch every thing that is peculiar in each of
his organic systems, amidst all that he shares in common with other
Mammalia; we will examine the advantages he derives from these
peculiarities over other species; we will describe the principal varie-
ties of his race and their distinguishing characters, and finally point
out the natural order in which his individual and social faculties are
developed.

ne

Peculiar Conformation of Man.

The foot of Man is very different from that of the Monkey; it is large;

the leg bears vertically upon it; the heel is expanded beneath; the toes —
are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe, longer and larger than

the rest, is placed on the same line with, and cannot be opposed to them.
This foot, then, is peculiarly well adapted to support the body; but cannot
be used for seizing or climbing, and as the hands are not calculated for
walking, Man is the only true bimanous and biped animal.

The whole body of Man is arranged with a view to a vertical position.

Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on all fours;
his short and nearly inflexible feet, and his long thigh, would bring the
knee to the ground; his widely separated shoulders and his arms, too far
extended from the median line, would ill support the upper portion of
his body. The great indented muscle, which, in quadrupeds, suspends,
as in a girth, the body between the scapulz, is smaller in Man than in any
one among them. The head is also heavier, both from the magnitude of
the brain and the smallness of the sinuses or cavities of the bones; and yet

i ee

+
3 5 —_—~

(1) Animals with two hands. t:

45

ie MAMMALIA.

oh ad

the means of supporting it re weiter for he has. rivither ae SN ligament,
» Hor are his vertebra so arranged as to prevent their flexure forwards; the
result of this would be, that he could only keep his head in the same line
with the spine, and then his eyes and mouth being directed towards the

ne “earth, he could not see before him;—in theerect position, on the CORR:

‘the arrangement of these organs is every way perfect.

The arteries which are sent to his brain, not being subdivided as in many
quadrupeds, and the blood requisite for so voluminous an organ being car-
ried into it with too much violence, frequent apoplexies would be the con-

~ sequence of’a horizontal position. 4

Man, then, is formed for an erect position only. He thus.preserves the

entire use of his hands for the arts, while his organs | of sense are most
~ favourably situated for observation. e

These hands, which derive such advantages from their liberty, receive
as many more from theirstructure. The thumb, longer in proportion than
that of the Monkey, increases its facility of seizing small objects. All the
fingers, the annularis excepted, have separate movements, a faculty possess-
ed by no other animal, not even by the Monkey. The nail, covering one
side only of the extremity of the finger, acts as a support to the touch,
without.depriving it of an atom of its delicacy. ‘The arms to which these
hands are attached, are strongly and firmly connected by the large scapula,
eons clavicle, &c.

"Man, so highly favoured as to dexterity, is not at all so with respect to

force. His swiftness in running is greatly inferior to that of other animals

| ia of his size. Having neither projecting jaws, nor salient canine teeth, nor

a claws, he is destitute of offensive weapons; and the sides and upper aoe
» of his body being naked, unprovided even with hair, he is absolutely with-
Mit defensive ones. Of all animals, he is also the longo) in attaining the
power necessary to provide for himself.

This very weakness, however, is but one savantans more—it compels
him to have recourse to that intelligence within, for which he is so emi-
nently conspicuous.
No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and conv ohalitinn of the
hemispheres of the brain, that is, in the part of this organ which is the
cipal instrument of the intellectual operations. The posterior portion
of the same organ extends backwards; so as to form a second covering to
the cerebellum; the very form of his cranium announces this magnitude: -of
the brain, while the smallness of his face shows how slightly that portion of
the nervous $name which influences the extemal 4 senses predominates in
IM. 2) RT

a ty My, These. NE EE sensations, 4 Guanes as tleay all are in Man, are neverthe-
less extremely delicate and well balanced. | .

si are directed forwards; he does not see eon two sides at once,

I gua iru peds, which produces more unity in the result of his sight,

and concentrates his attention more closely on sensations of this kind. The

wer ‘ball and iris of his eye vary but/little; ‘this restrains the activity of his sight
ft, a limited distance, and a determined degree of light. His external ear,

pee Fees g
possessing but little me ili es fe does not increase the infeisity of
sounds, and yet, of Hl : anin ras, he best distinguishes the various degrees of a
intonation. His nostrils
less so than those of all other genera; and yet he appears to be the only. a2
animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be affected by un- ee
pleasant odours. Delicacy of smell must have some influence on that of
taste, and independently of this Man must have some advantage in this re-
R spect over other animals, those at least whose tongues are covered with
scales. Lastly, the nicety of his tact results, both from the delicacy of his
~teguments, and the absence of all insensible parts, as well as from the form ~
of his hand, which is better adapted than that of any other gone for suiting
itself to every little superficial inequality.

Man is pre-eminently distingtished in the organ of his voice; of all the
Mammalia, he alone possesses the faculty of articulating sounds, its probable
causes being the form of his mouth and the great mobility of his lips.

' From this results his most invaluable mode of communication, for of all the

signs which can be conveniently employed for the transmission of ideas, a i
variations of sound are those which can be perceived at the greatest dis- Me ut
tance, and are the most extensive in their sphere of operation. «ee

The whole of his structure, even to the heart and great. vesselsy-appears , Bee
to have been framed with a view toa vertical position. The heart is placed i
obliquely, on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to the left, thereby Oc- |
casioning a distribution of the aorta, differing from that of most quadrupeds.

The natural food of man, judging from his structure, appears to consigty si
of the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables; his hands offer . i . ons
him every facility for gathering them; his short, and but moderately strong
jaws on the one hand, and his canini being equal in length to the remaining *
teeth, and his tubercular molares on the other, would allow him neither to .
feed on grass nor to devour flesh, were these aliments not previously pre- 9 ae
pared by cooking. Once, however, possessed of fire, and those arts by |
which he is ‘aided in seizing animals or killing them at a distance, every
living being was rendered subseryient to his nourishment, thereby giving” a
him the means of. an infinite multiplication of his species. oe: pee

To complete the hasty sketch of the anatomical structure ‘of Man! requi- i
site for this introduction, we will add, that he has thirty-two vertebra, of
which seven belong to the neck, twelve to the back, five to the loins, five
to the sacrum, and three to the coccyx. Seven pairs of his ribs are united.
with the sternum by elongated cartilages, and are called true ribs; the five
following pairs are denominated false ones. His adult cranium is formed
of eight bones; an occipitalis, two ossa. temporis, two parietaliay and the
frontal, ethmoidal and sphenoidal bones. The bones of his face are in
teen in number, two maxillaties, two. ossa male, each of which joins the —

temporal to the maxillary bone of its own side by a kind of handle called co
the zygomatic arch; two nasal bonés, two ossa palati behind the ’palate, a
vomer between the nostrils, two turbinated bones of the nose’ itt | thé nos- P uf
trils, two lachrymals (unguis) in the interfial’ “cies of the > orbits and the | Ss §

i Be tect a

7

a eS SN MAMMALIA. —

single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw fas sia teeth four cutting
~ incisors in the middle, two pointed canines at the corners, and ten tubercu-
lated molares, five on each side. At the extremity of the spine of his sca-
pula, is a tuberosity called the acromion, to which the clavicle is attached,
‘and over its articulation is a point called the coracoid process with which
certain muscles are connected. ‘The radius revolves upon the ulna, owing
to the mode of its articulation with the humerus. The carpus has eight
bones, four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remaining
parts of the hand and foot may be easily counted by the number of fingers
and toes.

a
Sd

Physical and Moral Development of Man.

' _ Searcely has the body gained the full period of its growth in height, be-
_. fore it begins to increase in bulk; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue, the
different vessels become gradually obstructed, the solids become rigid, and,
after.a life more or less long, more or less agitated, more or less painful,
old age arrives with decrepitude, decay, and death. Man rarely lives be-
yond a hundred years, and most of the species, either from —" acci-
dent, or old age; perish long’ before that term.
»The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer thea en milk,
‘ from this it obtains an education both moral and physical, and a mutual
NEE attachment i is created that is fervent and durable. The nearly equal num-
ber of the two. sexes, the difficulty of supporting more than one wife, when
wealth does not supply the want of power, all go to prove that monogamy
is sie mode of union most natural to our species. From the long period of
infantile weakness springs domestic subordination, and the order of society
in general, as the young people which compose the new families continue
to preserve with their parents those tender relations to which they have
_so long been accustomed.) ‘This disposition to mutual assistance multiplies
to an almost ‘unlimited. extent those advantages previously derived by insu-
‘lated Man from his intelligence; it has assisted him to tame or repulse other
animals, to defend himself from the effects of climate, and thus enabled him
to cover the earth with his species.
4 iy On other respects, he appears to possess nothing resembling instinct, no
regular habit of industry produced by innate ideas; his knowledge is the
result of his sensations and of his observation, or of those of his predecess-
ors. Transmitted by speech, increased by meditation, and applied to his
necessities and his enjoyments, they have originated all the arts of life.
Language and letters, by preserving acquired knowledge, are a source of
ae gy indefinite perfection to his species, It is thus he has acquired ideas, and
a” @mpde alls nature contribute to his wants.
There are Very different degrees of development, however, in Man.
#2) The first hordes, compelled to live by fishing and hunting; or on wild
fruits; and being obliged to devote all their time to-search for the means of
- -gsubsistenge, and not being able to multiply greatly, because that would have

destroyed the game, ac n

construction of huts and canoes, to eioernts themselves with skins and the
fabrication of arrows and nets. They observed such stars only as directed
them in their journeys, and some few natural objects whose properties
were of usetothem. They domesticated the Dog, simply because he had
a natural inclination for their own kind of life. When they had succeeded
in taming thé herbivorous animals, they found in the possession of numerous
flocks a never failing source of subsistence, and also some leisure, which
they employed in extending the sphere of their acquirements. Some‘in-
dustry was then employed in the construction of dwellings and the making
of clothes: the idea of property was admitted, and consequently that of
barter, as well as wealth and difference of conditions, those fruitful sources —
of the noblest emulation and the vilest passions: but the necessity of search-
ing for fresh pastures, and of obeying the changes of the seasons, still
doomed them to a wandering life, and limited their improvements to a very
narrow sphere. ‘

The multiplication of the human species, and its improvement in the arts
and sciences, have only been carried to a high degree since the invention
of agriculture and the division of the soil into hereditary possessions. By
means of agriculture, the manual labour of a portion of society is adequate
to the maintenance of the whole, and allows the remainder time for less ne-
cessary occupations, at,the same time that the hope of acquiring, by industry,
a comfortable existence for self and posterity, has given a new spring to emu-
lation. The discovery of a representative of property or a circulating me-
dium, by facilitating exchanges and rendering fortunes more independent —
and susceptible of being increased, has carried this emulation to its highest
degree, but by a necessary consequence it has also equally increased the
vices of effeminacy and the furies of ambition.

The natural propensity to reduce every thing to general principles, and
to search for the causes of every phenomenon, has produced reflecting men,
in every stage of society, who have added new ideas to those already
obtained, nearly all of whom, while knowledge was. confined to the few,
endeavoured to convert their intellectual superiority into the means of domi-
nation, by exaggerating their own merit, and disguising the poverty of their
knowledge by the propagation of superstitious ideas.

An evil still more irremediable, is the abuse of physical power: now that
man only can injure man, he is continually seeking to do so, and is the only
animal upon earth that is forever at war with his own species. Savages
fight for a forest, and herdsmen for a pasture, and as often as they can,
break in upon the cultivators of the earth to rob them of the fruits of their
long and painful labours. Even civilized nations, far from being contented
with their blessings, pour out each other’s blood for the prerogatives of
pride, or the monopoly of trade. Hence, the necessity for governments to _
direct the national wars, and to repress or reduce to regular forms the
quarrels of individuals.

G

50 | MAMMALIA.

The social condition of man has been restrained, or advanced by circum-
stances more or less favourable.

The glacial climates of the north of both continents, and the impenetrable
forests of America are still inhabited by the savage hunter or fisherman. The
immense sandy and salt plains of central Asia and Africa are covered with a

pastoral people, and innumerable herds. These half civilized hordes as-
semble at the call of every enthusiastic chief, and rush like a torrent on
the cultivated countries that surround them, in which they establish them-
selves, but to be weakened by luxury, and in their turn to become the prey
of others. This is the true cause of that despotism which has always crush-
ed and destroyed the industry of Persia, India, and China.

Mild climates, soils naturally irrigated and rich in vegetables, are the
cradles of agriculture and civilization, and when so situated as to be shel-
tered from the incursions of barbarians, every species of talent is excited;
‘such were (the first in Europe) Italy and Greece, and such is, at present,

nearly all that happy portion of the earth.

_ Varieties. of the Human Species.

“Three races appear very distinct—the Caucasian or white; the Mongolian
or yellow, and the Ethiopian or negro.

The Caucasian, to which we'belong, is distinguished by the beauty of the
oval formed by his head, varying in complexion and the colour of the hair.
. To this variety, the most highly civilized nations, and those which have
generally held all others in subjection, are indebted for their origin.

The Mongolian is known by his high cheek bones, flat visage, narrow
and oblique eyes, straight black hair, scanty beard and olive complexion.
Great empires have been established by this race in China and Japan, and
their conquests been extended to this side of the Great Desert. Inciviliza-
tion, however, it has always remained stationary.

The Negro race is confined to the south of mount Atlas; it is marked by
a black complexion; crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium, and a flat
nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips,
evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe; the hordes of which it con-
sists have always remained in the most complete state of utter barbarism.

The race from which we are descended has been called Caucasian, be-
cause tradition and the filiation of nations seem to refer its origin to that
group of mountains situated between the Caspian and Black seas, whence,
as from a centre, it has been extended like the radii of a circle. Various
nations. in the vicinity of Caucasus, the Georgians and Circassians, are still
considered the handsomest on earth. The principal ramifications of this race
may be distinguished by the analogies of language. The Armenian or Sy-
rian branch, stretching to the south, produced the Assyrians, the Chaldeans,
the hitherto untameable Arabs, who, after Mahomet, were near becoming
masters of the world; the Phenicians, Jews and Abyssinians, which were Ara-
bian colonies; and most probably the Egyptian. It is from this branch,

_BIMANA. : ae eee é 51
always inclined to mysticism, th i have Fe cong th the most widely extended
forms of religion—the artsand literature have sometimes flourished among
its nations, but always enveloped in a strange disguise and figurative style.

The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch is much more extended, and
was much earlier divided, notwithstanding which, the most numerous affini-
ties may be observed between its four principal languages—the Sanscrit,
the present sacred language of the Hindoos, and the parent of the greater
number of the dialects of Hindostan; the ancient language of the Pelasgi,
common mother of the Greek, Latin, many tongues that are extinct, and
of all those of the south of Europe; the Gothic or Teutonic, from which are
derived the languages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the
German, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and other dialects; and finally,
the Sclavonian, from which spring those of the north-east, the Russian,
Polish, Bohemian, &c.

It is by this great and venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, that
philosophy, the arts, and the sciences have been carried to the greatest
perfection, and remained in the keeping of the nations which compose it
for more than three thousand years.

It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, who came from the north, whose
tribes, once very numerous, are now confined to its most eastern extremity,
and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa into Spain, now confound-
ed with the many nations whose posterity have intermingled in that pen-
insula,

The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the Indians, and
their descendants to the present hour bear great marks of resemblance to
the people of Europe.

The predatory tribes of the Scythian and Tartar branch, extending at
first to the north and north-east, always wandering over the immense plains
of those countries, returned only to devastate the happier abodes of their
more civilized brethren. The Scythians, who, at so remote a period,
made irruptions into upper Asia; the Parthians, who there destroyed the
Greek and Roman domination; the Turks, who there subverted that of the
Arabs, and subjugated in Europe the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian
people, all swarmed from this prolific branch. The Finlanders and Hun-
garians are tribes of the same division, which have strayed among the
Sclavonic and, Teutonic nations. Their original country, to the north and
north-east of the Caspian sea still contains inhabitants who have the same
origin, and speak similar languages, but mingled with other petty nations,
variously descended, and of different languages. The Tartars remained
unmixed longer than the others in the country included between the mouth
of the Danube to beyond the Irtisch, from which they so long menaced
Russia, and where they have finally been subjugated by her. The Mon-
goles, however, have mingled their blood with that of those they conquered,
many traces of which may still be found among the inhabitants of lesser -
Tartary.

It is to the east of this Tartar branch of the Caucasian race that the Mon-

eh aa
Ear 2

52. MAMMALIA.

golian race begins, whence it extends to the eastern ocean. Its branches,
the Calmucs, &c. still wandering shepherds, are constantly traversing the
desert. Thrice did their ancestors under Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane,
spread far the terror of their name. The Chinese are the earliest and
most civilized branch not only of this race, to which they belong, but of all
the nations upon earth. A third branch, the Mantchures, recently con-
~ quered, and still govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all
the hordes which extend to the north-east of Siberia, subject to Russia,
are also to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race;
"and such also is esteemed the fact, with regard to the original inhabitants
of yarious islands of that Archipelago.. With the exception of a few Chi-
nese literati; the different nations of the Mongoles are universally addicted

_.» to Buddism, or, the religion of Fo.

The origin of this great race appears to have been in the mountains of At-

2 “ti, but it is impossible to trace the filiation of its different branches with

the same certainty as we have done those of the Caucasian. The history

of these wandering nations is as fugitive’as their establishments, and that of .

the Chinese, confined exclusively to their own empire, gives us nothing
satisfactory with respect to their neighbours. The affinities of their lan-
guages are also too little known to direct us in this labyrinth. :

The languages of the north of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, as well
as that of Thibet, are somewhat allied to the Chinese, at least in their mo-

» nosyllabic structure, and the people who speak them have features some-

_ what resembling other Mongoles. The south of this peninsula, however, is
_ inhabited by Malays, whose forms approximate them much nearer to the In-

_ dians, whose race and language are extended over all the coasts of the islands
of the Indian Archipelago. The innumerable little islands of the southern
ocean are also peopled by a handsome race, nearly allied to the Indians,
whose language is very similar to the Malay; in the interior of the largest
of these islands, particularly in the wilder portions of it, is atiother race
of men, with black complexions, crisped hair, and negro facés, called Al-
fourous. On the coast. of New Guinea, and in the neighbouring islands,
we find other negroes, nearly similar to those of the eastern coast of Africa,
named Papuas; to the latter, are generally referred the people of Van-Die-
men’s land, and those of New Holland to the Alfourous.

These Malays, and these Papuas are not easily referable to either of the
three great races of which we have been speaking, but can the former be
clearly distinguished from their neighbours, the Caucasian Hindoos and the
Mongolian Chinese? As for us, we confess we cannot discover any suffi-
cient characteristics in them for that purpose. Are the Papuas Negroes,
which may formerly have strayed into the Indian ocean? We posess neither
_ figures nor descriptions sufficiently precise to enable us to answer this
~ question.

' The northern inhabitants of both continents, the Samoiédes, the Lap-
landers, and the Esquimaux, spring, according to some, from the Mongolian

race, while others assert that Meegace’’ ‘mere Nbendsite offsets from the
Scythian and Tartar branch of the Caucasian stock.

We have not yet been able to refer the Americans to any of the races of |
the eastern continent; still, they have no precise nor constant character
which can cofitle,them to be considered as a particularone. Their copper
coloured complexion is not sufficient; their generally black hair and scanty
beard would induce us to refer them to the Mongoles, if their defined fea-
tures, projecting nose, large and open eye, did not oppose such a theory,
and correspond with the features of the European. Their languages are as
numberless as their tribes, and no demonstratiye analogy has as yet been

obtained, either with each other, or with those of the old world. ins
ORDER II.
QUADRUMANA(1).

Independently of the anatomical details which distinguish it from
Man, and which have been given, this family differs from our spe-
cies in a very remarkable way. All the animals belonging to it
have the toes of the hind feet free and opposable to the others, and
the toes are all as long and flexible asfingers. In consequence of
this, the whole species climb trees with the greatest facility, while it
is only with pain and difficulty they can stand and walk upright; their
foot then resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis
being unfavourable to an equilibrium. They all have intestines
very similar to those of man; the eyes directed forwards. The brain
has three lobes on each side, the posterior of which covers the cere-
bellum, and the temporal fosse are separated from the orbits by a
bony partition. In every thing else, however, they gradually lessen
in resemblance to him, by assuming a muzzle more and more elon-
gated, a tail and a gait more like that of quadrupeds. Notwithstand-
ing this, the freedom of their arms and the complication of their
hands allow them all to perform many of the actions of man as well
as to imitate his gestures. *

They have long been divided into two genera, the Monkeys and
the Lemurs, which, by the multiplication of secondary forms, have
now become two small families, between which we must place a

(1) Animals with four hands.

54. MAMMALIA.

third genus that of the Ouistitis, as it is not conveniently referable to
the one or the other.

Sra, Lin.

The Monkeys are all quadrumana, which have four straight incisors in
- each jaw, and flat nails on all the extremities; two characters which ap-
‘proximate them them more nearly to Man, than the subsequent genera;
their molars have also blunt tubercles like ours, and their food consists
chiefly of fruits. Their canine teeth, however, being longer than the rest,
supply them with weapons we do not possess, and which require a hollow
in the opposite jaw, to receive them when the mouth is closed.

‘They may be divided, from the number of their molar teeth, into two
principal subgenera, which are again subdivided into numerous groups.
The .

Monkeys, properly so called,

“Or those of the eastern continent, have the same number of grinders as
Man, but otherwise differing from each other by characters, which have
formed the grounds of the following subdivisions. , The

Simra, Erx].—Piruzcvs, Geoffr.

The Ourangs(1), are the. only monkeys of the ancient continent which
have no callus on the seat. Their nose is not prominent, they have no
cheek-pouches, nora vestige of a tail. Some of them have arms long
enough to reach the ground when standing—their legs, on the contrary,
are very short. _
&S. satyrus, L. (The Ourang-Outang.) Of all animals, this Ourang is
considered as approaching most nearly to Man in the form of hishead, height
of forehead, and volume of brain; but the exaggerated descriptions of some
authors respecting this resemblance, are partly to be attributed to the fact
of their being drawn from young individuals only; and there is every reason
to believe, that with age, their muzzle becomes much more prominent.
The body is covered with coarse red hair, the face bluish,.and the hinder
thumbs very short compared with the toes. His lips are susceptible of a
singular elongation, and possess great mobility. His history has been
much disfigured by mingling it with that of the other great monkeys, that
of the Chimpansé in particular. After a strict and critical examination, I
have ascertained that the Ourang-Outang inhabits the most eastern coun-
tries only, such as Malabar, Cochin China, and particularly the great island
of Borneo, whence he has been occasionally brought to Europe by the way
of Java. When young, and such as he appears to us in his captivity, he is
a mild and gentle animal, easily rendered tame and affectionate, which is

(1) Orang is a Malay word signifying reasonable being, which is applied
to man, the ourang-outang, and the elephant. Outang means wild, or of the
woods; hence, Wild Man of the Woods.

1
i

enabled by his conformation to imitate many of our sean but whose
intelligence does not appear to be as great as is reported, not much sur-
passing even that of the Dog. :

There is a monkey in Borneo, hitherto known only by his skeleton, called
the Pongo, which so closely resembles the Ourang-Outang in the propor- —
tions of all his parts, that we are tempted to consider him an adult—if not
of the species of the Ourang-Outang, at least of one very nearly allied to it.
He sh largest monkey known, and in size is nearly equal to Man.

The arms of the remaining Ourangs reach only tothe knee. They have
no forehead, and the cranium retreats from the crest of the eye-brow. The
name of Curmpanses might be exclusively applied to them.

S. Troglodytes, L. (The Chimpansé) is covered with black or brown hair.
Could any reliance be placed on the accounts of travellers, this animal -
must be equal or superior to man in stature, but no part of it hitherto seen
in Europe indicates this extraordinary size. It inhabits Guinea and Congo,
lives in troops, constructs huts of leaves and sticks, arms itself with clubs
and stones, and thus repulses men and elephants. Naturalists have genes
rally confounded it with the Ourang-Outang. When domesticated he soon
learns to walk, sit, and eat like aman. We now epreeate' the: Gibbons
from the Ourangs.

Hirosares, Illig.

The Gibbons have the long arms of the true Ourangs, and the low fore-
head of the Chimpansé, along with the callous seat of the Guenons, differ-
ing however from the latter in having no tail or cheek-pouch. They all
inhabit the most remote parts of India.

&. lar. L. (The Black Gibbon) is covered with coarse black hairs, and
has a whitish circle round his face. There are several other species.

CERCOPITHECUS, Erxl.

The long-tailed monkeys have a moderately prominent muzzle (of 60°);
cheek-pouches; tail; callosities on the seat; the last of the inferior molars
with four tubercles like the rest. Numerous species, of every variety of
size and colour, abound in Africa, live in troops, and do much damage to
the gardens and fields under cultivation. They are easily tamed.

Simia rubra, Gm. (The Patras.) Red fawn colour above, whitish
below; a black band over the eyes, sometimes surmounted with white—
from Senegal. The

Sremnopitaecus, Fred. Cuv.

Differs from the Long-tailed Monkeys, by having an additional small
tubercle on the last of the inferior molares. These animals inhabit eastern
countries, and their long limbs and very long tail give them a very peculiar
appearance. Their muzzle projects very little more than that of the Gib-
bons, and like them, they have callosities on the seat. They appear,

56 MAMMALIA.

likewise, to have no cheek-pouches; their larynx is furnished occa @ sac.
. The one longest known is the

Sim. nemzus, L. Remarkable for its lively and varied colouring; body
and arms grey; hands, thighs and feet black; legs of a lively red; the tail
~ anda large triangular spot upon the loins, white; face orange; he has a
- black and red collar, and tufts of yellow hairs on the sides of the head;
inhabits Cochin China.

Macacus, or Macaques.

All the animals of this denomination. have a fifth tubercle on their last
molars, and callosities and cheek pouches like a Guenon. The limbs are
shorter and thicker than in a Semnopithecus; the muzzle more projecting,
and the superciliary ridge more inflated than in either the one or the other.
Though docile when young, they become unmanageable when old. They
all have a sac which communicates with the larynx under the thyroid car-
tilage, and which, when they cry out, becomes filled with air.

Sim. silenus and leonina, L. (The Maned Macaque.) Black; ash-col-
oured mane and whitish beard which surround the head. » From Ceylon.

Some of the Macaques are distinguished by a short tail.

M. rhesus. (The Pig-tailed Baboon.) Greyish; a fawn-coloured tinge

on the head and crupper, sometimes on the back; face flesh-colour; tail
' reaching below the hamstrings. From Bengal.

Invus, Cuyv.

The Inui are mere Macaques, which have a small tubercle in lieu of a
tail. .

Cynoczrnatus, C.(1)

The Dog headed-Monkeys, together with the teeth, cheek-pouches and
callosities of the Inuus, Cuv., have an elongated muzzle truncated at the
end, in which the nostrils are ‘plesndl, giving ita greater resemblance to
that of a dog than of any other monkey; their tail varies in length. They
are generally large, ferocious and dangerous animals, found mostly in
Africa. ;

C. papio, Desm. (The Guinea Baboon.) Yellow, verging more or less
on a brown; tufts of the cheeks fawn-coloured; face black; tail long. They
are found of various sizes, owing probably to the difference of age. When
full grown, frightful from their ferocity and brutality. From Guinea. The

e MANDRILLS, ;
Of all the Monkeys, have the longest muzzle (30°); their tail is very short;
they are brutal and ferocious; nose as in the preceding.
Sim. maimon and mormon, Lin. (The Mandrill.) Greyish brown, in-

_ (1) Cynocephalus, dog’s head.

57

clining to olive aboye; cheeks blue and furrowed. The nose in the adult
‘male becomes red, particularly at the end, where it is scarlet, which has
been the cause of its being deemed, erroneously, a distinct species. It is
difficult to imagine a more hideous or extraordinary animal. He nearly at-
tains the size of a man, and is a terror to the negroes of Guinea. Many
details of his history have been mixed up with that of the Chimpansé, and
consequently with that of the Ourang-Outang.

Tue Monkeys or AMERICA

Have four grinders more than the others—thirty-six in all; the tail long;
no cheek-pouches; seat hairy; no callosities; nostrils opening on the
sides of the nose, and not underneath. All the great Quadrumana of
America belong to this division.

The tails of some of them are prehensile—that is, their extremity can
twist round a body with sufficient force to seize it as with a hand. They
are more particularly designated by the name of Sapajous.

At their head may be placed the Alouattes (Mycerrzs, Illig.), which are
distinguished by a pyramidal head, the upper jaw of which descends much
below the cranium, as the branches of the lower one ascend very high for
the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed by a vesicular inflation of the
hyoid bone, which communicates with the larynx, and gives to their voice
astonishing power, and a most frightful sound. Hence their name of
Howling Monkeys. The prehensile portion of the tail is naked beneath.

There are several species, whose distinguishing characters are not yet
well ascertained, for the colour of the fur on which they are established
varies with the age and sex.

Simia seniculus, Buff. (Red Howling Monkey.) It is pide ® sent to us
from the forests of Guiana, where it lives in troops; size that of a large fox;
colour, a reddish chesnut, rather deeper at the head and tail.

The Common Sapasous have the head flat, and the projection of the
muzzle very moderate—facial angle 60°.

In some of them, the anterior thumbs are either totally, or nearly so, hid-
den under the skin, and the prehensile part of the tail naked beneath. M.
Geoff. has formed them into a genus by the name of Arzzzs.

Lacotarix, Geoff.—Gasrrimareus, Spix.

Head round, a thumb like the Alouattes; tail partly naked. Such are the
L. Humboldit, Geoff., the Capparo, and the Grison or the Silver-haired
Monkey; Honkeys from the interior of South America, said to be remark-
able gluttons.

The other Sapajous have a round head, distinct thumbs, and the tail hairy,
though prehensile. The species\are more numerous than those of the
_ Alouatte, and are characterised with nearly as much difficulty.

Some of them have the hairs on the forehead of a uniform length, such
as the

Sim. appella, L. (The Sajou); and the S- capucina, L. (The Capuchin.)

H ;

58 MAMMALIA.

Both of them of different browns; in the first, the circumference of the face
is blackish; in the second it is whitish; but the shade of colour in all the
rest of their bodies varies between a brownish black and a fawn-colour,
sometimes even a white. The shoulders and breast are however generally
lighter and the calotte and hands darker.

Others, again, have the hairs of the forehead so disposed as to form a
kind of aigrette, such as the

Sim. fatuellus, Gm. (The Horned Sajou.) This animal has a tuft of
~ black hairs on each side of the forehead.

The disposition of these Monkeys is mild and gentle, their motions quick
and light, and they are easily tamed. Their name of Weeping Monkeys is
derived from their soft plaintive voice.

In the Sarmrnr the tail is depressed, and almost ceases to be prehensile;
the head is very much flattened; in the interorbitar partition of the skeleton
there is a membranous space. There is only one known; the

Simia sciurea, Buff. (The Siamiri.) Size of a Squirrel; of a yellowish
grey; fore-arms, legs, and the four extremities of a yellowish fawn-colour;
end of the nose black.

Those of the American monkeys, whose tails are not at all prehensile, are
called Saxis. Several of them have that appendage long and tufted, whence
they have been also termed Fox-tailed Monkeys: their teeth project for-
wards more than those of the others. They are the Prrurcra of Desmarets
and Iliger. .

Simia pithecia, L. (The Yarke.) Blackish; circumference of the face
whitish. :

Spix distinguishes those species whose tails, although tufted, are shorter
than the body, by the name of Bracuturnvus. His Br. Ouaraki has a fawn-
coloured body; head, neck, arms and feet black.

In some, also, the Catiitarix, Geoff. or Sagowins, Fr. Cuv. the tail is
slender, and the teeth do not project. The Saimiri were associated with
them for a long time, but the head of the Sagouins is higher, and their
canine teeth much shorter. Such is the

Call. personata, Geoff. (The Masked Monkey.) A yellowish grey; head
and hands black. The

Noctuorvs, Fred. Cuv.
Only differs from the Sagouins in its great nocturnal eyes, and in the
ears, which are partly hidden under the hair. One species only is known,
Nocth. trivirgata, Fred. Cuv. (The Douroucouli.) Ash-coloured above,
yellowish beneath; a black vertical line on the middle of the forehead, and.
one on each temple. It is a nocturnal animal of South America.
They are all from Guiana or Brazil.

OUISTITIs.

A small genus, similar to the Sakis, and for a long time confounded with
them in the great genus of monkeys. In fact, like the generality of the

QUADRUMANA. ees })

American monkeys, they have the head round; visage flat; nostrils lateral;
no cheek-pouches, and, like the Sakis in particular, the tail not prehensile.
They have only, however, twenty grinders, like the monkeys of the east-
ern continent; all their nails are compressed and pointed, those of the hind
thumbs excepted, while their anterior ones are so slightly separated from
the fingers, that it is with hesitation we assign to them the name of quad-
rumana, They are pretty little creatures, of agreeable forms, and easily
tamed.

M. Geoffroy distinguishes the Ouistitis, properly so called, which he
names Jaccuvs and whose peculiar characters are pointed inferior incisors,
arranged on a curved line, equal to the canines. Their tail is annulated
and well covered with hairs; the ears generally ornamented with a tuft.

Sim. jacchus, Lin:; in Paraguay the Titi. (The Common Ouistiti.) Tail
tolerably well tufted, coloured in rings of brown and white; body greyish-
brown; two large tufts of white hairs before the ears. From nearly every
part of South America.

Lemvr, Lin.

The Lemurs, according to Linnzus, comprehend all the Quadrumana which
have in either jaw incisors differing in number from four, or at least diffe-
rently directed from those of the Monkeys. This negative character
could not fail to embrace very different beings, while it did not even
unite those which should be combined. Geoffroy has established several
divisions in this genus which are much better characterized. The four
thumbs of these animals are well developed and opposable, and the first
hind finger is armed with a pointed, raised nail; all the other nails are flat.
Their fur is woolly; and their teeth begin to exhibit sharp tubercles catch-
ing in each other as in the Insectivora.

Lremur.—Maxis, properly so called.

Six incisors in the lower jaw compressed and slanting forwards, four in
the upper that are straight, the intermediate ones being separated from
each other; trenchant canines; six molares on each side above, six below;
ears small. They are very active animals, which, from their pointed heads,
have been called Fox-nosed Monkeys. Their food is fruit. Their species are
very numerous, and are only met with in the island of Madagascar, where
they appear to replace the Monkeys, none of which it is said are to be found
there. Nearly all the difference that exists between them is in the colour.

InpRis.—Licnanorvs, Illig.
Teeth like the preceding, except that there are only four below.
One species only is known; it has no tail; is three feet high; black; face
grey; the Lemur Indri of Sonnerat, Voy. I, pl. 86. The inhabitants of
Madagascar tame and train it like a dog for the chase.

60 MAMMALIA.

Lonis.—Srenors, Illig.

The Lazy Monkeys, as they are called, have teeth like the Makis, the
grinders excepted, the points of which are more acute; the short muzzle
of a mastiff; body slender; no tail; large eyes; tongue rough.

They feed:on insects, occasionally on small birds and quadrupeds, their
gait is excessively slow, and mode of life nocturnal. Two species only are
known, both of them from the East Indies: one is the

~~ Lem.: tardigradus, 1. (The Slow Loris, or Sloth of Bengal.) Fawn-
coloured grey, a brown streak along the back; two of the upper incisors
sometimes wanting. The second species is called the Slender Loris.

Gataco, Geoff.—Oroxincus, Illig. |

The teeth and insectivorous regimen of the preceding; elongated tarsi
which produce a disproportion in the dimensions of their hind feet; a long
tufted tail; large membranous ears and great eyes, which announce noc-
turnal habits.

There are several species known, all from Africa. It appears also that
we should refer to them an animal of that country (Lemur poitto, Gm.),
whose gait is said to be as slow as that of the Loris and Sloths.

TARSIUS.

Elongated tarsi, and all the other details of form belonging to the pre-
ceding division; but the space between the molars and incisors is occupied
by several shorter teeth; the middle superior incisors are lengthened and
resemble canini. The muzzle is very short, and the eyes still larger than
those of the Galago. They are nocturnal animals, and feed on insects.
From the Moluccas. Lemur spectrum, Pall.

ORDER III.
CARNARIA(1).

This order consists of a considerable and varied assemblage of
unguiculated: quadrupeds, possessing like Man and the Quadru-
mana the three sorts of teeth, but which have no opposable thumb
to their fore-feet. Their food is animal, and the more exclusively
so, as their grinders are the more trenchant. Such as have them
wholly or partly tuberculous, take more or less vegetable aliment,

(1) Flesh eating animals.

CARNARIA. 61

and those in which they are bristled with points live principally on
Insects. The articulation of their lower jaw, being transversely
directed and hinge-like, allows of no laters motion; it can only
open and shut.

Although the convolutions of the brain are still tolerably well
marked, it has no third lobe, nor does it cover the cerebellum any
more than in the following families; the orbit is not separated from
the temporal fossa in the skeleton; the cranium is narrowed and the
zygomatic arches widened and raised, in order to give more strength
and volume to the muscles of their jaws. Their predominant sense
is that of smell, and their pituitary membrane is generally spread —
over numerous bony laminz. The fore-arm has still the power of
revolving in nearly all of them, although with less facility than in
the Quadrumana, and they never have the thumb of the anterior
extremities opposed to the other toes. On account of the substan-
tial nature of the aliment, and to avoid the putrefaction it would
undergo by remaining too long in an elongated canal, their intes-
tines are less voluminous.

There is a great variety in their forms and in the details of their
organization, which produces analogous differences in their habits,
and to such an extent as makes it impossible to arrange their ge-
nera on one line, and compels us to form them into several families,
which are variously connected by multiplied relations.

FAMILY I.
CHETROPTERA.

This family still retains. some affinity with the Quadrumana.
Their distinguishing character consists in a fold of the skin, which,
commencing at the sides of the neck, extends between their four
feet and toes, supports them in the air, and even enables such of
them to fly as have their hands sufficiently developed for that pur-
pose. This disposition required strong clavicles and large scapule
to give the necessary solidity to the shoulder, but it was incompati-
ble with the rotation of the fore-arm, which would have diminished
the force of the stroke requisite for flight. They have all four great
canini, but the number of their incisors varies. ‘They have long
been divided into two genera, founded upon the extent of their or-

62 MAMMALIA.

gans of flight. The first of these, however, requires several subdi-
visions. .

VesPertitio, Lin. :

The arms, fore-arms and fingers of the Bats are excessively lengthened,
forming, with the membrane that occupies their intervals, true wings, pos-
sessing even a greater extent of surface than those of Birds—they conse-
quently fly very high, and with great rapidity. The thickness of their
pectoral muscles is proportioned to the motions they have to execute, and
there is a ridge in the middle of the sternum like that of Birds, to which
they are attached. The thumb is short and armed with a claw, by which
they are enabled to creep and to suspend themselves. Their hind feet are
weak and are divided into five toes, almost always of equal length, armed
with trenchant and pointed nails. Their eyes are excessively small, but
their ears are frequently very large, and together with the wings form a
vast membranous surface, which is almost naked, and so extremely sensi-
ble that it is probable they guide themselves through all the sinuosities of
their labyrinths, even after their eyes have been plucked out, solely by the
diversity of the impressions of the air. They are nocturnal, and in our
climate pass the winter in a state of stupor. During the day they suspend
themselves in obscure places. They generally produce two young ones
ata birth, which cling to their mammz, and whose size is considerable in
proportion to thatof the mother. This genus is very numerous, and offers
many subdivisions. We must begin by separating from it the

Prrrorvs, Bris.

Trenchant incisors in each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns; the food,
consequently, consists chiefly of fruit, of which it destroys considerable
quantities; it also successfully pursues birds and small quadrupeds. It is
the largest Bat known, and the fleshis eaten. It inhabits the East Indies.
» They have never been found out of the south of Asia or the Indian Ar-
chipelago.

a. Without tails, and four incisors in each jaw.
P. edulis, Geoff. (The Black Roussette.) Blackish brown, deepest be-
neath, wings nearly four feet from tip to tip. From the Moluccas and the

straits of Sunda, where they are found in great numbers during the day
suspended to the trees.

b. With a small tail and four incisors in each jaw.

M. Geoffroy was the first who described the species of this subdivision.
One of them grey and woolly, Péter. egypticus, is found in the caves of
Egypt: ;

The Pteropi being taken away, we have the true Bats left, which are
all insectivorous, and have three grinders on each side in each jaw, bristled

“CARNARIA. | | os, 63

with conical points, they are preceded by a variable number of false —
molars. Their index never has a nail, and, one subgenus excepted, the
membrane is always extended between the two legs.

They should be divided into two principal tribes. The first has three
ossified phalanges in the middle finger of the wing, but the remainder, in-
cluding the index itself, consists of but two.

The tribe of true bats is now divided into numerous subgenera such as
Molossus, Noctilio, Vampirus, &c. &c., distinguished by the absence or
presence of a tail, the fact of its being free above the membrane or in-
volyed init, the presence of a membrane on the nose, number of incisors,
&e. &e.

GaLEoPiIruecvs, Pall.

The Galeopitheci differ generically from the Vespertilios, in the fingers,
all armed with trenchant nails, which are not longer than the toes, so that
the membrane which occupies their intervals, and extends to the sides of
_ the tail, can only act as a parachute. The canini are denticulated and
short like the molars. There are two upper denticulated incisors widely
separated from each other, below there are six, split into narrow strips,
like a comb, a structure altogether peculiar to this genus. The animals
belonging to it are found in the Indian Archipelago, on the trees, among
which they pursue Insects, and perhaps Birds. If we can judge by the
injury the teeth sustain from age, they use fruit also.

One species only is well ascertained, the Flying Lemur. Fur greyish
red above, reddish below; spotted and striped with various shades of grey
when young. From the Molucca islands, straits of Sunda, &c.

All the other Carnaria have the mamme situated under the ab-
domen.

FAMILY II.
INSECTIVORA.

The animals of this family, like the Cheiroptera, have grinders
studded with conical points, and lead a nocturnal or subterraneous
life. ‘Their principal food is Insects, and in cold climates many of
them pass the winter in a torpid state. Unlike the Bats, they have
no lateral membranes, although they always have clavicles. Their
feet are short and their motions feeble. In walking they all place
the whole sole of the foot on the ground.

They differ from each other by the relative position and propor-
tions of their incisors and canini.

64 MAMMALIA,

Some have long incisors in front, followed by other incisors and
canini, all even shorter than the molars, a kind of dentition of
which the Tarsiers, among the. Quadrumana, have already given us
an example, and which somewhat approximates these animals to the
Rodentia. Others have large separated canini, between which are
placed small incisors, the most usual disposition of these parts among
the Quadrumana and the Carnaria; and these two systems of dental
arrangement are found in genera, otherwise very similar in the te-
guments, shape of the limbs, and mode of life.

Erracevs, Lin.

The body of the Hedgehog is covered with spines instead of hairs. The
skin of the back is furnished with such muscles, as, by inclining the head
and feet towards the abdomen, enable the animal to shut himself up in it,
as in a purse, presenting his spines on all sides to the enemy. The tail is
very short, and there are five toes to each foot. There are six incisors in
each jaw, the middle ones being the longest, and on each side three false
molars, three bristled with points, and a small one studded with tu-
bercles(1).

E. europxus, L.; Buff. (The Common Hedgehog.) Ears short; com-
mon in the woods and hedges; passes the winter in its burrow. To
Insects, which constitute its ordinary diet, it adds fruit, by which at a cer-
tain age its teeth become worn. The skin was formerly used to dress
_ hemp.

CrnTeEngs, Illig. -

The body of the Tenrec is covered with spines like the Hedgehog. It
does not however possess the faculty of rolling itself so completely into a
ball: there is no tail; the muzzle is very pointed, and the teeth are very
different. There are four or six incisors, and two great caniniin each
jaw. Behind the canini are one or two small teeth, and four triangular and
bristled molars. ‘Three species are foundin Madagascar, the first of which
has been naturalized in the Isle of France. It is a nocturnal animal, which
passes three months of the year in a state of lethargy, although inhabiting
the torrid zone. Brugiére even assures us that it is during the greatest
heats that they grow torpid.

Erinaceus ecaudatus, L. (The Tenrec.) Covered with stiff spines; only
four notched incisors below. Itis the largest of the three, and exceeds
the Hedgehog in size.

(1) Pallas has noted as an interesting fact, that the Hedgehog eats hun-
dreds of Cantharides without inconvenience, while a single one produces
the most horrible agony in the Dog and the Cat.

65

Ae i
i 3

Mp oakers, Fr. Cuv.

This is a new genus fori the Indian Archipelago: The teeth have much
affinity with those of the Hedgehog’; their middle upper incisors, however,
are proportionally shorter, and the four lower ones elongated; there is
also no tubercular one behind. The animal is covered with hair, has a
long shaggy tail, and, contrary to the habits of other Insectivora, climbs
trees with the agility of a Squirrel; the pointed muzzle, however, makes
the animal easily distinguishable even at a distance.

Sorex, Lin.

The Shrews are generally small, and covered with hair. Under this, and
upon each flank, there is a small band of stiff, thickly set sete, from be-
tween which oozes an odorous fluid, the product of a peculiar gland. The
two middle upper incisors are hooked and dentated at their base, the lower
ones slanting and elongated: five small teeth on each side follow the first,
and two only the second. There are moreover in each jaw three bristled
molars, and in the upper one the last is a small tuberculous tooth. This
animal lives in holes it excavates in the earth, which it seldom leaves till
evening, and lives on worms and insects.

Sor. araneus, L. (The Common Shrew.) Grey above; ash-pulontie a

beneath; tail square, and not so long as the body by one-third; teeth white; _
ears naked and exposed; common in the fields, &c. There are ‘several
other species, one of which (the Rat-tailed Shrew) the Egyptians were in
the habit of embalming.

Myearr, Cuv.

The Desmans differ from the Shrews in two. very small teeth placed be-

tween the two great lower incisors, and in their two upper incisors which

are flattened and triangular. Behind these incisors are six or seven small

teeth and four bristled molars. Their snoutis drawn out into a little flexi-

ble proboscis, which they keep constantly in motion. Their long tail,

scaly and flattened on the sides, with their feet of five fingers all united by

membranes, evidently proclaim them to be aquatic animals. Their eyes

are very small, and they have no external ears.

Sorex moschatus, L. (The Russian Muskrat.) Nearly as large as a

Shrew; above blackish, beneath whitish; tail not so long as the body by

one-fourth. Southern Russia.

Curysocutoris, Lacep.

| ‘Animals of this genus, like those. of the preceding one, have two incisors -
“above and four below; but their grinders are long; distinct and almost all
shaped like triangular prisms. Their muzzle is short, broad, and recurved,
and their fore-feet have only three nails, of which the external, that is very
large, much arcuated and pointed, serves them as a powerful instrument
I

66 MAMMALIA.

for excavating and piercing the earth; the others regularly decrease in size.
The hind feet have five of an ordinary size. ‘They are subterraneous ani-
mals, whose mode of life is similar to that of Moles. To enable them to
dig the better, their fore-arm is supported PY: a ind bone placed under
the cubitus.

C. asiaticus. (The Golden Mole.) A little Salles: than the European
_ Mole; no apparent tail; is the only known quadruped that presents any
appearance of those splendid metallic tints which brighten and adorn so
many Birds, Fishes and Insects. Its fur is a green, changing to a copper
or bronze; there is no conch to the ear, and the eye is not perceptible.

Tapa, Lin.

No. one is ignorant of this curious animal, the Mole, whose. form so per-
fectly qualifies it for a subterraneous mode .of life. A very short arm
attached to a long scapula, supported by a powerful clavicle and furnished
with enormous muscles, sustains an extremely large hand, the palm of
which is always directed either outwards or backwards; the lower edge of
this hand is trenchant, the fingers are scarcely perceptible, but the nailsin
which they terminate are long, flat, strong and sharp. Such is the instru-
ment employed by the Mole to tear the earth and throw it behind it. Its
‘sternum, like that of Birds and Bats, has a process which gives’to the pec-
toral muscles the size that is required for their functions. To. pierce and
raise up the earth, it makes use of its long pointed head, whose muzzle is
armed at its extremity with a*peculiar little bone, and whose muscles are
extremely powerful. There is.even an additional bone in the cervical
ligament. It has but little power behind, and moves as slowly above
ground as it advances rapidly under it. Its sense of hearing is very acute,
and the tympanum very large, although there is no external ear; its eyes
are so small and so hidden by the hair, that fora long time their existence
was positively denied. The jaws are weak, and the food consists of
Worms, Insects, and some soft roots. There are six incisors above and
eight below. The canini have two roots, which causes them to partake of
the nature of false molars; back of them are four false molars above and
three below, after which are three bristled molars.

T. europea, L.; Buff. (The Common Mole.) Pointed muzzle, hair
soft and black; individuals are found white, fawn-coloured and piebald—
a vexatious animal in cultivated grounds.

Conpy.vra, Illig.

In the animals belonging to this genus, the two kinds of dentition peculiar
to the Insectivora seem to be combined. In the upper jaw are two large
triangular incisors, two extremely small and slender ones, and on each side
a strong canine. In the lower one are four incisors slanting forwards, and
a pointed but small canine. The superior false molars are triangular and
separated, the inferior trenchant and denticulated.

Intheir feet and the whole of their exterior they resemble the Mole, but

CARNARIA. " % : ae

their tail is longer, and what more particularly serves to distinguish them
from the former is, that their nostrils are surrounded with little movable
cartilaginous points, which, when they separate, radiate like a kind of star.

One species particularly i is found in North America—Sorezx cristatus, L.
(The Radiated Mole) similar to the Mole of Europe, the nose excepted,
but having a tail more than double the length of that of the latter. —

eee

Scatops, Cuv.

Teeth very iosailar to those of the Desmans, except that the small or false
molars are less numerous, the muzzle is simply pointed, like that of the
Shrew; their hands are widened, armed with strong nails fitted to excavate
the earth, and exactly similar to those of Moles: in fact their mode of life
‘is the same; their eyes are equally as small, and-their ears Fgh as much
hidden. The only species known is the
S. aquaticus. It appears to inhabit a great part of North America, along
rivers, &c. Its external resemblance to the common Mole of Europe(1)
is so great, that it is easy to mistake the one for the other.

FAMILY: III.
CARNIVORA.

Although the term carnivorous is applicable to all tigaieulated
animals, not quadrumanate, that have three sorts of teeth, inasmuch
as they all use more or less animal aliment, there are, however,
many of them, the two preceding families especially, which are
compelled by weakness and the conical tubercles of their grinders.
to live almost entirely on Insects. It isin the present family that
the sanguinary appetite for flesh is joined to the force necessary to
obtain it. There are always four stout, long, and separated canini,
between which are six incisors in each jaw, the root of the second
of the lower ones being placed a little more inwards than the others.
The molars are either wholly trenchant, or have some blunted tu-
berculous parts, but they are never bristled with conical points.

These animals are so much the more exclusively carnivorous, as
their teeth are the more completely trenchant, and the proportions
of their regimen may be calculated from the extent of the tubercu-
lous surface of their teeth, compared with that which is trenchant.
The Bears, which can subsist altogether on vegetables, have nearly
all their teeth tuberculated. )

(1) It is the Common Mole of the United States. 4m. Ed.

68 . MAMMALIA,

- The anterior molars are the most trenchant; next comes a molar,
larger than the others, usually furnished with a larger or smaller
tuberculous heel; then follow one or two small teeth, that are per-
fectly flat. It is with these small teeth in the back part of the
mouth that the Dog chews the grass he sometimes swallows. We
will call, with M. Fr. Cuvier, this large upper molar, and its cor-
responding one below, carnivorous teeth; the anterior pointed ones,
false molars; and the posterior blunted ones, tuberculous teeth.

It is easy to conceive that those genera which have the fewest
false molars, and whose jawsare the shortest, are those best adapted
for biting.

It is upon these differences that the genera can be most surely
established.

It is necessary, however, that the consideration of the hind foot
should be added to them.

Several genera, like those of the two preceding families, in walk-
ing, or when they stand erect, place the whole sole of the foot on
the ground, a fact proved by the total want of hair on that part of it.

Others, and by far the greater number, walk on the ends of the
toes, by raising up the tarsus. ‘They are much swifter, and to this
first difference are added many others of habits, and even of inter-
nal conformation. In both the clavicle is a mere bony rudiment
suspended in the muscles. The

PLANTIGRADA
Form this first tribe, in which the whole sole of the foot is placed
on the ground in walking, a circumstance which gives them a
greater facility in standing vertically upon their hinder feet. They
partake of the slowness and nocturnal life of the Insectivora; most
of those that inhabit cold countries pass the winter in a state of tor-
‘por. They all have five toes to each foot.

; Ursus, Lin. ;

Bears have three large molars on each side in each jaw, altogether tuber-
culous, and of which the posterior upper, and anterior lower are the
longest. They are preceded by a tooth a little more trenchant, which is
one of the carnivorous teeth of this genus, and by a variable number of very
small false molars, which are sometimes shed at a very early period. This
almost frugivorous sort of dentition is the reason why, notwithstanding
their great strength, they seldom eat flesh unless from necessity.

They are large, stout-bodied animals, with thick limbs, and a very short
tail: the cartilage of the nose is elongated and movable. They excavate

CARNARIA. Le 69

dens or construct huts, in which they pass the winter in a state of somno-
lency more or less profound, and without food. It is in these retreats that
the female brings forth her young.

The species are not ‘easily distinguished by Sooarent characters.

U. americanus, Gm. (The North American Black Bear.) A very dis-
tinct species, with a fiat forehead, smooth and black fur, and fawn-coloured
muzzle. We have always found the small teeth behind the canini more
numerous in this Bear than in the European species. Individuals have
been seen that were entirely fawn-coloured. Its usual food is wild fruits;
it deyastates the fields, and, where fish is abundant, proceeds to the shores
for the purpose of catching it. It is only for want of other aliment that it
attacks quadrupeds. The flesh is held in great esteem. Various species
are known, such as the Polar Bear, Thibet Bear, Malay Bear, Thick-lipped
- Bear, and our Grisly-Bear.

Procyon, Storr.

The Raccoons have three back tuberculous molars, the superior of which
are nearly square, and three pointed false molars in front, forming a con-
tinuous series to the canines, which are straight and compressed. The
tail is long, bat the remainder of the exterior is that of a Bear in miniature.
They rest the whole sole of the foot on the ground only when they stand
still; when they walk, they raise the heel.

P. lotor. (The Raccoon.) Greyish brown; muzzle white; a brown
streak across the eyes; tail marked with brown and white rings. This
animal is about the size of a Badger, is easily tamed, and remarked for a
singular habit of eating nothing it has not previously i 0 ia in water.
From North America—lives on eggs, Birds, &c.

A1torus, Fred. Cuv.

The Panda appears to approximate to the Raccoon in its canini, and what
is known of its other teeth; with this exception, that it has éndy one false
molar. The head is short; tail long; walk plantigrade; five toes with re-
tractile claws. One species only is known, the

A. refulgens, Fred. Cuv. Size of a large Cat; fur soft and thickly set;
above of the most brilliant cinnamon red; behind more fawn-coloured; be-
neath of a deep black. The head is whitish, and the tail marked with
brown rings. From the north of India.

| Icripes, Valen.

The Benturong is somewhat related to the Raccoon by its teeth, but the
three upper back molars are much smaller and less tuberculous, the last
one in each jaw particularly, which is very small and nearly simple. It is
covered with long hair, and has a tuft at each ear. The tail is long, hairy,
and has a propensity to curl, as if prehensile.. From India.

Ict. albifrons, Fr. Cuv. Grey; tail and sides of the muzzle black; size
that of a large Cat. From Bootan.

70 MAMMALIA.

Nasva,;.Storr.

The Coatis, to the teeth, tail, nocturnal habit, and slow dragging gait of
the Raccoon, add a singularly elongated and flexible snout. The feet are
semi-palmate, notwithstanding which they climb trees. Their long claws
are used for digging. ‘They inhabit the warm climates of America, and
their diet is nearly the same as that of the Marten of Europe.

Viverra nasua,L. (The Red Coati.) Reddish fawn colour; muzzle

é

brown; tail with brown rings.

_ This is perhaps the only proper place for the singular genus of the Krx-
Kagous or Porro, Cuv. which, to a plantigrade walk, addsa long prehen-
sile tail like that of the Sapajous, a short muzzle, a slender and extensible
tongue, two pointed grinders before, and three tuberculousones behind. _
Only one species is known, the Viverra caudivolvula, Gm. From the
warm parts of America and from the gréat Antilles, where it is called Potto;
size of a Polecat; hair woolly, and of a grey or yellowish brown; habits
nocturnal; of a mild disposition, and lives on fruit, milk, honey, blood, &c.

Mets, Storr.

The Badgers, which Linneus placed with the Raccoons in the genus
Ursus, have a very small tooth behind the canine, then two pointed molars
followed in the upper jaw by one that we begin to recognize as carnivorous
from the trenchant vestige it exhibits on its outer side; behind this isa
square tuberculous one, the largest of all, Below, the penultimate begins
to show a resemblance to the inferior carnivorous teeth,’ but as there are
two tubercles on its internal border as elevated as its trenchant edge, it acts
as a tuberculous one; the last below is very small.

The slow movements of the Badgers and their nocturnal habits are like
those of the preceding animals; their tail is short, the toes are much en-
veloped in the skin, and they are otherwise peculiarly distinguished by a
sac under the tail, from which oozes a fatty, fetid humour. The long claws
of their fore-feet enable them to dig with great effect.

M. europea. (The European Badger.) Greyish above, black beneath,
a blackish band on each side of the head(1).

Guto, Storr.
Linnzus also placed the Gluttons among the Bears, but they approximate
much nearer to the’ Weasels in their teeth as well as in their habits, the
only relation they have to the former consisting’ in their plantigrade mo-

tion. They have three false molars above and four below, immediately

antecedent to the carnivorous teeth, which are well characterized, and be-
hind them two small tuberculous ones, the upper being more broad than
long. Their superior carnivorous tooth has only one small tubercle on the

(1) The American Badger, Mel. hudsonius isa different species.—.4m.
d.

CARNARIA, ai

inner side, and in fact, the whole dental system is nearly the same as that
of the Weasels. The tail is of a middling size, with a plait or fold beneath
in place of a sac, and the port of the animal is very similar to that of the
Badger. is

The most celebrated species is the Glutton of the north, the Ursus gulo,
L. (The Common Glutton.) About the size of the Badger; usually of a .
fine deep maronne colour, with a disk on the back of a darker brown;
sometimes, however, the shades are lighter. It inhabits the most glacial
regions of the North, is considered very sanguinary and ferocious, hunts
during the night, does not become torpid during the winter, and masters
the largest animals by leaping upon them from the top of atree. Its vora-
city has been ridiculously exaggerated by some authors. The Wolverene
of North America (Ursus luscus, Lin.) does not appear,to differ from it in
any constant character—its colours, however, are generally lighter.

Hot climates produce some species which can only be placed near the
Gluttons, as they differ from, them merely in having one false molar less in
each jaw, and ina long tail. Such are the animals, termed by the inhabit-
ants of South America Ferrets, which, having the teeth of our Ferrets and
Polecats, have, in fact, similar habits—they are distinguished from them
however, by their plantigrade motion. :

Viverra vittata, L. (The Grison.) Black; top of the head and neck
grey; a white’band, reaching from the forehead to the shoulders.

Ratetvus, F.C.
The Ratels have a false molar in each jaw less than the Grison, and their
upper tuberculous tooth is but slightly developed, so that in the teeth they
approach the Cat, while their whole exterior is that of the Grison or Bad-

ger. The legs are short; feet plantigrade, and five toes to each; nails very
strong, &c. &c.

One species only is known, the Viverra mellivora, Sparm. Size of the
European Badger; grey above; black beneath, with a white line that sepa-
rates the two colours; sometimes it is nearly all white above. It inhabits
the Cape of Good Hope, and digs up the earth with its long claws, in
search of the honey-combs of the wild bees. The

DIGITIGRADA
Form the second tribe of the Carnivora. The animals which
compose it walk on the ends of their toes. |
_ In the first subdivision there is only one tuberculous tooth behind
‘the upper carnivorus; these animals, on account of the length of

their body, and the shortness of their legs, which permit them to

pass through the smallest openings, have been styled vermiform.
They are not torpid during the winter. Linnzus placed them all
in one genus, that of

72 MAMMALIA.

Musteta, Lin.,
Or the Weasels, which we will divide into four subgenera.

Purorivs, Cuv.

The Polecats are the most sanguinary of all; the lower carnivorous tooth
has no inner tubercle, and the superior tuberculous one is more broad than
long; there are only two false molars above and three below. These ani-
_ mals are externally recognised by their muzzle, which is shorter and thicker

_ than that of the Weasel. They all diffuse a most horrible stench.

Mustela putorius, L. Buff. (The Common Polecat.) Brown; flanks
yellowish; white spots on the head; the terror of poultry yards and warrens.
M. lutreola, Pall. (The Mink or Norek.) It frequents the shores of
rivers, &c., in the north and east of Europe from the Arctic Ocean to the
Black Sea, and lives on frogs and crabs. The feet are slightly palmated
at the base’ of the toes, but the teeth and round tail approximate it
nearer to the Polecat than the Otter. It is of a reddish brown; the circum-
ference of the lips and the under part of the jaw white; it exhales.a musky
odour, and is much esteemed for its well known fur. Itis the Mink of the
United States. :

Mosteta, Cuv.

The true Weasels differ from the Polecats in having an additional false
molar above and below, and in the existence of a small internal tubercle
on their inferior carnivorous tooth, two characters which somewhat diminish
the cruelty of their nature.

M. martes, L. (The Common Marten.) Brown, a yellow spot under
the throat. Inhabits the woods. Siberia produces the

M. zibellina, Pall. (The Sable.) Highly valued for its rich fur,
brown, spotted with white about the head, and distinguished from the
preceding ones by the extension of the hair to the under surface of the
toes. It inhabits the coldest mountains, and the hunting to obtain it, in
the midst of winter andtremendous snows, is a perilous and painful under-
taking. Itisto the pursuit of this animal that we owe the discovery of the
eastern countries of Siberia.

North America also possesses several Martens indicated by naturalists
and travellers, under the indefinite names of Pekan, Vison, Mink, &c.

One of them, the White Vison of the furriers, Mus. leutreocephala,
Harl., has as hairy feet and almost as soft afur as the Sable, but is ofa light
fawn colour, and almost white about the head.

That which we call the Pekan; Must. canadensis, Gm., and which comes
from Canada and the United States; is of a brownish colour, mixed with
white on the head, neck, shoulders os top of the back; nose, crupper, tail
and limbs blackish.

Meruitis, Cuy.
The Skunk, like the Polecat, has two false molars above and three be-

CARNARIA. 73

low, but the superior tuberculous one is s very inige: and as long as it is
broad, and the inferior carnivorus has two tubercles on its internal side,
circumstances which ally it to the Badger just as the Polecat approximates
to the Grison and Glutton. Independently of this, the anterior nails of
the Skunk, like those of the Badger, are long and fitted for digging; they
are moreover semi-plantigrade, and the resemblance extends even to the
distribution oftheir colours. The whole family are remarkable for their
fetid exhalations, but the Skunk is pre-eminently distinguished by its
most horrible and suffocating stench.

Skunks are generally marked with white stripes ona black ground, but
the number of stripes appears to vary in the same species. The most
common species of North America is the

M. putorius.. {The American Skunk.) nie with stripes of white,
larger or smaller, and more or less numerous; the tail is black, and the tip
white. The odour it produces resembles that of the Polecat, mingled with
a strong smell of garlic—nothing is more nauseous.

Lurra, Storr.

The Otters have three false molars in each jaw, a strong heel to the su-
perior carnivorus, a tuberculus on the inner side of the inferior one, and
a large tuberculous tooth above that is nearly as long as itis broad. The
head is compressed, andthe tongue demi-asperate. They are otherwise
distinguished from ali the preceding subgenera by palmated feet, and a
horizontally flattened tail, two characters which render them aquatic.
Their food is fish. .

ZL. vulgaris. (The Common Otter.) Brown above, whitish round the
lips, on the cheeks and the whole inferior surface of the body. It is
sometimes found spotted and whitish. From the rivers of Europe.

Several otters differ but little from the above. That of Carolina, Z.
lataxina, Fr. Cuv., becomes a little larger, is sometimes more deeply co-
loured, and has a brownish tint beneath; very frequently, however, there
is no difference even in the shades of colour.

Mustela lutra brasiliensis, Gm. (The American Otter.) Brown or fawn-
coloured; throat white or yellowish; a little larger than the European Ot-
ter; the body is also longer, and the hair shorter. It is distinguished by
the end of the nose, which is not naked as in most animals, but is covered
with hair like the rest of the chanfrin. From the rivers of both Americas.

Mustela lutris, Lu. (The Sea-Otter.) Size, double that of the European
species; body much elongated; tail one-third the length of the body; the
hind feet very short. There is sometimes white about the head. ‘It has
only four incisors below, but the molars are like those of the other Otters.
Its blackish velvet looking fur is extremely valuable to obtain which the
English and Russians hunt the animal throughout the northern parte of
the Pacific ocean.

K

74 MAMMALIA,

In the second subdivision of the Digitigrada there are two flat
tuberculous teeth, behind the superior carnivorous tooth, which is
itself furnished with a large heel. ‘They are carnivorous, but do not
exhibit a courage proportioned to their powers, and frequently feed
on carrion. ;

Canis, Lin.

_ Dogs have three false molars above, four below, and two tuberculous teeth
_ behind each of the carnivori; the first of these upper tuberculous teeth is

very large. Their superior carnivorus has only a small inner tubercle, but
the posterior portion of the inferior is altogether tuberculous.. The tongue

“Gg soft; the fore-feet have five toes, and the hind ones four.

C. familiaris, L. (The Domestic Dog). Distinguished by his recurved
tail, otherwise varying infinitely, as to size, form, colour and quality of the
hair. He is the most complete, singular'and useful conquest ever made
by man; the whole species has become his property; each individual. is
devoted to his particular master, assumes his manners, knows-and defends
his possessions, and remains his true and faithful friend till death—and all
this neither from constraint nor want, but solely from the purest gratitude
and the truest friendship. . The swiftness, strength and scent of the Dog
have rendered him Man’s powerful ally against all other animals, and were
even, perhaps, necessary to the establishment of society. Of all animals,
he is the only one which has followed Man through every region of the
globe.

Some naturalists think the Dog is a Wolf, and others that he is a domesti-
cated Jackal, and yet those dogs which have become wild again in desert
islands resemble neither the one nor the other, The wild dogs, and those that
belong to savages, such as the inhabitants of New Holland, have straight
ears, which has occasioned a belief that the European races, which approach
the most to the original type, are the Shepherd’s Dog and Wolf Dog; but
the comparison of the crania indicates a closer affinity in the Mastiff and
Danish Dog, subsequently to which come the Hound, the Pointer, and the

Terrier, differing between themselves only in size and the proportions of

the limbs. The Greyhound is longer and more lank; its frontal sinuses are
smaller, and its scent weaker. The Shepherd’s Dog and the Wolf Dog re-
sume the straight ears of the wild ones, but with a greater cerebral devel-
opment, which continues to increase together with the intelligence in the
Barbet and the Spaniel. The Bull Dog, on the other hand, is remarkable
for the shortness and strength of his jaws. The small pet-dogs, the Pugs,
Spaniels, Shocks, &c. are the most degenerate productions, and exhibit the
most striking marksof that power to which man subjects all nature.

The dog is born with his eyes closed; he opens them on the tenth or
twelfth day; his teeth commence changing in the fourth month, and his
full growth is attained at the expiration of the second year. The dog is.
old at fifteen years, and seldom lives beyond twenty. His vigilance, bark,
and susceptibility of education are well known to every one.

abs ee 75

C. a L. (The Wolf.)” A effe ieaias with a BL tail; legs
fawn-coloured, with a black stripe on the fore-legs when adult; the most
mischievous of all the Carnaria of Europe. It is found from Egypt to Lap-
land, and appears to have passed into America. Towards the north, in
winter, its fur becomes white. It attacks all our animals, yet does not ex-
hibit a courage proportioned to its strength. It often feedson carrion. Its
habits and physical development are closely related to those of the Dog.

C. jubatus, Cuv.; Agoura-Gowazou, Azzar. (The Red Wolf.) A fine
cinnamon-red: a short black mane along the spine. From the marshes of |
South America. ao Fi

C.aureus,L. (The Chacal or Jackal.) Less than the preceding; the
muzzle more pointed; of a greyish brown; thighs and legs of a light fawn
colour; some red on the ear; the tail scarcely reaching further than the
heel. It is a voracious animal, which hunts like the Dog, and in its con-
formation and the facility with which itis tamed, resembles the latter more
closely than any other wild species. Jackals are found from the Indies
and the environs of the Caspian sea, as far as, and in Guinea; it is not cer-
tain, however, that they are all of one species. Those of Senegal for in-
stance, C. anthus, Fr. Cuy., stand higher, appear to haye a sharper muzzle,
and the tail a little longer.

Foxes may be distinguished from the Wolf andDog by a longer and more
tuftedtail, by a more pointed muzzle, by pupils which during the day
form a vertical fissure, and by the upper incisors being less sloping. They
diffuse a fetid odour, dig burrows, and attack none but the weaker animals.
This subgenus is more numerous than the preceding one.

C. vulpes, L. (The Common Fox.) More orlessred; tip of the tail white;
found from Sweden to Egypt. Those of the north have merely a more
brilliant fur.

The prairies of North America produce a little Fox, C. velox, Harl. and
Say; which lives in burrows.

C. cinereo-argenteus, Schreb. (The Tri-coloured Fox of America.) Ash-
coloured above; white beneath; a cinnamon-red band along the flanks.
From all the warm and temperate parts of the two Americas.

C. argentatus. (The Silver or Black Fox.) Black; tips of the hairs
white, except on the ears, shoulders and tail, where they are of a pure
black. The end of the tail is all white. From North America. Its fur is
most beautiful, and very costly.

The interior of Africa produces Foxes remarkable for the size of their
ears, and the strength of the hairs of their mustachios; they are the Mzea-
toTis of Illiger.

Finally, we may place after the Dogs, as a fourth subgenus, distinguished :

By the number of toes, which is four to each foot, the

Hyzna venatica, Bursch. (The Wild Dog of the Cape.) It has the ;

dental system of the Dog and not that of the Hyena; a long and thin form;
the fur mottled, with white and fawn colour, grey and black; size of the wolf;

large ears with black tips, &c. It is gregarious, and frequently approaches
Cape Town, devastating its environs.

76 MAMMALIA.

VIVERRA.

The Civets have three false molars above and four below, the anterior of
which sometimes fall out; two tolerably large tuberculous teeth above, one
only below, and two tubercles projecting forwards on the inner side of the
inferior carnivorus, the rest of that tooth being more or less tuberculous.
The tongue is bristled with sharp and rough papille. Their claws are
more or less raised as they walk, and near the buttock is a pouch more or —
less deep, where an unctuous and frequently an odorous matter oozes from
peculiar glands. They are divided into four subgenera.

Viverra, Cuv.

In the true Civets there is a deep pouch divided into two sacs, filled with
an abundant pommade of a strong musky odour, secreted by glands which
surround it. This substance is an article of commerce, and is used by the
perfumers. It was more employed when musk and ambergrease were
unknown. The pupil of the eye remains round during the day, and their
claws are only semi-retractile.

V. civetta, L. (The Civet.) Ash-coloured, irregularly barred and spot-
ted with black; the tail less than the body, black towards the end, with four
or five rings near its base; two black bands encircling the throat, and one
surrounding the face; a mane along the whole length of the spine and tail
that bristles up at the will of the animal. From the hottest parts of Africa.

Grnetra, Cuv.

In the Genets the pouch is reduced to a slight depression formed by the
projection of the glands, and has scarcely any visible excretion, although
an odour is diffused from it that is very.perceptible. In the light the
pupil forms a vertical fissure, and the nails are completely retractile, as in
the Cat.

Vv. genetia,L. (The Common Genet.) Grey spotted with brown or
black, the muzzle bdackish; white spots on the eyebrows, cheeks and each
side of the end of the nose; tail the length of the body, annulated with
black and white, the black rings being from nine to eleven in number.
Found from the south of France to the Cape of Good Hope, frequents the
edges of brooks, near springs, &c. ‘The skin forms an important article of
trade. :

Parapoxurvs, Fr. Cuy.

Has the teeth and most of the characters of the Genets, with which it
was a long time confounded; it is however more stout-limbed; the feet are
semi-palmate, and the walk nearly plantigrade, but what particularly dis-
tinguishes it is the spiral inclination of the tail, which is not prehensile.
Only one species is known, the

P. typus, Fr. Cuv. (The Pougouné of India.) A yellowish-brown, with
some spots of a deeper brown than the rest; the feet, muzzle and part of
the tail blackish; eye-brows white, and a white spot under the eye.

CARNARIA. | Boy 2 '

ae
Maneusta, Cuy. SA Feats, Illig.
The pouch is yoluminous and simple. The hairs are annulated with
light and obscure tints, which determine their general colour on the eye.
The Mangouste of Egypt, so celebrated among the ancients under the
name of Jchnewmon, is grey, with a long tail terminated with a black tuft;
it is larger than our Cat, and as slender asa Marten. It chiefly hunts for
the eggs of the Crocodile, but also feeds on all sorts of small animals; brought
up in houses, it hunts Mice, Reptiles, &c.. By the Europeans at Cairo it is
called Pharaoh’s Rat; by the natives, Nems. The ancient tradition of its
jumping down the throat of the Crocodile to destroy’ it, i is entirely fabulous.
There are other species.

Rrzzna, Illig.

The Surikates have a strong resemblance to the Mangoustes, even to the
tints and transverse streaks of the hair, but are distinguished from them and
from all the Carnivora of which we have hitherto spoken, by having only
four toes to each foot. They also are higher on their legs, and they have
not the small molar immediately behind the canine tooth.

One species only is known, a native of Africa—Viv. tetradactyla, Gm., a
little less than the Mangouste of India.

Crossancuvs, Fred. Cuy.
The muzzle, teeth, pouch, and walk of the Surikates, the toes of the
Mangoustes.
One species only is known—Crossarchus obscurus, Fred. Cuy., from Sierra
Leone, of the size of the Surikate; greyish brown; cheeks a little paler, and
a hairy tail.

The last subdivision of the Digitigrada has no small teeth of any
kind behind the large molar of the lower jaw. The animals con-
tained in it are the most cruel and sanguinary of the class. They
form two genera.

Hyzna, Storr.

The Hyenas have three false molars above and four below, all conical, blunt
and singularly large; their superior carnivorous tooth has a small tubercle
within and in front, but the inferior has none, presenting only two stout
trenchant points: with these powerful arms they are enabled to crush the
bones of the largest prey. The tongue is rough and each foot has four toes
like that of the Surikate. So powerful are the muscles of the neck and
jaw, that it is almost impossible to wrest any thing from between their teeth
that they have once seized, and, among the Arabs, their name is the sym-
bol of obstinacy. It sometimes happens that an anchylosis of the cervical
vertebrz is the consequence of these violent efforts, and this has caused it
to be said that they have only one single bone in the neck. They are

78 MAMMALIA.

nocturnal animals, inhabiting caves; are extremely voracious, and feed
chiefly on dead bodies, which they seek for even in the grave. A thousand
superstitious traditions are connected with them. Three species are known,
one of which is the 3

H. vulgaris, Buff. (The Striped Hyena.) Grey; blackish or brown
stripes crosswise; a mane along the whole of the nape of the neck, and black,
_ that stands erect when the animalis angry. It is found from India to Abys-
- ginia and Senegal. The brown and spotted Hyenas are the two others.

! Fertis, Lin.
Of all the Carnaria the Cais are the most completely and powerfully armed.
Their short and round muzzle, short jaws, and particularly their retractile
nails, which, being raised perpendicularly, and hidden between the toes,

~ when at rest, by the action of elastic ligament, lose neither point nor edge,

render them most formidable animals, the larger species especially. They
havé two false molars above, and two below: their superior carnivorous tooth
has three lobes, and a blunted heel on the inner side; the inferior, two
pointed and trenchant lobes, without any heel: they have but a very small
tuberculous tooth above, without any thing to correspond to it below. The
species of this genus are yery numerous and various with regard to size
and colour, though they are all similar with respect to form. We canonly
subdivide them by referring to the difference of size and the length of the
hair, characters of but little importance.

At the head of the genus we find

F. leo, L. (The Lion.) Distinguished by its uniform tawny colour, the
tuft of hair at the end of the tail, and the flowing mane which clothes the
head, neck, and shoulders of the male. Of all beasts of prey, this is the
strongest and most courageous. Formerly scattered through the three parts
of the old world, it seems at present to be confined to Africa and some
of the neighbouring parts of Asia. The head of the Lion is more square
than that of the following species.

Tigers are large, short haired species, most commonly marked with vivid

“spots.

F. tigris, Buff. (The Royal Tiger.) As large as the Lion, but the body
is longer, and the head rounder; ofa lively fawn colour above; a pure white
below, irregularly crossed with black stripes; the most cruel of all quadru-
peds, and the scourge of the East Indies. Suchare his strength and the
velocity of his movements, that during the march of armies he has been
seen to seize a soldier, while on horseback, and bear him to the depths of

_ the forest, without affording a possibility of rescue.
F. onga,L. (The Jaguar.) Nearly the size of the Royal Tiger, and
almost as dangerous; a bright fawn colour above; the flank longitudinally
marked with four rows of ocellated spots, that is with rings more or less
complete, having a black point in the middle; white beneath, transversely
striped with black. Sometimes individual specimens are found black, whose
rings, of a deeper hue, are only perceptible ina particular light.

CARNARIA. a 79

es te DS

F. pardus, L.; the Pardalis of the ancients. (The Panther.) Fawn
coloured above; white beneath; with six or seven rows of black spots, re-
sembling roses, that is, formed by the assemblage of five or six simple
spots on each flank; the tail is the length of the body, minus that of the
head.

F. leopardus, L . (The Leopard.) From Africa; similar to the Panther,
but has ten rows of smaller spots. ;
F. discolor, L..; Buff. (The Couguar or Puma.) Red, with small spots
of a slightly deeper red which are not easily perceived. From both Ame:

ricas, where it preys on Sheep, Deer, &c.

Among the inferior species, we should distinguish the Lynxes, which

are remarkable for the pencils of hair which ornament their ears.
_ Four or five different kinds of them are known incommerce. The most
beautiful, which are as large as the Wolf—F" cervaria, Temm:, come from
Asia by the way of Russia, and have a slightly regen Srey fur, anely spot-
ted with black.

Others from Canada and the north of Sweden borealis, Temm., have
the fur very much tufted, extending even under the feet; of an sch-¢alatieal
grey, and with scarcely any spots.

We find also in North America the

F. rufa, Giild. (The Bay Lynx.) A reddish fawn or greyish colour,
mottled with brown; brown waves on the thighs; tail annulated with black
or brown; rather smaller than the Lynx. .

#. caracal, L. (The Caracal.) Of an almost uniform vinous red. From
Persia, Turkey, &c. It is the true Lynx of the ancients.

The inferior species, which are deprived of the pencils. on the ears, are
more or less similar to our common Cat; such is

F. pardalis, L.; Buff. (The Ocelot.) Rather lower on its legs than
most of the others; grey, with large fawn-coloured spots bordered with
black, forming oblique bands on the flank. From America.

F’. catus, L. (The Domestic Cat.) This animal is originally from the
forests of Europé. In its wild state, itis of a greyish brown, with darker
transverse undulations; below pale; the insides of the thighs and of all the
feet, yellcwish; three bands on the tail, its inferior third blackish. Ina
domestic state it varies, as is well known, in colours, in the length and
fineness of the hair, but infinitely less so than the Dog; it is also much less
submissive and affectionate. The

AMPHIBIA
Will form the third and last of the small tribes into which we di-
vide: the Carnivora. ‘Their feet are so short and so enveloped in
the skin, that the only service they can render them on land, is to
enable them to crawl; but as the intervals of the fingers are occu-
pied by membranes, they are excellent oars; and in fact, these ani-
mals pass the greater portion of their time in the water; never

80 | MAMMALIA.

landing, except for the purpose of basking in the sun, and suckling
their young. Their elongated body; their very movable spine,
which is provided with muscles that strongly flex it; their narrow
pelvis; their short hair, that adheres closely to the skin, all unite to
render them good swimmers; and all the details of their anatomy
confirm these first indicia.

We have as yet distinguished two genera only, Phoca and Tri-
chechus.

Poca, Lin.

Seals have six or four incisors above, four or two below, pointed canini and
grinders to the number of twenty, twenty-two, or twenty-four, all trench-
ant or conical, and without any tuberculous part whatever; five toes to all
the feet, the anterior ones regularly decreasing in length from the thumb
to the little toe, while in the hinder feet the thumb and the little toe are the
longest, and the intermediate ones the shortest. The fore-feet are envel-
oped in the skin of the body as far, as the tarsus, the hinder ones almost to
the heel. Between the latter is a short tail. The head of a Seal bears a
resemblance to that of a Dog, whose intelligence and soft expressive look
it also possesses. It.is. easily tamed, and soon becomes attached to its
keeper, or those who feed it. The tongue is smooth and sloped at the
end, the stomach simple, cecum short, and the intestinal canal long, and
tolerably regular. These animals live on fish; always eat in the water, and
close their nostrils when they dive by a kind of valve.. They remain a
long time under water; there isa large venous sinus in the liver, which must
assist them in diving by rendering respiration less necessary to the motion
of the blood. Their blood is very abundant and very black.

Paoca, properly so called, or without external ears.

The true Phocz have pointed incisors; all the toes enjoy a certain de-
gree of motion, and are terminated by pointed nails planted on the edge
of the membrane, which unites them.

They are subdivided, from the number of their incisors. The Catocz-
pHata, Fr. Cuv. have six above and four below; such is the

Phoca vitulina, L. (The Common Seal.) From three to five feet in
length; of a yellowish grey, more or less shaded and spotted with brown,
according to its age; sometimes brownish, with small yellow spots. When
very old it becomes whitish. Common on the coast of Europe in great
herds. It is also found far to the north; we are even assured that it is this
species which inhabits the Caspian sea, and the great fresh water lakes of
Russia and Siberia, but this assertion does not appear to be founded on
an exact comparison. In fact, the European seas contain several Phoce,
which have long been confounded, some of which are perhaps mere varie-
ties of the others.

Sa Tae al
SR Eg a

pee

‘CARNARIA. Eh a ae]

Pees Fred. Cuy.

Four incisors above, and four below, the molars deeply notched into three
points.

One species only i is 7 ae and that is from the Austral seas—Ph. lep-
tonix, Blain, Size of the barbata; greyish above; yellowish beneath; nails
small,

| Prracus, Fred. Cuv.

Four incisors also, above and below, but their grinders are obtuse cones,
with a slightly marked heel before and behind. There is one of them in

the Mediterranean.

Ph. monachus, Gm. (The Monk.) From ten to twelve feet in length,
of a blackish brown, with a white belly. It is particularly found among
the Grecian and Adriatic Islands, and is, most probably, the species best
known to the ancients.

Stzemmatorvs, Fred. Cuv.

Four superior incisors, and two inferior; grinders compressed, slightly
trilobate, supported by thick roots. Such is the .

Ph. cristata, Gm. (The Hooded Seal.) Seven or eight feet long; a
piece of loose skin on the head, which can be inflated at the pleasure of
the animal, and is drawn over the eyes when it is menaced, at which times
the nostrils also are inflated like bladders. From the Arctic ocean.

Finally, the Macroruinus, Fr. Cuv., has the incisors of the preceding,
obtuse conical molars, and the muzzle resembling a short movable probos-
cis or snout. The largest seal known is of this subgenus; the

Ph. leonina, L. (The Elephant Seal.) . From twenty to twenty-five feet
in length; brown, the muzzle of the male terminated by a wrinkled snout,
which becomes inflated when the animal is angry. It is common in the
southern latitudes of the Pacific Ocean, at the Terra del-Fuego, New Zeal-
and, Chili, &c. It constitutes an important object of the fisheries, on ac-
count of the oil in which it abounds. The

Orartes, Péron, Seals with external ears,
Are worthy of being formed into a separate genus; because, indepen-
dently of the projecting external ears, the four superior middle incisors have
a double cutting edge, a circumstance hitherto unknown in any animal; the

external ones are simple and smaller, and the four inferior bifurcated. All

poe.

the molars are simply conical, and the toes of the forefeet almost immova-
ble; the membrane of the hind feet is lengthened out into a slip beyond
each toe; all the nails are flat and slender.

Ph. jubata, Gm.; Sea-Lion of Steller, Pernetty, &c. From fifteen to
twenty feet, and more, in length; fawn coloured; the neck of the male
covered with hairs that are more frizzled and thickly set than those on the
rest of the body: It might be said to be found in all the Pacific Ocean,

L

82 MAMMALIA.

were it not that those from the straits of Magellan seem to o differ from such
as are taken at the Aleutian islands.

TricnEecuus, Lin.(1)

The Morse resembles the Seal in its limbs, and the general form of the body;
but differs widely from it in the teeth and head. There are no incisors nor
canini in the lower jaw, which is compressed anteriorly to pass between
two enormous canini or tusks, which issue from the upper one, and which
project downwards, being sometimes two feet long, and of a proportionable
thickness. The enormous size of the alveoli, requisite for holding such
tremendous canini, raises up the whole front of the upper jaw, giving it
the shape of a huge inflated jowl, the nostrils looking upwards, and not
terminating the muzzle. The molars are all short, obliquely truncated
cylinders; there are four of them on each side, above and below, but, at a
particular age, two of the upper ones fall out. Between the canini are
two incisors, similar to the molars, which most authors have not recognised
as such, although they are implanted in the intermaxillary bone. Between
these again, in the young animal, are two more small, pointed ones.

The stomach and intestines of the Morse are very similar to those of the
Seal. It appears that fucus constitutes.part of its food, along with animal
matters. One species only is as yet ascertained, the

Trich. rosmarus, L. - (The Sea Cow.) It inhabits the Arctic seas, sur-
passes the largest Ox in size, attains the length of twenty feet, and is cover-
ed with a short yellowish hair. It is sought for on account of its oil and
tusks; the ivory of which, although rough grained, is employed in the arts.
The skin makes excellent coach braces. ”

ORDER IV.

MARSUPIALIA.

So many are the singularities in the economy of the Marsupialia
‘or pouched animals, as they are termed, which we formerly placed
at the end of the Carnaria as a fourth family of that great order,
‘that it appears to us they should form a separate and distinct one,
particularly. as we observe in them a kind of representation of three
very different orders.

The first of all their peculiarities is the premature production of

# A Trichechus, from reté (hair), a name invented by Artedi for the Sea
We

hed
ye

MARSUPIALIA.. ee

their young, whose state’ of development at birth is extremely small.

Incapable of motion, and hardly exhibiting the germs of limbs and
other external organs, these diminutive beings attach themselves to
the mammez of the mother, and remain fixed there until they have ac-
quired a degree of development similar to that in which other animals
are born. The skin of the abdomen is almost always so arranged
about the mammez as to forma pouch in which these imperfect little
animals are preserved as in a second uterus; and to which, long
after they can walk, they always fly for shelter at the approach of
danger. Two particular bones attached to) the pubis, and inter-
posed between the muscles of the abdomen, support the pouch.
These bones are also found in the male, and even in those species
in which the fold that forms the pouch is scarcely visible.

Another peculiarity of the Marsupialia is, that notwithstanding a
general resemblance of the species to each other, so striking, that for
a long time they were considered as one genus, they differ so much
in the teeth, the organs of digestion and the feet, that if we rigor-
ously adhered to these characters, we should: be compelled to sepa-
rate them into several orders. ‘They carry us by insensible grada-
tions from the Carnaria to the Rodentia, and there are even some
animals which have the pelvis furnished with similar bones; but
which, from the want of incisors or of all: kinds of teeth, have been
approximated to the Edentata, where, in fact, we shall leave them,
under the name of Monotremata. 7

The first subdivision of the Marsupialia is marked by long canini,
and small incisors in both jaws, back molars bristled with points,
and all the characters in general of the insectivorous Carnaria; the
animals that compose it are also perfectly similar to the latter in
their regimen.

Dipetpuis, Lin.

The Opossums, which of all the Marsupialia have been the longest known,
form a genus peculiar to America. They have ten incisors above, the
middle ones being rather the longest, and eight below; three anterior
compressed grinders and four posterior bristled grinders, the superior ones
triangular, and the inferior oblong, which, with the four canini, make in all
fifty teeth, the greatest number hitherto observed in Quadrupeds. Their
tongue is papillated, and their tail prehensile and partly naked. Their
hinder thumb is long and very opposable to the other four toes, from which
circumstance these animals are sometimes styled Pedimana; they have no
nail. Their extremely wide mouth, and great naked ears give them a

s Nicaea
TT we

ton

Ss SS MAMMALIA.

very 5 catior physiognomy. They are fetid and nocturnal animals, whose
gait is slow; they remain on trees, and there pursue Birds, Insects, &c.,
though not despising fruit.

The females of certain species have a deep pouch in which are the
mamme, and in which they can enclose their young.
_ * Did. virginiana, Penn. (The Opossum.) Almost the size of a Cat; fur,

a mixture of black and white; ears, one side black, and the other white;
head nearly all white. Inhabits all America; steals at night into villages;
attacks fowls, eats their eggs, &c. The young ones at birth, sometimes
sixteen in number, weigh only a grain each. Although blind and nearly
shapeless, they find the mammz by instinct, and adhere to them until they
have attained the size of a Mouse, which happens about the fiftieth day, at
which epoch they open theireyes. They continue to return to the pouch
till they are as large as Rats.

Other species possess no pouch, having a mere e vestige of it in a fold of
_the skin on each side of the abdomen. They usually carry their young on
“their backs, the tails of the latter being entwined around that of the

mother.

Did. nudicauda, Geoff. (The Bare-tailed Opossum.) Fawn-coloured;
tail very long, and naked even at its base; two whitish spots over each eye,
‘one beneath.

Finally, there is one known with palmated feet, which must be aquatic;
it is not ascertained whether it has a pouch or not—it is the

Curronzcrss, Illig. (1)
Did. palmata, Geoff. Brown above, with three transverse grey bands,
interrupted in the middle, and white below; larger than a Norway Rat.
All the other Marsupialia inhabit eastern countries, 'New Holland parti-
cularly, a land, whose animal population seems chiefly to belong to this
family.

Tuyztacinus, Temm.(2)

The Thylacini are the largest of this first division. They are distin-
guished from the Opossums by the hind feet having no thumb; a hairy,
non-prehensile tail, and two incisors less in each jaw; their molars are of
the same number. They consequently have forty-six teeth; but the ex-
ternal edge of the three large ones is projecting and trenchant, almost
like the carnivorous tooth of a Dog; their ears are hairy, and of a medium
size. One species only is known, the

Did. cynocephala, Harris. Size that of a Wolf, but stands lower; grey;
transverse black stripes onthe crupper. It is very carnivorous, and pur-
sues all small quadrupeds. From Van Dieman’s Land.

(1) Chinorectes, i. e. swimming with hands.
(2) Thylacinus, from 6vaasos purse.

a

WARSUPIALIA.. we = ee as 5

Pigs

see serabis, Temm. — hd sf ee

The same number of ‘hath as the Thylacini, but the middle i incisors are
longer than the others, and the back molars more bristled, circumstances
which approximate them more closely to the Sarigues. They are also
allied to them by their small size; their tail however is not prehensile;
their hind thumb, though very short, is still very apparent.

Did. penicillata, Shaw. Ash coloured; tail furnished with long black
hairs; size that of the Norway Rat; lives on the trees in New Holland, and
pursues insects.

Dasyurus, Geoff.(1) ;

Two incisors and four grinders in each jaw less than the Opossums, so that
they have only forty-two teeth; their tail, every where covered with long
hairs, is not prehensile. The thumb of the hind foot is reduced toa tu-
bercle, or has even totally disappeared. They are from New Holland,
where they feed on Insects and dead bodies; they penetrate into houses,
_ where their voracity is very inconvenient. . Their mouth is not so wide,
their muzzle not so pointed as those of the Opossums; their hairy ears
are also shorter. They do not climb trees. Ee,
Did. ursina, Harr. (The Ursine Opossum.) Long rough black hairs,
with some irregularly placed white spots; the tail half as long as the body,
almost naked underneath. Inhabits the north of Van Dieman’s Land, and
is nearly the size of the Badger.

Prerametes, Geoff.(2)—Turuacts, Illig.

The thumb of the hind foot short, like the first Dasyuri, and the two
following toes united by the membrane as far the nails; the thumb and the
little toe of their fore feet are simple tubercles, so that there seem to be
but three toes. They have ten incisors above, the external ones separate
and pointed, and only six below; but their molars are the same asin the
Opossums, so that they have forty-eight teeth. Their tail is hairy, and not
prehensile. The great claws of their fore feet announce their habit of
digging in the earth; and the tolerable length of their hind ones, a swift-
ness of gait.

P. nasutus, Geoff. .The muzzle much elongated; ears pointed; fur a
greyish brown. At the first glance it resembles a Tenrec.

The species belonging to. the second subdivision of the Marsu-
pialia have two broad and long incisors in the lower jaw with pointed
and trenchant edges sloping forwards, and six corresponding ones in
the upper jaw. Their superior canini are also long and pointed,
but all their inferior ones consist of teeth so small that they are fre-

(1) Dasyurus, hairy tail. (2) Pera, purse, Meles, badger.

86 3 MAMMALIA. —

. quently hidden by the gum; they are sometimes altogether wanting
in the lower jaw of the last subgenus.
_ Their regimen is chiefly frugivorous. ‘The thumb is very large
in all of them, and so widely separated from the toes that it seems
to slant backwards almost like that of the Birds. It has no nail, and
the two following toes are united by the skin as far as the last pha-
lanx. It is from this circumstance that these animals have received
the name of Phalangers.

PHALANGISTA.

Paatanersta, Cuv.—Baxzantr, Illig.(1)
The true Phalangers have not the skin of the flank extended; four back
molars in each jaw, with four points in two rows; in front a large one, co-
Ne nical and compressed, and between it and the superior canine two small and

"pointed ones, to which correspond the three very small lower ones, of

which we haye just spoken. Their tail is always prehensile.
The tail in some of them is in a great measure scaly. They live on trees

a a in the Moluccas, where they feed on Insects and fruit. At the sight of a

bs Man they suspend themselves by their tail; and ifhe gaze at them steadily
_ for some time, they fall through lassitude. They diffuse a very unpleasant
| odour, notwithstanding which their flesh is eaten.

There are several of them known, of various sizes and colours, all of
which are embraced under the Didelphis orientalis of Linnzus.
_ Ph. ursina, T. (The Ursine Phalanger.) ‘Nearly the size of the Civet,
fur close, and of a blackish brown; the young ones a fawn-coloured brown.
‘From the woods of the island of Macassar.
_ In others, which have hitherto been found in New Holland only, the ony
is hairy to the tip.
. Ph. vulpina. (The Fox-like Phalanger.) Size of a stout Cat; grey
ewes paler beneath; tail nearly all black.

Petavurvus, Shaw.—Paatineisra, Illig.

The Flying Phalangers have thie skin of the flanks more or less extended
between the legs, like the Flying Squirrels among the Rodentia, which
enables them to sustain themselves momentarily in the air, and make greater
leaps. They also are only found in New Holland.

Some of the species have inferior canini, butthey are very small. Their
superior canini and their three first molars, above and below, are very
pointed; each of their back molars has four points.

Ph. pygmexa. (The Flying Dwarf Phalanger.) Of the colour and
nearly the size of a Mouse; the hairs of the tail regularly arranged on its
two sides like the web of a quill.

(1) Balantia, from Zerzvriey purse or pouch.

pps eG

Other species have no: inferior canini, while the superior ones are very
small. Their four back molars present four points, but they are slightly

curved into a crescent, which is very nearly the form of those of the ©

Ruminantia. In front, there are two above, and one below, less compli:
cated. By this structure they are rendered still more frugivorous than all ,
the preceding species.

Ph. petaurus. (The Great Flying Phalanger.) Resembles the Taguan

and the Galeopithecus in size; its fur is soft and close; its tail long and .

flattened; brownish-black above, white beneath. They are of various

shades of brown; some are variegated, and others perfectly white.

Our third subdivision has the incisors and superior canini of the
second. ‘The two toes of the hind feet are also similarly united;
but the posterior thumbs and inferior canini are wanting. It con-
tains but a single genus.

Hypsirryunvs, Illig.(1)

The Potoroos are the last animals of this family which retain any trait of the
general characters of the Carnaria. Their teeth are nearly the same as

those of the Phalangers, and they still have pointed canini above. What |

particularly distinguishes these animals is their hind legs, which are much
larger in proportion than the fore ones, that have no thumbs, and the two
first toes united as far as the nail; so that, ata first glance, it seems as
though there were but three toes, the middle one having two nails. They
frequently walk upon two feet, at which times they employ their long and
‘strong tail to support themselves. They have then the form and habits of
the Kanguroos, from which ~~ only differ in their superior canine tooth.
They are frugivorous.
Hyps. minor. (The rasialte Rat.) Size of a small Rabbit; of a a mouse-

grey. From New Holland, where it is called Potoroo. It is the only sper
cies known.

x anak! *
gi eras

The fourth subdivision only differs from the third in the absence
of all canini whatsoever, it is the

Macrorvs, Shaw. — Hanmazurts, Illig.(2)
The Kanguroos have all the characters we have assigned to the preceding

genus, except that the superior canine is wanting, and that their middle _ ny a8
incisors do not project beyond the others, The inequality of theirlegsis =

¥ fae © F

still greater, so that on all fours they can only walk slowly and with diffi-

culty; they make vigorous leaps however with their hind feet, the great —

(1) Ydereugeyos; i. e. raised behind.
(2) Halmaturus, tail fit for leaping.

88 2 MAMMALIA. |

middle nail of which (almost in the shape of a hoof) also serves them for
purposes of defence; for, by supporting themselves on one foot and their
enormous tail, they can inflict a severe blow with that which is at liberty.
They are very gentle herbivorous animals, their grinders presenting mere
transverse ridges.

M. major, Shaw. (The Gigantic Kanguroo.) Sometimes six feet in
height. It is the largest of the New Holland animals; was discovered by
Cook in 1779, and is now bred in Europe. Its flesh is said to resemble
venison. The young ones, which at birth are only an inch long, remain in
the maternal pouch even when they are old enough to graze, which they
effect by stretching out their necks from their domicile, while the mother
herself is feeding. These animals live in troops, conducted by the old
males. They make enormous leaps. It appears that we have hitherto con-
founded under this name several species of New Holland and its neighbour-
ing. countries, whose fur, more or less greys only varies by a trifling differ-
ence of shade. . ual

‘The fifth subdivision has two long incisors in the lower jaw but no
canini; in the upper, two long incisors in front, a few small ones
on the sides, and two small canines. It comprehends butone genus.

Koata, Cuv.

: “ie Roale have a short, stout body; short legs, and no tail. The toes of
their forefeet, five in number, when about to seize any object, separate into
two groups; the thumb and index on one side, and the remaining three on
the other. The thumb is wanting on the hind foot; the two first toes of
which are united like those of the Phalangers and the Kanguroos. One
species only is known:

K. cinerea. (The Koala.) .Ash coloured; passes one part of its life in
trees, and the other in burrows which it excavates at their foot. The
mother carries her young one for a long time on her back.

Finally, our sixth division of the Marsupialia, or the

Puascotomys, Geoff.(1)

Consists of Animals which are true Rodentia in the teeth ahd intestines,
their only relation to the Carnaria consisting in the articulation of their
lower jaw; and ina rigorously exact system, it would be necessary to class
them with the Rodentia, We should even haye placed them there, had
we not been led to them by a regular uninterrupted series from the Oposs-
ums to the Phalangers, from the latter to the Sen and from the Kan-
guroos to the Phascolomys.

(1) Phascolomys, a pouched rat, from o2ex@acv and pus.

- MARSUPIALIA. | 89

They are sluggish animale with large flat heads, and bodies that look as
if they had been crushed, They are without a tail; have five nails on each
of the fore feet, and four, with a small tubercle, in place of a thumb, on each
of the hind ones, all yery long and fit for digging. Their gait is excess-
ively slow. They have two long incisors in each jaw, almost similar to
those of the Rodentia; and each of their grinders has two transverse ridges.

They feed on grass.. One species only is known, the

Phas. ursinus. (The Wombat.) Size of a badger; fur abundant, of a
more or less yellowish brown. Itis found in King’s Island to the south of
New Holland, where it lives in its burrow. Its flesh is excellent.

ORDER V.
» RODENTIA. ,

We have just seen, in the Phalangers, canini so ‘very small, that
we cannot consider them as such. The nutriment of these animals,
accordingly, is chiefly derived from the vegetable kingdom. Their
intestines are long; and the Kanguroos, which have no eanini what-
ever, subsist upon vegetables only. The Phascolomys might stand
first in that series of animals of which we are about to speak, and
which have a system of mastication still less complete.

Two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by an 3

empty space, cannot seize a living prey nor tear flesh; they cannot
even cut the food, but they serve to file, and by continued labour
to reduce, it into separate molecules, in a word to gnaw it; hence
the term Rodentia or Gnawers, which is applied to animals of this
order. . It is thus that they successfully attack the hardest substances,
frequently feeding on wood and the bark of trees. The more easily
to accomplish this object, the incisors have no thick enamel except
in front, so that their posterior edges wearing away faster than the
anterior, they are always naturally sloped. ‘Their prismatic form
causes them to grow from the root as fast as they wear away at the
edge; and this tendency to increase in length is so powerful, that if

one of them be lost or broken, its antagonist in the other jaw having.

nothing to oppose or comminute, becomes developed to a most
monstrous extent. The lower jaw is articulated by a longitudinal
condyle, in such a way as to allow of no horizontal motion, except

from back to front, and vice versa, as is requisite for the action of
M

90 MAMMALIA.

gnawing. ‘The molars also have flat crowns, whose enamelled
eminences are always transverse, so as to be in opposition to the
horizontal motion of the jaw, and to increase the power of tritu-
ration.

The genera in which these eminences are siento lines, and the
_ €rown is very flat, are more exclusively frugivorous; those in which
the eminences of the teeth are divided into blunt tubercles are om-
nivorous; while the small number of such as have no points more
readily attack other animals, and approximate somewhat to the
Carnaria. .

The form of the body in the Rodentia is generally such, that the
hinder parts of it exceed those of the front; so.that they rather leap
than walk. In some of them this disproportion is ae" as excessive

as it is. in the Kanguroos.

The inferiority of these animals is visible in most of the details of
their organization. .'Those genera however which possess stronger
clavicles have a certain degree of oe old and use their 2s feet
to convey their food to the mouth. |

Some of them even climb with facility: such is the

~ Scrurvs, Lin.

Bab. are e distinguished by their strongly compressed inferior, incisors,
and by their long tail furnished with hairs. They have four toes before,
and five behind. The thumb of the fore foot is sometimes marked by a tu-
bercle. They have in all four grinders, variously, tuberculated, and a very
small additional one aboye in front, that very soon falls. The head is large
and the eyes projecting and lively. They are light and active animals,
living on trees, and feeding on fruits.

Scrurvs, Cuy.

In the Squirrel, properly so called, the hairs of the tail are arranged on
the sides, so as to. resemble a feather. There are a great many species in
the two continents.

‘Sc. vulgaris, Buff. (The Common Squirrel.) The back of a lively red;
belly white; ears terminated by a tuft of hair. Those of the north, in win-
ter, become ofa beautiful bluish ash colour, producing the fur called min-
ever when taken only from the back, and vair (by the French) when it
consists of the whole skin.

The American species have no pencils to their ears. Such are

Se. cinereus, L. (The Grey Squirrel of Carolina.) Larger than that of
Europe; ash coloured, with a white abdomen.

It is probable that we shall have to separate from the Squirrels certain

“RODENTIA. 4 os 91

species which haye notes like the Hamsters, and pass their lives

in subterraneous holes, the Tamia of Iliger. For instance the
Se. striatus, L. (The Ground Squirrel.) Which is found throughout

all the north of Asia and America, particularly in the pine forests. The

tail is more scantily supplied with hairs than that of the European Squirrel;
the ears smooth, and skin brown, with five black stripes and two white
ones.
We ought also, most probably, to distinguish tl the Ceringeey 4 a species
with a long, and almost round tail.
They are found in both continents.
The ews have heee apes already.

_Prrromys.(1)
Or the Flying Squirrels, to which the. skin of the flank, extending be:
tween the fore and hind legs, imparts the faculty of supporting themselves
for a moment in the air, and of making very great leaps. There are long

bony appendages: to their feet, which support a part of thye Jags mem- "

brane. . |
There is a species in North America. gy

Sc. voluccella, Li. sw American Flying Squirrel. ) edly above; ig

white beneath; size le than that of the preceding; tail three-fourths as
long as the body. It Tives in troops in the prairies of North America.
M. Geoffroy has very rpc separated from this 3 genus Me Li

a 4 is; ist

§ CHEIROMYS. (2) at ‘e "ig i a)

Or the AyenAyes, whose inferior incisors, much more dinmpreaiels and
above all) more extended from front to back, resemble ploughshares.
Each foot has five toes, of which four of the anterior are excessively elon-
gated, the medius being more slender than the others; in the hind feet the
thumb is opposable to the other toes; so that they are in this respect among
the Rodentia, what the Opossums are among the Carnaria. The structure
of their head is otherwise very different from that’ of the other Rodentia,
and is related to the Quadrumana in more points than one.

There is only one species of the Aye-Aye known. It was discovered at
Madagascar by Sonnerat. It is the Cheir. madagascariensis. (The Aye-
Aye.) Size of a Hare, of a brown colour, mixed with yellow; tail long and
thick, with stout black bristles; ears large and naked. It isa nocturnal
animal, to which motion seems painful; it burrows under ground, and uses
its slender toe to convey food to its mouth.

Linnzus and Pallas united in one single group, under the name of

Mus, Lin.
All the’ Rodentia furnished with clavicles, which they could not distinguish

(1) Pteromys, Winged Rat.
(2) Chetromys, a rat with hands.

~~ 3 8.

St eee

Gh A
oe ee

92 MAMMALIA,

by some very sensible external character, such as the tail of the Squirrel or
that ofthe Beaver, from which resulted the utter impossibility of assigning
to them any common character; the greater number had merely pointed
lower incisors, but even this was subject to exceptions.

Gmelin has already separated from them the Marmots, Dormice, and the
Jerboas; but we carry their subdivisions much further, from considerations
founded on the form of their grinders.

Arcromys, Gm.(1)

The Marmots, it is true, have the inferior incisors pointed like those of
the greater number of animals comprehended in the great genus Mus; but
their grinders, like those of the Squirrel, amount to five on each side above
and four below, all bristled with points; accordingly, some species are in-
clined to eat flesh and feed upon insects, as well asgrass. There are four toes
and a tubercle in place of a thumb to the fore feet, and five toes to the
hind ones. In other respects these animals are nearly the direct reverse
of the Squirrels, being heavy, having short legs, a middle sized or short
hairy tail, and a large flat head, passing the winter in a state of torpor,
and shut up in deep holes, the entrance of which they close with a heap of
grass. They live in societies, and are easily tamed. Two epee are
known in the eastern continent. One is

Arct. alpinus. (The Alpine Marmot.) Large asa Hare; tail short; fur
yellowish grey, with ash coloured tints about the head. It lives in high
‘mountains, immediately below the region of perpetual snow.

America also produces some species.

Arct. monax, Buff. (The Meyiang Marmot.) Grey; tail blackish, as
well as the top of the head.

Arct. empetra, Pall. Less than the pidseding: greys? red beneath.

SpERMOPHILUS, Fred. Cuy.

We apply. this name to those Marmots that have cheek pouches. The
superior lightness of their structure has caused them to be called Ground
Squirrels. Eastern Europe produces one species:

A. citillus. (The Souslik or Zizel.) A pretty little animal, of a greyish
brown, watered or mottled with white, the spots very small, which is
found from Bohemia to Siberia. It has a peculiar fondness for flesh, and
does not spare even its own species.

North America has several species of them, one of which is remarkable
by the thirteen fawn coloured stripes which extend along the back on a
blackish ground. It is the Thirteen striped Souslik, Arct. 13-lineatus, Harl.;
or Sciurus 13-lineatus, Mitchell; or Arct. Hoodii, Sabine.

There is one of the Rodentia which it appears we must approximate to
the Marmots, that is remarkable for living in large troops in immense bur-

(1) Arctomys, Bear-Rat.

rows, which have even vesiienete Ss. ais called: the Prairie Dog or
Barking Squirrel, the latter appellation arising from its voice, which resem- ©
bles the bark of asmall Dog. It is the Arct. ludovicianus of Say, Jour. to
the Rocky Mountains, I, 451.

a, Myoxus, Gm.(1)

The Dormice have pointed lower incisors, and four grinders, the crown
of each of which is divided by enamelled lines.

They are pretty little animals, with soft fur, a hairy and even tufted tail
and alively eye, which live on trees like Squirrels, and feed on fruit. hie
become torpid in winter like the Marmots, and pass through it in the mos
profound apipg

M. glis, L. (The Fat Dormouse.) Size of a Rat; ashy grey-brown’
above, whitish underneath; of a deeper brown around the eyes; tail very
haity the whole of its length, and disposed somewhat like that of a Squir-
rel, and frequently a little forked at the extremity. It inhabits the a
of Europe, and nestles in the hollows of trees and fissures of rocks. It”
sometimes attacks small birds. This is probably the Rat, fattened by the’
ancients, among’ whom it was considered a delicacy of the _very a peg
description. ; i 4,

a <t :
We should pe near the ‘Serwies the > % Pla :
‘ae mee
2 Vig 20 ‘ re Py,
Ecurmys, Geoff. (2) be, ee ie

Four grinders also, but formed in a peculiar way; the upper ones con-
sisting of two blades, bent into the shape ofa V, and the under ones of one
blade only that is bent, and of another that is simple. The fur of several
species is harsh and intermixed with flattened spines or prickles, like
sword blades. From America. One of them is, é,

Ech. chrysuros, Schreb. (The Golden-tailed Echimys. ) More than twice
the size of the Brown Rat; it is a beautiful animal; of a chesnut brown colour;
white belly; an elongated crest of hairs, and a white longitudinal band on
the head; the tail is‘long and black; the posterior half yellow. From
Guiana.

Others, again, have merely the ordinary kind of hair, moré or less rough.
The most remarkable isthe |

Ech. dactylicus, Geoffy (The Long-toed Echimys.) Which is still larger
than the Chrysuros, and has the two middle toes of the fore feet double the
length of the lateral ones. Its scaly tail is longer than the body; its furis a
yellowish grey, and the hairs on itsnose forma crest directed in front.

Hypromys, Geoff.

The Hydromys have many external points of relation to the-Echimys, but
they are distinguished from all other Rats by their hind feet, two-thirds of

(1) Myovus, Rat with a pointed nose.
(2) Echimys, or Spiny Rat. Am. Ed.

&
2
4

which are palmated; their two ® molars have ‘also a peculiar character in the
» crown, which is divided into ‘obliquely quadrangular lobes, whose summits
are hollowed out like the bowl ofa spoon. They are aquatic.
Carromys, Desmar.

. The Houtias have four molars every where with flat crowns, the enamel
of which i is folded inwards so that it forms three angles on the external edge,
and one only on the internal edge of the upper teeth, and the inverse in the
lower ones. The tail is round and scantily pilose; they haye, like the Rats,
five toes to the hind foot, and four with the rudiment of a thumb to the fore
feet; their form is that of a Rat; as mee as a’ Rabbit or Hare. Two species
4 are known: one is the .

* Cap. prehensilis, Peppig.. Brown, with a whitish throat; tail red, as long
as. the body, and partly naked at the end. “Both spécies inhabit the island
Cuba, and together with the Agoutis, at the time of the discovery, consti-
e t i principe! game of the-ipdians. t

2 25

a Ni
th, , ¢

ny eas Cur.
The true Rats have three molars every where, of which thé anterior is.
the largest; its crown is divided into blunt tubercles, which, by being worn,
aa give it the shape of a disk, sloped in various directions; the tail is long and
~* scaly. These animals are very injurious from their fecundity, and the
_ voracity with which they devour every thing that comes within their
: _ reach. There are three species which have become quite common in our
* houses, viz. © nh -
9 os musculus, L. (The Common, Mouse. ) Shdecreliy known.
iM. rattus, L. (The Black Rat.) Of which no mention is made by the
ancients, and which appears to have entered Europe i in the middle century.
‘ It is more than double the size of the Mouse in each of its,dimensions.
f The fur is blackish. Several individuals have been oecasionally found con-
nected by the interlacing’ of their tails; eeentning what the Germans
_ Style the King of Rats. tii
M.deewmanus, Pall. (The Norway or Brown Rat. )’ Which did not pass
into Europe till the eighteenth century; and is now more common in large
cities than the Black Rat itself. It is larger than the latter by one-fourth,
and differs from it also by its reddish-brown hair.(1)
These two large species appear. to have originated in the East, and have
been transported in ships, ay ea with the Mouse, to all parts of the
globe.

Gunzrit0s, Desm. : ce . *
The Gopi have molars that differ very little from those of Rats, merely

(1) It appears to sidkuigh to Persia, where it lives in burrows. It was not
till 1727, that, after an earthquake, it arrived % Astracan, by swimming
across the Volga.

ve

ars; characters which, approximate them to the Jerboas. Their upp:
incisors are grooved like those of the Gerbils, and their toes also are ate’

Bish erey above, black* on’the flanks and ufderneath, with three” whitish %

becoming sooner wcihiiacsuatlys tetas transverse el vations. Wit abirie ee
incisors are furrowed witha groove; their hind feet are somewhat longer in * os
proportion than those of Rats in general, and their thumb and little toe
slightly separated. Their tail is long and hairy. The sandy and warm Pe. ,
of the eastern continent produce several species.

G. indicus. (The India Gerbil.) Size of the fat Dormouse; fawn-co-
loured above, whitish beneath; tail longer than the body, and blackish at
the end. oi oe

f Meniones, Fred, Cuv. ee pe te
Which we separate Pion thé other’ Gerbils, have the’ hind feet still lon-

ger; the tail nearly naked, and a-very small tooth before the superior i Ee
e

: -

There is a small species in North America, the

%eeMus. canadensis, Penn. (The Jumping Mouse.) Size of a Mo se; fa 3
coloured grey; tail longer than the body. A very active animal, that huts
a up ints bunows and passes aie winter in a state of lethargy: ;

smc y if iy:
™ MStohonin Cuy. — ( | Raph 5%
The Hamsters have néarly the same. kind of teeth as fetes but ea
is short and hairy, and the two sides of their mouth are hollowed into sacs
or cheek pouches, in which they transport the grain they collect to their — a
subterraneous abodes. 5
» C.pulgaris, (The Common Hamster.) “Larger than the Rat; ofa red- —

a
aby

A.

aml ee a

spots on each side. The feet, a spot under the throat, and another under
the breast white; some individuals are all black. — This animal, so agreeably
varied in colour, is. one of the most noxious that exist, gathering large
quantities of grain with which it fills its burrow that is sometimes seven feet
deep, It is common in all the sandy uy 2 that. extend from the. north .
of Germany to Siberia. .
This last country produces several small species of Hamsters = desctbedby a
Pallas. ,

*

Anyicona, Lacep.

The Arvicole, like the Rats, have three uine every ‘where, but with-
out roots, each one being formed. of triangular prisms, placed on two alter-

‘nate lines. They may be subdivided into several groups, viz.

» .
.

For, Cuy.
The Ondatras or Musk Rats h ‘ing semi-palmated hind feet, a long scaly Sas
and compressed tail, of which one species only is wellknown: aye
F. vulgaris. (The Canadian Musk-Rat or Ondatra.) As large as a Rab- Rey ss
bit, ofa reddish-grey. In winter they construct, on the ice, a hut of earth,

a

96 “MAMMALIA.

in which several of them reside together, passing through a hole in the
bottom, for the roots of the acorws on which they feed. They neither dive
nor swim well. Itis this habit of building which has induced some authors
to refer the Ondatrato the genus Castor. The second subdivision is that of

Anyicota, Cuy.—Hyrupvs, Illig.
Our common Field Rats, which have a hairy tail, about the length of the
body, and simple or not palmated feet. :
- A. arvalis. (The Campagnol.) Size of a Mouse; ofa reddish-ash colour;
tail not so long as the body. It inhabits holes which it excavates in the
earth, where it collects grain for the winter. The multiplication of this

animal is sometimes so excessive as to cause much injury.

Gronxonus, , Tig,
Or the Lemmings, Cuv. have very short ears and tail, and the toes of the

Hes oka! feet peculiarly well formed. for digging.

G. lemmus. (The Lemming.) A northern species, as aE. as a Rat,

_- with black and yellow fur, very celebrated for its occasional migrations in

_ innumerable bodies. At these periods they are said to march in a straight
line, regardless of rivers or mountains; and while no obstacle can impede
' their progress, they devastate the country through which they pass. Their
“Usual residence appears to be the shores of the Arctic ocean.

6. hudsonius; Mus. hudsonius, Gm., Schreb. (The Lemming of Hudson’s
Bay.) ‘Aight pearly-ash colour; ith bit tail or external ears; the two mid-

; dle toes of the fore foot of the male seem to have double claws, which is

owing to the'skin at the end of the toe being callous and projecting from
under the nail, a deposition of the part hitherto unknown, except in this
animal. It is the size\of a Rat, and lives under “pete in North America.

Oromyrs, Fred, Cuy. ,
The Otomys are ‘nearly allied to the Field Rats, and have also three grin-
ders, but they are composed of slightly arcuated lamine arrang‘ed in file.
Their incisors are grooved with a longitudinal furrow, and the tail is hairy,

as well as thesears, which are large. ,

O. capensis, FrediCuv. (The Cape Otomys.) Size of a Rat; fur marked

' with black and fawn coloured mene: tail a third shorter than the body. ’

Bhrcs, Gm.

The Jerboas have nearly the same kind of teeth as the true Rats, except
that there is sometimes a very small one immediately before the upper mo-
lars. The tail is long and tufted at the end; the head large; the eyes large
and prominent; but their principal character consists in their posterior ex-

‘tremities, which, in comparison with the anterior, are of a most immode-
rate length, and above all, in the metatarsus of the three middle toes, which
_ is formed of one single bone, resembling what is called the tarsus in Birds.

RODENTIA. — Zot, “ae 7

It is from this disproportion of the Tans that they? ‘were named. by the an-
cients Biped Rats, and in fact they seldom move otherwise than by great
leaps on their hind feet. There are five toes to each of the fore feet, and
in certain species, besides the three great toes to the hind feet, there are
small lateral ones. They live in burrows, and become torpid during the
winter.

D. sagitta, The Jerboa has only three iceid and is the size of a Rat; a
light fawn colour above; white beneath; tuft of the tail black, the tip white.
Is found from Barbary to the north of the Caspian sea.

Hetamys, F. Cuv.—Prperss, Illig.(1)

The Jumping Hares, like the Jerboas, have a large head and great eyes,
a long tail, and the anterior part of the body extremely small, in compari-
son to the posterior, although the disproportion is much less than in the
true Gerboas. The peculiar characters of the Helamys are four grinders
every where, each one composed of two laming; five toes to the fore-feet,
armed with long and pointed nails, and four'to their great hind ones, all
separate, even to the bones of the metatarsus, and terminated by large nails, yi Hi
almost resembling hoofs. This number of toes is the inverse of that mo Pe
common among the Rats. Their inferior incisors: are truncated, and not “4 # be
pointed like those of the true Jerboas, and of the greater part of the ani.
mals comprised under the genus of Rats, One species only is known, the

H. Caffer. It is the size of a Hare, of a light fawn colour, and hasa long
tufted tail, with a black tip. Inhabits deep hyrrows at the cane oe kl
Hope.

SpaLax, Gulden. ~*

The Rat-Moles have also been very properly separated fim the Rats, al-
though their grinders are three in number, and tuberculous, as in the true
Rats, and the Hamsters, and are merely a little less unequal. \ Their inci-
sors, however, are two large to be covered by the lips, and the extremities -
of the lower ones are trenchant, rectilinear, and transverse, not pointed,
Their legs are very short; each foot has five short toes, andas many flat and
slender nails. Their tail is very short, or rather there is none; the same
observation applies to their external ear. They live under ground like the
Moles, raising up the earth like them, although provided with much infe-
rior means for dividing it; but they subsist on roots only.

S. typhus. ‘(The Zanni, Slepez, or Blind Rat-Mole.) A singular animal,
which, from its large head, angular on the sides, its short legs, the total
absence of a tail and of any apparent eye, has a most shapeless appearance.
The eye isnot visible externally, and we merely find beneath the skin a
little black point, which appears to be organised like one, but which can-—
not serve for the purpose of vision, since the skin passes over it without
opening or even growing thinner, and being as much coyered with hairags

eee

(1) Pedetes, jumper; Helamys, Jumping-Rat.

98 MAMMALIA.

any other part. It israther larger than our Rat; its fur is smooth, and of an
ash-colour, bordering on a red. This is the animal, in the opinion of Oli-
vier, to which the ancients alluded when they spoke of the ene as being
perfectly blind.
From the Rat-Moles themselves should have been sepanael the.

Baruverevs, Illig-—Orvererss, Fr. Cuv.
Which, with the general form, feet, and truncated incisors of that genus,
have four grinders throughout. Their eye, though small, is visible, and
they have a short tail.’ ;
B. maritimus. (The Maritime Rat-Mole.) Nearly the size of a Rabbit;
the superior incisors furrowed with a groove, and the hair of a whitish grey.

Gromys, Rafin.—Psrvuposroma, Say.

rp ich have four compressed prismatic molars throughout, the first double,
the maining three simple; the upper incisors furrowed with a double
. groove in front; five toes to each foot; the three middle anterior nails, that
: of the medius particularly, very long, crooked, and trenchant. They are

low animals, and have very deep cheek-pouches, which open externally,

Ms, * enlarging the sides of the head and neck ina singular manner. One spe-

~ cies only is known, |
oat: bursarius. (The Canada Hamster.) Size of a Rat; fur of a reddish-
greys tail naked, and but half the length of the body: Inhabits deep bur-

* yows in the interior of North America.

Dirtostoma, Rafin.

The Diplostomz are ait precisely similar to the Geomys, but they have
no tail.

These animals are ans from North America. The species before us is
reddish, and ten inches in length.

We now pass to larger Rodentia than these of which we have
hitherto spoken, but of which several still have well defined clavicles.
Of this number is the

i Be ~ Castor, Lin.
The Beavers are distinguished from all other Rodentia by. their horizon-
tally flattened tail, which is nearly of an oval form, and:coyered with scales.
They have five toes to each foot: those of the hinder ones are connected by
membranes, and that next to the thumb has a double and oblique nail.
Their grinders, tothe number of four throughout, and with flat crowns,
appear as if formed ofa doubled bony fillet, or so.as to show one sloping
edge at the internal extremities of the upper row, and three at the exter-
nal; in the lower ones it is exactly the reverse.

Beavers are large animals, whose life is completely aquatic; their feet and
tail aid them equally in swimming, As their chief food is bark, and other

RODENTIA ge 2 : 99

hard substances, their i incisors are very powerfal, wd grow as rapidly from
the root, as they are worn away at the point. With these teeth they cut —
trees of every description.

They have large glandular pouches which produce a highly odorous oily i
substance, employed in medicine under the name of Castor.

C. fiber, Buff. (The Beaver.) Larger than the Badger, and ofall quad-
rupeds the most industrious in constructing a dwelling, to effect which these
animals act in concert. They are found in the most solitary parts of North
America. .

Beayers choose water of such a depth as is not likely to he frozen to the
bottom, and, as far as possible, running streams, in order that the wood
which they cut above, may be carried downwards by the current to the spot
where it is to be used. They keep the water at an equal height, by dams
composed of branches of trees, mixed with clay and stones, the strength of
which is annually increased, and which finally, by the progress of vegetation,
becomes converted into a hedge. Each hut serves for two or three fa Sy
and consists of two stories; the upper is dry for the residence of the animals,
and the lower under water for their stores of bark, &c. The latter
a and the entrance is under water, haying no communication *

burrows along the bank, in which they seek for ‘shelter w i ts are
attacked. They only reside in these habitations during the “winter; i in othe
summer they separate, and live solitary. The Beaver may be easily tamed,
and accustomed to feed on animal matters. It is of a uniform reddish brown
colour, and the fur, as is well known, is in great demand for hatters. It is
sometimes found flaxen coloured, at others black, or even white.
Myororamus, Commer.
The Couias resemble the Beaver in size, in their four nearly similarly com-
posed molars, in their powerful yellow-tinted incisors, and in their five-toed
feet, the hinder ones of which are palmated; but their tail is round and
elongated. ‘They are aquatic animals also. One only is known, the ,
M. coipus. (The Couia.) Which lives in burrows along the banks of
rivers throughout a great part of South America. *

Hystrrx, Lin.

The Porcupines are known at the first glance by the stiff and sharp spines,

or quills (as they are called), with which they are armed, like the Hedge-
hogs among the Carnaria.. Their grinders are four'throughout, with flat
crowns, variously modified by plates of enamel, between which are de-
pressed intervals. Their tongue is bristled with spiny scales, and their cla-
vicles are too small to rest upon the sternum and scapula, being merely _
suspended by ligaments. They live.in burrows, and have many of the —
habits of the Rabbits. To their grunting voice, and thick truncated muz-
zle, are they indebted for being compared to the Pig, and for their corres-
’ ponding French appellation of a a

4
%
~<., &

wae
PE oc Ane a ast
Ps se

100 MAMMALIA.

; Porcurings, properly so called,

Have ethe head more or less convex or vaulted, by the development of
the bones of the nose. They have four toes before, and five ‘behind, all
armed with stout nails.

- Hi cristata. (The Common Porcupine.) Inhabits the south of Italy,

Spain, and Sicily; it is also foundin Barbary. The spines are very long,
and annulated with black and white; a mane composed of long hairs occu-
pies the head andneck. The tail is short, and furnished with hollow trun-
cated tubes, suspended to slender pedicles, which make a noise when
shaken by the animal.

_ AtuErvrvs, Cuv.

Where neither the head nor muzzle is inflated, and in which we observe
a long non-prehensile tail; the toes are like those of the true Porcupines.
Hyst. fasciculata, L. Buff. (The Pencil-tailed Porcupine.) The upper
part of. the spines on the back grooved, and the tail terminated by a bundle

of er horny-slips, constricted from space to space.

~ = Eretison, F. Cuyv.
ara The tains have a flat cranium; the muzzle short, and not convex} the
tail of a middle size, and the spines short, and half hidden in the Rai, One

species only is known, the
Hystriz oni L. (The Urson.) From North America.

‘Silene F. Cuyv.
The muzzle short and thick; the head vaulted in front, and the spines
- short; the tail long, naked at the extremity, and prehensile, like that of an
Opossum or Sapajou. There are only four toes, ‘all armed ‘with claws;
they climb trees. .

Lervs, Lin.
Hares have a very distinctive character in their superior incisors, which are
double, that is, each of them has a smaller one behind it. Their molars,
five every where, are individually formed of two vertical laminz soldered
together, and in the upper jaw there is a sixth, simple and very small.
They have five toes before and four behind. The inside of their mouth,
and the under part of the feet are lined with hairs like the rest of the ee &

Lrrvs, Cuv.

Or the érwe Hares, have long ears; a short tail; the hind feet much longer
than the fore ones; imperfect clavicles, and the infra-orbitary spaces in the
skeleton reticulated. The species are so numerous and similar, that it is
difficult to characterise them. :

L.. Americanus, Gm. (The American Rabbit.) Nearly similar in size Gna.
colour to the European species; feet reddish; no black on either ears or tail.
Nestles in the hollows of trees, up which it sometimes ascends as far as the
branches. Flesh soft and insipid.

Moderate ears; legs n ear iy ¢
nearly perfect, and no tail Parey ore utter a aba cry. They sae hitherto
been found in Siberia only, — it is to Pallas that we are indebted for their
discovery. io ,

The fossil betes of an unknown species, of Lagomys have been discovered
in the osseous breccia of Corsica.

After the two genera of Porcupines and Hares, come the Rodentia,
united by Linnzus and Pallas under the name of Cavra; but to which it is
impossible to affix any other common and positive character than that of
their imperfect clavicles, although the species of which they are composed
are very analogous to each other, both in body and habits. They are all
from the western continent. ih”

Hyprocuarvs, Erxleb.(2) ee ce we
Four toes before and three behind, all armed with large nails, and ‘united
by membranes; four grinders throughout, of which the posterior are the oe
longest, and composed of numerous, simple and parallel laminz; the an "as
terior laminz, forked towards the external edge i in the upper, and toward eal
the internal one in the lower teeth. vO one species is known, the Cony BF
bara, be ag inhabits Guiana. | ‘ta? |

- Cavra, Illig.

The Cobayes, or Guinea-Pigs, are miniature representations of the Cabiais;
but their toes are separated, and each of their molars has only one simple
lamina, and one that is forked on the outside in the upper ones, and on the
inside in the lower. It is found in the weeds of Brazil and Paraguay.

Cutoromys, Fr. Cov. (3)

The Agoutis have four toes before and three behind; four giihders enrbaghs
out, almost equal, with flat crowns irregularly furrowed, rounded borders
notched on the internal edge in the upper jaw, and on the external one in
the lower. In disposition, and in the nature of their flesh, they resemble
Hares and Rabbits, which they may be said to replace in the Antilles and
hot parts of America.

Catocenys, Fr. Cuv.(4)
The Pacas, in addition to teeth very like those of the Agoutis, have a very
small toe on the internal edge of the fore foot, and one on each side, equally
small on their hinder one, making five toes everywhere.
There is one species or variety fawn coloured, and another brown, both of
which are spotted with white, the Cavia paca, L

(1) Lagomys, i. e. Rat-Hares. (2) Hydrocherus, water-pig-
(3) Chloromys, yellow rat. ~ (4) Coalampeg, hollow cheek.

¥ a
, a

=
et

102 > MAMMALIA:

Finally, there remains an animal perhaps nearly allied to the Cavias, and
possibly more so to the Lagomys or the Rats, which we are unable to dis-
pose of, on account of our ignorance of its teeth; I mean the Chinchilla,
thousands of whose skins are to be had, but of which we have never yet
been able to procure the entire body. Itis about the size of asmall Rabbit;

. is covered with long, close and fine hair, the softest that is known among

common furs. This quadruped inhabits the mountains of South America.

ORDER VI.
EDENTATA.

The Edentata, or quadrupeds withoiet front t teeth, will form our

- last order of unguiculated animals. Although united by a character
purely. negative, they have, nevertheless, some. positive mutual re-
_ lations, and particularly Jarge nails, which embrace the extremities
of the toes, approaching more or less to the nature of hoofs: a slow-

ness, a want of agility, obviously arising from the peculiar organi-
zation of their limbs. There are, however, certain intervals in these
relations, which render it necessary to divide the order into three
em ‘The first of these is the

TARDIGRADA.

‘they a a short face. Their name originates from their ex-
cessive slowness, the consequence of a construction truly heteroc-
lite, in which nature seems to have amused herself by producing
something imperfect and grotesque. ‘The only genus now in exis-
tence is Ee.

Brapyrvs, Lin.

The Sloths have cylindrical molars, and sharp canini longerthan those molars,
two mammez on the breast, and fingers united by the skin, and only marked
externally by enormous compressed and crooked nails, which, when at rest,
are always bent towards the palm of the hand, or the sole of the foot. The
hind feet are obliquely articulated on the leg, and rest only upon their outer
edge; the phalanges of the toes are articulated by a close ginglymus, and
the first, at a certain age, becomes soldered to the bones of the metacarpus
or metatatsus, which also, in time, for want of use, experience the same fate.
To this inconvenience in the organization of the extremities is added another,
not less great, in their proportions. The pelvis is so large, and their thighs

EDENTATA. * 108

so much inclined to the side that they cannot approximate their knees.
Their gait is the necessary ¢ ect of such a disproportioned structure. They
live in trees, and never remove from the one they are on until they have
stripped it of every leaf, so painful to them is the requisite exertion to reach
another. It is even asserted that to avoid the trouble of a regular descent,
they let themselves fall from a branch. The female produces but a single
young one at a birth, which she carries on her back.

Bradypus tridactylus, L. (The Ai.) A species in which sluggishness,
and all the details of the organization which produce it, are carried to the
highest degree. The thumb and the little toe, reduced to small rudiments,
are hidden under the skin, and soldered to the metatarsus and metacarpus;
the clavicle, also reduced to a rudiment, is firmly united to the acromion.
The arms are double the length of the legs; the hair on the head, back and
limbs is long, coarse and non-elastic, something like dried hay, which gives
it a most hideous aspect. Its colour is grey, the back being frequently spot-
ted with white and brown. It is as large as a Cat, andis the only. mammifer-
ous animal known which has nine cervical vertebra. — met

Ps!
h iaghiaeh ie
<5? Se ah

Fossil skeletons of two Edentata of great size have been | ais i

ton oe.

ered in America, one of which, the MreaTuerium, hasa head very
similar to that of the Sloths, but deficient as to canini, and approach-
ing in other parts of the skeleton, partly to the Sloths, and partly to

the Ant-eaters. It is twelve feet long, and six or seven high. The |

other, the Mrcatonyx, is rather smaller, and the toes are the only
parts of it that are well known, but they strongly resemble those of

the preceding.
The second tribe comprehends the

EDENTATA ORDINARIA,

Or the Ordinary Edentata with a pointed muzzle. Some of them
still have cheek teeth. They form two genera.

Dasyrvus, Lin.

The Armadillos are very remarkable among the Mammalia, by the scaly
and hard shell formed of compartments resembling little paving stones,
which covers their head and body, and frequently their tail. This sub-
stance forms one shield over the forehead, a second very large and conyex
over the shoulders, a third on the croup similar to the second, and between
the two latter several parallel and movable bands, which allow the body to
bend. The tail is sometimes furnished with successive rings, and at others,
like the legs, merely with tubercles, These animals have large ears, and
sometimes four, and at others five great nails before, but always five behind.
They dig burrows, and live partly on vegetables, and partly on insects and

x.

104 MAMMALIA.

dead bodies. They all belong to the hot, or at least to the temperate parts
of America. . Bie

They may be divided into subgenera from considerations drawn from the
structure of their fore feet and the number of their teeth. Most of them
have only four toes to the anterior feet, the two middle ones of which are
the longest. These subgenera are

Cacuicamus, Cuv. (to which belongs the 9-banded Armaailily, ApaRa,
Cuv. (3-banded Armadillo); Excousrrtvs, Cuy. (6-banded Armadillo); €a-
BAssous, Cuv. (The Tatouay); Prropon, Fr. Cuv. (The Giant Armadillo);
and the si depart Harl., of which only one is known, the C. truncatus,
Harl.

“It appears that the fossil bones of a Tautou of gigantic size, being ten feet

" long exclusive of the tail, have been foundin America, See Cuv. Oss. Foss.
Bei part 1, P 191, note.

Os han Orycrerrorvus, Geoff.(1)
The sake of this genus were for a long time confounded with the Ant-

: Eaters on account of their using the same kind of food, having a similar head,
and af tongue somewhat extensible; but they are distinguished from them by
_ being furnished with grinders and flat nails, formed for digging, and not

trenchant, . The structure of their teeth differs from that of all other quad-
rupeds; they are solid cylinders traversed like reeds, in a longitudinal di-
rection, with an infinitude of little canals. There is only one species known.
Oryct. capensis. (The Cape Ground-Hog.) It is an animal about the size
of the Badger or larger; stands low; has short hair, and i is of a brownish-grey.

_ The tail is not so long as the body, and is ‘covered with equally short hairs.

It has four toes before, and five behind. Inhabits burrows, which it exca-
vates with on facility. The flesh is eaten.

The ther ordinary Edentata have no grinders, and conseqilently
no teeth of any atti They also form two genera.

Myrmrcornaca, Lin

The ‘Ant-Eaters are hairy animals with a long muzzle terminated by a
small toothless mouth, from which is protruded a filiform tongue suscepti-
ble of considerable elongation, and which they insinuate into Ant-hills and
the nests of the Termites, whence these insects are withdrawn by being en-
tangled in the viscid saliva that covers it. The nails of the fore feet, strong
andtrenchant, and varying in number according to the species, serve to tear
up the nests of the Termites, and afford the means of defence.

They all inhabit the hot and temperate parts of the western continent,
and produce but a single young one at a birth, which they carry on their
back? ch: i.4

(1) Orycteropus, feet fitted for digging. -

EDENTATA. ipa 105

Manes: cite

The Pangolins, or Sea
teeth, have a very & ensible tongue, and live on Ants and Termites like
true Ant- Eaters; but ieir body, limbs and tail are clothed with large tren-

ged like tiles, which they elevate in rolling themselves into
a ball, when they wish to defend themselves from an enemy. There are
five toes to each foot. Their stomach is‘slightly divided in the middle, and
there i is no ¢ ecum. They are contigs to the eastern continent.

The third tribe of the Edentata comprehends those animals, de-
signated by M. Geoffroy, under the name of

- MONOTREMATA,

The singularities of their skeleton are very remarkable; a sort
of clavicle, which is common to both shoulders, being placed before
the ordinary clavicle, and analogous to the fourchette in birds. Fi-
nally, besides their five nails to each foot, the males have a spur on
the hinder ones, perforated by a canal which transmits the liquid
secreted by a gland situated on the inner surface of the thigh. It
is asserted that the wounds it inflicts are envenomed. ‘These ani-
mals have no external conch to their ears, and their eyes are very
small.

The Monotremata are only found in New Holland, and have been
discovered since the settlement of the English. T'wo genera of them
are known. !

Ecuipna, Cuv.

The elongated slender muzzle of the Spiny Ant-Eaters, terminated by a
small mouth, contains an extensible tongue similar to that of the Ant-Eaters
and Pangolins, and, like them, they feed on Ants. ‘They have no teeth, but
their palate is furnished with several rows of small recurved spines. Their
short feet have each five very long and stout nails fitted for digging; and the
upper surface of the body is covered with spines like that of the Hedgehog.
It appears, that, when in danger, they also possess the faculty of rolling
themselves into a ball. There are two species.
E. hystrix. (The Spiny Echidna.) Completely covered with large

spines. st .

"2. setosa. (The Bristly Echidna.) Is covered with hair, among which
the spines are half hidden. Some naturalists consider it as a mere variety
from age. |

OrniTHorHYNCHUs, Blumenb.—Ptatyrvs, Shaw.

The elongated, and at the same time singularly enlarged and flattened muz-
o |

iy Ok Raters as they are called, are destitute of

106 MAMMALIA.

zle of the Ornithorhynchi presents the closest external resemblance to the
bill of a Duck, and the more so as its edges are similarly furnished with small
transverse lamine. There isa membrane to the fore feet, which not only
unites the toes, but extends far beyond the nails; in the hind feet the mem-
brane terminates at the root of the nails; two characters, which, with the
flattened tail, make them aquatic animals. The Ornithorhynchi inhabit the
rivers and marshes of New Holland in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson.

Two-species only are known, one with smooth, thin, reddish fur, the
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, Blumenb., and the other with blackish-brown,
flat and frizzled hair. Probably these are only varieties of age.

ORDER VII.

PACHYDERMATA.(1)

The Edentata terminate the series of unguiculated animals, and
we have just seen that there are some of them whose nails are so
large, and so envelope the extremities of the toes, as to approximate
them in a certain degree to the hoofed animals. They still, however,
possess the faculty of bending these toes round various objects, and -
of seizing with more or Jess force. The total. deficiency of this
faculty characterizes the hoofed animals. Their forms and habits
present much less variety than those of the Unguiculata, and they
can hardly be divided into more than two orders, those which rumi-
nate, and those which do not; but these latter, which we designate
collectively by the term Pachydermata, admit of subdivision into
families.

The first is that of the Pachydermata which havea proboscis and
tusks.

FAMILY I.
PROBOSCIDIANA.

The Proboscidians have five toes to each foot, very complete
in the skeleton, but so encrusted by the callous skin which surrounds

_ (1) Thick-skinned animals.

107

the foot, that their only aia « Uptiraiive is in the nails attached

to the edge of this species of hoof. . They have no canini or incisors
properly so called, but in their incisive bone are implanted two

tusks, which project from the mouth, and frequently attain to an

enormous size. The magnitude requisite for the alveoli of these

tusks renders the upper jaw so high, and so shortens the bones of
the nose, that the nostrils in the skeleton are placed near the top of
the face; but in the living animal they are continued out into a cylin-

drical trunk or proboscis, composed of several thousands of small
muscles, variously interlaced, extremely flexible, endowed with the

most exquisite’sensibility, and terminated by an appendage resem-

bling a finger. This proboscis is to the Elephant what the hand is

to the Monkey.

But one living genus of the Proboscidiana is known, that of

-Exepuas, Lin.
Or the Elephant, which comprehends the largest of the terrestrial Mammalia.
Their food is strictly vegetable.

The Elephants of the present day, clothed with a rough skin nearly des-
titute of hair, are only found in the torrid zone of the eastern continent,
where hitherto only two species have been ascertained.

£. indicus, Cuv. (The Elephant of India.) . An oblong head; the crown
of the grinders presenting transverse undulating fillets, which are sections
of the laminz which compose them worn by trituration. This species has
rather smaller ears than the next one, and has fournails to the hind foot. It
is found from the Indus to the Eastern ocean, and in the large islands in the
south of India. They have been used from the earliest ages as beasts of
draught and burden. The females have very short tusks, and in this panes
ae of the males resemble them.

E. africanus, Cuy. (The African Elephant.) A round head; convex
forehead; large ears; the crowns of the grinders divided into lozenges.
Found from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. The tusks of the female
are as large as those of the male, and the weapon itself, generally speaking,
is larger than in the Indian species. The African Elephant is not now tamed,

though it appears that the Carthaginians employed it in the same way that
the inhabitants of India do theirs.

The second genus of the Proboscidiana is the

Masropon, Cuv.

The Mammoth has been completely destroyed, nor is there a single individual
living. It had the feet, tusks, trunk, and many other details of conforma-
tion in common with the Elephant; but differed from it in the grinders.

M. giganteum. The Great Mastodon, in which the sections of the points

Chie

eg yh
LP Phe ot
3 ri hgh

108 MAMMALIA.

are lozenge-shaped, is the most celebrated species. It equalled the Ele-
phant in size, but with still heavier proportions. Its remains are found ina
wonderful state of preservation, and in great abundance throughout all parts
of North America. They are infinitely more rare in the eastern continent.
The JZ. angustidens was a third less than the great Mastodon, and much
lower on its legs. Its remains are found throughout the greater part of
Europe and of South America. In certain places, the teeth, tinged with
iron, become of a beautiful blue when heated, forming what is called the
oriental turquoise.

FAMILY II.

~PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA,

Or the ordinary Pachydermata, have four, three or two toes.

Those in which the toes make even numbers have feet somewhat
cleft, and approximate to the Ruminantia in various parts of the
skeleton, and even in the complication of the stomach. They are
usually divided into two genera.

Hrprororamus, Lin.
These animals have a very massive and naked body; very short legs; the

belly reaching to the ground; an enormous head terminated by a large inflat-
_ ed muzzle, which encloses the apparatus of their large front teeth; the tail

short; the ears and eyes small. They live in rivers, upon jroots and other
vegetable substances, and exhibit much FerOGa and stupidity. One species
only is known.

H. amphibius. (The Hippopotamus.) Now confined to the rivers of the
middle and south of Africa.

Sus, Lin.
Hogs, properly so called, have twenty-four or twenty-eight grinders, of
which the posterior are oblong witht tuberculous crowns, and the anterior
more or less compressed, and six incisors in each jaw.

S. scropha, L. The Wild Hog, which is the parent stock of our Domestic
Hog and its varieties, has prismatic tusks that curve outwards and slightly
upwards; the body short and thick; straight ears; the hair bristled and black;
the young ones striped black and white. It does great injury to fields in
the vicinity of forests, by tearing up the ground in search of roots. Natural-
ists now separate from the “i the subgenera Phacochzrus, and Dicotyle or
the Peccaries.

Here may come a genus now unknown in the living creation,
which we have discovered, and named

_ PACHYDERMATA. 58

‘alee | Axoprormerrum,

It presents the most singular affinities with the various tribes of the Pachy-

dermata, and approximates i in some respects to the order of the Ruminantia.
The bones of this genus have hitherto only been found in the gypsum

quarries near r Paris. og pare 2 gi aaa ean five species.

aes

The ordinary Rich jacrpate wich have not cloven feet, compre-
hend, in the first place, three genera, very similar to each other in
their ‘grinders, but their incisors vary.

Rurnoceros, Lin.

The species of this genus, in this particular, even vary among themselves.
They are large animals; each foot is divided into three toes, and the bones
of the nose, which are very thick and moulded into a sort of arch, support
a solid horn which adheres to the skin, and is composed of a fibrous and
horny substance, resembling agglutinated hairs. They are naturally stupid
and ferocious, frequent marshy places, and feed on herbs and branches of
trees. They are found in India, Java, Africa and Sumatra.

Rh. indieus, Cuv. (The Rhinoceros of India.) It has but one horn, and
the skin is remarkable for the deep folds into which it is thrown ekg and
across the shoulders, and before and across the thighs. It inhabits the East
Indies, and chiefly beyond the Ganges.

th, africanus, Cuv.. (The Rhinoceros of Africa. ) Furnished with two
horns; has no fold of of the skin, nor any incisor teeth, its molars ie ai
nearly the whole length of the jaw.

Various fossil species are found in Siberia, Tuscany and Germany.

-Hyrax, Herm.

The Damans, as they are termed, have long been placed among the Roden-
tia, on account of their small size; if, however, we examine them closely, we
shall find, the horn excepted, that they are Rhinoceroses in miniature, at least
they have similar molars; but their upper jaw is furnished with two strong
incisors curved downwards, and at an early age with two very small canini;
the lower one has four incisors, but no canini.

PaLzoruertivum, Cuv.

- This is also a lost genus, with the same grinders as the two preceding, six
incisors, and two canini in each jaw, like the Tapirs, and three visible toes
to each foot; they had also, like the Tapirs, a short fleshy proboscis. We
discovered the bones of this genus péle-méle with those of the Anoplothe-
rium in the gypsum quarries near Paris. They also exist in many other
parts of France. Eleven or twelve species are known already.

Loputopon, Cuv.
Ts another lost genus, which appears to be closely allied to the preceding

110 MAMMALIA.

one. Ten or twelve species have been extracted from our old fresh water
formations, the same in which the Palzotherium is found.
To these genera should succeed the genus

Tarrr, Lin.

The nose resembles a small fleshy proboscis; there are four toes to the four
feet, and three to the hind ones. For a long time but.a single species was
’ known, 4

T. americanus, L. (The American Tapir.) Size of a small Ass; skin
brown and nearly naked; tail moderate; neck fleshy, forming a sort of crest
on the nape. Common in wet places, and along the riversof the warm parts
of South America. The flesh is eaten. Within a few years a second spe-
cies has been discovered in the eastern continent.

Fossil Tapirs are also scattered throughout Europe; and among others is
a gigantic species, which in size must have nearly equalled the Elephant;
it is the Zap. giganteus, Cuv.

FAMILY IIt.

SOLIPEDES.

The Solipedes are quadrupeds which have only one apparent toe,
and a single hoof to each foot, although under the skin, on each
side of their metatarsus and metacarpus, there are spurs represent-
ing two lateral toes. One genus only is known, that of

Eauvs, Lin.
The Horse has six incisors in each jaw. The male has also two small ad-
ditional canini in the upper jaw, and sometimes in both, which are almost
always wanting in the female. Between these canini and the first molar is
that unoccupied space which corresponds to the’angle of the lips, where the
bitis placed, by which alone, Man has been enabled to subdue and tame this
powerful animal.

E. caballus, L. (The Horse.) This noble associate of Man, in the chase,
in war, and in the works of agriculture, the arts and commerce, is the most
important and carefully attended of all the animals he has subdued. It does
not seem to exist in a wild state at the present time; those places excepted,
where Horses formerly domesticated have been set at liberty, as in Tartary
and America, where they live in troops, each of which is led and defended
by an old male.

E. hemionus. (The Dzigguetai.) A species which,as to its proportions,
is intermediate between the horse and the Ass, and lives in troops in the

pee orien he eer Neel 9s TELE os a fe CL EAE dO aR ES ea * EF 4 ar es ea
= iit y i &

7 % =

yo: s

PACHYDERMATA. — 111

sandy deserts of central Asia. It is of an isabella or cream colour, witha
black mane, and a dorsal line of the same colour; the tail is terminated bya gets
black tuft. It is probably the Wild Mule of the ancients. :

E. asinus. (The Ass.) Known by its long ears, the tuft witicte fermi
nates the tail, and the black cross on the shoulders, which is the first indi-
cation of the stripes which distinguish the following species. Originally
from the great deserts of central Asia, it is still to be found there in a wild
state, and in innumerable troops, ranging from north to south according
to the season; hence it thrives but poorly in the more northern climates.
The hoarseness of its voice, or bray, depends upon two small peculiar cavi-
ties situated at the bottom of the larynx.

E. zebra. (The Zebra.) Nearly the same form as the Ass; the whole
animal regularly marked with black and white transverse stripes, originally
from the whole south of Africa.

E. quaccha. (The Couagga.) Resembles the Hise more than the Zebra,
but comes from the same country. The hair on the neck and shoulders is
brown, with whitish transverse stripes; the croup is of a reddish grey; tail
and legs whitish. The name is expressive of its voice, which resembles the
barking of a Dog.

E.montanus. (The Onagga.) An African species, smaller than the Ass,
but having the beautiful form of the Couagga; its colour is a very light bay,
with black stripes, alternately wider and narrower, on the head, neck and
body. Those behind slant obliquely forwards; legs and tail white.

ORDER VIII.

RUMINANTIA.

The term Ruminantia indicates the singular faculty possessed by
these animals of masticating their food a second time, by bringing
it back to the mouth after a first deglutition. This faculty depends
upon the structure of their stomachs, of which they always have
four, the three first being so disposed that the food may enter into

either of them, the cesophagus terminating at the point of commu-
nication.

Cametvs, Lin.
The Camels approximate to the preceding order rather more than the
others. They not only always have canini in both j Jaws, but they also have
two pointed teeth implanted in the incisive bone, six inferior incisors and
from eighteen to twenty molars only; peculiarities, which, of all the Rumi-

tis: 4 MAMMALIA,

nantia, they alone possess. Instead of the large hoof flattened on its inter-
nal side which envelopes the whole inferior portion of each toe, and which
determines the figure of the common cloven-foot, they have but one small
one, which only adheres to the last phalanx, and is symmetrically formed
like the hoofs of the Pachydermata.

CameEtvus, Cuv.
Camels, properly socalled, have the two toes united below, nearly to the
‘point, by a‘common sole, and the back furnished with lumps of fat. They
are large animals of the eastern continent, of which two species are known,
both completely reduced to a domestic state.
C. bactrianus. (The Two-Humped Camel.) | Originally from central
Asia, and which descends to the south much less than the
C. dromedarius. (Fhe One-Humped Camel.) Which has spread from
Arabia into all the north of Africa, a great part of Syria, Persia, &c.

‘ar
shes:

Avcnenta, Illig. |

In the DBitind the two toes are separate; they are without humps. But
two distinct species are known, the Lama and the Paco, both from the wes-
tern continent, and much smaller than the two preceding ones.

, Moscnvs, Lin.

The Musks are much less anomalous than the Camels, differing from’ the
ordinary Ruminantia-only in the absence of horns, in having a long canine
tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which in the male issues from the
mouth, and finally in having a slender peronzus, which is not found even
in the Camel. These animals are remarkably light and elegant.

M. moschiferus, L.; Buff. .(The Musk.) ‘This is the most celebrated
species, and the” size of a goat, has scarcely any tail, and is completely
covered with hairs)so coarse and brittle that they might be termed spines.

All the rest of the Ruminantia, the males at least, have two horns,
that is to say, two prominences of the frontal bones which are not
found in any other family of animals.

In some, these prominences are covered with an elastic sheath
composed as if with agglutinated hairs, which increases by layers
and during life; the name of horn is applied to the substance of this
sheath, and the sheath itself is called the corne creuse or horn mould.
The prominence it envelopes grows with it, and never falls. Such
are the horns of Oxen, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes.

In others, the prominences are only covered with a hairy skin,
continuous with that of the head; nor do the prominences fail, those
of the Giraffe excepted.

RUMINANTIA. 113

Finally, i in the genus of the Stags, the prominences covered fora
time with a hairy skin, similar to that on the rest of the head, have at
their base a ring of bony tubercles, which, as they enlarge, compress
and obliterate the vessels of that skin. It becomes dry and is thrown
off; the bony prominences, being laid bare, at the expiration of a
certain period separate from the cranium to which they were at-
tached; they fall and the animal remains defenceless. Others,
however, are re-produced generally larger than before, and destined
to undergo the same fate. These horns, purely osseous, and sub-
ject to periodical changes, are styled antlers.

Cervus, Lin.
The Stags, consequently, are the only Ruminantia which have headsarmed
with antlers; the females, however, the Rein-Deer alone excepted, are al-
ways without them. The substance of these antlers, when completely
developed, is that of a dense bone, without pores or sinus.

C. alces,L. (The Moose.) As large as a Horse and sometimes larger;
stands yery high; the muzzle cartilaginous and inflated; a sort of goitre, or
pendulous swelling, variously shaped, under the throat; hair always very
stiff and of a more or less deep ash-colour. Their horns increase with age
so as to weigh fifty or sixty pounds, and to have fourteen branches to each
horn. The Moose lives in small troops, and inhabits the marshy forests of
the north of both continents. Its skin is valuable for various purposes.

C. iarandus, L., Buff. (The Rein-Deer.) Size of a Stag, but has shorter
and stouter legs; both sexes have antlers, divided into several branches, at
first slender and pointed, and terminating by age in broad denticulated
palms. There are various species of this genus, such as the Fallow-Deer,
Common Stag, Virginia Deer, Axis, Roebuck, &c.

CAMELOPARDALIs, Lin.

The Giraffe is characterized in both sexes by conical horns, always covered
with a hairy skin, and which are never shed. On the middle of the chan-
frin is a tubercle or third horn, broader and much shorter, but likewise ar-
ticulated by a suture. It is moreover one of the most remarkable animals
in existence, from the length of its neck and the disproportioned height of
its fore legs. Only one species is known,

C. girafa, F. Cuv. (The Giraffe.) It is confined to the deserts of Af-
rica, and has short grey hair sprinkled with fawn coloured angular spots,
and a small fawn coloured and grey mane. It is the tallest of all animals, .
for its head is frequently elevated eighteen feet from the ground. Its dis-
position is gentle, and it feeds on leaves. The

RUMINANTIA WITH HOLLOW HORNS

Are more numerous than the others, and we have been compelled
P :

114 MAMMALIA,

to divide them into genera from characters of but little importance,
drawn from the form of their horns and the proportions of their
different parts. To these M. Geoffroy has advantageously added

those afforded by the substance of the frontal prominence or the

bony nucleus of the horn.

ANTILOPE.

‘The substance of the bony nucleus of the horns of the Antelopes is solid,
and without pores or sinus, like the antlers of the Stag. They resemble
the Stags moreover in the lightness of their figure and their swiftness. It
is a very numerous genus, which naturalists have divided, and principally
according to the form of the horns.

The most remarkable species are the Gazelle, Springbock, Plunging An-
telope, Rock-Springer, Algazel, Chamois, Gnou, &c.

The three remaining genera have the bony core of the horns
principally occupied with cells, which communicate with the frontal
sinuses. The direction of their horns furnishes the characters of
the divisions.

Capra, Lin.

The horns of the Goats are directed upwards and backwards; the chin gene-
rally furnished with a long beard, and the-chanfrin almost always concave.

C. egragus, Gm. (The Wild Goat.) Appears to be the stock of all the
varieties of our Domestic Goat. It is distinguished by its horns, trenchant
in front, very large in the male; short, or altogether wanting in the female,
which is also sometimes the case in the two species of Ibex. It lives in herds
on the mountains of Persia (where it is known by the name of paseng’), and
perhaps on those of other countries, even in the Alps. ‘The oriental bezoar
is a concretion found in its intestines.

C. ibex, L. (The Ibex.) Large horns, square in front, marked with
transverse and prominent knots. It inhabits the most elevated summits of
the highest ranges of mountains in the whole of the eastern continent.

Ovts, Lin.

The horns of Sheep are directed backwards, and then incline spirally, more
or less forwards: the chanfrin is more or less convex, and there is no beard.

Ov. ammon, I. (The Argali of Siberia.) The male has very large horns,
with the base triangular, angles rounded, flattened in front, and striated
transversely; those of the female are compressed and falciform. To this
genus belong the Mouflons of America, Africa and Sardinia. This animal
inhabits the mountains of all Asia, and attains to the size of the Fallow Deer

It is from the Moufion or the Argali that we are supposed to derive the
innumerable races of our woolly animals, which, next to the Dog, are most
subject to vary.

4

BUEN AEE 2 115

- Bos, Lin.

The horns of the Ox are oe laterally, inclining upwards or forwards,
in the form of a crescent; it is a large animal, with a broad muzzle; short
and thick body, and stout legs.

B. taurus, L. (The Common Ox.) Its specific characters are a flat fore-
head, longer than broad, and round horns, placed at the extremities of the
salient line or ridge which separates the forehead from the occiput.

B. urus,Gm. (The Aurochs.) Generally, but erroneously, considered
as the wild stock of our horned cattle. It is distinguished from them by
its convex forehead, which is wider than it is high, by the insertion of its
horns below the occipital crest, by the length of its legs, by an additional
pair of ribs, by a sort of curly wool, which covers the head and neck of the
bull, forming a short beard under the throat, and by its grunting voice. It
isa savage animal that has now taken refuge in the great marshy forests of
Lithuania, of the Krapacs and of Caucasus, but which formerly inhabited
all the temperate parts of Europe. It is the largest quadruped proper to
Europe.

B. bison, L. (The Buffaloe or Bison of America.) The bony head very —
similar to that of the Aurochs, and covered like it, the neck and shoulders
also, with frizzled wool, which becomes very long in winter; its legs and
tail are shorter. Inhabits all the temperate parts of North America.

B. bubalus, L. (The Buffalo.) Originally from India, and brought into
Egypt, Greece and Italy during the middle century; has a convex forehead
higher than wide, the horns directed sideways, and marked in front by a
longitudinal ridge. This animal is subdued with difficulty, but is extremely
powerful, and prefers the marshy grounds, and coarse plants on which the
Ox could not live. Its milk is good, and the hide very strong, but the flesh
is not esteemed. |

There is a race of them in India, whose horns include a space of ten feet
from tip to tip: it is called rnz in Hindostan.

B. grunniens, Pall. (The Yack.) A small species, with the tail com-
pletely covered with long hairs like that of'the Horse, and a long mane on
the back. This animal, of which lian has spoken, is originally from the
mountains of Thibet. Its tail constitutes the standards still used by the
Turks to distinguish the superior officers.

B. moschatus, Gm. (The Musk Ox of America.) The horns approxi-
mated and similarly directed, but meeting on the forehead in a straight line;
those of the female are smaller and more widely separated; the forehead is
convex, and the end of the muzzle furnished with hairs.

na MAMMALIA.

ORDER IX.
CETACEA.

_ The Cetacea are mammiferous animals without hind feet; their
trunk is continued by a thick tail, terminating in an horizontal, car-
tilaginous fin, and their head is united to. the trunk by a neck, so
thick and short, that no diminution of its diameter can be perceived,
and composed of very slender cervical vertebre, which are partly
anchylosed or soldered together. The first bones of the anterior
extremities are shortened, and the succeeding ones flattened and en-
veloped in atendinous membrane, which reduces them to true fins.
Their external form is altogether that of Fishes, the tail fin excepted,
which in the latter is vertical. They always therefore remain in the
water; but as they respire by lungs, they are compelled to -return
frequently to its surface to take in fresh supplies of air. Independ-
ently of this, their warm ‘blood, their ears, with external, though
small, openings, their viviparous production, the mamme with which
they suckle their young, andall the details of their anatomy suffi-
ciently distinguish them from Fishes,

To the genera of the Cetacea hitherto admitted, we add others
formerly confounded with the Morses.

FAMILY I.
CETACEA HERBIVORA.

_ Theteeth of Herbivorous Cetacea have flat crowns; this determines
their mode of life, and the latter induces them to leave the water fre-
quently, to seek for pasture on shore. ‘They have two mamme on

the breast, and hairy mustachios; two circumstances which, when
- observed from a distance as they raise the anterior part of the body
vertically from the water, may give them some resemblance to hu-
man beings, and have probably occasioned those fabulous accounts
of Tritons and Sirens which some travellers pretend to have seen.

Madar, Cuv.

The Lamantins, or rather the Manati, have an oblong body, terminated by
an elongated oval fin; the grinders, eight in number throughout, have a

4117

| fae
square crown, marked with ‘hie ania Geeioen Vestiges of nails’
are discoverable on the edges of their fins, which they employ with tolera- .

ble dexterity in carrying their young, and in creeping; hence the comparison — ee

of these organs with hands, and the name of Manatus applied to the animal,
of which Lamantin is a corruption. From their manner of living, they are
also called Sea Cows, Mermaids, &c.

‘They are found near the mouths of rivers in the hottest parts of the At-
lantic Ocean, and it appears that those of the American rivers are specifically
different from those of Africa. They grow to the ? ahstan of fifteen feet.
Their flesh is used as eae

Haricors, Illig.(1)

Grinders composed of two cones laterally united; the teeth implanted i in the
incisive bone are permanent, and increase to such an extent as to become
true pointed tusks, but covered by thick fleshy lips, bristled with musta-
chios. The body is elongated, and the tail terminated by a crescent-shaped
fin. One species only is known, the

Hal. dugong; Siren; Sea Cow,&c. (The Dugong.) It inhabits the Indian
Ocean, and is frequently confounded by travellers with the Manatus.

Sre.iervs, Cuv.

The Stelleri a appear to have but a single compound grinder on suc side,
with a flat crown, and bristled with plates of enamel. Their fins have not
even the little nails observed on those of the Manatus. According to Stel-
ler, the first, and hitherto the only one who has described them, their sto-
mach also is much more simple.

One species only is kawity which is confined to the north part od the
Pacific Ocean.

FAMILY Ii.
CETACEA ORDINARIA.

The Ordinary Cetacea are distinguished from the preceding by
the singular apparatus from which they have received the name of
Blowers. As a large quantity of water passes into their huge mouths
along with their prey, some way was necessary by which they could
get rid of it; accordingly, it passes through the nostrils by means of
a peculiar disposition of the velum palati, and is accumulated ina
sac situated at the external orifice of the cavity of the nose, whence,

(1) Halicore, Maid of the Sea.

118 MAMMALIA.

by the compression of powerful muscles, it is violently expelled
through a narrow opening on the top of the head. It is in this way
they produce those jets d’eau observed by navigators at so great a
distance. Their nostrils, continually bathed in salt water, could not
be lined with a membrane sufficiently delicate to enable them to de-
tect odours, and accordingly, they have none of those projecting
laminz found in the nasal cavities of other animals; the olfactory
nerve is deficient in several, and if there be any which enjoy the
sense of smell, it must be in a very slight degree. Their larynx, of a
pyramidal form, penetrates into the posterior nares to receive air
and conduct it to the lungs, without compelling the animal to raise
its head and throat above the water for that purpose: there are no
salient laminz in the glottis, and the voice is reduced to a simple
lowing. They have no vestige’of hairs, but their whole body is
covered with a smooth skin, under which is that thick layer of blub-
ber abounding in oil, the principal object for which are they pursued.

The stomach is divided into five and sometimes into seven distinct
sacs; instead of one single spleen, they have several, small and glo-
bular; those which are possessed of teeth, have them all conical and
alike; they do not chew their food, but swallow it rapidly.

Two small bones, suspended in the flesh, are the only vestiges of
posterior extremities.

Several have a vertical fin on the back, compdsed of a tendinous
substance, but unsupported by bone. Their eyes, flattened in front,
have a thick and solid sclerotica; the teguments of the tongue are
soft and smooth.

They may be again divided into two small tribes: those in which
the head bears the usual proportion to the body, and those in which
it is immoderately large. ‘The first comprehends the Dolphins and

‘the Narwhals.

De.puinvs, Lin.

~The Dolphins have teeth in both jaws, all simple, and almost always conical.
They are the most carnivorous, and, in proportion to their size, the most cruel
of their order.

Detrxrnvs, Cuv.
The Dolphins, properly so called, have a convex forehead, and the muz-
zle forming a kind of rostrum, or snout, in front of the head, more slender
than the rest.

119.

The Porpoises(1) have no )nostsum, but a short aod unifucinig convex
muzzle.

Ags a

_ * Monopon, Lin.

The Narwhals have no teeth properly speaking, but mere long, straight
and pointed tusks, implanted in the intermaxillary bone, and directed in
the line of the axis of the body. The form of their body and that of their
head greatly resemble that of the Porpoises. One species only is well
known, the

M. monoceros, L. (The Narwhal.) The tusk of this animal, which is
spirally furrowed and sometimes ten feet in length, was for a long time
called the horn of the Unicorn. It has, it is true, the germs of two tusks,
but itis very seldom that both become equally developed. That of the left
side usually attains its full growth, while the other always remains hidden
in its alveolus.

The other Cetacea have the head so large as to constitute one
third or one half of the length of the whole body; but neither the
cranium nor the brain participate in this disproportion, which is
altogether owing to an enormous development of the bones of the
face.

Puyseter, Lin.

The Cachalots(2) are Cetacea with a very voluminous head, Becessivaly en-
larged, particularly in front, in. whose upper jaw there is neither whalebone
nor tooth, or if any, very small, and not projecting; the lower jaw, narrow,
elongated, and corresponding to a furrow in the upper one, is armed on
each side with a range of cylindrical or conical teeth, which, when the mouth
is closed, enter into corresponding cavities in the upper jaw. The supe-
rior portion of their enormous head consists almost entirely of large cavities,
separated and covered by cartilages, and filled with an oil which becomes
fixed as it cools, well known in commerce by the name of spermaceli, a
substance for which they are principally sought; the body not having much
fat, and consequently yielding but little oil. These cavities, however, are
very distinct from the true cranium, which is rather small, is placed under
their posterior portion, and contains the brain as usual.

The odorous substance, named ambergris, appears to be a concretion

(1) Porpoises from poreus piseis, hog-fish.

(2) Physeter, as well as physalus, signifies blower. Cachalot is the name
used by the Biscayans; from cachau, which in the Cantabrian dialect means
tooth.

120 MAMMALIA.
formed in the intestines of the Cachalot, particularly ee certain states
of disease.

The species of the Cachalots are far from being well ascertained.

~ Bartana, Lin.

The Whales are eqtial | in size to the Cachalots, and in the proportional

magnitude of the head, although the latter is not so much enlarged in front;

‘but they have no teeth. The two sides of their upper jaw, which is keel-

shaped, or furnished with thin, compact, transverse laminz, called whale-
bone, formed of a kind of fibrous horn, fringed at the edges, which serve to
retain the little animals on which these enormous Cetacea feed. Their
lower jaw, supported by two osseous branches arched externally and to-
wards the summit, and completely unarmed, lodges a very thick and fleshy
tongue, and when the mouth is closed, envelopes the internal part of the
upper jaw, and the whalebone with which it is invested. These organs do
not allow whales to feed on such large animals as their size might induce
us to imagine. They live on fish, but principally on worms, Mollusca, and
Zoophytes, selecting, it is said, the very smallest, which become entangled
in the filaments of the whalebone.

‘ Bal. mysticetus, L. (The Common Whale.) It has long been consid-
ered the largest of all animals; but from the late observations of captain
Scoresby, it appears that it scarcely ever exceeds seventy feet, a length
frequently surpassed by the wrinkle-bellied whales. It has no dorsal fin.
To procure its fat or blubber, which is sometimes several feet in thickness,
and contains immense quantities of oil, whole fleets are annually equipped.
Formerly sufficiently bold to venture into our seas, it has gradually retired
to the extreme North, where the number is daily diminishing. Besides oil,
it produces black and flexible, whalebone, eight or ten feet in length, each
individual having from eight to nine hundred strips on each side of the
palate. One hundred and twenty tuns of oil are obtained from a single
whale, Shell-fish attach themselves to its skin, and multiply there as on a

rock, and some of the Balanus family even penetrate into it.

OF THE OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATA.

Although the three classes of the Oviparous Vertebrata differ
greatly from each other in their quantum of respiration, and in all
that relates to it, viz. the power of motion and the energy of the
senses, they present several common characters when opposed to
the Mammalia, or Viviparous Vertebrata.

“OVIPARA. . ~ 121
Oviparous production ¢ 8, essel tially, in this—the young ani
mal is not attached to bn fe of the oviduct, but remains sepa- —
rated from it by its most externalenvelope. Its aliment is prepared
before hand, and enclosed i in a sac attached to its intestinal canal;
this is what is called the vitellus, or yolk of egg, of which the young
animal is a sort of appendage, at first imperceptible, which is nour-
ished and augmented by absorbing the fluid of that yolk. Such of
the Ovipara as breathe with lungs have the egg furnished with a
highly vascular membrane, which appears to serve for the purposes
of respiration; it is connected with the bladder, and is analogous | to
the allantoid of the Mammalia. It is neither found in Fishes nor in
the Batrachians, which latter, when young, ah like Fishes, by.
branchie.

=

vr CLASS II.

AVES.

Birds are Oviparous Vertebrata, with double systems of circu
tion and respiration, organized for flight.
Their lungs, undivided and attached to the ribs, are enveloped by
a membrane pierced with large holes, which allow the air to pass
into several cavities of the chest, lower part of the abdomen, arm-
pits, and even of the interior of the bones, so that not only is the
surface of the pulmonary vessels bathed in the ambient fluid, but —
that also of an infinitude of vessels in other parts of the body. Thus,
in certain respects, Birds respire by the branches of the aorta, as
well as. by those of the pulmonary artery, and the energy of their ir-
ritability is in proportion to their quantum of respiration.(1) The

whole body is so constructed as to profit by this energy.

Their anterior extremities, destined to sustain them in flight, could
neither serve them for standing, nor for prehension; they are bipeds
then, and pick up objects from the earth with their mouth; their

it

(1) Two common Swallows consume as much pure air as a Guinea-Pig. —

Q

122 AVES. »

body, consequently, is inclined before their legs, the thighs directed
forwards, and the toes elongated, to form a sufficient base forit. The
pelvis is very much extended in length, in order to furnish points of
attachment to those muscles which support the trunk upon the thighs.
There is even a suite of muscles reaching from the pelvis to the toes.
passing over the knee and heel, so that the simple weight of the
bird flexes the toes; it is thus that they are enabled to sleep in secu-
rity, while perched on one foot.

The neck and the beak are elongated to reach the route but

the former has the requisite flexibility for bending backwards when
at rest,;—consequently, it has many vertebra. The trunk, on the
_ contrary, which-serves asa point d’appui to the wings, has but little

‘mobility; the sternum, particularly, to which are attached the
muscles which lower the wings in flight, is of great extent, and has
its surface still more enlarged by a salient process in itsmiddle. _ It
is originally composed of five pieces. The greater or less degree of
the ossification of the notches, and the extent of the interval they
leave between them and the principal bone, denote a relative strength
of wing and power of flight. ‘Fhe Diurnal Birds of Prey, the Swal-
lows and the Humming-birds, lose, as they grow old, all traces of
these unossified spaces. _

The fourchette produced by the junction of the two clavicles,
and the two powerful stretches formed by the coracoid -apophyses,
keep the shoulders apart, notwithstanding the efforts requisite for
flight, that act in an opposite direction; the greater the power of
flight, the more open and strong is the foarchelts! The wing, sup-
ported by the humerus, fore-arm and hand, the latter of which is
elongated and has one finger and vestiges of two others, is furnished
. throughout its length with a range of elastic quills, which greatly
_ extends the surface that resists the air. Those which belong to the
_ hand are termed primaries, and there are always ten; those attached
‘to the fore-arm are called secondaries, but their number varies;
weaker feathers appended to the humerus are called scapulars; the
bone, which is analogous to the thumb, is also furnished with what
are termed spurious quills. Along the base of the quills is‘a range

of feathers named coverts,

The bony tail is very short, but has a range of large quills, which,
when spread out, assist in supporting the bird; they are generally
twelve in number, sometimes fourteen, and in the Gallinacez
eighteen.

WS.

' The legs have a femur, a ti dat Ja, r , which are connected
swith the femur by an articulation with a spring, which keeps up the
extension withou - any-effort onthe part of the muscles. The tarsus

and metatarsus are represented by in riage ae be- -
low in three pulleys. | A

Most commonly. there are three toes before, a a thumb behind;
the latter being sometimes deficient. In the Martins it is directed
forwards. In the Climbers, on the contrary, the external toe and
the thumb are directed backwards. The number of articulations
increases in each toe, commencing with the thumb, which has two,
and ending with the external toe, which has five. é

Birds are generally covered with feathers, the kind of tegument
best adapted for defending them from the rapid variations of tempe-

rature to which their movements expose them. The air cavities — be }
which occupy the interior of their body, and even supersede the ’
marrow in the bones, increase their specific lightness. The sternal, * jae
as well as the vertebral portion of the ribs is ossified, inorder to
give more power to the dilatation of the chest. To each rib is an- =
nexed a smail bone, which soon becomes soldered to it, and is .

directed obliquely towards the next one, thereby giving additional
solidity to the thorax.

‘The eye is so constructed, in Birds,-as to distinguish, with equal
facility, objects at a distance, or in its immediate vicinity; a vascular
and plaited membrane, which stretches from the bottom of the globe _
te the edge of the crystalline, probably assists in effecting this, by
displacing that lens. The anterior surface of the ball is also
strengthened by a circle of bony pieces, and besides the two ordi-
nary eye-lids, there is alwaysa third one placed at the internal angle, .
which, by a remarkable macular apparatus, can be drawn over the”
eye like a curtain. 2 ee

The breadth of the osseous openings of the nostrils determines
the strength of the beak; and the cartilages, membranes, feathers —
and other teguments which narrow down those apertures, influence
the power of smell, and the nature of the food. |

There is but little muscular substance in the tongue, which is sup-
ported by a bone articulated with abe hyoid; in most Birds this or-
gan is not very delicate.

The feathers, as well as the quills, which only differ in size, are
composed of a stem, hollow at base, and of lamine, whicharethem- | .
selves furnished with smaller ones; their tissue, lustre, strength, and

124 AVES.

general form vary infinitely. The touch must be feeble in all such
parts as are covered with them, and as the beak is almost always
corneous, and has but little sensibility, and the toes are invested with
scales above, and a callous skin underneath, that sense can have
but little activity in this class of animals. .

Birds moult twice a year. In certain species, the winter plumage
differs in its colours from that of summer; in the greater number, the
female differs from the male in an inferior vividness of tints, and
when this is the case, the young of both sexes resemble the former.
When the adult male and female are of thesame colour, the young
ones have a livery peculiar to them.

The brain of Birds has the same general characters as that of other
‘Oviparous Vertebrata, but is distinguished by its very great propor-
tionate size, which often surpasses even that of this organ in the
Mammalia. . ‘

- The rings of the trachea are entire; there is a glottis at its bifur-
cation most commonly furnished with peculiar muscles, which is
called the inferior laryna; this is the spot where the voice of birds is
produced; the immense volume of air contained in the air sacs con-
tributes to its strength, and the trachea, by its various forms and
motions, to its modifications. ‘The superior larynx, which is ex-
tremely simple, has but little to do with it.

The horny substance which invests the two mandibles, performs
the office of teeth, and is sometimes so jagged as to resemble them;
its form, as well as that of the mandibles which support it, varies
extremely, and according to the kind of food used by each species.

The digestion of Birds is in proportion to the activity of their life,
and the force of their respiration. The stomach is composed of
three parts: the crop, which is an enlargement of the cesophagus; a
membranous stomach, in the thickness of whose parietes are a mul-
_titude of glands whose juices humect the aliment; and finally, the
gizzard, armed with two powerful muscles, united by two radiated
tendons, and lined internally with a kind of cartilaginous velvet.
The food is the more easily ground there, as Birds constantly swal-
low small stones, in order to increase its triturative power.

In the greater part of the species which feed exclusively on flesh
or fish, the muscles and villous coat of the gizzard are greatly atten-
uated; and it seems to make but a single sac with the membranous
stomach.

The dilatation of the crop is also sometimes wanting.

AVES. 125

The egg, detached from the ovary, seh: it consists fibety of
yolk, imbibes that external fluid, called the white, in the upper part
of the oviduct, and becomes invested with its shell at the bottom of
the same canal. The chick contained within it is developed by in-
cubation, unless the heat of the climate suffices for that purpose, as
is the case with the egg of the Ostrich. The young Bird has a lit-
tle horny point at the extremity of the beak, with which it splits open
the shell, and which falls off a few days after it is hatched.

The industry and skill exhibited by Birds in their variously con-
structed nests, and their tenderness and care in protecting their eggs
and young, are known to every one; it is the principal part of their
instinct. Their rapid transitions through different regions of the air, ©
and the vivid and continual action of that element upon them, enable
them to anticipate atmospheric changes, to an extent of which we
can form no idea; and caused the ancients, in their superstition, to
attribute to them the power of prescience or divination. © It is un-
questionably on this faculty, that depends the instinct which acts
upon the Birds of passage, prompting them to seek the south on the
approach of winter, and thé north on the return of spring. They
have memory, and even imagination—for they dream. They are
easily tamed, may’ be taught to render various services, and retain the
air and words of songs.

Division of the Class of Birds into Orders.

Their distribution is founded, like that of the Mammalia, on the
organs of manducation or the beak, and on those of prehension, that
is on the beak, and particularly on the feet.

The first that arrest our attention are the palmated feet, or those
in which the toes are connected by membranes, which distinguish
all Swimming Birds. The position of these feet behind; the length
of the sternum; the neck, often longer than the legs to alittle it to
reach below; the dense, polished plumage, impermeable to water, all
concur with the feet in making good navigators of the Palmipedes.

In other Birds, which most commonly are partially web-footed, at
_ Teast between the external toes, we observe elevated tarsi; legs divest-
ed of feathers at their lower extremities; a long thin shape, and in fine,
all the requisites for wading along the shores of rivers to seek their
food. Such, in fact, is the regimen of the greater number; and al-

though some of them inhabit dry —, they are called Shore-
Birds, or Waders.

126 ‘AVES.

Among the true land birds, the Gallinacez, like our domestic
Cock, have a heavy carriage, a moderate beak, the upper mandible
of which is arched; the nostrils partly covered by a soft and inflated
scale; the toes almost always indented on the edges, and short mem-
hieanies between the bases of the anterior ones. They fly heavily,
and but a short distance at a time. Their chief food is grain.

_ Birds of prey have a hooked beak, the point of which is sharp,
and curved downwards; the nostrils pierced in a membrane which in-
vests the whole base of that beak, ‘and feet armed with vigorous talons.
They live on flesh, pursue other birds, and are consequently, for the
most part, vigorous in flight. ‘The greater number have still a slight

- web between the external toes.

- The Passerinz comprise many more speciés than all the other
families; but their organization presents so many analogies that they
cannot be separated, although varying greatly in size and strength.
Their two external toes are united at the base, and’ sometimes for a
part of their length.

Finally, the name of Scansoriz, or Climbing Birds, has been given
to those whose external toe, like the thumb, is directed backwards,
because the greater number profit by a conformation so favourable
to a vertical position, to climb trees. .

Each of these orders is subdivided into families and Berens; and
principally from the conformation of the beak.

ORDER I.
ACCIPITRES, Lin.

- Birds of Prey are known by their hooked beak and talons, pow-
erful weapons, with which they pursue other Birds, and even the

weaker Quadrupeds and Reptiles. They are among Birds what

the Carnivora are among Quadrupeds. The muscles of their thighs

and legs indicate the strength of their claws; their tarsi are rarely

elongated; they have, all, four toes; the nail of the thumb and that of
the internal toe are the strongest.

They form two families, the diurnal and the nocturnal.

ACC AR
FAM sti ei ee

i Pee +B
3 &

-DIURNA.

The eyes of the didrnal Birds of prey are directed seisweye? they
have a membrane called the cera, or cere, covering the base of the
beak, in which the nostrils are pierced; three toes before, one behind,
without feathers, the two external ones almost always united at base -
by a short membrane; the plumage dense, the quills strong, and great
power on the wing. Their sternum is broad and completely ossified
in order to give more extended attachments to the muscles of the
wings, and their fourchette semicircular and widely separated, the
better to resist the violent flexions of the humerus necessary: toa
rapid flight. he

Linnzus comprehended them all under two genera, which are So
many natural divisions, the Vultures and the Falcons. |

‘Vonmun, Lin.

The Vultures have eyes flush with the head, and reticulated tarsi, that is,
covered with small scales; an elongated beak, curved only at the end, anda .
greater_or less portion of the head, or even of the neck divested of feathers.
The strength of their talons does not correspond with their size, and they
make more use of their beak than of their claws. \ Their wings are so long
that in walking they keep them in a state of semi-extension. They are a
- cowardly genus, feeding oftener on ¢arrion than on a living prey; when they
have fed, their crop forms a great protuberance above the fourchette, a fetid
humour flows from their nostrils, and they are almost reduced to a state of
stupid insensibility.

Vult. gryphus, L. (The Condor.) Blackish; a great part of the wing
ash coloured; collar silky and white; the male, in addition to his superior
caruncle, which is large and entire, has another under the beak, like the
cock. This species has been rendered famous by exaggerated reports of
its size; it is, however, but a little larger than the Lemmer-geyer, to which
it assimilates in habits. It is found in the most elevated mountains of the
Andes in South Ameriea, and flies higher than any other bird.

The genus Vultur is now divided into Vultur proper, Cathartes (our Tur-
key Buzzard), Percnopterus (the Urubu or Carrion Crow of the south), and
Gypactos, to which last ai the PSP NTE the largest bird of prey
in the eastern continent.

) Fatco, Lin.
The Falcons form the second, and by far: most numerous division of the
diurnal birds of ‘prey. Their head and neck arecoyered with feathers;

126 AVES.

their eyebrows project, which occasions the eye to appear sunk, and gives
: to their physiognomy. a character very different from that of the Vultures:
the greater number prey on living animals, but they differ in the courage
with which they pursue it. Their first plumage is often very differently
coloured from that of the adult, which is only assumed in their third or
fourth year, a circumstance which has occasioned a great multiplication of

species. The female is generally one-third larger than the male, which,
on this account, is styled a ¢arse or tercel. We should, first of all, subdivide

aS . this genus into two great sections.

NOBLE BIRDS OF PREY.

_Faxcons, properly so called.

| The true Falcons constitute the first, and, in proportion to their size, are
. the most courageous, a quality which is derived from the power of their
arms and wings; their beak, curved from its base, has a sharp tooth on each
side of its point, and the second quill of their wings is the longest, the first
nearly, equalling it, which renders the whole wing longer and more péinted.
From this, also, result peculiar habits: the length of the quills of their wings
diminishes their vertical power, and compels them, in a calm state of the
atmosphere, to fly obliquely forwards, so that when they wish to rise
directly upwards, they are obliged to fly against the wind. !

F. communis, Gm. (The Common Falcon.) As largeas a Hen, and dis-
tinguished by a triangular, black moustache on the cheek, larger than that
of any other species of the genus; it varies as to colours according to its age.

It is this celebrated species which has given its name to that kind of hunt-
ing in which birds of prey are used. It inhabits the whole north of the
earth, and builds.in the most elevated and inaccessible cliffs.

Hreroratco, Cuy.(1)

The Gerfalcons have wing quills similar to those of the other Noble birds,
which they perfectly resemble. in disposition; but their beak has only an
emargination like thatof the Ignoble ones. Only one species is well known.

F. candicans. (The Gerfalcon.) One fourth larger than the Falcon, and
the most highly esteemed by falconers. It is chiefly obtained from. the
north; its usual plumage is brown above, with an edging of paler points on
each feather, and transverse lines on the coverts and quills.

The second section of the great genus alco is that of the

IGNOBLE BIRDS OF PREY.

So called, because they cannot be easily employed in falconry; a tribe
much more numerous than that of the Nobles, and which it is also necessary

(1) & vera, Hiero-faleo, Sacred Faleon, &c. names connected with the
superstitions of the ot! Sm respecting certain birds of prey. érfalcon
is a corruption of Hierofalco

_ about the middle of its length, —

» (where we find the “Great Harpy of America” that p

Ve So
“ORES

¢

there eiaaes no lateral tooth near its Going but a ‘mere alight emmargination ee “

¥

hawk Briss. <S

The Eagles which constitute the first tribe, have a very ee boi. :
straight at base and only curved towards the point. Among them we find
the largest species of the genus, and the most pense sf all the birds of i

prey. A Sar
The Eagles are now subdivided into Aquila proper (to eats Sion ie

Ring-tailed Eagle), the Haliztus of Savigny or Fisher Eagles of Cuvier (the

Pygargus and our Bald Eagle), Pandion (the Osprey), Cireactus, Har

strength of beak as to be able to cleave a man’ s skull), and Marois. differ-
ing in certain peculiarities of the tarsi, claws, and wings. ie
Py .

Astor, Bechst.

The Goshawks, which form the second division of the Ignobles, like the
last three tribes of Eagles, have wings shorter than their tail; but their beak
is curved from its base, as in all those which are to follow. We ‘particu-
larly designate as Gosnawxs those which have rather short and scutellated
tarsi.

The name of SparrownawK, (Nisus, Cuv.) is generally appropriated to
those whose tarsi are higher and scutellated; but the transitions from one
division to the other are almost insensible.

F. nisus, L. (The Common Sparrowhawk, ) Coloured like the Gos-
hawk, but its legs are longer, and it is a third less in size. It is employed
however by falconers.

Mityvs, Bechstein.

The Kites five short tarsi, and weak toes and nails, which, added to a
beak equally disproportioned to their size, render them the most cowardly
species of the whole genus; they are distinguished by their excessively long
wings, and their forked tail, which give them great powers of flight.

F.furcatus, L. (The Fork-tailed Kite.) White; wings and tail black;
the two external quills of the latter very long; larger than the preceding.
It attacks reptiles.

Pernis, Cuy.

The Honey-Buzzards, with the weak beak of the Kites, have a very pecu,
liar character in the space between the eye and the beak, which, in all the
rest of the genus Falco, is naked, and simply furnished with a few hairs,
but in these is covered with a dense plumage, the feathers of which are cut

R

a aie

: 130 | ~ ves:

like scales; their tarsi are half feathered above and reticulated: their tail is
equal, wang long, and their beak curved from its base like all those which

follg.\

Hate aces Bechstein.
“The Wises have long wings; the tail equal; the beak curved from its

base; the sphae. between it and the eyes naked; the feet strong.

Graces’ Bechstein.
The ioitiee differ from the Buzzards in their elevated tarsi, and in’a
kind of collar on each side of their neck, formed by the tips of the feathers
which cover their ears. Finally, the _

SERPENTARIUS, Cuv.

by “bas Snake-Eater or Secretary, is an African bird of prey, whose tarsi are
at least double the length of those of the preceding ones, which caused

some naturalists to place it among the Grallatoriz, or Waders; but its legs,
completely invested with feathers, its hooked and cleft beak, projecting
eye-lids, and all its anatomical details place it inthe present order, It inha-
bits the dry and open grounds in the vicinity of the Cape, where it hunts
reptiles on foot; its claws consequently become much worn. Its chief
wecneD lies in the leg.

FAMILY JI.
NOCTURN.

- Nocturnal birds of prey have a large head; great eyes, directed
_ forwards, surrounded by a circle of slender feathers, the anterior of

which cover the cera of the beak, and the posterior, the opening of
the ear. Their enormous pupil permits the entrance of so many
rays of light, that they are dazzled by that of day. Their cranium,
which is thick, but formed of a light substance, is excavated by large
sinuses, which communicate with the ear, and which probably as-
sist in strengthening the sense of hearing; but the organs of flight
are not very vigorous; their fourchette is weak; their feathers being
soft, and covered with a fine down, make no noise in flying. They
can direct their external toe either forwards or backwards. These
birds are chiefly on the wing during twilight, and when the’ moon

‘shines. When attacked in the day time, they do not fly off, but

stand more erect, assume odd postures, and make the most ludicrous
gestures.
Their prey is wholly animal, consisting of Mice, small Birds, and

Acerprrnes. 4 , 19%

Insects. Small birds haves ial antipathy. to them, and es
quently assemble from alquariers to attack them. | They form but
one genus, .

Srrrx, Lin.

The Owls may be divided by their tufts, the size of their ears, , the extent
of the circle of feathers which surrounds their eyes, and some other char-
acters, —

ed Orvs, Cuv.

The Horned Owls, or those which have two tufts of feattibes on the fore- —

head, (vulg. horns) which they can erect at pleasure; the conch of their

ear extends in a semicircle from the beak to the top of the head, and is fur- —

nished in front with a membranous operculum. Their feet are feathered
down to the nails. Such is a

Str. otus, L. (The Common Owl.) Fawn coloured, with fongteadigar ;

brown spots on the body and underneath; wings and back vermiculated

with brown; horns half the length of the head; eight or nine bands on
the tail.

The genus Strix, as already stated, now forms several subgenera such as
Otus, Syrnium, Bubo, Scops, and Noctua. To the last belongs the
_ Sir. nyctea, L. (The Snowy Owl.) This bird almost equals the Grand
Duc in size. Its snow-white plumage is marked with transverse brown
' spots, which disappear with age. It inhabits the north of both continents,
builds upon high rocks, and pursues Hares, Grouse, &c.

ORDER II.
PASSERIN &.(1)

This order is the most numerous of the whole class.

The birds which compose it have neither the violence of the Birds
of Prey, nor the fixed regimen of the Gallinacez, nor of the Water-
birds ; Insects, fruit, and grain constitute their food, which consists
the more exclusively of grain, in proportion to the largeness of
their beak, and of Insects, as it is the more slender. Those which
have strong beaks pursue even small birds. Among them we find
the singing birds, and the most complicated inferior larynx. *

(1) Passerine; from Passer a sparrow.

es =
“T
4

peer

ao

eg

The proportional length of their wing and their ere of flight
are as various as their habits.
Our first division is founded upon the feet; we then haven recourse

‘to the beak.

The first and most numerous comprehends those genera in which
the external toe is united to its fellow by one or two phalanges only.

FAMILY I.
DENTIROSTRES.

soe ig In this fuily the beak is emarginate on the sides of the point.

It isin this family that we find the greatest number of insectivorous

birds, though almost all of them likewise feed on berries and other

soft fruits, _ In the Shrikes, or

Lantus, Lin.

The beak is conical or compressed, and more or less hooked at the point.

Shrikes live,in families, and fly irregularly and precipitately, uttering
shrill cries; they build on trees, lay five or six eggs, and take great care of
their young. They have a habit of imitating, on the spot, a part of the songs
of such birds as live in their vicinity. The upper part of the females and of
the young is marked with fine transverse lines.

Lan. collurio, Gm, (The Butcher Bird.)' Top of the head and rump ash
coloured; back and wings fawn coloured; whitish above; a black band over

the eye; wing-quills black edged with fawn colour, those of the tail black,
the lateral ones white at base. It destroys small Birds, young Frogs and

great numbers of Insects, which it sticks upon the thorns of bushes, in order
to devour them at leisure, or to find them again when wanted.

The subdivisions of this genus are Vanga, Ocypterus, Barita, &c., differ-
ing chiefly in the arrangement of the beak.

Muscicapa, Lin. ‘

The Fly-Catchers have a horizontally depressed beak, furnished with hairs
at its base, and the point more or less hooked and emarginated. Their
general habits are those of the Shrikes, and they live on small Birds or In-
sects, according to their size. The weakest of them gradually approach the
form of the Wagtails.

‘This genus is now divided into various subgeners such as Z'yrannus,
Muscipeta, Museicapa, Gymnocephalus, &c, The species are very numerous.

Ampetts, Lin.

‘The Crown-Birds have the depressed beak of the Flycatchers, but it is

somewhat shorterin proportion, tolerably broad and slightly arcuated.

Those in which it is the m ointed
insectivorous regimen: they are talled Pravuav from their net are Quz-
ruta, Vieill. They inhabit America, where they pursue Insects, in flocks.
They are now distributed into several subgenera, such as Tote Ceble-_ | 3
pyris Bombycilla (the Chatterers), Procnias, &e. 3 ae in 7

Epoxius, Cuy. Athy -
Belongs also to the great series of the Flycatchers; the beak is egeoased Be.
and emarginate at the end; its upper ridge is acute; but what distinguishes =
it, is, that both mandibles are slightly arcuated throughout their length; the Be
nostrils : are covered with feathers, and there’ are, besides, long’ ge form- 5 4 aa
ing mustachios, a
The species are numerous in the countries bordering on the Todiam edi’.
They are generally of a black hue, have a forked tail, and live on Insects; a
some of them, it is said, sing as sebasai as the Nightingale. ; weit
a oe * ian
Taxscna: Lin. . €.
The Tanagers have a conical beak, triangular at base, slightly arcuated at its
ridge, emarginate near the end; wings and flight short. They resemble the
Finches in habits, Ee ee ees, ies *,
greater number are remarkable for their bright colours.

ae

Be, ee

Torpvs, Lin.

The Thrushes ert a compressed and arcuated beak, but its point is not hook-
ed, and its emarginations do not form such deep notches as in the Shrikes;
as we have already stated, however, there are: gradual: transitions from one
genus to the other.

Their regimen is more pis arhcan generally feeding on berries. Their - F
habits are solitary. a fe
T. polyglottus, L. (The Mocking-Bird.) From North America; ash-
coloured above, paler beneath, with a white band on the wing. _ It is cele-
brated for the. astonishing facility with which it imitates the notes of other

birds, and even all kinds of sounds.
Buffon has very properly separated from the Thrushes, the

- Myorrera, Illig.

The Ant-Catchers are known by their long legs and short tail. ‘They live on In-
sects, and chiefly on Ants. They are found in both continents.

M. rex. (King of the Ant-Catchers.) The largest of all,and stands the
highest; its tail, on the other hand, is the shortest, and at the first glance it .
might be taken for a Wader; it is about the size of a Quail, and its grey plu. wi ae
mage is agreeably chequered. It is more solitary than the others. « ‘ate:

We must also separate from bee Thrushes: a Bask:

Cones, Bechst. : an eee
Or the Water. Thrushes, which have a compressed, straight’ beak, with man- ‘

me * haa

S, -¢ eae

¥ o.

a Oe i

She. ~~"
75 —

a 4 . oe

dibles of an equal height, nearly linear, and becoming sharp. near the point;
the upper one hardly arcuated. _

Africa, and the countries bordering on the Indian Orcas produce a genus
of birds aegis of the Thrushes, which I call

56

va es

PHILEDoN.

‘Their beak is compressed, slightly arcuated throughout its length, and
emarginate near the point; nostrils large, and covered by a cartilaginousscale;
their mene terminated bya panel of hairs. :

“a | 7 Eurazss, Cuv.

* _ The birds of this genus are closely allied to those of the preceding one.

‘Their beak is nearly that of a Thrush; theirnostrils are round and smooth.

a, Their distinguishing mark consists in broad strips of naked skin on’ each
side of the eels and. a bald spot on the cheek. i

“ibe

v. a

Gracuza, Cuv.
Is another | genus allied to the Thrushes.. The speciesinhabit Africa and the
countries bordering on the Indian Ocean. » Their beak is compressed, very.
_ little arcuated, and slightly emarginate; its commissure forms an angle like
that of the Starling. They have the habits of Starlings, and like them, pur-
sue insects in flocks.

Pyrruocorax, Cuyv. :
The iihteenil arcuated, and sloped. beak of the Thrushes; ‘buh their nos-
trils are covered with feathers, as in the Crows, to which they were fora
long time united. There is one in Europe.

oP can find no character sufficient to warrant removing from the Thrushes

-Ortotus, Lin.

Or the Orioles, whose beak, similar to that of the Thrushes, is merely a little
stronger; the feet a little shorter, andthe wings a little longer in proportion.

Gymnops, Cuv.

The same strong beak as the Orioles; the nostrils round, without scales or

surrounding membrane; a great part of the head naked. |
Some of them have prominences on the beak, In these the tongue is

pencillated as in Philedon. .

¥

Manvra, Shaw.
These Birds evidently belong to the order of the Passerinz, and approach
the Thrushes in their beak, which is triangular at base, elongated, slightly
compressed, and emarginate near the point. ‘They are distinguished by the
great tail of the male, whichis very remarkable for the three sorts of feath-

, re
ers which compose it, viz, the twelve common ones with very fine and widely
separated barbs; two more in the middle only one side of which is furnished
with thickly set barbs, and two external ones curved into the figure of an Ss,
or like the arms of a lyre, whose internal barbs, large and thickly set, form.

a kind of broad riband, while those that are external are very short, becom. a ai

ing longer only near the tip. The female has only twelve ordinary quills.
The singular species, Menura lyra, inhabits the rocky districts of New
Holland; its size is somewhat less than that of the Pheasant.

Moraciuka; Lin.
The Warblers form an excessively numerous family, known by the akc
which is straight, slender, and similar to a bodkin. When slightly depress-_
< at base, it approaches that of the Flycatchers; when compressed, and its
point is curved a little, it leads to the straight beaked Shrikes.

Currvca, Bechst.

A straight beak, slender throughout, slightly compressed before; the up-
per mandible a little curved near the point. The most celebrated of this
subgenus is .

Mot. luscinia, L. (The Nightingale.) A reddish brown above; whitish
grey beneath; the tail somewhat redder. Every one knows this songster of
the night, and the varied melody with which it fills the woods. It builds
on trees, and does not begin to sing until the young ones are hatched. The
male, then, as well as the female, is occupied in providing them with food.

The other subgenera are Sazicola(the Wheat-ear); Sylvia (our Blue-Bird);
Regulus; Troglodytes (Wrens); Motacilla (the Wag-tails); Anthus (Meadow-
Larks).

We will terminate this family of the Dentirostres with some birds
distinguished from all preceding ones by their two external toes,
which are united at base for about a third of their length, a cireum-
stance wheh approximates them to the family of the Syndactyli.

Prrra, Lin.

The Manakins have a compressed beak, higher than it is broad; and emar-
ginated; large nasal fosse. Their feet and tail are short; the general propor-
tions of their form have long caused them to be considered as very similar
tothe Titmouse. At their head, but in a separate group, should be placed

Roercoxa, Briss.

The Rock Manakins, or Cocks of the Rock, which are large birds, sind baie
a double vertical crest on the head, formed of feathers arranged. like a fan.
The adult males of the two American species, Pipra rupicola, and Pip.
peruviana, are of a most splendid orange colour; the young of an obscure
brown. They live on fruit, scratch the ground like the common Hen, and

%

136 AVES.

construct their nests with pieces of dry wood, in the — of rocky caverns.
The female lays two eggs.

Evrvramus, Horsf.

Spex similar to those of the Manakins and the Rock Manakins; but the beak,
as strong as that of the Tyrants, is enormously broad and depressed, the base
even surpassing the width of the forehead. The point isa little hooked,
and slightly emarginate on each side; the ridge is blunt.

_ These birds inhabit the archipelago of India. The ground of their plu-
mage is black, variegated with patches of bright colours, and they have
something of the air of the Bucco, a genus of a very different order. They
_ live near water, and feed on insects.

FAMILY II.
FISSIROSTRES,

The Fissirostres form a family, numerically small, but very distinet
~ from all others in the beak, which is short, broad, horizontally flat-
tened, slightly hooked, unemarginate, and with an extended commiss-
‘ure, so that the opening of the mouth is very large, which enables
them to swallow with ease the Insects they capture while on the wing.
They are most nearly allied to the Fly-catchers, and to the Proc-
“nie in particular, whose beak only differs from theirs in being emar-
by, ginate.

They are separated, like the Birds of Prey, into two divisions, the

~ Diurnal and the Nocturnal. The genus

es Hrrvunpo, Lin. 5
Or the Swallows, comprehends the diurnal species, all of which are remark-
able for their dense plumage, extreme length of wing, and velocity of flight.
Among them we distinguish

CrprseExvs, Illiger.

Of all Birds, these have the longest wings in proportion to their size, and
the greatest powers of flight. Their tail is forked; their. extremely short
feet have this very peculiar character: the thumb is directed forward almost
as much as the other toes, and the middle and external ones consist each of
three phalanges like the internal one. The shortness of their feet, together
with the length of their wings, prevents them, when on the ground, from
rising, and consequently they pass their lives, if I may so express it, in the
air, pursuing, in flocks and with loud cries, their Insect prey through the
highest regions of the atmosphere. They nestle in holes of walls, or fissures
in rocks, and climb along the smoothest surfaces with great rapidity.

PASSERIN A. i 137
\ oxo, Cay.

The Swallows proper have the toes and sternum disposed like those of the
Passerine generally. In some of them the feet are invested with feathers
down to the nails; the thumb still exhibits a mpceaiing to incline forward;
the tail is forked, and of a moderate size.

There are some in which the tail is nearly square. Others have naked toes.

Carrmutevs, Lin.(1)
The Gibcisadhers have the same light, soft plumage, shaded with grey
and brown, that characterizes the nocturnal birds. Their eyes are large;
the commissure of the beak extending still higher up than that of the Swal-

low, and furnished with stiff mustachios, is capable of engulphing the largest

insects, which are retained there by a glutinous ‘saliva; the nostrils, formed
like small tubes, are at its base. Their wings are long; their feet short,
with feathered tarsi, and their toes united at. base by a short membrane.
Goatsuckers live solitarily, and never venture abroad, except at twilight, and
in the night during fine weather. They hunt Phalenz and other nocturnal
insects, and lay a small number of eggs on the bare ground, without taking
any pains in the construction of a nest. The rushing of the air into their
immense mouth, while on the wing, produces a very peculiar humming sound.

America produces several of these birds with a round or square tail, one

of which, C. vociferus (The Whip-Poor-Will), is celebrated onaccount of i its
loud and peculiar cries in the spring of the year.

FAMILY It.
om CONIROSTRES. .

The Conirostres comprehend genera with a strong beak, more és ait

less conical, and unemarginate; the stronger and thicker their beak,
the more exclusively is grain their food. The first genus to. be
distinguished is,

: Ataupa, Lin.
The Larks are known by the nail of their thumb, which is straight, strong,
and much longer than the others. They are granivorous birds, and pul-
verators. They build on the ground, and generally keep there.
The beak of the greater number is straight, moderately stout and pointed.

up

(1) Caprimulgus, Goatsucker, Egothelas, names which derive their origin
from the whimsical idea, entertained by the people, of. their sucking Goats
and even Cows.

Ss

NK
atk
?

rf

(Bullfinches).

138 . AVES...

Parus, Lin.
The Titmouse has a slender, short, conical and straight beak, furnished with
little hairs at the base, and the nostrils concealed among the feathers. It
is a genus of very active little birds, which are continually flitting and climb-

ing from branch to branch, suspending themselves therefrom in all sorts of
“positions, rending apart the seeds on which they feed, devouring insects
_ wherever they see them, and not sparing even small birds when they hap-

pen to find them sick and are able to put an end to them. They lay up
stores of seeds, build in the holes of old trees, and lay more eggs than any
of the Passerinz. : ;

Empernriza, Lin.

The Buntings have a very distinct character in their conical, short and
straight beak, the upper mandible of which is narrow, sinks into the lower,
and has a projecting, hard tubercle on the palate. They are granivorous,
and unsuspicious birds, which run into every snare that is laid for them.

E. hortulana, L. (The Ortolan.) The back olive-brown; throat yellow-
ish; the inner side of the two external feathers of the tail white. Builds
in hedges; is very fat and common in autumn.

Frineria, Lin:
The Sparrows have a conical beak, more or less thick at base; but its com-
missure is not angular. They feed generally on grain, and are for the most
part voracious and noxious, We subdivide them into

Ploceus (The Weavers), Pyrgita (Sparrows), F'ringilla (Finches), Cardu-
elis (Goldfinches), Linaria (Linnets) to which belongs the Canary Bird,
Vidua (Widows), Coccothraustes (Grossbeaks), ee and Pyrrhula or

Loxra, Briss.

The Crossbills have a compressed beak, and the two mandibles so strongly
curved, that their points cross each flier, sometimes on one side sometimes
on the other. This singular beak enables them to tear out the seeds from
under the scales of the pine-cones. . The European species is very common
wherever there are evergreen trees; it is,

Loxia curvirostra, L. (The Crossbill.) The plumage of the young male
is of a vivid red, with’ brown wings; that of the adult, and of the female, is
greenish above, yellowish beneath. |

We cannot remove from the Bullfinches and the Crossbills

wh Corytuus, Cuv.
The point of whose completely arched beak curyes over the lower mandible.
The most known species is

Loxia enucleator, L. ‘The Pine Grosbeak inhabits the north of both con-
tinents, and lives in the same way as the Crossbill, It is red, or reddish,
theifeathers, of the tail and ie i Plack edged with white.

cw 4

- 139

beak is short, thick, « as
being arcuated, but w
their tail are cuneiform, and. very long; their thumb, as in Cypselus, is
capable of being directed forwards like the other toes; their fine and silky
feathers are generally cinereous. They inhabit Africa and India, climb
something in the manner of Parrots, live in flocks, build many of their nests
on the same bush, and sleep suspended to its branches in crowds, with the
head downwards. ‘They feed on fruit.
Here also come the

: =

Burnaca, Briss.

The 1c Beef. ~Eaters forma small genus in which the beak is of a moderate
length, cylindrical at the beginning, and inflated (both mandibles) near the
end, which terminates in a blunt point. They use it to compress the skin
of cattle in order to force out the larve of the CEstrus lodged i in it, on which
they feed.

One species only is denna and that is from Africa; brownish, with a mode-

rate sized coneifgrm tail; as large as a 4: Mining? It isthe Buphaga africatigs ’

7 3 Casstcus, ae :

‘A large and exactly conical beak, thick at base, and very sharp at the point;
small round nostrils, pierced on the sides; the commissure of the mandibles
forms a broken line, or is angular like that of the Starlings. They are
American birds, whose*manners are similar to those of the last mentioned
ones, living like them in flocks, frequently constructing their nests close
together, and sometimes with much art. They feed on grain and Insects,

and do great injury to cultivated grounds. They are now divided into ©

Cassicus proper, Icterus, &c. Among the latter. we distinguish a species
with a somewhat shorter beak, the |

Icterus pecoris, Tem. (The Cow Bunting.) A violet black; head and
neck a brown grey. Lives in flocks among cattle; but the most peculiar
trait in its habits is that, like the Cuckoo, it lays its eggs in other bird’s nests.

; Sturnvs, Lin.
The Starlings have a beak that is depressed, especially near the plot.

We can find no sufficient character to enable us to dipiouiial
from the Conirostres with certainty and precision, the different gen-
era of the family of the Crows, all of which have a similar internal
structure and external organs, only differing in a —

(1) Koaoss, the Greek name of a small species of Crow.

) 95

140 * ee aves.

greater size, which somalinail enables them to hunt small birds:.their
strong beak is most commonly compressed on the sides.

These genera are three in number, the Crows, Birds of Paradise,
and the Rollers.

; ee : i :

Corvus, Lin.

The Crows have a strong beak, more or less laterally flattened, nostrils
covered with stiff feathers, which incline forwards. ‘They are very cunning,
their sense of smell is extremely acute, and they have, generally, a habit of
purloining articles totally useless to them, such as pieces of money, &c.,
and. even of hiding them.

We more particularly call Crows or Ravens, the large species whose
beaks are the strongest in proportion, and in which the ridge of the upper
mandible is the most arcuated. Their tail is either round or square.

C. corax,L. (The Raven.) Is the largest of the Passerine which inhabit
Europe. Its size is equal to that of the Cock. Its plumage is entirely black,
the tail is rounded, and the back of the upper mandible arcuated near the
point. It is a more solitary bird than the other species, flies well and high,
scents Carrion at the distance of a league, and feeds also on fruit and small
‘mimals. It sometimes carries off poultry, builds on the tops of high trees
or rocky cliffs, is easily tamed, and may be taught to speak tolerably well.
It appears to be found in every part of the globe.

C. corone, L. (The Crow.) A fourth smaller than the Raven; the tail
more square, and the beak less arcuated above.

C. frugilegus, L. (The Rook.) ‘Still smaller than the preceding, with a

straighter and more pointed beak. The circumference of the base of the
“latter, except when very young, is divested of feathers, which is probably
occasioned by its habit of thrusting it into the epochs in search of food.

The Jackdaw is also a Corvus.

Pris; Cuv..

The upper mandible is more arcuated than the other; and the tail long
and cuneiform.

Corvus pica,.L. (The Magpie of Europe.) A beautiful bird, ofa silky
black colour, with purple, blue, and gold reflections; the belly is white, and
there is a large spot of the same colour on the wing. Its eternal chattering
has rendered it notorious.

Garrutus, Cuy.

The two mandibles of the Jays are but little elongated, terminating in a
sudden, and nearly equal curve; when the tail is cuneiform, it is not very
long, and the loose and slender feathers of the forehead stand more or less
erect when the bird is angry.

The Nutcrackers have the two Sree straight, equally pointed, and
without any curve. There is only one species known..

Corvus caryocatactes, L. (The Common Nutcracker. jr Brown; the whole
body spotted with mies, It builds in the hollows of trees, in dense moun-
tain forests, climbs trees and perforates their bark like the Woodpeckers, i.
feeds on all kinds of f Sait insects, and small birds. ~ ‘

* Coractas, Lin, .° £..

The Rollers have a strong beak, compressed near the point, which is a
little hooked. The nostrils are oblong, placed at the edge of the feathers,
but without being covered by them; the fect short andstout. They belong

to the eastern continent, and are like the Jays in their habits and in the loose
feathers on the forehead. Their colours are vivid, but rarely harmonious.

Parapisza, Lin.

The Birds of Paradise, like the Crows, have a strong, straight, compressed
beak, without any emarginations, and with covered nostrils; but the influ- -
ence of the climate they inhabit, an influence extended to birds of several
other genera, gives a velvet tissue to the feathers which cover these nostrils,
and frequently a metallic lustre, at the same time that it singularly developes
those which cover several parts of the body. They are natives of New
Guinea and of the adjoining islands, are said to live on fruits, and to be par-
ticularly fond of aromatics.

The feathers on the flanks of some of them are silky, and singularly ex-
tended into bunches longer than the body, which give such a hold to the
wind that they are very often swept away by it. There are also two bearded
filaments adhering to the rump, which are as long as, and even longer than
the feathers on the flanks.

P.apoda,L. Size of a Thrush, maronne; top of the head. and neck yellow;
circumference of the beak and throat of an emerald green. It is the male
of this species which is crnamented with those long bundles of yellowish
feathers employed by the ladies as plumes.

x

FAMILY IV.
TEN UIROSTRES.

This family comprehends the remaining birds of the first division;
those in which the beak is slender, elongated, sometimes straight,
and sometimes more or less arcuated, and without any emargination.

They are to the Conirostres what the Motacilla are to the other
Dentirostres. :

Srrra, Lin.

The Wuthatches have|a straight, prismatic, pointed beak, compressed near
the point, which they employ like the Woodpeckers to perforate the bark
of trees, and in withdrawing the larve contained in it; but their tongue is
not extensible, and although they climb in every direction, they have but
one toe behind, which, it is true, isa strong one. The tail is of no use in
*._< them, as is the case with the Woodpeckers and True Creepers.

. Cerra, Lin.
Or the Creepers, have an arcuated beak, but that is the only common char-
acter they possess. The True Creepers, so called from their habit of
climbing trees like Woodpeckers, in doing which they make use of their
tail as a prop or supporter, are known by the quills of the tail, which are
worn, and terminate in a stiff point, like those of the same birds. They are
divided into various subgenera.

Trocuitvs, Lin.

The Hismdiingbirds, so celebrated for the metallic lustre of their pic
and chiefly for those plates, brilliant as precious stones, which are formed
by scaly feathers ofa peculiar structure, on their throat or head, have a long
slender beak, enclosing a tongue, which they can protrude at will, like that
of the Woodpeckers (and by the same mechanism), which is split almost
to its base, forming two filaments, employed, asis asserted, in taking up the
nectar from flowers. They also, however, feed on small insects, for we
have found their stomach filled with them. Their very small feet, broad
tail, excessively long and narrow wings, short humerus and large sternum,
which is without emargination, all contribute to form a system adapted for
great power of flight; similar to that of the Swallows. The narrowness of
their wing is caused by the rapid abbreviation ofits quills. By these means,
they balance themselves in air with nearly as much facility as certain Flies,
and it is thus that they hum about flowers and fly with more proportionate
rapidity than any other bird. They live singly, defend their negts with
courage, and fight desperately with each other. .

>.

Urupa, Lin.

The Hoopoes have an ornament on the head formed of a double range of
long feathers, which they can erect at will. The subgenera are Promerops
and Aeaaaaen

The second and smallest division of the Passerine comprehends
those in which the external toe, which is nearly as long as the mid-
dle one, is united to it as far as the penultimate articulation. We
make but a single group of them, the

ne 143
Se

Which has long been divided into several =

Merors, Lin.

The Bee-eaters have | an elongated beak, triangular at base, slightly arcuated
and terminating in a sharp point. There is a double emargination on each
side of the hind part of the sternum. Their long, pointed wings, and short
feet render their flight similar to that of Swallows. They pursue insects in
great flocks, especially bees, wasps, &c. and it is remarkable, that. whey, are
never stung by them.

PRIONITES, Illig.

The Motmots is their feet and carriage, but differ in the beak which is
stronger, the edges of both mandibles being serrated, and in their tongue,
which, like that of the Toucans, is barbed. They are beautiful birds, as
large as the Magpie; the plumage on the head loose as in the Jays, anda
long cuneiform tail; the stems of the two middle quills being stripped of
their webs for a short distance near the extremities, gives to the whole a
singular appearance. They fly badly, are solitary, build in holes, feed on
insects, and even on small birds. ‘ee

$ Atcrpo, Lin. +

The Kz hefihorh have shorter feet than the Bee-eaters, and the beak much
longer, which is straight, angular, and pointed; the tongue and tailare very
short. They feed on small fish which they capture by precipitating them-
selves into the water from some branch where they have remained perched,
watching for their prey. They nestle like Bee-eaters in holes on the banks
of streams, and are found in both continents. " Th 3

2

Topvus, Lin.

The Thdies are small birds of America resembling the Kingfishers in their
generalform as well as in their feet and elongated beak, but the latter is
horizontally flattened, and obtuse at the ‘point. The tarsus also is higher,
and the tail not so short. They feed on flies and build on the ground.

“, Buceros, Lin.

The Hornbills are large birds of Africa and India, whose enormous dentated
beak is studded with excrescences which sometimes equal in size the beak

itself, and which are always of considerable extent above. This renders.
them very remarkable, and allies them to the Toucans; while, at the same

time, their carriage and habits approximate them to the Crows, and their

feet to the Bee-eaters and the Kingfishérs. The shape of these excrescen-
ces on the beak varies with age, and in. the 2 very young bird they are not —

even visible; the interior is generally cellular. They live on all sorts of food,

eat soft fruits, hunt mice, small’ Soin ie and do not even despise

carrion. “eS
* . a
*

*

os

7 ae

144 AVES.

ORDER Iil.

2 SCANSORIZL.

This order is composed of those birds whose external toe is di-
rected backwards like the thumb, by which conformation they are
the better enabled to support the weight of their bodies, and of which
certain genera take advantage in clinging to and climbing upon
trees. It is from this that they have received the common name of
Climbing Birds, which in strictness is not applicable to all of them,
as there are many true Climbers which by the disposition of their
toes cannot belong to this order, instances of which we have already
seen in the Creeper and Nuthatch.

The Scansoriz usually nestle in the hollows of old trees; their
powers of flight are middling; their food, like that of the Passerine,
consists of insects or fruit, in proportion as their beak is more or
less stout; some of them, the Woodpeckers for instance, have pecu-

liar means for obtaining it.

Giiierk’ Briss,
The Jacamars are closely allied to the Kingfishers by their elongated sharp-

‘pointed beak, the upper ridge of which is angular, and by their short feet,
the anterior toes.of which are almost wholly united; these toes, however,

are not precisely the same as those of the Kingfishers; their plumage more-

over is not so smooth, and always has_a metallic lustre. They are solitary

birds, that live in wet forests, feed on insects, and build on low branches.
The American species have a longer and perfectly straight beak.

t

Picus, Lin.

The Woodpeckers are well characterized by their long, straight, angular

beak, the end of which is compressed into a wedge, and fitted for split-
ing the bark of trees; by their slender tongue, armed nearthe tip with spines
that curve backwards, which by the action of the elastic horns of the hyoid
bone can be thrust far out of the beak, and by their tail, composed of ten
quills with stiff and elastic stems, which acts as a prop in supporting them

: » while they are climbing. They are Climbers par excellence: they wander
_ over trees in every direction, striking the bark with their beaks, and insin-
wating their long tongue into its cracks and crevices to obtain the larve of

insects, on which they feed. Fearful and wary, they pass most of their time

#AR a solitary manner, but at a certain season they may frequently be heard

cg

%

145

hatched.

ens: Lin.

The Wrynecks sat ie. protractile tongue of the esti which is —
also moved by the same kind of mechanism, but the spines are ‘wanting;
their straight and pointed beak is nearly round, and without any angles; the
quills of their tail are like those of Birds in general. Their mode of life i is
that of the one onent that they climb but seldom.

A Cucutuvs, Lin. . 7 ae
The Cuckoos have a middling, well cleft, cceutirentiil and slightly arcuated
beak; the tail long. They live on Insects, and are Birds of passage. ee.
They are celebrated for the singular habit of laying their eggs in the nests “eee
of other insectivorous Birds, and, what is not less extraordinary, these latter, :
which are often a considerably smaller species, take as much care of the
young Cuckoo as of their own true offspring, and that too, even when its ~
introduction has been preceded, which often happens, by ithe destruction __ be
of theireggs. The rationale of this phenomenon is unknown. ; ny

*

' ‘Mazcoma, Vaill. 7

A very stout beak, round at base, and arcuated near the point, with a large
naked space about the eyes. The nostrils of some are round, and placed
near the base of the beak, in others they are narrow and situated near its edge.
They are natives of Ceylon; and, as it is said, live chiefly on fruit. .

ScyTurops, Lath.

The beak still longer and stouter than that of Malcoha, and grooved on a enti a
side with two shallow longitudinal furrows; circumference of the eyes ~
naked; nostrils round. These birds approach the Toucans in their beak;
but their simple tongue, which is not ciliated, separatesthem. One species
only is known, which is as large as a Crow, whitish, with a grey mantle; =~
found in New Holland. © =

bee

Bucco, Lin.

The Barbets have a thick conical beak, inflated on the sdén of its nh and
furnished with five bundles of stiff hairs directed forwards; one behind the
nostril, one on each side of the base of the lower jaw, and the fifth under

its symphysis. The wings are short, and their proportions are heavy,asis
also their flight. They live on Insects, and will attack small Birds; they also

eat fruit. They build in the hollows of trees. or —
Bt ‘Trogon, Lin. a. +
The Courowcoui, along with the hairy fasciculi of the Barbets, have a shont be 2
T aot
=S oa
< & e a ee
re *

146 | abe

beak, which is more broad than high, and curved Gc the base, its upper
ridge arcuated and blunt. Their small feet, feathered nearly down to the
toes, long broad tail, fine light and dense plumage, give them quite a dif-
ferent air. Some part of their plumage usually has a metallic lustre,
the remainder being coloured more or less vividly. They build in hollow
trees, live on insects, and remain in a solitary and quiet mood on low
branches in the centre of marshy forests, never being seen on the wing ex-
cept during the morning and evening. They are found in both continents.
é
Crorornaca, Lin.

The Ani are known by their beak, which is thick, compressed, arcuated,
entire, elevated, and surmounted with a vertical and trenchant crest.

_ Two species are known, Crotophaga major and Croto ani, both from the
hot and low districts of America. Their tarsi are strong and elevated, the
tail long and rounded, and the plumage black,

These Birds feed on Insects and grain, and live in flocks, iiesaead couples
laying their eggs, and even brooding over them in the same nest, which,
together with the branches that support it, is of a-size proportioned to the
number of couples that have constructed it. They are easily tamed, and
may be taught to speak, but their flesh has a disagreeable odour.

Rampuastos, Lin.

The Toucans are easily distinguished from all other Birds by their enormous
beak, which is almost as thick and as long as their body, light and cellular in-
ternally, arcuated near the end, and irregularly indented along its edges; and
by their long, narrow, and ciliated tongue. ‘They, are confined to the hot

climates of America, where they live in small flocks, feeding on fruit and

Insects; they also devour other Birds’ eggs, and their callow offspring. The

structure of their beak compels them to swallow their food without mastica-

tion. When they have seized it, they toss it into the air to on it with
more facility.

Psrrracvus,, Lin.

The Parrots have a stout, hard, solid beak, rounded on all side and en-
veloped at base by a membrane in which the nostrils are pierced, and a thick
fleshy and rounded tongue; two circumstances which give them the great-
est facility in imitating the human voice. Their inferior larynx, which is
complicated and furnished on each side with its three muscles, also contri-

butes to this facility. They feed on all sorts of fruit, climb among the
_ branches of trees by the aid of their beak and claws, and build in hollow

trees. Their voice is naturally harsh and disagreeable, and they are almost
universally ornamented with the brightest colours, hardly any of them being
found beyond the torrid zone. They exist however in both continents, the

_ species of course differing in each. Every large island even has its pecu-

liar species, the short wings of these birds not allowing them to cross any
great extent of water. The Parrots, consequently, are very numerous: they

te

There are two hee birds, closely allied to each other, and
generally placed among the Scansoriz, which appear to me have
some analogy with the Gallinacez, and especially with the Hoccos.

They have the tail and wings of the Hoccos, and like them perch
on trees; the beak is short, and the upper mandible gibbous; there
is a short membrane between the fore-toes, but the external one, it
is true, is often directed backwards like that of the Ulule. Their
nostrils, also, are simply pierced in the horn of the beak, the edges
of the mandibles are dentated, and the sternum (at least that of the
Touraco) has not those large emarginations, so common in the Gal-

linaceze. There are two genera of these birds: the first is,

CoryTHalx, lllig.

Or the Touracos, in which the beak does not mount on the forehead, and

the head is furnished with an erectile tuft. _The most common species,

Cuculus persa, L., is found in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope. It
is a beautiful green, with part of the quills of the wings crimson. It builds
in hollow trees, and feeds on fruit. The second is the

Musopnaaea, Isert.

Or the Plaintain-eaters, so called because their principal food is the fruit of
the banana. They are characterised by the base of the beak forming a
disk, which partly covers the forehead. The species known is

M. violacea, Vieill.., Circumference of the eyes naked and red; ‘violets
coloured. plumage; occiput and primary quills of the wings, crimson; a white
line passes below the naked space round the eye. Inhabits Guinea and

Senegal. ¢

ORDER IV.
GALLINACEE. erat m: Lin.

These birds are so called <a their affinity with the ‘Ding
Cock, and like it, generally have the upper mandible arched, the
nostrils pierced in a broad membranous space at the base of the beak
and covered by a cartilaginous scale; a heavy carriage, short wings,
and the bony sternum diminished by two emarginations, so wide and

& (

%

“ << =e

deep that they occupy nearly the whole fides its saiead being trunca-
ted obliquely forwards so that the sharp point of the fourchette is:
“39 only: joined.to it by a ligament, ‘circumstances which, by greatly. im-
pairing the strength of the pectoral muscles, render it’ difficult for
them to fly. Their’ tail generally consists of fourteen quills, and.
sometimes of eighteen. With the exception of the Hoéeo they..all
lay their eggs on the pa ona few ere arranged blades of
ouRw or grass, .* es
- This order is chiefly composed of one very natural family, remark-
able for havin furnished us with’ most of our ie Conmegye poultry, and
abundance of Seen mack pe
1, ia ate Atncror, Merr.(1)” ce:
The Piva are large Gillinacez of America, which resemble irkeys, with
a broad, rounded tail, formed of large and stiff quills. They live in the woods,
_ feed on buds aid fruit, perch and build on trees, are very social, and easily
; domesticated. "ys @: i
The remaining genera belonging to this division are Ourax (Stone Bird),
_ Penelope oe Guans or Yacous), Ortahkda, and Opisthocomus. "

Pavo, Lin.

The Peacocks are characterized by an aigrette or,crest on the head, and by
the coverts of the tail of the male being larger than its quills, and capable
of being erected so as to form a circle. The shining, lax and silky barbs of
these feathers, and the ocellated spots that decorate their extremities, are
well known in the

P. cristatus,L: (The Common Peacock.) . ‘This superb bird, ely
from the north of India, was introduced into Europe by Alexander.
magnificent plumage is even surpassed in brilliancy by that of the wild ones.

Meteaerts, Lin.(2)

The Turkeys have their head and upper part of the neck invésted with a

plumeless and papillated skin; an appendage under the throat, and another

conical one on the forehead, which, in the male, when excited by passion,

“ becomes so inflated and long, as to ‘pang over the point ofthe beak. From

the lower part of the neck of the adult male hangs a tuft or tassel of stiff

» hairs; the coverts of the tail, shorter and stiffer than inthe Peacock, can be

' erected and displayed in the same way. The tarsi of the male are armed
with weak spurs. But one species was known for a long time.

Meleagris gallo-pavo, L. (The Common Turkey:) Introduced into Eu-

(1) Alector is the Greek name of the Cock.
(2) Mexeaenis is the Greek name of the Guinea-Hen, erroneously ap-
plied by Linnzus to the Turkey.

"

fit Witla The ae

key of America 2 » brow ‘a copper gloss, =~
A second spec s, howe’ ocellata, ek anos been described, ale
most equal, to 1e-Peacock in the rilliancy of its colours, and particulafly

in the sapphire paar surrounded with circles of and ruby,

- rere a3 © } Wart ts hun: : : ges ¢
The Gin fas or Pintados, have a naked tieade ee eases “ the’ ‘
bottom. ‘of the aexs, a short a, ‘and the cranium Senay stirmounted 4 eg
with a callous crest... ce
WV. meleagrizs L. (The Botton Guinea-Hen), rie from. ‘ Aftica, *
has a slate-coloured plumage, every where sprinkled with small, white, Pees
round spots.’ Ina wild state they live’ im large flocks, and prefer the vici- ie
- - marshes. There are two species. The iat genus an

Passtene Lin, aa és i ; tie ;
Or that of the Pheasants, is characterized by the cheeks being purity desti- al mil tae
tute of feathers, and-covered with a red skin, and’ by the: tectiform pred in a
which the feathers are variously disposed. .

This great genus is now divided into various subgenera, atch as Gallus
(our common Cock and Hen) of which several wild species.are known,
Pheasants properly so called (Common Pheasant of Europe, Gold and Silver —
Pheasants of China, &c.), Tragopan, &c. $i

Terrao, Lin. fi:
This also is a great genus, characterized by a naked and most generally red
band, which occupies the pave of the eye-brow. It is divided into subge-
nera as follows.

Pethigt, Lath.

The feet of Grous are covered with feathers, and are without spurs.
Those to which this name is more particularly applied have a round or °
forked tail and naked toes: aes

In some the feathers on each side of the neck of the males are turned up ,
like a mantlet, or two scrolls: their habits have a an affinity with those ofthe _ i
Turkey. Suchare

Tetr. umbellus and togatus, Gm called Partridge in New England, and
Pheasant in Pennsylvania. Found i in the mountain forests.

Tetr. cupide, Gm. (The Pinnated Grous.) ‘Variegated with brown and
fawn colour; tail brown; tarsi feathered down to the toes; the feathers on
the bottom of the male’s neck turn up into two pointed scrolls, beneath .
which is a naked skin, which he inflates like a bladder; his voice sounds,
like a trumpet. Found on extensive plains, and is such delicious food that
laws have been passed to preserve them. The name of

150 _ AVES.

Lagorus,
Or Ptarmigan, is more partietiarly applied to those species which have
a round or square tail and whose toes are feathered as well as the legs.
Teir. albus, Gm., called of Hudson’s Bay. (The White Ptarmigan.)

From the whole North; is targets and its summer plumage more red; its belly

remains white.

Prnrprx, Briss.
Partridges have the tarsi naked like the toes. Among them the

FRANcOLINUS, Tem.

Is distinguished by a longer and stronger beak; a larger tail, and, generally
speaking, by stout spurs.

Common PaRTRinGEs
Have a somewhat weaker beak; the spurs of the males are either short,

_ or mere simple tubercles; they are deficient in the female.

Taste
Quails are smaller than Partridges, with a slenderer beak and shot tail;
no red eye-brow nor spurs.

THE PARTRIDGES AND Quarts or AMERICA
Have astouter, shorter, and more convex beak; the tail is somewhat
larger. They pérch on bushes, and, when disturbed, even on trees. Se-
veral of them migrate like the Quails of Earope: There are’ some other

‘subgenera.

i eee Lath.

Or the Tinamous isa genus of American birds very remarkable for a slen-
der and long neck, (although their tarsi are short) covered with feathers, the
tips of whose barbs are slender and slightly curled, which gives a yery pe-
culiar air to that part of their plumage. The beak is long, slender, and
blunt at the end; somewhat arched, with a little groove on each side; the
nostrils are pierced in the middle of each side, and penetrate obliquely
backwards. Their wings are short, and they have scarcely any tail. The
membrane between the base of the toes is very short. Their thumb, re-
duced to a spur, cannot reach the ground. The circumference of the eye
is partly naked. They either perch on low branches of trees, or hide among
tall grass; they feed on fruits and insects, and their flesh is good. Their
size varies from that of the Pheasant down to that of the Quail, some of
them are even still smaller.

Cotumsa, Lin.

The Pigeons may be considered as forming a slight transition from the
Gallinacez to the Passerinz. Like the former, their beak is vaulted, the

SALA 4 15}

np ace, me covered with a carti-
aT: scale, which even forms a POL the base of the bill; the bony
sternum is deeply and doubly « emarginated, although somewhat differently;
the crop extremely dilated, and the lower larynx furnished with but a single
proper muscle; but there i is no other membrane between the base of their
toes than that which results from the continuity of the edges. Their tailis
composed of twelve quills. They fly well, live in a state of monogamy,
build on trees or in fissures among rocks, and lay but few eggs ata time,
generally two; it is true they lay frequently. The male assists his mate in
the business of brooding. They nourish their young by disgorging mace-
rated grain into their crop. They form but one genus, which naturalists
haye attempted to divide into several subgenera, from the greater or less
strength of the bill and the proportions of the feet.

‘They are the Columbi-Gallines (the Crowned Pigeon of India, almost as
large asa Turkey); Columba proper (Cushat, Stock Dove, Turtle Dove, Ring
Dove, &c.); and Vinago, of which latter there are but few species, and all
inhabiting the torrid zone of the eastern continent,

nostrils perforated in a b;

ORDER V.
GRALLATORIZ:,—Gnazix, Lin.

The birds of this order derive their name from their habits, and
from the conformation which causesthem. They are known by the
nudity of the lower part of their legs, and most generally by the
height of their tarsi; two circumstances which enable them to enter
the water to a certain depth without wetting their feathers; to wade
through it and seize Fish by means of their neck and bill, the length
of which is usually proportioned to that of the legs. Those which
are furnished with a strong bill feed on Fish and Reptiles, while such
as have a weak one consume Worms and Insects. A very few
feed partially on grain, and they alone live at a distance from rivers,
&c. The external toe is most commonly united at its base with
that of the middle one, by means of a short membrane; sometimes
there are two similar membranes, and at ‘others they are entirely
wanting and the toes are completely separated; it sometimes also
happens, though rarely, that they are bordered all along, or palma-
ted to the very end; : in fine, the thumb i is deficient in several genera;
circumstances, all of which have an influence on their mode of life,
which is more or less aquatic. “Almost all these birds, the Ostriches

ys

152 x “AVES.

and Cassowaries excepted, have long wings, ‘i fly well; during
which action they extend they legs backwards, differing i in this from
Ri others, which fold them under the belly.

- In this order we establish five principal families, and some insu-
ae genera.

FAMILY :.
BREVIPENNES.

These birds, although similar in general to the other Grallatoria,
differ from them greatly in one point—the shortness of the wings,
which renders flight impossible. The beak and regimen give them
numerous affinities with the Gallinacez.

It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the command
of nature, would be insufficient to move such immense wings as
would be required to support their massive bodies in the air. The
sternum is a simple buckler, and is deficient in that ridge which is
found in all other birds. ‘The pectoral muscles are thin and delicate,
but the posterior extremities regain what the wings have lost—the
muscles of the thighs, and of the legs in particular, eee enormously

thick and stout.
The thumb is always dlediciont: - They form two genera.
Srruruto, Lin.

The Ostriches have wings furnished with loose and flexible feathers, but still
sufficiently long to increase their speed in running. Every one knows the
elegance of these slender-stemmed plumes, the barbs of which, although
furnished with little hooks, always remain separate, contrary to what takes
place in most other birds. Their beak is horizontally depressed, of a mod-
erate length, and blunt at the end; their tongue short, and rounded like a
_ crescent; their eye large, and the lid fringed with lashes; their legs and tarsi
very long.

But two species are known, each of which might form a separate genus,

Struthio camelus, L. (The Ostrich of the Eastern Continent.) But two
toes, the external of which is one half shorter than its fellow, and has no nail.
This bird, so highly celebrated from the earliest ages, abounds in the sandy
- deserts of Arabia and Africa, It attains the height of six or eight feet,
lives in great troops, lays eggs, each weighing nearly three pounds, which,
in very hot climates, it is contented with exposing in the sand to the warmth
of the sun, but over which, out of the tropics, it broods with great care,
defending them coutageously every where. The Ostrich feeds on grass,

GRALLATORIE. <a 153
grain, &c., and so obtuse wieiteeo és taste that it swallows pebbles, pieces —
of iron, copper, &c. When pursued it dashes wanes behind it with great
violence. No animal can overtake it in the race.

Struth. rhea, L. (The American Ostrich.) Is about one half smaller, with
more thinly furnished feathers, of a uniform grey colour; and particularly
distinguished by its three toes, all having nails. Its plumage i is greyish,
browner on the back: a black line along the back of the neck in the male.
It is as common in the southern parts of South America, as the preceding
one is in Africa. When taken young, it is easily tamed. Several females,
it is said, lay in the same nest, or rather the same hole, yellowish eggs,
which are hatched by the male. It is only eaten when very young.

WP Casuanrius, Briss.

The Cassowaries have wings still shorter than those of the Ostrich, and
totally useless, even in running. There are three toes to all the feet, each
furnished with a nail; the barbs of their feathers, are so poorly provided
with barbulz, that at a distance they resemble pendent hairs. . Two species
are known, each of which might also constitute a genus.

Casuariusvulgaris, L. (The Cassowary. )The beak laterally compressed;
head surmounted by a bony prominence, covered with a horny substance;
skin of the héad andtop of the neck naked, of an azure-blueand a fiery red
colour, with pendent caruncles like those of the Turkey; some stiff stems
in the wings, without barbs, which the bird uses as weapons in combat;
nail of the internal toe much the strongest. Itis the largest of all birds,
next to the Ostrich, and differs considerably from it in its anatomy. It feeds
on fruit.and eggs, but not grain. The female lays a small number of green
eggs, which like the Ostrich she abandons to the solar heat. Foundin ©
different islands of the Archipelago of India.

Cas. Novx-Hollandiz, Lath. (The Cassowary of New Holland.) A de-
pressed beak; no helmet on the head; a little naked skin about the ear;
plumage brown and more of it; more barbs to the feathers; no caruncles,
or spurs on the wing; nails of the toes about equal. Its flesh resembles
beef. Its speed is greater than that of the swiftest greyhound. The young
ones are striped with brown and black.

FAMILY IL.
PRESSIROSTRES.

This family comprises genera with long legs, without a thumb,
or in which the thumb is.too short to reach the ground. The bill
is moderate, but strong enough to penetrate the earth in search of
worms; hence we find those species in which it is weakest frequent-
ing meadows and newly ploughed grounds to obtain that sort of food

U

154 SAVES, Se. alte

with more facility. Such as have stronger beaks, also feed on

herbs, grain, &c.

: vs

Orts, Lin.

The Bustards, in addition to the massive carriage of the Gallinacez, have a

long neck and legs, and moderate beak; its superior mandible being slightly
arcuated and arched, which, as well as the very small membranes between

re _ the base of the toes, again recall the idea of the Gallinacexe. But the naked-

ness of the lower part of their legs, their whole anatomy, and even the fla-
vour of their flesh, place them among the Grallatoriz; and as they have no
thumb, the smaller species approximate closely to the Plovers. Their tarsi
are reticulated, and their wings short; they fly but seldom, hardly ever
using their wings, except to assist themselves in running. They feed in-
differently on grain and herbs, worms and insects.

O. tarda, L. (The Great Bustard.) Back of a bright fawn colour,
crossed with numerous black streaks, the remainder re erhis spe-

cies builds on the ground among the grain.

Cuaraprivs, Lin.

The Plovers have no thumb; the beak is moderate, corisnecdeee and chew
at the point.

They may be divided into two subgenera; viz. GZnicnemus, Tem. (The
Thick-knee), in which the end of the beak is inflated above as well as be-

neath, and the fossz of the nostrils only extend half its length: and Caana-

privs, Cuv. The beak of the True Plovers is only inflated above, and has
two-thirds of its length occupied by the nasal fossz, which render it weaker.
They live in large flocks, and frequent low grounds, where they strike the
earth with their feet, in order to set in motion the worms on which they
feed. One is ,

Char. pluvialis,L. (The Golden Plover.) Blackish; the edges of its
feathers dotted with yellow; white belly. _ It isthe most common of all, and

_ js found throughout the whole globe.

Vanettus, Bechst.—Trinea, Lin.

‘The Lapwings have the same kind of beak as the Plovers, and are only dis-

tinguished from them by the presence of a thumb; but it is so small that it
cannot reach the ground.

Hamarorus, Lin.(1)

The Oyster-catchers have a somewhat longer beak than the Plovers or the
Lapwing’; it is straight, pointed, compressed into a wedge, and sufficiently
strong to enable them to force open the bivalve shells of the animals on
which they feed. They also seek for worms in the earth. Their legs are

(1) Blood-coloured feet.

GRALLATORLE. ee ag 155

of a iderte length, their tarsi peticalated! and their feet divided into
three toes.
It is impossible to ayaa piecing near the Plovers and Diricrichatiers the

Cursorivs, Lac.

Whose beak, more slender, but equally conical, is arcuated, has no groove,
and. is moderately cleft; the wings are shorter, and their legs, which are
longer, are terminated by three toes without membranes and without a
thumb.

As far as we can judge from their exterior, it is Sere that we can most
openly place the

-Micropacryzvs, Geoff. —Drcuorornus, Illig.(1)

Whose beak is longer and more hooked, the commissure extending under
the eye, which gives them something of the physiognomy and disposition
of birds of prey, and approximates them somewhat to the Herons. Their
extremely long and scutellated legs are terminated by very short toes,
slightly palmated at base, and by a thumb which cannot reach the ground.

One species only is known, and that is from South America, the Micro.
cristatus, Geoff. It is larger than the Heron, and feeds on lizards and in-
sects, which it hunts for on high grounds and along the edges of forests.

FAMILY III.
CULTRIROSTRES.

This family is recognized by the thick, long, and strong beak,
which is most generally trenchant and pointed, and is almost wholly
composed of the birds comprised in the genus Arpga of Linneus.

In a great number of species, the trachea of the male forms various

curves.
We subdivide it into three tribes, the Cranes, the true Herons,
and the Storks. The first tribe forms but one great genus.

Grvs, Lin.
The Cranes have a straight beak, but slightly cleft; the membranous fosse
of the nostrils, which are large and concave, occupy nearly one half of its
length. Their legs are scutellated, and the toes moderate; the external
ones but slightly palmate, and the thumb hardly reaching to the ground.

(1) Microdactylus, short-finger. . Dicholophus, crest in two rows.

ee

ees)

156 - AVES. PW gia! :

A more or less considerable — of the head and neck: is destitute of fea-
thers in nearly all of them.

We first find Psornia, Lin., or the Trumpeters, which have a shorter
beak than the other species; the head and neck are merely inyested with
down, and the circumference of the eye is naked. They live in the woods
and feed on grain and fruit.

The species best known is from South America, and is called the Trum-
peter, from its faculty of producing a low, deep sound. It isa very grateful
bird, and as susceptible of attachment to manasa dog. It is even said to
be so docile as to take the command of the poultry-yard. It flies badly, but
runs fast, and builds on the ground at the foot of a tree. Its flesh is eaten.

Certain Cranes foreign to Europe, with a shorter beak than is found in
those that belong to it, should come next. Such is the Crowned Crane from
Africa.

The Common Cranes have a beak. as long as the head, orlonger: to which
belongs the common species celebrated for its migrations,

Between the Cranes and Herons we must place — Z

Ard. helias, =. (The Sun-Bird.) It is about the size of a Partiidge and.
its long slender neck, broad and open tail, and rather short legs give it a
very different appearance from that of any other Wader. Its plumage
shaded in bands and lines with brown, fawn-colour, red, grey and black, re-
calls to our minds the colouring of the most beautiful of the nocturnal Le-
pidoptera. It is found on the banks of the rivers in Guiana.

_ The second tribe is more carnivorous, and is known by its stron-
ger beak and Jarger toes: we may place at its head,

Cancroma, Lin. :
The Boat-bill, which would closely approach the Herons in the strength

_of the beak and in the regimen resulting therefrom, but for the extraor-
dinary form of that organ, which we shall find, however, by close ¢xamina- _

tion, to be nothing more than the beak of a Heron or Bittern, very much
flattened. In fact, itis very wide from right to left, and is formed like two
spoons, the concave sides of which are placed in contact. The mandibles

are strong and trenchant, the upper one having a sharp tooth on each side

of its point; the nostrils, situated near its base, are continued on in two par-
allel grooves to near the point. There are four toes to the feet, long, and
almost without membranes, and accordingly we find that these birds perch
upon trees on the banks of rivers, whence they precipitate themselves upon
the fish, which constitute their customary food. Their gait is slow, and in
their attitudes they resemble the Herons. The species known is,

. Caner. cochlearia, L. (The Boat-bill.) Size of a hen; whitish; grey or
brown back; red belly; white forehead, followed by a black calotte, which,
in the adult male, is changed into a long tuft: inhabits the hot and marshy
_ parts of South America.

_ Then come

CTRL aa

Or the Herons, the cleft of Gites beak extends to beneath the eyes, a staal
nasal fossa continuing on in a groove close to its point. They are also dis-
tinguished by the internal edge of the nail of the middle toe, which is
trenchant and denticulated. Their legs are scutellated; the thumb and toes
tolerably long, t , the external web considerable, and the eyes placed in a naked
skin which ‘extends to the beak. They are melancholy birds, which build
and perch on ‘the banks of rivers, where they destroy great numbers of fish.

The true Herons have a very slender neck, ornamented below with long
pendent feathers.

The name of Cranzaters (Crabiers) has been applied to the smallest
Herons, with shorter feet.

The feathers on the neck of the Brrrrrns are 1bbe and separated, which
increases its apparent size. They are usually spotted or striped.

The adult Nient-Hzron, with the port of the Bitterns, and a beak pro-
portionally thicker, has a few slender feathers on the occiput.

The third tribe, besides having a thicker and smoother beak than
is found in the second, has tolerably strong and almost equal mem-
branes between the base of the toes.

Crconta, Cuv.

“The Storks have a thick beak, moderately cleft; no fosse or grooves; the
nostrils pierced towards the back and near the base; an extremely short
tongue. Their legs are reticulated, and the anterior toes strongly palma-
ted at base, particularly the external ones. The light and broad mandibles
of their beak, by striking against each other, produce a clash which is al-

most the only sound that proceeds from these birds.

To this genus belongs the celebrated White Stork, and the Black Stork.

We next distinguish the Bare Necked Storks, and then the Pouched Storks
so called from an appendage under the throat resembling a sausage. There
are two species one from Senegal, the other from India.

Mycrerta, Lin.

The Jabirus, separated from Ardea by Linnzus, are closely allied to the
Storks, and much more so than the latter are to the true Herons. Their
peculiar character consists in a beak slightly curved upwards near the ex-
tremity.

Scopus, Briss.(1)
The Umbres are only distinguished from the Storks by a compressed. beak,

(1) Scopus, from Zxozes, sentinel.

158 AVES.

whose trenchant ridge is inflated near the base, and whose nostrils are con-
tinued by a groove, which runs parallel with the ridge to its end, the latter
being slightly hooked. Only onespecies is known, Scop. umbretta, which
is the size of a Crow, and of an umber colour. The occiput of the male is
tufted. Found throughout Africa.

The genus Hians, Lacep., is only separable from the Storks by a char-
acter of but little consequence, and that of Dromas, Payk., is very similar
to it, but the under part of its compressed beak is perforated by oval nos-
trils and its edges join closely. In Hians they do not.

Tanrtatus, Lin.

The Wood-Pelicans have the feet, nostrils and beak of the Stork; but the
back of the beak is rounded, its point curved downwards, and slightly
emarginated on each side: a part of their head and sometimes of the neck,
is destitute of feathers. ~

T: loculator, L.. (The Wood-Pelican of America.) Is the size of a Stork,
but more slender; white; quills of the wings and tail black; beak and feet,
as well as the naked skin of the. head and neck, blackish. It inhabits both
Americas, arriving in each country about the rainy season, and frequents
muddy waters, where it chiefly hunts for eels. '

PLaTALeEa, Lin.

The Spoonbills approximate to the Storks in the whole of their structure;
but their bill, whence they derive their name, is long, flat, broad through-
out, becoming widened and flattened, particularly at the end, so as to form
a spatula-like disk; two shallow grooves, originating at its base, extend al-
most to the end, but without being parallelto its edges. The nostrils are
oval, and situated at a short distance from the origin of each groove. The
expansion of their bill deprives it of all its strength, and renders it fit for
nothing but turning up mud, or capturing small fish or aquatic insects.

FAMILY IV.
LONGIROSTRES.

The family is composed of a multitude of Waders. Their gene-
yal character is a long, slender, and feeble bill, the use of which is
restricted to searching in the mud for worms and insects; the differ-
ent gradations in the form of this bill serve to divide them into
genera and subgenera.

According to his own principles, Linnzus should have united
most of these birds in the great genus

ae

ze, - Scoxorax, in aici
Which we divide as — according ‘to the variation in the teeth of the
bill, The —

Inrs, Cuv.

Separated by us from the Tantalus of Gmelin, because the bill, though
arcuated like that of Tantalus, is much more feeble, and has no emargina-
tion near its point; the nostrils also, perforated near the back of its base, are

_ severally prolonged in a groove which extends to the end.

Ibis religiosa, Cuv. (The Sacred Ibis) is the most celebrated species.
It was reared in the temples of ancient Egypt, with a degree of respect
bordering on adoration; and, when dead, it was embalmed. This, accord-
ing to some, arose from its devouring serpents, which otherwise might have
infested the country; others again are of opinion that it took its origin from
some relation between its plumage and one of the phases of the moon;
while a third class of authors attribute it to the fact that its appearance an-
nounced the overflow of the Nile. Found throughout Africa.

Ib. rubra. (The Red Ibis.) A bird found in all the hot parts of America,
remarkable for its bright red colour; the tips of the wing-quills are black.

Nunenivs, Cuv.

The Curlews have the beak arcuated like that of the this, but it is more
slender, and round throughout: the tip of the upper mandible extends be-
yond the end of the lower one, and projects a little downwards in front of
it. The toes are palmated at base.

Scoropax, Cuy.

The Snipes have a straight beak, the nasal furrows extending to near its
point which is a little inflated externally to reach beyond the lower mandi-
ble, and on the middle of which there is a simple greove; this point is soft
and very sensible, and when dried, after death, assumes a punctured appear-
ance. Their feet are not palmated. A peculiar character of these birds
consistsin their compressed head and large eyes placed very far back, which

gives them a singularly stupid air, an indication which is confirmed by their _

habits.

Our common Woodcock (S¢ol. minor) belongs to this genus, as does also
the Red-breasted Snipe, &c.

Rayncuma, Cuv.
Birds of India and Africa, whose nearly equal mandibles are , slightly arcu-

ated at the end, and in which the nasal fossx extend to the tip of the upper _

one, which has no third groove. Their €: are not palmated.

Limosa, Bechst.
The Godwits have a straight beak, longer than the Snipes, and sometimes

GRALLATORLE i a

160 AVES.

even slightly arcuated near the top, The nasal groove extends close to the
tip, which is blunt and somewhat depressed; no third groove or punctation
on its surface. The external toes are palmated at base. Their form is
more slender, and their legs are longer than those of Snipes; they frequent
salt marshes and the sea-shore.

_Carrpris, Cuyv.

The bill of the Sandpipers is depressed at the end, and the nasal fosse
are very long as in the Godwits, but this bill is not usually longer than the
head; their slightly bordered toes have no membranes at base, and their thumb
can hardly reach the ground; their moderately long legs and short figure
give them a heavier carriage than that of the Godwits. They are also
much groatieke

A Pe tb. Anrnania, Bechst.—Catipris, Vig.
_ The Sanderlings resemble the Sandpipers in every point but one, viz. they
have no thumb, as is the case with the Plovers.

PE LIpNa, Cuv. ©

The Pelidne are merely small Sandpipers, with a bill somewhat longer
than the head. The edging of their feet is insensible.

Macuetes, Cuv.

The Ruffs are true Sandpipers in their bill and carriage; the membrane
between their external toes, however, is nearly as extensive as in Totanus,
Limosa, &c.

One species only is known, the Tringa pugnax, L. It is somewhat
smaller than a Snipe, and celebrated for the furious combats that take place
among the males. At this period the head is partly covered with red pa-
pille, the neck is surrounded with a thick collar of feathers, so variously
arranged and coloured, and projecting in such fantastic positions, that no
two individuals can be found alike; even before this epoch there is so much
diversity in their plumage, that many imaginary species have been described
_ by naturalists.

- _ There are some small birds in America pevstabling the Sandpipers, whose
feet are semi-palmated anteriorly (the Hemrratama, Bonap.).

is Evrinoruryncuvs, Nilson.

Distinguished from them by its depressed bill, widenedat the end almost
like that of the Spoonbill, the only known species of which,
Eurinorhynchus griseus, Nils., is one of the rarest in existence; for only
a single individual has been found: it is grey above, white beneath, and
hardly as large as a Pelidna. |

PHALAROPUs, Briss.

Small birds, whose bill, though flatter. than that of the Sandpipers, is

CRALLATORIE. es ee

ee 2 ee

similarly proportioned, and has mans
with wide membranes like afte of Fu

i x é

as
YGa
aes

ae 7
f aay

* > STREFSILAs. +.
The Jurn-stones stand Pate low; the bill is short, and the toes are with-
out membranes, | like those of the true. Sandpipers; but this bill is conical,
pointed, without any depression, com ression, or inflation, and the nasal

fosse do not extend to more than half its length. The thumb barely .

reaches the ground. Their bill, which is stronger and stiffer in proportion
than that of the preceding birds, enables them to overturn ps beneath
which they find worms, ido

vi te
rine

: Toranus, Cuy, 2 ae

The Skok of these birds is slender, round, pointed : and solid; tl he nasal
fosse do not extend beyond the half of its length, and. the upper r mandible
‘is slightly arcuated near the end. Their form is light and their legs. long;
but a small part of their thumb rests on the ground; their external web: is

well marked. Each of the species is found at Nagi almost abe whale of
the globe.

Among the species foreign to Lui, © we ehoula particularly notice that
of North America, with the large beak and semipalmated feet, Scolopax
semipalmata, L. which has a short and thick beak, plumage brown-grey above,
whitish beneath; brownish spots on the neck and breast; toes well bordered
with equal and considerable membranes.
inh Himanrorvs, (1) Briss. i

The bill round, slender and pointed, even more so than that of a Potdnds,
and the nasal grooves occupy but half its length.‘ The excessive length
and tenuity of the legs which are reticulated and destitute of a thumb, and
the weakness of their bones, which is so extreme as to render walking pain-

ful to them, are what principally distinguish the species of this subgenus,

and give rise to their name. This is perhaps the only place for the

Recurvirostra, Lin.,

Or the Avoseis, although their feet, which are webbed to near the ends of

the toes, almost entitle them to a situation among the Palmipedes; but their
high tarsi and half naked legs, their long, slender, pointed, smooth, and
elastic bill, together with the mode of life resulting from this conformation,
equally approximate them to the Snipes. What particularly characterises,
and even distinguishes them from all other birds, is the strong upward curve
of their beak. Their legs are reticulated, and their thumb much too short
to reach the ground.

(1) Himantopus, feet like:a string, aiid to their weakness) is the
name given to this bird in Pliny.

Vv

grooves the toes also are bordered ‘ 2

~-*

i ot
~
we

162 Bo ae Hig tee.) apy

= FAMILY V.
ae x _ MACRODACTYLI.

This family i is flirniched with: very long toes, fitted for i on
the grass of marshes, and even for swimming, in those numerous
species, especially, in. ‘which they are bordered with a membrane.
There are no membranes, however, between the bases of their toes,
not even between the external ones. The beak, more or Jess com-
pressed on fhe sides, is lengthened or shortened according to the

, neve’ be coming as slender or as weak as that of
é r r g family. The b ody of these birds is also singularly
ressed, a circumstance which i is owing to the narrowness of the
Ps sternum; their wings are moderate or short, and their flight feeble.
~ They all have along thumb. ©
: They have been divided into two tribes: according to the armature
or non-armature of their wings; but this character 1 is able to excep-
tions.

Jacanas, Briss.——Parra, Lin.

The Jacanas are greatly distinguished from the other Grallatori by having

; _ » four very long toes, separated down to’their root, the nails of which, that

* of the thumb in particular, are also extremely long and pointed, from which

‘peculiarity, they have received their vulgar name of Surgeons. The beak

is similar to that of the Lapwings in its moderate length, and in the slight

inflation of itsend. Their wing is armed with a spur. . They are noisy and

_quarrelsome birds, which inhabit marshes of hot sate where they walk
with great facility by means of their long toes.

PatamepgEA,. Lin.
‘The Kamichi resemble the Jacanas, but on avery large scale, in the two
strong spurs of each of their wings, in their long toes and strong nails, that
‘of the thumb in particular, which is long and straight as in the Larks; but
their beak, whose aperture is small, is but slightly compressed, and is not
inflated; -the upper mandible, also, is somewhat arcuated. Their legs are
reticulated. A distinct genus,

tnd Ilig.,

Fas been, made of the Parra chavaria, L.; Chava of Paraguay, which has no
horn on the vertex, and whose occiput is ornamented with a circle of erec-
tile feathers. ‘The head and upper part of the neck are only covered with
down, and it has a black collar. It chiefly feeds on’aquatic plants; and the

“oy
SRG

GR A. L.

Indians of Carthagena always kept some 1er ng their

Chickens, as it is sufficiently courageous, according to them, to repulse even
the Vulture. A singular circumstance attending this bird is, that air is
every where interposed between the skin and muscles, even on the legs, in
such a quantity as causes it to crackle under the finger,

Of the tribe whose wings have no armature, Linnzeus comprises
in his genus Pulica such as have their beak prolonged into a sort of
shield, which partly covers the forehead; and in his gens Rallus,
those in which this peculiarity does not exist.

Rattuvs, Lin. %

The Rails, which, in other respects, have a strong, mutual resemblance, p pre-
sent bills of very different proportions.

Ral. erex, L. Fawn coloured brown, spotted with black above; greyish
beneath; flanks streaked with black; red wings. It lives and builds in the
fields, running through the grass with great'celerity. Its name, Crea, ex-
presses the sound of its note. It has been called the Quail-King, because.
it arrives and departs with those birds, ; an

ae ie

on grain, as well as on worms and insects. ee

Fuuica, Lin.

The Coots may be divided as follows, from the fotm of the beak and the ap- 7

pliances of the feet.

Gattrnvta, Briss. and Lath.

Or the Water-Hens. The beak very similar to that of the Grountt ‘Rail,
from which these’ birds are distinguished by the shield on the forehead and

by very long toes furnished with a very narrow border. ati

Porrarrio, Briss.

The beak sehent in proportion to its length; very long toes, without any
very sensible border; the frontal shield large, rounded in some, and square
above in others. These birds stand on one foot, using the other to convey
their food to the beak. Their colours are usually fine shades of blue, violet,
and aqua-marina. Suchis —

Fulica porphyrio, L.; a beautiful African bird, now naturalized in several
islands and coasts of the Mediterranean. Its bemty: would essen it an or-
nament to our pleasure grounds.

_ Fuuica, Briss. ar

The T'rue Coots, in addition to a short beak and a.large frontal shield,
have their toes much widened by a festooned border that renders them excel-
lent swimmers, in consequence of which theirliyves are passed in ponds and

a solitary life on the same ~ SRS
grounds, from which arose the conjécture: that it was their leader. It feedS

nt ee
Pee 2
om , we:

%

164 Se Saas

marshes. ‘Their polished plumage is not less adapted to this kind of life
than their conformation, and these birds establish an evident link between ~
the order of the Grallatoriz and that of the Palmipedes. There is but one
. in Europe,

F..atra,Gm. (The Coot.) The shield of a deep slate colour; edge of
the wings whitish; in the nuptial season the shield becomes red: found
wherever there isa pond. ee 7

We will terminate this sketch of the Grallatorize with three genera,
- which it is difficult to associate with any other, and which may be

considered as forming separately so many small families.

CuHIONIs, Foster. —Vaernauis, Lath.

Or the Sheath-Bills. Their legs are short, almost like those of the Gallina-
cee; their tarsi scutellated, their bill stout and conical, havi ng a hard sub-
stance enveloping its base, which, it appears, the bird has the power of
raising and depressing.

Only one species is known, and that is from New Holland, Vag. Chionis,
Lath. It is the size of a Partridge, with entirely white plumage. It haunts
the sea-coast, where it feeds on the dead animals thrown up by the waves.

GLAREOLA.

‘% The beak of the Pratincoles is short, conical, arcuated throughout, has a
large opening, and resembles that of the Gallinacez. Their excessively
long and pointed wings remind us of the Swallows, or of the Palmipedes of
the high seas; their legs are of a moderate length, their tarsi scutellated, and_
their external toes somewhat palmated; their thumb touches the ground.
Aquatic worms and insects constitute their food.

Our last genus will be that of

Pinemreapaninss Lin.

Or the Flamingos, one of the most extraordinary and insulated of all birds.
The legs are excessively long; the three anterior toes are palmated to their
ends, and that of the hind one is extremely short; the neck, quite as long
and slender as the legs, and the small head furnished with a beak whose
Jower mandible is an oval longitudinally bent into a semi-cylindrical canal,
while the upper one, oblong and flat, is bent crosswise in its middle, so as
to join the other exactly. ‘The membranous fosse of the nostrils o¢cupy
nearly all the side of the part which is behind the transverse fold, and the
nostrils themselves are longitudinal slits in the base of the fosse. ‘The edges
- of the two mandibles are furnished with small; and very delicate transverse

laminz, which, with the fleshy thickness of the tongue, creates some affinity
_ between these birds and the Ducks. Were it not for the length of their tarsi,

‘and the nudity of their legs, we might even place them among the Palmipe-
- des. They feed on shell fish, insects, and the spawn of fishes, which they

165

capture by means of their long neck, turning thereat on one side to give
' more effect to the hook of the upper Mandible, ‘They construct their nest
of earth in marshes; placing themselves astride of it to hatch their eggs, a
position to which they are forced to resort by the length of their legs. The
species known, ~ «« ™

Ph. ruber (The Red Flamingo), is from three to four feet in height; ash
coloured, with brown streaks, during the first year; in the second there is a

rosy hue on the wings, and in the third it acquires a permanent purple-red —
on the back, and rosétcoloured wings. The quills of the wing are black;

the beak yellow, with a black tip, and the feet brown.
_ This species is found in all parts of the eastern continent below 40°.
We have also an American species, the Ph. ruber of Temminck.

ORDER VI.
niin

These birds’ are duaisteinisad by their feet, formed for natation, ?

that is to say, placed far back on the body, attached to short and
compressed tarsi, and with palmated toes. Their dense and polished
plumage saturated with oil,. and the thickly set down which is next
to their skin, protect them from the water in which they live. They
are the only birds whose bill surpasses—which it sometimes does to
a considerable extent—the length of their feet, and this is so, to ena-
ble them to search for their food in the depths below, while they
swim on the surface. Their sternum is very long, affording a com-
plete guard to the greater part of their viscera, having, on each side,
but one emargination or oval foramen, filled up with membrane.
This order admits of a tolerably precise division into four families.

FAMILY I.
BRACHYPTERAL.

A part of this family has some external affinities with that of the —
Gallinule. Their legs, placed further back than in any other birds,

4

renders walking painful to them, and obliges them, when on land, to

stand vertically. In addition to this, as most of them have but feeble
powers of flight, and as some of them are wholly deprived of that

166 oe SS

faculty, we may consider them as exclusively attached to the surface
of the water : their plumage i is extremely dense, and its surface fre-
quently polished, presenting a silvery lustre. They swim under wa-
ter, using their wings with almost as much eflect as though they
were fins. |

‘2, 7 ) Doman, Lin.
i ee "The only particular character of the Divers is a smooth, straight, compressed
ts om, Pond pointed bill, arid: linear nostrils; but the differences in the feet have
caused them to be subdivided.
et ce é‘ *. Popiczrs, Lath. \.
Ba an The toes of the Grebes, instead of being palmated, arejwidened like those
_ of the Coots, the anterior ones only being united at hase. by membranes.
The middle nailis flattened, and the tarsus strongly , compressed, The
semi-metallic lustre of their plumage has caused it to be occasionally .em-
* ployed as fur. Their tibia,’ as well as that of the succeeding subgenera,
is prolonged above into a point, which gives a more efficient insertion to
ae _ the extensors of the leg. es 2
he ‘These birds live on lakes, &c., and build among the rushes, In certain
¥ : ha rcumstances, it appears that they carry their young ones under their wings.
‘Their size and plumage are so much changed by age, as to have caused an
— multiplication of species. M. Meyer pedtiges those of Europe
© aoe _ to four.
Col. cristatus, Gm. (The Crested Grebe) j is the size of a duck; blackish-
Grows above, silver-white beneath; a white band on the wing; it acquires
_ with age a double black tuft, and the adults have, in addition, a broad red
colerette on the upper part of the neck edged with black. »

, en Menevs, Briss.—EvpxTEs, Illig. (1)
The true Divers have the feet of ordinary Palmipedes, along with all the
awn forms of the Grebes, that is, the anterior toes are united to their ends by
membranes, and are terminated by pointed nails. They are northern birds,
which rarely breed in France, where they arrive in — at which season
: ls, , is ; occasionally seen on the coast
. Col. glacialis, L. (The Great Northern Diver.) The adult is two feet
six inches in length, its head and neck black, changing to @ green with a
whitish collar; back, a blackish brown dotted with whitish; white beneath;
the lower mandible, which has a slight curve upwards, is marked by a

" groove begegt

Sa

a Urtia, Briss.
The Guillemots have a bill, which, though of the general form of the pre-

(1) Mergus (diver), the Latin name of some sea-bird difficult to determine.
Eudytes, a Greek word composed by Illiger, has the same meaning.

PALAIPEDES. ‘ + 46g
sidigiies is covered with ime lown to thé
gination at the point newhat arcuated,
however, consists in Bor ts of the i or.. : Their wings, wah shorter
than those of the Divers, scarcely enable them to flutter, They feed on fish,
crabs, &c. and are found mere rocky precipices when they breed. a

~

ome m:

Aca, Lin.

The uke are Piboire by the very much compressed, vertically raised bill “ wit
which has a trenchant back, and is usually grooved transversely; and by the — a
feet which are completely palmated, and have no thumb like those of the +
Guillemot. All these birds inhabit the northern seas. We may divide the |
genus into two subgenera.

FraTercuna, Briss.

Or the Puffins, whioge bill, shorter than the fendi is as high and higher at
base than it is long, which gives it a very extraordinary form; a folded skin
usually covers its base. The nostrils placed near the edge are mere slits.
Their small wings can just sustain them for agpoment; they live upon the
ocean and breed on the rocks. *

The most common species, Alea arctica, L., is the size of a Pigeon, ‘and
has a black calotte and mantle; white Cinthia It sometimes breeds among
the cliffs on the English coast, and is shad common on those of France dur
pet the winter. ice Oe ee

4
a
r
3

oe

" Anca, Cuy.(1) .
The true Aus have a more elongated bill, resembling in form the blade ie
of a knife; it is covered with feathers as far as the nostrils, Their wings
are decidedly too small to support them, and therefore they never at-
tempt to fly. . as
| ArrrnopyTes, Forst. ” Tee
The Pesiuins are even less capable of flying than the Auks. Their little ”
wings are covered with mere vestiges of feathers, which at the first glance
resemble scales; their feet, placed farther behind than those of any other
bird, only support them by bearing on the tarsus, which is widened like the
sole of the foot of a quadruped, and in which are found three bones soldered
together at their extremities.. They have a small thumb directed inwards,
and their three anterior toes are united by an entire membrane. They are
only found in the Antarctic Seas, never going on shore except to breed. £
They can only reach their nests by drawing themselves along on their __ Py:
bellies. The difference in theit bill authorizes their divigionspto severak “ale
subgenera. 7 : :

’ ae Ed Sa
. a

(1) Alea, Aik, Auk, the name of these hinds: in the Feroe ‘lend and in :
ths north of Scotland. That of Penguin, first given to the Aptenodytes.of
the south by the Dutch, indicates the wer nature ca their fat. -

168 | | AVES.

Apt: patagonica, Gm. (The Great Penguin.) Is the size of a Goose,
slate-coloured above, white beneath; a black mask surrounded with a lemon-
coloured cravatte. “Found in large troops near the straits of Magellan, and
as far as oe Guineas “The flesh, though black, is catalioie! kg

Camannuacrzs, Briss.

The Gorfus(1) have the bili stout, but little compressed, pointed,
Re rounded on the back, and.its point somewhat arcuated; the groove which
_ arises item the vseg | pein at id on the inferior third of i its aus

i. adh

a ide I.
LONGIPENNES.

“This family tijcliidie those birds of the high seas, Nffich tien their
immense strength of wing are to be met with in every latitude.
They are known by the freedom or nullity of the thumb, by their
very long wings, and by their bill which is not. notched but hooked
at the point in the first genera, and simply pointed in the others...

ee oti

Proceiiaria, Lin.

The Petrels have a bill hooked at the end, the extremity of which seems to
consist of a distinct piece articulated with the remainder. Their nostrils are
united and form a tube laid on the back of the upper mandible; there is a .
nail planted in the heel, but no thumb. Of all the Palmipedes, these re-
main most constantly at a distance from land, and when a tempest super-
venes, they are forced to seek shelter on reefs and ships, -from which
circumstance they derive their name of Storm Birds: that of Petrel—Little
Peter—has been given to them on account of their habit of walking on the
water, which they effect by the aid of their wings. They make their nests
in holes of rocks, and eject on those who attack them an oily fluid with
which their stomach seems to be always filled. The greater number inhabit
the Antarctic Seas. |
Proe: gigantea, Gm. (The Giant Petrel) is only found in. the South
Seas. Itvis the largest of all the species, surpassing the Goose in size. Its
plumage i is blackish, though there are some varieties in which it is more or
_ less white. |
x Certain anes apenion, with a somewhat shorter bill and rather longer legs

() ) Gonfiu a corruption of goir fugel, the name of the Great Auk in the
Kae Islands. Catarrhactes is the Greek name of avery different bird,
which could fly well, and precipitated itself from aheight onits prey. It —
was most probably a species of Gull.

PALAU DES. 169

and black plumage, the THALASSIDROM ta, Vigors, are 2 particularly designated
by sailors under the name of “ Mother Carey’s Chickens.” 7

The most common, Proc. pelagica, Briss. is scarcely larger than a Lark;
stands high; all brown except the rump which is white, and a white line on
the end of the great wing-coverts. When it seeks shelter on a vessel, it
may be considered as the forerunner of a hurricane.

We separate with Brisson, under the name of

>

ae: Purrinvs,

Or Puffins, those: in which the end of the lower mandible is curved down- |
wards along with that of the upper one, and in which the nostrils, although.
tubular, do, not open by one common orifice, but by two. distinct holes.
Their bill also is proportionally longer.

Proc. puffinus, Gm. Cinereous above; whitish beneath; wings and tail
blackish: the young is darker. Its size is that ofa Crow. Very commonin
almost every sea.

DiomEpzA, Lin. (1)

The Albatross is the most massive of all aquatic birds. The large, strong
and trenchant bill is marked with sutures, and is terminated by a stout hook, |
which seems to be articulated with it. The nostrils resemble short rolls
laid on the sides of the beak; there is no thumb, not even the small nail that
is ‘observed i in the Petrels. They inhabit the South seas, and feed on Mol-
lusca, k&e.

D. exulans, L., is the species best known to navigators, who, on account
of its size, white plumage, and black wings, and because it is particularly
common beyond the tropic of Capricorn, have. called it T'he Cape Sheep.

The English also style it the Man of War Bird, &c. It is the great ene-
my of the Flying-fish. _ It constructs a high nest of earth, and lays a num-
ber of eggs, which are considered good food.

Larus, Lin.

The Gulls have a. compressed, elongated, pointed bill, the superior mandible
arcuated near the end, and the inferior forming a salient angle beneath.
The nostrils, placed near its middle, are long, narrow, and bored quite
through; their tail is full; their legs tolerably long, and their thumb short.
They are cowardly and voracious birds, which swarm along the sea coasts,
feeding on fish, the flesh of dead bodies, &. They breed in the sand, or
in clefts of rock, laying but few eggs. When they fly into the ry
bad weather may be expected. |

(1) Diomedea, the ancient name of certain birds of the Island of Diomedes,
near Tarentum, which were said to receive the Greeks favourably, and to
attack the barbarians. As to thé word Albatross, I find that the early Por-
po ove navigators called the Boobies and other oceanic birds Alcatros, or

Tass.

Ww

Lar. ‘cyanorhynchus, Meyer. — (The Common Gull.) When old, of 2
beautiful white, with a light ash coloured mantle; the primary quills of the
wing partly black, with white spots at their tips, the feet ‘and bill see co-
loured. Feeds on shell fish. .

Sterna, Lin.

The Terns, or Sea-Swallows, derive this latter appellation from their excess-
ively long and pointed wings and from their forked tail, which render their
flight and carriage analogous to those of Swallows. Their bill is pointed,
compressed, and straight, without curve or projection; the nostrils, placed
near its base, are oblong and pierced quite through; the membranes which
unite their toes are deeply emarginate, consequently they swim but seldom.
They fly over the waves in every direction and with great rapidity, uttering
loud cries, and skilfully raising from the surface of the water the Mollusca
and small Fish on which they feed. . They also penetrate to the lakes and
. rivers of the interior. There are several species.

- Wemay also distinguish from the other io .

\

Tux San

Whose tail is not forked, and is nearly as long as the wings. ‘There is a
slight projection under their bill, the first indication of that i in the Mauves.
But one species is known,

St. stolida, L. (The Noddy), which is a blackish brown, top of the head —
whitish. Celebrated for the blundering manner in which it throws itself on
vessels.

Ruynenoprs, Lin.

The Skimmers resemble the Terns in their small feet, long wings and forked
tail, but are distinguished from all birds by their extraordinary bill, the up-
per mandible of which is shorter than the other, both being flattened so as
to form simple blades, which meet without .clasping. Their only mode of
feeding is by skimming their aliment from the surface of the water with the
lower mandible, which they effect while on the wing. One species,
Rhym. nigra, L. (The Black Skimmer), is white, with a black mantle
and calotte; a white band on the wing; outside of thé external quills of the
tail white; bill and feet red; hardly as large as a Pigeon. From the vici-
nity of the Antilles.

e,
+

FAMILY III.
TOTIPALMATZ.

The birds of this family are remarkable for having the thumb
united with the toes by one single membrane, a mode of organization

171

that renders their feet complete hstanding which, they
perch upon trees, being - almost Palmipedes who do so.
They all fly well and have short feet. nnzus separated them into
three genera, the first of which it was pasty to subdivide.

on

Sait

Parente 3

The Pelicans comprise all those in which the base of the bill is found to have
some part destitute of feathers. Their nostrils are fissures, the apertures
of which are scarcely perceptible. The skin of their throat is more or less
extensible, and their tongue very small. Their thin gizzard, with their
other stomachs, forms a large sac.

~The bill of the True Pelicans is very remarkable for its extreme length,
its straight, very broad and horizontally flattened form, for the hook which
terminates it, and for the lower mandible whose flexible branches sustain a
naked membrane, susceptible of being dilated into a large sac.

P. onocrotalus, L. (The Common,Pelican:) As large as a Swan, en- ‘

tirely white, slightly tinged with’ flesh colour; the hook of the bill of a
cherry-red; is more or less disseminated throughout the eastern continent,
breeds in marshes, and feeds exclusively on living Fish. It is said to trans-
port both food and water in its sac.

Puaxracrocorax, Briss.

Cormorants(1) have an elongated and compressed beak, the end of
the upper mandible hooked, and that of the lower one truncated; the tongue
is very small, and the skin of the throat less dilatable; the nostrils resemble
a small unpierced line, and the nail of the middle toe is notched like a saw.

‘Pei. carbo,L. (Fhe Cormorant.) Black-brown, undulated with jet black
on'the back, and mixed with white near the end of the bill and front of the
neck; circumference of the throat and the cheeks, white, in the male, which

also has a tuft onthe occiput. Its size is that of the Goose. It breeds in‘

holes among the rocks or upon trees, and lays three or four eggs.

- Tacuyreres, Vieill.

The Frigate Birds differ from the Cormorants in their forked tail and short
feet, the membranes of which are deeply emarginated; in an excessive length
of wing, and in a bill both of whose mandibles are curved at the point. So
powerful are their wings, that they fly to an immense distance from all land,
principally between the tropics, darting upon the Flying Fish and striking
the Boobies to make them disgorge their prey.

One species only is well known, the Pelecanus aquilus, L., whose a :

——

(1) Cormorant from Cormoran, a corruption of Corbeau marin, on account —

of its black colour. It is in fact the Aquatic Crow of Aristotle. Phalacro-
coraxz (Bald Crow) is the Greek name of this bird, indicated by Pliny, but
is not employed by Aristotle.

172 3 —

is black, the under part of the throatand neck more or less varied with white,
and the bill red. Its wings, when expanded, are said to measure from ten
to twelve feet. we

- Sura, Briss.

The Boobdies(1) have a straight, slightly compressed, pointed bill, the
point slightly arcuated; its edges are serrated, the teeth inclining backwards;
the nostrils are prolonged by a line which extends to near the point. They
are called Boobies on account of the excessive stupidity with which they
permit themselves to be attacked by men and birds, the Frigate Birds par-
ticularly, which, as already stated, force them to yield up the fish they have
captured. The most common is

Pelecanus bassanus, LL. (The Common Booby.) White; the primary
quills of the wings and the feet black; the beak greenish; nearly as large
as the Goose. It is called the Bassan Booby from a small island in the gulf
of Edinburgh, where it is very abundant although it lays but a single egg.

Pxrorvus, Lin.(2).
The Darters have the body and feet very similar to those of a Cormorant; a
long neck and small-head, with a straight, slender, pointed beak, whose
edges are denticulated; the eyes and nudity of the face, as in the Pelicans;
their habits also are similar, perching on trees.
Several species or varieties are known from the hot climates of both con-
tinents. They are not larger than the Duck, but they have a longer neck.

PuztTown, Lin. .
The Tropic Birds are known by two very long and narrow feathers that flow
from their tail, which at a distance resemble so many straws: There is no
naked part about the head. Their bill is straight, pointed, denticulated, and
tolerably strong; their feet short and their wings long: their powers of flight

- are consequently great, and as they rarely quit the torrid zone, their pre-

Sence announces to the mariner his vicinity to the tropics. On land, where
they seldom resort except to breed, they perch on trees. |

FAMILY IV.
LAMELLIROSTRES.

“a this family we find a thick bill, invested with a soft skin rather
than with true horn; its edges are furnished with laminz or little

teeth; the tongue is s broad and fleshy, the edges notched. ‘The wings

(1) Sula is ihe name of the common species at the Feroe Islands.
(2) Plotus, or plautus, signifies, in Latin, flat-foot.

Min. <M

are of a moderate length.” The more of their time on fresh
waters than at sea. cae ‘aged genu ies ,

Te stg ts.

Comprises those Palmipedes, the edges of whose large and broad billare

furnished. with a range of thin salient laminz, placed transversely, which
appear destined to allow the water to pass off when the bird has seized its
prey. They are divided into three subgenera, whose limits, however, are
not Oy BreeP es

Crenus, Meyer.
The bill of the Swans is of an equal breadth throughout, higher at base
than it is wide;'the nostrils about the middle of its length; the neck is very
long. They are the largest birds of the genus, and feed chiefly on the seeds

and roots of aquatic plants. Their intestines and ceca in particular are con-

sequently very long. There is no inflation of the trachea. Two mre
are found in Europe. $5

Anas olor, Gm. _ (The Red-billed or Domestic Swan.). Beak red, pee
with black, pite raat at base by a rounded protuberance; the plumage
snow-white. "When young, the beak is lead-coloured and the plumage grey.

This is the species, when domesticated, that forms the ornament of our ponds,

and grounds. Its elegance of form, graceful movements and snow-white
plumage have rendered it the emblem of innocence and beauty. It feeds
both on fish and vegetables, flies extremely high and with great swiftness,
using its wings, which are a powerful weapon, in striking its enemies when
attacked. It breeds among the reeds in ponds, and lays six or eight eggs
of a greenish-grey.

An. cygnus, Gm. (The Black-billed Swan.) Bill black with a yellow
base; the body white tinged with a yellowish grey—when young, all grey.

- An... plutonia, Sh. (The Black Swan) has been lately discovered in New
Holland;_ it is the size of the common species, but its carriage is less grace-
ful and elegant; it is all black, the primary quills excepted, which are white,
and the bill with the naked aan on its base, which is red.

_ ANsER, Briss.

Geese have a moderate or short bill, narrower before than tichind, and
higher than wide at base; their legs, being longer than those of the Ducks,
and placed nearer the centre of the body, increase their facility in walking.
Several of them feed on seeds and plants. There is no inflation at the root

of the trachea, nor is there any curve in that organ i in any of the species ay

known. “3 os

GzxsE, properly so called,
Haye 4 bill as long as their head; the ends of the lemets eaters to ate
edges, appearing like pointed teeth. : bs

a

ma AVES.

An. anser, L.. (The Common Goose), which has acquired all sorts of colours
in our poultry-yards, originates from a wild species that is grey, with a
brown mantle undulated with grey and an orange-coloured beak, the Ans.
cinereus, Meyer.

An. hyperborea, Gm. (The Snow-Goose.) White; feet and bill red; tips
of the wing-quills black. It sometimes wanders into the temperate parts of
Europe during the prevalence of heavy gales in winter. The young bird
is more or less grey. ;

BERNACLES

Are distinguished from the Common Geese by a’ shorter and slenderer
bill, the edges of which conceal the extremities of the laminz.

An. bernicla, Gm. (The Brant.) The head, neck, and quills of the wings
are black, the mantle a brown-grey; a spot on each side of the upper part
of the neck, and the under part of the tail, white; the bill black and feet
brown.

An. egyptiaca, Gm. (The Egyptian Goose), vodlivkabte for the lustre of —
its colours and the small spur attached to its wings, also belongs to this sub-
genus; it is sometimes domesticated, but always retains a propensity to re-
turn to its wild state. It is the Chenalopex or Fou-Goose, held in veneration
among the ancient Eyptians on account of its attachment to its young.

Awas, Meyer.

_ Ducks, properly so called, have the bill broader at base tham it is high,
and wider at the end than towards the head; the nostrils nearer to its back
and base. ‘Their legs being shorter than those of Geese, and placed farther
back, renders walking more difficult to them than to the latter. .

The species of the first division, or those whose thumb is bordered with
a membrane, have a larger head, a shorter neck, the feet placed farther
back, smaller wings, a stiffer tail, more compressed tarsi, longer toes, and
the membrane of the feet more entire. They walk with more difficulty,
feed more exclusively on fish and insects, and dive more frequently.

Ducks are now distributed into various subgenera: such as Oidemia (the
Scoter, Velvet Duck, Black Duck); Clangula (Long tailed Duck); Soma-
teria. (Eider Duck); Fuligula (Red-head, Pochard Duck, Tufted Duck);
Rhynchaspis (The Shoveller); and Tudorna (The Shieldrake, Muscovy
Duck), originally from South America where it perches on trees, and the
An. boschas, L. (or Mallard), the stock of our common tame Duck, Teal, &c.

f

ag ae MeEreus, Lin.

The genus of the Mergansers comprehends those species in which the bill,
thinner and more cylindrical than that of the Ducks, is armed along its
edges with small pointed teeth resembling those of a saw and directed
backwards; the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. Their carriage and
even plumage are those of Ducks, properly so called; but their gizzard is
Jess muscular. The inflation of the lower larynx in the males is enormous,

¢ eg
hs

9%

and partly membranous. They live lakes -and ponds, where’ they are
very destructive to fish.

Merg. merganser, L L, (The eciadarye. is : the size of a Duck, and has
red feet and a bill of the same hue. The head of the old male is of a deep
green, the feathers on its summit forming a sort of toupee; the mantle is
black, with a white spot over the wing; underneath and the neck white

slightly tinged with rose-colour.

=

CLASS Ii.

REPTILIA.

The disposition of the heart in Reptiles is such, that at each con-
traction, a portion only of the blood it has received from the differ-
ent parts of the body is transmitted to the lungs, the remainder
returning to those parts without having passed through the pulmo-
nary organs, and without having respired.

The result of this is, that the action of oxygen upon the blood is
less than in the Mammalia, and that if the quantity of respiration in
the latter, in which all the blood is compelled to pass through the
lungs before it returns to the rest of the body, be expressed by a
unit, that of Reptiles will be expressed by a fraction of a unit, so
much the smaller, as the quantity of blood transmitted to the heart
at each contraction is less.

As it is from respiration that the blood derives its heat and the
fibre its susceptibility of nervous irritation, the blood of reptiles is
cold, and the muscular energy less than that of Quadrupeds, and
much less than that of Birds; thus we find their movements usually
confined to crawling and swimming; for, though at certain times
several of them jump and run with considerable activity, their habits
are generally lazy, their digestion excessively slow, and their sensa-
tions obtuse. In cold or temperate climates almost all of them pass
the winter in astate oftorpor. Their brain, which is proportionally
very small, is not so essentially requisite to the exercise of their ani-
mal and vital faculties, as to the members of the two first classes;
their sensations seem to be less referred to a common centre, for

, Fe
Aa

> *

_ :

~

176 REPTILIA.

they continue to live and to exhibit voluntary motions, long after
losing their brain, and even after the loss of their head. A commu-
nication with the nervous system is also much less necessary to the
contraction of their fibres, and their muscles preserve their irrita-
bility after being severed from the body much longer than those. of
the preceding classes; their heart continues to pulsate for hours
after it has been torn away, nor does its loss prevent the body from
moving for a long time.

Thesmallness of the pulmonary vessels permits Reptiles to suspend
the process of respiration without arresting the course of the blood;
thus they dive with more facility, and remain vdonger under water
than either the Mammalia or Birds.

No Reptile hatches its eggs. “The young Batrachians, on quitting
the egg, have the form and branchiz of Fishes, and some of the
genera preserve these organs, even after the development of their
lungs.

The quantity of respiration in Reptiles is not fixed like that of
the Mammalia and Birds, but varies with the proportion of the
diameter of the pulmonary artery compared -to that of the aorta.
Thus Tortoises and Lizards respire more than Frogs, &c.; and
hence a much greater difference of sensibility and energy than can
exist between one of the Mammalia and another, or between Birds.

The comparison, however, of their quantity of respiration and of

pes gans of motion, has enabled M. Brogniart to divide them

into four orders, viz.

The Chelonia, or Tortoises, whose heart has two auricles, and
whose body, supported by four feet, is enveloped by two plates or
bucklers formed by the ribs and sternum.

The Sauria, or Lizards, whose heart has two auricles, and whose
body, supported by four.or two feet, is covered with scales.

The Ophidia, or Serpents, whose heart has two auricles, and
whose body always remains deprived of feet.

The Batrachia, whose heart has but one auricle, and whose body
is naked, most of which pass, with age, from. the form of a Fish re-
spiring by branchiz, to that of a Quadruped breathing by lungs.
Some of them, however, always retain their branchie, and a few
_ have never more than two feet

177

AVES

CHELON TA.

The Chelonia, better known by the name of Tortoises, have a
heart composed of two auricles, and of a ventricle divided in two
unequal cavities, which communicate with each other.

These animals are distinguished at the first glance by the double
shield in which the body is enveloped and which allows no part to
project except their head, neck, tail, and four feet. The shell (or
upper shield) is formed by the ribs, of which there are eight pair, |
widened and reunited by denticulated sutures, and with plates ad-
hering to the annular portion of the dorsal vertebra, so that all these
parts are rendered fixed and immovable. The inferior shell is
formed of pieces, usually nine in number, analogous to a sternum)
A frame composed of bony pieces, which have been considered as”
possessing some analogy with the sternal or cartilaginous: portion of
the ribs,,and which in one subgenus always remains in a cartilagi-
nous state, surrounds the shell, uniting and binding together all the
ribs which compose it.. The vertebrz of the neck and tail are con-
sequently the only ones which are movable. *

The lungs have considerable extent, and are situated in the same
cavity with the other viscera. The thorax, in most of them, being
immovable, it is by the play of its mouth that the Tortoise respires,
which it effects by keeping the jaws closed, and alternately raising
and depressing the os hyoides. The former of these motions per-
mits air to enter through the nostrils, the tongue then closes the in-
ternal orifice of those apertures, when the latter forces the air into
the lungs.

Tortoises have no teeth; their jaws are invested with horn like
those of Birds; the Chelydes excepted, where fey are covered with
skin only.

They possess great tenacity of life, and instances are on record
in which they have been seen to move for several weeks after losing
their head. They require but little nourishment, and can pass whole
months and even years without eating.

The Chelonia were all united in the genus

x

S53.

178 REPTILIA.

Trstupo, Lin.

Pitas hyve since been divided into five subgenera, ip from the forms
~ and teguments of their shell, and of their feet.

Tzstupo, Brog.

‘The Land Tortoises have the shell arched and supported by a solid, bony
frame, most of its lateral edges being soldered to the sternum; the legs, as
if truncated, with’ very short toes, which are closely joined as far as the
nails, all susceptible of being withdrawn between the bucklers; there are
five nails to the fore-feet, the hind ones have four, all stout and conical.
‘Several species live on vegetable food.

Emys, nronag
The F'resh-water Tortoises have no other constant characte Ps. which

they can be distinguished from the preceding ones, than the greater sepa-

ration of the toes, which are terminated by longer nails, and the intervals

_occupied by membranes; even in this respect there are shades of difference,
“They likewise have five nails before and four behind. ~The form of their

feet renders their habits more aquatic... Most of them feed on Insects, small
Fishes, &c. Their envelope is SORCERY: more flattened than that of the
land Tortoises.

_ Among the fresh-water Tortoises we should remark Tax Box-Tortorszs,
the sternum of which is divided by a movable articulation into two lids,
‘which, when the head and limbs. are withdrawn, completely encase the ani-
mal in its shell.

. CuELonra, Brongn,

The envelope of the Sea Tortoises is too small tox receive their head, and
particularly their feet, which are very long (the anterior ones most so), and
flattened into fins. _ The toes are all closely united in the same membrane,
the two first ones of each foot being alone furnished with pointed nails, one
or other of which at a certain age is usually lost. The pieces of their ster-

num do not ‘form a continuous plate, but are variously notched, leaving
‘considerable intervals which are filled with cartilage only. The ribs are

- narrowed and separated from each other at their external extremities; the

circumference of the shell, however, is surrounded with a circle of pieces
corresponding to the ribs of the sternum.

Test. mydas, L. (The Green Tortoise) is distinguished by its greenish
plates, thirteen in number, which are not arranged like tiles; those of the
middle range are almost regular hexagons. It is found from six to seven
feet long, and weighing from seven to eight hundred pounds. _ Its flesh is
highly esteemed, and furnishes a wholesome and palatable supply of food
to the mariner in every latitude of the torrid zone. _ It feeds in. large troops
on the sea-weed at the bottom of the ocean, and approaches the mouths of
rivers torespire. The eggs it deposits in the sand to receive the vivifying
influence of the sun, are excellent food; its shell is of no value.

Z : i

Merrem has recently: disting ied; b ic of Spuanets, those Che- rae
lonie whose shell is destitute of pistes, wd, ie covered with a sort of : 4
leather. Such is re Re i :

set

Test. coriacea, L. A very aah speciés of the Mediterranean. Its shell

is oval and pointed een, (apr three projecting longitudinal ie hie

: sa 2 ep Cuptrs, Dum. ”

pas Chelydes resemble fresh water Tortoises in their feet and eatin and

their most dominant character consists in their mouth, which opens cross-

wise, being unarmed withhe horny beak common to the other Cheloniz,

and similar to that of certain Batrachians, the Pipa in particular. |
Test. fimbria, Gm. “The shell studded with pyramidal elevations, and the

body ae all Fouyy with a pinked fringe. It is found in Guiana. ai

ya #
f Trionyx, Geoff. '

The Soft-s élled Tortoises have no scales, the shell and deviates being

simply enveloped by a soft skin; neither of those shells is completely sup-
‘ported by/bones, as the ribs do not extend tothe edge of the upper one)”
and arefunited with each other only for a portion of their length, the parts: Ns
analogous to the sternal ribs being simple cartilage, and the sternal pieces
partially notched as in the sea-tortoises, not covering the whole lower sur-
face. The horn of their beak is invested externally with fleshy lips, and
i nose is prolonged into a little snout. Their tail is very short. They

in fresh water, and the flexible —" of their shell aid them jn

swimming.

Test. ferox, Gm. (The. Soft-shelled ortiine of America) inhabits the _ j
rivers of Carolina, Georgia, the Floridas, and of Guiana. It/remains in’am- af
bush under roots of reeds, &c. whence it seizes birds, reptiles, &c., devours
the young Alligators, arid is devoured in turn’ ie the old ones. ‘Its flesh is
highly esteemed:

4 2 &

#i, ORDER. BIN cunts tle ae

SAURIA.(1) .
The Saurians have a heart like that of the Clelouis, composed of
two auricles and a ventricle, sometimes divided by rages par-
titions. ss

Their ribs are movable, partly. connected with the secumaie and
rise and fall in respiration.

ro af ; oa en
pr acre ae + i

(1) From cavpes Lizard, animals analogous to Lizards. ie

180 REPTILIA.

Their lung extends more or less towards the posterior extremity
of the body; it frequently penetrates very far into the lower part of
the abdomen, whose transverse muscles pass under the ribs, and
even towards the neck, to clasp it. Those in which this organ is
~~ very large, possess the singular faculty of changing the colours of
their skin according to the excitement produced in them by their
wants or passions. i

Their eggs are oniveloped by a covering more or less hard, and
the young always retain the form in which they quit them.

Their mouth is always armed with teeth, and theirtoes, with very
few exceptions, are furnished with nails; their skin is covered with
scales, more or.less compact, or at least with scaly granules. ‘They
all have a tail more or less long, and generally very thick at base;
most of them have four legs, a few only having but two.

FAMILY I.
CROCODILIDA.
_. This family contains the single genus

Crocopiuus, Br.

' Crocodiles are large animals, with a tail flattened on the sides, five toes be-
fore and four behind, of which only the three internal ones on each foot are
armed with nails, all more or Jess united by membranes; a single range of
pointed teeth in each jaw; the tongue fleshy, flat, and adhering close to its
edges; a circumstance which induced the ancients to believe: that they had
none; the back and tail covered with very stout, large, square scales or
plates, relieved by a ridge along their middle; a deeply notched crest on

the tail, which is double at'its base. The plates on the belly are smooth,
thin, and square. Their nostrils, which open on the end of the muzzle by
two small crescent-shaped fissures closed by valves, communicate with the
extremity of the hind part of the mouth, by a narrow canal which traverses
the palatine and sphenoidal bones. 7

The lower jaw being continued behind the cranium, the upper one ap-
pears to be movable, and has been so described by the ancients; it only
moves, however, with the entire head. :

They have the power of closing the external ear by means of two fleshy
lips, and there are three lids to their eyes.

The vertebre ofthe neck rest on each otherthrough the medium of small
false ribs, which renders all lateral motion difficult, and does not allow these

_SAURIA, ‘st

animals to deviate suddenly rom t “courses ‘consequently it is easy to
escape from them by pu oe

Their eggs are as lar ‘ ez hard as those of a Goose; the females kees
careful watch over them, x

They inhabit fresh water, are extremely ferocious and carnivorous, catitiek ae

swallow under water, but drown their prey, and place it in some submerged
crevice of a rock, where they allow it to putrefy before they eat it.

The species, which are more numerous than they were thought to be
previous to my observations, are referable to three distinct subgenera, viz.
GavIALs, true Crocopitss, and Atiieators. To the latter belongs

Croc. lucius, Cuv. It inhabits the southern parts of North America, for-
ces itself into the mud in severe winters, and remains torpid. The fen ale
deposits her eggs in alternate layers with beds of earth.

: | ’ FAMILY I.
LACERTINIDA.(1)
“This family is distinguished by the tongne, which is thin, extensi-
ble, and terminates in two threads, * ‘like that of the Coluber. and

Viper; the body is elongated; the gait rapid; each foot has five toes
separate and unequal, the hind ones particularly so, all armed with

nails; the scales on the belly and round the tail are arranged in ©

transverse and parallel bands; the tympanum is level with the head,
or but slightly sunk and membranous. A _ production of ‘the skin
with a longitudinal slit which is closed by a sphincter, protects the
eye, under whose anterior angle is the vestige of a Soils eye-lid; the
false ribs do not form a complete circle. -

The species being very numerous and various, we subdivide them
into two great genera. a 4
: » Monrror. | |
This genus contains species of the largest size; they have two teeth in both
jaws, but none in the palate; the greater number are recognized by their
laterally compressed tail, which renders them more aquatic. The vicinity
of water sometimes brings them in the neighbourhood of Crocodiles and
Alligators, and it is said that by whistling they give notice of the approach
of these dangerous animals. This report is most probably the origin of the

term Sauvegarde or Monitor applied to some of their species, but the fact is
very uncertain.

Lae. nilotica, L. Strong conical teeth, the posterior of which become

(1) Lacerta, a Lizard.

182 . REPTILIA. ©

_ rounded by age; brown, with pale and deeper coloured dots, forming vari
ous compartments, among which we observe transverse rows of large ocel-
lated spots that become rings on the tail. “It attains a length of five and six

F feet. The Egyptians pretend it is’ a young Crocodile hatched in a dry
fe Pibee. It was engraved upon the monuments of that country by its ancient
% inhabitants, and. posibly, because it devours the eggs of the Crocodile eo

Lacerra, hanes so called, .
Or true Lizards, form the second genus of the Lacertians. The extremity
of their palate is armed with two rows of teeth, and they are otherwise
- distinguished by a collar under the neck, formed of a transverse row of large
ne § sels, separated from those on the belly bya aspace covered with small ones
y, like those under the throat; and by the circumstance that a part of the
. cranium projects: over their tenrples and orbits, so as to furnish the whole
| top of the head with a bony buckler.
ae They are very numerous. wat i

FAMILY III.
-IGUANIDA.

e 2

__-. ‘This third great family of Saurians possesses the general form,
-» long. tail, and free and unequal toes of the Lacertians; their eye,
ear, &c. are also similar, but their tongue is fleshy, thick, non-ex-

e tensible, and only emarginated at. the tip.
A They may be divided into two sections; in the first, or that of the
AGamrtans, there are no palatine teeth. In this section we place
the he sae a

-

ok >. ° $renxiio, Cuv.
In ‘addition to the general characters of the family of the Iguanida, the tail
is encircled by rings composed of large and frequently, spiny scales. It is
divided PY naturalists into various oe ai

aida: Daud.

se. The Agamz bear a great resemblance to the common Stellios, Gireladaly

ee ‘in their inflated head; but the scales of their tail, which are imbricate and
not yerticillate, distinguish them from that genus. Their maxillary teeth
are nearly similar, and there are none in the pea This genus is also di-
vided into various subgenera.

! Istrurus, Cuv.
The distinguishing character of this genus consists in ah ‘elevated and tren.

_ SAURIA. | 183
chant crest, which exten Is along a part of the tail, and which is supported
by high spinous apophyses of the vertebrz; this crest is scaly like the rest
of the body; the seales on’the belly and tail are small, and approach some-
what to a square form; the teeth are strong, compressed, and without den-
ticulations: ther are none in the palate: there is aseries of femoral pores.
The skin of f the ‘oat is smooth and lax, but without need a dewlap.

53" Draco, i (1)
The Dragons are distinguished at the first glance, from all other. Siitirians,
by their first six false ribs, which, instead of encircling the abdomen, extend
outwards in a straight line, and support a production of the skin, forming
a kind of wing that may be compared to that of a Bat, but which i
connected with the four feet; it acts like a parachute in supporting them,

when they leap from one branch to another, but has not sufficient power

to enable them to rise like a Bird. They are small animals, completely in-
vested with little imbricated:- scales, of which those on the tail and limbs are
carinated. Their tongue is fleshy, but slightly extensible, and somewhat
emarginate. A long pointed dewlap hangs under their throat.

All he known species are from the East. Indies.

It is perhaps to this tribe of Aauban that we should approxi-

mate a very extraordinary reptile which is ofly to be found among.

the fossils of the old Jura limestone formation.

PreRopDAcTYLUS, Cuy.

It had a short tail, an extremely long neck, and a very large head; the ©

jaws armed with equal and pointed teeth; but its chief character consisted
in the excessive elongation of the second toe of the fore-foot; which was
more than double the length of the trunk, and most probably served to

support some membrane which enabled the animal’ to el like that upheld

by the ribs of the Dragon.

i x

The second gection of the Iguanian family, that of the Tooke

proper, is distinguished from the first by having teeth in the palate. .

Ievana, Cuv.
In Jgwana, properly so called, the body and tail are covered with small im-

bricated scales; along the entire length of the back is a range of spines, or

~

(4) Theterm dp2xoy, pas generally designated a large Serpent! Dragons,
with a crest or beard, are spoken of by ancient writers, a description which
can only apply to the /gwana; Lucian is the first who mentions Flying
Dragons, alluding, no doubt, to the pretended Flying Serpents treated of
by Herodotus. St Augustine, and other subsequent authors, ever after de-
scribed Dragons as having wings. .

184 --:REPTILIA.

rather of recurved, compressed, and pointed scales; beneath the throat a
pendent, compressed dewlap, the edge of which is supported by a cartila-
ginous process of the hyoid bone; a series of porous tubercles on their thighs
as in the true Lizards; the head covered with plates. Each jaw is surround-

_ ed with a row of compressed, triangular teeth, whose cutting edge is den-

ticulate; two small rows of the same on the posterior edge of the palate.

Ig. tuberculata, Laur. (The Common American Iguana.) Yellowish
green above, marbled with pure green; the tail annulated with brown, &c.;
from four to five feet in length, and common in South America where its flesh
is esteemed delicious, although unwholesome. It lives mostly on trees,
occasionally visits the water and feeds on fruit, grain, and leaves; the female
lays her eggs in the sand, they are the size of those of a Pigeon, agreeable
to the taste and almost without white. ;

The remaining genera are Ophyressa, Basiliscus, Polychrus, Echphimotus,
Oplurus, and Anolius, the last of which is remarkable for the skin of the
toes, which is spread out into a disk, that enables them to cling to various
surfaces.

It is to this family of the Iguane with palatine teeth, that belongs
an enormous fossil reptile known by the name of the Maestricht
Animal, and for which the new name of Mosasavrus has recently

>

‘been coined.

- FAMILY Iv.
: GECKOTIDA.

This family is composed of nocturnal Lizards which are so similar
that they may be left in one genus.

Non ll Geexno, Daud.(1)—Asxatarorszs, Cuv.
“The Geckos are Saurians which do not possess the elongated graceful form

of those of which we have hitherto spoken, but on the contrary are flattened,
the head particularly. Their feet are moderate, and the toes almost equal;
their gait is a heavy kind of crawling; very large eyes, whose pupil becomes
narrowed at the approach of light like that of a Cat, render them nocturnal
animals, which secrete themselves during the day in dark places. Their
very short eye-lids are completely withdrawn between the eye and the orbit,
which gives them a different aspect from other Saurians. Their tongue is
fleshy and non-extensible; their tympanum somewhat sunk; their jaws every

(1) Gecko, a name given to a species in India, in imitation of its cry, just
as another one is termed T'ockave at Siam, anda third Geitje at the Cape;
atnanacalus, the Greek name of the Geckotte, Lacep.

SAURIA. fe . oy 185 of

where furnished with a range of very small closely-jointed teeth; their palate
without teeth; their skin is studded above with very small granular’ scales,
among which are often found larger tubercles, and: iberieasitp Smeets with
scales somewhat smaller, which.are flat and imbricated. > 0

This genus is numerous and disseminated throughout thai: warm phstiods
of both continents. The melancholy and heavy air of the Gecko superadd-
ed to a certain resemblance it bears to the Salamander and the Toad, have
rendered it the object of hatred, and caused it to be considered «as: yeno-
mous, but of this there is no real proof.

The toes of most of them are widened along the whole or past of their
length, and furnished beneath with regular plaits of skin, which enable them
to adhere so closely, that they are sometimes seen crawling along: ceilings.

They are-now divided into the Platidactyli, Hemidactyliy rican
&c. &e., according: to the different nan of the toes, 4

We are compelled to establish

FAMILY V,
CHAMZ:LEONIDA,

For the single genus,

CHAMzLEO,(1)

Or the Chameleons, which is very distinct from all other Saurian ba vex,
and is not even easily intercalated in their series.

Their skin is roughened by scaly granules, their body compressed; and the
back—if we may so express it—trenchant; tail round and prehensile; five
toes to each foot, but divided into two bundles, one containing two, the
other three, each bundle being united by the skin down to the nails; the
tongue fleshy, cylindrical, and susceptible of great extension; teeth trilobate;
eyes large, but nearly covered by the skin, except a small hole opposite
to the pupil, and possessing the faculty of moving independently of each
other; no visible external ear, and the occiput pyramidically elevated. Their
first ribs are joined to the sternum; the following ones are. extended each
to its fellow on the opposite side, so as to enclose the abdomen by an entire
circle. Their lungs are so enormous, that when inflated, their body seems
to be transparent, a circumstance which induced the ancients to believe that

they fed on air. They live on insects whichthey capture withthe viscid ex-

(1) Xapeasaccor (Little Lion), thie Grecian name of thisanimal. Aristotle,
who uses it, has also given an exnallens SeecpPHan of it, Hist. An, habe
Il, cap. ix.

Y

SS WAY Y aS
See hs
1S eRP OR: S

ee
i ak
tye

186 : REPTILIA.

tremity of their tongue, the only part of their body which seems to be endow-
ed with quickness of motion, as in every thing else they are remarkable for
their excessive slowness. The great extent of their lungs is probably the
cause of their faculty of changing ‘colour, which takes place, not as is
thought in conformity with the hue of the bodies on which they rest, but
according to their wants and passions.. Their lungs, in fact, render them
more or less ‘transparent, compel the blood in a greater or less degree to
return to the skin, and even colour that fluid more or less vividly in propor-
tion to the quantity of air they contain... They always remain on trees.

Lae. africana, Gm. (The Common Chameleon.) Thehood pointed and
relieved by a ridge in front; the granules on the skin equal and close; the
superior crest indented as far as half the length of the back, the inferior te
the anus... The hood of the female does not project so much and the
denticulations of her crests are smaller. From Egypt, Barbary, and even
the south of Spain, and India. ,

FAMILY VI.
SCINCOIDEA.

The Scincoideans are known by their short feet, non-extensible
tongue, and the equal scales which cover the body and tail, like tiles.

Scrncvus, Daud.

Four short feet; the body and tail almost one continued and uniform piece;
no enlargement of the occiput; without crest or dewlap, and. covered with
uniform, shining scales, arranged like tiles, or those of a Carp. Some of
them are fusiform; others, more or less elongated, resemble Serpents, the
Anguis particularly, to which they are related by several internal affinities,
and which they connect with the family of the Iguanida, by an uninterrupted
suite of transitions. Their tongue is fleshy, but slightly extensible and
emarginate; the jaws every where furnished with small, closely set teeth.
In the eye, ear, &c., they bear a greater or less resemblance to the Iguane
and Lizards; the feet are furnished with free and unguiculated toes.

Seprs, Daud.
Seps ale differs from Scincus in the more elongated body, which is exactly
similar to that of an Anguis, and in the still smaller feet, the two pairs of
which are further apart. Their lungs begin to exhibit some inequality.

Brirrs, Lacep.
A small genus, only differing from Seps in the entire absence of fore fect,
having the scapulz and clavicles concealed beneath the skin, the hind feet
alone being visible. There is but a step from it to Anguis.

SAURIA. cae 187.

_Cuatcriwss, Daud.
Elongated Lizards resembling Serpents; but the scales, instead of being
arranged like tiles, are rectangular, forming transverse bands, which do not
encroach on each other like those on the tails of ordinary Lizards.

Currores, Cuv.

Similar to Chalcides in their verticillate scales, and still more so to the Am-
phisbene inthe obtuse form of their head; but distinguished from the former
by the absence of hind feet, and from the latter by the presence of the an-
terior feet. One species only is known, which is found in Mexico.

ORDER III.
OPHIDIA.(1)

Serpents are reptiles without feet, and consequently those which
best merit that appellation. Their extremely elongated body moves
by means of the folds it forms when in contact with the ground.
They are divided into three families.

FAMILY I.
ANGUINA. (2)

The Angues still have an osseous head, teeth, and tongue, similar
to those of a Seps; their eye is furnished with three lids, &c., and,
in fact, if we may so express it, they are Seps without feet; they are
all comprised in the genus

Aneurs, Lin.

Characterized externally by imbricated scales, with which they are com-
pletely enveloped. They have been separated into four subgenera; in the
three first we still find beneath the skin the bones of the shoulder and pelvis.

This genus is now subdivided into Pseudopus, Ophisaurus, Anguis proper,
and Acontias.

(1) Ogss,a Serpent. (2) Anguis, the Latin generic term for Serpents.

188° | REPTILIA.

niet lo Shendace FAMILY II. °
| SERPENTIA.

The true Serpenis, which are by far the most numerous, comprise
the genera without a sternum, and in which there is no vestige of a
shoulder, but where the ribs still surround a great part of the circum-
ference of the trunk, and where the body of each vertebra is still
articulated by a convex surface to a cavity in the succeeding one.
The third eye-lid and the tympanum are deficient; but the malleus of
the ear exists under the skin, and its handle passes behind the
tympanum. There is still a vestige of a posterior limb, concealed
under the skin, in several of this family, and which in some of them
shows its extremity externally in the form of a small hook.

We subdivide them into two tribes.

That of the Ampnisn“=N«#, as in the preceding reptiles, still has
the lower jaw supported by a tympanal bone directly articulated with
the cranium, the two branches of this jaw soldered together in front,
and those of the upper one fixed to the cranium and to the inter-
maxillary bone, circumstances which prevent that dilatation of the
mouth which obtains in the succeeding tribe, and which occasions
a uniformity of the head and body, a form which enables them to
move backwards or forwards with equal facility. ‘The bony frame
of the orbit is incomplete behind, and the eye very small; the body
is covered with scales, the trachea long, and the heart very far back.
beget are not venomous,

‘They form two genera, one of whichis allied to Chalcides and
Chirotes, and the other to Anguis and Acontias.

AmPHishena, L.(1)

The whole body surrounded with circular ranges of quadrangular scales,
like the Chalcides and the Chirotes among the Saurians; a few conical teeth
in the jaws, but none in the palate. There is but one lung.

- 'T'wo species have long been known, Amph. alba, Lacep., and Amph. fuli-
ginosa, {,., both from South America. They feed on Insects, and are often
found in Ant-hills, which has occasioned a belief among the people that the
large Ants are their purveyors. They are oviparous,

(1) From eu¢is and Caivew, walking both ways. The ancients attributed
two heads to it.

OPHIDIA. ? EEE oe

e ‘Typmors, Schn.(1) 5 GS AAS
The body covered with deoalt imbricated scales like cigs’ with which
they were long classed; the projecting muzzle furnished with plates; tongue
’ Jong and forked; the eye resembling a point hardly visible through the skin;
one of the lungs four times larger than the other. They are small Serpents,
at the first glance resembling earth-worms; they are found in the hot por-
tions of both continents.

In the second tribe, that of the Serrrntxs, or Serpents properly
so called, the tympanal bone or pedicle of the lower jaw is movable,
and is itself always suspended to another bone, analogous to the
mastoid process, attached to the cranium by muscles and ligaments,
which allow it some motion. The branches of this jaw are not so
closely united with each other, and those of the upper one are merely
connected with the intermaxillary bone by ligaments, so that they
can separate toa greater or less extent, which enables these animals
so to dilate their mouths as to swallow bodies larger than themselves.

Their palatine arches participate in. this facility of motion, and
are armed with sharp pointed teeth which curve backwards, the
most predominant and constant character of the tribe. Their tra-

chea is very long, their heart very far back, and most of them have

but one large lung with a vestige of another.

Serpents are divided into venomous and non-venomous; and the
former are subdivided into such as are venomous with several max-
illary teeth, and those which are venomous -with insulated fangs.

In such. as are not venomous, the branches of the upper jaw as

well as those of the lower one, and the palatine arches, are every —

where furnished with fixed and solid teeth; there are then four equal
rows of these teeth in the upper part of the mouth, and two below.

Tortrix, Oppel.

Distinguished from Anguina, even externally, inasmuch as the scales which
form the range along the belly and under part of the tail are a little larger
than the others, and the tail itself is extremely short. They haye but one
lung.

In those non-venomous Serpents, on the contrary, where the
mastoid bones are detached, and the jaws are susceptible of great

i

(1) Téigaal, cupriva, blind, were the names of the Auguis (slow-worm)
among the Greeks.

-= i

190 | REPTILIA.

dilatation, the occiput is more or less enlarged, and the tongue
forked and very extensible.

‘They have long been divided into two principal genera, Boa and
Coxvser, distinguished by the simple or double plates on the under
part of the tail. The genus

~ Boa, Lin.(1)
Formerly comprized all those Serpents, venomous or not, the under part
of whose body and tail is furnished with uninterrupted, transverse scaly
bands, and which have neither spur nor rattle at the end of the tail. As
they are rather numerous, even after deducting the venomous species, the
others have been again subdivided.

The Boa, properly so called, has a compressed body, thickest in the
middle, a prehensile tail, and small scales on the head, at least on its poste-
rior portion. It is in this genus that are found the largest Serpents on the
globe; certain species attain a length of thirty or forty feet, preying on
Dogs, Deer, and even Oxen, which they manage to swallow entire, after
having crushed them in their folds and covered them with saliva. This
operation requires much time and an enormous dilatation of their jaws and
throat. Their small lung is but half the length of the other. ©

Boa constrictor, L. Known by a broad chain, which extends along the
back, formed alternately by large, blackish, irregularly hexagonal spots,
and by pale oval ones, the two ends of which are emarginate.

The celebrated Anaconda is a true Boa.

Coxivuser, Lin.

This genus comprised all those Serpents, venomous or not, whose sub-cau-
dal plates are divided in two, that is, which are arranged by pairs.

. Independently of the subtraction of the venomous species, their number
is so enormously great, that naturalists have had recourse to all sorts of
characters to subdivide them. |

In the subgenus Python we find the Col. javanicus, Sh., which has been

found thirty feet in length. Sunda Islands.

Serpents which are venomous par excellence, or those with iso-

lated fangs, have their organs of manducation constructed on a very
peculiar plan.

Their superior maxillary bones are very small, attached to a long

m

(1) Boa, the name of certain Italian Serpents of great size, most pro-
bably the four striped Coluber, or “Serpent of Epidaurus” of the Latins.
Pliny says they were thus named, because they sucked the teats of Cows.
The Boa, 120 feet long, which it is pretended was killed in Africa by the
army of Regulus, was probably a Python. See Pliny, lib. VIII, cap. xiv.

*

OPHIDIA. a ae 191

pedicle, analogous to the external pterygoid apophysis of the sphenoid
bone, and are very movable; in them is fixed a sharp pointed per-
vious tooth, through which flows a liquor secreted by a large gland,
situated under the eye. It is this liquor which, poured into the
wound made by the tooth, produces effects, more or less violent,
_ according to the species of the reptile in which it is secreted. This
tooth, when the animal does not wish to use it, is concealed in a
fold of the gum, and behind it are several germs destined to replace
it, in the event of its being broken in a wound. These venomous
teeth have been termed by naturalists movable fangs, but in fact it is
the maxillary bone which moves; there are no other teeth in it, so
that in this kind of dangerous serpents only the two rows of palatine
teeth are to be seen in the upper part of the mouth. Mi

All these venomous species, whose mode of production i is well
known, bring forth living young ones, as their eggs are hatched
without being laid, from which circumstance is derived their com-
mon name of Vipers, a contraction of viviparous.

Venomous serpents with isolated fangs have external chaeadons
very similar to those of the preceding ones, but in the greater num-
ber the jaws are very dilatable, and the tongue very extensible. The
posterior portion of their head being broad, generally gives them a
ferocious aspect, which is a partial indication of their disposition.
They form two great genera, Croratus and Vipera, the second of
which has been variously subdivided, and some smaller ones which
group around them.

Croratus, Lin:

Rattlesnakes are pre-eminently conspicuous for the intensity of their venom.
As in Boa, there are transverse simple plates under the body and tail; but
their most distinguishing character is the rattle which terminates the tail. It
is formed by several scaly cornets loosely fitted into each other, which move
and produce the peculiar noise from which they receive their name when-
ever they crawl or shake that part of the body. The number of these cor-
nets increases with age, an additional one being always found after each
moult. There is a little round indentation or pit behind each nostril. Al
the species whose habitat is well ascertained are from America. The dan-
ger resulting from the bite of these noxious reptiles is in proportion to the
warmth of the climate or. of the season; their natural disposition, however,
is tranquil, and they are rather slow and heavy in their motions, neyer’ bi-
ting unless provoked, or to kill the prey on which they feed.

Their principal food consists of Birds, Squirrels, &c. It has long been
supposed that it possesses the faculty of rendering them powerless by its

» 192 REPTILIA.

~ breath, or even of charming them, as it is called, by which they are com-

pelled to leap. into its mouth; this, however, is not so, and the reptile in
question seizes its prey while under the agitation and terror produced by
its appearance.

In most of the species there are scales on the head similar to ap cone on
the back.

The ©. horridus or the Diamond Rattlesnake, the C. durissus or the
Banded Rattlesnake, and the C: miliaris or the Ground Rattlesnake, a smaller
species, but the most dangerous of the three, all inhabit the United States.
The most common is the durissus; the miliaris, although furnished like the
others with an apparatus of three or four cornets at the end of the tail, can
make no noise with them. The plates on the head are arranged as in the
genus Coluber.

—Virwra, Daud.

The Vipers, most of which were confounded with the Colubers by Kaas,
on account of their double sub-caudal plates, require to be separated from
them from the circumstance of their haying poisonous fangs. There are
also some serpents which naturally belong to this division, whose sub-cau-
dal plates are either wholly or partially simple. They are all distinguished
from the Rattlesnakes by the absence of the pits behind the nostrils.

Vip. brachyura, Cuv. (‘The Minute Viper.) The intensity and activity

. of its poison render it:one of the most terrible of the genus. The genus of

the Vipers is now variously subdivided. To one of these subgenera, Nara,
belongs the celebrated

Col. haje, L. Greenish bordered with brownish. The jugglers of Egypt,
by pressing on the nape of the neck with their finger, throw it into a kind
of catalepsy which renders it stiff and immovable, or turns it into a rod, as

they term it. Its habit of raising itself up when approached, induced the
_ancient Egyptians to believe that it was the guardian of the fields it inhab-
ited. They made it the emblem of the protecting divinity of the world,

and sculptured it on each side of a globe upon the gates of their temples.
It is indubitably the serpent described by the ancients under the name. of

’ _ the Asp of Egypt, Asp of Cleopatra, &c.

In addition to these two tribes of Serpents, properly so styled, a
third has lately been recognized, in which the organization and ar-

- mature of the jaws are nearly the same as in the non-venomous ser-

pents, but where the first maxillary tooth, larger than the others, is
perforated for the transmission of the poison, as in the venomous

“serpents with isolated fangs.

’ These Serpents form two genera, Bunearus and HypRus,. dis-
tinguished, like those of the two neighbouring families, by the cover-
ing of the abdomen and the under part of the tail.

OPHIDIA. 193 ©

FAMILY III.
NUDA.

Our third and last family of the Ophidians, that of the Naked Ser-
pents, consists of but one very singular genus, which several natu-
ralists have thought fit to refer to the Batrachians, although we are
ignorant as to the fact of its undergoing any metamorphosis. It
is the

Czxcr1a, Lin.(1)

So called because its eyes, excessively small, are nearly hidden beneath the
skin, and sometimes are wanting. The skin is smooth, viscous and fur-
rowed by annular plaits or wrinkles; it is apparently naked, but on dissec-
tion we find in its thickness, perfectly formed though delicate scales,
regularly arranged in several transverse rows between the folds of the skin.

ORDER IV.
BATRACHIA.(2)

The Batrachians have a heart composed of but one auricle and
one ventricle. They all have two equal lungs, to which at first are
added branchie, that have some affinity with those of Fishes, and
which have cartilaginous arches on each side of the neck attached
to the hyoid bone. Most of them lose these branchiz, and the ap-
paratus which supports them, when they attain a state of maturity.
Three genera only, Siren, Proteus, and Menobranchus, retain them —
for life.

As long as these branchia remain, the aorta is divided at its origin
into as many branches on each side as there are branchiz. The
branchial blood is brought back by veins which unite near the back
in one arterial trunk, as in Fishes. It is from this trunk, or imme-
diately from the veins which form it, that arise most of the arteries .

¥
(1) Cacilia, from tvpa@, is the Latin name of the Slow-worm (Orvet),
bo in several parts of Europe i is still called blind, although it has very
ne eyes. hy
(2) From Barpaxoe (Frog), animals analogous to Frogs.
Z

194. " REPTILIA.

which Sari the body, and even those which conduet the blood to
be oxygenated in the lungs. |
In those species, however, which lose their branchiz, the attend-
ant arteries are obliterated, with the exception of two, which unite
in a dorsal artery, giving, each, a small branch to the lungs. It is
_ the circulation of a Fish metamorphosed into that of a Reptile.
- Batrachians have neither scales nor shell; a naked skin invests their
body, and, one genus excepted, they have no nails.
The envelope of the ova is membranous. These eggs become
greatly enlarged in the water. The young do not only differ from
en the adult in the presence of the branchie; their feet are developed
____ by degrees, and in several species there are a beak and tail, which
| the subsequently lose, and intestines of a different form.
Agra, species are viviparous. »

Rana, Lin.

| Frozs have four legs in their perfect state, but no tail. Their head is flat,
muzzle rounded, and the opening of their jaws large; the tongue, in most of
them, is soft, and not attached to the bottom of the gullet, but to the edges
of the jaw, and folds inwards. There are but four toes to the anterior feet;
the hind ones frequently exhibit the rudiment of a sixth.

There are no ribs to their skeleton, and a prominent cartilaginous plate
supplies the place of a tympanum, and renders the ear visible externally.
The eye is furnished with two fleshy lids, and a third, which is transparent
and horizontal, concealed under the lower one.

The hind feet of the Tadpole are very gradually and. vichhe developed;
the fore feet are also developed, but under the skin, through which they
subsequently penetrate. The tail is gradually absorbed. The beak falls
and discloses the true jaws, which at first were soft and concealed beneath
the skin; and the branchiz are annihilated, leaving to the lungs alone the
function of respiration in which they participated. The eyes which at first
could only be discerned through a transparent spot in the skin of the Tad-
pole, are now visible with their three lids. Tadpolesreproduce their limbs
almost like Salamanders.

‘The period at which each of these changes takes place varies with the
species.

_ Incold and temperate climates, the perfect animal passes the winter un-
der ground, or in the mud under water, without eating or breathing, though
if we prevent it from respiring during the summer for a few minutes by
keeping its mouth open, it dies.

Hyxa, Laur.
“Tree-Frogs only differ from Frogs in the extremities of their toes, each of
which is expanded into a round, viscous pellet, that enables them to adhere

“hs

BATRACHIA. gee oS pL ee

to the surface of bodies and to climb trees, where in fact they remain all
summer, living upon insects. ‘They spawn, however, in water, and enter
the mud in water like other Frogs. There is a pouch under the throat of
the male, which dilates whenever he cries. .

Rana arborea, L. (The Common Tree-Frog.). Green above, pale be-
neath; a black and yellow line along each side of the body. Theyare adult —
in four years. The Tadpole sont its peers phone: in the month of —
August.

Boro, Laur. Rey at
Toads have a thick, bulky body covered with warts or at a a thick
lump behind the ears pierced with pores, from which issues a milky and
fetid humour; no teeth; the hind feet but slightly elongated. They leap
badly, and generally avoid the water. They are hideous and disgusting
animals, whose bite, saliva, &c., are considered, though erroneously, as poi-
sonous. iH
There are now several subgenera, such as Rhinellus, Otilophis, hg &e.

Saraman DRA, Brongn.

Salamanders have an elongated body, four feet and a long tall, which gives
them the general form of Lizards, with which Linneus placed them: but
they have all the characters of Batrachians.

In their adult state, respiration is performed as in Frogs and Tortoises.
Their tadpoles at first breathe by means of branchiz resembling tufts, three
on each side of the neck, which are subsequently obliterated; they are sus-
pended to cartilaginous arches, vestiges of which remain in the hyoid bone
of the adult. A membranous operculum covers these openings, but the
tufts are never enclosed by a tunic, and always float externally. The fore
feet are developed before the hind ones; the toes appear successively in the -
first and the last.

SaLAMANDRA, Laur.

The terrestrial Salamanders in a perfect state have a round tail, and i in-
habit the water only during their tadpole condition, which is but a short
period, or when the female is ready to bring forth. The eggs are hatched
in the oviduct.

Triton, Laur.

Aquatic Salamanders always retain the vertically compressed tail, and
pass nearly the whole of their existence in the water. The experiments of
Spallanzani on their astonishing power of reproduction, have rendered
them celebrated. If a limb be amputated, another is reproduced in itsstead
with all its bones, muscles, vessels, &c. and this takes place several times
in succession. Another not less singular faculty, discovered by Dufay, is

the power they possess of remaining enclosed i in ice for a considerable time
without perishing.

196 REPTILIA.

Skeletons of a salamander three feet in length have been discovered
among the schist of @iningen. One of them is the pretended Fossil Man
of Scheucher.

Immediately after the Salamanders come several very similar ani-

_ mals, some of which are considered as having been always destitute
_ of branchiz, that is, they probably lose them at as early a period as

our terrestrial Salamanders; the others, on the contrary, retain them
for life, a circumstance, however, which does not prevent their hav-
ing lungs like the Batrachians, so that they may be considered as
the only vertebrate animals which are truly amphibious.

The former (those in which no aprchia are visible) constitute
two genera. %

Mewnoroma, Harlan.

Form of a Salamander; eyes apparent, the feet well developed, and an ori-
fice on each side of the neck. Besides the range of small maxillary teeth,
there is a parallel row of them on the front of the palate. Such is the rep-
tile termed

Sal. gigantea, Barton. (The Hellbender.) From fifteen to eighteen
inches long; a blackish blue; inhabits the lakes and the rivers of the inte-
rior of North America.

Ampuiuma, Garden.

An orifice on each side of the neck, but the body excessively elongated; the
legsand feet, on the contrary, but very slightly developed; the palatine teeth
form two longitudinal ranges.

Among those which always retain their branchiz, the

AxoLorus
Is in every respect similar to the larva of an aquatic Salamander, having
four toes before, five behind, three long tufted branchiz, &c. The maxil-
lary teeth are like velvet, and those on the vomer in two bands.

Menospranenvs, Harl.
But four toes to all the feet; a range of teeth in the Se almeaeie- and an-
other, parallel, but more extended, in the maxillaries.
The species most known, Menobranchus lateralis, Harl.; T'riton lateralis,
Say, inhabits the great lakes of North America, attaining, as it is said, the
length of two and three feet. It was first obtained from Lake Champlain.

ile Proteus, Laurent.
But three toes before and only two behind.
Hitherto but a single species has heen discovered, Proteus anguinus,

BATRACHIA. ee

Laur. “More than a foot long, about the thickness of a ‘Mined: with a yeni
cally compressed tail and four small legs.

Finally, there are some which are possessed of fore feet peed the hind
ones being entirely deficient. They form the genus

“ il

‘* Siren, Lin.
Sirens are elongated animals, almost anguilliform, with three branchial tufts; —
they haye no hind feet, nor is there even a vestige ofa pelvis. Their head
is depressed, the opening of their mouth small, their muzzle obtuse, eye
very small and ear concealed; the lower jaw is armed with teeth all round,
and there are none in the upper one, but there are several rows of them ad-
hering to two plates fixed under each side of the palate.

S. lacertina, L. Blackish, and attains the length of three feet; four toes
to each foot; tail compressed into an obtuse fin. It inhabits the marshes of
Carolina, the rice swamps particularly, where it lives in the mud, occasion-
ally going on shore or into the water. It feeds on lumbrici, insects, &c.
There are two much smaller species. f

my

CLASS IV.

PISCES..

The class of Fishes is composed of oviparous Vertebrata with a
double circulation, but in which respiration is altogether effected
through the medium of water. For this purpose, on each side of
the neck, they have an apparatus called branchie, or gills, which
consist of lamine suspended on arches that are attached to the hyoid
bone, each composed of numerous separate laminz and covered
with a tissue of innumerable blood-vessels. The water which the
fish swallows, escapes between these laminz through the branchial
openings, and by means of the air it contains, acts upon the blood
that is continually arriving in the branchiz from the heart, which only
represents the right auricle and ventricle of warm-blooded animals.
This blood, having received the benefit of respiration, is poured into
an arterial trunk situated under the spine, which, exercising the
functions of a left ventricle, distributes it to every part of the body.
whence it returns to the heart by the veins.

The entire structure of the Fish is as evidently adapted for natation,

as that of the Bird for flight. Suspended in a liquid’ of nearly the
same specific gravity ma own body, there was no ‘necessity for
large wings to support In a great number of species, immedi-
ately under the spine there is a bladder filled with air, which, by
compression or dilatation, varies the specific gravity of the fish and
assists it to rise or descend. Progression is effected by the motions
of the tail, which, by striking the water alternately right and left,

-. forces them forward; the branchie, by impelling the water back-

wards, may also contribute to this effect. The limbs being thus of
but little use, are greatly reduced; the parts analogous to the bones
of the arms and legs are extremely short, or even completely con-
cealed; rays, more or less numerous, ,which support membranous
fins, form a rude representation of the fingers and toes. “The fins
which correspond to the anterior extremities are termed pectorals,
and those which answer to the posterior ones, ventrals. Other rays
attached to particular bones placed on or between the extremities
of the spinous apophyses support vertical fins on the back, understhe
tail, and at its extremity, which, by being raised or lowered, increase
or diminish the surface which strikes against the water. ‘The su-
perior fins are called dorsal, the inferior anal, and that at the end of
the tail caudal. The rays are of two kinds; some of them consist
of a single bony piece, usually hard and pointed, sometimes flexible
and elastic, divided longitudinally—these are called spinous rays;
others are composed of a great number of small articulations, and
generally divided into branches at their extremity—they are the
soft, articulated, or branched rays.

There is as much variety among F'ishes, with respect to the number
of limbs, as among, Reptiles. Most generally there are four; some
have but two, and in others they are totally wanting. ‘The bone
which is analogous to the scapula, is sometimes held among the
muscles as in the higher animals, and at others is attached to the
spine, but most commonly it is suspended on the cranium. The
pelvis rarely adheres to the spine, and very frequently, instead of
being behind the abdomen, is before it, and connected with the hu-
meral apparatus.

Besides the usual parts of the brain which are arranged as in
Reptiles one after the other, Fishes have knots or ganglions at the
base of their olfactory nerves.

Their nostrils are simple cavities at the end of the muzzle almost

always. perforated by t two] rol ol 5, nd
tuitary membrane. Bee OB

The cornea of their’ eye is very fat, ee, oe is but little aqueous

humour, but the erystalline i is very hard and almost globular.
The sense of taste in Fishes can have~but little energy, as a great

portion of the tongue is osseous, and frequently furnished with teeth

and other hard parts.

The body i in most of them is covered with viliés, and none vs ga

sess organs of prehension; the fleshy cirri of some may supply the
imperfection | of the other organs of touch.

Teeth are “found in their intermaxillary, maxillary, lower jaw,
vomer, bones of the palate, on the tongue,.on the arches of the
branchiz, and even on bones behind these arches, attached like them
to the hyoides, called pharyngeal bones.

The varieties of these combinations, as well as those of the form
of the teeth placed at each point, are innumerable. *

Besides the apparatus of the branchial arches, the hyoid bone is
furnished on each side with rays which support the branchial mem-
brane. A sort of lid composed of three bony pieces, the operculum,
the suboperculum, and the interoperculum, unites with this membrane

in closing the great opening of the gills; it is articulated with the

tympanal bone, and plays on one called the preoperculum. In many
of the Chondropterygii this apparatus.is wanting,

Fishes form two distinct series, that of Fists properly so. styled;

and that of the CuonpRoPpTERYeLI, otherwise called CarTILAGINOUS
FIsHEs.

ORDER I.
ACANTHOPTERYGIL(1)

The Acanthopterygii form the first and by far the most numerous
division of ordinary Fishes. They are recognized by the spines
which occupy the place of the first rays of their dorsal, or which
alone support the first fin of the back, where there are two; some-

(1) Spiny-fins.

we

200 . PISCES.

times, instead of a first dorsal, there are only a few free spines. The
first rays of their anal are also spines, and there is generally one to
each ventral. —

~ :

NE

FAMILY I.
PERCOIDES.

This family is so called because, its type is the Common Perch.
It comprehends fishes with oblong bodies, covered with scales that
are generally hard or rough, and whose operculum or preopercu-
lum, and frequently both, have dentated or spinous edges, and whose
jaws, the fore-part of the vomer, and sacha the palatine bones,

_ are furnished with teeth.

The species are extremely numerous, particularly in the ‘seas.of
hot climates; their flesh is generally wholesome and agreeable.
In the first subdivision we find seven rays in the branchie, two

_ fins on the back, and all the teeth small and crowded.

=<

Perca, Cuv.

The t wae Perdles have the preoperculum dentated; the bony operculum

terminated by two or three sharp points and a smooth tongue. Sometimes
the sub-orbital and the humeral are slighty dentated. North America pro-
duces several species.

Laprax, Cuv.

Distinguished from the Perches by scaly opercula terminating in two spines,
and by a rough tongue.

The United States produce a large and beautiful species, Labr. lineatus,
Cuy. (The Rock-fish), with longitudinal blackish stripes.

The remaining genera of this division are Lates, Centropomus, Grammis-
tes, Aspro, &c. &c. differing in various particulars relative to the operculum
and preoperculum, armature of the jaws, &c.

| A second subdivision comprises Percoides with two dorsal fins,
and long and pointed teeth mingled with the small and crowded ones.

There are two genera, Ambassis, Lucio-Perca or Perch-Pike.

A second division comprises Percoides with seven, branchial
rays and one dorsal. They are subdivided in nearly the same way

is
In the sivon, aii with hooked teeth, we find,

ae

- SERRANUS, Cuv.

Preoperculum dentate; the bony operculum terminating in one or several
points. This genus contains a vast number of species, and is divided into
several heal f

We) now pass to Percoides with seven branchial rays, and a sin-

gle dorsal, the teeth small and crowded.

They are distributed under the genera Acerina, Rypticus, Centropristis
(to which belongs our Black Perch) and Gristes. *

The genus Perca, as defined by Artedi and Linnzus, terminates

here; but there remains a number of fishes which approach it, al-
though peculiar characters compel naturalists to arrange them in

separate genera, such as Cirrhites, Chironemus, Pomotis, (our Pond-
Perch) Centrarchus, &c. &c.

Pomotis, Cuv.

Fishes, with a compressed and oval body, characterized by a membranous
prolongation at the angle of the operculum. They-inhabit the rivers, &c.
of America, where they are called Pond-Perch.

We now pass to those Percoides which have more than seven’

rays to the branchiz. ‘Three genera are known, all of which pre-

sent the following peculiarity: their ventrals have a spine and seven

or more soft rays, while in other Acanthopterygn there are’ never

more than five soft rays. «
Hoxtocentrum, Artedi. :

The scales of these beautiful fishes are brilliant and dentated; operculum

dentated and spinous; preoperculum dentated with a stout spine at the an-

gle, which is directed backwards. “They are found in the hot pee of both
oceans.

Myrirristis, Cuv.

The brilliancy, shape and scales of the Holocentra, but the preoperculum |

has a dentated double border, and there i ig no spine at the angle. They in-
habit the hot parts of both Oceans. ; :
2A .

oe “ee Breryx, Cuv. ae
Differs from Myripristis in having but a single short dorsal, with but a few
— a ‘simost hidden in its anterior edge; ten soft rays in the ventrals.

All the Percoides of which we have hitherto spoken, have their

_yentrals inserted under the pectorals; there are some genera, how-

ever, in which they are differently located.
In the Jucunares, they are placed on ane throat further forwards

than the pectorals.

TRACHINUS, Lin.
A compressed head, approximated eyes, and an oblique mouth; the first

dorsal yery short, the second very long; pectorals large, and a stout spine
on the operculum. They generally remain concealed in the sand; wounds

_ inflicted by the spines of their first dorsal are much dreaded, but their flesh

is esteemed. Several species are found in the Atlantic, &c.

Trach. draco, L. (The Dragon Weaver.) Grey and reddish, with
blackish spots; blue streaks and yellow tints; thirty rays to the second dor-
sal; flanks obliquely striated.

One of the most remarkable genera of the Jugulares is that of

_Uranoscorvus, Lin.

; So called because the eyes are placed on the superior surface of the nearly
be “cubical head, and look upwards: the mouth. is cleft’ vertically; the lower
‘part of the preoperculum is crenate, and there is a stout spine to each

shoulder; but six rays in the branchie. In the mouth and before the tongue
is a long and narrow slip, which can be protruded at the will of the fish, and
serves, it is said, to attract small ones, while it remains concealed in
the mud. They are commonly termed Star-gazers.

Ina third division of the Percoides, the ventrals are inserted fur-
ther back than the pectorals: they arethe Anpominatzs. ‘The first
genus is

Potynemvus, L.

So named because several of the inferior pectoral rays are free, and Series
many filaments; the ventrals are not very,far back, and the pelvis is still
suspended to the bones of the shoulder. They are allied to the Percoides
by the teeth, either small ahd crowded, or bent back like those of a wool-
card, which arm their jaws, vomer, and palate; but their snout is convex,
and the vertical fins scaly as in many of the Sciénoides: the two dorsals are
separated, the preoperculum is dentated and the mouth deeply cleft: they
are found in all the seas of hot climates. e

Pol. paradiseus, L. (The Mango Fish.) So called from its fine Salon

* -* ee

€

ae

length of the body. Tis the most delicious fish found in Bengal.

In the sueoodt amminera the ventrals are altopetier behind, ana
the pelvis no longer adheres to the bones of the shoulder. —

The gh A. Sphyrena, Paralepis, and Mullus, (or the Surmullet of
Europe.)

FAMILY II. 2 Ngee
BUCCA LORICATA.

~The family of the Mailed-Cheeks, contains a numerous suite of
fishes to which the singular appearance of their head, variously
mailed and protected, gives a peculiar aspect that has always caused |
them to be arranged in special genera, although they have many |
close affinities with the Perches. ‘Their common characterconsists = —_
in the sub-orbital being more or less extended over the cheek and =
articulated behind with the preoperculum. ‘The Uranoscopus is
the only one of the preceding family which has any thing like it, but
the sub-orbital of the latter, although very broad, is connected be-

hind with the temporal bones, and not with the preoperculum. a
Linnzeus divided them into three genera, TRicta, Corrus, and =
Scorp#na; it has been found necessary, however, to subdivide wns u * SSioe

and-to add some of his GasTEROsTEI.

Trieta, Lin.

The above character strongly marked; an enormous sub-orbital completely
covering the cheek, and even articulated by an immovable suture with the
preoperculum, so as to.allow of no separate motion; sides of the head nearly
vertical, giving it a form approaching that of a cube, or parallelopiped, the
bones hard and rough. There are two distinct dorsals, and three free rays
under the pectoral. . Several species, when caught, utter sounds which
have procured for them in France their yulgar name of Grondins; ama
land they are called Gurnards.
The best of these divisions is 64

Tieatsiverants, Lacep. gale
So celebrated under the name of Flying Fishes; the subpectoral rays are Pe
much more numerous and longer; and intead of being free, as in the prece- ¥ ee ¥

ding ones, they are united by a membrane so as to form a supernumerary

Seen ; *
(204 | PISCES,

fin, aie than the fish, which supports it in the air for some time. Thus
they are seen flying above the surface of the water, in order to escape from
Dolphins and other varacious fishes; they fall into it again, however, in a
few seconds.

D. volitans, the Mediterranean species, is a foot long; brown above;
reddish beneath; fins black, variously marked with blue.

D. orientalis, Cuv., is a neighbouring species from the Indian Ocean.

Corrvus, Lin.
Head broad, depressed, mailed, and variously armed with spines or tuber-
cles; two dorsals; teeth front of the vomer, but none on the palatines; six
rays in the branchiz, and only three or four in the ventrals. The inferior
pectoral rays, as in Trachinus, are not branched,

Those that inhabit fresh water have a nearly smooth head, and but one
spine to the preoperculum; their first dorsal is very low. The most com-
mon species is

- C. gobio,L. (The River Bull- head. ) A small blackish fish, four or five
BE oa in length.

The salt water species are more spinous, and when irritated their head
becomes still more inflated.. Such is

C. .scorpius, L. (The Father-Lasher.) Three spines onthe preoper-
rege nn

Other groups have lately been observed, which are partly allied
to Cottus and partly to PCOrpans One of them is the

HemirrirTer vs, Cuyv.

The head depressed, and two dorsals as in Cottus; no regular scales on the
skin, but teeth in the palate. The head isbristly and spinous, and has seve-
ral cutaneous appendages. The first dorsal isdeéply emarginate, a circum-
stance which has led some authors to believe they had three.

But one species is known, (from North America,) Cottus tripterygius,
which is taken along with the Cod. From one to two feet long, tinged with
. yellow. and red, varied with brown.

Scorrana, Lin.

The head, like that of a Cottus, mailed and roughened, but compressed on
the sides; body covered-with scales; several rays in the branchie, and but a
single dorsal. If we except the armature of the cheek, and the tubercles,
which frequently give them an odd appearance, they closely approximate
to certain Percoides, such as the Acerinz and the Centropristes; but though
the inferior rays of their pectorals, as in Cottus, are articulated, they are
simple and not branched.

The remaining genera allied to or separated from Scorpena are Pterois,

Blepsias, Apistus, Agriopus, Pelor, Gasterosteus (Stickle-backs of Europe)
and the

ACANTHOPTERYGIL, | ses. SOG

Moiletiasreans Bl. Schn. |

A singular genus; the body is short, thick, and completely mailed ‘with
enormous angular, rough, and carinated scales; four or five stout free spines
supply the place of the first dorsal; each ventral consists of an immense
spine, in the angle of which a few soft and almost imperceptible rays are
concealed; head bulky and mailed; front gibbous; mouth large; short crow-
ded teeth in the jaws and palatines, but none in the yomer; eight rays in the
branchiz. ‘But one species is known; the

Mon. japonica, Bl. Schn. Six inches long; of a silvery white. Bh the
sea of SS gat ,

After this family we place the

OreEosoma, Cuv.

A Boal oval fish, whose whole body, above and beneath, is studded with
thick cones of a heavy substance. There are four of them on the back, and
ten on the belly, arranged in two series, with smaller intermediate ones.
It was discovered in the Atlantic, by Péron.

FAMILY III.
SCIENOIDES.

This family is closely related to the Percoides, and even presents
nearly similar combinations of external characters, particularly in the
indentations of the preoperculum, and in the spines of the opercu-
lum; but both vomer and palatines are without teeth; the bones of
the cranium and face are generally cavernous, and form a muzzle
more or less gibbous. ‘The vertical fins are atin 4 somewhat
scaly.

Some of the ‘Seaucitides have two dorsals, and others have but
one; among the former we first find the genus,

Scrana.
Whose common characters consist of a gibbous head, supported by caver

_ nous bones, two dorsals, or one deeply emarginate, whose soft part is
much longer than the spinous; a short anal, a dentated preoperculum, an

operculum terminating in points, and seven branchial rays. If it were not for

the absence of the palatine teeth, these fishes would resemble the Perches. —

Naturalists divide it into various subgenera. Some of the species, such
as the King-fish (an verre) inhabit the American seas.

The Scienoides, with a single dorsal, are subdivided according to
the number of their branchial rays.

206 PISCES.
These divisions are Hamulon, Pristoma, and Diagramma.

The Scienoides with a single dorsal and less than seven branchial
rays, are still more subdivided: in some of them the lateral line ex-
tends to the caudal; in ofhers it is interrupted. |

Those Scienoides which have less than seven branchial rays and
an interrupted lateral line, form several genera of small oval fishes,
prettily coloured, which may be distinguished by the armature of
their head. They are manifestly related to the genus Chetodon,
and resemble, externally, several of our fishes with labyrinthian
branchiz.

The genera are Amphiprion, Premnas, Pomacentrus, &c.

FAMILY IV.
SPAROIDES.

The Sparoides, like the Scienoides, have a palate destitute of
teeth. Their general figure and several details of their organization
are the same; they are also covered with scales more or less large,
but they have none on the fins. Their muzzle is not gibbous, nor are
the bones of their head cavernous; there are neither indentations in
their preoperculum, nor spines on their operculum. They never
have more than six rays in the branchie, They are ¢ divided accord-
ing to the form of their teeth.

In the first tribe, that of Sparvs, Cuv. thé sides of the jaws are
furnished with round molars like paving-stones; we subdivide it into

Sargus, Pagrus, Chrysophris, and Pagelus, differing in certain dental pecu-
liarities. The celebrated Sheephead of the Philadelphia market belongs to
" - first named genus.

_ In the second tribe there is but one genus,

Denrex, Cuv.

Chacerndd by conical teeth even on the sides of the jaws, generally in

one range, some of the anterior of which are drawn out into large hooks.

They would be rather closely allied to the genus Hemulon, were it not that

_ the indentation of the preoperculum is wanting, and that they have one ray

less in their branchie. The check is scaly. Two species are found in the
Mediterranean. rey

Teeth short and a or bent and es: all round the jaws: those
of the external row being the strongest; body elevated and thick; muzzle
short; jaws not em Two species are found in the Atlantic and

i a fourth tribe the teeth are e trenchant. It comprises two genera,
i abd Oblada.

FAMILY V.
MENIDES.

The Menides differ from the preceding families in the extreme ex-
tensibility and retractility of their upper jaw, which is owing to the

length of the intermaxillary pedicles which withdraw between the
‘orbits. Their body is scaly, as in Sparus, in which genus they have

hitherto been placed.

There are four genera: viz. Mena, Smaris, Cxsio and Gerres.

FAMILY VI.
SQUAMIPENNES.

So called, because the soft, and frequently the spinous parts of
their dorsal and anal fins are covered with scales, which encrust
them, as it were, and render it difficult to distinguish them from the
mass of the body. This is the most remarkable character of these
fishes, the body of which is generally much compressed, and the in-
testines long. ‘They were comprised by Linnzus in the genus

_ Cumtopon. .
So named from their teeth, which in length and tenuity resemble hairs, col-
lected in several close rows like a brush.. Their mouth is small; their dorsal
and anal fins are so completely covered with scales similar to those on the

back, that it is extremely difficult to ascertain where they commence. These _

fishes are very abundant in the seas of hot climates, and are adorned with
the most beautiful colours, circumstances which haye caused many to be

2 ae

208 : PISCES. |

figured, and rendered them common in our cabinets. They frequent rocky
shores, and are eaten.

This genus is now eerded into various subgenera, the most remarkable of
which is

Cuetmon, Cuv.

Beparated from Chztodon on account of the extraordinary form of the snout,
which is long and slender, only open at the extremity, and formed by a most
excessive prolongation of the intermaxillary and lower jaw. ‘Their teeth
are very fine and crowded, rather than like hairs.

One species, Chet. rostratus, L., has the faculty of spurting drops of water
on the insects it perceives on the shore, and thus bringing them within
reach. It is a common pastime of the Chinese at Java.

The following genera, which we place next to Chestodon on ac-
count of their scaly fins, differ greatly from it, however, in the teeth
with which their palatines and vomer are furnished. The genus

Brama, Bl. Schn.

Is connected with this family by the scales covering the vertical fins, which
have but a small number of spinous rays concealed in their anterior edges;
but they have slender, bent'teeth in the jaws and ‘palatines,’ an elevated
profile, very short snout, a forehead descending vertically, and a mouth,
when shut, that is almost vertical; the scales extend on to the maxillaries;
there are seven rays in the branchiz; a dorsal and low anal, but commencing
in a salient point.

But one species is known, Sparus Raii, Bl.,it inhabits the Mediterranean,
and sometimes strays into the ocean; an excellent fish, of a burnished steel
colour, which attains a large size, but is mani with various species of in-
testinal worms.

Pemrueris, Cuv.

A long and scaly anal, the dorsal short and elevated; head obtuse; the eye
large; a small spine on the operculum; small crowded teeth on the jaws,
-yomer and palatines. From the Indian Ocean.

Toxortes, Cuv.

The body short and compressed, the dorsal placed on the last half of the
body, with very stout spines, the soft part, as well as that of the anal which
corresponds to it, scaly; the snout depressed, short; lower jaw projecting
beyond the upper one; the small crowded teeth very short in both jaws,
the extremity of the vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and on the tongue; six
rays in the branchiz, inferior edge of the infra-orbital, and preoperculum,
‘finely serrate.

ACANTHOPTERYGIL. 209

The species known, Toxotes jaculator, Cuv., is celebrated for the same
faculty that distinguishes the Chat. rostratus. By spurting drops of water
on Insects which frequent aquatic plants, they are beaten down and brought
within its reach. It can force the water to a height of three or four feet,
and rarely misses its aim.

FAMILY VII.
SCOMBEROIDES.

Our seventh family is composed of a multitude of fishes with small
scales, a smooth body, and whose tail and caudal fin in particular
are extremely powerful.

This family is of the greatest utility to man, by the size and fla-
vour of its species, and their inexhaustible reproduction, which brings
them periodically into the same latitudes, where they constitute the
object of the most extensive fisheries.

‘

at. ae ie Scomser, Lin.
The first dorsal entire, while on the contrary, the last rays of the second, as
well as those of the anal which correspond to them, are detached, forming
what are termed false or spurious fins, or pinnez spuriz. The genus is sub-
divided as follows:

ScomBer, Cuv.

The Mackerels have a fusiform body covered. with uniformly small and
smooth scales; two little cutaneous crests on the sides of the tail; an empty
space between the first and second dorsal.

Sc. scombrus, L. (The Common Mackerel.) Blue back, varied with
black, undulating streaks; five false fins above and beneath.

_ Taynnvs, Cuv.

A soft corslet round the thorax, formed by scales larger and smoother than
those on the rest of the body; a cartilaginous carina between the two little
crests on the sides of the tail; the first dorsal extends close to the second.

Sc. thynnus,L. (The Tunny.) This fish has been taken in the Mediter-
ranean, from a very ancient date, and by its abundance constitutes a great
source of wealth to Provence, Sardinia, Sicily, &c. _ It is said to attain the
length of fifteen and eighteen feet, and has nine spurious fins above, and
as many beneath; the pectorals are one-fifth of its whole length.. There are
some other subgenera. rere

2B

210 PISCES.

Xipuras, Lin.

These fishes belong tothe family of the Scomberoides, and approach the
Tunnies particularly, in their excessively small scales, in the carine on the
sides of their tail, in the power of their caudal fin, and in their whole internal
organization. Their distinguishing character consists in the beak, (whence
their name of Sword-fish,) or ensiform point or tusk, which terminates their
upper jaw; a powerful weapon, with which they attack the largest sea ani-
mals. ‘This beak is chiefly composed of the vomer and intermaxillaries,
being strengthened at its base by the xthmoid, frontals, and mazxillaries.
Their branchiz are not pectinated; each of them being formed of two large
parallel laminz, the surface of which is reticulated. 'They swith with aston-
ishing swiftness, and their flesh is excellent.

Xiphias gladius, L. (The Sword-Fish.). The point horizontally flattened
and trenchant like the broad blade of a sword; sides of the tail strongly cari-
nated. It has but one dorsal, which rises from before and from behind; the
middle of it becoming worn with age gives it the appearance of being double.
It is one of the largest and best fishes of the European seas, frequently at-
taining the length of fifteen feet. It is more common in the Mediterranean
than in the Atlantic Ocean. A parasitic crustaceous animal penetrates into
its flesh and sometimes renders it so furious that it dashes itself on shore.

Cunrroyorus, Lacep.

A genus of Scomberoides characterized by the spines, which, in the Acan-
thopterygii in general, form the anterior portion of the dorsal, or a first
separate dorsal, but in them are free and unconnected by a common mem-
brane; they all have ventrals.. They are eubenaded into four subgenera. In

Naverarss, Rafin.

The dorsal spines are free; body fusiform; a carina in the sidlea of the tail
as in the Tunny, and two free spines before the anal fin.

The common species is blue with broad vertical bands of a much deeper
blue. The vulgar name of Pilot-fish owes its origin to the fact, that it follows
vessels to seize upon what may fall from them; and as a similar habit is ob-
served in the Shark, it has been said that the > loos acts as a guide or pilot
to the latter; it is not above a foot long.

There are various other genera belonging to this family, such as fthyn-
chobdella, Notacanthus, Seriola, Nometts, Carana, one Aes (The Com-
mon Dory), &c. &e.

ACANTHOPTERYGII. 211

FAMILY VIII.
T ANIOIDES.(1)

This family is closely connected with the Scomberoides, and its
first genus is even intimately allied with Gempilus and Thyrsites; the
fishes which compose it are elongated, flattened on the sides, and
have very small scales.

In the first tribe we findthe muzzle elongated, the mouth cleft and
armed with strong, pointed and trenchant teeth, and the lower jaw
advancing beyond the upper one: it comprises but two genera,

_ Lxrrporvs, Gouan.

Whose special character consists in the reduction of the ventrals to small
scaly plates. The thin and elongated body is furnished with a dorsal above,
which extends through “a itslength, with alow anal beneath, and terminates
in a well formed cau jhete. are eight rays in the branchiz.

+ Pprenronvs, Lin.

The same ‘form oPboayy eye and j jaws, as in Lepidopus; similar pointed
and trenchant teeth, anda dorsal extending along the back, but the ventrals
and caudal are wanting, and the tail is drawn out into a long, slender, and
compressed filament. In lieu of the anal there is merely a suite of small
and hardly perceptible spines on the under edge of the tail; the branchize
haye but sevenrays. They resemble gale silver ribands.

A second tribe comprehends ge genera in which the mouth is small,
and but ti cleft. _

pie wale.

xs
renncea Bl.

The body elongated oie 1 flat: asin all the preceding divisions, and totally
deprived of the anal fin; but there i is along dorsal whose lengthened anterior
rays form a sort of panache, but they are easily broken; the ventrals, when
not worn or broken, are very long, and the caudal, composed of very few
rays, rises sentially: from the extremity of the tail, which ends in a small
hook. |

The Arctic ocean “produces two species, called in Norway the King of
the Herrings; one of which is said by some to have one hundred and twenty
rays, and by others one hundred and sixty, and to attain the length of ten.
feet; the other has more than four hundred rays, and is eighteen feet in

(1) Riband-like.

212 PISCES.

length. The ventrals consist of a long filament dilated near the extremity.
They are also found in India. ,

StyLePHorvs, Shaw.

A vertical caudal, as in Gymnetrus, but shorter; the extremity of the tail,
instead of being curved into a small hook, is prolonged into a slender cord
longer than the body. But one specimen is known.

In a third tribe the snout is short, and the mouth cleft obliquely.

Crrota, Lin.

A long dorsal and anal, both reaching to the base of the caudal, which is
tolerably large; no rise in the cranium; snout short; lower jaw curved up-
wards; the teeth prominent, and the ventrals sufficiently developed.

Lornores, Giorna.

A short head, surmounted with a high osseous crest; to whose summit a long
and. stout spine is articulated, bordered behind with a membrane and a low
fin, whose rays are nearly all simple, extending from this spine to the point
of the tail, which has a distinct, but very small caudal.

FAMILY IX.
THEUTYES.

Our ninth family is as closely allied to the Scomberoides as the
preceding one, but in other points, such as the armature, which is
found in several genera on the sides of the tail, or in others, the
horizontal spine before the dorsal, &c. It contains but very few
genera; they all have a compressed, oblong body, a small mouth,
but slightly or not at all protractile, each jaw of which isarmed with
a single range of trenchant teeth; palate and tongue without.teeth,
and a single dorsal. ‘They are herbivorous, feeding on fucus and
other marine plants.

Sieanus, Forsk.

These fishes have a remarkable character—unique, in icthyology—in their
_ -ventrals, which are furnished with two spinous rays, one external, the other
internal; the three intermediate ones branching as usual. They have five
branchial rays, and a horizontal spine before the dorsal. The styloid bones
of their shoulder curve as they lengthen, so-as to unite at their extremities
with the first interspinal of the anal. Numerous species are found in the
indian Ocean.

ACANTHOPTERYGII. 213

The remaining genera are Acanthurus, (Surgeons) ca Naseus,
Azinurus, and Priodon. :

FAMILY X.
This family is distinguished by
LABYRINTHIFORM PHARYNGEALS.

By this we mean, that part of the superior pharyngeals of these fishes
are divided into small irregular lamellae, more or less numerous,
intercepting cells containing water, which thus flows upon and hu-
mects the branchize, while the animal is removed from its proper
element. By this it is enabled to quit the rivulet or pool; which
constitutes its usual abode, and crawl to a considerable distance
from it, a singular faculty, not unknown to the ancients, and which
induces the people of India to believe that they fall from heaven.
The two most remarkable genera of this family are the following.

Awnapas, Cuv.

It is in this genus that we find the greatest degree of complication in these
labyrinths; the third pharyngeals, however, have teeth arranged like paving
stones, and there are others behind the cranium. Their body is round and
covered with strong scales, their head broad, muzzle short and obtuse, and
mouth small; the lateral line is interrupted at its posterior third.

An. testudineus, Cuv., called the Paneiri or T’ree-Climber; highly celebrat-
ed, because it not only leayes the water, but, according to Daldorf, even
climbs up the shrubs on its banks; this latter assertion, however, is denied.
Found throughout all India, and the only species known. The

.

Opnicrernatus, Bl.

Resembles the preceding genus in most of its characters, and particularly
in the cellular conformation of the pharyngeals, which are adapted to retain
water. These fishes also creep to a considerable distance from their liquid
abodes, but what particularly distinguishes, and even separates, them from
all other Acanthopterygii, is the absence of spines in the fins, the first ray
of their ventrals at most excepted, and even that, though simple, is not
sharp and stiff. The jugglers of India exhibit this fish out of water, and
even the children amuse themselyes by forcing it to crawl upon the ground.
In the markets of China the larger species are cut up alive for distribution.
They may be divided by the number of their dorsal rays.

ae.
“

214 PISCES.

®

FAMILY XI.
MUGILOIDES.

Our eleventh family of the Reanthgpiorrat is coneaa of the
genus

Mvert, Lin.
These fishes present so many peculiarities in their organization, that they
may be considered as forming a distinct family; their body is almost cylin-
drical; covered with large scales, and furnished with two separate dorsals,

- the first of which has but four spinous rays; the ventrals are inserted a little

behind the pectorals. There are six rays in the branchiez; their head is
somewhat depressed, and covered with large scales or polygonal plates,
their muzzle very short. ‘Their transverse mouth, in consequence of a pro-
minence in the middle of the lower j jaw, which corresponds with a depress-
ion in the upper one, forms an angle, the teeth being excessively peers
and frequently almost imperceptible.

_ They resort to the mouths of rivers in large troops, ani aré continually
leaping out of the water; the European seas produce several species hitherto
very imperfectly ascertained; their flesh is esteemed.

MM. cephalus, Cuv. (The Common Mullet.) Distinguished from all the
other species of Europe by its eyes, which are half covered by two adipose
veils, adhering to the anterior and posterior edge of the orbit.

There are two other genera, Csdapalinn ds aha and thera, (the Aphyea
of the ancients).

* ae

FAMILY XII.
GOBIOIDES.

The Gobioides are Baown by the length and tenuity of the dorsal
spines.

Biennivs, Lin.
Blennies have a strongly marked character in the ventral fins, which are
placed before the pectorals and consist of only two rays. The body is
elongated and compressed, and has but a single dorsal almost entirely com-

_ posed of simple but flexible rays. They live in small troops among the

rocks on the coast, leaping and playing, and are capable of living without
water for some time. A slimy mucus is smeared over their skin, to which

_ they owe their Greek name of Blennius. They are now distributed in va-
_ rious subgenera, such as Myxodes, Salarias, Clinus, &e.

ACANTHOPTERYGH. 215

ANARRHICHAS, Lin.(1)
So very similar are these fishes to the Blenny, that I would willingly’ name
them Blennies without ventrals.

A. lupus, L.. (The Sea-Wolf) is the most common species; it inhabits
northern seas, and is frequently seen on the coast of Europe; six or seven
feet long; brown, with clouded bands of deep brown; the flesh resembling
that of an Eel. This fish is valuable to the Icelanders, who salt and dry the
flesh for food, employ the skin as shagreen, and the gall as soap. The

ee Gortvs, Lin.

Commonly called Gobies or Sea-Gudgeons, are instantly recognized by the
union of their thoracic ventrals, either along the whole, of their length, or
at least at their base, forming a single hollow disk more or less infundibuli-

form. The spines of the dorsal are flexible, the branchial apertures provi- —

ded with five rays only, and generally but slightly open. They are small

or moderate sized fishes, which live among the rocks neartheshore. They’

prefer a clayey bottom, where they excavate canals in which they pass the
winter. In the spring they prepare a nest in some spot abounding with
fucus, which they afterwards cover with roots of the Zostera; here the male
remains shut up, and awaits the females, who successively arrive to deposit
their eggs; he exhibits much care and courage in defending and Pom
them, This genus also is variously subdivided.

CaLLionyMvs, Lin.
Fishes of this genus have two strongly marked characters, one in their brane

chie, which have but a single aperture, consisting of a hole on each side of |

the nape, and another in their ventrals, which are placed underthe throat,
are separate, and larger than the pectorals. Their headis oblong and de-
pressed, their eyes approximated and directed upwards, their intermaxilla-
ries protractile, and their preopercula elongated behind and terminating in
some spines. Theirteeth are small and crowded, but there are none in the
palate. They are pretty fishes with a smooth skin, whose anterior dorsal,
supported by a few setaceous rays, is sometimes very elevated. The second
dorsal is elongated as well as the anal.

It is with some hesitation that I close this family with a genus
which will one day probably form the type of a separate family; I
mean the

» Currus, Stell.

Fishes with a tolerably long body, furnished with ciliated scales; a small —

(1) Anarrhichas, Climber, a name iavewted by Gesner because this fish i is
said to climb upon rocks and shoals by the aid of its fins and tail.

a oe ; pokes eae Saas SO ee

eke ae
+ oa r

21Gb. : - PISCcES.

unarmed head slightly cleft mouth, provided with anal qual, conical
teeth; the spines of whose dorsal are almost always very delicate, the fin
itself extending the whole length of the back. Their distinguishing char-
~ acter consists in several series of pores, similar to the lateral line, or, as it
were, in several lateral lines. They frequently have an appendage ¢ on the
_eye-brow, as is the case with certain Blennies, but their ventrals consist of
five soft rays, as usual, The species known are from the sea of Kamschatka.

FAMILY XIII.
PECTORALES PEDICULATI.

This family consists of certain Acanthopterygii whose carpal
“bones are elongated so as to form a sort of arm, which supports

* their pectorals. It comprises two genera, which are closely ap-

proximated, although authors have generally placed them at a dis-
tance from each other, and which are closely allied to the Gobioides.

Lorutvs, Lin. (1)
The general character of this genus, independently of the semi-cartilaginous

_ skeleton and the naked skin, consists in the pectorals being supported by

two arms, as it were, each of which is formed of two bones that have been

compared to the radius and ulna, but which in reality belong tothe carpus,

and which in this genus are longer than in any other; in the ventrals being
placed very far before these pectorals; in opercula and branchiostegous rays
enveloped in the skin, and, finally, in the only opening of the gills being a
hole situated behind the said pectorals. They are voracious fishes, which
survive a long time out of water, on account of the smallness of their bran-
chial apertures.

L. piscatorius, L.; Sea-Devil; Galanga, &c. (The Angler.) <A large fish,
of from four to five feet in length, inhabiting the seas of Europe, whose
hideous figure has rendered it celebrated.

FAMILY XIV.
LABROIDES.

This family is easily recognized; the body is oblong and ‘scaly; a
single dorsal is supported in front by spines, each of which is gene-

(1) Lophius, a name made by Artedi, from acgie (pinna), on account of
. the crests of their head. The ancients called them farpaxes, and Rana, or
merog. **

FR ea ea Be (an ae»
5 aes s
‘ . ACANTHOPTER .
rally sie wih mel vs are Cc

to the cranium, @
now resemblin

" ae,

a Biller and then pointed os

generally. stronger than usual.
Fe aa ee coe ae
- eos Lasrvus, Lin.

A very numerous genus of fishes which strongly scot each other in
their oblong form; their double fleshy lips, from which they derive their

name, one adhering immediately to the jaws and the other to the suborbi-

_ tals; their crowded branchie with five rays; their conical maxillary teeth,
the middle and anterior of which are the longest, and their'cylindrical and
blunt pharyngeal teeth arranged like a pavement, the upper ones on two

large plates, the lower on a single one which corresponds to the two others. er ‘
Our Blackfish or Tautog isa true Labrus. This genus is dividedinto nine —

subgenera, differing in the teeth, mouth, &c. &c. The most remarkable
is the ;

4

EriButvs, Cuy.

Reniarkable for the excessive protractility of their mouth, which by : -

see-saw motion of their maxillaries, and the sliding forwards of their inter- |
maxillaries, instantly becomes a kind of tube. They employ this artifice to
capture the small fry which pass within reach of this singular instrument.

But a single species is known; Sparus insidiator, Pal., of a reddish co-.

lour. From the Indian Ocean.

Curomis, Cuv.
The lips, protractile intermaxillaries, pharyngeals, dorsal filaments, and

port of a Labrus; but the teeth of the pharynx and jaws resemble those of | :

a card, and there is a range of conical ones in front. The vertical finsare ©

filamentous, those of the belly being even frequently extended into long

threads; the lateral line is interrupted.
C. vulgaris, The common or black Coracinus of the ancients. A small

chesnut-brown fish, taken by thousands in the Mediterranean.

Scarus, Lin.

A genus of fishes with remarkable jaws (that is, their intermaxillary and
premandibular bones), whichare convex, rounded, and furnished with teeth,
arranged like scales upon their edge, and upon their anterior surface; these
teeth succeed each other from behind, forwards, so that those of the base
aré the newest, and in time form a row on the edge. They have the ob-
long form of a Labrus, large scales, and an interrupted lateral line; they
have three pharyngeal plates, two above and one below, furnished with
teeth as ina Labrus; but these teeth are transverse blades, and not like
rounded paving stones.

2C

. a

=

218 hae -. PISCEs.

= species ahi or. aaa: sscahting to the season, is found in the iArchipe:
0, which is the Scarus creticus, Aldrov. and which late researches have

& C y nvinced me is the Scarus, so highly celebrated among the ancients; the
/ same that Elipertius:Optatus, commander of a Roman fleet, during the reign

of Claudius, went to Greece in search of, for the purpose of distributing it
__ through the sea of Haly-; tt isan article of food in Greece at the pre-
sent day.

Numerous species are found in the seas coe hot climates. The form of their
“jaws and the splendour of their colours have caused them to receive the

* ; oy wee ig eoreliaten of Parrot-fishes.
+ a FAMILY XV.
“7 a | =
ite ‘ FISTULARID A.

The fishes of this family’are characterized by a long tube; in the
fore-part of the cranium, formed by the prolongation of the zth-
,moid, vomer, preopercula, interopercula, pterygoidals and tympa-
nals, and at the extremity of which is the mouth, composed as usual
of the intermaxillaries, maxillaries, and the palatine and mandibu-
lary bones. ‘s

Some of them, the Fisiilane: fiom a cylindrical body, in others,

the Centrisci, it is oval and compressed.
i Gh a a
a 5 Da
Fistutaria, Lin.
The name of these fishes, in particular, is derived from the tube common to

‘the whole family. The jaws are at its extremity, slightly cleft in a nearly

horizontal direction. This head, thus elongated, constitutes the third or
fourth of the total length of the body, which is itself long and thin. There
are six or seven rays in the *branchiz, and some bony appendages extend
behind the head, upon the anterior part of the body, which they strengthen
more or less. The dorsal is opposite to the anal.

Cerntriscus, Lin.

In addition to the tubular snout of the family, the fishes of this genus have
an oval or oblong (not elongated) body, compressed on the side, and tren-
chant beneath; branchie composed of but two or three slender rays; a first
spinal dorsal and’small ventrals behind the pectorals. The mouth is very
small, and cleft obliquely.

The second division of common fishes, or that of the Malacop-
terygii, contains three orders, characterized by the position of the
ventrals or by their absence.

ey ORDER Il.

MALA {OOPTERYGH ead ae be

pom

In this order the vicitenle are suspended to the under part of the. é
abdomen and behind the pectorals, without being attached to “the. ig
bones of the shoulder. It is the most numerous of the three, and

comprehends most of the fresh-water fishes. We subdivide it ii into
five families. ‘ ‘oe (
i Ni ga AMR oo
% - CIPRINID.

The Ciptinide are écogniged by the slightly cleft mouth; the .
weak jaws, generally edentated, and whose border is formed by! the
intermaxillaries; by the deeply.dentated pharyngeals which compose
the trifling armature of the jaws, and by the smaller number of the

branchial rays. ‘Their body is scaly, and they have no adipose dor-
sal, such as we shall findin the Siluri and in the Salmons. Their sto- °

mach has no cul-de-sac, neither are there any cecal appendages to
their pylorus. Ofall the fishes they are the least carnivorous.

. Cyprinus, Lin.

A very numerous and natural genus, easily distinguished by the small mouth,
edentated jaws, and the three flat rays of the branchiz. The tongue is
smooth; the palate provided with a mares soft, and singularly irritable sub-
stance commonly termed a ‘‘carp’s tongue.”? The pharynx presents a
powerful instrument of mastication, consisting of stout teeth attached to the
inferior pharyngeals, which are so arranged as to be‘able to squeeze alli-
mentary matters between them, and of a stony disk set in a wide cavity un-
der a process of the sphenoid. These fishes have but one dorsal, and their
body i is covered with scales which most commonly are very large; they live
in fresh water, and are perhaps the least carnivorous of the whole class,
feeding chiefly on seeds, grass, and even ooze. go

They are variously subdivided. To Cyprinus proper, or rae true ve
—— the well known cae

x

oes

~ (1) Malacopterygii, soft-finned.

2 at

e

es

S pete

220 | PISCES.

' Cyp. auratus, L. (The Golden Carp or Gold and Silver Fish. ) Dorsal
and anal spines flentated as in the Common Carp. This fish is at first
blackish and by degrees assumes that splendid golden red which charac-
terizes it; some, however, are of a silver colour, and others again are marked
by various shades of the three colours. Individuals are found without a
- dorsal, others have a very small one; the caudal of a third is very large and
is divided into three or four lobes; the eyes of a fourth are excessively dis-
tended; all these accidental changes, which are the result of domestication,
may be variously combined.

To the other subdivisions belong the Lreams, Gudgeons, Tenches,
Suckers, &c.

Cosrris, Lin.
The ‘hell small, body elongated, invested with small scales and covered
- with mucus; ventrals very far back and above thema single small dorsal;
the mouth at the extremity of the snout, but slightly cleft, without teeth,
but encircled by lips fitted for sucking, and with cirri; but three rays in
the branchiz, the apertures of which are small; the infericr pharyngeals
strongly dentated.

Anasteprs, Bl.

The fishes of this genus, for a long time and very improperly united with
the Cobites, possess very peculiar characters; the cornea and iris of their
very prominent eyes, which are placed under a roof formed on each side by
the frontal, are divided into two portions by trafisverse bands, so that the
organ of sight has two pupils, and appears to be double, although it has but
_ one crystalline and one vitreous humour, and but one retina, a peculiarity
of which there is no other example among vertebrated animals.

But a single species is known; an Anableps tetrophtalmus, BI. ; it inhabits
the rivers of Guiana.

FAMILY II.
ESOCES.

We find no adipose fin in this family. The edge of the upper
jaw is formed by the intermaxillary, or when it is not completely so
formed, the maxillary is edentated and concealed in the thickness of
the lips. The fishes which compose it are extremely voracious.
With the exception of the Microstome, all those that are known
have the dorsal opposite to the anal.. Linneeus united them in the
genus . )

MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 201

_ Esox, Lin. nm , nie
The Pikes, properly 80 called, ie small intermaxillaries furnished with little
pointed teeth in the middle of the upper jaw, of which they form the two-
thirds, those on the sides of the jaw being edentated. The vomer, pala-
tines, tongue, pharyngeals and Tays of the branchiz, bristled with teeth

resembling those of a card; a series of long pointed teeth onthe sides ofthe

lower jaw.

E. lucius,L. (The Common Pike.) Well known as one of the most
voracious and destructive of all fishes, but whose flesh is highly esteemed.

This species, which inhabits Europe, is found in the fresh waters of North .

America, where two other species are also to be met with; the flanks of the
one, . Esox reticularis, Lesueur, are marked with brownish lines, sometimes
resembling net-work; the other, H’sox estor, is sprinkled with round black-
ish spots.

» This genus is also subdivided into several subgenera. The most remar- i

kable is the

Betonez, Cuv.
The whole edge of the upper jaw, which as well as the lower one is ex-

tended into a long snout, formed by the intermaxillaries,—both furnished. :

with small teeth, no others in the mouth, and those of the pharynx en pavé. -

The body is elongated and covered with scales, which are not very appa-
rent, one longitudinal carinated range near the lower edge excepted. The
bones are very remarkable for their colour, which is a beautiful green.

B. vulgaris. (The Gar-Fish.) Two feet long; green above, white be-
neath; found on the coast of France, where its flesh is much esteemed, not-
withstanding the colour of the bones. Neighbouring species inhabit all

seas. The bite of one of them, which is said to attain a length of feet:

is considered dangerous.

Exocertvs, Lin.

These well known, or F/ying-/ishes, as they are called, are instantly distin-
guished among the Abdominales by the excessive size of their pectorals,
which are sufficiently large to support them in the air for a few moments.
Their head and body are scaly, and a longitudinal range of carinated scales

forms a salient line on the lower part of each flank, as in the Hemiramphi, ©

&c. The head is flattened above and on the sides; the dorsal placed above
the anal; the eyes large, the intermaxillaries without pedicles and constitu-
ting the whole edge of the upper jaw; their two jaws are furnished with
small pointed teeth, and their pharyngeals with teeth like a pavement.

They do not fly far: rising in the air to avoid their voracious enemies, they
soon fall into the sea, their wings merely acting as parachutes. Birds pur-
sue them through the air and Fishesthrough the water. They are found in
all'the seas of hot and temperate climates. _

E. exilens, Bl. Common in the Mediterranean, and easily recognized by

ey
y %, ,
* re *< » Sia

+f ke
bik

«

222 pain ees SRESCES. :

a
the length of its ventrals, placed posterior to the middle of the body; the
fins of the young are marked with black bands.

E. volitans, Bl. Common in the Atlantic Ocean, and has small’ ventrals

placed anterior to the middle of the body.

iB iP

_ The American seas produce species with cirri, which are ‘sometimes: sim-

5 ple, sometimes double, and even ramous.

)

Next to the family of the Esoces we place a genus of fished which,
though varying but little from the former, has some anatomical dif-
ference. It will most probably give rise toa particular family. It
is the Mormyrus, Lin. ‘They are found in the Nile.

-

— FAMILY IIL.
SILURIDA. . a.

This family is distinguished from all others of the order by the
want of true scales, having merely a naked skin or large osseous
plates. The intermaxillaries, suspended under the ethmoid, form
the edge of the upper jaw, and the maxillaries are reduced to sim-
ple vestiges, or are extended into cirri. The first ray of the dorsal
and pectoral is, almost always, a strong articulated spine, and there
is frequently an adipose one behind, as in the Salmon.

Sirurvs, Lin.

4 ous genus, easily recognized by its nudity, the mouth cleft in the

remity of the snout, and in the greater number of the subgenera, by the
ri spine which forms the first ray of the pectoral. It is so articulated
with the bone of the shoulder that the fish can either depress it, or raise it

_ perpendicularly, when it is immovable, constituting a dangerous weapon,

wounds from which are considered as. poisoned, an idea arising from the fact
that tetanus frequently ensues.. They are usually called Cat-jish.
S. glanis, L. . The largest fresh water fish found in Europe, and the only
_ one of this extensive genus that it possesses; it is smooth, black, greenish,
ed with black above, with yellowish white beneath; head large; with
cirri; it sometimes exceeds six feet in length, and weighs three hundred
unds. It inhabits the rivers of Germany and Hungary, the lake of
payer &c., and conceals itself in the mud to watch for prey. Thé flesh,
hich i - fat, is employed in some places for the same pepors as lard.
r ube various subgenera.

Hy. MaLarTERuRvs, Lacep.-
-Tadistinguished from Silurus, properly so called, by the dbselice of the radi-

_ MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. =

ated fin on the back, there being nothing but a “Peat adioake ioe on the
tail, and by the total deficiency of a spine in the pectorals, whose rays are
entirely soft. The head as well as the body is covered with a smooth skin; .
the teeth are email and crowded, and arranged in a broad crescent both ge ie
above and below; there are seven rays in the branchiz, and the jaws and. as
viscera resemble those of a Silurus. | a x i
MM. electricus, the Raasch or Thunder of the Arabs. The only species — ES
known; it t has six cirri, and the head is not so big as the body, which is en-
larged forwards. This celebrated fish, like the Torpedo and Gymnotus, has
the faculty of of communicating an electric shock. The seat of this power —
seems to be in a particular tissue, situated between the skin and the mus-

cles, and presenting the appearance of a fatty cellular tissue abundantly, &
furnished with nerves. From the Nile and the Senegal. t .
The eng geaere of this family are Aspedro and Loricaria..
d e
a 3 FAMILY IV.
ke
SALMONIDES. we ge
a
The Salmonides, according to Linnzus, form but a single great

genus, clearly characterized by a scaly body, with a first dorsal,
whose rays are all soft, followed by a second one small and adipose,
that is formed of skin filled with fat, and unsupported by rays. It
comprises fishes with numerous ceca anda natatory bladder; nearly
all of them ascend rivers, and are highly esteemed.- The

naturally voracious. The structure and armature of the j
singularly various.

Saumo, Lin.

The Salmon, properly so called, or rather, the Trout, has a great portion ™
of the edge of the upper jaw formed by the maxillaries; a range of point-
ed teeth in the maxillaries, intermaxillaries, palatines and mandibularies,
and a double one on the vomer, tongue, and pharyngeals; so that, of all
fishes it is the most completely furnished with teeth. In the old male ~ a
the end of the lower jaw is bent up towards the palate, where a cavity re- ees
ceives it when the mouth is closed. The ventrals are opposite to the

dle of the first dorsal, and the adipose to the anal. There are ten branchial i
raysorithereabout. The body is usually spotted, and the flesh good. These . rr
fishes ascend rivers to spawn, leaping over cataracts, &c., and are even nae
found in the brooks and small lakes of the highest mountains. * aS ‘ ng

S. sular,L. (The Salmon.) The largest species of the genus, with re #.
flesh and. seetiralar brown spots, which soon disappear in fresh water; ‘Gens. ni .
cartilaginous hook formed by the lower jaw is inconsiderable even inthe

" on if ~ . oe a: * 2k
. Si ae
a

a

224 : PISCES.

old male. From all the Arctic seas, whence it enters the rivers in the spring.
The value of this fishery in all northern countries is well known. _

Besides these Salmons and Trouts which are found in Europe, several
others have been described by American naturalists, but they have fotbeen
sufficiently compared with the former.

In one of the various subdivisions of this great genus (Osmerus) we find

the Smelt.

STERNOPTYX, Herman.
A genus of small fishes with a very elevated and compressed body, support-

ed’ by the ribs; their mouth is directed upwards; their humerals form a

trenchant crest in front, terminated below by a small spine, and the bones
of the pelvis form another, also terminated by a small spine in front of the
ventrals. ‘There is a series of small fossulz along each side of the pelvic
crest which has been considered as a festooned duplicature of the sternum,

whence the name of Sternoptyx. They are taken in the warm parts of the

Atlantic Ocean.

FAMILY V.
4 CLUPE.

This family is easily recognized; there is no adipose fin; the up-
per jaw is formed, as in the Trouts, by intermaxillaries without pe-
dicles in the middle, and by the maxillaries on the sides; the body
is always covered with numerous scales, and in the greater number
we find a natatory bladder and many ceca. A part only of the
family ascend rivers.

Cuvupea, Lin.
The Herrings have two well marked characters in the narrow and short in-

termaxillaries, that constitute but a small portion of the upper jaw, the sides

of which are completed by the maxillaries, so that these sides are alone pro-
tractile; and in the inferior edge of the body, which is compressed, and
where the scales form notches resembling those of a saw. The maxillaries
besides, are divided into three parts. The branchiz are so much cleft, that
all the fishes of the genus are said to die instantly when taken from the
water. The sides of the branchial rays next to the mouth are pectiniform.
Of all fishes, these have the finest and most numerous bones.

C. harengus,L. (The Common Herring.) This celebrated fish leaves
the Arctic seas every summer and descends in autumn on the western coast
of France in numberless legions, or rather in solid shoals of incalculable ex-

tent, spawning on the way, and arriving at the mouth of the British chan-
nel in the middle of winter, in a very extenuated condition. Whole fleets

HLS z

MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 225

are occupied in this fishery, the extent anid popeptance’ of which are too |

well known to need a The best are those taken in the North;
such as are cau ght on the coast of Lower Normandy are lean, dry, and of
a disagreeable flavour.

To this division or Clupea proper, belong the Sprat, White-Bait, Pilchard,
and Sardine. |

Atosa, Cuy.

Differs roils otupes: properly so styled, in an emargination of the middle
of the upper jaw; all the other Pariyicts are those of the Pilchard and
Sardine.

A. vulgaris. (The Shad.) A much larger and thicker fish than the
Herring, attaining a length of three feet, and distinguished by the absence
of sensible teeth and byan irregular black spot behind the gills. Itascends
the rivers in spring, and is then highly esteemed; when taken at sea it is
dry and of a disagreeable flavour. ©

Next to the true Clupew come some genera, which approach

them in’the trenchant and indented abdomen. They are Odontog-

nathus,, Pristigaster, Notopterus, Engraulis (the Anehory Me-
galops, ns“ Hyodon, &ec. wet

»

ORDER III.
MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI.

This order is characterized by ventrals inserted under the p ieee
rals; the pelvis is also directly suspended to the bones of the shoul-
der. It contains almost as many families as genera.

FAMILY I.
GADITES. | |
This family is almost wholly composed of the great genus

Ganvs, Lin.

Recognized by the ventrals, which are pointed and attached to the thitde

The body is moderately elongated, slightly compressed, and covered with

rather small and soft scales; the head is well proportioned, but without
2D

J >
=e

the

Moar “is

scales; all the fins are soft; the jaws and front - the. vomer armed. with
pointed, unequal, moderate or ‘small teeth, disposed in several rows, and
a ee a card or rasp; the branchize are large and have seven rays.
. genus have two or three fins on the back, and a distinct. cau-
tomach forms a strong and large sac. The natatory bindder is
, and frequently dentated on the sides. “a

er number of these fishes inhabit cold or temperate seas, and
chek <a of i important fisheries. Their white flesh, easily sep

Week

} i Gshon. L. (The Cod.) irom two to three feet long; back
spotted. with yellowish and brown; it inhabits the whole: Northern Ocean,
and menlglien so excessively in north seGindes, that whole esis are annus

Gadus aglefinus, L | (The Haddock. ) ‘The back Rocio belly silvery,

-and lateral line black; a blackish spot behind the pectoral; quite\as numer-

ous in northern latitudes as the Cod, but not so much esteemed. |

In the subgener, no Gadus we find the Whiting, Hake, Lingeh &e.

"FAMILY IL.
PLANI.

_ The second family of the Malacopterygii Subrachiati, commonly |
called Flat-fishes, comprises the great genus

Prevronecrss, Lin,(1)
These fishes present a character, which, with respect to vertebrated ani-
mals, is perfectly unique: it is the total want of symmetry, in the head, where
both. eyes, are on. one side, which always remains uppermost when the ani-
mal is swimming, and which is always deeply coloured, while that on which

_ the eyes are wanting is always whitish. The remainder of the body,

although, generally speaking, formed as usual, participates a little in this
irregularity. Thus the two sides of the mouth are not equal, and the two
pectorals are rarely so. Their body is strongly compressed and vertically
elevated; the dorsal extends along the whole back; the anal occupies the
under part of the body, and almost seénis.to be continued forwards by the
ventrals, which are frequently united with it. There are six rays in the

(1) Pleuronectes, a name formed by Artedi from waeupe the flank, and vx-
«us aswimmer, because they swim on the side. The ancients gave them dif-
ferent names according to the species, jsuch as Passer, Peper Bu-

ers &e..

opposite to that in 1

contournés or revel : ;

alike, when they 2 atten doublés or doubled; it is most

brown side which is thus snniiessi thot it Oe

white ones! 4 3.) Papeete
The subdivisions bag “a genus include the Place Flounder, So

Holibut, te enh Ee

FAMILY Il.
-DISCOBOLI.

These fishes, so called on account of
ventrals, form two genera. Ca

nr: LurapocastEr, Gou 3

The small fishes which compose this genus are remarkable for the following
characters. Their ample pectorals having reached the inferior surface of

the trunk, assume stouter rays, curve slightly forwards, and unite with each

other on the throat by a transverse membrane directed forwards, which is
formed by the union of the ventrals. The body is smooth and without

scales, the head broad and depressed, the snout salient and protractile; the
branchiz, but slightly cleft, are furnished with four or five rays, and they . .
have but a single soft dorsal opposite to a similar anal.

Cyctoprerts, Lin. eA

This genus is well marked by the ventrals, whose rays, suspended saga |
the pelvis, and united by a single membrane, form an oval and concave
disk, used by the fish as a sucker to attach itself to rocks. The mouth is
wide, and its jaws and pharyngeals furnished with small and pointed teeth;
opercula small; branchie closed below, and provided with six rays; pecto-
rals very large, and uniting almost beneath the throat, as if to embrace the oe
disk of the ventrals. - a

Cyclopterus lumpus, L. ~ (The Ss iapancker. ) The first dorsal so enyel-
oped in a thick and tubercular skin, that it has the appearance, externally, =
of being a simple dorsal hump; there are three ranges of thick conical tu- <a
bercles on each side of it. It feeds on Medusz and other gelatinous ani- eae
mals, particularly in the North. Its flesh is soft and insipid; heavy and with Ber
scarcely any means of defence, it becomes the prey of the Seal, Shark, &e. e
The male is said to keep careful watch over the eggs. ‘

a >

228 : = PISCES, ~

‘ Ecueneis, Lin. Foo RES +
This genus, as well as that of Pleuronectes, might forma particular family
in the order of the Malacopterygii Subrachiati. The fishes of which it con-
sists are remarkable for a flattened disk placed upon their head, composed
of acertain number of transverse, cartilaginous laminz, directed obliquely
“ backwards, dentated or spiny on their posterior edge, and movable, so that
by creating a vacuum between them, or by hooking onto various bodies by
means of the spines, they are enabled to attach themselves firmly thereto,
a circumstance which gave rise to the fabulous saying, that the Remora
possessed the power of suddenly stopping a vessel in the middle of its
swiftest course. ¢
The species are not numerous; the most common one that inhabits the
Mediterranean, E’chen. remora, L. well known by the name of Remora, is
the shortest, and has but eighteen laminz in its disk.

ORDER IV. |
MALACOPTERYGII APODES.

This order may be considered as forming but a single natural
family, that of the

ANGUILLIFORMES,

Fishes with an elongated form, a thick and soft skin which almost
renders its scales invisible, and but few bones. The great genus

Morena, Lin.

Is recognized by the little opercula concentrically surrounded by the rays,
all of which are enveloped in the skin, which only opens at a considerable
distance back by a hole or species of tube, an arrangement which, by more
completely protecting the branchiz, allows these fishes to remain some
time out of water without perishing. Their body is long and slender; their
scales, as if encrusted in a fat and thick skin, are only distinctly visible after
desiccation; they have neither ventrals nor, ceca, This genus has been
successively separated into five or six genera, which naturalists are com-
pelled to subdivide still more.

ANGUILLA.

Eels are distinguished by the two-fold character of pectoral fins and of
branchiez opening under them on each side.

MALACOPTERYGII APODES. 229

: / Coxozn, Cuv.

The doeiad commencing close to the Cech or even on ptr dies —
per jaw longest in all the ‘known species.

Mur. conger, L. (The Conger Eel.) Found in all the seas of Sethiied
it attains the length of five or six feet and the thickness of a man’s leg; dorsal
and anal edged with black; lateral line dotted with whitish. It is not in
much request for the table.

Morzna, Thunb.

The Murznz, properly so called, have no vestige of pectorals; their bran-
chiz open on each side by a small hole; their opercula are so thin, and
their branchiostegal rays so slender and concealed under the skin, that able
naturalists have denied their existence.

M. helena, L. Common in the Mediterranean; a fish much esteemed by

the ancients, who fed it in ponds expressly constructed for that purpose.
The history of Vedius Pollio, who caused his transgressing slaves to be
flung alive into these ponds as food for the Murenz, is well known. It at-
tains a length of three feet and more, is mottled with brown and yellowish,
and is excessively voracious.

It is immediately after this great genus of the Murzene that should

be placed a newly discovered fish, which is one of the most singular
of the whole class; I mean the

SaccorpHarynx, Mitch.

Whose trunk, susceptible of being so inflated as to resemble a thick tube,

terminates in a very long and slender tail, surrounded by an extremely low
dorsal and anal, which unite at its point. The mouth, armed with sharp
teeth, opens far behind the eyes, which are placed close to the very short
point of the snout. The branchial aperture consists ina hole under the
pectorals, which are very small.

This fish attains a large size, and appears to be voracious. It has only
been seen in the Atlantic Ocean, floating on the surface oF the dilatation of
its throat.

Gymnorvs, Lin.(1)
The gills partly s so clased by a membrane, as in Anguilla, but opening be-
fore the pectorals.
G. electricus, L.. (The Electrical Gymnotus); which, from its almost uni-
form shape and obtuse head and tail, has also been called the Electrical Eel.
It is from five to six feet long, and communicates such violent shocks that

(1) Gymnotus, or, properly speaking, “See (Bare-back), a name
given to these fishes by Artedi.

®

230 Sa BS

men and horses are struck down by them. This power is dependent on

~ the will of the animal, which gives it what direction it pleases, and renders

it effective, even at a distance, killing fishes therewith, so situated. It is,
however, dissipated by use, and to renew it, the Gymnotus requires rest
and nourishing food.. The organ which is the seat of this singular faculty,
extends along the whole under side of the tail, occupying about half its
thickness; it is divided into four longitudinal fasciculi, two large ones above
and two smaller ones below, and against the base of the anal fin. The lit-
tle cells, or rather the little prismatic and transverse canals formed by the
two kinds of lamine that unite the bundles, are filled with a gelatinous mat-
ter, and the whole apparatus receives a proportionably large number of
nerves. ,

i Gymnarcuvs, Cuv..

- The Bucy sey and tlongated, and the gills slightly open before the pecto-

rals as in Gymnotus; but a fin, with soft rays, occupies the whole length of
the back; and there is none behind the anus, nor under the tail, which ter-
minates in a point. The head is conical and naked, the mouth small, one
furnished with a single row of small trenchant teeth.

G. niloticus. ‘The only species known; discovered in the Nile by M
Riffault.

LEPTOCEPHALUs, Penn.

The branchial aperture before the pectorals; body compressed like a riband;
head extremely small, with a short and somewhat pcinted snout; pectorals
almost imperceptible, or totally wanting; the dorsal and anal hardly visible,
and uniting at the point of the tail. The intestines opeupy, but an ex-

tremely narrow line along the inferior edge.

ZL. morisii, Gm., inhabits the coast of France and England. Several other
species, however, are found in the seas of hot climates, all of them as thin
as paper and transparent as glass, so that even the skeleton is not visible.
The profound study of their organization is one of the most intetesting to
which travellers can devote themselves.

Opuipium, Lin.
Dorsal and anal fins united with that of the tail, and terminating the body
in a point; the body so elongated and compressed that it has been compared
to a sword, and invested like that of an Eel with small scales planted i in the

i‘ thickness of the skin. The Ophidii, however, differ from Felsin their well
_ eleft. branchiz, which are furnished with a very apparent operculum and a

membrane with short rays, Their dorsal rays are articulated, but not
branched.

AmmMopytTss, Lin.
An elongated body like that of the preceding’ fishes, provided with a fin,

"7
“*
. ‘

we +

the tail; these three po, cate are oad by free spaces. “The snout
is acute; the upper jaw susceptible of extension, and the lower one, when
at rest, longer than the other.

‘ORDER V.
-LOPHOBRANCHI(1).

a

All the shen of which we have hitherto he per not only. a

ire or fibrous skeleton, and complete and free jaws, but their

-branchiz are uniformly composed of laming, or are pectiniform.

-In this order, however, we likewise find the jaws free and complete; .

but it is eminently distinguished by the: gills, which, instead of
resembling, as usual, the. teeth of a comb, are divided into’ small
round tufts, arranged in pairs along the branchial ,arches,-a struc-
ture of which no other fishes, present any. example... They are

enclosed beneath a large operculum, tied down: on: all sides, by a

membrane; which leaves only a single small orifice for, the exit of the

water,,and exhibiting in its thickness only vestiges of; rays... ‘These

fishes are also recognized by the scutellated.,plates of mail which
cover their body, and usually render it angular. They are generally
small, and almost without flesh.
/ y Ti ;
SynenaTHUus, ed (2)

The Syngnathi constitute -a-numerous genus ‘characterized by a tubular
snout, formed, like that,of the Fistularidz, by the prolongation of the
ethmoid, yomer, tympanals, preopercula, ‘subopercula, &c., and)terminated
by an ordinary mouth, but one that is cleft almost vertically on its extremity.
The respiratory aperture is near. the nape; and the ventrals are. wanting.
There is a peculiarity in the production of these fishes, whose ova slip into

tail; it ot ae spontaneously for the Qeapag of the fry..

(1) Tufted gills.

(2) From cov and yraSoc fomeal pa a name composed by Artedi, wha

thought that the tube of the snout of these & fishes was formed by the union
of their jaws.

.

>

a pouch formed by an inflation of the skin and are hatched there; thispouch,

» in some, is situated under the abdomen, and in others under the base of the | a o. cod

~

232 PISCES,

There are three shot hte viz. Hippocampus Sa Sterapred Solenosto-
mus, and Pegasus.

ORDER VI,
PLECTOGNATHI(1).

We have now passed from the preceding five orders of bony or
fibrous fishes, with free and complete jaws, to the sixth, which may
be approximated to the Chondropterygii, with which it is allied by
the'imperfection of the jaws, and the tardy induration of ‘the skele-

ton; this skeleton, however, is fibrous, and’ its whole structure is that

of ordinary fishes.’ ‘The most distinguishing character of the order

consists'in the maxillary bone being soldered to the side of the in-
‘‘termaxillary, which alone constitutes the jaw, and in the’ mode in
which the palatine arch.is connected with the cranium, which, being

by a suture, consequently renders it immovable. Besides this; the
opercula and rays are concealed under a thick skin, through which

‘only a small branchial fissure.is visible. Of ribs, nothing is to be
- found but very small vestiges. ‘There are no true ventrals.

This order comprises two very natural famnilive, characterized by
their mode of dentition, = ,

FAMILY I.
GYMNODONTES(2).

The Gymnodontes have jaws, which, instead of teeth, are fur-

nished with an ivory substance, internally divided into lamine, whose
‘ensemble resembles the beak of a Parrot, and which in fact consists
_ of true teeth united, that succeed each other as fast as they are de-

stroyed by trituration.. The opercula are small, and there are five
rays on each side, all of which are but imperfectly seen. “They live
on Crustacea and fucus, their flesh is mucous, and that of several
species is considered poisonous, at least in certain seasons.

, (1) Cheeks united by suture. | (2) Naked teeth.

PLECTOGNATHI. 233°

Two of the genera, Tetraodon and Diodon, have the faculty of
swelling themselves up like a balloon, by filling their stomach (or
rather a sort of very thin and extensible crop, which occupies the
whole length of the abdomen, and adheres closely to the peritoneum,
a.circumstance which has occasioned it to be considered at one
time as the peritoneum itself, and at another as a species of epi-
ploon) with air. When thus inflated, they roll over, and float on the.
surface, with the abdomen upwards, unable to direct their course;.
but they are extremely well defended while in this position by the.
erection of the spines with which their skin is everywhere furnished.

Dropon, Lin.

So called because the jaws are undivided and formed of one piece above-
and another below. Behind the trenchant edge of each of these pieces, is.
a round portion, transversely furrowed, which constitutes a powerful instru-
ment of mastication. The skin is everywhere so armed with stout pointed
spines, that when inflated, they resemble the burr of a chestnut tree. A
number of species inhabit the seas of hot climates. f
_ Trrraopon, Lin.

Jaws divided in the middle by a suture, so as present the appearance. of
four teeth, two above and two below; spines pet and low. Several spe-
cies are said to be poisonous.

Crpuatus, Sh.

Jaws undivided as in Diodon; but the body, compressed and spineless, is
not susceptible of inflation, and the tail is so short and high that this fish
resembles one whose posterior portion has been truncated, producing a
singular appearance, that is amply sufficient to distinguish it. A thick layer
of a gelatinous substance is spread under the skin.

C. brevis, Sh. (The Short Sunfish.) Four feet and more in length,
and weighing upwards of three hundred pounds; the skin is very rough, and
of a fine silver colour. European seas.

- Triopon, Cuv.

We also make a separate genus of these fishes, whose upper jaw is divid-
ed as in Tetraodon, and the lower one single, as in Diodon. An enormous
dewlap almost as long as the body and twice as high, is supported before
by avery large bone which represents the pelvis and approximates them
to certain Balistes. Their fins are those of a Diodon, their body is rough
as in Tetraodon, and the surface of their dewlap is covered with numerous,
small, rough crests, placed obliquely.

T. bursarius, Reinw. The only species known; it was discovered in the
Indian Ocean by M. Reinward.

2K

wae * _ PISCES.

“Hees coRAMILY IL
SCLERODERMI(1).

“The second family of the Plectognathi is easily distinguished by
a conical or pyramidical snout, prolonged from the eyes and termi-

‘ nated by a small mouth, armed with a few distinct teeth in each jaw.

The skin is usually rough or invested with hard scales; the nata-

tory. bladder is oval, large, and strong.

- Bauistes, Lin.
The. body SEE eight teeth in a single row in each, jaw, generally

_ trenchant; the skin scaly or granulated, but not exactly osseous; the first dor-

sal composed of one or more spines articulated with a particular bone which
is attached to the cranium, marked by a furrow into which they are received;
the second dorsal long, soft, and placed opposite to a nearly similar anal.
These fishes abound in the torrid zone, near rocks and on the surface Of

the water, where they display their brilliant colours. Their flesh, which is
but lightly esteemed at all times, becomes, it is said, poisonous during the
period in which they feed on the coralline Polypi: fucus is all that I met
with in those I opened.

~ B. capriscus, 1. (The Mediterranean File-Fish.) Brownish-grey, spot-
ted with blue, or greenish. Its flesh is not esteemed.

Osrracton, Lin.

The head and body of these fishes, instead of scales, are covered with regu-
lar bony plates solvered in ‘such a manner as to form a sort of inflexible
shield, which invests them, so that the only movable parts are the tail, fins,
mouth, and a sort of small lip with which the edge of their gills is furnished,
all passing through holes in this coat of mail.

CHONDROPTERYGII(2),

The second series of the class of fishes, or the Chondropterygii,
can neither be considered as superior nor inferior to that of the
Ordinary Fishes, for several of its genera approach the Reptiles in
the conformation of the ear while in others the organization is so
simple, and the skeleton so much reduced, that we might be ex-
cused for hesitating to place them among vertebrate animals. It is

(1) Rough-skinned. _ (2) Cartilaginous-finned.

cHONDROPTERYGM. eS 235

eo

therefore a suite somewhat parallel to the gcd: as the Micali: :

for instance, are parallel to the other unguiculated Mammalia.
The skeleton of the Chondropterygii_ is essentially cartilaginous:
that is, it contains no osseous fibres, the calcareous matter being
deposited in small grains, and not in filaments; hence the absence
of sutures in their cranium, which is always formed of a single piece,
but in which, by means of projections, depressions, and holes, re-
gions. analogous to those in the cranium of other fishes may be dis-

tinguished. It sometimes happens that movable articulations, which

are found in other orders, are not met with in this one; part of the
vertebrz of certain Rays, for instance, being united in a single body.
Some of the articulations of the bones of the face also disappear,
and the most apparent character of this division consists in the ab-
sence of the maxillaries and intermaxillaries, or rather in their re-
duction to mere vestiges concealed under the skin, while their
functions are fulfilled by bones analogous to the palatines, and even
sometimes by the vomer. The gelatinous substance, which in other
fishes fills the intervals of the yertebre, and only communicates with

them by a small hole, forms a long cord in.several of the Chon-

dropterygii, which traverses the bodies of almost all the vertebra,
without scarcely varying in diameter.

This series is divided into two orders—the Chondropterygii whose
branchie are free, like those of ordinary fishes; and those in which
they are fixed, that is to say, attached to the skin by their external
edge in such a manner that the water can only escape from their
intervals through holes on the surface.

_ ORDER I..

STURION ES, OR CHONDROPTERYGIIL BRANCHIIS
| LIBERIS,

Or Chondropterygii, with free branchie, which are still closely
allied to the ordinary fishes in their gills, which have but a ‘single
wide opening, and are furnished with an operculum, but without
rays in the membrane. This order comprises but two genera.

&

Ss 2
c- San

236 - ye PISCES. > 5

r? ws ACIPENSER, Lin. (1).

: The ae form of the Sturgeon is similar to that of the Shark, but the
‘body is more or less covered with bony plates in longitudinal rows; the ex-
terior portion of the head is also well mailed; the mouth, placed under the
snout, is small and edentated; the palatine, soldered to the maxillaries, con-
verts them into the upper jaw, and vestiges of the intermaxillaries are found
in the thickness of the lips. This mouth, placed on a pedicle that has three
articulations, ismore protractile than that of a Shark. The eyes and nostrils
are on the side of the head, and cirri are inserted under the snout. The
- labyrinth is perfectly formed in the cranial bone, but there is no vestige of
an external ear. A hole perforated behind the temple is a mere spiracle,
which leads to the branchiz.

The Sturgeon ascends certain rivers in great numbers, and is the object of
important fisheries; the flesh of most species is agreeable, their ova are con-
verted into caviar, and their natatory bladder into hints 5 Western Eu-
‘ rope produces

- A. ruthenus, L. (The Sterlet.) Seldom more than two feet in length;
plates of the lateral rows more numerous and carinated, those of the belly
flat. It is considered a delicious fish, and its caviar is reserved for the
Russian court. There is reason to believe that it is the Elops and the Aci-
penber, so highly celebrated among the ancients.

“A. huso, L. (The great Sturgeon.) Blunter plates and a shorter snout
and cirri than those of the Common Sturgeon; the skin also is smoother.
“ It is frequently found to exceed twelve and fifteen feet in length, and to
weigh more than twelve hundred. pounds. One specimen was captured
whose weight amounted to near three thousand pounds, The flesh is not
much esteemed, and is sometimes unwholesome; but the finest isinglass is
made from its natatory bladder. Itisalsofound inthePo. North America
has several species of this genus which are peculiar to it.

SpaTuLaRia, Sh.
These fishes are recognized at once by the enormous prolongation of their
snout, to which its broad borders give the figure of a leaf. Their general
form and the position of their fins remindthe observer of a Sturgeon, but
their gills are still more open, and the operculum is prolonged into a mem-
branous point which extends to near the middle of the body. The mouth
is well cleft and furnished with numerous small teeth.
But a single species is mist, the Paddle-fish of the Mississippi.

Cuimera, Lin.

The Chimerz are closely allied to the Sharks in their general form and in
the position of their fins, but all their branchie open externally by a single

(1) Acipenser is the ancient name; Siurio, whence Sturgeon, is fogern,
and is probably the German name Stfoer latinized.

CHONDROPTERYGIE BRANCHIIS LIBERIS. 237

apparent hole on each side, although if we ‘pica ctoene more deeply, we —
find that they are attached by a large part of their edges, and that in fact
there are five particular holes terminating in the bottom of the common —
aperture. A vestige of an operculum, however, is concealed under the
skin. The jaws are still more reduced than in the Shark, for the palatine
and tympanic bones are also mere vestiges suspended to the sides of the
‘snout, and the vomer is the only representative of the upper jaw. Hard
and indivisible plates supply the place of teeth, four on the upper jaw and
two onthe lower. The snout, supported like that of a Shark, projects
forwards and is pierced with pores arranged in tolerably regular lines; the
first dorsal, armed with a strong spine, is placed over the pectorals. They
produce very large coriaceous eggs with flattened and hairy borders. q
C. monstrosa, L. (The Arctic Chimera.) Two or three feet long, of a

silvery colour, and spotted with brown. From the Northern and Euro-
pean seas.

ORDER I.
CHONDROPTERYGIT BRANCHIIS FIXIS,

~ Or the Chondropterygii with fixed branchiz, instead of having

those organs free on the external edge, and opening all their inter-
vals into a large common orifice, as is the case in all the fishes of
which we have hitherto spoken, have them adhering by this external
edge in such a manner that they permit the water to escape through
as many holes pierced in the skin as there are intervals between
them, or, at least, that these holes may terminate in a common duct,
through which the water is ejected. Another circumstance pecu-
liar to these fishes is the presence of little cartilaginous bows, fre-
quently suspended in the muscles opposite to the external edges of
the branchie, and which may be termed branchial ribs.

FAMILY I.
SELACHII.

This family, hitherto comprized under two genera, Squanus and
Rats, has many common characters. The palatines and post-man-
dibularies, alone armed with teeth, supply the place of jaws, the
usual bones of which are reduced to mere vestiges; one single bone
suspends these apparent jaws to the cranium, representing at once

eT | oF PISCES.” TS

the tympanal, jugal and temporal bones, and the preoperculum.
The hyoid bone is attached to the single pedicle just mentioned, and
supports branchiostegal rays, as in ordinary fishes, although they
are not so very visible, externally; it is followed by the branchial
arches, as usual, but neither of the three pieces compose the oper-
culum. These fishes have both pectorals and ventrals: the latter
are situated behind the abdomen. Their membranous labyrinth is
enclosed by the cartilaginous substance of the cranium; the sac,
which constitutes part of it, contains mere amylaceous masses, and
not stones.

Squaxus, Lin.

The Sharks form a first great genus distinguished by. an elongated body, ‘a

thick fleshy tail and moderate pectorals, so that the general figure ap-
proaches that of ordinary fishes; the branchial openings correspond with
the sides of the neck, and not with the under surface of the body, as we shall
see is the case with the Rays; the eyes also'are on the sides of the head.
The snout is supported by three cartilaginous branches connected with the
anterior part of the cranium, and the rudiments of the mazxillaries, inter-
maxillaries, and premandibularies are evident in the skeleton.

Several are viviparous. The others produce ova invested with a yellow
and transparent horn, the angles of which are prolonged into horny cords.
The little branchial ribs are apparent, and there are also small ones along
the sides of the spine, which is completely divided into vertebre. The ge-
nus is very numerous and authorizes various subdivisions.

Carcuarras, Cuv.

A numerous and by far the most celebrated tribe; with trenchant, pointed
teeth, most commonly dentated on the margin. The first dorsal is far be-
fore the ventrals, and the second about opposite to the anal. The spiracles
are wanting; the nostrils are placed under the middle of the depressed snout,
and the last branchial apertures extend over the pectorals.

Sq. carcharias, L. (The White Shark.) This species attains the length
of twenty-five feet, and is recognized by its teeth, which in the upper jaw
nearly form isosceles triangles with rectilinear and dentated sides. The
lower ones consist of narrow points placed on wider bases, terrific weapons,
which are the dread of mariners. It would appear that it inhabits every
sea; but its name has frequently been applied to other Bs. pee with tren-
chant teeth.

Sexacue, Cuy.,
In addition to the form of the Squali, and the spiracles of the Galei, is
furnished with branchial openings that are nearly large enough to encircle
the neck, and with small conical and unemarginate teeth.

CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS ws. (250

The common species, Sq. masim u
thing of the ferocity of the | Shark, although it su

thirty feet in length. | It inhabits the Arctic Seas, but is sometimes driven
on the coast of France by the strength of the north-east winds. Thereare ©
several other subgenera.

A second genus, may be formed of the

Zxeena, Cuv.

Which to the characters of a Carcharias, adds a form of head of which there
is no other example in the animal kingdom. Itis horizontally flattened and
truncated before, the sides extending transversely in branches, which give
it a resemblance to the head of a hammer; the eyes are placed at the ex-
tremity of the branches, and the nostrils on their anterior edge.

The most common species of the European seas, Sy. zygcena, is some-
times twelve feet long.

Squatina, Dumer.

Spiracles, butno anal, as in the third division of the Squali, but differing
from all of them in the mouth, which is cleft in the end of the snout and
not beneath, and in the eyes, which are placed on its dorsal surface and not
on thesides. The head is round, the body broad and horizontally flattened,
the pectorals large and extending forwards, but separated from the body by
a fissure where the branchial orifices are pierced; the two dorsals are behind
the ventrals, and the caudal is attached both above and beneath. The —

Squat. angelus (The Angel-Fish) attains a considerable size in the Euro-
pean seas. Its skin is rough, and the edges of the pectorals are furnished
with small spines.

Pristis, Lath.(1)

The Saw-Fish forms a fourth genus. To the elongated form of the Squali
it unites a body flattened before and branchiz opening below, asin the Rays;
but its peculiar chaaracter consists in a very long depressed snout resembling
the blade of a sword, armed on each side with stout, bony, trenchant and
pointed spines, planted like teeth. This beak, from which these fishes de-
rive their name, is a most powerful weapon, and with it they attack the
largest Whales. The true teeth of their jaws resemble small paving stones,
like those of a Mustelus. baie

The common species, Pristis antiquorum, Lath., attains a length of twelve
or fifteen feet. .

(1) Tlpierss, saw; the Greek name of this fish.

: LL. (The Basking Shark), has no-
esitinsizeaswellas =
all other Squali. Individuals have been captured that were more than

- PISCES.

Rata, Lin.(1)

The Rays form a less numerous genusthan the Squali. They are e recognized
by the horizontally flattened body which resembles a disk, from its union
. with the extremely broad and fleshy pectorals which are joined to each
~ other before or to the snout, and which extend behind the two sides of the
abdomen as far as the base of the ventrals. The eyes and spiracles are
seated on the dorsal surface, the mouth, nostrils, and orifices of the bran-
chiz on the opposite one. The dorsal fins are almost always on the tail.
The ova are brown, coriaceous, and square, the angles extended into points.
In the various subdivisions of this genus, we find the Sting-Ray, Spotted
Torpedo, Thornback, Skate, &c. The most remarkable subgenus is

‘Torrepo, Dum. .

The tail short, but still tolerably fleshy; disk of the body nearly circular,
the anterior border being formed by two productions of the snout which in-
cline side-wise in order to reach the pectorals; the space between these
pectorals, head and branchiz is filled on each side with a singular apparatus
formed of little membranous tubes placed close together like a honeycomb,
subdivided by horizontal diaphragms into small cells filled with a sort of
mucus,and traversed by numerous nerves proceeding from the eighth pair.
It is in this apparatus that resides the electric or galvanic power which has
rendered the Torpedo so celebrated; violent shocks are experienced by
touching it, and it is most probable that the same power is employed to
bewilder its prey. The body is smooth, the teeth small and sharp.

FAMILY IL.
SUCTORII—CYCLOSTOMI, Dumer.

The Suctorii, as regards the skeleton, are the most imperfect of
fishes, and even of all vertebrate animals. ‘They have neither pec-
torals nor ventrals; their elongated body is terminated before by a
- circular or semicircular fleshy lip, and the cartilaginous ring which
_ supports it results from the soldering of the palatines to the “mandi-
bularies. The bodies of all the vertebra are traversed by a single
tendinous cord filled with a mucilaginous substance without strangu-
Jations, which reduces them to the condition of cartilaginous rings,
scarcely distinct from each other. The annular portion, a little
more solid than the rest, is not however cartilaginous throughout

the whole of its circle. They have no ordinary ribs; but the small

(1) Raia in Latin, Beis and Bares in Greek, are the ancient names of
these fishes.

4, oat ete

bestichial ones, which are es .e}

kind of cage, while there are no solid branchial arches, The bran-
chiw, instead of being pectinated asin all other fishes, resemble pur-
ses, resulting from the junction of one face of a branchia with the
opposing ene Of its neighbour. The labyrinth of the ear is en-
closed by the cranium, and the nostrils. open externally by a single
orifice, in front of which is a blind cavity. 4 .

Prerromyzon, Lin.(1)

The Lampreys have seven branchial openings on each side; the skin of the |
tail above and beneath is turned up into a longitudinal crest which supplies
the place of a fin, but in which the rays resemble scarcely visible fibres.

The maxillary ring of the True Lamprey is armed with strong teeth, and
the interior disk of the lip, which is very circular, is furnished with tuber-
cles covered with an extremely hard shell, and’similar to teeth. There are
two longitudinal rows of small teeth on the tongue, which moves backwards
and forwards like a piston; by this, that suction is produced which distin-
guishes this animal. Water reaches the branchiz from the mouth by a par-
ticular membranous canal, placed under the esophagus and perforated with
holes, that may be compared to a trachea. These fishes habitually fix
themselves by suction to stones and other solid bodies; they attack the
largest fishes in the same way, and are finally enabled to pierce and de-
vour them.

P. marinus, L. (The Sea Lamprey.) Two or three feet in length,
marbled with brown on a yellowish ground; two large approximated teeth
on the upper part of the maxillary ring. It ascends the mouths of rivers in
the spring, and is highly esteemed.

P. fluvialis, L. (The River Lamprey.) From a foot to eighteen inellins

in length; silvery, blackish and olive on the back; first dorsal very distinct —

from the second; two large separated teeth on the upper part of the maxil-
lary ring. Inhabits rivers, &c.

Myxrng, Lin.
But a single tooth on the upper part of the maxillary ring, which is alto-
gether membranous; lateral dentations of the tongue strong, and arranged
in two rows on each side, so that the jaws of these fishes seem to be lateral.
like those of Insects’or the Nereides, which induced Linnzus to place them
in the class of Vermes; the rest of their organization, however, is analogous

(1) Lamproye, Lampreda, Lamprey, corruptions of Lampetra, which is
itself modern, and, according to some, derived from Lambendo, petras.
_ Petromyzon is the Greek translation of the same, by Artedi.

2 F

1 eg ia the Squali and wes ae
are here greatly developed and ‘united with each other, forming ees

: Rn ee

we gic. K
ep ene)

242 | PISCES.

to that of the Lampreys: the tongue also acts like a piston, and the spine
of the back is in the form of a cord. The mouth is circular and surrounded
with eight cirri; in its upper margin is a spiracle which communicates with
its interior. The body is cylindrical, and furnished behind with a fin that
surrounds the tail. There are no vestiges of eyes. The eggs become
large. These singular animals pour out such an abundance of mucus through
the pores of their lateral line, that the water of the vases in which they are
kept seems to be converted intoa jelly. They attack and pierce other
fishes like the Lampreys.

They are subdivided according to the external orifices of their branchie.

af
Vast
ae

SECOND GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM.

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.(1)

The Mollusca have neither an articulated skeleton nor a verte-

bral canal. ‘Their nervous system is not united in a spinal marrow, Gees

but merely in a certain number of medullary masses dispersed in
different points of the body, the chief of which, termed the brain, is
situated transversely on the cesophagus, and envelopes it with a
nervous collar. Their organs of motion and of the sensations have
not the same uniformity as to number and position, as in the Verte-
brata, and the irregularity is still more striking in the viscera, par-
ticularly as respects the position of the heart and respiratory organs,
and even as regards the structure of the latter; for some of them
respire elastic air, and others salt or fresh water. Their external
organs, however, and those of locomotion, are generally arranged
symmetrically on the two sides of an axis.

The circulation of the Mollusca is always double; that i is, their
pulmonary circulation describes a separate and distinct circle.

The blood of the Mollusca is white or bluish, and it appears to
contain a smaller proportionate quantity of fibrine than that of the
Vertebrata. There are reasons for believing that their veins fulfil
the functions of absorbent vessels.

Their muscles are attached to various points of their skin, form-
ing tissues there which are more or less.complex and dense, Their

(1) Soft animals.

a apee
ye ¥.

be!

motions consist of various contractions which produce inflexions
and prolongations of their different parts, ora relaxation of the same,
by means of which they creep, swim, and seize upon various ob-
jects, just as the form of these parts may permit; but as the limbs
are not supported by articulated and solid levers, they cannot ad-
vance rapidly, or per saltum.

The irritability of most.of them is extremely great, and remains
for a long time after they are divided. Their skin is naked, very
sensible, and usually covered with a humour that oozes from its
pores. No particular organ of smell has ever been detected in them,
_ although they enjoy that sense; it may possibly reside in the entire

_ 8kin, for it greatly resembles a pituitary membrane. All the Aca-

lepha, Brachiopoda, Cirrhopoda, and part of the Gasteropoda and
Pteropoda, are deprived of eyes; the Cephalopoda on the contrary
have them at least as complicated as those of the warm-blooded
animals. They are the only ones in which the organ of hearing has
been discovered, and whose brain is enclosed within a a“ parbcular
cartilaginous box.

Nearly all the Mollusca have a development of the skin which
covers their body, and which bears more or less resemblance to a
mantle; it is often however narrowed into a simple disk, formed into
a pipe, hollowed into a sac, or extended and divided in the form
of fins.

The Naked Mollusca are those in which the mantle is simply

membranous or fleshy; most frequently, however, one or several Ja-
mine, of a substance more or less hard, is formed in its thickness,
deposited in layers, and increasing in extent as well as in thickness,
because the recent layers always overlap the old ones.
When this substance remains concealed in the thickness of the
mantle, it is still customary to style the animals Naked Mollusca.
Most generally, however, it becomes so much developed, that the
contracted animal finds shelter beneath it; it is then termed a shell,
~ and the animal is said to be testaceous; the epidermis which covers
it is thin, and sometimes desiccated.

The variety in the form, colour, substance and brilliancy of shells,
is infinite; most of them are calcareous; some are horny, but they
always consist of matters deposited in Inyainls or exuded from the
skin under the epidermis like the mucous covering, nails, hairs, horns,
scales, and even teeth. The tissue of shells differs according to the

oS ee Sei ae ee Se i aa gt. ae 7 a a ee ae ee ps TSP Re
ars es ts Ae a e 4 Pie

wate of this deaatoac’d which : 3 either in parallel lamine or in
crowded vertical filaments.

All the modes of mastication ‘anid deglutition are visible in the
Mollusca; here the stomachs are simple, there multiple, and are
frequently provided with a peculiar armature.

The Mollusea in general appear to be animals that are but slightly
developed, possessed of but little industry, and which are only pre-

served by their fecundity and vital tenacity.

Division of the Mollusca into Siz Classes.

The body of some resembles a sac open in front, containing the
branchiz, whence issues a well developed head crowned with long
and strong fleshy productions, by means of which they crawl, and
seize various objects. These we term the Cephalopoda.

That of others is closed; the appendages of the head are either
wanting or are extremely reduced; the principal organs of Jocomo-
tion are two wings or membranous fins, situated on the sides of the
neck, and which frequently support; the branchial tissue. They
constitute the Pteropoda.

Others again craw! by means of a fleshy disk on their belly, some-
times, though rarely, compressed into a fin; and have almost always
a distinct head before. We call these the Gasteropoda.

A fourth class is composed of those where the mouth remains
hidden in the bottom of the mantle, which also encloses the branchie -
and viscera, and is open either throughout its length, at both ends,
or at one extremity only. Suchare our Acephala.

A fifth comprises those, which, also inclosed ina mantle and with-
out an apparent head, have fleshy or membranous arms, furnished
with cilia of the same nature. We term these Brachiopoda.

Finally, there are some, which, although similar to the other Mol-
lusca in the mantle, branchia, &c., differ from them in numerous
horny and articulated limbs, and in a nervous system more nearly
allied to that of the Articulata. They will constitute our last class,
or that of the Cirrhopoda.

246 . MOLLUSCA.

CLASS L
CEPHALOPODA.

Their mantle unites under the body, forming a muscular sac
which envelopes all the viscera. In several, its sides are extended
into fleshy fins. The head projects from the opening of the sac; it
is rounded, furnished with two large eyes, and crowned with longer
or shorter conical and fleshy arms or feet, capable of being flexed
in every direction, and extremely vigorous, the surface of which is
armed with suckers or cups, which enable them toadhere with great
tenacity to every body they embrace. These feet are their instru-
ments of prehension, natation, and walking. They swim with the
head backwards, and craw] in all directions with the head beneath
and the body above. . '

_The Cephalopoda have two branchiz within the sac, one on each
side, resembling a highly complicated fern leaf; the great vena cava,

having arrived between them, divides into two branches, which pour

‘their contents into two fleshy ventricles, each of which is placed at

HAN

base of the branchiz on its own side, and propels the blood into it.

’ Respiration is effected by the water which flows into the sac and

issues through a funnel placed at its opening.

Between the base of the feet we find the mouth armed with two

cone stout horny jaws resembling the beak of a parrot.

These animals are remarkable for a peculiar and intensely black

_» excretion, with which they darken the surrounding water when they

wish to conceal themselves. It is produced by a gland, and held in

ae cere by a sac, variously situated, according to the species.

‘Their brain, which is contained in a cartilaginous cavity of the
head, gives off a cord on each side which producesa large ganglion
in each orbit, whence are derived innumerable optic filaments; the
eye consists of several membranes, and is covered by the skin which
becomes diaphanous in that particular spot, sometimes forming
folds which supply the want of eyelids. The ear is merely a slight
cavity, on each side near the brain, without semicircular canals or

cEPHALOPODA.-

an external Meatus, where « a ‘mombranous, sac is d tospendien which
contains a little stone. = ee

‘The skin of these animals, of the Octopi particularly, shoes
colour in places, by spots, with a rapidity which greatly supe
that of the Chameleon. ~

These animals are voracious and cruel; possessed both of agility
and numerous modes of seizing their prey, they destroy immense
quantities of Fish and Crustacea. Their flesh is eaten; their ink is
employed in painting, and the Indian, or China ink is supposed to
be made from it. ee

The Cephalopoda comprise but a single order, which is divided Me
into genera, according to the nature of the shell:

Those which have no external shell, according to Linneus;form-
os but the single genus.

We!

savin, Lin.

Or the Cutile-fish, which is now divided into a variety of dela the most
interesting of which are the two follogging.-

ARGONAUTA, Lin,
These Mollusca‘are always found in a very thin shell, symmetrically fluted si }
and spirally convoluted, the last whorl so large that it bears some resem- cil
blance to a galley of which the spine is the poop.. The animal makes a : ete
consequent use of it, and in calm weather whole fleets of them may be obs eile
served navigating the surface of the ocean, employing six of their tentacula § tS
as oars, and elevating the two membranous ones by way of a sail. If the. ae
sea becomes rough, or they perceive any danger, the Argonaut withdraws |

all its arms, concentrates itself in its shell, and descends to the bottom.
Several species are known, closely resembling each other both inthe ani-

mal and the shell, which were united by Linnzus under the name sdig Argo-— F : es

nauta argo, orthe Paper Nautilus. Se, ae

Serra, Lam.

The Sept; or Outtlesk properly so called, haye two long arms.and a
fleshy fin extending along the whole length of each side of the sac. The |
shell is oval, thick, convex, and composed of numerous and parallel ae >
reous laminz, united by thousands of little hollow columns, running p n-
dicularly from. one to the other. This structure rendering it friable, causes
it to be employed for polishing various kinds of work; it is also given to
birds in aviaries, for the purpose of whetting their beaks.

Navtitus, Lin.
In this genus Linnzus united all spiral, symmetrical and chambered shells,

ae Bie

248 MOLLUSCA,

that is to say such as are divided by septa into several cavities; their inha-
bitants he supposed to be Cephalopoda.
This genus is now divided into Spirula and Nautilus proper.

Tue BeLEeMnitTEs

Probably belong to this family, but it is impossible to ascertain the fact, as
they are only found among fossils; every thing, however, proves them to
have been internal shells, thin and double, that is, composed of two cones
united at base, the inner one much shorter than the other, and divided into
chambers by parallel septa, which are concave on the side next to the base.
A siphon extends from the summit of the external cone to that of the in-
ternal one, and continues thence, sometimes along the margin of the septa

~~ and sometimes through theircentre. The interval between the two tes-

taceous cones is filled with a solid substance here composed of radiating
fibres, and there of self-involving conical layers, the base of each being on
the margin of one of the septa of the inner cone.

Of all fossils Belemnites are the most abundant, particularly in chalk and

- compact limestone.

Tue AMMONITESs,

Or the Cornua-Ammoni, also fossil, are distinguished from the Nautili by
their septa, which, instead of being plane or simply concave, are angular
and sometimes undulated, but most frequently slashed on the edge like the
leaf of an acanthus. ‘The smallness of their last cell. seems to indicate that,
like the Spirula, they were internal shells, They are very abundant in the
strata of secondary mountains, where they are found varying’from the size

-of'a lentil to that of a coach wheel. Their subdivisions are based upon the
variation of their volutes and siphons.

Tur Nummuutires, Lam.
inmeaty called Nummulites, lenticular stones, &c. are only found among

fossils, and present, externally, a lenticular figure without any apparent

opening, and a spiral cavity internally, divided by septa into numerous small
chambers, but without a siphon. They constitute the most universally dif-

_ fused of all fossils, forming entire chains of calcareous hills and immense

bodies of building stone.

Rak

a _ PTEROPODA.

"ite Hf

> ae ee |
The Pict like the the Cephalopoda; swim in the ocean, but
being ‘deprived of feet, can. either fix themselves to other bodies,
nor crawl. Their organs of locomotion: consist of fins placed like
wings on the two sides of the mouth. But few and small species
are known. : 7 t 2

4)
+.

‘ - Crro, Lin. a

Body oblong, membranous, without a mantle; head formed of two round- _
ed lobes, whence originate small tentacula; two small fleshy lips, and alittle _ :
tongue on the front of the mouth; the fins covered with a vascular net-work : 4
which acts as branchiz. Some authors consider them as possessing eyes. » ae
: Clio borealis, L. This species, which i is the most celebrated, is found in me
astonishing numbers in the arctic seas, furnishing, by its abundance, food for cy
the Whales, although each individual is hardly an inch long.

Cymeuia, Peron.
A eRe oe or gelatinous envelope resembling a galley, or rather a ‘oba eee
or wooden shoe, bristling with small points disposed in longitudi al rows
The animal has two large wings composed of a vascular tissue, which ar
its branchiz and fins; between them, on the open side, isa third and s
lobe with three points,

¥

{

é

The Pneumoderma begin to be a little further removed from the Clios.
Their body is oval, without a mantle and without a shell; the branchie are
attached to the surface and composed of little lamine arranged in two or
three lines so disposed as to form an H on the part opposite to the head. me

- Lamacrya, Cuy.

The body texminates ins spirally convoluted tail, and is lodged in a very ea

thin shell formed by one whorl and a half, umbilicated on one side, and —

— on the other. The animal uses its shell as a boat, and its wings a

s, whenever it wishes to navigate the surface of the deep.

) helicina. Almost as common on the arctic seas as the Clio borealis,

“ wt is Gbiaieied as forming the chief source of food for the Whale. ©
2G

* PNEUMODERMON, Cuy..

KF

2. i

- h

250 : MOLLUSCA.

There are three other genera in this “ak, Hyalea, Cedars aa a Pyree,

a very small fossil shell.

‘CLASS TL.

GASTEROPODA.

The Gasteropoda constitute a very numerous class of the Mol-
lusca, an idea of which is afforded by the Slug. 4

They generally crawl upon a fleshy disk, situated under the ab-
domen, which sometimes however assumes the shape of a suleus, or

‘that of a vertical lamina. ‘The back is furnished with a mantle

which is more or less extended, takes various forms, and in the
greater number of genera, produces a shell. Their head, placed
anteriorly, is more or less visible, as it is the more or less involved
under the mantle; its tentacula are very small, situated above the
mouth and-do not surround it, varying in number from two to six;
sometimes they are wanting; their function is that of touch, or at
most thatof smell. The eyes are very small, here adhering to the
head, and there to the base, side, or. point of the tentaculum; some-

times they are wanting. The position, structure, and nature of their

respiratory organs vary, and afford the means of dividing them into
several families; they never, however, have more than a single aortic
heart, that is to say, one placed between the pulmonary vein and
the aorta.

Several are entirely naked; others tas merely a concealed shell,
but most of them are furnished with one that is large enough to re-

ceive and shelter them.

The shell is formed in the thickness of the mantle. Some of
them are symmetrical and consist of a single piece; others are non-

symmetrical, which, in those species where they are very concave,

and where they continue to grow for a long time, become obliquely
_ spiral.

If we figure to ourselves an oblique cone, in which other cones,

+ always wider in one direction than in the others, are successively

ee ee

+h the cone is rolled, is wri the pee :
and sometimes hollow. When hollow, i

This part, | ats
it is sometimes
aperture is.

id lost case she preceding whorls rise above each other, form-
ing “ie spire, which is so much the more acute, asthe whorls —
descend more rapidly, and the less they increase in width. These
shells with a salient spine are said to be turbinated. a

’ When, on the contrary, the whorls remain nearly in the same
place, and do not envelope each other, the spine is flat, or even con-
cave. ‘These shells are said to be discoidal.

When the top of each whorl envelopes the esi ones, the a a la
' spire is hidden. mie

The part through which the animal appears to come out isnamed
the apertures ’

When the whorls remain nearly in the same plane, while the ani-
mal crawls, its shell is vertical, the columella crosswise on the
hind part of its back, and its head passes under the edge of the
opening opposite to the columella.

When the spire is salient, it inclines from the right side in almost
every species; in a very few only does it project from the left when
they are in motion; these are said to be reversed. “rn

It is observed that the head is always on the side opposite to that cd
to which the spire is directed. Thus it is usually on the left, and os
in the reversed on the right. ’ ma

The organssof respiration, which are always situated in the ile’
whorl of the sheil, receive the ambient element from under its edge,
sometimes because the mantle is entirely detached from the body
along this edge, and sometimes because it is perforated there.

It sometimes happens that the margin of the mantle is prolonged ~
in a canal, in order to allow the animal to seek the ambient element
without protruding its head and foot from its shell. |

Most of the aquatic Gasteropoda, with a spiral shell, have an Pease
operculum, a part sometimes horny, sometimes calcareous, attached — a a
to the posterior part of the foot, which closes the shell when its Ee :
cupant is withdrawn into it and folded up.

ae

_ Their organs of digestion vary as much as those of respiration.
This class is so numerous that we have been compelled to divide
_ itinto a certain number of orders, which we have founded upon the
position and form of the branchiz.

APE ORDER I.
ie) j PULMONEA.

¢

The Pubes are distinguished Fronistive other Mollusca by re-
spiring elastic air through a hole opening under the margin of the
mantle, and which they dilate and contract at will; they have no
- branchie, but a mere net-work of pulmonary vessels which creep
over the parietes of thé’respiratory cavity and chiefly on its ceiling.

Some of themare terrestrial; others are aquatic, ‘but. are compelled
to visit the surface from time to time for the purpose of opening the
orifice of their pectoral cavity, or to respire.

The Trerrestriat Putmonea have generally four tentacula; in
two or three only, of a very small size, the lower pair are not to be
seen.

Those which possess no apparent shell, form in the Linnzan system the
genus
u Z; ii Limax, Lin.
Which | is now divided into Limax, Arion, Lima, Vaginulus, ‘Testacella, and
- Parmacella. These animals are known by the common name of Slugs.

oY ia ths ie
? eee

In the terrestrial Pulmonea with complete and apparent shells, —
the edges of the aperture in the adult are usually tumid.

ee Hetrx, Lin.

To this genus Linneus referred all those species in which the aperture of
» the shell, somewhat encroached upon by the projegtiop of the * iar: aaa

_ whorl, assumes a crescent-like figure.
Helix pomatia, L., common in the gardens and vines of France, with
’ _ a reddish shell aveed with paler bands, an animal which in some places is
oe y considered a delicious article of food. The genus is now variously subdi-
vs vided. The animals are what we term Snails.

tinually compelled to rise to the dures for the, purpose: of Dreath- foe
ing, so that they cannot inhabit very deep water; they are usually
found in fresh water or salt ponds, or at least in the vicinity of the
sea coast and of the mouths of rivers. Some of them have no well,
such as those of the genus Oncuprum.

The aquatic Pulmonea, with complete shells, were also sired
by Linneus in his genera Hetrx, Butua and Vonvra, from which
it has been found necessary to separate them.. ‘

In the first were comprised the two following genera, where we
find the internal edge of the aperture crescent- i iat as in Helix.

W Pr aionas, Brug.
The Planorbes are distinguished from the Helices by the slight increase of
the whorls of their shell, the convolutions of which are nearly’in one plane, sar
and because the aperture is wider than itis high. It contains an animal ~~
with long, thin filiform tentacula, at the inner base of which are the eyes,
and from the margin of whose mantle exudes a quantity of a red fluid, which |
is not, however, its blood. In stagnant waters. The |

Limnzvs, Lam.

Has, | like a Bulimus, an n oblong spire and the aperture higher than it is
wide; but the margin, like that of a Succinea, is not reflected, and there is |
a longitudinal fold in the columella, which runs obliquely into the cavity. Zorn
The shell is thin; the animal has twocompressed, broad, triangular tentacula, ee
near the base of whose inner edge are the eyes.

They inhabit stagnant waters in great numbers; they also abound with ©
the Planorbes in certain layers of marl or calcareous strata, which id eVi-
dently prove were deposited in fresh water. ik. oe

Puvsa, Drap. ee te 4
The Physzx have a shell very similar to that of a Lymnzus, but without the .
fold in the ‘columella - -and reflected edge, and. very thin. When the ea!
animal swims or crawls, it cOvers its shell with the two notched lobes of its “
mantle, and has two long, slender and pointed tentacula, on the greatly en-
larged internal base Bs which are the eyes. They inhabit springs, &c.

AvRIcULA, Lam. i.
Differing from all the preceding aquatic Pulmonea in the elumilie, which ane
is marked with wide and oblique flutes. Their shell is oval or gplntes the!
aperture elevated as in Bulimus, and the margin tumid. Sere

Conovutus, Lam. f
Projecting folds in the columella, as in the Auriculz, but the margin a f t]

Seo. OS 2k wOLposra-

aperture is not tumid, and the internal lip is finely striated; the general form
of the shell is that of a cone, of which the spire forms the base. ‘They in-
habit the rivers of the Antilles. .

. ORDER II.
NUDIBRANCHIATA.

The Nudibranchiata have no shell whatever; neither are they fur-
nished with a pulmonary cavity, their branchie being exposed on
some part of the back... They are all marine animals, frequently
swimming in a reversed position with the foot on the surface, con-
cave like a batteau, and employing the margin of their mantle and
their tentacula as oars. In the |

° Doris, Cuv.

The branchiz are arranged in a circle round an opening in the posterior
part of the back, under the form of little arbuscule, the whole resembling
a sort of flower. The mouth is a small proboscis, situated under the ante-
rior margin of the mantle, and furnished with two little conical tentacula.
The species are numerous, and some of them large. They are found in
every sea, where their ova, resembling gelatinous bands, are diffused over
stones, sea-weeds, &c.

Procamoceros, Leuck.

~The anterior margin of their mantle i is ornamented with numerous branched
tentacula.

Potycrra, Cuv.
The branchiz, as in Doris, on the hind part of the body, but more simple,
and followed by two membranous lamin, which cover them in moments of »
_ danger; anterior to the claviform tentacula, similar to those in — are
four, and sometimes six others, simply pointed.

Trironta, Cuv.

The ily and superior tentacula, as in Doris; but the orifices through which ©
the peculiar liquid is excreted, are on the right: the brancbie, which re-
semble little trees, are arranged along the sides of the back, and the mouth,
provided with broad membranous lips, is armed inside with two horny and
trenchant lateral jaws, which may be compared to a pair of sheep-shears.

Two rows of branchiz seseabliog ttesnchidh tufts along theback, anda very
large membranous and fringed veil on the head, which shortens as it curves
under the mouth; this latter is a membranous proboscis without j jaws; onthe
base of the veil are two compressed tentacula, from whose margin Prag
a small conical point.
T. fimbria, L. Greys spotted with white; a beautiful species from "tie
Mediterranean. a

Seeks 8

Scyiuma, Lin. B os ee

Body compressed; the foot narrow and marked witha Geribwhich enables.

it to clasp the stems of the fuci; no veil; the mouth resembling a little pro-

boscis; orifices as in Thethys; the compressed tentacula terminated by a

cavity, from which issues a little uneven point, and two pairs of membranous

crests on the back, the internal surface of which is furnished with pencils

of filaments, which are the branchiz. The middle of the stomach is invested

with a fleshy ring, internally armed with horny and trenchant laminz like

knives.

S. pelagica, L. Common on all the floating fucus of almost every sea.

Guavucus, Forster. 5

Body elongated; four very small conical tentacula, and on each side three
branchiz, each of which are formed of long slips arranged like the sticks
of a fan, which also aid them in swimming. They are beautiful little ani-
mals that inhabit the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, prettily coloured with
blue and nacre; they swim on their back with great swiftness.

The remaining genera of this order are Laniogerus, Eolidia, Cavolina, &c.

ORDER. IIL. ue
INFEROBRANCHIATA. it

The Inferobranchiata have nearly the same form and organiza-
tion observed in Doris and Tritonia, but their branchiz, instead of
being placed on the back, resemble two long series of lamina, situ-

ated on the two sides of the mad, under the projecting oe of wae
the mantle. |

Puytirpra, Cuv. fie ‘

The mantle naked, usually coriaceous, and without any shell; the mouth, a
small proboscis, dich side of which is furnished with a tentaculum; two others

MOLLUSCA.

_ project from above two small cavities in the mantle. Several species inha-
~ bit the Indian Ocean. ne

“

Dipuyuirmr, Cuv.

= The branchiz similar to those of the Phyllidiz, but the posterior part of the
“mantle more pointed; on each side of the semicircular head a pointed tenta-

. culum, and i a Be: tuherche,
‘ ~ ORDER IV.
TECTIBRANCHIATA.

oh
The vsiehie along the right side or on the’ back, composed of
laminz more or less divided, but not symmetrical; they are more
or less covered by the mantle, in which a small shell is generally
contained. ‘They approach the Pectinibranchiata in the form of
the organs of respiration, and like them inhabit the Ocean.”

PLEUROBRANCHUS, Cuv.

The body equally overlapped by the mantle and by the foot, as if it were
between two shields. In some species a little, oval, calcareous lamina is
contained in the mantle, and a horny one in that of others; the mantle is
emarginated above the head. The branchiz are attached along the right
side in the furrow, between the mantle and the foot, forming a series of
pyramids divided into triangular laminule. The mouth, a small proboscis,
is surmounted by an emarginated lip and by two tubular and cleft tentacula.

Various species inhabit both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, some

of which are large and marked with the most beautiful colours.

i PLEvROBRANCH mA, Meckel.

_ The branchiz situated asin Pleurobranchus; but the foot projects butlittle,
and on the fore part of the former are four short, distant tentacula, forming
a square that reminds the observer of the anterior disk of the Acere. There
is no vestige Of a shell.

Pleurob. Meckelit. The only species known; from the Mediterranean.

Aptysta, Lin.
The margin of the foot turned up into flexible crests, surrounding the back,
and even susceptible of being reflected over it; the head supported by a
neck more or less long; two superior tentacula excayated like the ears of a

-quadruped, with two flattened ones on the edge of the lower lip; the eyes —

i a

of. bongs - It is found in almost every sea, where it lives on oozy bottoms. .

‘surface into four lobes. . Its thin, white, semi-diaphanous shell, is nearly all mA

: ¢; ee ; o ie t Be : ae 13 i
~ GASTEROPODA TECTIBE ANCHTATA. 257 tage
* “5 Fe pam Bs ‘ o. ‘3 ee
above the former. The branch 2 On © ‘the back, end: consist of highly . wee. 4
complicated lamelle attached to a broad ‘mémbranous pedicle, covered by » *

a small membranous: mantle, i in the t thickness of which is a flat and horny

shell. A limpid ey gs ‘secreted by a particular gland, and which in cer-
0 estremely: acrid, isexuded vee an sea he.

the water for a a extent. The ova are dep: ited i ea
long, interlaced glairy net work, of extreme tenuity. In ant
we have the Se ’
Apl. fasciata, black, margined with lateral red, crests,’ one . of see See
sPestess and a punctata, Cuv., Bley, sprinkled with oad potas dae

td

Dotamiia, Lam.
The Dolabetlx only from Aplysia i in the position of the branchiz. , oe y
their surrounding envelope; they are atthe posterior extremity of the body, a
which fesembles a truncated cone. _ They are found in the Mediterranean
and ‘ih the Indian Ocean, 5. © ~ = Ge EEC pee ae Be

B44)

Norarcnus, Cuv.. Bo oe nei
The fatigid ee crests united and covering the hacks’ a "longitudinal: emargination ;
excepted, that leads to the branchiz, which have no mantle to cover them, ~ + ;
but are otherwise like those of the Aplysia the rest of their r organization is Paes

aliyays the same. a : ag * es | ia
- > ‘Axera, Muller. Wes i
The branchiz covered as in the preceding genera, but their eaucala ‘are, so oe a ry
shortened, widened and separated, that they seem to be totally wanting, or. ape ‘
rather to form a large, fleshy, and: nearly rectangular shield, under which: samen
are the eyes. The shell, of such as have any, is more or less convoluted, «
but with’ little obliquity, and is without a projecting spire, éthargination, of. wean
canal; the columella, projecting convexly, gives a crescent-like figure to the i:

aperture, the part i aa to x spire end always te broadest and most © ik

rounded.
M. de Lamarck names i waa the shell j is Soubesiét' in the thick +
ness of the mantle, Burima ut very few whorls, and the animal i is
much too large to be drawn in to it. =

Bullza ‘aperta, Lam. The animal i is whitish; ‘and about an inch long; the
fleshy shield;*formed by the vestiges of its tentacula, the lateral swellings
of its foot, and the mantle occupied by the shell, seem to divide its upper rs

aperture, and its gizzard is armed with three very thick rhomboidal pieces

The | i ae

trenchant ndi and marked with slightly concentric striz. ee

~

258

- GasTROPTERON, Meck.

Appears to be an Akera, the margin of whose foot is extended into broad

wings, used in natation, which it’effects on its back. It has no ‘shell, nor
has the stomach any armature; a slight fold of skin is the only vestige of a
branchial operculum that is perceptible.
Gasrroriax, Blainv.—Umsre.ta, Lam.

The ‘animal i is large and circular, the foot projects considerably beyond the
mantle, and its upper surface is studded with tubercles. The viscera are in
a round, superior, and central part. The mantle is only visible by its
slightly projecting and trenchant edges, along the whole of the front and of
the right side. ‘The lamellated pyramidal branchiz, like those of Pleuro-
branchus, are under this slight margin. Under this same margin and for-
wards, are two tentacula, longitudinally cleft, as in Pleurobranchus, at whose
internal base are the eyes; between them is a kind of proboscis. There is
a large concave space in the anterior margin of the foot, the edges of which
are susceptible of being drawn up like the mouth of a purse, and at the
bottom of which is a tubercle pierced by an orifice, which perhaps is
the mouth, and surmounted by afringed membrane. The inferior surface
of the footis smooth, and serves the animal to crawl on, as in the other
Gasteropoda,

. The shell is stony, flat, irregularly rounded, thickest in the middle, with,

ORDER V. ie Sa
HETEROPODA, Lam. ig |

The Heteropoda are distinguished by their foot, which, iristoad of
forming a horizontal disk; is compressed into a vertical muscular
lamina, which they use as a fin, and on the edge of which, in seve-
ral species, is a dilatation forming a hollow cone, that represents the
disk of the other orders. Their branchie, composed of plumiform
lobes, are situated on the hind part of the back, directed forwards,
and immediately in their rear are the heart and a small liver, with
part of the viscera. Their body, a gelatinous and transparent sub-
stance lined with a muscular layer, is elongated and usually termi-

_ nated by a compressed tail. There is a muscular mass belonging

to the mouth, and a tongue furnished with little hooks. They
usually swim on their back with the foot upwards. They have the

Ca es ee oe

y filling it with water, ina yi
coniprised them all in his genus —

not well understood. "Pork h

PrEROTRACHEA,

Which is now divided into Carinaria, Atlanta, Firold, Timoviennitt’ | loin.
phora, Phylliroe. The Argonauta vitrea of authors’ must be the shell of a
Carinaria, but the animal is not yet known.

: ORDER VI.
PECTINIBRAN CHIATA.

This order forms, beyond all comparison, the most numerous divi-
sion, inasmuch as it comprises the whole of the spiral univalves, and

ee

several that are simply conical. Their branchie composed of nu-

merous lamelle or strips laid parallel with each other, like the teeth
of a comb, are attached on one, two, or three lines, according to
the genus, to the ceiling of the pulmonary cavity, which occupies
the last whorl of the shell, and which has a large opening “eh heen
the edge of the mantle and the body.

In two genera only, Cyclostoma and Helicina, do we 5 find: tated

of branchiz, a vascular net-work, covering the ceiling of a cavity,
that is otherwise similar; they are the only ones that respire the nae ee

tural air; all the others respire water.

Allthe Pectinibranchiata have two tentacula and two eyes, some-
times placed on particular pedicles, and a mouth resembling a more
or less elongated proboscis.

Their tongue is armed with little hooks, and by slow add repeated.

rubbing acts upon the hardest bodies.

The greatest difference in these animals consists in the presence
or absence of the little canal formed by a prolongation of the edge
of the pulmonary cavity of the left side, and which passes through a
similar canal or emargination in the shell, to enable the animal to
breathe without leaving its shelter. There is also this distinction
_ between the genera—some of them have no operculum; the species _
differ from each other by the filaments, fringes, and other ornaments»
of the head, foot, or mantle.

These Mollusca are arranged in several families according to the

Mines. =)

rH: ‘

‘ioe of their shell, which appears to bear a constant 1 elation to

as that of the animal. sets ick G sil
23 ae “FAMILY 1.
-TROCHOIDA.
*\ This fail iis known by the shell, the aperture of which i is entire,

* without an emargination or canal for a siphon of the mantle, as the
animal has none, and is furnished with an operculum or some organ
in wpinee of it.

i ¥% : : Troones, Lin.

The external margin of the angular aperture approaéhing: more or less to
a perfect quadrangular figure, and.in an oblique plane, with respect to the
axis of the shell, because the part of the margin next to the spine proj
m more than theirest. Most of these animals haye three filaments on «
oe of the e mantle, or at least some appendages to the oe of the feet.

Me tbe Sotarrom, Lam.
disting med from all other Trochi by a very broad conical spire; at

vel eon! Sowerby. |

“th “yout it Thelts Geveiibting a Solarium, but wanting the dentations on A the
internal whorls of the umbilicus. The genus

Turso, Lin.
Comprehends all the species with a completely and regularly turbinated
shell, and a perfectly round aperture. Close observation has caused them
to be greatly subdivided.
" * These subdivisions are Delphinula, Pleurdtoma, Turritella, Scalaria and
: lostoma. The last is terrestrial and found under moss and stones in
Oe _ The Valvata, another subgenus, is found in stagnant water.

It is bie that we must place the completely aquatic shells, or
i Me those respiring by branchiz, which belong to the old genus Hexrx;
! i" i. é., those in which the penultimate whorl! forms, as in the Helices,

Ft jh

_ Lymnee, &c., a depression which gives the aperture more or less
_. « of the figure of a crescent.
He age three first genera are still closely allied to Turbo.

This gers fils eel been cawicd from the Mersin, because - re
is no ridge round the aperture of the shell; because there is a small angle us
to that aperture as well as to the operculum ; and finally, because the ani- ee,
mal, being provided with branchiz, inhabits thé water, like all other genera %E
of this family. It hasa very short snout and two pointed tentacula; eyes at |
the external base of the latter, but on no particular pedicle, and a small
membranous wing on each side of the fore part of the body. “ The anterior
edge of the foot is double, and the wing of the right side, forms a little ca-
nal which introduces water into the respiratory seb the incipient indica- Si «
tion of the siphon in the following family. %;
The Ocean produces some shells which only differ fom the Paludinz i in
being thick. They form the | i¢

i Lirtorina, Féruss, — * .'%
“Of which the common species, Le Vigneau—Turbo littoreus, L., abounds
on the coast of France, where it is eaten. The shell is round, esd and
ny stdcanally streaked with blackish. The | .

‘4 i i #)
: 2 Divas muta, Beans) 7 ieee B |
An oblong or ‘pointed shell, similar to that of several Bulimt ea pes, ee aby
the aperture also higher than it is wide, and furnished with a strong a - ae
cul m; base of the columella sensibly flattened, but no umbilicus. Selah eS

They inhabit the Indian Ocean, and are much sought for by cele oh

account of the beauty of their colours. The animal is provided. with two. 1s to
long tentacula, with eyes placed on twotubercles at their external base, ‘and e
with double lips that are emarginated and fringed, as well as the: wings,
each of which has three filaments.

mF og:

Mr

Ampuniarta, Lam.

A round, ventricose shell, with a short spire, as in most of the Helices; the
aperture higher than it is wide, and provided with an operculum; the colu-
mella umbilicated.
They inhabit the fresh or brackish waters of hot countries. The animgl .
has long tentacula, and eyes placed on pedicles at their base.. ‘
Hexicrya, Lam. : al os
Judging by the shell, the Helicine are Ampullariz in which the margin : |
of the aperture is reflected. oe

Mexanta, Lam.

A thicker shell; the aperture, higher than it is wide, enlarges opposite to
the spire; the columella without plice or umbilicus; length of the spire very
various.

The Melanie inhabit rivers, but are not found in France; the animal has.”

MOLLUSCA. See t

| long tentacula, the eyes a 4 on their external side, and at about the third |
oftheirlength, =. Sa 4
| —Tornaren.a, Lam. x : be ’
The shell is elliptical, a spire but slightly salient, the aperture lengthened
into a crescent and widened below, and the base of the colymeta. ‘marked
by one or ore large plice or oblique callosities. dn ages RS

- ud . Pyramipetia, Lam.
The spire is turreted, the aperture crescent-like and wide, ait the base of
the columella obliquely contorted and marked with oie spiral plice.

4 ANTHINA, Lam.

“he. form of the animal separates the Janthine from all the preceding
era. Their shell, however, is similar to that of the terrestrial Limaces,
the Plomellar margin being also indented, but slightly angular at the ex-
ternal edge, and the columella somewhat extended beyond the half oval,
which, without this prolongation, would be formed by that edge.
Be The animal has.no operculum, but the under surface of its foot is farted.
ed with a vesicular organ resembling a bubble of foam, but composed of a
ws solid substance, which prevents it from crawling, but allows it to float on
, a the surface of the water. The head, a cylindrical proboscis, terminated bie:
| a vertically cleft mouth, and armed with little hpoks, has a bifurcated tenta-
n ich side. a

Ri

‘seats in the Mediterranean. When the St A is touched, it dif-
at yt ; ais a

t ee fluid of a deep violet colour that dyes the qurpennding water.

3 Nerira, Lin.
The columella of the Nerite being in a straight line, renders the’ aperture
semicircular or semi-elliptical.. This aperture is generally large in com-
Loe 4, Parison with the shell, but is always furnished with an. operculum-which:
~~ completely closes it. The spire is almost effaced, and the shell semi-glo-
-.» bular. The genus now forms several subdivisions,
Ar * ‘
pape 7 |
FAMILY II.
og ae - CAPULOIDA.

Recent researches have convinced us that it is to the 'Trochoida
that we must approximate this family, which contains five genera,
four of which are taken from the Patella. They all have a widely
opened, scarcely turbinated shell, with neither operculum, emargi-

a

; Rai
23. Sete:
: tty oe
fx
$

ata. There is but one ‘Stanchial comb tre
roof of the cavity, and its filaments are fealty very long.
: Ss <7 3
i. Pizrorsts, Lam. .

A conical shell with a recurved and spiral summit, which has long jee
it to be placed among the Patelle; the branchie are in one range under
the anterior ‘margin of the branchial cavity; the proboscis is long, and there
is a closely plaited membranous veil under the neck; the eyes are at the ex-
ternal base of Pas conical tentacula. The -: :

43 Bi
Hrrronyx, Defr.

Would appear from the shell to be a fossil Pileopsis, very remarkable, how-
ever, for a bed, formed of calcareous matter, on which it rests, and which

probably exuded from the foot of the animal. yo a

‘ CREPIDULA, Lam.

The shell oval, with an obtuse horizontal point, directed obliquely backwards =

and laterally, the aperture forming the base of the shell, which.is half closed oh

beneath and behind by a horizontal plate. The abdominal sac which con-

- tains the viscera is on this plate, the foot beneath, and the head and branchie
forwards. The latter consists of a range of long filaments attach under <>

thee erior margin of the branchial cavity. ‘The eyes are at the ext mal

two venice! tentacula. The genus — Beas a et

. oe

.

Pitrotvus, Sowerby,
ate ca?

Aipears to consist of Crepidule in which the transverse plate ocet i s half
the aperture; their shell, however, is more like that of a Patella. git
only found fossil. ie : mee

Naviceiia, Lam.

The shell resetiel a Crepidulay except that the summitis symmetrical and tyget
laid on the’ posterior margin, and that the horizontal plate is less salient. —
The animal is also provided with an additional, irregularly shaped, testaceous
plate, horizontally connected with the superior surface of the muscular disk a
of its foot, and covered by the abdominal sac, which it partially supports.

It is probably analogous to an operculum, but does not exercise its functions,

being in a measure situated internally. The animal has long tentacula, at
whose external base are pedicles which support the eyes. They inhabit ~~ ~~
the rivers of hot countries. In the
Catyprrma, Lam. . “x
We observe a conical shell, in the hollow of which is a little adina that,
" projects inwards, shapes. the commencement of a columella, and that

“-MOLLUSCA, | A

: interposes itself between a fold of the abdominal sac. The branchie are

“= composed of a chime ag filaments, long and hai ge like hairs.
ae tae Nie owe z
2 "Sipnowanra, Sowerby. Bae

The shell of the Siphonariz, which have been keciltly separated from the

aes Patellz, at the first glance seems very similar to a flattened Patella, with

© radiating sulci; but its margin projects rather more on'the right side, and it

. is. excavated Sendatit by a slight furrow, which terminates at this promi-

nence.of the margin, to which there i isa corresponding lateral hole in the

mantle, for the introduction of water into the branchial ‘cavity, placed on

we back, that is closed on every other point. The respiratory organ con-

sists of a few small lamellx, arranged in one transverse line on the roof of

that cavity; the tentacula seem to be wanting, the head being merely fur-

ctied with a narrow veil.

sa sg .
Sieaiitiron, Adans. les
‘shell is fattened, its aperture ample and round, anid the spire very
moderate, its whorls rapidly enlarging and seen within, but concealed dur-
ing the’ life of the animal in the thickness of a fungous shield, which projects
Soh rait it, as well as the e' fat, and which i is fie true mantle.

+t of which there are no impressigfs on the nana” The
al with the « et at their external "base. by Asai: Bes 7

Ty
a y »
é ye

‘Caxrosrona, Blainv.

efore a fleshy, oblong bundle that’ constitutes sey one half
The animal. has a flat head, two tentaculla anda. broad Lea
hua comb on the roof of its dorsal cavity. . :

. ‘ *

te” -leaigllad eaeee PAMILY . oe

ee | BUCCINOIDA.

This family has a spiral shell, in the aparhine of which, near the
“ext smity of the columella, is an emargination or a canal for trans-
mitting ‘the siphon or tube, which is itself but an elongated fold of

+ the. manile. The greater or less length of the canal, when there is
fo on one, ‘the s size of the aperture, and the form of the colunie la, furnish ©
| grounds of its division into genera, which may © be ‘variously _
uped. a

%
GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 265

Conus, Lin. “~<
So called from the conical shape of the shell; the spire, either perfectly flat,
or but slightly salient, forms the base of the cone, the apex being at the
opposite extremity; the aperture is narrow, rectilinear, or nearly so, extend-
ing from one end to the other without enlargement or fold, either on its ie:
edge oron the columella. The thinness of the animal is proportioned to Td
the narrowness of the aperture through which it issues; its tentacula and ae
proboscis are highly protractile; the eyes are placed on the outer side of the
former, and near the point; the operculum, situated obliquely on the hind
part of the foot, is too narrow and short to close the whole of the aperture, a
The shells of this genus, being usually ornamented with the most beauti-
ful colours, are very common in cabinets. The seas of Europe produce
very few.
org
Cypraa, Lin. hie
The spire projecting but little, and the aperture narrow and extending from
one extremity to the other; but the shell, which is protuberant in the mid- be
dle, and almost equally narrowed at both ends, forms an oval, and the Pea
aperture in the adult animal is transversely wrinkled on éach side.’ The ee af
mantle is sufficiently ample to fold over and envelope the shell, which at a .
certain age it covers with a layer of another colour. The animal has
moderate tentacula, with the eyes at their external base, and a i i foot
without an operculum.
The colours of these shells, also, are extremely beautiful; they are ‘exe #> sib
a

tremely common in cabinets, though with very few exceptions they all in-—
habit the seas of tropical countries. 3
Ovuta, Brug.

The shell is oval, and’the aperture narrow and long, as in Cyprza, but with-
out plice on the side next to the columella; the spire is concealed, and the
two ends of the aperture equally emarginated, or equally prolonged in a
canal. The animal has a broad foot, an extended mantle which partly folds:
over the shell, a moderate and obtuse snout, and two long tentacula, on
which, at about the third of their length, are the eyes.

| Trresetyum, Lam.
An oblong shell, with a narrow aperture, without plice or wrinkles, and in-
creasing regularly in width to the end opposite the spire, which is more or
less salient, according to the species. The animal is not known. The

3 Votura, Lin. ws
Varies as to the form of the shell and that of the aperture, but i is ciicuinee
by the emargination without a canal which terminates it, and by the salient
and oblique plicz of the columella. From this genus Brugiéres first separa-
ted the
21

266 YA SrODNVSeGAL

Oxtya, Brug.,

So named from the oblong and elliptical shape of the shell, the aperture
2 of which is narrow, long and emarginated opposite to the spire, which is
short; the plice of the columella are numerous, and resemble stria; the

whorls are sulciform. These shells are quite as beautiful as the Cypraz.
The animal has a large foot, the anterior part of which (before the head)
is separated by an incision on each side; its tentacula are slender, and the
eyes are on their side about the middle of their length. The proboscis

and siphon are tolerably long; but it has no operculum.

- F _The remainder of the genus Voluta was afterwards divided into five, by

M. de Lamarck, They are Votvaria, VotuTa, Mancinetta, Mitra and
CAaNcELLARIA.

Buccrnum, Lin.

ass This genus comprises all the shells furnished with an emargination or a
Sas short canal inflected to the left, and in which the columella is destitute of
on plice.
Brugicres has divided them into the four genera of Bucccnum, Purpura,
Cassis, and. Terebra, part of which have been again subdivided by Messrs
de Lamarck and Montfort. The

Buccinum, Brug.
‘Includes the emarginated shells without any canal; whose general form,
4 ‘as well as that of the aperture, is oval. Theanimals, all such as are known,
are deprived of the yeil.on the head, but are furnished with a proboscis, two
~ separated tentacula, on the external side of which are the eyes, and a horny
operculum. Their siphon extends out of the shell.

Nassa, Lam.

The side of the columella is covered by a more or News br and thick
plate, and the emargination is deep, but without a canal. The animal re-
sembles that of a true Buccinum, and there are gradual transitions among
the shells, from one subgenus to the other.

Exsvrna, Lam.
A smooth shell without a plicated margin, and a widely and deeply um-

bilicated columella. The general form of their shell is ica allied to that
of the Olive, Their animal is unknown.

- Anciriarta, Lam. '
The same smooth shell, and at the lower part of the cobdtribla a marked
lip; there is no umbilicus, neither is the spire sulcated. The animal of

several species resembles that of the Olive, the foot being eo more de-
ia.

GASTEROPODA a 267

Those in which projecting ribs, that follow the direction of the whorls, eo
render the margin undulated; the inferior whorl is ample and. ventricose. Pit :

Harpra, Lam, ,

The Harpx are easily recognized by the projecting, transverse oa on
the whorls; the last of which forms a lip on the margin... The shell is beau- deere
tiful, and the animal has a very large foot, pointed behind, and widened,i in
its anterior portion, which is distinguished by two deep emarginations, » The
eyes are on the sides of the tentacula, and near their base. It/has neither
veil nor operculum. The enh ee

Purrura, Brug. bos

Is known by its flattened columella, which is trenchant near the dua opis ae 9d

posite to the spire, and which, with the external margin, formsa canalthere, = i

sunk in the shell, but not salient. The animal resembles that of —_ te
Buccinum.

The remaining subgenera are Concholepas, nets Cassidaria and Tereira, e £76
y 4 Ww * Be eae 5
Ceriraium, Brug. | "7 “oe Ne
A shell with a turriculated spire; the aperture is oval, »and the canal short, ‘
but well marked, and reflected to the left or backwards. The animal has
a veil on its head, and is furnished with two separated tentacula, on the
side of which are the eyes, and witha round, horny agen Many are | |
foun fossil. a

Morex, Lin.

This genus comprises all those shells in which there is a salient and snd
canal. The animalof each subgenus is furnished with a proboseis, long
approximated tentacula, on the external side of whichare the eyes, and with,
a horny operculum; the veil on the head is wanting, and, the length of the
siphon excepted, it. otherwise resembles that of the Buccina. » Brugiére
divides them into genera, which have been since subdivided bY Messrs La-
marck and Mantis. The + ,

| Monex, Brag. Laie ie
Includes all those which have a salient and straight canal, with vatices
across the where, Sue Ee als
gk Lam. eS ek
eee by opposing varices, so that the shell is bordered with them
on both sides. Their canal is short, and their surface studded with mere
tubercles; margins of the aperture plicated. The ce il

ti Ee

ae. § =
sm ad

268 . MOLLUSCA. ©

Fusvs, Brug:
aes i all shells with a salient and waiaoees canal, which are destitute
of varices. :

- Turpineria, Lam.,

RRR "Also consists of shells with a straight canal, but without varices, distin-
oe guishable by the large transverse plice on their columella, which extend
i the whole length of the aperture, and which closely approximate them ‘to
the conical Volute; they only differ from the latter in the elongation of

_ their aperture into a sort of canal. The genus

e Srromaus, Lin.
op. : Includes those shells with a canal'that is either straight or inflected towards
the right, of which the external margin of the. aperture dilates with age, but
5 _. still preserves a sinus near the canal, under which ie the head of the
x 4 pi animal when it extends itself... - Bic 3 | tia
- In most of them the sinus is at some distance from the canal. .They, are
_ subdivided, by M. de Lamarck into’ two ‘subgenera, Stromavs and. Pre-
- ROCERA. '

io ccecitooings va HOEH NIT.
TUBULIBRAN CHIATA.

The Tubulibranchiata.should be detached from the Peetinibran-
\ chiata, with which they are very closely allied, because the shell,
which resembles a more or less irregularly shaped tube, only spiral

at the commencement, attaches itself to various ap

Vidas: Adans.

A tubular shell whose whorls, at an early age, still form a kind of spire, but
then continue on in a tube more or less irregularly contorted, or bent like
the tubes of a Serpula.. This shell usually attaches itself by interlacing with
others of the same species, or is partly enveloped by Lithophytes: thé ani-
mal, haying no power of locomotion, is deprived of a foot, properly socalled;
but the part which in ordinary Gasteropoda forms the tail, is here turned
under it, and extends to beyond the head, where its extremity becomes in-
eck and furnished with a thin operculum; when the animal withdraws
into its shell, it is this mass which closes the entrance; it is sometimes seen’
with various appendages, and in certain species the operculum is spiny.

mi,

s $3 aw
ee ,
wee
4

“
Seg

GASTEROPODA PORUMDRANCHIATA. 269

» Maerus, Montero oir ho
The Magili have a wong carinated tube, which is at first feat
spiral, and then extends itself in a line more or less straight; although the
animal is unknown, it is highly probable that it should be placed ne r the
Vermeti. The
ie! Suuquarrs, Brug. : om ieee

Resembles Vermetus in sheilesly the. position of the operculum, and in the
tubular and irregular shell; but there is a fissure on the whole length of this
shell which follows its contour, and which corresponds to a similar cleft, in®
that part of the mantle which covers the branchial cavity. . Along the whole

side of this cleft is a branchial comb, composed. of numerous, loose and ed
ular-like lamellz. | i} bate

re 4 &

ORDER VIII. | . ly
SCUTIBRANCHIATA:, aye © oy

The Scutibranchiata comprise a conten sakes of Gasteropoda,
similar to the Pectinibranchiata, in the form’ and position of the:

branchiz, as well as in the general form of the: body. Their shells —

are very open, without an operculum, and most of them without the
slightest turbination, so that they cover these animals, and particu-
larly their branchiz, in the manner ofa shield. The © 4)?

Hatyoris, Lin.

Is the only genusiof this order in which the shell is turbinated; itis distin-
guished from that kind of shell by the excessive amplitude of the aperture;
and the flatness and smallness of the spire, which. is seen from within.
This form has caused it to be compared to the ear of a quadruped..» In the
true Halyotes, the shell is perforated along the side of the columella by a
series of holes; when the last hole is not terminated, it gives to that part the
look of an emargination. The animal is one of the most highly ornamented
of all the Gasteropoda. A double membrane, cut into leaves and furnished
with a double range of filaments, extends, at/least in the most common spe-

cies, round the foot and on to the mouth; outside its long tentacula, are two -
cylindrical pedicles which support the eyes... The mantle.is deeply cleft on}

the right side, and the water, which passes through the shell, penetrates
through it into the branchial cavity; along its edges we observe. three. or
four filaments which the animal can pets iho these holes, The,
mouth i is a short proboscis. Ree Se

mh

=

fs
te

270 ; - MOLLUSCA,

In the following genera, which are separated from the Patelle,
the shell is perfectly symmetrical, as is also the position of the heart
and branchie. In the

i

FissureELta, Lam.,

We perceive a broad fleshy disk under the abdomen, as in the Patellz, a
conical shell placed on the middle of the back, but not always completely
covering it, and perforated at its summit by a small orifice, which affords a
passage to the water required for respiration; this orifice penetrates into the
cavity of the branchiz, situated on the fore part of the back; a cavity other-
wise widely opened above the head. A branchial comb is symmetrically
arranged on each side; the eyes are on the external base of the conical ten-
tacula, and the sides of the foot are furnished with a range of filaments.
There are two other genera, Emarginula and Parmophorus.

"yey ” °* ORDER IX.

CYCLOBRANCHIATA.

_ The branchiz of the Cyclobranchiata resemble small lamella, or
little pyramids forming a cordon more or less complete under the

borders of the mantle, very nearly as in the Inferobranchiata.
Their heart varies as to situation. But two genera of this order are
known, in both of which the shell never approaches in the least to
the turbinated form. :

Pareua, Lin. ‘
The entire body covered with a shell, formed of a sirigle’ hiece, in the form
of a broad-based cone; a cordon of little branchial lamella under the margin
of the mantle; the head is furnished with a thick and short snout, and two
pointed tentacula, on the external base of which are the eyes; the mouth is
fleshy, and contains a spiny tongue, which inclines backwards, and is) re-
flected deeply in the interior of the body.

Curron, Lin.

A range of testaceous and symmetrical scales along the back of the mantle,
but not occupying its whole breadth; edges of the mantle coriaceous, and
furnished either with a naked skin or little scales, which give it the appear-
ance of shagreen, or with spines, hairs, or setaceous fasciculi. Under these
edges, on each side, is a range of lamellar, pyramidal branchie; and before,
a membranous veil on the mouth supplies the want of tentacula.

GASTEROPODA CYCLOBRANCHIATA, : 271

A few small species are found on the coast of France; very lange ones
abound in the seas of hot: poetics

“
1 = 2a

2 1 3

CLASS IV.
ACEPHALA.

The Acephala have no apparent head; but a mere mouth con-
cealed in the bottom, or between the folds of their mantle. The
latter is almost always doubled in two, and encloses the body as a
book is clasped by its cover; but it frequently happens, that, in con-
sequence of the two lobes uniting before, it forms a tube; sometimes
it is closed at one end, and then it representsasac. This mantle is
generally provided with a calcareous bivalve, and sometimes multi-
valve, shell, and in two genera only is it reduced to a cartilaginous, or
even membranous nature. The brain is over the mouth, where we
also find one or two other ganglia. The branchize usually consist
of large lamellz covered with vascular meshes, under or between
which passes the water; they are more simple, however, in the
genera without a shell. From these branchiz the blood proceeds
to a heart, generally unique, which distributes it throughout the sys-
tem, returning to the pulmonary artery without the aid of another
ventricle.

The mouth i$ always edentated, and can only receive the mole-
cules brought to it by the water.

All the Acephala are aquatic.

ORDER I.
ACEPHALA TESTACEA.

_ Testaceous Acephala, or Acephala with four branchial leaflets,
are beyond all comparison the most numerous. All the bivalves,
and some genera of the multivalves belong to this order. Their

« ia *
wr
ba =

i Y
Meare
= +

ad

272 (1H yeni soas

body, which contains the liver and viscera, is placed between the
two laminz of the mantle; forwards, and still between these laminz
are the four branchial leaflets, transversely and regularly striated by
the vessels: the mouth is at one extremity, and the heart towards
the back; the foot, when it exists, is inserted between the four bran-
chie. On the sides of the mouth are four triangular leaflets, which
are the extremities of the two lips,. and serve as tentacula. The
foot is a mere fleshy mass, the motions of which are effected by a
mechanism analogous to that which acts on the tongue of the Mam-
malia. Its muscles are attached to the bottom of the valves of the
shell. Other muscles, which sometimes form one mass and some-
times two, cross transversely from one valve to the other to keep
them closed, but when the animal relaxes these muscles, an elastic
ligament placed behind the hinge opens the valves by its contraction.

A considerable number of bivalves are provided with what is
termed a byssus, or a bundle of threads more or less slender, which

issues from the base of the foot, and by which the animal adheres

to various bodies. It uses its foot to direct the threads and to

agglutinate their extremities; it even reproduces them when cut,

but the nature of the production is not thoroughly ascertained.
Réaumur considered these threads as a secretion, spun and drawn
from the sulcus of the foot; Poli thinks they are mere prolongations
of tendinous fibres.

The shell consists essentially of two pieces, called valves; to which
in certain genera are added others, connected by a ‘hinge that is
sometimes simple and sometimes composed of a greater or smaller
number of teeth and plates, which are received into .corresponding
cavities.

There is usually a projecting part near the hinge called the summit.

Most of these shells fit closely when the animal approximates
them, but there are several which exhibit gaping portions either be-
fore or at the extremities.

FAMILY I.
OSTRACEA.

The mantle is open, without tubes or any particular aperture.
The foot is either wanting in these Mollusca or is small; they are

ey
Br

mostly fixed by the shell or byssus to r:
bodies. Those which are free, iin» move ae by acting on
the water by suddenly closing their valves.

In the first subdivision ‘there is nothing but a “ae mass
reaching from one valve to the other, as seen by the single i impress-
ion left upon the shell...-* ~

{t is thought proper to class with them certain fossil shells, the
valves of which do not éven appear to have been held together by a
ligament, but which covered each other like a vase and its cover,
and were tonnected by muscles only. They form the genus

Acarpa, Brug. sail La Peyr. we
Of which M. de Lamarck makes a family that he names Rupista. The
shells are thick, and of a solid or porous tissue. They are now divided into
the Radiolites, Sphzxrulites, Calceola; Hippurites, Batolithes.

As to the well known living testaceous Acephala, Linneus had
united in the genus

OsTREA, e. ie
All those which have but a small ligament at the hinge, inserted into a little
‘depression on each side, and without teeth or projecting plates.

OsTREA, Brug.

The nae sp Oysters have the ligament. as. just described, ene abana. in-
equivalve, and. lamellated shells... They adhere to rocks, piles, and even to
each other, by their most convex valve.

The animal,—Pxtonis, Poli,—is one ofthe most simple of all the bivalves,
possessing nothing-remarkable but a double fringe round the mantle, the
lobes of which are only united above the head, near the hinges but there is
no vestige of a foot.

» Pectex, Brug.

The Pectens, very properly separated from the Oysters by Brugiéres, al-
though they have the same kind of hinge, are easily distinguished by their
inequivalve semi-circular shell, almost always regularly marked with ribs
which radiate from the summit of each valve to the edge, and furnished
with two angular productions called ears, which widen the sides of the hinge.

Lima, Brug.

The Limz differ from the Pectens in the superior length of their shell i in
a direction perpendicular to the hinge, the ears of which are shorter, and

the sides less unequal, thus forming an oblique oval. The ribs es most of

2K

ie, a: 1 ae + SRR 2
P . ee
bd

Pe me
“

ve

_ 27

s

them are relieved with scales. The Lime ee” means of

their : valves. * Rae ec ome. Cory
Certain fossils may be placed here which ‘ai the hinge, ligament,

and central muscle of the Ostrex, Pectines, and Lime, but are dis-

tinguished by: some of the details of the shell. .They are Hinnita,

Plagiostoma, Pachytes, Dianchora, and Podopsis. :

3 i multivalve, we should approximate the

e

Axoural Brug. «

To the Ostrex. The Anomiz have two thin, Hileatiat irregular valves, the
flattest of which is deeply notehed on the side of the ligament, which is

" similar to that of the Ostree. - The greater’part of the central muscle tra-

verses. this opening to be inserted into a third plate, that is sometimes stony
and sometimes horny, by which the animal adheres to: foreign bodies, and
_ the remainder of it (the muscle) serves to join one valve to the other. The
_ animal,——Eomoy, Poli, has a small vestige of a foot, similar to” ‘that.of a
Pecten, which slips between the emargination and the plate that closes it,
and perhaps serves to direct water tothe mouth, which is close to it.

ees shells are found attached to various bodies like the Ostreez. They

e found in every sea. ~

PLacuUNA, Rene.

ae emul genus allied to the Anomiz, in which tlie valves are thin, unequal,
and frequentiy eynmee as in the latter, but ie entire. a ¢. aie

¥ : Ag 4sh LH ie pac! “ id a t an

Shy tla wee ee ae Lin. © sisgt of Yo
A cougtt and foliaceous shell like the Ostree, and frequently’ spiny; but
the hinge is more complex; besides the cavity for the ligament, analogous
to that of the Ostrezx, there are two teeth to each valve ‘that enter into
fosse in the opposite one; the two middle teeth belong’to the most convex
valve, which is usually the left one, and which has a projecting heel, flat-
tened, as if sawed through behind the hinge.

The Spondyli are eaten like Oysters. Their shells are frequently tinged

with the most brilliant colours. They adhere to all sorts of bodies.

=

Mautevs, Lams hue? odage

Ss

A simple pit for the ligament as in the Ostrez, where the Mallet Wits left
by Linnzus, on account of their having the same irregular and inequivalve
shell, but distinguished by a notch on the side of this tate for the pass-
age of a byssus.

The most known species, Ostrea malleus, L., which gah among the num-
ber of high-priced and rare shells, has the two ends of the hinge extended
‘and forming something like the head of a hammer,of which the valves,

/

‘

Pe Ge aS ed % r
West 2 inéquivalve shells, as irregular as those of Wikonncas fod more so; 3
no teeth tothe hinge; the li

elongated in a transy:
Archipelago of India. oe

the other extends the scl te otherwise similar to that of the Ostrez.
By the side of this platesis.a notch for the byssus, as in the Mallet ‘The
shell is elongated i in a direction perpendicular to the hinge.

The most known species inhabit the Indian Ocean.

‘ .
EOI 1! * Perna, Brug. 7
sive pear cavities across the hinge, opposed to each other i in the two
valves, and lodging as many elastic ligaments; the irregular and foliaceous _ *
shell marked on the anterior side and under the hinge by anotch traversed —
by the byssus... The Perne were also left by Linneus ie the Ostrez.

This genus is now subdivided.

a 4 4

In the second eubaiiiel ‘of the Ostracea, as well sesh almo t
the bivalves which follow, besides the single transverse”
mass of the preceding genera, there is a fasciculus w
before the mouth, and extends from one valve to oat rt] It is
apparently i in this subdivision that we nen 6 the at Bo

if ig ol <n

ge ‘= a Eruenray Lam. 7

They differ from the Ostrez in having sw @utiteoclae
mal is not seen-to produce a bysstis.

They have (mica been discovered in the Upper Nile.

Besa Avieuta, Brug.
a cannes shell with a rectilinear hinge, frequently extended into wings
by its extremities, furnished witha narrow and elongated ligament, and
sometimes with small notches near the mouth of the animal; in the. anterior
side, a little beneath the angle of the side of the mouth, is a notch for the
byssus. The ariterior transverse muscle is excessively small. _

, Mytilus margaritiferus, L., has nearly a semicircular shell, greenish with-
out, and ornamented with the. most beautiful nacre within. The latter is ‘.
employed in the arts, and itis from the extravasation of this substance that * Z
are produced the oriental or fine pearls, taken by the divers at Ceylon, in :

‘the Persian Gulf, &c. mt i - i | “

aye

The Pinnz have two equal alte fotki a segment of a circle, or ‘yesem-

en

a

ide

ans Cl Cal
ey

276

blinjgia half ‘opened fan, which are pclghbh united by a ligament along one
of their sides. The animal, the Cumzna, Poli, is elongated, like its shell;
the lips, branchie, and other parts are in the same proportion.

The byssus of several species of Pinna is as fine and brilliant as silk, and
is employed in fabricating the most precious stuffs. Such is the

P. nobilis, L., which is moreover recognized by the valves being rough-
ened with recurved and semitabular plates. It remains half buried in the
sand, and anchored by its byssus. ' In the

Arca, Lin.

The valves are equal and transverse, that is to say, the hingeoccupies the
longest side. It is furnished with a large number of small teeth, which in-
__ terlock with each other, and, as in the subsequent genera, with two fasci-
~~ culi of transverse and nearly equal muscles, inserted. into the extremities of
_ the valves, which serve to close them. «© - a. i

*
wy

Trigonta, Brug.

Re markable for the hinge, which is furnished with two plates en chevron,
eerie on both faces, each of which penetrates into two cavities, ‘or
rather between four plates of the opposite side, similarly crenulated on their
‘internal | surface.

| The living Trigoniz resemble the Cardiz in the form of their shell, and

ribs which furrow it: its interior is composed of nacre,

"The fossil Trigoniz are ‘different. Their shell is flattened on one side,
oblique, longest in a ee perpendicular to the hinge, and traversed in
@ contrary prettién by’ series of tubercles.

on Bs hus... ; e .
“FAMILY I.
teh MYTILACEA.

In the second family of the iectedien Acephala, the mantle is
open before.

All these bivalves have a foot, used in crawwtities or at least serv-

ing to draw out, direct; and place the byssus. They are commonly

known under the generic name of Muscles.

Myritvs, Lin.

The true Mytili or Sea-Museles have a closed shell, with equal, convex and
triangular valves. One of the sides of the acute angle forms the hinge, and
is furnished with a long, narrow ligament. The head of the animal is in the
acute angle; the other side of the shell, which is the longest, is the anterior
one, and allows the passage of the byssus; it terminates in a rounded angle,

ee ee PN ok een ee

ACEPHALA TESTACEA, © 277

and. the third side asce nds te ywards the hinge, to which it is suede an cae ae
obtuse angle. The animal— SALLITRICHE, Poli, has the edges ofitsmantle =
provided with branched Athy near the rounded angle, as itis there that & ee Hy %
the water enters require: for respiration. Before, and near the acute an- o |
gle isa small transverse muscle, and a large one mebing, near the obtuse
angle. Its foot resembles a tongue e. ®

. Myt. edulis, L. This common Muscle is frequently seen suspended i in
extended clusters, along the whole coast of France, to rocks, piles, &c. &c.
It forms a considerable item of food, but is dangerous if eaten to excess.

Some of them are found fossil. Inthe . e .% *

re el

re
Axopowrra, Brug. © i a

The anterior angle rounded like the posterior; the ee of the thin and ae

moderately convex shell has no appearance of a tooth whatever, being —

merely furnished with a ligament which extends along the whole of its ©

length. . The animal,—Limwma, Poli, has no byssus; its foot, which is very. 6

large, compressed and quadrangular, enables it to crawl upon the sand or. on ee

ooze. The posterior extremity of its mantle is provided with: nume “is us

small tentacula. The Anodontes inhabit fresh water. et
Several species are found in France, one of which— Myf tile $C

common in ponds, &c., with oozy bottoms. in shells

used for milk-skimmers, but its flesh is not eaten ¢ on account of it: ts insipid.

- +
Unto, Brug. % ‘ -
These Mollusca resemble the Anodontez both in thei nimal and shell, with ee
the exception of their hinges which is more complex. a short ca-

vity in the'anterior part of the right valve, which receives a ate plateor ©

tooth from the left one, and behind it isa long plate which is inserted be- Stee
tween two others on the opposite side. They also inhabit fresh water, pre- ae
ferring running streams.

Numerous: species, remarkable for size or form, inhabit the rivers and
lakes of the United States. Messrs Say and Barnes, who have described
them, have established some new subgenera among them.

There are certain Marine Mollusca which have a similar animal, and about
the same kind of hinge, that should be placed near the Unios; the summits
of the shell, however, are more convex, and it is marked by projecting ribs
extending from the summits to the edge. They form the

wpe

“Carpita, Brug.

Which are more or less oblong or codiform, the inferior margin, in sae!
gaping.

Cypricarpra, Lam.

Cardite, ' in which the tooth under the summit is divided into two or three.
Their form is oblong, and their sides unequal.

. .
>

- MOLLUSCA.

ok e le Blainville also separates the eae Bega et

Eee .: Conatiropitaca, Blainv. eh a ,
| Where the shell is thin, and the lateral plate considerably on d, which
may ‘cause their approximation to Venus. . __
One oftthem i is known which ex¢ayates coralline masses to erin its habi-
tation. The PN ieee gees —

a

we

es ‘Venericarpra, Lam. a

Only differs from ‘the Cardite i in the circumstance that the posterior plate
of their hinge is shorter and more transverse, which caused their approxi-
a -mation.to Venus; rk is almost round. «J judging from the impressions
— psc? on ‘hem: their ] must resemble that of the Cardite and

‘Ss

Aas.

i3 oth ofthem anbroaitt a Cardia in their general form’ and the direction
lof their nib I fae — this is also the place for om
Crassarens 4, Lam. * — :

I s. sometimes been approximated to -Mactra, and at others to
My Venus; the inge has two slightly marked lateral teeth, and two very strong
a pe ld ie ones, behind which, extending to both sides, is a triangular icavity
“an internal ligament, ‘The yyalves become very thick by age, and the
réssion made by the argin of the myentle, leads to the belief that there

| en a Pee tub: ie
> % a vd 7 : ne i .

é ae
fe e awe ? +

oa FAMILY mm. a

‘ CHAMACEA.

The mantle closed and perforated by three holes, through one of
Sim which. passes the foot; the second furnishes an entrance and.exit to
“A the wate a requisite for respiration: the two latter are not prolonged
into tu bes as in the Sihewatinne family. It only aetna the genus

*
od .
Pow

‘ ‘Cuama, Lin.,’
Where the hinge is very analogous to that of a Unio, that is to say, the left
€ valve near the summit is provided with a tooth, and further back with a sa-

lient plate, which are received into corresponding fosse of the right valve.
‘This is genus has necessarily been divided. Inthe

—" i | Tripacna, Brug., ee
‘, a The shell is greatly elongated transversely, and equivalye; the superior 5
~~ which’ answers to the = and summit, very _

ea

a in the shell, but: at were, ans out before The

anterior side of ‘mant ride y opened for the passage of the byssus; oe
a little below the: le igaaother opening which ee water eg
to the branchiz. © ey
There is but’a single tr , hustle, corresponding to ee iddle of
the margin of the valves. In Trrpacna,Liamyy or the sg 3

so called, the front of the shell as well as of the mantle has a wide opening
with notched edges : for the: transmission of th byssus, which latter is evi-
dently tendinous, andcontinues uniterpiey Wi the muscular fibres.
Such is the celebrated and enormous shell of India, the Chama gigas, L.;
which is decorated with broad ‘ribs. relieved by projecting semi-circular
scales. Bpecinensiave been 1 takent at weighed ipwards of t Solan ed
pounds. ‘The tendinous byssus which attaches them tothe r 1
and stout that eats: is ee to sever it, me Py tho: ugl 1
edible. ere ‘

FAMILY Vic. 2008084
“et
ho ee 5 3, CMDERCRA 5

-

The mantle i is open before, ad there are, b besides, ‘070 sepa
apertu es, which are prolonged i in tubes, sometiines distinct, oh at 4
nited in one single mass. Thereis alwaysa ti transverse Mus-
cle at each extremity, and afoot generally used for cra tdi ‘Tt
may be ‘considered asa general rule, that those which are furnished
with long tubes, live in ooze or in sande This eof organization
may be selina saahi in the shell by the more Or Tess. depressed con-—
tour described by the insertion of the edges of the mantle previous to

its uniting. with the impression of the posterior transverse miiscle. ’

_Carprom, Lin. é . ; bc
The Cardia, like many othier bivalves, have an equivalve, ¢o shell; ar
withsalient summits curved towards the hinge, which, when viewing it side- ane
_ wise, gives it the figure of a heart; hence its name of Cardium, Heart, &c.
The animal,—Czrasrzs, Poli,—has. generally an ample aperture in the
mantle, a very large foot forming an élbowin the middle and with int
directed forwatds, and two short or but moderately long tubes. @ RA Ao ,
. Dobie: Lin. Mr ae
The Donaces have nearly the same kind of hinge as the Cardia, but ” fee eo. ee
shell is of a very different form, , being-a triangle, of which the obtuse angle . oS
is at the summit of the tpi and the base at their edge, and of why the

- re “ Z
: = *

ee

280 SS VMOBLUSGA) “OS

shortest side is that of the ligament, or the posterior side, a rare circum-
stance inthis degree, among bivalves. They are generally small, and pret-
tily striated from the summits to the edges; their animal—Pzronma, Poli,
is furnished with long tubes which are received into a sinus of the mantle.
The 2 ae RUSS

ye w Gitnsi Brug. .
Separated from Venus by Brugitres, like the Cardia and Donaces, has two
teeth in the middle of the hi age, and before and behind, two salient and
sometimes crenulated plate S$ t the shell, as in several species of Venus, is
more or less rounded, equilateral, and _ transyersely striated. The animal
has moderate tubes. The external tint is regialy ¢ grey, oF ne The
wane Pah freal mater, o

7

ti + eae
Se ua #5 ike en <—
a SS 4

Corsts,; Cuv.))0 7 aaa

= ae Salbicetns Acephala, transversely oblong, which! hava also stout

» middle teeth, and’ well marked lateral plates; their external surface is fur-

si :* - nished with transverse ribsso nesgoliey crossed by rays, that itmay be com-

pared | to wicker-work. Ih the af

: Tenia, Lin.

a There a are in the middle, one tooth on the left and two teeth on the right,
frequently forked, and at some distance before and’ behind, on the right
pate a plate, which does not penetrate into a cavity of the opposite one.
There is a slight plica near the posterior extremity of the two valves, which
renders them 1 unequal i in that part, where they are somewhat open.

The animal of the Telline—Pzronma, Poli,—like that of the Donaces,
has two long tubes, which withdraw into the shell, and are concealed i in a
duplicature of the mantle.

Their shells are generally toansverioly striated, and decorated with beau-
tiful colours.

ty

LucIna, Brug.

Separated lateral teeth, as in the Cardia, Cyclades, &c.,.that penetrate be-
tween the plates of the other valve; in the middle are two'teeth, frequently,
but slightly apparent. The shell is orbicular, and without any impression
of theretractor muscle of the tube; that of the anterior constrictor, however,
is very long.

The living species are much less numerous than those that are fossil; the
latter are very common in the environs of Paris.

Venus, Lin.
This genus comprises many Testacea whose general chargollls consists in
the teeth and plates of the hinge being approximated under the summit, in
asingle group. They are usually more flattened and elongated, in a direc-

%

ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 7” ogee

arrangement in the Cardia.

The animal is always furnished with Bae more or ‘ess oe onctile tubes,
sometimes united, and with 2 compressed foot, which enable it to crawl.
This genus is now divided into Petricola, Crassina, Cytherea, a Cor-
bula, Mest etl i: common Glam is a true Venus.

BRAT id

ee FAMILY SF : —
a saeranvomt ppt scion

5 ntl e' op HAR LHS Gas
only, for ieee of the foot, and extended from the oth er en
into a double tube, which projects from the shell, whose extret 1 i ties
are always: gaping. ” Nearly all of them live: ce in sandy ‘Ste e

Ee,

ooze‘or wood. ‘Those of the g anus

Mya, ree 5
Haye but two yalves to their oblong shell, ‘the hinge of which v2 i
double tube forms a fleshy cylinder, and the foot«is compressed. — » ee
different forms of the hinge have furnished Messrs Daudin,. ‘Lamitok,. Ke. ; ae
with rane gabdivisions, reer Mya proper, Anatina, pina Bee ap 2

Here slot we find a group of some small and singular genert ’
such as “ae oot | |

ff,

ByssomiA, Oily. +

Where the ee shell, which lias no marked tooth, has’ the opening for
the foot: at about the middle of its edge and. opposite the summits. The
Byssomiz penetrate into stone, corals, &c.
A species which is provided with a byssus, abounds in the Arctic Ocean.
pre Rey tetas ate

oS Hravenza, Daud. 1% vi
The shell gaping, to allow the passage of the foot, near the middle of its Se

edges; but the tooth of the hinge i is better marked than in the ‘preceding
genus. Ranges of salient spines are frequently observed on the hind part
of the shell. They are found in sand, among Fogphytet &e,

Soxzy, Lin. i ors 8

The shell only bivalve, oblong or elongated, but the hinge always fosnialiea
with salient and well marked teeth, and the ligament external. In the
Solens properly $0 called, the shell is ice cad elongated, and meetin or
2L 3 : .

*

999 aa MOLLUSCA, A

three teeth in each valve near the anterior extremity, where the foot issues.
The latter is conical, and enables the animal to bury itself in the sand,
hoe which it excavates with considerable rapidity on the is anges of ie ee

: a: “by Pwotas, Tin. ‘

The Pholades have two broad valves, convex towards the intadl narrow

and elongated on the opposite side, ‘and leaving a large oblique opening at

each extremity; their hinge, like that of a true Mya, is furnished with a
“plate projecting from one ach the other, and with an internal ligament

t ’
we te ¥

- running from that plate into a Cor esponding «cavity. ‘Their mantle i €* e-
flected externally upon the’hinge, where it sometimes contains two or thr

. supernumerary calcareous bodies. . The foot issues through the ae

~ on the side next to the mouth, where it is widest, and from the. opposite’one

project ae ye pies » which ‘are — ie wate Sem er in every

ie} holalles inhabit canals moe they axasibin some in ooze and others
“in stone, like the Lithodomi, Petricole, &c. The e ‘much ‘sou ht. for on
stone, lik Yet g

" aecount of their agreeable Barour i in St

ow y TEREDO, , 7
co * . The mantle extended in a tube much longer than the two small, thomboi-.
at dal valves, .and terminated by two short tubes, the base of which is furnishe
Pe ed on € h side with a ‘stony and movable kind of operculum or palette. m,

These Acephala, while quite young, penetrate and establish’ their habita-
tions in submerged pieces of wood, such as piles, ships’ bottoms, &c.,
perforating and destroying them in every direction....It is thought, that
in order to penetrate as fast as it increases in size, the Teredo excayates the
wood by means of its yalves; but the tubes remain near the opening by
which its entrance was-effected, and through which, by the aid of its pa-
lette, it receives water and aliment. The gallery it inhabits islined with a
eee calcareous crust which exudes from its body, and which forms a second

kind of tubular shell for it. It is a noxious and destructive’ animal in the
sea ports of Europe. : LF ge ORO Sag ae
Teredo navalis, L.. This species, which is the most conimon, ‘and i is said
to have been introduced into Europe from the torrid zone, has more than
Lin once threatened Holland with ruin by the destruction of its dikes. It is
¥. in sia of six inches in length and has simple palettes. ;

a

ho ed

FIsTunana, Brug. .

Separated from Teredo; the external tube is entirely closed at its lhiceer
end, and is more or less like a bottle or club. The Fistulane are some-

~ times found buried in submerged fragments of wood or in fruits; ‘and the «
animal, like that of a Teredo, has two small valves, arid as many palettes.
‘Recent specimens are only obtained from’ the Indian Ocean, but ‘Oy are
found reise in Europe. We should iis a to them Bee

or ,

oF

TR ms = S ote aa a a bagi Zs =
Aciman 3 TESTACEA. ‘ Me

Where the shells : are leprived « Bieett eth, sceie’ ‘dbaeiaccing ¥ wide apart’
anteriorly, leave a large 0 oblique opening, Aig to which there is a small 5
hole in the mantle for ngs The double tube, which can a
be retraced completed nin the ee susceptible of being’greatly elon- i:
gated, It appears that they are certainly furnished with a calcareous tube. f

They inhabit the intérior of gaachi ae which they perforate. ba
Two genera of ‘Acephala furnished with tubes, have been de i er
tected among fogs, but the first of them, the . i
+. re ad ei Me: hii
Eis lee Trrepina, Lam., e
Has a little cuilleron on the: inside.of each of its valves, and a small, ‘free roe
pricteoped Riser onthe hinge. In the second, We. Be
ee - CLAVAGELLA, Lam., 5 i i
One, of the falvea' ig XG by the tube, leaving the other, hitevel ie, ,
Asingle living species is found inthe Mactepares of the Sicilian seas, which, he
has been described by M. Audotin. rea all ae
OF é by ae

Some naturalists think we should also place i in this feat the by

Asperottium, Faun. » : .* =
The shell of which is formed of an elongated conical stube,. closed _at its
widest extremity by a disk perforated with numerous. small tubular holes;

“the little tubes of the outer range being longest, form a kind of coroll;

round it: The reason for approximating them to the Acephala with tubes
~ is found in the fact that there is a double projection on one part of the cone
- whith really resembles the two valves of the Acephala. The affinity be-
- tween these little tubes and those which envelope the tentacula of certain

‘ Teérebella; formerly caused this animal to be referred to the Annulata.
The siti ia known, Asper. javanum, is seven or hina inches in

Mie

of

# ~~) ORDER 1.
ACEPHALA NUDA.

The naked Acephala are not numerous, and are sufficiently, re-
moved from the ordinary Acephala, to form a distinct class, were»
such a division considered requisite. Their branchize assume va- bs ce
rious. forms, ws aré never divided into four — the shell is

*

ARRE

a - MOLLUSCA.

replaced by a cartilaginous substance which is sometimes so thin
that it is as flexible as a ‘Tmembrane. We divide them into two
families. “

io
* *

FAMILY.

Ah a Sen
ae SEGREGATA.
. ) This family comprises those genera in which the individuals that
is ‘compose them are insulated and without any mutual organic ‘con-
it ae

nection, although frequently living in society. In the

Brenors, Brug.—Tuat1a, Brown,—Sanra and Daeysa, Gmelin.

“The mantle and its cartilaginous envelope are oval or cylindrical, and open
at the two extrenfities. Muscular bands embrace the mantle and contract the

body. The animal moves by taking in water at the posterior aperture se ¥

forcing it out through that near the mouth, so that it is always propel
backwards, a circumstance which has led some naturalists into error by

causing them to mistake the posterior opening for'the true mouth. It usu-»
ally swims on its back. The branchiz forma single tube or riband, furnish~ —

ed with regular vessels, placed obliquely i in the middle of the tubular cavity
of the mantle, in such @ manner that it is constantly bathed by thie water as
it traverses that.cavity. The mantle and its envelope when exposed to the
sun exhibit the colours of the rainbow, and are so diaphanous, that the whole
structure of the animal can be seen through them: in many they are furnish-
ed with perforated tubercles. The animal has been seen to come out from

Be its envelope without appearing to suffer pain. gti ay
a These animals are very abundant in the Mediterranean and. the warmer
portions of the ocean, and are frequently phosphorescent, 9. «-
.' - Aserpra, Lin. Theyton of the Ancients. FS ath,
car The mantle and its cartilaginous envelope, which is frequently very thick,
ha resemble sacs everywhere closed, except at two orifices, which correspond
to the two tubes of several bivalves. The branchize form a large sac, at'the
bottom of which are the mouth and the visceral mass. The envelope is
| Mek. much larger than the mouth, which is fibrous and vascular, a a which,
% ~~ between the two tubes, is one of the ganglions, These ani attach
aes themselves to rocks and other bodies, and are deprived of all power of lo-

comotion; the chief sign of vitality which they exhibit, consists in the absorp-

tion and evacuation of water through one of their orifices; when ‘alarmed .
they eject it to a considerable distance. They abound in every sea, and

‘some of them are eaten. ‘ aes
“Some shi are remarkable for the long pedicle which supboarts them.

a

>

ACEPHALA NUDA. » 285 7
‘ see
aie bigs ae 5,
iba I LY is ae
4 — * ’ ; 4 F

%, ¢ 4 <

The second family. consists of animals more or less analogous to
the Ascidie, but united in a common mass, so that they seem to _
communicate organically with each other, and in this respect to
connect the Mollusca with the Zoophytes; but independently of thei
peculiar organization, these animals, according to the observations *
of Messrs Audouin and Milne Edwards, at first liveandswimsepa- =
rately, only becoming united at a certain subsequent epee a fact
which is in direct Oppositign.t9 this opinion. ;

* - x: *
Bornvitite} Cit ws a

Ane mal f Pie various bodies, and united by tens or twelves, like im Be
ofastar. The branchial orifices are at the external extremities of. . ©
tt nd the opening cn in a. common cavity, which is in the

ntre of the star. Ifa ce be irritated, but a single animal contracts; . fe

f the centre be touche hey all contract. These» very small animals at- M

Mach themselves to certain Ascidiz, Fuci, &c. a % . i

In some particular species, three or four stars appeped, to be PF ae.. one RE
on the other. |

Pyrosoma, Peron. : sh a

The fyrigomse unite in great numbers, forming a large hollow eyitillens wh Ke:
open at one end and closed at the other, which swims in the ocean by the ; pa

alternate contraction and dilatation of the individual animals which compose >
it. The latter terminate in a point on the exterior, so that the whole ex.

ternal surface: of the tube is bristled with them; the branchial orifices are : Ps
pierced near these points. A Pyrosoma may thus be compared to’a great + 4
number of stars of Botrylli strung together, the whole of which is movable. * es

The Mediterranean and the Ocean produce large species, the animals of 7
> arran ged with but little regularity. They exhibit a phosphores-
iT ” ce during the night.
ies is also known where the animals are arranged in very

The species of the remainder that are known are all fixed, and till
now have been confounded with the Alcyonia. ‘The visceral bundle
of each individual is more or less extended into the common cartila-
ginous or gelatinous mass, more or less narrowed or dilated in cer, ee

4
’

a7

“A

‘
Fa

. ee ey =f

a = cS = or oe
286 a /-MOLLUSCA.

tain points; ita — ‘orifice always forms a little meermyed star on
the ——, me unite has all under the name of —

ae : ss i Ponycrinum |
Some of them are extended over bodies like fleshy crests. Others project
in a. conical or globular mass; or expand into a disk comparable to that of

a flower or of an Actinia; or are elongated into cylindrical branches sup-

. . ported by slender pedicles, &c.; or form parallel cylinders.

‘se *

CLASS -V.

* BRACHIOPODA.~

| rs oe . Modi
‘The Mollusca Brachiopoda, like the Acephala, have a bilobed

~ mantle ‘which is always open. Instead of feet they are. provided,
with two fleshy arms,*furnished with numerous filaments, which they

can'protrudé from, and draw into the shell. The mouth is between

the base of the arms.

All the Brachiopoda are invested with bivalve shells, fixed and

- immovable. But three genera are known.

-Linevta, Brug.

Two equal, flat, oblong valves, the summits of which are at the extremity
of one of the narrow sides, gaping at the other end, and attached between
the two summits to a fleshy pedicle, which suspends them to the ‘rocks; the
arms become spirally convoluted previously to’entering the shell. It ap-
pears that the branchiz consist of small leaflets, too around the inter-
nal face of each lobe of the mantle. ar a

But a single species, Lingula anatina, Cuv., is known.” It
Indian Ocean, and has thin, borny and greenish valves. __

-

2

TEREBRATULA, Brug. i
Two unequal valves united by a hinge; the summit of one, more sal ent than
the other, is perforated to permit the passage of a fléshy pedicle w which at-
taches the shell to rocks, madrepores, other shells, &c. "Internally, ‘asmall
bony piece of frame-work is observed, that is sometimes ‘Very complex,
composed of two branches which articulate with the unperforated valve and
that support two arms edged all round with a long, close fringe, between
which, on the side next to the large vale, isa bi simply membranous’

= ae
eR.

¥

he

and much longer appendage isu ly spirally convolu L ere
the arms, with a fine and’close fringe.. The mouth is a small vertical fiss- Pon

ure between these Ganka large appendages... The principal part of the «
body, situated near the hinge, contains the numerous muscles which reach
from one valve to the other, and between them are the viscera, which ‘oc-
cupy but little space. *e 4
Numberless Terebratule are found fossil or petvified, ‘eleemotalel secondary fe.
strata of ancient formations. The living species are less numerous.
The shell of some is transversely broader or longer, in a direction per-.
pendicular to the hinge, with an entire or emarginated contour, with two ‘i
or several lobes; some of them are even triangular; the surface is smooth, .
sulcated in radii, or veined; they are thick or thin, and even diaphanous. ~~
In several of them, in lieu of the hole in the summit of the thin valve, there .F
is a notch, and this notch is sometimes partly formed by two accessory pie-
ces, &c. It is probable that when better known their cee pom present
generic differences. Already in the. ‘ rm 3
Tu 1 Gera: _ is :
at te. Srrnirer, Sowerby, , ? * OQ
tgs peed: cones have been recognized, rome. of: a spiral thread, which a hn o
‘appear to have supported the a

a : “Es her
‘™ OA ays waxinin, Def. “e a A i e

‘The pedicle seems to have been ipcorponstaas 1 wit the ety,

’

. Orsicuta, Cuv. vi * | > Bi
‘he Orbiculz have two unequal valves, one of which, me. is round and coni- q

cal when viewed by itself, resembles the shell of a Patella; the other is flat

and fixed toa rock. The arms of the animal,—Criopus, Poli,—are ciliated ~

and spirally recurved like that of the meer E

CRANIA, Brug. ag
Should be approximated to the Orbicule. ‘The arms of the animal are
also ciliated, hut the shells have deep and round internal muscular impress-
ipnssttas pate caused it tobe compared to the fens of a skull,

as
Bod

F : : ait f * a
we. : +o a 3 :
ak ‘
= oo :
* S . eri Shag MF on
Pie yOLASS VE.

,.. GIRRHOPODA.

[Leras and Triron, Lin. |
The Cirrhopoda, in several points of view, are intermediate be-
tween this division and that of the Articulata. .Enveloped by a
mantle, and testaceous pieces which frequently resemble those seen
in several of the Acephala, their mouths are furnished with lateral
_ Jaws, and the“abdomen with filaments named cirri, arranged in pairs,
_ composed! of a multitude of little ciliated articulations, and corres-

ee “+ ponding to a sort of feet or fins similar to those observed under the

wet >

_ tail of several of the Crustacea. Their heart is situated in the dor-
“sal region, and the branchiz on the sides; the nervous system forms
a series of ganglions on the abdomen. These cirri, however, may
be considered as analogous to the articulated appendages of certain
species of “etedo, while the ganglions in some respects are mere
repetitions ‘Of the’ posterior ganglion of the bivalves. The position
of these animals i in the shell is such, that the mouth i is at the bottom
and the cirri near the orifice. These animals are always fixed.

Linneus comprised them all in one genus, Lzpas, which Bru-
giéres divided into two, that have in their turn been subdivided. -

Ansa Brug.
A compressed mantle, open on one side and suspended to a fleshy tube, va- |
rying greatly as to the number of testaceous pieces with which i it is furnici

of them.

- The two principal valves, of the most numerous 2c:
Leach), resemble those of a Mytilus. The te adhe:
keels of vessels, &c. oe ae

x : 3 ea Brug. ,
The principal part of the shell of the Balani consists of a ttestaceous ter )

two or four valves. T
to be detached, and s

the tubular portion i isa truncated cone big ties, 1 of six projecting pieces,
separated by as many depressed ones, three of which are narrower than a
the others. Their base is usually formed of a calcareous lamina, and fixed to A
various bodies. rb th valves of their operculum close the orifice exactly. _ ae

The rocks, shells, &c., on the coast of Europe, are, in a wpatign, covered ere,
with a species of Balanus, the Lepas balanus, L. | ee”

Naturalists have separated the Acast#, most of which are found in sponge, a eT
the Coniz, Blainv., the Asemzx, Ranzani, the Pyrgomz, Savigny, the Octho- ae.
S12, Ranzani, the Creusiz, Aenhe® and the Diadema, Ranz. ‘

gl! | nA a a ty
ae ‘

Pe
i Mee
= ¥ ( , ;
% ‘js, ae ae
. +: pat ; yee aM
FOO AP) F
ie "

_ ‘THIRD GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL
os, KINGDOM,

e
#
5

a

~” ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

This third general form is as well characterised as that of the
Vertebrata; the, skeleton is not internal as in the latter, neither is it
annihilat das in the’ Mollusca, the articulated rings which encir-
ae cle the body, and frequently the limbs, supply the place of it, and
as they are usually hard, they furnish to the powers of motion all
requisite points of support, so that here, as among the Vertebrata,
we find the walk, the run, the leap, natation and flight. Those fa-
is milies only are restricted to reptation which are either deprived of
feet, or in which the articulations are membranous and soft. This
‘external position of the hard parts, and the internal one of the mus-
a cles, reduce each articulation to the form-of a sheath, and allow it
iil but two kinds of motion. When connected withthe neighbouring

parts by a firm joint, as happens in the limbs, it is fixedithere by two

: points, and can only move by gynglymus, that is, in phe single
gt plane, a disposition which requires a greater numbe ) jo to af

Or produce a same variety of motion. A. greater ‘
power is also the result, and consequently m eer

_ in each animal, in proportion to its size.
But the parts which compose the body are not alw ays a

in. this way; most generally they are only united by flexible mem-
“h om or neti into 9 each other, and Fa their my are more

the most, is that of the nm ;

Their brain, which is placed « on. nthe. peioahiee and farnishes

nerves to the parts adkering to the head, is very small. Two cords
which embrace the esophagus are extended along the abdomen,
and united at certain distances by double knots or ganglia, whence
arise the nerves ofthe body and limbs. Each of these ‘ganglia
seems to fulfil the functions of a brain to the sutrounding ps parts, and
to preserve their sensibility for a certain length of time; when the
animal has been divided. If to this we add, that the jaws of these

animals, when they have any, are always lateral and move from

without inwardly, and not from above downwards, and that no dis-
tinct organ of smell has hitherto been discovered in them, we shall
have expressed all that can be said of them in general. The exis-
tence however of the organs of: hearing, the existence, 1 number and
form of those of sight, the kind of ieapiraticil ‘the existence of the
organs of circulation, and even the colour of the blood present great

differences, which must be noticed in the variou subdivisions.
A eee
+ tun

Distribution of the Articulata into four Classes.

The Articulata, whose mutual relations are as varied as numer-
ous, present however four principal forms, either internal or ex-
ternal. oe ,

The Annutata, Lam., or Rep-BLoopEp Worms, Cuv., consti-

tute the first. Their blood, which is generally red, like that of the

Vertebrata, circulates in a double and closed system of arteries and —
veins, sometimes: furnished with one or several visible hearts or

fleshy, ventricles. “Respiration is performed in organs which are
perks derclopas externally, and at others remain on the surface
of the sk r dip into its interior. Their body, more or, less elon-
Spe into numerous rings, the first of which,

differs from the rest, ai Pres presence
yrgans of the senses. The bra: Sng

» ,of several ar ‘uniformly i
dle; in others, which are g e
all placed anteriorly. ey

Py ly those, that inhabit iy ney are
ever have articulated feet, but am

of ‘them, i in liew thereof, are farnished with setie or fasciculi of ‘stiff ae
and mavable hairs... j “The ans of their path sometimes consist! He SS Se

ye
‘ "
3 ie
ed

+ i *& ie ne
st ea a, - es ; % ‘ ~~ =
F oe 5 Pe > 4 > ‘ & =
is 4 Fe ag 8 c oar ig ke a
y Oe Pia " rae! CR Py -
. . 1 3 eb ay .

r<

a8

292 ies ARTICULATA.

of jaws, more or less strong, and at others of a simple tube, those of

the external senses in fleshy and sometimes articulated tentacula,

and in certain blackish points, considered as eyes, but which do not

exist in all the species.

x The Crusracza constitute the second form or class of articula-
| ted animals. They are provided with articulated and more or less
complex limbs, attached to the sides of the body. Their blood is

»: »« ° white: it cireulates by means of a fleshy ventricle placed in the back,
» which recéives it from the branchie, situated on the sides of the
© body, or under its posterior portion, and to which it returns by a
ventral and sometimes double canal. In the last or lower species,

the heart or dorsal ventricle is itself extended into a tube. They
all havejantenne or articulated filaments inserted in the fore-part of

the head, usually four in number, several transverse jaws and two

g compound eyes. ‘A distinct ear ‘is only to be found in some species.

The ARACHNIDES. form the third class of the Articulata. - Their
%. head and thorax, as ‘in many of the Crustacea, are united in one
; single piece, furnished, on each side, with articulated limbs; but

their principal viscera are inclosed in an abdomen connected to the

q posterior portion of that thorax. Their mouth is armed with jaws,

and their head furnished with ocelli, that vary as to number, but

the antenne are always wanting. Their circulation is effected by

a dorsal vessel, which gives off arterial branches, and receives venous

s ones from them; but their mode of respiration varies, some of them

he still having true pulmonary organs which open on the sides of the

abdomen, while cthers receive air by trachez, like Insects. In both
of them, however, we observe lateral openings or true stigmata.

The Insecta constitute the fourth class of the Articulata, and

a, “the most numerous of all the animal kingdom. With the exception
"i of some genera, the Myriapoda, in which the body is divided into
o ¥ numerous and nearly equal parts, it is always divided into three por-
a tions: the head, furnished with the antennee, eyes and mouth; the

thorax, to which are appended the feet and wings, ene 9 exist;
and the. abdomen, which is suspended behind the thorax and contains
the principal viscera. Those which have wings only receive them at
a certain age, and frequently pass through two more or less different
forms before they assume that of the winged insect. In all their.
states»they respire by trachez; that is, by elastic vessels which re-
_.. eeive air through stigmata pierced on their sides, and distribute it

“annie

by infinite ramifications to-every part. of the body. A vestige only
of a heart is perceptible, consisting of a dorsal vessel which experi-
ences an alternate contraction and dilatation, but to which no branch
has ever been discovered, so that we are forced to believe that nu-
trition is effected in this class of animals by imbibition. It is, pro-
bably, this sort of nutrition which necessitated the kind of respiration
proper to Insects; for as the nutritive fluid is not contained in vess-
els, and could not be directed towards pulmonary organs in search
of air, it was requisite that this air should be diffused throughout
the body to reach the fluid. This is also the reason “why Insects
have no secretory glands, but are provided with mere spongy vess-
els, which, by the extent of their surface, appear to absorb the pe-
culiar juices they are to produce, from the mass of the nutritive fluid.

Insects vary infinitely as to the form of the organs of the 1 mouth,
and those of digestion, as well as in their industry and'mode of life.

The Crustacea and Arachnides were long united with the Insecta
under one common name, and resemble them in many points of
their external form, in the disposition of their organs of 1 motion, and
of the sensations, and even in those of manducation.

CLASS I.

ANNULATA.

The Annulata are the only invertebrate animals that have red
blood. It circulates in a double system of complicated vessels.

Their nervous ae, consists in a double knotted cord, like that
of Insects.

Their body is soft, more or Ns elongated, and divided frequently
into a considerable number of apets, or at least of transverse
plice.

‘They nearly.all inhabit the Slab the Lumbrici or Earth-worms
excepted; several penetrate into holes at the bottom, or construct
tubes there with the ooze or other matters, or even exude a calca-

reous mabstance, which envelopes:them with a sort of tubular shell.

ba aw & "hy

% uy
' .*
Shoat ¥

294 > ANNULATA.

. Divisi ; on of the Annulata into three Orders.

This aS which conthiie but few species, presents a sufficient
basis of division in its organs of respiration.

The branchiz of some resemble tufts or arbusculz, attached to

. the head or anterior part of the body: they, nearly all, inhabit tubes.
We will call them the Tusicona.

Those of others resemble trees, tufts, lamine or tubercles in
which vessels-ramify, and are placed on the middle of the body:
most of them inhabit mud or swim in the ocean, the smaller por-
tion being furnished with tubes. We name them the Dorsrpran-
CHIATA. |

Others again have no apparent branchie, and respire, either by
the surface of ‘the skin, or as some authors opine, by the internal
cavities. “Most of "them live free in mud or water; some of them

_ only, in humid earth. They are the Wn ihoniiea
The genera of the first two orders are all furnished with stiff sete,
of a metallie colour, that issue from their sides, sometimes simply,
and at others in fasciculi, which serve in lieu of feet; but there are
some genera in the third order which are deprived of that support.
4 The head of the Annulata of the two first orders is generally fur-
7 nished with tentacula or filaments, to which, notwithstanding their
fleshy nature, some modern naturalists give the name of antenne;
and several genera of the second and third are marked with black
and shining points, usually considered as eyes. The organization
of their mouth varies greatly. Fee

ORDER ..I.
TUBICOLA:

Sg

Some of the Tubicola form a calcareous, homogeneous tube, pro-
bably the result of transudation, like the shell of the Mollusca, with
ee which however they have no muscular adhesion; others construct

one by agglutinating grains of sand, fragments of shells and particles
_ of mud, by means of a membrane, also unquestionably. pricsbey.

y

Mi j ;
gt , ? Af ” Py
i "ae ay
¢

295

the tube of others again i i irely | embranou
first belongs the genus Spo Te ne ie

ae tb. y a 0 ae
The calcareous tubes of the Serpule twine round and cover stones, shells,
and all submarine bodies. The section of these tubes is sometimes round,
and sometimes angular, according to the species.

The body of the animal is composed of numerous segments; tt anterior
portion is spread into a/disk, armed on each side with several bundles of
coarse hairs, and on each side of its mouth is a tuft of branchiz, shaped like
a fan, and usually tinged with bright colours. At the base of each tuft is a
fleshy filament, one of which, either on the right or left, indifferently, is
always elongated, and dilated at its extremity into a variously formed disk
which serves as an operculum, and seals up the orifice of the tube when the
animal has withdrawn into it. "4

Serp. contortuplicata. The most common species; its “tales are oxime:
three lines in diameter, and twisted. The operculum is Se apm
and the branchiz are frequently of a beautiful red colour, on, a doe
with yellow, violet, &c. Vases or ci objects thrown ime the

_ covered by its tubes.
ye” ae
SABELLAg Cuv. tis Siti
The same kind of body, and similar flabelliform branchiz, as the Serpule;
but the two fleshy filaments adhering to these branchie both terminate in
a point, and without forming an operculum; sometimes they are even want-
ing. The tube of the Sabellz is most commonly composed of granules of
clay or mud, and is rarely calcareous.
The species known are large, and their fan-like branchie remarkable for
their delicacy and brillianey.

e ; Re. te ~oare

or horny. To the .

Sab. protula, Cuv., “A large and spjendia’ species inhabiting the Mediter- ~

ranean. Its tube is calcareous like that of the — its branchie orange —
coloured, &c. | si ¥

TEREBELLA, Cuy.
The Terebellz, like most of the Sabellz, inhabit an artificial tube, but it is
composed of grains of sand and fragments of shells; their body, moreover, has
fewer rings, and their head is otherwise decorated. Numerous filiform and
extremely extensible tentacula surround their mouth; their branchiz, placed
on the neck, are not Br Ag but. resemble arbusculz.

oe ¥ 4 _Ampuirrite, Cuv.

The Amphitrite are easily recognized bythe golden coloured setx, arranged
like a crown, or the teeth of a comb, in one or two rows, on the anterior
part of their head, where they probably serve as a means of defence, or
perhaps. enable the animal to crawl, or to collect the foatetiale of its tube.

> ae 7 >
i me Roe * ~*~ er “i >
BAGS este ck» ->

Je

&

296 SS ASN ATSA.

ane

, Numerous ontastiie encircle the mouth, and on each side of the fore part -
of the back are pectiniform branchie.
Some of them construct light tubes of a regularly conical figure, which

they carry about with them. Their gildec sete form two combs, whose
teeth incline downwards. . Their capacious and frequently flexed intestine

‘is usually filled with sand.

Se aa .
wy _ Sypnosroma, Otto.

On the superior part of each es is inserted a fasciculus of fine sete,

and on the inferior a simple seta, andon the anterior extremity two fasci-

culi of strong golden coloured sete. Under these setaceous appendages

is the mouth, preceded by a sucker surrounded by numerous soft filaments,

which may very possibly be branchiz, and accompanied by two fleshy ten-

~tacula. The knotted medullary cord is seen through theskin. They live

buried i in mud. Hitherto, the genus Ke |

Denrazium, Lin.

“Has rea been placed i in this vicinity. The shell is an elongated, arcua-

ted cone open at both ends, and has been compared to the tusk of an ele-
phant in miniature. The recent observations of M. Savigny and those of

M. Deshayes especially, have, avieicibiec rendered this classification ex-

tremely doubtful.

*

?

ORDER II.
DORSIBRANCHIATA.

“a - The organs of the Dorsibranchiata, and the branchie in particu-

lar, are equally distributed along the whole of the body, or at least
of its middle portion, -

At the head ofthe order we will place those penne 3 in which the
organs are most completely developed.

ARENIcoLA, Lam.

Branchiz, resembling small trees, on the rings of the middle part of the
body only; the mouth, a fleshy and more or less dilatable proboscis, and
neither teeth, tentacula, nor eyes visible. The posterior extremity not only
wants the branchiz, but the setaceous fasciculi with which thes rest of the
body is furnished; the cirri totally deficient.

Aren. piscatorum, Lam. Very common in the sand on the'sea shore,

where it is disinterred by the fishermen, who use it as bait. It is about a

297

Po LE as ;
ae

foot long, of a reddish iebletal ee ge 7 in abundat yellowish yo |
when touched. It has oo pairs of branchiz. ae uf
a PS ‘= bi te

: =

w Ritronn,.i Brug. aan

‘A pair of more or stat complex, tufted or plumose branchiz on eal rin ring of
the body, andto each of the feet two fasciculi of separate sete, and two
cirri; no jaws to the proboscis. The Amphinomes are divided py M. Sa-

vigny into Carozra, PLEIONE, ayaa eae ‘aud HippoNozk. =~ yates

® | tcbth Qs ae
Bante Runzéz, Cuv. | =e
The acer are also plumose, but the proboscis is well armed with three
pairs of differently formed horny jaws; each foot is furnished with two cirri
anda bundle of setz, there are five tentacula above the mouth and two on.
the nape. In some species only do we find two small eyes.
Eun: gigantea, Cuy. The largest of the known Annulatay hen upwards
of four feet in ee From the sea of the Antilles.

After these genera with complex branchiz, we. may place those.
where they are reduced to simple lamine or slight tubercles, or in +
which they are even replaced by cirri.

Some of them are still allied to the Eunices, by the’ strong arma-
ture of their proboscis, and their azygous antennz. ‘Such is the

Yo

Lysinicz, Sav. pe

_ | Where, with jaws similar to those of the Eunices, and.even more nume-
rous and frequently azygous, the only branchiz consist of three tentacula
and. the cirri.

‘hacia, Say. a iii “
The jaws of the Aglaure are also numerous and azygous, consisting of “ 4,

seven, nine, &c.; but their tentacula are either wanting orcompletelycom-
cealed; the branchis are also reduced to cirri. =

Nereis, Cuv.

The true Wereides have an even number of tentacula, attached to the sides of
the base of the head, and a little further forwards two others that are biarti-
culate, between which are twosimple ones. Their branchiz consist of small
lamine between which is spread a net-work of vessels; each foot is also
furnished with two tubercles, two fasciculi of sete, one cirrus above, and an-
other beneath. »

In the vicinity, of these Nereides are grouped several genera. i in
whitch the body is also slender, and the branchie. are reduced. to
2°N

or a
aa

oe rs url

298 ' ANNULATA.

_ simple lamine, or even ‘iaibie filaments or sulingole i the 3 jawsor

tentacula are e wanting in. naome of them.
. Sparixenocs: Sav. ~

4 The Phyllodoces, like the true Nereides, have an even number of tenta-
cula on the sides of the head, and four or five small additional ones before.
They are furnished with eyes; their large proboscis, which is studded with
a circle of very short fleshy tubercles, presents no jaws, and, what particu-
larly distinguishes them, their branchiz resemble broad leaves, arranged in
a single row on each side of the body, and eee each other; finely
ramified Vena are distributed over them, |

“Axcrora, Aud. and M. Edw..

The mouth and tentacula nearly similar to those of. the: Phyllodoces; but

the feet, independently of the tubercle which supports ithe\ sete and the
two foliaceous cirri or branchiz, are furnished with two branchial tubercles

‘which occupy their superior and inferior edges.

- ¥ Srio, Fab. and Gm. .

The bod slender; two very long tentacula which have the appearance of

antennz; eyes in the head and on each side of every segment of the body;

branchiz in the form of a simple filament. They are small worms from the
Arctic Deyn that inhabit membranous tubes.
Syuxts, Sav.
‘An odd number of'tentacula articulated like the beads of a rosary, as well
as the superior cirri of the feet; which ate’ simple and have but a single bun-
dle of sete. It appears that there is some variety relative to the existence

of the jaws.

tH

‘s Gurcrnra, Sav.

“The Glyceree ave recognized by their head, which is''a Séshiy and conical
point, resembling a small horn, and divided at the summit into four
scarcely visible tentacula. The proboscis of some still presents jaws; in

others, they are said to be imperceptible.

Neruruys, Cuv.

The proboscis of the Phyllodoces, but no tentacula; two bundles of widely
separated setz on each foot, between which is a cirrus.

Lumprinera, Blainv.

The tentacula wanting’; but a single small forked tubercle, from which i issues
a little bundle ofsetz, on each articulation of the elongated body. If there

be any external organ pt respiration, it can only consist of an upper lobe of
this tubercle. \

| latent foay? % ) Hip ei egrinnel
fg teeth and sib wanting; two rena of ye eee on 1 the
back of the eS feet furnished with notched ctests not

found on the o a F -
eee | RE ssid 2 P ZI tt 42 23G 1ivi tis MiG ; pe ATT? i

Lb inven iad SiMleogte pepa rien Tem Cobley bilisiqe « to slow ete

A short ‘aia ‘body. salipbiat of but few and Bebiy3 marked’ rings; a very

long ¢ cirrus, that probably exércises the functions of branchiz, on. the top

of eich. foot, which has another. beneath with a bundle of sete; a aS pro-
boscis with - neither tentacula nor jaws. ates

Several apeciss are found i in the “Mediterranean.

pie d

ore Sav.
The body thick and short, with feebly .marked rings and scarcely visible
sete; long cirri in lieu of branchiz. on two thirds.of its length; palate of the
mouth with a dentated crest; the lips surrounded with tentacula,. of which
the two superior aré the largest. .

—Cirrnaronvs, Thy ” at ie wee ith 8 «

The branchie ae of a very long filament; two ‘small bundles of setz
to each of the articulations of the body, which are numerous and compact;
a series of long filaments r round the 1 is omg The eyo l marked head =
neither teritactild _ ‘jaws CDA

AY waeiw yaildm Pissbenild guy! % siege yd :
‘The Palmyrz are despises ‘by their superior fasciéuli, the sete of wig
are large, flattened, flabelliform, and glisten like highly polished gold; their
inferior fasciculi ¢ i are sthall; ‘their cirri and branchiz feebly’ marked. The ey
have an elongated body, two‘extended tentacula, and three yery ‘srhall ‘one

Palm. aurifera, Sav. The only species known; it is ae
inches in length, and is found at the Isle of France.

ig

ne
‘

Apuropita, Lin.
This genus is easily known by;the two longitudinal ranges of broad mem-

branous scales that cover the back, to which, through a very groundless
assimilation, the name of elytra, has been given, and under which, their bran- |

chiz, in the form of fleshy crests, are concealed.
Their body is usually flattened, andshorter and broader than in the other

Annulata. Their extremely thick and muscular esophagus is susceptible )

of pang protruded like a Bare yoian’ _M. Savigny distinguishes

a Hanirma, Say.

4 Where there are saree tentacula, ¢ a small crest between two of them, itd
where the jaws are wanting.
UA be neve is found on the coast of France, which, with respect to its co-

(

300 | . ANNULATA.

louring, i is one of the most splendid of all animals—the Aphrodita aculeata,
L. It is oval, from six to eight inches.in length, and from two to three in
breadth. The scales on its back are covered and concealed by-a sort of stuff
resembling tow, which arises from the sides. From the latter also. spring
groups of stout spines, which partly transfix the tow, and fasciculi of flexu-
ous sete of a splendid golden colour, whose changeable tints rival those of
the rainbow. They are not inferior in beauty to the plumage of the Hum-
mingbird, or to the lustre of the richest gems. Further down is a tubercle
from which arise three groups of spines, of as many different diameters, and
finally, a fleshy cone. There are forty of these tubercles on each side, and
between the two first are two small fleshy tentacula. There are fifteen
pairs of wide, and sometimes inflated scales on the back, and fifteen small
branchial crests on each side.

‘PoLYNoE, Sav.“

Where there is none of this tow on the back; ‘they have five tentacula,
and their proboscis is furnished with strong and horny jaws.

This is the only situation we can assign to a new and very singu-
lar genus which I call

Cumtorrerts, Cuv.

The mouth has neither jaws nor proboscis, and is furnished above with a
lip to which are attached two tentacula. Next comesa disk with nine pairs
of feet, followed by a pair of long silky fasciculi resembling wings. The
lamellated branchiz are rather beneath the body than above it, and extend
along its middle. ~

Chetopierus pergamentaceus, Cuy. This species, which is found at the
Antilles, is from eight to ten inches in length, and inhabits a tube resemb-
ling parchment.

Sd
%

# aaa

ORDER IIL.
ABRANCHIATA.

The Abranchiata have no apparent external organ of respiration
whatever, and appear to respire, some, like the Lumbrici, by the
entire surface of the skin, and others, like the Hirudines, by internal
cavities. They have a closed circulating system, usually filled with
red blood, and, like all the Annulata,'a knotted nervous cord.
Some are also provided with sete which enable them to crawl, and

ABRANCHIATA, = 301

others are deprived of them. This has eataad their division into
two families. - Md 5

FAMILY I.
“ABRANCHIATA SETIGERA.
This frst family comprises the Lumbrici and Naides of Linneeus.

Lumpricvs, pees

"The A arve, as they are commonly called, sbeancterinall he a kine
cylindrical body, divided: by ruge into.a great’ number of rings, and by.an
edentated mouth, necessarily required to be subdivided. “sth at

_ Lumpricus, Cuv. -

Eyes, tentacula, bitinchice and cirti, all wanting...The nervous cord is no-
thing more than a crowded suite of numerous little ganglia. 2 iBon
_ Every one knows: the Common .Earth-worm—Lumbricus terrestris, L.—
with a, reddish body, that attains nearly a'foot in length, and which is com-
posed of upwards of one hundred and twenty rings.’ Under the sixteenth
ring are two pores, the use of which is unknown.

/ This animal traverses the soil in every direction, and swallows a witaaiieg
of earth. It also cots roots, ligneous omy animal fragments, &c.

Nats, Lin.

The Waides have an elongated body, the rings of which are less distinct than
in the Lumbrici. They inhabit holes made by them in the ooze, from which

one half of their body projects and ‘is constantly 1 in motion. » Black points ty

are observed on the head: of some of them, which may be taken for eyes.
They are small worms, whose power of reproduction is as astonishing’ as
that of the oA Several species are found i in the rivers, &c. of France.

CLIMENA, Sav.
The Clymenz ideo's appear to belong to this family. Their thick body has
but few rings, which are mostly furnished with stout sete; a little higher,
and near the back, is a bundle of finer ones. There are neither tentacula

nor appendages to the head. Their posterior es is truncated and

radiated. They inhabit tubes.

"

302 4 ANNULATA, |

FAMILY IL
ABRANCHIATA ASETIGERA.

The second aa consists of two preat genera, both of which
are aquatic. “fl aT Se:

Boie tilt it} tay we Hirvpo, Lin.
Leeches have an oblong, sometimes depressed, transversely plicated body;
the mouth is encircled by a lip, arid the posterior extremity furnished with

- aiflattened disk, both of which’ate well adapted for adhering to bodies by

%

#'sdrt of ‘swetion, and aré the’ principal organs of locomotion possessed by
these animals; for after extending itself, the Leech fixes its ‘anterior extre-
mity and approximates the other, which in its turn adheres, to allow the for-
mer to be carried forward. - In several we’ observe on the under part of the
body two series:‘of pores, the’orificés of as many: small internal “pouches,
considered by some naturalists as nya of respiration; although they are
usually filled with'a mucous fluid: \\"Phe intestinal canal is straight; inflated
from space to ‘space for two-thirds of its lengthy: where’there' are two ceca.
‘Theblood: swallowed. is ernie pas red ‘and: ements ne oneal
<citrae

Several of them — their ine ‘into a sabes ‘and envelope them with
a is Whvous excretion.» tian wordt 2

They have been subdivided from characters principally drawn fork the
eo of their mouth. se the si diel |

di LS 18.

eel att Sancursvea, Sav. at yah ™ Ra

ines

er; ii as Leech properly 80) called, the superior lip; of the ‘ariteligl cup or
| sucker is divided into:several segments; the aperture is transverse and con-
tains three jaws, each edge: of which is armed with two’rows of very fine
teeth; which’ enables: it) to penetrate} through the skin: without’ causing

a dangerous wound. It is marked with ten small points, considered as eyes.

We all know the medicinal or Common Leech—Hirudo medicinalis, L.,
that. useful instrument. for the local. abstraction of blood... It. is: usually
blackish, with. yellowish streaks, above, and yellowish with black spots be-

meath,. It isfound in all»stagnant waters. The remaining divisions are

Hamopsis (The Horse Leech), Bdella, Nephelis, &c. &e.

Gorpivs, Lin. 2

The body resembling a thread, the only mark of the articthaiians being
slight, transverse plice; it has neither feet, branchiz, nor tentacula. Inter-
nally, however, a nervous system is perceptible ina knottedcord. Perhaps
it will be necessary in the end to place them among the cavitary Intestina,
like the Nemertes.

»._.
ye
7
‘

ABRANCHIATA, te Wee 303

They live in fresh water, | in the ‘mud, and in inundated grounds which ‘

they perforate in every directi n.

The different species are not yet well distinguished, the most common,
Gordius aquaticus, L., is ‘several inches in length, almost as fine as a hair,
and brown, with h blackish extremities.

®
ae
Pe
ar

CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, AND INSECTA:
OR ARTICULATED ANIMALS WITH ARTICULATED FEET.

These last three classes of the Articulata, which were united by
Linnzus under the general name of Insecta, are distinguished by at
least six articulated feet. Each articulation is tubular, and contains
‘the muscles of the succeeding one, which always moves by gyngly-
mus, that is, in but one direction.

The first articulation, which attaches the foot to the body, and
which is composed of two pieces, is called the cova; or hip;,, the
following one which is, usually, nearly in a horizontal position, the
femur, or thigh; and the third, generally vertical, the tibia or leg.
To these ensues a suite of small ones which touch the ground, form-
ing the true foot, or what is denominated the tarsus.

The hardness of the calcareous or horny envelope of the Bremer
number of these animals, is owing to that of the excretion whichi is
interposed between the dermis and epidermis, or what is termed in
man the mucous tissue. This excretion also contains the bril-
liant and varied colours with which they are so often decorated.

They are always furnished with eyes, which are of two kinds:
simple eyes or ocelli, which resemble a very minute lens, generally
three in number, and arranged in a triangle on the summit of the
head; and compound eyes, where the surface is divided into an in-
finitude of different lenses called facets, to each of which there is a
corresponding filament of the optic nerve. These two kinds may
be either united or separated according to the genus.

Other organs which for the first time are here presented to us,
and which are found in two of these classes (the Crustacea and the
Insecta), the antennz, are articulated filaments, varying greatly in

¢

304 CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, INSECTA.

form, and frequently according to the sex, attached to the head, ap-
pearing to be peculiarly devoted to a delicate sense of touch, and
perhaps to some other kind of sensation of which we have no idea,

but which may refer to the state of the atmosphere.

These animals enjoy the sense of smell and that of hearing. Some
authors place the seat of the first in the antenne, others, in the ori-
fices of the trachez, and Marcel de Serres, &c. in the palpi; neither
of these opinions, however, is corroborated by positive and conclu-
sive facts. As to the second, it is only in the Crustacea Decapoda
and some few of the Orthoptera, that we can find a visible ear,

The mouth of these animals presents a great analogy, which ex-
tends to those which can only feed by the suction of liquid aliment.

Those called Tritores or Grinders (broyeurs), on account of their
having jaws fitted for triturating their food, always present them in
lateral pairs, placed one before the other; the anterior pair are es-
pecially called mandibles; the pieces which cover them before and
behind are named Jabia, and the front one, in particular, labrum.
The palpi are articulated filaments attached to the jaws. or to the
Jower lip, and appear to be employed by the animal in recognizing
its food. The form of these various organs determines the nature
of the regimen with as much precision as the teeth of quadrupeds.
The ligula, or tongue, commonly adheres to the lower lip. Some-
times, in the Bees and other Hymenopterous Insects, it is consider-
ably elongated, as are also the jaws, forming a sort of false probos-
cis ( promuscis) at the base of which is the pharynx, and frequently
covered by a sort of sub-labrum, styled by M. Savigny the epipha-
rynz. At other times, in the Hemiptera and Diptera, the mandi-
bles and maxille are replaced by scaly pieces in the form of sete,

| which are received in an elongated tubular sheath, that is either

cylindrical and articulated, or formed with more less of an elbow,
and terminated by a kind of lips. In this case they constitute a true
proboscis. In others that also live by suction, the Lepidoptera, the
maxille alone are greatly elongated and united, producing a tubular
setiform body, resembling a long, slender, and spiral tongue; the
remaining parts of the mouth are considerably reduced. Sometimes
again, as in many of the Crustacea, the anterior feet approach the
maxille, assume their form, and exercise part of their functions—the
latter are then said to be multiplied. It may even happen that the
true maxillze become so much reduced, that the maxillary feet sup-

Api shang CRUSTACEA. te 10 enn OA eee) ae
oT he races are articulated a tot with DP acatated bet. re- |
spiring “by, means of branchiz, protected in some by the borders of
a shell, and external in others, but which are not inclosed: in'special
cavities of the body, and which receive air from openings in the
surface of the skin. Their circulation is double, and analogous to
- that of the Mollusca. - The blood is transmitted from the heart,
| placed on the back, to the different parts of the body,
it is sent to the branchiz, and thence back again to the
These branchiz, sometimes'situated at the base of the feet,
on hem, and at others on the’ inferior appendages of the
, either form pyramidscomposed of laminz in piles, or bris-
‘ aw, OF tufted filaments of simple ones, and even appear
in some eases to consist wholly of hairs. , oC
The Crustacea are apterous or deprived of wings, furnished with |
compound ey e3, “though rarely with ocelli, and usually with ;
tenne. T ey have mostly—the Pecilopoda excepted—three’p :
of jaws, the two superior ones, designated by the name of ae
included; as many foot-jaws, the last four of which, however, in a
great many instances, become true feet; and ten feet properly so
called, all terminated by a single small nail. ‘The mouth, as in In- |
sects, presents a labrum and a ligula, but no lower lip proper so
called, or comparable to that of the latter; the third pair of ane
_“or the first, closes the mouth ‘externally, and replaces that part. _
Their envelope is usually solid, and more or less calcareou
They change their skin several times, and generally preserve their ,
primitive form and natural activity. They are mostly. cartivonael
and aquatic, and live several years. They do not attain their adult

ad 20

ei

"CRUSTACEA.

state unl Sica canter tir skin acertain number of times. With
the exception of a few in which these changes somewhat influence
their primitive form and modify or augment their locomotive or-
ow gans, they are at birth, size apart, such as they are ue. to re-

s

Ae & Fe"
“Division of the Crustacea into Orders.
¥

~The situation and form of tHe branchie,. the mode in which the
head is articulated with the trunk, the mobility or fixedness of the
eyes, the organs of manducation, and the teguments, constitute the
basis of our divisions, and give rise to the following orders.

We divide this class into two sections, the Matacosrraca, and
the EnromosTRACca. ;

The first are usually furnished with very solid teguments, of a
calcareous nature, and with ten or fourteen feet, generally unguicu-
lated. The mouth, situated in the ordinary place, is composed of

_ a labrum, tongue, two mandibles (frequently furnished with palpi),
and two pairs of maxille covered by the foot-jaws. In a great
number each eye is placed on an articulated and movable pedicle,
and the branchie are concealed under the lateral margins of the
upper or lower shell; in the others they are usually placed under
the post-abdomen. This section consists of five orders: Sb Deca-

K poda, Stomapoda, Lzmodipoda, Amphipoda, and “a

ge The four first embrace the genus Cancer of Linneeus, and the last
his Oniscus.

~The second, the Entomostraca, or * Insects with shelle” of Muller,

is formed of the genus Monocunus, Lin. Here the teguments are

ae horny and very thin, while a shell, resembling a buckler, composed

of from one to two pieces, covers or incloses the body of the. greater

number. ‘The eyes are almost always sessile, and. frequently there

ie but one. The feet, the number of which varies,are. mostly fitted

or natation, and without a terminal nail. Some of them, having

a an anterior mouth, composed of a labrum, two mandibles—rarely

pees furnished with palpi, a tongue, and one, or at most two pairs of jaws,
of which the external ones are naked or are not covered by the foot-
jaws, approximate to the preceding Crustacea. In the other Ento-
“mostraca, which seem to approach the Arachnides in several
particulars, the organs of manducation are sometimes simply formed
by the coxe of the feet, projecting and arranged like lobes bristling

‘i: small spines 1
either compose:
ral Arachni des |
invisible exte

FIRST GENERAL DIVISION.
MALACOSTRACA.

2
‘The Malacostraca naturally. dade themselves into those whose

eyes are pre Be ona movable peas and those in which they are

<i. sessile and fixed.

ae
v

ae

4

ye: placed on a movable and articulated pedicle.

ORDER I.
RECA PSA Hes

quent y Pati dob haas ap aE it into various regions ‘which i in-
dicate the places occupied by the principal internal organs. The
mode of their circulation pit tap characters which qutingaiey then
from the other Crustacea.

These animals grow but iniy. and live i long time. It a:
among them that we find the largest and most useful species, but ‘:
their flesh is not easily digested. The body of some Palinuri jattains
the length of ametre. Their ae are efficacious weapons, and =

ve

. (1) Ten-Footed. : _\ Se

pil are Seatide and carnivorous. Cortathagnaiat Beadle
netrate ‘into eemeteries, and devour the dead. Their. limbs are
“reg generated with surprising promptitude, but it is requsite that the
racture be at the junction of the articulations, and when accident
determines it otherwise, they know how to apply a remedy. When
they wish to change their skin, they seek a retired and solitary spot,
in order to be sheltered from their enemies, and to remain at rest.
- When the change is effected, their body is soft, and has a more ex-
quisite flavour. A chemical analysis of the old shell proves it to
be formed of the carbonate and phosphate of lime, united in differ-
ent proportions with gelatine.

BN a FAMILY 1. AY
| BRACHYURA()).

Tail shorter thd the trunk, without appendages or fir 3
tremity, and doubléd under in a state of rest, when ita
a fossula on ii chest. Triangular in the males, and,

payee ae Cite, Lin. Sad th .
e Crabs. Naturalists, however, have now divided them into the isbn:
"s Arewated, Quadrilateral, Orbicular, Triangular, &c. differing in shape,

uml er and form f the spines or teeth, the relative proportion of the
their p icles, &e. Each of these sections are nates divided into
rous genera. ‘ |

ng ‘the most noted of ‘these we find the Land Crabs of imertopical

- a ap

.

(1) Short-tailed>

ows. The greater portion o passed
cre te Hetscives | in holes, Pisin ‘which te never
issue but at: some ‘inhabit cerheteries. ‘Once in the. year they col.

said ashlee soak up the mouth of their burrow ae the time they are oo “eg
is ue rey Da Me

FAMILY II.
: | - MACROURA(1).

In the Decapoda Macroura, the end of the tail is provided with o
appendages which most frequently form a fin on eachside; the tail
itself is at least as long as the body, extended, exposed and simply “spall
curved towards its posterior extremity. Its under surface usually rg

resents in both sexes five pairs of false feet, each terminated by
two Jamin, or as many. filaments. This tail is always composed
en distinct segments. _ The branchig-are formed of vesicular,
nd hairy pyramids, arranged in several of them, either in
two rows, or in separate fasciculi. The antenne are generally __
elongated and salient. The ocular pedicles ate usually short.
The external foot-jaws are mostly narrow and elongated, resem lay o
palpi, and do not wholly cover the other parts ofthe mouth. The
shell is narrower and more elongated than that ‘of the Brae re
lly te - inates ‘by a ‘point in the middle of the. front. Aye :

sid Gkigetius, we will arrange them in a single dikes
r t £ 2 *

at

Asracus,

Which we@ivida it the following manner. Some, by the props
figure; and uses of their feet, of which the first, or at least the second pair, —
are in the form of claws, and by the subcaudal situations of their
dently approach the preceding Crustacea, and approximate oi i
closely to those commonly known by the names of Crawyish, take >
Shrimp.
‘The feet of the others are — mess ahi a¥e furnished with fh

(1) Long-tailed. ~

‘eA.

CRUST

*
0. Go

rior and elongated. wiptitiee or branch, which seems to double their num-
ber. They are exclusively adapted for natation, and none of them termi-
»natesin a forceps. The ovaare situated between them, and not under the

This genus is now divided into four sections each consisting of nume-
-rous subgenera. In one of these (Pagurus) we find the Hermit (Cancer

- Bernhardus, L.) which inhabits univalve shells, stopping the aperture with
‘its right claw, which is the largest. It iscommonin European seas. Inan-
other (Astacus, Fab.) we find the Astacus marinus or Common Lobster.
The fresh water species are known by the name of Craw-jish. Among these
also we find the Shrimp (Crangon) and the Prawns (Palzmon).

* | ORDER I.
4 ) STOMAPODA.

The branchiz of the Stomapoda are exposed and attached to the
five pairs of sub-abdominal appendages, exhibited to us by that part
of the body, called tail, in the Decapoda, and which here, as in most
of the Macroura, are fitted for natation,‘or are'fin-feet. “Their shell
is divided into two portions, the anterior of which supports the eyes
and intermediate antenna, or composes the head, without giving ori-
gin to the foot-jaws. These organs, as well as the four anterior feet,
are frequently approximated to the mouth on two lines that converge

_ inferiorly, and hence the sock pad ureter of Stomapoda affixed to this

order.

Bs The teguments of the Stomapoda are thin, and in tiie’ nearly
es ig »membranous or diaphanous. ‘The shell is sometimes’ formed of two

shields, of which the anterior corresponds to the head and the pos-
terior to the thorax, and sometimes of a single piece, which how-

5 es a il i a is free behind, usually exposing the thoracic segments, bearing
it ae ’ the three last pairs of feet and having an articulation before that

: . | _Berves as a base to the eyes and intermediate antenne; these latter
re organs are always extended and terminated by two or three threads.
_ The eyes are always approximated. ‘The formation of the mouth is

hin "essentially the : same as in the Decapoda; but the palpi of the man-

_ dibles, instead of being laid on them, are always vertical. ‘The

a foot-jaws are deprived of the flagelliform appendage presented to us

by the same parts in the Decapoda. ‘They have the form of claws

Squilley—thei exter-

nal base as well as that of the as anterior feet ae so called,
exhibits a vesicular body. ? cae x

The Stomapoda are all marine Cassie . Their fayourité ‘habi-»

tat is in the intertropical, latitudes, and they are not found beyond ;

the temperate zones. Of their habits we are totally ignorant; that
those which are furnished with claws use them in seizing their prey,
in the manner of those Orthoptera called Mantes, we cannot doubt.
Hence their vulgar appellation of Sea-Mantis: they are the Cran-
gones and Crangines of the Greeks. According to Risso they pre-
fer sandy bottoms in deep water. Other Stomapoda, those of our
second family, being Jess favoured with natatory appendages, and
having a much flatter and more superficially extended body, are ge-
nerally found on the surface of the water, where they move very
slowly. We will divide the Stomapoda into two families.

FAMILY I.
. UNIPELTATA.

In this family the shell consists of a single shield, of an elongated
quadrilateral. form, usually widened and free behind, covering the
head, the antenne and eyes excepted, which are placed on a com-
mon anterior articulation, and at least the first segments of the body.
Its anterior extremity terminates in a point, or is preceded by a small
plate with a similar end. All the foot-jaws, the second of which
are very large, and the four anterior feet are closely approximated

to the mouth on two inferiorly converging lines, and have the form

of claws with a single finger or mobile and flexed hook. With the

exception of the second feet all these organs are furnished at their

external origin with a little pediculated vesicle. The other six feet,
at the base of whose third segment is a lateral appendage, are linear,
terminated by a brush, and simply natatory. The lateral antenne
have a scale at their base, and the stem of the intermediaries is com-
posed of three filaments. The body is narrow and elongated; the
ocular pedicles are always short.

This family is composed of but one genus, that 7%

Squitta, Fab., :
Which is now divided into the True Squillz, gu a Coro ke.

ty

Pies ‘BIPELTATA.
e as this family we Bad the shell divided into two % thisids. the ante-
: : i of which, very large and more or less oval, forms the head, and
_ the posterior, corresponding to the thorax, transverse and angular
in its circumference, supports the foot-jaws and feet. These latter,
with the exception at most of the two posterior and two last foot-jaws,
are slender and filiform, usually very long and accompanied. by a
lateral ciliated appendage. . The other four foot-jaws are very small
and conical. .'The base of the lateral antenne exhibits no scale;
the intermediaries are terminated by:twothreads. The ocular pe-

diaphanous; the abdomen small and its posterior fin without spines.
It comprises but a single genus, the

Puvrrosoma, Leach,
Of which all the species inhabit the Atlantic Ocean and Oneal s seas.

MALACOSTRACA.

b. Eyes sessile and immovable.

» The Branchiopoda are the only Crustacea of which we shall
henceforward have occasion to speak, that exhibit eyes placed on
pedicles. But independently of the fact that these’ ‘pedicles are
neither articulated nor lodged in special cavities, the Branchiopoda
"ave no’ shell and are otherwise removed from the preceding Crus-
‘tacea by various characters, All the Malacostraca of this division

? is composed of a suite of articulations of which each of the first
seven is furnished with a pair of feet, the following and last ones,
_ seve at, most, forming a sort of tail terminated by fins or styliform
. ‘appendages. The head presents four antenne, the two intermediate

ig’ superior, ‘two eyes, and a mouth composed of two mandibles, a
hy gee two pairs of jaws, and a sort of lip formed by two foot-jaws
| at correspond to the two superior ones of the Decapoda; here, as
the Stomapoda, the Abarat no longer exists. The four last

“" 4 Fi, &

dicles are long. The body is much flattened, membranous, and —

are also deprived of a shell; their body, from the head downwards, »

rent

“. constituting a claw, but:

at

ae 313
y ei 5 ee a ie
foot-jaws are transformed into feet, sometimes simple and at others

u t aln ost always with a single toe or hook.
All these Crustacea are small, and mostly inhabit the sea-coast

or fresh water. Some are terrestrial, and others are known which

are parasitical, > fon

ORDER Ill.

-AMPHIPODA.

* -ob The Amphipoda are the only Malacostraca with sessile and im-
» movable eyes, whose mandibles, like those of the preceding. Crus-

tacea, are furnished with a palpus, and the only ones whose sub-
caudal appendages, always very apparent, by their narrow and
elongated form, their articulations, bifurcations, and other incisures,
as well as by the hairs or cilia with which they are provided, resem-
ble false or ‘natatory feet. In the Malacostraca of the following
orders, these appendages have the form of lamine or scales; here
these hairs and cilia appear to constitute the branehie. Many of
them, like the Stomapoda and the Lemodipoda, have vesicular burs
either between their feet or at their external base, the use of which
is unknown. baie ah

The first pair of feet, or that which corresponds to ‘the second

foot-jaws, is always annexed to a'particular segment, the first: after

the head. The antenne, which, with a single exception—the Phro-
nime,—are four in number, project, gradually taper into a point,

and consist, as in the preceding Crustacea, of a peduncle sand a

single stem, or one furnished at most with a little lateral branch, and
usually composed. of several joints. The body i generally com-
pressed and curved beneath posteriorly. The terminal appendages

of the tail are most. frequently styliform and articulated. _ Most of -
them swim and leap with facility and always laterally. Some in- —
habit springs and rivulets; most of them however live in salt water.

Their colour is uniform, verging on reddish or greenish.”
They may all be comprised in a single genus, that of ~
2 P

ee =” ae

ou

Bescenrce, Lat.

The C. longicornis, called Pernys, on the coast of Rochelle, lives in holes,
which it forms in the mud, that is covered with hurdles, called bouchots by
the inhabitants, The animal does not make its appearance till the begin-
ning of May. It wages everlasting war against the Nereides, Amphinome,
Arenicolz, and other marine Annulata, which inhabit the same locality. A
curious spectacle is presented by these Crustacea when the tide is coming
in; myriads of them may then be seen moving in every direction, beating
the mud with their great arms, and diluting it in order to discover their prey:
is it one of the aboye mentioned Annulata they have discovered, which
is ten or twenty times larger than themselves? they unite to attack and de-
vour it. The carnage never ceases until the mud has been thoroughly
turned up and its inequalities levelled. They do not even spare Mollusca,
Fishes, or dead bodies on the shore. They mount upon the hurdles which
contain Muscles, and fishermen assert that they will cut the threads that
keep them there, in order to precipitate them into the mud, where they may
devour them at their leisure. !

- ORDER IV.
LEMODIPODA.(1)

-\ The Leemodipoda are the only Malacostraca with sessile eyes, in
which the posterior extremity of the body exhibits no distinct bran-
chiayand which are almost deprived of a tail, the two last feet be-
ing ingerted i in that extremity, or the segment which connects them
with it being merely followed by one or two very small joints. They
are also the onlf¥ones in which the two anterior feet, that corres-
. pond to the second foot-jaws, form part of the head.

fs a" They all have four setaceous antenne supported by a ‘triarticu-

ted »peduncle, mandibles without palpi, a vesicular body at the
base of at least the four pairs of feet, beginning at the second or
third pair, those of the head included. The body, usually filiform

i or linear, is composed of eight or nine segments, including the head
~ and some small appendages in the form of tubercles at its posterior

(1) Throat-footed. om :

and inferior extremi:

The four anterior, the second of h are the largest, are aia
- terminated by a monodactyle forceps or a claw. In several, the
four following ones are shostencil less articulated, without the ter-
minal hook, or are rudimental, and nowise adapted for the omen?
uses of similar parts.

The females carry their ova under the second and third segments
of the body, in a pouch formed of approximated scales. They are
all marine Crustacea. }

We may unite them in a single genus which, by the law of priority,
should be called

Cyamus, Lat.
Now divided into Leptomera, Naupredia, Caprella, and Cyamus proper.

ORDER V..
ISOPODA.(1)

The Isopoda approach the Lemodipoda by the absence of the
palpi of the mandibles, but are removed from them in several other
respects. The two anterior feet are not attached to the head, and
belong, as well as the following ones,, to a particular segment.
They are always fourteen in number, unguiculated, and without any
vesicular appendage at their base. ‘The under part of the tail is
furnished with very apparent appendages resembling leaflets or vesi-
cular burse, the two first or external of which, either partially or
wholly, usually cover the‘others. The body is generally. flattened,
or is wider than it is thick. The mouth consists of the same pieces
as in the preceding Crustacea; but-here, those which correspond
to the two superior fcot-jaws of the Decapoda, exhibit an appear-

ance of a lower lip terminated by two palpi, still more than in the
latter. ‘The two mediate antennz are almost obliterated inthe last —_
Crustacea of this order, which are all terrestrial, and also differ fom

the others in their respiratory «Reba Most of them are aqua- ; iS

(1) Equal-footed. fig -—-

sé CRUSTACEA, *

2

a tic. Those which are terrestrial, like i other Braptacen: which
— live out of water, still require a certain degree of atmospheric hu-
Pate midity. to enable them to breathe, and to preserve their branchie in

; a proper state for the exercise of that function. x
po SF RUB his order according to the system of Linnzus embraces the
a sews

‘i Oniscus, Lin.,

ae ~ “Which is now divided into six sections. Those of the first are parasitical.
oe The subgenera are numerous. Some are aquatic and others terrestrial.
Among the latter we have the

-. | : Oxiscus, Lin.
‘ * ; The true Onisci have eight joints in their lateral antenne, but their base is
, covered, and the two external appendages of the extremity of the tail are

much larger than the others. These animals are vulgarly called= Clous-a-
porte, and by syncope Cloporte, Porcelets, de Saint-Antoine, Wood lice, &c.
They inhabit retired and obscure places, cellars, fissures in walls, old build-
ings, under stones, &c., &c. Thef feed on decaying v egetable and animal

matters, and seldom issue from their retreat, except in rainy weather... '
They move but slowly, unless they are alarmed. The ova are inclosed in a
ie a pectoral pouch. The young, at birth, have one thoracic segment less than
a the adult, and consequently have but twelve feet.

SECOND GENERAL DIVISION,
‘og me . , | ENTOMOSTRACA. 2

- Undet this denomination, which is taken from the Greek, and sig-
ee ‘nifies Insects with shells, Othon Frederick Muller comprises the
«© “genus Monoculus of Linnzus, to which we must add some of his
~ _» Lernee. +s
af “eh | « These animals, mostly microscopic, are all aquatic, and mostly in-
oy ‘Patlifeech water. Their feet, the number of which varies, and that
sometimes extends to beyond a hundred, are usually fitted for nata-

tion. only, being. sometimes ramified or divided, and sometimes fur-
_ nished with pinnulz. or formed of lamella. Their brain is formed
cg one-or two globules. The heart has always the figure of a long
* 1g » Resse. The meen a i i of hairs or setz, singly or united,

PE Re i fe Z %
gee ei thd ee wisss
a ; pass

ee Pa
‘ENTOMOSTRACA. = 3u7 ae
in the form of barbs, ccmber Oe fat seaddeuyh part of those fie on

or of a certain number of them, and sometimes of the upper mandi- 5
bles. Hence the origin of our term Branchiopoda, affixed'to these
animals, of which at first we formed but a single order. ‘Nearly all
of them are provided with a shell composed of one or two pieces, :
very thin, and most generally almost membranous and nearly dia-
phanous, or at least with a large anterior thoracic segment, ffe- | ,
quently confounded with the head, which appears to replace the ye
shell. The teguments are usually rather horny than calcareous, ‘:
thereby approximating these animals to the Insecta and Arachnides.

ORDER I. ,
BRANCHIOPODA(1). | 3.
| ie

A mouth composed of a labrum, ivot mandibles, a bait and one
or two. pairs of jaws, and branchiz, the first of which, when there
are several, are always anterior, characterize this order or the sixth |
of the class. © ~~ =

These Crustacea are always errant and are generally protected
by a shell resembling that of a bivalve, and furnished with four or. te
two antenne. ‘Their feet, with a few exceptions, are wholly nata- 4
tory: Their number varies, being but six in some, while in others » oi
it amounts to twenty, forty-two, or more 7 a hundred, Many of , i
them haye but one eye. i

Most of these animals, as we baie already stated, being nearly = =
microscopical, it is evident that the application of one of the char-
acters we have employed—that of the presence or absence of the
palpi of the mandibles—with respect to them, presents almost insu-.
perable difficulties. The form and number of the feet, that of the
eyes, the shell, the antenne, furnish us with more visible marks, aoe
and such as are within the observation of every one. 3 ge

This order in the systems of De Geer, Fabricius. and Lanlligus, a is aS a
single species excepted—M. Peamheonte“containea but the single :

genus naar Gee
: we - ee zz ee i on ’
- ey S46 A Sens ¢
" : : ‘ ‘ ae sath ee
(1) Gill-footed. ae
¥ > a fw = +"
ua . ae &: ;
; ee ie
i. . .
PEs
Ss oe ae

Po eS | CRUSTACEA.
Monocutvs, Lin. =e
Me amg is now divided into two great sections and various sabi.
* #
: f
2
ORDER II.
' 7 - PANCILOPODA(1).

The Pecilopoda are distinguished from the Branchiopoda by the
diversity in the form of their feet, among the anterior of which an
indeterminate number are ambulatory, or fitted for prehension;
while the others, lamelliform or pinnate, are branchial and natatory.
{t is principally, however, by the absence of the usual mandibles and
jaws that they are removed from all other Crustacea. Sometimes
these parts are replaced by the spinous haunches of the first six pairs
of feet; and sometimes the organs of manducation consist either of;
an external siphon inthe form of an inarticulated rostrum, or of
some other apparatus fitted for suction, but concealed or slightly
apparent.

Their body is almost always, either wholly, or for the seats por-
tion, invested with a shell in the form of a shield, consisting of a
single plate in most of them, and of two in others, which always

cit _ presents two eyes when those organs are distinct.. Two of their
-* © antenne—Chelicerze, Lat.—form a forceps in several, and fulfil its
* functions. Most of them have twelve feet, and nearly all the re-
mainder have either ten or twesty-two. Their usual habitat’ is on
aquatic animals, ‘and most commonly on Fishes.

We divide this order into two families.

e 2

FAMILY I,
XYPHOSURA.

This family is distinguished from the second by several characters:
there is no siphon; the haunches of the first six. pair,of feet are
covered with small spines and perform the office of jaws; there are

(1) Various-footed.

twenty-two feet; the first ten, sei ere ‘of the two anterior

ones in the males, are terminated by a dydactyle pte and ; ;
serted, as well as. the two that follow, under a large s enna is
shield, Theis are wandering animals, and form: the genus ~ ms

PECILO’

j Liuutwvs, Fab. " ag

The species are known in commerce by the name of the Molucca Crab. i:

These animals are sotnetimes found two feet in length, they inhabit the
seas of hot climates, and most generally frequent their shores. They appear
to me to be proper to the East Indies and the coast of America. The spe-
cies found in France—Z. cyclops—is commonly called the Casserole, (1)
from its haying some resemblance to the form of that utensil, and because
when the feet are removed its shellis used to hold water. Savages employ
the stylet of the tail to point their arrows, which, thus armed, are much
dreaded. Their eggs are eateninChina. When these animals walk, their wi,
feet are not seen. Fossil specimens are found in Certain strata of a mode- pee
rate antiquity. Ri Ay,

FAMILY IL. -
/ SIPHONOSTOMA.

The Siphonostome have no kind of jaws whatever. A sucker or
siphon, sometimes external and in the form of an acute inarticulated

rostrum, and at others concealed or but slightly visible, fulfils the Xi
functions of a mouth. There are never more than fourteen feet. ,
The shell is very thin and composed of a single piece. They are ae
all parasitical. ; hy

This family is now divided into two tribes, the Catacipxs, com-
prising Argula and Caligus (or the Fish-Louse), and the Lernet-
FORMES, which consists of two genera also. They are Dichelestium
and C Wid

* a
NIcoTHOE. 4
These animals terminate the Crustacea, and are distinguished from all others.
of that class by their heteroclitical form, To the naked eye they seem
nothing more than two lobes united in the form of a horse-shoe, whic! en: | ” i

closes two athera. By the aid of glasses, howeyer, we discover that < ad Bee
_ a ie meet aS oe

“es

(1) The King-crab of our “fishermen, or the Spay. vay common
on the coast of New Jersey. -
p \ s ‘ : * %. “i

#330 CRUSTACEA.

»» the two large lobes are formed by the great expansion of the sides of the
_ thorax, which resembles wings, are almost oval, and thrown behind; that
Be two others are clusters of eggs, &c.

_ Mieothoe astaci, Aud. and Edw. The only species fica it 5 abigalt
sah a line long and three lines broad,the thoracic enlargement included. It
is rose-coloured, paler on the oviferous sacs; the expansions yellowish. It
_ adheres closely to the branchie of the Lobster, and — deeply be-
- tween the filaments of those cent

is.

- According to Bropeiiin and various other naturalists, it isin the
vicinity of the Limuli, and ¢ other | mostraca with numerous feet,
that we should place. these. ‘singular fossil animals, originally con-
founded under the common name of Entomolithus paradoxus, and
now designated by that of Trilobites. By this hypothesis we:have
to admit as a positive or at least highly probable, fact, the existence
of locomotive organs, although, notwithstanding the most careful
investigation, no vestige of them has been discovered. Presuming,
on the contrary, that these animals were deprived of them, 1 thought
that their natural position was in the neighbourhood of the Chitones,

® orrather that they constituted the original stock of the Articulata,
being connected on the one hand with these latter Mollusca,’ and
on the other, with those first mentioned, and even with the Glomeres,
to which some Trilobites, such as the Calymenes, appear. to ap-
proximate, as well as to the Chitones, inasmuch as by contracting
they could also become spherical. Be this as it may, these animals
appear to have been annihilated by some ancient revolution of our
» planet.

~The Trilobites, one heteromorphous genus emtenied; that of Ag-

- nostus, have, like the Limuli, a large anterior segment in the form

~ of an almost semicircular or lunated shield, followed by from about
twelve to twenty-two segments, all transversal except the last, and
divided by two longitudinal sulci into three ranges of parts or lobes,
whence their name of Trilobites. Some naturalists call them
Entomostracites.

They are divided by Mr Brongniart ito the following genera:

Agnostus, Calymene, Asaphus, Ogygia and Paradoxides.

em

ARACHNIDES. "me

- sore f
Ae et

The Arachnides, which compose the second class of articulated -
animals provided with movable feet, are, as well as the Crustacea, »

deprived of wings, are not subject to changes of form, or do not ex-
perience any metamorphosis, simply casting their skin; but they
differ from them as well as from Insects in several] particulars. Like
the latter, the surface of their body presents apertures or transverse
fissures called stigmata, for the introduction of air, but they are few
in number—eight at most, and usually but two—and confined to
the inferior portion of the abdomen. Respiration is also effected
either by means of air-branchiz, fulfilling the functions of lungs that
are contained in saes, of which these stigmata are the apertures, or by
radiated trachee. The visual organs merely consist of ocelli, or
simple eyes, which, when numerous, are variously grouped. The
head, usually confounded with the thorax, in place of the antenne,
has two articulated pieces in the form of small didactyle or mono-
dactyle chele, improperly compared to the mandibles of Insects,
and so denominated, moving in a contrary direction to the former, or
from above downwards, still however co-operating in the business
of manducation, and replaced in the Arachnides, where the mouth
has the formof a siphon or sucker, by two pointed blades which act

as lancets. A,kind of lip, or rather ligula, produced by a pectoral —

prolongation; two jaws formed by the radical joint of the first seg-
ment of two small legs or palpi, or by an appendage or lobe of that
same joints a part concealed under the mandibles, composed of a
projection in the form of a rostrum, produced by the union of a
very small clypeus terminated by an extremely small triangular la-

brum, and of an inferior longitudinal carina, usually very hairy, oe

the parts which, with the pieces termed mandibles, constitute witl

some modifications the mouth of most of the Arachnides. The se oF s age
d

like those of Insects, are commonly terminated by two hooks, _
even sometimes by one more, and are all annexed to the thorar, or

2Q

seh

Pea 4

ait)
Pe]

ou

322 ARACHNIDES.

rather cephalo-thorax, which, except in a small ‘umber, is only
formed of a single segment, and is frequently intimately united to
the abdomen. This latter part of the body is soft, or but slightly
- defended, in most of them.

- Most of the Arachnides feed on Insects which they either seize
alive, or to which they adhere, abstracting their fluids by suction.
Others are parasitical, and live on vertebrated animals. Some of
them however are only found in flour, on cheese, and even on vari-
ous vegetables. Those which live on other animals frequently
“multiply there to a great extent. Two of the legs, in some species,
are only developed by a.change of the tegument.

Division of the Arachnides into Orders.

Some have pulmonary sacs, a heart with very distinct vessels,
and six or eight simple eyes. They compose our first,order, or
that of the PuLMonaRLZz. 7 .

The others respire by trachez, and have no o organs of circulation,
or if they have, the circulation is not complete. The trachez are
divided ‘near their origin into various branches, and do not, as in
Insects, form two trunks which run parallel to each other through-
out the whole length of the body and receive air from various points
by means of numerous stigmata. Here, but two, at most, are dis-
tinctly visible, and they are situated near the base of the abdomen.
The number of ocelli is at most but four. They constitute our se-
cond and last order, or that of the TRaAcHEARIA.

ORDER I.
PULMONARIZ.

We here find a well marked circulating system and pulmonary sacs,
always placed under the abdomen, announced externally by trans-

- verse openings or fissures (stigmata), of which there are sometimes

eight, four on each side, and at others four, or even two. The
number of ocelli is from six to eight, while in the following order it
never exceeds four, and is most generally but two; sometimes they

¥

PULMONARIA, 323

are hardly persed or even | Sspoibilated. ~The organ of respira- —
tion is formed of little amine. The heart is a large vessel which
extends along the back, and gives off branches on each side and

anteriorly. There are always eight legs... The head is always con- 5
founded with the thorax, and presents at its anterior superior ex-

tremity two mandibles—so called by authors, the chelicerze of La-
treille; terminated by two fingers, one of which is movable, or by
a single one resembling a hook or claw that is always movable.
The mouth is composed of a labrum, of two palpi, sometimes re-—
sembling arms ‘or claws, of the two or four jaws, formed, when there
are but two, by the radical joint of these palpi, and moreover, where
there are four, by the same joint of the first pair of feet, and of a
ligula consisting of one or two pieces.

FAMILY I.
‘ ARANEIDES..

This family is composed of the genus Aranza, Lin., or the Spi- —
ders. They have palpi resembling little feet, without a forceps at
the end, terminated at most by a little hook. Their frontal cheli-
cere (the mandibles of authors) are terminated by a movable hook,
flexed inferiorly, underneath which, and near its extremity, whichis
always pointed, is a little opening, that allows a passage to a veno-
mous fluid contained in a gland of the preceding joint. ‘There are
never more than two jaws. The thorax usually marked with a de-
pression in the form of a V, indicating the space occupied by the
head, consists of a single segment, posteriorly to which, by means
of a short pedicle, is suspended a movable and usually soft abdomen;
it is always furnished with from four to six closely approximated
cylindrical or conical, articulated mamille with fleshy extremities,

which are perforated with numberless small orifices for the passage of «

silky filaments of extreme tenuity proceeding from internal reservoirs.
Their legs, identical as to form, but of different sizes, are composed
of seven joints, of which the two first form the hip, the third the
thigh, the fourth and fifth the tibia, and the two others the tarsus:
the last is terminated by two hooks usually pectinated, and in seve-
ral by one more, which is smaller and not dentated. The intestinal
canal is straight, consisting of a first stomach, composed of several

gle

+ TR Psa

ie?

We

324 ARACHNIDES.

” sacs; ini then of a second stomach or dilatation surrounded with

silk. ee
_ The nervous system is composed of a double cord occupying the
median line of the body, and of ganglions which sian iis d to
the various organs.

With respect to the simple eyes, or ocelli, Mr Dafour relanai
‘that they shine in darkness like those of Cats, and that the Araneides
most probably enjoy the faculty both of nocturnal and diurnal

- vision.

~ ‘The abdomen icionine so putrid and decomposed after death,
that its colours and even its form are soon destroyed. M. Dufour,
by means of a rapid desiccation, the mode of which he points out,
has succeeded in remedying this evil to a great degree.

The silk, according to Réaumur, is first elaborated i in two little
reservoirs, shaped like tears of glass, placed obliquelyone on each
side, at the base of six other reservoirs, resembling intestines, situated
close to each other, flexed six or seven, times, proceedingefrom a
little beneath the origin of the abdomen, and terminating in the pa-
pill by a very slender thread, It is in these last mentioned vessels
that the silk acquires a greater degree of firmness.and other proper-
ties peculiar to it; they communicate with the preceding ones by
branches, forming a number of geniculate turns, and then various
pieces of net-work. ‘The newly spun filaments, when first drawn
from the mamille, are adhesive, and a certain degree of desiccation
or evaporation is required to fit them for their destined purposes.
When the temperature is propitious, however, a single instant is
sufficient, as the animal employs them the moment they escape from
the apparatus. Those white and silky flocculi that may be observed
floating about in spring and autumn in foggy weather, are certainly
-produced—as we satisfactorily ascertained by tracing them to their
point of origin—by various young Araneides; they are mostly -the
larger threads which are intended to afford points of attachment to
the radii of the web, or those that compose the chain, and which,
becoming more ponderous by the access of moisture, sink, approach
one another, and finally form little pellets: we frequently observe
them collected near the web. commenced by the Spider, and in
which it resides.

It is also very probable that many of the young onan not hay-
ing as yet a sufficient supply of silk, limit their structure to throwing

;

. PULMONARI&. se * 325

out simple threads. It is, I think! is hie young Lycose that we
must attribute those which intersect the furrows of ploughed grounds,
whose numbers are rendered so apparent by the reflection of light
after sunrise. By chemical analysis, these threads exhibit the same
characters as we. web of the spider:they are not then formed in i
the atmosphere, : as, for want of proper observation, ex visu, that ce-
lebrated naturalist, _M. Lamarck, has conjectured. Gloves and
stockings have be en ‘made with this silk; but it was found impossible — Bay

to apply the pro eess/on a large scale, ana as it is subject to many
difficulties, i is rather a matter of curiosity than utility. ‘This sub-

stance, however, i Is of much greater importance to the little animal ae
in question. With if, the sedentary species, or those which do not "
roam abroad in search of their prey, weave webs of a more or less pt
. Compact tissue, whose form and position vary according to the pe- gs

culiar habits of each of them, and that are’so many snares or traps,
where the insects on which they feed become entangled, or are
taken. No sooner is one of them arrested there by the hooks of
its tarsi, than the Spider, some times placed in the centre of his net,
or at the. 7" of his web, or at others lying in ambush in a-pecu-
liar domicil situated near and in one of the angles, rushes towards
his victim and endeavours to pierce him with his murderous dart,
distilling into the wound a prompt and mortal poison; should the
former resist too vigorously, or should it be dangerous to the latter
to approach it, he retreats, waiting until it has either exhausted its
powers by struggling, or become more entangled in the nets but
should there be no cause of fear, he hastens to bind it by involving
the body in his silken threads, with which it is sometimes completely :
enveloped.

Lister says that Spiders dart their threads in the same way that
the Porcupine darts his quills, with this difference, however, that in *
the latter, according to the popular belief, the spines are detached
from the body, whereas in the former, these threads, though pro-
pelled to a considerable distance, always remain connected with it.
The possibility of this has been denied. Be it as it may, we have a
seen threads issuing from the mamille-of several Thomisi form sae
straight lines, and when the animals moved. circularly, producing
movable radii. A second use to which this silk is applied by all
female Araneides, is in the construction of the sacs destined to con-
tain their eggs. The texture and form of these sacs are variously

326 ARACHNIDES.

modified, according to the habits of the race. They are usually
spheroidal; some of them resemble a cap or tymbal, others are
placed on a pedicle, and some are claviform. They are sometimes
partially enveloped with foreign bodies, such as earth, leaves, &c.;
a finer material, or sort of tow or down, frequently surrounds the

, eggs in their interior, where they are free or agglutinated and more

or less numerous.
I have ascertains.” that a single wound from a moderate sized

_ Spider will kill our common Fly in a few minutes. " It is also cer-
tain that the bite of those large ones of South America, which are

there called Crab-Spiders, and are placed by us in’ the genus My-

gale, kills the smaller vertebrated animals, such as Humming-Birds,

Pigeons, &c., and produces a violent fever in Man; the sting of

some species “ the south of France has even occasionally proved
fatal. We may therefore, without believing all the fabulous stories

of Baglivi and others respecting the bite of the Tarantula, tisiebst
Spiders, and particularly the larger ones.

Various insects of the genus Sphex, Lin., (Wasps) seize fon
them, pierce them with their sting, and transport them into holes
where they have deposited their eggs, as a source of food for their
young. Most of them perish in winter, but there are some which
live several naa inessane are the mre: the Lycose, and probably
several others.

M. Leon Dufour, who has published many excellent memoirs on
the anatomy of Insects, who has especially studied those of Valencia,
among which he has detected several new species, andto whose
labours the science of Botany is not less indebted, has paid particu-
lar attention to the respiratory organs of spiders, and it is from him
that we have taken our divisions, which consist of those that have
four pulmonary sacs—with as many external stigmata, two on each
side, and closely approximated—and of such as have but two. The
first, according to our method, form but the single genus .

Mycate. ,
Their eyes always situated at the anterior extremity of the thorax, and usu-
ally closely approximated; feet and chelicere robust. Most of them have
but four fusi(1), of which the two lateral or external, situated somewhat

4

(1) Fikeres, i. e. the papille or fusi through which the thread passes.

prominence that forms their ped : eave si
they reside, and which they conc ith | holes excavated by them for
that purpose, or under stones, bark ‘trees, or between leaves.

This genus now forms several divisions, characterized by the number of
fusi, the relative difference in the length of the legs and the situations of
the palpi. . igihe ee

rad
Wage

£4 P
e j a

Me % Myeatz, Walck.,
Or the true Mygales, the hairs which decorate the under part of their tarsi

form a thick and broad brush, projecting beyond the hooks, and usually — Oe So Gee

concealing them..

This division is composed of the largest species of the family, some of
which, when at rest, cover a circular spaee of from six to seven inches in
diameter. They sometimes seize upon Humming-Birds. They establish their
domicil in the clefts of trees, under the bark, in the fissures of rocks, or on
the surface of leaves of various plants. The cell of the Mygale avicularia
has the form of a tube, narrowed into a point at its posterior extremity. It
consists of a white web, of a close, very fine texture, semi-diaphanous, and
resémbling muslin.

South America and the Antilles produce other species, called by the
French colonists 4raignées-crabes, or Crab-spiders. Their bite is reputed
_ to be dangerous. A very large species—M. fasciata—is also found in the
East Indies. A species, nearly as large as the avicularia, inhabits the Cape
of Good Hope.

In the following Mygales, the superior extremity of the first joint of the »

chelicere presents a series of spines, articulated and movable at base, and
forming a sort of rake. The tarsi are less pilosé underneath than in the
preceding division, and their hooks are always exposed.

These species, in the dry andj mountain districts of the south of Europe
and of some other countries, excavate subterraneous galleries, which are
frequently two feet in depth, and so extremely tortuous, that, according to
Dufour, it is frequently impossible to trace them. At the mouth, they con-
struct a movable operculum with earth and silk, fixed by a hinge, which,
from its form, nicely adjusted to the aperture, its inclination, its weight,
and the superior position of the hinge, spontaneously shuts, and completely
closes the entrance of their habitation, forming a kind of trap-door, which
is scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding earth. Jts inner surface
is lined with a layer of silk, to which the animal clings, in order to keep its
door shut and prevent intruders from opening it. If it be slightly raised,
it is a sure indication that the owner is within. Unearthed, by laying open
the gallery front of the entrance, it becomes stupified, and allows itself to
be captured without resistance. A silken tube, or the nest, properly so
called, lines the inside of the gallery. There are severalispecies.

The remaining subgenera are Atypus, Eriodon, &c., differing in the in-
sertion of the palpi, the ligula, number of eyes, &c.

é

’
Cee
ye

328. “ARACHNIDES. _

_ We now pass to Araneides with but one pair of iho sacs, and as
many stigmata. | They all have palpi formed of five joints, inserted into
the external side of the jaws near their base, and most frequently i ipa sinus;
a ligula extending between them either nearly square, triangular or semi-
circular and six fusi at the extremity.

With the exception of a few species, which enter into the genus Mygale,

they compose that of

Aranga, Lin.

shy first division will comprehend the Aranex SxrpEnTaRim, or sedentary
spiders. They make webs, or throw out threads to ensnare their prey,
and always remain in these traps, or their vicinity, as well asnear their eggs.

Their eyes are approximated anteriorly and are sometimes eight in number,
of which four or two are in the middle and two orthree on each side, and
sometimes. Six.

Some, which, from the circumstance of their always moving forwards, we
term the Recrierapm, weave websand are stationary; their legs are eleva-
ted when at rest; sometimes the two first and two last are the longest, and
at others those of the two anterior pairs, or the fourth and the third. The
general arrangement of the eyes does not form the rg iu of a circle or a
crescent.

They may be divided into three Potions: the first, or that of the Tubite-
le, has cylindrical fusi approximated into a fasciculus directed backwards;
the legs are robust, the two first or the two last, and vice versa, longest in
some, and the whole eight nearly equal in others.

Crotuo, Walck.
A singular subgenus. The chelicere are very small, can separate but

_ little, and are not indented; very small hooks; the shortness of the body and

length of the legs produce a resemblance to the Crab-Spiders or Thomisi.
The relative length of these organs differs but little; the fourth pair, and then
the preceding one are merely somewhat longer than the first; the tarsi, only,
are furnished with spines. The eyes are further from the anterior margin
of the thorax than in the following subgenus, and are approximated and
arranged as in the genus Mygale of Walckenaer; three on each side form a
reversed triangle; the two others form a transverse line in the space com-
prised between the two triangles. The jaws and the ligula are proportion-
ably smaller thansthose of the same subgenus; a’short projection or slight di-
latation on the external side of the jaws, givesinsertion to the palpi; the jaws
terminate in a point; the ligula is triangular and not nearly oval as in Drassus.
The two superior or most lateral fusi are long, but what, according to Du-
four, particularly characterises the Clothos, is, that there are two pectini-
form valves which open and shut at the will of the animal, in place of the «
two intermediate’fusi. i

But’ a. single species is known, the Clotho Durandii, Lat, M. Dufour ~

Paks

PULMONARLE. oem

found it in the mountains of ucveiil in the Pyrennees and) among the
rocks of Catalonia... To this latter naturalist we are indebted not only for
our knowledge of the external characters of this ‘spider, but for many curi-
ous observations relative to its habits. ‘«She constructs,” says he, “a shell
resembling a calotte an inch in diameter,.on the under surface of liege
stones or in the fissures of rocks. Its contour presents seven or eight
emarginations, the angles of which are alone attached to the stone by si silken
fasciculi, the margin being free. This singular tent is admirably woven.

The exterior resembles the very finest taffeta, formed, according to the age
of the animal, , of a greater or less number of layers, Thus, when the young

Uroctea first commences her establishment, she merely forms two webs —

between Which 'she seeks for shelter. Subsequently, and I believe at each”
change of tegument, she addsa certain number of layers. Finally, she lines
an apartment with a softer and more downy material which is to enclose the
sac of eggs and young ones. Although the exterior shell ismore orlesssoiled
by foreign bodies which serve to conceal it, the chamber of the industrious
architect is always extremely neat and clean. There are four, five, or six
egg-pouches or sacculi in each domicil; they are lenticular, more than four
lines in diameter, and formed of a snow-white taffeta lined witb the softest
down. The ova are not produced till the latter end of December or the

beginning of January; the young are to be protected from the rigour of ©

winter and the incursions of enemies—all is prepared; the receptacle ‘of
this precious deposit is separated from the web that adheres to the stone by
soft down, and from the external calotte by the various layers I have men-
tioned. Some of the emarginations in the edge of the pavilion are com-
pletely closed by the continuity of the web, the edges of the remainder are
merely laid on each other, so that by raising them up, the animal can issue
from its tent or enter it, at pleasure. When the Uroctea leaves herhabi-
tation for the chase, she has nothing to fear, she only possesses the secret
of the impenetrable emargination, and has the key to those which alone’
afford‘an entrance. When her offspring are able to provide for themselves,
they leave their native dwelling, to establish elsewhere their individual
habitations, while the mother returns to it and dies—it is thus her cradle and
her tomb.”

There are several other genera of this section, such as Drassus, Segesiria,
Clubiona, &c., in the last of which, as well as in the following ones, we find
eight eyes. They form two families, the Terrestrial and Aquatic. Some’
(Clubiona) construct silken tubes under stones; and others (Aranea proper),
a web with a tube, in our houses, along hedges, &c. :

In the second section of the sedentary and rectigrade spiders,that of the
IxequiTELZ, the external papillz arenearly conical, project but little, are
convergent, and form a rosette; the legs are very slender. The jaws in-

tte

cline over the lip, and become narrower at their eh extremity, or at

int do not sensibly widen. :

Most of them have the first pair of legs longest, and then the fourth. The |

rt, | '

*

|

=

ARACHNIDES.

abdomen is more voluminous, softer, and more cploured than in) the pre-
ceding tribes. Their webs form an irregular net composed of threads
which cross each other. in every direction and on several planes. They
lie i > in, wait for their prey, display much anxiety for the preservation of their
‘and never abandon them till they are hatched. They are short-lived.

~ There are several genera such as Scytodes, Theridion, Episinus, &e., dif-
etlag | in the number of eyes, and the mode of their arrangement; the shape

. of the thorax, &c.

In the third section of the sedentary rectigrade spiders, the OrbiTELz,

x the external fusi are almost conical, slightly salient, convergent, and form
a rosette, the legs are slender, as in the preceding section, but the jaws

aie

a

&

re straight and evidently wider at their extremity.

The first pair of legs, and then the second, are always the longest.
There are eight eyes thus arranged: four in the middle nid a quadri-
lateral, and two on each side.

The Orbitelz approach the Inequitelz in the size, idneeus and diversity
of colour of the abdomen, and in their short'term of existence; but their
web is a regular piece of net-work, composed of concentric circles inter-
cepted by straight radii diverging from the centre, where they almost always
remain, and in an inverted position, at the circumference. Some conceal
themselves in a cell or cavity which they have constructed near the margin
of the web, which is sometimes horizontal, and at others perpendicular.
Their eggs are agglutinated, very numerous, and inclosed ina voluminous
cocoon.

The threads which support the web, and which can be extended one-
fifth of their length, are used for the divisions of the micrometer.

Linypnra, Lat.

"The Linyphie are well characterized by the disposition of their eyes:
four in the middle form a trapezium, the posterior side of which is widest,
and is occupied by two eyes much larger and more distant; the remaining
four are grouped in pairs, one on each side, and in an oblique line. The
jaws are only widened at their superior extremity.

They construct on bushes a loose, thin, horizontal web, attnchiig to its
upper surface, at different points, or irregularly, separate threads. The

_ animal remains at its inferior portion, and in a reversed position.

Uxrosorvs, Lat.

The four posterior eyes placed at equal intervals on a straight line, and @
the two lateral ones of the first line nearer to the anterior edge of the tho-
rax than the two comprised between them, so that this line is arcuated pos-
teriorly. The tarsi of the three last pairs of legs terminate by one small
nail. The first joint of the two posterior ones has a range of small sete, 9

The body. of these animals, as well as in the following subgenus, is elon-
-gated and nearly cylindrical. Placed in the centre of their web, they ad-

re

PULMONARLE. ; | 331, a

yance their four anterior legs in a straight line, and extend the aye last in .
an opposite direction; those of the third pair project laterally. ©
_ These Arachnides construct'webs similar to those of other Orbitelz, but
they are looser and more horizontal. They will completely envelope the
body of asmall U.cohenpharsen insect in less than three minutes. Ging.

j i, . eek

4 TrerragnatTaa, Lat. Bees

The eyes: lagi four by four on two nearly parallel lines, and Piha

by almost equal intervals; jaws long, narrow, and only widened at their su-
perior €3 The chelicere are also very long, in the males copeciallny
The web ere eae
Ereira, Walck. . Api Pg #4,

The two eyes « on each side approximated by pairs, and almost contiguous;
the remaining four forming a quadrilateral in the middle. The jaws dilate
from their base, and form a rounded palette.

The cucurbitina is the only species known whose web is horizontal; that
of the others is:vertical, or sometimes oblique.

Some place themselves in its centre in a reversed position, or with their
head downwards; others construct a domicil close by it, either vaulted on
all sides, or forming a silky tube composed of leaves drawn together by

threads, or open above, and resembling a cup or the nest of a bird. The
web of some exotic species is formed of such stout materials that it will ar-
rest small Birds, and even impede the progress of a Man.

Their cocoon is usually globular; that of some species, however, is a trun-
cated oval, or very short cone.

The natives of New Holland and those of some of the South Sea Islands,
for want of other food, eat a species of Epeira, closely allied to the ranea:
esuriens, Fab. They are numerous. oe

We now come to Spiders that are sedentary, like the preceding,, but
which have the faculty of moving sideways, forwards and backwards, ina
word, in all directions. They constitute our section of the LaTericrapZ,.
The four anterior legs are always longer than the others; sometimes the
second pair surpasses the first, and at others, they are nearly equal; the ani-
mal extends them to the whole of their length on the plane of position.

The chelicerz are usually small, and their hook is folded transversely, as
in the four preceding tribes. Their eyes, always eight in number, are fre-
quently very unequal, and form a segment of a circle or crescent; the two
posterior lateral ones are placed farther back than the others, or are nearer
to the lateral margin of the thorax. The jaws, in most of them, are inclined

onthelip. The body is usually flattened, resembling a Crab; the abdomen
is large, rounded, and triangular. ©”

These Arachnides remain motionless on plants, with their feet extended,

‘They make no web, simply throwing out a few solitary threads to arrest —
their prey. Their cocoon is‘orbicular and flattened. “They conceal it, be-
tween leaves, and watch it until the young ones are hatched.

eae a

see

* 3

¥

332 9... ARACHNIDES.

"The Ciibetinine form several genera, such as Mierommata, Senelops, &c.
Other Aranez whose eyes, always eight in number, extend more along
the lengthof the thorax than across its breadth, or at least almost as much
in one direction as the other, and which form either a truncated curvilinear
‘triangle or oval, or a quadrilateral, constitute a second general division, or
the Vacanunpa, which I have thus named to distinguish them from those
of the first, or the Sedentariz.

Two or four of their eyes are frequently much larger than the others;
the thorax is large and the legs robust; those of the fourth pair and then
the two first, or those of the second pair, are usually the longest.

They make no web, but watch for their prey and seize it, either by hunt-

_ ing it down, or by suddenly leaping upon it.

_» ‘This division forms two sections, each consisting of several genera. In
the first, or that of the Cirrgrapm, we find the genus

Lycosa, Lat.

The eyes of the Lycosz form a quadrilateral, but one as long as or longer
than it is wide;,the two posterior eyes are not placed on an elevation. The
first pair of legs is evidently longer than the second, but shorter than the
fourth, which, in this respect, surpasses all the others. The internal extre-
mity of the jaws is obliquely truncated. The ligula is square but longer
than it is broad. My

Almost all the Lycose keep on the ground, where they run with great

‘swiftness. They inhabit holes accidentally presented to them, or which they

excavate, lining their parietes with silk, and enlarging them in proportion
to their growth. Some establish their domicil in chinks and cavities in
walls, where they form a silken tube covered externally with particles of
earth orsand. In these retreats they change their tegument, arid as it ap-
pears, after, closing the opening, pass the winter. There also the females
lay their eggs. When they go abroad they carry their cocoon with them,
attached to the abdomen by threads. ‘On issuing from the egg the
young ones cling to the body of the mother, and remain there until they
are able to provide for themselves.

The Lycose are extremely voracious, and courageously defend their
dwelling.

A species of this genus, the Tarentula, so called from Tarentum, a city of
Italy, in the environs of which it is common, is highly celebrated. The

eu

“poisonous nature of its bite is thought to produce the most serious conse-

quences, being frequently followed by death or Turentism, results which
can only be avoided by the aid of music and dancing. Well informed
persons, however, think it more necessary in these cases to combat the ter-
rors of the imagination than to apply an antidote to the poison; medicine at
all events presents other means of cure.

In the second section of the Vagabundz, that of the Sarrienap#, the
eyes form a large quadrilateral, the anterior side of which, or the line

_. formed by the first ones, extends across the whole width of the thorax; this

PULMONARIZ., = 333

part of the body is almost square or semi-ovoid, plane or but slightly con-
vex above, as wide anteriorly as in the rest of its extent, and descending
suddenly on the sides. ‘The legs are fitted for running and leaping: The
thighs of the two fore legs are remarkable for their size. y

The Araignée @ chevrons blanes of Geoffroy, a species of Salticus very com-
mon in summer on walls or windows exposed to the sun, moves by jerks,
stops short after a few steps and raises itself on its fore legs. If it discover
a fly, or particularly a musquito, it approaches softly, and then ‘darts upon
the victim witha single bound. It leaps fearlessly and perpendicularly on
a wall, being always attached to it by a thread, which lengthens as it ad-
vances. This same filament also supports it in the air, enables it to ascend
to its point of departure, and allows it to be wafted by the wind from one»

place to another.~ Such, generally, are the habits of the species that be-

long to this division. ,... ne

Several construct nests of silk resembling oval sacs open at both ends, be-
tween leaves, under stones, &c. Thither they retire to change their tegu-
ment and to seek shelter in bad weather. If danger menaces them there,
they leave it at once and escape with speed.

The females construct a sort of tent, which becomes the cradle of their
posterity, and in which the young ones, for a time, live in common with the
mother. There are several subgenera.

~ FAMILY IL.
PEDIPALPI.

In the second family of the Pulmonariz, we find very large palpi,
resembling projecting arms, terminated by a forceps or a claw; di-

dactyle chelicerz, one finger of which is movable, and an abdomen —

composed of very distinct segments, without fusi at the extremity.
The whole body is invested with a firm tegument; the thorax con-
sists of a single piece, and exhibits three or two simple eyes, ap-
proximated or grouped, near the anterior angles; and near the mid-
dle of its anterior extremity, or posteriorly, but in the median line,
two others equally simple and approximated. There are four or
eight pulmonary sacs. Those which form the genus

Tarantuta, Fab.,

Have their abdomen attached to their thorax by a pedicle, or portion of
their transverse diameter; it has no pectinated laminz at its base, nor sting
at its extremity. Their stigmata, four in number, are situated near the ori-
gin of the venter, and are covered with a plate. . Their chelicere (mandi-
bles) are simply terminated by a movable hook. ‘ Their ligula is elongated,

¥

> =

334 : ARACHNIDES.
“very narrow, and concealed. They have but two jes, whieh a are formed.
by the first joint of their palpi.

They all have eight eyes, of which three, on each side and n near Fthe. an-
terior angles, form a triangle; and two near the middle at the anterior mar-
gin are placed on a common tubercle or little elevation, one on each side.
The palpi are spinous. The tarsi of the two anterior legs differ from the
others, being formed of numerous setaceous or filiform joints, and without

- a@ terminal nail.

a,

They are confined to the hottest portions of Asia and America. Their
habits are unknown tous. They now constitute two subgenera, Parynus,
Oliv. and Pasksunoy te, Bats"?

7" *

_ © The others have their abdomen intimately united to the thorax

‘throughout ‘its entire width, presenting, at. its inferior base, two
movable pectiniform lamin, and terminated by a knotted tail

' armed with a terminal sting. Their stigmata, eight in number, are

exposed, and arranged four by four along the abdomen; their che-
licerse. are terminated by two fingers, of which the.exterior is moy-

- able. They form the genus

Scorpio, Lin., Fab.

Scorpions have an elongated body, suddenly terminated by a long slender
tail formed of six joints, the last of which terminates in an arcuated and ex-
cessively acute point or sting, which affords issue to a venomous fluid con-
tained in an internal reservoir, forming a long square, and usually marked in
the middle by a longitudinal sulcus, presenting on each side, and near its an-
terior extremity, three or two simple eyes, forming a curved line, and near
the middle of the back two others, also simple, which are approximated.
The palpi are very large, with a forceps at the extremity resembling a
hand; their first joint forms a concave and rounded jaw.

These Arachnides inhabit the hot countries of both hemispheres, live on
the ground, conceal themselves under stones and other bodies, most com-
monly in ruins, dark and cool places, and even in houses. They run with
considerable swiftness, curving their tail over their back. They can turn
it in ‘every direction, and use it for the purposes of attack and defence.

. With their forceps they seize Onisci and various insects, Carabici, Orthop-

terz, &c., on which they feed, pierce them with their sting by directing it
forwards, and then pass their prey through their chelicere and jaws.’ They
are particularly fond of the eggs of Spiders and of Insects.

The wound occasioned by the sting of the ewropeus is not usually dan- |
gerous. That of the Scorpion of Souvignargues, of Maupertius, of the spe-,
cies which [have named Roussatre (occitanus), and which is larger than the
preceding one, according to the experiments of Dr Maccary courageously
tried upon himself, produces serious and alarming symptoms; the older the
animal the more active seems to be the poison. The remedy employed is

So =

PULMONARLE. 2 ° a5
a ee de ex sernal ly and internally. ‘There are. several
species. “age 2
Bae ax me
ORDER II.
TRACHEARIZ,

a7 "ere?

BS J

The Auachuites which compose this order differ” feo those of -
the precéding one in their organs of respiration, which consist "of

radiated or ratnified trachew(1); that only receive air through two
stigmata; in the absence of an organ of circulation; and in the num-
ber of their eyes, which is but from two to four, The want of suffi-
ciently general anatomical observations, has prevented the limits of
this. order from being rigorously determined. Some of these
Arachnides, the Pycnogonides for instance, exhibit no stigmata;
their mode of respiration is unknown.
The Tracheariz are very naturally divided into those which are
furnished with chelicer@, terminated by two fingers, one of which is
movable, or by one that is equally so; and into those where these
organs are replaced by simple Jamine, or lancets, which with the
ligula constitute a sucker. Most of these animals, however, being
very small, great difficulties necessarily accompany these investiga-
tions, and it is readily perceived that such characters should onty be
resorted to when it is impossible to avoid it.

FAMILY I.
PSEUDO-SCORPIONES.

In this family we find the thorax articulated, its first segment much
the largest, and resembling a corselet; the abdomen is very distinct
and annulated, and the palpi very large and in the form of legs or
claws. There are eight legs with two equal hooks at the extremity
of the tarsi, the two anterior ones, at most, excepted, and two appa-

(1) The trachex are vessels which receive the aerial fluid and distribute

it to every part of the interior of the body, and thus remedy the want of
circulation.

a 17% 3

300 axes ARACHNIDES.

rent chelicerz terminated by two fingers and two toes, formed by
the first joint of the palpi. They are all terrestrial, and have an
Seg: or polong body. Phis family compr ehends but two genera.
GaLEopEs, Oliv. i Solpugts Licht., Fab.
Two very large chelicerz, with strongly dentated vertical fingers, one su-
perior, fixed, and frequently furnished at its base with a slender, elongated,
pointed appendage, and the other movable; large projecting palpi in the
form of feet or antennz, terminated by a short, vesicular joint, resembling
a 2 button without a terminal hook; the two anterior feet of an almost similar

figure, equally unarmed, but smaller.
_.. Their body is oblong, generally soft, and bristled with long Fiat The
last joint of the palpi, according to M. Dufour, contains a particular organ
formed like a dis ‘ of a nacre-white, and which never protrudes unless the
animal is irritated. ~The two anterior feet may be ace ie second
palpi. The abdomen is oval, and composed of nine annuli.
It is supposed that the ancients designated these animals by the names of

Phalangium, Solifuga, Tetragnatha, &c. M. Poé discovered a species in
the environs of Havana, but the others are peculiar to the hot and sandy
countries of the eastern continent. They run with great celerity, erect
their head when surprised, and show signs of resistance; they are considered

venomous. j , ih

‘Cubiihh. Geoff. —Obisium, Illig.
The palpi elongated in the form of an arm, with a hand terminated bya
didactyle forceps; all the legs equal, terminated by two hooks; the eyes

placed on the sides of the thorax.
These animals resemble small Scorpions destitute of atail. Their body

is flattened, and the thorax nearly square, with one or two eyes on each side.
_ They run swiftly, and frequently, retrograde or move sideways like Crabs.

FAMILY II.
ge - PYCNOGONIDES.

~The trunk, in this family, is composed of four segments, occupy-
pre nearly the whole length of the body and terminated at each
extremity by a tubular joint, the anterior of which is the largest,

sometimes simple, and sometimes accompanied by chelicerze and.
palpi, or only one kind of these organs, that constitutes the mouth.
‘There are eight legs in both sexes, formed for | runnit oy

male is furnished. with two additional false ones, | lac ?
two anterior, and solely destined to carry her eggs. pi a %y

’

TRACHEARIA, eae!

The Pycnogonides are marine animals, analogous alta to the
: Cyami and the Caprella, or to the Arachnides of the genus Phalan-
gium, where Linneus placed them. Their body is commonly linear,
with very long legs, composed of eight or nine joints, terminated
by two unequal hooks which appear to form but one, and the small-
est of which is cleft. The first segment of the body, which replaces
the head and mouth, forms a projecting tube, cylindrical or in the
form of a truncated cone, with a triangular aperture at its extre-
mity. The chelicerse and palpi are placed at itsbase. The former
are cylindrical or linear, simply prehensile, and com posed. of two
joints, the last of which is a forceps, the inferior finger or the one that
is fixed being sometimes shorter than the other. The palpi are fili-
form, and consist of five or nine joints, with a terminal hook.
Each of the following segments, the last excepted, bears a pair of
legs; but the first, or the one articulated with the mouth has a tuber-
cle on the back, on which, are placed two eyes on each side, and
beneath, in the females only, two additional small folded legs, bear-
ing the eggs which are collected around them in one or two pellets.
The last segment is small, cylindrical and perforated by a little ori-
fice at the extremity. No vestige of stigmata can be perceived.

They are found among marine plants, sometimes under stones
near the beach, and occasionally also on the Cetacea.

Pycnoconum, Brun., Mull., Fab.

The chelicere and palpi wanting; length of the feet hardly greater than
that of the body, which is proportionably thicker and shorter than i in the
following genera. They live on the Cetacea.

Puoxicuinus, Lat.

The palpi wanting, as in the Phoxichili; but the legs are very long, and
there are two chelicerz.

Nxympnon, Fab.

The Nymphones resemble the Phoxichili in the narrow and oblong form of
their body, the length of their legs; and inthe presence of chelicere; but
they have, besides, two palpi.

25

- ARACHNIDES. _

P Me
ei : ' ; re het SaRRS Lg . ee ee
FAMILY Ifl BT Ga

eri e . 7 =
: ae at oe
a ey cate g Rees Se Pah weiss
te Hussite ee le _HOLETR ee... Ae
Se : 2 Be ae ak me Ree: - A. pi: : oe
~< : oe ee > 8

“The ‘Gout and abdonien are here united in one mass, “under a
my common epidermis, « or at mo: th, the thorax is divided by a strangu-
any lation, and the abdomen, 1 some, merely exhibits an appearance
of annuli, formed by the pliew of the abdomen.
io” ee anterior “extremity of their body frequently projects in the
a form of a snout or rostrum; most of them have eight legs, and the

remainder six, * : . .
. This family consists of two tribes. In the first or the Puaxay-
_ @rTa, Lat., we observe very apparent chelicere which either project

in front of the trunk, or are inferior, and always terminating in a

didactyle forceps, preceded by one or two joints.
They have two filiform palpi, composed of five joints, the last of
. which is terminated by a small nail; two distinct eyes; two jaws
zs formed by the prolongation of the radical joint of the palpi, and
‘frequently four more, which are also a mere dilatation of the hip of
the two first pairs of legs. The body is oval or rounded, and co-
..._ vered, the trunk at least, with a firmer skin; there is also an appear-
Oe. ae _ ance of annulior plice on theabdomen. The legs, of which there
: “are always eight, are long, and distinctly divided, like those of In-
sects. At the origin of the two posterior legs, at least in several
halangium—are two stigmata, one on n each side, but hidden by
heir hips. P
me of them live on the ground, at thé foot of trees, and on

Sy

much algiter than the Body eyes placed on a
Their legs : are very long and slender, and when de-

7 Sou find chelicere, but they are simply formed f oa ay
forceps; either didactyle or monodactyle, and are hidden ina sternal
lip; sometimes there is a sucker formed of united lancets; or finally

TRACHEARLE, pti:
the mouth consists of a ‘stints cavity: without any aj apa rent appen-—
dages. _ This tribe i veoh of the aed ame FC Pee ©
a fe: A teres: Dic itl il igs Be

Most of these. animals are very small or nearly nat They are

observed everywhere. Some of them are errant, and of these some are

found under stones, leaves, bark of trees, in the earth, in water, dried meat,

old cheese, and Lovage animal matters. Others are -parasitical, living

on the skin or in the flesh’ of various animals, which they often, by their
excessive multiplication, reduce to a state of great debilityst my The origin.

of certain diseases, such as the itch, is attributed'to particular species. The
experiments of Dr Galet prove that if the Acari of the human psora be

placed on the body of a perfectly healthy person, they will inoculate him i
With the virusof that disorder. Various species of Acariare also found ra
on Insects, and some of the Coleoptera that feed on cadaverous substances ‘
are frequently covered with them. They have even been observed in the
brain and eye of Man.

The Acari, or Mites, as they are vulgarly termed, are oviparous, and ex-
cessively prolific. Severalofthem at first have but six legs, the remaining :
two being developed shortly after. Their tarsi terminate in various ways, ee A
according to their habits. ma a

Some—Acaripzs, Lat.—or the Acari proper, have eight legs, solely des-
tined for walking, and chelicerz..

Trompipium, Fab.
The chelicere monodactyle, or terminated by a movable hook; salient
palpi, pointed at the end, with a movable appendage or species of finger
under their extremity, two eyes, each placed on a little immovable pedicle,
The body is divided into two parts, the first of which, or the anterior, is ver,
small, and bears the two first pair of legs, together with the eyes and mout "
Lromb. holosericeum, Fab. Very common in gardens in the spring; idee - ne
red; abdomen nearly square, posteriorly narrowed, with an emargination; —
the back loaded with papillz, hairy at base, and globular at the extremity. Sheet
There are various other subgenera, such as EnyTurzvs, Gitcssss Cuerx- Bi aS
LETUS, Orn1rpata, Unoropa, &c: geht
Here we find our Common Tick’. The most remarkable is hat of the . Sie
subgenus S ape ee / ed m4 oi)

wl
4
5
Ye

Ixonzs, Lat. Fab.
The palpi forming a sheath to the sucker, and with it constituting a pro.
jecting and short rostrum, truncated and slightly dilated at the extremity. ~~
The Ixodes are found in thick woods abounding in brushes, briars, &e.;
they hook themselves to low plants by the hind legs, keeping the others
extended, and fastenon Dogs, Oxen, Horses and other Quadrupeds, and
even on the Tortoise, burying their suckers so completely in their flesh,

=

340° ARACHNIDES.

that they can only be detached by force, and by tearing out the portion that
adheres to it. They lay a prodigious quantity of eggs, and sometimes in-.
crease to such an enormous extent on the Ox and Horse, that they perish
from the exhaustion. Their tarsi are terminated by two hooks inserted in
a palette, or united at base on a common pedicle.

The ancients Aganeed these Arachnides by the term Ricinus. ‘They
are our Ticks.

Lae Shas.
WR:

CLASS Il.

x

; INSECTA.

Insects, which form the third class of articulated animals provided
with articulated legs, have, besides, a dorsal vessel analogous to the
vestige of a heart, but totally destitute of any branch for the circu-
lation. They respire by means of two principal trachex, extending,
parallel to each other, throughout the whole length of the body, hav-
ing centres, at intervals, from which proceed numerous branches,
corresponding to external openings or stigmata, which admit air.
They all have two antenne and a distinct head. The nervous sys-
tem of most Insects—the Hexapoda—is generally composed of a
brain formed of two opposing ganglions, united at base, giving off
eight pairs of nerves and two single ones, and of twelve ganglions,
all inferior. By counting the eight pairs of the brain, and the ten
spinal bridles, which may also be considered as so. many pairs of
nerves, we shall have in all forty-five pairs, exclusive of two solitary
nerves, or from twelve to fourteen more than are found in the hu-
man subject. In our general remarks on points common to the
three classes of articulated animals provided with articulated feet,
we mentioned the various opinions of physiologists with respect to
the seat of thé sense of hearing and ofsmell. We will merely add,
in regard to the former, that certain little nervous frontal ganglions
seem to confirm the opinion of those who, like Scarpa, place it in
the origin of the antenne. I have detected two small orifices near
the eyes of certain Lepidoptera, which, perhaps, are auditory canals.
If, in several Insects, particularly those furnished with filiform, or

INSECTA. | | 341 a

long, setaceous antenna, they (the antennz) are organs of touch,
it seems to us difficult to account for the extraordinary development
they acquire in certain families, and more particularly in the males,
if we refuse to admit that they are then the seat of smell, -Thepalpi —
also, in some cases, as when they are greatly dilated at the extremity,
may possibly be the principal organs of smell, part of which sense —
may also perhaps belong to the ligula.

The digestive system consists of a preparatory or budaat appara-
tus, intestinal canal, bihary | vessels, also called hepatic vessels, those
styled salivary, but which are less general, free and floating vessels,
the epiploon or corps graisseux, and probably of thé dorsal vessel.
This system is singularly modified, according to the difference of the
aliment, or forms a great number of particular types, of which we
shall speak when treating of families. We will merely say a word
with respect to the buccal apparatus and the principal divisions of
the intestinal canal, beginning with the latter. In those where it is
the most complicated, as in the carnivorous Coleoptera, we observe
a pharynx, cesophagus, crop, prone stomach or chylific ventricle,
and intestines.

Some few, and always aintactits Insects, such as the Myriapoda,
approximate to several of the Crustacea, either in thenumber of the
annuli of their body and in their legs, or in some points of analogy
in the conformation of the parts of the mouth; but all the others
never have more than six legs, and their body, the number of whose
segments never extends beyond twelve, is always divided into three
principal parts, the head, trunk and abdomen. Among the latter
Insects, some are found without wings, that always preserve their
natal form, and merely increase in size and change their skin. In
this respect they bear some analogy to the animalsof the preceding
classes. Nearly all the remaining Hexapoda have wings; but these
organs, and even frequently the feet, do not make their appearance
at first, but are only developed after a series of changes, more or
less remarkable, styled meétamorphoses, of which. we shall soon
have to speak. » ss ae

The head bears the antenn®, eyes, and eiebh: The composition .
and form of the antenne are much more various than in the Crus-
tacea, and are frequently more developed or longer in the males thany
in the females.

The eyes are either compound or simple; the first, according to

342 INSECTA.

the baron Cuvier, Marcel de Serres and others, are formed: 1, of

a cornea, divided into numerous little facets, which is so Touch the
more convex, as the insect is more carnivorous; its internal surface

is covered with an ¢ paque, and variously coloured, but slightly fluid
substance, usually,

‘owever, of a black or deep violet hue; 2, of a
choroides, fixed by its contour and edges to the cornea; covered
with a black varnish, exhibiting numerous air vessels, arising from
tolerably large trunks of trachew in the head, whose branches form
a circular trachea round the eye: it is frequently wanting, how-
éver, as well as the choroides, in various nocturnal insects; 3, of
nerves arising from a large trunk, proceeding directly from the
brain, which then opens, forming a reversed cone, the base of which
is next to the eye, and each of whose rays or threads traversing the
choroides and lining matter of the cornea, terminates in one of its
facets; there is no crystalline nor vitreous humour.

Several, besides these compound eyes, have simple ones, or ocelli,
the cornea of which is smooth. They are usually three in number,
and are disposed in a triangle on the top of the head. In most of
the Aptera and in the larve of those that are winged, they replace
the former, and are frequently united in a group; those’ of the
Arachnides seem to indicate that they are fitted for the purpose of
vision.

- The mouth of the hexapodous insects is penieeatly composed of

“six principal parts, four of which are lateral, are disposed in pairs,

and move transversely; the other two, opposed to each other in a
contrary direction, occupy the space comprised between the former:
one is placed above the superior pair, and the other beneath the
inferior. In the triturating insects (broyeurs), or those which feed
on solid matters, the four lateral parts perform the office of jaws,
the other two being considered as lips; but, as we have already ob-
served, the two superior jaws have been distinguished by the pecu-
liar appellation of mandibles, the others alone bearing that of maxilla

or jaws; the latter are also furnished with one or two articulated

filaments called palpi, a character never exhibited, in this class, by
the mandibles. ‘Their extremity is often terminated by two divisions
or lobes, the exterior of which, in the Orthoptera, is called the

‘galea. We have already said that the upper lip was called the

labrum. The other, or the labium properly so styled, is formed of

INSECTA. 343

two parts; the one, inferior and solid, is the mentum or chin; the
other, which is usually provided with two palpi, is the ligula.

In the Suctoria, or those that live by the suction of fluid-aliment,
these various organs of manducation present themselves under two
kinds of general modifications. In the first, the mandibles and the
jaws are. replaced by little lamin in the form of sete or lancets,
forming, by their union, a sort of sucker, which is received into a
sheath, supplying the place ofa Jabium, and is either cylindrical or
beameaiens inarticilated, and terminated by two lips constituting 2 a
proboscis. The-Jabrum is triangular and arched, and covers the
base of the sucker.

In the second modification, the labrum and mandibles are nearly
obliterated, or are extremely small: the labium is no longer free, .
and is only distinguishable by the presence of two palpi, to which
it gives insertion: the jaws have acquired a most extraordinary
length, and are transformed into tubular filaments, which, being
united at their edges, compose a sort of spiral proboscis called the
tongue, but which, to avoid all equivocation, it would be better to
call spiriynatha; its interior exhibits three canals, the intermediate
of which is the duct of the alimentary juices. At the base of each
of these filaments is a palpus, usually very small, and but slightly
apparent.

The Myriapoda are the only insects in which the mouth presents’
another mode of organization—it will be explained in treating of
that order.

The trunk of insects, or that intermediate portion of their body
which bears the legs, is generally designated by the term thorax, or
corselet by the French. It is composed of three segments, not well
distinguished at first, the relative proportions of which vary consi-
derably. Sometimes, as in the Coleoptera, the anterior, much the
largest, separated from the following one by an articulation, mova-
ble, and alone exposed, appears at the first glance to constitute the —
entire trunk, and is called the thorax or corselet; sometimes, as in
the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, &c., it is much shorter than the
ensuing one, has the appearance of a collar, and, with the two
others, forms a common body, attached to the abdomen by a pedi-
cle, or adhering closely to it across its whole posterior width, and
is also called thorax. These distinctions were insufficient, and M.

344. INSECTA.

Kirby having already employed the denomination of metathoraz,
to designate the after-thorax, that of prothorax and mesothorax, the
ternary division once established, naturally presented itself to the
mind, and the celebrated professor Nitzsch was the first to employ
it. Some naturalists have since designated the prothorax or ante-
rior segment, that which bears the two first feet, by the term collar,
collare. Wishing to retain the denomination of corselet, but to
restrain its application within proper limits, we will employ that
term in all those cases where this segment is much larger than the
others, and where these latter are joined to the abdomen, and seem
to constitute an integral part of it—a disposition proper to the
Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and several of the Hemiptera. When
the prothorax is short, and forms with the succeeding segments a
_common and exposed mass, the trunk composed of the three will
retain the name of thorax. We will also continue to style pectus
the inferior surface of the trunk, dividing it according to the seg-
ments, into three arez, the ante-pectus, medio-pectus, and post-pec-
tus. The median line will also constitute the. sternum, which we
divide into three parts: the ante-sternum, medio-sternum, end post-
sternum.

The teguments of the thoracic segments, as well as of those of
the abdomen, are usually divided into two annuli or semi-annuli, the
one dorsal or superior, the other inferior, laterally united’ by a soft
and flexible’ membrane, which, however, is but a portion of the same
tegument that in many Insects, the Coleoptera particularly, is less
firm. At the point of junction between these annuli we observe a
little space of a more solid texture, or of the consistence of the an-
nulus itself, which bears a stigmata, so that the sides of the abdomen
present a longitudinal series of small pieces, or each segment seems
“to be quadripartite. Other equally corneous pieces occupy the in-
ferior sides of the mesothorax and metathorax and immediately un-
der the origin of the elytra and wings, which are supported by
another longitudinal piece. The relations of these parts, the size
and form of the first joint of the coxe, the manner in which they
are articulated with the semi-annulus to which they belong, the ex-
tent and direction of that semi-annulus varying, furnish the thorax,
thus considered, with a combination of characters, which in a sys-
tematic point of view are of great importance. |

As Insects inhabit all kinds of dwellings, they are provided with

PS ae ge ae tae

INSECTA, + 345

all sorts of locomotive organs, wings and feet whieh, in aeverg), act
as fins.

The wings are sdiallircticras, dry, elastic organs, sistisily aah
nous, and attached to the sides of the back of the thorax: the first,
when there are four, or when they are unique, on those of its second
segment, and the second on those of the following or of the meta-
thorax. They are’ composed of two membranes laid one on the
other, and are traversed in various directions by more or less nu-
merous nervures, which are so many tracheal tubes, now forming a
net-work, and then simple veins. The Libellule, Apes, Vespe,
Papiliones, &c., have four wings; but those of the latter are co-
vered with small scales, which at the first glance resemble dust, and
give them the magnificent colours in which they aredressed. ‘They
are easily removed with the finger, and that portion of the wing be-
comes transparent, By the aid of glasses we discover that these
scales are of various figures, and implanted in the wing by means of
a pedicle, arranged gradually and in series, like tiles on a roof.
Before the superior wings of these Insects are two species of epau-
lettes—pterygoda—which extend posteriorly along a portion of the
back on which they are laid. The wings of some Insects remain
straight, or are doubled transversely. Those of others are folded
or plaited longitudinally like a fan. Sometimes they are horizontal,
and sometimes inclined in the manner of a roof; in several they cross
on the back, and in others they are distant. Directly under them,

in the Diptera, are two small movable threads with a claviform ter-

mination, which, according to the general opinion, seem to replace
the two wings that are wanting. They are called halteres. - Other
two-winged and more extraordinary Insects have also two halteres,
but situated at the anterior extremity of the thorax, which to distin-
guish from the others we will call prohkalteres.. Above these ap-
pendages is a little membranous scale formed of two pieces united
by one of their edges and resembling a bivalve shell—it is the alula
or cueilleron. ‘The same appendage is also observed under the ely-
tra (at their base) of some aquatic Coleoptera.

Many Insects, such as the Melolonthe, Cantharides, &c., in lieu

of the two superior or anterior wings, are furnished with two species _

_of scales, more or less solid and opaque, which open and close, and

beneath which, when at rest, the wings are transversely folded. -

These scales or wing cases are called elytra. The Insects provided
2.T

i ha FN Cea > ei
a Vea See Na
See ee :

346°. aera.

with them are named Coleoptera, and in such they are never absent,
though this is sometimes the case with respect to the wings. In
other Insects the extremity of the scale is completely neste >
or like the wing: they are styled Hemiptera.

The scutel or scutellum is usually a small triangular piece, situa-
ted on the back of the mesothorax, and between the insertions of
the elytra or of the wings. Sometimes it is very large, and then it
covers the greater part of the superior portion of theabdomen. In
various Hymenoptera, behind the scutellum and on the metathorax,
we find a little space called the post-scutellum.

_ The ambulatory organs of locomotion consist of a coxa formed of
two pieces, a femur, an uniarticulated tibia, and of a tarsus, which
is divided into several phalanges. The number of ‘its articulations
varies from three to five, a difference which greatly depends upon
the proportional changes experienced by the first and penultimate
joints. Although their supputation may sometimes prove embar-
rassing, and this numerical series may not always be in exact ’accord-
ance with the natural order, it furnishes a good character for the
distinction of genera. The last joint is usually terminated by two
hooks. The form of the tarsi is subject to some modifications, ac-
cording to the habits of the animal. Those of aquatic species are
usually strongly ciliated and flattened, and resemble oars.

The abdomen, which forms the third and last part of the body, is
confounded in the Myriapoda, with the thorax: but in all other In-
sects, or those which have but six feet, it is distinct. It contains
the viscera, &c., presenting nine or ten segments or annuli, some
of which, however, are frequently concealed or considerably reduced.
The last annuli of the abdomen, in several females, form a retrac-
tile or always projecting ovipositor more or Jess complicated, which
acts like an auger. A sting is substituted for it in many of the fe-
male Hymenoptera. The female lays her eggs, and deposits them
in the way best adapted for their preservation, and in such a manner
that the moment the larve make their appearance, suitable aliment
is always within their reach. Frequently she collects provisions for
them. This maternal solicitude often excites our surprise, and more
particularly unveils the instinct of Insects. In the numerous socie-

ties of several of these animals, such as the Ant, Termes, Wasp,
Bee, &c., those individuals which form the greater portion of the
community, and by whose labour and vigilance the whole commu-

INSECTA, ELS ye

0: etd aes 5

nity are maintained, bie been. as Reing of neither sex.

They have also been designated by the terms of labourers and mules. —

It is now known, however, that they are females not fully developed.

The ova are sometimes hatched in the abdomen of the mother;
she is then viviparous. ‘The number of generations in a year de-
pends on the duration of each of them. Most commonly there is
but one or two. .

A female Papilio,or Butterfly, lays her eggs, from which are
hatched, not Butterflies, but animals with an elongated body, divided
into rings, and a head furnished with jaws and several small eyes,
having very short feet, six of which are anterior, scaly, and pointed,
the rest varying in number and membranous, being attached to the
posterior annuli. These animals, called Caterpillars, live in this
state for a certain period, and repeatedly change their skin. An
epoch, however, arrives, when from this skin of a caterpillar issues
a totally different being, of an oblong form and without distinct
limbs, which soon ceases to move, and remains a long time appa-

SI ne 2 ce Ls ae ‘ Pig AD cee ge ee
ee or eee PEAS : LP, : Te hee

pe aE be

rently desiccated and dead under the name of a chrysalis. By 208 Nes:

close examination we may discover on the external surface of this
chrysalis, lineaments which represent all the parts of the Butterfly,
but under proportions differing from those they are one day to pos-
sess. After a longer or shorter period, the skin of the chrysalis
splits, and the Butterfly, humid and soft, with flabby short wings,
issues from it—a few moments, however, and it is dry, the wings
enlarge and become firm, and the perfect animal is ready for flight.
It has six long legs, antenne, a spiral proboscis, and compound
eyes—in a word, it has no resemblance whatever to the caterpillar,
from which it has originated, for it is ascertained that these various
changes are nothing more than the successive development of parts
contained one within the other.

This is what is styled the metamorphosis of Insects. In their first
condition they are ealled Jarvz, in their second pupe, nymphs or
chrysalides, and in the third perfect insects.

All Insects do not pass through these three states. Those which

are apterous issue from the ovum with the form they are always to

preserve: they are said to be without a metamorphosis. Of those
that have wings, many experience no other change than that of re-

ceiving them: these are said to undergo a semi-metamorphosis. —

Their Jarva resembles the perfect insect, with the single exception

ay ah
ey

348 INSECTA.

of the wings, which are totally wanting. The siapk only differs
from the larva in possessing stumps or rudiments of wings, which
are developed at its final change of tegument, and render the animal
perfect. Such are the Cimices, Grylli, &c. , Finally, the remain-
ing Insects provided with wings that are said to undergo a complete

metamorphosis, are at first larve, resembling caterpillars or Worms,

and then become motionless nymphs, but presenting in that state all
the parts of the perfect insect contracted, and as: if wrapped in a
bandage.

{n the nymph of the Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, &c.,
these parts, though closely approximated and in contact with the
body, are free; but they are not so in that of the Lepidoptera and of
many Diptera. An elastic or solid skin is moulded over the badly
and its external parts, forming a kind of case for it.

That of the chrysalides of the Lepidoptera merely consisting of a
simple pellicle applied to the external organs, following their con-
tour in every direction, and forming, for each of them, so many
moulds, like the envelope of a mummy, allows us to recognize and
distinguish them; but those of Flies and Syrphi, formed of the dried
skin of the larva, resemble an egg-like shell. It is a species of cap-
sule or case in which the animal is shut up.

Many larve, before they pass into their pupa state, prepare a co-
coon in which they enclose themselves, either with silk which they
draw from the interior of their bodies by means of the spinning ap-
paratus of their lip, or other materials which they collect. The
perfect Insect issues from the nymph through a fissure or slit which
opens on the back of the thorax. In the pupe of Flies one of the
extremities is detached, like a cap, to allow the egress of the
animal.

The larve and pupe of those Insects which experience a semi-

i _ metamorphosis only differ from the same in a_ perfect state, in thfe

absence of wings. The other external Organs are precisely alike.

But in such as undergo a complete metamorphosis, the form of the
ody of the larva has no constant relation with that it is to possess
in its perfect state. It is usually more elongated; the head is fre-

quently very different, as well in its consistence as in its figure, hav-

_ ing mere rudiments of antennz or perhaps none at all; there are
-mever any compound eyes.

There is also a great disparity in the organs of manducation, as

INSECTAS , — 349

may be easily seen by comparing the mouth of a caterpillar with

that of the Butterfly, or the mouth of the larva of a Fly with that of |

the perfect Insect. —

Several of these larvee are destitute of feet; others, such as the
Caterpillars, have many, all, the six first excepted, membranous,
and without terminal hooks. ~ Some Insects, such as the Ephemere,
exhibit a singular anomaly in their metamorphosise—the animal ar-
rived at its perfect state undergoes another change of tegument.

The Insects which constitute our three first orders preserve for
life their natal form. The Myriapoda, however, exhibit a kind of
metamorphosis. At first they have but six legs, or, according to
Savi, are altogether destitute of them; the others, as well as the
segments on which they depend, are developed by age.

But few vegetable substances are protected from the voracity of
Insects; and as those which are necessary or useful to Man are not
spared by them more than others, they become very injurious, par-
ticularly during seasons which favour their multiplication. Their
destruction greatly depends. upon our vigilance and knowledge of
their habits. Some ofthem are omnivorous—such are the Termites,
Ants, &c., whose ravages are but too well known. Several of those
which are carnivorous, and all the species which feed on dead ani-
mal matters, é&c., are a benefit conferred on us by the Author of
Nature, and somewhat compensate for the inconvenience and injury
we experience from the others. Some are employed in medicine,
the arts, and our domestic economy.

They have numerous enemies: Fishes destroy many of the aquatic
species; Birds, Bats, Lizards, &c., deliver us from a part of those
which inhabit the air or earth. Most of them endeavour to escape
by flight or running from the dangers that surround them, but some
have recourse to stratagem or arms.

Having undergone their ultimate transformation, and being pos- —
sessed of all their faculties, they continue their species:—this aim

once accomplished, they soon cease to exist. Thus, each of the
three finer seasons of the year produces species peculiar toit. The
females and males of those which live in societies, however, enjoy
a longer term of life. Individuals hatched in autumn shelter them-
selves from the rigours of winter, and reappear in spring.

The species, like those of plants, are circumscribed within geo-

graphical limits. Those of the western continent for instance, i.

.

Heat
Se

350 INSECTA.

very few, and all from the North, excepted, are strictly peculiar to
its such also is the case with several genera. The eastern conti-
nent, in turn, possesses others which are unknown in the western.
The Insects of the south of Europe and north of Africa, and of the
western and southern countries of Asia, have a strong mutual re-
semblance. ‘The same may be said of those which inhabit the
Moluccas, and more eastern islands, those of the Southern Ocean
included. Several northern species are found in the mountains of
southern countries. Those of Africa differ greatly from the oppo-
site portions of America. The Insects of Southern Asia, from the
Indies on the Sind eastward, to the confines of China, are very
much alike. ‘The intertropical regions, covered with immense and
well watered forests, are the richest in Insects of any on the globe;
Brazil and Guiana are particularly so.

All general systems or methods relative to Insects are reduced
essentially to three. Swammerdam based his on their metamor-
phoses; that of Linnzeus was founded on the presence or absence of
wings, their number, consistence, superposition, the nature of their
surface, and on the deficiency or presence of a sting. Fabricius
_ had recourse to the parts of the mouth alone. In all these arrange-
ments the Crustacea and Arachnides are placed among the Insects,
and in that of Linnzeus, the one generally adopted, they are even the
Jast.

I divide this class into twelve orders: the three first of which are
composed of apterous Insects, undergoing no ‘essential change of
form or habits, merely subject to simple changes of tegument, or
to a kind of a metamorphosis, which increases the number of legs,
and that of the annuliof the body. The organ of sight in these
animals is usually a mere (more or less considerable) assemblage
of ocelli resembling granules. |
~ Certain English naturalists have formed new orders, based upon
_ the wings; I see no necessity, however, for admitting them, that of
the Strepsiptera excepted, the name of which appears to me to be
erroneous(1), and which I will call Rhipiptera(2).

In the first order or the Myrraropa, there are more than six feet
—twenty-four and upwards—arranged along the whole length of
the body, on a suite of annuli, each of which bears one or two pairs,

(1) Twisted wings. The parts taken for elytra are notso. See this order.
(2) Wings folded like a fan.

INSECTA. — 351

and of which the first, and in several even the second, seem to form
a part of the mouth. They are apterous(1). *

In the second or the Tuysanoura, there are six legs, and the
abdomen is furnished on its sides with movable parts, in the form
of false feet, or terminated by appendages fitted for leaping.

In the third or the Parasrra, we find six legs, no wings, and no
other organs of sight than ocelli; the mouth, in a great measure, is
internal, and consists of a snout containing a retractile sucker, or in
a slit between two lips, with two hooked mandibles.

In the fourth or the Sucrorta, there are six legs, but no wings;
the mouth is composed of a sucker inclosed in a cylindrical sheath,
formed of two articulated portions.

In the fifth or the Corzorrera, there are six legs, and four wings, |

the two superior of which have the form of cases, and mandibles and
-maxillz for mastication: the inferior wings are simply folded cross-
wise, and the cases, always horizontal, are crustaceous. They ex-
perience a complete metamorphosis.

In the sixth or the OnTHopreRa, there are six legs; four wings,
the two superior in the form of cases, and mandibles and jaws for
mastication, covered at the extremity by a galea; the inferior wings
are folded in two directions, or simply in their length, and the inner
margins of the cases, usually coriaceous, are crossed. They only
experience a semi-metamorphosis.

In the seventh or the Hemrrrera, there are six legs and four
wings, the two superior in the form of crustaceous cases, with mem-
branous extremities, or similarto the inferior, but larger and firmer;
the mandibles and jaws are replaced by sete forming a sucker, en-
closed in a sheath composed of one articulated, cylindrical or
conical piece, in the form of a rostrum.

In the eighth or the Nevrorrera, there are six legs, four mem-
branous and naked wings, and mandibles and jaws for mastication;
the wings are finely reticulated, and the inferior are usually as large
as the superior, or more extended in one of their diameters.

In the ninth or, the Hymenorrera, there are six feet, and four
membranous and naked wings, and mandibles and jaws for mastica-
tion; the inferior wings are smaller than the others, and the abdo-
men of the female is almost always terminated by a terebra or sting.

(1) Destitute of wings and scutellum.

Ea

. eer “
Na eke

352 | INSECTA.

- In the tenth or the Leprporrrra, there are six legs, four mem-

branous wings, covered with small coloured scales resembling dust;
a horny production in the form of an epaulette, and directed back-
wards, is inserted before each upper wing, andthe jawsare replaced
by two united tubular filaments, forming a kind of spirally convo-

| luted tongue.
In the eleventh or the Rurererera, there are six: legs, two

membranous wings folded like a fan, and two crustaceous movable
bodies, resembling little elytra, situated at the anterior extremity of

the thorax; the organs of manducation a are simple, setaceous jaws,
with two ew

In the twelfth or the Diprrra, shine are six legs, two membra-

nous extended wings, accompanied, inmost of them, by two movable

bodies or halteres, placed behind them; the organs of manducation

are a sucker composed of a variable number of sete inclosed in an

inarticulated sheath, most frequently in the form of a proboscis ter-
minated by two lips.

he 3 ORDER I.
MYRIAPODA:

The Myriapoda commonly called Centipedes,are the only animals

-of this class which have more than six feet in their perfect state, and

whose abdomen is not distinct from the trunk. Their body, desti-
tute of wings, is composed of a (usually) numerous suite of annuli,
most commonly equal, each of which, .a few of the first excepted,
bears two pairs of feet mostly terminated by a single hook; these
annuli are either entire or divided into two demi-segments,* each

_ bearing a pair.of those organs, and oneof them only exhibiting two

stigmata. .

The Myriapoda in general resemble little npnlttot or Nereides,
their feet being closely approximated to each other throughout the
whole extent of the body. The form of these organs even extends
to the parts of the mouth. The mandibles are bi-articulated and
immediately followed by a quadrifid piece in the form of a lip with
articulated divisions, resembling little feet, which, from its position,

og ail ak Seis "" of Aces gs a) es

MYRIAPODA. 353 |

corresponds to the ligula of the Crustacea; next come two pairs of
little feet, the second of which, in several, resemble large hooks,
that appear to replace the four jaws of the last mentioned animals,

or the two jaws as well as the lower lip of Insects: they are a sort
of buccal feet. The antenns, two in number, are short, somewhat
thicker towards the extremity, or nearly filiform and composed of
seven joints in some; in others they are numerous and setaceous.
Their visual organs are usually composed cf a union of ocelli, and
if in others they present a cornea with facets, the lenses are still
larger, rounded, and more distinct, in:proportion, than those ofthe
eyes of Insects. The stigmata are frequently very small,:and their
_ number, owing to that of the annuli, is usually greater than in the
latter, where it never exceeds eighteen or twenty. The number of
these annuli and that of the feet increase with age, a character
which also distinguishes the Myriapoda from Insects, the latter ab
ovo always having the number of segments peculiar to them, and:all
their legs with hooks, or true legs, being developed at once, either
at the same epoch or when they pass into their pupa ‘state. . The
Myriapoda live and increase in size longer than other Insects.

From this ensemble of facts, we may conclude, that these animals ©
approach the Crustacea and Arachnides on the one hand, and the
Insects on the other; but that as respects the presence, form and dix
rection of the branchiz, they belong to the latter.

We divide them into two families, perfectly distinct both in» their.
organization and habits, and forming two genera according to the.
system of Linnaeus.

FAMILY I.
CHILOGNATHA.

The body generally crustaceous and frequently cylindrical; the ©
antenne somewhat thicker near the end or nearly equal, and com-
posed of seven joints; the two thick mandibles without palpi, very
distinctly divided into two portions by a median articulation with im-
bricated teeth, implanted in a cavity of its superior extremity; a
species of ]ip—ligula—situated immediately above, that covers them,
is crustaceous, plane, and divided on its exterior surface by longitu-

2U

354 INSECTA.

dinal sutures and emarginations into four principal are, tubercu-
lated on their superior margin, the two intermediate of which,
narrower and shorter, are placed at the superior extremity of another
area, serving as a common base: the feet very short, and — ter-
minated by a single hook.

The Chilognatha move very slowly, or slide along, as it were, and
roll themselves spirally or into a ball. The first segment of the
body, and in some the following one, is the largest, and has the form
of a corselet or little shield. It is only at the fourth, in some, and
at the fifth or sixth in others, that the duplication of the feet com-
mences; the first two or four feet are even entirely free to their ori-
gin, where they merely adhere to their respective segments by a
median or sternal line. The last two or three rings are without
feet. A series of pores is observed on each side of the body, which
were considered as stigmata, but, according to Savi, they are simply
designed to afford a passage to an acid fluid of an extremely disa-
greeable odour, which appears to serve as a means of defence; the
respiratory apertures, for whose discovery we are indebted to him,
are situated on the sternal part of each segment, and communicate
internally with a double series of pneumatic sacs strung. together
like a rosary, extending along the body, from which proceed tracheal
branches that ramify over the other organs. According to an ob-
servation of Straus, the sacs or vesicular tracheze are not, as usual,
connected with each other by a principal trachea,

These Insects feed on dead and decomposed animal and vegetable
matters; they deposit in the ground a large number of eggs. Ac-
cording to the system of Linnzus they form but one genus, that of

Iuxvs, Lin.

Some have a crustaceous body without terminal appendages, and antennz
enlarged near the end.

Giomenis, Lat.

Resembling Onisci; oval, and rolling into a ball; the body convex above,
and concave underneath, with a range ofvlittle scales analogous to the
lateral divisions of the Trilobites along each of its inferior sides. ‘These ani-

mals are terrestrial, and live under stones in hilly places.

Iuxus, Lin. ,
The body of the true Iuli is cylindrical and very long, and has no ridge
or trenchant edge on the sides of the annuli; they roll themselves up spirally.

MYRIAPODA. 355: |

The larger species live on land, particularly in the woods and sandy
places, and diffuse a very disagreeable odour. The smallest ones feed on
fruit, or the roots and leaves of esculent vegetables. Others are found
under the bark of trees, in moss, &c. There are two other genera, viz. .
Polydesmus and Pollyzenus. i

» ~ FAMILY IL.
CHILOPODA.

The antennz of the Chilopoda are more slender towards the ex-
tremity, and consist of fourteen joints and upwards. Their mouth’
is composed of two mandibles furnished with a little palpiform ap-
pendage, which seem to have been soldered in the middle, and ter-
minate like the bow] of a spoon with dentated edges; of a quadrifid
lip, of two palpi or little feet, and of a second lip formed by a second
pair of feet, dilated and united at base, and terminated. by a stout
movable hook, whose inferior extremity is perforated by a hole which
affords an issue to a venomous fluid.

The body is depressed and membranous. Each of its rings is
covered with a coriaceous or cartilaginous plate, and most gene-
rally bears but a single pair of feet; the last is usually thrown back-
wards, and elongated into a kind of tail. The organs of respiration
are wholly, or partly, composed of tubular trachez. s

These animals run very fast, are carnivorous, avoid the light, and
conceal themselves under stones, logs, in the ground, &c. They
are much dreaded by the inhabitants of hot climates, where they are
very large, and where their venom is possibly more active. The
Scolopendra morsitans is styled in the Antilles the malfaisante.
Some of them exhibit phosphorescent properties.

The Chilopoda, which, in the system of Leach, form the order
Syngnatha, from these last characters, the nature of the respiratory
organs and the feet, may be thus divided:

Some have but fifteen pairs of feet, and their body viewed from above
presents fewer segments than when seen from beneath.

Scuticersa, Lam.
The body covered with eight scutelliform plates. The under partofthe

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~—6856.- INSECTA, ©

body is divided into fifteen semi-annuli, each bearing a pair of feet, termi-
nated by avery long, slender, multi-articulated tarsus; the last pairs are more
elongated; the eyes large and compound.

‘Their antennz are slender and tolerably long; the two alei salient and
furnished with small spines. The body is shorter than in the other genera
of the same family, and the joints of their feet are proportionably longer.

_ They are extremely agile ais w and frequently part with some of their
feet when seized. |

Se se Leach.

The stigmata lateral; body divided above and beneath into a similar
number of segments, each bearing a-pair of feet; the superior plates alter-
nately longer and shorter, and overlapping each other close to the extremity,

The others have at least twenty-one pairs of feet, and the segments both
above and underneath are equal i in size and number.

’ Winalivdawesi Lin. 77 ee a5,

“Those which form the two'fect that immediately follow the two hooks
forming the exterior lip, ‘present but twenty-one pairs, and whose antenne
have seventeen joints, constituting the genera Scolopendra, and Crytops of
Leach. There are eight distinct eyes, four on each. side.in the first, and
thatin which the largest species are found; in the second, they are null or

but very slightly visible.
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3

ORDER II.
THYSANOURA.

This order consists of apterous Insects, supported by six feet,
that experience no metamorphosis, and have, in addition, partientite,
organs of motion either on the sides or the extremity of the abdomen.

; FAMILY I.)
LEPISMEN#;, Lat, "We > gon

Setiform antenne divided from their origin into very numerous
and small joints; mouth furnished with very distinct and salient
palpi; each side of the under part of the abdomen provided with a

THYSANOURA. | 357

range of movable appendages, in the form of false feet; abdomen
terminated by articulated sete, three of which are the most remark-
able; body always covered with small shining scales.

It comprises but one genus, the
#
Lepisma, Lin, |

The body of these animals is elongated and covered with small scales,
frequently silyery and brilliant, from which circumstance the most common
species has been compared to alittle Fish. The antennz are setaceous and
usually very long. The feet are short and frequently have very large and
strongly compressed coxe resembling scales.

Several species conceal themselves in the cracks and inthe frame work of
windows, under damp boards, in wardrobes, &c. Others retire under stones.

These Insects run with great velocity; some of them by means of their
caudal appendages are enabled to leap. ‘They are divided into two sub-
fenera, Macurzis, Lat. and Lerrsma, Lin.

FAMILY II.

ee PODURELL AE, Lat. +f

Tae

“Antenne quadriarticulated; no distinct or salient palpi; abdomen

terminated by a forked tail folded under the venter when at rest, and

used for leaping. ‘The Podurellz form but one genus in the Lin-
nan system.

Popura, Lin.

These Insects are very small, soft and elongated, with an oval head and two
eyes, each composed of eight granules. Their legs have but four distinct
joints. The tail is soft, flexible, and formed of an inferior.piece, movable
at base; to the extremity of which are articulated two appendages suscepti-
ble of being approximated, separated, or crossed—they are the teeth of the
fork. They have the faculty of elevating their tail, and then forcing it
suddenly against the plane of position, as if they let go a spring, thus rais-
ing themselves into the air, and even leaping like the Pulices, but to a less

height. They usually fall on their back, with their tail extended poste-

riorly. ‘The middle of the venter exhibits a raised oval portion divided by
@ slit.

Some keep on trees and plants, under old pieces of bark, or stones; there

on the surface of stagnant waters, and sometimes on that of snow during a

thaw. Several unite in numerous societies on the ground, and ata distance

we

358 : ‘ INSECTA.

resemble little heaps of gunpowder. We divide them into Popura and
SmynrTuvunrvs, Lat.

ORDER IIT.
PARASITA.

The Parasita, so called from their parasitical habits, have but six
legs, and are apterous, like the Thysanoura; but their abdomen is
destitute of articulated and movable appendages. Their organs of
vision consist of but four or two ocelli; a great portion of their
mouth is internal, exhibiting externally, either a snout or projecting
mammilla containing a retractile sucker, or two membranous and
approximated lips with two hooked: mandibles. According to Lin-
nus, they form but one genus, that of

we Prpicutuvs, Lin. » :
‘Their body is flattened, nearly diaphanous, and divided into twelve or ele-
ven distinct segments, three of which belong to the trunk, each bearing one
pair of legs. The first of these segments frequently forms a sort of thorax.
~The stigmata are very distinct. The antenne are short, equal, composed
of five joints, and frequently inserted in a notch. There are one or two
small ocelli on each side of the head. The legs are short, and terminated
by a very stout nail, or two opposing hooks, which enable these animals
to cling with great facility to the hairs of Quadrupeds, or to the feathers of
Birds, whose blood they suck, and on whose bodies they pass their lives,
They attach their ova to these cutaneous appendages. These Insects al-
ways live on the same Quadrupeds and on the same Birds, or at least on
animals of these classes, which have analogous characters and habits,
Two species frequently live on the same Bird. Their gait in general
is very slow.
This genus now forms several subgenera. They include the various
species of Lice found on Man, Birds, &c.

r

Lag

INSECTA. 359

ORDER IV.
~SUCTORIA.

The Suctoria, which constitute the last order of the Aptera, have
a mouth composed of three pieces, enclosed between two articu-
lated laminz, which, when united, form a cylindrical or conical
proboscis or rostrum, the base of which is covered by two scales.
These characters exclusively distinguish this order from all others,
and even from that of the Hemiptera, to which, in these respects, it
approximates the most closely, and in which these Insects were
placed by Fabricius. The Suctoria, besides, undergo true meta-
morphoses, analogous to those of several Diptera, such as the
Tipule.

This order consists of a single genus, that of

Putex, Lin.

The body of the Flea is oval, compressed, invested bya firm skin, and
divided into twelve segments, three of which compose the trunk, that is
short, and the othersthe abdomen. The head is small, strongly compressed,

rounded above, and truncated and ciliated before; it is furnished on each
side with a small rounded eye, behind which is a fossula, in which we dis-
cover a little movable body furnished with small spines. The legs are
strong, the last ones particularly, fitted for leaping, and spinous; the coxa
and femur are large; the tarsi is composed of five joints, the last terminating
in two elongated hooks; the two anterior legs are inserted almost under
the head, the rostrum being placed midway between them.

The female lays a dozen of white and slightly viscid eggs; the Bibi .

have no feet, are much elongated, resemble little worms, and are extremely
lively, rolling themselves into a circle or spirally, and crawl witha serpen-
tine motion; they are first white and then reddish. Their body is com-
posed of a scaly head, without eyes, bearing two very small antennz, and
of thirteen segments, with little tufts of hairs, the last one terminated by
two kinds of hooks. Some small movable pieces are observed in the mouth,
by which these larve push themselves forwards. After remaining twelve

days under this form, they enclose themselves ina little silky cocoon in
which they become pupz, and from which, in about the samé time, ghey :

issue in their perfect state.
There are various species that live on Quadrupeds, Birds, &e.

360 , INSECTA, |

ORDER V.
- COLEOPTERA.

Coleopterous Insects have four wings, the two superior of which
resemble horizontal scales, joining in a straight line along the inner
margin; the inferior wings are merely folded transversely and co-
vered with others, which form cases or covers for them, usually de-
nominated the elytra.

Of all Insects, these are the most numerous and the best known.
The singular form and brilliant colouring of many species, the vo-

‘lume of their bodies, the greater solidity of their teguments, which

facilitates their preservation, the numerous advantages, which the
study derives from the various forms of their external organs, &c.,
have secured to them the particular attention of naturalists.

Their head presents antennz of various forms, and-almost always
composed of eleven joints; two compound eyes, but none simple;
and a mouth consisting of a labrum, two mandibles, usually of a
scaly substance, éwo jaws, each furnished with one or two palpi, and
of a labium formed of two pieces, the mentum and the ligula, and
accompanied by two palpi, commonly inserted into the latter.
Those of the jaws, or when they have two, the exterior ones, never
consist Of more than four jcints; those of the lip usually have three.

The anterior segment of the trunk, or that which is before the
wings, usually called the thorax, bears the first pair of legs, and is
much larger. than the two other segments. The latter are intimately
united with the base of the abdomen, and their inferior portion or
pectus gives insertion to the second and third pairs of legs. The
second, on which the scutellum is placed, is narrowed before, and
forms a short pedicle which fits into the interior of the first, and
serves as a pivot, on whichit moves.

The elytra and wings arise from the lateral and superior edges
of the metathorax. The elytra are crustaceous, and when at rest,
join along their internal margin, and always horizontally. They
almost always conceal the wings, which are wide and transversely
folded. Several species are apterous, but the elytra still exist.
The abdomen i is sessile or united to the trunk in its greatest width.
It is composed externally of six or seven annuli, membranous above,

3s,
¥

F
sz

COLEOPTERA. | 361

or less solid than undermeajlee ‘The number of joints in the tarsi
varies from three to five. i3

The Coleoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis. The larva
resembles a worm, having a scaly head, a mouth analogous to that
of the perfect insect in the number of its parts, and usually six feet.
Some few speciés are destitute of them, or have merely simple
mammille. ;

The pupais inactive and takesno nourishment. The habitations,
mode of life; and other habits of these Insects, in both states, vary
greatly.

I divide this order into four sections, according to the number of
joints in the tarsi.

The first comprises the Penramera, or those in which all the
tarsi consist of five joints, and is composed of six families.

FAMILY I.
CARNIVORA.

Two palpi to each maxilla, or six in all; antennz almost eps
filiform or setaceous, and simple.

~The maxille are terminated by a scaly hook or claw, and the in-
terior side is furnished with cilia or little spines. The ligula is fixed
in an emargination of the mentum. The two anterior legs are in-
serted on the sides of a compressed sternum, and placed on a large
patella; the two posterior have a stout trochanter at their origin;
their first joint is large, appears to be confounded with the post-
pectus, and forms a curvilinear triangle, with the exterior side ex-
cavated.

These Insects pursue and devour others. Several have no wings
under their elytra. The anterior tarsi in most of the males are
dilated or widened.

The larvz also are very carnivorous. Their body is usually cy-
lindrical, elongated, and composed of twelve rings; the head, which
is not included in this supputation, is large, squamous, armed with
two stout. mandibles, recurved at the point, and presents two short
and conical antennz, two maxille divided into two branches, one
of which is formed by a palpus, a ligula bearing two palpi, shorter

2V

ets
Se:

sere

362 INSECTA.

than the others, and six ocelli on each side. The first annulus is
covered by a squamous plate; the others are soft, or have but little
firmness. Each of the three first bears a pair of legs, the ny
of which curves forwards.

These larve differ according to the genus. In those of the Ci-

-cindelz and of the Aristus bucephalus, the top of the head is very

concave in the middle, whilst its inferior portion is convex. They
have two ocelli, on each side, much larger, and similar to those of
the Lycose. The superior plate of the first segment is large, and
forms a semicircular shield. There are two hooked-mammille on
the baék of the eighth annulus; the last has no arpa ap-
pendage.

Tb, ey"
: Bee i
ey ae

In the other larve of this family which are known to us, those of .

Omophron excepted, the head is weaker and more equal. The
ocelli are very small and similar. ‘The squamous piece of the first
ring is square, and does not project from the body. There are no
mammille on the eighth; and the last is terminated by two conical
appendages, exclusive of a membranous tube formed by the prolon-

gation of the end of the body. These appendages, in the larve of
-Calosoma and Carabus, are horny and dentated. In those of Har-
palus and Licinus, they are fleshy, articulatedand longer. The body
of the larva of a Harpalus is somewhat shorter, and the head a little

larger. ‘The mandibles of both approach the fore of those of the
perfect Insect. : |

Some are aquatic; others terrestrial.

The latter have legs exclusively adapted for running, the four
posterior of which are inserted at equal distances; mandibles com-
pletely exposed; the terminal piece of the maxille straight inferiorly,
and only curved at its extremity; and most frequently an oblong
body with propeeeing eyes. All their trachee are tubular or
elastic. |

They are divided into two tribes. The first or the CicinDELETzZ,
Lat., comprises the genus

CicrnpELA, Lin.,
In which the extremity of the maxille is provided with a as pail articu-
lated with it by its base.
The head is large, with great eyes, and very projecting hat dentated
mandibles; the very short ligula is concealed behind the mentum. The la-

bial palpi are distinctly composed of four joints, and eemially pilose, as
well as those of the maxilla.

This great Linnzan genus now forms various subgenera, such as Mantico-
ra, Meggan) &e. The true Cicindela or

CicrnpELA, Lat.

Are usually of a darker or lighter green, mixed with various brilliant
metallic tints; the elytra are marked with white spotse They prefer dry,
warm situations, run with considerable. swiftness, take wing the moment
they are approached, but alight at a short distance. If pursued they have
recourse to the same means of escape.

The larve of two species indigenous to France, the only ones that have
been observed, excavate in the earth a deep cylindrical hole, an operation
which they effect with their mandibles and feet. To empty it, they place

~ the detached particles on their head, turn about, climb up the ascent little

by little, resting at intervals and clinging to the walls of their domicil by
‘means of their two dorsal mammille; when they arrive at the mouth of the

_ aperture they throw down their burden. While in ambuscade, the plate
of their head exactly closes the entrance of their cell, and is on a level with
the ground. They seize their prey with their mandibles, and even dart”

upon it, and by a see-saw motion of their head precipitate it to the bottom

of the hole. Thither also they quickly retreat on the least intimation of
danger. If they are-too confined, or the soil is not of a proper nature, they _
construct a new habitation elsewhere. Such is their voracity that they

devour other larve of the same species, which have taken up their abode
in their vicinity. When about to change their tegument or to become pale
they close the opening of their cell.

The American species of Cicindela are numerous and beautiful.

‘The second tribe, or the Carazict, Lat., comprehends the genus

Carasus, Lin.
Where the maxillz simply terminate in a point or hook, without an articu-
lated extremity.

Their head is usually narrower than the thorax, or, at most, of the
same width; their mandibles, those of a few excepted, have no dentations
or but very few; the ligula usually projects, and the labial palpi exhibit but
three free joints. Many of them are destitute of wings, only having elytra.
They frequently diffuse a fetid odour, and eject an acrid and caustic liquid.
Geoffroy believed that the ancients designated Carabici under the name of
Buprestes, Insects which they considered as highly poisonous, particularly
to Oxen.

The Carabici conceal themselves in the ground, under stones, chips,
bark of old trees, &c., and are mostly very active. Their larve have the

a ae
* Rear
peN gs

INSECTA. —

same habits. This tribe is very numerous, and forms a mast eetan
study.
The Carabici are now variously subdivided. Each section consisting of

- mumerous genera. We find,

1. The Trouncatirrennes, so called because the posterior extremity of
their elytra is almost always truncated. The head and thorax are narrower
than the abdomen. The ligula is most commonly oval or square, and is
rarely accompanied on the sides by salient divisions.

This section consists of Anthia, Graphipterus, Aptinus, Brachinus, Casno-
nia, &c. &c.

2. The Breartirt, which in relation to their habits might also be styled
Fossores, is composed of Carabici with elytra either entire or slightly sinu-
ated at their posterior extremity; having frequently granose and geniculate
antennz; a broad head, large thorax, usually shaped like a cup or almost
semi-orbicular, and separated from the abdomen by an interval which causes
the latter to appear pediculated; the legs generally but slightly elongated,

_ their tarsi usually short, and similar in the two sexes, or nearly so, without

any brush beneath, and simply furnished with ordinary hairs or cilia. The
two anterior tibiz are dentated, and in several palmated or digitated; the
mandibles frequently strong and dentated. There is a tooth in the emar-
gination of the mentum. They all keep on the ground, conceal themselves
either in holes which they excavate, or under stones, and frequently only
leave their retreat at night. They are usually of a uniform black. The
larve of the Ditomus bucephalus, the only one that has been observed, has
the form and mode of life of the larve of the Cicindele. They are more
particularly proper to hot countries.
The genera are Enceladus, Siagona, Pasimachus, Scarites, &c. &e.

3. The Quaprimantr includes those, otherwise similar to the last in the
pointed termination of the posterior extremity of their elytra, in the males
of which the four anterior tarsi are dilated; the three or four first joints are
in the form of a reversed heart or triangular, and nearly all terminated
by acute angles; they are usually furnished underneath (the Ophoni ex-
cepted) with two ranges of papille or scales, with an intermediate linear
space.

The body is always winged, and generally oval and arcuated or convex
‘above; the thorax is wider than it is long, or at most nearly isometrical,
square or trapezoidal. The head is never suddenly contracted posteriorly,
and the antennz are equal throughout, or slightly and insensibly thickened
near the extremity. The mandibles are never very strong. | The exterior
palpi are terminated by an oval or fusiform joint, longer than the preceding
one. The tooth of the emargination of the mentum is always entire, and in
some is wanting. The legs are robust, the tibie spiny, and the hooks of
the tarsisimple. The intermediate tarsi, even in the females, are short,

We

and, with the exception of the Batetion, nearly fentig like the anterior.
These Carabici prefer sandy and hot localities. i
Here we have, Acinopus, Daptus, Harpalus, &c. a9

4. The Srmpricrmani approaches the preceding in the manner in which
the elytra are terminated; but the two anterior tarsi alone are dilated in the
males, without however forming a square or orbicular palette; sometimes
the three first joints are much wider, and in this case the succeeding one
is always smaller than its antecedent; sometimes the latter and the two pre-
ceding ones are larger, almost equal, and in the form ofa reversed heart or
triangular: the first joints of the four following tarsi are more slender and
elongated, almost cylindrical, or in the form of an elongated and reversed
cone.

The genera are Zabrus, Pogonus, Feronia, &c.

5. The Parettrmant, distinguished from the Simplicimani, by the man-
ner in which the two anterior tarsi of the males are dilated, the first joints

—usually the three first, then the fourth, and sometimes only the two first _

—all of which are sometimes square, and at others only in part, the re-
mainder being cordiform, or resembling a reversed triangle, but always
rounded at their extremity, and not terminated as in the preceding sections

by acute angles, form an orbicular palette or long square, the inferior sur-

face of which is usually furnished with brushes or crowded papille, without
any intermediate vacancy.

The. legs aré generally slender and elongated, and the thorax, is, fre-
quently narrower than the abdomen, throughout its whole length. Most
of them frequent the shores of rivers, or other aquatic localities.

The genera are, Dolichus, A4gonus, Chiznius, Dicelus, &c.&c.

6. The Granpreatrt, whose anterior tibie have no emargination on the
internal side, or which present one that begins close to their extremity, or
that does not extend on their anterior face, and forming a mere oblique and
linear canal. The ligula is often extremely short, terminated’in a point in
the middle of its summit, and accompanied by pointed paraglosse. The
mandibles are robust. The last joint of the exterior palpi is usually larger,
compressed into the form of a reversed triangle, or securiform in some, and
almost into that of a spoon in others. The eyes are prominent. The
elytra are entire or simply sinuous at their posterior extremity. The abdo-
men, compared with the other parts of the body, is voluminous. | They are
generally large Insects, are ornamented with brilliant metallic colours, run
very fast, and are extremely carnivorous,

In this section we have pian Cychrus, Scaphinotus, Procerus, Cala.
soma and

Carasus, Lin. Fab.

Or Carabus properly so called. The labrum is simply emarginate or
bilobate; tooth of the emargination of the mentum entire.

COLEOPTERA. aos sé 365

are)

366 INSECTA.

Count Dejean describes one hundred and twenty-four species, which he
has arranged in sixteen divisions. The first thirteen comprise those whose
elytra are convex or arched, and the three last, those in which they. are

_ plane.

The greater number of these species inhabit Europe, Caucasus, Siberia,
Asia Minor, Syria, and the north of Africa to the thirtieth degree of north
latitude. Some few are also found at the two extremities of America, and

itis pacmepic that others may be found in the intermediate mountains(1).

= The Poatintydus Acuiatid Carnivora form a third tribe, that of
the Hyprocanraari, Lat. The feet of these Insects are fitted for
‘, natation; the four last are compressed, ciliated or laminiform, and
‘Be the two at a distance from the others; the mandibles are almost
entirely covered; the body is always oval, the eyes but slightly promi-
‘nent, and the thorax much wider than Mamet The terminal hook of
the maxillz is arcuated from its base; those at the extremity of the
tarsi are often unequal.

They compose the genera Dytiscus and Gyrinus of Geoffroy.
They pass their first and last stage of existence in the fresh and-pla-
. cid waters of lakes, marshes, ponds, &c. They are good swim-
mers, and rise occasionally to the surface of their liquid abodes in
order to respire; this they easily effect by keeping their legs motion-
less, and permitting themselves to float. Their body being reversed,
they elevate its posterior extremity a little above the water, raise
the extremity of their elytra, or depress the end of the abdomen, in
order that air may enter the stigmata, which are covered by ‘them,
| whence it finds its way to the trachee.. They are excessively vora-
oe “i cious, and feed on small animals inhabiting the same element, which
ie they never leave excepting during the night, or at its approach.
When taken from the water they diffuse a nauseating odour. They

| _ are frequently attracted into houses by the light of candles, &c.
' “Their larvehave along and narrow body composed of twelve
at rings, the first of which is the largest; a stout head, provided with
axe powerful mandibles, curved into an arc, and perforated near the

Ti,

aor: the species that inhabit North America, we have as yet only dis-
3 - covered the C. Beauvoisi, carinatus, Lherminier?, lineatopunctatus (serratus,
Og ce ae Say), sylvosus and vinctus. ‘The mountains of New ‘Hampshire, and Maine
oe _ particularly, probably contain several others, and it is to be hoped that
_. gome friend of the science, within reach of those localities, will soon enable

‘ _ us to enlarge our catalogue of this interesting gomly | as well as that of
- others found in the same localities. —Am. Ed.

COLEOPTERA. Fe

points; small antenna, palpis. aay as ike, socbenated eyes on —

each side. They have six tolerably long legs, frequently fringed

with hairs, and terminated by two small nails. They are active, —

carnivorous, and respire either at the extremity or by a kind of fins

resembling branchia. When about to enter into their pupa state

they leave the water. got he, Ke ap ciatgie
This tribe consists: of two principal.g genera.

_-. —.Dyriscus, Geoff. See Fae eet A

The Dytisci have filiform antennz {longer than the head, two eyes, the an- ee
terior legs shorter than the following ones, and the last most commo} ily
terminated by a compressed tarsus ending in a point. By means of th eir .
legs fringed with long hairs, the two last particularly, they are enabled to
swim with great velocity. They dart upon other Insects, aquatic Worms, &c.
In most of the males the three first joints of the four anterior tarsi aré
widened and spongy underneath; those of the first pair particularly arevery
remarkable in the larger species, these three joints forming there a large __ Ae ae
palette, the inferior surface of which is covered by little bodies, some in
the form of papille, and others, larger, in that. of cups or suckers,&c. The
body of the larva is composed of from eleven to twelve annuli, and covered be
with a squamous plate; this. larva is long, ventricose in the middle, and ‘
slender at each end, particularly behind, where the last. annuli form an
elongated ; cone furnished on the sides with a fringe of floating hairs, with
which the animal acts on the water, and propels its body forwards; the lat-
ter is usually terminated by two conical, bearded and movable filaments.
“i These larve ‘suspend themselves on the surface of the water by means of aun
tw6 lateral” appendages at the extremity of their body, which they keep |
above it. Whenthey wish to change their position, they communicate a
sudden vermicular motion to their body, and strike the water with their .
tail. They feed more particularly on the laryz of the Libellule, and those
of the Culices and Aselli. When the period of their metamorphosis has
arrived, they issue from the water, and having gained the shore, penetrate
into the earth, which must, however, be constantly moistened, or very hu-
mid. They then excavate an oval cavity, and shut themselves up in it.

According to Resel, the eggs of the D. marginalis are hatched from ten
to twelve days after they are laid. In four or five days after this epoch,
the larva is already five lines in length, and undergoes its first change of
tegument. The second ensues at the expiration of a similar period, and
the animal is then double its former size. Its final length is two inches Lt
They have been observed, in summer, to enter into their pupa at the end ©;
fifteen days, and to become perfect insects in fifteen or twenty more. ae a

This great genus is now diyided into several, Dytiscus proper, Colymbetes, =
Hygrobia, &c. fo.

The second genus of the Hydrocanthari, or the.

INSECTA. Se

Gyrinvs, Lin.

3 Courses fiber in which the antenne are clavate and shorter than the

head; the two first legs are long and project like arms; the remaining four
are compressed, wide, and pinnate. There are four eyes.

The body is oval and usually very glossy. The second joint of the an-
tennz, which are inserted in a cavity before the eyes, is prolonged exteri-
orly in the form of an auricle, and the following joints are very short,

_ crowded, and united in one almost fusiform and slightly curved mass. © The

head is sunk in the thorax almost to the eyes, which are large, and divided
by a border, in such a way that two are above and two underneath. The
labrum is rounded and strongly ciliated before. The palpi are very small,
and the interior of those attached to the maxille are wanting, or are not

_ developed in several, and particularly the larger species. The thorax is

short and transversal. The elytra are obtruse and truncated at their pos-
terior extremity, leaving the extremity exposed, which ends in a point.

- ‘The two anterior legs are long, slender, folded in two, and when contracted,
almost at a right angle with the body;} they are terminated by a very short,

strongly compressed tarsus, the inferior surface of which, in the males, is
furnished with a fine compact brush. The four others are broad and ex-
tremely thin, the joints of their tarsi forming little leaflets arranged like a
flounce.

_ The Gyrini are usually small, or of a moderate size. They are to be
found from the very beginning of spring until the end of autumn, on the
surface of stagnant waters, and even on that of the Ocean, where, frequently
collected in troops, they appear like brilliant points, swimming and wheel-
ing with great agility in all sorts of curves, and in every direction, whence
the name of Puce aquatique and Tourniquet given to. them by authors.
Sometimes they remain motionless, but the instant any one approaches,

they escape, by swimming, and dive with great celerity.’ Their four last
legs serve them as oars, and the two before for seizing their prey. Placed

on water, the superior surface of their body is always dry, and when they
dive, a little bubble of air, resembling a silvery globule, remains fixed to

_ its posterior extremity. When’ seized, a lacteous fluid oozes from their

body which spreads over it, and which, perhaps, produces that disagreeable

| Me and penetrating odour they then diffuse, and which remains attached to the

fingers for along time. Sometimes they remain at the bottom of the water
clinging to plants: there, also, it is probable they secrete themselves to pass

the winter.

FAMILY IU.
BRACHELYTRA.

In the second family of the Pentamerous Coleoptera we find but
one palpus to the maxillz, or four in all; the antenne, sometimes of

of the two anterior legs are very large; near the extremity of the
abdomen are two vesicles which the animal protrudes at will.
These Coleoptera compose the genus Si42

Lace.

Srapuyiinus, Lin.

The Staphylini hake been considered as forming the passage from the Co-
leoptera to the Forficulz, the first genus of the following ‘order. They
commonly have a large, flattened head, stout mandibles, short antennz, a
thorax as,wide as the abdomen, and the elytra truncated at the extremity,
but still covering the wings, which preserve their usual extent. Thesemi-
annuli of the top of the abdomen are as scaly as those of the venter. The
“vesicles of the extremity consist in two conical and pilose points, which are
protruded and retracted at the will of the animal; a subtile vapour escapes

from them, which, in some species, has a strong odour of sulphuric ether. —

These Insects, when touched, or while they run, elevate the extremity
of their abdomen and flex it in every direction. They also use it to push
their wings under the elytra. The tarsi of their two anterior legs are fre-
quently broad and dilated, and their coxz, as well as those of the interme-
diate legs, are very large. They are usually found in earth, and other mat-

ters; some live in mushrooms, rotten wood, or under stones; others areonly ©

met with in aquatic localities. Some very small ones keep on flowers.
They are all. voracious, run with great swiftness, and. take wing very
promptly.

The larva bears a close resemblance to the perfect Insect: it has the

figure of an elongated cone, the base of which is occupied by the very large
head; the last ring is prolonged into a tube, and is accompanied by two —
conical and hairy appendages. It feeds on the same matters as the perfect —

Insect.

This genus is yery extensive and is now divided into six sections, viz.
The Fisstzasra, where we find the rue Staphylini, the Lonerratri, the
Denticrura, the Dzerressa, and the Microcernata. Each of these sec-
tions consists of various genera. The species are excessively numerous.

2 W

ies yi orien E the ad are sooalle Zs
composed of lentienlaie or pene 8 joints; the elytra are much ae
shorter than the body, which is narrow and elongated, and the coxe

INSECTA.

FAMILY II.
SERRICORNES(1).

In the third family of pentamerous Coleoptera, as in the preced-
ing and following families of the same order, we find but four palpi.
The elytra cover the abdomen, which, with some other characters,
distinguish “the Insects which compose it from the Brachelytra just:
mentioned. ‘The antenne, with some exceptions, are equal through-
out, or smaller at the extremity, dentated, either like a sawor a
comb, or even like a fan, and in this respect are most developed in
the “oe The penultimate joint of the tarsi is frequently bilobate
or bifid. These characters are rarely found in the following family,
that of the Clavicornes, to which we arrive by such insensible gra-

~ dations, that to define its limits rigorously, becomes a very difficult

matter.
Some, in which the body is always firm and solid, and most com-

‘monly oval or elliptical, with partly contractile legs, have the head

plunged vertically into the thorax up to the eyes; and the prester-
num, or median portion of the thorax, elongated, dilated or reaching

to beneath the mouth, usually distinguished on each by a groove in

which the antennaze—always short—are lodged, and prolonged pos-
teriorly into a point, which is received into a depression of the ante-
rior extremity of the mesosternum. These anterior legs are at a

_ distance from the anterior extremity of the thorax. They form a

first section, or that of the Srrernoxt.
Others, whose head is enclosed posteriorly by the thorax, or at

least covered by it at base, but in which the presternum is not di-
_ Jated, and does not project anteriorly in the manner of achin-cloth,
and is not usually terminated posteriorly in a point received into a

cavity in the mesosternum, and in which the body is most commonly

either entirely or partially soft and flexible, constitute a second sec-

tion, that of the MALacopErRmt.

‘A third and last, that of the Xyzorroer, will comprise’ lide
Serricornes, i in which the posterior extremity of the prasternum is
not similarly prolonged, but whose head is completely exposed and
separated from the thorax by a strangulation or species of neck.

(1) Saw-horned.

We will divide the Price ie two titi. In the: first, or that es

of the Burresrmpes, the posterior projection of the presternum is _
flattened, and not terminated in a laterally compressed point, thatis

er
simply received into a depression or emargination of the mesoster- _

num. The mandibles frequently terminate in an entire point, with-

out any fissure oremargination. The posterior angles of the thorax

are either but very slightly or not at all prolonged. ‘The last joint

of the palpi is most commonly nearly cylindrical, hardly thicker than —_

the preceding; the others are globular or ovoid. Most of the tarsial
segments are generally wide or dilated, and furnished beneath with
pellets. These Insects never leap, a character which eminently
distinguishes them from those of the following tribe: they compose
‘the genus :

>

Buprestis, Lin.

- Xs

The generic appellation of Richard, given to these Coleoptera by Geoff-

roy, intimates the richness of their livery. Several of the European spe-

cies, and many that are foreign to that country, besides their size, are

remarkable for a brilliant polished gold colour on an emerald ground; in
others, an azure blue glistens over the gold, or there is a union of several
other metallic colours. Their body, in general, is oval, somewhat, wider

and obtuse, or truncated before, and narrowed behind from the base of the a

abdomen, which occupies the greater part ofitslength. The eyes: are oval,
_and the thorax is short and wide. The scutel small or null. The extremity —
_of the elytra is more or less dentated in many. The legs are short.

They walk very slowly, but fly well in hot and dry weather. ” “When about — ox his
to be seized, they let themselves fall tothe ground. At the posterior extre- ay

tity of the abdomen of the females .is a coriaceous, laminiform, conical ap-
pendage composed of three parts, the last annuli of the abdomen; it is pro-
bably an instrument with which they deposit their ova in dry wood, the
habitat of their larve. Several small species are met with on Ha, and

‘flowers; most of the others, however, are found in forests and wood-yards: |
they sometimes appear in houses, where they have been peak Saat in

wood, in the state of a larva or chrysalis.

B. gigas, L. Two inches long; thorax cupreous, mixed with brilliant
green, and two large smooth spots of burnished steel; elytra tridentate, at
the extremity, cupreous in the middle, bronze-green on the margin, with
impressed puncta, and elevated lines andruge. Cayenne. — —

This beautiful and extensive genus is now divided into four genera, viz. Nis oh

Buprestis proper, Trachys, Aphanisticus and Melasis. Numerous species are
found in this country. ~~ | Bee

~

oe

The second tribe or that of the Exarermes, which only. differs

aes AG

Le

Eats
Soe

ae “INSECTA.

< essentially from the first in the posterior stylet of the presternum,

which terminates in a laterally compressed point, frequently some-

what arcuated and unidentate, that sinks at the will of the animal
es - intoa cavity of the pectus, situated immediately above the origin of
<< =the second pair of legs; and in the circumstance, that these Insects
» when placed on their back have the faculty of regaining their origi-

“nal position by bounding upwards. Most of them have mandibles
emarginated or cleft at the end, palpi terminated by a triangular or

securiform joint, much larger than those which precede it, and the
joints of the tarsi entire. This tribe only comprises the genus _

Evater, Lin.

The body is usually narrower and more elongated than that of the Bupres-
tides, and the posterior angles of the thorax are prolonged into a sharp
point, in the form of a spine.

The c common French name of these Insects is Scarabées @ ressort, te their
Latin one, Wotopeda, Elater. When placed on their back, finding it imposs-
ible to regain their natural position on account of the shortness of their

legs, they bound perpendicularly upwards until they fallon theirfeet. To °
_ execute this motion, they press the latter close to the body, lower their

head and thorax, which has a free downward motion, then approximating

this last to the postpectus, they forcibly press the point of the presternum

against the margin of the hole situated before the mesosternum, into which
it sinks suddenly, as if by a spring. The thorax and its lateral points, the
head and elytra, being violently propelled against the plane of position,
particularly if it be solid and smooth, concur by their elasticity in causing
the body tobound upwards. The sides of the presternum are distinguished
by a groove, where the antennz, which are pectinated or bearded in Seve-
ral males, are partly lodged. The females have a species of elongated
ovipositor with two lateral pieces pointed at the end, between which is the
true oviduct.

The Elaterides are found on flowers, plants, and even on the ground;
they lower their head in walking, and if any one approaches, let themselves
fall, pressing their legs against their body.

The various subgenera of this tribe may be referred to two principal
diyisions. ‘Those where the antennz can be entirely received into the in-
ferior cavities of the thorax constitute the first.

The second division includes all those whose antennez are exterior or

exposed.

ELATER, properly so called.
- The Rntennz of the males are simply serrated.
E. noctilucus, L. Rather more than an inch,long; a with a
cinereous down; a convex, yellow, round, shining spot on each side of the

thorax near its posterior angles “un eed: with ‘dines of small punctures,

From South America, ae
During the night, the thoracic spots diffuse : a very strong light, suifici- :

ently bright to enable one to read the smallest character, particularly if

several of the Insects be placed in the same vase. By it also the women

of the country pursue their work; and ladies even use it as an ornament,

placing it in their hair ‘during the evening paseo. The Indians fix them to

their feet to light them in their nocturnal journeys. Se 2
North America is extremely rich‘in this genus. The Insect is usually

called a Snap-bug.

Bar el section, or that of the Métscopeenn is divided into
five tribes. In the first, or the Ceprionrres, so named from the
genus Cebrio of Olivier, on which all the others depend, the man-
dibles terminate in a simple or entire point, the palpi are of equal
thickness or more slender at the extremity, the body is roundedand _
convex in some, oval or oblong, but-arcuated above, and inclined
~ anteriorly in others. It is usually soft and flexible; the thorax’ is
transversal, widest at base, and its lateral angles acute, or in seve-
ral even prolonged into spines. ‘The antennz are generally longey,
than the head and thorax. The legs are not contractile. — ~

Their habits are unknown. Many of them are found on. plants i in
aquatic localities. ‘They may all be united in one genus, that ae

Crprio, Oliv. Fab. . pi Pe ce
Some, which establish a connexion between this and the preceeding ilies
which are even of as firm and solid a consistenceas the Sternoxi, mipadnias
are never fitted for leaping, and whose body is generally an oblong ov oe if
with the antenne of the males either pectinated, flabellated, or serrated,
the palpi filiform or somewhat elongated at the extremity, and the pos-
terior angles of the thorax prolonged into an’ acute point, present man-
dibles projecting beyond the labrum, narrow, and highly arcuated or in the
form of hooks. The labrum is usually very short, and react or
bilobate.

There, as in the Elaterides, the presternum terminates posteriorly i in a
point, received into a cavity in the mesosternum.

The antennz, which in the males of some species are long, are composed.
of eleven pectinated or serrated joints. The last joint of the mip is almost
cylindrical or forms a reversed cone.

This genus is now cut up into several, such as Pico, Anelastes,
Sandalus, Rhipicera, &c. ~

Ms Rae)
phen

The second tribe of the Malacodermi, or that of the LampyripEs, —
is distinguished from the first by the enlarged termination of the

joint of the tarsi is len bilcbate, and the crotchets of the
‘neither dentations nor appendages. NIELS ie
The females of some are apterous, or have. but’ very ‘aloes elytra.
When seized, these Insects press their feet. and antenna ees
their tah and remain as motionless asift ;

; : %

ee Lampyris, Lin.
adc ietltin closely approximated at base, the head either waioied alla pro
longed anteriorly in the manner of a snout, or for the greater part, or en-—
twrely, concealed under the thorax; eyes of the males large and globaleg i
mouth small. Such are the characters of a first division of this tribe, which
: we will subdivide into those in which neither sex is PotD PNY Sees and:

r and extended anteriorly, or in the form ofa soit and
‘widened posteriorly with pointed lateral angles, The two or
te annuli of their abdomen are destitute of that pale yellowish
tint, that is always found on this part of the body: in the true
rides, and which announces their phosphorescence. ‘The elytra, in
1, widen: behind, and are sometimes: strongly ‘dilated and rounded —
posteriorly, in the females particularly. “They are e densely punctiiteds ae
frequently reticulated.
‘The genera are! Lycus, Daiguptens and Omalisus. ae
The other : Lampyrides of our first division are distinguished from
ding ones, not only by the want of a snout, by their head, whic
alés almost entirely occupied by the eyes, is entirely or for the r
oncealed under a semicircular or square thorax, but also by a very
able character, either common to both sexes, or peculiar to the fe-
les, that of being phosphorescent, whence the names of Gilow-tvormy Fire.
fies, . kc. given to these Insects.

| Their body i is extremely soft, the abdomen particularly, which’ ‘hte
app e of being plaited.. The luminous matter occupies the inferior
part of the last two or three annuli, which differ “in colour from the “rest, |
and are usually yellowish or whitish. The'light they diff use i is more or less.
_ vivid, and greenish or whitish, like that of the different kinds of ph« spho- —
— It seems that ‘they can vary its action, at Pleasures, a fact icularly —

+ rm ee

<ikinaen

observable when they are seized or held in the ei ther live along
time in vacuum and in different gases, the nitrous acid, muriatic and sul- ie ;
phurous gases excepted, in which they soon expire. Placed in hydrogen — pede S
gas, they, sometimes at least, detonate. They continue to live after Mee

excision of the luminous portion of their abdomen, and the part thus sepa-

rated preserves its luminous property for some time, whether it be submitted By
to the action of various gases, be placed in vacuum, or left exposed tothe

air. The phosphorescence depends on the softness of the matter, rather
than on the life of the animal. When apparently extinct it may reproduced
by softening the ‘matter with water.. The Lampyrides emit a brilliant light
when immersed i in warm water, but in cold water it becomes extinguished:
this fluid seems to be the only dissolving agent of the phosphoric matter.
They are nocturnal Insects.

In our second division of the Lampyrides, the antennz are yery remote
at base; the head is neither prolonged nor narrowed anteriorly i in the form
of a snout, and the eyes are of an ordinary size in both sexes. .

° pr his division consists of the genera Drilus, Telephorus, Silis, &e.

» In the third tribe of the Malacodermi, or the Metyripzs, wediid

at the point; the body usually narrow and elongated; the head only

covered at base by a flat or but slightly convex thorax, generally

square, or elongated and quadrilateral; joints of the tarsi- entire, and
the hooks of the last one unidentated or bordered witha mem-
brane. The antenne are usually serrated, andy in the ‘males of
some species, even pectinated.

Most of them are very active, and are found on flowers apd ay
leaves. ‘
This tribe, which is a mere division of the genera Cantharis and

Dermestes of Linnzus, will form the genus

! Metynis, Fab.,
Now consisting of the subgenera Malachius, Dasytes, &c. &c.

S786 #

re

_the palpi most commonly short and filiform; mandibles emarginated:

The fourth tribe of the Malacodermi, that of the Cunru, is dis- '

tinguished by the ensemble of the following characters. Two of
their palpi at least project andare clavate. The mandibles are den-
tated. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobate, and the first
is very short or but slightly visible in several.. The antennz are

“sometimes nearly filiform and serrated, and at others insensibly en-

% near the extremity. The body is usually cylindrical, the

376 os “ES INSECTR

ce
_ head and thorax narrower than the abdomen, and the ae emargi-
nated.

‘Most of these Insects are found on Aowere: the remainder on the
trunks of old trees or in dry wood. Such of the larve as are known
are carnivorous.

This tribe will comprise the genus

Cirrus, Geoff.
Now divided into Cylidrus, Tillus, Priocera, &c. &c.

CLERUS proper.
The maxillary palpi of the Cleri, properly so called, are terminated by a
compressed joint in the form of a reversed triangle; the last of those that
_ belong to the labium, which are larger than the others, is securiform. The
antennal club is hardly longer than wide, and is composed of crowded
joints; the third is longer than the second. The maxille terminate in a
projecting and fringed lobe. The thorax is depressed anteriorly.
These Insects are found on flowers; their larye devour those of certain
. Bees.
‘ C. apiarius. Blue; .elytra red; traversed by three bands of deep blue,
the last of which occupies the extremity. The larva devours that of our
domestic Bee, and does much injury to hives.
ce _ €. alvearius. Almost like the preceding, but with a bluish-black spot on
the scutel. It inhabits the nests of the Wason Bees—Osm1a—of eae,
and i on their larve.

The type of the fifth tribe of the Malacodermi, or the Prrntorzs,
consists of the genus Ptinus of Linneus, and of some other genera
depending on, or which most closely approach it. The body of these
«Insects is of a tolerably firm consistence, sometimes almost ovoid or
oval, and at others nearly cylindrical, but generally shortand round-

ed at the two extremities. The head is nearly globular or orbi-
cular, and almost entirely received into a strongly arched or vaulted
thorax, resembling a hood. The antennz of some are filiform, or
diminished towards the end, and are either simple, flabelliform, pec-
tinated, or serrated;, those of others terminate suddenly by three

- largerand much longer joints. The mandibles are short, thick, and
dentated under the point. The palpi are very short and terminated

by a larger and almost ovoid joint, or like a reversed triangle. The
tibia are not dentated, and the spurs at the extremities are very small.
There is but little variety in their colours, which are always dark.
They are very small. When touched they counterfeit death, lower

ye

COLEOPTERA. 377

their heads, incline their antennz, and contract their feet; in this
apparent state of lethargy they remain for some time. Their mo- —
tions are generally slow, and those that are winged rarely take to
flight to escape. Their larve are very noxious to us, and bear a
great resemblance to those of the Scarabeides. Their body, fre-
quently curved into’an arc, is softand whitish; the head and feet are
brown and squamous. Their mandibles are strong. With frag-
ments of various substances, which they detach by gnawing, they
construct a shell in which they become nymphs. Other species es-
tablish their domicil in the country, in old wood, and under stones;
their habits are the same. :
Such are the characters of the genus

Prius, Lin.

In some, the head and thorax, or the anterior half of the body is narrower
than the abdomen; the antennz are always terminated in the same manner,
simple or butslightly serrated, and at least almost as long as the body.

The antennz of the ¢rue Ptini are inserted between. the eyes, which are
protuberant or convex. Their body is oblong.

They are generally found in houses, and chiefly in granariesand inhabit-
ed places. Their larve destroy our herbaria and desiccated specimens of
animals. The antennz of the males are longer than those of the females,
and in several species, these latter are apterous.

P. fur, L. One line and a half in length; light brown; antennz. as long
as the body; a pointed projection on each side of the thorax, and between
them two others, rounded and covered with a yellowish down; two trans-
verse, greyish bands on the elytra, formed by hairs.

According to De Geer, it feeds on Flies and other dead Insects that fall

in its way. The larve are very injurious toherbaria and other collections
of natural history. “

The remaining subgenera are Gibbium, Ptilinus, &. We may more
particularly notice the

Anosium, Fab.

The antennz are terminated by three larger or longer joints, but the two
penultimates are in the form of a reversed and elongated cone, and that of
the end is oval or nearly cylindrical; they consist of eleven joints.

Several species of this genus inhabit the interior of our houses, where, in ~
their larva state, they are very noxious, attacking the timbers, furniture,
books, &c. and piercing little round holes in them similar to those made
by a very small gimblet.. The larve of other species of Anobium attack
flour, wafers, cabinets of Birds, Insects, &c. |

Both sexes frequently summon each other by reiterated and rapid strokes

2%

378° “INSECTA.

of their mandibles against the wood they inhabit, and mutually answer the
signal. ‘Such is the cause of that noise, resembling the accelerated tick of a
watch, which i is so often Lect and which ts superstitiously called the death-
watch. =

A. tesselatum, Fab. Three lines in length; a dead dusky brown, with
yellowish spots formed by hairs; thorax smooth; elytra not striated.

A. pertinax, Blackish; thorax with a yellowish spot at each posterior
ey ‘and near the middle of its base a compressed eminence divided an-

_teriorly by a depression; elytra with punctured strie. According to De

Geer, it will permit itself to be roasted to death by a slow fire, rather than
exhibit the least sign of life when it is seized.

There are other species.

The third and last section.of the Serricornes, forming also a last
tribe, that of the Xytorroet, is distinguished from the two preced-
ing ones, as we have already stated, by the entire freedom of the:
head; and consists of the genus

Liymexyvton, Fab.
Now consisting of Atructocerus, Hylecatus, Lymexylon, Cupes and onde.

FAMILY IV.
CLAVICORNES(1).

~ In the fourth family of the pentamerous Coleoptera, as in the third,
we find four palpi, and elytra covering the superior surface of the
abdomen, or its greater portion; but it differs in the antenne, which
are almost always thicker at the extremity, that even frequently:
forms a perfoliaceous or solid club; they are longer than the maxil-
lary palpi, and their base is exposed, or barely covered. ‘The legs
are not natatory, and the joints of the tarsi, at least those of the
aeron' ones, are usually entive.

In their larva state, at least, they. feed on oaieell matters.

We will divide this family into two sections: the common charac=
ters of the first of which are, antennee always composed of eleven
joints, longer than the head, not forming from the third a fusiform
or nearly cylindrical club, and their second joint not dilated in the:

(1) Club-horned..

COLEOPTERA. ae

form of an auricle; last joint of the tarsi, as well as its hooks, of a
moderate length, or small.

These Clavicornes are terrestrial, while those of our second sec- |
tion are aquatic or shore Insects, thus leading to the Palpicornes,
most of which inhabit water, and whose antenne never consist of
more than nine joints.

The first section will comprise several small tribes. The feet
that of the Panrarorss, in a natural series, should be placed near
the Pselaphii and Brachelytra. Their antennz, which are, at least,
as long as the head and thorax, slightly enlarge towards the extre-
mity, or are nearly filiform; their two first joints are longer than the
following ones. ‘The head is distinguished from the thorax by an
ovoid strangulation.

The maxillary palpi project, are long and inflated at the extremity.
The abdomen is large, oval or ovoid, and embraced laterally by the
elytra. The legs are elongated, thighs clavate, and tarsial joints
entire.

These Insects remain on the ground, under stones and other bo-
dies. Some—the Scydmzni—frequent wet places. We will unite
them in a single genus, that of

Masttievs.

Joints of the antennz nearly in the form of a reversed cone, the first very
long and the last ones hardly thicker than the others; the two last joints of
the maxillary palpi forming an oval club; thorax almost ovoid; abdomen

oval.

In all the following Clavicornes the head is generally sunk in the
thorax, and the maxillary palpi are never at the same time so much
projected and clavate; the ensemble of their physiognemy also ex-
hibits other differences.

The genus Hister forms our second tribe, which we will name the
Hisrerowes. Here the four posterior legs are more remote from
each other at base than the two anterior, a character alone that
distinguishes this tribe from all others of the same family. The legs
are contractile, and the outer side of the tibia is dentated or spinous.
The antennz are always geniculate, and terminated by a solid club
composed of crowded joints, The body is extremely firm, and usually
forms a square or parallelopiped; the preesternum is frequently di-
lated anteriorly, and the elytra are as often truncated. ‘The man-

| 380 es INSECTA.

dibles project, are strong, and frequently unequal as to size. The
palpi are almost filiform, or slightly enlarged near the end, and ter- —
minated by an oval or ovoid joint.

_ These animals feed on cadaverous matters and decomposing ve-
getable substances, such as old mushrooms, &c.: some establish
their domicil under the bark of trees. Their gait is slow, and their
colour a brilliant black or bronze. Such of tieir larvae as have
been observed—those of the cadaverinus—feed on the same sub-
stances as the perfect Insect. Their body is glabrous, soft, and of
a yellowish white, the head and first segment excepted, the dermis
of which is brown or reddish; it is provided with six short legs, and
is terminated posteriorly by two articulated appendages, and an anal
and tubular prolongation; the squamous plate of the first segment
is longitudinally canaliculated. me

This tribe, as we have already stated, will consist colada of
the genus

: Hister, Lin.
Now consisting of Mister proper, Hololepta, Abrecus, &c.

The legs of the other Clavicornes are inserted at an equal distance
from each other. Those in which these organs are not contractile,
and the tarsi at most can only be flexed on the tibize, whose mandi-
bles are most commonly salientand flattened or not thick, and whose
presternum is never dilated anteriorly, will constitute five other
tribes.

In the third tribe of this family, that of the SrnpHaxss, we find
five distinct joints in all the tarsi, and the mandibles terminating in
an entire point without emargination or fissure. The antennz ter-
minate in a club that is most commonly perfoliaceous and consisting
of from four to five joints. The internal side of the maxillz, in
most of them, is furnished with a horny tooth. The anterior tarsi
are frequently dilated, at least in the males. The exterior margin
of the elytra of the greater number is marked by a groove with a
well raised border.

This tribe is composed of the genus

Siipwa, Lin.
Now variously divided. The most interesting of these genera are

COLEOPTERA. aa

Necnormonvs, Fab.

Their instinctive habit of burying the bodies of Moles, Mice, and other _

‘small Quadrupeds, have procured for them the names of enterreurs and porte-
morts. When they find a dead animal of the above description, they work
under it and excavate a hole of sufficient dimensions to contain the body,
which they gradually drag into it; in this body they deposit their ova, and
thus the larve find their food in the very nidus in which they are hatched.
They are long, and of a greyish white colour; the anterior segments are
covered superiorly with a small fulyous-brown, squamous plate, and the
posterior with little elevated points. They are furnished with six feet and
strong mandibles. When about to pass into the state of a chrysalis, they
penetrate deeply into the earth, where they construct a cell, which they
line with a viscid substance.

North America possesses one, the JV. grandis, which surpasses all others
in size and beauty.

SiurHa, Lin. Fab.

The body of a true Silpha is almost scutiform and depressed, or but
slightly elevated; thorax semicircular, truncated or very obtuse before; ex-
terior margin of the elytra strongly recurved and canaliculated; palpi fili-
form, their last joint almost cylindrical, and in several, terminating in a
point. Most of them live in carrion, and thus diminish the quantity of its
noxious effluvia. Some climb on plants, and particularly on the stems of
wheat, where they find little Helices on which they feed. Others remain
on high trees and devour caterpillars. The larve are all equally active,
live in the same manner, and frequently in large societies. They bear a
great resemblance to the perfect Insect. Their body is flattened, and con-
sists of twelve segments, with acute posterior angles; the posterior ex-
tremity is narrower and terminated by two conical appendages.

Anerrres, Froh.—Mycetophagus, Fab.

The body tolerably thick, convex, and arcuated superiorly, not scutiform;
thorax somewhat wider than long, and a little narrower before; exterior
margin of the elytra inclined and not canaliculated, last joint of the maxil-
lary palpi thicker and ovoid.

Certain Clavicornes, which seem to approach Argyrtes in their
habits and other characters, but whose mandibles are cleft or biden-
tated at the extremity, will compose our fourth tribe, that of the
Scaruipires. Their tarsi consist of five very distinct and entire
joints. ‘The body is oval, narrowed at both ends, areuated or con-
vex above, and thick in the middle; the head Jow, and received pos-
teriorly into a trapezoidal thorax, widest behind, the margin of which
is but slightly or not at all recurved. The antennzw are usually at

ee Se INSECTA.

least as long as the head and thorax, and terminated in a quadriar-
ticulated and elongated club. The last joint of the palpiis conical.
The legs are elongated and slender. With the exception of some
_ species—the Choleve—the tarsi are nearly similar in both sexes.
This tribe consists of the genus |

ScAPHIDIUM.

In the true Scaphidia, the five last joints of the antennz are almost globular,
and compose the club. The maxillary palpi project but little, and gradu-
ally taper to a point, the penultimate joint not being thicker than the last
at their junction. The body is navicelliform; the margin of the thorax
slightly recurved, and the elytra truncated. They inhabit mushrooms.
But few species are known; one from Cayenne and the rest ete the north
of Europe.
The subgenera are Choleva and Mylechus.

The fifth tribe, or that of the NrrrpuLaRim, approximates to the
fourth in the scutiform and bordered body, but the mandibles are
bifid or emarginated at the extremity; the tarsi seem to consist of
but four joints, the first and last, in some, being only visible beneath,
where they merely form a slight projection, and the penultimate in
the remainder being very small, in the form of a knot, enclosed be-
tween the lobes of the preceding ones. The antennal club is always
perfoliaceous, consists of three or four joints, and is usually short or
but little elongated.

The palpi are short and filiform, or somewhat thickest at the ex-
tremity.. The elytra in several are short or truncated. The legs
are but slightly elongated, and their tibiz frequently widened at the
end; ‘the tarsi are furnished with hairs or pellets. The habitation
of these Insects varies with the species; they are found on flowers,
in mushrooms, putrified meat, and under the bark of trees. They
form the genus

NITIDULA.
In some, the antennal club consists of but two joints, and the anterior part
of the head projects in the manner of a semicircular flattened clypeus,
covering the mandibles and other parts of the mouth.

Corosicvus, Lat.
In this and the following subgenus, the tarsi, from the point where piv
are movable, seem to consist of but four joints, of which the three first,
much shorter than the last, are entire, and simply furnished underneath

CORPORT EBs.

with a greater or smaller number of hairs; a first, as in Phi of ae Wie ae

Cleri of Fabricius, is only visible underneath, where it formsa little projec- ee
tion; it is also pilose.
The remaining subgenera are Themnals, Ips, Cercus and Zi yscinity

Those that compose our sixth tribe, that of the Enerprres, ana-
logous to the Nitidularie in the emargination of the extremity of
their mahdibles, are distinguished from them by their not projecting,
or but very little and simply on the sides, beyond the labrum,
Their body is oval or elliptical, and the anterior extremity of the
head slightly extended into an obtuse ortruncated point. ‘The tarsi
consist of five distinct joints, entire, and at most, slightly pilose un-
derneath; the penultimate is somewhat shorter than the preceding
one. ‘The antennz terminate in a perfoliaceous triarticulated club;
the elytra completely cover the abdomen, and the palpi are some-
what thicker at the extremity. Some very small species inhabit the
interior of houses, and are frequently found on windows.

We will unite them all in a single genus, that of

Dacnr.

Their antenne terminate abruptly in a very large orbicular or ovoid and
compressed club, composed of crowded joints, of which the middle one at
least is much wider than it. is long; the third is longer than the second and
fourth.

We now come to certain tribes in which the presternum is fre-
quently dilated anteriorly in the manner of a chin-cloth, and which
differ from the preceding ones in their feet, which are either wholly
or partially contractile; the tarsi may be free, but the tibiz at least
can be flexed on the thigh. The mandibles are short, and generally
thick and dentated. The body is ovoid, thick, and covered with
deciduous scales or hairs of various colours. The antenne are
straight and usually shorter than the head and thorax. The head
is plunged into the thorax as far as the eyes. The thorax is but
slightly or not at all bordered, trapezoidal, and wider posteriorly;
the middle of its posterior margin is frequently somewhat prolonged
or lobate. The larve are pilose, and mostly feed on the exuvize or
carcasses of animals. Several are very injurious to entomological
collections. ,

Those then in which the legs are not completely retractile, the

384 sien

tarsi being always free, and the tibia elongated and narrow, form
our seventh tribe, that of the Dermestin1, and the great genus

. DeRMESTES.
In Dermestes, properly so called, the antennz are similar, or differ but very
slightly in both sexes; the length of the last joint is never much greater
than that of the preceding ones.

Certain species do great injury among furs, and devastate our collections
of natural history. De Geer calls them dissectors, and in fact the Dermestes
lardarius cuts to’pieces the Insects of the cabinet into which it has pene-
trated. The others devour the dead bodies of all kinds of animals.

D. lardarius, L. Black; base of the elytra cinereous and dotted with
black. The larva is elongated, insensibly tapered from head to tail, of a
chesnut-brown above, white beneath, furnished with long hairs pod two
squamous horns on the last annulus.

There are various other Dermestini arranged in different genera, such as.
Atiagenus, Megatoma, Anthrenus, &c.

The eighth tribe, that of the Byrrutt, differs fromthe preceding
in the perfect contractility of the legs; the tibize are susceptible of
being flexed on the thighs, and the tarsi on the tibiz, so that when
thus folded and pressed against the body, the animal seems to be
inanimate and entirely destitute of feet. The tibie are usually
broad and compressed. ‘The body is short and convex.

This tribe is chiefly composed of the genus

Byrruvs, Lin.

The mentum of the true Byrrhii is of an ordinary size and interlocked (at.
least partially) by the prasternum, whose anterior extremity is dilated.

In some, the antenne enlarge insensibly, or terminate in an elongated
club formed of from five to six joints.

B. pilula,L. From three to four lines in length; black beneath, black-
ish-bronze or soot-colour and silky above, with little black spots mingled
with lighter ones arranged in lines.

All the Byrrhii remain on the ground in sandy localities.

It is impossible to describe the Clavicornes of our second section,
although a very natural one, but by the reunion of several characters.

The body of these Insects is generally ovoid, and their head
plunged to the eyes in a trapezoidal thorax, with a recurved lateral
margin, and terminating posteriorly in acute angles; the prester-
num is dilated anteriorly and the legs are imperfectly contractile.
They are found in the water, under stones in the vicinity of shores,,

COLEOPTERA, 885

and frequently in the mud: some of them—Dryops—are allied to
the Gyrini by the structure and shortness of their antenne.

I will divide this section into two tribes. The Insects which com-
pose the first or the AcanTHoPopA are remarkable for their flatten-
ed and tolerably wide tibiz, armed anteriorly with spines: for their
short quadriarticulated tarsi, the hooks of which are of the usual
size; and for their depressed body. The presternum is dilated.
The anterme are a little longer than the head, arcuated, and form-
ed of eleven joints, the last six constituting an almost cylindrical
and slightly serrated club; the second is short and not dilated.

This tribe is composed of the single genus

Heterocertvs, Bosc. Fab.

These Insects are found in the sand or mud, along the borders of rivulets,
marshes, &c., issuing from their holes when disturbed by the trampling of
feet. The form of their tibiz enables them to turn up the earth, and con-»
ceal themselves in it; their tarsi can be flexed upon the tibie. There also
reside their larve, which were first discovered by M. Miger.

The second tribe, or that of the Macropacryta, comprises Cla-
vicornes with simple, narrow tibiz and long tarsi, all—one genus
excepted (Georissus), well distinguished from every other of the
tribe, by its antenne of nine joints, of which the three last form an
almost solid club—composed of five distinct joints, the last of which
is large, with two stout terminal hooks. The body is thick or con-
vex. The thorax is less rounded, and most commonly terminates
on both sidés in acute angles.

The principal type of this tribe is the genus

Dryops, Oliv.,

In Dryops proper, the antennz, shorter than the head, are received into a

cavity situated under the eyes, and are almost covered. by the second joint,

which is large, dilated, in the form of an almost triangular palette, and

projects in the manner of an auricle, whence the name of Dermeste a oreilles,

given to the most common species by Geoffroy. The palpi are not salient.
There are three subgenera: viz. Elmis, Macronychus, Georissus.

2

386 | INSECTA.

FAMILY V.
PALPICORNES.(1)

‘In our fifth family of pentamerous Coleoptera, as in the fourth,
we observe antenne terminating in a club, usually perfoliaceous, but
consisting of nine points at most in all, and inserted under the late-
ral and projecting edges of the head; they are never much longer
than the latter and the maxillary palpi, and frequently even shorter
than the last mentioned organs. ‘The mentum is large and scuti-
form. 3

The body is usually ovoid or hemispherical, convex or arched.
The legs in several are adapted for natation, and then consist of but
four very distinct joints, or of five, the first of which is much shorter
than the second; all the joints are entire.

Those in which the legs are natatory, the first joint of the tarsi
is much shorter than the following ones, and the maxille are en-
tirely corneous, will form our first tribe, that of the HypropHina,
which embraces the genus

Hypropuiuts, Geoff.

Linnzus merely made these Insects a division (the first) of his genus Dytis-
cus, but their anatomy is essentially different. In the true Hydrophilus the
sternal spine is strongly prolonged behind. The last joint of the two an-
terior tarsi of the males is dilated in the form of a triangular palette. The
scutellum is large.

The larve resemble a sort of soft, conical, and elongated worm, furnish-
ed with six feet, and a large squamous head, more convex underneath than
aboye, armed with strong and hooked mandibles. They respire by the
posterior extremity of the body, are very voracious; and do great injury to
fish ponds by devouring the spawn.

fT, piceus, Fab. An inch and a half long; oval; of a blackish-brown,
polished, or as if covered with a varnish; antennal club partly reddish; some
- slightly marked strie on the elytra, the posterior extremity of which is
rounded laterally, and prolonged into a small tooth at the internal angle.

It swims and flies well, but walks badly. When held loosely in the hand,
its sternal spine sometimes inflicts a wound.

The extremity of the female is provided with two fusi, by means of
which she constructs an ovoid cocoon, surmounted with a point, resembling

(1) Palpi-horned.

COLEOPTERA. 387

an arcuated brown horn. Its external tissue is a gummy paste, which,
though fluid at first, subsequently hardens, and becomes impervious to
water. The ova it contains are arranged symmetrically, and kept in situ
by a sort of white down. These cocoons float on the water.

The larva is depressed, blackish and rugose, and has the faculty of throw-
ing back its brown, smooth, round head. This enables it to capture the
little Mollusca which navigate the surface of the water, its back serving as
a point d’appui or anyil on which it mashes the shell in order to devour the
animal it contains. The body of these larve becomes flabby as soon as they
are caught. They swim with great facility, and are provided with two
fleshy appendages which serve to maintain them on the surface of the water,
head downwards, when they come there to respire. According to M. Miger,
the larvz of other Hydrophilii are deprived of these appendages, and neither
swim nor suspend themselves like those of which we have been speaking.
The females of these species swim with difficulty, and carry their ova under
the abdomen enclosed in a silken web.

There are many other genera of Hydrophilians, such as Hydrochus, Octhe-
bius, Spercheus, &c., differing in form, the arrangement of the antennz, &c.

Our second tribe, or the SpHarrprora, consists of terrestrial
Palpicornes, with tarsi composed of five very distinct joints, the first
of which is at least as long as the second. The maxillary palpi are
somewhat shorter than the antennz, with the third joint longer, in-
flated, and in the form ofa reversed cone. The maxillary lobes are
membranous.

The body is nearly hemispherical, the posterior extremity of the
presternum is prolonged into a point, and the tibiw are spinous;
those that are anterior are palmated or digitated in the large spe-
cies. The antenne always consist of nine joints, or of eight, if the
last be considered as.an appendage of the penultimate.

These Insects are small, and inhabit cow-dung and other matters;
certain species are found near the shores of rivers, &c. They
compose the genus

SPHZRIDIUM, Fab.

From which, however, we must separate several species, a division already
effected by Olivier. Dr Leach only considers as such those in which the
anterior tarsi of the males are dilated. Such is

S. 4-maculatum. It is of a shining black and smooth; the scutellum is
elongated, and the legs are very spinous; a blood-red spot at the base of
each elytron, and their extremity reddish. In some individuals these spots
diminish or disappear.

hy 4

Bett te *
ves
pc ae oe

~—6«B88 INSECTA.

FAMILY VI.
LAMELLICORNES. (1)

In our sixth and last family of pentamerous Coleoptera, we find
the antenne inserted into a deep fossula under the lateral margin
of the head; they are always short, usually consist of nine or ten
joints, and are always terminated in a club usually composed of the
three last, which are lamellar, sometimes flabelliform or disposed
like the leaves of a book, opening and closing in a similar way,
sometimes concentrically contorted and fitting in each other, the
first or inferior then being semi-infundibuliform and receiving the
others, and sometimes arranged perpendicular to the axis and form-
ing a sort of-comb.

The body is generally ovoid or oval, and thick. The exterior
side of the two anterior tibice is dentated, and the joints of the tarsi,
with the exception of those of some males, are entire and without
brush or pellet beneath.

The anterior extremity of the head most commonly projects or is
dilated in the manner of an epistoma. The mentum is usually large,
covers the ligula or is incorporated with it, and bears the palpi.
The mandibles of several are membranous, a character observed in
no other coleopterous Insects. ‘The males frequently differ from
the females, either by prominences on the thorax or head in the
form of horns or tubercles, or by the largeness of their mandibles.

This family is very numerous, and with respect to the size of the
body, the variety of forms exhibited in the head.and thorax, sexually
considered, is one of the most beautiful of the order, and frequently
also as regards the species, which in their perfect state live upon
vegetable substances, by the splendour of the metallic colours with
which they are ornamented. Most of the other species, however,
feeding on decomposed vegetable aliment, such as dung, tan, &c.,
are usually of one uniform black or brown hue. Some of the Co-
prophagi, however, do not yield even in this respect to the former.
They are all furnished with wings, and their gait is heavy.

The body of the larvz is long, almost semicylindrical, soft, fre-
quently rugose, whitish, and divided into twelve annuli, with six

(1) Horns foliated.

od Le 0 Sete
Se TS es
BoM ae NS
Ey eee

COLEOPTERA. 389

squamous feet; the head is squamous and armed. with stout mandi-
bles. Each side of the body is furnished with nine stigmata; its
posterior extremity is thicker, rounded, and almost always doubled
under it, so that the back being arcuated or convex, the animal can-
not extend itself in a straight line, crawls badly on a level surface,
and falls backwards or on its side every instant. An idea of their
form may be obtained from that of the larva, so well known to gar-
deners by the name of ver blanc, which is that of the Melolontha
vulgaris(1). APE

Some of them require three or four years to become pupae; they
construct in their place of residence an ovoid shell, or one resem-
bling an elongated ball, composed of earth or the debris of substan-
ces they have gnawed, the particles of which are cemented by a
glutinous matter produced from their body. Their aliment consists
of the dung of various animals, mould, tan, and roots of vegetables,
(frequently such as are necessary to Man,) of which they sometimes
destroy immense quantities, to the great loss of the cultivator of
the soil.

We will divide this family into two tribes. In the first or that of
the Scaranazmes, we find the antennz terminating in a foliaceous
and generally plicatile club, and composed in others of joints that
fit into each cther, either in the form of a reversed cone or nearly
globular. The mandibles are identical or almost similar in both
sexes, but the head and thorax of the males exhibit peculiar projec-
tions or eminences; sometimes also their antennze are more devel-
oped. This tribe corresponds with the genus 3

Scaraszvs, Lin.

This genus is now divided into several small sections established on charac-
ters drawn from the organs of manducation, antenne, and habits.

The Corroruaci or the Scarabzides of our first section, usually have
their antenne composed of nine joints, and of eight in the others, the three
last forming the club.

Among the most interesting of the various genera which composed. this
section is the

Atrvucuus, Web. Fab.,

Two species of Ateuchus were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians,
and formed a part of their system of hieroglyphics. They are sculptured in

(1) Our common grubs, which are so abundant in dung-hills, gardens,
&e., are larve of various species of Lamellicornes.

“

Ooo a INSECTA.

<S

--yarious positions, and sometimes of gigantic dimensions, on all their monu-

ments. They were also figured separately and on the most precious
materials, such as gold; they used them as seals and as amulets, which were
suspended to the neck and buried with the mummies. The Insect itself
has been found in some of their coffins. The
A sacer; which is found not only in all Egypt, but in the south of France,
in Spain, Italy, and the south of Europe generally, has hitherto been
considered the object of this superstitious distinction; but another species
discovered i in Sennar by M. Caillaud of Nantes, appears from its more bril-
liant colours, and the country in which it is found, the original residence of

the Egyptians, to have first attracted their attention.

The remaining genera are Sisyphus, Coprobius, Oniticellus, Copris proper,
Aphodius, &c. &e.

The Arznicozi, with the Aphodii and Psammodii, are the only ones whose
elytra entirely cover the posterior extremity of the abdomen, so that the ab-

domen is completely concealed; but they are distinguished from the latter

by several characters. The labrum is coriaceous, and most frequently juts
out beyond the epistoma. The mandibles are corneous, and usually salient
and arcuated. The terminal lobe of the maxillz is straight, and has noinward
curve. The third and last joint of the labial’palpi-is always very distinct,
and at least almost aslong as the preceding one. With some few steer
their antennz are composed of ten or eleven joints.

These Insects make deep holes in the ground, fly particularly during the
evening, after sun-set, and counterfeit death when seized.

The Xxzorui111 comprise the Geotrupes of Fabricius, and some of his
Cetoniz. Here the scutellum is always Wistinct, and the elytra do not
cover the posterior extremity ofthe abdomen. The tarsial crotchets of seve-
ral are unequal. The antennz always consist of ten joints, the three last
forming a foliaceous club, of which the intermediate leaflet is never com-
pletely concealed or encased by the two others. The labrum is not salient,
and its anterior extremity at most is exposed. The mandibles are entirely
corneous, and jut out beyond the sides of the head. The maxille are cor-
neous or of a solid consistence, straight and commonly dentated. The

Pe ligula i is covered. by an ovoid or triangular mentum narrowed and truncated
x ‘at its extremity, the angles of which are frequently dilated. All the legs

are inserted at an equal distance from each other. . Here we find

ScaraBavus proper,—Geotrupes, Fab.

The body is thick and convex, and the outer side of the mandibles sinuous
or dentated. The equatorial countries of both hemispheres produce very
remarkable species of this subgenus.

8S. Hercules, L. Five inches long; black; elytra greenish-grey mottled
with black: a recurved and dentated horn on the head of the male, and a
second one, long, projecting and pilose beneath, with a tooth on each side
ofthe thorax. South America. Some travellers call itthe Mouwche cornue.

This section also includes Phileurus, Rutela, Oryctes, &c. &c.

COLEOPTERA. jgee. ©

The PurriorHacr consist of Scarabzides whose- mandibles are cover “5

above by the epistoma, and concealed beneath by the maxille; their outer
side is alone exposed, without however overlapping; their outer side pre-
sents none of the sinuses or dentations observed there in Rutela and other
analogoussubgenera. The anterior edge ofthe labrum is exposed; itis some-
times in the form of a reversed and wide triangle, and most frequently trans-
versely laminiform, and emarginated in the middle. The number of the
antennal joints is not constant, and varies from eight to ten:jthe same remark
applies to those of the club, andin several, with respect to this, the two sexes
differ greatly. The ligula is entirely covered by the mentum, or incorpor-
ated with its anterior face, and the elytra are completely joined along the
whole of the suture, characters which distinguish these Insects from those
of the fifth section. .

In the Anruoxzir the antenne are composed of nine or ten joints, the

three last of which alone form the club in both sexes. The lobe terminat-

ing the maxillz is frequently almost membranous, silky, penicilliform, cori-
aceous, and dentated along the inner edge in others. The labrum and
mandibles are more or less solid in proportion as they are more or less ex-
posed. The Anthobii live on flowers or leaves.

Some of these Insects inhabit the north of Africa and other countries
situated on the Mediterranean; most of the others are found in the higher
portions of western Asia.

The genera that compose this section are Glaphyrus, Amphicoma, &n-
thipna, &e.

The sixth and last section of the Scarabzides, that of the Mezrro-

PHILI, is composed of Insects in which the body is depressed, most com-
monly oval, brilliant, and without horns, and the thorax is trapeziform, or
nearly orbicular; an axillary part, in the greater number, occupies the space
comprised between the posterior angles and the exterior of the base of the
elytra. The sternum is frequently extended into a point or projecting
horn. The hooks of the tarsi are equal and simple. The antenne consist
of ten joints, the three last of which form a club, always foliaceous. The
labrum and mandibles are concealed, laminiform, flattened, and membran-
ous, or nearly so. The maxille terminate in a silky, penicilliform lobe
without horny teeth. Thementum is commonly ovoid, truncated superiorly,
or almost square, and the middle of the superior margin more or less con-
cave or emarginate. The ligula is not salient.

The larve liye in rotten wood. The perfect Insect is found on flowers,
and frequently on trunks of trees, that give outa fluid which they suck.

This section is susceptible of being separated into three principal diyi-
sions, the first of which corresponds to the genus Trichius, Fab.; the second

to that of Goliath, Lam.; and the third to Cetonia, Fab., but reduced and —

simplified.
In the first— Zrichides—the mentum is either isometrical, or longer than
wide, and leaves the maxille exposed. It comprises the

392 3 INSECTA.

Taicnivs, Fab.

T: nobilis. About an inch long; golden-green above; cupreous with
yellowish-grey hairs beneath. On umbelliferous plants.

The female of the 7. hemipterus and those of some other species of North
America are remarkable for the horny ovipositor at the posterior ex-
tremity of their abdomen, by which they effect a lodgement for their ova.

‘These species are generally found on the ground, where they move very
slowly. There are two other genera, Platygenia and Cremastocheilus.

The second division, Goliathides, is distinguished from the preceding by
the mentum, which is much longer, wider, and covers the maxillz.

Gourats, Lam. Kirb.—Cefonia, Fab. Oliv.

A subgenus which, according to M. de Lamarck, is composed of large
and beautiful species, some of which inhabit Africa and the East Indies, and
the others, tropical America. Messrs Lepeletier and Serville have separa-
ted the latter from it under the generic appellation of Inca. The epimera
isnot prominent. The inner sides of the thighs of the two anterior legs are
furnished at base with a tooth and an emargination. The middle of the
superior margin of the mentum is strongly emarginated; this ‘part in the
true Goliaths presents four lobes or teeth, two superior and the two others
Jateral. The labial palpi are inserted on its edges in the-emarginations of
these latter lobes. All the known species are large.

In the third division of the Melitophili, a section corresponding to the
family of the Cetoniidz, Mac Leay, the sternum is prolonged more or less
into an obtuse point between the second pair of legs; the epimera or axil-
‘lary piece is always apparent above, ‘and occupies all the space that sepa-
rates the posterior angles of the thorax from the base of the elytra; the tho-
yax usually becomes widened posteriorly, and has the form of a triangle
truncated anteriorly or at the point. The mentumis never transversal, and
its superior edge is more or less emarginated in the middle. The terminal
lobe of the maxillz is silky or sane The body is almost ovoid, and
depressed.

This division comprises the penus

Crronta, Fab.,

Or what we commonly term Goldbeaters.. Those of Europe are pro-
vided with a scutellum ofan ordinary size. Such are the

C. aurata. ‘Nine lines in length; brilliant golden-green above; cupreous-
red beneath; white spots on the elytra. Corpiman on flowers, and frequently
on those of the’Rose and Elder.

In the second tribe of the Lamellicornes or the LucanipEs, so
called from the genus Lucanus of Linneus, the antennal club is
composed of leaflets or teeth arranged perpendicularly to its axis in
the manner of acomb. ‘These organs always consist of ten joints,

pe

COLEOPTERA. LS ieee 398

the first of which is usually much the lofiifest. The Menaibies are

always corneous, most commonly salient and larger, and even very
different in the males. The maxille, in most of them, are termi-
nated by a narrow, elongated and silky lobe; those of others are
entirely corneous and dentated. The ligula in the greater number
is formed of two srall silky pencils projecting more or less beyond
an almost semi-circular or square mentum. The anterior legs are
most frequently elongated, and their tibiz dentated along the whole
of the outer side. The tarsi terminate by two equal and simple
hooks with a little appendage terminated by two sete between them.
The elytra cover the whole of the abdomen above. ‘

We will divide it into two sections, corresponding to the genera
Lucanus and Passalus of Olivier. |

In the first we find the antenne strongly geniculate, glabrous or
but slightly pilose; the labrum very small or confounded with the
epistoma; maxillz terminated by a membranous or coriaceous, very
silky, pencilliform lobe without teeth, or at most with but one; and
a ligula either entirely concealed or incorporated with the mentum,
or divided into two narrow, elongated, silky lobes extending more
or less beyond the mentum. The scutellum i is situated between the
elytra. |

The first section ‘will form the genus »

Lucanus. .

The larva of the Z. cervus, which ihhabits the interior of the Oak fort seve-
ral years previous to its final metamorphosis, is considered as the Cossus of
the Romans, or that verminiform apimet: ‘which they regarded as a delicious
article of food.

LD. cervus, L. (The Stag-Beetle). The male two inches in length, and

larger than the female; black, with brown elytra; head wider than the body;
mandibles very large, arcuated, with three very stout teeth; two of which
are at the end and diverge, the other is in the inner side, all furnished with
small ones. -The female, called Doe, has a narrower head and much smaller
mandibles. It flies at night in the heat of summer. Its size and mandibles
vary. Itis to one of these varieties that we must refer the Lucane chévre of
Olivier, or the L. capreolus of Fabricius. The Lucanus, so called by Lin-
nzus, is a species from North America, and very distinct from the preceding.
The subgenera are Sinodendron, Esalus, Lamprima, &c.

The Lucanides of our second section have their antennz simply

arcuated, or but slightly geniculate and pilose; the labrum always
22

y corneous ¢ or very hard, situated in a superior cnet
| of the r entum, 2 and terminated by three points; the abdomen
dic lated, presenting the scutellum above, and separated from
the thorax by a strangulation of considerable interval. ~ They, form
the ‘uo x : .

eee PassaLvs, Fab.

Sabpicied by M. Mac Leay to those species in which the club of the anten-
ne Consists of but three joints, where the labrum formsa transversal square,
and the maxille have three strong terminal teeth, and two on the inner
side in place of the anterior lobe.
"These Insects are foreign to Europe, and as it would appear, to Africa,
being chiefly found in the eastern parts of Asia, and particularly in America.
Madame Merian says, that the larva of the species figured by. her lives on

sugar-houses.

‘ov

In the second general section of thé calsspiare: or the HeTEro-
MERA, we find five joints in the four first tarsi, and one less in the
twolast. They all feed on vegetable matters.

sant? Ma In some, where the elytra are; generally solid and hard, and the

| a _ hooks of the tarsi are almost always simple, the head is ovoid or
; ; oval, susceptible of being received posteriorly into the thorax, or
_ sometimes narrowed behind, but not abruptly, ‘and without a neck

at its base. Many of these Heteromera avoid the light. ‘This divi-

‘ sion yo alin ig three following families.
ied

He a FAMILY L.
f eae. MELASOMA.

Px ard
SAC.
2

_ This family consists of unmixed black or cinereous coloured In-

Sy (from which is derived the name of the division,) mostly

by al pterous, ‘and frequently with soldered elytra. Their antenne,

ae Btaps granose, almost of equal thickness throughout or
, ted at the extremity, and the third joint wholly elongated,

is /2
fig = ; “he ye " 4
a> ; ra
Spey tif a ‘
so

ure bifid or i Aaa at the oxtremet the i inner pe of os

2

paid
Kil

the roots of the sweet potato. The perfect Insect is not uncommon in the

rted under the projecting edges of the head. The mandi-

= 3 oh ee, it rete Sit S ining >

Be

maxille is furnished with” a corn oe or Pbk i Bi Gie sit of aoe
the tarsi are entire, and the eyes ‘oblong and but very slightly pro-
minent, a circumstance which, according to M. Marcel de Serres,
indicates their nocturnal habits. Almost all these Insects live on

the ground, either in sand, or under stones, and frequently in cel-
lars, stables, and other dark places about our habitations.

Our first division of this family, which in the Linnean system
forms. the genus TENEBRIO, is founded on the présence or absence
of wings.

Of those which are deprived of these organs, and in which the
elytra are generally soldered, some have the palpi almost. filiform,
or terminated by a moderately dilated joint, and do not form a dis-
tinctly securiform or triangular club. They will compose a first

“tribe, that of the PIMELIARLE, so named from the genus

e v4

gi * Prmetia, Fab.
These Heteromera are proper to the countries situated round the basin of
the Mediterranean, to western and southern Asia, and to. Africa. They
are not found in India, or at least none have as yet been discovered there.
The Pimeliarie consist of numerous genera, the chief of which are, Ero-
dius, Zophosis, Tentyria, Akis, Tagenia, &e.

The second tribe of the Melasoma, that of the Biapsrpzs, re-
ceives its denomination from the genus Buars of Fabricius.

The maxillary palpi terminate by a manifestly securiform or tri-
angular jot. This tribe is s formed of a single genus, that of

mtn 7 Jt.

more or less elongated. The elytra of most of them are narrowed and pro-
longed into a point, those of the males especially. The third joint of the
antennz is cylindrical and muchJonger than the following ones; the latter,
or at least the swe antepenultimate ones, are granose; the last is ovoid and
short.

B. levigata, Fab. “This species might constitute a particular subgenus.

Its body is much shorter than that of the others, and extremely convex or 3
gibbous, The antennz are granose from the fourth joint. The anterior

tibiz terminate in a stout point or spine formed by a spur.
It is stated by Fabricius that the Turkish women inhabiting Egypt, where
the Insect is very common, eat the Blaps suleata, cooked with butter, in

Bu ape: Co
In Blaps properly so called, the thorax is almost square and plane, or but ,
slightly convex. The abdomen is oval, truncated transversely at base, and .

es Vane

order to become fat. The same author also says that it is ord as a rome Sa

for the head-ach, and the sting of a Scorpion.

ae
a

i

S0q |. | INSECTA.

The remaining Blapsides are distributed under various genera, such as
Gonopus, Asida, Pedinus, Blaptinus, &c.

We now come to Melasoma, provided with wings. Their body
is usually oval or oblong, depressed or but slightly elevated; their
thorax square or trapezoidal, and its posterior extremity as wide as
the abdomen. The palpi are larger at the extremity; the last joint
of the maxillary palpi has the figure of a reversed triangle, or is se-
curiform; the mentum is but slightly extended in width, and leaves
the base of the maxille exposed.

These Insects compose the third and last tribe of the Melasoma,
that of the Tenrprionirss, formed of the single genus

TENEBRIO,

As originally arranged by Fabricius, and to which we will annex his Opa-
trum and Orthocera; they will serve for types of as many particular divisions.

1. Those in which the body is oval; the thorax nearly trapezoidal, arcu-
ated laterally, or forming a semioval, truncated anteriorly, wider than the ab-
domen, at least at its posterior margin, but slightly or not at all bordered;
in which the maxillary palpi terminate by a securiform joint or one of an
analogous figure, and where the antennz insensibly enlarge.

Here we have Crypticus and Opatrum.

2. Those in which the body is narrow and elongated, almost of the same
width posteriorly or wider; where the thorax is nearly square, and at least
almost as long as it is broad, and where the antennez form a thick club, or
are abruptly dilated at the extremity.

To this division belong Corticws, Orthocerus, Toxicum, &c.

3. Those in which the body is equally narrow and elongated, and the
thorax almost square, but where the antennz are of the ordinary thickness,
and are not abruptly terminated by a club.

The two anterior thighs are stout, and the tibie narrow and curved, or
arcuated.

The genera are Calcar, Upis, Tenebrio proper, and Heterotarsus. The
Tenebrionites are very common under bark of trees, on old walls and the
uninhabited parts of houses.

‘COLEOPTERA.
hy : ‘ate ng vale

“FAMILY Il.
_ TAXICORNES.

In this second family of the heteromerous Coleoptera, we find
no small corneous tooth on the inner side of the maxille. All
these insects are winged, their body is most commonly square, their

thorax trapezoidal or semicircular, and concealing or receiving the
head. The antennz, usually inserted under a marginal projection
of the sides of the head, are short, more or less perfoliate or granose,
enlarge insensibly, or terminate ina club. The legsare only adapt-
ed for walking, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire, and termi-
nated by single hooks; the anterior tibie are frequently broad and
triangular. Several males have the head furnished with horns.
Most of them inhabit the fungi on trees, or under .the bark; some
live on the ground, under stones.

In some, the head is completely exposed, and never entirely re-
ceived into a deep notch i in the anterior of the thorax. This last is é
sometimes trapezoidal or square, and at others almost cylindrical; © é
its sides, as well as those of the elytra, do not extend remarkably
beyond the. body. i

This division will form the tribe of the Disa biel the type dee ‘all
which is the genus : a

oe .

Nee

DrApeRis. .- ? : a? *
In Diaperis properly so called, the maxillary palpi terminate in an sito ii
cylindrical joint, hardly thicker than the penultimate; and the anterior — ae é
tibie, hardly or not at all wider than the following ones, are pow altos a *
linear, and slightly dilated at the extremity. ate; |
The remaining genera of this tribe are Phaletia, Hiypopladas Tetrato- an
ma, Eledona, &c. Bi a =

PA

Our second tribe of the Taxicornes, the CossypHENES, consists _
of Insects analogous.in form to the Peltis of Fabricius, and toseve- — =
ral Nitidule and Casside: it is ovoid or. sub-hemispherical, and
overlapped in its contour by the dilated or flattened sides of the tho- iy %
rax and elytra; the head is sometimes entirely concealed under that — A
thorax, and at others received into an anterior emargination of the
same part. The last joint of the maxillary Palpi i is ae a that the
preceding ones, and securiform.

, of asolid conmetenan| in nthe form of a thie,
‘, club composed of four or five joints; they are
mntinent and to New Holland, Such are those

SS RES a

Cossreuvs, Oliv. Fab.

or Cossyphus properly so called, where the almost semicircular thorax ‘
presents no anterior emargination, and entirely conceals the head; where
i: the antennz are short, and terminate abruptly ‘in an oval mass of four joints,
- most of which are transversal; the second “of the whole number aad the
following ones are almost identical.
These Insects inhabit the Rast Indies, southern part of Europe and north
4 Africa. Pe

FAMILY III.
icity me? STENELYTRA. (1)

~The third family of heteromerous Coleoptera only differs from the
~ second i in the antennz, which are neither granose nor perfoliate, and
A hose extremity, in the greater ‘number, is not thickened. The
body is most frequently oblong, and arcuated above, and the legs
re elongated as in many other Insects. With the exception of their
‘ ‘antenne and size, the males resemble the females. ‘These Hetero-
“)* mera are ust lly much more agile than the preceding ones; several
wil conceal themselves under the bark of old trees, while most of the
iyi othe yare found on leaves and flowers.

t by a very short snout. They will form our four first tribes.
‘hose of the first or the Hxxorrt, have their antenne covered at
e by the margin of the head; they are generally filiform or slightly
nic] ened towards the extremity, generally composed of almost Re .
8 lindrical joints attenuated at base, of which the penultimate ones _
e frequently a little shorter, and in the form of a.reversed cone, —

oF

? nd the last is $ usually gimost ovoid; the third is wee elongated. vi

health OO

rd serrated, very large, and inclined. ‘The antenne are inserted

triangle; the eyes
of the ice are

ast ones, is alinoaigeliliefs entire or le |
- 9 aaa hooks are sate or without fissure ¢ or

ania ope 786A, and the perfect Insect lives under the balk of
: trees, % ‘ y ®t:
| ‘egy fetes mostly corresponds to the genus

Hetoprs, Fab. ? diy

In Helops properly so styled, most of the joints of the antennz are almost.
obconical or cylindrical, and attenuated at base. The thorax is transversal, —
or hardly as long as it is wide, either square, trapezoidal, or cordiform,
abruptly narrowed posteriorly, terminated by pointed angles, and always
exactly applied to the base of the elytra.

The remaining genera of this tribe are Epitragus, Chaialin, Campsia, &c.

‘The second tribe, that of the CisTELIDEs, is very closely allied Pe,
indeed to the first, but the insertion of the antenne is not covered,
the mandibles terminate in an entire or unemarginate point, and the
hooks of the tarsi are pectinated inferiorly. Several of these Te

sects live on 1 flowers. This tribe forms the genes

Cisrexa, Fab. - : ’
In Cistela properly so called, the head projects in the manner of a snout,
and the labrum is hardly wider than it is long; most of the joints of the
antenne are either obconical, triangular, or even serrated; the last is always.
oblong. The body is ovoid or bordering on an oval. a
The other genera are Lystronichus, Mycetophagus, and Allecula.

as,

The third tribe, that of the SerRopatrrpns, is remarkable, as in- * fu s
__ timated by its name, for the maxillary palpi, which are frequently Bote

emargination of the eyes, exposed, as in the preceding tribe
_ Most usually short and filiform. The mandibles are emargina
or bifid at the extremity, and the hooks of the tarsi are simple.

& eu
~My page

pos
sf

INSECTA. |

‘The body is almost cylindrical in some, and oval in others; the head

is inclined, and the thorax trapezoidal. The anterior extremity of
the head does not’ project, and the posterior thighs not inflated,
characters which distinguish these Insects from various Heteromera

of the ensuing tribe. “The’penultimate joint of the tarsi, or at least

of the four anterior ones, is most commonly bilobate, and in those
where it is entire, the posterior legs at least are fitted for leaping;
in this case they are long and compressed, the tarsi small, almost
setaceous, and their first joint elongated; the anterior ones are fre-
quently short and dilated.
The type of this tribe isthe genus
‘s

Drrcma, Fab.

. In Dircea properly so called, the maxillary palpi are not serrated, and their

last joint projects more on the inner side than the preceding ones. The
thorax is insensibly lowered on the side. The scutellum is very small.
Here we have Lae Hallomenus, Melandrya, Hypulus, &c.

The fourth'tribe, that of the OipEmeERITEs, is connected ‘ith the
third by several characters, such as having the antenne inserted
near the eyes, and their origin exposed, the mandibles bifid at the
end, the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobate, and the maxillary
palpi terminated by a larger and securiform joint; but if we except
the Nothi, approximated by the form and breadth of the thorax, and
by some other characters to certain Heteromera of the preceding
tribe, and yet distinguished from them by their strongly inflated
posterior thighs, and their bicleft tarsial hooks, the Cidemerites pre-
sent a union of characters which will not allow us to confound them
with the other Heteromera. The body is elongated, narrow, almost
linear, and the head and thorax are somewhat narrower than the
abdomen. ‘The antenne are longer than the two latter, serrated in
some—Calopus—filiform or setaceous, and composed of long and

almost cylindrical joints in the others; the anterior extremity of the

head is more or less prolonged into a little snout, and somewhat
narrowed behind; the eyes are proportionally more elevated than

in the preceding Heteromera. The thorax is at least as long as it

is broad, almost square, or nearly cylindrical, and slightly narrowed
behind; the elytra are linear or subulate posteriorly, and frequently

flexible. These Insects are found on flowers or trees. Their me-

tamorphoses are unknown.

COLEOPTERA,

These Heteromera will be comprised i ina singe gens the

_ Gpemera, Oliv. . | | a :
Where the posterior thighs are strongly inflated i in one of the sexes, where
the antennz are usually long and smaller at Fas extremity, and, the elytra
suddenly narrowed near the end,
There gay several subgenera.
wie te

The fifth and last tribe of the Stenelytra, that of the Ruryncnos-
TOMA, is composed of Insects, some of which, such as the first, are
evidently related by the ensemble of their characters to the Cide-
mere, while the others, in a natural series, appear to belong to the
family of the Rhynchophora. The head is considerably prolonged
anteriorly in the form of an elongated snout or flattened proboscis,
bearing the antennz at its base and before the eyes, which are al- Be
ways entire or unemarginate. These Insects form a single genus,”
that of

Mycrervs. ars i 4
In Mycterus properly so called, the body is ovoid, solid, Fees ie a silky | “oa
down, and the thorax trapeziform. The abdomen is square, long, rounded
posteriorly; the antenne are composed of joints, mostly obconical, the com-
plete number of which seems to be twelve, the eleventh or last being ab-
_ fuptly narrowed and acuminated, and the maxillary palpi are terminated
by a larger joint in the form of a reversed triangle.

The subgenera are Stenostoma and Ehinosimus.

FAMILY IV. Se godt aie
TRACHELIDES. ae

e
In our second general division and fourth family of heterome- ‘s
rous Coleoptera, the head is triangular or cordiform, and borne on
a sort of neck or pedicle, abruptly formed, beyond which, being as
wide at this point as the thorax, or wider, it cannot enter the cavity
of the latter. The body is most commonly soft, the elytra are flexi-.
ble, without striae, sometimes very short, and a little inclined in _
_ others. The maxille are never unguiculated. The joints of the
= are frequently entire, and the hooks of the last bifid. a
ost of the perfect Insects live on different plants, devour their oa S
levee, or suck the rectar of their flowers. Mary, when seized, 5

3A

ee ee sees wld
i> qe Le ee aa

402 ‘INSECTA.

curve their head and fold up their feet as if they were dead; the
others are very active.
» We will divide this family into six tribes, forming as many genera.

In the first, or that of the Lacriarzie, the body is elongated and
narrower before; the thorax either almost cylindrical or square, or
ovoid and truncated; the antenne, inserted near an emargination of
the eyes, are simple, filiform, or insensibly enlarged towards the end,
most frequently and at least partially granose, the last joint being
longer than the preceding ones in the males; the palpi are thicker
at the extremity.

The species indigenous to France are found in woods, on various
plants; their body is soft, their elytra are flexible, and like the Me-
loes, the Cantharides, when taken, counterfeit death.

_ This tribe is formed of the genus

Laeria, Fab.

Those species, in which the antenne gradually enlarge, and are either
wholly or partly almost granose, with the last joint ovoid or oval; in which
‘the head projects but little before, and is prolonged and insensibly rounded

“behind; and where the thorax is almost cylindrical or square, compose the
genus Laenra properly so called.

The second tribe, that of the Pyrocuromes, approaches the first
in the tarsi and the anterior elongation and narrowing of the body,
but it is flattened, and the thorax is almost orbicular or trapezoidal.

The antenne, at least in the males, are pectinated or plumous; the

maxillary palpi are slightly serrated, and terminated by an elongated

and almost securiform joint; the labial palpi are filiform; the abdo-

_ men is elongated, entirely covered by the elytra, and rounded at the
~ extremity.

These Heteromera, which are found in the spring in woods, and
whose larve live under the bark of trees, form the genus

Pyrocuroa, Geoff.

In Pyrochroa properly so called, the antennz are simply pectinated and
shorter, the eyes are remote from each other, and the thorax is almost orbi-
cular and transversal.

In the third tribe, that of the MorpDELLon«#, so far as respects the
- form of the joints of the tarsi and of their hooks, and of that of the
antenne and palpi, we find no common and constant character.

COLEOPTERA. | 403

These Insects, however, are easily distinguished from other Hete-
romera of the same family, by the general conformation of their
body, which is elevated and arcuated; the head is low, the thorax

trapezoidal or semicircular, and the elytra are very short or nar-—

rowed, and terminate in a point, like the abdomen. They form the
genus

MorDeEt1a, Litt

In Mordella setaeely so called, the antennz are of equal thickness through-
out, and somewhatserrated in the males; allthe joints of the tarsi are entire,
and the hooks of the last present ‘oné or two indentations beneath. The

eyes are not emarginate.
The subgenera are Ripiphorus, Myodites, Pelocotoma, and Anaspis.

-_ In the fourth tribe, that of the AnruicrpEs, we find the antenne
simple or slightly serrate, filiform, or a little thicker towards the
extremity, most of the joints being nearly obconical and almost

similar, with the exception of the last, which is somewhat larger

and oval. The thorax is sometimes obovoid, narrowed and trun-
cated posteriorly, sometimes divided into two knots, and at others
semicircular. Some of these Insects are found on various plants,
but the greater number liveonthe ground. They run with great
quickness. ‘heir larve are perhaps parasitical.

They will compose the genus

Noroxus, Geoff.
In Notoxus properly so called, the antennz enlarge insensibly and are al-

most entirely composed of obconical joints, and the thorax is obovoid, har-

rowed and truncated posteriorly, or divided into two globular points.

The two last tribes of this family and of the section of the Hete-

romera present certain common characters, such as mandibles ter-
minating ina simple point, &c. In a perfect state they are all
herbivorous, but several, in their first state, or that of larvae, are
parasitical.

The Horiales, composing the fifth tribes differ from those which
constitute the sixth, or the Cantharidiz, in their hooks, which are
indented and accompanied (each) bya serrated appendage. These
Insects have filiform antenne, as long, at most, as the thorax, a

small labrum, strong and salient mandibles, filiform palpi, square

thorax, and very robust"posterior legs, at least in one of the sexes.

ry 2)

aoe

pero

INSECTA, —

_. Phis-tribe is composed of the genus

Horta, Fab.

| These Insects inhabit the intra-tropical countries of South America and of

the East Indies.

The sixth and last tribe, that of the Canruarip14, is distinguished
from the preceding one by the hooks of the tarsi, which are deeply
cleft, and seem to be double. ‘The head is usually large, wider,
and rounded posteriorly. ‘The thorax i is commonly narrowed be-
hind, and approaches the form ofa truncated heart; in others it is
almost orbicular. The elytra are frequently somewhat inclined la-
terally, or tectiform, flattened, and rounded. These Insects simu-
late death when they are seized, and several, thus situated, produce
a caustic yellowish liquid of'a’ penetrating odour, from the articula-
tions of their feet; the organs which secrete it have not yet been
detected. |

Various s) se <i Mateus, Mylabres, Cantharides—are employed

externally as epispastics. ‘This tribe is formed of the genus
"be bd , }

ia Metog, Lin.

Which has ben divided into several others.

In Meloe properly so called, the antenne are composed of short and
rounded joints, the intermediate of which are the largest, and sometimes
so disposed, that these organs present in this point, in several males, an
- emargination or crescent. The wings are wanting, and the elytra, oval
or triangular, with a portion of the inner margin crossing each other, only
partially cover the abdomen, particularly in the females, where it is ex-
- tremely voluminous.

4y crawl along the ground, or upon low plants on the leaves of which
vighiey feed. A yellowish or reddish oleaginous liquid exudes from the articu-

_ Jations of their legs.

In some districts of Spain, these Insects are used in place of Cantharides,
or are mixed with them.. They are also employed by the Farriers. ‘They
were formerly regarded as a specific in hydrophobia. I suspect that our
_ Meloes are the Buprestes of the ancients, Insects to which they. attributed
very noxious qualities, and which, sncording to them, killed the Oxen that
accidentally swallowed them while grazing.

Among the divisions of this genus the most noted is the

rf olikmints, Geoff. Oliv.— Meloe, Lin. —Lytta, Fab.

All the joints of ‘the tarsi entire, and the thorax almost ovoid, slightly
elongated, narrowed anteriorly and truncated: posteriorly, by, which this

‘i 4
wa
Mey ie
he.
co ¥ 4

COLEOPTERA.

subgenus is distinguished from the precedin e hi
wider than the thorax. The antennz of the males are o ditetinies imegular |
and even semipectinated.

C. vesicatorius. (The Spanish Fly. ) From six to ten lines in length, of
a glossy golden-green, with simple, regular, black antennz. | be Insect i is
well known from its medical uses, =

It appears in France, near the time of the summer solstice, and is more
particularly found about the Ash and Lilac, on the leaves of which it feeds;
it diffuses a highly penetrating odour. The larva lives in the ground and
gnaws the roots of plants. In the United States of America, the species
called by Fabricius the vitatia, (our Potato-fly), and which abounds on the
potato plants, is applied to the same uses as the one of which we are
speaking. ' -

The third general section of the Coleoptera, that of the ye
‘MERA, consists exclusively of those in which.all the tarsi are le
riarticulated.

All these Insects live on vegetable matters.
larve are usually very short, and they are even ae ae re re-
placed by'mammille in ‘a'great number. ‘The ‘Perfect riage is”

found on the flowers or leaves of plants. : +. ee

4 wes
FAMILY T. :
RHYNCHOPHORA(t). a"

This family is distinguished by the entire prolongation of the head,
which forms a sort of snout or proboscis. ©. —
The abdomen is bulky.in most of them, the antenne geniculat
and frequently clavate. The penultimate joint of the tarsiis aln
always bilobate. The posterior thighs are dentated in several.
The lary have an oblong body, and resemble a small, very soft,
white worm; their head is squamous, and they’are destitute of feet,

or in liew of them there are merely small mammille. They gnaw

various parts of plants. Several live exclusively in the interior of

their fruit or seeds, and frequently do us much injury. ‘Their chry-
salides are enclosed in a shell. Many of the Rhynchophora,: when
very abundant within certain limits, are even very noxious in: their
perfect state. They tap the buds or leaves of various cultivated

=

» (1) Long-snouted.

high
ait Pye
hie” ph

wae

ae

The feet of their — : 44

INSECTA.

sjbgetnbled: ‘usefil or necessary to man, and feed on their paren-
chyma.

Brucuvs, Lin.

In Bruchus proper, the antennz are filiform and frequently serrated or
pectinated; the eyes are emarginated. — The posterior legs are usually very
large. time gi .
The females deposit an egg in the’ yet diminutive and tender germ of
a various leguminous cerealia, of the Coffee-tree, Palms, &c., where the
larva lives and is metamorphosed, To obtain an issue the perfect Insect
detaches a portion of the epidermis j in the form of a cap, thus producing
those holes but too often found in peas, beans, dates, &c. The perfect
Insect is taken on flowers..

The labrum is apparent, the anterior elongation of their head short, broad,
‘depressec d, and in the form of a snout; the palpi are very visible wad fili-

ss form, or larger at the extremity.

at -—s«@B.. pisizL. Length two lines; black; base of the antenne and part of
a ¢. > -the legs fullvous; elytra dotted with grey. A very noxious little Insect,
2) m, that in cértain seasons has occasioned much damage in North America.
oe Those, i in which the threg or four last joints are united into a club, form

Arturanvi, Lin.

: "They attack the leaves or most tender parts of plants. Most of the females
: roll up these leaves into a tube or cornet, in which they deposit their eggs,
thus preparing a domicil for their young ones, which also furnishes them
ma with food. °
Those, in which the antennz are filiform, or where the last joint alone
forms the club; where the proboscis, frequently longer in the males than in
the females, and often differently terminated, always projects forwards; in
which all the other parts of the body are usually much elongated, and the
Penultimate Joint of the tarsi is bilobate, form the genus

. agai hig ' Brenrvs.
ee . _ These Insects are peculiar to hot climates. Their body is linear, and the
- antenne, filiform or slightly enlarged towards the extremity, are composed
of eleven joints.
Sometimes the antennz are distinctly geniculate, the first joint being
hy. much longer than the following ones. They form the genus Curculio of
Re, ¢ Linnzus.
Sant We will divide them into the Brevirostres and the Longirostres, according
y as the antennz are inserted near the extremity of the proboscis, and €ven
with the origin of the mandibles, or further back, either near its middle or
; close to its base.
¢ The Brevirostres of this naturalist, according to the am of Fabricius,
are divided into two genera.

x

‘a aseat ee

COLEOPTERA, we Mi.

Bracayomeve. PPE WG ag AEE 20

Where all the joints of the tarsi are entire and without Bhtsh or Tenia ba
neath. Their short and but slightly geniculate antennz present externally
but nine joints, the last of which forms the club. They are destitute of
wings, and their body is very scabrous or uneven. These Insects are
peculiar to the south of Europe and to Africa, live on the ground and ap-
pear very early in the spring. The women of Ethiopia use one species as
a sort of amulet; they — a os through its body and hang it round their
neck. as

CuRCULIO.

Where almost the whole under part of the tarsi is furnished with short and’
stiff hairs, forming pellets, and their penultimate joint is deeply bilobate. er x! cS
Their antenne are composed of eleven joints, or even of twelve ifwe count
» the false one, which sometimes terminates them, the last of which a the sy
club. os
As this genus, although much more restricted than in the a. sys- re
tem, still comprises numerous species discovered since ertine of that a, “
naturalist, various savans, Germar and Schcenherr in particu ve -cinidede }
it into many others. te - age:
C. imperialis, Fab. (The Diamond-Beetle). A brilliant laces r
with two black and longitudinal bands on the thorax; ranges of golden-
green impressed points on the elytra, with black intervals. © © ye :
The Longirostres, or those whose antennz are inserted beyond the origin le
of the mandibles, and frequently near the middle of the proboscis, which |
is usually long, comprise, with some exceptions, the genera Lizus, Sign
chenus, and Calandra of Fabricius.
In the two first the antennz present ten joints at least, but most sducshsityl 8
eleven or twelve, of which the three last at ig form the club.

EA
Ae
hh
od
a

~ a

Lrxvs, Fab. - Bi * :
The int almost resemble the | Cleoni in their organs of manducation, -as eel
well as in the elongated fusiform club of their antenne, the narrow and
elongated figure of their body, and the armature of their tibie.

Ruyncnenvs, Fab. _ aa
The Rhyncheni present no such ensemble of HS. ae ae
Sometimes the legs are contiguous at base, and there is no sternal fossula 3
for the reception of the proboscis, ca
Some never leap, and their antenne are composed of eleven or twelve _
joints. The subgenera are numerous. . a eke
The remaining Longirostres have - generally nine joints at most in the ae
antennz, and the last, or two last at most, form a club with a coriaceous ‘
epidermis and spongy extremity. They feed, at least while inthe state of
larvx, on seeds or ligneous substances.

Se mer Hs gereree sy
In @alebilen properly so called, the antenne are hands gentcélatal but
inserted near the base of the proboscis; their eighth joint forms an ovoid or
a hanger: club. iy
> @. granaria. But. too well known; its body is elongated and brown;
thorax as long as the elytra and punctured. Its larva, known ~ the name
of weevil (genre), is the destroyer of our granarics.
ae oryze. Similar to the preveding, but avith two fulvous Wis on each
elytron. It attacksrice. . . x
C. palmarum. Length an incha ~ a half; club of the antennz truncated;
©. entirely black, with silky hairs at the extremity of the: proboscis. It lives
ae, on the pith of the Palms of South America. The inhabitants of that coun-
try consider its larva, called the ver-palmiste, as a great delicacy.
There s are several subgenera.

BE isis Aegglgie o RAMIEBY EL.
‘ ¥ _XYLOPHAGI(1).

% In our second family of guirainicrous Coleoptera, we find the head
» terminating as usual, without any remarkable projection, in the form
ofa proboscis or snout. The antenne are thicker near the extre-
mity, or perfoliate at base, always short, and consist of less than
eleven joints ina great number. The joints of the tarsi are usually
entire, the penultimate being sometimes widened and cordiform in
others; in this case the. antennee always terminate in a club, either
™ _ solid and ovoid, or trifoliate, and the palpi are small and conical.
we < ‘These Insects mostly live in wood which is perforated and chan-
A, niélled in various directions by their larve. When they happen to
om abound! in forests, those of Pines and Firs particularly, they destroy
fs ine few years immense numbers of trees, which are rendered use-
af ae Jess for any purpose of art. Others do great injury to. the a
opel and some again feed on Mushrooms.
~~ ‘We will divide this family into three sections.

ga age Those in» which the antenne are composed of ten joints at
most, sometimes terminating in a stout club, most commonly solid,

te eT

(1) Wood-eaters. yp ao ge

7

‘a sometimes consisting of three és i oa tSedletass gid. at ce
forming a cylindrical and perfoliate club from their base, and ‘in
which the palpi are conical. The anterior legs of the greater num-
ber are dentated and armed with a stout hook, and the tarsi, of
which the penultimate joint is frequently cordiform or bilobate, are
susceptibleme being flexed on them.

Some have very small palpi, the body convex and rounded above, or al-
most ovoid, the head globular and plunged into the thorax, and the antennz
solid or trilamellate, and preceded by five joints at least.

These Xylophagi form the genus

B: =
Scoty Tus, Geoff.’

In Scolytus properly so called, the antennz are straight, beardless, and in-
serted close to the inner margin of the eyes, which are narrow, elongated,

and vertical. he

The heen have large and very apparent palpi of unequal lengths.

- Their body is depressed and narrowed before; their antenne sometimes _

consist of two joints, the last of which is very large, flattened, and almost —
triangular or nearly ovoid, and sometimes of ten, and are entirély pe dliate.

The labium is large; the elytra are truncated, and tarsi short, wi ‘all the
joints entire. These insects are all foreign to Europe, and compose the
genus PRE? bd Re
a

Paussus, Lin. *

Where the antennz consist of but two joints, with the fast large and com-

pressed. ed

~~

ae , 4

“Tt

2. A second section will comprise*those. Xaipines whose an-

of the maxillew, do not gradually taper to a point, but are of equal
thickness throughout, or dilated at the extremity. The joints of
their tarsi are always entire.

We will divide them into principal genera, according to the mode
in which the antenne terminate. ‘The three last joints form a per-
foliate club in the first, or :

Webeibnts:

In Bostrichus proper, the body is more or less cylindrical, the head round:

ed, almost globular, and capable of being received into the thorax as far

as the eyes; the thorax is more or less convex before, and forms a sort of

hood; the two first joints of the tarsi, as well as the last, are elongated.
3B

¢

-
>

tenn consist of but ten joints, and in which the palpi, oe ee it

uA

die
A
figd

te
ARES.

410 INSECTA,

B. capucinus. Five lines in length, with a red abdomen and elytra of the
‘same colour. Very common in old wood in timber yards. _

The second genus of this division, or

Monoroma,

ae 5 distingrittida from the first by the solid and globuliform club—the tenth

joint—of the antennz.

The body is elongated, depressed, and frequently formsa parallelopiped;
the anterior part of the head is narrowed, and projects somewhat in the
manner of a triangular and obtuse snout. The palpi are very small, and,
as well as the mandibles, not salient.

3. The Xylophagi of.the third division have eleven very distinct
joints in the antenne; their palpi are filiform, or thicker at the ex-
tremity in some, and smaller in others; all the joints of the tarsi are

| entire.

‘Those in which the club of the antennz consists of but two joints form
the genus

Lycruvs.

In Lyctus proper, the margin of the head covers the whole or greater part
_ of the first joint of the antennz. The mandibles are not salient.

In the other Xylophagi with antenne composed of eleven joints, the
three or four last form the club, or the last is alone larger than the preced-

ing ones. They are subdivided thus:

. Sometimes the mandibles are covered or project but little, as in

MycrrTornacus, Fab.

In Mycetophagus proper, the club of the antennz commences at the sixth
or seventh joint; the last is almost ovoid.
There are several subgenera, such as Triphyllus, Dasycerus, Silva-

ns, &e.

- Sometimes the mandibles are entirely exposed, salient and robust. The
‘body is generally elongated, narrow and depressed. These Insects form

_ the genus

Trogosita, Oliv.
In Trogosita proper, the mandibles are shorter than the head and crossed;
the ligula, almost square, is not prolonged between the palpi, and the
maxille have but a single lobe.

PLATYSOMA(1).

Our third family of the Tetramera approaches the second, so far
as relates to the internal anatomy, the tarsi, and habits; but the an-
tennz are of equal thickness throughout, or more slender towards
the extremity. » The mandibles are always salient, the ligula is bifid
or emarginated; the palpi are short, the body is depressed and elon-
gated, and the thorax almost square. These Insects are found

under the bark of trees, and may be reduced to a single genus, the ~

Cucusus, Fab.

Where the antennz, much shorter than the body in several, are composed P
of obconical or turbiniform and almost granose joints, the first of whi

is shorter than the head.
There are two subgenera, Dendrophagus and Uleoiota.

FAMILY IV. sod
LONGICORNES(2).

Here, the under part of the three first joints of the tarsi is fur-
nished with a brush; the second and third are codiform; the fourth

is deeply bilobate, and there is a little nodule resembling a joint at”
the base of the last.. The ligula, placed on a short and transversal
mentum, is usually membranous, cordiform, emarginated or bifid,

corneous and forming the segment of a very short and transversal

circle in others. The antennz are filiform or setaceous, most com-—

monly as long at least as the body; they are. sometimes simple in
both sexes, and sometimes serrated, pectinated, or flabelliform in
the males. The eyes of a great many are reniform and surround
them at base. The thorax is trapezoidal or narrowed before, in

those where the eyes are rounded and entire, or but slightly emar-

ginated; even in this case the legs are long and slender, and the tarsi
elongated.

' As almost all their larve live in the interior of trees, or under
their bark, they are destitute of feet, or have but very small ones.

(1) Flat-bodied. (2) Long-horned.

‘thea? >
> Aas

eS eeecra.
a
Their ed is soft, whitish, thickest anteriorly, and the head squa-
‘mous and provided with stout mandibles, but without any other
- projecting part. They do much injury to trees, the large ones par-
_ ticularly, perforating them very deeply, or boring holes in them in
__ every direction. Some of them attack the roots of plants. The
abdomen of the females is terminated by a tubular and horny ovi-
-__ positor. These Insects produce a small sharp sound by the rubbing
of the pedicle of the base of their abdomen against the interior of
the parieties of the thorax.
We will in the first place divide the Longicornes into two sections.
In those of the first, the eyes are either strongly emarginated or
~~. Junate, or elongated and narrow; the head is plunged into the tho-
bose rax, as far as those organs, without being distinguished from it by
- ~ an abrupt contraction of its diameter, forming a kind of neck; in
everal it is vertical.
These. Longicornes are subdivided into two principal sections or
small tribes.

h

1. The Prionm, characterized as follows: the labrum null or very
small and indistinct; the mandibles stout, or even very large, parti-
cularly i in most of the males; the internal lobe of the maxille null or
very small; the antenne inserted near the base of the mandibles or
the emargination of the eyes, but not surrounded by the latter at
base; the thorax most frequently trapezoidal or square, crenated or
dentated laterally.

_ The first genus, or

a ye PaRANDRA, Lat.
Where, as in the following, the antennz are simple, almost granose, com-
F) ‘pressed, of equal thickness throughout, and as long as the thorax at most,
OE ae A | distinguished from that genus, as well as from all others of the same
family, by its corneous ligula, which is in the form of the segment of a very
_ short, transversal circle. without emargination or lobes.’ The body is a
parallelopiped, and depressed, and the thorax square, rounded at the pos-
terior angles, and without spines or teeth. These Insects are peculiar to
America.

Sronpy is, Fab.

The Spondyles, which approximate to the Parandre in their antenne and
the exiguity of their maxillary lobes, are removed from them by their ligula;
the latter, as in all the following Longicornes, is membranous and cordiform

The Spondyles are also distinguished fi on ae following "genera gf hae’
almost globular thorax, the margin of which is neither recurved: nor brighie

ed with teeth or spines. ts 3
Their larve hres in the interior of European Pines and Firs. 3

In the third and last genus of this tribe, or

- Prionvs, Geoff. Fab. Oliv.

The antenna are longer than the head and thorax, serrated or pectinated in
some; simple, attenuated near the extremity, and with elongated joints in
others. The body is generally depressed, and the thorax square or trape-
zoidal, and either dentated or spinous, or angular laterally.

These Insects only, fly towards evening or at night, and always remain
ontrees. Certain species foreign to Europe are remarkable for their great
size, and that of their mandibles. The larva of the P. cervicornis, which
lives in the wood of the Gossampinus, is eaten ‘

2. The Crramsycrnt have a very apparent Jabrum extendi
across the whole width of the anterior extremity of the head; hel”
two maxillary lobes are very distinct and salient; their mandibles of _
an ordinary size, and similar or but little different in both sexes; —
their eyes always emarginated and surrounding, at.least partially,
the base of the antennz, which are usually as.long as the body or
longer; the thighs, or the four anterior ones at least, are commonly
in the form of an ovoid or oval club, narrowed into a pedicle at base.

The various genera of modern entomologists may all be united i in
the genus. 4

CERAMBYX.. — hy
C. heros, Fab. Length one inch and a half; black; extremity of the elytin
brown and prolonged into a small tooth at the suture; thorax serenely =
rugose and with a pointed or spiniform tubercle om each side; antenn a
simple. Common in all the warm and temperate parts of Europe. ‘The “a
larva bores deep holes in the Oak, and is perhaps the Cossus of the ancients. oe

We will terminate this tribe with Insects, which, in selasioaed to
their palpi, form of their head, thorax and elytra, as well as in their
proportions, present remarkable exceptions or anomalies. :

We will commence with those in which the form of the thorax is ©
very analogous to that of the preceding ones. Se ta

a -
7 ee

Oxrium, Meg.

Is characterized as follows: the head rounded, and not prolonged anteriorly

Ag enor.

Rae c: ages >» :
~\ ; me -

in die manner of a snout; palpi filiform, the last joint terminating i ina point;
antenne long and setaceous; thorax long, narrow, almost a or
forming a truncated oval.

Ges

. a ee aeicvs, Dalm.

: Differs from the preceding one in the head, which is narrowed and pro-

Fal

longed anteriorly in the manner of a snout; in the palpi of which the last

joint is rather thicker than the preceding ones, and truncated at the end;
in the antennz, shorter than the body, slightly dilated and somewhat ser- ©
rated at the extremity; and in the almost orbicular thorax.

Necypauis, Lin.

The only one of this tribe in which the elytra are either very short, and
squamiform, or prolonged, as usual, to the extremity of the abdomen, but

abruptly contracted a little beyond their origin, then much narrowed, and
terminating in a point, or subulate. Their abdomen is long, narrow, con-

tracted, and as if pediculated at base. The wings are folded at their ex.

tremity.

Certain insects generally proper to the African islands, New Hol-
land, New Ireland.and New Zealand, ambiguous in several respects,
and which, in a natural order, should perhaps be placed between
the Lamiarize and the Leptureta, will terminate the division of the

eal

‘Cerambycini.

Their palpi are almost. filiform, the last joint almost cylindrical
and somewhat attenuated towards the. base; their thorax is usually
smooth or but slightly uneven, without acute tubercles, and becomes
widened posteriorly, or presents the form of a trapezium or trun-
cated cone, as in the last tribe of this family; the abdomen in
the greater number is almost in the form of a reversed triangle, and

. the elytra are truncated at the extremity.

“These Insects form four genera. Distichocera, Tmesisternus,

-Tragocerus, and Leptocera.

~The Longicornes of our third tribe, that of the Lamrarrm, are
distinguished by their vertical head, and by their palpi, which are
filiform or hardly Jarger at the extremity, and terminated by a joint
more or less ovoid and tapering to a point. The outer lobe of the
maxille is slightly narrowed at the end, and curved on the inner
division. The antennz are most frequently setaceous and simple,
and the thorax, exclusive of the lateral tubercles or spines, as nearly
of an equal width throughout. Some species are apterous, a char-
acter exhibited by no other — of this it |

tng ina point sei
pores antenna a * ’
slender, and ae tel
_ cated at the end and termi;
- strongest. - ‘Ci4 e ‘
_» A. longimanus; known re the bepless name of the Cayenne Horlequite,
_ The thighs and tibiz of the two anterior legs are very long and slender. .,
~The moyable tubercles of the thorax are terminated by a strong spine, wets
the elytra are beautifi y variegated with grey, red, and black. 4
All the remaining Lamiarie compose but the eagle: genus «&) «1.8 PGS

Lamia,
' Which we will sends into two sections: those in which the sides of the
_” thorax are sometimes tuberculous or rugose and sometimes spinous, and |

those in which it is smooth and cylindrical.

They are arranged under various subgenera, such as eanthocinus, Tet

opes, ee Saperda, &c.

In the fourth and last tribe, that of the LEPTrurETz, we find Lon- q
gicornes in which the eyes are rounded, entire, or scarcely emargi-
nated, and where, in this case, the antennz are inserted before, . or
at most at the anterior extremity of this slight emargination. The
head is always inclined posteriorly behind the eyes in several, or
abruptly narrowed at its junction with the thorax, in the manner of
a neck; the thorax is conical or trapezoidal and narrowed before.

The elytra become gradually narrower. ~ sai es A
This tribe forms the genus ee
" =
LeEprTura, Lin., oh ‘Be.

With the exception of certain species which belong to Stale “ec
and to the Donacie. In Leptura proper thé’ head is abruptly” nartowed.
immediately behind the eyes. The antennz, inserted near the anterior
extremity of their internal emargination, are remote at base. The twoemi-
_nences from which they rise are almost confounded i in one plane. Bie
thorax is almost always smooth or without lateral tubercles,

‘
My,

cd

? 416 o : | INSECTA. a | maces
: FAMILY Y.
Bi 8 TROD A.

‘Our fifth family of the tetramerous Coleoptera is sombiled of

-. Insects, the first of which so closely approach the last Longicornes
“ that they were confounded both by Linneus and Geoffroy, and the
~~ last are so closely allied to the Chrysomelz, the type of the follow-

ing family, that the first of those naturalists places them in that ge-
nus. The organs of manducation present the same affinities. Thus
in the first, the ligula is membranous, bifid or bilobate, as in the
Longicornes; their maxillz also greatly resemble those of these
latter; but in. the last this ligula is almost square or rounded, and
analogous to that ofthe Cyclica.

The maxillary lobes, however, are membranous, or but slightly
coriaceous, whitish or yellowish; the external one is widened near
the extremity, &c. The posterior thighs are strongly inflated in a
great many, and hence the denomination of the family.

All these Insects have wings, and are found on the stems or leaves

’ of various plants, but, so far as regards a great number of species

that inhabit France, on those of the Liliacez particularly. The
larvee of some—the Donaciew—attack the internal part of the roots
of aquatic plants, on which we find the perfect Insect. Those of
several others live exposed, but they cover themselves with matters °
with which they form a sort of case or scabbard, like that of the
Casside.

We will divide this family into two tribes:

The first, that of the SacriprEs, is composed, as its name indi-

_ cates, of the genus,

SAGRA.

“The mandibles terminate in a sharp point. The ligula is profoundly emar-

ginate or bilobate. The Sagrz properly so called, originally designated
by the name of J/urnz, are exclusively confined to certain parts ofsouthern
Africa, Ceylon and China. Their palpi are terminated by an ovoid joint,
the divisions of the ligula are short, the thorax is cylindrical, the antennz
are almost filiform, longer than the head “and thorax,, with their inferior
joints shorter than the others, and the four anterior tibiz toletably thick,

but slightly elongated, angular and straight. "These Insects have a uniform

COLEOPTERA. AL

but very brilliant colour, green, golden, or a fulgid-red, with a slight mix- |

ture of violet. ) tty,
There are three subgenera, Megalopus, Orsodacna and Psammecus.

The second tribe, or that of the CriocrRIDEs, is distinguished
from the preceding by the mandibles, the extremity of which is
truncated or presents two or three teeth, and by the ligula, whieh } is:
entire or but slightly emarginated.

It is composed of the genus : oe: a0
Criocertis, Geoff. a By i
Which is now divided into Donacia,; Heemonia, Petauristes, Crioceris pro- yee
per, &c. fis e : by
FAMILY VI.
CYCLICA. we é

In our sixth family of the Tetramera, where the three first joints
of the tarsi are still spongy, or furnished with pellets beneath, with
the penultimate divided into two lobes, and where the antenne are
filiform or somewhat thicker towards the end, we observe a body a
usually rounded, and in those few where it is oblong, with the base war
of the thorax of the width of the elytra and maxillz, whose exterior
division, by its narrow, almost cylindrical form and darker colour,.
has the appearance of a palpus; the interior division is broader and
destitute of the little squamous nail. The ligula is almost squareor
oval, entire or widely emarginated. \
These Insects are generally small, and are frequently ornamented
with brilliant and metallic colours; their body is smooth or destitute
of hairs. They are mostly slow and timid, letting themselves fall
to the ground the moment we attempt to seize them, or folding their age
antenne and feet close to their body. Several species are good i
jumpers. The females are extremely prolific. |
If we take into consideration the different habits of their larvs,
we will find that the Cyclica are divided into four principal sections:
In the first, or the Casstpartm, the antennz are inserted in the
superior part of the head, and are approximated, straight, short,
filiform and almost cylindrical, or gradually enlarged towards the
extremity. The mouth, altogether underneath, and with short and
3 C rR

¥ ee

ee

whe

»
x “

ee
HF %

ae «INSECTA. an

almost Sliforet palpi, is sometimes arched and sometimes ‘partly re-
-ceived into the cavity of the presternum. The eyes are ovoid or
round. "The legs are contractile and short, and the tarsi flattened;
- the lobes_of the penultimate joint completely enclose the last.

The body being flat above, these Insects, owing to the disposition
of their tarsi, are enabled to glue themselves to the surface of leaves
and to remain there without motion; besides this, the body is most
commonly orbicular,or oval, and overlapped all round by the thorax —

“and elytra. The head is concealed under the thorax, or received

into its anterior emargination. ‘Their colours are various, and are
prettily distributed in the form of spots, points, and streaks. Such
of their larve as are known:to us cover themselves’ with dirt.

“The Cassidaria are composed of two genera. In the first, or

Hispa, Lin.

The PB isiay 3 is oblong, the head is entirely exposed and free, and the thorax

forms a trapezium. The mandibles have but two or three teeth; the exte-
rior maxillary lobe is shorter than the inner one; theantennz are filiform
and pectinated anteriorly.’ The Hispe properly so called, have short man-
dibles terminated by two or three small and almost equalteeth. America

_ produces a great number of species. In some the superior surface of the

body, and even a portion of the antennz, are densely spinous.

- ' Cassipa, Lin. Fab.
The Casside are distinguished from the Hispz by the following characters.

The body is orbicular or almost ovoid, and in some few nearly square.
The thorax, more or less semicircular, or forming the segment of a circle,

entirely conceals and covers the head, or encloses it in an anterior emargi-

nation. The elytra, frequently elevated in the region of the scutellum,
project beyond the body. The mandibles present four teeth at least, and
the exterior maxillary lobe is at least as long as the inner one.

In the second tribe, or the CurysomEeLin#, the antenne are re-
mote, and inserted before the eyes, or near their internal extremity.

» » These Insects never leap. Those species in which we find the
, above mentioned characters, form, as in the earlier entomological
; works of Fabricius, two genera. ‘The first, or

CRYPTOCEPHALUS,
Is cuighhele of Chrysomeline, in which the head is plunged vertically
into an arched or hood+like thorax, in such a manner that the body, most
commonly in the form of a short cylinder, ot almost ovoid and narrowed

ig COLEOPTERA.

anteriorly, when viewed from above, appears as i ;

tremity and destitute of a head. The antennz of some are more or less,
serrated or pectinated; those of others are long and filiform, The last

joint of the palpi is always ovoid. —
: ~ * #

CurysomeELa.
The body is usually ovoid or nearly oval, and the head dafient: projecting,
or simply inclined; where the antenne are simple, about half the length of

the body, and most frequently granose and insensibly enlarged towards
the extremity. —~ a

C. populi, L. . Length from five to six rere oval, oblong, and blue; ely-.

tra fulvous or red, and the inner angle of their extremity marked with a
black dot. On the Willow and Poplar; its larva lives on the same trees,
and frequently in society. *

”

In the third and last tribe of the Cyclica, that of the Gaterucira,
we find antennz always at least as Jong as the half of the body, of
equal thickness throughout, or insensibly thicker towards their ex-
tremity, inserted between the eyes, at but little distance from the
mouth, and usually approximated at base, and near a small longitu-
dinal carina. The maxillary palpi, thickest about. the middle, ter-
minate in two joints, in the form of a cone, but opposed or united
at base, the last short, and either truncated or obtuse or pointed.
The body is sometimes ovoid or oval, and sometimes almost he-
mispherical. In several, and particularly the smaller species, the
posterior thighs are very stout, which enables them to leap.

This tribe is composed of the genus |

GALERUCA,

Which is divided into two principal sections; those which are destitute of
the power of leaping or the Isopoda, and the Jumpers or the Anisopoda.

G. calmariensis. Three lines in length; yellowish or greenish above; three |

black spots on the thorax; another with a stripe of the same colour on each
elytron.—This species, together with its larva, is found on the Elm; in Cer-

tain seasons, when unusually abundant, it strips these trees of their foliage, . «

and does as much mischief as certain caterpillars.

The jumping Galerucitz, or those whose posterior thighs are inflated: 4

and which are distributed by Fabricius among the genera Chrysomela, Gale-
ruca and Crioceris, are united in one, that of Altiea or Haltica, in the systems
of Geoffroy, Olivier and Illiger. These Insects are very small, but are orna-
mented with various or brilliant colours; they jump with great quickness
and to a very great height, and frequently destroy the leaves of those plants
on which they feed. Their larve devour the parenchyma, and there un-
dergo their metamorphosis. Certain species, those particularly which are

_

420 | INSECTA.”

commonly termed garden fleas, are very injurious i in both states to our

kitchen gardens. Of all countries, South America furnishes the =e
number. z

ALTICcA, Lat.

In the true Altice the head is salient, and the posterior tibiz are truncat-
ed at their extremity and without any particular prolongation or forked

spine; the tarsus originates from this extremity, and its length is not equal

to half that of the tibia. '

A. oleracea. About two lines in length; oval, elongated; green or bluish;
a transverse impression on the thorax; elytra finely punctured. On vege-
tables. It is the largest of the European species.

FAMILY VII.
. CLAVIPALPI.

The Insects of our seventh and last family of the Tetramera are
distinguished from all those of the same section, having, like them,
the under part of the three first joints of the tarsi furnished with
brushes and the penultimate bifid, by their antennez, which are ter-
minated in a very distinct and perfoliated club, as well as by their
maxille, armed on the inner side by a nail or corneous tooth. In
some few, the joints of the tarsi are entire, but they are removed
from the other Tetramera with analogous tarsi by their body, which
is almost globular and contracts into a ball.

Their body is most commonly of a rounded form, and frequently
even very convex and hemispherical; the antennz are shorter than
the body, the mandibles emarginated .or dentated at the extremity,
and the palpi terminated by a large joint; the last joint of the max-
illary palpi is very large, transversal, compressed, and almost lunate.
The form of their organs of manducation shows them to be gnawers,
and in fact the species indigenous to Europe are found in the Boleti
which grow on the trunks of trees, under their bark, &c.

Some have the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobate, and do not
contract themselves into a ball.

They may be reunited in the single genus —

tae
2

Erotyuvs, Fab.

In the Erotyli properly so called, the intermediate joints ofthe antennz are
almost cylindrical, and the club, formed by the last ones, is oblong; the in-
terior and corneous division of their maxille is terminated by two teeth.

421

They are peculiar to Sout 4

iy es oe ae

In the fourth section of the Coleoptert.: that of the Trmera,
there are but three joints to all the tarsi. The Trimera form three
families. ‘Those of the two first are closely related to the last of

the Tetramera. Their antennz, always composed of eleven joints,
terminate in a club formed by the three last, which is compressed ~

and in the form of a reversed cone or triangle. The first joint of
the tarsi is always very distinct; the penultimate is usually bilobate,

and the last, which presents a knot-at base, is always terminated by |
two hooks. The elytra entirely cover the abdomen and are not

truncated.

FAMILY I. |
FUNGICOLZ. , ,

{In our first family of this section we obserye antennz longer than
the head and thorax united, an oval body, and a trapezoidal thorax.
The maxillary palpi are filiform or a little thicker at the end, but
are terminated by a very large and securiform joint. The penulti-
mate joint of the tarsi is always deeply bilobate.

This family may be reduced to one great genus.

Evmorputs,

In the Eumorphi proper, the club of the antennz is abrupt, compact,
strongly compressed, and in the form of a reversed triangle. The maxil-
lary palpi are filiform, and the two last joints of the labials united form a
triangular club.

They are all peculiar to America and the East Indies.

FAMILY II.
APHIDIPHAGI. ©

This family consists mostly of Insects which have an almost hem-
ispherical body, and. a very short, transversal, and almost lunate
thorax. Their antenne terminate in a compressed and obconical
club, composed by the three last joints, and are shorter than the
thorax. The last joint of the maxillary palpi is very large and se-

boos

en ps :
422 po ENSBORA.

curiform, tend the penultimate joint of the tarsi is rey
bilobate.
In the other Trimera of the same family, the joints of the tarsi
are simple, and the penultimate at least is slightly bifid, which, with
some other characters, distinguishes these Insects from the’ Fun-
_Bicole. oe Ree et

a, : Cocdrmenxa. |
rs i 4 ig In Coccinella proper, the body i is ahiiod’ hemispherical, the thorax very
: short, almost lunate, the margin not recurved or but very slightly, and the
-_- penultimate joint of the tarsi profotindly bilobate.
“ a Various species of this genus are extremely common on the trees and
“plants of our gardens, and frequently in our houses; they are known by the
ue names of Cow-bug, Lady-bug, &c. They feed on Aphides, their larve,
Od __ which in form and their metamorphoses greatly resemble those of the Chry-
somelz, employing the same aliment. .
f vier There, the body is much flattened, in the form of a shield, and the head
2. is concealed under an almost semicircular thorax. The antenne present
distinctly but nine joints, and terminate in an elongated club. The joints
of the tarsi are entire. The presternum forms a sort of chin-cloth ante-
riorly. Such are the characters of the genus

“idee

Ciypraster, Andersch.

They are found.under the bark of trees, and under stones. 2
Rr ai! FAMILY IIL.
Z Mie PSELAPHII,

These Insects, which constitute our third and last family of the
Trimera, in their short and truncated elytra that only cover part of
the abdomen, bear a certain resemblance to the Bachelytra, and
particularly to the Aleocharz. This last part of their body, how-
ever, is much shorter, wide, very obtuse and rounded posteriorly.
The antenne, terminated by a club or thicker towards the extre-
_-*_ mity, sometimes consist of but six joints. The maxillary palpi are
usually very large, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire; the first,
' much shorter than the following ones, is scarcely visible at the first

glance, and the last is most commonly terminated by a simple hook.

They are found on the ground under the ete, of vegetable mat-
ters; some inhabit certain ant-hills.
Those which have eleven joints in the sncguale > form the genus

COLEOPTERA. ie

Bib cueiy Renee: a eg gill
In the last of the — we observe this pesuiliviy inetiamenne con+
sist of but six joints, or even one. Fey form the genus

_Cravierr,

Where ‘the antennz. ontath of six distinct joints, ‘These Insects cee no
apparenteyes, The maxillary palpi are very short, without distinct articu- _
lations, and with two terminal hooks. The two first joints of the tarsiare =
very short; the third and last is very long, with a single hook at the |
extremity. é dn.“
These Psclaphii a are font pidénettines ta bageeth localities, and even in ie
the hills of certain small, yellow Ants.

as

2

. *

ORDER VI. auch |
ORTHOPTERA (1) ae ve sh

In the Insects of this order, we find the body generally less indu-
rated than in the Coleoptera, and soft, semi-membranous elytra fur-
nished with nervures, which, in the greater number, do not join at
the suture in a straight line. Their wings are folded longitudinally,
most ‘frequently i in the manner of a fan, and divided by membranous
nervures running in the same direction. The maxille are always. oe
terminated by a dentated and horny piece covered with a galea, an one
appendage corresponding to the exterior division of the maxille of |
the Coleoptera. They have also a sort of tongue or epiglottis. 1%

The Orthoptera undergo a semi-metamorphosis, of which all the a
mutations are reduced to the growth and development of the elytra
and wings, that are always visible in a rudimental state in the nymph.
As.both this nymph and the larva are otherwise exactly similar to
the perfect Insect, they walk and feed in the same way. :

The mouth of the Orthoptera consists of a labrum, two mandi-
bles, as many maxillee, and four palpi; those of the jaws alwayshave ~~
five joints; whilst the labials, as in the Coleoptera, present but three, a
The mandibles are always very strong and corneous, and the ligula |
is constantly divided into two or four thongs. The form of the an- .
tenne varies less than in the Coleoptera, but they are usually com- =

_ (1) Straight-winged. ~

424 INSECTA.

posed of a greater number of joints. Several, besides their reticu-
lated eyes, have two or three ocelli. The inferior surface of the
first joints of the tarsi is frequently fleshy or membranous. Many
females are furnished with a true perforator formed of two blades,
frequently enclosed in a common envelope, by means of which they —

deposit their eggs. The posterior extremity of the body, in most of

them, is provided with appendages.

All the known Orthoptera, without exception, are terrestrial,
even in their two first states of existence. Some are carnivorous
or omniverous, but the greater number feed on living plants.

We will divide the Orthoptera into two great families.

In those which compose the first, all the legs are similar, and only
adapted for running,—they are the Cursoria or runners, . In those
which constitute the second, the posterior pair of thighs are much

larger than the others, thereby enabling them to leap. Beside this,

the males produce a sharp or stridulous noise—they are the Salta-
toria or jumpers. i

FAMILY I.
CURSORIA.

In this family the posterior legs, as well as the others, are solely

‘adapted for running. . Almost all these Insects have their elytra and

wings laid horizontally on the body; the females are destitute of a
corneous ovipositor. They form three genera: in the first or the

\ Forricuta, Lin.

There are three joints in the tarsi; the wings are plaited like a fan, and
folded transversely under very short and crustaceous elytra with a straight
suture; the body is linear, with two large, squamous, mobile pieces, which
form a forceps at its posterior extremity.

These Insects are very common in cool and damp places, frequently
collect in troops under stones and the bark of trees, are very injurious to

‘our cultivated fruits, devour even their dead congeners, and defend them-

selves with their pincers, which frequently vary in form, according to the
sex. Ithas been thought that they insinuate themselves into: the ear, and
to this they owe their name of Ear-wigs.

Buarta, Lin.

_ Cockroaches have five joints to all the tarsi. The wings are only plaited

et wet Oe We or?

‘ORTHOPTERA, 425,

longitudinally, the head is concealed wader the plate of the thorax, andthe
body oval, orbicular and flattened. ee

The Blatte are very active nocturnal Fact, some of which live in the
interior of our houses, particularly the kitchen, in bake-housés and flour
mills; the others inhabit the country. They are extremely voracious, and
consume all sorts of provisions.

Mantis, Lin.

Here also we find five joints in all the tarsi, and wings simply plaited lon-
gitudinally; but the head is exposed and the body narrow and elongated.

They also differ from the Blatte in their short’ palpi terminating in a
point, and in their quadrifid ligula.

These Insects, which are only found in southern and temperate climates,
remain on plants or trees, frequently resemble their leaves and branches in
the form and colour of the body, and are diurnal. Some of them are ra-
pacious and others herbivorous. Their eggs are usually enclosed in a

capsule formed of some gummy substance which hardens by exposure to”

the air, and divided internally into several cells; it is sometimes in the form
of an oval shell, and at others in that of a seed, with ridges and angles, and.
even bristled with little spines. The female glues it on. a pom onan
body raised above the earth.

M. religiosa, L.. So called from the position to which it raises its anterior
legs or arms, which resembles that of supplication. The Turks entertain a
religious respect for this animal, and another species is held in still greater
veneration by the Hottentots.

In the others, the anterior legs resemble the following ones. The eyes.
are simple, very indistinct, or null; and the first segment of the trunk is
shorter, or at most as long as the following one..

These Insects have singular forms resembling twigs of trees or leaves,,
They appear to feed exclusively on vegetables, and like several Grylli are
coloured like the plants. on which they live. There is frequently a great
difference between the sexes. :

They form the subgenus

SrzcTrum, Stoll,
Which has been again divided into others.

FAMILY Il. _
SALTATORIA.

The posterior legs of the Insects which compose our second fa-

mily of the Orthoptera, are remarkable for the largeness of their
thighs, and for their spinous tibie, which are adapted for saltation.

3D

426 = INSECTAS

~The males summon their mates by a stridulous noise, vulgarly
termed singing. This is sometimes produced by rapidly rubbing
against its antagonist an interior and more membranous portion of
each elytron which resembles a piece of talc. It is sometimes ex-
cited by a similar motion of their posterior thighs upon the elytra
and wings, acting like the bow of a violin.

The greater number of the females deposit their eggs in the eaith,

This sty is ie of the genus

Gaines Lin.

This great genus which formerly comprised the various Insects commonly
termed here Grasshoppers, Crickets, Katy-dids, &e., is now divided into
various ? Vahey and subgenera. Among the most moted of these we have

GiboacRites, fiat

‘Where the tibie and tarsi of the two anterior legs are wide, flat and
dentated, resembling hands, or are adapted for digging. The other tarsiare
of the ordinary form, and terminated by two hooks; the antennz are more
slender at the end, elongated'and multiarticulated.

G. vulgaris.. (The Mole-Cricket). Length one inch and a half; brown
above, reddish-yellow beneath; anterior tibiz with four teeth; wings double
the length of the eyltra. | ‘This species is but too well: known by the mis-
chief it effects in gardens and cultivated grounds. It lives in the earth,
where its two anterior legs, which act like a saw and shovel, or like those
ofa Mole, open a passage for it. ~ It cuts arid'separates the roots of plants,
but not so much for the purpose of eating them as to clear its road, for it
feeds, asit appears, on Worms and Insects. The cry of the male, which is
only heard at night, is soft and agreeable.

In June and July, the female digs a rounded, smooth, subterranean cavity,
about six inches in depth, in which she deposits from two to four hundred
eggs; this nest, with the gallery that leads to it, resembles.a bottle with a
curved neck. The young remain together for some time.

AcrYpIUM proper.

They fly by starts, and to a considerable height. The wings are fre-
quently very prettily coloured, particularly with red and blue, as observed
in several species that inhabit France. The thorax, in some of those that
are foreign to Europe, frequently exhibits crests and large warts, ina word,
a singular variety of forms.

- Certain aesric, called by travellers Migratory Locusts(1), sometimes

(1) The pupil must not allow himself to be deceived by names. This
Insect is what we commonly calla Grasshopper. The Locust,so called in
this country, is a totally different Insect, and belong to another order. See
Hemiptera, genus Cicada or Teitigonia. Am. Ed.

ORTHOPTERA. ee ’ 427

eee eoee

unite in incaculable spill and cnnipaiter eset ling in their passage

through the air, a thick and heavy cloud; wherever they alight all signs of —

vegetation quickly disappear, and a desert is speedily created. Their
death frequently forms another scourge, as the air becomes poisoned by
the frightful mass of their decomposing bodies.

M. Miot; in his excellent translation of Herodotus, has given it as his
opinion, that the heaps ¢f bodies of winged Serpents which that historian
states he saw in Egypt, were nothing more than masses of this species of
Acrydium. In this I perfectly agree with him.

‘These Insects are eaten in various parts of Africa, where the inhabitants
collect them for their own use and for commerce. They take away their
elytra and wings and preserve them in brine. _

A considerable part.of Europe is frequently devastated by the

A. migratorius. Length two inches and a half; usually green, with ob-
scure spots; elytra light brown spotted with black; a low crest on the thorax,
The eggs are enveloped in a frothy and glutinous flesh-coloured matter,
forming a cocoon, which the Insect is said to glue to some plant. Commies
in Poland.

The south of Europe, Barbary, Egypt, &c., are frequently devastated in
like manner by other species, some of mhich are rather larger.

ORDER VII.
-HEMIPTERA.(1)

The Hemiptera, according to our system, terminate the numerous
division of Insects which are provided with elytra, and of all those,
are the only ones which have neither mandibles nor maxille pro-
perly so called. A tubular, articulated, cylindrical, or conical ap-
pendage curved inferiorly, or directed along the pectus, haying the
appearance of a kind of rostrum, presents along its superior surface,
when raised, a groove or canal from which may be protruded three
rigid, scaly, extremely fine, and pointed sete, covered at base by a
ligula. These setee, when united, form a sucker resembling a sting,
sheathed in the tubular apparatus we have just described, where it
is kept in situ by the superior ligula placed at its base. The infe-
rior seta consists of two filaments which are united into one at a

(1) Half-winged, the Ryngota, Fab.

428 INSECTA.

little distance from their origin, so that in reality the sucker is com-
posed of four pieces. a

The mouth of Hemipterous Insects is only adapted for extracting
fluids by suction; the attenuated stylets of which the sucker is form-
ed, pierce the vessels of plants and animals, and the nutritious fluid,
being successively compressed, is forced into the internal canal, and
thus arrives at the cesophagus. The sheath of this apparatus is at
these times frequently bent into’an angle, or becomes geniculate.
These Insects, like other is an are furnished with salivary
vessels. :

In most of the Insects which compose this order, the elytra are
‘coriaceous or crustaceous, the posterior extremity being membran-
ous and forming a sort of an. appendage to them; they almost always
decussate; those of the other Hemiptera are simply thicker and
larger than the wings, semi-membranous, like the elytra of the Or-
thoptera, and sometimes opaqueand coloured, sometimes transparent
‘and veined. ‘There are a few longitudinal plicew in the wings.

Several have ocelli, of which, however, there are hrequantly but
two.

The Hemiptera exhibit the same forms and habits in their three
_ states. The only change they experience consists in the develop-
ment and growth of the volume of the body.

I divide this order into two sections.

In the first, that of the Herrroprera, Lat., the rostrum arises
from the front; the elytra are membranous at the extremity, and the
first segment of the trunk, much larger than the others, alone forms
the thorax. The elytra and wings are always horizontal or slightly
inclined. This section is composed of two families. _

FAMILY I.
GEOCORISZA.

In this family the antennz are exposed, longer than the head, and
inserted between the eyes, near their internal margin. There are
three joints in the tarsi, the first of which is sometimes very short.

It forms the genus

Cimex, Lin.
This genus (an example of which may be found in our common Sguash-

+ Se

HEMIPTERA, 429
bug) is now divided into forty or more subgenera. We all know but too
well that of Crwex proper.
In Cimex proper the body is yey flat, but the iutentimn terminate ee
ruptly in the form ofaseta. a:
C. lectularius, L. It is pretended that: this Insect, vulgarly termed the =
Bed-bug, did not exist in England previous to the fire of London in 1666, La
and that it was transported thither in timber from America. With respect
to the continent of Europe, however, we find that it is mentioned by
Dioscoridesy It has also been asserted that this species sometimes acquires _
wings. It likewisés harasses young Pigeons, wallows, &e.; but that which —
lives on eer latter hss appears to me to” i

i

| FAMILY 1 I.
HYDROCORISZ.

Tn our second family of the Hemiptera, the antennz are ipertediow $489
and concealed under the eyes; “a are shorter than the head, or.
hardly as long. |

All these Insects are aquatic, carnivorous, ‘and seize ‘Gtheel with —
their anterior legs, which flex on themselves and act as pincers,
They sting severely.

Their tarsi present but one or two joints. Their eyes are in ge-

. heral remarkably large. » eae

Nepa, Lin.

Or the Aquatic Scorpions. This genus is now variously divided. In —
Nepa proper, the anterior tarsi have but one joint, and the four posterior
ones two, and where the antenne appear forked. The rostrum is curyed
beneath; the cox of the two anterior legs are short, and their thighs much |
wider than their other parts. wi;
Their body is narrow and elongated and almost elliptical. Their abdomen
is terminated by two sete which enable them to respire in the oozy and
aquatic localities at the bottom of which they live. Theireggs resemble the
seed of a plant of an oval figure, crowned with a tuft of hairs.
The other subgenera of the Nepides are Galgulus, Naucoris, Belostoma, &c. _
The others—Wotonectides—have their two anterior legs simply curved
underneath, with thighs of an ordinary size, and the tarsi pointed and
densely ciliated, or similar to those of the posterior ones. Their body is
almost cylindrical or ovoid, and tolerably thick or less depressed than in the
preceding Insects. Their posterior legs are densely ciliated, resemble oars,
and are terminated by two very small and rather indistinct hooks. They

ae ~

430 INSECTA. _

ao
aad . ih

swim or row with ales swiftness, and frequently while on Geir back.
They compose the genus

Noronrecta, Lin.
. Which has peep divided into Coarm and Noronecra proper.

- “The décond. section ols the Hemiptera, that of the Homorrena,

Oe Lane ty distinguished from the preceding one by the following char-

acters: the rostrum arises from the lowest portion of the head, near
the pectus, or even from the interval between the two anterior legs:
_the elytra—almost always tectiform—are of the same consistence
throughout and semimembranous, sometimes almost similar to the
wings. ‘The three segments of the trunk are united en masse, and
the first is frequently shorter than the second.

All the Insects of this section feed exclusively on vegetable juices.
‘The females are provided witha scaly ovipositor, usually composed
of three dentated blades, and lodged in a groove with two valves.
“They use it as a saw to produce openings in plants in which they
deposit theireggs. The last Insects of this section experience a

sort of complete metamorphosis. |
_ I will divide it into three families.

agi

FAMILY I.
CICADARLE.

This family ‘comprises those which have triarticulated tarsi, and
usually very small, conical, or fusiform antennz, composed of from
ie three to six joints, the extremely attenuated seta which terminates
“them included. The females are provided with a serrated ovi-

positor.
i Some—Singers—have antennz composed of six idem and three
ae Peel. | ,

ae
a et

-

+ oly ae SG is
af oP) Oe of

Crcapa, Oliv.— Tettigonia, Fab.
These Insects, (our Locusts), of which the elytra are almost always trans-
- parent and veined, differ from the following ones, not only i in the composi-
tion of their antennz and the number of the ocelli, but in the absence of
the faculty of leaping, and in the music of the males; which, in heat of
summer, the epoch of their appearancé, produce that loud and monotonous

~

HEMIPTERA. a? 431 |

%,
Se :
sound which has ae authors to designate mom by the name of Canta- y
trices or Singers. eee - BE:

The organs by which it is effected are situated on each side of the base~
of the abdomen; they are internal, and each one is covered by acartilaginous
plate, which closes like a shutter. The cavity which encloses this appa-
ratus is divided into two cells bya squamous and triangular septum. When
viewed from the side of the abdomen, each cell presents anteriorly a white
and plaited membrane/and lower down, in the bottom, a tight, thin, trans-
parent membrane, which Réaumur terms “/e mirior.”” If this part of the
body be opened aboye, another plaited membrane is seen on each side,
which is moved by an extremely powerful muscle composed of numerous,
strai at, and parallel fibres, and arising from the squamous septum. This oe
mem rane is the tymbal. The muscles, by rapidly contracting and relax- “
ing, act on the tymbals, alternately tightening and restoring them to their
original state. Such is the origin of these sounds, which.can even be pro-
duced after the death of the Insect, by jerking the muscle. .

The Cicadz live on trees or shrubs, of which they suck the juices. The
_ female, by means of an ovipositor enclosed in a bilaminated, semitubular —

‘sheath, and composed of three narrow, elongated, squamous pieces, two of = “a

which terminate in the form of a file, pierces the dead twigs to the medulla, — 8 bist

ie

‘in which she deposits her eggs. As the number of the latter is considera- —
ble, she makes several holes, indicated externally by as many elevations. _
The young larve however leave their asylum to penetrate into the earth,
‘where they grow and experience their metamorphosis. Their anterior

legs are short, have very stout thighs armed with teeth, and are adapted for cht r
digging. The Greeks ate the pupz, which they called Aeaeneica, and a ae
even the perfect Insect. a
The C. orni, by wounding the tree from which its specific, name is de- — ce egh
rived, produces that peculiar honey-like and purgative juice called manna. an: :
C. orni, L. _ About an inch long; yellowish; pale beneath, the same =— ;
colour mixed with,black above; margin of the abdominal segments, russet; =
two rows of blackish points on the elytra, those nearest their inner margin ih

the smallest. South of prance, Italy, &c.

\

The other aaidarkes-sMnten--hosa but three distinct joints in
the antenne, and two small ocelli. Their legs are usually adapted ae ‘
for leaping. Neither of the sexes is provided with organs of sound. = He

The elytra are frequently coriaceous and opaque. Several fe- *§
males envelope their egemmrnh a white substance resembling cotton.

Some of thtme—Fisloodili shale the antennz_ inserted immediately un-
der their eyes, and the front frequently prolonged in the form of a snout, ~
the figure of which varies according to os species. By this we distinguish
the genus ee

arms - “
x Tet

432 , INSECTA.

Fouteora, Lin. Oliv. ~
Now variously subdivided.
In the last of the Cicadariz, the antennz are inserted between the eyes;
they compose the genus *

a : CICADELLA.
Which is divided into Membracis, Tragopa, Darnis, &c. &c.

FAMILY II.
APHIDIL.

The second family of the homopterous Hemiptera, or the fourth
of the order,’ is distinguished from the ‘preceding one by the tarsi,
which are composed of but two joints, and by the filiform-or setace-
ous antenne, which are longer than the head; and have from : six to
eleven joints. ”

Those individuals which are winged always have two elytra and
two wings.

These Insects are very small; their body is usually soft, and their
elytra are nearly similar.to the wings, or only differ from them in
being larger and somewhat thicker. They are astonishingly. pro-

lific.

Here the antennz are composed of from ten to eleven joints, the last of
which is terminated by two setz.
They possess the faculty of leaping, and Seni the genus

Psyxxa, Geoft.—Chermes, Lin.

These Hemiptera, also called pseudo-aphides, or faux-pucerons, live on the
trees and plants from which they derive their nourishment; both sexes are
furnished with wings. Their larve usually have a very flat body, broad
head, and the abdomen rounded posteriorly. Their legs are terminated by
a little membranous vesicle accompanied beneath with two hooks. Four
wide and flat pieces, which are the sheaths of the elytra and. wings,
distinguish the nymph.. Several in this state, as well as in the first, are
covered with a white substance resembling cotton, arranged in flakes.

The ah Aphidii have but six or eight joints in the antenne;.
the last is not terminated by two sete.

Sometimes the elytra and wings are linear, fringed with hairs, and
extended horizontally on the body, which is almost cylindrical; the

HEMIPTERA. 433

rostrum is very small or but little distinct. ‘The tarsi are terminated
by a vesicular joint without hooks. The antenne consist of eight
graniform joints. Such are the Insects which form the genus

Turrrs, Lin.

They are extremely agile, and seem to leap rather than fy. When we irri-
tate them beyond a certain point, they turn up the posterior extremity of

their body in the manner of the Staphylini. They live on flowers, plants, —

and under the bark of trees. The largest species scarcely exceed one line

in length. i

Be Metiines the elytra ea wings, éyal or triangular, and witight
a fringe of hairs along the margin, are inclined or tectiform. The
rostrum is very distinct, The tarsi,are terminated by two hooks,
and the antenne have but six or seven joints. Such is the genus.

APHIs, Lin.

In Dobie properly : so called, the antennz are longer than the thorax, and con-.

sist of seven joints, the third of which is elongated; the eyes are entire,
and there are two horns or mammille at the posterior extremity of ae ab-
domen.

_ Almost all Aphides live in society on trees and plants, of which they .

“suck 'the juices with their trunk. ‘The two horns observed at the posterior
extremity of the abdomen ina great number of species are hollow tubes
from which little globules of a transparent, honey-like fluid frequently ex-.
ude, on which the Ant eagerly feeds.

The wounds inflicted on the leaves or tender twigs of plants, by ‘Aphidees oe

cause those parts of the vegetable to assume a variety of forms, as may be

observed on the shoots of the Lime tree, the leaves of Gooseberry bushes, A

Appletrees, and particularly those of the Elm, Poplar and Pistachio, i in which
they produce vesicles or excrescences enclosing colonies of Aphides, and
frequently an abundant saccharine fluid. Most of these Insects are covered
with a farinaceous substance, or cotton-like filaments, sometimes. arranged
in bundles. The larve of the Hemerobii, those of several ‘Dipters, and of
Coccinellz, destroy immense numbers of Aphides;

A. quercus,L. Brown; remarkable for its rostrum, which is at least ,

thrice as long as the body.
A. fagi, L. Completely covered with white down SRN 2 cotton.

3 E

aa

434 ' INSECTA.

Te) yee FAMILY IIL
& GALLINSECTA.

* In this last family there are but five joints in the ‘aii, with a
single. hook at the extremity. The male is destitute of a rostrum,
and has but two wings, which are laid horizontally on the body,
one over the other; the abdomen is terminated by two sete. The
‘female is apterous and provided with a rostrum. The antenne are
filiform or setaceous, and most commonly composed of eleven
joints.

ne hey constitute the genus:

Cocovs, Lin.

The bark of various trees is frequently covered with a multitude of little
oval or rounded bodies, in the form of fixed shields or scales, in which, at
the first glance, no external organs indicative of an Insect are perceptible.
These bodies are nevertheless animals of this class and belong te the
genus Coccus. Some are females, and the remainder young males, the
form of both being nearly similar. An epoch, however, soon arrives in
which all these individuals experience singular changes. They then be-
come fixed; the male larve for a determinate period, requisite for their
ultimate metamorphosis, and the females for ever. If we observe the latter
in the spring, we shall find that their body gradually increases to a great
volume, and finally resembles a gall-nut, being sometimes spherical, and at
others reniform or scaphoid. The skin of some is smooth and level, that
of the remainder presents incisures or vestiges of segments. .They slip
their eggs between the skin of their abdomen, and a white down which
covers the spot they occupy. Their body then becomes desiccated and
forms a solid crust or shell which covers their ova. Other females protect
theirs by enveloping them with a white substance resembling cotton.
Those which are spherical form a sort of box for them with their body.
. The young Cocci have an oval body, much flattened and furnished with
the same organs as that of the mother. They spread themselves over the
leaves, and towards the end of autumn approach the branches, on which
they place themselves to pass the winter.

The Gallinsects appear to injure trees by a superabundant sudoresis
through the punctures they make in them, and of course those who culti-
vate the Peach, Orange, Fig and Olive are particularly on their guard against
them. Certain species fix themselves to the roots of plants. Some are
valuable for the rich red colour they furnish to the art of dyeing. Further
researches on these Insects might eventuate in se discovery of others which
would prove of similar utility.

> “ed
ae a

HEMIPTERA. : 435

6. cacti, L. (The Cochineal Faslsets Female of a ‘deen Seah covered
with white dust, flat beneath, convex above, and bordered; the annuli are
tolerably distinct at first. The male is of a deep red, with white wings.

This Insect is cultivated at Mexico, on a species of Opuntia, es is cele-
brated for the crimson dye it furnishes, which, by being combined with
the solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid, producesa scarlet. It is also from
this Insect that we obtain carmine. It is one of the richest productions of
Mexico.

ORDER VIII.
NEUROPTERA(1).

. The Neuroptera are distinguished from the three preceding or-
ders by their two upper wings, which are membranous, generally
naked, diaphanous, and similar to the under ones, in texture and
properties. They are distinguished from the eleventh and twelfth
by the number of these organs, as well as by their mouth, fitted for
mastication or furnished with mandibles and true maxillz, or in other
words organized as usual, a character which also removes this order
from the tenth or that of the Lepidoptera, where, besides, the four
wings are farinaceous. The surface of these wings in the Neurop-
tera is finely reticulated, and the under ones are most.commonly as
large as those above them, but sometimes wider, and sometimes nar-
rower and longer. Their maxille and the inferior portion of their
labrum or the mentum are never tubular. The abdomen is destitute
of a sting and rarely furnished with an ovipositor.

Their antennz are usually setaceous, and composed of numerous
joints. They have two or three ocelli. The trunk is formed of
three segments, intimately united in a single body, distinct from the
abdomen, and bearing the six legs; the first of these segments is
usually very short, and in the form of a collar. The number of
joints in the tarsi varies. The body is usually elongated, and with
rather soft or but slightly squamous teguments; the abdomen is al-

ways sessile. Many of these Insects are carnivorous in their first bee

state and in their last.

(1) Nerve-winged.

436 INSECTA.

Some merely experience a semimetamorphosis, the rest a com-
plete one; butthe larve always have six hooked feet, which they
usually employ i in seeking their food.

I will divide this order into three families, which will successively
present | to us the following natural affinities:

1. Carnivorous Insects, subject to a semimetamorphosis, with
aquatic larva. _ |

2. Carnivorous Insects, subject to a complete metamorphosis,

with aquatic or terrestrial larve.
_ 3. Carnivorous or omnivorous terrestrial Insects, subject to a
‘semimetamorphosis.

4, Herbivorous Insects, subject to a complete metamorphosis,
with aquatic larve, which construct portable dwellings.

We will end with those species in which the wings are the least
reticulated, and which resemble Phalena or Tineites.

ores
ch
"id n

fd rs Fie . FAMILY I.
| SUBULICORNES, Lat(1).

‘The antennz are subulate, and hardly longer than the head; they
are composed of seven joints at most, the last of which is setaceous.
The mandibles and the maxillz are completely covered by the lab-

rum and labium, or by the anterior and projecting extremity of the
head. . :

The wings are always Peticilaied and distant, sometimes laid ho-
rizontally and sometimes placed perpendicularly; the inferior are as
“large as the superior, ot sometimes very small and even wanting.
The ordinary eyes are very large and prominent in all of them; and
they all have two or three ocelli situated between the former. The
two first periods of their life are passed in the bosom of the waters,
where they prey on living animals.

The larve and pup which approximate in form to the perfect
Insect, respire by means of peculiar organs situated on the sides or
extremity of the abdomen. They issue from the water to undergo
their ultimate chrguigl dace

(1) Awl-shaped horns.

NEUROPTERA. 437

In some the mandibles and maxille are corneous, very strong, and cover-
ed by the two lips; the tarsi are triarticulated; the wings are equal, and the
posterior extremity of the abdomen is simply terminated by poghes or aga
niform or foliaceous appendages: They form the genus -

Lipeniu.a, Lin. Geoff.

Or Driggs Flies. The Aight and graceful figure of these Insects, # ‘the beau-
tiful and variegated colours with which they are adorned, their large wings
resembling lustrous gauze, and the velocity with which they pursue the
Flies, Ker, that.constitute their food, attract our attention and enable us to _
recognize them with facility. Their head is large, rounded, or in the form %
of a broad triangle. They have two great lateral eyes andthree ocellisitu-
ated on the vertex; two antenne, &c. The female deposits her eggsin: the —
water. >
_ The i ae the chrysalides inhabit the water until the period of thelf he
ultimate metamorphosis, and, with the exception of wings, are tolerably —
similar to the perfect: Insect. Their head, however, on which the simple
eyes are not perceptible, is remarkable for the singular form, the piece
which replaces the lower lip. It is a kind of mask that covers 1 7 _mandi-
bles, maxillz, and almost the wholeunder part of thehead.
Having attained the period of their ultimate metamorphosis, cha nymphs s
issue from the water, climb along the stems of plants, fix there, and ‘divest
themselves of their ee) : 4

2 4

é ss Cate. Fab. . Y
Or Libellula proper, where the wings are extended horizontally when
at rest. The head is almost globular, with very large, contiguous or closely — ,
approximated eyes, and a vesicular elevation on the vertex, with an ocellus
on each side; te other or anterior ocellus is much larger. . — i

Asuna, Fab.

The shnz resemble the Libellule proper in their mode of the their
wings, and i ‘the form of their head, but their two posterior ocelli are
placed ona simple transverse clevation in the form of a carina. The in-
termediate lobe of the Jabium is also larger, and the two others are distant
and armed with a very stout tooth and spiniform agence The abdo-
men is always narrow and elongated.

The abdomen is terminated by five appendages, but one e of them i is trun- ..
cated at the end. _ ee
JE. grandis. One of the largest species of this family, being nearly two

inches and a half (French) indength; fulvous-brown; two yellow lines on
each side of the thorax; abdomen. spotted with green or yellowish; wings
iridescent. It darts with amazing rapidity over meadows, and along the
shores of rivers, &c., pursuing Flies in the manner of the Swallow. ie?

ee eee y

| a INSECTA.

=

Aenrron, Fab.

“Where the wings are elevated perpendicularly when at rest, the head is
transversal, and the eyes are distant.

The other Subulicornes have an entirely membranous or very soft mouth,
composed of parts that are rather indistinct. Their tarsi consist of five
joints; their inferior wings are much smaller than the superior, or even
wanting, and their abdomen is terminated by two or three sete.

They form the genus

CAE Lin.

So called from their short term of life, in their perfect state. Their body
is extremely soft, long, tapering, and terminated posteriorly by two or three
long and articulated sete. The antennz are very small and composed of
three joints, the last of which is very long, and in the form of a conical
thread. The wings of those Insects are always placed perpendicularly, or
slightly inclined posteriorly, like those ofan Agrion.

The Ephemera usually appear at sun-set, in fine weather, in summer and
autumn, along the banks of rivers, lakes, &c:, and sometimes in such in-
numerable hosts that after their death the surface of the ground is thickly
covered with their bodies; in certain districts cart-loads of them are collected

‘for manure. The descent of a particular species—the albipennis—re-
markable for the shortness of its wings, recals to our minds a heavy fall of
snow.

These Insects (our May-Flies) collect in flocks in the air, flitting about
and balancing themselves in the manner of the Tipule, with the terminal
filaments of their tail divergent.

The continuation of their species is the only fawottolk thiad animals have
to fulfil, for they take no nourishment, and. frequently die on the day of
their metamorphosis, or even within a few hours after that event. Those
which fall into the water become food for Fishes, and are styled manna by
fishermen. on

If however we trace them back to that period in which they existed as
larve, we find their career to be much longer, extending from/two to three
years. In this state, as well as that of seminymphs, they live in “water, fre-
quently concealed, at least during the day, in the mud or under stones,

“sometimes in horizontal holes divided interiorly into two united canals, each
with its proper opening. These habitations are always excavated in clay,
bathed by water, which occupies its cavities; it is even supposed that the
larvz feed on this earth.

_ The seminymph only differs from the larva in the presence of the cases
which enclose the wings. When the moment of their development has ar-
rived, it leaves the water, and having changed its skin, appears under a new
form—but, by a’ very singular exception, it has still to experience a second
change of tegument.

The ultimate exuvium of thesé¢ Insects is frequently found on trees and

NEUROPTERA. _ 439

walls; they sometimes even leave them on the clothes of persons who me
be walking in their vicinity.

FAMILY .
PLANIPENNES. (1)

This family comprises those Neuroptera in which the antennae,
always multiarticulated, are much longer than the head, without
being subulate or styliform. ‘Their mandibles are very distinct;
their inferior wings almost equal to the superior ones, and extended
or simply folded underneath at their anterior margin.

Their wings are almost always much reticulated and naked; their
maxillary palpi are usually filiform or somewhat thicker at the ex-
tremity, shorter than the head, and composed of from four to five
joints. s
I will divide: this family into five sections, which, by reason of
the habits of the Insects that compose them, form as wey way
sub-families. _ y,

1. The PANORPATE of Latreille, which have five joints to all the
tarsi, and the anterior extremity of their head prolonged and nar-
roved. in the form of a rostrum or proboscis.

na constitute the genus

* - Panorpa, Lin. Fab.

Where the antennz are setaceous and inserted between the eyes; the cly-
peus is prolonged into a conical, corneous lamina, arched above to cover
the mouth; and the mandibles, maxille and labiumare almost linear. They
have from four to six short, filiform palpi.
‘Their body i is elongated, the head vertical, the first segment of the trunk

usually very small, in the form of a collar, and the abdomen conical or al-
most cylindrical.

There is much difference between the two sexes in several species.
Their metamorphoses have not yet been observed.

P. communis, L. From seven to eight lines in length; black; rostrum

and extremity of the abdomen russet; wings spotted with black—On
hedges and in woods. .

2. ‘he Mvrmexzonrpzs, which also have five joints in the tarsi,

(1) Flat-winged.

440 INSECTA.

but their head is not prolonged anteriorly in the form of a rostrum
or snout; their antenna gradually enlarge or have a globuliform
termination.

Their head is transverse, vertical, and merely presents the ordi-
nary eyes, which are round and prominent; there are six palpi, those
of the labium usually longer than the others, and inflated at the ex-
tremity. The palate of the mouth is elevated in the form of an
epiglottis; the first segment of the thorax is small; the wings are
equal, elongated, and tectiform; the abdomen is most frequently
long and cylindrical, with two salient appendages at its extremity
in the males. The legs are short.

They are found in the warm localities of the southern’ countries,
clinging to plants, where they remain quiescent during the =
Most of them fly well. The nymph is inactive.

These insects form the genus

Mvyrmeteon, Lin a

In Myrmeleon proper, the antennz enlarge insensibly, are almost fusiform,
are hooked at the extremity, and much shorter than the, boby; the abdomen
is long and linear.

M. formicarium, L. About an inch long; blackish spotted with yellow-
ish; wing's diaphanous, with black nervures picked in with white; some
obscure spots, and one whitish, near the extremity of the anterior margin.

The number of Ants destroyed by the larva of this species, which is the
most common one in Europe, has obtained for it the name of Formica-leo,
Lion-ant, or Fourmilion. Its abdomen is extremely voluminous in compa-
rison to the rest of the body.’ Its head is very small, flattened, and armed
with two long mandibles in the form of horns, dentated on the inner side
and pointed at the extremity, which act at once as pincers’ and suckers.
Its body is greyish or of the colour of the sand in which it lives, Although
provided with six feet, it moves very slowly and almost always backwarks.
Thus, not being able to seize its prey by the celerity of its motions, it has
recourse to stratagem; and lays a trap for it in a funnel-shaped cavity which
it excavates in the finest sand, at-the foot of a tree, old walls, or acclivities
exposed to the south. It arrives at the intended scene of its operations by
forming a ditch, and traces the area of the funnel, the size of which is in
proportion to its growth. Then, always moving backwards, and describing
as it goes, spiral convolutions, the diameter of which progressively dimin-
ishes, it loads its head with sand by means of one of its anterior feet, and
jerks it to a distance. In this manner, and sometimes in the space of half
an hour, it will remove a reversed cone of sand the base of which is equal
in diameter to that of the area, and the height to about three-fourths of the
same. Hidden and quiescent at the bottom of its retreat, with nothing visi-

NEUROPTERA. 441

ble but its mandibles, it awaits with patience till an Insect is precipitated
into it; if it endeavour to escape, or be at too great a distance for it to seize,
it showers upon it such a‘torrent of sand by means of its head and mandi-
bles, as propels it stunned and defenceless to the bottom of the hole-
Having exhausted its juices by suction, it jerks away the carcass.

When about to pass into the state of a chrysalis, it encloses~itself in a
perfectly round cocoon, formed ofa silky substance of the colour of satin,
which it covers externally with grains of sand.

There is a genus separated from it by Fabricius called Ascalaphus.

a

3. The Hemerostnt of Latreille, which are similar to the Myr-
meleonides in the general form:of their body and wings; but their
antenne are filiform, and they have but four palpi.

They form the genus

Hemerostivs, Lin. Fab.

The body of the true Hemerobiiis soft, and the globular eyes are frequently
ornamented with metallic colours; the wings are large, and their exterior
border is widened. They fly slowly and heavily; several diffuse a strong _
odour, with which the finger that has touched them remains for a long
time ia ates

The female deposits ten or twelve eggs on leaves; they’ bi are oral white,
and secured by a very long and capillary pedicle. Some authors have
mistaken them for a species of mushroom. ‘The larve bear a considerable
resemblance to those of the preceding division; they are, however, more
elongated and errant. Réaumur calls them Lions des Pucerons, because
they feed on Aphides. They seize them with their horn-like mandibles,
‘ and soon exhaust them by suction. Some form a thick case for themselves
of their remains, which gives them a very singular appearance. The
nymph is enclosed in a silken cocoon of an.extremely close tissue, the
volume of which is very small when compared with that of the Insect. The
fusi of the larvz are situated at the posterior extremity of the abdomen, like
those of the larve of the Myrmeleonides.

Hi. perla,L. Green-yellow; eyes golden; wings transparent with entirely
green nervures.

In others the first segment of the thorax is large, and the wings
are laid horizontally on the body; the palpi are filiform, and the last
joint is conical or almost cylindrical, and frequently shorter than the
preceding one. The larve are aquatic. They form the genus

Sempuiis, Fab.

Which is composed of three subgenera, viz. Corydalis, Chaulhodes, and
Sialis.

3 F

442 | “INSECTA.

4. A fourth division, that of the TermiTina#, will comprise Neu-
roptera subject to a semi-metamorphosis. They are all terrestrial,
active, carnivorous, or gnawers, in all their states. With the ex-
ception of the Mantispx, very distinct from all the Insects of this
order, by the form of their anterior legs, which resemble those of a
Mantis, the tarsi consist of four joints at most, which removes them

from the preceding genera of the same family. The mandibles are
always corneous and strong. ‘The inferior wings are nearly as large
as the superior ones, and without folds, or smaller.

Mantispa, Illig.

Where there are five joints to all the tarsi, and the two first legs are
formed like those of a Mantis or adapted for prehension. The antenna of
these Insects are very short and granose, and their eyes large. The pro-
thorax is very long, and thickened anteriorly, and the wings are tectiform.

Ruapuipra, Lin. Fab.

Where the tarsi are composed of four joints and the wings are tectiform.
The head is elongated and narrowed posteriorly, the thorax long, narrow,
and almost cylindrical. The abdomen of the female terminates by a long
external oviduct, formed of two laminz.

Termes, Hemeropivs, Lin. _

Where all the tarsi are likewise composed of four joints; but the wings are
very long, and laid horizontally on the body; the head is rounded, and the
thorax almost square or semicircular.

The body of these Insects is depressed, and theif antenng are short and

formed like a chaplet.. The mouth is almost similar to that of the Orthoptera,
and the labium is quadrifid. They have three ocelli, one of which, on the
forehead, is indistinct; the two others are situated, one on each side, near the
inner margin of the ordinary eyes.. Their wings are commonly somewhat
diaphanous, coloured, furnished with extremely fine and crowded nervures,
and not very distinctly reticulated. . Their abdomen has two small, contral,
biarticulated points at the extremity; the legs are short.

The Termites, peculiar to the countries situated between the tropics, or
to those which are adjacent, are known by the name of White Ants, Poux
de bois, Caria, &c. ‘The appalling destruction caused by these Insects,
particularly in the state of larvz, in those parts of the world, is but too
well known. These larve, the working Termites or labourers, bear a close
resemblance to the perfect Insect; but their bodyjis softer and apterous,
and their head, which appears proportionally larger, is usually destitute of
eyes, or has but very small ones. They live in society, and form communi-
ties, so numerous as to defy all calculation, which live under cover in the
ground, trees, and all sort of ligneous articles, such as tables, chairs, furni-

NEUROPTERA. fois 443

ture of all kinds, and the planks, timbers, &c. &e. which form parts of houses.
There they excavate galleries, which form so many roads, all leading to the
centre of their domicil, and these bodies thus mined, and retaining nothing
but a superficial bark or covering, coon crumble into dust. If compelled
by any insurmountable obstacle to leave their dwellings, they construct
tubes or ways which still keep them from sight. The nests or domicils of
several species are exterior, but have no visible opening. Sometimes they
are raised above the surface of the ground, in the form of pyramids or tur-
rets, occasionally surmounted with a capital or very solid roof, which, by
their height and number, resemble a little village. Sometimes they form
a large globular mass on the branches of trees. Another sort of individuals,
the neuters, also called soldiers, defendthe domicil. They are distinguished
by their stouter and more elongated head, the mandibles of which are
also longer, narrower and considerably crossed. They are much less nu-
merous than the others, and remain near the surface of the habitation, are
the first that present themselves in case of an attack, and pinch with con-
siderable strength. It is also said that they force the labourers to work.
The seminymphs have rudiments of wings, and in other respects resemble
the larve.

Having become perfect Insects, the Termites leave their original retreat,
and fly off at evening or during the night in incalculable numbers. At
sunrise, they lose their wings, which, are dried up, fall to the ground, and
are mostly devoured by Birds, Lizards, and the rest of their enemies.

In the remaining Termetine the tarsi are biarticulated, and the labial
palpi indistinct and very short. The antennz consist of about ten joints,
the first segment of the trunk is very small, and the inferior wings are
smaller than the others. They form the genus © |

Psocus, Lat. Fab.

And are very small Insects with a short and extremely soft body that is
frequently inflated, or as if hump-backed. Their head is large, their an-
tennz setaceous, and the maxillary palpi salient. Their wings are tecti-
form and but slightly reticulated or simply veined. They are extremely
active, and live under the bark of trees, in wood, &c. The following spe-
cies is commonly found in books and collections of Insects and plants.

P. puisatorius. Usually apterous; yellowish white; eyes and ‘some small
spots on the abdomen, russet. It was thought to produce that faint noise
resembling the tick of a watch frequently heard in our houses, and of which

we have spoken while on the genus Anobium—thence the origin of its spe-
cific name,

5. The Prruipzs, in which the tarsi are triarticulated, and the
mandibles almost always partly membranous and small. The infe-
rior wings are wider than the others, and doubled at their inner
margin. |

444° INSECTA.
They comprise the genus

Prertia, Geoff.

Their body is elongated, narrow and flattened; the head is tolerably large,
the antennz are setaceous, and the maxillary palpi very salient. The first
segment of their trunk is nearly square, and the wings are crossed and laid
horizontally on the body; the abdomen terminates as usual by two articu-
Jated setz. :

‘Their larve are aquatic and inhabit sheaths or cases, which they construct
in the manner of those formed by the Insects of the ensuing family, and in
which they pass into the state of nymphs.

FAMILY III.
PLICIPENNES(1).

In this family the mandibles are wanting, and the inferior wings
are usually wider than the others, and plaited longitudinally. It is
formed of the genus

Purycanea, Lin. Fab.

‘These Neuroptera at a first glance, have the appearance of little Phalz-

_nz, and hence the name of Mouches papillonacées or papillonaceous flies,
bestowed upon them by Réaumur. The body is most frequently bristled
with hairs, and, with the wings, forms an elongated triangle, like several of
the Noctuz and Pyrales. The first segment-of the thorax is small. The
wings are simply veined, usually coloured, or almost opaque, silky or pilose
in several, and always strongly teetiform. The legs are elongated, are
furnished with small spines and have five joints in all the tarsi.

These Insects chiefly fly at night or during the evening, diffuse a disa-
greeable odour, frequently penetrate into houses, where they are attracted
by the light, and are extremely quick and agile in all their motions. The
smaller species flit about in flocks over ponds and rivers.

Their larvz, always, like the Tinez, inhabit tubes that are usually cylin-
drical, covered with various substances which they find in the water, such
as blades of grass, bits of reeds, leaves, roots, seeds, grains of sand, and
even little shells, and frequently arranged symmetrically. They connect
these various bodies with silken threads, the source of which is contained
in internal reservoirs similar to those of Caterpillars, and that are also pro-
duced by fusi situated in the lip. The interior of the habitation forms a

_ tube which is open at both ends for the intromission of water. The larva

(1) Folded-wings.

NEUROPTERA. 445

always transports its domicil along with it, protrudes the anterior extremity
of its body while progressing, never quits its dwelling, and when found to
do so, returns to it voluntarily when left within its reach.

When about to become nymphs, they fix their tubes to different bodies,
but always in water, and close the two orifices with a grating, the form
of which, as well as that of the tube itself, varies according to the species.
In fixing their portable dwelling, they so manage it that. the aperture,
which is at the point d’appui, is never obstructed.

The nymph is furnished anteriorly with two hooks, which cross each
other and somewhat resemble a rostrum or snout. With it, when the pe-
riod of its last metamorphosis has arrived, it perforates one of the grated
septa in order to procure egress.

Hitherto immovable, it now walks or swims with agility, by means of its
four anterior feet, which are free; and furnished with thick fringes of hairs.
The nymphs of the large species leave the water altogether, and climb on
various bodies, where their final change is effected. The small ones
simply rise to the surface, where they are transformed to winged Insects, in

the manner of the Culices and various Tipulariz; their exuvium serves them
‘for a boat.

There are several subgenera.

ORDER IX.
HYMENOPTERA(I).

In this family we still find four membranous and naked wings, and
a mouth composed of mandibles, maxilla and two lips; but these
wings, of which the superior are always largest, have fewer ner-
vures than those of the Neuroptera, and are not veined; the abdo-
men of the females is terminated by an ovipositor or sting.

Besides their compound eyes they are all provided with three
ocelli. Their antenne vary, not only according to the genus, but
even in the sexes of the same species; generally, however, they are
filiform or setaceous. ‘The maxille and labium are usually narrow,
elongated, and fixed in a deep cavity of the head by long muscles,
form a semitube inferiorly, are frequently folded up at their extre-
mity, and better adapted for the transmission of nutritious fluids than
for mastication; in several they forma proboscis. The ligula is

(1) Membrane-winged.

446 INSECTA.

membranous, either widened at its extremity, or long and filiform,
having the pharynx at its anterior base, and being frequently covered
by a sort of sub-labrum or epipharynx. They have four palpi, two
maxillary and two labial. The thorax consists of three united seg-
ments, of which the anterior is very short and the two last are con-
founded in one. The wings are laid horizontally on the body. ‘The
abdomen is most commonly suspended by a little thread or pedicle
to the posterior extremity of the thorax. The tarsi consist of five
entire joints, none of them being divided. Theovipositor and sting
are generally composed of three long and slender pieces, two of
which serve as a sheath to the third in those which are provided
with an ovipositor, and one alone, the superior, has a groove under-
neath for lodging the two others. In those where this ovipositor is
transformed into a sting, this offensive weapon and the oviduct are
serrated at the extremity.

The Hymenoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis. Most
of their larvae resemble worms and are destitute of feet; such, for
instance, are those of our second and following families. Those of
the first have six hooked feet, and frequently from twelve to sixteen
others that are simply membranous. ‘These latter have been named
pseudo-caterpillars. Both kinds have a squamous head provided
with mandibles, maxille, and a lip; at the extremity of the latter is
a fusus for the transmission of the silky material that is to be em-
ployed in constructing the cocoon of the nymph.

Some feed on vegetable substances, while others, always destitute
of feet, devour the carcases of Insects, together with their larve,
nymphs, and even eggs.

‘To remedy their want of locomotive powers, the mother furnishes
them with provisions, sometimes by transporting aliment into the
nests she has prepared for them, which are frequently »constructed
with so much art as to excite our wonder and surprise, and some-
times by depositing her eggs in the body of the larve and nymphs
of Insects, on which her progeny are to feed. |

Other larve of Hymenoptera, also destitute of feet, require more
elaborated and frequently renewed supplies of aliment, both vegeta-
ble and animal. These are reared in common by neuters forming
communities, of which they have the sole care; their labours and
mode of life will always continue to excite our admiration and as-
tonishment.

HYMENOPTERA. 447

Almost all Hymenopterous Insects, in their perfect state, live on
flowers, and are usually most abundant in southern climates. Their
period of life, from their birth to their ultimate metamorphosis, is
limited to a year.

I will divide this order into two sections.

The first, or that of the Terepranrra, is characterized by the
presence of an ovipositor in the females.

I divide this section into two great families.

"&

FAMILY I.
SECURIFERA(1).

Our first family is distinguished from the following ones by a sess-
ile abdomen, or the base of which is joined to the thorax throughout
its whole thickness, that seems to be acontinuation of it, and to have
no separate motion.

The females are provided with an ovipositor that is most com-
monly serrated, and which not only enables them to deposit their
eggs, but likewise to prepare a place for their reception. The
larves always have six squamous feet, and frequently others that are
membranous.

This family is composed of two tribes.

In the first, that of the Tenrurepinetas, vulgarly termed Saw-
flies, we observe elongated and compressed mandibles; a trifid or
sort of digitated ligula; .an ovipositor formed of two serrated, point-
ed blades, united and lodged ina groove under the anus. The —
maxillary palpi are all composed of six joints, and thé labials of
four; the latter are always the shortest. The wings are always di-
vided into numerous cells. This tribe forms the genus

TrenTHREDO, Lin.

The cylindrical abdomen of these Insects which is rounded posteriorly,
composed of nine annuli, and so closely joined to the thorax that the two
seem to be continuous; the ragged appearance of their wings; the two little
rounded, granular, ahd usually coloured bodies situated behind the scutel-
lum, together with their heavy port, cause them to be easily recognized.

The abdomen of the female presents at its inferior extremity a double,

(1), Hatchet bearers. :

oD Sage INSECTA.

movable, squamous ovipositor that is serrated, pointed, and lodged between
two concave laminz, forming its sheath or case.

‘It is by the alternate action of the teeth of this ovipositor, that the In-
sect makes a number of little holes in the branches, and various other parts
of trees and plants, in each of which it first deposits an egg, and then a
foaming liquid, the use of which, it is presumed, is to prevent the aperture
from closing. The wounds made in this way become more and more con-
vex by the increasing size of the egg.: Sometimes these excrescences
assume the form ofa gall-nut, either ligneous or soft and pulpy, or resemble
a little fruit, according to the nature of the parts of the plant that are affect-
ed by them. ‘These tumours then form the domicil of the larve which in-
habit them either solitarily or in society. There they undergo their meta-
morphosis, and issue from them through a circular opening made in their
parietes by the teeth of the Insect: Generally speaking, however, these
larvez live exposed on the leaves of the trees and plants on which they feed.

T. scrophulariz, L. Five lines in length; black; antennz fulyous and
somewhat thickest at the extremity; annuli of the abdomen, the second and
third excepted, margined posteriorly with yellow; tibie and tarsi fulvous.
It resembles a Wasp.

The larva has twenty-two feet; white, with black head and points, It
feeds on the leaves of the Scrophulariz.

There are various subgenera belonging to this tribe, such as Cimbez,
Hylotoma, &c.

The second tribe, that of the Urocrrata, Lat., is distinguished
from the preceding one by the following characters: the mandibles
are short and thick; the ligula is entire; the ovipositor of the females
is sometimes very salient and composed of three threads, and some-
times capillary and spirally convoluted in the interior of the ab
domen.

This tribe is composed of the genus

Strex, Lin.

The antennz are filiform or setaceous, vibratile, and formed by from ten
to twenty-five joints. ~The head is rounded and almost globular; the labrum
very small; the maxillary palpi are filiform with from two to five joints, and
the labials with three, the last of which is the thickest. The body is almost
cylindrical. The anterior or posterior tarsi, and in several the colour of
the abdomen, differ according to the sex. The female deposits her eggs
in old trees, most commonly in Pines. Her ovipositor is lodged at base
between two valves, forming a groove.

In Sirex proper, the antenne are inserted near the front and consist of
from thirteen to twenty-five joints. The extremity of the last segment of
the abdomen is prolonged into asort of tailor horn, and the ovipositor is
salient and formed of three filaments.

HYMENOPTERA. 449

These Insects, which are tolerably large, more particularly inhabit the
Pine forests of cold and mountainous countries, produce in flying a hum-
ming like that of a Bombus, &c., and in certain seasons have appeared i in
such numbers as to strike the people with terror.

_ FAMILY IL.
- PUPIVORA(1).

In the second’ family of the Hymenoptera we find the abdomen
attached to the thorax by a simple portion of its transversal diame-
ter, and even most frequently by a very small thread or pedicle, in
such a manner that its insertion is very distinct, and that it moves
on that part of the body. The females are provided with an ovi-
positor.

The larve are destitute of feet and mostly parasitical and carni-
vorous.

I divide this family into six tribes.

In the first, that of the Evanzauzs, Lat., the wings are veined,
and the superior ones, at least, are lobate; the antennz filiform or
setaceous, and composed of thirteen or fourteen joints; the mandi-
bles dentated on the inner side; the maxillary palpi composed of six
joints, and the labials of four. The abdomen is implanted on the
thorax, in several under the scutellum, and has an ovipositor usually
salient and formed of three filaments.

This tribe appears to form but the single genus

Fenvs.

Sometimes the ovipositor is concealed, or but very slightly salient, and
resembles alittle sting. The ligula is trifid, a character which md caen ct
these Insects to the preceding Hymenoptera.

In the second tribe, that of the Icunzumontprs, the wings are
also veined, the superior ones always presenting complete or closed

cells in their disk. ‘The abdomen originates between the two pos- .

terior legs. The antennz are generally filiform or setaceous, rarely
clavate, vibratile, and multiarticulated, being composed of sixteen
joints at least. In most of them the mandibles have no tooth onthe

(1) Pupzx-eaters.
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.

gt 450 ae INSECTA.

a “lee side, and terminate in a bifid point. The maxillary palpi,
always: apparent or salient, consist most commonly of but five joints.

The ovipositor is formed of three threads.
This tribe embraces almost the whole genus

Icnnrumon, Lin.(1)

‘These tn Indects destroy the posterity of the Lepidoptera, so noxious to the

agriculturalist under the form of caterpillars, just as the quadruped so call-

__ edis said to destroy that of the Crocodile by breaking its eggs, and even
_ by introducing itself into the body of the animal in order to devour its en-

trails.

Some authors have called them Mouches tripiles, on account of. the three
sete which compose their ovipositor, and Mouches vibrantes, because their
antennz are continually vibrating. These organs are frequently curled
(contournées), and have a white or yellowish annular spot in the middle.
The body is most frequently narrow and elongated or linear, with the ovi-
positor sometimes exterior and resembling a tail, and sometimes very short
and concealed in'the interior of the abdomen, which then terminates in a
point, whilst in those where the ovipositor is salient, it is thicker, and as if
clavate and truncated posteriorly. Of the three pieces which compose this
instrument the intermediate isthe only one that penetrates into the bodies in
which these Insects deposit their eggs; its extremity is flattened, and some-
times resembles the nib of a pen.

The females, anxious to lay, are continually flying or Panne about, in
order to discover the larve, nymphs, and egg’s of Insects, and even Spiders,
Aphides, &c., destined to receive their ova, and when, hatched, to sustain
their offspring. In this search they exhibit a wonderful degree of instinct,
which reveals to them the most secret retreats of its objects. ‘Those which
are provided with a long ovipositor deposit the germs of their race in the
fissures or holes of trees, or under their bark. In this operation the ovi-
positor proper is introduced almost perpendicularly, and is completely dis-

‘engaged from its semi-scabbards, which remain parallel to each other, and

supported in the air, in the line of the body. Those females in which the
ovipositor is very short, and but slightly or not at all apparent, deposit their
ova in the body of larvz, caterpillars, and nymphs, which are exposed or
very accessible.

The larve of the Ichneumonides, like all the others of the succeeding
families, are destitute of feet. Those which, in the manner of intestinal
worms, inhabit the bodies of larve or caterpillars, where they sometimes
form communities, only attack the adipose substance—corps graisseux—or
such of the internal parts as are not necessary to their existence. When
about to become nymphs, however, they perforate their skin in order to

“Ty

(1) This genus comprises upwards of faapiee hundred species, ra its study
is extremely difficult.

SHE: - hh
a

it : - ty

see ie

HYMENOPTERA. | ot 2 a - @,

Sey 4

%
open a passage, or put them to death, and there Neangalliy thieeo their —

ultimate metamorphosis. Such also are the habits of those which feed ae oe e ae
nymphs or chrysalides. Nearly all of them spin a silken cocoon, in which - 5

they become nymphs. These cocoons are sometimes ‘agglomerated, either
naked, or enveloped in asort of tow or cotton, in an oval mass, frequently
found ‘attached to the stems of plants. The symmetrical arrangement of
the cocoons of one species forms an alveolar body, resembling the honey-
comb of our domestic Bee. The silk of these cocoons is sometimes of a

uniform yellow or white, and sometimes mixed with black oy filamentsof =
two colours. Those of some species are suspended to a leaf or x twigs by TP

means of a long thread.
- There.are various subgenera belonging to this tribe.

In the second tribe, the GaLLicotz, wefind but a single nervure
in the inferior wings. The antennz are of equal thickness through-
out, or gradually enlarge, but without forming a club, and consist
of from thirteen to fifteen joints. The palpiare very long. The
ovipositor is convoluted spirally in the interior of the abdomen, and
has its posterior extremity lodged in a groove of the venter.

The Gallicolz form the genus

Cxntps, Lin.

These Insects seem to be hump-backed, having a small head and a thick
and elevated thorax. ‘Their abdomen is compressed, carinated or trenchan

inferiorly, and truncated obliquely, or obtuse, at the extremity. That of
the females contains an ovipositor which seems to consist of a single, long,
and extremely slender or capillary thread convoluted spirally near the base
or-towards the origin of the venter, and of which the terminal portion is
lodged under the extremity between two elongated valvule; each of which
forms a semi-scabbard or sheath forit. The extremity of this ovipositor is
grooved, and has lateral teeth resembling the barbs on the head of an arrow;
with these the Insect widens the aperture it has effected in different
parts of plants for the purpose of receiving its eggs. The juices of those
plants are diffused in the wounded spots and form excrescences or tumours
called galls. The one most commonly known, or the gall-nut, Aleppo gall,
is employed with a solution of the sulphate of iron to produce a black dye.
The form and solidity of these protuberances vary according to the
nature of the parts of the plants that have been wounded, such as the
leaves, petioles, buds, bark, roots, &c. Most of them are spherical; some
resemble fruits. Others are fibrousor hairy, like that called the bedeguar,
mousse chevelue, &c., which is observed on the wild Rose-trees. Some of
them resemble artichokes, others mushrooms, &c. &c. The eggs enclosed
in these excrescences increase in size and consistence, and finally produce
larvz destitute of feet, but frequently provided with mammille in place of

hy
pa

452 3 INSECTA.

them. Sometimes they live there solitarily, and sometimes in society,
feeding on their internal parietes without interfering with their develop-
ment, and remaining five or six months in this condition. There also some
undergo their metamorphosis, to effect which, others issue forth and de-
scend into the earth where they remain till their final change is completed.

The round holes observed on the exterior of the gall intimate the exit of
the Insect. Several Insects of the following family are also sometimes
_ found in it, but this hasbeen by destroying the natural inhabitants, of whose
domicil they have taken possession, in the manner of the Ichneumons.

Certain species are apterous. One species deposits its ova in the pollen
of the earliest of the wild Fig-trees. ‘The modern Greeks, in pursuance of
a method transmitted to them from antiquity, pierce several of these figs,
and place them on their late bearing trees of the samme genus; the Cynips
soon leave their old dwelling and come out loaded with the fecundating
dust, insinuate themselves into the eye of the fruit borne by the latter, fe-
cundate its seeds, and accelerate the period of its maturity. This operation
is termed caprification.

C. gall tinctoriz. Very pale fulvous; covered with a silky and whitish
down, with a blackish-brown and glossy spot on the abdomen. In the
round, hard and tuberculous gall found on a species of Oak in the Levant,
which is employed incommerce. By breaking this gall we may frequently
obtain the perfect Insect.

The fourth tribe, that of the Cuatcrprm, Spin., only differs es-
sentially from the preceding one in the antenne, which are
geniculate, those of the Euchares alone excepted, and which, from
the elbow, form an elongated or fusiform club, of which the first
joint is frequently lodged in a groove. ~The palpi are very short.
The number of joints of the antenne never exceeds twelve.

We: may refer the various genera established in this tribe to the
genus

Cuatcts, Fab.

These Insects are very small, and are decorated with extremely brilliant
metallic colours. Most of them enjoy the faculty of leaping. The ovi-
positor, like that of the Ichneumons, is salient and frequently composed of
three threads; the larve are also parasitical. Some of them, on account of
their extreme minuteness, live in the interior of the almost imperceptible
ova of Insects. Others inhabit galls and the chrysalides of the Lene:
I suspect that they do not spin a cocoon.
There are various subgenera.

In the fifth tribe, that of the Oxrurr, Lat., we observe species
similar to the preceding in the absence of nervures in the inferior

HYMENOPTERA. 453

wings, and in which the abdomen of the females is terminated by a
tubular and conical ovipositor, sometimes internal, exertile and pro-
truding like a sting, and sometimes external and forming a sort of
tail or terminal point. The antenns are composed of from ten to
fifteen joints, and are either filiform or somewhat largest near the
end, or clavate in the females. The maxillary palpi of several are
long and pendent.

We reduce the various genera of which it is composed to one, the

ee

Betuytus, Lat. Fab.

The habits of these Insects are probably those of the Chalcidie; but as
most of them are found on the sand or low plants, I suspect that their larve
live in the ground.

In the sixth tribe, or the Curysrpss, Lat., the inferior wings, as
in the three preceding tribes, are not veined; but their ovipositor is
formed by the last rings of the abdomen in the manner of the tubes
of a spy-glass, and terminates in a little sting. ‘The abdomen,
which in the females appears to consist of but three or four rings, is
concave or flat beneath, and can be flexed on the pectus, in which
state the Insect is globular.

This tribe comprises the genus

Curysis, Lin.

The lustre and richness of the colours which decorate these Insects may
challenge a comparison with those of the Humming-birds, and have entitled
them to the common appellation of Golden Wasps, or Guépes dorées. They
are seen walking about in a continued state of agitation, and with hasty
motions, on walls and fences exposed to the burning ardour of the sun.
They are alsofound on flowers. Their body is elongated and covered with
a firm tegument. Their antennz are filiform, geniculate, vibratile, and
composed of thirteen joints in both sexes. The mandibles are narrow, ar-
cuated, and pointed. The ligula is most frequently emarginated. The
thorax is semi-cylindrical, and presents several sutures or impressed and
transverse lines. The abdomen of the greater number forms a semi-oval
truncated at base, and at the first glance seems suspended to the thorax by
its whole width; the last ring is frequently marked by large punctures and
terminates by dentations.

The Chrysides deposit their ova in the nests of the solitary Mason Bees,
or in those of other Hymenoptera. Their larve devour those of the latter.

This genus now forms several subgenera, such as Parnopes, Stilbum,
Elampus, &c.

454 INSECTA.

The second section of the Hymenoptera, that of the Acuna,
differs from the first in the absence of the ovipositor. A concealed
and retractile sting composed of three pieces usually supplies the
place of it in the females, and in the neuters of species which form
communities. Sometimes, asin certain Ants, the sting is wanting,
and the Insect defends itself by the ejaculation of an acid liquid con-
tained in special glandular reservoirs.

The Hymenoptera of this section always have their antennz sim-
ple, and composed of a constant number of joints, namely, of thirteen
in the males, and twelve in the females. ‘The palpi are generally
filiform, those of the maxille, frequently the longest, having six
joints, and those of the labium four. The mandibles are smaller,
and frequently less dentated in the males than in the opposite sex.
The abdomen, united to the thorax by a. thread or pedicle, is com-
posed of seven rings in the males, and of six in the females. The
four wings are always veined.

The larva are always destitute of feet, and feed on alitnele pre-
sented to them by the females or neuters, consisting either of the
bodies of Insects, the juices of fruits, or a mixture of pollen, stamina
and honey.

This section is divived into four families.

FAMILY I.
HETEROGYNA.(1)

The first family of our second section is composed of two or
three kinds of individuals, the most common of which, the neuters
and females, are apterous, and but rarely furnished with very distinct
ocelli.

Their antenne are always geniculate, and ‘the ligula is small,
panded and concave, or cochleariform.

‘Some form communities in which we find three kinds of indivi-
duals, of which the males and females are winged, and the neuters
apterous. In the two last the antenne gradually enlarge, and the
length of their first joint is at least equal to that of the third of the
whole organ; the second is almost. as long as the third, and has the

(1) Those in which the females differ fromh the males or are heterogynous.

ee icy ;

HYMENOPTERA. =» 455

form of a reversed cone. The labrum of the neuters is large, cor-
neous, and falls perpendicularly under the mandibles.

These Hymenoptera compose the genus ; vi ae int x

Formica, Lin.

Or that of the Ants, so highly celebrated for their foresight, and so. well
known, some by their depredations in our houses, where they attack our
sugar and preserved yiands, communicating to them at the same time a
musky and disagreeable odour, and others by the injury they do to our
trees, by gnawing their interior in order to form domicils for their colonies,

The abdominal pedicle of these Insects is in the form of a scale or knot,
either double or single, a character by which they are easily recognized.
Their antennz are geniculate, and usually somewhat largest near the extre-

mity; the head is triangular, with oval or rounded and entire eyes, and the ~

clypeus large; the mandibles are very strong in the greater number, but
vary greatly as to form in the neuters; the maxille and labium are small;
the palpi.are filiform, and those of the maxille the longest; the thorax is
compressed laterally, and the almost ovoidal abdomen furnished, in the fe-

males and neuters, sometimes with a sting, and sometimes with glands that _

4 particular acid called 1 formic.

They form communities which are frequently extremely numerous.
Each species consists of three kinds of individuals: males and females which
are furnished with long wings, less veined than those of the other Hymen-
optera of this section, and very deciduous; and neuters, destitute of wings,
which are merely females with imperfect ovaries. The males and females
are merely found within the domicilin transitu. They leave it the moment
their wings are developed. The females wander to a distance from
their birth-place, and having detached their wings by means of their feet,
found a new colony. Some of those however which aré in the vicinity of

the ant-hills are arrested by the neuters, who force them to return to their-

domicil, tear off their wings, prevent them from leaving it, and force them

to deposit their eggs there—it is thought, however, that they are violently

expelled the moment that operation is effected.

The neuters, which are distinct, not only by the want of wings and ocelli,
but also by the size of their head, the strength of their mandibles, their
more compressed and frequently knotted thorax, and their proportionally
longer legs, have the sole charge of all the economy of the habitation, and
the rearing of the young. The’nature and form of their nests or ant-hills
vary according to the particular instinct of the species. They usually es-

tablish it in the ground; in its construction some only employ :particles of .

earth, and almost entirely conceal it; others seize on fragments of various
bodies and with them raise conical or dome-like hillocks over the spot in
which they are domiciliated. Some establish their dwelling in the trunks
of old trees, the interior of which they perforate in every direction in the
manner of a labyrinth, in which the detached particles are also employed.

456 — INSECTA.

Various and apparently irregular galleries lead to the particular residence
of their young.

The neuters roam abroad in search of provisions, appear to inter-commu-
nicate the success of their labours by the senses of touch and smell, and to
aid and assist each other. Fruit, Insects, or their larve, dead bodies of
small quadrupeds and birds, &c., constitute their food. They feed the
larve with their mouths, transport them in fine weather to the external su-
perficies of the hill, in order that they may receive additional warmth, and |
take them down again on the approach of night or bad weather, defend .
them from their enemies, and look to their preservation with the greatest
fidelity, particularly when the hillis disturbed. They pay equal attention
to the nymphs, some of which are: enclosed in a cocoon, and the others
naked; they tear open the envelope of the former when the moment of their
ultimate metamorphosis has arrived. The name of “Bes is vulgarly: applied
to the larve and nymphs.

Most Ant-hills are wholly composed of individuals of the game species.
Nature, however, has deviated from this plan with respect to the F. roussa-
tre or Amazon-ant, and that which I have called the sanguinea. Their
neuters, by open violence, procure auxiliaries of their own caste, but of
different species, which I have designated by the names of noir-cendrée and.
mineuse. When the heat of the day begins to lessen, and exactly at the ©
same hour, at least for several days, the Amazons or Legionaries quit their
nest, advance ina solid column, more or less numerous or according to the
extent of the population, and march upon the Ant-hill they wish to attack.
They soon penetrate into it notwithstanding the opposition of the inhabit.
ants, seize the larve and nymphs of the neuters peculiar to the invaded
community, and transport them in the same warlike order to their own
domicil, where they are attended to.in common with the posterity of their
conquerors, by other neuters of their own species in a perfect state that
have either been metamorphosed there, or tornfrom their original dwelling.
Such is the composition of the mixed Ant-hills.

It is well known that the Ant is extravagantly fond of a saccharine liquid
that exudes from the bodies of the Aphides and Gallinsects.. Four or five
species convey both these Aphides and their eggs, particularly inbad weather,
to the bottom of their nests, and even fight for the right of possession.
Some construct little galleries of earth, leading from the Ant-hill, which
extend throughout the entire length of trees to the very branches that are
loaded with these Insects.

Both males and females perish towards the close of autumn, or on the
first approach of winter. The labourers pass the winter in their hill in a
torpid state.

This great genus is now divided into various subgenera.

The remaining Heterogyna are solitary Insects. Each species
is composed of but two kinds of individuals, winged males and ap-

terous females; the latter are 6 ays armed with a powerful sting.
The antenne are filiform: or set to) and
third joints are elongated, and the fength : ‘ol
to the third of the total length. of the whole organ. —

They form Bite? e a

“* i

oa Dowfiiss, a ts 4
These es Ory in hot and sandy localities. The female runs
with. great quickness, ‘and is always seen on the ground. The males fre-
quently shen? cage but their mode of life is unknown.

=.*. ramny no.
ee | & | | FOSSORES.(1)

© The second family of this section comprises those Hymenoptera

armed with a sting, in which all the individuals of both sexes are

457

d vibratile; their first and j
the first i is never equal |

; furnished with wings, and live solitarily; in which the legs are ex-

clusively adapted for walking, and in several for digging. The
ligula is always more or less widened at its extremity, and never
filiform or setaceous. The wings are always extended.

They compose the genus

Sruex, Lin.

Most females of this genus place beside their eggs, in the nests they have
_ constructed, most commonly in the earth or in wood, various Insects or
their larve, and sometimes Arachnides, previously pierced with their sting,
to serye as food for their young. ‘The larve are always destitute of feet,
resemble little worms, and undergo a metamorphosis in the cocoon they
have spun previous to becoming nymphs. The perfect Insect is usually
very active and lives on flowers. The maxillz and lip are spt thi and in
the form of a proboscis in many.

The numerous subgenera derived from the rene genus Sphex, are now
distributed into seven principal sections, viz. the Scolietz, Sapigytes, 2
aa Bembecides, Larrates, Nyssones and Crabronites.

ie

( 1) Diggers.

3H re .

ay ee

23

458 INSECTA.

FAMILY Ii.
~DIPLOPTERA.

The third family of the Aculeata is the only one of that section,
in which with but few exceptions we find the superior wings folded
longitudinally. The antennz are usually geniculate and clavate, or
thickest at the end. ‘The eyesare emarginated. ‘The prothorax is
te prolonged behind, on each side, to the origin of the wings. The
body is glabrous or nearly so, and black, more or less maculated
with yellow or fulvous.
Many of these Insects form temporary commiunities composed of
three sorts of individuals, males, females, andneuters. Such of the
females as survive the severity of the winter commence the nest and
take care of the larve. They are subsequently assisted by the neu-
ters. We will divide the Diploptera into two tribes.. The type of
the first, that of the Masaripes, Lat., is the genus

Masaris, Fab.

The antennz at the first glance seem to be composed of but eight joints,
the eighth, with the following ones, forming an almost indistinctly articu-
lated club, rounded or very obtuse atthe end. The ligula is terminated by
two threads which can be withdrawn into a tube formed by its base. There
are but two complete cubital cells in the superior wings. The middle of
the anterior margin of the clypeus is emarginated and receives the labrum
in the notch. é

The second tribe of the Diploptera, that of the VESPARLE, 1 is Com-
posed of the genus

| Vespa, Lin.

Where the antennz always present thirteen distinct joints in the males and
terminate in an elongated, pointed, and sometimes—in the males—hooked
extremity: they are always geniculate, at least in the females and neuters.
The ligula is sometimes divided into four plumose filaments, and sometimes
_ bilobate with four glandular points at the end, one on each lateral lobe, and
_ the remaining two on the intermediate one, which is larger, widened, and
emarginated or bifid at its extremity. The mandibles are strong and den-
tated. The clypeus is large. The females and neuters are armed with an
extremely powerful and venomous sting. Several of them form communi-
ties composed of the three sorts of individuals.

The larvz are vermiform, destitute of feet, and enclosed separately ina

HYMENOPTERA. 459

cell where they sometimes live on the bodies of Insects placed there by the
mother at the time she deposited the egg, and sometimes on the nectar of.
flowers, juices of fruits and animal matters, elaborated in the stomach of
the mother, or that of the neuters, who feed them daily.

Wasps properly so called, unite in numerous societies composed of males,
Semales and neuters. The two last detach particles of old wood or bark
with their mandibles, moisten and reduce them into a pultaceous mass re-
sembling that of paper or pasteboard, and construct combs or nests with it
that are usually horizontal, and suspended above by one or more pedicles;

on the inferior side is a range of vertical cells in the form of hexagonal and —

truncated pyramids. These cells are approximated exclusively to the use —
of the larve and nymphs, a cell to each. The number of combs that com-
pose’this nest varies. Itis sometimes exposed, and at others surrounded
by an envelope, pierced with a common and almost always central opening,
which sometimes corresponds to a series of holes which communicate with
the interior; the combs adhere to the parietes of the envelope, whether
they be in the open air or concealed in the earth or hollows of trees. The
figure of these structures yaries according to the species.

The females commence the business alone, and lay eggs that produce
neuters or labourers, which . assist in enlarging the nest and taking care of
the succeeding young ones. The community is solely composed of these
two kinds of individuals until the beginning of autumn, at which period the
young males and females make their appearance. All the larve and nymphs
which cannot complete their ultimate metamorphosis before the month of
November are put to death and dragged from their cells by the labourers,
which perish along with the males on the approach of winter. Some of
the females survive, and in the spring become the founders of a new colony.

Wasps feed on Insects, viands of various sorts, or fruit, and nourish their
laryz with the juices of these substances. The latter, which on account
of the inferior situation of the mouths of their cells are placed with their
head downwards, shut themselves up and spin a cocoon when about to be-
come nymphs. .

"FAMILY Iv.
ANTHOPHILA, Lat.(1)

The fourth and last family of the Aculeata, in the faculty of col-

lecting the pollen of flowers, usually possessed by the two posterior"

legs, presents a peculiar character which distinguishes it from all

other families of Insects. The first joint of the tarsi of those legs
i

(1) Lovers of flowers.

es y

460 INSECTA. — ;

is very large, strongly compressed, and forms a square palette or a
reversed triangle.

The maxilla and lips are most commonly very long, and compose
a sort of proboscis. The ligula is most frequently shaped like the
head of a lance, or resembles a very long thread, the extremity of
which is downy or hairy. . The larve feed exclusively on honey and
the pollen of flowers. The perfect Insect feeds on the honey. of the
latter only. | |

These Hymenoptera embrace the genus

Apis, Lin.

‘Or that of the pay which I will divide into two sections.

In those of the first or the ANDRENET®, Lat. 1 the intermediate division
of the ligula is cordiform or lanceolate, shorter than its sheath, and bent
-underneath in some, and almost straight in others.

_ These Insects live solitarily, and consist of but two kinds of individuals,
males and females. Most of the females collect the pollen of flowers with
the hairs of their posterior legs, and with the aid of a little honey form it
into a paste (bee-bread), with which they feed their larve. They excavate
deep holes, and frequently in hard ground, along the borders of roads, or
in the fields, in which they place this paste plone. with an egg; they then

-close the aperture with earth.

_ They form various genera, such as Hylxus, Colletes, &c.

Thesecond section of the Anthophila, that of the Apraniam, Lat., com-
prises those species in which the mediate division of the ligula is at least as
‘ong as the mentum or its tubular shield, and is filiform or setaceous. The
maxille and labium are much elongated and.form a sort of proboscis which,
when at rest, is geniculate and bent under.

The Apiariz either live solitarily or form communities.

The former never consist of more than the ordinary number of individuals,
and each female provides singly for her young., The posterior legs of their
females are neither furnished with a brush on the inner side of the first
joint of the tarsi, nor with a particular depression on ‘the exterior side of
their tibie; this side, as well as the same of the first joint of the tarsi, is most
commonly and densely covered with hairs.

One of the most.common genera of this section, vulgarly called Humble-
Bees, is the ‘

~ae aA

Xxrzrocora, Lat. Fab.

The Xylocope resemble large Bombi. Their body is usually black,
‘sometimes partially covered with a yellow down; the wings are frequently
‘violet, cupreous or green, and brilliant. "The «male, in several species,
differs considerably from the female. Their eyes are large and approxi-
‘mated superiorly. Their anterior legs are dilated and ciliated.

e

HYMENOPTERA, 461

X. violacea, L. skit imenaae le black, with violet-black wings, ie ae
a russet ring round the antennz of the male. The female bores a long

vertical hole in the body she has" selected, usually old dry wood exposed
to the sun, and parallel to its surface. It is divided into several cells by
horizontal septa formed with agglutinated raspings of wood. She then,
commencing with the lowest, deposits an egg and some paste in each of
them. . She sometimes bores three canals in the same piece of wood.

There are Several other genera of solitary Apiariz.

The last of the Apiarie form communities composed of males and females

and a considerable number. of neuters or labourers. In the internal face of —
the posterior tibie of these latter individuals is a smooth depression, in —
which they place the pellet of pollen collected with the silken down or

brush attached to the inner side of the first joint of the tarsi of the same
leg. The maxillary palpi are very small and formed of a single joint. The
‘antenne are geniculate.

Sometimes the posterior tibie are terminated by two spines, as in

bearing the two others on its outer side.
These Insects(1) are well known to children, who ‘frequently put them
to death i in order to obtain the honey contained within their body. They

inhabit subterranean nests in communities of fifty or sixty, and sometimes —

of two or three hundred individuals. The society is dissolved on the ap-
proach of winter. It is composed of males, distinguished by their small

size, reduced head, narrow mandibles, bearded, and terminated by two

teeth, and frequently by a difference of colours; of females, which are
larger than the others, furnished with mandibles formed like a spoon, as is

also the case with those of the meuters or labourers; the latter, as to size, are

intermediate between the males.and females. ’

Such of the ordinary females as have escaped the severity of the winter:

take advantage of the first fine weather to construct their nests. One spe-
cies—Apis lapidaria—establishes itself on the surface of the earth under
stones, but all the others form their habitation in it, frequently descending
to a depth of one or two feet, in the way we are about to desctibe. Dry
- plains, fields, and hills are the localities they select. ‘These subterranean

cavities, which are of considerable extent and wider than high, have the.

figure of a dome. The ceiling is constructed with earth and with moss,
carded by these Insects, which they transport there, fibre by fibre, entering
the cavity backwards. A coating of coarse wax is laid over its walls. Some-
times a simple opening, designedly. left at the bottom of the nest, serves

a
a — , pane ag

(1) They are commonly confounded with, the Xylocopz, and are ated
called Humble-Bees.

ofl 7
Bomavs, Lat. Fab. Tay
Where the labrum is transversal, the pseudo-proboscis is much shorter
than the body, and the second joint of the labial palpi terminates in a point,

hae: ak

ig

aga INSECTA. |

_ for an entrance, and then again a winding passage covered with moss, and
afoot or two long, leads to the domicil. The bottom of the cavity is lined
with a layer of leaves, for the accommodation of the brood. The females’
__ first place brown, irregular, mamilliform masses of wax there, called patée
eo ee Réaumur, and which, on account of their shape and colour, he compares
Ace? es truffies. Their internal cavities are destined to enclose the eggs and
; _larve. There the latter live in society until the moment has arrived when
they are to become nymphs; they then separate and spin ovoid and silken
cocoons, laid vertically against each other. In this state the Insect is always —
. “reversed, or, like the female nymphs of the common Bee, with the head
downwards; we always find these cocoons perforated inferiorly, when the
perfect Insects have left them. Reaumur says that the larve feed on the
- wax which forms their dwelling; according to Huber, it merely protects
them from cold and wet, their aliment consisting of a tolerably large quan-
tity of pollen moistened with honey, with which the labourers carefully
_ supply them; when it is consumed they perforate the cover of their cells,
3 furnish them with more, and shutthem up again. They even enlarge them
* ai the increased growth of the larve causes them tobe too much confined.
We also find in these nests three or four small bodies composed of brown
wax, or the same matter as the patée, and shaped like tumblers or almost
d “ eylindrical pots, always open, and more or less filled with good honey.
These reservoirs of the honey are not always placed in the same situation.
The larve are hatched in four or five days after the eggs have been laid,
. a and complete their metamorphosis i in the months of June and J uly. The
ey “‘Jabourers remove the wax that-clogs their cocoon to facilitate their issue,
‘i and. assist the female in her work. The number of cells which serve as
habitations to the larve and. nymphs increases, and. they form irregular
os combs placed.4 in stories, on the edges of which we particularly observe the
brown ‘patée of Réaumur. According to Huber, the labourers are ex-
tremely fond of the ova of the female, and sometimes, in her absence, even
break open the cells in which they are deposited, in order to suck the
milky fluid they contain! a most extraordinary fact, which seems to belie
the known attachment of the labourers for the germs of that race of which —
they are the protectors and guardians. The wax produced by them, ac-
cording to this same naturalist, has the same origin as that of our domestic
Bee, or is merely elaborated honey that also transudes through the intervals
of some of the abdominal annuli.
_ Sometimes the social Apiarie have no spines at the extremity of their
posterio t tibic, as in

Nah
ea”

" Apts, Lat.

Or that of the Bee properly so called, where the first joint of the poste-
rior tarsi of the labourers forms a long square, and is furnished on the inner
side with a silken down divided into transverse or striated bands.

Apis mellifica, L. (The Honey-Bee). Blackish; scutellum and abdomen

HYMENOPTERA. ze 463

of the same colour; a transverse greyish | , formed of down, at the base
of the third and following abdominal ann ahs
The true Bees are much smaller and more scblbnd than the Bombi. Their hon oe
body is merely furnished with down in particular places, and its colours — te ;
vary but little. Their communities consist of labourers or neuters, usually
from fifteen to twenty thousand in number, and sometimes extending to —
thirty thousand; of from six to eight hundred makes, and in some hives of a
thousand and more, ¢alled Drones, and commonly of a single female, ‘con: ae
sidered by the ancientsas the king or head of the community, and tyleea a
queen by us. Zz te me
The Jabourers, smaller than the others, have their ‘antennz composed of
twelve joints, and the abdomen of six annuli; the first joint of the posterior
tarsi, or the square piece, is dilated in the form of a pointed palette, at the
exterior angle of their base, and densely covered on its inner side with short
fine, silky down; they are armed with a sting. The female presents the
same characters, but the abdomen of the labourers is shorter. Their man-
dibles are spoon-shaped, and not dentated. “In the outer side of their px \s a,
terior tibie is that smooth depression edged with hairs, called the corbetlle
or basket. , Nes -.

The males and females are the largest; their mandibles are hairy and —
emarginated under the point; the proboscis is shorter, particularly in the
males. These latter differ from the former and from the labourers in their
antennz, which consist of thirteen joints; in their more rounded head and
_ larger eyes, elongated and united above; in their smaller and more hairy —
mandibles, in the absence of a sting, in the four short anterior legs, of
which the two first. are arcuated, and finally in the Sei prece which oe
neither palette nor silken brush.

The interior of the abdominal cavity of the femalesand hei i
two stomachs, the intestines, and poison sac. A tolerably large ape
situated at the superior base of the proboscis, under the labrum, and closed
by a little triangular piece called langue by Réaumer, the epipharynz of
Savigny, transmits the aliment and leads to.a slender, esophagus that tra-
verses the interior of the thorax, and thence passes to the anterior stomach,
or rather crop, which contains the honey. The following stomach, accord-
ing to Réaumur, contains the pollen or wax-like matter, and has its surface
marked by annular and transverse ruge; in the manner of hoops. This
abdominal cavity of the females contains two large ovaries composed. of
numerous sacculi, each of which encloses from sixteen to ior eagle
According to the observations of Huber, Jun, the inferior ser an
of the abdomen of the labourers, the first and last excepted, have each, on
their internal surface, two pouches in which the wax is secreted and mould-
ed into laminz, that afterwards ooze out theonay the intervals between the
rings.

These obsérvations on the intéFnal anatomy of the Bee, with the excep-.
tion of some few modifications, will apply to the Bombi properly so called.
Wax, according to the experiments of the same naturalists, is nothing more

°

464 | INSECTA.

than elaborated honey, and the pollen mixed with a little of that substance

only serves as food for these Insects and their larvz.

- We have seen that the labourers or working bees resemble the females
in several particulars. Certain curious experiments have proved that they
are of One sex, and that they are merely females that have not been fully
developed in consequence of the nature of the food given to them while in

the state of larve. :

- The substance of which their combs are composed, being ill adapted to
resist the effects of the weather, and as they do not construct a nest or ge-

neral envelope, these Insects can only establish their colonies in cavities

where their work finds a natural shelter. The labourers, which are alone
charged with the work, form those lamine composed of two opposing rows

‘of hexagonal alveoli with a pyramidal base formed of three rhombs. These
alveoli have received the name of cells, and each lamina that. of comb. They

are always perpendicular, parallel, fixed at top or by one of ,the edges, and
separated by spaces which allow the Bees to pass between them. The
cells are thus placed horizontally. Distinguished geometricians have de-
monstrated that their form is the most economical with respect to the ex-
penditure of wax, and the most advantageous as to the extent of the space
contained in each cell. Bees, however, know how to modify this form ‘ac-
cording to circumstances. They cutaway and fit their faces piece by piece.
These cells, with the exception of that proper to the larva and nymph of
the female, are almost equal; some contain the brood, and the remainder

_ the honey and pollen of flowers. Some of the cells containing honey are

open, and the remainder, or those held in reserve, are sealed up with a flat

| : or slightly convex lid. The royal cells, which vary in number from two to

forty, are much larger, almost cylindrical, somewhat narrower at the end, and
have little cayities on their external surface. They usually hang from the
margin of the combs, in the manner of stalactites, so that the larve con-
tained in them are in a reversed position. Some of them weigh as much

nh ‘2 as one hundred and fifty of the ordinary cells. The cells of the males are
of an intermediate size, between those of the preceding and those of the
- Jabourers, and placed here and there. Bees always continue their combs

fromabove downwards. They stop the little chinks and apertures of their
domicil with a species of mastich, which they collect from different trees,
called propolis.

- Bees take care to furnish their larve with patée in quantities proportioned

_ to their age, and on which they cling with their bodies curved into an arc.

Six or seven days after’ they are hatched, they prepare, to undergo their
metamorphosis. Shut up in their cells by the labourers who close the ori-
fice with a convex lid, they line the parieties of their domicil with a tissue of
silk, spin a.cocoon, become nymphs, and, at the expiration of about twelve
days, issue forth in their perfect state. The labourers immediately clean out
the vacant cells, in order that they may be prepared for the reception of
gnother.egg. This is not the case however with the royal cells; they are

on
re”.

——-_

ideal

HYMENOPTERA. eS — 465

destroyed and new ones iccisbtvense if CRE Hess “The ‘eed ‘containing
males are produced two months later, and those pret e females soon

after the latter.

Dreadful combats sometimes take place among Bees. At a partial
epoch the labourers put the drones to death, ong the be even
to the larve and nymphs of that sex.

Bees have enemies doyeyse. external and internal, and are subject to various
diseases. :

The true Bicws are bug found in the eastern continent; and those of
southern and eastern Europe, and of Egypt, differ from those that inhabit

France, which have been transported to America and other places, where -

they are now naturalized.

ORDER X.
“LEPIDOPTERA. (1)

The tenth ‘Silide of Insects terminates the series of those which

are furnished with four wings, and presents characters exclusively
peculiar to it. :

Both sides.of the wings are covered with small, coloured scales,
resembling farinaceous dust, that are removed by merely coming in
contact with the finger. - A proboscis, to which the name of lingua

or tongue has been affixed, rolled spirally between two palpi, cov-
ered with scales or hairs, forms the most important part of the mouth,

and is the instrument with which these Insects extract the nectar

from flowers, their only aliment... In our general observations upon x
the class of Insects, we have seen, that this proboscis or trunk is —

composed of two tubular threads, representing the maxille, each
bearing, near its external base, a very small (superior) palpus in the
form of a tubercle. The apparent (inferior) palpi, those which
form a sort of sheath to the proboscis, replace the labial palpi of the
triturating Insects; they are cylindrical or conical, usually turned
up, composed of three joints,. and inserted in a fixed labium, which
forms the paries of the portion of the buccal cavity, inferior to the
proboscis. ‘Two little and scarcely distinct, corneous, and more or
less ciliated pieces, situated, one on each side, on the anterior and

(1) Sealy-winged.
3 1

‘seat

466 _ ENSECTA.

superior ‘margin of the front of the head, near the eyes, seem to be
vestiges of mandibles. Finally, we observe, and in equally exiguous
proportions, the labrum or upper lip.

“The antennz vary and are always multiarticulated. Two ocelli
are observable i in seyeral species, but concealed between the scales.
The three segments of which the trunk of the hexapoda is composed,
“are united in one single body; the first is very short, and the two
others are confounded together. » The scutellum is triangular, but
the apex is directed towards the head. ‘The wings are simply
veined, and vary in size, figure and position; in several, the inferior
ones. are plaited longitudinally near their inner margin. At the

base of each of the superior wings is a kind of epaulette, prolonged
posteriorly, that corresponds to the piece called tegula in the Hy-
-menoptera. © As it is more developed here, I will call it pterygoda.
The abdomen, composed of from six to seven annuli, is attached to
the thorax by a very small portion of its diameter, and presents nei-
ther sting nor ovipositor analogous to that of the Hymenoptera. In
several females, however, as in Cossus, the last rings become nar-
rowed, and extended to.form an oviduct resembling a pointed and
retractile tail. The tarsi always have five joints. . There are never
‘more than two ‘kinds of individuals, males and females.

The females usually deposit their ova, frequently very numerous,
on the vegetable surfaces which are to nourish their larvae, and soon
after perish.

The larve of Lepidopterous Insects are well known by the name
of caterpillars. ‘They have six squamous or hooked feet, ‘which
correspond to the legs of the perfect Insect, and from four to ten
additional membranous ones, the two last of which are situated at
the posterior extremity of the body; those which have but ten or
twelve in all, have been called, from their mode of progression, geo-
metre. Several of these geometre, when at rest, remain fixed to
the branches of plants by the hind feet alone, where, in the form,
colour and direction of their body they resemble a twig; they can
support themselves in this position for a long time, without exhibit
ing the slightest symptom of life. So fatiéuing an attitude must te-
quire prodigious muscular force, and in fact Lyonet counted four
thousand and forty-one muscles in the caterpillar of the Cossus lig-

niperda.

The body of these larvae is genérally elongated, ‘almost cylindri-

LEPIDOPTERA: Pe eo a8T p>

cal, soft, variously on a 4
vered with hairs, tubercles and spines. |

each side. Their head is invested aches a corneous or squamous
dermis, and presents on each side six shining granules, which ap-
pear to be ocelli; it is also furnished with two very short and conical
antenne, and a mouth composed of strong mandibles, two maxille,
a labium and four small palpi. The silk they employ is elaborated
in two long and tortuous internal vessels, of which the attenuated
superior extremities terminate in the lip. A tubular and conical.
mammilla i is the spindle through which the threads are spun.

~ Most caterpillars feed on the leaves of plants; some gnaw their
lowers, roots, buds and seeds; others attack the ligneous or hardest
part of trees, softening it by means of a fluid which they disgorge.
Certain species attack our woollens and furs, thereby doing us much
injury: even our leather, bacon, wax and lard are not spared by
them. Several confine themselves exclusively to a single article of
diet; others are less delicate, and devour all sorts of matters.(1)

Some of them form societies, and frequently live under a silken
tent, spun by them in common, which even shelters them during the
winter. Several construct sheaths for themselves, either fixed. or
portable. Others make their abode in the parenchyma of leaves,
where they form galleries. ‘The greater numberare diurnal. The _
others never issue forth but at night. The severity of winter, so
fatal to almost all Insects, does not affect certain dieters which
only appear in that season.

Caterpillars usually change their skin four times, previously to
passing into the state of a nymph or chrysalis. Most of them
spin a cocoon in which they enclose themselves. A frequently red-
dish liquor ‘which lepidopterous Insects eject at. the moment
of their metamorphosis, softens or weakens the extremity of the co-
coon, and facilitates their exit; one of these extremities also is ge-
nerally thinner than the other, or presents a favourable issue by. the
peculiar disposition of the fibres. Other caterpillars are contented
with connecting leaves, particles of earth, or of the substances on
which they have lived, and thus forming a rudecocoon. The chry-

(1) One of the most evident proofs of the divine providence is the per-

fect coincidence of the appearance of the caterpillar with that of the plant
on which it is to feed.

468 | INSECTA.

salides of the diurnal Lepidoptera, ornamented with golden spots,
whence the term chrysalis, are naked and fixed by the posterior
entremity of the body. The nymphs of the Lepidoptera present a
special character, of which we have spoken in our general observa-
tions on the class of Insects. They are swathed or resemble mum-
mies. ‘Those of several Insects of this order, particularly of the
Diurne, undergo their metamorphosis in a few days; they even fre-
quently produce two generations in the course of the year. The
caterpillars or chrysalides of others, however, remain during the
winter in one of these states, and only appear as perfect Insects in
the spring or summer of the following year. Generally speaking,
the eggs laid in the fall are not hatched till the ensuing spring. The
Lepidoptera issue from their envelope in the usual manner, or
through a slit which is effected on the back of the thorax.

The larve of the Ichneumonides and Chalcidites deliver us from
a great portion of these destructive animals.

We will divide this order into three families, which correspond to.
the three genera of which it is composed in the system of Linneus.

FAMILY I.
DIURNA.

This family is the only one in which the exterior margin of the
inferior wings does not present a rigid, squamous seta or kind of
bridle for retaining the two superior ones. These latter, and even
most frequently the former, are raised perpendicularly when the In-
sect is at rest. The antennz are sometimes terminated by a globu-
liform inflation or little club, and are sometimes almost of equal thick-
ness throughout or even more slender, and form a hooked point at
the extremity. This family comprises the genus

Paprtio, Lin.
The larve always have sixteen feet. The chrysalides are almost always

naked, are attached by the tail, and most commonly angular. The perfect

Insect, always provided with a proboscis or trunk, flies during the day only,
and the colours which ornament the under part of the wings do not yield
in beauty to those which decorate their superior surface.

These Insects are now divided into two sections. Those of the first have

LEPIDOPTERA. 469

but a single pair of spurs or spines to their tibie, which are found on their
posterior extremity. Their four wings are raised perpendicularly when at
rest, Their antenne are sometimes inflated at the extremity, globuliform,
or ina little club truncated and rounded at the summit, and sometimes
almost filiform.

This section includes a great variety of subgenera, and includes the
Knights, so called by Linnzus. -Those with red spots on the breast are his
Troes or Trojans, and those in which it is wanting, his Achivi, or Greeks.
The genus Papilio of Linnzus is now cut up into 28 subgenera, for the
details of which see the great edition of this work.

The second section of the Diurnal Lepidoptera is composed of species
in which the posterior tibie have two pairs of spines, one at their ex-
tremity, and the other above; such also is the case in the two following
families. The inferior wings are usually horizontal when at rest, and the
extremity of their antennz very often forms a strongly hooked point.

Their caterpillars, of which however but few are yet known, bend leaves
together, and spin an extremely thin cocoon of silk (in the cavity), in which
they become chrysalides; the latter are smooth or without ae eleva-
tions. They compose two subgenera:

Hesperia, Fab.

Or the P. plebet urbicolz of Linnzus, in which the termination of the an-
tennz is distinctly globuliform or clavate, and the inferior palpi are short,
broad, and densely covered with scales anteriorly; and the

Urania, Fab:
Where the antennz, at first filiform, become attenuated or setaceous at
the extremity, and where the inferior palpi are elongated and slender, with

the second joint strongly compressed, and the Jast much smaller, almost
cylindrical and naked.

FAMILY II.
CREPUSCULARIA.

In this family, near the origin of the external margin of their in-
ferior wings, we observe a rigid squamous seta, in the form of a
spine or bristle, which passes into a hook on the under surface of
the superior wings, maintaining them, when at rest, in a horizontal
or inclined position. This character is also visible in the ensuing
family, but the Crepuscularia are distinguished from the latter by

their antennez, which form an elongated club, either prismatic or
fusiform.

470 INSECTA.

The caterpillars have always sixteen feet. The chrysalides are
destitute of the points or angles observed in most of those of the di-
urnal Lepidoptera, and are usually enclosed in a cocoon or con-
cealed, either in the earth, or under some body. ‘These Lepidoptera
frequently appear only in the “morning or evening. They compose
the genus

s Sruryx, Lin.

So named from the attitude of several of the caterpillars, which resembles
that of the fabled monster so called.

I will divide this subgenus into four sections. The first, or that of the
Husrent-Srurnexs, consists of Lepidoptera, which evidently connect the
Hesperiz with Sphinx proper. The antenne are alwayssimple, thickened
in the middle or at the extremity which forms a hook, narrowed into a point
at the end, and without a tuft of scales. They all have a very distinet pro-
boscis; the inferior palpi are composed of three very apparent joints. In
some, the second is elongated and strongly compressed, the third slender,
almost cylindrical and nearly naked; these palpi resemble those of the
Uranie; in others, they are shorter but wider, almost cylindrical, and well
furnished with scales. The antennz of the latter are only inflated at the
extremity.

_ This section is composed of Agarista, Coronis and Castnia.

Those of our second section, or the Srarnerpzs, always have theantennz
terminated by alittle flake of scales; the inferior palpi broad, or compressed
transversely, densely covered with scales, and the third joint usually in-
distinct.

Most of the caterpillars have an elongated, smooth body, thickest at the
posterior extremity, which is furnished with a horn, and its sides striped
obliquely or longitudinally. They live on leaves, and are metamorphosed
in the earth without spinning a cocoon.

SPHInx proper.

Where the antennez, commencing from the middle, form a prismatic club,
simply ciliated, or transversely striated on one side in the manner of a rasp.
They have a very distinct proboscis and fly with great velocity, hovering
over flowers with a humming’ noise. In the chrysalides of some species
the sheath of the proboscis projects in the manner of a snout.

S. Atropos, l. Superior wings variegated with deep and yellowish-
brown, and light-yellowish;” inferior wings yellow, with two brown bands;
a yellowish spot with two black dots on the thorax; abdomen yellowish,
with black annuli, and without a terminal brush. This is the largest
species in France. The spot on the thorax resembling a death’s head,

_ and the sharp sound it produces (attributed by Réaumur to its rubbing

A a eA Arp ye ae BI NE Pe oe pt SIRF eT Pe a eA 2 eo ee res ga eee) “ee mn PL ee ee oe i ee, ee Te
r = Fas : f ; p:

LEPIDOPTERA. | : Z ees, 471

the palpi against its” proboscis) hed frequently ekiced considerable
alarm among the people in certain years when it was unusually abundant.

The caterpillar is yellow, with blue stripes on the side, and the tail re-
curyed and zig-zag. It feeds on the Potato-vine, Jasmin, &c., and be-
comes a chrysalis near the end of August. The perfect Insect appears in
September... |

Our third division, that of the SEsIADES, comprises dose’ in which the an-
tennz are always simple, fusiform and elongated, and frequently termina-_
ted, as in the preceding subgenera, by a little bundle of setz or scales; in
which the inferior palpi, slender and narrow, have three very distinct joints,
the last tapering to a point; and where the extremity of the posterior tibiz
is armed with very stout spines. The abdomen in most of them i is bei ot
nated by.a sort of brush.

The caterpillars feed on the internal part of the stems or roots of plants,
like those of the Hepiali and Cossi, are naked, without a posterior horn,
and construct their cocoons in these stems with the debris of the substance
on which they have fed.

Bs
‘SEsIa.

ca oe

Where the antennz are terminated by a little tuft of scales. The wings —
are horizontal and marked with transparent spots. The scales of the pos-
terior extremity of the abdomen forma brush. Several of these Insects bear
a close resemblance to Wasps or other Hymenoptera, to Diptera, &c.

The fourth and last section of. the Sphinges, that of the Zremnipzs,
is composed of Lepidoptera, in which the antennz, always terminated. in a
point destitute of a tuft, are sometimes simple in both sexes, fusiform or
resembling’ a ram’s horn, &c. The wings are almost tectiform, and exhibit
transparent spots in many. There is no terminal brush to the abdomen.
The spurs of the posterior extremity are generally small.

The: caterpillars live exposed on various leguminous plants. They are
cylindrical, usually pilose, without a posterior horn, similar to those of dif-
ferent species of Bombyx, and form a fusiform or ovoid cocoon of silk,
which they attach to the stems of plants.

ZYGENA. x
The Zygenz are not’ found in the western continent. Their antennz
are simple in both sexes, and terminate abruptly in a fusiform club, or one
resembling a ram’s horn; their inferior palpi extend beyond the whgies
and are pointed at the exgemey

472 Py es INSECTA.

FAMILY Ij’) © ge
NOCTURNA.

In the third family of the Lepidoptera, with some few exceptions,
we also find the wings bridled, when at rest, by a bristle or bundle
’ of sete: arising from the exterior margin of the lower ones, and pass-

ing into a ring .or groove in the under part of the upper ones.
The wings are horizontal or inclined and sometimes rolled round
‘the body. ‘The antenne gradually diminish in ickgess from base”
to point, or are setaceous. :
This family, according to the oy ibe of Linneus, forms but the
single genus :

Pulparte Lin.

Or that of the Moths. These Lepidoptera seldom fly but at night or ate
sunset. Several have no proboscis. Some of the females are destitute of
wings, or have but very small ones. The caterpillars most commonly spin
a cocoon; the number of their feet varies from ten to sixteen. The chry-
salides are always rounded, or without angular elevations or points,

_ The classification of this family is very embarrassing, and with respect to

it our systems are as yet merely imperfect essays orrude sketches. Itis now
divided into ten sections, each consisting of numerous genera, differing in
various details of form and habits, both in the larva or caterpillar state, and
that of the perfect Insect. They are all nocturnal. These sections are

1. The Hertarires. The caterpillars are rare, and remain concealed in
the heart of the plants on which they feed; their cocoon is mostly formed
of particles of the matter that nourishes them. The margin of the abdo-
minal annuli of the chrysalis is dentated or spinous. The antennz of the
perfect Insect are always short, and most frequently present but one sort

of small, short, rounded and crowded teeth. Those of the four others are
always terminated by a simple thread; but they are furnished inferiorly in
the males with a double line of sete. The proboscis is always very short,
and butslightly apparent. The wings are tectiform and usually elongated.
The last abdominal annuli of the females form an elongated oviduct or sort
of tail. The caterpillars of these Insects are very injurious to several kinds
of trees and other useful vegetable productions.

Here we have Hepialus, Cossus, Stygia, Zeuzera, &c.

2. The Bomsrcrrzs are distinguished from those of the preceding one

od

°

ee ee 473

and the third, by the ollowi ra ; ite Porohokis bois very short,
and merely rudimental; wings either extended and horizontal or tectiform, | |
but the lower ones extending laterally “beyond the others; antenne of the
males entirely pectinated. poo

- The caterpillars live in the open air, and feed on the tender parts of plénte:

- Most of them form a cocoon of pure silk:, The marae of the abdominal

annuli is not dentated in peerie’: 2 ma .
” fe, ~Bomprx. proper. Bais ag
B. mori, Lh. * Whitish, w with two or three obscure and transverse ake a
lunated spot on the superior wings. ite. * 3
The caterpillar is well known by the name of Silk-worm. it ‘feeds on the:

Ets ’

, leaves of the’ Mulberry, and spins an oval cocoon of a closetissue with very

fine silk, usually of a yellow colour, and sometimes white. A Ma is
now preferred, which always yields the latter.

_ The Bombyx which produces it is originally from the northern provinces "
of China. According to’ Latreille, the city of Turfan, in Little Bucharia, —
was for a.long time the’rendezvous of the western caravans, and the. chief —

entrepot of the Chinese silks» It was the metropolis of the Seres of Upper a iek
_ Asia, or of the Serica of Ptolemy. Driven from their country by. the Huns,

the Seres established themselvesjin Great Bucharia,and in India
from one of their colonies, Ser-hend (SeHindi), that Greek 1 missionari
the reign of Justinian, carried the €ggs of the silk-wor 0 ay
At the period of; the first crusades, the cultivation of. silk. was int bd luced
into the kingdom of Naples from the Morea, 4, and .several: centuries after- —
wards, under the administration of Sully particularly, into France. It is.
well known that silk was formerly sold for its weighs in gold, and that it
is now a source of great wealth to France.» ;

3. The Psruvo-Bomryces, are composed of Lepidoptera, in which, as
well as in the following ones, the inferior wings are furnished with a bridle
which fixes them to'the superior, when at rest. Théy are then entirely —
covered by the latter, both being tectiform or horizontal, but with the inner
margin overlapped. _ The proboscis, towards the latter end of the tribe,
begins to lengthen, and, in the last subgenera, even scarcely differs from.
that of other Lepidoptera, except in being somewhat shorter. The anten-
ne are entirely pectinated or serrated, at least in the males. All their:
caterpillars live on the exterior parts of plants.

There are eight pbeciet iia Notodonta, Orgyia, &e.

4. The Aposura are pilloved, as we have observed in the génaant
divisions of this family, by a unique character, viz. the absence of the anal
feet of the animal in its larva state. The posterior extremity of the body
terminates in a point, which in several is forked, or even presents two long,
articulated, and movable appendages, forming a sort of tail... With respect

3K

474 | INSECTA.

to their proboscis, palpi, and antennz, these Insects are but slightly re-
moved from the preceding ones.

5. The Nocrumurrss, Lat., are similar to the preceding Insects in the
figure and relative size of the wings, and in their position when at rest, but
present the two following distinguishing characters: a horny, and most
commonly long, spirally rolled proboscis; inferior palpi abruptly terminated
by a very small or much more slender joint than the preceding: one; the
latter much wider, and strongly compressed.

The body of: the Noctuzlites is more covered with scales than with a
woolly down. Their antennz are usually simple. The back of the thorax
is frequently tufted, and the abdomen forms an elongated cone; they fly

with great rapidity. Some of them appear during the day.

Their caterpillars usually have sixteen fect; the others have two or four
__ less, but the two posterior, or anals, are never absent, andin those which
present but twelve, the anterior pair of the membranous ones are as large
asthe next. Most of these caterpillars enclose themselves in a cocoon to
complete their metamorphosis.
Here we have Zrebus and Noctua.

6. The Pastznm Torrtnices, L., are closely allied tothe two preceding
sections. The superior wings, of which the exterior margin is arcuated at
base and then narrowed, their short and'wide figure forming a truncated
_ oval, give a very peculiar appearance to these Insects, They have a dis-
_ tinct proboscis, and their inferior palpi are usually regis similar to those
of the Noctuz, but somewhat salient.

They are small and prettily coloured; their wings are tectiform, but flat-
tened almost horizontally, and always laid on the body.. In this case the
upper ones are slightly crossed along the inner margin.

Their caterpillars have sixteen feet, and their body is closely shorn or
but slightly pilose. They twist and roll up leaves of trees, connecting
various points of theirsurface at different times by layers of silken threads
running in one direction, and thus forma tube in which they reside, and
_ feed in tranquillity on their parenchyma. Others form a nest by connecting
several leaves or flowers with silk, Some,of them inhabit fruits.

The posterior extremity of the body is narrow in several.. Their cocoon
has the figure of a bateau, and is sometimes of pure silk, and at others
mixed with foreign matters.

The Tortrices compose the subgenus Pyrauis, Fab.

7. The Gzomzrr= comprise Lepidoptera in which the body is usually
slender, the proboscis either nearly wanting, or generally but slightly
elongated, and almost membranous. The inferior palpi are small, and al-
most cylindrical. .The wings are ample, extended, or tectiform and flat-
tened. The antennz of several males are pectinated. The thorax is always

*
4

1 ee

LEPIDOPTERA. = . 475

smooth. The caterpillars usually have but ten ‘foots the others present —

two more, and those at the extremity always. exist. Their peculiar mode 7°

of progression has caused them to be styled Geometre, or Meusurers.
When about to advance, they first cling with their anterior or squamous
feet, then elevate their body so as to form a ring, in order to approximate
the posterior extremity of the body to the anterior, or that which is fixed;
they cling with the last feet, disengage the first, and moye the body for-
wards, when they recommence the same operation. Their attitude when at
rest is singular. Fixed’to a branch of some plant by the last feet only, their
body remains extended in a straight line in the air, and absolutely motion-
less. , So closely does the skin resemble the branch in its colour and ine-
qualities, that it’ is easy to confound them. In this~way and at anangle of
forty-five degrees, or more, with the limb to which they are attached, these _
animals remain for hours and even days. :

The:chrysalides are almost naked, or their cocoon is ahaa thin, and
poorly furnished with silk.

This section, exclusive of the caterpillars, contains bat one subgenus, or
PuHaL@NA proper. |

8. The Dzxrorpzs, Lat., ‘consist of species very analogous to true Pha-
lene, but whose caterpillars have fourteen legs, and roll up leayes. In the
perfect Insect the inferior palpi are élongated and recurved. Its. wings
and body, on the sides of which the former are extended horizontally,

_ form a sort of delta, marked by a re-entering angle in the posterior side, or

appearing to be forked. The antennz are usually pectinated or ciliated.
The Deltoides form the subgenus Hzermrnta, Lat.

9. The Trxz1tes comprise the smallest species of this order. Their
caterpillars are always closely shorn, furnished with sixteen feet at least,
and rectigrade, living concealed in dwellings fabricated by themselves, either
fixed or movable. Here the wings form a sort of elongated and almost
flattened triangle, terminated by a re-entering angle; such are the Pyra-
lides of Linnzus; they have four distinct and usually exposed palpi. There,
the superior wings are long and narrow, sometimes moulded on the body,
and forming a sort’ of rounded roof to it, sometimes almost perpendicularly
decumbent and laid on the sides, and frequently raised or ascending pos-
teriorly like the tail of a cock. In both cases the inferior wings are always
wide and plaited. . These species also frequently have the four palpi ex-
posed.

All the caterpillars, whose habitations (sheaths)*are fixed or immovable,
are the Pseudo-Tinex of Réaumur; those which construct portable ones,
which they transport with them, are true Tinez.

The substances on which they feed, or on which they reside, furnish the
materials of the structure.

Of those sheaths which are composed of vegetable matters, many are

very singular. Some, like those of the Adele, are covered exteriorly with

ee vce : INSECTA.

portions of leaves laid one over the other, and forming a. sort of flounce:

_ others are in the form of a bat, and sometimes dentated along one of their
sides. The material of some of them is diaphanous, and as if cellular or
divided by scales.

The caterpillars of the true Tinez, commonly called Moths, clothe them-
selves with particles of woollen stuffs, which they cut with their jaws and
on which they feed, hairs of furs, and those of the skins of animals in zoolo-

gical collections, united by silk. They know how to lengthen their sheath,
or to increase its diameter by slitting it and adding a new piece. In these
tubes they undergo their metamorphosis, after closing the orifices with silk.
a bee The Pseudo-Tinez content themselves with mining the interior of the
. vegetable and animal substances on which they feed, and forming simple
galleries, or if they construct sheaths either with those matters or silk, they
are always fixed, and are mere places of retreat.

_..—.-- These caterpillars, which perforate in various directions the parenchyma
- of the leaves on which they feed, have been called Miners. They produce
‘ those desiccated spaces in the form of spots and undulating lines, frequently
observed on leaves. Buds, fruits, and seeds of plants, frequently those of
wheat, and even the resinous galls of certain Coniferz, serve for aliment
and habitations to ‘others, ‘Thesé Insects are frequently ornamented with
the most brilliant colours. In several species the superior wings are deco-

rated with golden or silver spots, sometimes even in relief.
Py Jf Aerossa, Lat. |

Where the four palpi are exposed, and the wings form a flattened triangle;
there is no emargination in the extremity of the upper one.

A. pinguinalis. Superior wings agate-grey, with blackish stripes and

_ ‘spots. Found in houses on the walls.
Its, caterpillar i is naked, blackish-brown, glossy, and feeds on fatty or bu.
Bac substances. Réaumur called it the Fausseteigne-des cuirs, be-

ig cause it also feeds on leather and the covers of books. It constructs a tube
‘ which it places against the body on which it feeds, and covers it with gra-
nules.

Gattenta, Fab.

Where the scales of the clypeus form a projection that covers the palpi;
and the superior wings, proportionally narrower than in Aglossa, and emargin-
ated i in the posterior edge, are, as well as the inferior ones, strongly inclined
‘and turned up posteriorly like the tail of a cock, as in many species of the

following subgenera.

G. cereana, Fab. About five lines in length; cinereous; head and thorax
paler, and little brown spots alongthe internal margin of the superior wings.

Réaumur designates its caterpillar by the name of fausse-teigne de la cire,
It ravages hives by penetrating into the combs, constructing, as it pro.
gresses, a silken tube covered with granules, which are formed of the wax

Ks 4 s
LEPID‘ ee |
on which it feeds. The cocoons of ' salides are sometimes found sie

collected in piles. ¥ ca >

TINEA.

Where the proboscis is very short and formed of two little metnbratials
and separated threads, The head is crested.

P. tapezana, Fab. Upper wings black; their posterior extremity, as well
as the head, white.

The caterpillar attacks cloth and other woollen stuffs, on which it lies
concealed in a semi-tubular sheath formed of their particles, which it
lengthens as it adyances.

T. pellionella, Fab. Upper wings silver grey, with one or two black dots
oneach. The caterpillar inhabits a felted tube on furs; it cuts the hairs at
base and rapidly destroys them. The

T. flavifrontella, Fab., ravages cabinets of natural history in the same way.

T. granella, Fab.. Its upper wings are marbled. with grey, brown and.

black, and turned up posteriorly. The caterpillar—fausse-teigne des blés—
connects several grains of wheat with silk, and forms a tube from which it
occasionally issues to feed upon those seeds. It is very noxious.

10. The Fisstrpennz@ are closely related to the preceding Insects, so far
as relates to the narrow and elongated form-of the body and upper wings,
but are removed from them, as well as from all others of this order, by the
four wings, or at least two, being split longitudinally in the manner of
branches or fingers with fringed edges, and resembling feathers. The
wings resemble those of Birds. They constitute the subgenus ©

PTEROPHORUS,

The caterpillars have sixteen feet, and live on leaves or flowers without:
constructing a tube.

ORDER XI.
RHIPIPTERA.

This order was established by M. Kirby under the name of Stre-

siptera (twisted wings); on certain Insects remarkable for their
anomalous form and irregular habits.

From the two sides of the anterior extremity of the trunk, near

the neck and the exterior base of the two first legs, are inserted two
small, crustaceous, movable bodies, in the form of little elytra, di-
rected backwards, that are narrow, elongated, clavate, curved at

’
yaya

“eh

'
is

os ae INSECTA.

the extremity, and terminate at the origin of the wings. As elytra,
properly so called, always cover the whole or the base of the latter
organs and arise from the second segment of the trunk, these bodies
are not true wing-cases, but parts analogous to those ( pterygoda)
we have already observed at the base of the wings in the Lepidop-
tera. The wings of the Rhipiptera are large, membranous, divided
by longitudinal and radiating nervures, and fold longitudinally in the
manner of a fan. ‘The mouth consists of four pieces, two of which,
the shortest, appear to be so many biarticulated palpi; the others
“inserted near the internal base, of the preceding ones, resemble little
linear laminz, which are pointed and crossed at their extremity like
the mandibles of various Insects; they bear a greater similitude to
the lancets of the sucker of the Diptera than to true mandibles.
The head «is also furnished with two large hemispherical, slightly
pediculated, and granular eyes; two almost filiform and short an-
tennse, approximated at base on a common elevation, consisting of
three joints, the two first of which are very short, and the third very
long, and divided down to its origin into two long, compressed, lan-
ceolate branches, laid one against the other. The ocelli are want-
ing. ‘The form and divisions of the trunk are very similar to those
of several Cicadariw, Psylle, and Chrysides. ‘The abdomen is
almost cylindrical, consists of eight or nine segments, and is termi-
nated by pieces also analogous to those observed at the extremity
of the above mentioned Hemiptera.

These Insects, in their larve state, live between the abdominal
scales of several species of Andrenz and Wasps of the subgenus
Polistes. ‘They frisk about with a simultaneous motion of the wings
and halteres. Although they appear to be removed in several res-
pects from the Hymenoptera, I still think it is to some of those In-
sects, such as the Eulophi, that they are most nearly allied.

M. Peck has observed one of the larve—Xenos Peckii—which
is found on Wasps. It forms an oblong oval, isdestitute of feet, and
is annulated or plaited; the anterior extremity is dilated in the form
of a head, and the mouth consists of three tubercles. These larvee
become nymphs in the same place, and, as it appeared to me, when
examining the nymphs of the Xenos Rossi, another Insect of the
same order, within their own skin, and without changing their form.
_ Nature has perhaps furnished the Rhipiptera with the two false

elytra of which we have spoken, to enable them to disengage them-

AE oy ay ee
mer be Se

RHIPIPTERA, | g* 479

selves from between the abdominal sesles of the Insects on which
they have lived. They are a sort of str to Insects, and we shall

soon find a species of Conops that undergoes its metamorphosis in 1
the abdomen of the Bombi. The Rhipiptera form two genera. —

Srvnors, Kirb.

The first one observed and instituted by M. Kirby. The superior Sy rkiot

of the last segment of the antennz is composed of three little joints. The

abdomen is retractile and fleshy. y
Buta he species is known; it lives on the Andrenz.

Ae ys XeEnos, Ross.

Here he ‘two branches of the antenne are inarticulated. The abdo-
men, with the exception of the anus, which is fleshy and retractile, is cor-
neous.

Two species of this genus are ‘eum one of which lives on the Wasp
called gallica, and the other on an analogous Wasp of North America, the
Polistes fucata, Fab.

“ORDER XII.
DIPTERA(1).

The distinguishing characters of dipterous Insects consist in six
feet; two membranous, extended wings, with, almost always, two
movable bodies above them called halteres ; a sucker composed of
squamous, setaceous pieces, varying in number from two to six, and
either enclosed in the superior groove of a probosciform’sheath ter-
minated by two lips, or covered by one or two inarticulated laminz
which form a sheath for it.

Their body, like that of other hexapoda, is composed of ire
principal parts. ~ The number of ocelli, when any are present, is
always three. The antenne are usually inserted on the front and
approximated at base; those of the Diptera of our first family resem-
ble those of the nocturnal Lepidoptera in form and composition, and

frequently in their appendages, but in the following and greater © :

number of families they consist of but two or three joints, the last —

(1) Two winged.

480 ~ INSECTA.

of which is fusiform or shaped like a lenticular or prismatic palette,
furnished either with a little styliform appendage, or a thick hair or
seta, sometimes simple and sometimes hairy. Their mouth is only
adapted for extracting and transmitting fluids. When these nutri-
tive substances are contained in particular vessels with permeable
parietes, the appendages of the sucker act as lancets, pierce the
envelope, and open a passage to the fluid, which, by their pressure,
is forced to ascend the internal canal to the pharynx, situated at the
base of the sucker. The sheath of the latter, or the external part
of the proboscis, merely serves to maintain the lancets in situ, and
when they are to be employed it is bent back. The base of the
proboscis frequently bears two filiform or clavate palpi, composed,
in some, of five joints, but in the greater number of one or two.
The wings are simply veined, and most frequently horizontal.

The use of the halteres is not yet well known; the Insect moves
them very rapidly. In many species, those of the last families par-
ticularly, and above the halteres, are two membranous appendages
resembling the,vaives of a shell, and connected by one of their sides,
_ called (ailerons or cuillerons) alule. One of these pieces is united
to the wing and participates in all its motions, but then the two parts
are nearly in the same plane. The size of these alulz.is in an in-
' verse ratio to that of the halteres. The prothorax is always very
short, and frequently we can merely discover its lateral portions.

The abdomen is frequently attached to the thorax by a portion
only of its transversal diameter. It is composed of from five to nine
apparent annuli, and usually terminates in a point in the females; in
those where the number of annuli is less, the last ones frequently
form a sort of ovipositor presenting a succession of little tubes slid-
ing into each other like the joints of a spy-glass. Their usually
long and slender legs are terminated by a tarsus of five joints, the
last of which has two hooks, and very, often two or three vesicular
or membranous pellets.

Many of these Insects are noxious both by aitine our blood
and that of our domestic ‘animals, by depositing their eggs on
their body in order that their larvee may feed on them, and by infect-
ing our preserved meats and cerealia. » Others in return are highly
useful to us by devouring noxious Insects, and consuming dead bo-
dies and animal substances left on the surface of the earth, that poi-
son the air we breathe, and by accelerating the dissipation of
stagnant and putrid water.

4?

481

The term of life iinet to. anes fect Mets is very short.

They all undergo a perfect et Rs. aba modified in two princi- ©

pal ways. The larvee of several change their skin to become
nymphs. Some even spin a cocoon, but others never change their
tegument, which becomes sufficiently solid to form a. case for the
nymph, resembling a seed oran egg. . The body of the larva is first
detached from it, leaving on its internal parietes the external organs
peculiar to it, such as the hooks of the mouth, &c. It soon as-
sumes the form of a soft or gelatinous mass, on which none of the
Paue that eharacterize the perfect Insect can be seen. After the
“1 se of a few days, those organs become defined and the Insect is

ue nymph. It extricates itself from confinement by separating

: sti anterior extremity of its case which comes off like a cap.

The larvz of the Diptera are destitute of feet, though appendages
that resemble them are observable in some. This order of Insects
is the only one in which we find larvae with a soft and variable head.
This character is almost exclusively peculiar to the larve of those

which are metamorphosed under their skin. Their mouth is usually —
furnished with two hooks that enable them to stir up alimentary ©

substances. The principal orifices of respiration, in most of the
larve of the same order, are situated at the posterior extremity of
their body. . Several of them, besides, present two stigmata on the
first ring, that which immediately follows the head or replaces it.
We will divide the Diptera into two principal sections. In those
which compose the first, the head is always distinct from the thorax,
the sucker is enclosed in a sheath, and the hooks of the tarsi are
simple or dentated. ‘The metamorphosis of the larve into nymphs

is always affected after they have left the mother. In the first sub- —

division we find Diptera whose antenne are multi-articulated.

FAMILY I.
NEMOCERA.

WN;

In this family the antennze usually consist of from fourteen to six-

teen joints, and from six, or nine, to twelve, in the others. They are
either filiform or setaceous, frequently hairy, particularly in the.

males, and much longer than the head. _The body.is elongated,
the head small and rounded, the eyes large, the proboscis éatient:

3 L

482 INSECTA.

and either short and terminated by two large lips, or prolonged into a
siphon-like rostrum, with two exterior palpi inserted at its base,
usually filiform cr setaceous and composed of four or five joints.
The thorax is thick and elevated; the wings are oblong; the halteres
are entirely exposed and apparently unaccompanied with ‘alule.

The abdomen is elongated, and most commonly formed of nine an-

nuli; it terminates in a point in the female, but is thicker at the end
and furnished with hooks in the males.. ‘The legs are very long and
slender, and are frequently used by these Insects to balance them-
selves. Several, particularly the smaller ones, collect in the air in
numerous swarms, and, as they flit about, form a sort of dance.
They are found at almost every season of the year. Some of the
females commit their ova to the water; others deposit them in the
earth or on plants.

The larva, always elongated and resembling worms, have a / squa-
mous head, always of the same shape, the mouth of which is fur-
nished with parts analogous to maxille and lips. They always
change their skin to become nymphs. The latter, sometimes naked,
and sometimes enclosed in cocoons constructed by the larve, ap-
proximate in their figure to the perfect Insect, present their external
organs, and complete their metamorphosis in the usual manner.
They have frequently, near the head or on the thorax, two organs
of respiration resembling tubes. ‘This family is composed of the
genera Culex and Tipula of Linneus. _

Some, in which the antennz are always filiform, as long as the
thorax, densely pilose, and composed of fourteen joints, have a long,
projecting, filiform proboscis, containing a piercing sucker consist-
ing of five sete. They constitute the genus

Cutex, Lin.

Or the Mosquetoes, where the body and legs are elongated and hairy; the
antennz densely pilose, the hairs forming tufts in the males; the eyes large
and closely approximated or convergent at their posterior extremity; the
palpi projecting, filiform, hairy, as long as the proboscis, and composed of
five joints in the males, shorter and apparently with fewer articulations in
the females. The proboscis is composed of a membranous, cylindrical
tube, terminated by two lips forming a little button or inflation, and of a
sucker consisting of five squamous threads which produces the effect of a
sting. The wings are laid horizontally, one over the other, on the body,
with little scales.
The torment we experience from these Insects, pitticulatlys in the vicinity

a>

DIPTERA, “a 483

of low grounds and water, where ned Ge aap nat abundant, is well known. Me 2

These Insects also feed on the nectar of flowers.

The female deposits her eggs on the surface of the water, and places them
side by side in a perpendicular direction; the entire mass resembles a little
bateau floating on that element. Each female lays about three hundred
eggs in the course of the year. These Insects frequently survive the most
intense cold. » Their larye swarm in the green and stagnant waters of ponds

and ditches, particularly in spring, the period at which those females lay

their eggs who have passed through the winter. They suspend themselves
on the surface of the waterin order to respire, with their head downwards.
These larvz are very lively, swim with considerable yelocity, and dive from

time to time, but soon return to the surface. After some changes of tegu-
_ment, they then become nymphs, which still continue to move by means
_of their tail and its two terminal fins. These nymphs also remain on the

surface of the water, but in a different position from that of the larve, their
respiratory organs being placed on the thorax; they consist of two tubular
horns. It isin the water also that the perfect Insect is developed. Its
exuviz form a sort of float or resting place, which keeps it from submer-

‘sion. All these metamorphoses occur in the space of three or four weeks,

and several generations are produced in the course of the year.

In the other Nemocera, the proboscis is either very short and
terminated by two large lips, or in the form of a siphon or rostrum,
but directed perpendicularly or curved on the pectus. The palpi
are bent underneath, or turned up, but in that case, from one to

two joints only.

Linnzus comprises them in his genus

Trrvuza.

Which is now variously divided and subdivided. It includes the various
species of the Crane-/ly.

All the following Diptera, a small number excepted, have their
antennze composed of three joints, the first of which is so short, that
it may be excluded from the supputation; the last is annulated trans-
versely, but without distinct divisions. It is frequently accompanied
with a seta, usually lateral, and situated on the summit in others
presenting two joints at base, sometimes simple and sometimes silky
The palpi never have more than two joints. wy

Some, a few excepted, whose larvee divest themselves of their —
skin previous to becoming pupz, always have a sucker composed
of six or four pieces; the proboscis, or at least its extremity, that is

to say, its lips, is always salient. The palpi, when they exist, are

~

teri rior, and inserted near the margin of the oral ~~ sicee to
ich arises the sucker. — :

; » The larvae, even of those in which the skin forms a cocoon for
the pupa (Stratiomis), retain their primitive form.

Ng subdivision will comprise three families.

oe FAMILY IL.
TANYSTOMA.(1)_

The Diptera of this family are distinguished from those of the two
following ones by the last joint of the antenna, which, exclusive of

‘the seta which may terminate it, presents no transverse division; the

sucker is composed of four pieces.

Their Jarvee resemble long and almost aylinarieal worms, with a
constant and squamous head, always provided with hooks or retrac-
tile appendages, by which they are enabled to gnaw or suck the
alimentary matterson which they feed. ‘They change their skin to
undergo their second metamorphosis. The nymphs are naked, and
exhibit several of the external parts of the perfect Insect, which is-
sues from its exuvite, through a slit in the back.

In our first division we find species whose proboscis, always en-
tirely (or nearly) salient, with the exterior envelope or the sheath
of the sucker solid or almost Corneous, projects more or less in the
form of a tube or siphon, sometimes cylindrical or conical, and
sometimes filiform, and terminates without any remarkable enlarge-
ment, the lips being small or confounded with the sheath. The
palpi are small.

Some, that are rapacious, have an oblong body, the thorax nar-
rowed before, and the wings incumbent; their proboscis is most
commonly short or but slightly elongated, and forms a sort of ros-
trum. The antenne are always approximated, and the palpi ap-
parent.

Asttus, Lin.

Where the proboscis is directed forwards. They fly with a humming
noise, are carnivorous, voracious, and according to their size and power,

- seize on Flies, Tipule, Bombi or Coleopterz, which they then exhaust by

(1) Long-mouthed.

suction. Their larve have a small s quar dV ‘
ble hooks, live in the earth, and there become nymphs, whose thorax is _ E.
furnished with dentated hooks, and the abdomen —— spines, ip oe

=. < Eawprs, Lin. : sia Be
Closely allied to Asilus i in the form of the body and the position of the
‘wings, but with the proboscis perpendicular or directed backwards. The
head is rounded and almost globular;the eyes very large. ae

‘These Insects are smail and live on prey and the nectarof flowers. The

last joint of their antennz is always terminated by a Weg ated or short

stilet, or by a seta. )
The remaining Tanystoma of our first divifion usually hae a short, wide
body, the head applied directly to the thorax, the wings distant and the #
abdomen triangular. In a word, their general appearance is that of: our
domestic Fly. Their proboscis i is frequently long. |

Cyrrtvs, Lat.

Pieermediate between Empis and Bombylius, The wings are inclined on
‘each side of the body; and the alule very large and covering. the halteres;
the head is small and globular, the thorax very high or gibbous, the abdo-
men vesicular and rounded, or almost cubical; the antenne are closely ap-
_ proximated, and the proboscis is directed backwards or wanting.

‘ Bompyizivs, Lin.—Bombyliers, Lat.
Where the wings are extended horizontally on each side of the body, and
the halteres are exposed. The thorax is higher than the bead, or gibbous
as in Cyrtus; the antennz are closely approximated, and the abdomen is
triangular or conical; the proboscis is directed forwards. The proboscis is
generally very long and most slender at the extremity. Their legsare long
and attenuated. They fly with great velocity, hover over flowers without
alighting on them, introduce their trunk into their calyx to obtain their ae
nectar, and produce a sharp humming sound.

AnTurax, Scop. Fab.

Similar to Bombylius; but where the body is depressed, or but slightly ele-
vated and not gibbous, with the head as high and as broad as itself. The
antennz are always short, and distinct from each other, and always termin-
ated by a subulate or punch-like joint. The proboscis, except in a small
number, is generally short, extending but little beyond the head, frequently
even withdrawn into its oral cavity, and terminated bya little inflation _
formed by the lips. The palpi are usually concealed, small, filiform, and
‘each, at least in several, adhering to one of thethreadsofthesucker. The =——
abdomen is less triangular than that of the Bombylii, and partly square.
These Insects are generally hairy. Their habits are very analogous to

. Ras) ee ‘1 S are
HRS Hh a) : * See Pee ea
t x as art rash en

486 INSECTA.

: those last ‘oiecnta: They frequently alight on the ground, on walls ex-

posed to the sun, and on aeay’s.

Our second Ciera division of the Tanystoma is characterized by

_ a membranous proboscis, usually with a short stem, projecting but
- slightly and terminated by two yer distinct and raised or ascending
lips.

The form of the head in the larve of jpe last Diptera of this divi-
sion is variable. |

In some—Leptides—the wings are distant and exhibit several
complete cells. The antenne are not ermpased en palette. The
palpi are filiform or conical.

Sometimes these palpi are withdrawal” into the vane cavity. The
antennz have a fusiform termination or one resembling an elongated
cone, with a little articulated stilet at the end.

TueEReva, Lat. j

T. plebeia. Black, with cinereous hairs; abdominal annuli margined with
white. On plants.

‘Sometimes the palpi are exterior. The last joint of the antenne
is either almost globular or reiiforn, or nearly ovoid or conical, and
terminated by a long seta.

The tarsi are furnished with three pellets.. They form the genus

LEPTIs.

Which is divided into several subgenera. We may notice the

L. vermileo. Resembling a Tipula; yellow; four black streaks on the
thorax; the abdomen elongated, with five ranges of black spots; wings im-
maculate.

The larva is almost cylindrical; its anterior portion is much the smallest,
and there are four mandibles on the opposite extremity. It resembles a

‘stick-like geometra (caterpillar), and is equally rigid when withdrawn from
- itsdomicil. It bends its body in every direction, advances and moves about
im the sand, and excavates there an infundibuliform cavity, at the bottom of

which it secretes itself either entirely or partially. If an Insect be preci-

_ pitated into the trap it rises suddenly, clasps it with its body, pierces it with
the stings or hooks of its head, and sucks it. It flings away the carcass as

well as the sand, by bending its body, and then suddenly relaxing it, like a
bow.
The pupa is covered with a layer of sand.

The other Tanystoma of our second division haye their wings in-

s Lia = ;
Pe ae, og on ; és ae Nee.

DIPTERA. 48T¢ .

cumbent on the body. The antenna terminate ina palette, almost

always accompanied by a seta. The palpi of the greater number —
are flattened or laminiform, and laid on the proboscis. |

These characters, a body compressed on the sides, a triangular
head, slightly projecting in the manner of a snout, the abdomen —
curved underneath, and long slender legs furnished with little spines, ©
particularly distinguish the genus

DoricHopvus, Lat. Fab.

Which now forms’ a small tribe. These Insects are frequently green or
cupreous. - The legs are long and very slender. They are found on walls,
trunks of trees, &c. Some of themrun along the surface of the water
with great celerity.

FAMILY It.
TABANIDES.

Our third family of the Diptera is characterized by a salient pro- ©
boscis, usually terminated by two lips with projecting palpi, by the
last joint of the antenne being annulated, and by a sucker composed
of six pieces: it comprises the genus

Tasanus, Lin.

Or the Horse-flies. ‘These Diptera are very similar to large Flies, and well
known by the torment they occasion to cattle, by piercing their skin in
order to suck their blood. Their body is usually but slightly nilose.
Their head is as wide as the thorax, almost hemispherical, and with the
exception of a small space, particularly in the males, occupied by two eyes,
generally of a golden-green, with purple spots or streaks. Their antenne
are about the length of the head, and are composed of three joints, the
last of which is the longest, terminates in a point, has neither seta nor stilet
at the end, is frequently lunate above its base, and with from three to seven.
transverse and superficial divisions. The proboscis of the greater number ~
is almost membranous, perpendicular, of the length of the head or some
what shorter, almost cylindrical, and terminated by two elongated lips. ©

The two palpi, usually incumbent on it, are thick, pilose, conical,

compressed and biarticulated. The sucker inclosed in the proboscis is —

composed of six small pieces, in the-form of lancets, which, by their num- ~
ber and relative situation, correspond to the parts of the mouth in the Co-
leoptera. The wings are extended horizontally on’each side of the body.
The alulz almost completely cover the halteres. The abdomen is triangu- _
Jarand depressed. The tarsi are furnished with three pellets. .

488 | INSECTA.

These Insects begin to appear towards the close of spring, are very com-
_ mon in the woods and pastures, and produce a humming noise when on the
_wing. ‘They even pursue Man in order to suck his blood. Beasts of bur-
den, having no means of repulsing them, are most exposed to their attacks, ©
and are sometimes seen covered with blood from the wounds they inflict.
The Insect mentioned by Bruce, under the name of Tsaltsalya, which is
dreaded even by the Lion, may possibly belong to this genus.

T. bovinus,L. An inch long; body brown above, grey beneath; eyes
green; tibix yellow; transverse lines and triangular spots of pale yellow on
the abdomen; wings transparent, with russet-brown nervures.

The larva lives in the ground. It is elongated, cylindrical, and attenua-
ted towards the head, which is armed with two ‘hooks.. The nymph is
naked, and ascends to the surface of the soil when about to divest itself of

___ its skin, in order to assume the form of a Tabanus, and protrudes the half

~ of its body above it.

FAMILY IV.
i NOTACANTHA. (1)

The fourth family of the Diptera, as well as the preceding one,
presents antenne of which the third and last joint is divided trans-
_ versely in the manner of a ring, or which are even composed of five
very distinct joints; but the sucker is formed of only four pieces,
and the proboscis, the stem of which is usually very short, is almost
entirely retracted within the oral cavity. .The membranous nature
of that organ and its turned up lips, its similarly raised and clavate
palpi, the relative disposition of the wings which are usually crossed,
the form of the abdomen which is rather oval or orbicular than tri-
angular, and finally the scutellum which is frequently armed with
teeth or spines, also distinguish the Notacantha from the Tabanides.
But few of their larvae have been observed. Such as have been
discovered are described and figured by Swammerdam, Réaumer
and Reel, are aquatic, and approximate to those of the Athericera
in their soft head, varying in form, ‘and in their habit of becoming
pupz under their own skin; but they retain their primitive form and
proportions, thus differing fila those of the latter. |
Other larve of the Notacantha—Xylophagus—live in the carious
and diseased parts of trees.

1) Spiny-backed.

DIPTERA, © . 489

We divide the Notacantha into three principal sections. »

Those of the first—Mydasii, Lat.—never have teeth or tial
in the scutellum. Their body is oblong, and the abdomen forms: an
elongated and conical triangle. The wings are distant. Their an-
tenn, from which we draw their most distinguishing character, are
sometimes composed of five distinct joints, the two last of which form
a club: in some, and the extremity of a cylindrical stem with a subu-
late termination ‘in’ others, and sometimes of three joints, the last of
which is ‘largest, ‘almost cylindrical, tapers to a point and is divided
into three annuli; thus these organs are always divided into five.

In ‘some. the antenne are much longer than the, head, consist of
five joints, are terminated in an elongated club formed by the two
last, with an umbilicus at the end from which issues a very short
seta. ‘The posterior thighs are stout, and dentated or spinous on
the inner side. _ The tarsihave but two pellets.. The posterior cells
of the wings are complete or closed before the margin, or narrow
or elongated, oblique or transverse.

These Insects compose the genus

-. Mypas,

_ Which is divided into two subgenera. CxrrHarocera, Lat., where the

proboscis is in the form of a long and projecting siphon, and Mrpas, Fab.
or Mydas proper, where that organ, as is woe in this family, terminates i
two Poree Lae

Th the others, the antenne are scarcely longer than the head, cy- )
lindrical, and tapering | toa point at their extremity. The tarsiare —
furnished with three pellets. The posterior cells of the wings are
eng ere ssid closed. by their pastiries pier

tamonita: Wied:

Where the antennz are composed of five well separated joints, the two :
last of which are the smallest.

Pacuystomus, Lat.

Where the antennz are composed of three joints, the last of which is divided
into as many rings.

In the second section, that of the Decatoma, Lat., we find anten-
nz always composed of three joints, the last of which, the longest,
without stilet or seta, and divided into eight rings, is clavate in

3M

490 INSECTA.

some, and. almost cylindrical or in the form of an elongated cone in
' the others. The wings are usually incumbent on the body. ° mene
tarsi are furnished with three pellets. |

. These Insects seein be sina in one generic section.

denaacus,
a“ haere eee: the body is narrow and elongated, and the antennz
are evidently somewhat longer than the head, and terminated by an almost
cylindrical joint. ‘The head is short, rar and without any particular
elevation anteriorly.

In the third section—Stratiomydes, Lat.,—we also find antenne
consisting of three joints, the last of which, exclusive of the stilet or
seta, presents at most five or six rings. This stilet, or that seta,
exists in almost all of them, and in those where they are wanting,
the third joint is elongated and fusiform, and always divided into five
or six rings. ‘The wings are always incumbent one on the other.
In several of those species where the antenne terminate in a some-
what oval and globular club, and‘always furnished with a stilet or a
seta, the scutellum is not spinous.

This section comprises the genus

~ Srratiomys, Geoff. |
In Stratiomys, properly so called, the antenne are much longer than the
head, the first and last joint being greatly elongated; the latter is fusiform,
or resembles a narrow and elongated club, narrowed at both ends, consist-
ing of at least five distinct rings, without-an abrupt stilet at the extremity.
The two rings that compose it are not distinguished from the others by any
sudden contraction.

The body of the larve is long, flattened, invested by a coriaceous or firm
skin and divided into annuli, of which the three last form a tail terminated
by numerous plumose hairs ‘which radiate from the extremity. They in-
habit water.

Our second general division of the Diptera, which are provided
with a sucker enclosed in a sheath, and whose antenne consist of
but three or two joints, comprises those whose proboscis, usually
bilabiate, long, geniculate, and bearing the palpi a little above the
elbow, is most commonly entirely contained in the oral cavity, and
when always salient, has a sucker composed of only two pieces.
The last joint of the antenne, always accompanied by a stilet or seta,

DIPTERA: 491

never exhibits annular emerge _ The palpi, when at rest,arecon- ,
: cealed. PEE i ah eds) hd Br

“FAMILY V. )
_ ATHERICERA. si

Here the Seiiiiot is usually serinidated by two large lips. The
sucker is never composed of more than four pieces, and frequently
presents but two.

The larve have a very soft, extremely contractile, annulated body,
narrowest and most pointed anteriorly. The head varies as to
figure, and its external organs consist of one or two hooks, accom-
panied in some genera by mammille, and probably in all by a sort
of tongue destined to receive the nutritious juices on which they
feed. They usually have four stigmata, two situated on the first
ring, one on each side, and the two~others on as many circular,
squamous plates, at the posterior extremity of the body. It has
been observed that these latter, at least in several, were formed of
three smaller and closely approximated stigmata. The larva has
the faculty of enveloping these parts. with the marginal skin, which
formsa sortof purse. They never change their skin. That which
invests them when first hatched becomes indurated, and thus forms
a sort of cocoon for the pupa. It becomes shortened, assumes an
ovoidal or globular figure, and the anterior portion, which in the
larva was the narrowest, increases in diameter, or is sometimes even
thicker than the opposite extremity. Traces of the annuli, and
frequently vestiges of the stigmata are observed on it, although the
latter no longer serve for respiration. The body is gradually de-
tached from the skin or cocoon, assumes the figure of an elongated
and extremely soft ball, on which none of its parts are perceptible,
and soon passes into the state ofa pupa. The Insect issues from
its shell, by removing with its head the anterior extremity, which flies
off like a cap, that part of the cocoon being so disposed as to facili-
tate this result.

But few of the Athericera are carnivorous in their perfect state.

They are generally found on trees, leaves and flowers. |

Their proboscis is always long, membranous, geniculate near the
base, terminated by two large lips, and encloses the sucker in a su-

i eee
OD ee

492, INSECT A.

~ . perior groove.” The upper piece of this sucker, which is inserted

near the elbow, is broad, arched and emarginated at its extremity; .
the three others are linear and pointed, or setaceous; to each of the
two lateral ones, representing the maxille, isannexed a little mem-
branous, narrow palpus, slightly. widened and rounded at the end;
the inferior seta is analogous to the ligula. The head is hemes
pherical, and mostly occupied by the eyes, that of the males parti-
cularly. Its anterior extremity is frequently prolonged in the man-
ner of a snout or rostrum, receiving the proboscis underneath when
it is doubled. Several species resemble Bombi and other Wasps.
This tribe will comprise but the single genus

Syrravs. i oe
In Syrphus, properly so called, the abdomen is gradually narrowed from
base to point.
The larva feed exclusively on n Aphides of all kinds, frequently holding
them in the air, and’soon exhausting them by suction. Their body forms
a sort of elongated cone, and is very uneven, or even spinous. When

about to become pup2, they fix themselves to leaves, &c. with a kind of

glue. The body is'shortened, and its anterior portion, which was pre-
viously the most slender, then becomes the thickest.

The sucker of all the remaining Athericera consist of but two -
sete, the superior representing the labrum, and the inferior the
ligula.

They form three other small tribes which will correspond to the

genera Gistrus and Conops of Linnzus, and to the Musca, Fab. as

originally composed.
We will begin with the tribe of the Gistripes consisting of the
genus

Qistrus, Lin.

Which is very distinct, as in place of the mouth we find but three tubercles,
or slight rudiments of the proboscis and palpi.

These Insects resemble large and densely pilose Flies, and their hairs are
frequently coloured in bands like those of the Bombi. Their antennz are
very short; each is inserted in a fossula over the front, and terminated by
a rounded palette with a simple seta on the back near its origin. Their
wings are usually remote; the alule are large and conceal the halteres.
The tarsi are terminated by two hooks and two pellets.

These Insects are rarely found in their perfect state, the time of their
appearance and the localities they inhabit being very limited. As they

DIPTERA. 493

déposit their eggs on the body of various herbivorous quadrupeds, it is in
woods and pastures that we must look for them. Each species of Géstrus
is usually a parasite of one same species of some mammiferous animal, and
selects for the location of its eggs the only part of its body that is suitable
for its larve, whether they are to remain there, or pass from thence to the
spot suited for their development. The Ox, Horse, Ass, Rein-deer, Stag,
Antelope, Camel, Sheep and Hare are the only quadrupeds yet known,
which are subject to be inhabited by the larve of the @stri. They seem
to haye an extraordinary dread of the Insect sabe it is Lee ans about them
for the purpose of depositing its eggs.

The domicil of the larve is of three kinds; we may distingush them by
the names of cutaneous, cervical, and gastric, as some live in the lumps or
tumours formed on the skin, others in some part of the interior of the head,
and the rest in the stomach of the animal destined to support them.

@. bovis, De Geer.. From six to seven lines in Jength, and densely pi-
lose; thorax yellow, with a black band; abdomen white at base, with a ful-
vous extremity; wings somewhat obscure.

The female deposits her eggs under the hide of healthy Oxen and Cows,
of not more than two or three years of age. The consequence of this ope-
ration are tumours or lumps, on the internal pus of which the larve feed.
Horses also are subject to them. ‘

The Rein-Deer, Antelope, Hare, &c., gas nourish various larvz of CEstri,
but of a different species.

@. ovis, L. Five lines in length, and but slightly pilose; head greyish;
thorax cinereous, with elevated black points; abdomen yellowish, finely
spotted with brown or black; legs pale-brown; wings transparent. The
larva inhabits the frontal sinus of the Sheep. That of the species called
trompe, Fab., is found in the same parts in the Rein-Deer. |

(2. equi, Lat.; Clarck. But slightly pilose, and of a fulvous brown; ab-

domen paler; two points and a band on the wings, black. Thefemalede- _

posits her ova on the legs and shoulders of Horses; the larve inhabit their |
stomach.

The third tribe of the Athericera, that of the Conopsarta, is the
only one of that family in which the proboscis is either always sali-
ent and siphoniform, cylindrical or conical, or setaceous. The re-
ticulation of the wings is the sdme as in our first division of the
Muscides.

Most of these Insects are found on plants. They form the genus

Conops, Lin.
In Conops, properly so called, the t two, dast joints of the antennz formed a
club, with a terminal stilet.

_ C.rufipes; Fab. Black; abdbaniial annuli edged with white; base of the
abdomen and legs fulyous; edge of the wing's black.

494 INSECTA.

It undergoes its metamorphosis i in the, abdomen of a sei Bombus, and
issues:from betemen its rings, . : : bos We

:.Qar: fourth and last erie that of the Miso is distin guishell
fron the three preceding ones bya very apparent, always membra-
nous and bilabiate proboscis, usually bearing two palpi (the Phoree
alone excepted), susceptible of being entirely retracted within, the ©
, oral cavity; and by a sucker composed of two pieces. The antennze
always terminate en palette with a lateral seta.

a Fee tribe will ber esiens the genus

iMaauad Lin.

Or that of the Fies. Antenne inserted near the front, palpi placed on the
proboscis, and retiring with it into the oral cavity, and transverse nervures
in the wings, characterize a first section of the Muscides, which will in-
clude eight principal groups or sub-tribes.

These groups are composed of various subgenera—we will merely parti-
cularize that of

Musca, properly so called, or the true Fly, where the abdomen is trian-
gular, and the eyes are contiguous posteriorly, or closely approgimaiag 3 in
the males.

Here come most of those Flies whose larve feed on carrion, meat, &e. ;
others of the same subgenus inhabit dung. They all resemble soft, whitish
worms without feet, thickest and truncated at the posterior extremity, and
becoming gradually smaller towards the opposite one, which terminates in
a point furnished with two hooks, with which they divide their aliment, and
accelerate its decomposition. The metamorphosis of these Insects is effect-
ed in afew days. The posterior extremity of the abdomen of the females
is narrowed and prolonged in the manner of a tube or ovipositor, by which
she can insert her eggs.

M. vomitoria, L. <A large species; front fulvous; thorax black; abdomen
glossy-blue with black streaks.

This Insect enjoys the sense of smell to a high degree, announces its
presence in our dwellings by a loud humming, and deposits its ova on meat.
Deceived by the cadaverous odour arising from the Arum dracunculus, L.
when in flower, it also leaves its eggs there. When the larva is about to
become a pupa, it abandons the putrescent matters in which it has lived,
which might then prove injurious to it, and penetates, if possible, into the
earth, or is metamorphosed in some dry and retired spot.

M. cxsar, L. Body, a glossy golden-green; legs black. The fernale de-
posits her egg’s on carrion.

M. domestica, L. The thorax of the Common Fly is of a cinerous-grey
with four black streaks; abdomen blackish-brown spotted with black, and
yellowish-brown above. .

DIPTERA. 495

In the Diptera of which we have hitherto spoken, we have found
a sucker received into the superior canal of a tubular sheath, more
or less membranous, geniculate at base, most frequently terminated
by two lips, and accompanied by palpi. The antennz, except one
subgenus or Phora, have always appeared to be inserted near the
front. - The larve of these Diptera, although susceptible of being
hatched in the venter of the mother, live abroad and feed on various
substances, vegetable or animal. These Insects have formed our
first general section, which is divided into five families. Those of
the second differ in all these respects.
y This second section will form our last family of the Diptera.

a

FAMILY YI.
PUPIPARA,(1)

These insects, at least the Hippoboscx, were distinguished by
Reaumur, under the analogous appellation of Nymphipara.

Their head, viewed from above, is divided into two distinct arez
orparts. One posterior, and more particularly composing the head,
gives origin to the eyes and receives the other part in an anterior
emargination. The latter is, also divided into two portions, the
posterior large and coriaceous, bearing the antenne.on its sides,
and the other constituting the.apparatus:of manducation. The in-
ferior and oral cavity of the head is occupied by a membrane; from
its extremity issues a sucker arising from a little bulb or projecting
pedicle, composed of two closely approximated threads or sete, and
covered by two coriaceous, narrow, elongated, and pilose laminz
which form its sheath.

The body is short, tolerably broad, flattened and defended by a
solid skin almost of the consistence of leather. The head is more
intimately united to the thorax than in the preceding families. The
antenne, always situated at the lateral and anterior extremities of
the head, sometimes form a tubercle bearing three setze, and some-
times little hairy lamin. The eyes vary as tosize; in some species
they are very small.

(1) Born in the pupa state.

496 | iupueens

The thorax gi four stigmata, two anterior and two pptte-
rior.

The wings are seals distant and accompanied by bala
Their edge is more or less fringed with cilia. ‘The skin of the ab-
domen is formed of a continuous membrane, so that this part of the
body is susceptible of being distended and of acquiring a conside-

rable volume, as necessarily happens in those female Hippobosces,
_ where the larve are hatched and continue to reside until the period of

their transformation into pupe. At this epoch the larve are pro-

- duced in the form of a soft, white egg, almost as bulky asthe ma-
ternal abdomen; the skin hardens and becomes.a firm shell, at first
brown, then black, round, and frequently emarginated at one end,
and presenting a glossy plate or operculum which is finally detached
in the manner of a cap to allow the egress of the perfect Insect.

These Insects, which have been-called by some authors Mouches-
Araignées, live.exclusively on Quadrupeds or Birds, run very fast,
and frequently sideways.

Some—Coriaces,Lat.—have a. very distinct head articulated
with the anterior extremity of the thorax. They form the genus

: Hreronosca, Lin. Fab.
_ The Hippobosca proper is furnished with wings; and has very distinct eyes
occupying all the sides of the head; antenne in the form of tubercles,
with three sete on the back.
H. equina, L. Brown mixed with nn phos Found’ on Horses and
Oxen, usually under their tail,
There are other subgenera,

The head of the other Pupipara—Phthiromyies, Lat.—is very
small or almost wanting. It forms a minute, vertical body near the
anterior and dorsal extremity of the thorax.

_ They constitute the genus

| Nycrerrisra, Lat.

These Insects have neither wings nor halteres, and resemble Spiders still
more than the preceding ones. They live on Bats. Linnzus arranged one
species, and the only one he knew, with the Pediculi.

A Ae

FOURTH GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL —

ine ANIMALIA RADIATA.

*

The Raptatep Animats, or Zoopuytes, as they, are termed,

include a number of beings whose organization, always evidently
more simple than that of the three preceding divisions, also presents —
a greater variety of degrees than is observed in éther of them, and
seems to agree in but one point, viz. their parts are arranged roms

an axis and on one or several radii, or on one or several lines ex-

tending from one pole to the other. Even the Entozoa or intaihig
Worms have at least two tendinous lines, or two nervous threads.

proceeding from a collar round the mouth, and several of them have ‘3

four suckers situated round a pfcbcasttorth elevation. Ina word, —
notwithstanding some irregularities, and some very few exceptions— ~
those of the Planaria and most of the Infusoria—traces of the radi-
ating form are always to be found, which are strongly marked in the
greater number, and particularly in Asterias, Echinus, the Acale-
pha, and the innumerable host of the Polypi. |

The nervous system is never very evident, and when traces of it
have been apparently visible, it was also arranged in radii; most
frequently, however, there is no appearance of it whatever.

There is never any true circulating system. ‘The Holothuria are
provided with a double vascular apparatus, one portion of it being
attached to the intestines and corresponding to the organs of respi-

ration, and the other merely serving to inflate the organs which.
3.N

a

498 = — ANIMALIA RADIATA.

» supply the want of feet. In the great number of Zoophytes it is
- easily proved that there are no vessels whatever.

In some genera, such as Holothuria, Ursinus, and in several of
the Entozoa, we observe a mouth and a distinct intestinal canal.
Others have an intestinal sac, but with a single opening. In the
greater number there is merely a cavity excavated in the substance

‘of the body which sometimes opens by several suckers; and finally
there are some in which there is no mouth visible, and which can
only be nourished by porous absorption.

The sexes of several of the Entozoa or Intestinal Worms can be
distinguished. The greater number of the other Radiata are ovi-
parous; some are reproduced by buds or division.

The compound animals, of which we have already seen some ex-
amples in the last of the Mollusca, are greatly multiplied in certain
orders of the Radiata, and their aggregation produces trunks and
expansions forming all sorts of figures. . It is to this circumstance,
together with the simple nature of the organization in most of the
species, and the radiating disposition of their organs, which reminds
us of the petals of flowers, that they owe their name of Zoophytes
or Animal-plants, by which we merely mean to express this appa-
rent affinity, for as Zoophytes enjoy the sense of touch and the power
of voluntary motion, mostly feed on matters which they have swal-
lowed or sucked, and digest them in an internal cavity, they are cer-
tainly animals in every point of view.

In Asterias and Ursinus, called EcurnopERMEs by Bragitys on
account of their spines, we find a distinct intestine floating in a large

cavity, and accompanied by other organs, for respiration, &c., and
a partial circulation.

The Enrozoa or Intestinal Worms, which form the second class,
have no very evident vessels in which a distinct circulation. is car-
ried on,:nor separate organs of respiration. Their body is usually
elongated or depressed, and their organs arranged longitudinally.

The third class comprises the Acaterua or Sea Nettles. They
have neither true circulating vessels nor organs of respiration.
Their form is usually circular and radiating, and their mouth is al-
most always their only aperture. ‘They only differ from Polypi in

the greater development of the tissue of their organs. The Aca-
lepha Hydrostatica, which we place at the end of this class, when

ANIMALIA RADIATA. “ . 499°

better known, will perhaps form a separate one; as fad however we
only conjecture the functions of their singular organs.

The Potyrr, which compose the fourth class, are those little ge-

latinous animals whose mouth surrounded with tentacula leads toa
stomach sometimes simple and sometimes followed by intestines in
the form of vessels. To this class belong those innumerable com-
pound animals with a fixed and solid stem which were considered as
marine plants.
The Thethyize and Sponges are usually placed at the end of this
class, although Polypi have not yet been discovered in them.
‘The Inrusorta, or the fifth and last class of the Zoophytes, are
ose minute’beings whose existence we have only discovered by
-means of the microscope, and which swarm in stagnant waters.
»Most of them have merely a gelatinous body destitute of viscera, al-
though we commence the series with more compound species pos-
sessed of visible organs of locomotion and a stomach: these also
may hereafter constitute a separate 'class.

cn ke
¥ rao

CLASS I.

_ECHINODERMATA.(1)

The Echinodermata are the most complicated animals of this di-
vision. Invested with a well organized skin, frequently supported by
a sort of skeleton, and armed with points, or movable and articulated
spines, they have an internal cavity in which distinct and floating
viscera may be perceived. A sort of vascular system, which it is
true does not extend throughout the body, keeps up a communica-
tion with various parts of the Intestine, and with the organs of res-
piration, whichare generally very distinct. Threads are also seen
in several, which may act as nerves, but which are never arranged
with the regularity and fixed order of those in the animals of the
two preceding divisions of the Invertebrata.

(1) Hedge-hog (i. e. spiny) skinned.

a,

&

500 ECHINODERMATA.

a

We divide the Echinodermata into two orders: those furnished
-with feet or at least with Vesicular organs, so called on account of
their fulfilling similar functions; and those in which they are wanting.

ORDER I.
PEDICELLATA.

The Pedicellata are distinguished by organs of motion exclusively
peculiar tothem. Their skin is pierced with a number of little

; holes, arranged i in very regular’ series, through which pass cylindri-

cal and membranous tentacula, each one terminated by a little disk
which acts like a cupping-glass. That portion of these tentacula
which remains within the body is vesicular; a humour is effused
through their entire cavity, and is either propelled at the will of the
animal into the exterior and cylindrical portion, which it distends,
or returns to the interior vesicle, when the former sinks and becomes
relaxed. It is by thus elongating and shortening their hundreds of
little feet or tentacula, and by fixing them by their cup-like extremi-

‘ties, that these animals effect their progressive motion. Vessels

proceeding from these feet extend to trunks which correspond to
their ranges, and which terminate hear the mouth. .They form a

system distinct from that of the intestinal vessels observed in some
species.

Linnzus divided them into three very natural, but numerous ge-
nera, and composed of such various species, that they may be consi-
dered as forming three families. The

* ao Asrentas, Lin.

ae “or Starfish, have been so called because their body is divided into rays
ee eae (generally five), in the centre of which, and underneath, is the mouth.

The framework of their body is composed of small osseous pieces, vari-

. “ously, combined, the arrangement of which merits examination. Their

power of reproduction is very great, as they not only reproduce the rays
which have been separately removed, but a single one with the central ray
remaining will reproduce all the others; for this reason their figure is fre-

suet irregular.
Ecuinvs, Lin.
The Eechini, or Sea-Urchins, as they are termed, have the body invested by

4

PEDICELLATA., A BOs bias

a shell or calcareous crust, comune “of angular pieces which join each
other exactly, and perforated by innumerable holes, for the transmission of
the membranous feet, dispaged™ ing veral. yery regular ranges. The sur-
face of this crust is armed with spines, a1 articulated on little tubercles, that
move at the will of the animal, whose motions, conjointly with the feet
situated between them, they effect. Other membranous tubes, much finer
and frequently divided at the extremity, probably serve to convey water
into the interior of their shell, and then to remove it. The mouth is pro-
vided with five teeth, set‘in an extremely complex, calcareous framework,

resembling: a pentagonal lantern, furnished with various muscles, and sus-

pended in a large aperture of the shell. These teeth, which resemble long
ribands, become indented inferiorly as fast as they are worn away at the
point. The intestine is very long, and attached, spirally, to the interior
parietes of the shell by a mesentery. A double vascular system extends
along this canal, and partly on the mesentery; thereare also particular ves-

sels for the feet. Five ovaries empty themselves by separate orifigess

they form the edible portion of these animals.

The Echini chiefly feed on small shell-fish, which they seize with their
feet. Their motions are very slow. Shells of Echiniare very abundant in
the ancient strata, principally those of chalk, ee they are usually filled
with silex.

. The Echini are divided into regular and irregular, and form several sub-
genera.

E. eseulentus, ‘. The c common Echinus is of the form and size of an
apple, completely covered with short, radiating, and usually violet spines.
» Its ovaries, which are reddish, and of an agreeable flavour, are edible 1 in
the spring. i a

Hotoruvria, Lin.

The Holothuriz have an oblong coriaceous body open at eich endl.” At X
the anterior extremity is the mouth, surrounded with complicated. tentacula ;

susceptible of being entirely retracted. At the opposite end is the aper-

ture in which the organ of respiration terminates. It isin the form of an ex-

tremely ramified hollow tree, which is filled with water, or emptied, at the

will of the animal. .The mouth is edentate, or merely furnished with a cir-

cle of bony pieces; it receives saliva from certain sac-like appendages. _
The Holothuriz are divided according to the arrangement of their feet.
H. tremula, Gm. Blackish, and when completely. extended more than a

foot long; its back is bristled with soft and conical points, and its mouth fe is

provided with twenty ramous tentacula. This species is very ——
European seas, the Mediterranean particularly.

eae ie,

- ip

~ 502 ECHINODERMATA.
am ORDER IL.
. mee “APODA. (1)

J

Our second order of the Pehitiodermata, or the Apoda, comprises
but a small number of animals» closely related to the Holothurie,
but which want the vesicular feet of the preceding order. Their
body is invested with a coriaceous unarmed skin. Several points of
their internal structure are not well understood. In

Motrapia, Cuv. :
Asin Holothuria, we finda coriaceous body forming a thick cylinder, open
at both ends, and a tolerably similar internal organization; but independ-
ently of the want of feet, the mouth is destitute of tentacula, and is provided
with an apparatus of bony parts, but less complicated than that of a
Echini..

MrInyas, Cuv.

Where the body is also destitute of feet and open at both extremities; but
its form is that of a spheroid depressed at the poles, and furrowed. like
amelon. 1 can find no armature about the mouth.

M. cyanea, Cuv. A beautiful species of a deve b blue colour that inhabits
the Atlantic ocean.

LirnHopErmis, Cuv.

Where the body is oval and compressed posteriorly; its surface has the
appearance of being covered with a layer of stony granules, which form
an extremely indurated crust. The mouth is surrounded with tentacula,
and the intestines seem to be analogous to those of the Holothuriz.

_ LL. cuneus, Cuy. Blackish, and two inches in length. From the seas of
India, and the only species known. In the

Sreuncutus, Gm.

The oy is cylindrical and elongated, the skin thick and wrinkled in both
directions. The mouth is provided with a sort of a proboscis susceptible of
retraction and protrusion by the action of large internal muscles.

These animals are found in the sands of the sea, like the Arenicole and
Thalasseme, and like them are used as bait by the fishermen.

S. edulis, Cuy. This species is eaten by the Chineseinhabitants of Java,
who procure it from the sands by means of slender bamboos prepared for
the purpose. Other and rather small species—Sip. levis, Sip. verrucosus,
‘Cuy.—perforate submarine rocks and live’in their cavities.

(1) Footless.

‘i
“i

: APODA. | 503

BoneE1a, | Rolando.

P Here the body is oval and furnishe [with a proboscis formed of a double
lamina susceptible of great elon tion and forked at the extremity. The
intestine is very long and frequently flexed, and we observe two ramified
organs which may serve for respiration. The ova are contained in an ob-
long sac opening near the base of the proboscis. The Bonelliz live at a
considerable depth in sand, extending their proboscis to the water and even
to the air above its surface when the tide is low.

B. viridis, Rol. Itiihabits the Mediterranean.

There are some other genera.

CLASS IL.

ENTOZOA, Rud.

The EntOzos or Intestinal Worms are remarkable, because the
greater number.inhabit the interior of other animals, and there only
can live. ‘There is scarcely a single animal that is not the domicil
of several kinds, and those which are observed in one species are
rarely found in many others. They not only inhabit the alimentary
canal and the ducts that empty into it, such as the hepatic vessels,
but even the cellular tissue, and the parenchyma of the most com-
pletely invested viscera, such as the liver and brain.

In the Intestinal Worms we find neither trachez, nor any other
organ of respiration, and they must receive the influence of oxygen
through the medium of the animal they inhabit. They present no
trace of a true circulation, and we merely perceive vestiges of nerves
so extremely obscure, that many naturalists have doubted their ex-
istence.

When those characters are found united in an animal witha form
similar to that of this class, we place it here, although it may not in-
habit the interior of another species.

We will divide the Entozoa in two orders, which are perhaps
sufficiently different in organization to form two classes, if we had
the observations requisite to determine their limits. These orders
are the Entozoa Nematoidea, Rud., which have an intestinal canal

504 * ENTOZOA.

~ floating in a distinct abdominal cavity, a mouth, &c., and the Ento-
zoa Parenchymata, where the parenchyma of the body contains
obscurely terminated viscera, most commonly resembling vascular
ramifications, and sometimes not visible.

Bd

ORDER I.
NEMATOIDEA, Rud.

Sih Tas order comprises those whose external skin, more or less
furnished with muscular fibres, and usually striated transversely,
contains an abdominal cavity in which is.a distinct intestinal canal,
extending from the mouth to the extremity, and where the sexes are
usually distinct. The intestine is connected with the neighbouring
parts and the general envelope of the body by numerous‘threads,
considered by some writers as vessels for thé conveyance of the
nutritious fluid, and by others as traches, but without any proof of
the fact. It is impossible to detect any true circulation in these
animals, but in several there appear to be one or two nervous cords
arising froma ring which surrounds the mouth, and extending the
_. whole length of the body along the internieer the envelope.

Z Finarta, Lin.

Where the body is elongated, slender, filiform, and perforce at the ante-
rior extremity by around oral aperture. The Filariz in their external ap-
pearance are very similar to the Gordii. They are chiefly found in those
cavities of animals which do not open externally, such as the cellular mem-
brane, and even in the thickness of the membranes and the parenchyma of
the viscera; there we sometimes find them in bundles and countless num-
bers, enveloped in species of capsules.» They are found in Insects and their
_ larve, and even in the visceral cavity of several Mollusca. The most cele-
brated species of this genus ¥

FP. medinensis, Gm., (the Guinea Worm), is very common in hot cli-
‘mates, insinuates itself under the skin of man, generally that ofthe leg,
where, if credence be given to the reports. of certain authors, it acquires a
length of ten feet and more. It is about as thick as the barrel of a Pigeon’s
quill. Its pointed and hooked tail constitutes its distinguishing character.

| TRICHOCEPHALUS.
Where the body is round, thickest posteriorly, and as slender as _a thread

NEMATOIDEA.” 505

anteriorly. This slender partis terminated by around mouth. The most
common species is the
T. dispar, Rud. From one totwo inches in length, of which the Guckest
portion forms but the third. This part, i in the male, is convoluted spirally.
It is one of the most common Worms in the great intestines of Man, where,
in certain diseases, it becomes prodigiously multiplied.

CucuULLANUS.

Here the body is sdend. and most slender posteriorly, The head is obtuse
and invested with a sort of hood that is frequently simated the mouth is
round.

They have hitherto been found in Fish only. The most common species
is that which inhabits the Perch and also infests the Pike, &c. It is vivipar-
ous, about an inch long, as thick as a thread, and of a red colour, owing to
the blood with which its. intestine is usually filled.

OPHIOSTOMA.

The same kind of body as the preceding, but distinguished by a trans
versely cleft mouth, and consequently furnished with two lips.

Ascaris, Lin.(1)
The Ascarides have around body, attenuated at each extremity, and a
mouth furnished with three, fleshy papillz, between which an extremely
short tube occasionally projects. This genus is very numerous in species
which are found in all kinds of animals.

Two white threads, one of which extends along the back, sid the other
along the abdomen, are considered by Messrs Otto and Cloquet as the ner-
vous system of these animals; two other and thicker threads, one on the
right and the other on the left, are considered by some as muscular, and by
others as vascular, or even as trachez.

In some, the head is destitute of lateral membranes. The most common
species, the

A. lumbricoides, L., is found without any essential difference in Man, the
Horse, Ass, Zebra, Hemiona, Ox and Hog. It has been seen more than fif-
teen inches in length. Its natural colour is white.

Other species are furnished with a little membrane on each nile of the
head. Such is

A. vermicularis, L. Very common in children. It is not more than five
lines in length, and is thickest anteriorly. |

(1) doxapee, the name of the small species that is found in Man, is derived
from acxapig@, to leap, to move.

3 0

506 : ENTOZOA,

STRONGYEUS, Mull.

Here the body isround. In some of these Strongyli the mouth is ciliate 0 or
dentated. Such is that which infests the Horse, or the

S. equinus, Gm. It is also found in the Ass and Mule.

‘The mouth of others is merely surrounded by tubercles or papilla. Such
particularly is the
_ &. gigas, Rud., the most voluminous of all known intestinal Worms; it
is upwards of two or three feet in length, and as thick as the little finger.
The most singular circumstances attending this Strongylus is that it is most
usually developed in one of the kidneys of various animals, such as the
Wolf, Dog, Mink, and even Man, where it lies doubled up, distending that
organ, destroying its parenchyma, and probably occasioning the most ex-
eruciating agony to the animal in which it resides. It sometimes inhabits

| other viscera. Its usual colour is a beautiful red; the mouth is surrounded

" with six papillz; the intestine is straight and transversely. rugose, the ovary
simple, three or four times the length of the body, communicating exteriorly
by 2 hole a little distance posterior to. the mouth, and, as it appears, open
at the other extremity. An extremely attenuated. white thread that extends
along the abdomen is considered by M. Otto as the nervous system.

Lernza, Lin.

The Seen} and external organization of the body is nearly the same as in
the Nematoidea, but it is prolonged anteriorly by a corneous neck, at the
extremity of which is a mouth variously armed and surrounded, or followed
by productions of different forms. This mouth and its appendages are in-
‘sinuated into the skin of the gills of fishes, and fix the animal there. The
Lernez are also distinguished by two cords, sometimes moderate, and at
others very long, or even much doubled, that are pendent from the sides of
the tail, and which may possibly be ovaries.

L. branchialis, L. The most known species; it attacks the Codfish and
other Gadi, and is from one to two inches inlength. Its mouth is surround-
ed by three ramous horns, which, as well as the neck, are of a deep brown.
Its more inflated body is bent into. an S, and the two cords are contorted
in a thousand different ways. Its horns become rooted, as it were, in the
gills of fishes. :

ORDER II.
PARENCHYMATA.

The second order of the Entozoa’ comprises those species in
which the body is filled with a cellular substance, or even with a

PARENCHYMATA. 507

continuous parenchyma, the only alimentary organ it contains being
ramified canals, which distribute nourishment to its different points,
and which, in most of them, originate from suckers visible exter-
nally. The ovaries are also enveloped in this parenchyma or that
cellulosity. ~ There is no abdominal cavity, nor intestine properly
so called; and if we except some equivocal vestiges in the first fami-
lies, there is neuing /to be found which bears a resemblance to
nerves.
We may divide this order into four families.

FAMILY I.
ACANTHOCEPHALA:(1)

The Parenchymata of this family attach themselves to the intes-

tines by a prominence armed with recurved spines, which also ap-
pears to act as a proboscis. They form the single genus

Ecurnoruyncuvs, Gm.

Where the body is round, sometimes elongated, and sometimes in the form
of a sac, provided anteriorly with a prominence in the form of a probos-
cis armed with little hooks bent posteriorly, and susceptible of being re-
tracted or protruded by the action of particular muscles. These worms
cling to the intestines by means of their proboscis, and frequently penetrate
through them, so that individuals are sometimes found in the thickness of
their tunics, and even in the abdomen, adhering to their external parietes,
E. gigas, Gm. The largest species known; it inhabits the intestines of
the Hog and Wild Boar, where the females attain a length of fifteen inches.

FAMILY II.
TREMADOTEA, Rud.

Our second family comprises those which are furnished under-
neath the body, or at its extremity, with organs resembling cupping-

glasses, by which they adhere to the viscera. ‘They may all be ~

united in one genus, or the

(1) Thorn-headed.

Se lle $

508 . ENTOZOA.

Fascrota, Lin.

Which may be subdivided according to the number and position of their
organs of adhesion.

DisToma.

Here there isa sucker at the anterior extremity of the mouth, and a cup,
a little posterior to it, on the venter. ‘The species are very numerous, and
some are found even in the plaited membrane of the eyes of certain Birds.
Others, however, appear to inhabit fresh and salt water. The most cele-
brated is

D. hepatica. It is very common in the hepatic vessels of Sheep, but is
also found in those of various other Ruminantia, and of the Hog, Horse, and
even of Man. Its form is that of a small oval leaf, pointed posteriorly,
with a narrowed portion anteriorly, at the end of which is the first sucker,
which communicates with a sort of esophagus, from which arise canals that
ramify throughout the body, conveying the bile on which this animal feeds.

The species that infest Sheep become greatly multiplied when they graze

in low and wet grounds, rendering them mae and finally killing them.
There are several other genera:

FAMILY III.
TNIOIDEA,

In our third family of parenchymatous Intestinal Worms, we place
all those species in which the head is provided with two or four
suckers placed around its middle, which is itself sometimes marked
with a pore, and sometimes furnished with a little proboscis, naked
or armed with spines. Sometimes ‘there are four little trunks thus
armed. :

The most numerous genus is

Tanta, Lin.
The body of the Zupe-worm is often excessively elongated, flat, composed
of joints more or less distinctly marked, and narrowed anteriorly, where we
generally find a square head hollowed by four small suckers.

Observers have thought that they could perceive canals which arose
from these suckers, and crept along the margin of the joints of the body.
Each of the latter has one or two pores differently situated, according to the
species, which appear to be the orifices of ovaries that are placed in the
thickness of the joints, where they are sometimes ‘simple, and at others
ramous. The Texnie are among the most cruel enemies of the animals in
which they are developed, and which are apparently exhausted by them.

aS
aS

PARENCHYMATA. 509

T. lata, Rud. (The Common Tape-worm.) The jointsare broad, short,
and furnished with a double pore in the middle of each side. It is very
frequently twenty feet in length, and it has been found upwards of a hun-
dred. The large ones are nearly an inch wide, but the head and anterior
portion of the body are always very slender. This species is extremely
injurious and tenacious. The most violent remedies frequently fail to expel
it. In Man.

T: solium,U. Ver solshire of the French. Its joints, the anterior ones
excepted, are longer than they are wide, and have the pore [placed alter-
nately on one of their edges. It is usually from four to ten feet in length,
but much larger ofies are sometimes met with. The vulgar idea that but
one of these animals is found at a time in the same individual is very far
from being true. Its detached joints are styled cucurbitini. It is one of
the most dangerous of the intestinal worms and the most difficult to expel.

From these ordinary Teenie, on account of the form of their head,
are distinguished various others, forming the Tricuspidaria, &c.
Naturalists have also distinguished from the ordinary Tsenz those
which, with a similar head, that is one with four suckers, have the
body terminated posteriorly by a bladder. Their joints are not as

distinctly marked as in the preceding ones. ‘The genus

Cysticercvs, Rud.

Vulgarly termed Hydatids, is composed of those in’which the bladder sup-
ports but a single body and one head. They are particularly developed i in
the membranes and cellulosity of animals.

C. cellulosez. This species is the most celebrated of the whole number,
and lives between the fibres of the muscles of the Hog, producing the dis-
ease called measles, It is small, and multiplies prodigiously in this disgust-
ing disease,. penetrating into the heart, eyes, &c. Similar animals have, it
appears, been observed in certain Monkeys, and even in Man,

FAMILY IV.
CESTOIDEA.

The fourth family comprises those which are destitute of external
suckers.
But one genus is known.

Lievta, Bloch..
Of all the Entozoa, these appear to be the most simply organized. Their
body resembles‘a long riband; it is flat, obtuse before, marked with a lon-

510 ENTOZOA.

gitudinal stria, and finely striated transversely. No external organ what-
ever is perceptible, and internally we find nothing but the ova, variously
distributed in the length of the parenchyma,

They inhabit the abdomen of certain Birds, and particularly of various
fresh-water Fishes, enveloping and constricting their intestines to such a
degree as to destroy them. At certain periods they even perforate the
parietes of their abdomen to leave it. One of them, the
£. abdominalis, Gm., inhabits the Bream. In some parts of Italy these
worms are considered agreeable food.

CLASS III.

ACALEPHA.(1)

Our third class comprises Zoophyta which swim in the waters of
the ocean, and in whose organization we can still perceive vessels,
which, it is true, are generally mere productions of the intestines
excavated in the parenchyma of the body.

ORDER I.
SIMPLICIA.

The simple Acalepha float and swim in the ocean by the alternate
contractions and dilatations of their body, although their substance
is gelatinous and without any apparent fibres. ‘The species of ves-
sels observed in some of them are hollowed out of their gelatinous —
substance; they frequently andevidently originate from the stomach,
and do not occasion a true circulation. |

Mepvsa, Lin.

The Medusz are furnished superiorly with a disk more or less convex, re-
sembling the head of a mushroom, and called the wmbella. Its contractions

(1) Nettles, from axaanou.

SIMPLICIA. 511

and dilatations assist the locomotion of the animal, The edges of this um-
bella, as well as the mouth, or the suckers more or less prolonged into
pedicles which supply the want of it, in the middle of the inferior surface,
are furnished with tentacula of various forms and very different sizes.
These various degrees of complication have given rise to numerous divisions.

The two following genera, wach were formerly joined with the
Medusz, might also constitute a small family in this, order, on ac-
count of the internal cartilage which supports. the-gelatinous sub-
stance of the body.

Porprra, Lam.

Where this cartilage is circular and its surface marked with concentric

strie crossed by radiating strie. The superior surface is merely invested
with a thin membrane that projects beyond it; the inferior is covered with
a great number of tentacula, the exterior of which are the longest, and fur-
nished with little cilia, each terminated by a globule. They sometimes
contain air; those in the middle are the shortest, simplest and most fleshy.
In the centre of all these tentacula is the mouth, in the form of a little sa-
lient proboscis. It leads to a simple stomach surrounded by a sort of glan-
dular substance. One species is known, of a beautiful blue colour, that
inhabits the Mediterranean and seas of hot climates.

Veteira; Lam.”

Where, as in Porpita, there is a mouth in the inferior surface in the form
of a proboscis, surrounded with innumerable tentacula, the exterior of which
is the longest, but the latter are not ciliated, and a still more important
character is, that the cartilage, which is oval, has on its superior surface a
vertical and tolerably elevated crest. This cartilage is diaphanous, and is
merely marked with concentric striz. A species of this genus also is known,
of the same colour as the Porpita and inhabiting the same seas. It is.eaten
fried.

ORDER II.
HYDROSTATICA.

The Hydrostatic Acalepha are known by one or more bladders
usually filled with air, by means of which they suspend themselves
in their liquid element. Excessively numerous and variously shaped -
appendages, some of which probably serve as suckers, and the others

512 7 AGALEPHA.

perhaps as ovaries, and some longer than the rest as tentacula,
are attached to these vesicles and compose the whole apparent or-
ganization of these animals. They have no apparent mouth, or one
which can be decidedly considered as such. .

Puysarra, Lam.

The Physalie resemble an extremely large oblong bladder elevated supe-
riorly into an oblique and wrinkled crest, and furnished beneath, near one ~
of its extremities, with numerous, cylindrical, fleshy productions, variously
terminated, that communicate with the bladder. ‘Those in the middle give
origin to more or less numerous groups of little filaments; the lateral ones
are merely divided into two threads, one of which is frequently very long.
There appears to be an extremely small orifice in one of the extremities of
the bladder, but internally no other intestine is found, but another bladder
with thinner parietes. There is no nervous, circulating, nor glandular
system. The animal swims on the surface of the sea when it is calm, em-
ploying its crest as a sail. When living, it is also furnished with extremely
long filaments, more slender than the others, which are sprinkled, as it
were, with pearls or drops. , Its touch is said to sting and burn like that of
the Sea-nettle. They are found in all the seas of hot climates. ~

Puyssopnora, Forsk.

These Acalepha are evidently allied to the Physalic, but their bladder is
proportionally much smaller, has no crest, and is frequently accompanied
by lateral bladders; their various and’ numerous tentacula are suspended
vertically under the bladder, like a garland or cluster.

It is directly after these hydrostatic Acalepha that we may place
the |

Dirnyes, Cuv.

A very singular genus, where two different individuals are always found to-
gether, one encased in a cavity of the other, but susceptible of being sepa-
rated without destroying the life of either. They are gelatinous, diaphan-
ous, and move nearly in the manner of a Medusa. The receiver produces
from the bottom of its cavity a chaplet which traverses a semi-canal in the
received, and appears to be composed of tentacula, and suckers, like those of
the preceding genera. ‘

This genus has been divided by Messrs Quoy and Gaymard according to
the relative form and proportions of the two individuals.

POLYPI.

Our fourth class of the Radiata, or Zoophytes has been. thus
named because the tentacula which surround their mouth give them
a slight resemblance to an Octopus called Polypus by the ancients.
The number and form of these tentacula vary. ‘The body is always
cylindrical or conical, frequently without any other viscus than its
cavity, and frequently also with a visible stomach, to which adhere
intestines or rather vessels excavated’in the substance of the body
like those of the Medusz; in this latter case we usually find ovaries
also, Most of these animals are capable of forming compound be-
ings, by shooting out new individuals, pen buds. They are also,
however, continued by eggs.

ORDER If.
CARNOSL

The first order comprises fleshy animals that usually fix them-
selves by their base, several of which, however, have the power of
crawling on that base, or even of detaching it altogether, and swim-
ming or suffering themselves to be carried away by the current.
Most commonly, however, they merely expand the oralaperture. It
is surrounded with a greater or les8 number of tentacula, and opens
into a stomach en cul-de-sac. Between this internal sac and the
external skin we find a tolerably complex, but still obscure organi-
zation, chiefly consisting of fibrous and vertical leaflets, to which the
ovaries, that resemble tangled threads, are attached. The intervals
of these leaflets communicate with the interior of the tentacula, and
it appears that water penetrates into and issues from them by small
orifices in the circumference of the mouth; the Actiniz, at least,
sometimes ejaculate it in this manner.

3 P

514 We S »POLYPI. oe

Bi s

: AAS oa aioe, Lin.

The Feiy bod of ee Polypi is frequently ornamented with bright
colours, and exhibits numerous tentacula placed round the mouth in seve-
ral ranges, like the petals of a double flower, and hence their common
name of Sea-nemones. T hey are extremely sensible to the influence of
light, and expand or close in proportion to the fineness of the day.
When they retract their tentacula, the opening through which those organs
pass contracts and closes over them like the mouth of a purse.

Theit power of reproduction is scarcely inferior to that of the Hydra;
parts that have been amputated shoot out again, and the animal may be
multiplied by division. These Zoophytes, when hungry, dilate their mouth
to a great extent. They devour all sorts, of animals, especially Crus-
_ tacea, Shell-fish, and small Fishes, phich ‘they Paptee wie gbeir tentacula,

and soon digest. a
sain equina, L. The skin soft and finely RGiated, pints of a fine purple
colour frequently spotted with green; it is smaller than the senilis, with
~ Jonger and more numerous tentacula. This species covers all the rocks on
the French coast of the British channel, mas wae them as if with the
most ‘splendid flowers. He: ot Sh

Tectia Mull. ale
The Lucernariz should apparently be approximated to the Ai, but

“4 their substance is softer; they fix themselves to fuci and other marine

bodies by a slender pedicle, and their superior portion dilates like a parasol,

iti the centre of which is the mouth. Numerous tentacula united in bundles

are arranged round its edges... 5 |

ORDER IL.
GELATINOSI.

The gelatinous Polypi, unlike the preceding ones, are not invested
with a firm envelope, neither is there a ligneous, fleshy, nor corne-
ous axis in the interior of their mass. Their body is gelatinous and
more of less conical; its cavity supplies the want of a stomach.

Hy¥pra, Lin.

Of all the animals of this class, these are reduced to the greatest degree of
simplicity. A little gelatinous horn, whose edges are provided with fila-
ments that act as tentacwla, constitutes their whole apparent organization.
The microscope discovers nothing in their substance but a diaphanous
parenchyma filled with more opaque granules. Notwithstanding this, they

. athe PA eee. se teehee

c ng their prey, which can be seen
being digested in the cavity of their body. They are sensible to the action
of light, and seek it, but their most wonderful property is that of being con-
stantly reproduced by the indefinite excision of their parts, so that we can

multiply them at will by. means of division. Their natural increase is by

shoots which push out froma various points of the body of the adult, and at —

first resemble branches. ’

There are several other a belonging to this ad. such as Corine,

Vorticella, &c. 4

ORDER Tl.”
CORATRIFESS :

The Corailifert constitute that numerous suite ét species ae

were long considered as marine plants, and of which the individuals.

are in fact united in great numbers to constitute compound animals,
mostly fixed like plants, either forming a stem or simple expansions,

by means of a solid internal substance. The individual animals,

more or less analogous to the Actiniz or Hydra, are all connected
by a common body, and are nourished in common, so that what is
eaten by one goes to the nutrition ofthe general body, and of all
the other Polypi. Their volition is even in common, at least it is
certainly so in the free species, such as the, Pennatule, which are
seen swimming by the contractions of their stems, and the combined
motions of their Polypi. ’

The name of Coral has been siven to the common parts of these
compound animals; it is always formed by deposition, and in layers
like the ivory of teeth, but is sometimes on the surface, and some-
times in the interior of the compound animal. This. difference of
position has given rise to the following families.

FAMILY I.
TUBULARIL.

Those of the first inhabit tubes of which the common gelatinous
body traverses the axis, like the medulla of a tree, and that are

ae

_pOLyPRI Te

: tien on thes summit or * ee to allow the passage of the
Polyps) Qt
Their more simple Polini appear to be chiefly analogous to the
Hyate and Cristatelle. ie

We : :

pres Tusrora, 1h;
Simple. tubes of a stony substance, each containing a Polypus. These
tubes are parallel, and united from space to space by transverse laminz,
_ which has caused them to be con ae pre of an organ. The
most common ‘apne
T. musica, L.; is of a beautiful red; its pole: are green, and formed like
Hydre. Very abundant in the ue et of India. *

‘Toeu alts, Lin.

Simple or branched tubes of a horny substance; from, the extremities of
which issue the Polypi. :

SERTULARIA, Lin.

The Sertularie have a corneous stem, sometimes simple, sometimes ramous,
on the sides of which are cells, extremely 1 various in form, that. are occu-
pied by the Polypi, all connected with a gelatinous stem that traverses the
axis, like the medulla ofa tree. They increase by ova or buds, which are
_ developed in cells larger than the rest, and of a ‘different form. The yari-
ous directions of their cells have caused them to be subdivided.

FAMILY II.
CELLULARII.

Where each Polypus is adherent in a corneous or calcareous cell
with thin parietes, and only communicates with the others by an ex-
tremely tenuous external tunic, or by the minute pores which tra-
verse the parietes of the cells. These Polypi bear a general re-
semblance to the Hydre. : :

CELLULARIA, Lin.

Where these cells are so arranged as to form branching sted in the man-
ner of the Sertulariz, but without a tube of communication inthe axis. Their
substance also is more calcareous.

Fiustra, Lin.
We here find a great number of cells united like honey-combs, sometimes

4
in
“it ;
* > :
: mis pe
F

in certain species, one side only is | furnish¢
their substance is more or less corneous. _

eRe oS :

ic ; oF Potts, crowded one against ap other,
le hole. 4

Masses of small calcareous V
and each eso ees a gre

eT eotzponA, Lam.

Masses of little tubes, of which the aperture is as wide as the Bh sisi or
wider.

Bodies exist in the ocean that resemble the Corals of which we
have been speaking, both in substance and their general form, but
in which Polypi, have not yet been discovered. ‘Their nature is
consequently deubtful, and great naturalists, such as Pallas and
others, have considered them as’ plants; others, however, consider
them as having very small cells, and ‘as being inhabited by coralli-
ferous Polypi. -In this case they belong to the present order.
Those, in which the interior is filled with corneous threads, stil!
present some analogy to the Ceratophyta. In the

Corariina,; Lin.
We observe articulated stems placed on species of roots, and divided into
branches, also articulated, on the surface of which no pores can be seen,
and in which no Polypi have:hitherto been discovered.

C. officinalis, L. The bottom of the sea on certain coasts is completely
covered with this coral, the joints of which are oboval and the ramusculi
arranged like pinnate leaves, bearing other branches similarly disposed.
It is white, reddish, or greenish. It was formerly employed in pharmacy
on account of its calcareous nature.

Of all these productions without apparent Polypi, which are conjectur-
ally referred to the Coralliferi, few are more singular than the Acetabula, or

AcETABULUM, Lam.

Where we find a.slender and hollow stem supporting a round thin plate,
like a parasol, with radiating striz,,crenulated at the edge and having a lit-
tle smooth disk surrounded with pores in the centre. No Polypi can be
discovered inthem. ‘The rays of the disk are hollow and contain greenish
granules, a circumstance which led Cayolini to consider them as plants. —
One of them—Tubularia acetabulum, Gmn., i is found in the Mediterranean. —

a ad ah,

FAMILY Il.
CORTICATI,

This’ family: comprises genera in which all the Polypi are con-
nected by a common, thick, fleshy. or gelatinous substance, in the
3 cavities of which they are received, and which envelopes an axis
varying in form and substance. — The Polypi of those that have been
_ observed are somewhat more complex than the. preceding ones and
approximate more closely to the Actinz. Internally we observe a
stomach from which eight intestines originate, two that are pro-
longed into the common mass, and two that are mRArea, and seem
to supply the place of ovaries.

They are subdivided into four tribes. In the first, or the Chik
TopnyTa, ‘the internal axis has the appearance of wood or horn,
and is fixed. ‘T'wo genera of them are known, ang both extremely
numerous.

AntipaTues, Lin.
Commonly termed Black Coral, where the ramous and ligneous-like sub-
‘stance of the axis is enveloped with a bark so soft, that it becomes destroy-
ed after death, when it t fegombahy branches of dry wood, &e.

Goreonia, L.
Where, on the contrary, this horny or ligneous substance of the axis is
enveloped by a bark, the thickness of which is so penetrated by calcareous
granules, that it dries on the axis, retaining its colours, which are frequently
extremely vivid and beautiful; it is soluble in acids.

va

_ In the second tribe, that of the Lirnoruyra, the internal axis
is of a strong substance and fixed. In

%
“, Ists, Lin.
“This axis is ramous, and has no Cells or cavities on its surface. The ani-
~ mal bark which envelopes it is mixed with calcareous granules, as in the
“Gorgoniz. a :

, Maprepora, Lin.

. The stony portion of Madrepores is either ramous, or forms rounded mosses,
or leaves, but is always furnished with lamellz which unite concentrically in
points where they represent stars, or which terminate in lines more or less
serpentine. While alive, this stony portion is covered. with a living bark,

soft, gelatinous, and sees.
are the Polypi or rather the Actini |
of tentacula, and the lamellz of thes rs ¢

membranous lamine of the body of the “Actinia. “The ‘bark and Polypi
contract on the Bi tout ee

r is Paatcemely. various in form, and the ' itce
tle holes or pores, or eyen without any appang ori-

Here the stony porti
merely marked with li
fices, .

4a oF

In the third tribe, or the Naranres, the axis is stony but not
fixed.

Pennatuna, Lin.

A common body, free from all adhesion, of a regularand constant form;
and susceptible of locomotion by the contractions of its fleshy portion and
‘the combined action of its Polypi.. This.body is fleshy, and contracts or
dilates in its various parts by means of the fibrous layers that enter into its
composition; its axis encloses a simple stony stem; the Polypi have gene-
rally eight dentated arms. yphost of the eenor diffuse a vivid phospho-
rescent light.

The Pennatulz, psonedly 6 so > called, owe given their name to the whole
genus, which name has been derived from their own resemblance to a
quill. The portion destitute of Polypi is cylindrical, and terminates in an
obtuse point. The other part is furnished on each side with wings or
lamin, more or less long and_ broad, supported by spines or rigid sete
which arise from their interior and roughen one of their edges, without,
however, being articulated with the stony stem of the axis; it is from be-
tween their laminz that the Polypi protrude.) ,

Small, porous int stony bodies, which nuturalists have thought
may be approximated to the Millepora, are found among fossils and
in the ocean. If they were enveloped by a rind of bark containing
Polypi, they would be movable Coralliferi, and should rather be
placed near the ppehamaae Such are the

Ovuxrrzs, Lam., which have the form of eggs, hollow, and frequently.
perforated at both ends: the Lunutrrss, which are orbicular, convex, stri-
ated, and porous on one side, and concave on the other: and the OrsuLiTEs,
that are orbicular, flat, or concave, porous on both sides or on the edges.
If the Dacryzopora be free, as in the opinion of Lamarck, it will also be- -
long to this subdivision; it is a hollow ovoid, open at both ends, and with
two envelopes, both perforated by meshes like the Retepora.

ate Lin.

As in the’Pennatule, we observe Polypi with eight denticulated arms, and
intestines prolonged into. the egeamon, mass of the ovaries: but this mass is

not supported by an osseous axis; ‘it is. lways fixed to the body; and where
it is drawn out into trunks and branches , nothing is found internally, but a

gelatinous substance traversed by numerous canals surrounded with fibrous
"membranes. The bark is harder and excavated: by cells, into which the

Polypi withdraw more or less entirely.
After the Alcyonia are also placed the

Sponera, Lin.

Or Sponges; marine, fibrous bodies, whose’ only sensible portion appears to
be a sort of tenuous gelatine which dries off, scarcely leaving a trace of it,
and in which neither Polypi nor other moving parts have yet been disco-
vered. Living Sponges are said to exhibit a sort of tremulousness or con-
traction when they are touched; it is also affirmed that the pores, with their
superficies, are perforated, and present a sort of palpitation; the existence
of these motions, however, is contested by M. Grant.

Sponges assume innumerable shapes, each according to its species, and
resemble shrubs, horns, vases, tubes, globes, fans, &c.

Every one knows the 8. officinalis, or common Sponge, Wiel is found
in large brown masses, formed of extremely fine, flexible, and elastic fibres,
perforated with numerous pores and little irregular canals, all of which in-
tercommunicate.

CLASS V.

INFUSORIA.

Naturalists usually close the catalogue of the animal. kingdom
with beings so extremely minute as to be invisible to the naked eye,
and which have only been discovered since the invention of the mi-
croscope has unveiled to us, as it were, a new world. Most of
them present a gelatinous body of the greatest simplicity, and for
these, this is undoubtedly the situation; but authors have placed

_ sipated.

among the Infusoria, animals
and which only resemble them i
in which they are usually found. ;

They. will constitute our first order, though w we imust still insist
upon the doubts relative to ed organization, which are not yet dis-

ay

=e”

ORDER I.
ROTIFERA.(1)

oF §

The Rotifera are distinguished by a greater degree of complica-

‘tion. ‘Their body is oval and gelatinous; we can distinguish in it a

mouth, a stomach, and an intestine. It most commonly terminates
posteriorly in a tail that is variously constructed, and anteriorly it
bears a singular organ, variously lobate, with denticulated edges, and
of which the denticulations vibrate successively in such a manner as
to give the organ itself the appearance of one or more dentated and
revolving wheels. One or two prominences on the neck have even
appeared to some observers to be furnished with eyes. This re-
volving organ does not serve to direct their aliment to the mouth; it
may be supposed to have some connexion with the function of res-
piration. In '

Furcunaria, Lam.

The body :~ :narmed; the tail is composed of articulations which enter one
into the other, and is terminated by two threads.

It is on one of these—the Furcularia or Rotifere des toits—that Spallanzani
performed his famous. experiments. Covered with dust in the spouts on
the roofs of houses it becomes desiccated, and after remaining in that state
for several weeks, reacquires life and motion on being humected with a lit-
tle water.

There are two other genera, viz. T'ubicolaria and Brachionus.

(1) Wheel-bearers.
3.Q

Siow
paste ed

complication, and is $ frequently destitute of even the appearance of - i

a mouth.

The first Tribe® comprises thiog hii with a gelatinous body
more or’less contractile i in its different. parts, still present external
organs ponpeting of cilia more or less strong.

*

‘When they fave the forui of a horn, (cornet), from which the cilia issue
as in the Polypi. called Vorticellz, we have the Ureolaria: when the
body is flat, and these cilia are at one extremity, Trichoda: when they
surround the whole body, Leucophra: when some of them are stout,
and represent species of horns, Kerona: and when these pretended
horns are elongated into raneady Himantopes.

The second tribe consists of those which exhibit no external or-
gan whatever, if we except a tail. In

Cadltsias Mull.
The oval body is in fact terminated by a thread.

Vrerio, Mull.

Where the body is round and slender like a bit of thread.

It is to this genus that belong the

V. glutinis et aceti, or the pretended Hels that are seen in vinegar and
paste. Those that inhabit the former are frequently perceptible to the naked
eye. It is asserted that they change their skin, consist of two sexes, , pro-
duce living young ones in summer, and eggs in autumn: Freezing will not
kill them. The others make their appearance in diluted paste.

In Enchelis, Mull. the body is softer, oblong, and less determined than that

ofa Vibrio. In Cyclidium it is flat and oval. In Paramecium it is flat and

oblong. In Kolpodza it is flat and sinuous. In Goniwm it is flat and angular,
and in Bursaria hollow like a sac. The most singular genus of the whole

‘is the ©

» ~ Prorevs, Lin. a

\. a

No Batseriinate form can be assigned to them; their figure éhitizes every

instant, and is sometimes rounded, sometimes divided and subdivided into

thongs, in the most odd and pagal manner, »

INTRODUCTION,
DISTRIBUTION or THE ANIMAL
Kryepom,
VERTEBRATA, OR VERTE-
BRATED ANIMALS,

MAMMALIA,

Man,

Monkeys,

Bats,

Hedge-hogs,

Shrews, ‘

Desmans,

Moles,

Bears,

Raccoons,

Coatis,

Badgers,

Gluttons,

Weasels,

Polecats,

Otters,

The Dog,

The Wolf,

The Jackal,

Foxes,

Civets,

Genets,

The Mangouste,

Hyznas,

Cats,

The Lion,

Tiger,

Panther,

Lynx,

9

33

37
Al
45
54
62

Seals,

The Morse,
Opossums,
Phalangers,
Potoroos,
Kanguroos,
Squirrels,
The Aye-Aye,
Marmots,
Rats,

Jerboas,
Jumping-Hares,
Rat Moles,
The Beaver,
The Couia,
Porcupines,
Hares,

Guinea Pig,
Sloths,
Megatherium,
Armadillos,
Ant-Eaters,
Echidne,
Ornithorhynci,
The Elephant,
The Mammoth,
Hippopotamus,
The Hog,
Anoplotherium,
Rhinoceros,
Damans,
Palxotherium,
The Tapir,
Horses,

oa

526

Brrps,

Petia

SYSTEMATIC IN x. os
a Camels, 111 i ” ‘Birds of Paradise,
The Musk, | 112 - Nuthatches,
The Stags, _ 113 Creepers,
The Giraffe, — 113 Hummingbirds
Antelopes, 114 Hoopoes, :
Goats, 114 Bee-eaters,
Sheep, 114 Mot-mots,
The Ox; 115 Kingfishers,
Manati, 116 Todies,
Dugong, 117 Hornbills,
Dolphins, 119 Jacamars,
Porpoises, 119 Woodpeckers,
The Narwhal, 119 Wrynecks;
Cachalots, ©». 119 Cuckoos,
The Whale, 120 Barbets,
Toucans,
-OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATA, 120 Parrots,
121 Touracos,
Vultures, 127 Plaintain-eaters,
Falcons, 127 Hoccos,
Eagles, 129 Peacocks,
Hawks, 129 Turkeys,
Buzzards, 129 Guinea-fowls,

' Owls, 131 Pheasants,
Shrikes, L132 Grouse,
Fly-catchers, 132 Partridges,
Crown-Birds, 132 Quails,
Tanagers, 133 Tinamous,
Thrushes, 133 Pigeons,
Ant-catchers, 133 Ostriches,
Orioles, 134 Cassowaries,
Warblers, 135 Bustards,
Manakins, 135 Plovers,
Swallows, 136 Lapwings,
Larks, (137 Oyster-catchers,
Titmouse, 138 Cranes;
Buntings, 188 The Sun Bird,
Sparrows, 138 The Boat-bill,
Crossbills, 138 Herons,
Colies, 139 Storks,
Beef-eaters, 139 Jabirus,
Starlings, 13 Umbres,
Crows, 140 Wood-Pelicans,
Magpie, 140 Spoonbills,
Jays, 140 The Ibis, ©
Nutcrackers, 141 Curlews,
Rollers, 141 Snipes,

pa Ad)

“142
142
142
143
143
143
143
143
144
144
145
145
145
146
146
147
147
148
148
148
149
149
149
150
150
150
150
152
153
154
154
154
155
155
156
157

(187

157

157

157

“158

158
159
159
159

Godwits,
_ Sandpipers,
Ruffs,
Turnstones,
Avosets,'
Jacanas,
Kamichi,
Rails,
Coots,
Sheath bills,
Pratincoles,
Flamingoes,
Divers,
Guillemots,
Auks,
Puffins,
Penguins,
Gorfus,
Petrels,
The Albatross,
Gulls,
Terns, -

~ . Noddies,

, Skimmers,

_ Pelicans,
Cormorants,
Frigate-Birds,
Boobies,
Darters,
Tropic Birds,
Swans,
Geese,
Ducks,
Mergansers,

REPTILES,

Tortoises,
Crocodiles,
Lizards,
Aganez,
Dragons,
Iguana,
Mosasaurus,
Geckos,
Chameleons,
Scincoideans,

= sa

SYSTEM TIC INDEX.

_ ee

527

187 3

Batrachians, (Frogs, Sala-

manders, ke. n
FIsHEs,

Perches,
Gurnards,
Flying-fishes,
Stickle-backs,
Scienoides,
Sparoides,
Mackerels,
Tunnies,
Swordfish,
Pilot-fish,
Tenioides,
Theutyes,
Mullets,
Blennies,
Gobies,

The Angler,
Tautog,
Fistularide,
Carps,
Pikes,
Flying-fishes,
Catfish,

The Salmon,
Herrings,
The Shad,
The Cod,
Flat-fishes,
Discoboli,
Eels,
Sea-Horse,
Gymnodontes,
Paddle-fish, 4
Chimera, —
Sharks,
Angelfish,
Saw-fish,
Rays,

The Torpedo,
Lampreys,
Myxine,

=

pe

ER * yee oa ae ae es

528 Sey SYSTEMATIC INDEX. ig,
MOLLUSCA, 243 F “pileolus, 263
CEPHALOPODA, | 246 Navicella, 263
Cuttle-fish, © : 247 Calyptrza, 263
Nautilus, 247 Siphonaria, 264
Belemnites, 248 Sigaretus, oe Sims
Ammonites, 248 Cryptostoma, 264
Be Nummulies, - 248 Conus, 265
| Prenorops, 249 Cyprea, 265
Clio, 249 Ovula, 265
Cymbula, 249 Terebellum, 265
Limacina, 249 Voluta, 265
GaSTEROPODA, 250 Oliva, 266
Slugs, 252 Buccinum, 266
Snails, 252 Cerithium, 267
Planorbis, 253 Murex, 267
2 Lymnezus, 253 Strombus, 268
Physa, 253 Vermetus, 268
Auricula, 253 Magilus, 269
ao oe Conovulus, 253 Siliquaria, 269
; Doris, 254 Halyotis, 269
Tritonia, 255 Fissurella, 270
Thethys, 255 Patella, 970
Vik Scyllea, we ws 255 Chiton, 270
Glaucus, 255 Acuruata, 271
» Phyliidia, te 3 955 Acarda, 279
’ Pleurobranchus, 256 Ostrea, 973
Aplysia, 256 Pecten, 273
- Dolabella, 257 Lima, 273
- Notarchus, 257 Anomia, I74,
Akera, 257 Placuna, O74,
Gastropteron, 258 Spondylus, Q74,
Umbrella, 258 Malleus, 274
Trochus, 260 Vulsella, 275
Turbo, Md BS 4s? SOU Perna, 275
Paludina, Yt 261 Etheria, 975
Littorina, 261 Avicula, 275
Phasianella, 261 Pinna, 975
Ampullaria, 261 Arca, 276
Melania, 261 Trigonia, 276
Tornatella, 262 Mytilus, (Muscles) 276
Pyramidella, 262 Anodontea, 277
Janthina, 262 Unio, 277
Nerita, 262 Cardita, 277
Pileopsis, 263 Cypricardia, . 277
Hipponyx, ; 263 ~—s- Coralliophaga, 278

Crepidula, 263 Venericardia, ~~ 278

Crassatella,
Chama,

' Tridacna,
Cardium,
Donax,
Cyclas,
Corbis,
Tellina,
Lucina,
Venus,
Mya,
Byssomia,
Hiatella,
Solen,
Pholas,
Teredo,
Fistulana,
Teredina,
Clavagella,
Aspergillum,
Biphora,
Ascidia,
Botryllus,
Pyrosoma,
Polyclinum,

BrRacuioropa,
Lingula,
Terebratula,
Orbicula,

CIRRHOPODA,
Anatifa,
Balanus,

ARTICULATA,

ANNULATA,
Serpula,
Sabella,
Terebella,
Amphitrite,
Syphostoma,
Dentalium,
Arenicola,
Amphinome,
Eunice,
Nereis,
Alciopa,

3 R

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

529
- Spio, - 298
Lumbrinera, 298
Ophelina, 299
Cirrhatulus, 299
Palmyra, 299
Aphrodita, 299
Chetopterus, 300
Lumbricus, (Earth Worms) 301
Nais, 301
Climena, 301
Hirudo, (Leeches) 302
Gordius, 303.
CRUSTACEA, 305
Crabs, 308
Lobsters, 310
Shrimps, 310
Prawns, 310
Squilla, 311
Phyllosoma, 312
Gammarus, 314
Cyamus, 315
Oniscus, 316
Monoculus, 318
Limulus, (King-crab) 319
Argula, 319
Caligus, 319
Nicothoe, 320
Trilobites, 320
ARACHNIDES, 321
Spiders, 323
Tarantula, 333
Scorpio, 334
Galeodes, 336
Chelifer, 336
Pycnogonides, 336
Phalangium, 338
Acarus, (Mites) 339
Ticks, 340
InsEcTA, oR INSECTS, 340
Myriapoda, 352
Tulus, 355
Scolopendra, 356
Lepisma, 357
Podura, 357
Lice, 358
Fleas, 359

530

Coleoptera,

i

Cicindela,
Carabus,
Dytiscus,
Gyrinus,
Staphylinus,
Buprestis,
Elater,
Cebrio,

-Fire-flies,

Melyris,
Clerus,
Ptinus,
Lymexylon,
Mastigus,
Hister,
Silpha,
Nitidula,
Dacne,
Dermestes,
Byrrhus,
Heterocerus,
Dryops,
Hydrophilus,
Spheridium,
Scarabzides,
Goldbeaters,
Stag-Beetle,
Passalus,
Pimelia,
Blaps,
Tenebrio,
Diaperis,
Cossyphus,

-Helops,

Cistela,
Dircza,
C2demera,
Mycterus,
Lagria,
Pyrochroa,
Mordella,
Notoxus,
Horia,
Meloe,

Spanish Fly, &c.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

360
363
363
367
368
369
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
380
382
383
384
385
385
385
386
387
389
392
393
394
395
395
396
397
398
399
399
400
401
401
402
403
403
403
404
404
405

Bruchus,
Attelabus,
Brentus,
Brachycerus,
Curculio,
Lixus,
Rhynchenus,
Calandra,
Scolytus,
Paussus,
Bostrichus,
Monotoma,
Lyctus,
Mycetophagus,
Trogosita,
Cucujus,
Prionii,
Cerambycini,
Lamiariz,
Lepturetz,
Sagra,
Crioceris,
Hispa,
Cassida,
Cyptocephalus,
Chrysomela,
Galeruca,
Altica,
Erotylus,
Eumorphus,
Lady-bug,
Clypeaster,
Pselaphus,
Claviger,

Orthoptera,

Ear-wigss,
Cock-roaches,
Mantis,
Grasshoppers, &c.
Crickets,

Hemiptera,

Cimex,

Bed-bug, &c.
Aquatic Scorpions,
Nepa,

Notonecta,

Cicada,
Locusts,
Fulgora,
Cicadella,
Psylla,
Thrips,
Aphis,
Gallinsects,
Cochineal,

Neuroptera,

Dragon Flies,
Ephemera,
Panorpa,
Lion-Ant,
Hemerobius,
Semblis,
Mantispa,
Rhaphidia,
Termes,
Psocus,
Perla,

Phryganea,

Hymenoptera,

Saw-flies,
Sirex,
Fonus,
Ichneumon,
Cynips,
Chalcis,
Bethylus,
Chrysis,
Ants,
Mutilla,
Sphex,
Masaris,
Wasps,
Bees,

Lepidoptera,

Papilio,
Hesperia,
Urania,
Sphinx,
Sesia,
Zygena,
Moths,
Hepialites,

430 --—~ Pseudo-Bombyces,
430 — Aposura,
432 Noctuzlites,
432 Geometra, »
433 Deltoides,
433 Tineites,
433 Fissipennes
434 Rhipiptera,

435 Stylops,

435 Xenos,

437 Diptera,

438 Musquetoes,
43 Crane-flies,
440 Asilus,

441 Empis,

441 Cyrtus,

442 Bombylius,
442 Anthrax,
442 Thereya,
443 Leptis,

444 Dolichopus,
444 Horse-flies,
445 Mydas,

447 Xylophagus,
448 Stratiomys,
449 Syrphus,
450 (Estrus,

451 Conops,

452 Flies,

453 Hippobosca,
453 Nycteribia,
455

457 RADIATA,

457 EcuiInopERMAtTa,
458 Starfish,

459 © Sea-Urchins,
460 Holothuria,
465 Molpadia,
468 Minyas,

469 Sipunculus,
469 Bonellia,
470 Enrozoa,

471 Filaria,

471 Trichocephalus,
472 Cucullanus,
472 Ophiostoma,

| SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

a

nck coral,
» Gorgonia,

ee”

ents:

te

Tubicolaria,
Brachionus,
Cercaria,
Vibrio,
Proteus,
Monas,
Volvox,

a 4 e
Ah bow ud
+ Ad ten Sale|. | eneana