YT ere S CORT NtH ‘ re ROR RHE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ia »-* a = - ‘ : . . ' a _ : 8 : | . ~ CENTRAL PARK, DUGONG MANATEE PLATE Seco SIR ENTA y Ulehl oe ANIMAL KINGDOM Based upon the Writings of the Eminent Naturalists, AUDUBON, WALLACE, BREHM, WOOD, AND OTHERS ele « EEAItCAMDYite\6\ 616 HUGH CRAIG, M. A, Trinity College, Cambridge. WITH. SIXTY-FOUR FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS Accurately and Beautifully Executed in EIGHT COLORS AND TINTS. VOLUME TWO. NEW YORK: JOHNSON & BAILEY, 114 and 116 Nassau Street. 37-1398 654 - gen Copyright, 1897, by Charles F. Fohnson. FOR THE PEORVE FOR EDVCATION | FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY AND BINDERS CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO. SR ENED A. THE SEA COWS. The Order Sirenia (397)—Mermaids (397)—The Family Manatidz (398)—The Manatees of America (399)—Their Voracity and Laziness (399)—Modes of Capture (399)—Tame Specimens (399)—The Florida Manatee (400)—The African Lamantin (400)—The Eastern Dugong (400)— The Australian Dugong (4o1)—The Northern Sea Cows (qor)—Steller’s Description (4o1)— Extinct since 1768 (403). OPIN CAO rae a0 Te CEAP IE RG sl. HOOFED ANIMALS. The Order Ungulata (407)—The Numerous Families (407)—The Ruminants (407)—Their Peculiar Stomach (408)—Horns (408)—Antlers (408)—Extinct Species (408)—The Original Horse Protohippus (409)—Gradual Development (409)—The Family Equidz ((409)—The Genus Equus (409)—The Horse (410)—The Tarpan or Wild Horse of Tartary (410)—The Mustang or Wild Horse of America (411). CHAPTER. II. THE ARAB AND THE BARB. Early Domestication of the Horse (416)—The Horse in Egypt (416)—Assyria—J udza (416)— Greece—Persia (417)—Bits and Stirrups (417)—Chariot Races (417)—The Arab Horse (418)— Exaggerated Pedigrees (419)—The Best Arabs (419)—Their Training (419)—Attachment of the Arab for his Mare (420)—Speed and Endurance (421)—The Barb (422)—The Same Horse as the Arab (422)—Abd-el-Kader on the Horse (422). iv CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. THE RACE-HORSE AND TROTTING HORSE. The Race-Horse (425)—The English Turf (426)—The American Turf (427)—Imported Horses (427)—The Trotting-Horse (428)—Flora Temple (431)—Steve Maxwell (432)—St, Julien and Maud S (432)—The Narragansett Pacers (432)—Pocahontas (432). CHAPTER IV. EUROPEAN HORSES. The Hunter (434)—The Hackney (434)—The Russian Horse (436)—The Austrian Horse (437) —The Holstein Horse (438)—The French Horse (438)—The Italian Horse (440)—The Races at Rome (440)—The Spanish Horse (440)—The Shetland Pony (441)—The Carriage Horse (443)— The Cart Horse (443)—The Percheron Horse (443), CHAPTER YV. THE WILD AND THE COMMON ASS. The Wild Asses (445)—The Kulan or Dziggetai (445)—Their Speed (446)—Domestication (446)—The Wild Ass of the Bible (447)—The African Wild Ass (448)—The Common Ass (448) —Its Patience—Its Intelligence (449)—The Egyptian Ass (450). CHAPTER VI. THE ZEBRAS. The Zebras or Tiger-Horses (452)—The Quagga (452)—The Dauw, or Burchell’s Zebra (453)— Harris’s Description of it (454}—The Zebra Proper (454)—Hunting the Zebra (455)—Cross- Breeds (456)—The Mule (456)—The Hinny (456)—Instances of their Fertility (457)—Darwinism (457). CHAPTER VII. THE TAPIRS. The Family Tapiride (458)—The American Tapir (458)—Its Trunk (459)—Its Habits (459)}— The Tapir as a Domestic Auimal (460)—A Tapir Hunt (461)—Peculiar Marks of the Young Tapir (461)—The Malay Tapir (462)—Its Trunk (462)—Its Color (462)—Discovery of the Animal (462)—Chinese Account (463)—The Pinchaque (463)—Baird’s Tapir (463). CHAPTER VIII. THE RHINOCEROS. The Family Rhinocerotide (464)—General Description (464)—The Horn—Peculiar Struc- ture of the Horn (465)—Known to the Ancients (466)—Wood-cut by Albert Durer (406)—Arab Superstitions (466)—Haunts of the Rhinoceros (466)—A Nocturnal Animal (467)}—Its Food— Its Habits (467)—1ts Senses (468)—Its Fits of Rage (468)—Maternal Affection (469)—Its Friends the Small Birds (469)—Captive Rhinoceroses (470)—Uses of its Hide (470). CHAPTER. IX. THE ASIATIC RHINOCEROSES. The One-horned Rhinoceroses (470)—The Indian Rhinoceros (470)—Its Thick Hide (470)}— Mode of Hunting (473)—The Wara or Javanese Rhinoceros (473)—The Emperor Baber (474)— CONTENTS. V The Two-horned Rhinoceros or Badak of Sumatra (474)—The Fire-eating Rhinoceros (476)—The Rough-eared Rhinoceros (476). CHAPTER X. THE AFRICAN RHINOCEROS, The Borele or Little Black Rhinoceros (477)—The Sword-Hunters of Abyssinia (479)—The Keitloa (479)—Their Fierceness (480)—The Mohogoo or White Rhinoceros (481)—Hunting Adventure of Mr. Oswell (482)—The Kobaoba (484)—Probability of its Extinction (484). CHAPTER XI. THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. The Hippopotamus or River Horse (485)—Description (486)—Habits (486)—Favorite Haunts (487)—Food (487)—Violence when Provoked (488)—Maternal Affection (488)—Modes of Hunt- ing (489)—Pitfalls and Downfalls (489)—Harpooning (489)—The Hippopotamus in Captivity (491)—The Small or Liberian Hippopotamus (492). CHAPTER XII. THE PECCARIES. The Swine Family (493)—General Characteristics (493)—The Peccaries (494)—The Collared Peccary (494)—Its Courage and Fierceness (495)—The White-lipped Peccary (495)—Its Habits (495)—Methods of Hunting the Peccary (496)—Flesh of the Peccary (497). CHAPTER XIII. THE TRUE SWINE. The Genus Sus (498)—Religious Prohibitions (498)—The Boar of Valhalla (499)—The Boar’s Head (499)—The Wild Boar of Europe (499)—Hunting the Wild Boar (500)—The Wild Hog of India (501)—The Domestic Hog (502)—Anecdotes of the Hog (502)—Breeds of Hogs (504)—The Berkshire (504)—Trichiniasis (504). CHAPTER XIV. THE RIVER-HOGS, BABYROUSSA, AND WART-HOGS. The River Hogs (506)—The Pencilled Heg (506)—The Bush Hog, or Bosch Vark (507}— Edwards’ River-Hog (508)—The Babyroussa (508)—Its Peculiar Tusks (508)—The Wart-Hogs (509)—Hideous Appearance (510)—The African Wart-Hog, or Vlacke Vark (510)—The Wart- Hog of Ailian or Engallo (511). CHAPTER XV. THE CAMEL. The Ruminants (512)—The Camelidz (512)—Tke Camels of the Old World (513)—The Arabian Camel, or Dromedary (514)—The Camel in the Bible (515)—The Camel in Europe (515) —The Camel in Africa (515)—Its Food (516)—Its Powers of Resisting Thirst (516)—Its speed (517)—Mode of Riding (517)—Its Behavior when Loading (518)—Its Vices (519)—Anecdote of Latif Pacha (520)—Its Value (521)—The Two-humped Camel of Bactria (522). vi CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. THE LLAMAS. The American Camelidz (524)—The Genus Auchenia (524)—The Guanaco (525)—Its Habits (526)—The Llama (527)—Its Use as a Beast of Burden (527)}—The Alpaca or Paco (528)—Its Wool (528)—The Vicuna (529)—Indian Hunts (530). CHAPTER XVII. THE MOUSE DEER. The Tragulide or Hornless deer (532)—Disputes of Naturalists (532)—The Kanchil (532)— Its Appearance and Habits (533)—Attempts to introduce it to Europe (534). CHAPTER XVIII. THE DEER. The Cervide (535)—Their Antlers (535)—The Process of Growth of the Antler (536)—The Shedding of the Velvet (536)—Habits of the Cervide (538)—The Various Genera (538)—The Elk of the Old World or the Moose of the New World (539)—The Elk of Sweden (539}—The Moose of Canada (541)—Habits—Modes of Hunting (541). CHAPTER XIX. THE REINDEER AND THE CARIBOU. The Reindeer (544)—Its Life in Northern Europe (545)—Its Life in Siberia (546)—Its Life when Domesticated (547)—Its Value (547)—The Caribou (548)—Modes of Hunting it (548). CHAPTER XxX. THE TRUE DEER. The True Deer (550)—The Wapiti (550)—The Red Deer of Europe (552)—The Virginian Deer or Carcajou (554)—The Persian Deer (556)—The Indian Species (556)—The Barasinga (556)—The Axis Deer (557)—The Sambur (557)—The Maned Stag (557)—The Hog Deer (558)— The South American Species (558)—The Pampas Deer (558)—The Red Deer or Guasupita (559). CHAPTER XXI. THE FALLOW DEER, ROE DEER, AND MUSK DEER. The Genus Dama (560)—Fallow Deer (560)—Genus Capreolus (562)—Roe Deer (562)— Genus Cervulus (564)—Muntjak or Kidang (564)—Genus Moschus (565)—Musk Deer (565)— Its Abode—Habits—The Musk (566). CHAPTER XXII. THE GIRAFFE. The Camelopardalide or Giraffes (568)—Its Size and Appearance (569)—Its Habitat (570)— Its adaptation to its Location (§70)—Its Movements (570)—Its Food (571)—Its Senses (572) —Giraffes in London and Paris (572)—Modes of Hunting (572)—Meaning of the Word “ Giraffe ” (573). CONTENTS. Vii CHAPTER XXIII. THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS. The Bovide (574)—The Thirteen Sub-families (574)—The Bovine (575)—The Genus Bos (575)—The Domestic Ox (575)—The Wild Cattle (576)—The Cattle of the Pampas (577)— Cattle of Africa (578)—Domestic Cattle (579)—The Highland Cattle (582)—The Durham (582)— The Alderney (582). CHAPTER XXIV. THE BISONS. The Bonassus or European Bison (584)—Called also the Aurochs (584)—The Real Aurochs Extinct (584)—The Forest or Bialowicz (584)—Description of the Bonassus (585)—The Bison of the Caucasus (586)——The American Bison or Buffalo (586)—Enormous Numbers (586)—Terrible Destruction (587)—Estimate of Numbers Killed (588)—The Mountain Buffalo (589)—Death of a Bull (590). CHAPTER XXvV. EASTERN CATTLE. The Domestic Cattle of India (591)—The Zebu (591)—The Wild Cattle of India (592)—Genus Bibos (593)—The Gayal (593)—The Gaur (594)—The Banteng (595)—Genus Poephagos (595)— The Yak (595)—The Plough Yak (596)—Hunting the Yak (597)—Genus Anoa (597)—The Chamois Buffalo or Celebes (597)—Its Fierceness (598). CHAPTER XXVI. THE BUFFALOES. The Genus Bubalus (599)—The Cape Buffalo (599)—Drayson’s Account (600)—Buffalo Shooting (602)—The Indian Buffalo (602)—Buffalo and Tiger Fights (603)—Williamson’s Account (604)—The Kerabau (605)—The Domesticated Buffalo (605)—Its Habits—Its Uses (606). CHAPTER XXVII. THE ANTELOPES, The Antelopes (607)—The Eland (607)—The Koodoo (609)}—The Bosch-bok (610)—The Nylghau (611)—The Passan (613)--The Beisa (614)—The Sabre Antelope (614)—The Addax (614)—The Sable Antelope (615)—The Blau Bok (616). CHAPTER XXVIII. THE GAZELLES. The Gazelle (617)—Its Beauty and Grace (617)—The Ariel Gazelle (618)—The Jairou (619)— The Spring-Bok (620}—Its Immense Numbers (620)—The Dseren (622)—The Sasin (623)—The Pallah (624)—The Saiga (624)—The Sub-family Antilocaprine (625)—The Prong Horn (625). CHAPTER XXIX. THE LESSER ANTELOPES. The Ourebi (627)—The Klippspringer (628)—The Water Buck (628)—The Blue Buck (630) —The Musk Antelope 629)—The Duyker Bok (630)—The Rhoode Bok (631)—The Chickara Vill CONTENTS. (631)—-The Hartebeest (632)—The Sassaby (632)—The Gnu (633)—The Chamois (633)—The Goral (635)—The Mountain Goat of the Rocky Mountains (638). CHAPTER XXX. GOATS AND IBEXES. The Genus Capra (637)—The Goats (637)—The Bezoar Goat or Paseng (639)—The Cash- mere Goat (639)—The Angora Goat (640)—The Mamber Goat (641)—The Markhor and Tahir (641)—The Egyptian Goat (641)—The Ibexes (642)—The Alpine Ibex (642)—The Pyrenean Ibex (643)—The Arabian Ibex (644). CHAPTER XXXI. THE SHEEP AND THE MUSK-OX. The Aoudad (646)—The Moufflon (647}—The Argali (647)—The Katshkar (648)—The Big Horn (648)—Its Habits (649)—Fat-tailed Sheep (649)—The Cretan Sheep (650)—The Southdown (651)—The Leicester (651)—The Merino (652)—The Highland Sheep (653)—The Genus Ovibos (653}/—The Musk-ox of North America (654). PROBOSCIDEA. CHAPTER I. ELEPHANTS IN GENERAL. The Order Proboscidea—Derivation of Name (657)—The Family Elephantidz (657)—Fossil Elephants—The Mammoth (657)—The Masfodon (658)—The Elephant (659)—Its Trunk—Its Tusks (660)—The Elephant in History (661)—In the East—In Rome—In Modern Times (603). CHAPTER II. THE ASIATIC ELEPHANT. The Asiatic Elephant (665)—Its Use (666)—Mode of Capture in Ceylon (666)—Points of a Good Elephant (669)—White Elephants (670)—Funeral of a White Elephant (670)—The Dwarf Elephant (671). CHAPTER III. THE ELEPHANT. The African Elephant—Difference from the Indian Elephant (672)—Hunting the Elephant {672)—Delegorgue (672)—Gordon Cumming (673)—The Abyssinian “ Hock-cutters” (674)— Captive Elephants (676)—Baby Elephants (676)—Anecdotes of Elephants (677). HYRACOTD EA: THE ROCK RABBITS. The Order Hyracoidea (681)—The Genus Hyrax (681)—Its Characteristics (682). CONTENTS. ix ROD EN PD TAs: CHAPTER I. RATS AND MICE. The Order Rodentia (687)—The Family Muridz (688)—Rats and Mice (688)—The Black Rat (688)—The Brown Rat (688)—The Mouse (689)—The Harvest Mouse (689)—The Barbary Mouse (690)—The Hamster (690)—The Musk Rat (692)—The Water Rat (693)—The Field Mouse (693)—Wilson’s Meadow Mouse (694)—Le Conte’s Mouse (691)—The Cotton Rat (6y2)—The Lemming (695). CHAPTER il: MOLE RATS, POUCH RATS, AND BEAVERS. The Mole Rat (696)—The Jerboa (697)—The Alactaga (697)—The Cape Leaping Hare (697) —The Hudson Bay Jumping Mouse (698)—The Fat Dormouse (698)—The Common Dormouse (699)—The Pouched Rats (699)—The Beavers (7o1)—The American Beaver (702)—The European Sone CHAPTER III THE SQUIRRELS AND MARMOTS. The Family Sciuride (707)—The European Squirrel (707)—The Javanese Squirrel (708)— The Hare Squirrel (708)—The Black Squirrel (708)—The Gray Squirrel (708)—The Northern Gray Squirrel (709)—The Red Squirrel (709)—The Long-haired Squirrel (710)—The Flying Squirrel (710)—The American Flying Squirrel (711)—The Taguan (711)—The Chipmuck (712)— The Leopard Marmot (713)—The Marmot (714)—The Babac (715)—The Woodchuck (715)—The Prairie Dog (716). CHAPTER IV. THE SEWELLELS, PORCUPINES, AND CAVIES. The Family Haploodontide (718)—The Family Chinchillide (718)—The Chinchillas and Visachas (719)—The Octodontidz (720)—The Hutia Conga (720)—The Degu (721)—The Tuko- tugo (722)—The Gundy (722)—The Coypu (723—The Ground Pig (723)—The Canadian Porcu- pine (724)—The Tufted-tailed Porcupines (726)—The Agouti (726)—The Sooty Paca (727)—The Capybara (727)—The Guinea Pig (728)—The Mara (728)—The Pikas (729). CHAPTER V. HARES AND RABBITS. The Family Leporidz (730)—The American Hares (730)—The Polar Hare (730)—The North- ern Hare (731)—The Wood Hare (731)—The Jackass Rabbit (731)—The African Hares (731)— The Sand Hare (732)—The Common Hare (732)—The Alpine Hare a3 eee Rabbit (733)— The Wild Rabbit (734)—The Domestic Rabbit (734). Das NMEA TA: CHAPTER I. THE SLOTHS AND ARMADILLOS The Edentata (737)—The Sloths (737)—The Two-toed Sloth (738)—The Ai or Three-toed Sloth (738)—The Spotted Sloth (739)—The Scaly Ant-eaters (739)—The Phatagin (739)—The x CONTENTS. Pangolin (740)—The Tatouhon (740)—The Giant Armadillo (740)—The Tatouay (741)—The Armadillo (741)}—The Apar (741)—The Picheogo (742). CHAPTER II. THE AARD VARK AND ANT-EATERS. The Aard Vark of the Cape (743)—The Great Ant-eater or Tamanoir (744)—The Tamandua (745)—The Little Ant-eater (746). MARSUPIALIA. CHAPTER I. THE OPOSSUMS AND BANDICOOTS. The Marsupials (749)—The True Opossum (749)—The Virginia Opossum (750)—Merrian’s Opossum (750)—The Crab-eating Opossum (750)—The Yapock (750)—The Pouched Mouse (751) The Tasmanian Devil (751)—The Native Cat (751)—The Zebra Wolf (752)—The Native Ant- eater (752)—The Striped Bandicoot (752)—The Chzropus (753). CHAPTER II. THE KANGAROOS, PHALANGERS, AND WOMBATS. The Kangaroo (754)—The Woolly Kangaroo (755)—The Wallabee (755)—The Rock Kan- garoo (755)—The Tree Kangaroo (756)—The Kangaroo Hare (756)—The Jerboa Kangaroo (756) =—The Potoroo (757)—The Koala (757)—The Sooty Phalangist (757)—The Valpine Phalangist (758)—The Cuscus (758)—The Taguan (758)—The Great Flying Phalanger (759)—The Sugar Squirrel (759)—Opossum Mouse (759)—The Wombat (760). MONOTREMATA. THE DUCK MOLE AND AUSTRALIAN HEDGEHOG. The Monotremata (763)—The Family Ornithorhynchide (763)—The Duck Mole (763}—The Family Echidnide (765)—The Native Hedgehog (766)—The Tasmanian Species (766)—Con- clusion, Pist.OP we © SmiRATIONS VOLUME TWO. PLATE. ORDER. PRONE esate ey PAUL I SURIENTIAG bye ctaleta ators i otcreroteie ectotshorshcisicisieists eictefe re) eieioletelshel 3% Frontispiece. DOO. bon one Nile UINGUIGADA es ncrys ten Holcrerieoleiers doaidnd, oopeooNndos To face page 416 XO LD ree WANG. 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She was a little tired, and, being turned into a louse box, lost no time in taking her rest. On the following day she was as full of life and spirit as ever. These are matches which it is pleasant to record, particularly the latter one; for the owner had given positive orders to the driver to stop at once, on her showing decided symptoms o} distress, as he valued her more than anything he could gain by her enduring actual suffering. These matches, it will be seen, are all for long distances, and are trials of endurance rather than speed: the system of matches against time had not yet been introduced. In England, as we have observed, the efforts of breeders and trainers were turned to producing a swift gallop; the sportsmen of America, especially in the North and West, directed all their energies to develop- ing the trot. Frank Forester writes in explanation of the difference in the sporting tastes of the two countries: “I do not think I ever knew, or heard tell of such a thing, in my life, in England, as of two gentlemen going out to take a drive in a light carriage. In England, every man who can keep a horse for pleasure, keeps it with a view of occasionally taking a run with hounds. In America, every farmer keeps his wagon and driving-horse, and, as it costs no more to keep a good horse than a bad one, he keeps one that enables him to combine business and pleasure. Trotting in America is the popular pastime, and the trotting-course is open to all.” The trotting-horse is not a distinct breed, and his qualities as a trotter cannot be ascribed to his origin or connection with any one blood. Some trotters of first-rate powers have come from the Canadian or Norman stock, some from the Vermont stock, some from the Indian pony, and some entirely from the thorough-bred. It is, however, be- yond doubt that “the best type of American trotter descends from the English thorough-bred horse Messenger, imported into this country toward the end of the last century. Mr. C. J. Foster writes that “when the old gray, Messenger, came charging down the gang-plank . of the ship which brought him over, the value of not less than one hundred million dollars struck our soil.’ The estimate appears at 430 UNGULATA. first sight to be extravagant, but when it is found upon investigation that the Messenger blood crops up in almost all the best American trot: ters of the present century, the figures are not too high. The first Kentucky sire which seems to have done great good to the trotting stock of that sporting State was Abdallah, who was a grandson of Messenger. From Abdallah’s loins sprang by far the best trotting sire that the United States have hitherto produced, whose name was Rysdyk’s Hambletonian; and in the “List of Trotters with Records of 2:25 or Better,” in the agricultural paper the National Live Stock Fournal, published at Chicago, it appears that Hambletonian is to the trotting turf what Touchstone is to the running course. Hiram Wood- ruff believes that the Messenger blood existed in the most historical horse ever bred in Hindoostan, whose name was Lylee, and who was the favorite of Runjeet Singh, ‘the Lion of the Punjab.” It is known that Runjeet spent enormous sums upon his stud; that his bridles and saddles were inlaid with gold and studded with precious stones; and that the Maharajah himself was a desperately hard rider. In order to get pos- session of his incomparable gray stallion Lylee, Runjeet Singh used to boast that he had spent six hundred thousand pounds and the lives of twelve thousand men. When the fame of Lylee first reached Runjeet’s ears, the horse was the property of Yan Mohammed Khan, one of the Punjabee princes, who -had his capital at Peshawur. Runjeet opened negotiations to get hold of Lylee, and having failed, went to war for that purpose. After a long contest the arms of the Maharajah prevailed, and the first condition upon which he offered peace was that Lylee should be ceded to him by his vanquished foe. After an infinite number of evasions and subterfuges resorted to by Mohammed Khan, the horse became the property of Runjeet, but he had to fight another war in order to retain him. Lylee, who was believed to be the son of an English thorough- bred, was seen in 1839 by some English officers, and was “a flea-bitten gray, very old, standing sixteen hands high,” and with all the character- istics of the Messenger blood. From Messenger are descended Abdallah, Hambletonian, Volunteer, Mambrino Chief, Edward Everett, Alexander’s Abdallah, Conklin’s Abdallah, Dexter, and a host of famous trotting-mares. But, richly though our sportsmen are indebted to the Messenger blood, it would be injustice to deny that they owe still more to the skill, patience, and persistency lavished upon training and bringing the trotter to THE TROTTER. 43! perfection by such men as Hiram Woodruff and Dan Mace. The system of training, teaching, driving, and riding the trotting-horse of the United States is an art of itself, peculiar to the country which has bred St. Julien, Maude S., Rarus, and Goldsmith Maid. These horses are superior by at least forty seconds in the mile to any trotters that Europe can boast. ‘The English had the stock all along,” says Hiram Woodruff, “ but it is our method of cultivation and perseverance that has made the difference between their fast trotters of a mile in three minutes and ours in two minutes and twenty seconds, or less.” The development of the trotting-pace and the establishment of the trotting-course is comparatively recent. The first American match against time was in 1818; the wager was, that no horse could be pro- duced to trot a_‘'e in three minutes. The horse named at the post was Boston Blue, who won easily. He afterward became the property of Thomas Cooper the tragedian. The same horse afterward trotted eighteen miles within the hour. In 1824, the Tredwell mare trotted a mile in two minutes thirty-four seconds, but for many years afterward a two-forty horse was considered extra fast. In 1826, the first authen- ticated record of authorized trotting is found. The New York Trotting Club opened its course near the Jamaica Turnpike, about a mile below the Union Course, Long Island, with a series of two-mile and three-mile heats. The first two miles was done in five minutes thirty-six seconds ; the second, in five minutes thirty-eight seconds. In 1827, the horse Whalebone trotted fifteen miles in harness within the hour, performing the last mile in three minutes five seconds. In 1828 the best time on record was made by Screwdriver, at Philadelphia, by winning a three- mile heat in eight minutes two seconds, beating the celebrated Topgal- lant. In 1833, Paul Pry was backed to do seventeen and three-quarter miles within the hour; he won with the greatest ease, going eighteen times round the Long Island Trotting Course, covering eighteen miles thirty-six yards in fifty-eight minutes fifty-two seconds. He was ridden “by a boy named Hiram Woodruff.” Topgallant, Columbus, Collector, Lady jackson, and the best trotters of whom Hiram Woodruff makes mention as having flourished about 1830, could not “knock off” their mile in less than 2:50; but in 1834, Edwin Forrest beat the record by trotting a mile in two minutes thirty-one and a half seconds. Coming down to more recent times, Flora Temple began her per- formances in 1850, and in 1853 she accomplished a mile in two minutes 432 UNGULATA. twenty-seven seconds, and in 1856 made the best time on record, twe minutes twenty-four and a half seconds, beating Tacony for a stake of one thousand dollars. She won this race in one heat, distancing Tacony, and the time was one second less than ever made before. She was driven by her favorite driver, Hiram Woodruff, who declared after the race that she could beat a locomotive. But the time, both in mile and two-mile races, has gradually been shortening; we pass over the per- formances of Goldsmith Maid, Rarus, Hopeful, and Lulu, all of whom have accomplished a mile in 2:15 or less, and come at once to the run- ning of this year. At Rochester, Steve Maxwell trotted two miles in four minutes forty-eight and a half seconds, beating by two seconds Flora Temple’s best record at that distance; and both St. Julien and Maud S. trotted a mile in the extraordinary time of t .> minutes eleven and three-quarter seconds. And even this has been surpassed, the former being credited with accomplishing the distance in two minutes eleven and a quarter seconds, the latter with covering the same distance in two minutes ten and three-quarter seconds. Such are the results of careful breeding and skilful training, and there seems to be no reason why a mile may not be done in two minutes ten seconds. We must observe that, respecting these times and distances, there can be no dispute, while, in earlier races, the distance traversed was often inaccurately estimated, and the time never given with anything like precision. THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. This beautiful animal, according to Frank Forester, has entirely ceased to exist. The pace, it may be explained, is a gait in which both legs on one side are raised together; while in the trot, one of the fore- legs and the opposite hind-leg are lifted at the same time. In the celebrated Elgin marbles from the Parthenon of Athens, two horses are represented as pacing; and in the famous “ Horses of St. Mark” at Venice, the attitude is the same. A writer in the middle of the last cen- cury describes Rhode Island as producing fine horses, remarkable for swift pacing, and adds: “I have seen some of them pace a mile in a little more than two minutes, and a great deal less than three.” The original genuine Narragansett Pacers are said to pace naturally, but the name soon became applied to all pacers. The most famous of modern pacers was the magnificent mare Pocahontas, an animal described by a THE PACER. 433 eulogist as ‘‘the most sumptuous,” as well as the fastest of her day. She was a rich chestnut, sixteen hands in height, good crest, high and thin withers: her pedigree was excellent, and her greatest triumph was her defeat of Hero, whom she distanced in the first heat to wagons in the then unparalleled time of two minutes seventeen seconds. The original breed is said to have been introduced by Governor Robinson of Rhode Island from Spain in the last century, and large numbers of them were produced in New England for exportation to the West Indies, where they were in great demand for the wives and daughters of the planters. But change in our modes of traveling has extinguished the pacer. While our roads were all bad, and horseback- riding the only method of locomotion, pacers were highly-prized lux- uries. Now they are superseded by the trotter, and for riding-horses ot mere pleasure, the present day requires speed, style, and action, rather than an easy gait which can be kept up at a slow pace for a considerable time. Any animals possessing this gait at the present time have fallen into it by accident, or been taught to pace. As far as is known, there is no breed of horses in Spain or elsewhere, to which the gait is native, and there has always been considerable doubt as to whether the claim put forward for the Narragansett Pacer could be allowed. 55 CHAPTER IV. EUROPEAN HORSES. THE HUNTER—THE HACKNEY—THE RUSSIAN HORSE—THE AUSTRIAN HORSE—THE HOLSTEIN HORSE—THE FRENCH HORSE—THE ITALIAN HORSE--THE RACES AT ROME—THE SPANISH HORSE—THE SHETLAND PONY—THE CARRIAGE HORSE—THE CART HORSE—THE PERCHERON HORSE, THE HUNTER. HE best of all hunters is a thorough-bred horse with bone, standing about fifteen hands and a half. A lofty forehand, a good oblique shoulder, and a clear high action are indispen- sable. The body should be compact, the barrel round, the loins broad, the quarters long, the thighs muscular, and, above all, the hunter’s tem- per should be good. In other words, he must have wind and bottom, plenty of jumping power, and be able to go at a good rapid pace. THE HACKNEY. The perfect roadster is more difficult to find than even the hunter. He must have good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too; he must be sound in his feet, even-tempered, no starter, quiet in all situations, not heavy in hand, and never disposed to fall on his knees. Safety in this latter respect depends entirely on the foot being placed at once flat on the ground. His height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He is more valuable for the pleasantness of his paces and his safety, good temper, and endurance, than for his speed. It is the roadster which furnishes most of the recorded instances of intelligence and fidelity in the horse. Their memory is often remarkable. A horse was ridden thirty miles into a quite new district by a road very difficult to find. After an interval of two years, during which the animal had never been in that direction, the gentleman had occasion to make the same journey. THE HACKNEY. 435 Iie was benighted on a common where it was so dark that he could scarcely see his horse’s head. He threw the reins on its neck, and in half an hour was safe at his friend’s gate. Another gentleman, riding through a wood in a dark nignt, struck his head against the branch of a tree and fell, stunned, to the ground. The horse returned to the house they had lately left, and paused at the door till some one arose and opened it. He then turned about and led the man to the place where his master was lying senseless. In 1809, the inhabitants of the Tyrol captured fifteen horses from the Bavarian troops, on which they mounted their own men. An encounter afterward took place between the hostile forces; but at the commence- ment of it the Bavarian chargers, which had changed their masters, recognized their former trumpet-call and the uniform of their old regiment, and in an instant darted off at fuil gallop, in spite of all the efforts of their riders, whom they bore in triumph into the midst of the Bavarian ranks, where the Tyrolese were at once made prisoners. An orchard had been repeatedly stripped of its best and ripest fruit,. and the marauders had laid their plans so cunningly that the strictest vigilance could not detect them. At last the depredators were dis- covered to be a mare and her colt which were turned out to graze among the trees. The mare was seen to go up to one of the apple-trees and to throw herself against the trunk so violently that a shower of ripe apples came tumbling Gown. She and her offspring then ate the fallen apples, and the same process was repeated at another tree. Another mare had discovered the secret of the water-butt, and whenever she was thirsty, was accustomed to go to the buit, turn the tap with her teeth, drink until her thirst was satisfied, and then to close the tap again. Two animals are said to have performed this feat, but one of them was not clever enough to turn the tap back again, and used to let all the water run to waste. A careless groom was ordered to prepare a mash for one of the horses placed under his care, and after making a thin, unsatisfactory mixture, he hastily threw a quantity of chaff on the surface, and gave it ‘to the horse. The animal tried to push away the chaff and get his nose into the mash, but was unable to do so, and when he tried to draw the liquid into his mouth, the chaff flew into his throat and nearly choked him. Being baffled, he paused awhile, and then pulled a lock of hay from the rack. Pushing the hay through the chaff, he contrived to suck 4 436 UNGULATA. the liquid mash through the interstices until the hay was saturated with moistu~e. He then ate the piece of hay, pu‘led another lock from the rack, and repeated the process until he had finished his mash. THE RUSSIAN HORSE. Russia supplies a magnificent race, which combines elegance of proportion, height, size, vigor, and suppleness. Many of this breed are remarkable for their speed in trotting, and they all much resemble the celebrities of the American trotting turf. They are, in all probability, derived from Cossack blood, but improved by stallions from Pecland, Holstein, and England, with some Turkish and Arab blood. The Cossack horse is remarkaLie for its combination of speed and endurance, and it was long supposed to be unrivaled in the possession of these qualities. But the Cossack horse was beaten by horses of English blood in a race which fairly tested its powers. On the 4th of August, 1825, a race of forty-seven miles was run between two Cossack and two English horses. The English horses were Sharper and Mina, well-known, yet not ranking with the first of their class. The Cossacks were selected from the best horses of the Don, the Black Sea, and the Ural. On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at a moderate pace; but before they had gone half a mile, the stirrup-leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away with his rider, followed by Mina, and they went more than a mile, and up a steep hill, before they could be held in. Half the distance was run in an hour and fourteen minutes. Both the English horses were then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their return, Mina fell lame, and was taken away, and Sharper began to show the effects of the pace at which he had gone when running away, and was much distressed. The Calmuck was completely used up, his rider was dismounted, a mere child was put on his back, and a Cossack on horseback on either side dragged him on by ropes attached to his bridle, while others at the side supported him from falling. Ultimately Sharper performed the whole distance in two hours and forty-eight minutes—sixteen miles an hour for three successive hours and the Cos- sack was brought in eight minutes after him. The English horse carried fully forty pounds more than the Cossack. In Southern and Western Russia, and also in Poland, the breeding THE AUSTRIAN HORSE. 437 of horses and cattle has lately occupied tie attention of the great landed proprietors, and has constituted a very considerable part of their annual income. There is scarcely now a seigniorial residence to which there is not attached a vast court, in four large divisions, and surrounded by stables. In each of the angles of this court is a passage leading to beau- tiful and extensive pasture-grounds, divided into equal compartments, and all of them having convenient sheds, under which the horses may shelter themselves from the rain or the sun. From these studs a larger kind of horse than that of the Cossacks is principally supplied, which are more fit for the regular cavalry troops, and for pleasure and parade, than common use. The remounts of the principal houses in Germany are derived from this source; and from the same source the great fairs in the different states of the German empire are supplied. TH AUSTRIAN HORSE. The Austrian cavalry has long been the most famcus in the world, and most of the horses are bred in the vast plains of Hungary, where there has always been a strong infusion of Turkish and Arab blood. In 1790, an Arabian named Turkmainath was imported, and in 1819, the Archduke Maximilian purchased several valuable stallions in England. Of late years, some of the best sires and dams that could be procured from the English racing stables have been imported by several of the Hungarian nobles for their breeding establishments. But the improvement of the breed of horses is not left to private enterprise alone; the imperial government maintains noble studs in many places, on which neither care nor money is spared. The following account is given by the Duke of Ragusa of the impe- rial establishment for the breeding of horses at Mesohagyés, near Carls- burg in Austria: ‘‘This is the finest establishment in the Austrian monarchy for the breeding and improvement of horses. It stands on forty thousand acres of land of the best quality, and is surrounded in its whole extent, which is fifteen leagues, by a broad and deep ditch, and by a broad plantation sixty feet wide. It was formerly designed to supply horses to recruit the cavalry; at present its object is to obtain stallions of a good breed, which are sent to certain dépots for the supply of the various provinces. To produce these, one thousand brood mares and forty-cight stallions are kept; two hundred additional 438 UNGULATA. mares and six hundred oxen are employed in cultivating the ground. The plain is divided into four equal parts, and each of these sub- divided into portions, resembling so many farms. At the age of four years the young horses are all collected in the centre of the estab lishment. A selection is first made of the best animals to supply the deficiencies in the establishment, in order always to keep it on the same footing. A second selection is then made for the use of the others: none of these, however, are sent away until they are five years old; but the horses that are not of sufficient value to be selected are sold by auction, or sent to the army to remount the cavalry, as circumstances may require. ‘The whole number of horses at present here, including the stallions, brood mares, colts, and fillies, is three thousand. The persons employed in the cultivation of the ground, the care of the animals, and the manage- ment of the establishment generally, are a major-director, twelve sub- altern officers, and eleven hundred and seventy soldiers.” THE HOLSTEIN HORSE. The horses of Holstein and Mecklenburg, and some of the neighbor- ing districts, are on the largest scale. Their usual height is sixteen, or seventeen, or eighteen hands. They are heavily made; the neck is too thick; the shoulders are heavy; the backs are too long, and the croups are narrow compared with their fore-parts; but their appearance is so noble and commanding, their action is so high and brilliant, and their strength and spirit are so evident in every motion that their faults are pardoned and forgotten, and they are selected for every occasion of peculiar state and ceremony. THE FRENCH HORSE. In France, as in Hungary, the breeding of horses is an affair of state Before the creation of the Administration des Haras, there existed in Normandy a race of horses which for many years furnished carriage animals to the great lords of olden time. These were of Danish origin; but the present race is the result of a cross between the Norman or Danish mares and the English thorough-bred; the results show the characteristics of both stocks. They are bred in two districts in Nor- FRENCH HORSES. 439 mandy: one, the plain of Caen, comprising the grassy meadows ot Calvados and La Manche; the other is situated in-that part of the Department of Orne which bears the name of Merlerault. The French horses, however, are generally of a very misceilaneous character. In addition to the Percheron which we speak of under the head of the “cart-horse,” there are the Boulonais and Flemish breeds, both of which are in repute as draught-horses. The most remarkable is the horse of the district named the Camargue. In England he would be denominated a pony, for he is small, his height measuring from thirteen to thirteen hands and a half; it is but seldom that he is tall enough to reach the limit for a light cavalry charger. His coat is always of a grayish- white. Although the head is large, and sometimes “ Roman-nosed,”’ it is generally squarely made, and well set on; the ears are short and widely separated, the eyes are lively and well opened, the crest is straight and slender, but sometimes ewe-necked; the shoulder is short and upright, but yet the withers are of a sufficient height; the back is prominent, the reins wide, but long, and badly set on; the croup is short and drooping, the haunches are poor, the hocks narrow and close, but yet strong; the foot is very sure and naturally good, but wide, and sometimes even flat. The Camargue horse is active, abstemious, mettlesome, high-spirited, and capable of enduring both bad weather and fasting. For centuries he has maintained the same type, notwithstanding the state of distress to which he is sometimes reduced by carelessness and neglect. These small horses are kept in the marshes and wild meadows which stretch away from Arles to the sea. They live in perfect freedom, in small droves, together with semi-wild oxen. In harvest time these horses are used for threshing out the grain; they are led in upon the thresh- ing-floors, and are made to stamp upon the sheaves to beat out the corn from the ears. Their hard, but elastic hoof forms an excellent flail. When they have done their allowance of work they are permitted to return to their independent existence, to roam and feed over the wide expanse of uncultivated districts which surround their homes. The breed of Camargue horses is, as a rule, but little valued, even in the south of France. The best of them are, however, occasionally sent into the market. It is stated that these horses are the descendants of some of those left by the Moors in one or the other of the frequent descents and incursions made by them on the south coast of France during the early years of history. 440 UNGULATA. THE ITALIAN HORSE. We need say little respecting the horse in Italy. During long ages of misgovernment and oppression, the Italian horse, once celebrated for the beauty of his form and his paces, sadly deteriorated. The Neapolitan horses were particularly remarkable for their size and maies tic action, but, with few exceptions, have degenerated. A rapid improve- ment has now taken place, and is still in progress. As a striking contrast between our style of racing, in which the rider or driver is so important, we subjoin an account of the peculiar method in which the races were run during the Roman Carnival. The horses—termed Barberi, because the race was at first contested by Barbs—are brought to the starting-post, their heads and their necks gayly ornamented; while, to a girth which goes round the body of each, are attached several loose straps, having at their ends small balls of lead thickly set with sharp steel points. At every motion these are brought in contact with the flanks and bellies of the horses, and the more violent the motion, the more dr=.aful the incessant torture. On their backs are placed sheets of thin tin or stiff paper, which, when agitated, will make a rustling, rattling noise. A rope is placed across the street to prevent them getting away, and a groom holds each horse. 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The ELK, Alces palmatus or Alces malchis (Plate XLI), has been long known in Europe. Cesar found it in the Black Forest, and several of the later Roman emperors exhibited specimens in their triumphs. In the great German epic, the Nibelungen Lied, the name Elk occurs; it is applied to an animal found in all parts of Germany, and antlers of elks are often discovered in the woods of Brunswick, Hanover, and Pome- rania. In this last province large herds existed in the sixteenth century. But the decrease has been rapid. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries only a few could be found in Saxony and Siberia. A herd has been preserved to the present day in the Royal Forest near Tilsit, which in 1874 numbered seventy-six members. The Elk is now confined in Europe to Norway, Sweden, and Russia. In Asia it extends to the Amoor River, abounding near the Lena and Lake Baikal, ranging north- ward as far as any tree will grow. The Moose or Elk is the largest of all the deer tribe, attaining the extraordinary height of seven feet at the shoulders, thus nearly equaling an ordinary elephant in dimensions. The horns of this animal are very large, and widely palmated at their extremities, their united weight being so great as to excite a feeling of wonder at the ability of the animal to carry so heavy a burden. To support such a load a short and very thick neck is necessary. It does not reach its full development until its fourteenth year. The muzzle is very large, and is much length- ened in front, so as to impart a most unique expression to the Elk’s countenance. The color of the animal is a dark brown, the legs being washed with a yellow hue. Its coat, which is composed of coarse, rough, and brittle hair, rises into a small mane on the nape of the neck, and on the spine. The long black hair under the throat forms a kind of beard, and in the male animal covers a considerable protuberance. Its speed is ver* great, and its endurance wonderful, but the pace is usually a trot, 540 UNGULATA. not a gallop. It has been known to trot uninterruptedly over a number of fallen tree trunks five feet in thickness. The Elk swims with great facility. During the summer it submerges its whole body, except the head, and in this way preserves itself from the stings of the horse-fly: thus it passes the greater portion of the day, while it principally subsists upon aquatic herbage. It is also partial to damp forests and marshy localities. This animal feeds off the ground with difficulty, on account of the shortness of its neck; in order the better to reach the grass, it kneels or straddles its fore-legs. It prefers, however, to browse off the young shoots, buds, and bark of trees, thus furnishing hunters with sure proofs of its vicinity. When the ground is hard and will bear the weight of so large an animal, the hunters are led a very long and severe chase before they come up with their prey; but when the snow lies soft and thick on the ground, the creature soon suc- cumbs to its lighter antagonists, who invest themselves in snow-shoes and scud over the soft snow with a speed that speedily overcomes that of the poor Elk, which sinks floundering into the deep snow-drifts at every step, and is soon worn out by its useless efforts. The skin of the Elk is extremely thick, and has been manufactured into clothing that would resist a sword-blow, and repel an ordinary pistol-ball. The mad emperor of Russia, Paul, carried on a regular war of annihilation against the Elks, as he considered elk-skin the only mate- rial fit to be made into breeches for his cavalry. The flesh is sometimes dressed fresh, but is generally smoked like hams, and is much esteemed. The large muzzle or upper lip is, however, the principal object of admi- ration to the lovers of Elk-flesh, and is said to be rich and gelatinous when boiled, resembling the celebrated green fat of the turtle. Among the Carnivora, the chief enemies of the Elk are the same as those of the reindeer, namely, the bear, the wolf, and the glutton. The Elk, when captured young, may be completely tamed without difficulty. It recognizes the person who takes care of it, and will follow him like a dog, manifesting considerable joy on seeing him after a separa- tion. It goes in harness as well as the Reindeer, and can thus perform long journeys. For two or three centuries it was used for this purpose in Sweden, but the custom is now given up. It is impossible to under- stand why hardly any attempts have been made to domesticate such a useful animal in those climates suited to it, and thus prevent the destruc- tion which threatens to entirely extirpate the race. THE MOOSE. 541 The Eik lives in a famity composed of a male, a femaie, and the young of two generations. THE MOOSE. The MooseE, Aldces Americanus, which is also called the BLAcK ELK and the FLAT-HORNED ELK, is said by the naturalists who form it into a separate species to be distinguished from the European variety by deeper indentations in the palmated antlers, by the slightness of the beard, and the darker color of its coat. Its antlers are larger than those of the European Elk, sometimes weighing seventy-five pounds and meas- uring thirty-two inches long and thirty-one broad. ‘The Moose deer,” Hamilton Smith writes, “is higher than a horse, and when seen fully grown and in all its spread of antlers, makes a striking impression.” The Moose is confined to the northern regions of the continent, Can- ada, and New Brunswick, sometimes appearing in Maine and Northern New York. Franklin saw it at the mouth of the Mackenzie River in 65° north latitude. Its habits and food, as well as its general configuration, are those of the Elk of the Old World. From its custom of browsing on trees and eating the bark, the Indians gave this animal the name of mwsee or “ wood-eater,’ whence comes our word Moose. The young Moose can be easily tamed, and learn in a few days to know their keeper and follow him with confidence. But as they grow older, they grow worse in temper, and become savage and dangerous. Audubon, who hada the gratification of bringing a Moose down with his rifle and examining it in detail, states that to him he appeared awk- ward in his gait, clumsy in his limbs, and inelegant in form. The head, he adds, is long and clumsy, the snout is long and almost prehensile, the eye deep-seated, and small in comparison with the jackass-like head. During the winter several of these animals associate together and form groups of two, three, or four, and make what is technically called “a yard”’ by beating down the snow; in such places they feed on all the branches they can reach, stripping the trees of their bark, and breaking boughs as thick as a man’s thigh. When obliged to run, the male goes first, breaking the way, the others tread exactly in his tracks, and when their path runs through other “ yards,” they all join together, still going in Indian file. The seasons for hunting the Moose are March and September. The ’ 542 UNGULATA. sun then melts the snow on the surface, and the nights being frosty form a crust which greatly impedes the animal's progress. It is necessary for the hunter to have two or three small curs that can run upon the snow without breaking the crust; their use is to annoy the Moose by barking at its heels. The males when thus pressed stop, and the hunter can come up and dispatch them while their attention is thus engaged. Another method of hunting is described by Audubon: “ In September two persons in a canoe paddle by moonlight along the shore of the lake, imitating the call of the male. He answers the call, and rushes down to meet his rival. The man in the bow of the canoe fires; if the animal is only wounded he makes for the shore, and can be tracked by his blood to the place where he has lain down, and where he is generally found unable to proceed further.” Sometimes hunters find out the beaten tracks of the Moose leading to some spring, and bend down a sapling with a strong noose over his path. If his branching antlers pass through the dangling snare, he makes a struggle which disengages the rope hold- ing down the sapling. It springs up, and the Moose is strangled. At other times they are “ pitted,” but their legs are so long that this method of securing them seldom succeeds. The skill of a moose-hunter is mostly tried in the winter; he must track the creature by its footmarks in the snow, keeping always to the leeward of the chase. The difficulty of ap- proach is increased by a habit which the Moose has of making daily a sharp turn in its route; the hunter therefore forms his judgment, from the appearance of the country, of the direction it is likely to have taken. When he has discovered by the footmarks and other signs that he is near the chase, he approaches cautiously ; if he gets close without being seen, be breaks a small twig, which noise alarms the animal. It starts up, stops, and offers a fair mark to the hunter. The method of “calling” is efficacious in the rutting season. A sportsman writes of it as follows: “Calling is the most fascinating, disappointing, exciting of all sports. You may be lucky at once, and kill your Moose the first night you go out, perhaps at the very first call you make. You may be weeks and weeks, perhaps the whole calling season, without getting a shot. Moose calling is simple enough in theory ; in practice it is immensely difficult of application. It consists in imitating the cry of the animal with a hollow cone made of birch-bark, and endeavoring by this means to call up a Moose near enough to get a shot at him by moonlight, or in the early morning. He will come straight up to you, within a few yards—-walk THE MOOSE. 543 right over you almost—answering, ‘speaking,’ as the Indians term it, as he comes along, if nothing happens to scare him; but that is a great if. So many unavoidable accidents occur.” In December Moose-deer cast their horns; by April their successors begin to sprout; by the end of June full form is developed, but not till many weeks later are they denuded of velvet. At one year the bull-calf throws out a brace of knots an inch in |ength; in the second season these are about six inches long; the third year they increase to nine or ten inches with a fork; in the fourth season palmation is exhibited at many points. ‘ Twenty-three,” writes Mr. Parker Gilmore,” is the greatest number of points I have seen on one head, and the weight of the horns exceeded seventy pounds. The “ Moose Wood” or “ Pennsylvania Maple,” Acer Pennsylvanicus, derives its name from the fact that the Moose browse on it by preference. The Indians, we may add, believe that after a feast on Moose-flesh they can travel three times as far as after any other food. CEVA Balk. 2200 x. THE REINDEER AND THE CARIBOU: THE REINDEER—ITS LIFE IN NORTHERN EUROPE—ITS LIFE IN SIBERIA—ITS LIFE WHEN DOMES. TICATED—ITS VALUE—THE CARIBOU—MODES OF HUNTING IT. N the case of the Reindeer, as with the Elk, naturalists are not agreed as to whether the American variety attains to the dignity of a separate species or not. Wallace, and other high authori- ties assign but oe species to the genus which we are now about to describe. GENUS TARANDUS: In this genus the animals of both sexes possess antlers, the arrange- ment of which is very characteristic. From the principal stem, which is round and short, spring two branches of flattened shape, the longest of which tends upward with various twists terminating in an indefinite number of points; the other, more moderate in size, stretches horizon- tally over the muzzle. The hoofs are very broad and long; the head is wide and ox-like, but there is no muffle, and the nostrils open in the midst of the hair. The legs, although finely made, are less slender than those of the stag. The feet are covered all over with stiff hair, even on the under parts, an arrangement which facilitates the animal’s tread on ice, or icy snow. Its coat is rough, of a grayish-brown color, and is long under the throat, becoming in the winter. woolly in texture, and often white in color. The eye of the Reindeer is protected from the blinding glare of the snow by a third nictitating eyelid, which, at the animal's will, covers the whole eye. The Reindeer may be described as the most valuable of the Cervide, Whole tribes depend on it for their existence and well-being, and it is more necessary to them than the horse or ox to ourselves. WE UES INUGL IL LW he YSASCNISY Y3530 HSNW THE REINDEER. 545 THE REINDEER. The REINDEER, Zarandus rangifer (Plate XL), is a native of the icy deserts of the Arctic regions. It is found in Spitzbergen, Greenland, Lapland, Finland, and the whole of Northern Russia, as well as in Sibe- ria and Tartary. In Russia it sometimes migrates southward as far as the range of the Caucasus. The ancients were well acquainted with the Reindeer. Cesar describes it, Pliny confounds it with the elk, A‘lian relates that the wild Scythians used deer instead of horses. But the first good account of the animal is found in the work of Scheffer, published 1675, and in the next century the great Linnzus, who had personally seen and observed it, gaveta complete description of the animal. “There is no animal,” writes Brehm, “in which the burden of servi- tude, the curse of slavery, is so evident as in the Reindeer. No two creatures of the same family can be so different as the tame and the wild Reindeer. The former is a miserable slave of a poor miserable master, the latter is a lord of the mountain, as agile as the chamois. When we see a troop of wild and a herd of tame Reindeer, it is almost impossible to believe that they are members of the same genus.” The Reindeer is naturally a child of the mountains, and loves the wide, treeless, mossy plateaux which the natives of Scandinavia call ‘“Fjelds.” The barren expanses where a few Alpine plants grow between the rocks, or the heaths covered with Reindeer-moss, are its favorite abode. Woods and woodlands it usually avoids. In the north of Sibe- ria, according to Pallas, it is sometimes found in the forests making annual journeys from the woods to the hills and back again, according to the season. Their chief object in leaving the forests in the summer months appears to be their hope of escaping the continual attacks of mosquitoes and other insect-pests that are found in such profusion about forest land. The principal plague of the Reindeer is one of the gadflies, peculiar to the species, which deposits its eggs in the animal’s hide, and subjects it to great pain and continual harassment. Even in the domes- ticated state the Reindeer is obliged to continue its migrations, so that the owners of the tame herds are perforce obliged to become partakers in the annual pilgrimages, and to accompany their charge to the appro- priate localities. 69 546 UNGULATA. Toward the end of May, the wild Reindeer leave the forests and pro- ceed toward the northern plains. They are thin, and covered with wounds caused by the flies, but when they return in autumn, they are healthy and fat, and supply an excellent article of food. In some vears this migration consists of thousands which, although divided into herds of two or three hundred, follow close after each other, so that the whole form an enormous column. Their track is always the same. In Siberia a body of them has been seen which required two hours to pass the point of observation. Equally long are the migrations of the Reindeer in the Western Hemisphere. They leave the continent of America in spring, and, using the frozen sea as a bridge, appear in Greenland, sojourning there till the end of October, when they retrace their steps. In Norway they do not migrate to the same extent, merely changing one mountain range for another, ascending to the glaciers and snow-fields when sum- mer is burning. The Wild Reindeer always live in companies, which are larger than the herds of other deer, and more resembling the herds of antelopes in South Africa. The writer has seen herds of twelve to twenty in summer in the snows of the Fille Fjeld near Nystuen, but in winter they gather to the number of three or four hundred. The Reindeer is admirably adapted by the conformation of its hoofs for those northern regions which in summer are a morass, and in winter a field of snow. Their gait is a quick walk, or a trot. At every step a peculiar crackling is heard like the noise produced by an electric spark. This noise is not caused by collision of the hoofs, or by one part of the hoof striking against the other. Even tame reindeer can produce the sound without lifting a foot from the ground, by merely swaying the body. It seems to be produced in the interior of the limb, just like the noise caused by pulling one’s fingers. The Reindeer is an excellent swimmer, and the wild ones never hesitate to plunge into any stream that crosses their path. All the senses of the Reindeer are good ; its power of smell is remark- able, it can hear as keenly as a stag, and its sight is so sharp that a hunter, even coming against the wind, has to conceal himself most care- fully. They are, according to the testimony of all sportsmen, shy and cunning in the highest degree. During the summer their food consists of Alpine plants, in winter they scrape away the snow with their feet, and eat the lichens on the rocks. The chase of the Reindeer is of the highest importance to the North- THE REINDEER. 547 ern tribes. Many of those in Siberia depend entirely on the Reindeer for food, clothing, conveyance, and shelter. The chase of the Reindeer decides whether there will be famine or prosperity, and the season when these animals migrate is the harvest-time. The hunters attack them when crossing a river, and the slaughter made on these occasions can be best described as immense. The Reindeer is domesticated by the Lapps and Finns, as well as by the Samoyede tribes, the Ostzaks, Tunguses, and others in Siberia. According to Norwegian statistics, the Lapps in that kingdom possess seventy-nine thousand reindeer. It is the support and pride, the joy and riches, the plague and torment of the Laplander. He is the slave of his Reindeer; where they go, he must follow. He has to be out for months, tormented in summer by the mosquitoes, half-killed in winter by the cold, and with no other companion than his dog. The latter is an indis- pensable auxiliary ; watchful, sagacious, reliable, it obeys every sign of its master, and will for days together keep the herd together by its own independent action. The uses to which the tame Reindeer is put are manifold. The Lapps use it for driving, the Tunguses mount and ride on their backs. On even ground it can travel seven or eight miles an hour, but its ordinary pace is four or five miles. The mode of harnessing and driving the Reindeer is most simple. A collar of skin is fastened round its neck, and from this a trace hangs down, which, passing under the belly, is fastened into a hole bored in the front of the sledge. The rein consists of a single cord fastened to the root of the animal’s antlers, and the driver drops it on the right or left side of the back, according to the side to which he wishes to direct the animal. The vehicle being very light, traveling may be rapidly performed in this equipage, but not without running some risk of breaking your neck; for, to avoid being upset, one must be very skilful in this sort of locomotion. The Laplander becomes by practice a perfect master of this art. We have not yet mentioned the most important articles this Ruminant of the Arctic regions yields man. The female produces milk superior to that of the cow, and from it butter and cheese of excellent quality are made. Its flesh, which is nutritious and sweet, forms a precious alimen- tary resource, and almost the only one in the polar regions. Its coat furnishes thick and warm clothing, and its skin is converted into strong and supple leather. The long hairs on the neck of this animal are also 548 UNGULATA. used for sewing, while out of its tendons string is manufactured. From the old antlers of the Reindeer various utensils are made, such as spoons, knife-handles, etc., and when the horns are young, gelatine is extracted from them by submitting them to a severe course of boiling. Their excrement, when dried, is formed into bricks, which serve for fuel. Many tribes even turn to advantage the cropped lichens contained in the stomach of a slaughtered animal. The Esquimaux and Green- landers add to these lichens chopped meat, blood, and fat; when this is smoke-dried, they are extremely fond of it. The Tunguses, or no- madic inhabitants of Siberia, add wild berries to the above northern delicacy, then make it into cakes, which rank high among the articles of their cazszne. THE CARIBOU. The CArrBou, or American Reindeer, is considered by some natural- ists as identical with the species above described. We shall take the lib- erty of regarding it as a separate species for the purpose of descripticn. The Caripou, Zarandus caribou (Plate XL), is larger than the Rein- deer, has smaller antlers and a darker color, and lives mostly in the forests. It has never been brought under the sway of man, nor used for any domes- tic purposes. The Caribou lives in herds varying from ten to three hun- dred in number, and is an object of chase for both white and red hunters. The Esquimaux take it in an ingeniously constructed pitfall. A hole, about five feet deep, and capable of holding several deer, is dug out. It is then covered with a slab of ice or frozen snow, which is balanced on two pivots, so that when the Caribou treads upon it, it gives way, and pre- cipitates him into the pit. Other tribes are said to make a large inclosure into which the deer is driven. In the inclosing fence numerous narrow gaps are left, and in each gap a strong running noose is suspended. The Caribou, in its attempts to escape, makes for one of these treacherous outlets, and is caught by the fatal noose. Some Indians go in couples to the chase. The sportsman who goes first carries in one hand a Cari- bou’s antler; the other sportsman, who follows his leader closely, bears a bundle of twigs, which he rubs against the antler borne by his partner. When the herd perceives the approach of this remarkable object, it stands still in astonishment. The Indians creep up to the gazing Caribou till they are within range, then both fire their guns at once, then run toward THE CARIBOU. 549 the herd, loading as they run, and discharge a second couple of shots. But these shots must be well directed in order to kill. In most cases, however, the pursuit of the Caribou is a long affair, for it is not only a very strong but a very enduring animal, and often leads its pursuers a chase of four or five days. A small herd of these animals was chased continually for a week, when the original hunters were tired out, and gave up the pursuit to a new party. Whenever practicable, the Caribou makes for the frozen lakes, and then it is sure to escape, although in a very clumsy and ludicrous fashion. Rushing recklessly forward, the Caribou wiil be suddenly startled by some object in front, and falls on the ice in a sitting posture, in which attitude it slides for a considerable distance before it can recover its feet. As soon as it does so, it rushes off in another direction, and with the same results. Still, the speed attained is so great that the hunters always give up pursuit when the animal gets upon ice. During the greater part of the year, the flesh of the Caribou is dry and tasteless, and when eaten seems to have no effect in satiating hunger. There is, however, a layer of fat, sometimes two or three inches in thick- ness, that lies under the skin of the back and croup in the male, and is technically termed the depourllé. This fatty deposit is so highly esteemed that it outweighs in value the remainder of the carcass, including skim and horns. The marrow is also remarkably excellent, and is generally eaten raw. When pounded together with the depourllé and the dried flesh it makes the best pemmican, a substance which is invaluable to the hunter. Even the horns are eaten raw, while they are young and soft. The skin is very valuable, especially when taken from the young animal; and when properly dressed, it is an admirable defence against the cold and moisture of the inclement North. CLAP Tire mek, THE TRUE DEER: THE TRUE DEER—THE WAPITI—THE RED DEER OF EUROPE—THE VIRGINIA DEER OR CARCAJOU —THE PERSIAN DEER—THE INDIAN SPECIES—THE BARASINGA—THE AXIS DEER—THE SAM- BUR—THE MANED STAG—THE HOG DEER—THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPECIES—THE PAMPAS DEER—THE RED DEER OR GUASUPITA, HE True Deer range over the whole of the great continents, except that they do not go beyond 57° north in America, and a little further in Europe and Asia. In South America they extend over Patagonia, and even to Tierra del Fuego. They are found in the north of Africa, and over the whole of the Oriental region and beyond it, as far as the Moluccas and Timor. GENUS CERVUS. In this genus it is only the male animals which carry antlers. These antlers are round, and bear more or less numerous tines. The lachrymal grooves attain a considerable size. Many of the forty species comprised in this genus differ from each other so slightly that we give only those in which the difference is strikingly marked. THE WAPITI. The Wapiti, Cervas Canadensis (Plate XLI), is the largest of all the true Deer. The adult male measures nearly five feet in height at the shoulders, and about eight feet from the nose to the tail. It is very commonly known by the name of Elk. The herds of Wapiti vary in number from ten or twenty to three or four hundred; but each one is always under the command of an old leader. When it halts, the herd halts; when it moves on, the herd fol- lows; they all wheel right or left, advance and retreat with almost THE WAPITI. 551 military precision when it commands. The proud position of ruler is gained by dint of many a fight; and the combats are unusually fierce, often indeed ending in the death of one of the rivals. Sometimes both perish miserably; their branching horns become inextricably locked, and the two adversaries, united in a common fate, slowly succumb to hunger and thirst. When the antagonists meet, they do not push with their horns, but, backing from each other for about twenty feet, with blazing eyes, hair turned the wrong way, and heads lowered, rush together like knights in the tournay, with tremendous speed. At the moment of contact there is a snort of defiance, then a crash of horns, and then each backs off for a new start. This combative nature is retained even in captivity. Audubon relates the following anecdote: “ A gentle- man in the interior of Pennsylvania, who kept a pair of Wapiti in a large woodland pasture, was in the habit of taking pieces of bread or a few handfuls of corn with him when he walked in the inclosure, to feed these animals, calling them up for the amusement of his friends. Having occasion to pass through his park one day, and not having furnished himself with bread and corn for his pets, he was followed by the buck, who expected his usual gratification. The gentleman, irritated by its pertinacity, turned round and hit it a sharp blow, upon which, to his astonishment and alarm, the buck, lowering his head, rushed at him and made a furious pass with his horns. Luckily, the man stumbled as he attempted to fly, and fell between two prostrate trunks of trees where the Wapiti was unable to injure him, although it butted at him repeat- edly and kept him prisoner for more than an hour.” On the other hand, General Dodge says that, “in a close encounter with either man or dog, he is not to be compared for a moment, as a dangerous animal, with the common red deer.” These deer are great travelers, and when not molested walk in single file, but when disturbed, they run together like a flock of sheep ; and then, when they again advance, form a wedge-shaped mass, the leader at the point. If this leader is shot, all the followers stop, huddle together, and seem to consult. Then another deer steps to the front, and acts as leader. This peculiarity of having to stop and select new leaders when one is killed, enables a good marksman to bring down several deer. “ The gravest objection to this style of shooting,” writes General Dodge, is that, nine times out of ten, the leader is a doe. The buck rarely takes the lead, and if he brings up the rear, it is because his fat prevents him 552 UNGULATA. from running faster. His favorite position is in the middle of the herd, surrounded by admiring females.” It is therefore very difficult to get a good shot at him. The Wapiti is a good swimmer, and even when very young, will fearlessly breast the current of a wide and rapid river. Like many of the larger animals, it is fond of submerging itself under water in the warm weather for the sake of cooling its body and of keeping off the troublesome insects. It is also a good runner, and although burdened with its large and widely-branched horns, can charge through the forest haunts with perfect ease. In performing this feat, it throws its head well back, so that the horns rest on the shoulders, and shoots through the tangled boughs like magic. Sometimes a Wapiti will make a slight miscalculation in its leap; Mr. Palliser saw one strike a small tree so forcibly with its forehead that the recoil of the trunk threw the Wapiti on its back upon the ice of a stream which it had just crossed. The food of the Wapiti consists of grass, wild pea-vine, various branches, and lichens. In winter it scrapes the snow with its fore-feet, so as to lay bare the scanty vegetation below. When alarmed or excited, it utters a peculiar whistling sound which may be heard at the distance of a mile on a clear quiet day. The buck’s call for the doe is a deep bellow, said to be the natural E of the organ. The flesh is in great favor among hunters, and the skin is also very valuable, being employed in the manufacture of mocassins, belts, thongs, and other articles in which flexibility and strength are required. The teeth are employed by the Indians in decorating their dresses, and a robe thus adorned, which belonged to Audubon, was valued as worth thirty horses. The horns also are used for various purposes, and it is said that in no two individuals are the horns precisely alike. THE RED DEER. The Rep DEER or STaG, Cervus Elaphus (Plate XLII), is one of the aearest kindred of the Wapiti. It is one of the most noble and stately of animals, and exceeds in size all others of this genus except the Wapiti. It is found in nearly every country of Europe except the far North, and in a great part of Asia, extending southward to the Caucasus and the mountains of Mantchooria. In all thickly inhabited regions it has been either exterminated or very much reduced in numbers. It is still abun- THE RED DEER. 553 dant, however, in Poland and Hungary, Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol. It prefers mountainous to level districts, and loves to frequent long stretches of forest. With regard to it in Great Britain, Wood writes: “In the olden days of chivalry and Robin Hood, the Red Deer were plentiful in every forest; and especially in that sylvan chase which was made by the exercise of royal tyranny at the expense of such sorrow and suffering. Even in the New Forest itself the Red Deer is seldom seen, and those few survivors that still serve as relics of a bygone age, are scarcely to be reckoned as living in a wild state, and approach nearly to the semi-domesticated condition of the Fallow Deer. Many of these splendid animals are preserved in parks or paddocks, but they no more roam the wide forests in unquestioned freedom. In Scotland, however, the Red Deer are still to be found, as can be testified by many a keen hunter of the present day, who has had his strength, craft, and coolness thoroughly tested before he could lay low in the dust the magnificent animal, whose head with its forest of horns now graces his residence.” The Red Deer forms troops of various sizes, divided according to sex or age. The females and calves usually keep together; the older stags form smaller bands, but the master-stags live alone till the breeding season comes on. At all times the herd, when traveling, follows a doe; the buck appears last of all. If we see in a herd several stout bucks, we can with certainty look for a still stouter one some five hundred paces behind. In winter the Red Deer comes down from the mountains, and when its horns are soft, it avoids the forests. The color varies slightly according to the time of year. In summer its coat is a warm reddish- brown, but in winter the ruddy hue becomes gray. The young, which are born about April, have their fur mottled with white upon the back and sides, the white marking gradually fading as they increase in size. The young deer, for a short time after its birth, is very helpless, and crouches close to the ground till it looks like a block of stone when it has been warned by its mother that danger is nigh. All the movements of the stag are full of grace and dignity, and its speed, when it is in full gallop, is incredibly swift. Immense leaps are executed with sportive lightness, all obstacles surmounted, and lakes or streams crossed by swimming. Its senses of hearing, smell, and sight are highly developed; it can scent a man perhaps about six hundred yards off, and hears the slightest rustle made by its pursuer. Like many animals it seems to have a love for some kinds of music; the notes of a 7O 554 UNGULATA. flute will attract it, or at least bring it to a standstill. The stag does not seem possessed of much intelligence; it is shy, but not cautious; it acts without reflection when its passions are aroused. Although it has several times been partially tamed, and even trained to run in harness, the stag is a very unsafe servant, and at certain seasons becomes danger- ous, In attacking, it uses its fore-feet with terrible effect, the hard, sharp-edged hoofs being formidable weapons. Formerly, the stag was placed in Europe under the protection of the severest penalties, its slaughter being visited with capital punishment on the offender if he could be known and arrested. Indeed, a man who murdered his fellow might hope to escape retribution except by the avenging hand of some relation of the slain man, but if he were unfor- tunate or daring enough to dip his hands in the blood of a stag, he could hope for no mercy if he were detected in the offence. THE VIRGINIA DEER. The VIRGINIA DEER or CARCAJOU, Cervus Virginianus (Plate XLI), is a very beautiful species, remarkable for its peculiar horns, which are of moderate size, bent boldly backward, and then suddenly curved forward. Its color is a light reddish-brown in spring, slaty-blue in autumn, and dull brown in winter. The abdomen, throat, and chin are white. It is considerably smaller than the species which we have described above, seldom exceeding five feet and a half in length, or three feet and a quarter in height. It is found everywhere in North America from Canada to Mexico, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Moun- tains. It has a strong attachment to certain localities, and if driven from its resting-place on one day, it will surely be found on the next day within a few yards of the same spot. Sometimes it chooses its lair in close proximity to some plantation, and after feasting on the inclosed vegetables, leaps over the fence as soon as its hunger is satiated, and returns to the spot which it had previously occupied. The animal, how- ever, does not often lie in preciseiy the same bed on successive nights, but always couches within the compass of a few yards. It is a very good swimmer, and loves to immerse itself in rivers to get rid of ticks and mosquitoes. When swimming, only the head appears above the surface; and the creature moves so fast as to be hard to overtake by a THE VIRGINIA DEER. 555 boat. Audubon gives the following anecdote: ‘“ We recollect an occa- sion when, on sitting down to rest on the margin of the Santee River, we observed a pair of antlers on the surface of the water, near an old tree, not ten steps from us. The half-closed eye of the buck was upon us; we were without a gun, and he was therefore safe from any injury we could inflict upon him. Anxious to observe the cunning he would display, we turned our eyes another way and commenced a careless whistle, as if for our own amusement, walking gradually toward him in a circuitous route, until we arrived within a few feet of him. He had now sunk so deep in the water that an inch only of his nose and slight portions of his prongs were seen above the surface. At length, we suddenly directed our eyes toward him, and raised our hands, when he rushed to the shore, and dashed through the rattling cane-brake in rapid style.” It has been seen crossing broad rivers, and, when hard pressed by dogs, has even swum boldly out to sea. ; In those parts of the country where it is unable to visit the planta- tions, the Carcajou feeds on the young grasses of the plains, being fastidiously select in choosing the tenderest herbage. In winter it finds sustenance on various buds and berries, and in autumn it finds abundant banquets under the oaks, chestnuts, and beeches; but, excepting in the months of August, September, and October, the Carcajou is in very poor condition. It is then, however, very fat, and the venison is of remark- ably fine quality. It is in October and November that the buck becomes so combative, and in a very few weeks he has lost all his sleek condition, shed his horns, and retired to the welcome shelter of the forest. The sight of the Carcajou does not seem to be very keen, but its senses of scent and hearing are wonderfully acute. It is a thirsty animal, requiring water daily, and generally visiting some stream or spring at nightfall. It is remarkably fond of salt, and resorts in great numbers to the saline springs, or “ salt-licks,” as they are popularly termed. The Deer do not drink the briny water, but prefer licking the stones at the edge where the salt has crystallized from the evaporation of the water. The Virginia Deer has been often tamed. A pair kept as pets by Audubon were most mischievous creatures. They would jump into his study-window, and when the sashes were shut would leap through glass and woodwork like harlequin in a pantomime. They ate the covers of his books, nibbled his papers, and scattered them in sad confusion, 556 UNGULATA. gnawed the carriage-harness, cropped all the garden-plants, and finally took to biting off the heads of his ducklings and chickens. The skin of the Carcajou is peculiarly valuable to the hunter, for when properly dressed and smoked, it becomes as pliable as a kid glove, and does not shrivel or harden when subjected to the action of water. Of it are formed the greater part of the Indian’s apparel, and it is also employed for articles of civilized raiment. As the Carcajou feeds, it always shakes its tail before it lowers or raises its head. So by watching the movement of the tail, the hunter knows when he may move toward his intended prey, and when he must lie perfectly quiet. So truly indicative of the animal is this habit, that when an Indian wishes to signal to another that he sees a Carcajou, he moves his fore-finger up and down. This sign is invariably understood by all the tribes of North American Indians. THE PERSIAN DEER. The PERSIAN STAG, Cervus Wallichit, differs from the Red Deer of Europe only in its heavier build, and by possessing a stronger develop- ment of mane on the neck. It is a magnificent animal, but calls for no further remark. THE DEER OF INDIA. The five specimens of the genus which we are now about to describe, are natives of the Eastern regions of the Old World, and each of them is regarded by some naturalists as the representative of a sub-genus. THE BARASINGA. The BARASINGA, Cervus barasinga, is the type of the so-called Recurvus group. The head is short and poinced, the ear large and very broad, the eye large and beautiful, the legs long but powerful. The antlers, although they cannot be called property palmate, yet approximate to the form of the elk’s horns, and are characterized not only by their breadth, but by their repeated ramifications. The coat is rich and thick, each hair being long and fine, but the general appearance is that of a rough fur. The color in summer is a golden-brown, with a dark streak along the back between two rows of small golden spots. Long bristles are scattered over the muzzle and around the eye. THE AXIS DEER. 557 The Barasinga is found in Farther india, but it is not known whether it prefers the mountains or the lowlands. It is lively and courageous, and, unlike most deer, it “bells” at all seasons of the year: its voice being a short bleat, very like that of a young goat. THE AXIS DEER. The Axis DEER, Cervus axis (Plate XLI), is a species well known in India and Ceylon. The horns are placed on long footstalks, and simply forked at their tips. The color of the animal is a rich golden-brown with a dark stripe along the back between two series of white spots. The sides are covered with white spots arranged in oblique curved lines. It is nocturnal in its habits, and is not so active or restless as many other deer. It loves to lie in the low jungle-lands near a stream, where it sleeps all through the hot day. As far as marking and color go, the Axis Deer is the most beautiful of its race. THE SAMBUR. The SAMBUR, Cervus Aristotelis, is often regarded as the type of a sub-genus to which the name Russa—irom a Malay word meaning “stag” —has been given. It isa large, powerful animal, quite as large as the Red Deer, and equally active. Its horns, like those of the Axis Deer, are set on a long foot-stalk, with a prong projecting forward just above the crown, and the tip forked. The color is a sooty-brown, with a patch of tan over the eyes. It is a savage and ill-tempered beast, and is found throughout India, and in Sumatra and Malacca. THE MANED STAG. The MANED STAG, Cervus hippelaphas, is scarcely inferior to the Red Deer in size, and possesses the usual characteristics of the Russine group in the formation of its horns. The color of its coat varies with the seasons. In summer it consists of rough, sparse hair of a brownish- fawn color which is hard to describe. Both sexes are of the same color, even the young ones do not possess the dappled coats which distinguish the young of most of the Cervide. The buck is conspicuous by a strong mane which develops itself on the lower part of the neck and chin. As far as is known, this deer is confined to the islands of Java, Suma- tra and Borneo, and in India, where it is found in abundance, but in small 558 UNGULATA. herds. It lies in the long jungle-grass during the heat of the day, and at nightfall begins to browse. It is very fond of water, drinking fre- quently. It runs with great swiftness and endurance, but interrupts its extended gallop by frequent short leaps or bounds. When walking, its pace is stately, like the so-called Spanish pace sometimes taught in the riding-school. It lifts its foot carefully, stretches it out before it and sets it gracefully down, accompanying each step with a corresponding movement of the head. The chase of this deer is a favorite amusement of the Javanese princes, who use only sword and spear to kill it, or running nooses to capture it alive. THE HOG-DEER. The HoG-DEER, Cervus hyclaphus, is the representative of a sub- genus //yclaphus, and is one of the clumsiest-built species. Its body is thick, the legs, neck, and head short; the antlers are short, thin, and three-pronged, and stand wide apart. The usual color is a beautiful colfee-brown, darkening in the male to deep black-brown. In all the Hog-deer some traces of dappled marks can be discovered, but in the young these spots are larger and clearer. In Bengal it is often hunted on horseback, and killed by the stroke of a sword. The venison is said to be excellent. SOUTH AMERICAN DEER. South America is the home of a species of deer which is by some naturalists regarded as the type of a genus Alastoceros, which is charac- terized by upright horns with three or five prongs. The PAMpaAs DEER, Cervus campertris, is the best known variety. It attains a length of four feet and a half, and a height of about three feet. Its coat is thick, rough, and shining, of a reddish-brown color on the back, but gray on the abdomen; the tip of the tail is pure white, and a white ring surrounds the eye, and white spots mark the upper lip. The greater part of South America is the home of this very common deer. It loves open and dry plains, and even when chased, avoids swamps and woodlands. Its senses are very acute, and its movements active, so that if it has a start, the best horse cannot overtake it. By day it hides itself in the long grass, and les so still that one may ride THE PAMPAS DEER. 559 close past it without rousing it. It is usually taken by the lasso. The hunters form a half-circle, and wait till another party with dogs drive the game towards them. The lasso is then thrown over the horns or around the feet. The native name of this deer is Gua-zu-y. The GUuASUPITA, Cervus rufus, may be regarded as a representative of a group to which the title Swéu/o has been given, and which is charac- terized by moderate size, slender build, and two short, often rudimentary horns. These horns are thick at the root, but end in a sharp point. All the animals of this group have a rather long, well-haired tail. The Guasupita stands about two feet high, and attains a length of three feet and a half. The neck is short and slender, the ears large but not espe- cially long, the eyes small and lively, the tear-grooves almost invisible, the limbs tall, slender, and very gracefully built. The prevailing color is a yellowish-brown, which becomes grayish on the forehead, and quite gray on the lower side of the body. This deer inhabits Guiana, Brazil, and Peru. They live on the plains as well as on the mountains, preferring everywhere forest-land, and avoiding the open country. They do great injury to any plantations in their neighborhood, destroying the melon-shoots, the young corn, and the beans. They display great caution and timidity in commencing their forays, looking carefully around, and at the slightest alarm plunging back into the woods. Their pace is swift, but they have little endurance, and can be ridden down by a well-mounted horseman, CHAPTER Xoel: THE FALLOW DEER, ROE DEER, AND MUSK DEER: THE GENUS DAMA—FALLOW DEER—GENUS CAPREOLUS—RGE DEER—GENUS CERVULUS—MUNTJAK OR KIDANG—GENUS MOSCHUS—MUSK DEER—ITS ABODE—HABITS—THE MUSK. E conclude our account of the Cerz7de with some Old World genera which have no representatives either in North or South America. The animals contained in them are less in size than those we have been describing, but if they are less stately, they are quite as beautiful and graceful as the magnificent animals we have mentioned in our previous chapters. GENUS DAMA. The only species of this genus is distinguished from the Stag by its spreading palmated horns and its spotted coat. In the latter respect it resembles the Axis; in the former, the Reindeer: and some naturalists place it next to the Zarandus in their classification. THE FALLOW DEER. The FALLow DEER, Dama vilgaris (Plate XLII), seems to have spread over Europe from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It ex- tends to the south of those inland waters as far as the northern limits of the desert of Sahara; it is found in Tunis, the Greek islands, Sardinia, and Spain. It does not love the severe climates of the North, and does not venture beyond Southern Norway and Sweden. It is, at the present day, most numerous in England; it is not even there in a wild state, but MOUSE DEER FALLOW STAG ROEBUCK eA oC ll UNGULATA THE FALLOW DEER. 501 kept in the parks of the large landowners, where it adds much to the beauty of the scene. Soft slopes of undulating land, where the grass is short and thick, alternating with shady dells, where the fern grows high, are its favorite haunts. There is hardly a more interesting sight than a herd of these graceful and active creatures, either lying calmly under the shadow of a broad clump of trees, or tripping along the sward under the guidance of their leaders, the old and sober proceeding at their pecu- liarly elastic trot, and the young fawn exerting all kinds of fantastic gam- bols by way of expressing the exuberance of youthful spirits. The color of the animal is a reddish-brown, spotted with white, with two or three white lines on the body, and dark rings round the muzzle and the eyes. The legs are shorter and less powerful than those of the stag, and the body is proportionately stouter, the neck is shorter, and the tail con- siderably longer. There is often great variety of color in the Fallow Deer; specimens of a pure white color are not uncommon, but black ones are very rare. In its habits it resembles the stag, but as it is always seen in a state of comparative domestication, it is less shy and timid. It runs very fast, and is an excellent leaper. It forms larger or smaller herds, in which there is always one master-deer, who often couches alone in solitary state, apart from the rest of the herd, and accompanied by a few chosen does whom he honors with his prefer- ences. In his absence, the herd is commanded by the younger bucks, but they take care to keep out of his way when he condescends to join the community. The food of the Fallow Deer consists chiefly of grass, but it is very fond of bread, and will sometimes display a very curious appreciation of unexpected dainties. They have often been seen to eat ham-sandwiches in spite of the mustard, and enjoy them so thoroughly that they pushed and scrambled with each other for the fragments as they fell on the ground. At Magdalen College, Oxford, where many deer are kept, it used to be a common amusement to tie a crust to a piece of string, and let it down to the deer out of a window. The animals would nibble the bread, and as it was gradually drawn aloft by the string, would raise themselves on their hind-legs, in order to reach it. But when the master-deer loomed in the distance, all retired, leaving him to eat the bread in solitary state. It was curious to see how a single deer would contrive to take into her mouth the entire side of a “ half-quartern””’ loaf, and though it projected on each side of her jaws, would manage, by dint Chi 562 UNGULATA. of patient nibbling, to swallow the whole crust without ever letting it drop out of her mouth. The Fallow Deer display great susceptibility to music; even the wildest will come near and listen to the notes of a horn. Sportsmen in Germany sometimes avail themselves of this taste for melody to allure the poor creature within range of the gun. It is from the Fallow Deer that the best venison is procured, that of the stag being comparatively hard and dry. The skin is well known as furnishing a valuable leather, and the horns are manufactured into knife- handles and other articles of common use. The shavings of the horns are employed for the purpose of making ammonia, which has therefore been long popularly known under the name of hartshorn. The height of the adult Fallow Deer is about three feet at the shoulders. It is a docile animal, and can be readily tamed. Indeed, it often needs no taming, but becomes quite familiar with strangers in a very short time, especially if they should happen to have any fruit, bread, or biscuit, and be willing to impart some of their provisions to their dappled friends. GENUS CAPREOLUS:, The Roe Deer inhabits all Temperate and Southein Europe to Syria, with a distinct variety in Northern China. We will confine our remark to the best known of the ¢wo species. THE ROE DEER. The RoE DEER, Capreolus vulgaris (Plate XLII), is smatler than the Fallow Deer, being only two fect and a quarter in height at the shoulder. The antlers rise up straight, without any prong projecting forward over the eye, and fork rather than branch, throwing out one prong in ‘ront, and one or two behind, according to age. The antler, from the base to the first fork, is thickly covered with wrinkles. The head is short, the neck slender and longer than the head, the fore-quarters powerful, the legs long and slender; the eyes are large and lively, with long lashes on the upper lid, the lachrymal groove very small; the ears are of moderate length, and stand wide apart. The thick coat of the Roebuck alters according to the season. In summer the back and sides are of a reddish- THE ROE DEER. 563 brown, in winter of a brownish-gray color, but the lower side of the body is always lighter colored. The fawns, as is usual with nearly all deer, display white or yellow dapplings. Milk-white Roes are by no means unfrequent, and in Germany raven-black specimens have been seen by some sportsmen. The Roe Deer is found in all Europe, except the high North, and in the greatest part of Asia. It prefers to frequent the larger forests, whether they are on the plain, or on the mountains, provided that the underwood is thick, and that there is plenty of shade. It seeks the higher grounds in summer, and descends in winter to the low lands. In Siberia this change of dwelling assumes the character of a regular migration. It possesses a much greater love of liberty than the Fallow Deer does, and seeks change of abode, of food, and of society. In its motions it is active and graceful. It can execute astonishing leaps, crossing without apparent exertion wide ditches and high hedges. It swims well. All its senses are keen, and it is very cautious and shy. It is more irritable and worse-tempered than the stag, and in old age be- comes dangerous and not to be trusted. The Roe Deer never forms large herds like the Red Deer. During the greater part of the year it lives in family fashion, usually with only one doe; but in winter occasionally several of these families unite and live together. The food of the Roe Deer is nearly the same as that of the Stag, but it selects the more tender plants. Leaves and young shoots, green corn, and the like, constitute its favorite diet. Pure water is a necessity, and it is fond of licking salt. Speaking of this animal, Mr. St. John makes the following remarks. After stating that when captured young it can readily be tamed, he pro- ceeds to say: ‘“A tame buck becomes a dangerous pet, for after attaining to his full strength, he is very apt to make use of it in attacking people whose appearance he does not like. They particularly single out women and children as their victims, and inflict severe and dangerous wounds with their sharp-pointed horns. One day, at a kind of public garden, I saw a beautiful but small Roebuck in an enclosure fastened by a chain which seemed strong enough and heavy enough to hold down an elephant. I asked the reason for this cruel treatment of the poor animal. The keeper of the place informed me that small as the Roe- buck was, the chain was quite necessary, as he had attacked and 504 UNGULATA. killed a boy of twelve years old a few days before, stabbing the poor fellow in fifty places with his sharp-pointed horns. Of course I had no more to urge in his behalf.” GENUS CERVULUS. The four species of this genus are found in all the forest districts of the Oriental region, from India and Ceylon to China, as far north as Ningpo and Formosa, and as far south as the Philippine Islands, Borneo, and Java. They are all small animals, and have very short imperfect horns. The distinguishing characteristics of the genus consist in the possession of two large tusk-like canines in the upper jaw, and in an extraordinary development of the cranial bones which form elongated pedestals for the support of the two pronged horns; the forehead is marked with three deep vertical folds of skin. THE MUNTJAK. The MUNTJAK or KIDANG, Cervulus muntjak, the best known species, is about the size of the Roebuck. It is rather slenderly built, with a ecmpact body, moderately long neck, short head, long and fine limbs, and a short hairy tail. The coat is short, smooth, and thick; the color a yellowish-brown, darkening into chestnut on the middle of the back. The inner sides of the limbs, as well as the chin and throat, are white. The antlers are cream color. Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Banca, and the Malay Peninsula, are the homes of the Muntjak. Horsfield writes: ‘The Muntjak selects for its resort certain districts to which it forms a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these are known as the favorite resort of the animal for several generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds diversified by ridges and valleys tending toward the acclivities of the more considerable mountains or approach- ing the confines of extensive forests.” ‘The Kidang,” the same author observes, ‘is impatient of confinement, and is not fitted for the same degree of domestication as the stag. It is, however, occasionally found in the enclosures of natives and Europeans, but requires a considerable range to live comfortably. It is cleanly in its habits, and delicate in the choice of food. The flesh affords an excellent venison. The natives eat THE MUSK DEER. 505 the males, but have an aversion to use the females as food.”” The Munt- jak is monogamous, and whenever a troop of them is seen, it proves to consist of the members of a single family. The Kidang is regularly hunted by the Javanese. It leaves a good scent, and can be easily followed by hounds. When it sees itself pur- sued, it does not, like the stag, run straight onward, but, after a short burst at its highest speed, it slackens its pace and describes a large curve calculated to bring it back to its original starting-point. The natives assert that it is a weak, lazy creature. If it is followed up perse- veringly, it will finally push its head into a thick bush, and stand there motionless, as if it were in complete security. The dogs used in the chase are commonly the half-wild Paria dogs. The Muntjak, when brought to bay, knows how to make good use of his small antlers, and makes many a hound bite the dust. In the island of Banca the favorite method of taking the Kidang is by driving it into a space between two long hedges which gradually come nearer to each other, and are fur- nished at the narrow exit with nooses suspended from the trees. The Kidang is driven in by dogs, and as he attempts to escape, is caught by the horns. GENUS MOSCHUS. The members of this hornless genus are sometimes classed as a dis- tinct family, but they differ in no important points of organization from the rest of the Cervide. They are found in Central Asia from the Amoor River to the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains, above eight thou- sand feet elevation. THE MUSK DEER. The Musk DEER, Moschus moschiferus (Plate XL), is the only species known. It is about the size of the Roebuck, but stands lower in the front than the hind quarters. Its legs are slender, the neck short, the head rounded at the muzzle, the eyes of moderate size with long lashes, and the ears are oval. The hoofs are small and narrow, but can be extended by means of a fold of skin between the two parts so that they form, in connection with the false-hoofs which reach to the ground, a sure support for the animal on the snow-fields and glaciers. The coat is thick and close, becoming longer at each side of the breast, and on the 566 UNGULATA. throat; the hairs forming it are stiff, long and twisted, and display the most perfect cellular structure of all kinds of hair. The color of these deer is various; hardly two specimens can be found alike in this respect. Some are dark, some a dirty-white, others reddish-brown, others yellow- ish-brown, while others have longitudinal lines of light-colored spots on the back. The canine teeth project, in the male, outside of the mouth, and are curved backward; these tusks are sometimes as much as three inches in length. Both sexes are devoid of horns. The popular as well as scientific name of this deer is derived from the possession of a powerfully odorous secretion, The musk-pouch lies near the navel, and communicates with the air by two small openings. Small glands placed in the interior of this pouch secrete the musk: the average quantity found in an animal when at maturity is thirty grammes, or four hundred and fifty grains Troy. The secretion when dried be- comes a granular mass, which at first is reddish-brown, but finally dark- ens to a coal-black shade. The odor decreases as the musk becomes darker, and is quite destroyed by mixture with sulphur or camphor. If burnt, it gives out an offensive smell. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans, although they were curious about all kinds of odoriferous substances, knew anything about this animal. On the other hand, the Chinese have used this musk for thou- sands of years. Our first knowledge of it came from the Arabs. Aboo Senna writes that the best musk came from Thibet, and was produced by an antelope-like creature which had two projecting tusks. Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveler, describes the animal, and calls the musk “the finest balsam known by man.” The Musk Deer is found most abundantly on the Tibetian slopes of the Himalaya, near Lake Baikal, and in the mountains of Mongolia. Here they are killed by hundreds. In the Western Himalaya they are found in the lower part of the range, never in herds, but usually in pairs. They love grassy slopes that are near thickets, in which they can hide by day, for they only venture at twilight to visit the treeless feeding- grounds. Although the deer is eagerly pursued on account of its musk, yet it is by no means timid, and seldom runs away, unless molested. Its gait is a series of short leaps followed by a brief pause. When it is at liberty, it has never been heard to utter a sound; it does not even call for its mate, but when captured, it utters a kind of scream. Its tracks are very vemarkable, as both the false hoofs leave a clear impression. THE MUSK DEER. 567 All its movements are quick; it runs like an antelope, leaps like a goat, and climbs like a chamois; it swims broad streams, and crosses, almost without leaving a trace, fields of snow in which any dog will sink. In Siberia the chase of the Musk Deer is an important branch of in- dustry ; the usual method is by fixing running nooses in places through which the deer is driven. The flesh is uneatable by Europeans. It is the musk-pouch which rewards the hunter. Official reports give the numbers of Musk Deer killed in Siberia every year, as fifty thousand, of which nine thousand are males. The best musk, however, is not from Siberia, but from China. It is very much adulterated by the Chinese dealers before it reaches the markets of Europe. GENUS MEY DROPOLIS: This is a new genus, of oze species, discovered by Mr. Swinhoe. It inhabits China from the Yang-tse-Kiang northward. Its nearest affin- ities are with Moschus. Other new forms inhabiting North China are Lophotragus, which is hornless, and E/aphodus, which has horns about an inch long. CHAPTER 221M, THE GIRAFFE. THE CAMELOPARDALID/© OR GIRAFFES—ITS SIZE AND APPEARANCE—ITS HABITAT—ITS ADAPTA- TION TO ITS LOCATION--ITS MOVEMENTS—ITS FOOD—ITS SENSES—GIRAFFES IN LONDON AND PARIS—MODES OF HUNTING—MEANING OF THE WORD “GIRAFFE.” HE family CAMELOPARDALID& or Giraffes, now consist of but a single species of a stzgle genus, which ranges over all the open country of Africa. It is almost entirely absent from West Africa, which is more especially a forest district. During early epochs of the world’s history, these animals had a wider range. Extinct species have been discovered in Greece, in the Siwalik hills of Western India, and in the island of Perim in the Red Sea, while an extinct genus /e//a- dotherium, more bulky but not so tall as the Giraffe, ranged from the South of France to Greece and Northwestern India. GENUS CAMELOPARDALIS. The name of this genus was given to the remarkable animals ttt bear it because the ancient writers saw in it a “mixture of the Cael and the Leopard.” It is one of those strange forms which men may be excused for having believed to be fabulous. Even at the present day, neither education nor experience diminishes the astonishment with which we view this extraordinary creature. Tallest of all the dwellers upon earth, it raises its stately head far above any animal that walks upon the surface of our globe. It seems, indeed, to be rather the fancied form of something devised by the brain of an eccentric artist, than an animal who lives, moves, and has its being among the creations with which we are familiar. Its singular proportions and the peculiarity of its gait, as well as its variegated coat, have always excited curiosity. THE GIRAFFE. 569 THE GIRAFFE. The GIRAFFE, Camelopardalis girafa (Plate XLIII), is the only repre- sentative of the family. The enormously long neck, the tall legs, the finely formed head with large, beautiful clear eyes, and two peculiar cranial excrescences covered with skin, are its leading characteristics. Its total length is about seven feet and a half, but its height to the shoulder is fully ten feet, and to the head eighteen to twenty feet. The tail, including the tuft of hair at its termination, is about forty inches long. From the muzzle to the root of the tail the distance is nearly fourteen feet. The weight is about one thousand one hundred pounds. These proportions alone are striking, but its construction is as remark- able as its size. The Giraffe seems made out of portions of different animals. The head and body resemble those of the horse; the neck and shoulders, those of the camel; the ears, those of the ox; the tail, that of the ass; the legs are imitations of those of the antelope; the color and markings are borrowed from the panther. The result naturally is, a certain want of symmetry. The short body is out of proportion with the neck and legs; the sloping back is no beauty; even its height does not give it grace. The head is beautiful, the eyes wonderful, the mark- ings agreeable; but the whole is peculiar. Tne eyes of the Giraffe are large, vivacious, brilliant, and yet soft; they are spiritual eyes. The ears are well-formed, and very movable. Between the two cranial developments which are commonly called horns is a round protuberance, almost like a third horn. The neck is as long as the fore-legs. It is thin, and adorned with a mane, but pos- sesses only seven vertebrz, the same number as is found in ordinary animals. The body is broad at the chest, the withers much higher than the rump; the almost vertical shoulder-blades are very distinct. The legs are of almost equal length; it is to the elongation of the shoulder- blades that the height of the fore-quarters is due. The hoofs are small and fine. On the knee-joints are callosities like those of the camel. The skin is very thick and very smooth, except the mane, the tail-tuft, and two tufts of dark hair, which adorn the “horns.” The ground color of the coat is a sand-yellow, becoming darker on the back, and passing into white on the belly; on this ground are placed large, irregular, angular spots of a brownish color, so closely arranged that the yellow tints appear like network. These marks are smaller on the neck and limbs. 72 70 UNGULATA unr The mane is streaked fawn-color and brown, the front of the ears is white, the back brownish; the tufts of hair are black. Mates, when they grow old, become darker; the females tighter, as if bleached. The Giraffe is a silent animal, and has never been heard to utter a sound even when in the agonies of death. In its native land it is so strongly perfumed with the foliage on which it feeds, that it exhales a powerful odor, which is compared by Gordon Cumming to the scent of a hive of heather honey. In the present day, the Giraffe inhabits Africa, between the 17th degree north latitude, and 24th degree south latitude, commencing with the southern border of the Sahara, and ending at the Orange River. It is found in Abyssinia, Darfour, Kordofan, and on the White Niie, but does not appear in Senegambia, or on the Congo. Its home is on the wide plains, and is defined by the growth of various kinds of mimosa. It is never seen in mountainous or forest-clad districts. In its native haunts, the marvellous adaptation of the animal to its abode is clearly perceptible. ‘‘ When one sees a herd of Giraffes,” writes Gordon Cumming, “in a grove of the picturesque spreading mimosas which ornament the plains, and of which it can reach the topmost twigs, one must be lost to all sense of natural beauty if the sight is not an attractive one.” All other observers agree in this remark. ‘“ No animal in the whole world,” says Baker, “is so picturesque as the Giraffe in its native dwelling-place.” The harmony in color between the animal and the trees on which it browses is striking. “ Often have I,” says Cumming, “been in doubt respecting the presence of a whole herd of Giraffes till I examined them with a telescope: even my native attendants confessed that their sharp trained eyes were, at times, deceived; they often took the tree stems for Giraffes, and Giraffes for old trees.” When they are seen on the treeless plain, at the edge of the horizon, when the evening sunlight is shining, they seem supernatural creatures. Usually they are found in small troops of six or eight, but occasionally, where it feels itself safe, in larger numbers. Gordon Cumming met bands of thirty and forty, but gives the average number as sixteen. Baker saw herds of sixty to hundred. Brehm never saw more than three together. The movements of the Giraffe are peculiar. It is seen to most advantage when walking quietly; it is then dignified and graceful. It advances with a slow, measured pace, moving the two legs of the same side. When galloping it is by no means graceful. ‘“ The Giraffes when ee A UNGULATA: THE GIRAFFE. 571 ’ running away,” writes Liebtenstein, “presented such an extraordinary sight, that with astonishment and laughter I forgot the whole chases With the disproportion between the fore and hind quarters, and between the height and the length, quick movement presented great difficulties. It cannot trot; it can only galiop. And this gallop is so awkward and clumsy that, judging by the slowness with which the limbs are moved, one would fancy that a man could overtake it on foot. But this slow- ness is compensated for by the length of the stride, for each stride measures fourteen to eighteen feet. The peculiar formation of its fore- quarters compels it to throw back its neck in order to throw the centre of gravity away from the fore-legs. Every movement of the neck is accompanied by a spring of the hind-legs. Thus the neck keeps swing- ing to and fro, like the mast of a ship rolling.”” At the same time it lashes its sides with its long tail, and often turns its head to look with its lovely eyes whether its pursuers are drawing nigh. Most extraordinary is the position assumed by the Giraffe when it has to lift anything from the ground, or to drink. It spreads its fore-legs out wide apart from each other, till it can reach the ground with its long neck. When it lies down, it first sinks on its fore-knees, and then draws up its hind-legs, finally resting on its breast like the camel. It sleeps lying on one side, with its head on its hind legs. Its sleep is light, and only of short duration. It can go for several days without sleep, and seems to repose standing. The Giraffe is not adapted to eat grass, but to strip leaves from the trees. For this purpose its uncommonly flexible tongue is of as great service as the trunk is to the elephant. It can take up with it the smallest object, and pluck the most tender leaf. “Tn our Zoological Gardens,’ Owens writes, “many a lady has been robbed by the Giraffes of the artificial flowers in her bonnet. The animal is guided in the selection of food less by the smell than by the eye, and hence it is often deceived when it has seized artificial flowers with its pliant tongue. In its wild state it consumes chiefly twigs, buds, and leaves of the mimosa. In South Africa the “ wait-a-bit” thorn and camel-thorn Constitute most of its diet; in North Africa the Karrat- mimosa or the climbing plants which cover the trees are eagerly devoured by it. As the trees just mentioned are not taller than the Giraffe, it easily procures its food, for its lips and tongue are as insensi- ble to the needle-like thorns as the camel's. it seldom eats grass, but does not despise it when it is green. When its food 1s juicy, it can do with- 572 UNGULATA. out water for a long time, and hence when the leaves are fresh, it is met with in places where there is no water for miles. [ut in the dry season, when the foliage is parched, it goes long distances to pools or ponds in the river beds. The Giraffe stands up while it chews the cud; it chiefly ruminates by night, and does not spend much time in the process. The senses of the Giraffe, especially those of sight and hearing, are highly developed. Its intellectual qualities are not inferior. It is prudent and cautious, very amiable and good-natured. It is a peaceful, gentle creature, that lives in harmony not only with its own kind but with other animals. In case of need it defends itself with courage, striking powerful blows with its long, sinewy legs. It is in this fashion that the males fight with each other, and that the female defends her young from the crouching /e/7d@ ; she has been known to knock down even a lion. The keepers of menageries have often to be on their guard, although they generally are on gocd terms with the Giraffe. It is full of curiosity, and seems to be gratified by the presence of visitors, whom it investigates with an air of great interest. It was a little more than fifty years since Giraffes were first seen alive in Europe, after a very long interval. The Pasha of Egypt heard that the Arabs of Senaar had brought up a pair of Giraffes on camel’s milk; he ordered them to be brought to Cairo, and resolved to send them as presents to the kings of England and France. They arrived at their destinations in 1827, and in Paris, fashions @ /a girafe became in vogue. Since then, numerous specimens have been imported, most of them being brought from the country between the Blue Nile and the Red Sea. At present, the Arabs do a regular and profitable trade in catching and selling these animals. Twenty-four were sent to Germany alone in 1874. The Giraffes require great attention when kept in captivity. They are attacked with a dis- ease in the bones, which 1s named ‘‘ Giraffe-sickness.” It arises from want of exercise and proper food. Plenty of room and a warm sur- face to stand on are indispensable requisites for its health. Hay, carrots, onions and different vegetables form its principal diet in cap- tivity, but to this provender the keeper ought to add some tannic acid, a substance in which the mimosa is very rich. The Giraffe is an object for the native as well as the European hunter. The former hunt it on horseback, and when they overtake it, cut the tendon Achillis. They esteem its flesh very highly. Europeans usually stalk it—a difficult task, as the animal’s enormous length of neck THE GIRAFFE. 573 enables it to see for a great distance. The natives employ the pittall also. For this purpose a very curiously constructed pit is dug, being about ten feet in depth, proportionably wide, and having a wall or bank of earth extending from one side to the other, and about six or seven feet in height. When the Giraffe is caught in one of these pits, its fore-limbs fall on one side of the wall, and its hind-legs on the other, the edge of the wall passing under its abdomen. The poor creature is thus balanced, as it were, upon its belly across the wall, and in spite of all its plunging, is unable to obtain a foothold sufficiently firm to enable it to leap out. The pitfalls for the capture of the hippopotamus and the rhinoceros are furnished with a sharp stake at the bottom; but it is found by experi- ence that, in the capture of the Giraffe, the transverse wall is even more deadly than the sharpened stake. The Giraffe is easily traced by its “spoor,” or footmarks, which are eleven inches in length, pointed at the toe and rounded at the heel. The pace at which the animal has gone is ascertained by the depth of the impression, and by the scatter- ing of disturbed soil along the path. The slain Giraffe is used for many purposes. Its skin is made into ieather, its tail-tuft forms a fly-flapper, its hoofs are worked up like horn. Yet it must be said, for the credit of the natives of Africa, that they pride themselves more on possessing living than dead Giraffes. In the villages of the interior, the traveler will often see a pair of Giraffes raising their gentle heads high over some garden-wall, or else walking ‘ about the streets like cows. When Brehm was traveling on the Blue Nile, a Giraffe came to the boat as if to welcome him. It approached with perfect confidence, and eat bread out of his hand as if it had been an old acquaintance. It came every day afterward to be caressed. The name Girafe, the naturalist adds, is a corruption of the Arabic Serafe, which means the “lovable,” and fitly designates this noble creature. SI = CHAPTER. 2 XI, THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS. THE BOVID.E—THE THIRTEEN SUB-FAMILIES—THE BOVINA:—THE GENUS BOS—THE DOMESTIC OX — THE WILD CATTLE—THE CATTLE OF THE PAMPAS—CATTLE OF AFRICA—DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE HIGHLAND CATTLE—THE DURHAM—THE ALDERNEY. HE large and important family Bovip& includes all the animals commonly known as oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep and goats. Some naturalists have classed them in three, some in four or five distinct families. Zoologically, they are all briefly and satisfactorily defined by the words with which this chapter is headed, “ hollow-horn ruminants,” and although they present wide differences in external form, they pass so insensibly into one another, that no satisfactory definition of the smaller family-groups can be found. As regards the distribution of the family it may be said that, as a whole, they are almost confined to the great Old World continent, only a few forms being found in North America. Different types prevail in different regions; thus, anielopes prevail in Africa, sheep and goats in the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and oxen are perhaps best developed in the far East. Following the arrangement adopted by Wallace from Sir Victor Brooke, we subdivide the family into ¢hzrteen sub-families. The first of these sub-families BOvIN-& is one of the best marked groups in the family. It comprises the Oxen and Buffaloes, and their allies, and has a distribu- tion very nearly the same as that of the whole family. The animals comprehended in it are large and strong ; their chief characteristic being more or less round and smooth horns, a broad muzzle, with nostrils wide apart, and a long and tufted tail. The udder of the females has four teats. The skeleton displays a thick and powerful form. The skull is broad at the brow, and slightly narrowed in at the muzzle. The orbits of the eyes are round and project laterally; the processes on which the horns are placed grow from the back part of the skull. The smooth and THE (OX. 575 round horns have, in many cases, wrinkles about the base. The coat is usually short and smooth, but in some species forms a mane-like growth on certain parts. Slow and awkward as the Bovéne appear, they are capable of quick movements. They are all good swimmers, and cross broad streams without hesitation. Their strength is extraordinary, and their endurance wonderful. Their sense of smell is good, so also is that of hearing; but their powers of sight are not highly developed. The wild species dis- play more intelligence than the domesticated ones. In general, they exhibit a gentle and confiding disposition toward all animals which do not annoy or threaten them, but show the highest courage and fierce- ness toward beasts of prey, and usually use their terrible horns so effect- ively as to come off victorious. The sub-family BOVIN& contains s7x genera, the first of which contains our domestic ox. THE OX. There has been considerable dispute concerning the origin of these patient and useful creatures. Ratimeyer asserts that three different wild stocks have given rise to the forty or fifty varieties of domestic oxen. He supposes that the Broad-faced Ox is the progenitor of the Norwegian Mountain-Ox; the Long-faced Ox, of the cattie which existed in Switzer- land during the Stone Age, and which the German naturalist believes were introduced into Britain by the Romans; while the Los primigenzus, or Original Ox, has produced the cattle found on the continent of Europe. GENUS BOS: The Domestic Ox, Bos taurus, has been so modified in form, habits, and dimensions by long intercourse with mankind, that it has developed into many permanent varieties. We regard the genus as containing only one species. We will begin our descriptiou with the European varieties, from which our own domestic cattle are descended, and reserve an account of the Domestic Ox of India for a subsequent chapter (Chap. X XV), in which we speak of the Indian Wild Cattle of the genus Azos. The variety which approaches most nearly to the original species is still preserved ina half-wild state in some parts of England and Scotland. The most celebrated herds are those of Lord Tankerville at Chillingham, and of the Duke of Hamilton at Hamilton Palace. 576 UNGULATA. THE WILD CATTLE. The WILD CATTLE, as they are called, are of moderate size, strongly but not clumsily built; their hair is short and thick, becoming longer and curly on the head and neck, and with a slight indication of a mane as far as the withers. The color is milk-white, with the exception of the muzzle, the ears, the horns, and hoofs. The color of the ears varies according to the breed. The cattle of Chillingham have the interior of the ear red; those of Hamilton have it coal black; the former have brown muzzles, the latter black. Both have black hoofs, and black tips to their horns. These distinctions of color in the two breeds are kept up by a strict process of weeding out all calves that do not conform to the standard. In Hamilton, all calves with brown marks are put to death; in Chillingham, a black muzzle and ear is the creature’s death-warrant. The herds at Gisburne in Yorkshire, and Chartly in Staffordshire, resem- ble the oxen of Chillingham; those that used to be at Drumlanrig and Cumbernauld were of the Hamilton variety. In all cases a superstition prevails that danger threatens the owner’s house and family if a black calf is born in the herd. According to Lord Tankerville, the cattle of Chillingham have all the peculiarities of wild animals. They hide their young, feed by night, and sleep by day. In summer they are seldom seen, preferring at that season the shade of the wood; in winter they come to the places where they are accustomed to be fed, and then a man on horseback can ride almost into the middle of the herd. When they are alarmed or provoked at the intrusion of a strange human being within the limit of their territories, they toss their heads wildly in the air, paw the ground, and steadfastly regard the object of their dislike. If he should make a sudden moye- ment, they scamper away precipitately, gallop round him in a circle, and come to another halt at a shorter distance. This process is continually repeated, the diameter of the circle is shortened at every fresh alarm, till the angry animals come so near the spectator that he is glad to escape as best he can. They are usually shot when they are six years old. The flesh is not different from that of the common ox. The herds are main- tained out of family pride, and the annual expense is heavy. They pre- sent a majestic sight as they gallop between the gray, gnarled trunks of the primeval oaks of the old Caledonian forest. THE AMERICAN WILD CATTLE. unr N N THE CATTLE OF THE PAMPAS. We have already spoken of the herds of horses descended from the domesticated horse which roam over the wide plains of South America. A similar phenomenon is presented in the enormous herds of cattle which are found there. At the discovery of this continent no cattle existed in South America. Columbus imported some on his second voyage into San Domingo, and in 1540 some Spanish bulls and cows were landed in the southern parts of the continent. Circumstances favored their rapid increase, the herds became too large to be always watched, and soon wandered about in perfect liberty. Within a hundred years of their introduction, they were roaming over the Pampas in hun- dreds and thousands, and were hunted by the natives as the Northern Indians hunt the Bison of the Plains. At present the plains on both sides of the River Platte and its tributaries are swarming with cattle. They all have owners. Vast establishments named “ Estancias” are scattered over the Pampas; and thirty thousand cattle, five thousand horses, and twelve thousand sheep are moderate numbers for the animals belonging to one owner. The cattle of each proprietor are branded with his mark, and are looked after by Gauchos, who display incredible courage, patience, and skill in their occupation, collecting the herds when necessary, or catching those that have to be killed or sold. The cattle are drilled, as far as possible, to assemble on the appearance of the herdsman at a certain spot situated at a convenient distance from the corral, and it is no unusual sight to see thirty-five thousand thus assem- bled. The proportion of men employed is very small, when compared with the numbers of the oxen. The usual allowance is four men to every five thousand head; thus an extent of two hundred square miles may have only fifty inhabitants. Those that remain in a half-wild state, are for the most part taken with the lasso, and sold to the drovers in troops of five hundred each. When a five-year-old ox is lassoed by the horns, and he turns out a Tartar, after a few ineffectual shakes of the head to throw off the lasso, he directly darts at the horse, who immediately starts off at full speed, the foaming ox close at his heels, and fast to the saddle with twenty-five yards of lasso. The horse must take all that comes in his way; patches of long grass that reach up the stirrups, the burrows of the viscachas, 73 578 UNGULATA. and every other obstacle. Should the ox give up the chase suddenly, the rider must immediately check the speed of his horse, otherwise the jerk would break the lasso, or what is worse, it would draw the saddle back to the flanks of the horse, or break the girths; in which case the man would be brought to the ground, and be at the mercy of the furious animal, still with the lasso on his horns, but no longer fast to the horse. The troops of oxen when formed, are driven at the rate of nine to twelve miles a day to the Sa/adero or Salting establishment. The hide is the most valuable part of the animal, and the preparation of it is carefully attended to. The workmen lay each hide on the flat of their left hands, scrape off all the beef and fat which may be adhering to the inner coating with a knife in the right hand, trim the edges, and then stretch out the hides by means of stakes driven into the ground, if the skins are to be dried. If they are to be salted, a pile is made of them with layers of salt. Dried hides require much more time and skill than when they are only salted. In the latter case they are packed in casks for exportation; in the former, when shipped, they are tied up in bundles. Hides form the chief export from the River Platte. AFRICAN CATTLE. In Africa, the cattle are not only employed for the yoke, but are also educated for the saddle, and are taught to obey the bit as well as many horses. The bit is of very primitive form, being nothing more than a stick which is passed through the nostrils, and to which the reins are tied. One end of the stick is generally forked to prevent it from falling out of its place, and in guiding the animal, the rider is obliged to draw both reins to the right or left side, lest he should pull out the wooden bit. The saddle oxen are not very swift steeds, their pace being about four or five miles an hour; and as their skin is so loosely placed on their bodies that the saddle sways at every step, their rider has no very agree- able seat. In breaking the Ox for the saddle, the teachers avail them- selves of the aid of two trained oxen, between whom the novice is tied, and who soon teach it the proper lesson of obedience. The horns of this variety of the Ox are of marvellous length, having been known to exceed thirteen feet in total length, and nearly nine feet from tip to tip. The circumference of these enormous horns was more than eighteen inches, measured at their bases. One such horn is capable THE DOMESTIC OX. 579 of containing upwards of twenty imperial pints. These weapons are not only long, but are sharply pointed, and are of so formidable a nature that a lion has been kept at bay during a whole night, not daring to leap upon an animal so well defended. As these horns might prove danger- ous to the rider in case of the animal suddenly jerking its head, or fling- ing him forward by a stumble, the natives are in the habit of trimming them in various fashionable modes, by which the danger is avoided. Their chief employment at the Cape of Good Hope is in drawing the wagons of the Boers or farmers. Ten or twelve yoke are frequently employed to drag a single vehicle over the tracks of the wild country. THE SANGA. The SANGA, which at present is found in all Interior Africa, is remark- able for possessing a hump on the withers. It is a strong, powerfully built animal with long legs and tail. The horns are placed close together at the root, and measure a yard in length. The hair is smooth, fine, and usually of a chestnut color. DOMESTIC CATTLE. It is only in America that the Ox has escaped from the thraldom of man. Elsewhere, it is his most valued possession. In general, high honor is paid to it. The Egyptians worshipped their god Apis in the form of an ox, and their Isis, like the Greek Io, is represented with cow’s horns. According to the traditions of India an Ox keeps the gates of heaven, and the clouds are said to be the cows which Indra drives to their pasture. The nomads of the Soudan possess countless herds which they keep solely for their milk. The whole of South Russia swarms with cattle. in Hungary the herds are so wild that men dare not approach them; and even in Italy, in the Maremma, the cattle are half- wild. A remarkable contrast is presented by the condition of these animals in Switzerland and Holland. The Swiss lives with his cows in a perpetual exchange of reciprocal acts of kindness; they are never ill- treated or beaten. The best of them are adorned with bells, the leading cow—a black one—bearing the largest. If she is deprived of this honor she manifests her disgrace by lowing incessantly, and losing condition, or by attacking her fortunate rival. In Spain the bull is the hero of the 580 UNGULATA. people. The cattle live like wild ones, never entering a stall, or coming under a roof. Not large, but beautiful and powerful, they have pretty long, very sharp, outward-curving horns. They are revengeful, and never forget a blow. As they roam over the hills of Southern Spain, no wolf, no bear dares to assail them, and the prudent traveler keeps out of their way. The most fierce and active of the bulls are reserved for the bull-fights to which the Spanish nation is so passionately addicted. The bloody and brutalizing spectacle has been often described, and we need not repeat it here. There is, at the mouth of the Rhone, stretching from the town of Arles to the Mediterranean, a vast extent of marshy land, intersected by woods. This tract has been formed by successive deposits of the river, and is called the Camargue. Large herds of cattle live in an almost wild state in these humid plains and solitary woods. The bulls of the Camargue are all black, of a moderate size, with long tapering horns. Their wild nature, agility, and exceptional strength render them very dangerous to the traveler who intrudes on their domain. The most ancient documents of historic ages describe the Ox, the Horse, the Dog, and the Sheep, as associated with man. The humble and patient Ox forms the most useful assistant of the small farmer, and also constitutes the main performer of the most important agricultural operations. It helps to till the ground; it drags immense and heavily laden wagons; it takes a part in all the labors of the farm; and after fifteen or sixteen years of a well-spent life, it yields up for the benefit of all of them pro- man its flesh, bones, fat, skin, horns, hoofs, and blood ducts which supply with material a host of useful manufactures. The Ox is neither so dull nor so stupid as is popularly supposed; but, on the contrary, is endowed with a degree of intelligence which, in certain countries, man has developed and turned to his profit; for some of the tribes of South Africa entrust to oxen the care of their flocks, duties which the sagacious Ruminants fulfil with a zeal and intelligence worthy of all praise. Prudence and a quick perception of danger are also qualities possessed by the Ox. U, either by his own fault or that of his guide, he finds himself in a dangerous place, he develops resources for extricating himself quite surprising. When we are considering the advantages which society derives from them, domestic cattle may be looked at in four different aspects: as beasts of burden, that is, producers of mechanical force appiicable to the THE COW. 58y cultivation of the soil; as supplying milk; as furnishing meat; and lastly, as makers of manure or fertilizing matter. Allowing all this, the question arises, is it possible to manage the breeding and rearing of the Ox so as to ensure the maximum result of all these four requirements ? All the agriculturists who have had any experience in breeding cattle give a negative reply to this question. Qualities so different in their nature as muscular vigor, abundance of milk, fitness for fattening, and richness of fertilizing residuum, cannot, they say, be the attribute of one animal, or one breed; in fact, they exclude one another, and one quality can only be encouraged at the expense of the others. A good breed for work can hardly at the same time be a good breed for the butcher. If, therefore, any one quality is to be specially developed, the others must, to some extent, be sacrificed. By this plan perfection may, at all events, be arrived at in one point, while by a different course of procedure nothing but mediocrity can be attained. This is the principle which ought to guide the agriculturist in the choice and breeding of his cattle, whether for the dairy, the market, or the farm. For the butcher it is required to produce, as quickly and as econom- ically as possible, an animal excelling in the quality and quantity of its meat. Such are the short-horned breeds. Next to meat, milk is the most valuable product, as it is not only universally consumed in its natural state, but supplies us with cheese and butter. A French farmer, named Guenon, professes to have discovered a method of determining, by examination of the cow, both the quantity and the quality of its milk. He remarked that in cows the hairs on the hinder face of the udders are turned upward, and added to this, these hairs extend more or less over the region of the perinzeum, so as to form a figure which he describes under the name of an escutcheon. By a multiplicity of observations, he became assured that a cow’s power of giving milk varied in proportion to the size of this escutcheon, and he divided cows into orders and classes accordingly. A commission appointed by the French govern- ment made an investigation, and confirmed his hypothesis that, the longer and wider the escutcheon is, the greater are the milking quali- ties. As far as regards the richness of milk, Guenon considers that it finds its maximum in those cows which have the skin of their udders of a yellowish hue, freckled with black or reddish spots, furnished with fine and scanty hair, and covered with a greasy substance, which becomes detached when it is scratched on the surface. 582 UNGULATA. The breeds of cattle in Great Britain are almost as various as the soils of the different districts. They have, however, been conveniently classed into Middle Horns, Short Horns, Long Horns, and Polled, or Hornless Cattle. The Middle Horns are represented by the Devon, Hereford, and the Ayrshire; the Long Horns, by the Lancashire, as improved by the famous breeder Bakewell of Dishley ; the Short Horns, by the Durham; and the Polled, by the Suffolk and Angus breeds. From one or other of these breeds our domesticated cattle are mainly descended. THE SHORT HORNS. The DuruHAM (Plate XLIV), is the progenitor of the modern Short Horn. The breed had always existed in the North of England, especially on the banks of the Tees, but did not attain general celebrity till Mr. Collings astonished the world by showing its capacity for producing animals for the butcher. Under his care the modern or Improved Short Horn came into general favor in England. The first great importation of Short Horns to America took place in 1834, when a combination of farmers brought some to the Scioto Valley in Ohio. In 1853, Mr. Thorne, of Dutchess County, New York, brought here several of the famous “ Duchess” and ‘ Oxford”’ strains. His example was followed by Mr. Cornell of Ithaca, General Wads- worth of the Genesee Valley, and Mr. Alexander of Kentucky. By their enterprise, America, in 1856, possessed specimens of the stock better than any to be found in England. At various sales in this and other States, enormous prices have been paid for American-bred stock for reshipment to England. As a_ beef-producing animal the Short Horn is unrivalled. It lays on flesh in places where other cattle fail to give it. At the same time the cows, if bred with a view to giving milk, are very valuable, but naturally they become lean during the period in which they are being milked. THE HIGHLAND CATTLE. The ScotcH BuLL (Plate XLIV). These animals are small, usually black in color, with a small head, thin ears, and fine muzzle: the face is broad, the eyes prominent, the countenance placid. The horns taper to a point, are of a waxy color, and widely set at the root. The neck is Vb yA AUGLSINUDE INI SLEW lel MOOD AANHSAO01V MOD WVHYENG T1Ne NIWHVYS 8YO Naz 3711V9 HOLOOS THE ALDERNEY. 583 fine, the breast wide, the shoulders broad, the back straight and flat. The legs are short, straight, and muscular. The whole body is covered with a thick, long coat; thick tufts of hair hang about the face and horns, and that hair is not curly. THE ALDERNEY. The ALDERNEY (Plate XLIV) is a breed of small and very elegant cattle exported from the Islands of Jersey and Alderney, in the English Channel. They are essentially a breed for the pail, not for the butcher. The milk they yield is remarkable for its richness and deep yellow color, as well as for the quantity of cream and butter it supplies. The quantity given is not great, eight to twelve quarts a day being a maximum. The Alderney is exceedingly handsome, the head particularly being indica- tive of blood, and reminding one of the head of the American Elk. It is very gentle and kindly in disposition, loving to be petted. The color is usually light-red, or fawn, occasionally smoky-gray, rarely black. A roan color indicates a cross with the Short Horn. In their native island, the principal food given them is parsnips, and to this diet is attributed the richness of the milk. CHAPTER XAILYV. REL BISONs. THE BONASSUS OR EUROPEAN BISON—CALLED ALSO THE AUROCHS—THE REAL AUROCHS EXTINCT —THE FOREST OF BIALOWICZ—DESCRIPTION OF THE BONASSUS—THE Bl ON OF THE CAU- CASUS—THE AMERICAN BISON OR BUFFALO—ENORMOUS NUMBERS—TERRIBLE DESTRUCTION— ESTIMATE OF NUMBERS KILLED—-THE MOUNTAIN BUFFALO—DEATH OF A BULL. F we are to believe the writings of ancient and medizval naturalists, there were scattered over a great part of Europe two distinct kinds of wild cattle. Pliny speaks of the Bonxassus, which he says was dis- tinguished by its rich mane; and of the Uvws, which was characterized by its huge horns. Both these animals are repeatedly mentioned under the names of “ Bison” and “ Aurochs” by a series of writers down to the year 1669. Brehm considers we are justified in trusting these accounts of the difference between the Aurochs and the Bison. The former is now extinct. A painting of the first quarter of the sixteenth century represents it as a rough-coated, maneless animal with a large head, thick neck, thin dewlap, and long horns turned out forward and upward. The coat of the creature was black. GENUS BISON. This genus comprises f¢7vo species, one found in small numbers in Europe, the other abounding on the prairies of North America. Its generic characteristics are small round horns directed upward and for- ward, a broad convex forehead, soft long hair, and a large number of ribs. The European variety has fourteen, the American fifteen pairs of ribs. THE BONASSUS. The Bonassus, Bison bonassus, is often called the Aurochs, more rarely the Zubr. It is found only in the Russian province of Grodno, where it is preserved by stringent laws in the forest of Bialowicz, a genuine THE BONASSUS. 585 northern forest about ten miles long by seven broad. No one, except foresters and game-keepers, dwell within its limits. The trees are of enormous age, great height and size; the whole wood, indeed, looks to-day as it looked thousands of years ago. Here this, the largest of European mammals, lives undisturbed. In 1857, the number of Bisons in Bialowicz was estimated at eighteen hundred and ninety, but in 1863 an official count was made which reduced these figures to eight hundred and sixty-four. The Bison or Bonassus has, perhaps, diminished in size during the lapse of centuries, but it is still a powerful beast. It stands six feet high, is eleven feet long, and weighs from thirteen hundred to seventeen hundred pounds. The head is large and well-formed, the forehead high and broad, the muzzle broad, the ear short and rounded, the eye rather small than iarge, the neck very powerful. The body is, in the fore-quar- ters, strongly developed, but slopes to the rump: the tail is thick and short; the legs powerful but not short, the hoofs are rather long, and the false hoofs small. The horns are placed on the sides of the head, first curve outward, then backward, so that the points are over the roots. A thick, rich covering of long, curly hairs and felt-like wool is spread over the whole body, but lengthens on the back of the head into a mane which falls over the brow, and hangs over the temples, while 1t forms on the chin a long beard, which extends over the whole throat down to the chest. The usual color is light brown, but the beard is dark brown, and the tuft on the tail is black. The cows are noticeably smaller than the bulls, with weaker horns, and less mane. In summer and autumn the Bisons live in the moister parts of the forest of Bialowicz, but in winter choose drier and higher quarters. The old males live solitary, the younger cattle forming herds of fifteen or twenty in summer, and thirty or fifty in the winter. Each herd ranges in its own limits, and returns to the same spot. The Bonassus feeds chiefly in the mornings and evenings; grass, leaves, buds, and bark constitute its nourishment; they peel the trees as far as they can reach, and bend down the younger ones in order to get at the crown. The movements of the animal are lively enough. They walk quickly, their run is a heavy but effective gallop, during which the head is lowered, and the tail raised. They wade and swim easily. Their disposition varies with their age. The younger ones are good-natured, the older ones irritable and malicious. In general they leave men alone, but the slightest dis- 74 586 UNGULATA. turbance can excite their anger and render them terrible. The angry Bonassus puts out his dark-red tongue, rolls his red eyes, and dashes with fury at the object of his wrath. An old bull ruled for a long time over the road running through the forest of Bialowicz, and did much mischief. He stopped carriages, or sleighs, especially those laden with hay. If the peasants threatened him, he charged and threw the sleigh over. Horses were terrified at the sight of him, and seemed to lose their senses. The Bonassus and the domestic ox similarly display a mutual repugnance, and even the calves.which are brought up by tame cows exhibit no change in this respect. It has been disputed whether the Bonassus occurs in the Caucasus. The balance of evidence seems to indicate that they are found in Abkasia trom the Kuban to the source of the Psib. At a dinner given to General Rosen by a Caucasian chief, sixty silver-mounted bonassus-horns served as drinking-cups. Hunters have shot them on the Great Selentshuga, and say that they extend upward to the snow line. THE BISON. The AMERICAN BISON, Bison Americanus (Plate XLV), is usually called the Buffalo. ‘As Buffalo, he is known everywhere,” writes General Dodge, “as Buffalo he lives, as Buffalo he dies, and when, as will soon happen, his race has vanished from earth, as Buffalo he will live in story and tradition.” It is a giant among our mammals; its bulk, shaggy mane, vicious eye and sullen behavior give it a ferocious appearance, but it really is a mild, inoffensive beast, unwieldy, sluggish, and stupid. A few years ago, the numbers of these animals was past all counting. General Dodge, in 1871, drove from Fort Zara to Fort Larned, a distance of thirty-four miles. At least twenty-five miles of this distance was through an immense herd of buffalo. ‘“ The whole country appeared one mass of buffalo; but the apparently solid mass was really an agglomeration of innumerable small herds of from fifty to two hundred animals. When I had reached a point where the hills were only a mile from the road, the buffalo on the hills started at full speed directly toward me, stampeding and bringing with them the numberless herds through which they passed, pouring down upon me in one im- mense compact mass of plunging animals, mad with fright, and irresist- THE BUFFALO OF THE PLAINS. ible as an avalanche. When they arrived within fifty yards, a few well- directed shots split the herd, and sent them left and right in two streams.” In like manner, whole herds would charge the trains on the Atchison and Santa Fé railroad, and often threw the cars from the track. This senseless obstinacy characterizes the animal even when it encoun- ters natural obstacles. , - , yan 7 +e - : Le . . _ : ’ a : = pie 7 ’ 7 ; : 7 : - a ? yy : : oe : 7 . = i - Z met v) ale fl a 7 - —- a a i : ss au = 5 —= i ia _ 7" © a. wae - : 1, ies Shun last : <7 a paenan Nah 7 ee Ps as ' : _ 7 «4 otis eee . 7 7 7 - 7 4 sy * 6 . e i o - oY _ : a Vw a & 7 - a : ; ; *, “4 if, . ie - : a 4 = ' n ra a a : 7 i a 7 “a _ ait : ae : 5 ie 7 _ o « 7 - ; , | adh os we _ ee : *) - ifs - 7 = ol 7 > @ ¥ — =v tz : oot 7 ' _ _ 4 r 7 5s : _ _ - : ‘ - 7 7 : >» a : : : ; J ra ¥ a0 : ; - ee wc! ae ‘oe oad 7 7 7 - - - 7 - Ls on a - : - ‘ : 7 - L. 4 - a 7 ,™ : a _ , a : a a 7 : ; 7 - : 7 ae - q ; i 3 7 f : 7 < a - = 7 7 7 - : 7 a _e ; ' ; ee = i ie T ee ; es ; — = iV eae Y | ; - > - ” Se : 4 a 7 ; a 7 -_ _ 7 7 = s —_ a se —_ a / 7 : So ae — ie 4“ . , ——— - ~ = vy - ¢ 7 _ - - , } : a a ; > , 7 7 _ 7 \ r —— = ~ ; ™ 7 a . @ ; i 7 7. 7 _ , qe 7 ; ae _ ' , bh @ - 4 i : - aie -_ —s = , ¢ , : ; 7 ® : : - 7 2 _ ae 7 fl 2. | re | - ) S > t oes 9 - 7 : Pm, » a q : : : ; % > » Cie : a) ~ - . — = . a — = : . er 7 —— on 7 — 2 da a : = 7 0 a 7 % -—is 4 a 7 7 4 ; - : 7 2 : ‘om - 7 . i it / » 7 yet : « 7 - 7 : : : ; = - 7 7 a THE MOUNTAIN BUFFALO. 589 buffaloes. Add to this 1,215,000 killed by Indians, and we have the number of nearly four and a half millions. ‘ Nor is this all,” he adds. “No account has been taken of the immense numbers killed by hunters who took the skins away in wagons, nor of the numbers sent to St. Louis, Memphis, and elsewhere by other railroads than the Santa Fé and To- peka line. No wonder that men fear that the Buffalo will soon cease to exist. Congress has talked of interfering, but only talked. But in fact, the extinction of the Buffalo is inevitable. Civilization cannot spare room for its ranges. When industry and skill have turned the rich prairies into smiling fields and rich pastures, the Bison will be confined to small reservations, or seen only as curiosities in the Zoological Gardens.” The government of the United States has shown a laudable desire to preserve the curiosities of our country. It has rescued from destruction the giant trees of California, and saved from utter annihilation the Sea Lions of Santa Barbara. We need not fear that a nation which has set apart the whole Yellowstone Valley as a National Park, will ever refuse to give to the remnants of our buffaloes—when the day comes that their wild freedom is incompatible with the progress of civilization—a district compared with which the Russian forest which shelters its European congener will appear narrow and confined. THE MOUNTAIN BUFFALO. In the so-called Parks of the Rocky Mountains, there is found an animal which old frontiersmen call by the name of Bison. It is to the Buffalo of the plains what a mountain pony is to a well-built horse. It is admirably adapted for its dwelling-place. Its body is lighter, and its legs shorter, thicker, and stronger than those of the Buffalo. It is rare and very shy, seeking out the most retired glens and passes, and scram- bling with wonderful agility over the craggy sides of almost inaccessible mountains. General Dodge writes: “The deep gorges which intersect the moun- tains that join the Parks are the favorite haunt of the Mountain Buffalo. Early in the morning he enjoys a bountiful breakfast of the rich nutri- tious grasses, quenches his thirst with the finest water, and, retiring just within the line of jungle whence, himself unseen, he can scan the open, he reposes in comfort till appetite calls him to dinner late in the evening. He does not, like the buffalo, stare stupidly at the intruder. At the first 590 UNGULATA. symptom of danger they disappear like magic in the thicket, and never stop until far removed from even the apprehension of pursuit.” Old mountaineers give marvellous accounts of the number of these animals “ many years ago,” and ascribe their present rarity to the great snow-storm of 1844, which wrought such havoc with the buffaloes of the plains. The shyness of the Bison renders it difficult to shoot. Two, however, were killed in one afternoon in the Tangall range of mountains between Pike’s Peak and the South Park. The following story from the pages of General Dodge will give a good idea of the haunts and habits of this animal : “One of my friends determined on the possession of a bison’s head, and, hiring a guide, plunged into the mountain wilds that separate the Middle from the South Park. After several days, fresh tracks were dis- covered. The sportsmen started on foot on the trail; for all that day they toiled and scrambled with the utmost caution, now up, now down, through deep and narrow gorges and pine thickets, over bare and rocky crags. Next morning they pushed on, and when both were well-mgh disheartened, their route was intercepted by a precipice. Looking over, they descried on a projecting ledge several hundred feet below, a herd of twenty bison lying down. The ledge was about two hundred feet at widest, about one thousand feet long. Its inner boundary was the wall of rock on the top of which they stood; its outer seemed to be a sheer precipice of at least two hundred feet. This ledge was connected with the slope of the mountain by a narrow neck. My friend selected a mag- nificent head, that of a fine bull, young but full grown, and both fired. At the report, the bisons all ran to the far end of the ledge and plunged over. The precipice was so steep that the hunters could not follow them. At the foot lay a bison. A long, fatiguing detour brought them to the spot, and my friend recognized his bull—his first and last Moun- tain Buffalo. The remainder of the herd were never seen after the grand plunge, down which it is doubtful if even a dog could have followed without risk of life or limb.” CECACP ER 2OGNG EVAsoy tert Ni) CAT 1B: THE DOMESTIC CATTLE OF INDIA—THE ZEBU—THE WILD CATTLE OF INDIA—GENUS BIBOS—THE GAYAL—THE GAUR—THE BANTENG—GENUS POEPHAGOS—THE YAK—THE PLOUGH YAK— HUNTING THE YAK—GENUS ANOA—THE CHAMOIS-BUFFALO OF CELEBES—ITS FIERCENESS. S this chapter is devoted to Indian Cattle, we have included in it the Domestic Cattle of Hindostan, although they belong to the genus os, and ought properly to be treated of in Chapter XXIII. THE ZEBU. The Domestic Cattle of India is commonly known by the name of Zebu, and is, like the Sanga, conspicuous for the curious fatty hump which projects from the withers. These animals are further remarkable for the heavy dewlap which falls in thick folds from the throat, and which gives to the fore part of the animal a very characteristic aspect. The limbs are slender, and the back, after rising toward the haunches, falls suddenly at the tail. The ears are long and drooping, the horns very short, the color of the coat is various, but usually a reddish-brown, or dun. The Zebu is a quiet and intelligent animal, and is capable of being trained in various modes for the service of mankind. It is a good draught animal, and is harnessed either to carriages or ploughs, which it can draw with great steadiness, though with but little speed. Some- times it is used for riding, and is possessed of considerable endurance, being capable of carrying a rider for fifteen hours in a day, at an average rate of five or six miles per hour. The Nagore breed is specially cele- brated for its capabilities as a steed, and is remarkable for its peculiarly excellent action. These animals are very active, and have been known to leap over a fence which was higher than our five-barred gates, merely for the purpose of drinking at a certain well, and, having slaked their 592 UNGULATA. thirst, to leap back again into their own pasture. Asa beast of burden, the Zebu is in equally great request, for it can carry a heavy load for a very great distance. The Zebu race has a very wide range of locality, being found in India, China, Madagascar, and the eastern coast of Africa. It is believed, however, that its native land is India, and that it must have been 1m- ported from thence into the other countries. There are various breeds of Zebu, some being about the size of our ordinary cattle, and others varying in dimensions from a large ox to a small Newfoundland dog. The well-known BRAHMIN BULL (Plate XLIV), is the most familiar of these varieties. It is so called, because it is considered to be sacred to Brahma. The more religious among the Hindoos, scrupulously observant of the letter of a law which was intended to be universal in its application, but to which they give only a partial interpretation, indulge this animal in the most absurd manner. They place the sacred mark of Siva on its body, and permit it to wander about at its own sweet will, pampered by every luxury, and never opposed in any wish or caprice which it may form. A Brahmin Bull will walk along the street with a quaintly digni- fied air, inspect anything and anybody that may excite his curiosity, force every one to make way for himself, and if he should happen to take a fancy to the contents of a fruiterer’s or greengrocer’s shop, will delib- erately make his choice, and satisfy his wishes, none daring to cross him. The indulgence which is extended to this animal is carried to so great a height, that if a Brahmin Bull chooses to lie down in a narrow lane, no one can pass until he gets up of his own accord. Bishop Heber, in his well-known journal, mentions the Bralimin Bulls, and the unceremonious manner in which they conduct them- selyes, and remarks that they are sometimes rather mischievous as well as annoying, being apt to use their horns if their caprices be not immediately gratified. THE WILD CATTLE OF INDIA. The Wild Cattle ranging the woods and jungles of a great part of the Oriental region from Southern India to Assam, Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Java form the third genus of the sub-family Bovin&, and are divided into ¢#rce species. THE GAYAL. 593 GENUS BIBOS: The GayAL, Bibos frontalis, was first scientifically described by Lam- bert in 1802, from a specimen which was sent alive to England. These animals are often tamed by the Hindoos and used as domestic cattle, or for improving the breed of the latter. They are large, powerful animals, standing five feet high, and measuring nearly eleven feet, including two feet and a half of tail. No animal better deserves its specific title, fron- talis or “ broad-browed.” The unparalleled breadth of the forehead at once strikes the eye. Its body is well proportioned, compact, and pow- erful; the whole appearance gives an impression of strength and beauty. The head, with its thick muzzle, forms almost a truncated pyramid, the base of which would pass through the roots of the horns and the angles of the under jaw. But the base is not a regular square; the side be- tween the horns is much longer than the others. The breadth of the forehead is about two-fifths of the length of the head. The horns are very thick, and curve slightly outward and backward. The eyes are small, and placed deep in their sockets; the ears are upright, and large, and pointed. MUSK OX YAK if iteedey PING UAW CICA is EV Rexee Vali: THE, BUPFALOES: THE GENUS BUBALUS—THE CAPE BUFFALO—DRAYSON’S ACCOUNT—BUFFALO SHOOTING—THE INDIAN BUFFALO—BUFFALO AND TIGER FIGHTS—WILLIAMSON’S ACCOUNT—THE KERABAU—THE DOMES: TICATED BUFFALO—ITS HABITS—ITS USES. HE Buffaloes are heavily built animals with a clumsy figure, short, powerful, and thick legs, a short neck, a broad convex forehead, a large bare muzzle, dull malicious-looking eyes, large, broad, hairy ears, and a rather long tufted tail. GENUS BUBALUS. Of the five species into which the Buffaloes are divided, three are African, ranging over all the continental parts of the Ethiopian region ; one is Indian; one is domesticated in South Europe and North Africa. The animal is subject to considerable modifications in external aspect, according to the climate, or the particular locality in which it resides; and has, in consequence, been mentioned under very different means. In all cases, the wild animals are larger and more powerful than the domesticated ones, and in many instances the slightly different shape, and greater or lesser length of the horns, or the skin denuded of hairs have been considered as sufficient evidence of separate species. THE CAPE BUFFALO. The Care BuFFALO, Bubalus Caffer (Plate XLVI) is formidable for its strength, and terrible in aspect. The heavy bases of the horns, that nearly unite over +he forehead, and under which the little fierce eyes twinkie with sullen rays, give to the creature’s countenance an appear- 600 UNGULATA. ance of morose, lowering ill-temper, which is in perfect accordance with its real character. Owing to the enormous heavy mass which is situated on the fore- head, the Cape Buffalo does not see very well in a straight line, so that a man may sometimes cross the track of a buffalo within a hundred yards, and not be seen by the animal, provided that he walks quietly, and does not attract attention by the sound of his footsteps. This animal is ever a dangerous neighbor, but when it leads a solitary life among the thickets and marshy places, it is a worse antagonist to a casual passen- ger than even the lion himself. In such a case, it has an unpleasant habit of remaining quietiy in its lair until the unsuspecting traveler passes closely to its place of concealment, and then leaping suddenly upon him like some terrible monster of the waters, dripping with mud, and filled with rage. When it has succeeded in its attack, it first tosses the unhappy victim in the air, then kneels upon his body, in order to crush the life out of him, then butts at the dead corpse until it has given vent to its insane fury, and ends by licking the mangled limbs until it strips off the flesh with its rough tongue. Many such tragical incidents have occurred, chiefly, it must be acknowledged, owing to the imprudence of the sufferer; and there are few coverts in Southern Africa which are not celebrated for some such terrible incident. Sometimes the animal is so recklessly furious in its unreasoning anger, that it absolutely blinds itself by its heedless rush through the formidable thorn-bushes which are so common in Southern Africa. Even when in company with others of their own species, they are liable to sudden bursts of emotion, and will rush blindly forward, heedless of everything but the impulse that drives them forward. In one instance, the leader of the herd being wounded, dropped on his knees, and was instantly crushed by the trampling hoofs of his comrades, as they rushed over the prostrate body of their chief. The flesh of the Cape Buffalo is not in great request even among the Kafhrs, who are in no wise particular in their diet. The hide, how- ever, is exceedingly valuable, being used for the manufacture of sundry leathern impiements where great strength is required without much flexibility. The Cape Buffalo is little larger than an ordinary ox. The strangely shaped horns are black in color, and so large that the distance between their points is not unfrequently four to five feet. They are very wide at THE CAPE BUFFALO. 601 the base, and form a kind of bony helmet which is impenetrable by an ordinary musket-ball. Captain Drayson gives the following description of the animal: “The hide of this animal is a bluish-black in color, and is so very tough that bullets will scarcely penetrate it if they are fired from a dis- tance, or are not hardened by an addition of tin in the proportion of one to eight. It is of a fierce, vindictive disposition, and from its cunning habits is esteemed one of the most dangerous animals in Southern Africa. The Cape Buffaio is naturally a gregarious animal, but at certain seasons of the year the males fight for the mastery ; a clique of young bulls fre- quently turn out an old gentleman, who then seeks the most gloomy and retired localities in which to brood over his disappointments. These solitary skulkers are the most dangerous of their species; and although it is the nature of all animals to fly from man, unless they are badly wounded, or are intruded upon at unseasonable hours, these old hermits will scarcely wait for such excuses, but will willingly meet the hunter halfway and try conclusions with him. “ Although frequently found in large herds on the plains, the buffalo 1s principally a resident in the bush; here he follows the paths of the ele- phant or rhinoceros, or makes a road for himself. During the evening, night, and early morning, he roams about the open country and gorges; but when the sun has risen high, or if he has cause for alarm, the glens and coverts are sought, and amidst their shady branches he enjoys repose and obtains concealment. The ‘spoor’ of the buffalo is like that of the common ox, the toes of the old bulls being very wide apart, while those of the young ones are close together; the cow buffalo’s footprints are longer and thinner than the bull’s, and smaller. As these animals wander in the open ground during the night, and retreat to their glens during the day, their spoor may be taken up from the outside of the bush, and followed until the scent leads to the view. When the hunter comes near to his game, of which he should be able to judge by the freshness of the footprints, he should wait and listen for some noise by which to discover their position. Buffaloes frequently twist and turn about in the bush, and do so more especially just before they rest for the day. “T knew a Kaffir who carried about him the marks of a buffalo’s power and cunning. He was hunting buffaloes one day in the bush, and came upon a solitary buli, which he wounded; the bull bounded off, but the 76 602 UNGULATA. Kaffir, thinking him badly hurt, followed after at a run, without taking sufficient precautions in his advance. Now, dangerous as is a buffalo when untouched, he is still more to be dreaded when hard hit, and should therefore be followed with the utmost caution. The Kafhr had hurried on through the bush for a hundred yards or so, and was looking for the spoor, when he heard a crash close to him, and before he could move himself, he was sent flying in the air by the charge of the buffalo. He fell into some branches and was thus safe, for the buffalo was not satis- fied with this performance, but wished to finish the work which he had so ably begun. After examining the safe position of his victim, he re- treated. The Kafhr, who had two or three ribs broken, reached his home with difficulty, and gave up buffalo-shooting from that day. It appeared that this cunning animal had retraced its steps after retreat- ing, and had then backed into a bush, and waited for the Kaffir to pass. “ A great sportsman at Natal, named Kirkman, told me that he was shooting buffaloes when he was across the Sugela river on one occasion, and having wounded a bull, he was giving him his quietus, when the creature sent forth a sort of moan. Now the buffalo always dies game, and rarely makes any other noise when hard hit. This moan was prob- ably a signal; and as such it was translated by the herd to which this animal belonged, as they suddenly stopped in their retreat, and came to the rescue. Kirkman dropped his gun and took to some trees, where he was in safety. Fortunate it was for him that timber happened to be near, as the savage herd really meant mischief, and came round his tree in numbers. When they found that he was safe from their rage, they retreated.” The other African species differ but slightly from the Cape species, the specific distinction being in the shape of the horns. THE INDIAN BUFFALO. According to Brehm, the Indian Buffalo ought to be regarded as the ancestor of the domesticated species which is found in Italy and Egypt. He considers that we are not yet in a position to define the species very accurately, and regards the “Arni” and the “ Bain” as, at most, varieties of the Wild Buffalo which is dispersed through the greater part of India, Ceylon, and South-eastern Asia. THE INDIAN BUFFALO. 603 The INDIAN BUFFALO, Audbalus buffelus, measures in length nine to ten feet, including the tail, and stands nearly five feet high. The head is short and broad, the neck thick, with folds in front, but without a dew- lap, the body full and round, and raised at the chine, the tail pretty short, and the legs have long broad hoofs, capable of being widely outspread. The eye has a wild defiant look, the horizontal ear is long and broad. The long, strong, smooth horns, thick and broad at the roots, have a triangular section; they rise close together, and at first curve outward and downward, then backward and upward, and finally turn inward and forward. The sparse, stiff, bristle-like hair is rather longer on the fore- head and shoulders, while the hind-quarters, breast, belly, and most part of the leg are bare. Thus the color of the dark-gray or black hide is more prominent than that of bluish, brown, or reddish hair. White and piebald specimens are rare. This animal frequents wet and marshy localities, being sometimes called the Water Buffalo on account of its aquatic predilections. It is a most fierce and dangerous animal, savage to a marvellous degree, and not hesitating to charge any animal that may.arouse its ready ire. An angry buffalo has been known to attack a tolerably-sized elephant, and by a vigorous charge in the ribs to prostrate its huge foe. Even the tiger is found to quail before the buffalo, and displays the greatest uneasiness in its presence. The buffalo, indeed, seems to be animated by a rancorous hatred toward the tiger, and if it should come inadvertently on one of the brin- dled objects of its hate, will at once rush forward to the attack. Taking advantage of this peculiarity, the native princes are in the habit of amusing themselves with combats between tigers and trained buffaloes. The arena is always prepared by the erection of a lofty and strongly- built palisade, composed of bamboos set perpendicularly, and bound together upon the outside. The object of this contrivance is, that, the surface of the bamboo being hard and slippery, the tiger’s claws may find no hold in case of an attempted escape. The tiger is first turned into the arena, and generally slinks round its circumference, seeking for a mode of escape, and ever and anon looking up to the spectators, who are placed in galleries that overlook the scene of combat. When the tiger has crept to a safe distance from the door, the buffalo is admitted. On perceiving the scent of the tiger, it imme- diately becomes excited, its hairs bristle up, its eyes begin to flash, and 604 UNGULATA. it seeks on every side for the foe. As soon as it catches a glance of its enemy it lowers its head toward the ground, so that the tips of its horns are only a few inches above the earth. and its nose lies between its fore- legs, and then it plunges forward at the shrinking tiger. Were the latter to dare the brunt of the buffalo’s charge, the first attack would probably be the last; but, as the tiger is continually shifting its position, the force of the onset is greatly weakened. Usually the buffalo is victorious, for the tiger, even if successful in the first onset, does not foilow up his advantage, and allows his adversary to recover his breath. The buffalo, on the other hand, delivers charge after charge, never giving the tiger time to rest. At last the wearied feline is off his guard, and with a grand rush the buffalo impales him on his horns, and hurls him into the air to fall crushed and lifeless to the earth. Captain Williamson, in his work on “ Oriental Field Sports,” de- scribes the Buffalo, and its mud-loving propensities: “This anima! not only delights in the water, but will not thrive un- less it have a swamp to wallow in. Then rolling themselves, they speedily work deep holiows, wherein they lhe immersed. No place seems to delight the Buffalo more than the deep verdure on the confines of jee/s and marshes, especially if surrounded by tall grass, so as to afford concealment and shade, while the body is covered by the water. In such situations they seem to enjoy a perfect ecstasy, having in general nothing above the surface but their eyes and nostrils, their horns being kept low down, and consequently hidden from view. “Frequently nothing is perceptible but a few black lumps in the water, appearing like small clods, for the buffaloes being often fast asleep, all is quiet; and a passenger would hardly expect to see, as often happens, twenty or thirty great beasts suddenly rise. I have a thousand times been unexpectedly surprised in this manner by tame buffaloes, and once or twice by wild ones. The latter are very danger- ous, and the former are by no means to be considered as innocent. The banks of the Ganges abound with buffaloes in their wild state, as does all the country where long grass and capacious jee/s are to be found. Buffaloes swim very well, or, | may say, float. It is very common to see droves crossing the Ganges and other great rivers at all seasons, but especially when the waters are low. At a distance one would take them to be large pieces of rock or dark-colored wood, nothing appearing but their faces. It is no unusual thing for a boat to get into the thick of THE DOMESTICATED BUFFALO. 605 them, especially among reedy waters, or at the edges of jungles, before it is perceived. In this no danger exists; the buffaloes are perfectly passive, and easily avoid being run down, so the vessel runs no danger.” The KERABAU is a variety of buffalo found in Ceylon, Borneo, Suma- tra, Java, and the Philippine Islands. Its horns attain a monstrous size, the body is nearly devoid of hair, but a tuft springs out between the horns. The Kerabaus that are found wild are not to be considered as wild cattle; properly speaking, they are domesticated cattle that have run wild. They are, however, dangerous to meet, especially for Euro- pean travelers. Even the tame ones, which are docile enough to a native, evidently dislike a European. THE DOMESTICATED BUFFALO. The BUFFALO, Bubalus vulgaris, is found in Egypt and in Italy. It was introduced into the former country by the Mohammedan con- querors, and first appeared in the latter in the reign of the Lombard prince, Agilulf. It prefers warm and marshy districts; it thrives in the Delta of the Nile, in the poisonous Campagna of Rome, in the marsh lands of Apulia and Calabria, and in the Maremma of Tuscany. In the Italian fens it is the only representative ot the family, as all others quickly perish; in Lower Egypt it is the domestic animal from which milk and butter is procured. Every Egyptian village has a pond for it to wailow in. It is less often seen in the fields than in water, where it lies or stands with only its head and part of the back visible. The period of inundation, when the Nile overflows, is to the Buffalo a time of enjoy- ment. It swims from olace to place, cropping the grass on the dykes, and eating the long reed-grasses; large herds of them are seen playing with each other in the water; and they return home only when the cows want to be milked. It is a pretty sight to see a herd of these creatures crossing the swollen stream, and bearing on their backs women and children. The swimming powers of the Buffalo are wonderful. They act as if water were their natural element; they sport together, dive, roll, and drift at pleasure. They pass at least eight hours a day in the water, and become unruly and disquieted if they cannot reach it. if long deprived of it, they gallop furiously as soon as a stream or swamp comes in sight, in order to plunge into it. Many accidents result, for the animals drag into the flood the wagons to which they are yoked. The 606 UNGULATA. Buffalo is more awkward on land. Its gait is clumsy, and its gallop very heavy and labored. The first aspect of these buffaloes, as the traveler sees them on the desolate Roman marshes, is calculated to cause alarm. Their look is defiant and savage, their eyes are full of deceit and viciousness. But in Egypt they are good-tempered, and can be managed by a child. Com- plete indifference to everything except water and fodder is their leading characteristic. They draw the plow or the wagon, they can be led or driven, they will bear a rider or a load. They are easily satisfied, select- ing the driest, hardest, most tasteless plants, and this provender suits them, for they give rich, good milk, from which excellent butter is made. The Buffalo, having the swine-like propensity for rolling in the mud, is often very dirty. Very orthodox Mussulmans suspect it of being too near akin to the unclean pig, and, as it charges furiously at the red stand- ard of Mohammed, the Turks consider it an accursed creature. The Egyptians, looking to its usefulness, piously believe that the Almighty will pardon its acts of impiety. The Buffalo seldom bellows, but the cow lows to call up her calf; the sound is an unpleasant one, midway between a grunt and a bellow. The flesh of the Buffalo is tough, and is disagreeable to Europeans on account of its musky odor. The hide supplies thick strong leather, and the horns are fashioned into cups. CREASE NER! XX VET: Wish, AUN LOISaSy THE ANTELOPES—THE ELAND—THE KOODOO—THE BOSCH-BOK—THE NYLGHAU—THE PASSAN- -THE BEISA—THE SABRE ANTELOPE—THE ADDAX—THE SABLE ANTELOPE—THE BLAU-BOK, HE eleven sub-families of Hollow-horned Ruminants which we are about to describe in this and the subsequent chapter, are often grouped together as An/tzilopine, and called Antelopes. But the number of Antelopes is so great, and the differences in their form so immense, that a further subdivision is necessary. Some of the Antelopes are as clumsy as cows, others as agile as the roe, some approach the horse in appearance, others the musk-deer, already mentioned. The horns present nearly every form; they are curved, forward, backward, downward, upward, they rise straight, or sweep gracefully aloft like a lyre; they are round, or angular, or, as in one species, forked. The anatomy of them all is very like that of the deer. With one exception, the Prong-horn, they are all denizens of the Eastern Hemisphere, and are especially abundant in Africa. The first sub-family, TRAGELAPHIN&, represents to a certain extent the connecting link with the Ox-tribe. The body of the animals con. tained in it are heavy, thick, and strong, the neck short, the head large, the tail like an ox-tail; the neck has a dewlap, the horns are common to both sexes, and are formed like a screw. The sub-family contains ¢/rce genera. GENUS OREAS. The ELAND, Oreas canna (Plate XLVII), of which ¢wo species are known, is the largest of all the African Antelopes, and attains the dimen. sions of a large ox; it stands six feet high, and is stout in proportion. Its color varies with age, but usually is a pale grayish-brown. The 608 UNGULATA. horns are straight, and spirally twisted. The old males have a strong musky odor. Their food consists of the fragrant herbs which cover the plains. They require very little water, living without it for months, even when the herbage is so dry that 1t crumbles in the hand. The heavy build of the Eland renders it an easy prey to the hunter, who can run it down bya steady pursuit. A heavy Eland will weigh over a thousand pounds; the fat around the heart alone weighs fifty pounds. The flesh is cut off as soon as the animal is killed, dried, or salted, then packed in skins for future consumption. The fat is made into candles, and the hide cut up into thongs. The flesh is like beef, but has an unpleasant taste when fresh, which it loses when smoked. The «Bil tongues” are eaten raw, and are a great delicacy. They consist of the tongue cut out its whole length, slightly smoked, and sliced very fine. The Eland has a wide range. It is abundant near the Cape of Good Hope, and is not uncommon on the White Nile. Its favorite haunts are the grassy plains, where clumps of mimosas rise up like islands in a sea. It is occasionally, however, found in mountainous districts. The herds usually consist of eight or ten animals, and at a distance may be mistaken for cows grazing. Some walk slowly about, others bask in the sun, others lie chewing the cud in the shadow of the mimosa-shrubs. In going to pasture they follow in close order the guidance of an old male, and trot at a good pace. Elands have been brought to Europe, where they have propagated, and many of them may be seen in the parks of wealthy land-owners. They are, however, such large feeders, that the expense of keeping them destroys all hope of profit. A species called the STRIPED ELAND has been shot in Southern Africa, Except in the color, it resembles perfectly the common Eland. GENUS TRAGELAPHUS. The animals comprised in this genus are classed in efg/t genera. They are of graceful form, and attain the size of the Roe Deer. The head is slender, the eyes large, the ear large and broad. Only the males have horns, which are slightly spiral, and set in a line with the face. The hair is thick, and forms a ridge along the spine. The hide is dap- pled, and curiously marked in the different species. KOODOO GNOO om HORNED HORSE ELAND PLATE XLVII UNGULAIA THE KOODOO. 609 The Koopoo, 7ragelaphus kudu (Plate XLVII), is not much inferior to the elk in size, and is of a very imposing appearance. It is widely dispersed over Africa, where it frequents the thorny scrub-forests of the interior of the continent. This truly magnificent creature is about four feet in height at the shoulder, and its body is rather heavily made, so that it is really a large animal. The curiously twisted horns are nearly three feet in length, and are furnished with a strong ridge or keel, which extends throughout their entire length. It is not so swift or enduring as the Bless-bok, and can be run down without difficulty, provided that the hunter be mounted on a good horse, and the ground be tolerably fair and open. Its leaping powers are very great, for one of these animals has been known to leap to a height of nearly ten feet without the advantage of a run. The Bushmen have a curious way of hunting the Koodoo, which is generally successful in the end, although the chase of a single animal will sometimes occupy an entire day. A large number of men start on the “spoor,” or track, one taking the lead and the others following leisurely. As the leading man becomes fatigued he drops into the rear, yielding his place to another, who takes up the running until he too is tired. A number of women bearing ostrich egg-shells filled with water accompany the hunters, so that they are not forced to give up the chase through thirst. As the chase continues, the Koodoo begins to be worn out with continual running, and lies down to rest, thereby affording a great advantage to its pursuers, who soon come within sight, and force it to rise and continue the hopeless race. At last it sinks wearied to the earth, and falls an unresisting prey to its foes. The flesh of the Koodoo is remarkably good, and the marrow of the principal bones is thought to be one of Africa's best luxuries. So fond are the natives of this dainty, that they will break the bones and suck out the marrow without even cooking it in any way whatever. The skin of this animal is extremely valuable, and for some purposes is almost price- less. There is no skin that will make nearly so good a “ fore-slock,” or whip-lash, as that of the Koodoo; for its thin, tough substance is abso- lutely required for such a purpose. Shoes, thongs, certain parts of harness, and other similar objects are manufactured from the Koodoo’s skin, which, when properly prepared, is worth a sovereign or thirty shillings, say five or six dollars, even in its own land. The Koodoo is very retiring in disposition, and is seldom seen except 77 610 UNGULATA. by those who come to look for it. It lives in little herds or families of five or six in number, but it is not uncommon to find a solitary hermit here and there, probably an animal which has been expelled from some family, and is awaiting the time for setting up a family of his own. As it is in the habit of frequenting brushwood, the heavy spiral horns would appear to be great hindrances to their owner’s progress. Such is not, however, the case, for when the Koodoo runs, it lays its horns upon its back, and is thus enabled to thread the tangled bush without difficulty. Some writers say that the old males wil! sometimes establish a bachelor’s club, and live harmoniously together, without admitting any of the oppo- site sex into their society. It is a most wary animal, and is greatly indebted to its sensitive ears for giving it notice of the approach of a foe. The large, mobile ears are continually in movement, and serve as admirable conductors and con- densers of sound. From the conduct of a young Koodoo that was cap- tured by Mr. Anderson, and reared by him, the disposition of the animal appears to be gentle, playful, and affectionate. The little quadruped, which was taken at so tender an age that it was fed with milk from a bottle, became strongly attached to its owner, and was a most active and amusing little creature. Domestication to any extent, is, however, not very practicable, as the animal is, in common with the gnoo and the zebra, liable to the terrible horse-sickness, which destroys so many of those useful animals. The color of the Koodoo is a reddish-gray, marked with several white streaks running boldly over the back and down the sides. The females are destitute of horns. The Boscu-Bok, Tragelaphus sylvaticus, is upward of three feet in height, and five in length. It is gracefully, yet stoutly built. The horns are a foot long, nearly straight, and wrinkled at the base. The general color is dark chestnut, with a white streak along the back, and some white spots about the body. The female is hornless, smaller, and hghter colored. The animal is extremely watchful, and requires the perfection of bush-craft to be surprised. These beasts are generally found in couples, male and female, although sometimes an old ram leads a hermit life. The Kaffirs frequently caution the hunter about these solitary animals, but they never display any signs ot a ferocious disposition except when brought to bay, and under such circumstances even a rat will fight. It is said that the tiger-bosch-katte THE NYLGHAU. 611 (the Serval) has been found dead in the bush, pierced by the horns of the Bosch-bok. The districts from the Cape of Good Hope to Delagoa Bay and some distance inland are the resorts of tzis antelope. Although frequently passing from three to four days per week in the bush, the sportsman rarely sees more than a dozen black Bosch-boks, even though their spoor is imprinted on the ground in all directions, thus proving that they are numerous. Seldom by fair stalking can this crafty and wary antelope be slain. The Kaffirs frequently form large hunting parties, and by “spooring”’ their tracks and surrounding the bush in which they are concealed, drive them out and despatch them with assagais. This is, however, but a butcherly proceeding, and one which no true sportsman would follow. The Bosch-bok is so wary, so rare, and so beautiful an antelope, that any man may feel delighted if he can fairly procure one or two specimens during his sporting career. The STRIPED ANTELOPE, 77agelaphus scriptus, is characterized by a coat of three colors. The head is fawn-gray, the neck and back dark- gray, while the flanks are reddish. The breast is dark-brown, the ridge of hair along the back of the neck is nearly black, but that along the spine consists of hairs with white tips. There is a white spot under the eye, and another near the ear. The front of the legs from the knee to the hoof is white, and the sides are marked with a moderately broad lon- gitudinal stripe, and several narrow vertical ones; these are crossed by transverse stripes, and contain between them oval spots. Oval spots of white are very numerous on the thigh. These graceful creatures are not rare in Zoological Gardens; they live on common provender, and give little trouble. GENUS PORTAX. The NyLGHAU, Portar pictus, is the solitary species known. It is an inhabitant of the thickly wooded districts of India. It is about four feet high at the shoulders, and nearly seven feet in length. In its general appearance it seems like a hybrid between the deer and the ox. The general color is a slaty-blue. The face is marked with brown, the long neck is furnished with a bold dark mane, and a long tuft of coarse hair hangs from the throat. The female is smaller than her mate, and horn- less. Her coat is generally a reddish-gray, instead of partaking of the 612 UNGULATA. slate-blue tint which colors the form of the male. The hind-legs of this animal are rather shorter than the fore-legs. Its name, Nylghau, is of Persian origin, and signifies “ Blue Ox.” It does not seem to be of a social disposition, and is generally found in pairs inhabiting the borders of the jungle. There are, however, many examples of solitary males. It is a shy and wary animal, and the hunter who desires to shoot one of these antelopes is obliged to exert his bush- craft to the utmost in order to attain his purpose. To secure a Nylghau requires a good marksman as well as a good stalker, for the animal is very tenacious of life, and if not struck in the proper spot will carry off a heavy bullet without seeming to be much the worse at the time. The native chiefs are fond of hunting the Nylghau, and employ in the chase a whole army of beaters and trackers, so that the poor animal has no chance of fair play. These hunts are not without their excitement, for the Nylghau’s temper is of the shortest, and when it feels itself aggrieved, it suddenly turns upon its opponent, drops on its knees, and leaps for- ward with such astounding rapidity, that the attack can hardly be avoided, even when the intended victim is aware of the animal’s in- tentions and is prepared for the attack. Even in domesticated life the Nylghau retains its hasty and capricious temper, and though there may have been several successive generations born into captivity, the young Nylghaus display the same irritable tem- per as their parents. Its disposition is very uncertain, and not to be depended upon. It takes offence at trifles, and instantly attacks the object of its dislike. The flesh is coarse and insipid, and the animal is of no great value commercially. The next sub-family, ORYGIN.Z, comprises fzvo genera, which are dis- tinguished chiefly by the formation of the horns. Both genera are depicted on the oldest monuments of Egypt and Nubia. In the Great Pyramid one of these animals is represented with one horn, and hence it is supposed that the legend of the Unicorn has arisen. GENUS ORYX. The four species of ORYX belong to the largest and heaviest class of antelopes, but in spite of their stout figure, they give the spectator an impression of majesty. Both sexes have horns which are very long and THE CAPE CHAMOIS. 613 thin; quite straight in some species, boldly curved in others. They have no lachrymal sinus. The PASSAN or CAPE CHAMOIS, Oryx capensis, stands about five feet high. The horns, which in the female are thinner and much longer than in the male, exceed a yard in length; they rise straight from the head in a line with the face; the lower portion is marked with thirty or forty rings, the upper part is smooth and pointed. The smooth coat consists of short, stiff hair. The neck, back, and sides are yellowish-white, the head, ears, and the legs from the knee are dazzling white. A streak on the brow, a broad patch on the nose, a line running from the eye to the chin are black, while black lines separate the white and yellowish colors on the rest of the body. The mane-like ridge on the neck and the tuft on the tail are black-brown. The Passan is only found in Southern Africa, and is called by the Boers of the Cape, the Gems-bok. In Gor- don Cumming’s work on Southern Africa may be found the following notes concerning this animal: “ The Gems-bok was intended by nature to adorn the parched karroos and arid deserts of South Africa, for which description of country it is admirably adapted. It thrives and attains high condition in barren regions where it might be imagined that a locust could not find subsist- ence; and burning as is the climate, it is perfectly independent of water, which, from my own observation and the repeated reports both of Boers and aborigines, I am convinced it never by any chance tastes. Its flesh is deservedly esteemed, and ranks next to that of the eland. At certain seasons of the year they carry a great quantity of fat, at which time they can more easily be ridden into. Owing to the even nature of the ground which the Gems-bok fre- quents, its shy and suspicious disposition, and the extreme distances from water to which it must be followed, it is never stalked or driven to an ambush like the antelopes, but is hunted on horseback, and ridden down by a long, severe, tail-on-end chase. Of several animals in South Africa which are hunted in this manner, the Gems-bok is by far the swiftest and the most enduring.” The long horns are terrible weapons, and the Gems-bok wields these natural bayonets in a manner which makes it a match for most of the Carnivora. It has been known to beat off the lion itself. Even when the lion has overcome the Gems-bok, the battle may sometimes be equally claimed by both sides, for in one instance the dead bodies of a 614 UNGULATA. lion and a Gems-bok were found lying on the plain, the horns of the antelope being driven so firmly into the lion’s body, that they could not be extracted by the efforts of a single man. The lion had evidently sprung upon the Gems-bok, which had received its foe upon the points of its horns, and had sacrificed its own life in destroying that of its terrible and redoubtable adversary. The BEIsa, Oryx bczsa, is the Oryx of the ancients. It is equal to the Passan in size, but its color is lighter, and the white markings are some- what differently arranged. It inhabits at present the coast of Abyssinia, and southward to the country of the Somali. The SABRE ANTELOPE, Oryx /eucoryx, has long horns which are con- siderably bent, and sweep backward in a noble curve; they are ringed at the base thirty or forty times, and very sharp-pointed. This Antelope, which the Arabs call the “ Desert Cow,” extends over the northern part of Africa. It is not uncommon in Senaar and Kordofan, as well as in the Soudan. In habits it resembles the Gems-bok, and can use its cimeter-like horns with equal effect. GENUS ADDAX. Like the genus just described, the Addax is represented on the mon- uments of Egypt. The horns which adorn the heads of kings or priests in ancient Egypt are the horns of this antelope. The ADDAX, Addax nasomaculatus, the only species of the genus, is found in many parts of Northern Africa, and is formed by nature for a residence among the vast plains of arid sand which are spread over that portion of the globe. These animals are not found living together in herds, but in pairs, and their range of locality seems to be rather wide. As they are in- tended for traversing large sandy regions, the feet are furnished with broad, spreading hoofs, which enable them to obtain a firm foothold upon the dry and yielding sand. The horns of this animal are long, and twisted after a manner that reminds the spectator of the Koodoo, an antelope which has been described and figured. Measured from the tip to the head in a straight line, the horns are about two feet three inches in length; but if the measurement is made to follow the line of the spiral, the le*eth is obviously much greater. The distance between the tips is THE SABLE ANTELOPE. 615 about the same as that from the tip to the base. From their roots to within a few inches of their extremities, the horns are covered with strongly marked rings, arranged in an oblique manner, and some of them partially double. The spiral of the horns is as nearly as possible two turns and a half in its whole length. Upon the forehead there is a bunch or tuft of long hair, and the throat is also covered with a rather heavy mane of long hair, but there is no mane on the back of the neck. The muzzle and nose are rather peculiar, and bear some resemblance to the same parts of a sheep or goat. The general color of the Addax is a milk-white, with the excep- tion of the black patch of hair on the forehead, a brown-black mane, and a reddish shade on the head and shoulders. Both sexes have horns. The next sub-family, HIPPOTRAGIN&, comprises only oze genus, but the animals embraced in it are the stateliest and noblest of the tribe. The name Azppotragus, or “ Horse-antelope,” is derived from the horse- like form which all the tree species possess. GENUS HIPPODRAGUS: The SABLE ANTELOPE, Hippotragus niger (Plate XLVIII), is a mag- nificent creature, very shy, and therefore seldom seen by the colonists of South Africa. Gordon Cumming gives the following description of it: “Cantering along through the forest, I came suddenly in full view of one of the loveliest animals which graces this fair creation. This was an old buck of the Sable Antelope, the rarest and most beautiful animal in Africa. It is large and powerful, partaking considerably of the nature of the ibex. Its back and sides are of glossy black, beautifully contrast- ing with the belly, which is white as driven snow. The horns are up- ward of three feet in length, and bend strongly back with a bold sweep, reaching nearly to the haunches.” It lives in herds of no very great size, consisting mostly of ten or twelve does led by a single buck. As a general fact, the buck takes matters very easily, and trusts to the does for keeping a good watch and warning him of the approach of an enemy. Owing to the jealous caution of these female sentinels, the hunter finds himself sadly embarrassed when he wishes to enrich his museum with the horns of their leader, and if any of them should happen to take alarm, the whole herd will bound over the roughest ground with such matchless speed that all pursuit is hopeless, and soon abandoned. 616 UNGULATA. In the native dialect, the Sable Antelope is known under the name of Potaquaine. It is very tenacious of life, and will often make good its escape even though pierced entirely through the body with several bul- lets. It therefore fully tests all the powers of the hunter. The BLAu-BOK, A7potragus leucophoeus, is as large as its sable con- gener. It was formerly quite common at the Cape of Good Hope, but has within the last sixty years been exterminated in the colony. It is a gregarious animal, living in little herds not exceeding ten or twelve in number, and preferring hills and slopes to level ground. Like the preceding animal, it exhales a powerful odor, which penetrates throughout its entire body, and which renders its flesh so unpalatable that it is never eaten as long as other food can be obtained. It is a swift and active creature, being remarkable for its speed even among the swift-footed antelopes. There is a variety of this animal, called the Docot!, which is found by the Gambia, and which is not quite of the same color. The natives assert that the female never produces more than a single young one during her lifetime, for the mother’s horns grow so rapidly after the birth of the offspring, that they penetrate into her back and kill her. The Blau-bok is about four feet in height, and the horns are nearly thirty inches in length. CE Aer WR! exe Vi hin, GAZES. THE GAZELLE—ITS BEAUTY AND GRACE—THE ARIEL GAZELLE—THE JAIROU—THE SPRING-BOK— ITS IMMENSE NUMBERS—THE DSEREN—THE SASIN—THE PALLAH—THE SAIGA—THE SUB- FAMILY ANTELOCAPRIN-E—THE PRONG HORN, HE sub-family GAZELLIN&—comprising szzv genera—consists of a group of small or moderate-sized animals, remarkable for their graceful forms, their lyre-shaped horns, their long-pointed ears, and small false hoofs. The tear-bag below the eyes is distinct. GENUS GAZELEA. The Gazelle, as it ranges the desert, presents a figure so attractive, that the poets of the East have from time immemorial been eloquent in singing its grace, agility, and beauty. The old Egyptians dedicated it to their goddess Iris, the Queen of the gods; it is the “roe or the young hart”? to which Solomon compares his spouse, it is the ‘roe or the hind of the field” by which he conjures the daughter of Jerusalem. The highest expression of beauty which an Eastern bard can utter is the comparison—“she is like a gazelle as it browses beneath the roses.” The Arabs find no words to depict it adequately; their oldest poems praise it, the wandering minstrels of to-day still sing its loveliness. THE GAZELLE. The GAZELLE, Gazella dorcas (Plate XLVIII), is not quite as large as the Roe-deer, but is much more finely and slenderly built, and much more prettily marked. A full-grown male stands about a yard high, and measures nearly a yard and a quarter in length. The legs are extremeiy delicate, and the hoofs small and pretty. Its home is the northeastern 78 618 UNGULATA. district of Africa. It extends from the Barbary States to the Desert of Arabia, and from the Mediterranean to the plains of Central Africa. Wherever vegetation is found in the desert, the Gazelle is seen in large numbers, but it is rare either in the rich river-bottoms, or in the moun- tain ranges. A rolling, sandy district, where the mimosas grow thickly, form its favorite haunts. In Kordofan herds of fifty have been observed, but usually the troop consists of less than ten members. But, although they are moving about all day, except during the burning noon-tide hours, the Gazelles are not easily discovered. Their coat resembles closely the color of the soil, and renders it difficult for any but a native of the desert to detect them. At the first sign of danger the herd bounds away as ifin sport. Every movement is graceful. They may be seen in play leaping up from one to two yards from the ground over each other’s backs, or skipping over stones in their path. All their senses are acute, their scent is remarkable, their sight keen, their intelligence great. Harmless and timid as they are, they are by no means so devoid of courage as is often supposed. Combats take place even in their herds. With all other animals they are willing to be friends; but the leopard and the lion do not reciprocate with good feeling. The Gazelle makes no resistance to such enemies; against weaker ones the herd defends itself by forming a circle with horns pointed out. They are well aware of the advantages of association, and seem to be inspired with feelings of natural attachment to each other. The eye of the Gazelle is large, soft, and lustrous. The color of the coat is a light-fawn, deepening into a dark-brown band on the flanks which forms a line of demarcation between the fawn color of the back and the pure white of the abdomen. The face is marked with a dark- brown and a white streak, running from each horn to the muzzle. There are seventeen species recognized in the genus Gazella, and almost as many varieties not entitled to the dignity of species. Among them, the most beautiful is the Ariel Gazelle. The ARIEL is much darker than the Dorcas Gazelle. It is found in Syria and Arabia, and as it is not only a most graceful and elegant animal in appearance, but is also docile and gentle in temper, it is held in great estimation as a domestic pet, and may be frequently seen run- ning about the houses at its own will. So exquisitely graceful are the movements of the Ariel Gazelle, and with such light activity does it traverse the ground, that it seems almost to set at defiance the laws of SHAME IS S SPRINGBOK GAZELLE SABLE ANTELOPE PRONGHORN Pilg Seville UNGULATA THE ARIEL. 619 gravitation. When it is alarmed, and runs with its fullest speed, it lays its head back so that the nose projects forward, while the horns lie almost as far back as the shoulders, and then skims over the ground with such marvellous celerity that it seems rather to fly than to run, and can- not be overtaken even by the powerful, long-legged, and long-bodied greyhounds which are employed in the chase by the native hunters. When the Gazelle is hunted for the sake of the sport, the falcon is called to the aid of the greyhound, for without such assistance no one could catch an Ariel in fair chase. As soon as the falcon is loosed from its jesses, it marks out its intended prey, and overpassing even the swift limbs by its swifter wings, speedily overtakes it, and swoops upon its head. Rising from the attack, it soars into the air for another swoop, and by repeated assaults bewilders the poor animal so completely that it falls an easy prey to the greyhound, which is trained to wait upon the falcon, and watch its flight. When, however, the Gazelle is hunted merely for the sake of its flesh and skin, a very different mode is pursued. Like all wild animals, the Gazelle is in the habit of marking out some especial stream or fountain, whither it resorts daily for the purpose of quenching its thirst. Near one of these watering-spots the hunters build a very large inclosure, sometimes nearly a mile and a half square, the walls of which are made of loose stones, and are too high even for the active Gazelle to surmount. In several parts of the edifice the wall is only a few feet in height, and each of these gaps opens upon a deep trench or pit. A herd of Gazelles is quietly driven toward the inclosure, one side of which is left open, and being hemmed in by the line of hunters, the animals are forced to enter its fatal precincts. As the pursuers continue to press forward with shouts and all kinds of alarming noises, the Gazelies endeavor to escape by leaping over the walls, but can only do so at the gaps, and fall in consequence into the trenches that yawn to receive them. One after another falls into the pit, and in this manner they perish by hundreds at atime. The flesh of the Ariel Gazelle is highly valued, and is made an article of commerce as well as of immediate consumption by the captors. The hide is manufactured into a variety of useful articles. The Ariel is a small animal, measuring only about twenty-one inches in height. The JAIROU, or common Gazelle of Asia, which is so celebrated by the Persian and other Oriental poets, is ascertained to be a different species from the Dorcas, and may be distinguished from that animal by 620 UNGULATA. the general dimness of the marking, and the dark brown streak on the haunches. Several other species belong to the genus Gazella, among which we may mention the MOuHR of Western Africa, the ANDRA of Northern Africa, and the KorIN, or KEVEL, of Senegal. THE SPRING-BOK. The SpRING-BOK, Gazella cuchore (Plate XLVIII), is the representa. tive of the genus in South Africa. It derives its name from its extraor- dinary agility. It can rise to a height of seven or eight feet without any difficulty, and can reach, on occasions, a height of twelve or thirteen feet. It will never cross a road, if it can avoid doing so; when forced, it clears it at a bound. The color of the Spring-bok is a warm cinna- mon-brown above, and pure white on the abdomen; a broad band of reddish-brown parting the two colors. In the vast plains of Southern Africa, the Spring-bok roams in lit- erally countless herds. ‘For two hours before the day dawned,” Gordon Cumming writes, “I had been lying awake listening to the grunting of the bucks within two hundred yards of me. On rising and looking about me, I beheld the ground to the northward actually covered with a dense living mass of Spring-boks marching slowly and steadily along, extending from an opening in a long range of hills on the west, through which they poured like the flood of some great river, to a ridge about a mile to the east, over which they disappeared. The breadth of the ground they covered might have been somewhere about half a mile. I stood upon the fore-chest of my wagon for nearly two hours, lost in wonder at the novel and beautiful scene which was passing before me, and had some difficulty in convincing myself that it was reality which I beheld, and not the wild and exaggerated picture of a hunter’s dream. During this time, their vast legions continued stream- ing through the neck in the hills, in one unbroken compact phalanx.” The wonderful density of these moving herds may be imagined from the fact, that a flock of sheep have been inextricably entangled among a herd of migrating Spring-boks, and carried along with them without the possibility of resistance or even of escape. Even the lion himself has been thus taken prisoner in the midst of a mass of these animals, and has been forced to move in their midst as if he belonged to their own order. Want of water is said to be the principal cause of these migrations, for THE SPRING-BOK. 621 they have been always observed to depart as soon as the district in which they live has been deprived of water, and to return as soon as the genial rains have returned moisture to the earth, and caused the green herbage to make its appearance. Dr. Livingstone, however, doubts whether the Spring-bok is a sufficiently thirsty animal to be driven into these migrations only by want of water, and thinks that there must be other causes also at work. They are extremely fond of the short tender grass as it springs from the earth, and the Bakalahari Kaffirs, taking advantage of this predilec- tion, are in the habit of burning large patches of dry stubbly herbage for the sake of attracting the Spring-boks, who are sure to find out the locality, and to come and feed upon the short sweet grass that always makes its appearance on the site of burnt vegetation. Spring-boks are very seldom seen in the deep, rank grass that is so plentiful in their native country, for they would not be able to raise their head above the tall blades, and to perceive the lion, leopard, or other enemy that might be crawling toward them under its shelter. While engaged in these pilgrimages, the Spring-bok suffers sadly from many foes, man included, who thin their numbers along the whole line of march. Various beasts of prey, such as lions, leopards, hyzenas, and jackals, hang around the skirts of the herd, and are always ready either to dash boldly among the moving mass and to drag out some un- fortunate animal which may happen to take their fancy, or to prowl in a crafty manner about the rear of the troop, in hopes of snapping up the weakly or wounded animals as they fall out of the ranks. The black and white inhabitants of Southern Africa also take advantage of the pil- grimages, and with guns and spears, which may be used almost indis- criminately among such multitudes of animals, without any particular necessity for a careful aim, destroy myriads of the Spring-boks, and load themselves with an ample supply of hides and meat. There is a curious provision of nature for preserving the herds in proper condition. It is evident that as the animals move in a compact mass, the leaders will eat all the pasture, and tiose in the rear will find nothing but the bare ground, cut to pieces by the hoofs of their prede- cessors. The rearward animals would therefore soon perish by starva- tion, did not matters arrange themselves in a rather remarkable manner. The leading Spring-boks, having the choice of the best pasture, soon become so satiated and overloaded with food, that they are unable to 622 UNGULATA. keep pace with their eager and hungrily active followers, and so are forced to drop into the rear. The hindermost animals in the meantime are anxiously pushing forward in search of food, so that there is a con- tinual interchange going on as the herd moves onward, those in front dropping back to the rear, while those in the rear are constantly press- ing forward to take their place In front. In size the Spring-bok is rather superior to the Dorcas gazeile, but may be immediately distinguished from that animal by means of a curious white patch of iong hairs on the croup. Although the animal is so mar- velously agile, the body is rather clumsily formed, and seems to be dis- proportionately large when contrasted with the sight and delicate limbs on which it is supported. While standing at rest, the Spring-bok may be recognized by the peculiar line of the back, which is more elevated at the croup than at the shoulders. The horns of this animal are much larger in the adult male than in the young or the female, and when full grown, are marked with eighteen or twenty narrow complete rings. The lyrate form of the horns is not so perceptible in the young Spring- bok as in the older animal, for until the creature has attained its full growth, the tips of the horns point forward. GENUS PROCAPRA. The ¢wo species of this genus inhabit Mongol-Tartary and the steppes between China and Thibet. The DSEREN, Procapra gutturosa, stand about two feet and a half high, and measures about four feet and a half in length. The body is slender, the head short and thick; the throat of the males has a large protuber- ance, the tail is short, and its upper part covered with curly hair; the legs are slender and graceful; the horns, which are borne only by the males, are placed close together on the skull, but gradually widen out, curving backward and inward, and marked at the base with about twenty prominent rings. The ears are large and pointed. The color of the coat varies according to the season. In summer the throat and the thighs below the tail are pure white, and the rest of the body is cream- color, with some brownish marks on the brow. The winter coat is uniformly lighter. The hair is very thick, and longer on the hind- quarters than in front. These animals are usually hunted in the winter season, when they THE SASIN. 623 visit the frozen streams, obtaining water by breaking the ice with their hoofs. If they are surprised on the ice, they can be easily killed, as they cannot keep their feet. A lucky sportsman will kill two hundred head in a favorable winter, for the Dseren keep together in such large herds, that a single bal! will often kill two or three of them. GENUS ANTILOPE. The SaAsIn, or INDIAN ANTELOPE, Axztzlope bezoartica,—the only species—is generally found in herds of fifty or sixty together, each herd consisting of one buck and a large harem of does. It is a wonderfully swift animal, and quite despises such impotent foes as dogs and men, fearing only the falcon, which is trained for the pur- pose of overtaking and attacking them, as has already been related of the gazelle. At each bound the Sasin will cover twenty-five or thirty feet of ground, and will rise even ten or eleven feet from the earth, so that it can well afford to despise the dogs. As its flesh is hard, dry, and tasteless, the animal is only hunted by the native chiefs for the sake of the sport, and is always chased with the assistance of the hawk or the chetah, the former of which creatures overtakes and delays it by con- tinual attacks, and the other overcomes it by stealthily creeping within a short distance, and knocking over his prey in a few rapid bounds. It is a most wary animal, not only setting sentinels to keep a vigilant watch, as is the case with so many animals, but actually detaching pickets in every direction to a distance of several hundred yards from the main body of the herd. The young Sasins are very helpless at the time of their entrance into the world, and are not able to stand upon their feet for several days, during which time the mother remains in the covert where her little one was born. As soon as it has attained sufficient strength, she leads it to the herd, where it remains during its life, if it should happen to be a doe, but if it should belong to the male sex, it is driven away from its companions by the leading buck, whose jealousy will permit no rivals in his dominions. Forced thus to live by themselves, these exiles become vigilant and audacious, and endeavor to attract mates for themseives from the families of other bucks. The horns of this animal are large in proportion to the size of their 624 UNGULATA. owner; their form is spiral, and they diverge considerably at their tips. From the base to the last few inches of the points, the horns are covered with strongly marked rings. In color, the Indian Antelope is grayish- brown or black on the upper parts of the body, and white on the abdo- men, the lips, breast, and a circle round the eyes. The outer sides of the limbs, together with the front of the feet and the end of the tail, are nearly black. Some of the oldest and most powerful males are so deeply colored that their coats are tinted with the two contrasting hues of black and white, the fawn tint being altogether wanting. The height of this animal is about two feet six inches at the shoulder GENUS A®PYCERUS. The PALLAH, 2pycerus melampus, is the only species of the genus. [It is found in enormous herds in South Africa. It is a remarkably: fine animal, three feet in height at the shoulder, and possesses elegantly shaped horns, and a beautifully tinted coat. The predominant color is bay, fading into white on the abdomen, and the peculiar patch of lighter colored hair which surrounds the root of the tail. A black semi-lunar mark on the croup serves as a visible distinction from the other ante- lopes; and the hoofs are black. It is less timid than the Spring-bok. When alarmed, it walks away in the quietest and most silent manner imaginable, lifting its feet high from the ground. When on a journey, they walk in Indian file, and when they have once settled the direction in which they intend to go, they cannot be turned aside even by the presence of a human being. The name -Zpycerus or “ High-horned,” indicates the characteristic of the genus. The horns are nearly two feet long, slender, and lyre- formed, and marked by rough rings at the base. The females are nornless. GENUS SAIGA. The SaicA, Saiga tartarica, a solitary species, in form and _ habits reminds one of the sheep. The body is thick, the legs slender and short, the hair remarkably long and thick. The nose is arched and broad, and terminates in a snout. This snout is very peculiar, it projects over the jaw, is mobile, and has in the center two naked nostrils, so that THE PRONG HORN. 625 it resembles a real proboscis. The horns are lyrate, thin, and trans- parent; the ears are short, and almost hidden in its rough coat. In summer the color is a grayish-yellow ; in winter the color becomes lighter and the hairs are nearly three inches in length. The Saiga inhabits the steppes of Eastern Europe aud Siberia, from the frontiers of Poland to the Altai. It lives in herds, forming in autumn bands of several thousands, which perform regular migrations. They are very watchful, and never all repose at once, and Pallas observed that the sentinels were regularly relieved. They are very fleet, so that not even a greyhound can take them; they leap well, but without the grace of the antelope. For food, they prefer the herbage that grows on the dry steppe near salt-springs. They walk backward when feeding, as the projecting snout is, otherwise, in their way. The flesh, owing to the nature of the herbage on which the Saiga feeds, has a sharp, balsamic odor; but in spite of this, the natives are eager hunters. In addition to the usual methods of the chase, the Black Eagle is employed. THE PRONG HORN. The sixth of our sub-families of the BoviD# is constituted by the ANTILOCAPRIN&, consisting of only oxe species of a single genus. It in- habits both sides of the Rocky Mountains, extending north to the Sas- katchewan and the Columbia rivers, west to the coast-range of California, and east to the Missouri. It seems to represent a transition between the families which have solid and deciduous horns, and those possessing hollow and permanent ones, for the horns, although hollow, like those of the antelope, are shed annually, like those of the deer. GENUS ANTILOCAPRA. The Prone Horn, Axticocapra Americana (Plate XLVIII), derives its name from the character of its horns. They are from eight to fourteen inches in length, and at about two-thirds of their height become palmated, and give out a short prong. The tips are bent inward. They are shed every year, in a peculiar manner. They do not fall off entirely like the horns of the elk; the pith remains, and the hard horny shell comes off the pith like the shell froma crab. This shell becomes 42) 626 UNGULATA. loose in May, and the Prong-horn retires into seclusion. When it has dropped off, it leaves a spongy, white fleshy substance, sparsely covered with short black bristles pointing upward. This pith grows rapidly, and becomes larger than the old horn. The outside, in the short time of two or three days, hardens again into horn. The hair is very thick, brittle, and nearly two inches long. The color on the back is reddish, turning to yellow on the sides and white on the belly. Around the tail the hair is dazzlingly white, long, and capable of being erected like a fan when the animal is alarmed. The Prong-horn is chiefly found in the treeless plains. Its run is even and regular, and it is the fleetest of all the animals on the plains. General Dodge says that they often display a strange combination of curiosity and terror. ‘“ They become beside themselves at the appearance of any unusual object. A wagon train will attract every herd within the range of vision. They rush at it with every indication of extreme terror, and passing within a few yards, will make a complete circuit, and go off in the direction from which they came.’ When the leader goes, the rest follow like sheep; if the leader leaps up in the air, all the herd leap in the like manner. As a rule, except during the month of April, these antelopes are in herds. The does are very motherly, and will give suck to other young beside their own; thus the orphan-fawns whose dams have been killed seldom die. Their food is the short succulent grass of the prairies, and they love saltish water or pure salt, and remain at the salt licks till hunger drives them away. They are good swimmers, and easily pass broad streams. They are hunted alike by Indians and white men. CHAPTER X XTX. THE, LESSER. ANTELOPES: THE OUREBI—THE KLIPPSPRINGER—THE WATER BUCK—THE BLUE-BUCK—THE MUSK ANTELOPE—= THE DUYKER BOK—THE RHOODE BOK—THE CHICKARA—THE HARTEBEEST—THE SASSABY— THE GNU—THE CHAMOIS—THE GORAL—THE MOUNTAIN GOAT OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, & HE sub-family CERVICAPRIN# contains five genera. They are all confined to the Southern and Tropical regions of the African continent. GENUS CERVICAPRA. The OUREBI, Cervicapra urebi, the first of the four genera, is thus described by Captain Drayson: “While many animals of the Antelope kind fly from the presence of man, and do not approach within a distance of many hundred miles of his residence, there are some few which do not appear to have this great dread of him, but which adhere to particular localities as long as their position is tenable, or until they fall victims to their temerity. It also appears as if some spots were so inviting, that as soon as they become vacant by the death of one occupant, another individual of the same species will come from some unknown locality, and reoccupy the ground. Thus it is with the Ourebi, which will stop in the immediate vicinity of villages, and on hills and in valleys, where it is daily making hair-breadth escapes from its persevering enemy—man. “When, day after day, a sportsman has scoured the country, and apparently slain every Ourebi within a radius of ten miles, he has but to wait for a few days, and upon again taking the field he wiil find fresh specimens of this graceful little antelope bounding over the hills around him. It is generally found in pairs, inhabiting the plains, and when pur- 628 UNGULATA. sued, trusts to its speed, seeking no shelter either in the bush or the forest. Its general habitation is among the long grass which remains after a plain has been burned, or on the sheltered side of a hill, among rocks and stones.” Its mode of progression, when alarmed or disturbed, is very beau- tiful. It gallops away with great rapidity for a few yards, and then bounds several feet in the air, gallops on, and bounds again. These leaps are made for the purpose of examining the surrounding country, which it is enabled to do from its elevated position in the air. Some- times, and especially when any suspicious object is only indistinctly observed in the first bound, the Ourebi will make several successive leaps, and it then looks almost like a creature possessed of wings, and having the power of sustaining itself in the air. If, for instance, a dog pursues one of these antelopes, and follows it through long grass, the Ourebi will make repeated leaps, and by observing the direction in which its pursuer is advancing, will suddenly change its own course, and thus escape from view. In descending from these leaps the Ourebi comes to the ground on its hind feet. The Ourebi stands about two feet high, and is four feet in length. The horns of the males are about five inches long, straight, pointed, and ringed at the base. The female is hornless. The color of the animal is pale-tawny above, white below. The KLIPPSPRINGER, Cervicapra saltatrix, is called by Gordon Cum- ming a darling little antelope. It is peculiarly formed for rocky ground, its hoofs being small, hard, and sharply pointed. It stands like the chamois, with its feet drawn close together. When alarmed, it bounds up the most precipitous rocks with such rapidity that it is soon beyond all danger. Its color is dark brown, sprinkled with yellow. Each hair is yellow at the tip, then brown, then gray to the base. It measures about twenty-one inches in height when fully grown. The female is like the female Ourebi, destitute of horns. GENUS KOBUS. The WATER Buck, Kobus cllipsoprymnus, is the most striking of the six species of this genus. It is a peculiarly timid animal, and when alarmed rushes at once toward the nearest river, into which it plunges without hesitation, and THE MUSK ANTELOPE. 629 which it will cross successfully even when the stream 1s deep, strong, and rapid. The animals are probably induced to take to the water by their instinctive dread of the lion and leopard, which will never volun- tarily enter the water, except under peculiar circumstances. The Water Bucxs are generally found in small herds, which never wander far from the banks of some large river. The horns of this species are remarkable for their formation, being somewhat lyrate, bent back, and thrown for- ward at their extremities. The tail is rather long, and is covered with long hairs toward its termination. The flesh of this animai is very powerfully scented, and is of so bad a flavor that none but a hungry Kaffir will eat it, and even he will not do so until forced by dire hunger. This peculiar scent is probably variable in potency according to the season of the year, as is the case with all perfumed animals. Captain Harris says that those which he has killed have been totally uneatable, not even the native palate being proof against the rank flavor. The scent extends to the skin, which exhales so powerful an odor that when Captain Harris was engaged in cutting off the head of one, he was com- pelled to desist. The calves, however, according to Schweinfurth, are very good eating. GENUS NEOTRAGUS. The Musk ANTELOPE, Weotragus moschatus,—the only species—is a native of Abyssinia and Eastern Africa, where it bei.s the name of Bent-Isracl, or “Children of Israel.” It is one of the tiniest of ante- lopes, being hardly fourteen inches in height at the shoulder, and is so slightly made that it appears too fragile to live. Its legs are long, and not thicker than a lady’s finger, the body is covered with fine long hairs, which are gray at the base, but a warm red at the top. A broad white stripe runs above and below the eyes. The hoofs and tear-bag are black. The male has a little pair of horns with ten to twelve rings, and pointed tips bent forward, and almost lost in the thick shock of hair in which they grow. Like some of its kindred, it lives in pairs, or in families consisting of the parents and their offspring. It is found in the mountains as high as six thousand feet above the sea. It lives in the densest thickets, where the larger antelopes cannot enter, and it can pass through the narrowest clefts of the rock. 630 UNGULATA. GENUS NANOTRAGUS. The xzxe species of this genus comprise the smallest members of the family. They are all very much alike. The males have small, thin, up- right horns, with a few rings or half-rings at the base. The head is round, the nose pointed, and the muzzle small. The BLUE-BUCK, WManotragus Hemprichit, is one of the most grace- ful of Ruminants. ‘“ The most practised eyes,” writes Drayson, “are required to discover this buck in the bush, as its color is so similar to the gloom of the underwood, that if it did not shake the branches in its progress, it would be scarcely possible to see it. Long after the sportsman has become sufficiently acquainted with bush-craft to secure with certainty one or two red bucks during a day’s stalking, he would still be unable to bag the little Blue-buck. Several times when I was with a Kafthr, who possessed eves like thos: of an eagle, he would point, and with great excitement say, ‘There goes a Blue-buck!. there he is! there, there!’ but it was of no use to me, I would strain my eyes and look to the spots pointed out, but could see no buck; and it was a con- siderable time before my sight became sufficiently quick to enable me to drop this little antelope with any certainty.” It is scarcely more than a foot in height, and about two feet long ; and its color is a dark-blue, or mouse tint. It is found in Africa, south of the Sahara. The sub-family CEPHALOPHIN contains fwo genera, one of which inhabits Africa, and the other the hilly parts of India. GENUS CEPHALOPHUS. The DuYKER-BOK, Cephalophus mergens, may be taken as the most typical of the ¢wenty-two species. It derives its name of Duyker or Diver from the way in which it plunges into the bush. Drayson describes it as follows: “On the borders of the bush, the antelope which is most commonly met is ther Duyker, a solitary and very cunning animal. If the sports- man should happen to overtake this buck, it will le still, watching him attentively, and will not move until it is aware that it is observed. It will then jump up and start off, making a series of sharp turns and dives, THE DUYKER-BOK. 631 sometimes Over bushes, and at others through them. When it perceives that it is observed, it will crouch in the long grass or behind a bush, as though it were going to lie down. This conduct is, however, nothing - but a ruse for the purpose of concealing its retreat, as it will then crawl along under the foliage for several yards, and when it has gone to some distance in this sly manner, will again bound away. It is therefore very difficult to follow the course of a Duyker, as it makes so many sharp turns and leaps, that both ‘spoorer’ and dogs are frequently baffled. “Tf the course of the buck can be watched, and the place discovered where it lies down after its erratic manceuvrings, it can be easily stalked by approaching it from the leeward side. One must, however, be a good shot to secure a Duyker with certainty, for the little creature is so tenacious of life that it will carry off a large charge of buckshot without any difficulty, and the irregular course which it then pursues requires great perfection and quickness in shooting with a single ball. “The height of the Duyker-bok is about twenty-one inches at the shoulder, but the animal is somewhat higher at the croup, where it measures nearly twenty-three inches. It may be distinguished from the other species belonging to the large genus in which it is placed, by a ridge upon the front surface of the horns, which runs through the four or five central rings with which the horns are marked, but does not reach either to the tip or to the base. The general color of this animal is brown-yellow, fading into white on the abdomen and all the under parts, including the tail. The upper part of the tail is black, and there is a black streak running up the legs, and another on the nose.” The RHOODE-BOK, Cephalophus natalensis, is common in Natal. Its color is a deep reddish-brown; it stands above two feet high, and the horns are about three inches long, straight and pointed. GENUS TETRACEROS. The CuHIcKARA, Jetraceros quadricornis, is the best known of the ¢wo species of the genus. In the scientific title of this very curious species of Antelope both words bear the same signification, namely, ‘ four-horned.” These sin- gular animals are natives of India, where they are known also under the titles of CHOUSINGHA, or CHOUKA, the last word being derived from the 632 UNGULATA. native term chouk, a leap, which has been given to the animal in allusion to its habit of making lofty bounds. The front pair of horns are very short, and are placed just above the eyes, the hinder pair being much longer, and occupying the usual posi- tion on the head. The females are hornless. The color of the Chou- singha is a bright bay above, and gray-white below, a few sandy hairs being intermixed with the white. The length of the hinder pair of horns is rather more than three inches, while the front, or spurious horns as they are sometimes termed, are only three-quarters of an inch long. The height of the adult animal is about twenty inches. The ALCEPHALIN form a sub-family divided into ¢wo genera, both inhabiting Africa, and Northeast to Syria. GENUS ALCEPHALUS. Of the xzne species of this genus we will mention only the most im- portant and typical, for all these antelopes are very much alike in habits and mode of life. The HArTeBEEST, Alcephalus caama, may be easily known by the peculiar shape of the horns, which are lyrate at their commencement, thick and heavily knotted at the base, and then curve off suddenly nearly at a right angle. Its general color is a grayish-brown, diversified by a large, nearly triangular white spot on the haunches, a black streak on the face, another along the back, and a black-brown patch on the outer side of the limbs. It is a large animal, being about five feet high at the shoulder. Being of gregarious habits, it is found in little herds of ten or twelve in number, each herd being headed by an old male who has expelled all adult members of his own sex. Not being very swift or agile, its movements are more clumsy than is generally the case with Antelopes. It is, however, very capable of running for considerable distances, and if brought to bay, becomes a very redoubtable foe, dropping on its knees, and charging forward with lightning rapidity. The Hartebeest is spread over a very large range of country, being found in the whole of the flat and wooded district be- tween the Cape and the Tropic of Capricorn. The SassaBy, Alcephalus lunatus, is reddish-brown, with a blackish- brown stripe down the middle of the face. It lives in herds of six or ten THE GNU. 633 in the flat districts near the Tropic of Capricorn. It is a thirsty animal, and the hunter when he sees one of them knows that water is at no great distance from the spot where the game is. GENUS CATOBLEPAS. The ¢wo species of this genus are most remarkable animals. They seem a compound of horse, ox, and antelope. They have the head of an ox, the body and neck of a horse, and the cloven hoof of the antelope. Both sexes have horns. The GNU, Catoblepas gnu (Plate XLVII), has a fine head, and pecu- harly shaped horns which are bent downward, then upward, with a sharp curve. They live in large herds, and are curious in disposition, as well as very irritable in temper. “They commence whisking their long white tails,” says Cumming, “in a most eccentric manner; then, springing suddenly into the air, they begin pawing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost speed. Suddenly they all pull up together to overhaul the intruder, when some of the bulls will often commence fighting in the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock; then, quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whirl their tails with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain, enveloped in a cloud of dust.” On account of these extraordinary manoeuvres, the Gnu is called Wildebeest by the Dutch settlers. The sub-family RUPRICAPRINZ contains only /wo species, inhabiting the European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. In appearance and habits they strongly resemble the goats. They are, however, true Antelopes, and may be distinguished by the shape of the horns, which rise straight from the top of the head for some inches, and then sud- denly curve backward. GENUS RUPRIGARP EVA: The CHAmols, Rupricapra tragus (Plate XLVIII), is really a forest antelope, and wherever man spares them, they prefer the woods to the higher peaks of the mountains. At present they are most abundant in the Tyrol, where the chase of the Chamois is the favorite amusement of the 80 634 UNGULATA. Emperor of Austria, and the princes of his house. It moves very swiftly over level ground, and is unsurpassed in traversing the Alpine rocks; the false hoots of its hinder feet aid it greatly in descending the rocks. It is very wary, and possesses a keen scent; even an old footmark in the snow will startle it. It lives in small herds, which send out sentinels to watch while the rest are feeding, and give warning of a coming foe. As the hind legs exceed the fore limbs in length, the Chamois is bet- ter fitted for the ascent of steep ground than for descending, and never exhibits its wonderful powers with such success as when it is leaping lightly and rapidly up the face of an apparently inaccessible rock, and taking advantage of every little projection to add impetus to its progress. Even when standing still, it is able to mount to a higher spot without leaping. It stands erect on its hind legs, places its fore-feet on some narrow shelf of rock, and by a sudden exertion, draws its whole body upon the ledge, where it stands secure. The food of the Chamois consists of the various herbs which grow upon the mountains, and in the winter season it finds its nourishment on the buds of sundry trees, mostly of an aromatic nature, such as the fir, pine, and juniper. In consequence of this dict, the flesh assumes a rather powerful odor, which is decidedly repulsive to the palates of some per- sons, while others seem to appreciate the peculiar flavor, and to value it as highly as the modern gourmand appreciates the “ gamey ” flavor of long kept venison. The skin is largely employed in the manufacture of a certain leather, which is widely famous for its soft, though tough character. The color of the Chamois is yellowish-brown upon the greater portion of the body, the spinal line being marked with a black streak. In the winter months, the fur darkens and becomes blackish- brown. The face, cheeks, and throat are of a yellowish-white hue, diversified by a dark brownish-black band which passes from the corner of the mouth to the eyes, when it suddenly dilates and forms a nearly perfect ring round the eyes. The horns are jetty-black and highly polished, especially toward the tips, which are extremely sharp. There are several obscure rings on the basal portions, and their entire surface is marked with longitudinal lines. Several varieties of the Chamois are recorded, but the distinctions between them lie only in the comparative length of the horns, and the hue of the coat. The full-grown Chamois is rather more than two feet in height, and the horns are from six to eight inches long. THE MOUNTAIN GOAT. 635 The sub-family BUDORCINA: comprises one genus of wo species, which are found in Nepaul and Eastern Thibet. The sub-family NEMORHE- DINZ embraces ¢wo genera of goat-like antelopes. GENUS NEMORHEDUS. The nzne species of this genus range from the Eastern Himalayas to Northern China and Japan, and southward to Formosa and Sumatra. We mention only one species. The GoraL, Nemorhedas goral, is the size of a goat; its horns are two feet long, thin and round, and placed close together; its ears are long and narrow ; its coat is short, thick, of a gray or reddish-brown color, and is sprinkled on the sides with black or red. A white streak runs under the throat, and a ridge of hair on the spine is black. Both sexes have horns. It is as agile as the chamois, and possesses the same quick senses to descry danger. It seldom seeks the shades of the forest, but loves the rocks and rocky precipices. GENUS APLOCERUS. The solitary species of APLOCERUS lives in the Rocky Mountains and the Northern part of California. It is regarded by Brehm and other naturalists as a goat, rather than an antelope. The Mountain Goat, Aplocerus Americanus, is often confounded with the “ Mountain Sheep.” It stands two feet and a quarter high at the shoulder, and is about four feet in length. The horns are about eight inches in length; round at the root, and rising in a gentle curve upward, backward, and outward. The coat covering the whole body is of a uniform white color, and consists of long stiff hairs, with a fine, close under-wool. This thick coat makes the animal look much larger and more powerful than it really is. The hair forms a thick bush on the back of the head, and a mane on the neck, while the chin supports a long, abundant beard divided into regular locks; a collar of long hair goes round the neck, and extends itself over the shoulders and fore-arms. According to Professor Baird, the Mountain Goat is most abundant in the mountains of Washington Territory. It lives in very high dis- tricts, and feeds on Alpine plants, the boughs of pzzus contorta, and the 636 UNGULATA. like. During the summer it ascends to a height of fifteen thousand feet above the sea, and prefers to stay near the lower edge of the meiting snow-fields; in winter it descends lower, but never leaves the mountain- peaks. In these deserts, where the human foot seldom treads, it moves, with the sure-footedness of its race, from rock to rock, or clambers up precipices which seem inaccessible. When alarmed, the troop, led by the males, rushes at full gallop to the edge of the most terrible precipices and plunges down, or leaps a chasm, one after another, treading exactly on the same spot, with the lightness of a winged creature, rather than like a quadruped. Endowed with keen powers of smelling and hearing, the Mountain Goat baffles in most cases the attempts of the hunter. The Indians occasionally hunt this animal, but without any eagerness. The flesh is of little value, as it is both very tough and has an odor which sickens even the Redskins. The pelt is valuable, and is carried in to the Hudson Bay Company’s factories. Like other furs, its value varies with the fashion of the day. When monkey-skin muffs and collars were ix; vogue, the fleece of this antelope supplied material for an imitation. CGAL Pe Rr exeoxre GiOPACES PAINE D SUB EexeETS. THE GENUS CAPRA—THE GOATS—THE BEZOAR GOAT OR PASENG—THE CASHMERE GOAT—THE ANGORA GOAT—THE MAMBER GOAT—THE MARKHOR AND TAHIR—THE EGYPTIAN GOAT— THE IBEXES—THE ALPINE IBEX—THE PYRENEAN IBEX—THE ARABIAN IBEX. HE last sub-family of the Bovip is that named Caprina&. It contains ¢wo genera, CAPRA and OvIsos. The former very extensive genus has been often divided into numerous sub- genera, but it is more convenient to form only two divisions, “the Goats and Ibexes,” and the ‘ Sheep.” GENUS CAPRA. The twenty-two species of Capra are equally divided between the Goats and the Sheep. The line of demarcation between the groups is by no means clearly drawn; the relationship between them is close, and no decisive characteristics can be described. In general, we may say that the Goats have erect horns, decidedly compressed, curved back- ward and outward, with a keel or ridge of horny substance in front. The males have a thick beard, and are notable for a very rank odor, which is not present in the male sheep. THE GOATS. The Domestic Goat (Plate XLIX) has shared the fate of our otner domesticated animals—we cannot tell from what wild species it is derived. The Paseng, perhaps, has the best claim to be considered its ancestor. The goat was very early reduced to the service of man. During the Stone Age, judging by the Swiss-lake dwellings, it was more common than the sheep. In the oldest Egyptian monuments the goat 638 UNGULATA. appears, and herds of goats, as well as their milk and flesh, are repeat- edly mentioned, together with the fact that the most ancient documents were written on goat-skin. In the Bible, the goat is frequently spo- ken of as supplying both flesh and milk, and its hair as furnishing rai- ment. One of the principal uses to which the skin of the animal was applied was the manufacture of leather, especially of leathern bottles for carrying water; or sacks, such as Joseph's brethren had, for conveying grain. In sacrifices the goat was in great requisition, and on the Great Day of Atonement it was the only animal that couid be offered. Two were selected by lot, one for the Lord, the other for Azazel; the former was slain, and its blood sprinkled on the altar; the latter, the scapegoat, was driven into the wilderness. Friendly as goats and sheep are, the flocks never mingle, not even when folded in the same enclosure. This instinctive separation of the animals led naturally to the simile, so frequently repeated of the just and the unjust, of the sheep and the goats. The goat, no doubt, gives much more trouble to the goatherd, than the sheep to the shepherd. The former is an erratic creature, climbing up the sides of the valleys, skip- ping and jumping, and venturing into places where man cannot set his foot. It is, too, more destructive than the sheep, and in Palestine has, by browsing on the young shoots, quite extirpated many species of trees. In Palestine, at present, the most valuable herds are those of the Mohair or Angora Goat, or of the Syrian or Mamber Goat. From the coat of the former the costly coverings for the Tabernacle were made. Allusion to the long ears of the other variety is found in the Prophet Amos, ch. iii. ver. 12. The wild goat of Scripture was most probably a variety of the Ibex. Goats, at present, are found everywhere. In some countries they are tuvned out to pasture in herds, and are watched by goatherds; in others, a few stray about near the houses of their owners. In all places they show by their habits that they are mountain-animals. They delight in clambering over rocks, stone walls, or anything that reminds them of their original home. They are very intelligent, and can easily be taught many tricks. In Spain they are employed as leaders to the flocks of sheep. In many countries of Europe a goat is kept in large stables to lead the horses from the stalls in case of fire, for nothing but the exam~ ple of another animal will induce the horse to face the flame. In America, the Goat is an introduction by Europeans, and is abundant in Rh aay 2 Re CASHMERE GOAT IBEX DOMESTIC GOAT ANGORA GOAT Pena Kix UNGULATA. THE CASHMERE GOAT. 639 all parts, both north and south. Its maintenance costs little or nothing, and its milk is abundant, and can be made into a peculiarly-flavored cheese. The flesh of the young kid is delicate; its skin furnishes the best kind of leather, and its hair is fashioned into brushes or woven into cloth. THE BEZOAR |GOAG. The BEZOAR GOAT or PASENG, Capra egagrus, is rather larger than the Domestic Goat. It has very strong, large, curving horns, often nearly three feet in length, which have in front several protuberances. Both sexes have beards, and the coat consists of long, stiff, smooth hair, covering a short, fine wool. The color is a reddish-gray, passing into white on the abdomen. The Paseng is found in Western and Central Asia, and extends to the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, abounding especially in Crete, where it frequents the loftier peaks. The herds usually consist of forty or fifty, and are dangerous, as they will attack a hunter, and, unless he is cautious, hurl him down the precipices. In the Caucasus they ascend up to the snow-line. In its mode of life it does not differ much from the chamois, climbing and leaping from cliff to cliff with equal agility and skill. The lynx and panther are its deadly foes in the Taurus range, but in all Western Asia it is eagerly hunted to obtain the Bezoar-stones. The Bezoars are balls which form in the intestines of many ruminants. The animal being partial to saline matters, gratifies its taste by licking pieces of rock containing saltpetre. Thus a variety of earthy and silicious particles are swallowed, which become agglutinated by the action of the stomach, and form curious pebble-like accretions. These are regarded as endowed with wonderful power as medicines, especially as safeguards against poison. THE CASHMERE GOAT. The CASHMERE GOAT Capra laniger (Plate XLIX), is remarkable for its soft, silky hair, from which the highly-prized shawls are manufactured. This animal is a native of Thibet and the neighboring localities, but the Cashmere shawls are not manufactured in the same land which sup- plies the material. The fur of the Cashmere Goat is of two sorts—a soft, 640 UNGULATA. woolly under-coat of grayish hair, and a covering of long, silken hairs, that seem to defend the interior coat from the effects of winter. The woolly under-coat is the substance from which the Cashmere shawls are woven, and in order to make a single shawl, a yard-and-a-half square, at least ten goats are robbed of their natural covering. Beautiful as are these fabrics, they would be sold at a very much lower price but for the heavy and numerous taxes which are laid upon the material in all the stages of its manufacture, and after its completion upon the finished article. Indeed, the buyer of a Cashmere shawl is forced to pay at least a thousand per cent on the cost of his purchase. Attempts have been made to domesticate this valuable animal in Europe, but without real success. It will unite with the Angora Goat and produce a mixed breed, from which may be procured very soft and fine wool, that is even longer and more plentiful than that of the pure Cashmere Goat. As a commercial speculation, however, the plan does not seem to have met with much success. THE ANGORA GOAT. The ANGORA Goat, Capra angorensis (Plate XLIX), is the noblest of ail the group. It is a large animal, with long peculiar horns, and mag- nificent hair. The horns in the male are compressed, not rounded, but with a sharp ridge; they slope almost horizontally backward, and make a wide double turn with the tips outward; in the female they are shorter, weaker, and round, and form only one curve. The face, ears, and lower joints of the legs are covered with short, smooth hair, the rest of the body is hidden with a thick long fleece, fine, soft, brilliant and silky, which curls in locks, and is chiefly composed of wool, with a few sparse hairs only appearing. The predominant color is a uniform dazzling white, although specimens with dark marks have been seen. This fleece falls off in handfuls in summer, but grows again very rapidly. This goat derives its name from the town of Angora or Angola, in Asia Minor, where it was first seen by Europeans. The region they inhabit is dry and hot in summer, and very cold in winter, and a pure dry atmosphere is necessary for them. The animal is carefully washed and combed every month during the summer. The fleece is clipped in April, and packed for the market. Angora alone sends out 2,200,000 pounds, mostly shipped to England. The fineness of the wool decreases THE MAMBER GOAT. 641 as the animal’s age increases ; hence the fleece of a one-year-old goat 1s the most precious; after their sixth year, the wool is unmerchantable. Angora goats have been introduced into various kingdoms of Europe, and preserve there all the fineness of their wool. THE MAMBER GOAT. The MAMBER GOAT, Capra mambrica, has long hair, but is distin- guished from the previous goats by very long pendulous ears, which often exceed a foot in length. It is a large, high animal, with strong horns that describe a semicircle. The fleece is abundant, thick, and silky. This species is found in considerable numbers near Aleppo and Damascus, and thence has spread through a great part of Asia. The Kirghish Tartars dock the ears as they get in the way, when the creature is feeding. THE MARKHOR AND TAHIR. The MARKHOR, Capra megaceros, is found in Afghanistan, Thibet, Cashmere, and the Himalaya Mountains. As the specific title mega-ceros or “ big-horn”’ indicates, its horns are of remarkable size. They grow, usually, to a length of forty inches, and have a semi-oval section with a prominent ridge at both sides: they stand close together, rise up straight, and make one and a half, or two spiral twists. In some bucks they perfectly resemble corkscrews. The coat is long on the shoulders and along the spine, giving the animal a kind of mane, and is more strikingly developed on the throat, chest, and chin, reaching often to the knee-joints. A grayish-brown is its prevailing color. The Tautr, or JEMLACK, Capra Femlaica, is regarded by some as the representative of a sub-genus, Hemztragus. It is a handsome animal, in- habiting the loftiest mountains of India. It lives in herds, passes the day in the woods, and sallies out to feed in the evening. THE EGYPTIAN GOAT. The EcypTIan GOAT, Capra Afgyptiaca, is smaller than our common goat, and has thin, merely rudimentary horns, when horns are present. Usually, neither sex has these appendages. The color is reddish-brown. This animal is found everywhere domesticated in Lower Egypt and Nubia. 8I 642 UNGULATA. The Dwarr Goat, Capra reversa, stands about twenty inches niga. It has short horns, curving slightly backward. The short, thick coat 1s dark, black and reddish-brown mixed together being the prevailing color, but it is sometimes marked with white patches. It is found in the countries between the White Nile and the Niger rivers in Africa, and probably extends into the heart of the continent. THE IBEXES. The IBEx inhabits the mountains of the Old World, and dwells on heights inaccessible to other large animals. Each species has only a narrow distribution. Europe contains at least three species, and the others are found in regions so widely separated as Siberia, Rocky Arabia, Abyssinia, and the Himalayas. The specific differences lie in the form of the horns. THE ALPINE IBEX. The IBEex, Capra tbex (Plate XLIX), is a stately creature nearly five feet in length and three feet in height. The body is compact, the head small but strongly arched at the brow, the legs powerful, the horns, which are common to both sexes, are large and strong, and curve in a semicircle backward. At the roots, where they are thickest, they stand close together, but gradually diverge and taper. Their section is nearly rectangular. The rings, which indicate the animal’s age, form on the front of the horn strongly marked transverse ridges, being most clearly defined and most closely placed in the middle of the horn. The length of these horns is often upwards of a yard, and their weight nearly thirty pounds. The horns of the female are smaller than in the male, and round. The Ibex was nearly exterminated some centuries ago, but for the last century has been carefully preserved in the Italian Alps. It no longer exists in the Tyrol or Switzerland, and for its preservation in the mountains between Piedmont and Savoy we must thank the late king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel, who took energetic measures to stop its de- struction. At present, it is supposed, five hundred Ibexes exist in the hunting-grounds he possessed in the chain of Mont Blanc, in the com- munes of Cogne, Campiglia, Ceresole, and Savaranche. Notices are put THE IBEX. 643 up, warning travelers not to shoot them, and the royal gamekeepers are ever on the alert. The Emperor of Austria has lately imported some to the Salzkammergut, where they are said to be increasing. To hunt the Ibex successfully is as hard a matter as hunting the chamois, for the Ibex is to the full as wary and active an animal, and is sometimes apt to turn the tables on its pursuer, and assume an offensive deportment. Should the hunter approach too near the Ibex, the animal will, as if suddenly urged by the reckless courage of despair, dash boldly forward at its foe, and strike him from the precipitous rock over which he is forced to pass. The difficulty of the chase is further increased by the fact that the Ibex is a remarkably enduring animal, and is capable of abstaining from food or water for a considerable time. It lives in little bands of five or ten in number, each troop being under the command of an old male, and preserving admirable order among themselves. Their sentinel is ever on the watch, and at the slightest suspicious sound, scent, or object, the warning whistle is blown, and the whole troop make instantly for the highest attainable point. Their instinct always leads them upward, an inborn “ excelsior” being woven into their very natures, and as soon as they perceive danger, they invariably begin to mount toward the line of perpetual snow. The young of this animal are produced in April, and in a few hours after their birth they are strong enough to follow their parent. The color of the Ibex is a reddish-brown in summer, and gray-brown in winter; a dark stripe passes along the spine and over the face, and the abdomen and interior faces of the limbs are washed with whitish gray. The Ibex is also known under the name of BOUQUETIN. THE PYRENEAN IBEX. The CABRAMONTES, Capra Pyrenaica, is found in the Sierra Nevada, Sierra Moreno, the Mountains of Toledo, the Pyrenees, and is especially abundant in the Sierra de Grados, which separates Old and New Castile. It is quite as large as the Alpine Ibex, but differs from it in the confor- mation of its horns. These, in the buck, stand very closely together—in fact, almost touching ; they rise at first straight up for one-third of their length; they then spread out in a lyrate form, while the tips turn up- ward and toward each other; they are round in front, but form a short keel behind. The rings indicative of age are clearly visible, but do not 644 UNGULATA. form ridges, as in the Ibex. The horns of a buck eleven years old, were found to measure over two feet and a half in length. The color of the animal varies not only with age and season, but according to locality. The hair, beginning from the horns, and going down to the shoulder, forms a kind of mane nearly four inches long; the tail has a still longer tuft. In the Sierra de Grados, a dark-brown mixed with black is the prevailing color in summer; in winter, a brownish-black and gray hue predominate. In the Sierra Nevada the color is lighter, and the black less pronounced. The Cabramontes usually lives in herds, divided according to the sex, often exceeding one hundred in number. The bucks, heedless of snow and cold, live in the highest part of the mountains, while the ewes seek the southern slopes. The herd is led by the oldest and strongest member. The leader advances ten or twelve yards, stops till the herd comes up, and then again advances in like manner. A herd, feeding, always appoints sentinels to give the alarm. A piping bleat gives the signal. The herd rushes away. Precipices, where man can see no pos- sible foothold for any living creature, are scaled with easy rapidity and safety, not only by the old ones, but the youngest kids. The bucks are more watchful than the ewes, and take the additional precaution of having a rearguard; nor are they so timid, for, when disturbed, they do not at once take to flight, but leap on some rock and examine the in- truder. The Spanish hunter has a hard task to bring down his game. He climbs by the wildest paths to the mountain ridge, then creeps on hands and knees to the edge of some precipice, where, after removing his hat, he lies flat down to look into the chasm below. If he sees a herd, he imitates their piping bleat, and by this device often attracts the bucks nearer to him. The flesh is highly prized, and the hide and horns have also their value. Old writers used to relate that the horns of the Ibexes were of great service to the animal, for, when it leaped down a precipice, it alighted on its horns, and thus saved its skull. Of course this is mere fable. THE ARABIAN IBEX. The BEDEN, Capra Syriaca, is closely allied to the Ibex of the Alps. The differences between them lie in the horns, which have three angles THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE. 645 instead of four. Its usual color is gray, becoming brownish in winter. The male has a black beard. The Beden, or Wild Goat of Scripture, is still found in Palestine, in small herds of eight or ten. Its agility is extraordinary, and it flings itself with reckless accuracy from one craggy peak to another. Like the Ibex it is very wary, has very keen eyes and keen scent, and, like all gregarious animals, posts sentries to guard the herd. The flesh is excel- lent, and perhaps the reason why King David took up his abode at Engedi was the necessity of obtaining tood for his followers, as it may be safely assumed that the Beden, which is still seen there, was more abundant in old days, before firearms rendered all wild animals afraid of the neighborhood of man. It is probable, too, that it was the Beden which Esau hunted with his quiver and his bow when he sought the savory meat his father loved. KEI CHAPIER 4221. THE SHEEP AND THE MUSK-OX. THE AOUDAD—THE MOUFFLON—THE ARGALI—THE KATSHKAR—THE BIG HORN—ITS HABITS— FAT-TAILED SHEEP—THE CRETAN SHEEP—THE SOUTHDOWN—THE LEICESTER—THE MERINO— THE HIGHLAND SHEEP—THE GENUS OVIBOS—THE MUSK-OX OF NORTH AMERICA, HE Sheep are distinguished from the Goats by the possession— as a rule—of the tear-bag, by the flat forehead, and the angular twisted horns, and by the absence of a beard. All wild sheep inhabit mountains of the Northern Hemisphere. Their proper home is Asia, but they extend as far as Africa and the Northern part of America. Every mountain-group in Asia has varieties peculiar to itself, while in Europe, Africa, and America, each have only one species. Many species and varieties are very close to each other, and are distinguished merely by the conformation of the horns. Sheep are like goats, children of the mountain, and live at heights where no other animal except the goat is found. The tame sheep is only a shadow of the wild one, and, unlike the goat, retains hardly a trace of its original qualities. THE AOUDAD. The AoupaD, Capra tragelaphus, is a native of Northern Africa, where it is found only in the highest and almost inaccessible ridges of the Atlas range. It is a powerful and active animal, standing rather more than three feet at the shoulder. The horns are about two feet in length, and curve boldly backward. Its fleece consists of strong, hard, rough hair, and fine curling wool. The former forms on the back of the neck into a short mane, and is developed on the throat, breast, and fore-legs into a thick, long, bushy mass. The flesh of this wild sheep is highly prized by the Arabs, and resembles very much that of the deer. It lives a solitary life, and is never seen in herds. THE ARGALI. 647 The MOUFFLON, Capra musimon, is the only wild sheep found in Europe. It inhabits Sardinia and Corsica, frequenting the lofty peaks of those islands, but it is an error to confound with it the varieties found in the Balearic Islands and Spain, or in Greece. In olden days this variety of wild sheep was very abundant, as many as five hundred having been slain in a single chase; but at present, twenty or thirty head are the highest numbers killed, even when the sportsmen have all the needful appliances. The Moufflon is one of the smallest of wild sheep, standing a little over two feet in height ; the horns attain a length of two feet, the coat is pretty short and smooth, but in winter becomes very thick, and forms a kind of mane. Unlike the Aoudad, the Moufflon is found in tribes of fifty to a hundred, led by an old sturdy ram. -Such a troop chooses for its dwelling some inaccessible height, and, like other social ruminants, throws out sentinels to give alarm. The movements of the Moufflon are lively, quick, and safe, but are deficient in endurance. Tame Moufflons may be often seen in Corsica and Sardinia, but they are troublesome; the bucks, especially, losing all fear of man, and attack- ing him out of mere wantonness. THE ARGALI. The BEARDED ARGALI, Capra argali (Plate L), is the giant of the Sheep group, being nearly as large as a moderate sized ox. The horns of an adult male are nearly four feet in length, and measure nineteen inches in circumference at the base: they curve boldly downward till beneath the chin, then recurve and come to a point. The surface of these horns is covered with a set of deep grooves set closely together, and extending to the tips. Firmly set as these horns are, they are not unfrequently knocked off in the annual duels. It is a mountain-loving animal, being found on the highest grounds of Southern Siberia and the mountains of Central Asia, and not fond of descending to the level ground. Its power of limb and sureness of foot are truly marvelous, when the great size of the animal is taken into consideration. If disturbed while feeding in the valley, it makes at once for the rocks, and flies up their craggy surfaces with wonderful ease and rapidity. Living in such local. ities, it is liable to suffer great changes of temperature, and is sometimes 648 UNGULATA. wholly enveloped in the deep snow-drifts that are so common upon mountainous regions. In such cases they lie quietly under the snow, and continue respiration by means of a small breathing-hole through the snow. For these imprisoned Argalis the hunters eagerly search, as the animal is deprived of its fleet and powerful limbs, and is forced igno- miniously to succumb to the foe, who impales him by driving his spear through the snow into the creature’s body. Like others of the same group, it is gregarious, and lives in small flocks. THE KATSHKAR. The KATSHKAR, Capra politi, is described by the old traveler, Marco Polo, as abundant in the elevated plateau of Pamere. It is as large as the Argali, measuring six feet in length, and four feet in height. The horns curve downward in a complete circle, and attain a length of nearly five feet. This sheep seems to be found in all the mountain table-lands of Asia, in the plateaux of Thian-Shan and North Thibet, and of the Aksai, where it ascends above the “timber-line.”” The herds consist of ten to fifteen, led by a buck whose snowy breast, long curved horns, and proud gait make him a noble object. This animal is hunted in a peculiar manner. The Cossacks and Kirghises go out in pairs to the chase. They are armed with long heavy muskets, which are fired from a rest. If the creature is not killed at the first fire, then the chase begins; one sportsman presses the animal closely, the other cuts off corners, and tries to conceal himself in places where the game must pass. THE BIG HORN. The Bic Horn, Capra montana (Plate L), ranks next in size to the elk among the horned beasts of the Great West. It is a curious combination of the body of a deer and the head of a sheep; the horns are, as its common name indicates, of enormous size, and make a curve that is more than a complete circle. The head and horns often weigh sixty pounds. Its coat is thick with short grayish hair, changing in the fall into dun, and the hair becoming more than an inch long, and rather wiry. In winter the coat is increased by a layer of exceedingly fine wool which, though sometimes three inches long, never shows outside the hair, but lies curled up close to the skin. Th Soe Pee See. F A eal SHEEP BEARDED ARGALI CR HIGHLAND SHEEP DOMESTIC SHEEP MERINO SHEEP PEALE bb UNGULATA THE BIG HORN. 649 The Big-horn is found in troops of twenty or thirty in number; they never quit the craggiest regions, but find their food upon the little knolls of green herbage that are sprinkled among the precipices, without being tempted by the verdure of the plains. They come down, however, from their rocky fastnesses to obtain water from the low-lying springs. They are very shy and suspicious, and, at the first appearance of a man, take flight. “ What becomes of the Mountain Sheep,” writes General Dodge, “when man invades his stronghold, it is impossible to say. Hundreds may be ina locality; man appears; a few, perhaps ten, are killed; the others disappear and leave no sign. The Big-horn is an admirable climber, and runs up or down the faces of precipices where apparently no foothold exists. Their habits are those of other sheep. The lambs begin to be seen in June, when they are placed on some shelf of rock inaccessible to man or any beast of prey. The ewes and lambs, according to Richardson, form herds apart from the males. From the middle of August till November, the flesh of the Big-horn is in prime condition. According to General Dodge “it is im- possible to describe it, but if one can imagine a saddle of most delicious ‘Southdown’ flavored with the richest and most gamey juices of the black-tail deer, he will form some idea of a feast of mountain-sheep in season, and properly cooked. Except in season, the mountain sheep is thin, tough, and the poorest food that the plains furnish to man.” THE FAT-TAILED SHEEP. In several foreign breeds of the domestic sheep there is a curious tendency to the deposition of fat upon the hinder quarters. This pro- pensity is not valued in our own country, where the sheep are almost invariably deprived of the greater portion of their tails by the hand of the shepherd, which in consequence are never developed. In some vari- eties, however, such as the steatopygous sheep of Tartary, the fat accu- mulates upon the hinder quarters in such enormous masses that the shape of the animal is completely altered. The fat of this portion of the body will sometimes weigh between thirty and forty pounds, and when melted down, will yield from twenty to thirty pounds of pure tallow. So inordinate is the growth of the fat, that the tail becomes almost oblit- erated, and is only perceptible externally as a little round fleshy button. 82 650 UNGULATA. Some varieties present a different mode of producing fat, and deposit a large amount of fatty matter in the tail. Fat-tailed Sheep are found in many parts of the world, and are much valued on account of the pecu- liarity from which they derive their name. The Syrian variety is remarkable for the enormous dimensions of the tail, which in highly fattened and carefully tended specimens will weigh from seventy to eighty pounds. So large, indeed, are the tails, and so weighty are they, that the shepherds are forced to protect them from the ground by tying flat pieces of board to their under surface. Sometimes they add a pair of little wheels to the end which drags on the ground, in order to save the animal the trouble of drawing the bare board over the rough earth. The fat which is procured from the tail is highly valued, and is used in lieu of butter, as well as to “lard”? meat that would otherwise be un- pleasantly dry and tasteless. It is also melted down and poured into jars of preserved meat, for the purpose of excluding the air. These sheep are most carefully watched, and are generally fed by hand. The Afghan Fat-tail has very fine silky wool, the Persian is remark- able for its contrasts of color, the body being white, the head a deep black. In all Northern and Central Africa, as well as in Arabia, these Fat-tailed Sheep are common. THE CRETAN, OR WALLACHIAN SHEEP. The CRETAN SHEEP (Plate L) is a native of Western Asia and the adjacent portions of Europe, and is very common in Crete, Wallachia, and Hungary. The horns of the Wallachian Sheep are strikingly like those of the Koodoo, or the Addax, their dimensions being propor- tionately large, and their form very similar. The first spiral turn is always the largest, and the horns are not precisely the same in every specimen. As a general rule, they rise boldly upward from the skull, being set almost perpendicularly upon the head; but in others, there is considerable variety in the formation of the spirals and the direction of the tips. In one specimen which was preserved in the gardens of the Zoological Society, the first spiral of the horns was curved downward, and their tips were directed toward the ground. The fleece of this animal is composed of a soft woolly undercoat, covered with and protected by long drooping hairs. This wool is THE LEICESTER. 651 extremely fine in quality, and is employed in the manufacture of warm cloaks, which are largely used by the peasantry. THE SOUTHDOWN. The SouTHDOWN (Plate L) is one of the short-wooled breeds, and is valuable, not only for its wool, but for the delicacy of its flesh. It has no horns. It derives its name from the South Downs, a range of chalk- hills in Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, which are covered with a short, sweet grass; but it is not confined to this region, but has been introduced wherever the soil and grass are suitable. THE LEICESTER. The Leicester and its varieties are long-wooled animals, which prefer low-lying pasturages to breezy downs. The most celebrated breed of Leicester Sheep is that which is known as the Dishley breed, and which was developed by the persevering energies of a single individual against every possible discouragement. Mr. Bakewell, seeing that the whole practice of sheep-breeding was based on erroneous principles, struck out an entirely new plan, and fol- lowed it with admirable perseverance. The usual plan in breeding the old Leicester Sheep was to obtain a large body and a heavy fleece. Mr. Bakewell, however, thought that these overgrown animals could not be nearly so profitable to the farmer as a smaller and better proportioned breed ; for the amount of wool and flesh which was gained by the larger animals would not compensate for the greater amount of food required to fatten them, and the additional year or eighteen months during which they had to be maintained. His idea was, that three extra pounds of wool are not so valuable as ten or twelve pounds of meat, and that when the expense of keeping and feeding a sheep for eighteen months is taken into consideration, the balance is certainly on the wrong side. He therefore set himself to im- prove the flesh, letting the wool take care of itself at first, and then turned his attention to the fleece. It was found by experience that sheep with a heavy fleece fatten more slowly than those whose coat is moderately thick. UNGULATA. OV unr i) THE MERINO. Originally, this animal is a native of Spain, a country which has been for many centuries celebrated for the quantity and quality of its wool. The MERINO SHEEP (Plate L), from which the fine Spanish wool is obtained, were greatly improved by an admixture with the Cotswoid Sheep of England, some of which were sent to Spain in 1464, and the fleece was so improved by the crossing, that the famous English wool was surpassed by that which was supplied by Spain. The Merino Sheep is but of little use except for its wool, as, although its mutton is sufficiently good when fattened, it consumes too much food, and occupies so much time in the process of ripening, that it is by no means a profitable animal. The Merino is larger in the limbs than the ordinary English Sheep, and the male is furnished with large spiral horns. The female is generally hornless, but sometimes possesses these appendages ona very small scale. It is liable to bear a black fleece, the sable hue continually making its appearance, even after long and careful crossing. By good management the black tint has been confined to the face and legs, but is ever liable to come out in spots or dashes in the wool. There is always a peculiar hue about the face of a Merino Sheep, not easy to describe, but readily to be recognized whenever seen. In Spain, the Merinos are kept in vast flocks, and divided into two general heads, the Stationary and the Migratory. The former animals remain in the same locality during the whole of their lives, but the latter are accustomed to undertake regular annual migrations. The summer months they spend in the cool mountainous districts, but as soon as the weather begins to grow cold, the flocks pass into the warmer regions of Andalusia, where they remain until April. The flocks are sometimes ten thousand in number, and the organization by which they are man- aged is very complex and perfect. Over each great flock is set one experienced shepherd, who is called the “ mayoral,” and who exercises despotic sway over his subordinates. Fifty shepherds are placed under his orders, and are supplied with boys and intelligent dogs. Under the guardianship of their shepherds, the Merino Sheep, which have spent the summer in the mountains, begin their downward journey THE MUSK OX. 653 about the month of September; and after a long and leisurely march, they arrive at the pasture-grounds, which are recognized instinctively by the sheep. In these pasturages the winter folds are prepared, and here are born the young Merinos, which generally enter the world in March, or the beginning of April. Toward the end of that month the sheep begin to be restless, and unless they are at once removed, will often decamp of their own accord. Sometimes a whole flock will thus escape, and, guided by some marvelous instinct, will make their way to their old quarters unharmed, except perchance by some prowling wolf, who takes advantage of the shepherd’s absence. THE HIGHLAND SHEEP. The HIGHLAND SHEEP (Plate L) partakes in a great degree of the character of the wild animal. Pasturing together in enormous herds, and living upon vast ranges of bleak, hilly country, the light and active HIGHLAND SHEEP isa very intelligent and independent creature, quite distinct in character from the large, woolly, unintellectual animal that lives only in the fold, and is regularly supplied with its food by the care- ful hand of its guardian. It is very sensitive to atmospheric influences, and is so ready in obeying the directions of its own instinct, that a good shepherd when he first rises in the morning can generally tell where to find his sheep, merely by noticing the temperature, the direction of the wind, and the amount of moisture in the air and on the ground. As the Highland Sheep is liable to wander to considerable distances from its proper home, the shepherd is aided in his laborious task by several of those wonderful dogs whose virtues and powers have already been recorded in the course of this work. GENUS OVIBOS. The Musk Ox, Ovibos moschatus (Plate XLVI), the on/y species, is found in the Hudson Bay Territory, West Greenland, and other districts of Arctic America. It is a remarkable blending of the types of the ox and the sheep. Anatomy shows that it is more nearly allied to the latter. Richardson writes concerning it: “ Notwithstanding the shortness of its legs, the Musk Ox runs fast, and climbs hills and rocks with great ease. 654 UNGULATA. Its footmarks are very similar to those of the Caribou, but are rather longer and narrower. These animals assemble in herds of from twenty to thirty in August, and bring forth a calf about the latter end of May. If the hunters keep themselves concealed when they fire upon a herd, the poor creatures mistake the noise for thunder, and crowd together.” The Musk Ox has a long-haired, woolly hide; the horns are remarkably broad at the base, where they approximate very closely ; the first half of the horns is rough and light-colored, the tip smooth and black, and, after covering with a kind of long helmet the summit of the forehead, they turn down boldly behind the eye, and are again hooked upward at the tip. The Musk Ox supplies the Esquimaux with a favorite article of food. Its flesh, as the name indicates, is marked by a strong musky odor, but except for a few weeks in the year, it is perfectly fit for food, and is fat and well-flavored. ORDER V LIT Pahke@ ia ee € 1) br A. 53. ELEPHANTID ~- - - = <= © = ELEPHANTS. 4 WAN Nees WANN GNZNANLNANIANAN ee a ee oe ee ee ee FN 4 WING 7 CHAPTER. ELEPHANTS IN GENERAL. THE ORDER PROBOSCIDEA—DERIVATION OF NAME—THE FAMILY ELEPHANTIDA—FOSSIL ELEPHANTS —THE MAMMOTH—THE MASTODON—THE ELEPHANT—ITS TRUNK—ITS TUSKS—THE ELEPHANT IN HISTORY—IN THE EAST—IN ROME—IN MODERN TIMES—THE TWO SPECIES. mals. The name is derived from the Greek word froboscis, “a trunk,” and expresses the most conspicuous feature of the animals contained in it. It comprises only oxe family, the ELEPHANTID&, or Elephants, those strange creatures which excite awe by their strength, and astonishment by their sagacity, and which form a clearly marked link between the creatures of the world we live in, and those which roamed over the surface of the globe in ages long before it assumed its present conditions of climate. A few words on the fossil remains of the extinct varieties of the elephant will form a fit prelude to our sketch of the sur- vivors. i “HE order PROBOSCIDEA contains the largest of terrestrial ani- THE MAMMOTH. The Mammoth, Léephas primigenius, has left its bones in abundance on the Arctic coasts of the continent of Asia and on the islands of New Siberia. In the latter, indeed, the soil seems formed of bones and tusks cemented together into a solid mass by sand and ice. When the thaws of summer loosen the sandy tundras near the rivers Obi, Yenisei, and Lena, heaps of huge tusks are revealed. Often the teeth are still fixed in the jaws, and huge ribs and thigh-bones have been found still covered with hide, and hair, and flesh, and still bloody. An old traveler, Ides, who in 1692 went through Siberia to China, writes in his account of his journey: “The natives call the beast that has left these remains the 83 658 PROBOSCIDEA. Mammoth, and say it is enormously large, four or five yards high; that it has a long broad head and feet like a bear, that it lives and dwells under the earth, digging out a passage with its tusks. It seeks its food in the swamps, but dies when it touches sandy ground, perishing when it ascends into the outer air.” The Russian explorer, Pallas, describes the heaps of bones he saw in his travels. In 1799, an entire carcass of a Mammoth was found in Siberia, near the mouth of the Lena. Unfor- tunately it was not till 1806 that it was scientifically examined by Pro- fessor Adams of Moscow. The Siberians had cut it up, and used its flesh as food for their dogs. The bears and other carnivorous animals had also consumed a great part of it, but a portion of the skin and one ear remained still untouched. He was able to distinguish the pupil of the eye, and the brain was also to be recognized. The skeleton was still entire, with the exception of one fore-foot. The neck was still clothed with a thick mane; and the skin was covered with blackish hairs and a sort of reddish wool in such abundance that what remained of it could only be carried with difficulty by ten men. Besides this, they collected more than thirty pounds weight of long and short hair that the White Bears had buried in the damp ground after they had devoured its flesh, The remains of this animal, which came to light when buried in the ice for probably many thousand years, are preserved in the Museum of the Academy of St. Petersburg. This discovery excited considerable discussion among naturalists. The creatures had evidently lived in Siberia when the climate was less arctic. Whether their destruction was caused by a sudden change in the inclination of the earth’s axis producing an arctic climate, or whether it arose from some vast deluge, may be still disputed. THE MASTODON. The Mastopon, Elephas mastodon, lived about the same time as the Mammoth. Ten or twelve species have been discovered in Europe, North and South America, and India. The United States are peculiarly rich in its remains; one species, the Gigantic Mastodon discovered in Ohio, has been, indeed, reconstructed. Barton relates that in 1761 the Indians had found five mammoth skeletons, near the heads of which, the finders declared, were “long noses with a mouth below them.” Kalen THE ELEPHANT. 659 aiso mentions a skeleton where the trunk could be distinguished. All the varieties resemble our present elephant. Some were larger, others smaller. Indian traditions called them the ‘‘ Fathers of the Buffaloes,” and relate that they lived at the same time as men of huge size, and were both destroyed by the thunderbolts of the Great Spirit. The Powhatan tribe in Virginia stated that the “Great Man” with his lightnings once smote the whole herd of these monsters because they were destroying the deer, bison, and other animals destined for the use of man. One large bull, however, caught the thunderbolts on his head and turned them aside, till at last he was strucix in the flank. He fled, wounded, into the Great Lake, where he will live for ever. European traditions, speaking of the bones of giants, refer to the remains of either the Mastodon or the Mammoth. The Spartans saw the bones of the hero Orestes in some bones twelve feet long, found in Thrace. A gigantic kneepan found near Salamis was attributed to Ajax, and other huge bones discovered in Sicily were confidently assigned to the one-eyed giant, Polyphemus. THE ELEPHANT. The most remarkable characteristic of the Elephant is its trunk. This organ, which is an organ at once of smell and touch, is an elonga- tion of the nose, very remarkable for its mobility and sensibility. It contains an immense number of circular and longitudinal muscles, which enable it to turn in every direction, and to contract and elongate. It ends in a finger-like projection about five inches long, and in the ordi- nary actions of life is an instrument that performs all the functions of a hand. It seizes and picks up the smallest objects; it can uncork a bottle, or fire off a pistol. In the natural state, the Elephant makes use of it for conveying food to its mouth; for lifting heavy weights, and putting them on its back; for drinking, by filling it with water, and then letting the water pour down its throat. With this instrument it defends itself, and attacks others; it seizes its enemies, entwines them in its folds, squeezes them, crushes them, and tosses them into the air, or hurls them to the ground, afterwards to be trampled under its broad feet. The trunk is a conical tube, of an irregular form, very elongated, truncated and funnel-shaped at the end. The upper side is convex, and fluted along its breadth; the underside is flat, and furnished with two lon- 660 PROBOSCIDEA. gitudinal rows of little eminences, which resemble the feet of silk- worms. The tusks are two enormously developed canine teeth projecting downward from the upper jaw, and they grow to an immense length and weight. The Elephant has one molar tooth on each side of the tusk- bearing jaw, composed of a number of bony plates covered with enamel. The section of the tusks shows a set of streaks radiating in curves from the centre to the circumference and forming lozenges where they inter- sect. The tusks are only renewed once, the molars repeatedly, the old ones being pushed forward by new ones coming from behind. In order to support the enormous weight of the teeth, tusks, and pro- boscis, the head is required to be of very large dimensions, so as to afford support for the powerful muscles and tendons which are requisite for such a task. It is also needful that lightness should be combined with magnitude, and this double condition is very beautifully fulfilled. The skull of the Elephant, instead of being a mere bony shell round the brain, is enormously enlarged by the separation of its bony plates, the intervening space being filled with a vast number of honeycomb-like bony cells, their walls being hardly thicker than strong paper, and their hollows filled during the life of the animal with a kind of semi-liquid fat or oil. The brain lies in a comparatively small cavity within this cellular structure, and is therefore defended from the severe concussions which it would otherwise experience from the frequency with which the animal employs its head as a battering-ram. In order to support the enormous weight which rests upon them, the legs are very stout, and are set perpendicularly, without that bend in the hinder leg which is found in most animals. It may seem strange, but it is nevertheless true, that localities which would be inaccessible to a horse are traversed by the Elephant with ease. In descending from a height, the animal performs a very curious series of manoeuvres. Kneel- ing down, with its fore-feet stretched out in front and its hinder legs ibent backward, as is their wont, the Elephant hitches one of its fore-feet upon some projection or in some crevice, and bearing firmly upon this ‘support, lowers itself for a short distance. It then advances the other foot, secures it in like manner, and slides still farther, never losing its hold of one place of vantage until another is gained. Should no suitable projection be found, the Elephant scrapes a hole in the ground with its advanced foot, and makes use of this artificial depression in its descent. THE ELEPHANT. 661 If the declivity be very steep, the animal will not descend in a direct line, but makes an oblique track along the face of the hill. Although the description of this process occupies some time, the feat is per- formed with extreme rapidity. EE ELEPHANT IN JEISTOR YY. The ancient Egyptians had seen both the African and Asiatic Ele- phant, having made the acquaintance of the latter during their cam- paigns in Assyria. On coins, the Greeks, who had encountered the Persians, always represented the Asiatic species, while the coins of the Romans represented the African species. In India, the Elephant is called Hath7, “the beast with the hand,” and the grandeur and state pomp of the mightiest Oriental kings, the enor- mity of whose magnificence sometimes reads like a fabulous wonder, seems almost inseparable from the early history of elephants. On all great occasions, and the assemblage of multitudes, the lofty and saga- cious double forehead, with the quiet small eyes, enormous flaps of ears, and ever-varying attitude of “proboscis lithe,” constitutes one of the most imposing figures of the majestic scene and its countless concourse. In the most ancient Sanscrit poems there are records of tame elephants in processions, a thousand years before the Christian era. We do not allude only to great state occasions, or to warlike processions, but even to reli- gious ceremonies, since the elephant is found to occupy a post of extra- ordinary honor in the remotest records of the mythology of India. One of their most alarming deities rides upon his back; while the idol which is their symbol for wisdom and science, bears the form of a man with the head of an elephant. A few miles from the modern city of Kermanshah, the excavations of the rock display many finely carved figures, and the sides of some of the caves are covered with sculpture representing the hunting of wild boars along the banks of a river by men mounted on elephants, while others, in boats, are ready to attack the game when it takes to the water. The ancient Chinese represented the earth as borne upon the backs of eight elephants, whose heads were turned to the prin- cipal points of the compass. The same animal is a favorite figure of speech in their poetry. In Eastern architecture the elephant is likewise a very important personage at the gates of temples, on the walls of palaces, on the sides of tombs and pagodas, and in subterranean temples 662 PROBOSCIDEA. like those of Ellora. Even to the present time the Hindoos, on great occasions, select these creatures to bear the images of their gods, and we find them loaded with the most valuable ornaments in the mystic pro- cessions of Brahma and Vishnoo. The use of elephants is absolutely prohibited in the modern capital of Siam, excepting to personages of very high rank; and, in a portion of the Celestial Empire, the chief minister for the foreign department is expressly designated as “the Mandarin of Elephants.” The earliest account, which may be considered worthy to be regarded as history, of the employment of elephants as part of an army, is that which is given of the battle of Arbela (331 B.c.), when Darius ranged fitteen of them in front of the centre of his grand line. They fell into the hands of the conqueror, Alexander, to whom a present was made of twelve more; but this great general was too wise to make use of them in his battle against Porus, as he had already perceived that they might prove very dangerous allies, if driven back mad with wounds and terror among the “serried ranks.” Very soon, however, they were put to use, systematically ; and gradually, by regular training, became very for- midable. There were few wars in which the Romans were engaged, during the three hundred years that intervened between the time of Alexander the Great and Cesar, in which these animals were not em- ployed. Notwithstanding their military education, however, it must be admitted that the best fighting elephants not unfrequently caused their masters to lose the day by their insubordinate and disorderly conduct. Of the tower which was fixed upon the back of the elephant, and filled with armed men, our impressions are chiefly derived from ancient medals and coins, pictures, bas-reliefs, and the writings of poets. In the Book of Maccabees it is said—‘ And upon the beasts there were strong towers of wood, which covered every one of them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there were also upon every one, two-and-thirty strong men, that fought upon them, beside the Indian that ruled him.” This number is an exaggerated one. The usual number of men was four, beside the conductor. The ancient armor of an elephant, in other respects, is highly interest- ing—a strange mixture of the terrible and grotesque. He was often half- cased with plates of metal, and wore a large breastplate, which was fur- nished with long sharp spikes, to render his charge into the ranks of the enemy more devastating; his tusks were fitted—in fact, elongated—with THE ELEPHANT. 663 strong points of steel. Plumes of feathers, small flags, and bells, were also afhxed to them. It is said that some of the most sagacious and skil- ful of the fighting elephants were taught the use of the sword, and, the handles being made suitable to the grasp of the trunk, they wielded enormous cimeters with extraordinary address. The Sultan Akbar had many of these sword-bearing elephants in his army. According to Pliny, elephants were trained in Rome for the stage. He gives an account of a scene enacted by them, in which four of them carried a fifth in a litter, the latter representing an invalid. Others ranged themselves in a seated posture at a great banquet-table, and eat their food from large plates of gold and silver, with portentous gravity, that excessively delighted the spectators. Moreover, he and Suetonius both assure us that an elephant danced on the tight-rope! He walked up a slanting tight-rope from the bottom of the arena to the top of the amphitheatre; and on one great occasion a man was found daring enough, and confident enough in the performer’s skill, to sit upon his back while he made the perilous ascent. There is no exaggeration in this statement. There was in Paris, in 1867, an elephant performing at the circus of the Boulevard du Prince-Eugéne, which was called L’Eléphant ascensioniste ; it had learned to balance its heavy mass on a tight-rope, like Blondin. The Romans justly considered the Asiatic Elephant more intelligent and courageous than the African one. They introduced both in large numbers to their combats in the circus, and Pliny tells a touching story of the pathetic appeals which the poor creatures made to the spectators against the cruelty of their foes. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the first of these animals which was seen in Europe was sent to Charles the Great by the Caliph Haroun al Raschid. Pope Leo X received one as a present from the Sultan. It excited great curiosity,.but soon died. At present both species are common in Zoological Gardens. But, natu- raliy, the performing elephants we see are natives of Asia. GENERAL HABITS. Elephants of both kinds live in large forests, preferring those where water is most abundant. They are sometimes, however, found in Ceylon, at a height of six thousand feet above the sea. They are more nocturnal than diurnal animals. They live in herds, and the traveler who comes upon a herd without disturbing it, sees them 664 PROBOSCIDEA. feeding in the greatest peace and harmony. When they travel, no obstacles deter them. They climb steep hills, they swim lakes and streams, they easily force themselves through the thickest jungle, and form regular tracks as they march in Indian file. The old supersti- tion that they could not he down is unfounded; but may have arisen from the fact that they often sleep standing. The sight of the elephant is not highly developed, but its other senses are delicate, especially that of hearing. Every sportsman has learned that the snapping of a twig will start a whole herd. The intellectual faculties of the elephant resemble those of the higher mammals; he reflects before acting, he learns by experience, he is very susceptible of teaching, and remembers what he learns. They have the sense to avoid the neighborhood of trees during a thunder-storm;. a fact which proves a considerable reasoning power. Still, in his wild life the elephant is cunning rather than sagacious. The herds consist of various numbers, from ten up to hundreds. Kirk saw eight hundred together on the Zambesi river. Each herd consists of a single family, under the rule of a patriarch, who leads and guards the others, providing in every way for their safety. The elephant grows till it is about twenty, and probably lives till it is a hundred and twenty. The Elephant is found in a wild state in Asia and in Africa. In the former continent it inhabits India, Burmah, and Siam, as well as the islands of Ceylon, Borneo, and Sumatra. In the latter it is a native of all the Interior whenever it is clothed with forests or with grass. Probably it never extended to the range of Mount Atlas. It was exter- minated in the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the last century. In North as well as in South Africa it is receding before the advance of civilization. a CIWap? CH Pi wl. THE ASIATIC, ELEPHANT. THE ASIATIC ELEPHANT—ITS USE—MODE OF CAPTURE IN CEYLON—POINTS OF A GOOD ELEPH-ANT —WHITE ELEPHANTS—FUNERAL OF A WHITE ELEPHANT—THE DWARF ELEPHANT. HE AstatTic ELEPHANT, Llephas Indicus (Plate LI), is a powerful animal with a broad forehead, short neck, strong body, and pillar-like limbs. The head, more particularly, gives the over- powering impression which this great beast exercises on the spectator. It is high, short, and broad; the facial line is vertical, the cranium crowned by two eijevated lateral bumps. Near the ears are two glands which, at certain times, secrete a most offensive fluid. The ears are of moderate size, four-sided, and ending in a point. The small, twinkling, but unpleasant eye is deep-set, and the eyelids are lined with thick, strong, black eyelashes. The centre of the eye is very small and round, the iris coffee-colored. The under lip is pointed, and usually hangs down. Between the eyes is the origin of the trunk, which gradually tapers to its extremity. The powerful tusks project from the upper jaw. The neck is short, the line of the spine is highest just behind the head, and slopes downward to the tail. The tail is placed high, and hangs down straight to the joint of the hind leg. The skin is covered with folds and wrinkles, and is almost destitute of hair. The few hairs on the back are of a dark-gray color. The size of the elephant is usually exaggerated. A very large male will measure from the end of the trunk to the end of the tail eight yards, and will stand about four yards high. If it had not been for the presence of man upon the earth, the ele- phant would have been the lord of creation. But man has succeeded in reducing this monarch of the animal kingdom to his service. In India or Siam, when a troop of elephants has been discovered, the natives assemble and surround them, and drive them into a corral. At other times, a solitary male elephant which has been exiled from some troop 84 666 PROBOSCIDEA. is beguiled by a couple of tame females who caress him with their trunks while the men who had accompanied them are passing cords around his limbs. ee ee .Y a ee THE PHALANGISTS. 757 tail round a bundle of grass and hopping away merrily with its burden. The mother invariably drags a tuft of grass over the entrance whenever she leaves or enters her home. GENUS, HYPSIPRYMNUS: The PoToroo or KANGAROO RAT, Hypsiprymnus minor, is the most typical of the four species. It is but a diminutive animal, the head and body being only fifteen inches long, and the tail between ten and eleven inches. The color of the fur is brownish-black, pencilled along the back with a gray-white. The under parts of the body are white, and the fore-feet are brown. The tail is equal to the body in length, and is covered with scales, through the intervals of which sundry short, stiff, and black hairs protrude. The family PHALANGISTID# constitutes one of the most varied and interesting groups of Marsupials, being modified in various ways for an arboreal life. These variations within the range of a single family indi- cate the great antiquity of the Australian fauna. It comprises eight genera. GENUS PEOASCOLARC TUS: The Koaa, Phascolarctus cinereus (Plate LXIII), is the Australian representative of the American sloth. The toes of the forefeet or paws are divided into two sets, the one composed of the two inner toes, and the other of the three outer. The head has a very unique aspect, on account of the tufts of long hairs which decorate the ears. The muzzle is devoid of hair, but feels like cotton velvet when gently stroked with the fingers. GENUS PHALANGISTA. The PHALANGISTS are characterized by possessing a prehensile tail. This member, although to all appearance covered with a heavy coating of long hair, has its inferior surface for some distance from the extremity bare of fur. The genus contains five species. The Sooty PHALANGIST or TAPOA, Phalangista fuliginosa, is prized for its soft and beautiful fur which usually is of a deep blackish-brow 1 758 MARSUPIALIA. color. The tail is very full, the hair being thick, long, and bushy. The ears are rather elongated, and externally naked. The underside of the body is of the same color as the upper portions. The VULPINE PHALANGIST, Phalangista Vulpina, is often called simply the Opossum. It merits by its form and nature, its distinguishing epithet of Vulpine or Fox-like. It is an extremely common animal, and is the widest diffused of all the Australian opossum-like animals. It is nocturnal, residing during the day in the hollows of decaying trees. The nature of its food is of a mixed character. If a small bird be given to a Vulpine Phalangist, the creature seizes it in his paws, and then tears it to pieces and eats it. In all probability, therefore, the creature makes no small portion of its meals on various animal substances, such as insects, reptiles, and eggs. It is a tolerably large animal, equalling a large cat in dimensions. GENUS CUSCUS. The WooLiy PHALANGERs are divided into czght species. The tail, instead of being covered with hair, is naked, except at the base, and is thickly studded with minute tubercles. They are not found in Southern Australia; but are natives of New Guinea, the Moluccas, and Northern Australia. The SpoTTED Cuscus, Cuscus maculatus, in size is equal to a tolerably large cat, and its tail is remarkably prehensile. Its movements are slow and cautious, and its food is chiefly of a vegetable nature. Its fur is beau- tifully soft and silken in its texture, but the color is singularly variable. Another species, called the Ursine Cuscus, is of a uniform deep brown. GENUS PETAURISTA. The TAGUAN, Petaurista taguanoides, is the only species of the genus. It is provided with a parachute membrane on the flanks, which enables it to float through the air like the flying squirrels. In color it is extremely variable; the back is of a rather deep black- ish-brown, darker or lighter in different individuals, the feet and muzzle are nearly black, and the under surface of the body and membrane is white. The upper surface of the parachute membrane is rather grizzled, on account of the variegated tints of black and gray with which the hairs are annulated. Many varieties of color, however, exist in the animal. THE OPOSSUM MOUSE. 759 GENUS BEEIDEUS: The five species of Flying Opossums are found in New Guinea, as well as in Australia. The GREAT FLYING PHALANGER, Belideus Australis (Plate LXIIN), is an inhabitant of New Holland. Its color is variable, but generally may be described as brown tinged with gray, with a darker line along the spine. The abdomen and under portions of the flying membrane are white, very perceptibly worked with yellow. The feet are blackish- brown, the tail is covered with long and soft fur of a brown tint. The total length of the animal is a little over three feet. The native name for the creature is the HEPOONA Roo. The SUGAR SQUIRREL, Belideus sciureus, is also called the NORFOLK ISLAND FLYING SQUIRREL, and the SQUIRREL PETAURUS. Its fur is very beautiful, being of a nearly uniform brownish-gray, of a peculiarly delicate hue, and remarkably soft in its texture. The parachute mem- brane is gray above, but is edged with a rich brown band, and a bold stripe of blackish-brown is drawn along the curve of the spine, reaching from the point of the nose to the root of the tail. The head is somewhat darker than the rest of the body. The under parts of the body are nearly white. Its long and bushy tail is covered with a profusion of very long, full, soft hair, grayish-brown above, and of a beautiful white underneath. GENUS ACROBATA. The Opossum Mouse, Acrobata pygmeus, is also called the Flying Mouse. It is about the size of our common mouse, and when it is rest- ing upon a branch, with its parachute, or umbrella of skin, drawn close to the body by its own elasticity, it looks very like it. Its color is the well-known mouse-tint; but on the abdomen, and under portions of the skin-parachute, the fur is beautifully white. The remaining genera DROMECIA and TARRIPES call for only slight mention. The former contains five species of beautiful dormouse-like creatures. The latter is formed of ove species which is a true honey- sucker, with an extensile tongue, and of the size of a mouse. The family PHASCOLOMGID& contains only ove genus of three species. 760 MARSUPIALIA. The animals comprised in it are tailless, terrestrial burrowing animals, about the size of a badger, but feeding on roots and grass. GENUS PHASCOLOMYS. The WompatT, Phascolomys ursinus (Plate LXIII), is popularly styled the Australian Badger. In all its exterior appearance it is a rodent; in its internal anatomy it approximates to the beaver. Its fur is warm, long, and very harsh to the touch, and its color is gray, mottled with black and white. The under parts of the body are grayish-white, and the feet are black. The muzzle is very broad and thick. The length of the animal is about three feet, the head measuring seven inches. It is nocturnal in its habits, living during the day in the depths of a capacious burrow. Its teeth present a curious resemblance to those of the rodent animals, and its feet are broad, and provided with very strong claws, that are formed for digging in the earth. There are five toes to each foot, but the thumb of the hinder feet is extremely small, and devoid of a claw. This animal is remarkable for possessing fifteen pairs of ribs—in one case sixteen pairs of ribs were found—only six pairs of which reach the breast-bone. OR Dion ~oscurr. NOANTO CE RE eMUA TA. FAMILIES. 83. ORNITHORHYNCIDA - - + + - DUCKBILLS. $4. ECHIDNIDH - - - +++ +++ - ECHIDN. THE DUCK MOLE AND AUSTRALIAN HEDGE- HOG. THE MONOTREMATA—THE FAMILY ORNITHORHYNCHID-E—THE DUCK MOLE—THE FAMILY ECHID- NID/Z—THE NATIVE HEDGEHOG—THE TASMANIAN SPECIES—CONCLUSION. appear to be a link between Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles. That they are Mammals, is beyond dispute, for the females have lacteal glands, and secrete genuine milk; but their interior anatomy is that which is familiar to us in birds; externally, and as regards the skeleton, they are the very opposite of birds. They are small mammals, with short limbs, beak-like jaws covered with a dry skin, small eyes, a short flat tail, feet with five long toes and powerful claws. They have no external ear. ? “HE strange animals belonging to the order MONOTREMATA THE DUCK-BILLS. The family ORNITHORHYNCHID is found in East and South Australia and Tasmania. It is represented by a solitary species of a single genus, an animal of so strange an appearance, that when the first stuffed speci- men was brought to England, it was taken for the contrivance of some swindler. GENUS ORNITHORHYNCHUS: The Duck MOLE, Ornithorhynchus paradoxus (Plate LXIV), is known also as the MULLINGONG. The name Ornithorhynchus signifies “bird’s beak,” and describes the duck-like bill the creature possesses. It is an 764. MONOTREMATA. animal duly organized for aquatic life. Its feet have five toes, terminated by stout nails. The front feet are completely webbed. The tail is broad, of middling length, and flattened on its lower surface. The beak is flat- tened, and is not much unlike that of a swan or duck. Two great horny excrescences, placed on each jaw, supply the place of molars. Its coat is pretty thick, and is of a brown color, more or less tinged with russet, changing to light-fawn on the abdomen. In the males, the heels of the posterior members are each armed with a spur or dew claw, pierced with a hole at its extremity. This spur allows to escape, at the will of the animal, a liquid, secreted by a gland which is situated on the thigh, and with which the spur communicates by a broad subcutaneous conduit. This liquid has nothing venomous about it. The organ in question, very much developed in the males, is quite rudimentary in the females, and, as she ages, disappears entirely. Dr. Bennett allowed himself frequently to be wounded with this spur, and experienced no ill effects. The Duck Mole can run on land and swim in water with equal ease. Its fore-feet are used for digging as well as swimming, and are armed with powerful claws. The animal has been seen to make a burrow two feet in length through hard gravelly soil in less than ten minutes. It uses its beak as well as its feet when digging. The burrow in which the Mullingong lives is generally from twenty to forty feet in length, and always bends upward toward a sort of chamber in which the nest is made. This nest is of the rudest description, consisting of a bundle of dried weeds thrown carelessly together. The burrow has a very evil odor, which is unpleasantly adherent to the hand that has been placed within it. Owing to the extremely loose skin of the Mullingong, it can push its way through a very small aperture, and is not easily retained in the grasp, wriggling without much difficulty from the gripe of the fingers. The loose skin and thick fur are also preventives against injury, as the discharge of a gun, which would blow any other animal nearly to pieces, seems to take but little external effect upon the Duck Bill. The animal is, moreover, so tenacious of life, that one of these creatures which had received the two charges of a double-barreled gun, was able, after it had recovered from the shock, to run about for twenty minutes after it had been wounded. The food of the Mullingong consists of worms, water insects, and mM iH My fi Vs PORCUPINE ANT-EATER DUCK MOLE iui CLs Y NIOINO TT Rie MATA bg ox * = ce + Gal AS THE DUCK MOLE. 705 little molluscs, which it gathers in its cheek-pouches as long as it is engaged in its search for food, and then eats quietly when it rests from its labors. The teeth, if teeth they may be called, of this animal are very peculiar, consisting of four horny, channeled plates, two in each jaw, which serve to crush the fragile shells and coverings of the animals on which it feeds. It seems seldom to feed during the day, or in the depth of night, preferring for that purpose the first dusk of evening or the dawn of morning. During the rest of the day it is generally asleep. While sleeping, it curls itself into a round ball, the tail shutting down over the head and serving to protect it. The young Mullingongs are curious littie creatures, with soft, short flexible beaks, naked skins, and almost unrecognizable as the children of their long-nosed parents. When they attain to the honor of their first coat, they are most playful little things, knocking each other about like kittens, and rolling on the ground in the exuberance of their mirth. Their little twinkling eyes are not well adapted for daylight, nor from their position can they see spots directly in their front, so that a pair of these little creatures that were kept by Dr. Bennett used to bump them- selves against the chairs, tables, or any other object that might be in their way. They bear a farther similitude to the cat in their scrupulous cleanliness, and the continual washing and pecking of their fur. THE AUSTRALIAN HEDGEHOG. The family ECHIDNID& contains ove genus, which is divided into ¢wo closely allied species. These animals, although quite as extraordinary as the Duck Bill in their internal structure, are not so peculiar in their external appearance, having very much the aspect of a hedgehog or spiny ant-eater. One of the species inhabits East and South Australia, the other, Tasmania. GENUS ECHIDNA. Both species have squat, thick-set bodies, short legs, very short tails; the beak and tongue narrow and elongated; the toes armed with dig- ging claws; the back covered with spines. The males, like the Duck Mole, have a spur on the heel. They inhabit sandy places, where they 766 MONOTREMATA. dig out burrows, and live on ants, which they catch by projecting their tongue covered with a viscous humor into the dwellings of these insects. The AUSTRALIAN HEDGEHOG, Echidna aculeata (Plate LXIV) is found on the mainland of Australia. The head is elongated like that of the proper ant-eaters, and contains in the jaws no teeth of any kind. The spines or prickles begin at the back of the head, and form a thick cover- ing upon the upper part of the animal. The head, limbs and abdomen are covered with hair of a dark-brown color and very stiff and bristly. The prickles are dirty yellow, with black tips. If this animal is attacked, it rolls itself into a ball, and is then difficult to hold, as the spines can give severe wounds. It is almost impossible to drag it from its burrow, as it spreads its spines out against the walls of the tunnel. It is probable that it passes the dry season in a state of sleep, for it is, during that period, seldom seen abroad. Cold also has a great influence on it, and a slight decline of temperature seems to place it in a state of hibernation. It is called NICOBEJAN, JANOKAMBINE, and CoGERA, by the natives who roast it in its skin as European gypsies roast the hedgehog. Some of them have been kept in captivity; they were quiet, and liked to be caressed. They were fed on sugared liquids. The second species, ECHIDNA SETOSA, 1s found in Tasmania. It resembles the above in every respect except color, which is of a darker brown instead of the black and yellow which decorates the spines of the common species. The prickles are comparatively few, and there is much close fur between them. CONCLUSION JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. OHN JAMES AUDUBON, the greatest artist in his own walk that ever lived, was born in New Orleans on the 4th of May, 1780. The family was of French origin. His father, who began his career as a sailor, acquired considerable property in Saint Domingo, and held a commission in the French navy. Like his son, he was handsome, with a hardy constitution, great agility, and a restless spirit. He frequently visited the North American Continent and purchased land not only in the French colony of Louisiana, but in Virginia and Pennsylvania, in which latter State he became the possessor of Mill Grove near Schuylkill Falls. The revolt of the negroes in St. Domingo compelled the family to flee and take up their residence on their Louisiana plantation, where the future naturalist first saw the light; and with that fertile land his earliest recollections were associated. To quote his own words, written in 1831: “ I received light and life in the New World. When I had hardly yet learned to walk, and to articulate those first words always so endearing to parents, the productions of nature that lay spread all around were constantly pointed out tome. They soon became my playmates, and before my ideas were sufficiently formed to enable me to estimate the difference between the azure tints of the sky and the emerald hue of the bright foliage, I felt that an intimacy with them, not consisting of friendship merely, but bordering on frenzy, must accompany my steps through life ; and now, more than ever, am I persuaded of the power of those , early impressions. They laid such hold upon me that, when removed from the woods, the prairies and the brooks, or shut up from the view of the wide Atlantic, I experienced none of those pleasures most congenial to my mind. None but aerial companions suited my fancy. No roof seemed so secure to me as that formed of the dense foliage under which the feathered tribes were seen to resort, or the caves and fissures of the mossy rocks to which the dark- winged cormorant and the curlew retired to rest, or to protect themselves from the fury of the tempest. My father generally accompanied my steps, procured birds and flowers for me with great eagerness, pointed out the ele- gant movements of the former, the beauty and softness of their plumage, the manifestations of their pleasure or sense of danger, and the always perfect forms and splendid attire of the latter. My valued preceptor would then (767) 768 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. speak of the departure and return of birds with the seasons, and would de- scribe their haunts, and, more wonderful than all, their change of livery; thus exciting me tostudy them, and to raise my mind toward their great Creator.” He left Louisiana, however, while still a child, and after a brief residence in St. Domingo was taken to France. His father was desirous he should be- come a sailor like himself, and among the branches of education prescribed for him were music, drawing, and dancing. He played skilfully on the violin, flute, and guitar, and his terpsichorean skill served him well at the crisis of his fate, for his voyage to England to publish his great work was rendered possible by gaining two thousand dollars by dancing lessons. His drawing master was the great chief of the classical school,—David, the celebrated painter. At his home at Nantes he indulged in his nest-hunting propensi- ties. He began to collect and try to preserve the specimens. But the preparation of the birds, after death, was onerous, and required constant care, and was subject to decay as the beauty of the plumage vanished. ‘I wished,” was the longing of the boy naturalist, “all the productions of nature, but I wished life with them.” The sequel is told in rather a dramatic way: “T turned to my father and made known to him my disappointment and anxiety. He produced a book of illustrations. A new life ran in my veins. I turned over the leaves with avidity; and although what I saw was not what I longed for, it gave me a desire to copy nature.” To copy nature— it is in three words the story of his future life. He worked so assiduously that he completed drawings of no less than two hundred French birds. His pencil, he says, “gave birth to a family of cripples. So maimed were most of them that they resembled the mangled corpses on a field of battle, com- pared with the integrity of living men.” One expression strikes us as of singular force and felicity: ‘ The worse my drawings were, the more beauti- ful did the originals seem.” His father, although desirous to see his son in his country’s service, wisely recognized the bent of his genius, and sent him to superintend his property in America. He landed in New York, and it is strange to read that he caught the yellow fever by walking to what is now Greenwich Street in that city. On his recovery he took possession of his Mill Grove farm. “ A blessed spot,” as he describes it, “ where hunting, fishing, and drawing occupied my every moment.” In his autobiographical sketch he tells in unaffected lan- guage his first meeting with his wife, Lucy Bakewell, the daughter of an English neighbor, She taught him English, but to the last he retained his French accent, and with his intimate friends preserved the graceful French use of the second person singular; and in his letters and memoranda French JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. 769 words and constructions are of common occurrence. His life at Mill Grove was in every way agreeable. He had ample means; was gay and fond of dress; ridiculously fond, he says, for he used to hunt in black satin breeches, wear pumps when shooting, and dress in the finest ruffled shirts he could import. Yet with all this his mode of life was abstemious. ‘I ate no butcher’s meat, lived chiefly on fruits, vegetables, and fish, and never drank a glass of spirits or wine until my wedding day. To this I attribute my continued good health, endurance, and an ironconstitution. All this time I was fair and rosy, and active and agile as a buck.” The misconduct of a partner, Da Costa, who had been sent out by the elder Audubon, compelled him to hurriedly leave this “happy spot” and hasten to France. He remained there four years, and after a term of service in the Imperial navy as midshipman, sailed again for the western continent, where he arrived safely, after his ship had been overhauled bya British priva- teer. Once more at Mill Grove, he resumed his hunting, drawing, and love- making with Lucy Bakewell. His house became a museum, the walls were festooned with bird’s eggs, the mantel-piece was covered with stuffed squirrels, raccoons, and opossums, the shelves laden with fishes, frogs, and reptiles, and the walls hung with paintings of birds. Patiently and with industry he ap- plied himself to study, determined to make his sketches represent life. “ David,” he writes, “had guided my hand in tracing objects of large size; eyes and noses of giants and heads of horses from the antique were my models. These subjects I laid aside; I returned to the woods of the new world with fresh ardor, and commenced a collection of drawings.” The idea of an “ Ornithological Biography” already took possession of his mind, and he labored to produce lifelike pictures, giving the form, plumage, attitude, and characteristic marks of his feathered favorites. He acquired, too, great skill in stuffing and preserving birds. But these artistic instincts found little favor in the eyes of Mr. Bakewell, who insisted on his obtaining some knowl- edge of commercial pursuits. To this end he proceeded to New York, where he lost his money, and continued as far as possible his favorite pursuits. His rooms in the city became a laboratory, and the odor of his bird-flaying and bird-stuffing achievements produced a visit from a constable who came to abate the nuisance. Some of the specimens prepared by Audubon at this period were made for Dr. Samuel Mitchel, one of the founders of the Lyceum of Natural History, and were finally, it is believed, deposited in the New York Museum. Unsuccessful in his commercial attempts, Audubon resolved to “so West.” He sold Mill Grove, married Lucy Bakewell, and set out for Louisville, Kentucky. 77¢ JOHN JAMES AUDUBON, At this time of his life his appearance was fascinating. ‘I measured,” he naively writes, “five feet ten and a half, was of a fair mien and quite a handsome figure, large, dark, and rather sunken eyes, aquiline nose, and a fine set of teeth; hair, fine texture and luxuriant, divided and passing down behind each ear in luxuriant ringlets as far as the shoulders.”’ He was an ad- mirable marksman, an expert swimmer, a clever writer, possessing great ac- tivity, prodigious strength, and was notable for the careful attention to the care of his dress. ‘ When I first knew Mr. Audubon,” said a lady, ‘“ people used to ask who was this gay young Frenchman who danced with all the girls.” Such was Audubon in 1808. The life of the Apprentice was over; the life of the Journeyman was be- ginning. ‘For a period of twenty years,” writes Audubon, “ my life was a succession of vicissitudes. I tried various branches of commerce, but they all proved unprofitable, doubtless because my whole mind was ever filled with my passion for rambling and admiring those objects of nature from which alone I received the purest gratification. I had to struggle against the will of all who at that period called themselves my friends. I must here, however, except my wife and children. The remarks of my other friends irritated me beyond endurance, and breaking through all bonds, I gave myself entirely up to my pursuits. Any one unacquainted with the extraordinary desire which I then felt of seeing and judging for myself, would doubtless have pronounced me callous to every sense of duty, and regardless of every interest. I under- took long and tedious journeys, ransacked the woods, the lakes, the prairies, and the shores of the Atlantic. Years were spent away from my family. Yet, reader, will you believe it, I had no other object in view than simply to enjoy the sight of nature.” It was while he was in business in Louisville that Audubon met Wilson, the celebrated author of the “American Ornithology,” in the year 181o. Wilson called on him to solicit his patronage for his book. ‘ Do not sub- scribe, my dear Audubon,” said a French friend, “ your own drawings are certainly far better.” Neither at the moment appears to have had any pre- vious knowledge of the pursuits of the other. Audubon examined the en- gravings of Wilson with interest, and the latter was still more surprised to witness such drawings of birds in the portfolio of a Western storekeeper. Wilson asked if it was his intention to publish, and appeared still more per- plexed when he learned that so patient a student had no such object. He borrowed the drawings to examine during his stay in the town, and was in- troduced to birds new to him in the neighborhood, in hunting with his chance acquaintance. Audubon, who as yet had not “ taken unto the height JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. Li™ the measure of himself,’ placed all his drawings at the disposal of his visitor, with the result of his researches, proposing a correspondence, and stipulating only in return for an acknowledgment, in the published work, of what came from his pencil. The offer was not accepted, and Wilson left Louisville, de- claring he had not got one subscriber or one new bird, or received one act of civility. ‘“ Science and literature has not one friend in this place.’ A most unjust remark, had he but known the man before him. They were alike pupils in the great school of nature, taking their lessons in the wilderness, encountering, Wilson particularly, more enemies in the indifference of the world than the “winter and rough weather” to which they voluntarily sub- jected themselves. Audubon found business bad at Louisville and removed to Henderson. He found it bad at Henderson and removed to St. Genevieve. The popula- tion here was French Canadian, to which Audubon had all the French Creole’s antipathy, and he speedily returned to Henderson. It was on the way to St. Genevieve, an old town forty miles below St. Louis, that he first saw the great eagle that he named after Washington. All these wanderings of Audu- bon were training him for his great work, and during the whole period his soul was given to his favorite study rather than to mercantile adventures. The country he traversed was unbroken wilderness—no towns, no villages, 110 roads, no steamboats. When he left one of his temporary dwelling-places he embarked his stock in trade—usually, it seems, whisky—his provisions, his arms and powder, and pushed into the stream. The highest speed with the current was five miles an hour; days were passed in going a few miles, but then these miles were miles of wild fowl, on the water and on the land, and herds of wild deer and countless bears and raccoons. Encampments of Indians were visited, and he joined the red men in their hunt. Some of his vivid descriptions are of the adventures encountered in the company of these Sons of the Forest. At times the boat had to be towed against the stream, and every man had to haul. “While I was tugging with my back to the cordella,” he writes, “I kept my eyes on the forest or the ground, looking for birds.” Then came the camp on shore; the deep slumber, the early start, the same round of tugging and pulling, the same keen lookout for birds. Often there was not a white man’s cabin within twenty miles; the Osage and Shawnee Indians became his guides and comrades as he investigated the habits of deer, bears, cougars, raccoons, and turkeys. “I drew more or less by the side of the camp-fire every day.” On another occasion he tells how with his knapsack, his gun, and his dog, and well moccasined, he moved slowly over the prairies, attracted by the brilliancy of the flowers and the 772 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. gambols of the fawns. At night the night-hawks skimmed around him, and alone the distant howling of the wolves gave him hope that he would soon arrive at some woodland where settlers might be found. At one settler’s hut he would have been murdered by his hostess in his sleep had not a friendly Indian put him on his guard. His hairbreadth escapes by flood and field would fill a volume, and would be more entertaining than any of Coop- er’s tales. While he was at Hendersonville his father died, leaving him his property in France and $17,000 in money. The former he never claimed till his sons were grown up; the latter was lost by the bankruptcy of the merchant in whose hands the money had been deposited, yet he never lost heart. Fora time he seemed to settle; he refused a colonel’s commission in an expedi- tion to South America; he bought a house and some negroes, and began to prosper. Then, in an unlucky moment, he erected a steam-mill at Hender- sonville, which ruined all concerned. The naturalist speaks with bitterness of the “infernal mill,” and with equal fierceness of a steamer that he and his mill-partners had purchased and sold without ever being paid. Difficulties now increased, bills became due, he handed over to his creditors all he pos- sessed, and left Hendersonville with his sick wife, his gun, his dog, and his drawings. The family once more pitched their tent in Louisville, where Audubon turned his artistic skill to practical use, and started as a portrait draughtsman. In a week or two he had as much work as he could do. His business spread, and he enjoyed an extended reputation for the success with which he portrayed the features of the dead. One success brought on an- other, and as a portrait painter he seemed to have got a new start in life. Then he became ataxidermist to the Museum at Cincinnati, and was liberally remunerated, and at the same time he opened a drawing-school. But this gleam of affluence was short; the work at the Museum was soon done, his sit- ters would not pay, and his friends spoke of his wandering habits. In truth, during his whole life in Kentucky and Ohio he was rambling through the woods in search of specimens. His gun supplied all his wants, a maple-sugar camp was a pleasant refuge in the woods, and a glade of the primeval forest, near some spring or salt-lick where game was plentiful, his chosen bivouac. His chance acquaintances were all kinds of wandering adventurers, who were wending westward with their wagons and household goods, or drifting down from the upper waters of the Ohio in a family ark; he describes graphically his meetings with Daniel Boone, the Kentucky hero, and with the eccentric Rafinesque, like himself a naturalist, but in another branch, that of botany. Audubon was now known as a student of nature, for Rafinesque came with a JOHN JAMES AUDUBON, 773 letter of introduction to him, and when he left Cincinnati ts descend the river to New Orleans, he received letters of recommendation from Henry Clay and General Harrison to the Governor of Arkansas and other persons likely to be of service to him. His design on this expedition was to collect specimens in Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, retracing his steps to New Orleans, up the Red River, down the Arkansas, and then homewards. He was determined in any case to complete one hundred drawings before he re- turned to Cincinnati, and he fulfilled his resolve. On the 12th October, 1820, the naturalist left Cincinnati in company with an officer of engineers, who had been commissioned to make a survey of the Mississippi. For fourteen days they drifted down the Ohio in the flat-boat which conveyed the scientific expedition. Audubon had a relative in the old French town of Natchez, and made his first stoppage on his way down the Father of Waters at that place. ‘On a clear frosty morning in December,” writes Audubon in his journal, “I arrived at Natchez, and found the levee lined with various sorts of boats full of Western produce. The crowd was immense, and the market appeared to be a sort of fair. Scram- bling up to the cliffs on which the city is built, I found flocks of vultures flying along the ground, with outspread wings, in pursuit of food. Large pines and superb magnolias crowned the bluff, and their evergreen foliage showed with magnificent effect. I was delighted with the spectacle of white-headed eagles pursuing fishing-hawks, and surveyed the river scenery, sparkling in bright sunlight, with a new pleasure.” After some stay in Natchez, Audubon left for New Orleans, with his friend Berthoud, in a keel-boat, which was taken in tow of the steamer. Not long after leaving, he discovered that one of his portfolios, containing some drawings of birds he prized highly, was missing. On the voyage he remarked the thousands of swallows in their winter quarters, the soft notes of the doves, the glowing crests of the grosbeak, and the perfume of the oranges across the stream. On arriving at New Orleans, Audubon was re- lieved to find that the lost portfolio had been found, and was located safely in the office of the Wissesseppt Republican newspaper. He, however, found no work to do, and had to live for some days in the,boat he came with. The money he had—not much—was stolen from him, and he had not even as much as would pay a lodging he took in advance. Amid all his difficulties he still kept wandering to the woods, made additions to his specimens, and filled his portfolio with new drawings. Meeting an Italian painter, Audubon explained his anxiety to have work. The Italian introduced him to the di- rector of the theatre, who offered the naturalist one hundred dollars per 774 JOUN JAMES AUDUBON. month to draw for him, but a fixed engagement could not be entered upon. At New Orleans Audubon made the acquaintance of Jarvis, the painter. Jarvis told him that he did not know how to paint birds, but perhaps might be useful in the studio for filling-in backgrounds. He returned again to the painter, willing to undertake this task, but Jarvis received him coolly, had no use for him, and in Audubon’s opinion seemed to fear his rivalry. He again sought portraits to paint. Time passed sadly in seeking ineffectually for employment, but a lucky hit with the likeness of a prominent citizen brought a few orders that relieved his immediate necessities. He describes himself as spending his time in “vain endeavors to obtain a sight of Alexander Wilson’s ‘Ornithology,’ which is very high-priced,’ and was successful in procuring some new birds. He writes in March: “ Of late I have been unable to make many entries in my journal. Near our lodg- ings, on the south angle of a neighboring chimney-top, a mocking-bird regularly resorts, and pleases us with the sweetest notes from the rising of the moon until about midnight, and every morning from about eight o'clock until eleven, when he flies away to the convent gardens to feed. I have noticed that bird always in the same spot and same position, and have been particularly pleased at hearing him imitate the watchman’s cry of ‘All’s well!’ which comes from the fort, about three squares distant; and so well has he sometimes mocked it that I should have been deceived, if he had not repeated it too often, sometimes several times in ten minutes.” But his fortunes did not mend in New Orleans; his unconquerable rest- lessness stood in his path. His spirits never flagged. In his sorest penury and direst distress he resumed his gaiety when he had got a few dollars for the likeness of some patron. He had some pupils also, and accepted a situation in the family of Mrs. Perrie, at Bayou Sara, where he had to teach drawing during the summer months to Mrs. Perrie’s daughter. His salary was sixty dollars a month, and board and lodging for himself and his friend Mason. The arrangement, in fact, seems to have been proposed by the Jady to give an opportunity to carry on his favorite pursuits. The lessons were short, and the rest of his time was free for hunting. Here he remained from June to October, in a country the aspect of which was entirely new to him. “Since I left Cincinnati, Oct. 12, 1820,” he writes, “I have finished sixty-two drawings of birds and plants, three quadrupeds, two snakes, fifty portraits, and have subsisted by my humble talents, not having had a dollar when I started.” In the month of October he returned to New Orleans, rented a house, and began life there “ with forty-two dollars, health JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. 775 and much anxiety to pursue his plan of collecting all the birds in America.” He speaks with childish glee of the delight a new suit of clothes gave him. “ My long flowing hair and loose yellow nankeen dress and the unfortunate cut of my features attracted much attention, and made me desire to be dressed like other people.” Now begins, perhaps, the hardest portion of Audubon’s life. He could get no work, no pupils, and between December 8, 1821, when his wife arrived at New Orleans, to March 7, 1822, he wrote no journal, because he could not buy a book to write in. The one obtained at last is of thin, poor paper, and the records entered in its pages are in keeping with his financial troubles. His health began to suffer from depression; he resolved to return to Natchez, and obtained his passage by the steamer in return for a crayon portrait of the captain and his wife. Mrs. Audubon was left behind, as she had undertaken the charge of the children of a Mr. Brand. At Natchez he got an appointment to teach drawing at Wellington College, but complained that the work interfered with his ornithological pursuits; and he was full of despair, fearing that his hopes of becoming known to Europe as a naturalist were destined to be forever blasted. Nor were his spirits raised by the remarks of an Englishman who examined his drawings, and, after advising him to take them to England, added that he would have to spend years in making himself known. In December a portrait-painter named Stein arrived in Natchez, and from him Audubon took his first lesson in oil-painting. His wife urged him to go to Europe and perfect himself in this branch of art, and with this view she entered into an engagement to educate the children of a Mrs. Percy, of Bayou Sara, along with her own and a limited number of pupils. On her departure for this sphere of employment, Audubon and Stein resolved to start out as wandering artists, painting portraits for a livelihood. ‘TI had finally deter- mined to break through all bonds and pursue my ornithological pursuits. My best friends solemnly regarded me as a madman, and my wife and family alone gave me encouragement. My wife determined that my genius should prevail, and that my final success as an ornithologist should be triumphant.” So far Audubon’s career had been marked by few gleams of prosperity, but his desperate venture of coming East to obtain help to complete his work proved to be the stepping-stone of fame. He reached Philadelphia April 5, 1824, and was welcomed by the artists there, receiving great kind- ness from Mr. Sully. An old friend, Dr. Mease, introduced him to Charles Bonaparte, who was engaged on his own book of “ American Birds.” Bona- parte examined his drawings, and praised them highly. He introduced him to Peale, the artist to the Academy of Arts, and pronounced his birds superb 776 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. and worthy of a pupil of David. Mr. Lawson, the engraver of Wilson’s plates, said the drawings were too soft, and objected to engrave them. Another engraver, Mr. Fairman, strongly advised him to go to England. Mr. Murtrie, the conchologist, gave the same counsel; and all strengthened him in his resolution to go to Europe with his treasures, assuring him that nothing so fine in the way of ornithological representations existed. He kept working away at oils under Sully’s instruction, “who gave me,” to quote his own words, “all the possible encouragement which his affectionate heart could dictate.” He mentions the disinterested generosity of Mr. Edward Harris, who at parting squeezed a hundred-dollar bill into his hand, a gift returned by Audubon insisting on his friend receiving the drawings of all his French birds. He paid a flying visit to Mill Grove, the old home where his father had resided, and where he himself had been married, and then fortified with letters from Mr. Sully to Gilbert Stuart, Washington Alston, and Colonel Trumbull, left for New York, “free of debt, and free from anxiety about the future.” In New York he made inquiries about the publication of his drawings, but the project met with no favor. “TI feel depressed,” he writes. “I fear I shall die unknown. Iam strange to all but the birds of America.” Money was all this time scarce; so scarce that he could not visit Boston. He went to Niagara, however. ‘What a scene!”’ he exclaims. ‘ My blood shudders still at the grandeur of the Creator’s power.” At Buffalo he met the chief Red Jacket, a noble-looking man, and ate a good dinner for twelve cents. ‘Went to bed thinking of Franklin eating his roll in the streets of Philadelphia, of Goldsmith travel- ling by the help of his musical powers, and fell asleep, hoping by persevering industry to make a name for myself among my countrymen.” He next spent a month at Pittsburgh, scouring the country for birds, and finally reached Cincinnati again. He took a deck passage to Louisville, so low were his finances, and slept on some shavings, yet on the page recording this, he continues: “The spirit of contentment I now feel borders on the sublime. Enthusiast or lunatic, as some of my relatives will have me, I am glad to possess it.” Audubon’s temperament did not, indeed, attract any but artists like himself. “ My friends think only of my apparel,” he tells us, “and those upon whom I have conferred kindnesses prefer to remind me of my errors.” Disgusted with such friends, he once more sought Bayou Sara, where his wife was still engaged. She was receiving what he describes as a large income, three thousand dollars a year, which she offered him to help forward the publication of his drawings. Numerous pupils desired lessons from him; a special invitation to teach dancing was received, and a class of JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. 777 sixty was soon formed. He gives an amusing description of the scene; and adds that the result of the speculation was two thousand dollars, and that with this sum and what his wife could furnish, he now saw more clearly the prospect of completing the task on which he had been working for five-and- twenty years. On May 19, 1826, Audubon left New Orleans on the ship Dedos, and July 20th, landed at Liverpool. He exhibited his drawings there, and after a brief visit in Manchester, went to Edinburgh. Here he met a warm welcome. Sir William Jardine, in the midst of his ornithological publications, spent hours beside him as he worked, and men like Scott, Jeffrey, and Patrick Neill did their best to encourage him. Lizars, the engraver, on seeing his drawings exclaimed, “ My God, I have never seen anything like these before!” and offered to bring out a first number of his “‘ BIRDS OF AMERICA.” The book was to be published in numbers, containing four birds in each, the size of life, at two guineas ($10) a number. “One hundred subscribers for my book,” he writes, “will pay all expenses.” In the following year he issued, on March 17th, the “ Prospectus” of his great work. He had now assumed a more civilized garb, dressed twice a day, and wore silk stockings, but still for a time let his hair grow as long as usual. “It does as well for me as my paint- ings,” he exclaimed ; but at last the importunities of his friends prevailed, and he sacrificed his cherished locks to the Caledonian taste of Edinburgh. After a provincial canvass for subscribers he reached London, and removed the publication of his work from Lizars to Robert Havell. In the autumn he visited Paris, where Cuvier made a report on his work, describing it “as the most magnificent monument which has as yet been erected to ornithol- ogy.” Subscriptions in Paris came in slowly, four only in seven weeks, and after a visit of two months he returned to London and thence to America, where he landed on May 5th. He returned to England with his wife in 1830, and at the close of this year the first volume of his great work was completed. He was back in America in 1831, and made several excursions. He procured letters from the Department at Washington to the military outposts, explored the Carolinas and Florida, and following the birds in their migrations, pro- ceeded northward to Maine and Labrador, everywhere enriching his portfolio with the results of his explorations. Audubon thus passed nearly three years of “travel and research” in America before he returned to England, where he was greeted by his com- pleted second volume, one-half of his projected work. A third appeared in due time, and the fourth and last was finished in 1838. After this the author was at liberty to make his permanent home in 778 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. America, and consequently in 1839 returned to the United States and be. came the purchaser of a country-seat in the immediate vicinity of New York, on the banks of the Hudson, in the upper portion of the island on which the city is situated. To bring the results of his great work within the reach of a larger number of the public, he employed himself upon its reduc- tion. This was published in New York in seven octavo volumes, between 1840 and 1844. Nor had the author meantime relinquished his active habits of exploration. In company with his sons Victor Gifford and John Wood- house he traversed the remoter regions of the country, collecting materials for a new work on which he now became engaged, on the “ Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America.” Besides the aid of his sons, he had the assistance in this work of his friend, the accomplished naturalist, the Rev. John Bachman, of South Carolina. It was in size similar to the “ Ornithology,” and was completed in three volumes in 1848. This was the last publishing enterprise which the author lived to see completed, a smaller edition of the work having appeared since his death. With his fame established, in the society of his wife, who had so ably aided him, and of his sons, who grew up to work with him, Audubon spent his declining years in his rural home. Some time before his death his mind gave way till he peacefully passed from earth on the 27th January, 1851. Rufus W. Griswold, who visited Audubon in 1846, gives us the following picture of his home: “ Several graceful fawns, and a noble elk, were stalking in the shade of the trees, apparently unconscious of the presence of a few dogs, and not caring for the numerous turkeys, geese, and other domestic animals that gobbled and screamed around them. Nor did my own approach startle the wild, beautiful creatures, that seemed as docile as any of their tame companions.” His house became the dwelling of animals of various kinds, some very far from attractive. At one time he aroused the household in the night to aid him to catch a number of white mice which had escaped from their cage; at another time a polecat was a resident of his painting- room; at another a California buzzard in the last stages of decomposition lay for days on the piazza. Whenever he could do so, he drew from life; bears, wolves, foxes, deer, moose, elk, and many smaller quadrupeds were kept in inclosures near the house, and sketched as they moved about. Animals that could not be sketched from life were painted as soon after death as possible before the muscles had relaxed or the coloring had lost the gloss and bril- liancy of life. Every motion and attitude in each creature’s native home had been carefully studied. Another friend writes: “The unconscious greatness of the man seemed only equalled by his JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. 779 childlike tenderness. The sweet unity between his wife and himself, as they turned over the original drawings of his birds, and recalled the circumstances of the drawings, some of which had been made when she was with him ; her quickness of perception, and their mutual enthusiasm regarding these works of his heart and hand, and the tenderness with which they unconsciously treated each other, remain impressed upon my memory. Ever since, I have been convinced that Audubon owed more to his wife than the world knew, or ever would know. That she was always a reliance, often a help, and ever a sympathizing sister-soul to her noble husband, was fully apparent to me.” “ His enthusiasm was sometimes intense; he would rise before daylight and walk about eagerly, waiting for the dawn that he might begin work, and once at work would steadily and earnestly continue to paint all day. Sun- set found him at his picture full of vigor and energy, but with no interest in anything else. He would pursue this course till the fever left him, when he would lay his brushes aside and roam through woods and fields.” At no time did he lose sight of his work; it was ever on his mind, as might be seen from the questions addressed to those he was with, and the quick glances of his eagle eye. His quick, nervous temperament caused strange contradic- tions in his character. ‘One can hardly believe,” writes his granddaughter, “that the man who, for three weeks, spent every day and all day long, lying on his back under a tree watching two little birds build their nest could be so impatient when the effect he desired could not be produced, that he would throw canvas, easel, paints and brushes from him, and rush from the house to find consolation in his beloved woods.” He was a tall, thin man, with a high, arched and serene forehead, and a bright, penetrating gray eye; his white locks fell in clusters upon his shoul- ders, but were the only signs of age, for his form was erect, and his step as light as that of adeer. The expression of his face was sharp, but noble and commanding, and there was something in it, partly derived from the aquiline nose, and partly from the shutting of the mouth, which made you think of the imperial eagle. A traveller who met him on his return from one of his hunting trips describes him: ‘I was at a fashionable hotel at Niagara when an elderly man arrived whose appearance excited much comment. He seemed to have sprung from the woods; his dress, which was of leather and heavy cloth, was dreadfully dilapidated; a worn-out blanket was strapped to his shoulders, a large knife hung at one side, a rusty tin box on the other, and his hair and beard were so long and thick that they alone would have rendered him remarkable.” ‘Prof. Wilson, the “ Christopher North” of Blackwood’s Magazine, gives 780 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON, an equally striking picture of Audubon as he appeared in the ‘iterary circles of Scotland: “ When, some five years ago, we first set eyes on him, in a party of literati, in ‘stately Edinborough throned on crags,’ he was such an American woodsman as took the shine out of us modern Athenians. Though dressed, of course, somewhat after the fashion of ourselves, his long raven locks hung curling over his shoulders, yet unshorn from the wilderness. They were shaded across his open forehead with a simple elegance, sach as a civilized Christian might be supposed to give his ‘ fell of hair,’ when prac- tising ‘every man his own perruquier’ in some liquid mirror in the forest giade, employing, perhaps, for a comb, the claw of the bald eayle. His sal- low, fine-featured face bespoke a sort of wild independence; and then such an eye, keen as that of the falcon! His foreign accent and broken English speech—for he is of French descent—removed him still further out of the commonplace circle of this every-day world of ours; and his whole demeanor —it might be with us partly imagination—was colored to our thought by a character of conscious freedom and dignity, which he had habitually acquired in his long and lonely wanderings among the woods, where he had lived in the uncompanied love and delight of nature, and in the studious observation of all the ways of her winged children, that forever fluttered over his paths and roosted on the tree at whose feet he lay at night, beholding them still the sole images that haunted his dreams.” An unfinished portrait represents him in his woodland dress, taken on his return from the Rocky Mountains. It is a half-length, life-size, the head a little thrown back, the keen eyes undimmed, though the face shows deep lines of age and thought. He holds his gun in his hand, and his backwoods- man’s coat of green baize with fur collar and cuffs is but roughly painted. It was never completed by his son, as the old man never retained his woodland garb longer than he could help, and one of his first steps on returning to civilized life was to remove the greater part of his luxuriant hair and beard. We have recounted at greater length the early years of struggle than the later years of fame and success. It is in the narrative of his days of wander- ing, of poverty, of neglect, that the true lesson of Audubon’s life is taught. He had one object before him, and nothing deterred him from his quest ; neither hardship, nor difficulty, nor misconstruction, nor the opinion of the world. Great as his works may be, much as they may do to foster a love of nature and of nature’s works, Audubon’s greatest, most endearing, most effective work is the example he has set, and the lesson of unselfish persever- ance which his life teaches. 4 LOUIS AGASSIZ. OUIS JOHN RODOLPH AGASSIZ, one of the most distinguished naturalists and scientific explorers of the present day, was born in the parish of Mottier, between the lake of Neufchatel and the lake of Morat, in Switzerland, on the 28th of May, 1807. Of Huguenot race his father was a village pastor, as for six generations in lineal descent his ancestors had been before him. The pastor’s wife, a woman of rare worth and intel- ligence, was the daughter of a Swiss physician. At the age of eleven, Louis entered the gymnasium of Bienne, whence he was removed, in 1822, as a reward for his attainments in his scientific studies, to the Academy of Lausanne. Two years later he engaged in the study of medicine at the school at Zurich, and subsequently pursued the scientific and philosophical courses at the Universities of Heidelberg and Munich, receiv- ing his degree as doctor of medicine at the latter. The bent of his mind was already shown at these latter institutions, in his devotion to the study of botany and comparative anatomy. His father designed him for a commercial life, and was impatient at his devotion to frogs, snakes, and fishes. He came to London with letters to Sir Roderick Murchison. The great English geologist took the lad, the same evening, to a meeting of the Royal Society, and at the close said: “I have a young friend here from Switzerland, who thinks he knows something about fishes. There is, under this cloth,” pointing to a heap on the table, “the skeleton of a fish which existed long before man.” He then gave the precise locality where it was found, with one or two other facts concerning it. ‘Can you sketch for me on the blackboard your idea of the fish?” he asked in conclusion. Agassiz took the chalk and rapidly sketched the skeleton. The portrait was correct in every bone and line. “Sir,” said Agassiz, when he told the story, “that was the proudest moment of my life.” In 1828, at the age of twenty-one, Agassiz began his public career as a naturalist by the description of two new fishes in the “Isis”’ and “ Linnea,” two foreign periodicals occupied with natural history. The following year he was selected to assist the eminent German naturalist, Yon Martius, in his (781) 782 LOUIS AGASSIZ. report of the scientific results of his expedition to Brazil, undertaken under the auspices of the Austrian and Bavarian governments. The portion of the work entrusted to his charge was the preparation of an account of the genera and species of the fish collected by the naturalist Von Spix in the expedi- tion. The successful accomplishment of this work gave him reputation as an ichthyologist. His labors were noticed with approval, and brought be- fore a Berlin meeting of German naturalists by the eminent transcendental anatomist, Oken. Encouraged by this success he pursued his ichthyological studies with great perseverance, recording the results from time to time in the natural history publications of the day. His labors also secured him the friendship of Humboldt and Cuvier in a visit to Paris, where he was enabled to pursue his researches by the friendly pecuniary assistance of a clergyman and friend of his father, Mr. Christinat. In 1832, he was appointed Professor of Zoology at Neufchatel. In 1834, he published a paper on the “ Fossil Fish of Scotland,” in the “ Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,” and others subsequently on the classification of fossil fishes in various foreign journals. He devoted seven years to this subject, completing the publication of his great work on “Fossil Fishes,” in five volumes, in 1844. Associated with these studies and results, was the preparation of his important work on Star- Fishes, or Echinodermata, published in parts from 1837 to 1842, under the title ‘““Monographes d’Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles.” He had also, during this period, completed another leading work, a “ Natural History of the Fresh-water Fishes of Europe,” which was published in 1839. “The researches of Agassiz upon fossil animals,” says a writer in the “ English Cyclopedia,” “would naturally draw his attention to the circum- stances by which they have been placed in their present position. The geologist has been developed as the result of natural history studies. Sur- rounded by the ice-covered mountains of Switzerland, his mind was naturally led to the study of the phenomena which they presented. The moving glaciers and their resulting moraines, furnished him with facts which seemed to supply the theory of a large number of phenomena in the past history of the world. He saw in other parts of the world, whence glaciers have long since retired, proofs of their existence in the parallel roads and terraces, at the bases of hills and mountains, and in the scratched, polished, and striated surface of rocks. Although this theory has been applied much more ex- tensively than is consistent with all the facts of particular cases by his disciples, there is no question in the minds of the most competent geolo- gists of the present day, that Agassiz has, by his researches on this subject, LOUIS AGASSIZ. 783 pointed out the cause of a large series of geological phenomena. His papers on this subject are numerous, and will be found in the ‘ Transactions of the British Association’ for 1840, in the 3d volume of the ‘ Proceedings of the Geological Society,’ in the 18th volume of the ‘Philosophical Maga- zine,’ third series; and in the 6th volume of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ ” In 1846, Agassiz came to the United States to continue his explorations and to fulfil an engagement to deliver a course of Lectures on the Animal Kingdom before the Lowell Institute at Boston. The lectures excited much interest and were followed in successive seasons by three other courses on Natural History before the same institution. While these were in progress he had, at the close of 1847, accepted the appointment of Professor of Zoology and Botany in the scientific school founded by Mr. Abbott Law- rence, in connection with Harvard University at Cambridge. He became a master of English composition, and spoke the language not only with fluency, but with a voluble eloquence which was peculiarly his own. He studied the modes of thought among the people, and learned to know in what they differed from the European. His family ties, his household, his associates were of the country; and yet, after all, he was unchanged. A genius like his could put itself in communication with many and different people; it could grow also, but it could not change. In the following year he was engaged, with some of his pupils, in a scientific exploration of the shores of Lake Superior, the results of which were published in a volume written by Mr. Elliott Cabot and others, entitled “ Lake Superior.” In con- junction with Dr. A. A. Gould, of Boston, Professor Agassiz published in the same year a work on “ The Principles of Zoology.” Devoting himself to an assiduous practical study of the natural history of the country, he visited its most important portions in the Atlantic and Gulf States, the valley of the Mississippi, and the regions of the Rocky Mountains. In 1850, he spent a winter upon the reefs of Florida, in the service of the United States Coast Survey; and subsequently, during the winter of 1852-53, was Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Medical College of Charleston, S.C., which afforded him the opportunity of making other scientific re- searches in the southern region and seaboard. The results of his investiga- tions in these various journeys have been given to the world in a series of volumes in quarto entitled “Contributions to the Natural History of the United States,” a work for which an extraordinary popular subscription was obtained. On the death of Mr. F. C. Gray, in 1858, it was found that he had left 784 LOUIS AGASSIZ. fifty thousand dollars to establish a Museum of Comparative Zoology; and his nephew, Mr. William Gray, scrupulously following his uncle’s inclina- tions, selected Harvard College as the proper institution. During the fol- lowing year, a committee of gentlemen raised more than seventy thousand dollars, and the State gave one hundred thousand. Of this institution Agassiz became the presiding spirit. In the summer of 1865, Professor Agassiz extended his American re- searches to the Southern Continent, in an expedition at the head of a chosen party of assistants, in an exploration of Brazil, where he devoted eighteen months to a thorough survey of the valley of the Amazon and other por- tions of the country. An account of this tour, in a volume entitled “A Journey to Brazil,” from the pen of Mrs. Agassiz, a devoted companion to her husband in his scientific studies, was published in 1867. He subse- quently was engaged in a like exhaustive study of the regions of the United States bordering on the Pacific; and, in 1872, ina voyage of scientific observa- tion on the western shores of South America. In these expeditions he was accompanied by a corps of pupils devoted to natural history, and vast materials were gathered by him, to be added to the collections of animals, plants, and fossils, of which he undertook the classification and preservation, as curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, in connection with his Professorship at Cambridge. The Brazilian expedition of 1865 brought home barrels and cases by the hundred, and so did the Hassler expedition of 1871. Nor were these half, for the incessant eagerness of the director sought original collections from all parts of the world, some by exchange and some by purchase. In 1870 the building was increased to double its former capacity, but it does not afford room to-day for the arrangement of the collections stored in it. When the first section of the edifice was finished, fire-proof and fairly fitted with shelves and cases, a grand moving took place, and the motley boxes and bottles were carried or carted in all haste to the new quarters. While pursuing his career of original study at Cambridge and giving to the public the result of his observations in his series of philosophical lectures before the Museum of Comparative Zoology, involving original and elab- orate constructions of animal life, the sphere of his investigations was en- larged in the summer of 1873 by the gift of Mr. John Anderson, a gentieman of Massachusetts, of Penikese Island, off the coast of New England. This piece of land, valued at one hundred thousand dollars, was presented to him for the establishment of a school of Investigation in Natural History, with an additional gift in money of fifty thousand dollars to carry out the design. LOUIS AGASSIZ. 785 In the prosecution of this liberal plan, Prof. Agassiz became at once engaged in the effective organization of the school or college, endeavoring to ‘“ ex- tend the range of its usefulness in the application of science to the practical art of modern civilization,” his object being particularly “to combine physi- cal and chemical experiment with the instruction and work of research to be carried on upon the island—physiological experiments being at the very foundation of the exhaustive study of zoology.” “ He is,” says the accomplished critic, Mr. Whipple, in the course of an able review of his ‘“‘ Essay on Classification”’ in the first volume of the “ Con- tributions to the Natural History of North America,” “not merely a scien- tific thinker, he is a scientific force; and no small portion of the immense influence he exerts is due to the energy, intensity, and geniality which dis- tinguish the nature of the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as informs; communicates not only knowledge, but the love of knowledge, and makes, for the time, everything appear of small account in comparison with the subject which has possession of his soul. To hear him speak on his favorite themes is to become inflamed with his enthusiasm. He is at once one of the most dominating and one of the most sympathetic of men, having the qualities of leader and companion combined in singular har- mony. People follow him, work for him, contribute money for his objects, not only from the love inspired by his good-fellowship, but from the compul- sion exercised by his force. Divorced from his congeniality, his energy would make him disliked as a dictator; divorced from his energy, his genial- ity would be barren of practical effects. The good-will he inspires in others quickens their active faculties as well as their benevolent feelings. They feel that, magnetized by the man, they must do something for the science impersonated in the man—that there is no way of enjoying his companionship without catching the contagion of his spirit. He consequently wields, through his social quatities, a wider personal influence over a wider variety of persons than any other scientific man of his time. At his genial instigation laborers delve and dive, students toil for specimens, merchants open their purses, legis- latures pass appropriation bills.” Professor Agassiz received the most distinguished attentions from the French Academy of Sciences and other numerous scientific associations of Europe. The Emperor offered him the post of director of the Fardin des Plantes, at Paris, with a seat in the Senate. The position was one which a scientific man of the highest: rank might well covet, and the emoluments of the office, with that of the other office associated with it, were quite large a acceptance of the offer would have given him at Paris a rank equal to 786 LOUIS AGASSIZ. that which Cuvier occupied in his time. He respectfully declined it, on the ground that he was then engaged in original researches in the United States, which promised to be very fruitful in zoological discovery, and which would take him some years to complete. He considered that the correspondence was closed; but he was surprised by receiving another letter froin the minister, renewing the offer,and informing him that the high office would be kept open for him until his American researches were completed. Agassiz justly thought that was the greatest compliment ever paid to him, but his determination to live and die in his adopted country was fixed, and his letter indicating this determination closed the correspondence. On the death of the eminent Professor Edward Forbes, in 1854, he was invited to succeed to his chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, but declined the offer in favor of his adopted home, and the field of some of his most distinguished researches in America. At the time when he was absorbed in some minute investigations in a diffi- cult department of zoology, he received a letter from the president of a lyceum at the West, offering him a large sum for a course of popular lectures on natural history. His answer was: “I can not afford to waste my time in making money.” The marvel of Agassiz, and a never-ceasing source of wonder and delight to his friends and companions, was the union in his individuality of solidity, breadth and depth of mind, with a joyousness of spirit, an immense over- whelming geniality of disposition, which flooded every company he entered with the wealth of his own opulent nature. Placed at the head of a table with a shoulder of mutton before him, he so carved the meat that every guest flattered himself that the host had given him the best piece. His social power exceeded that of the most brilliant conversationalists and the most delicate epicures; for he was not only fertile in thoughts, but wise in wines and infallible in matters of fish and game. It was impossible to place him in any company where he was out of place. “T look upon him,” said a pupil, “as a prophet, as an apostle of science ; he has made every honest investigator his debtor ; he has not only elevated in public esteem the intellectual class to which he belongs, but he has in- duced the moneyed class to give science the means of carrying out its purposes. Since Agassiz came into the country, you can not but have noticed that private capitalists, State Legislatures, and the Congress of the country have been liberal of aid to every good scientific enterprise. We owe a great part of this liberality to Agassiz. He it was who magnetized the people with his own scientific enthusiasm. He made science popular, LOUIS AGASSIZ. 737 because in him science was individualized in the most fascinating and per- suasive of human beings. All the rest of us are more or less dominated by our special lines of investigation, or so infirm in physical health, or so un- sympathetic with ignorant people, or so supercilious, or so controlled by some innate ‘cussedness’ of disposition, that we can not readily adapt ourselves to the ways of men of the world; but Agassiz, with his enormous physical health and vitality, and his capacity to meet all kinds of men on their own level, drew into our net hundreds of people, powerful through their wealth or their political influence, who would never have taken any interest in science if they had not first been interested in Agassiz. And these men were the men who gave us the money we needed for the extension of scien- tific knowledge and the promotion of scientific discovery.” Another student and admirer writes: “Some thirty-five years ago, at a meeting of a literary and scientific club of which I happened to be a member, a discussion sprang up concerning Dr. Hitchcock’s book on ‘bird-tracks,’ and plates were exhibited representing his geological discoveries. After much time had been consumed in describ- ing the bird-tracks as isolated phenomena, and in lavishing compliments on Dr. Hitchcock, a man suddenly rose who in five minutes dominated the whole assembly. He was, he said, much interested in the specimens before them, and he would add that he thought highly of Dr. Hitchcock’s book as far as it accurately described the curious and interesting facts he had un- earthed ; but, he added, the defect in Dr. Hitchcock’s volume is this, that ‘it is dees-creep-teeve, and not com-par-a-¢eeve. The moment he contrasted ‘dees-creep-teeve’ with ‘ com-par-a-teeve,’ one felt the vast gulf that yawned between mere scientific observation and scientific intelligence ; between eye- sight and insight; between minds that doggedly perceive and describe, and minds that instinctively compare and combine.” To illustrate the lectures on geology, he used to invite students to accom- pany him on excursions to neighboring towns. From boyhood an associate of students, there was no company in which he felt more at ease; and he regarded with unfeigned consternation the stiff relations that, twenty years ago, subsisted between our professors and their pupils. It was pleasant to see him, at the head of a score of us youngsters, taking his way toward the pudding-stone quarries in Roxbury. His face wore an easy smile, and, as his quick brown eye wandered over the landscape, it saw more than did all our eyes put together, for he looked, but we only stared. Near by, like a sort of lieutenant, walked Jacques Burkhardt, the lifelong friend and artist of the great professor. Though his beard was white, he never grew old; and, to the 788 LOUIS AGASSIZ. last, preferred the cheerful company of the collegians. Whenever we came to a gravel-pit, or a railway cut, the professor would stop, and would expatiate on the structure of the drift with as much interest as if he saw it for the first time. This enthusiasm, fresh and untiring over trite facts, was a source of immense power to him. It showed his French blood, for it was but an enlargement of that peculiar temper which renders the Parisian workman at once the most interesting and the most successful in the world. Of the section of conglomerate in Roxbury he was never tired of talking ; and, over and over again, to different sets of hearers, would he explain the cleavage planes of the rock, and how the cleavage had cut right through hard pebbles like a knife ; then the structure of the stone itself, and the different origins of flat and of rounded pebbles; and, finally, he would climb to the top of the ledge, and earnestly show the grooves and scratches running north and south, and the surface polished by glaciers. It is very curious that he never learned to make finished drawings—curious, because he had often been too poor to employ an artist, and because his accuracy of eye and of touch were remarkable. If there were ten hairs ip the field of the microscope and the artist had put eleven in the drawing, the professor would exclaim, the moment he got his head over the eye-piece, “Those cilia are crowded; there must be too many.” He would hold the dried shell of the turtle in his left hand and with a saw divide it lengthwise into precise halves, with no other guide than his eye. Although he never attempted to become an artist, his chalk outlines on the blackboard were what few artists can make. The thousands of people who have heard his lectures will always recollect the astonishing rapidity with which he drew an animal, putting in only the characteristic points. If he were saying, ‘“ The salmons have a peculiar fatty fin, called the adipose,” almost with the words would appear an unmistakable outline of the fish. There was no better nor more pitiless critic of a zoological drawing. He rarely was satisfied with the finest work. Were the artist painstaking, he would encourage him with, “Try it once again; it is all wrong, but don’t get out of patience.” The careless or self-sufficient draughtsman got a brisk admonition. The man who never failed to please him was Sonrel, who made the plates for the “ Embry- ology of Turtles,” of which Claparéde said, “I had supposed that such lith- ography was impossible.” It was interesting to notice his behavior in the presence of domesticated ani- mals. The ugliest, filthiest, stupidest, most unreasonable, most obstinate creature in the barnyard is the pig, yet, with a stick in his hand, Agassiz would go up to the most unsociable, ‘“ cantakerous,” misanthropic grunter, LOUIS AGASSIZ. 789 and after a few soft words and a movement of the stick over the bristles of the creature in the right direction, the pig would lift its head erect, its smail eyes would glisten with a vague intelligence, it would remain almost motion- less ina kind of pleased surprise, and emit a sound indicative of as much content and comfort as are indicated by the purring of acat. The neigh of a horse to him was a more friendly neigh than any ever heard by a hostler o1 a jockey. He carried serpents in his hat and in his pockets with a grand unconcern, and dropped them sometimes in his bedroom, so that his wife was frequently troubled by finding them coiled up in her boots. Whenever he entered a menagerie he was eagerly welcomed by lions, tigers, wolves, hyenas, and other beasts of prey, which considered even their keepers as stupid louts, but recognized in him the one person that they could havea rational conversation with. Year by year Agassiz strove to support the ever-increasing burdens of his task,—his vast correspondence carried on in three languages; the superin- tendence of numerous assistants; protracted conferences almost daily with the learned men who were at the head of the different departments; and a constant and intense study of the grand question of arrangement. In addi- tion to this labor, especially devoted to the Museum, he exerted himself in many other ways. He gave lectures and contributed to scientific literature. He was at the disposal of every one who came to ask questions; and he found time to attend agricultural meetings, learned societies, and literary clubs. Besides all this, he undertook a task very disagreeable to him in asking aid to carry on so expensive an establishment. More than once his warm friend and admirer, Brown-Séquard, warned him that such a strain was not to be borne. Agassiz could not stop. He was driven by a power like that which the Greeks called mighty fate. At length, in December of 1869, his system gave way, and his brain was attacked ina manner which threatened paralysis. Nothing saved himthen but his powerful constitution, seconded by the most careful treatment. Weakened by disease and with death im- minent, his heroism was at once noble and pathetic. One day the tears began to roll down his cheeks, and he said: “ Brown-Séquard tells me I must not think. Nobody can ever know the tortures I endure in trying to stop thinking!” His physical health had been so great that, when he was superintending the arrangement and publication of one of his early works, he labored for a couple of months steadily at his desk at the rate of sixteen or eighteen hours a day, taking no exercise; and when the delightful task was com- pleted, he started on an excursion among the Alps, which exacted as much 790 LOUIS AGASSIZ. labor from his limbs, as the months preceding it had exacted from his brain. In fact, he seemed, up to the period of his first attack of disease, utterly in- sensible to bodily as to mental fatigue. In the midst of this active career of usefulness, after a summer of un- usual exertion in the establishment of his School of Natural History, Pro- fessor Agassiz, who had already suffered some symptoms of failing health, was, in the beginning of December, 1873, suddenly stricken down by an attack of paralysis, and, after a few days of lingering illness, on the night of the 14th expired at his residence in Cambridge, Mass. His death was attended by the profoundest regret and the noblest tributes to his memory in America, and by the iriends of science throughout the civilized world. We conclude with a few lines from the poem “ Agassiz,’ by J. Russell Lowell: “We have not lost him all; he is not gone To the dumb herd of them that wholly die; The beauty of his better self lives on In minds he touched with fire, in many an eye He trained to Truth’s exact severity ; He was a Teacher: why be grieved for him Whose living word still stimulates the air ? In endless file shall loving scholars come, The glow of his transmitted touch to share, And trace his features with an eye less dim Than ours whose sense familiar want makes dumb.” INS SEG THE ANIMALS NAMED IN CAPITALS APPEAR IN THE ILLUSTRATIONS. INS Aard Vark, 743. «WOLF, 240, Adder, 614. Adjag, 266. AGOUARA, 313. Agouta, 161. AGOUTI, 726. Aguarachay, 253. At, 738 Alactaga, 697. Almiqui, 162. ALPACA, 528. Angwantibo, 112. Anoa, 597. Ant-Bear, 744. ANT-EATER, GREAT, 744. os LITTLE, 746. NATIVE, 752. e PORCUPINE, 766. Antelope, Indian, 623. gf Musk, 629. SABLE, 615. Sabre, 614. AOUDAD, 646. Apar, 741. Ape, Bonnet, 67. Death’s Head, 94. Hussar, 51. Javanese, 65. Moor, 52. Nun, 50. Red) sx: Satan, go. Shaggy, 90. “ White-nosed, 51. ARGALI, BEARDED, 647. ARMADILLO, 741. Great, 740. Arrianha, 303. Ashkoko, 682. Ass, ComMMon, 448. “WILD, 447. “Wild African, 448. Atak, 340. Atumba, 105. AYE-AYE, II5, B. BABAG, 715. Babakoto, 103. BABOON, 56. BaByroussa, 588. BADGER, 304. os American, 304. «Mexican, 304. Bandicoot, Long-nosed, 753. oY STRIPED, 752. Bangsting, 154. Banteng, 595. Barasinga, 556. Barrigudo, 80. Bat, African Leaf, 135. Barbastelle, 139. “Big-eared, 142. “Bull Dog, 139. “California, 140. Carolina, 41. Je Creeky 143: ““ Daubenton’s, 140. “ D0OG-HEADED, 143. «« FRUIT-EATING, 128. “Georgian, I4I. “Hoary, 142. “HORSESHOE, GREAT, 135. Lesser, 134. “ “ee “ “ Noble, 135. “Little Brown, 141. ““ Long-eared, 142. “ Mouse-colored, 139. “New York, I4I. “Northern, 138. << Pale, 143! Red, 140. “ Serotine, 139. «VAMPIRE, 132. Beagle, 277. BEAR, BLACK, 322. Brown, 320. “Cinnamon, 323. “GRIZZLY, 323. “ PoLar, 318- = Sand, 303: SS SLOTH) 326: “ Spectacled, 327. BEAR, SUN, 325. «SYRIAN, 321. BEAVER, AMERICAN, 702. py EUROPEAN, 700. Beden, 644. Beisa, 614. Bettong, Brush-tailed, 756, Bic Horn, 648. Binturong, 231. Bison, American, 586. Black Cat, 295. BLACK FISH, 373. Blau Bok, 616. BLOODHOUND, 278. Blue Buck, 631. Boar, WILD, 499- Bokambul, 107. Bonassus, 584. BORELE, 477. BRAHMIN BULL, 592. Buansuah, 266. Budeng, 44. BUFFALO, AMERICAN, 586, S Mountain, 589. ¢ CAPE, 599. sf Indian, 603. Bulan, 159. Bunder, 69. Burunduk, 713. Cc. Cabramontes, 643. Cacajao, gI. CAMEL, 514. ‘“ BACTRIAN, 522. CAMELOPARD, 568. Campagnol, 697. CAPYBARA, 727. CARACAL, 218. CARCAJOU, 554. CARIBOU, 548. Cat, Angola, 214. CHINESE, 211. “DOMESTIC, 214. “ Egyptian, 212. “Long-tailed, 207. cS Maras 207. Cat, Manx, 214. “Marbled, 205. «« Marten, 215. “ NaTIVE, 751. ‘Pampas, 207. i) Red i223. CaTTLE, ALDERNEY, 583. “ Brahmin, 592. vf DurRHAM, 582. Pampas, 577. a ScorcH, 583. “a Wild, 576. Cavy, Patagonian, 728. Chacma, 58. Chameck, 82. CHAMOIS, 633. a Cape, 613. Chati, 207. CHEETAH, 224. Chickara, 631. Chickaree, 609. CHIMPANZEE, 27. Ss Black, 31. CHINCHILLA, 719. CHIPMUCK, 712. CH@ROPUS, 753. CIVET, 228, “American, 316. Coaita, 81. CoarTI, 313. “" Red; 314: «White, 314. Coendoo, 724. Colocolo, 208. CoLuco, 149. CouGar, 196. Coyote, 253. Coyeu, 723. CRYPTOPROCTA, 226, Cuscus, Spotted, 758. Cuxio, go. D. Dachshund, 278. Daman, Tree, 683. DASYURE, 751. Dauw, 453. Dr B R, AXIS, §57. FALLow, 560, “ _ Hog, 558. ss MOUSE, 532. “© Musk, 565. Pampas, 558. “Persian, 556. Roe, 563. VIRGINIAN, 554. Degu, 721. Desman, Pyrenean, 166. #8 RussIAN, 166, DeEvIL, TASMANIAN, 751. DHOLE, 265. DINGO, 201. Doc, BULL, 285. RED or STAG, 552. INDEX. Dog, Chesapeake Bay, 281. CHINESE, 291. ‘* CoacH, 289. fs Colley, 283. “ DALMATIAN, 289. DANISH, 289. “« EsQuIMaux, 283. “ Hare-Indian, 276. “Labrador, 287. “Leonberg, 287. ‘Maltese, 290. «NEWFOUNDLAND, 285. “Poodle, 289. “PRAIRIE, 716. “Pua, 289. “Sr. BERNARD, 284. “Saint John’s, 287. «© SHEPHERD'S, 282. ct Spitz; 283. « THIBET, 285. DOLPHIN, 386. “ “ Gladiator, 390. “« White Beaked, 387. DorMovsE, Common, 699. sf Fat, 698. Douc, 45. Douroucouli, 92. Drill, 63. DROMEDARY, 514. Dseren, 622. DUCK-MOLE, 763. DUuGONG, 400, ce Australian, gor. Duyker Bok, 630. Dziggetai, 445. EB. ELAND, 607. ELEPHANT, AFRICAN, 672. f ASIATIC, 665. ELK, 539. ERMINE, 296. - Kane’s, 297. . New York. 297. F. FENNEK, 260. FERRET, 2096. ¢ Black-footed, 208. Fisher, Marten, 295. Fox, ARCTIC, 262. “BLUE, 263. Common, 256. “ Gray, 262. “Kit, 262. ‘ Large-eared, 264. “SILVER, 261, G. Galago, 112. “ Giant, IT4. GALET, 226. Bottle-nosed, 387. Garangang, 234. Gaur, 594. Gayal, 593. GAZELLE, 617. ‘ Ariel, 618. Gelada, 53, Genet, Common, 220, it Patr-230; Gibbon, Agile, 35. es HUuLock, 35, GIRAFFE, 569. GNu, 633. Goat, ANGORA, 640. Bezoar, 639. “ CASHMERE, 639. « Common, 637. “ Dwarf, 642. Egyptian, 641. “ Mamber, 641. « MOUNTAIN, 635. Goffer, 701. Goral, 635. GoRILLA, 23. Grampus, 390. Greyhound, Italian, 276, IRISH, 274. a Persian, 274. st Russian, 274. os Scotch. 273. Grison, 299. Ground Pig, 725 Guanaco, §25. GUENON, 51. Guereza, 45. GUINEA PIG, 728. Gundy, 722. Ee Hamadryad, 60. HAMSTER, 692. Hare, Cape, Leaping, 697. COMMON, 732. > Trish; 733. Marsh; 730. «NORTHERN, 731. «Polar, 730.