Ts
Ve Oa ae
‘ ' ‘ 7 ny
hoot
' Ua

rt:
c\
\4
on
‘ im
om,
me f

es

ie
WAS
%
,
yy
hg
‘
s
?
i

i rey
a,

ms PR omnes
.

ate tate 5

mt ohm

Joie | ~~ ~ -

eine tne
erate

~* was . ws =
h-hh hod. Orb rt nore

Lvalbeb odd

be Aine
Nh Pay
oy ph

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS ’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
‘CHARLESWORTH’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. ’)

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Ese., F.1.S.,
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.B.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Pbh.D., F.R.S., F.LS., V.P.Z.S. &e.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

I OE Se ee ES TD re
VOL. XII.—THIRD SERIES__~

Ney
etal oO

Fe gnusonian Instituy Sx
BALA, WOs )

Nationa} M useum: 4

LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS} SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,
AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:
LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH:

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AwD ASHER, BERLIN.

1863.

**Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;
ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.
Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper zstimata; a veré eruditis
et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—
LINNZUS.

“* Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir
qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent
toutes ses opérations.”—-BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

os « © © «© « © © © os Lhe sylvan powers
Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face-
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. TayLor, Norwich, 1818.

FLAMMAM,

CONTENTS OF VOL. XII.

[THIRD SERIES. |

NUMBER LXVII. Page
I. On some Phenomena of the Development of the Organic Cell.
By Prof. Hi. Kans pens (Plate |, ): s...c0sss.accssccqes= aes adaenenancaceese\s 1
II. On the Developmental History of the Stomapoda. By Dr.
Betz Muiier, of Desterro: (Plate Ti.) vi....c..secuceeptserecesesnss 13
III. Lucernaria the Coenotype of Acalephe. By Prof. Henry
JAMES CLARK, of Harvard University, Cambridge. ......sseesssseeeeees 19

IV. On Ameba princeps and its Reproductive Cells, compared
with Athalium, Pythium, Mucor, and Achlya. By H. J. Carter,
Be Sa ieeny GE ibe CLUES) Miasen conesmaciinevohacdeeps taascnes fad edn aesenane cer s<% 30

V. On the Raphides of Rubiacee. By Grorcre GULLIVER,
F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology to the Royal College

RMS CCCEAY once annast es, fai con sp aancat ounce san sunws Re dc stabeapae di ceseewaganke 52
VI. On two Oceanic Species of Protozoans related to the Sponges.
By James D. Dana ......... Rape Me ensstadudeetdasvansowacdsniveddsesiomae sa'siawed 54

VII. On the Animals of Raphaulus, Spiraculum, and other tube-
bearing Cyclostomacea. By Wiiiiam T. BLanrorp, A.R.S.M.,
Beets oie ation snide on cau cc ence gate stan. snd emimenedsis wate d odeegeansidesuctsiesduu-tdes 55

New Books :—A List of the Birds of Europe, by Professor J. H. Blasius
(reprinted from the German, with the author’s Corrections).—
Flora of Edinburgh ; being a List of Plants found in the Vicinity
of Edinburgh, by J. H. Balfour, Professor of Botany.—Flora of
Marlborough : with Notices of the Birds and a Sketch of the
Geological Features of the Neighbourhood, by the Rev. T. A.
IPYGSCOW ocaceretendnarsensneaccctpecisscasceresnednesesvaccoessesceasesns 58—60

Some Notes on Acclimatized Animals, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.;

1V CONTENTS.
: Page
Note on the Wombats living in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, by Dr. P. L. Sclater; On the Functions of the Vessels
of Plants, by M. Gris; The Mode of Development of the Marginal
Tentacles in the free Medusoids of some Hydroida, by A. Agassiz;
On the Question whether Diatoms live on the Sea-bottom at great
Depths, by W. Stimpson, M.D. .......--...44 pees esasas sess 76—80

NUMBER LXVIII.
VIII. Species considered as to Variation, Geographical Distribu-

tion, and Succession. By Prof. ASA GRAY ...ccesseseseesoeeeceeveneeeee 81
IX. On the Species of Chelymys from Australia, with the Descrip-

tion of a new’Species. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. oes. eee eeenee 98
X. Notice of a new Species of Pelomedusa from Natal. By Dr.

UD AEN GRAY, PRIS! Been: secaatvenseceensereas veewancc vases <eeabartep nc mene 99
XI. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.

CoLEopTeRA: Loncicornes. By H. W. Batss, Esq. ............ 100

XII. On the Leaf-Cells of the British Species of Hymenophyllum.
By Georce GuLuiver, F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physio-

logy to the Royal College of Surgeons ...-.ssee.sseeseeeeees Suisavosseycnae 109
XIII. On the Value of the Distinctive Characters in Ameba. By
(GL NOR Wake ene ei Gl Oe Wau baepls( cy bs cuadesnnnaocooe cesoddagecdbtoceroncobcic La

XIV. Description of a new Species of Lycosa living in the Island
of Madeira; with some Remarks on Lycosa turentuloides maderiana,
Walckenaer. By James YATE JoHNSON, Cor. Mem. ZS, .......c+0+- 152

New Book :—English Botany ; or Coloured Figures of British Plants.
Third Edition. Enlarged, rearranged according to the Natural
Orders, and entirely revised ; with Descriptions of all the Species 155

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ......scesesesereesereeeee rues 158—166

‘Do Diatoms live on the Sea-Bottom at Great Depths?” by G. C.
Wallich, M.D. ; Description of a new Coral (Lithoprimnoa are-
tica), and Remarks upon its Systematic Position, by E. Grube ;

On the Crustacea which live in Species of Ascidians, by T. Tho-
rell; Characters of a new Species of Sedge-Warbler (Calamoherpe
Newtoni) from Madagascar, by Dr. G. Hartlaub ............ 166—168

NUMBER LXIX.

XV. On the Impregnation in Orchids as a Proof of the two dif-
ferent Effects of the Pollen. By Dr. F. HinpEBRAND, of Bonn ... 169

CONTENTS. Vv
Page

XVI. On the European Species of the Genus Labrax. Dy Dr. A.
GUNTHER). oscccesenteeesecnteststnes sesaecias Sido Man vivelsleishte ae eisaiins sue dae e eos 174

XVII. Notes on American Emydide, and Professor Agassiz’s Ob-
servations on my Catalogue of them. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c. 176

XVIII. Descriptions of Cremnobates Syhadrensis and Lithotis
rupicola, two new Generic Forms of Mollusca inhabiting Cliffs in the
Western Ghats of India. By Wituiam T. Buanrorp, A.R.S.M.,
iereeram nL late V2) a sSanas igee a caalsies oa 'en' rasan sntnass atest tats) ycnta sana 184

XIX. On Cephalization, and on Megasthenes and Microsthenes in
Classification (being in continuation of an Article on the Higher
Subdivisions in the Classification of Mammals). By James D. Dana 187

XX. On the Value of the “ Villi” on the Surface of Ameba asa

Specific Distinction. By H. J. CARTER, F.R.S. &C. w..cceseceeceenees 198
XXI. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K.
PaRKER, M. Micr. Soc., and Prof. T. R. Jonss, F.G.S. .........00000. 200

XXII. A List of the Formosan Reptiles; with Notes on a few of
the Species, and some Remarks on a Fish (Orthagoriscus, sp.). By
R. Swinuok, F.Z.S., F.G.S. &c., H.M. Vice-Consul at Formosa ... 219

XXIII. On Raphides and Spheraphides of Phanerogamia; with a
Notice of the Crystal Prisms of Iridacee. By GrorGE GULLIVER,
oR: 22 lates WV tiie s lke), sear onngavabddascansvoneiieepaiec<uoneech sitive ems 226

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........csseeseseceseeees 229—246

Additional Observations on Chelymys dentata, by Dr. J. E. Gray,
F.R.S. &c.; Ona new Genus of Humming-Birds, by John Gould,
F.R.S. ; Description of a new Species of Lemur, by A. D. Bartlett;

On a new Species of Chameleon (Chameleo levigatus), by Dr.
Fs Bra GAYE Lcewa Ps Gdley <saonedBeck aw es easandeaclas<apeas scan mex 246—248

NUMBER LXX.

XXIV. On the Presence of Chlorophyll-cells and Starch-granules
as Normal Parts of the Organism, and on the Reproductive Process,
in Diffugia pyriformis, Perty; also on a Freshwater Species of
Echimocystidia. By H. J. CARTER, F.RA.S. &e.. ....ccccceeesenceseecees 249

XXV. Notice of a Drassus and Linyphia new to Science, and a
Neriene hitherto unrecorded as British, By Joun BLACKWALL,

PEL. Si #itaseenememetena eens ees 2 onateadaradedse ee CEPR RM EEE OCI 30 264
XXVI. Second Communication on the Vasa Propria, Laticiferous
Vessels, &c., of Plants. By M.T. LESTIBOUDOIS .......scccccereeeee 267

XXVII. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.
CoLropreRA: Loneicornes. By H. W. Batss, Esq. ............ 275

vi CONTENTS.

Page
XXVIII. On the Raphides of Onagracee. By GEorGE GULLI-
WR MEAS tees aateahsievneescenoas stator oasans auebadeasacecsssscet eee -. 288

XXIX. On the Part played by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary
Floras previous to the Miocene properly so called, and especially in
that of the Gypsum of Aix. By the Counr Gastron DE Saporta. 290

XXX. Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton’s Paper on the Bee’s
Cell, and on the Origin of Species. By ALFRED R. WALLACE...... 303

XXXI. On the Tissue-cells of the Involucres of Hymenophyllum.
By GEORGE (GOLLIVER, Ess ceeet is) ccdenasdeanods ceaseees tans cdneenetete 309

New Books :—The Angler-Naturalist: a Popular History of British
Freshwater Fish ; with a plain Explanation of the Rudiments of
Ichthyology, by H. Cholmondeley Pennell.—Introduction to
Zoology; for the Use of Schools, by Robert Patterson, F.R.S.

310—312

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .........-++++ Secwesseesecnes 313—326

On the Acanthocephah, by Rudolph Leuckart ; Note on the Animal
of Lithotis rupicola, by William T. Blanford, A.R.S.M., F.G.S. ;
On the Habits of the King-Crab (Polyphemus), by Dr. J. E. Gray,
F.R.S. &e.; Delphinus crassidens ; Distribution of Bos Taurus
and Bos Dante in Africa, by Dr. William Balfour Baikie ... 326—328

NUMBER LXXI.

XXXII. Further Observations on the Distinctive Characters and
Reproductive Phenomena of the Amceban Rhizopods. By G. C.
WAT LICH MAD eR LASs (Q0Gis coves cauennncccnes cases cdo seeteae aces Sosceeeee 329

XXXIII. Descriptions of two new Madeiran Land-Shells lately
discovered by the Barad do Castello de Paiva and S' J. M. Moniz.

eG et Are AIOE, NES sac cetn ten sent opens avmurdsesaneestsnsansenp Manes tice esas 338
XXXIV. Third Communication on the Vasa Propria, Laticiferous
Vessels, &c. of Plants. By M. T. LESTIBOUDOIS ..0.c.occcsessesonne 340

XXXV. Third Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection
of the British Museum. By ALBert GUnTHER, M.A., M.D., Ph.D.

PB lates “Vheamen cases si ececw esas po ndassrenakeitay atuacsssssaghachcsncceeaenee 348
XXXVI. Observations on Raphides. By GEorGE GULLIVER,
ERS siiiseco.c. ceegeeetemecsiematmesiig cess cone Sabb ad sia 00 ti seh cacti mma 365

XXXVII. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.
CoLEoPpTERA: Loneicornges. By H. W. BatEs, Esq. ..........+- 367

CONTENTS. Vil

Page
XXXVIII. Notice of a new Species of Kinixys and other Tortoises
from Central Africa. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &¢. 2...c. cc cccseseees 381

XXXIX. On the Skeleton of a Seal (Phoca Grenlandica?), and
the Cranium of a Duck, from the Pliocene Beds, Fifeshire. By

ROBERT ATIRIR) eesses scctvecties*daseectenaiernevadaestalseatee doeastecssetess 382
XL. On the Habits of Pagurus Prideauxii and Adamsia palliata.
By Lieut.-Col. STUART WORTLEY........0scccsconsssascaccoseccscenscecsses 388

New Books :—The Naturalist on the River Amazons: a Record of
Adventures, Habits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian
Life, and Aspects of Nature under the Equator, during Eleven
Years of Travel, by Henry Walter Bates.—Iceland: its Scenes
and Sagas, by Sabine Baring-Gould, M.A. .........seseseees 391—397

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .......csssecssececeseeseeees 397—404

On the Habits of Lycosa Blackwallii, by James Yate Johnson; On
a Sternotherus from Central Africa, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.;
Note on a Species of Molva from the Gulf of Genoa, by Dr. A.
Giinther; On the Osteography of the Sirenia compared with
that of the Pachydermata and Cetacea, by J. F. Brandt; Note
on the Lemming (Lemmus norvegicus, Desm.), by M. Guyon ;
Description of a new Species of Galago, by A. D. Bartlett 404—408

NUMBER LXXIlI.

XLI. On Polytrema miniaceum, a Polythalamian. By Professor

Max: Scrutrzam.. (Plate VWs fies: I-10.) 0. creeds icsccecate cena ddet ens 409
XLII. On a new Genus of Terrestrial Mollusks from Japan. By
Arraur Apams, F.L.S. &e; (Plate: VIL. figs: LY, 12.)0 cus. .ceccses 424

XLIII. Characters of new Operculate Land-Shells from the Anda-
mans, and of Indian and Burmese Species of Pupa. By W. H. Bren-

SG ENG ae aceresi taser evriae suniasmoiu csatioaviatn UsnuevMaslednettNiecsteeesleanss oceans 425
XLIV. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K.

Parker, M. Mier. Soc., and Prof. T. R. Jongs, F.G.S. .........20000- 429
XLV. On new Species of Fishes from the Essequibo. By Dr.

sete CPE!) GUNG ULE Ree ewcan oes salingacsscsk eens caswosceces ccae cosas ssosasaeme 44]

XLVI. On the Fossil Red Deer of Ireland: Observations founded
on the Skeletons found at Bohoe, in the County Fermanagh, in 1863.
By the Rev. SamueL Haueurton, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dn Hara ere is ces eraiere siajacisie ciaw'sls's ab Pueioeers eatee ou etats mlereite oweewacemute berate emecteenss 444

vill CONTENTS.

Page
XLVII. Observations on Raphides and Spheraphides. By GrorcE
Gomis mrTyyaee RR isaac creas ote satiaca datte tule valeneah fe viele « «no qasgehee aman enema 446

XLVIII. Further Observations on the Distinctive Characters,
Habits, and Reproductive Phenomena of the Amceban Rhizopods.
By G. C. Wauuicu, M.D., F.L.S., &e. (Plate VIII.) ... ........eeeeee 448

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .......0-...s+seeseseeeeraenes 468—472

On the Pith-cells of Juncacex, by George Gulliver, F.R.S. (Pl. VII.

figs. 13,14); On the Development of the Bothriocephalus latus,

by M. Bertolus; On the Structure of the Nervous System in the

Gasteropodous Mollusca, by Salvatore Trinchese ; On the Chanco

or Golden Wolf (Canis Chanco), by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.
472—475

PLATES IN VOL. XII.

PLaTE I. Development of the Organic Cell.
II. Development of the Stomapoda.
III. Ameeba princeps and its Reproductive Cells.
IV. Indian Mollusca.—Spheraphid Tissue.

vi fNew Genera and Species of Snakes.

VII. Polytrema miniaceum.—Blanfordia japonica and B. Bensoni.—
Pith-cells of Juncacez.

VIII. Development of Amceban Rhizopods.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

SO ecncsencssesecece per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, o Nymphz Craterides, ite sub undas ;
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasti Ecl.1.

No. 67. JULY 1863.

I.—On some Phenomena of the Development of the Organic Cell.
By Prof. H. Karsten*.

[Plate I.]

THE physics of the development and of the life of the cell,
as the basis of all anatomy and physiology, constitute the first
problem to be solved in both those sciences. Since Schwann
declared that both animal and vegetable tissues consist of cells
originally of a like nature, the similarity also in function of such
cells both in animals and plants has been rendered more and
more evident.

A clear perception of the whole of the physico-chemical phe-
nomena which by their union constitute life will only be attained
by an accurate knowledge of the origin and growth of the cell.

The formative elements of the cells which unite to constitute
organic tissues have been largely investigated since the time
when Robert Brown indicated the presence of a nucleus in nu-
merous cells, and since I demonstrated that the cell-wall, pre-
viously regarded as a single sac, consists in reality of several
endogenous superimposed lamine (Karsten, De Cella vitali,
1843).

* Translated by Dr. Arlidge from a separate impression from Poggen-
dorff’s ‘ Annalen’ (vol. cxviii., Berlin, 1863), for the communication of which
we are indebted to the author.

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xu. 1

2 Prof. H. Karsten on some Phenomena of

The primary object at present is to determine the physical
and chemical changes of the histological elements of cells during
their development and multiplication, and, by the elucidation of
these processes, to establish the laws which govern the origin
and growth of an organ or of an organism, and which collec-
tively make up the phenomena of life.

The most recent treatise on human histology, that by Kolliker
(1862), refers to the purpose of the different histological elements
of the cell, in respect both to its existence and its functions,
thus :—1. The external wall of the cell serves only as a defence
to its fluid contents (p. 39), except so far as it takes part m those
intrinsic vital processes which are shown to occur by changes in
its chemical constitution (p. 26) ; 2. the fluid cytoblastema pre-
eminently constitutes the living portion of the cell (p. 89); and,
3. the cell-nucleus plays the most important part in cell-formation
(p. 26).

: This last proposition is advanced on the understanding that
“the doctrine of free-cell formation in a cytoblastema has been
set aside” (p. 28)—that cell-construction always coincides with
cell-multiplication, being a result of the fission of a parent
cell by means of the formation of folds in and the constriction
or segmentation of its internal lamina (the primordial layer),
although Kolliker fails not to remark that this process has, it
is true, not yet been satisfactorily made out.

These fundamental doctrines of the histology of the animal
body, which harmonize with the prevailing, but groundless,
opinions upon the formation and function of the vegetable cell,
have, however, not been confirmed in the vegetable organism
with the clearness necessary for conviction. The history of
development has rather proved that, in those cases (Karsten,
op. cit. and Histologische Untersuchungen *, 1862) which have
been cited as furnishing certain evidence of the multiplication of
cells by segmentation, daughter cells, which originate freely in
the fluid contents of the parent cell, cause the increase, and by
their enlargement the division of the cell-interior by means of
septa is brought about.

Moreover the wall of the cell is not simple, but composed of
several cells placed one within the other, which are frequently
regenerated from within outwards by the unfolding of the nuclear
cell, and each of which cells passes through a course of develop-
ment peculiar to itself.

The involution of the coats of the cell, in the few tissues
where it has as yet been actually observed, does not give rise to

* A translation of these valuable investigations will appear in a future
Number of the ‘ Annals.’

the Development of the Organic Cell. 3

new cells, but is only a phenomenon passively accompanying
cell-multiplication.

The so-called nucleus is a nuclear cell possessing the faculty
of development, though frequently suppressed in the course of
development, and near to or within which two or more new cells
(cell-nuclei) may arisé in order to carry on the multiplication of
the individual cell in question. Mirbel taught, and Mohl co-
incided with his views, that the fission of the cell proceeded by
the growth of centripetal septa, or of involutions of its wall,
breaking up its contents into sections, the external surface of
which became subsequently hardened into a firm lamina or spe-
cial cell-wall; and side by side with, but partially opposed to,
this theory of cell-formation based on imperfect observations
Schleiden afterwards enunciated his peculiar views on the
function of the “resting” nuclear cell—the cell-nucleus first
observed by Robert Brown, which, in cells developing slowly,
may be frequently met with.

These opinions of Schleiden regarding the signification of the
nuclear cell became a great impediment to advancing the know-
ledge of cell-development. His followers entered so fully into
the notion that the nuclear sac is the constant formative centre
of the cell, exercising a catalytic effect upon its fluid contents,
whereby it brings about the precipitation from the surrounding
fluid of a pellicular deposit around itself, that even those who
regard the whole organism as built up by repeated multiplication
of the first ovum-cell, resulting, as Mirbel supposed, from centri-
petal involutions of the integument, consider this cell-nucleus
as the starting-point in this mode of cell-multiplication.

This involution is assumed to proceed, in these nuclear cells,
in the same way as in the parent cell-membrane itself, by con-
striction followed by division—each of the segments of the cell-
nucleus deriving, by means of a folding and constriction of the
inner lamina of its mother cell, a capacious envelope constituting
the wall of a new cell.

This process of multiplication of the nuclear cell (cell-nucleus),
however, no more takes place than that of the mother cell by
constriction.

The so-called constrictions or segmentations of the cell-nucleus
belong, in fact, to the same category as the so-termed germi-
nating cells. These forms are produced by the excessive develop-
ment of daughter cells in a feebly vegetating parent cell which
is in course of destruction ; whilst the partial septa or folds in-
terposed between the endogenous cells are not so much centri-
petal growths as the result of a passive condition of the cell-wall
at those parts. (The simultaneous growth of these septa with
the endogenous cells is not indeed a matter of direct observa-

1*

4 Prof. H. Karsten on some Phenomena of

tion ; on the other hand, their subsequent absorption has been
observed in various instances.)

That a cell-nucleus is, as a rule, present in actively growing
cells, and that in withered cells or in those in a resting-state it
disappears, corroborates the statement derived from direct ob-
servation, that this nuclear cell possesses the property of deve-
lopment in itself.

Indeed the constant absence of nuclear cells im the normally
detached cells of the epidermis of animals, and of the epithelium,
in the cells of the tissue in the tail of the tadpole, in the woody
cells of plants, &c., intimates the incapacity of such cells for
further regeneration and individual development.

As only the resting-form of the nuclear cell in tissue-cells has
hitherto been recognized as the cell-nucleus, in many cases the
nucleus has been denied to exist where actually present and, in-
deed, in process of evolution, as, for instance, in tissues in con-
tinuous course of regeneration, e. g. in muscular tissue, the endo-
genous cells of which have at one time been considered nuclei,
at another cells.

And it follows that, in cells which do not undergo regeneration
as lasting tissue-cells, nor self-multiplication, the nucleus is
always absent. Such cells are met with in those vesicles that
are produced in connexion with secretions, and are to be found
usually in large numbers in the fluid contents of genuine cell-
tissue.

These generations of vesicles enclosed within a tissue-cell, and
often engaged in constant formation and transformation, are
the active instruments in the elaboration of organic material,
transforming the inorganic matters dissolved in the cell-juices
into combinations of a progressively higher grade. By means
of the assimilative properties possessed by these simple cells,
those substances are produced which either subserve the nutri-
tion of the still assimilating membrane of the parent cell, or,
where the cycle of its development is closed, are employed by
the nucleus in the regeneration of the life-energy of the cell.

Moreover, when the individual development of the cell has
ended, and, together with the nuclear cell suppressed in its
revolution and destined to its regeneration, two or more new
daughter cells are formed and developed at the expense of the
parent cell, these secretory materials are employed for this pur-
pose; and even after the formation of all such secondary ge-
nerations is brought to a close, they are transferred by exosmose
to other and remote parts of the organism to serve kindred
purposes.

Some of these secretion-cells have walls so much thickened
(e. g. starch), or such opake and solid contents (e. g. chlorophyll),

the Development of the Organic Cell. 5

that, for a long time, they have been looked upon, as some even -
now are, as solid unorganized particles; whilst others have such
thin walls that they have either been overlooked, or else regarded
as cavities in the less transparent and denser cell-contents.

Such gaps in our knowledge of the structure of the cell
render the right apprehension of its functions impossible, as is
shown, for example, among other problems, by that of the
phenomenon of the circulation of the sap, which has been so
much canvassed, and regarding which a distinguished physiolo-
gist has recently expressed himself in a manner which can only
be explained by a misapprehension of the anatomical nature of
the cell.

In my ‘ Histological Researches’ (p.61) I have detailed my
views respecting the general cause of the circulation of the juices
within cells ; and [ will now describe the structure of the hairs
of Urtica, which explains the apparently wonderful circulation
within their large cell-cavities. In Pl. I. figs. 1 & 2, is repre-
sented a large hair of Urtica wrens, with its curved and rounded
extremity. The large hair-ceil, under a low magnifying power,
appears filled with a colourless though somewhat turbid liquid,
and has an inferior rounded extremity surrounded by an epi-
dermic layer of cells. On the wall (as in fig. 1) or in the me-
dian line (in fig. 2) of the portion of the hair-cell which pro-
jects freely from the cup-like base is seen a large nuclear cell
filled with a whitish mucilaginous substance and a nuclear ve-
sicle. At times, particularly in fully grown stages, this organ
is concealed by the cellular envelope at their base.

By rather stronger magnifying powers, it becomes evident
that this nucleus is the central point of currents of a turbid
finely granular fluid, which spreads itself more or less com-
pletely over the inner surface of the thick wall of the hair. By
a little attention, it is further seen that the streams which pass
across the interior of the cell are not all thread-like, as appears
at first sight, or at least are not constantly so, but in part
eoalesce into a thin layer of fluid, which here and there, espe-
cially in the lower portion of the hair, gets collected in the form
of a thicker column, usually more rapid in its course. The
fibre-like stream is also as little constant in character as the
wider but thinner current: at times it flows rapidly, at others
slowly ; at one time the tenacious-looking granular fluid collects
in one place, at another it breaks away from the locality in
which it has been confined, to extend to other parts, and thereby
suffers some change in its direction. A rapid current is esta-
blished especially after the hair has been placed in water under
the microscope for a short time, as from two to three minutes,
—a circumstance, no doubt, due to the diffusion of the water.

6 Prof. H. Karsten on some Phenomena of

_ The circulation then proceeds for several hours, becoming weaker
and weaker, until it at length entirely ceases, the fibres of the
cloudy fluid growing more obscure, from an apparent coalescence
within the interior of the cell.

The central nuclear cell, moreover, usually sank, during these
phenomena, lower down in the cell; and the same organ, when
attached to the wall, often showed also a slight change of place.

The largest portion of the upper extremity of the cell is
usually divided, by only one obliquely directed stratum of circu-
lating fluid, into two long sections; but its lower portion is
broken up into several rounded clear spaces by shorter layers.
In the interspaces formed by the contiguous borders of three
such clear spaces, as also in the canals running along the wall
of the cell, bounded by the adjoining sides of other two, circu-
late more rapidly the usually thicker, filiform and more visible
threads.

Hence it is evident that the internal cavity of the thick-walled
large hair-cell is subdivided into several hollow spaces, filled
with a transparent homogeneous fluid, and that these spaces are
capable of undergoing some change of form very gradually, and
are separated from one another and from the external wall, more
or less completely, by means of a system of mucous currents.

There also exist within the interior of the hair-cell, betwixt
the spaces filled with homogeneous watery fluid, other spots
unoccupied by the turbid matter in circulation; or such are
seen to originate under the eye of the observer by a disintegra-
tion of the circulating substance. At such spots the larger
clear spaces are therefore separated by very thin dissepiments.
All these conditions bear testimony to the fact that the hair-cells
of Urtica urens, and, in fact, many parenchymatose plant-cells,
are occupied, at a certain stage of their development, by a tissue
composed partly of non-nuclear cells (secretion-cells) which are
separated from one another not by a firm but by a fluid inter-
cellular substance. When such a hair-cell is moistened with water,
imbibition takes place through the external wall, and the inter-
cellular matter gets diffused, the more remote portions becoming
intermingled with the more central. The process may be watched
for hours, and the streams seen to set out, until at length the
delicate diosmotic and, doubtless, assimilating membrane of the
endogenous cell-wall becomes destroyed by the excessive im-
bibition of the water.

From this object, therefore, the physiologist might satisfy his
problem of explaining the vital phenomena of the organism from
its structure and from the physical and chemical changes taking
place in it, without being compelled to have recourse to an in-
herent contractility not referable to these factors. The rotation

the Development of the Organic Cell. 7

of the cell-juices appears to be a mere phenomenon of diffusion,
—endosmosis co-operating on the one hand, and the property of
assimilation possessed by the enclosing cell-wall on the other, in
a continuous act of intermixing the materials concerned.

Briicke’s interesting experiments prove that, as the lightning
shivers the strong oak, so an excessive electrical current shatters
the delicate cells within the hairs of Urtica, and puts an end to
the interesting phenomenon of the circulation of their fluid
contents.

If the lower segment of the hair be deprived of its outer coat
and opened, one or more of the delicate-walled cells which
occupy this portion swell up and protrude, whilst the rest
sink down from the apex into the space thus left vacant, and
occupy it.

The extruded cells have frequently (Pl. I. fig. 3) cellular con-
tents, not observable in those contained in the naked apical
portion; they therefore belong to the category of true tissue-
cells.

The circumstance that the integument of actual tissue-cells
{particularly in the lower animal organisms) is frequently as de-
licate as the thin walls of the cells found within the hairs of the
nettle, and that also in other tissue-cells (especially in the sim-
plest plants) it is so thick, gelatinous, and transparent that it is
difficult to trace their boundary, has more than once lately given
rise to the idea that there may be naked cells (without walls),
which are only mucous globules.

In my ‘ Histological Researches,’ before referred to, I have
enumerated several instances in which apparently deficient cell-
membranes, notwithstanding their great tenuity, could be re-
cognized with certainty.

In this respect the Confervee possess a special interest ; they
offer peculiarly suitable conditions for making investigations
respecting the structure and development of the cell, as they
may be examined under the microscope whilst growth pro-
eeeds—an advantage unattainable in more complex plants or in
animals,

In fact, in many species of these plants, their component
(tissue-) cells, in the earlier phases of development, are so very
thin and transparent that they are rendered appreciable only by
a more attentive observation of the changes in form and position
of the other and more solid cell-contents. The observer may
likewise arrive at a more ready acquaintance with the origin and
growth of cells by the comparative investigation of their develop-
ment under different conditions of nutrition—experiments and
observations which are indispensable also to the systematist ; for
a change of the conditions of nutrition alters not only the phe-

8 Prof. H. Karsten on some Phenomena of

nomena of the growth of cells, but also frequently the very form
of the Alga itself, even when this has been accounted a specific
character.

The cultivation of Spirogyra has proved to me that this plant,
when liberally supplied with organic nitrogenous matter, gene-
rates new cells profusely, but that, if this nourishment be
withheld, growth is limited to the cell-wall. This observation
consequently shows that a deficiency of such organic nutritive
supply promotes the centripetal involution of the cell-wall of
Spirogyra, which in normal conditions of nutrition does not

happen.
_ On the contrary, by a large supply of organic nitrogenous
material, the growth of the cell-wall, relatively to the formation
and evolution of new cells, remains in arrear. The cultivation
of such species of Spirogyra as S. Hornschuchii shows this.
The partition-walls (septa) of this plant, under normal conditions
of development, immediately after their origin produce circular
folds of a determinate size; and the tissue-cells (joint-cells) only
ee to produce new cells, after the septiform circular folds

ave acquired their normal dimensions. (PI. I. fig. 4a.) But
this same species, when richly supplied with nourishment in the
manner stated, presented in the same individual three, and
sometimes four, or even five partition-walls, without such circular
folds, and thus indicated that the thickening and further evolu-
tion of the cell-wall had been supplanted by an augmented de-
velopment of cells.

The accelerated formation and development of new joint-cellswas
accompanied by a considerable increase in the deposit of chloro-
phyll. The successive spiral coils of this substance, which are nor-
mally separated from one another by intervals of about twice their
width, approximated so closely frequently about the middle and at
the extremities of the cell as to touch, and sometimes to overlap,
each other at their edges, or, indeed, in their entire width; the
spiral band being, relatively to the extension of the cell, dis-
proportionately elongated (figs. 7 & 8).

In those instances where the layer of chlorophyll does not
acquire such an excess above its usual length, its increase will
nevertheless be indicated by a horizontal coil being substituted
in place of the normal oblique one, in the centre of the cell, over
the very delicate nucleus (fig. 4). This coil, at the commence-
ment of the development of new joint-cells, loses the concave,
furrowed character of its external surface, becomes pressed
against the wall of the cell and fixed in its central position, as it
appears, and as the further course of cell-development proves,
by the production of the daughter cells, which grow up from
the two opposite extremities of the cell, and extend themselves

the Development of the Organic Cell. 9

towards its middle line. These have, however, as yet such thin
and delicate walls, that they are not themselves visible, but become
evident only by the changes they produce in the disposition of
the layer of chlorophyll, and by the action of diosmotic fluids.
Moreover, the chlorophyll-deposit gravitates towards the centre
of the cell, in the vicinity of the nuclear cell and the approxi-
mating ends of the two endogenous cells (figs. 9 & 10). Ac-
cording as the enlargement of the nuclear cell, the absorption
of the chlorophyll, or the increase in size of the daughter cells
prevails at this stage, the subsequent phenomena vary.

Within the nuclear cell two new cells originate, not by any
constriction and segmentation of its membrane, but by new
growth within its fluid contents, the nuclear vesicles of which
become at the same time absorbed. These facts cannot be more
readily verified than in the larger species of Spirogyra. (See
Histological Researches, figs. 83-85.)

The nuclear cell of S. Hornschuchii and of allied species is so
delicate and transparent that it cannot usually be clearly demon-
strated without the addition of iodine (Pl. I. fig. 5). And as
the two daughter cells (fig. 6) contained in it are also only ren-
dered perceptible by this treatment, this species is therefore not
suitable for the study of this histological element of the joint-cell.

The growth of the two daughter cells contained in the nuclear
cell into new joint-cells, as observed in other Spirogyra, does
not appear to take place in S. Hornschuch; for in this example
it is only the daughter cells of the secondary cell which consti-
tute new joint-cells, whilst the daughter cells of the tertiary
cell (the cell-nucleus) enclosed between septum-building young
joint-cells, proceed to grow into the little circular folds on the
partition-wall.

The hypothesis I first promulgated in Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv’
for 1843, on the origin of the cup-shaped circular folds of the
septa, derives confirmation from the occurrence of such develop-
mental phases as are seen in fig. 11, which, though, indeed, of
rare occurrence, are sometimes encountered, particularly in cul-
tivated plants.

In this example the middle portion of the septum projects in
the form of a hemisphere from each aspect, instead of two cir-
cular folds. Between this extreme modification and the usual
form every intermediate grade may be met with.

The precipitation of the chlorophyll on the nuclear cell is
scarcely observable under the ordinary conditions of nutrition and
development, and is probably connected with a general increase
in the amount of chlorophyll deposited.

It not unfrequently occurs that three daughter cells are simul-
taneously developed in a single joint-cell of Spirogyra. In the

10 Prof. H. Karsten on some Phenomena of

joint-cells of S. nitida it is most decidedly seen that the new
partition-walls are not produced by a fold of the membrane of
the parent cell; for the several chlorophyll-lamine or bands
which are present, and completely coherent or continuous at
first, overlie the septum which originates from the mutual ap-
position of the endogenous cells (fig. 13).

In fig. 15, a cell of S. orthospira is represented, in which the
two daughter cells, a, a (covered by slender chlorophyll-vesicles,
within the secondary cell 4, which has been cautiously detached
by diosmosis from the primary cell, by the addition of a weak
solution of chloride of calcium), are in process of forming a new
septum between themselves, and having the nuclear cell inter-
posed. The formation of folds from the secondary cell (primor-
dial sac) is evidently here not the cause of the septum in exist-
ence, though it be still incomplete with reference to the parent
cell.

Fig. 16 exhibits the following stage of development of a joint-
cell of the same individual, in which neither the two daughter
cells nor the secondary cells could be detached by the same
reagent from the wall of the mother cell, although the secondary
cells of the daughter cells have become separated from the coats
of their primary cells. These latter formed the still extremely
delicate septum which divides the cavity of the mother cell into
two portions. The secretory materials (chlorophyll, starch, &c.)
are in this stage already enclosed within the secondary cells of
the daughter cells, whilst in the previous phase, represented in
fig. 15, they are still found within the secondary cells of the
parent cell.

The process of absorption of the chlorophyll-vesicles contained
within the mother cell, and their reproduction in the daughter
cells, may be detected in this genus of plants, although not in
its details ; but in Gédogonium I have witnessed this process after
the origin of new joint-cells.

These at first exceedingly delicate partition-walls, developed
in a normal manner, can scarcely be confounded with the cen-
tripetal circular folds which the cell-membrane of badly nou-
rished Conferve, particularly Cladophore and Spirogyre, not un-
frequently produce; for these latter are much thicker, and their
central edge always rounded, as is shown in figs. 12 & 14. In
these examples, the membrane of the secondary cell which was
detached from the thickened wall of the primary, as a result of
diosmosis, at the constricted part at 2, and which, during the
operation of the reagent, was disturbed from its position, was
free from chlorophyll. This nitrogenous secretory matter could
not, from the deficiency of suitable nutritive material, develope
itself proportionately with the growing cell-membrane, and,

the Development of the Organic Cell. 11

probably also from this same defect in the supply of nitrogenous
substance from without, was absorbed by the more actively
assimilating membrane of the fold.

In S. nitida I have observed such circular folds for fourteen
days together, without being able to detect a further enlarge-
ment of them; and I can give so much the less credence to
the hypothesis that septa and cells originate from these folds, as
I have noticed similar circular folds in Cladophora glomerata
lasting for a period of three months without any change in their
central aperture taking place.

Further, I have not only observed, in Cladophora, the new
joint-cells, in certain exceptional cases, take on such a develop-
ment as to present two free endogenous cells dividing in the
cavity of the mother cell (as im cork-cells, in Spirogyra, and
Cdogonium: see my ‘ Histological Researches,’ figs, 21-29),
but I have also seen, in the plant in question, that the thick
membranous folds intervening between the two daughter cells
grow gradually thinner and become finally absorbed. In Spiro-
gyra, moreover, I have also witnessed the absorption of the
membrane of the secondary mother cell, which has subsided,
along with the chlorophyll-vesicles connected with it, towards
the conjoined ends of two slowly growing joint-cells, and has
there become included in the septum produced, and assumed
the form of an elevation or fold. (Histological Researches,

. 63.
: ae the analogy of these occurrences, it may be assumed
that even the folds represented in figs. 12 and 14 would become
absorbed by the neighbouring cells, if these last were restored
to a vigorous and normal state of nutrition, which might in all
probability be effected, where atrophy had not too far advanced,
by the cautious supply of organic nutritive matter.

Fig. 19 exhibits a specimen of Cladophora glomerata, in which
one of the two daughter cells, during the absorption of the
secreted matters by the fold, has penetrated this last in the
course of its growth, come into contact with its sister cell, and
thus established a new septum.

Tn the same plant (fig. 18) a thick fold has formed a boundary
between the two new daughter cells, and so created an obstacle
to their coming into apposition. In the centre of the fold a
large corpuscle, like a starch-globule, remains unabsorbed by
the daughter cells which did not touch it. It would seem that,
in this example, the very thick circular fold of the mother cell
has prevented the formation of a septum by the daughter cells.

A careful examination of Cladophora is sufficient to convince
any one who might regard an appeal to analogy, even in allied
plants, as inadmissible, that though an endogenous cell-growth

12 Prof. H. Karsten on the Development of the Organic Cell.

is often difficult to discover in this plant, yet such is the fact;
whilst the majority of naturalists, without it, acknowledging the
general application of the law of analogy, will not suppose that,
in the simplest processes of organization, nature follows totally
different courses.

The primitive form which matter capable of organization
assumes is that of the vesicle—the cell, inseparably composed
of membrane (wall) and contents. Hach of these two consti-
tuents of the elementary organ, constantly exerting the most
intimate influences upon each other, is capable of advancing
further in its development by the aid of the physico-chemical
forces to which it is indebted for its existence.

The membrane of the cell grows, but not by passive exten-
sion as a consequence of endosmose of its fluid contents. It is
rather itself engaged in a constant, although, in fact, almost
imperceptible, change of the quantity and nature of the matter
composing it, assuming peculiar forms, very probably dependent
upon the nature of this material, as I have im some measure
shown in the preceding pages and in several other contributions.

The fluid contents of the cell have also their own peculiar
powers of development. Whilst the cell-wall shows this by its
enlargement, and usually laminated thickening, the fluid con-
tents manifest it by the production im them of secretion-cells, of
transient duration.

Indeed, as the assimilative faculty of the cell-wall gives rise to
the formation of progressively higher combinations, the soluble
products of which become finally dissolved in the general
nutritive fluid, so, by the agency of the same faculty, secre-
tion-cells make their appearance in the fluid contents of tissue-
cells at certain periods of their development. These transient
secretion-cells serve for the maintenance of the cells of a
secondary, tertiary, and succeeding generation, which origimate
in the cell-juices, are developed at the cost of the absorbed
secreted matters, and serve for the reparation of the primary
cell and the maintenance of the cell-individual. This formative
process within the cell is not restricted, under certain con-
ditions of nutrition, to the regeneration of the individual cell,
but from the cell-contents rich in formative material several
new cells, of the nature of the reproducing mother cell, are
simultaneously produced, having for their object the multiplica-
tion of the tissue-cells.

Owing to this complicated structure of the tissue-cells which
enter into the composition of developed organisms, it is erroneous
to speak of unicellular plants and animals. With as little
reason can we imagine cells without membranes; such bodies,
in my opinion, should be designated drops or granules.

Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda. 13

II.—On the Developmental History of the Stomapoda.
By Dr. Fritz MU.er, of Desterro*.

[Plate II.]

Unper the name of Zoéa we have long known young states of
the Crabs and Hermit-Crabs, distinguished especially by the
want of the ten feet to which the adult animals are indebted for
their name of Decapoda. I have recently described the Zoéa-
forms of the Porcellane as those approaching most closely to
those of the Crabs. But in certain Prawns and Stomapoda, as
I have since ascertained, similar conditions occur. Of the meta-
morphosis of the former, which commences sometimes (as in
the Cirripedia and Rhizocephala) with Monoculoid forms and
passes through very peculiar Zoéoid and Mysis-like states, and
sometimes with Zoéa-forms which in structure and mode of
movement resemble those of the Hermit-Crabs, whilst in others
we can hardly say that there is any metamorphosis, I hope
shortly to be able to give a tolerably complete account. In the
case of the latter I have at present no prospect of fresh observa-
tions, and therefore communicate what I have recorded upon the
only larva yet discovered.

The little animal (Pl. II. fig. 1), which is 3°25 mill. in length,
has the general form and likewise all the glassy transparency of
an Alima. The segments exist in almost the same number as
in mature Stomapods, only the sixth and seventh abdominal
segments being not yet distinct from each other; as in the
Zoée of the Crabs and Porcellane, the appendages of the six
hinder thoracic segments} and the lateral lamine of the caudal
fin { are still entirely deficient.

* Translated from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1862, by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.

+ Ihave never been able to reconcile myself to the exceedingly forced
notion which limits the thorax of the Crustacea, like that of Insects, to
three segments. It is contradicted, as appears to me, by the develop-
mental history of those Crustacea which are subject to a metamorphosis,
whilst the ordinary and readily perceptible division between the thorax
and abdomen is confirmed thereby. It is only a reference to the Insecta
that could have led from this and to that new artificial line of demarcation.
But if any Crustacea can be compared with certainty (as regards the divi-
sions of the body) with Insects, these are certain Zoéa-forms (e.g. of Pa-
gurus) with three pairs of buccal organs, three pairs of legs, and an abdo-
men destitute of appendages. These three pairs of feet certainly become
the foot-jaws of the Crab in accordance with the notion referred to; but
the five pairs of true feet of the Crab are produced, not from the abdomen
of the Zoéa whilst a new “ postabdomen” sprouts forth behind, but they
are formed in front of the abdomen, and often simultaneously with and in
the same form as the third pair of foot-jaws. They are to be regarded as
an addition to the thorax which is entirely wanting in Insects; and here,
again, the process is repeated, that after the appearance of new posterior
legs the anterior ones give up their original function, and become feelers
or manducatory organs.

{ The distinction of the last two abdominal segments, which usually

14 Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda.

The carapace, which leaves the three hindmost thoracic seg-
ments uncovered, is flat, and scarcely, if at all, bent down laterally.
Its posterior part has nearly the form of the so-called Sea-Mouse,
or of a quadrangle with its corners drawn out ito points
directed backward and forward, with its fore and hind margins
of equal width (about two-thirds of the length), and its sides
gently arched. The posterior margin is notched in the middle
as far as it lies upon the body. The anterior angles lie over the
origin of the posterior antenne; between them the carapace is
produced forward, becoming rapidly narrower and running out
into a point, which projects beyond the body about one-sixth of
its length. The length of the anterior portion of the body,
covered by the carapace, is to that of the posterior uncovered
portion about as 3: 5.

The foremost division of the body (fig. 2), bearing the eyes
and antenne, which is almost entirely filled by a large nervous
mass, has a quadrangular form ; it is 0°28 mill. in length, and
the same in breadth behind; the width in front is only half as
much ; on the middle of its lower surface stands a short spine
directed forward. From its anterior angles spring the eyes, the
extreme convexities of which, when turned quite laterally, are
0°5 mill. apart ; one-third of this distance is due to the frontal
margin and the slender basal joints of the peduncles. The ter-
minal joint of the eye-stalk forms an oblique cone, the anterior
margin of which is about two-thirds the length of the posterior
margin ; the latter is about equal to the diameter of the basal
surface, over which the true eye arches itself.

Below the frontal margin, in the middle of a semicircular
process, is seen a small black single eye, which perhaps indicates
that even here the development commences with monoculoid
forms.

Rather nearer to the eyes than to the posterior antennz, the
anterior antenne spring from the margin of the body ; they have
a three-jointed stem, a two-jointed upper branch, and a jointless
inner lower branch, and attain one-fifth of the length of the
body. Of the three joints of the stem, the intermediate one is
half the length of each of the other two; the first joint is cylin-
drical, the third thickened at the end. The upper branch is
slender, as long as the stem, and bears a long bristle at the end
of the first and two at the end of the short second joint. The
inferior branch is of a pointed conical form, shorter, but far
thicker, than the upper, with a long terminal bristle ; about the
middle of its upper surface it bears six thin cylindrical filaments

differ so remarkably from the preceding ones, under the special name of
the tail, may also be justified from the developmental history of the animal
under notice.

Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda. 15

or “ bacilli,’ with rounded apices and very delicate outlines
(Pl. II. fig. 3). The three upper of these are about 0-2 mill.
in length ; the three lower ones attain only one-third of this
length.

With regard to these “bacilli” on the inner antenne of the
Crustacea, I may be permitted to make a slight digression.
These structures, to which attention has lately been called
amongst the lower Crustacea by more than one writer*, appear
to be very generally diffused throughout the class. I have found
them in different Copepods, in the larva of Balani and Rhizo-
cephala, in young Bopyri, in Tanais and other Isopods, in Ca-
prella, in many Gammarini, in Hyperia, Cuma, and Bodotria,
and in all stalk-eyed Crustacea which I examined for them. I
missed them only in some parasites (Bopyrus, Cymothoa) and
Crustacea inhabiting the land (Ligia, Orchestia). Of two spe-
cies of the last-named genus found here, they are wanting in the
one, whilst the other possesses them}. In their number and
arrangement, size, and form, they are subject to great variety.
I have found a single bacillus in many Isopoda (PI. II. fig. 15),
and in the middle of the antenna in a Copepod (fig. 18) ; a fan
of about ten bacilli occurs in the young of Bopyrus (fig. 18). In
Isopoda, Caprelle, and Amphipoda, one or two usually stand at
the apex and on the lower surface of the joints of the flagellum,
sometimes on all the joints, sometimes with the exception of the
basal one (figs. 14, 17). In Squilla, in which the outer branch
of the inner antenna is again divided, I found them to the number

* Schodler saw them, in 1846, in Acanthocercus; Leydig, in 1851, in
Branchipus, and subsequently in Polyphemus and other Daphnide; Max
Schultze, in 1852, in larvee of Balanus. “ The peculiar pod-shaped, stalked
appendages ” (fig. 12) which J met with, in 1846, on the third and follow-
ing joints of the flagellum of the inner antenne of the Spheroma of the
Baltic may belong here, notwithstanding the difference of their form.

t+ Note by Max Schultze :—The structures under discussion are described
more in detail than in the passages known to Fritz Miiller, by De la Valette
in his inaugural dissertation ‘ De Gammaro puteano,’ 1857, by Leydig, ‘ Na-
turgeschichte der Daphniden,’ 1860, pp. 42-46, and most accurately by the
same author in the ‘ Archiv fiir Anat. und Physiol.,’ 1860, ‘Ueber Geruchs-
und Gehororgane der Krebse und Insekten,’ p. 281. Leydig, like Fritz
Miiller, comes to the conclusion that the structures are, in all probability,
organs of smell. It does not appear, however, from Leydig’s statements,
what is to be regarded as essentially characteristic of the appendages which
are to be interpreted as organs of smell; but, independent of their position
on the antennz (in the Crabs on the inner pair), their abundance of nerves
and a certain delicacy of the external membrane, the obtuse apices and the
appearance of an orifice in these, may be regarded provisionally as charac-
teristic. According to this, the bristle-like feelers first described by me in
larve of Balanus, as issuing near the eye (Zeitschr. fiir Wiss. Zool. iv.
p- 191), and overlooked by later observers, but again met with and classed
as organs of smell by Fritz Miiller, would rather be tactile organs.

16 Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda.

of three at the extremity of the last fourteen joints of the shorter,
42-jointed branch. In the Decapoda they appear usually to
occupy the commencement of the flagellum, leaving the extre-
mity free. This is the case in Mysis, in one species of which
(fig. 10) they are condensed upon a peculiar process. So also
in Crabs, Porcellane, and Paguri (fig. 8), in which they occur
in the greatest number and of the largest size (up to 1 mill. in
length), and, forming one or more transverse rows, beset the
thick short joints of the branch, which rapidly diminishes from
its thickened base. When the anterior antenne serve as feet,
the bacilli are wanting, as in the larve of Prawns*; or they
spring from the body itself, as in the larve of Balani and Rhizo-
cephala.

The bacilli are generally simply cylindrical; I found them
dilated into a bulbous form at the base, and here furnished with
a tougher membrane, in Squilla (fig.11), in a small Prawn
(Hippolyte? fig. 9), and in Ocypoda. The extremity is usually
rounded off in a hemispherical form, and sometimes exhibits a
small strongly refractive spot. In the Prawn just mentioned
(fig. 9a) a short delicate pomt was appended to the rounded
extremity. Sometimes they are narrowed towards the extremity :
I found them thus in Pagurus; here, as in the Crabs and
Porcellane, they are divided by delicate annular furrows into
shorter or longer segments, and conically pomted. In the larger
bacilli the contents sometimes appear delicately striated longi-
tudinally, or very fine granules arranged in longitudinal rows
are seen in them.

What is the function of these bacilligerous flagella? If we
are unwilling to assume a sense entirely deficient in us inhabit-
ants of the land (in favour of which, however, the rudimentary
condition of the inner antenne in terrestrial Crustacea, such as
Onisci, Orchestia, and Ocypodat, might be adduced), we can
scarcely avoid considering them as organs of smell. In the
Crabs, in which their bacilli are most highly developed, they are
unadapted for feeling solid bodies, on account of their position,
their inconsiderable length, and even on account of their bearing
these delicate and readily injured appendages. From perceiving
movements in the water, for which they would appear to be but
ill adapted even on account of their shortness, they are prevented
by a rapid current passing by and over them from the mouth.
In a current of this kind, running from the mouth, we should
certainly not seek for organs of taste. Thus, of our five senses,

* The antenne of the Prawns are metamorphosed swimming-feet ; the
swimming-feet of the Daphnie are, however, hardly ‘transformed an-
tenn.”

t In Gelasimus, also, I find the bacilli unusually delicate and short.

Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda. 17

only smell remains. This cannot be deficient in animals which
may be attracted by a strong-smelling bait. If we now consider
how the inner antenne of Crabs, Porcellane, and Paguri are in
almost uninterrupted motion, as it were feeling through the
water, which passes over them in a constant stream, by short,
rapid strokes with their tufts of bacilli, we must consider them
just as well adapted for the perception of odours as the parts in
the basal joints of the inner and outer antenne hitherto indi-
cated as organs of smell appear ill fitted for that office, the latter
wanting the most indispensable requisite of an organ of smell,
namely, the ready and free access of water.

‘To return to our larva.

The posterior antenne likewise spring from the margin of the
body at the posterior angles of the above-mentioned quadran-
gular part bearing the eyes and antenne; they are scarcely
shorter than the anterior, and consist of a two-jointed stem and
a laminar apical joint, somewhat dilated and beset with bristles
towards its rounded extremity, equal in length to the stem, and
directed backwards in repose. The jointed flagellum of the
mature Stomapod does not appear.

The mouth is situated in the middle between the four lateral
angles of the carapace ; before it is a large helmet-shaped labrum ;
at its sides the mandibles (tig. 4), apparently destitute of palpi,
each armed with three pointed teeth, which increase in length.
backwards, and are again finely denticulated on their anterior
margin. Then follow two pairs of weakly developed mazille ;
the anterior (fig. 5) has two branches, each armed with three
spine-like bristles and a minute palpus; the posterior (fig. 6)
is a completely unjointed longish stump, with a few bristles at
the end.

The feet of the following pair are thin, slender, and five-jointed,
and reach to the sides of the mouth anteriorly, nearly to the
origin of the posterior antenne ; their last two short joints are
usually turned inwards and backwards.

Close behind these spring the large prehensile feet. The little
animal likes to carry them widely extended as it hangs perpen-
dicularly in the water (fig. 1). The basal joint then reaches
outwards to the margin of the carapace; the second and third
form a stalk slightly thickened towards the extremity, and
1 mill. in length, which, being directed obliquely upwards,
reaches to the level of the eyes; the fourth joint is short and
not distinctly separated, and unites the stalk with the horizontal
palm, 1 mill. in length, which is slightly clavate and bears on
its straight inner margin one long spine and a series of very
short ones. Lastly, the claw is slightly curved, not denticulated,
and about two-thirds the length of the palm. At the base of

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xii. 2

18 Dr. F. Miller on the Development of the Stomapoda.

the raptorial feet there is a small, roundish, laminar or vesicular
appendage.

The raptorial feet are followed by six segments destitute of
appendages: of these the three anterior, which are covered by
the carapace, but not amalgamated with it, increase in length
backwards in the proportion of about 2:3:4; taken together,
they are half the length of the three posterior ones, which are
equal to each other. The six rings together are 0°75 mill. in
length ; their breadth is 0°2 mill.

The following five segments, which together make up fully
one-fourth of the length of the body, are about one-half broader,
somewhat constricted at the articulations, and each armed at its
posterior angles with a short spine. The four anterior of these
five segments bear natatory feet (fig. 7), which are all constructed
in the same manner :—a large basal joint, 0°3 mill. in length,
and somewhat dilated at the extremity, bears two terminal la-
mine of about half that length, and beset with bristles ; of these
the inner one has a small finger-like process towards the end of
its inner margin. The branchie are still entirely wanting.

The tail, consisting of a single piece, forms a large quadran-
gular lamina of about one-fifth the length of the body, and
scarcely less in breadth ; its lateral margins are gently arched,
and its hinder margin slightly emarginate; sixteen minute
denticles stand in this emargination, a somewhat longer one at
each posterior angle, and six on each lateral margin.

The only Stomapod with which I am acquainted here is a
Squilla, differing little, if at all, from S. Mantis. The larva de-
scribed will probably belong to this. Young Squille of the
same species, of about 10 mill. in length, are already exactly
similar to the mature animal, except in the smaller number of
joints in the antenne, of teeth on the raptorial feet, of branchial
filaments, and the like. They had still the glassy transparency
of our larva, and possessed like it a median eye.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Zoéa form* of a Stomapod from the Sea of Santa Catharina;
magnified 15 diameters.
Figs. 2-7. Different parts of the same; magn. 90 diam.
2. Anterior part of the body, from below.
3. Anterior antenna, from the side.
4. Mandibie.
5. Anterior maxilla.

* T would extend the name of Zoéa to all larve of Crustacea possessing
two pairs of antenne, three pairs of buccal organs, and two or three pairs
of legs on the thorax, but still destitute of the five or six last pairs of
thoracie feet.

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 19.

' Fig. 6. Posterior maxilla.
7. The last two segments of the thorax and the first of the abdomen,
with one of its natatory feet.
Figs. 8-18. Bacilli from the inner antenne of various Crustacea, magn.
90 diam. (except figs. 10, 12, and 16): s, stalk; a, outer, and
i, inner branch of the antenna; v, blood-vessel.
8. From a small Pagurus; 8 a, apex of one of the bacilli.
9. From a small Prawn (Hippolyte?); 9 a, apex more highly mag-
nified.
10. From Mysis; magn. 45 diam.
11. From Squilla.
12. From the Spheroma of the Baltic; magn. unknown.
13. From a young Bopyrus.
14, 15. From two different species of Tanais.
16. From Capreila; magn. 180 diam.; g, ganglion (?).
17. From Gammarus.

18. From a Copepod.

I11.—Lucernaria the Cenotype of Acalephe. By Prof. Henry
James Crark, of Harvard University, Cambridge*.

Tue present communication is a mere sketch of a most thorough
and exhausting anatomy of Lucernaria, which I have illustrated by
numerous plates, and which I propose to publish in an extended
memoir, in connexion with some considerations upon the general
morphology and systematic relations of Acalephe. I have been
engaged during the whole of the past year upon the organical
and histological anatomy of this animal, in order to determine
what are its relations to Radiata in general, and to Acalephee in
particular. I have had abundant materials for study, inasmuch
as this species of Lucernaria is a very common inhabitant of our
shores, wherever the eel-grass (Zostera marina) grows. Almost
invariably Lucernaria is to be found upon the Zostera, and very
rarely upon any other plant. It may be obtained from the last
of August, when it is most frequently met with in a young state,
until the last of June, at which time the young ones of the
autumn season have developed to full-grown animals. In an
adult state it measures nearly an inch across the disk, exclusive
of the tentacles, and about the same in height. It varies in
colour from green, which is the most common tint, to deep
olive; from light yellow to reddish brown, or from light violet
to the deepest purple. In form it is octagonal, and most fre-
quently it so comports itself that the four sides opposite the
bifarious genitalia are shorter than those alternating with them ;
but frequently the same individual reverses the order of things,
and the latter become either as short as or even shorter than
the first. From this we infer that the specific differences, based

* From Silliman’s American Journal for May 1863.
*

20 Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria.

upon the approximation of the bunches of tentacles, two and
two, are entirely erroneous, as this obtains in all octagonal
Lucernarians in a greater or less degree. As these animals are
very sensitive and irritable, they contract upon the least disturb-
ance ; and as the muscular system is most highly developed m
the region which ‘lies about the four partitions of the disk, it is
most natural that, when the creature contracts, it should draw
the two halves of the genitalia and the bunches of tentacles to-
gether more closely here than at the alternate quarters ; bence
arises the frequently observed quadrate outline of the disk.
Again, in regard to another feature oftentimes employed to dis-
criminate between different species, or even groups, I would say
that the absence of auricles alone, without other differences in
the animal, does not indicate a specific difference froni:those
individuals ‘possessing them, but rather an accidental atrophy of
these organs,—and that this fact is to be classed in the same
category as the occasional development of one of the tentacles
into a semiauricular body. I have always noticed that indivi-
duals in such a condition have an unnatural appearance—that
they are not so lively as the others, and appear to be diseased*.
I believe this species to be identical with ZL. auriculat of the
English coast. The most characteristic figure that I know of,
although unsatisfactory, is in Gosse’s little book, ‘The Aqua-
rium’f.

In order to contrast the structure of Lucernaria with that of

* IT have found such specimens most frequent at that time of the year
which is the breeding-season of our common shore-crab, Cancer (Platy-
carcinus) irroratus, when it comes up out of deeper water, and is most
abundant and active. At first, only now and then, I found a Lucernarian
with one or two auricles bitten off; but later it was common to find speci-
mens with all the auricles nipped, and nothing but a small portion of their
base, or a mere scar, left to indicate their former presence. The moment
a Lucernarian is touched by a Crab, it jerks its tufts of tentacles inward,
but the reverted auricles are left exposed, and all the more prominent by
the act than usual, and a conspicuous morsel for the predaceous creature.
As the season advances towards summer, the bunches of tentacles also
disappear one after another, until it becomes quite common also to find
individuals with two, three, or four bunches bitten off; and at the same
time specimens become more and more rare (at the last of June, for in-
stance), and finally (by the early part of July) it is impossible, by the most
diligent search, to find a single specimen. As this happens at the time
when the Lucernarians are laying their eggs, it is clear that the destruction
of the adult does not necessarily annihilate the race. During the next two
months, no Lucernarians are to be found; but in the last of August I have
collected young ones, much less than =}; of an inch in diameter.

+ Haliclystus auricula, H.J.C., Journal Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., March
1863, p. 559.

t The original figure by Rathke (Miill. Zool. Danica, iv. 1806, pl. clii.),
although sufficiently correct for identification, can neither be called cha-
racteristic nor graceful as far as attitude is concerned.

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 21

the Steganophthalmatan Medusz, and, moreover, in order that
‘I may not complicate matters, 1 will compare it, organ for
organ and part for part, with one of our most common Medusz,
Aurelia flavidula, Agassiz. The aboral side, which corresponds
to the so-called dorsal region of other Acalephe, projects at the
apex into a moderately long columnar body, usually called the
peduncle of Lucernaria. With the exception of the four equi-
distant channels and the four muscular cords which alternate
with them, the peduncle is a solid gelatiniform mass, covered
by the outer wall. This gelatiniform substance also constitutes
the bulk of the disk, fillmg the entire space between the outer
wall and the inner or lining wall of the digestive cavity, and
directly continuous with that in the peduncle. In Aurelia,
Cyanea, and other Acalephs, this substance appears like an
amorphous gelatiniform or semicartilagmous mass, with a few
irregular cells scattered here and there *; but in Lucernaria it
has a highly organic structure. Extremely elongate, columnar,

* In June 1862, I made a careful study of the structure of the gelatini-
form substance of Aurelia flavidula, Ag. There are two kinds of ‘fibro-
cellular bodies which pervade the gelatiniform layer. One kind are irre-
gular, dark, conspicuous cells, similar in appearance and size to those of
the outer wall of the aboral side, with from one to four or five jagged
caudate prolongations projecting in every direction. These are most
numerous next the aboral side of the disk, and departing from that region
they become less frequent as we appoach the oral side, at which plaee they
are very much scattered. The other kind of bodies are very faint, nucleated,
nodose fibres, and form a vast anastomosing network, which, like -the
darker, caudate cells, pervades the whole of the gelatiniform mass of -the
body, from the aboral to the oral side. It resembles elastic tissue-very
closely. Next the aboral side these fibres trend mostly parallelwise with
the outer wall, or at very oblique angles to it; but, passing inwardly; ithey
gradually assume a direction transverse to this, and then, anastomosing
less frequently, they become in appearance like slender parallel celumns,
based upon the double wall in which the chymiferous channelsrun. Between
the latter and the outer wall of the oral side the fibrous bodies are exces-
sively faint and less frequent, but still continue the trend which they have
on the aboral side of the double wall. The peculiarities of these two kinds
of bodies are fully described by Max Schultze (Ueber den Bau der Gallert-
scheibe der Medusen, Mill. Archiv, 1856, p. 311, pl. 11, 12) from observa-
tions which he made upon Medusa (Aurelia) aurita, Rhizostoma Cuvieri,
and R. Aldrovandi; but in all of them, he says, the fibres run in every
direction : ‘‘sie laufen gestreckt in allen Richtungen, theilen sich haufig
und verbinden sich unter einander unter allen moglichen Winkeln.” Now,
in Medusa (Aurelia) aurita, which is very near, if not identical with, our
Aurelia flavidula, Ag., it is very probable that these fibres are arranged as
in ours; and yet I cannot see how Schultze could have overlooked this
arrangement. My observations were made upon perfectly fresh specimens,
and without the help of any reagents. In our Lucernarian, and, in fact, in
all the Lucernarie (see Journal Boston Nat. Hist. Soc., March 1863), the
fibrous bodies do not anastomose, but trend in direct lines, from the outer
to the inner wall.

99, Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria.

cell-like bodies extend in close proximity from the outer to the
inner wall, so that, in a section of the thickness of the disk, it
appears to be transversely striated. In the peduncle, as a trans-
verse section reveals, these columnar cells are arranged about
the axis, in peculiar regular groups: some columns pass from
one channel to the next on either side, some diagonally across
the axis from one channel to an opposite one, and others extend
obliquely from the channel to the muscular cords which alter-
nate with them. ‘This arrangement reminds one of the me-
thodical disposition of the great cells in the body of Plewrobra-
chia*, as I have described them in Prof. Agassiz’s third volume of
his ‘ Contributions to the Natural History of the United States.”
In the oral or lower side of the disk of Aurelia, the gelatiniform
substance has the same structure as in the aboral side, while in
Lucernaria, although it has all the regularity in the disposition
of its components that obtains in the aboral side, yet it possesses
a totally different nature, as I will describe hereafter in connexion
with the muscular system.

* At the time the investigation of the gelatiniform mass of Plewrobrachia
rhododactyla, Ag., was made, I had not in my possession lenses of the
proper definition and working-distance to make out the histological ele-
ments with the accuracy that such excessively transparent bodies de-
mand, and therefore, using inferior lenses, I fell into an error which I am
only too glad to correct. Since that time I have obtained one of Tolles’s
half-inch objectives, with an exceedingly sharp definition and an extra-
ordinary working-distance ; so that I have been enabled to work with per-
fect freedom upon the living animal, and without injuring its tissues in the
least. What formerly I mistook to be the outlines of the walls of enormous
cells are in reality elaslic fibres. The mistaking the fibres for the profile
of cell-walls does not affect the arrangement in the least as I formerly
described it, and which I have since verified with my new objectivés. The
elastic fibres assume various forms, according to the degree of expansion
or contraction of the animal ; sometimes they are perfectly straight, and at
‘others they are contracted either in a loose spiral, or retracted into a close
eoil. This is most easily observed in young specimens. In the young of
‘another Ctenophoran, viz. Bolina alata, Ag., about ~'z of an inch in dia-
‘meter, at which size its proportions, shape, the considerable depth of the
‘tentacular sockets, and the length of its tentacles render it remarkably like
a Pleurobrachia, the elastic fibres are very few, but quite conspicuous, and
have a peculiar mode of branchmg. Single fibres extend radiatingly from
‘the corners of the stomach ; when about halfway to the surface of the body,
‘each fibre forks two or three times, and then one prong goes to each of the
two nearest longitudinal chymiferous tubes, and the third one extends to
‘the base of the deep tentacular socket. This is the general arrangement
at this age, although occasionally one of the prongs of the fork is absent
‘or only partially developed. Sometimes each prong forks again, at a
narrow or wide angle. From the tentacular sockets fibres extend also to
‘the surface midway between the mouth of the former and the adjacent
longitudinal chymiferous tube. So few are all the fibres, however, that
‘with a casual glance they might be mistaken for light unimportant streaks
here and there, instead of such methodically arranged bodies.

ES

———

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 23

From the middle of the base of each of the four flat sides of
the quadrate proboscis, a light streak, which has the deceptive
appearance of a radiating canal, passes in a direct line nearly to
the border of the disk: this is the line along which the oral and
aboral floors of the disk unite, and form a solid partition, by
which the digestive cavity is divided into four broad chambers,
which communicate with one another at the inner or proximal
ends, about the base of the proboscis, and also at the outer or
distal ends, through the narrow passage between the terminus
of the partition and the edge of the disk. In the peduncle there
are four equidistant broad tubes, which merge into one cavity
at its base, and correspond in position to the four chambers of
the digestive cavity. The grouped tentacles which occupy the
eight corners of the disk are hollow, as likewise are the auricles,
and communicate openly and directly with the digestive cavity.
This is all that constitutes the chymiferous circulatory system of
Lucernaria. In Aurelia we have radiating canals at the points
corresponding to the partitions of Lucernaria, as well as in the
intermediate sections.

In Aurelia the genitalia are four single circular organs, one
of each being placed opposite the flat side of the proboscis ;
whereas in Lucernaria each genital is a double organ, the halves
of which have a peculiar shape, and are situated respectively
one on each side of the partition, and extend along the inner
face of the oral floor of the disk from the base of the proboscis
to the extreme limits of the corners of the disk, where they
almost touch the bases of the tentacles. Across the proximal
end of each partition, triple or quadruple rows of slender digiti-
form bodies extend each way for a considerable distance along
the border of each half of a genital, thus forming the common
appendages of the two, and clearly indicating their wnity*. Hach
half of a genital has a peculiar form, which may be represented
by an inequilateral triangle whose longest side extends nearly
in a straight line from the inner end of the partition to the ten-
tacles, and the two other sides, slightly curving outwardly and
meeting at a very broad angle, form the rest of the outline. In
the adult, the longest side of the triangle is to its height as two
to one. This feature, alone, has a degree of speciality which
raises these organs in rank above all others of their kind among
Acalephe ; but when we examine their components, we find an

* In the family Cleistocarpide, as I have recently characterized it
(Journal Boston Nat. Hist. Soc., March 1863), the genital halves are di-
rectly united to each other, so as to form a continuous organ across the
proximal end of the partition: thus there can be no doubt that there are
but four genitals in Lucernarie, and not eight, as described by various
authors.

24 Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria.

unlooked-for structure, hitherto unknown among Acalephe.
What appear to the naked eye to be eggs of enormous size
are really little pouches, which contain either numerous eggs or
matrices of spermatic particles, according as the individual is
male or female. Each pouch, or genital saccule, as it may be
called, projects freely into the digestive cavity, and is attached
by a very short and rather narrow neck to the inner wall of the
oral floor of the disk. This constitutes another step in the
specialization of these organs, but does not complete the process.
At the base of each genital saccule, and on that side which faces
toward the proboscis, there is a small aperture, which leads to
the interior, where there is a considerable cavity. This cavity
is formed by the lateral inversion of the single wall of the sac-
cule upon itself, and the constriction of the wall about the en-
trance to the chamber. The eggs or spermatic material* are
enclosed in saccular folds of the wall of this chamber, into
which they fall when mature, and pass thence outwardly through
the lateral outlet at the base of the saccule. One may see at a
glance that this is a type of the reproductive organs not to be
found among the other Acalephe.

In Aurelia the generative products, whether eggs or sperma-
tozoa, lie immediately beneath the outer wall, and imbedded in
the muscular layer which extends throughout the length and
breadth of the oral face of the disk as I have described it in the
fourth volume of Professor Agassiz’s ‘ Contributions.” Between
the muscular layer and the inner wall which forms the imme-
diate parietes of the digestive cavity, a thick layer of gelatini-
form substance intervenes ; and its presence naturally suggests
the inquiry, How are the eggs or sperm to escape into the di-
gestive cavity, as they are known tod? The spermatic particles
I have observed frequently escaping directly through the outer
wall into the ocean; and I have seen them, with the broadest end
out, projecting like bundles of hairs fromthe cavity of the matrix
through the apertures in the outer wall. When the reproduc-
tive material is fully ripe, the inner wall, with the gelatiniform
layer, and the muscular layer as far as it includes the material

* The spermatic particles have an elongate-cordate body, from the broad
end of which an excessively long tail-like filament trails in broad curves as
it swims; at the pointed end are attached two exceedingly delicate fila-
ments, which are in constant motion, bending and coiling, or stretching in
every direction, as if they were the tactile organs of an Euglena or some
other similar Infusorian. The pseudoproboscides defy detection with ordi-
nary objectives; in fact, to determine their presence with certainty requires
very careful manipulation of such objectives as have the most accurate
defining-power, and which are to be obtained only from our best makers.
The spermatic particles of our common Echinus (E. granulatus) also pos-
sess a double pseudoproboscis.

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 25

in question, splits off from the outer wall along two lines corre-
sponding to the two borders of the generative organ, and hangs
loosely, in ribbons, in the digestive cavity. From the newly
formed raw face of these ribbons the eggs or spermatic particles
escape into the main chamber of the disk. This I take to be
the universal rule, and such the type of genitalia among all
Steganophthalmata—a structure totally unlike that of Lucernaria,
in which the znner wall alone is concerned in the highly compli-
cated reproductive organs.

Passing now to the consideration of the muscular system, I
will call your attention to the four white slender columns which
alternate with the four dark tubes imbedded in the gelatini-
form substance of the peduncle. Sars was the first to indicate
the true nature of these columns, and he rightly called them
muscular cords. They extend from the base of the peduncle
to the base of the proboscis, coursing along just beneath the
outer wall, but still within the gelatiniform substance, until they
reach the upper third of the peduncle, and then, gradually ap-
proximating the axial line, they meet the inner wall of the disk
just below the base of the proboscis, and thence pass along,
still beneath this wall, for a short distance, and finally each one
enters the oral side of the disk at the inner or axial end of the
partition. At this point, each muscular column expands and
forms a fan-shaped layer just beneath the outer wall, and extends
laterally so as to occupy the whole space between the two halves
of a genital. At the distal end, this layer diverges right and
left of the partition into a broad muscular band, which borders
the disk and is eventually distributed in ridges or cords beneath
the outer wall of the tentacles and the auricles. At the inner
end of the partition, the muscular layer also passes into the base
of the proboscis, and forms a stratum immediately beneath the
outer wall. At four equidistant points, alternating with the
partitions and genitals, and opposite the four corners of the
proboscis, there is a weaker muscular layer, which occupies the
same relative position in regard to the outer walls as does the
stronger system of muscles first mentioned. On the one hand
it passes into the marginal muscular band; and on the other it
enters the corners of the proboscis, and forms a layer in common
with the one extending from the partitions. By these alternating
stronger and weaker divisions of the muscular layer, the disk is
relieved of the sameness which prevails in the muscular system
of the Steganophthalmata, and we have indubitable proofs of a
higher degree of specialization than in the latter order, where
the unvarying repetition of similar divisions all around the disk
unmistakably indicates inferiority. Moreover, in addition to
this, we have a peculiar specialization of the gelatiniform layer,

26 Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria.

which is embraced by the outer and inner walls of this floor, or,
rather, between the muscular layer and the mner wall: instead
of repeating, as occurs in Aurelia, the peculiarities of the gela-
tiniform layer of the aboral floor, it has a totally different ap-
pearance and consistency, and an almost unlimited degree of
expansion and contraction. In the tentacles it occupies a very
deep space between the outer wall, or, rather, the muscular layer,
and the inner wall. In this latter respect, Lucernaria is again
peculiar, since, in addition to the muscular layer, which alone is
present in the young, it developes this gelatiniform layer—the
musculo-gelatiniform layer, as I propose to call it—the like of
which does not exist in the tentacles either of Steganophthalmata
or Gymnophthalmata. In the auricles we have also a special-
ization peculiar to Lucernaria; for, in addition to the pigment
eye-spot which is imbedded in the base of the oral face of these
bodies, the auricles, which in the young cannot be distinguished
from the tentacles, gradually thicken the outer wall as age ad-
vances, and peculiar granuliferous adhesive vesicles are deve-
loped between the cells. In the adult their tentacular nature
is almost or altogether obliterated, and the swollen outer wall,
together with the enormous thickness of the musculo-gelatini-
form layer, forms an oval mass, thickly studded with adhesive
organs, by which they cling in a most tenacious manner to any
body which they may touch. These organs and the base of the
peduncle are the only means of adherence which Lucernaria
possesses; although it is true that the tentacles are used, as

in Aurelia, for prehension, they are comparatively very weak, ~

and can only serve to retain the prey, and never effect the pur-
pose for which the auricles are constructed*. In consideration

* The nettling organs, or lasso-cells, which crowd the globular tips of
the tentacles, are of two kinds, and both are imbedded in the intercellular
substance which fills the spaces between the columnar cells of the outer
wall. One kind consists of an oval thick-walled vesicle, about 35455 of an
inch long, or a little less, one end of which is introverted, and projects, in
the form of a stout hollow shaft, along the axis of the cell about four-fifths
of its length, and then, rather suddenly thinning into a slender thread which
also is hollow, it bends upon itself, returns nearly to the aperture of the cell,
and, pressing closely against the inner face of the cell-wall, it forms a close
coil which terminates at the end opposite the mouth of the introversion.
When the coil of thread is ejected, which is accomplished by sliding through
the hollow axial shaft, which in its turn retroverts also, just as the finger
of a glove is turned inside out, the whole aspect of the apparatus is changed.
The oval cell is considerably diminished in size, and from its aperture the
enormously enlarged hollow shaft projects in a straight lme; the half of
the shaft next the cell is cylindrical, and half as broad as the latter, with
a slight expansion where it joins the mouth of the cell; the distal half
abruptly expands into an oval form, half as broad again as the cylindrical
portion, and rapidly tapers into a smooth, trihedral, twisted thread. The

©

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 27

of the very obvious office of an auricle, I would propose the
name anchor for it.

Were the above-mentioned features in the organism of Lucer-
naria alone to be taken into account, there could be no hesitation
in saying that this genus should be considered as the highest of
the class of Acalephz, because of its highly complicated and
specialized gelatiniform mass, the high grade and the peculiar
and distinctive grouping of its muscular system, the definite
and bilateral form of the genital organs, as well as their saccular
subdivision, the twofold nature and disposition of the prehensile
organs, the tentacles and anchors,—and, moreover, that it belongs
to an order separate from the other orders of Acalephz, because of
the typical elements of its genital saccules, which are altogether
different from either the Steganophthalmic or Gymnophthalmic
type of genitals—and also on account of the anchors, which
have no parallel in all the class of Acalephe. But there are
parts of the Lucernarian organism which are of a lower grade
than those of similar nature among the other Acalephe. I refer,
in the first place, to the Hydra-like form of Lucernaria, and its

oval part of the shaft is endowed with three equidistant spiral rows of sete,
which number about a dozen in each row. The sete are comparatively
large, and in length equal two-thirds the broadest diameter of that part of
the shaft from which they project. Each row makes but one turn about
the shaft, and terminates as if in continuation of the angles of the trihedral
thread. There is not the least trace of sete or projections of any kind
upon the trihedral thread, but it continues, with a very gradual taper,
perfectly smooth, to the blunt termmation. The angles of the thread
appear, at first glance, as if they might be spiral rows of setze; but a most
careful and prolonged examination with one of Spencer’s 4-inch objectives
convinces me that they are truly the angles of a twisted trihedral filament.
The extent of the thread is from twenty to twenty-four times the length of
the cell. The other kind of nettling cell is much more simple in structure,
but yet more remarkable. The introverted shaft is very slender—in fact,
no larger than the rest of the thread; it does not project into the axis of
the cylindrico-oval cell, but presses close to the side of the latter, and ex-
tends four-fifths of the way to its opposite end, and then, bending abruptly
upon itself, the thread passes with a long curved sweep nearly to the aper-
ture of the cell, from whence it again returns, with another long sweep,
which is repeated eight to ten times, until the inner face of the cell-wall
is lined by a close coil which winds lengthwise, instead of transversely as
it does in the other kind first deseribed. When extended, the thread
is from twelve to fourteen times the length of the cell; it offers not
the least s'gn of appendages of any kind, but is simply a smooth round
filament, of uniform thickness throughout, except at the end, where it
tapers slightly and terminates in a blunt tip. The cell itself, when retro-
verted, is sensibly diminished in size, and narrows rapidly into the pro-
longed filamentary portion. It would seem to be perfectly incontestable
that, as the cell dimimishes in size with the expulsion of the thread, it
forms the propelling power, and by the contraction of its wall forces its
contents outward.

28 Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria.

comparatively stiff and hydroidal tentacles, evidently indicating
a typical affinity to the fixed hydroid generation of the Sarsie,
Bougainvillia, Steenstrupia, &e. The simple, almost unilocular
chymiferous system is hardly more medusoidal, as regards the
multiplicity of its subdivisions, than in some of the Tubularians,
such as Tubularia and Corymorpha, which are described in Pro-
fessor Agassiz’s fourth volume of his ‘Contributions.’ In con-
nexion with the hydroid form of Lucernaria, I would also men-
tion the total absence of a veil. This might, at first thought,
appear to furnish an argument in favour of the high relations of
this genus; but I think it is to be deemed one of the signs of
its inferior connexions. However, let us look at the progress
of velar development. In the ephydra state of all Steganoph-
thalmata, the veil is at one time greatly preponderant, when
compared with the size of the whole individual; but with
growth it gradually becomes less conspicuous, and finally, in
some adult genera of this order, it remains as a mere trace of
a veil, or, as in Cyanea and some Rhizostomide, it is altogether
obscured. Now, it is noteworthy. that among the lowest of this
order, such as Pelagia, we have a strong resemblance to the
ephydra state, and the ephydroid tongue-like veil is quite promi-
nent ; and in Chrysaora it is hardly less so: ascending the scale,
we find it more inconspicuous in Aurelia, and still more so
in Cassiopeia, and, finally, altogether absent in Cyanea*, the
highest, in my opinion, of all the Steganophthalmata. Now,
one might suppose Lucernaria, m respect to the veil, to be in the
saine category with Cyanea, which has resorbed its veil; this,
however, is not the case; for, as I know from the study of the
younger stages of Lucernaria that it never passes through the
veiled phase, it falls short in its development as regards this
particular feature of Acalephan morphology. We must take
into consideration, also, the eyes, which are found to be as low
in point of structure as the merest pigment eye-spot of the
Gymnophthalmata.

* The ephydra-like appearance of Cyanea is illusory: the lobes about
the eyes comprise not only the original ocular lappets, but also a part of
the tentacular margin; in fact, one-half of each margin on each side of an
eye is continuous with the ocular lappet adjacent. ‘The tentacular margin
being incurved toward the centre of the disk, the veil must be still further
inward, and very probably the margin of the muscular bands corresponds
to it, the two merging into each other. The wide lacunar character of the
radiating canals is not a feature of inferiority, as might appear, but repre-
sents a continuation of the tendency (as may be seen in the progressive
stages of growth of Aurelia) to channel out the whole breadth of the disk,
until it finally becomes a simple cavity. In Rhizostoma, Stomolphus, and
Polyclonia the channeling is less carried out than in Cyanea; in fact, the
former is but a little beyond Aurelia in this respect.

Prof. H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 29

Thus, in balancing the value of the organic characters of this
animal, we are inevitably led to the conclusion, on the one hand,
that Lucernaria does not stand as a totality above all other Aca-
lephe, nor, on the other hand, does it, by any means, belong below
them, and that much less does it affiliate exclusively with the
Gymnophthalmata. The only relation that it possibly can be
considered under is that of a correlation to both types of Acalephe
—viz. to the Gymnophthalmata, including the Siphonophora,
and to the Steganophthalmata—yet not as a graduated con-
necting link which would seem to show that the two orders pass
into each other, but as an ordinal type, equivalent in value to
either of the others, by reason of the peculiar and distinctive
morphology of certain of its organs. On this account Lucer-
naria is to be considered and may be designated as the canotype
(xocvos, common) of the Acalephe. In this respect it holds such
relations to the other two orders of Acalephe as do the Crinoids
to the other orders of Echinodermata, or the Annelidz to the
rest of the Articulata, or the Selachians to the true Fishes and
the Reptiles, at the same time, containing organic features
which separate each of them as a type from the others.

In order that no confusion may arise here, I would state most
explicitly that I do not consider the Ctenophora as one of the
orders of Acalephee, but deem them to be a class by themselves,
equal in value to either of the classes of Radiata, whether Polypi,
Acalephe, or Echinodermata, and standing next in rank to the
Echinodermata. The division of the alimentary system of Cte-
nophora into two portions, as among Polypi, is sufficient to se-
parate them from the Acalephz, since the typical form of the
corresponding system in the latter is a unity; moreover, the
position and peculiar relations of the tentacles of Ctenophora
are hardly of less importance, in these considerations, as dis-
tinctive characters. I cannot conceive that the Ctenophora may
be included in the same classific type with the Acalephz without
doing violence to correlative ideas such as are expressed in the
organism of the former; and much less can I admit that they
have the most distant relation to the Polypi, excepting that, like
the latter, they are Radiates. The same kind of arguments that
have been used to show that Ctenophora and Polypi belong to
one class might, with equal justice, be advanced to prove that
the Acalephe are Polypi. We must not mistake a similarity for
an identity, any more than that the cry of a child would identify
it with a cat, because their voices sound alike, and cannot always
be distinguished the one from the other by any single faculty of
our senses.

The following tabular view presents at a glance the relations
of the Lucernarie to the other orders of Acalephz, and at the

30 * Mr. H.J. Carter on Ameeba princeps

same time indicates the position of the Ctenophora among the
other classes of Radiata.

PoLypPt. ACALEPH. CTENOPHORA. ECHINODERMATA.
Be |
Steganoph-
thalmata.
Lucernariz.
Gymnoph-
thalmata. .

IV.—On Ameeba princeps and its Reproductive Cells, compared
with Aithalium, Pythium, Mucor, and Achlya. By H. J.
Carter, F.R.S. &e.

[Plate II1.]

Durine the month of April, 1863, I found Ameba princeps,
Ehrenb., plentifully distributed in a shallow stagnant pool
filled with dead leaves and fresh’ green confervoid Algz, forming
part of a chain of such pools, which, connected by a dribbling
little stream, extended, for about half a mile in length, from a
heath-bog, which it drained, to a little rivulet in the neighbour-
hood.

Although this Ameba is the largest freshwater species known,
and stands figured in my journal at its commencement, viz. in
1854, as well as, at intervals, in many other places up to the
present time, I have never until lately given the amount of
attention to it that I have long since done to the other fresh-
water Rhizopoda, both naked and testaceous ; nor in the present
instance, probably, should I have gone further, had I not dis-
covered in it cells which must be assumed to be reproductive,
and had I not been recently studying the family of Fungi called
“ Myxogastres” with reference to the observations of M. A. de
Bary, who found them so nearly allied to Ameba that he has
proposed for them the name of “ Mycetozoa”’*.

Well acquainted, therefore, with most of the Myxogastres
which have been described, but more especially with that species
ealled Aithalium, I took the first opportunity which presented
itself of comparing its structure with that of the largest form of
Ameba; and hence my late study of A. princeps, of which I have
only time now to give the results. The observations were ail
made on Amebe which had not been kept in confinement be-
yond four or five days.

It may be remembered by those who have read my “ Notes
on the Organization of Infusoria, &c.”’+, that I have therein

* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 233 (1860).
+ Ibid. vol. xviii. p. 115 (August, 1856).

and its Reproductive Cells. 31

proceeded upon a certain nomenclature of their parts generally ;
and I shall pursue the same course here in the description of
A, princeps specially.

The minimum and maximum size of A. princeps may be set
down, according to my observations, at ,4+,th and ,.th of an
inch in length, respectively, the breadth being a little less. Of
course, these measurements may be exceeded either way; but I
have not met with any larger or smaller specimens in which the
distinguishing character of the nucleus, which will be presently
mentioned, could be detected.

The most conspicuous features of A. princeps (PI. III.), when
it is large, are its size and the number of granules it contains,
in both of which characters it much exceeds any other Ameba
with which I am acquainted. Its form, of course subject to
protean changes, is for the most part limaceous, or once or
twice branched, and its pseudopodia, which are almost always
lobed and obtuse, proceed from a posterior end which is
normally capped with a tuft of villous prolongations; while
the distinguishing character of the nucleus, to which I have
above alluded, consists in the nucleolus (fig. 3d) being so
much extended over the inner surface of the nuclear cell that it
passes beyond the equatorial line of the latter, and thus causes
the pellucid halo which is seen round the nucleus of other
Amebe to be absent; that is, the nucleolus, being circular
and of much less extent than the hemisphere of the nuclear
capsule, in most Amebe, causes it to appear in them as if sur-
rounded by a transparent area—which, for the reason above
stated, is not the case in A. princeps at the time when it has
attained the z3,th part of an inch in length. Besides this, the
border of the nucleolus in A. princeps at the same period is
wavy ; and this gives rise to an irregular transparent area in the
nucleus or nuclear cell. Whether the nucleolus of A. princeps
presents the appearance of that in other Amebe before this pe-
riod is a matter of little consequence, inasmuch as, below the
minimum size mentioned, all Amabe appear to be alike.

Ehrenberg’s* and Dujardin’s} figures of 4. princeps are good
representations of it.

Having thus briefly premised a specific description of A. prin-
ceps, let us now give our attention, severally, to the parts of
which it is composed, under the following heads, viz. :—Pel-
licula, Diaphane, Sarcode, Molecule, Granules, Digestive spaces,
Fat-globules, Vesicula, Nucleus, Reproductive cells, and Spermato-
zouds.

Pellicula.—Inference leads us to the conclusion that there is

* JTnfusionsthierchen, Atlas, fol., tab. viii. fig. 10 (1838).
t Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes, Atlas, pl. 1. fig. 11.

32 Mr. H.J. Carter on Amceba princeps

a pellicle over the surface of A. princeps, however thin; and
the fact that very frequently, on the application of iodine, the
margin becomes of a deep violet colour, while all the other parts
of this Rhizopod exhibit nothing but a more or less deep amber
tint, seems to confirm it by chemical differentiation.

Such a covering has heen demonstrated by Auerbach in A.
bilimbosa*, and more satisfactorily, on account, probably, of the
pellicula in this species beg more rigid; but Auerbach does
not show that it is coloured by iodine, although he figures
starch-globules thus turned blue within it. Some years since,
too, I pointed out the presence of starch, in ali forms, through-
out Spongilla, which is but a congeries of amcebiform cells,
I have also shown that it exists in the chambers of the Forami-
fera; so that starch may be set down as a common product of
the Rhizopoda.

Returning to the pellicula, we must also infer that it is pos-
sessed of great elasticity and tenacity, so that it can yield a
covering to the pseudopodia almost to any extent (as proved by
the actinophorous rays of those Rhizopods which infest the cells
of plants remaining after the sarcode has withdrawn itself into
an interior or secondary cell) ; also that it admits of rupture (as
in the introduction of food into the sarcode), and yet can heal
over rapidly again. Thus it can undergo comparatively un-
limited extension even to discontinuity, but possesses no adhe-
siveness externally, as evidenced by nothing adhering to it
which is not seized and kept there by the instinct of the
animal.

Furthermore, in A. princeps the pellicula is allied to the
cell-wall of plants by position, and, from chemical evidence
(z.e. when treated with iodine), by an amylaceous composi-
tion.

Diaphane or Ectosarc.—This layer, as in other Ameba, lies
immediately underneath the pellicula, and is distinguished from
the sarcode or endosare within by its greater degree of trans-
parency and peculiar functions ; for while the sarcode is clouded
and presents a rotatory motion, the diaphane is clear and dis-
tinctly endowed with a locomotive and prehensile power.

Analogy and actual observation would lead us to infer that,
in certain if not in all instances, the ectosare has the power of
passing through the pellicula by rupture of the latter—a fact
which becomes most evident when the pellicula is thick and re-
sistant, as in Ameba bilimbosa, where it has been demonstrated
by Auerbach, especially in his third figure of this speciest.

* Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschr. vol. vii. p. 365, pl. 19. figs. 1-5.

(Dec. 1855).
+ Loc. et tab. cit.

and its Reproductive Cells, 33

Contractility of the Diaphane.—On one occasion, while look-
ing at a large specimen of Amba princeps, I saw a rotatory
animalcule, something like Furcularia forcipata, Ehr., come up
to and bite it; and immediately after the bite had been given,
the surface of the Ameba became puckered slowly towards the
point bitten. The Furcularia then left the Ameba, but returned
again and inflicted the same kind of injury, when the same evi-
dence of contractility of the surface of the Ameba took place ;
and this was repeated several times, at short intervals, until I
was fully convinced that the surface of the dmwba manifested
the same appearance of irritability as muscular tissue under a
similar stimulus. I made at the time a sketch of the Amea@ba,
which had a peculiar form of the villous tail; and the whole is
introduced in PI. III. fig. 5, to make the facts connected with it
more intelligible and impressive.

Sarcode or Endosarc.—This also, as in the other Amebe, is
clouded, from several causes, but more especially from the pre-
sence of the molecule or fine granules, with which it is so densely
charged that they seem to occupy half its bulk, and thus give it
an amount of opacity which contrasts forcibly with the trans-
parent diaphane. Moreover, the sarcode suspends the granules,
digestive spaces and food, fat-globules, vesicula, and nucleus, all
of which rotate with it, and, in addition to the rotatory move-
ment especially, also contrast it strongly with the diaphane.

Granules.—These, which far exceed the molecule in size,
have such a rounded form and dark outline at the commence-
ment that they bear the appearance of organic bodies. But
from round they become elliptical, and lastly angular and crys-
talloid aggregates, based upon an octahedral form, which in
some instances is so perfect and so like that of oxalate of lime,
that, with their pinkish colour and dissolving without efferves-
cence under the influence of nitric acid, I am inclined to think
that they are crystals of this salt. (Pl. III. fig. la, & g, h, 2.)

They are present in the youngest as well as in the oldest forms,
and in number and size do not appear to bear any constant rela-
tion to the age and size of the individual ; for they are sometimes
more prominent even in young than in old specimens; but, as a
general rule, perhaps they keep pace in number and size with the
age of the Ameba: certainly, however, they do not pass into the
crystalloid angular form until the individual is pretty large and
well advanced in life. The largest I have met with did not exceed
the =,!scth part of an inch in length, and was composed of an
regular crystalline aggregate based apparently upon an octa-
hedral form. Their crystalloid form has been long since (1855)
figured and pointed out in Ameba bilimbosa by Auerbach*.

* Loc, cit. tab. xx. figs. 12, 13,
Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xii. 3

34 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

These “granules” are common to all the freshwater Rhizo-
poda (including the amcebous cells of Spongilla), and for the
most part present, at the commencement at least, a greenish
tint. Nor are they less common in Plesconia, Stylonychia,
Paramecium, and perhaps in all the Protozoa. In Paramecium
Aurelia they often present an acicular form, in bundles within
true cells (if the latter are not globular dilated spaces in the
sarcode) ; and here, too, they dissolve without effervescence under
the influence of nitric acid. Stylonychia, when becoming en-
capsuled and taking on the “still form,” gets them down to-
wards its posterior extremity, from which they are frequently
and finally discharged en masse into the capsule, with other re-
fuse, which probably the Stylonychia finds it disadvantageous to
retain in the sarcode during this passive state of its existence.

In Athalium, one of the Myxogastres to which I have alluded,
there is also a great development of small, round, colourless,
compound, crystalloid masses, which, from their appearance and
ready effervescence under the influence of nitric acid, I infer to
be composed of carbonate of lime.

These, probably, are analogous to the “granules” of the
Rhizopoda, and the whole, perhaps, to the raphides of plant-cells;
in which case we have another point of resemblance between
Ameba and the latter.

Fat-globules (Pl. III. fig. 1 k).—I would apply this term to
certain yellowish, semiopake, refractive spherules, which appear
in considerable number in the sarcode of Ameba princeps, and
perhaps, more or less, in all the freshwater Rhizopoda. They
have always seemed to me much less prominent in appearance
in A, princeps than the “ granules,” although frequently exceed-
ing many of the latter in size; but their sphericity, yellowish
colour, and semiopacity sufficiently distinguish them from the
* oranules.”’

They have also always appeared to me largest and most nu-
merous where the Ameba has been most robust; and hence I
am inclined to infer that they are analogous to the fat-globules
of the plant-cell, more especially to those which occur about the
green bands of Spirogyra just previous to conjugation of the
filaments and spore-formation, evidencing an accumulation here
of nutritious matter for this purpose. And I think that I have
observed them to be most numerous in A. princeps just about
the time of the development of the reproductive cells, which will
presently be described. ;

Here then, again, would appear to be another point of alliance
with the plant-cell, viz. the presence of these “ fat-globules,”
although not more here perhaps than with any other cell.

Digestive spaces. —Of these I need state no more than that the

and its Reproductive Cells. 35

diaphane of A. princeps seizes the nutritious body, whether living
or dead, animal or plant, of its own kind or different, surrounds it
and Excloses it, with a portion of water, within its substance, and
then apparently opening a way for it into the sarcode, finally
transfers it to this organ, where it appears, surrounded by the
water taken in with it, in a spherical form, undergoes digestion
so far as it admits, and leaves the egesta to be cast off by the
diaphane in much the same way (only inverted) as they were
incepted.

One point here is remarkable, viz. that while any part in front
of the villous or posterior end may enclose a particle of food, it
is only, so far as my observation extends (and in this I am con-
firmed by Dr. Wallich*), the posterior extremity which gives
passage to the egesta.

This is the grand difference between Ameba and the plant-
cell, viz. the inception of crude food, and the evacuation of the
egesta.

I would also add another observation here, viz. that the pre-
sence of the fragment of food does not necessarily involve the
evident presence of a digestive space round it; for frequently
the particle appears to be in direct contact with the sarcode.
In our comparing, then, thalium (which always, until just
before fructification, does contain particles of foreign and appa-
rently nutritive matter) with Ameba, it is not against the simili-
tude that the former should not have any digestive spaces around
the particles of foreign matter which it contains, as this does not
prove that these foreign particles are not really serving as nu-
triment. I have not only constantly seen microscopic fragments
of what appeared to me to be the nutritious parts of woody
structure in the general mass of ihalium, but on pricking its
rhizopodous processes, and obtaining the protoplasmic contents,
which immediately burst forth and assume a coagulated globular
shape, have found the same, when carefully transferred to the
field of a microscope, to contain the particles of foreign matter to
which I have above alluded. I, therefore, can come to no other
reasonable conclusion than that they were taken in by the
AXthalium for nutrition, as much as the fragments,of nutritious
matter which are incepted by Amaba,—a point which, if satis-
factorily proved, entitles the Myxogastres, more than anything
else, to claim for themselves the name of ‘‘ Mycetozoa,” which,
as already stated, has been proposed for them by M. A. de
Bar
ae —Having now described the sarcode and its
proper contents, viz. the molecule, granules, fat-globules, and
digestive spaces, we will defer the vesicula and nucleus for after-

* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xi, p. 436 (1863).

36 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

consideration, while, for a short time, our attention is directed
to the peculiar function of the sarcode and its motion in con-
nexion with that of the diaphane, and also to the theories that
have been adduced to account for the wonderful phenomena which
they present.

Of the “peculiar and particular function” of the sarcode
there can be no doubt, viz. that of digestion ; for we may watch
this, from the inception of the food, through its being broken
down by the solvent process, to the ejection of the refuse. But,
by analogy, it would appear to have another function ; else why
should its rotatory motion go on unceasingly, like that of the
protoplasm of the plant-cell, to wit, in Nitella, where it is not
called upon to exercise the function of digestion? The other
function, then, that I would attribute to the sarcode is that of
aération or respiration. In Avthalium, the rapidity with which
the sarcode and its contents continually rush round the interior
of the massive portions, as well as through the minutest arbor-
escent branches, is astonishing; nor does it cease for a moment,
under ordinary circumstances, until all is prepared for the last
change of form, viz. that for fructification, when life is about to
become extinct from everything but the bits of protoplasm wrapt
up in the little sporidia, for the future perpetuation of the spe-
cies. Such is also the case with A. princeps, although there are
certain short intervals of cessation which take place, ex. gr. when
this Rhizopod is much disturbed; and it is worthy of notice
that the movement in the sarcode at these times does not com-
mence until the diaphane has also commenced to transform the
Ameba.

As regards the composition of the diaphane and sarcode, Max
Schultze some time ago put forward the theory that they were
composed of protoplasmic nucleated cells, which, coalescing on
the surface, formed the transparent diaphane, but gradually re-
tained more of their cellular individuality inwardly, where they
formed the sarcode; so that, in short, the diaphane and sarcode
thus pass into each other *.

On the other hand, Reichert, whose observations here are
confined to the Foraminiferous Rhizopods, is of opinion that the
diaphane or pseudopodia are composed of extremely minute fila-
ments which do not coalesce, but, from their plasticity and
transparency, adhere to each other with such mutual adaptation
that their individual forms cannot be distinguished under cir-
cumstances of combination, while they always retain their primi-
tive form under separation.

* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 318 (1861); translated from Wiegmann’s
Archiv, 1860, p. 287.

+ Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. x. p. 403 et seg. (1862); translated from the
‘Monatsbericht der Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,’ 1862, p. 406.

and its Reproductive Cells. 37

Lastly, Dr. Wallich, in his late interesting and indefatigable
study of A. villosa, thinks that the diaphane and the sarcode
are mutually transformable into each other, as the occasion may
require*,

Now, the worst of theories is, that they take up so much time
in discussion before they bring out fact ; while the best of them
is, when multiple, that they prove that the fact is still un-
known.

I shall therefore not enter further upon these speculations,
as the reader can best form his own opinions of them by refer-
ence to the papers which contain them im ewtenso, and will only
add, on this subject, that, as the diaphane is formed from the
sarcode, it seems to me probable that the former has a distinct
structure as well as office, and that, having been produced, it
is not reconvertible into any other organ by any process but
digestive assimilation. Thus, the leg of a Plesconia has com-
paratively as much form and as many functions as a crab-claw ;
but it must not be assumed, because it is as transparent and
apparently as structureless as glass, that it is composed of a
structureless jelly-like substance which can be made to assume
any form and take on any function that the animal chooses,—
on the contrary, that it has structure and form, which the
microscope, with all its optical powers and chemical tests, can-
not at present define—that such structure and form is so incon-
ceivably delicate, and its particles held together with such
slight tenacity that, as a bunch of iron-filings kept in apposition
by a temporary magnet falls to pieces when the galvanic circle
is broken, so does the leg of Plesconia undergo the same kind
of disintegration, viz. diffluence, when its vitality is withdrawn—
and that there is no returning of this leg to the original plasma
with which it was formed, except by its destruction and re-
assimilation. I, of course, assume that the ieg of Plasconia
bears the same relation to Plesconia that the pseudopod of the
diaphane and pellicula bears to Ameba, viz. that it is merely a
modified form of the external covering—the one permanent, the
other transitory.

Again, there is another point here, with reference to the mo-
tion of sarcode, which it would be well to notice, viz. the source
from which the rotatory motion is derived. It has already been
stated that this motion stops with the cessation of the motion of
the diaphane, and vice versd. Is it possible that the sarcode is
rolled round by some peculiar undulating movement of the dia-
phane, after the manner that the uneven wavy surface of the
protoplasm in the cell of Nitedla causes a rotatory movement of
the axial fluid? I confess that at present I do not see anything

* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 370 (1863),

‘38 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

to prove that the sarcode moves round by itself, unless we
assume that its analogue the protoplasm of the plant-cell (ex. gr.
in Nitella) possesses this property; and, bearing on this point,
M. Garreau observes :—“ In proportion as the merithalli [inter-
nodal cells] are developed, this matter [the rotating protoplasm]
gets fixed to the primordial membrane, in the formation of
which, indeed, it takes part, and which, though adherent to the
cell-wall, propels onward the enclosed liquid of the cell, not, as
has been suspected, by the aid of vibratile cilia, but by tolerably
rapid undulations, similar to those produced on the surface of
water ruffled by a gentle breeze”*. The primordial membrane
supports the chlorophyll-cells in the internode, and retains them
in their fixed position; but when the contents of the imternode
collapse under injury or death, this membrane leaves the internal
surface of the cell-wall, here as well as in the root-cell, where
there are no chlorophyll-cells—showing that it is still organized,
and analogously placed to the diaphane in Ameba. I confess
that M. Garreau’s meaning is a little obscure here, 2. e. as to
whether by the “liquid of the cell” is meant the “ axial fluid ”
or a remaining rotatory portion of the protoplasm. But his
allusion to an undulatory power of a fixed membrane of the cell
is distinct. How far his interpretation in this respect pertains
to fact remains for future observation to determine.

Such, in conclusion, however, are our difficulties in the right
appreciation of physical signs when we come down to this region
of organized life, that, unless we can state in a few words
the facts which we may wish to establish, it is useless to have
recourse to long argumentative theories for this purpose.

In Athalium, although of far greater tenuity than in Ameba,
and therefore more nearly allied to the protoplasm of the plant-
cell, there is still a homogeneous superficial layer corresponding
to the diaphane.

Vesicula or Contracting Vesicle (P1. ILI. fig. 1 b).—The normal
number in A. princeps is one; but there are many smaller
ones which act as sinuses around it, and one of these occasionally
becomes so enlarged as to look like a second vesicula, yet it
also ultimately discharges its contents into the main one. Where
the vesicula discharges itself, it again recommences to appear ;
and there, also, the accessory smuses may be best seen as they
successively become dilated and discharge their contents into
the vesicula.

It is a remarkable fact, that although the vesicula is borne
round the interior of A. princeps with the sarcode to which it

_ * Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. x. p. 116; translated from ‘Ann. des Sc. Nat.’
tom. xiil. 1860, p. 189. a

and its Reproductive Cells. 39

belongs, it only discharges itself in the neighbourhood of the
villous or posterior end; and such is the case also with the
egesta of the digestive spaces; so that one might almost infer
that there was a particular aperture through the diaphane and
pellicula at this part of the Ameba for this special purpose,
as we see in most of the other Protozoa, where the vesicula is
stationary, and frequently fixed close to the anal aperture.

Towards death the vesicula, growing weak, is not easily re-
filled, nor do the small simuses which surround it readily dis-
charge their contents into it ; so that by a little pressure, when
the group is at the margin, they may be made to pass out into
the water without bursting; and at this time, if iodine be
applied, each may be seen to retain its cell-form, puckered and
tinted yellow by the iodine, although they may be all quite iso-
lated and separated from the rest of the sarecode and from each
other (figs. 10 & 11). Again, the fact of the dilatation of the
vesicula always taking place at the point where it contracted,
and the presence of condensed sarcode round the point of con-
traction, manifested under the effect of iodine, induce me
directly and analogically to consider the vesicula as much a
distinct organ in Ameba princeps as in other Infusoria. And if
the vesicula be distinct, why not the sinuses ?

All these dilatations are considered by my friend Dr. Wallich
to be extemporized vacuoles. But I am glad to observe that he
supports me in the opinion that the vesicula, at all events here,
discharges its contents externally*.

In Atthalium the vesicula, although present in the youngest
forms, does not appear in the more matured and larger masses,
so far as my observation extends.

Nucleus (Pl. III. fig. 36)—The nucleus in A. princeps, as
before stated, differs in appearance from that of all the other
freshwater Rhizopoda that I have examined, in the absence of a
pellucid area round the nucleolus; and this arises, as before
stated, from the border of the latter extending so much over the
inner surface of the nuclear cell as to pass, beyond its equatorial
line, where it terminates in an undulating margin, which thus
leaves a transparent, irregular area. At least, this is distinctly
visible when the Ameba is not more than the ;1,th part of an
inch in diameter, viz. the minimum size above mentioned (figs. 3
& 3d, &c.). Whether the nucleolus, before this, is circular
and presents the usual pellucid area around it, or not, I do not
pretend to determine, but I think it very likely; and then this
state and the smallness of the Amada would preclude all possi-
bility of specific distinction: hence I do not think that there is
any necessity for us to concern ourselves about the appearance

* Loc. cit. p. 441.

40 Mr. H.J. Carter on Ameeba princeps

of the nucleus in A. princeps before it arrives at the size just
mentioned.

At this period the nucleus is not larger than a human blood~
globule, and the consistence of the nucleolus apparently homo-
geneous, that is, without granules, and composed of a fine deli-
cate yellowish film of semitransparent plasma, in which state it
continues, with the exception of increasing in bulk, up to the
time when the Ameba has attained about one-tenth of the
adult or maximum size, that is, about ,1,th of an inch long
(fig. 3, &c.).

The nucleus at this time may be about 5,4,5th of an inch in
diameter; but it now undergoes duplicative division, which ends
in the production of fwo nuclei of the same description as the
original one, but each -';oth of an inch in diameter (fig. 3b & f),
after which, subduplicative division appears to go on, until the
Ameba, in its adult condition and size, may contain upwards of
seventy of the kind of cells thus produced.

At the commencement, the division of the daughter nuclei
does not appear to be always simultaneous ; so that there may
be two of —=,!,,th of an imch in diameter present, and one of
twice this size, or six of ;),,th of an inch in diameter, and one
of twice that size (fig. 5 c), mdicating that the sum, if the large
one had been divided, would have been a multiple by two. But
however regular this may be at the commencement, as the num-
bers increase the sums do not agree. Thus I have distinetly
counted upwards of 64 but much below 80, and above 32 but
not exceeding 45 (figs. 1 & 4): hence the number of these cells
present is not always a multiple of two. Still, whatever may be
the cause of this, their diameter is, for the most part, constant,
viz. the -3,,th part of an inch; being as often perhaps slightly
elliptical as spherical, they may thus exceed this a little in the
long axis; while their number corresponds with the size of the
Ameba.

At first they are so delicate, and their capsule so undeveloped,
that they present the appearance of cells composed of nothing
but a fine, delicate, semitransparent, homogeneous plasma
(fig. 1 e, & l,m, n); but as they grow older, this becomes granu-
liferous ; and towards the adult state, there is a distinct capsule,
from which (on dying) the granuliferous plasma withdraws it-
self into an elliptical form (fig.4d). All this may be more
satisfactorily demonstrated by the addition of iodine, which
gives the granuliferous plasma a deep amber tint; and I think,
in some instances, I have seen it produce a violet one in the
capsule, which otherwise remains transparent, uncoloured, and
uncollapsed.

On no occasion have I been able to detect a nucleus in these

and its Reproductive Cells. Al

cells, or anything like a germinal vesicle at any period of their
existence—perhaps because it has eluded my search.

They roll round the interior of the Amewba with the sarcode
in which they are suspended ; and of course, when present, there
is no nucleus to be scen with them (fig. 1). But, as they
become matured, the Ameba grows slower and slower in its
movements, until at last it becomes stationary (fig. 4). The
pseudopodous prolongations are then only forced through
the pellicula here and there, in a transparent, attenuated state
(fig. 4.¢c), the pellicula is thickened and corrugated, the rota-
tory motion of the sarcode has nearly ceased, and hardly any
food remains in the interior ; so that the parent Ameba is almost
reduced to an effete capsule of reproductive cells. Beyond this
point of development I have not been able to follow it, because,
when the pseudopodous expansions of the diaphane cease, which
is the next step, there is.little to distinguish the mass from any
other Infusorium in a similar condition.

But I presume, as I have before shown in A. verrucosa, &e.,
that the parent after this becomes wholly effete, and that these
cells sooner or later become hatched into as many new
Amebe.

Whether each cell yields one Ameba only, or whether the
granules become enlarged into polymorphic ciliated cells which
ultimately pass into Amewbe respectively, but of smaller size, or
whether some of these cells yield one only, and others a group
of new Ameaba, is left for future observation to determine.
Both ways of propagation are common to the Rhizopoda; but
all that I can do here is to show that the largest of our Amebe
produces reproductive cells like the rest, and very similar to
those of Athalium.

Two kinds of “ spherical corpuscles,” also, have been noticed by
Dr. Wallich in his Ameba villosa, viz. one termed “ nucleated,”
svooth to 7';oth of an inch in diameter, colourless, without cap-
sule, and consisting of a cell of “ pale, nearly colourless, granular
protoplasm,” and the other termed “ sarcoblasts,” th to
<s'soth of an inch in diameter, faint yellow, oily-looking at first,
then colourless, also without capsule, but “ distinctly granular
and nearly homogeneous throughout”*,

Dr. Wallich also observed the ejection from A. villosa of
minute young ones, =;1,,th to +;4:th of an inch in diameter,
with all the characters of the parent, even to the “villous
tuft?’ +.

Can the former be the same with the “ reproductive cells,” &e,

* Ann. Nat. Hist. J. c. p. 435, pl, 10. figs. 5 & 6,
T Ibid. p. 442, pl. 10, fig. 10,

42 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

(fig. 1 c, d), which I have described? and could the latter have
been some of these cells which had passed into young Amebe
in the body of the parent?

Granulation of the Nucleus (P1. III. fig. 2)—We come now to
what is probably a granular propagative change taking place in
the nucleus, without subdivision into the reproductive cells just
described.

This change commences a little before the Ameba has arrived
at half the adult size, and when the nucleus is about = 5;th
of an inch in diameter. After this, the nucleus increases in
bulk, as the granulation which is taking place in the nucleolus
becomes more and more coarse and evident, until, towards the
adult size above mentioned, it obtains an oval and apparently
flattened form, about =1,th of an inch long (fig. 2 f). The
capsule or nuclear cell has now become much thicker, and
the granules of the nucleolus, which are spherical bodies com-
posed of yellowish, semiopake, refractive matter, about 74th
of an inch in diameter; but the Ame@ba at this period is as
active as in any former part of its existence.

Of the ultimate development here also I am ignorant, but
presume that here too the parent membranes become effete,
and that the nucleus, bursting, gives freedom to the granules of
the nucleolus, in the form of so many polymorphic ciliated cells,
which, as in other similar cases, lose their cilia, and finally become
reptant young Amebe.

Spermatozoids.—Lastly we come to this element ; and although
the act of generation, where there is a combination of the proto-
plasm of different cells, seems only to be the dividing up of the
contents of one cell into smaller portions than that of the other,
that the former may be added to the latter after the manner that
increments of matter are added to a balance to make up a certain
weight or quantity, still it is necessary for us not only to have
this unequal division of the protoplasm into separate living or-
ganisms, but to see that they bear certain signs which distinguish
the ovum and the spermatozoid, and then, if possible, that the
two combine, before we be satisfied that such elements are for
propagation by this process.

Now, as yet I have never seen (to my knowledge) either one
or the other in A. princeps. I could perceive no germinal vesicle
nor anything like a nucleus in the cells formed by the division
of the nucleus; and I do not know what the form or course of
the granules of the granulated nucleus may be in ¢heir ultimate
development, or of the granuliferous cells which are seen among
the reproductive ones (fig. 1 d). But I did see bodies for which
I am not able to account, viz. :—

lst, Several granuliferous cells which were with the repro-

and its Reproductive Cells. 43

ductive cells, but smaller in size. In two or three instances, but
not constantly (fig. 1 d).

2nd. A single large transparent cell with small granulated
nucleus, together with, but much larger than, the reproductive
cells. Also not constant (fig. 1 e).

3rd. A single cell (containing an effete nucleus and several
short bacillar filaments) a little larger than the reproductive
cells, but present with them. Only seen in one instance. This
looked more like an oscillatorial development inside the cell
than one of spermatozoids (fig. 9).

4th. Lastly, I may mention here a spherule like the “ fat-
globule,” which is occasionally discharged from the posterior
extremity, and after exit, bursting, shows a distinct capsule, the
contents of which separate into a group of minute, swarming
molecules, which for some time adhere to the tail of the Ameba,
and at last gradually, one by one, disappear (fig. 2 ¢).

But when we consider that Am@ba takes in such a variety of
organisms for food, it is evident that we should require in addi-
tion to have bodies which have distinct and persistent characters,
occurring in the Ameba almost constantly, to determine those
which do and those which do not form a part of the living
animal. Therefore I only record the above observations for what
they may be worth, and to show how far I have been able to go
in the matter of spermatic development in A. princeps.

Villous appendage (Pl. III. fig. 1 f).—The villous appendage
which marks the posterior end of A. princeps has lately been
brought into notice by Dr. Wallich, in the species for which he
has proposed the designation of “ villosa”’*.

This appendage is figured in my Indian Journal as far back
as 1854, also many times since, as before stated, and consists of
a number of minute villi, forming a cap-like tuft upon the pos-
terior end of the Ameba. In one instance it appears as if
it were composed of several long or large villi covered with
smaller ones, thus forming as many tufts as there were large
villi (fig. 5 d). Occasionally these tubular or villous extensions
of the ectosare are dilated into cellular forms, and then they give
the posterior end of the dmeba a crenulated aspect (fig. 2 d),
while at other times (although this is but seldom) there is little
or no trace of them. They are present in the youngest (fig. 3’)
as well as in the oldest active periods of the Ameba’s life, and
appear to be always accompanied by finger-like projections of
the endosare into them. When iodine is applied, they spread
out into an even edge, like that of the rest of the Amewba. As
Dr. Wallich has stated, they appear to have a rootlike or pre-
hensile use, Hydra viridis has a tubular structure extending
: * Annals, loc. cit.

44. Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

from the endosare to the external surface of the posterior ex-
tremity, to which the villi in Am@ba may be analogous.

I am not quite certain that they are peculiar to A. princeps,
although Dr. Wallich permits me to state that he now thinks
his A. villosa is one and the same with A. princeps. Still I have
a drawing of an Ameba which has them, but does not appear to
have the characteristic form of the nucleus of A. princeps. If
they are confined to 4. princeps, then they form a good dis-
tinguishing feature for this species ; but, as I have before stated,
they are not always present under the same form, and sometimes
not at all.

Instinct.—Low in the scale of organized beings as the Rhizo-
poda may be considered, there are manifestations of instinct
occasionally evinced by them, of the same kind as those in the
highest animals. Even 4thalium will confine itself to the
water of the watch-glass in which it may be placed when away
from the sawdust or chips of wood among which it has been
living; but if the watch-glass be placed upon the sawdust, it
will very soon make its way over the side of the watch-glass and
get to it.

Here it should be premised that I regard all organic opera-
tions, even the development of the brain itself, as instinctive
—that is, produced by the instinct originating in the proto-
plasm of the primordial germ from which each species may be
respectively derived after impregnation. Nay, before, back to
the finding of the ovules by their respective spermatozoids, I
regard every act of this kind as much an operation of instinct
as the building of a bird’s nest, or the finding its way back for
many miles direct by an animal, to a place from which it has
never before been removed, viz. a power which exists before
as well as after mind, and is only known by its manifestations.

Thus it is not wonderful that in the Rhizopoda such mani-
festations should present themselves; but as others may be in-
clined to call this “automatic,” or to interpret them differently,
I shall not go further into this matter now than to submit the
following facts for consideration :—

On one occasion, while investigating the nature of some large,
transparent, spore-like, elliptical cells (fungal?) whose proto-
plasm was rotating while it was at the same time charged with
triangular grains of starch, I observed some actinophorous Rhizo-
pods creeping about them, which had similarly shaped grains of
starch in their interior; and having determined the nature of
these grains in both by the addition of iodine, I cleansed the
glasses and placed under the microscope a new portion of the
sediment from the basin containing these cells and Actinophryans
for further examination, when I observed that one of the spore-

and its Reproductive Cells. 45

like cells had become ruptured, and that a portion of its proto-
plasm, charged with the triangular starch-grains, was slightly
protruded through the crevice. It then struck me that the
Actinophryans had obtained their starch-grains from this source ;
and while looking at the ruptured cell, an Actinophrys made its
appearance, and creeping round the cell, at last arrived at the
crevice, from which it extracted one of the grains of starch men-
tioned, and then crept off to a good distance. Presently, how-
ever, it returned to the same cell; and although there were now
no more starch-grains protruding, the Actznophrys managed again
to extract one from the interior, through the crevice. All this
was repeated several times, showing that the Actinophrys in-
stinctively knew that these were nutritious grains and that they
were contained in this cell, and that, although each time after
incepting a grain it went away to some distance, it knew how
to find its way back to the cell again which furnished this nu-
triment. Fig. 6 is a sketch of this, taken at the time, and here
reproduced to make the fact more intelligible and impressive.

On another occasion, I saw an Actinophrys station itself close
to a ripe spore-cell of Pythium, which was situated upon a fila-
ment of Spirogyra crassa; and as the young ciliated monadic
germs issued forth, one after another, from the dehiscent spore-
cell, the Actinophrys remained by it and caught every one of
them, even to the last, when it retired to another part of the
field, as if instinctively conscious that there was nothing more
to be got at the old place (fig. 7).

But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever presented
itself to me was the catching of a young Acineta by an old
sluggish Ameba, as the former left its parent; and this took
place as follows :—

In the evening of the 2nd of June, 1858, in Bombay, while
looking through a microscope at some Euglene, &c., which had
been placed aside for examination in a watch-glass, my eye fell
upon a stalked and fixed triangular Acineta (A. mystacina?),
around which an Ameba was creeping and lingering, as they
do when they are in quest of food. But knowing the antipathy
that the Ameba, like almost every other infusorium, have to the
tentacles of the Acinete, I concluded that the Ama@ba was not
encouraging an appetite for its whiskered companion, when I
was surprised to find that it crept up the stem of the Acieta
and wound itself round its body. This mark of affection, too
much like that frequently evinced at the other end of the scale,
even where there is mind for its control, did not remain long
without interpretation. ‘There was a young Acineta, tender, and
without poisonous tentacles (for they are not developed at birth),
just ready to make its exit from the parent—an exit which takes

46 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps
place so quickly, and is followed by such rapid, bounding

movements of the now ciliated young Acineta, that who would
venture to say, @ priori, that a dull, heavy, sluggish Ameba
could catch such an agile little thing? But the Amebe are as
unerring and unrelaxing in their grasp as they are unrelenting
in their cruel inceptions of the living and the dead, when they
serve them for nutrition; and thus the Ameba, placing itself
round the ovarian aperture of the Acineta, received the young
one, nurse-like, in its fatal lap, incepted it, descended from the
parent, and crept off. Being unable to conceive at the time that
this was such an act of atrocity on the part of the Ameba as
the sequel disclosed, and thinking that the young Acineta might
yet escape, or pass into some other form in the body of its host,
I watched the Ameba for some time afterwards, until the tale
ended by the young Acineta becoming divided into two parts,
and thus in their respective digestive spaces ultimately becoming
broken down and digested (fig. 8, &c.).

A little liberty has been taken in the verbal description of this
act to lessen the tediousness of the account ; but the facts remain
the same, and evince an amount of instinct and determination
of purpose which could hardly have been anticipated in a being
so low in the scale of organic development as Ameba.

Observations.—On comparing the assumed reproductive cells
of Ameba princeps with those of Athalium, there is the differ-
ence that, while in the former they are confined to a few, all of
the same size, in the latter they are innumerable and of all
kinds of sizes. In the former, again, each cell probably pro-
duces but one Ameba (although it is true that the granulated
protoplasm may produce as many as there are granules in each
reproductive cell), while in the latter there is a rapid endogenous
development of nuclei and nucleated cells within cells. In adult
Ameba the reproductive cells are comparatively few and distinct,
while in #thalium they form a confused mass, as regards num-
ber, size, and contents, which is hurrying on, fungus-like, to
the production of an infinitude of sporidia. The apparent ab-
sence of a nucleus in the reproductive cells of A. princeps
(while it is present in all those of Athalium) probably arose
from my not having been able to detect it. I can hardly con-
ceive that these cells can be without a nucleus.

Ultimately, the semifluid mass of Avthalium gathers itself up
together like that of A. princeps ; its membranes become effete,
and, the endogenous cell-development having gone on to its full
extent, the parent cells are congregated and dried up together,
while their reproductive granules, on passing into the state of
sporidia, secrete a hard capsule around themselves respect-
ively, which ultimately becomes of a dark brown colour.

and its Reproductive Cells. 47

In other forms of the Myxogastres, the mother cells shoot up
from the surface of the semifluid mass into pin-head or elon-
gated-capitulated forms, approximated or isolated, of great
beauty, where, as in Diachea and Stemonitis, there are a central
stem and arborescent, reticulated, filamentous branch-works re-
spectively, and in Trichia even elaters. So that the ultimate
development of the Myxogastres, however much it may resemble
that of Ameba at the commencement, is much more allied to
plants in the termination.

The varied outward forms of most exquisite beauty, and the
brilliant colours, to say nothing of the intricacy of the internal
structure, of the Myxogastres (all developed, as they are, from
a repulsive-looking slime at the beginning, but, in its polymor-
phic power, creeping in long lines, or ramifying in an arbo-
rescent anastomosing network, ever changing its shape, and
everywhere presenting a rapid circulation of its internal contents,
isthmusing itself in one part to disunion, and uniting itself in
approaching branches in another, through which the incessant
flow of granules takes place directly, as though it had been the
work of time and trouble rather than produced faster, almost,
than the eye can follow the union), make this group of beings,
to whatever class they may ultimately be shown to belong, at
once one of the most wonderful and the most exquisitely
beautiful on the face of the earth. If any one would rightly
understand the behaviour of the protoplasm of the plant-cell in
all its varied and perplexing movements, he will find the key in
the study of Atthalium.

Like, however, as 4thalium may be to plants in its ultimate
development, its sporidium, as M. A. de Bary has shown, splits
and gives exit to a mono- or diplo-ciliated polymorphic cell, with
contracting vesicle and nucleus, which ultimately losing its cilia,
becomes reptant, and, in this condition, cannot be distinguished
from a common Ameba; and these small dmebe again grow
into larger ones, which, it may be fairly assumed, finally form
masses of slimy thalium, that may attain many inches in
diameter, and reach even a foot in length, before their cell-deve-
lopment is completed and their maturity sufficiently advanced
for them to gather themselves up into a cake-like, effete mass
filled with the chambers (cells) of sporidia to which I have already
alluded—living atoms of the old being, left for the multiplication
and perpetuation of the species.

Thus, although thalium is an animal in the first part of its
existence, it, through Diachea, Stemonitis &c., and Trichia
(which, as just stated, produces elaters among its sporidia), is
thus more nearly allied in the structures of its fructification to
the vegetable kingdom.

48 Mr. H. J. Carter on Amceba princeps

Forming a still narrower link between the freshwater Rhizo-
poda and the Myxogastres, are those beings which prey upon
the contents of both animal and vegetable cells (viz. protoplasm,
fat, and starch), but most noticed because perhaps most evident
m the bodies of the Protozoa and in the cells of Alge.

I showed, many years since, that a mass of rhizopodous (com-
monly called fungous) cells lived and grew habitually in the
circulating protoplasm of the cells of Characez (in Bombay*),
and. therefore could only have existed there by nutrition indi-
rectly brought to them through the plant-cell in which they
were living; but that the moment anything happened to de-
stroy the vitality of the plant-cell, then they instantly divided
the cell-contents among themselves, each enclosing, like an
Ameba, as much as it could catch; after which, each cell or
individual, assuming a spherical or globular form, cncapsuled
itself, abstracted the nutritious part of the enclosed plant-cell-
contents in an inner cell, withdrew its thus enriched proto-
plasm from the refuse, and, again, forming a third cell, ulti-
mately produced in this (from a granulation of the nucleus ?)
a number of mono- and diplo-ciliated polymorphic cells, which,
some time after, issuing from the effete parent cells into the
water, lost their cilia, and became small reptant amoebous
Rhizopods.

Again, in Spirogyra crassa I have described an actinophorous
Rhizopod which breeds, after the same manner, in the cells of
this confervoid Alga at Bombay +. And during the month of
April last (1863), I witnessed a similar development in the cells
of the same Alga in England ; but in this instance the product
was purely amcebous, that is, without actinophryan rays. For
these species Pringsheim has proposed the generic name of
“ Pythium;’ but whether either of those just mentioned is
his P. entophytum I will not stop to discuss. Be this as it
may, they both put forth filamentous root-like prolongations
(fig. 7 6), so much like Mucor stolonifera, Corda, and the myce-
lium of Fungi, that they are in this respect just as nearly allied
to Fungi as the Myxogastres in their way; and yet here there
is no doubt that the new brood is produced from nutriment
incepted in a crude state, like that of Ameba.

Lastly, Achlya is so closely allied to Pythium that it has been
placed by Pringsheim in the same family, while Cienkowski “ has
confirmed the idea formerly entertained,” that Achlya is but an
aquatic form of Mucor tf.

Now, about two years since, I noticed, among the dark pin-

* Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. xvii. p. 101 (1856).
+ Ibid., vol. xix. p. 259 (1857).
}~ Micrographic Dictionary, Griffith and Henfrey.

and its Reproductive Cells. 49

head fructification of Mucor stolonifera, that there were some
colourless heads which had not the usual round form, but, on the
contrary, were spear-pointed ; and when placed under the micro-
scope, it was evident that the mass was composed of a number
of spherical cells, which, for want of the usual common capsule,
had, by gravitation, descended the stem, and had thus caused
the capitulum (peridiole) to present the shape mentioned. After
this, on watching the mass, which was in water under a slip
of thin glass, I saw that each cell took on the form of an
Ameba, and in a short space of time the whole bunch were
creeping away in different directions, and the entirety of the
capitulum had thus become destroyed.

Furthermore, I observed that when the stems or the filaments
of the mycelium of this Mucor were cut across and pressed
under water, their contents issued forth in the form of spherical,
plastic, nucleated cells, which, although so delicate that, by
the imbibition of water, they soon burst and disappeared, yet
retained their form sufficiently long for me to observe in them
a certain amount of polymorphism, which, together with their
size, bore a close resemblance to the cells which composed the
imperfectly formed peridiole. Thus the whole tubular fila-
mentous skeleton of Mucor would appear, as in other instances,
to be formed upon a group of polymorphic cells. I shall not
go into the detail of the formation of the reproductive cells
of Mucor and Achlya. Suffice it to say that in the former the
peridiole or capitulum is filled with brown capsuled sporidia,
like those of Athalium, while in Achlya it is filled with mono-
or diplo-ciliated polymorphic cells, which in their primary form
are spherical, like those of Pythium (fig. 7d).

But each of these forms of Mucor has a filamentous mycelium,
with the stems (columellze) of their fructificating heads (peridi-
oles) divided by septa into distinct cells; while Pythium has
just the same kind of filamentous mycelium, with (when it fruc-
tifies under this form) a dilatation at the end of the bunch of
root-like filaments into a spore-cell (analogous to the peridiole
of Mucor), which produces a number of monadic cells like those
of Achlya (fig. 7).

I do not know what changes the reproductive cells of Mucor
or Achlya may undergo in the first part of their life, but I
should think that they were like those of Pythium and Aitha-
lium, which have been above described.

Thus Pythium produces, then, a fungous mycelium, like Mucor
and Achlya, and at the same time that the latter are identical,
all three only differ from 4thalium and the Myxogastres generally
in their internal contents (viz. cells) growing, after a certain period,
under a cellulose (?) coat, instead of nakedly, which causes the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii.

50 Mr. H.J. Carter on Ameeba princeps

former to present a plant- or fungus-like constant figure, which,
in the Myxogastres, is continually varying up to the moment that
they end in a rapid consolidation of their fructifying ingredients.
So in Mucor, the germinating cells of the peridiole rapidly pass
from a colourless plastic form into a hard, dry, dark brown
capsuled one; while in Achlya, or the aquatic form of Mucor,
the capsule is colourless, and so evanescent that the young are
put forth from the peridiole almost viviparously. It is easy,
therefore, to see here why the germs of the aérial form are
wrapt up in a dense capsule, while those of the aquatic one do
not need any.

But I am straying away from the point, although, from what
I have above stated, it will now, I think, be satisfactorily seen
that Athalium, for the greater part of its life, lives hke Amada,
and that, although there may be a little difficulty in proving
that the foreign particles seen in the great masses of Aithalium
have been taken in for food, still Pythtwm, which has a kind of
mycelium and is thus intimately allied to Achlya (which, again,
is but an aquatic development of Mucor), does undoubtedly take
in crude material for food identically with Ameba.

Whether the Myxogastres are entitled to the new name of
“‘ Mycetozoa” (proposed for them by M. A. de Bary) under these
circumstances, or not, I leave others to determine. There are
no absolute lines of demarcation here more than anywhere else,
and therefore common sense, aided by progressive knowledge,
must be appealed to for decision also here as well as else-
where.

Although not immediately bearing on the subject, I would
just revert to the statement I have made respecting the hght
which the study of A£thalium throws on the behaviour of the
protoplasm of the plant-cell; for there is yet another point to
be considered, viz. how does the protoplasm obtain an external
communication so as to produce materials which are found out-
side the cell-wall and keep up a communication alone with the
external world, as in the unicellular Algze, or when in combina-
tion with other cells, as in the plant? This important question
seems to receive solution from M. Garreau’s observations, who
states that there are filaments of the protoplasm which pass from
the primordial membrane through holes in the cell-wall* ; and
if this be confirmed, it will lead to such a chain of explanations
in the development and habits of the vegetable cell, separate and
in combination, as has for some time past been unparalleled by
any other similar discovery.

* Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. x. p. 43 (1862); translated from Ann. des Sc.
Nat. 1860.

and its Reproductive Cells. 51

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

N.B.—All the figures in this plate are diagrammatic, in so far as it is
impossible to give the relative sizes of the different parts of which they are
composed, intelligibly, without enlarging them to an extent which would
be incompatible with the size of the plates in the ‘Annals ;’ nor is it
necessary.

In all the figures of Ameba, the ground-shading stands for the sar-
code and its molecule, while the other specks and dots represent the
granules and fat-globules respectively.

Fig. 1. Ameba princeps, about ;';th of an inch in length, with somewhat
less breadth ; greatly magnified : a, the granules and fat-globules;
b, vesicula or contracting vesicle; c, reproductive cells, upwards
of 32, and all ;.,,th of an inch in diameter; d, smaller granuli-
ferous cells; e, large globular transparent cell, 5};th of an inch
in diameter, with small granuliferous nucleus; f, villous tail ;
g, h, i, forms of the granules, the largest about 5,'5;th of an inch
long; gy, aggregated octahedral form ; h, ditto, still more com-
pound (composed of oxalate of lime?); 2, elliptical or earlier
form of granule; k, fat-globules; /, m,n, assumed reproductive
cells, more magnified; /, oval form; m, spherical ditto, both
without distinct capsule and without granules; x, ditto, under
the effect of iodine, showing minute granules, but no capsule.

Fig. 2. Ditto, about j;th of an inch long, representing the “ granulation
of the nucleus ”’: a, the granules; 6, vesicula; c, nucleus, -4,th
of an inch in diameter, capsular, with nucleolus granulated ;
d, villi of tail, dilated into a vesicular form, giving a crenulated
aspect to this part; e, spherule, like a fat-globule, occasionally
discharged from the tail, and afterwards bursting, when the cap-
sule remains, and the contents appear under the form of a group
of swarming little molecules, which adhere for some time to the
end of the Ameba; f, nucleus, of an oval form, =3},th of an inch
long, more advanced in granulation and from a larger and older
specimen of A. princeps; granules spherical, and about +7,5th
of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 3. Ditto, about ~1,th of an inch long, showing—a, vesicula; 0, nu-
cleus divided into two; ¢, villous tail; d, nucleus, much magni-
fied, about ;-5,th of an inch in diameter, showing its charac-
teristic appearance in A. princeps; e, transparent area left
by the nucleolus; f, daughter nuclei, the result of the first di-
vision.

Fig. 3'. Ditto, very small specimen, about ;3;th of an inch long: a, ve-
sicula and villous tail; 5, nucleus.

Fig. 4. Ditto, nearly effete, 1th of an inch in diameter, containing upwards
of 74 reproductive cells, each ;,4;5th of an inch in diameter, now
consisting of coarsely granular protoplasm within a firm capsule :
a, granules; 6, reproductive cells; ¢ c, expansions of the dia-
phane bursting through the thickened pellicula; d, reproductive
cell, more magnified, under the influence of iodine, showing oval
contracted shape of granular protoplasm and spherical cell.

Fig. 5. Ditto, showing—a, vesicula; 5, reproductive cells, among which
¢ represents one as yet undivided, which, after division, would
make up the number 8; d, peculiar form of villous tail; e, Fur-
cularia biting the Ameba. This sketch, as it stands, was made
at Bombay, in 1855.

4c*

52 Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides of Rubiaceae.

Fig. 6. Fungus(?)-cell, ;4;th of an inch long, transparent, oval, sometimes
subpolymorphic, containing protoplasm (charged with triangular
starch-grains) in rotation ; 6, Actinophrys extracting the starch-
grains.—Of this extraordiuary cell, which was found annually in
great abundance, among aquatic plants and Infusoria, in a pool
in the island of Bombay, which is dry eight months in the year,
I hope to publish much more on a future occasion.

Fig. 7. Spore-cell of Pythium, on the outer side of the cell-wall of Spiro-
gyra: a, spore-cell, containing reproductive, polymorphic, ciliated
cells; 5, root-like part of cell (analogous to the mycelium of
Fungi) in the cell of Spirogyra ; c, cell-wall of Spirogyra; d, re-
productive cell, or polymorphic monad, which has left the spore-
cell, on its way to bemg captured by the Actinophrys (e), in
which there are already three such. Sketch made at Bombay,
in 1856.

ig. 8. Acineta (mystacina?), surrounded by an Ameba while in the act of
putting forth its young one: a, old Acineta; a’, its nucleus;
b, young one; c, Ameba waiting for the young Acineta;
d, Ameba after having caught the young Acineta (e) ; f, ditto,
one hour and a half afterwards; g shows the young Acimeta di-
vided into two portions, and now being digested in separate
spaces. Sketch made at Bombay in 1856.

Fig. 9. Cell, 45th of an inch in diameter, containing effete nucleus and

short bacilliform filaments.

Fig. 10. Isolated cells of the vesicula or contracting-vesicle system imme-
diately after having been pressed out from Amaba princeps.

Fig.11. The same, after exposure to iodine, showing that they retain their
cell-wall, which then becomes crenulated.

=
S

V.—On the Raphides of Rubiacee. By Grorce GULLIVER,
F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology to the Royal

College of Surgeons.

In the ‘ Annals’ for January last it was mentioned that raphides
occur in all the species which I had then examined of this order.
Through the courtesy of Mr. W. H. Baxter, who has supplied me
with species of Rubia, I am now enabled to complete the series,
as far as regards the British plants of the order. Rubia pere-
grina and R. tinctorum abound in raphides.

Certain orders, as Onagraceze and Lemnaceze, may be so rea-
dily distinguished from some of their allies by the raphides alone,
that even a minute fragment of the plant, either fresh or dried,
may be sufficient for the diagnosis, as was shown in the ‘ Annals’
for April last ; and now the order Rubiacez affords an additional
illustration, the value of which may be easily tested as follows.
In Professor Babington’s excellent ‘Manual of Botany,’ we find
this order, which we have just seen affording raphides, standing
between Caprifoliaceze and Valerianacez, two orders which we
have found to be equally remarkable as devoid of raphides.

The raphides here meant are the needle-like forms occurring,

Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides of Rubiacee. 53

for the most part in bundles, in the cellular tissue of young,
healthy, and growing parts of the plant, particularly in the leaves.
There are orders, especially among Monocotyledones, in which
the distribution of raphides is very irregular, as might have been
inferred from the few observations in the ‘Annals’ for last
January, p. 15. Thus, the first two orders, Trilliaceze and Dios-
coreacez, abound in raphides, which are not found in any of our
plants of the next order, Hydrocharidacez, and yet appear again
abundantly in the succeeding order, Orchidacee. In Iridaceze
there are long crystals, not like those in the preceding orders
just named, but thicker and apparently prismatic in form, and
occurring singly instead of in bundles. The orders immediately
following, namely, Amaryllidaceee, Asparagacex, and Liliacez,
abound, again, in true raphides, which are generally, if not regu-
larly, absent from Juncacez, Potamogetonacee, Cyperacez, and
Graminee. Many instances also occur of some species abound-
ing in, and others devoid of, raphides, in one order, as is the case
in Liliacee. Hence it would appear that the existing knowledge
of the distribution of raphides must be vague, seeing that it is
stated, in our latest and best repository of the minute anatomy
of plants, the ‘ Micrographic Dictionary,’ that raphides are abun-
dant in Monocotyledones generally. But it is proposed to treat
of this subject more particularly in another communication.
The statement in the same Dictionary, that “there are few of
the higher plants which do not contain raphides,” is entirely at
variance with my observations. But perhaps it may be intended
in that book to include any kind of crystals, even if resulting
from decay or decomposition of the tissues. I found no true
raphides in the leaves of the few species examined of such orders,
too numerous now to detail, but among which were Ranuncu-
laceee, Papaveracee, Fumariaceze, Cruciferse, Violacese, Caryo-
phyllaceze, and Umbelliferse. Let any one, for instance, compare
the abundance of these raphides in the vigorous young leaf-cells
of Onagracez with the total absence of such raphides in the same
part of Lythraceze and Haloragacez, and the difference will be
immediately apparent. The varieties of Fuchsia and the equally
common Cuphea platycentra, which are plants at hand even in
the humblest collections, will answer this purpose, as well as our
native species of the two orders, and afford instructive examples
of the facts in question. I have lately found raphide-bearing
plants thus characterized in the seed-leaves ; so that Ginothera and
Epilobium may be distinguished from their allies of other orders,
by raphides alone, even in that rudimentary state of growth !

Edenbridge, June 15, 1863.

54 Prof.J.D. Dana on two Oceanic Species of Protozoans.

VI.—On two Oceanic Species of Protozoans related to the
Sponges. By James D. Dana*.

Tue Spherozoum figured below (fig. 1 a) was collected by the
writer in the Pacific, near latitude 30° N. and longitude 178° W.,
during a calm, on the 26th of May, 1841.

Fig. 1 a represents the gelatinous globule of natural size.
The ocean’s waters were filled with this species and another
represented in fig.2a. The minute dots covering the globule,
one of which is magnified in fig. 14, were closely crowded, as
shown in fig. la. In this respect the species differs widely

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

from the figure of a species by T. H. Huxley in the ‘ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History, viii. 433, pl. 16; and as it
hence appears to be distinct, the writer has named it Spherozoum
orientale. About the dots, or ocelliform spots (zooids), the spi-
cules (supposed to be siliceous) were very numerous and much
branched, as in fig. 1b. The general mass had an exceedingly
faint bluish tinge; the centre circle of the ocelliform spots was
of the same tint, while the ring around was of a very faint
ochreous shade. The globules represented on the ocelliform
spots in fig. 1 b were yellow.

The other species (fig. 2 a) had the same general colour, and
similar ocelliform spots as to form, colour, and numbers, without
the spicules. Figure 26 represents one of the ocelliform spots ;
the dots in the surrounding mass correspond to minute yellow
globules or cells. This species is included with the Spherozoum
under the genus Thalassicolla of Huxley. This name has been
since restricted to Huxley’s 7. nucleata, and the name Collo-
sphera applied to forms much like fig. 2, by Miller. The mass
was less firm to the touch than that of the preceding. A fuller
examination of this and the related species is required to decide
whether the one here figured is new or not.

Both of the species had the power of motion by a movement
like expansion and contraction, and also the power of sinking
and rising at will in the water. No external opening could be
distinguished.

* From the American Journal of Science and Arts, May 1865.

Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Animals of Cyclostomacea. 55

As the species are probably related to the Sponges, as sug-
gested by Huxley, they have considerable interest, and especially
the Spherozoa, which, like most Sponges, seem to have the power
of secreting silica. The extent to which the ocean, over an area
of many square leagues, was crowded with them, suggests that
such floating Sponges may have been, in past time, of geological
importance as one of the sources of silica for the flint or horn-
stone and siliceous petrifactions of ancient limestones and other
rocks.

These species received from the author but a partial study, as
those of another class (oceanic Crustaceans) were engaging his
attention at the time. The above figures and descriptions are
from coloured drawings made on the spot, and from the notes
accompanying them.

VII.—On the Animals of Raphaulus, Spiraculum, and other
tube-bearing Cyclostomacea. By Witi1am T. Buianrorp,
A.R.S.M., F.G.S.

No one can have examined carefully a collection of the opercu-
lated land-shells of India and South-eastern Asia without re-
marking the peculiar shelly processes of the peristome or suture
which characterize several of the genera. Two principal forms
of these processes may be distinguished, viz. (1) sutural tubes,
either open at both ends or closed at one extremity, as m the
genera Raphaulus, Spiraculum, Opisthoporus, Alyceus, &c.; or,
(2) incisions in the peristome—simple, as in Pupina, Registoma,
&c., or accompanied by expansions of the outer lip, as in Péero-
cyclos and Rhiostoma. So far as I am aware, no soft parts have
hitherto been observed, in the animals of any of the above ge-
nera, corresponding to the peculiarities of their shelly coverings.
During the past two or three years, I have examined carefully
the animals of species belonging to the majority of the above-
named forms ; and in two instances I have ascertained the exist-
ence of an organization to which the processes of the shell are
adapted, these two cases being in the genera Raphaulus and
Spiraculum, which, although by no means nearly allied, agree in
possessing a sutural tube opening both internally and externally.

By the kindness of Baron F. v. Richthofen, I had, some time
since, an opportunity of examining the animals of several speci-
mens of the rare Raphaulus chrysalis, Pfr., from Moulmein in
Burma. The sutural tube in this species opens internally, a
short distance from the peristome, by a small longitudinal slit,
and then passes outside the suture to the aperture, where it is
deflected upwards, and runs vertically for 2 or 3 millimetres on

56 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Animals of Raphaulus,

the exterior of the penultimate whorl, opening to the air at the
extremity. I found this tube to be partly lined by a perforated
process of the mantle, communicating internally, by means of a
passage beneath the shell-muscle, with a very small orifice inside
the air-chamber in the neck of the animal, and thus affording
free access of the air to the pulmonary cavity, even when the
mouth of the shell is hermetically closed by the operculum.
The existence of this conformation cannot easily be observed
during life*, on account of the manner in which the mantle
lines the interior of the shell; but after killmg the animal in
hot water, and extracting it from the shell, the little free perfo-
rated process is distinctly seen, and is then about 2 millim. in
length, its dimensions having been, doubtless, much contracted
by the hot water.

The genus Spiraculum of Pearson was established upon the
species S. hispidum, P. By Dr. Pfeiffer that species has been
referred to Pterocyclos, to which it is certainly nearly allied,
although there appear to be good reasons for its generic separa-
tion. I have never had an opportunity of examining the animal
of S. hispidum ; but in the autumn of 1861 I met with a second
species of the same genus in the neighbourhood of Ava (S. ava-
mum, mihi). This species is furnished with a smail tube similar
to that in S. hispidum, opening at both ends, internally inside
the body-whorl, close to the suture and at a short distance be-
hind the peristome, and externally into the air, the short tube
on the exterior of the whorl being free and curved backwards.
The individual which I examined was just adult; there was no
tubular process of the animal, but it was replaced by a deep
notch in the mantle corresponding to the perforation of the
shell. It is possible that, in older specimens, this notch may
become altered into a more or less perfect tube ; but, as the spe=
cimen examined was full-grown, this is scarcely probable.

The other tube-bearing genera with open tubes are Streptau-
Jus, which can scarcely be considered as generically distinct from
Raphaulus, and Opisthoporus. I have not been able to examine
the animals of either of these. The tube in the aberrant genus
Alyceus opens anteriorly into the body-whorl by a longitudinal
slit, asin the other genera; but after running back along the
exterior of the suture for a greater or less distance, correspond-
ing with the inflated portion of the last whorl, it is closed at
the posterior termination. I have seen the soft parts of several
species, including the comparatively large A. umbonalis, Bens.,

* This is doubtless the reason that the tubular process of the mantle
was overlooked by so careful an observer as Mr. Benson, who, I believe,
confined his observations to the living animal. (See Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. vol. iv. p. 94.)

Spiraculum, and other tube-bearing Cyclostomacea. 57

but have been unable to detect any organization corresponding
to the shelly tube.

It was long since observed by Mr. Benson that no portion of
the animal of Pterocyclos appeared to correspond with the pe-
culiar incision of the inner, and cowl-shaped process or wing of
the outer, peristome. I have examined two or three species* of
that genus with precisely the same result. Amongst the Pupi-
nide, I have examined the animals of a variety of Pupina artata,
Bens., and of Hybocystis gravida, B., but I could detect no trace
of any process similar to that im Raphaulus.

The question of the use of these peculiar tubes in several
genera of Indian Cyclostomacea, and the reason of their exist-
ence in only a few forms belonging to two different families
(Cyclophoride and Pupinidze) and by no means closely allied,
has always appeared to me of considerable interest. The first
and most natural suggestion which would occur to any one is
that the tubes in question serve to supply the animal with air
when the mouth of the shell is closed by the operculum. But,
natural as this explanation seems, and despite its apparent con-
firmation by the discovery of the perforated process in the ani-
mal of Raphaulus, as described above, a very short consideration
will show the difficulty of accepting it. For if additional means
of breathing during estivation are essential to Raphaulus and
Spiraculum, how do forms so closely allied to them as Pupina
and Pterocyclos contrive to exist without them? And this is the
more inexplicable because there are modifications of the shelly
portions of those genera which apparently represent the sutural
tubes of Raphaulus and Spiraculum, the close relation of per-
forations in the body-whorl and slits in the peristome being
shown by such genera as Scissurella, Haliotis, and Stomatia,
Fissurella and Emarginula, &c. Above all, what explanation
can be adopted for the tube in Alyceus, perforated throughout
its length, but closed at its posterior termination ?

It is extremely probable that there is a connexion between the
existence of the sutural tubes in the land-shells mentioned and
the well-known siphon of Ampullaria, which genus, from its
habit of estivating in the dried mud of tanks, and its power of
living for months without water, may almost be considered as an
amphibious mollusk, and which approaches the Cyclostomacea
most closely in the form of the animal. Another siphon-bearing
species is Camptonyz, Bens., allied to Otina, which is by most
conchologists classed with the amphibious Auriculacee, and I
have recently obtained in Western India another generic type

* Amongst others, Pterocyclos pullatus, Bens., from Pegu, P. nanus, B.,
from the Nilgiris, and a species (a variety, perhaps, of P. Albersi, Pfr.)
from Arrakan.

58 Bibliographical Notices.

similarly furnished. It is closely affined to Camptonyz, being
intermediate between that genus and Succinea. The two last-
named shells zestivate attached to rocks. I am inclined to think it
possible that links yet remain to be discovered between all the
siphon- and tube-bearing genera, in which the peculiar organi-
zation, common under various modifications to all of them, is
more clearly adapted to the animal’s mode of existence than in
the cases mentioned. It is extremely probable that such links
may have existed and have become extinct. We can on this
hypothesis easily conceive that their living representatives or,
on the theory of Darwin, their modified descendents possess the
organization, in a more or less perfect condition, which was
essential to their predecessors, but is no longer equally necessary
to their own existence, and that, in short, the various apertural
slits and imperforate tubes of Pterocyclos, Pupina, Alycaeus, &c.,
must be regarded in the same light as rudimentary organs. By
this hypothesis, also, we can understand the appearance of the
more perfect conditions for communication between the atmo-
sphere and the lung-chamber of the animal in widely separated
forms, while others closely allied to each of them are more or
less deficient in all traces of a similar organization, and the
occurrence of a gradual passage from tube-bearing genera to
others totally destitute of any modification of the peristome or
suture is perfectly natural. The tube of Spiraculum becomes
an incision in the peristome in Pterocyclos, the Burmese forms
of which are closely allied to species of Cyclophorus like C. calyx,
Bens., which have a thickened operculum and a minute rudi-
mentary wing-shaped projection of the outer lip, close to the
suture; and from these forms, again, there is a passage to discoid
species, like C. stenostomus, Sow., with perfect peristomes. In
the same way we may pass from Raphaulus, through Pupinella
and Pupina, to Registoma, and finally to Callia, and through
Cataulus to Megalomastoma. To the subject of the affinities of
these various genera, however, and especially of the aberrant
Alyceus, I hope to refer in a future communication.
Bombay, May 1863.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A List of the Birds of Europe. By Professor J. H. Buasrus.
Reprinted from the German, with the author’s Corrections. Nor-
wich: Matchett & Stevenson. London: Triibner & Co. 1862.

Proressor J. H. Buasivs, of Brunswick, is well known to the scien-
tific world as one of our very highest authorities on European Verte-
brates. His Manual of the Mammals of Central Europe is certainly
the best of modern works on this subject ; and the second volume of

Bibliographical Notices. 59

the same series, in which he proposes to treat of the Birds, has long
been anxiously expected by naturalists who devote their attention to
this class of animals. It is, we presume, a résumé of the species, as
arranged in this forthcoming work, that Prof. Blasius has lately
printed in Germany “for his private use.” In the present ‘ List,’
therefore, which has been “reprinted from the German original,”
and specially amended by the author for the English edition, we
have the arrangement likely to be followed in Prof. Blasius’s long-
expected volume.

So many changes take place every year in the nomenclature and
arrangement of Birds, even of those that are found in the cireum-
scribed area of Europe, that a new list of species is from time to
time very necessary to the naturalist. We are, therefore, much in-
debted to Mr. Alfred Newton for supplying this convenient and
well-arranged Catalogue, which, there is little doubt, will fulfil the
translator’s expectations of being “of service to those who are inter-
ested in the study of European ornithology.”’ The total number of
species ‘ breeding in or regularly visiting Europe,” as recognized in
Prof. Blasius’s present list, is 420. Those which have only “ strayed
in accidentally, and have for the most part been observed but once,”
are inserted in their proper places in the list, but are distinguished
by their names being printed in italics, and by bracketed numbers.
This category includes 103 species, raising the total number of
authentic species (according to Prof. Blasius’s views of that much-
disputed term) which occur within the limits of Europe to 523.
Besides these, Prof. Biasius enumerates 55 “ varieties commonly
considered as species,” and amongst these we observe are located
the British forms Motacilla Yarrellii, Budytes flaveolus, Tetrao
scoticus, &c., which Prof. Blasius considers inseparable specifically
from their Continental prototypes Motacilla alba, Budytes flava,
and Tetrao albus, &c. Ornithologists may or may not agree with
Prof. Blasius in these views, but it is quite certain that the differences
which separate these nearly allied forms are not equal in amount to
those that are found between species (such as Turdus musicus and
Turdus viscivorus) universally recognized as distinct, and that the
judgment of so great an authority as Prof. Blasius on the subject
must be received with respect. Finally, the species that have been
asserted to occur in Europe, ‘on doubtful authority,” are included
in the catalogue, with notes of interrogation appended, and a refer-
ence is given to the works wherein they are noticed as having been
obtained within its limits. In this part of the list only Mr. Newton
has introduced some additional matter, by adding, for the informa-
tion of his fellow-countrymen, a few references, “chiefly relating to
rarer captures in England.” Leow

On the whole, we may state that, in spite of certain peculiarities in
the nomenclature (with which we cannot agree), we consider this to
be the most complete and most satisfactory of all the lists of the
Birds of Europe hitherto published.

60 Royal Society :—

Flora of Edinburgh ; being a List of Plants found in the Vicinity
of Edinburgh. By J. H. Batrour, Professor of Botany. 12mo.
Edinburgh : A. & C. Black. 1863.

Flora of Marlborough : with Notices of the Birds and a Sketch of
the Geological Features of the Neighbourhood. By the Rev.
T. A. Preston. 12mo. London: Van Voorst. 1863.

These two little books are published with a very similar object :
they propose to assist the student in his search after plants,—in one
case, the students of the University of Edinburgh, in the other the
boys at the great school called Marlborough College. It is curious
to remark that the schoolmaster aims at a higher standard when
writing for his boys than the Professor when providing a book for
his University students. Are we to deduce from this an idea of the
relative mental attainments possessed by the two classes? We should
be ashamed to make such a deduction. What, then, is the cause of
the Professor giving us simply a list of plants, without any of the
additional matter now expected from local floras, not even telling us
in which counties his localities are placed; and the schoolmaster
following the example set by our best modern local floras in all the
respects admissible by the circumstances of his district? We make
no attempt to answer the question.

Dr. Balfour’s radius of twenty miles round Edinburgh traverses a
rich country, offering much variety of soil and situation. He should
have given a sketch of its geology, surface, and meteorology ; and
might well have divided it into several districts, and attempted a
complete flora of each.

Mr. Preston has obtained from a friend an interesting outline of
the geology of his area, has divided a circular space of six miles
radius from Marlborough into four districts, and endeavoured to
work out the botany of each. He has produced a book far more
likely to be valuable to his readers than that of Dr. Balfour to the
students of his class; for Mr. Preston’s book is by much the more
likely of the two to direct attention to matter other than the simple
names of the plants. Doubtless, to the mere collector, each will
prove of use, and fulfil their objects ; and we hope that we may look
upon the Flora of Edinburgh as the forerunner of a more elaborate
and scientific work from the pen of its excellent and learned author.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
March 19, 1863.—Major-General Sabine, President, in the Chair.

“On Peculiar Appearances exhibited by Blood-corpuscles under
the influence of Solutions of Magenta and Tannin.” By William
Roberts, M.D., Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary.

THE object of the following paper is to give an account of certain
observations which seem to indicate that the cell-wall of the verte-

Influence of Magenta and Tannin on Blood-corpuscles. 61

brate blood-disk does not possess the simplicity of structure usually
attributed to it.

It is well known that the blood-corpuscles, when floating in their
own serum, or after having been treated with acetic acid or water,
appear to be furnished with perfectly plain envelopes, composed of a
simple homogeneous membrane, without distinction of parts. But,
as will appear from the observations here to be related, when the
blood is treated with a solution of magenta (nitrate of rosaniline) or
with a dilute solution of tannin, the corpuscles present changes which
seem irreconcilable with such a supposition.

Attention is first asked to the effects of magenta. When a speck
of human blood was placed on a glass slide and mixed with a drop
of a watery solution of magenta*, the following changes were ob-
served. The blood-disks speedily lost their natural opacity and
yellow colour; they became perfectly transparent, and assumed a
faint rose-colour ; they also expanded sensibly, and lost their bicon-
cave figure. In addition, a dark-red speck made its appearance on
some portion of their periphery. The pale corpuscles took the colour
much more strongly than the red; and their nuclei were displayed
with great clearness, dyed of a magnificent carbuncle-red. Many
of the nuclei were seen in the process of division, more or less ad-
vanced ; and in some cells the partition had resulted in the produc-
tion of two, three, or even four distinct secondary nuclei.

These appearances were first observed in freshly-drawn blood from
the finger. Subsequently blood from the horse, pig, ox, sheep, deer,
camel, cat, rabbit, and kangaroo was examined in like manner. The
effect on the red corpuscles (to which all the observations hereinafter
recorded are exclusively confined) was in each instance the same as
in human blood.

The nucleated blood-disks of the oviparous classes, when treated
similarly, yielded analogous results. The coloured contents were
forthwith discharged ; the central nucleus came fully into view, and
assumed a deep-red colour; the corpuscles expanded, they lost
something of their oval form, and approached nearly, or sometimes
quite, to a circular outline. Lastly, there appeared on the periphery
a dark-red macula, of a character and position resembling that seen
on the mammalian blood-disk. Such a macula was detected in the
fowl, in the frog, and in the dace and minnow.

Owing, however, to the large quantity of molecular matter floating
in the serum, and which was coloured by the magenta, difficulties
were found in preparing specimens which carried conviction that the
macula in question was not an adhering granule. It was also found
that it required a nice adjustment of the relative quantities of the
solution and of the blood to bring it out. It was only when the
right proportions were hit, and especially when the disks were made
to roll over in the field of the microscope, that the existence of a

* The solution I found to answer best in these experiments was a nearly satu-
rated solution of nitrate of rosaniline, made by boiling the salt in water, and
filtering after it had stood twenty-four hours, then diluting slightly with water to
prevent precipitation.

62 Royal Society :-—

coloured particle organically connected with the cell-wall could be
satisfactorily made out. The best specimens were prepared from
human blood drawn in the fasting-condition, and from the blood of
a kitten two days old.

From well-prepared specimens of human blood the following par-
ticulars were gathered (see fig. 1, A) :—Nearly every disk possessed
the parietal macula ; it could be distinctly recognized in nine-tenths of
them ; and in several of those in which it was not at first visible, it
came into view as the corpuscles revolved in the field.

Fig. 1.

ie
A. Human blood; B. Fowl’s blood, treated with magenta.

The macula was clearly situated in the cell-wall, and not in the
interior of the corpuscle. Usually it appeared as if imbedded or set
in the rim of the disk, like the jewel in a diamond ring ; but some-
times it occupied various positions on the flat surfaces, and when
so placed, the spot was difficult or impossible to detect.

It commonly presented a thickly lenticular shape ; sometimes it
was square, and occasionally in appearance vesicular (fig. 1, A, a).
In some instances, and especially in long-kept specimens, the particle
was seen to stand out on the outline of the disk like an excrescence.
Still more rarely, instead of a spot, a thick red line ran round the
circumference for a quarter or a third of its extent (fig. 1, A, 6).

As arule it was extremely minute, covering generally not more
than a twentieth or thirtieth of the circumference ; but there was a
considerable variation in its magnitude and distinctness. Very rarely
two specks could be seen; but the occurrence of adhering granules
-vendered the verification of this point extremely difficult.

This description applies, so far as the inquiry has yet been prose-
cuted, to the mammalian blood-disk generally, making allowances
for differences in size. In the camel the macula occupied indiffer-
ently any part of the oval outline.

Among the oviparous classes, the blood of the fowl, frog, dace,
and minnow has been most fully examined (see fig. 1, B); but the
blood of the sparrow, duck, goose, and turkey was also searched, as
well as that of the newt and carp.

In all of these a tinted particle appeared, more or less constantly,

Influence of Magenta and Tannin on Blood-corpuscles. 63

in the cell-wall, when the corpuscles were treated with magenta*.
The presence of a central nucleus in these classes caused the ma-
cula to be invisible more frequently than in mammalia, inasmuch as
it suffered eclipse when situated over or under the central nucleus.

In the fowl, dace, and minnow it was found easy to bring out the
parietal macula; in the fish two spots were not unfreqnently seen.
The macula was situated indifferently on any part of the periphery ;
and sometimes it projected from the surface. When happily pre-

ared, the specimens were even beautiful. The central nuclevs was
dyed of the finest red; and on the delicate outline of the cell-wall
hung the red parietal macula, offering a not altogether fanciful re-
semblance to the astronomical figures representing the moon coursing
in its orbit round the earth.

At this stage of the inquiry it was conceived that an improved
demonstration might be obtained by fixing the dye with a mordant,
and then subjecting the corpuscles to a lavatory process, so as to get
rid of the floating granules which so much interfered with the view.
For this purpose a solution of tannin (which is one of the mordants
for magenta used in the arts) was employed; and some advantage

Fig. 2.

Human blood after the action of tannin.

a. Double pullulation.

b, 6. Hooded modification.

ce. Outline of the cell seen continuously through the pullulation.

d. Bursting of the pullulations independently of destruction of the cell.

* In order to bring out the best results, it was found requisite to modify the
strength and quantity of the solution for the different kinds of blood. This
doubtless depended upon the varying densities of the liquor sanguinis and cell-
contents in different animals.

64: Royal Society :—

was found therem. When a solution of tannin, of 3 grains to the
ounce of water, was added to blood that had already been dyed with
magenta, it was found that the parietal macule had their colour
intensified, and that they became more conspicuous objects. The
investigation was, however, not pushed any further in this direction,
for it was found that tannin alone produced an even more remarkable
effect than magenta. To this effect I now desire to draw particular
attention.

When a solution of tannin, of the strength of 3 grains to the
ounce, was applied to human blood, or to that of the horse, ox,
sheep, pig, or cat, the blood immediately became turbid; and when
a drop was placed under the microscope the corpuscles were found
greatly changed, as represented in fig. 2.

Each corpuscle appeared to have thrown out a bright, highly re-
fractive bud or projection on its surface. The projections were
usually about a fourth part of the size of the corpuscle on which
they were fixed; but they varied considerably. Some were only
minute bright specks in the cell-wail; others were half or even two-
thirds as large as the corpuscle itself. Very rarely (in mammalian
blood) two such projections were seen; and as rarely a corpuscle
was devoid of any.

The projections were commonly round or dome-shaped, bordered
by a deeply refractive outline. Frequently a minute, apparently
vesicular body could be seen within this outline; and then the pro-
jection presented a curiously hooded aspect (fig. 2, 6, 6). In a uri-
nary deposit from a lad twelve years of age, containing pus and blood,
nearly every blood-disk presented the hooded appearance after the
addition of tannin.

The blood of the fowl, turkey, duck, and goose showed exactly
analogous phenomena with the same reagent (see fig. 3).

The projection had sometimes the hooded character with a vesi-

Fig. 3.

Blood of fowl after the action of tannin.

Influence of Magenta and Tannin on Blood-corpuscles. 65

cular body within ; sometimes the projection offered no such distine-
tion of parts. It was situated indifferently on any part of the peri-
phery. In all the birds examined a second projection was as rare as
in mammalia.

Of fish, the dace, minnow, and carp were examined. The tannin-
Solution produced a similar effect to that seen in the fowl—with this
difference, that a large number of corpuscles had two projections
instead of one. In the carp, double and single projections occurred
in about equal proportions ; in the minnow, double projections were
all but universal. The second projection was situated sometimes at
the opposite pole of the disk, sometimes in near proximity to its
fellow, or at any point between. Very rarely, a third projection was
seen in the dace.

In the blood of the frog there was a strong tendency to the inde-
finite multiplication of the projections ; two, three, four, and even
five would rise in succession on the surface of the disk. It appeared,
too, not unfrequently as if the entire outer membrane of the cell was
detached from the parts beneath and raised into eight or ten unequal
elevations, giving the outline of the disk an irregularly crenate ap-
pearance*.

The formation of these singular projections, or pullulations, on the
blood-disks could be watched without difficulty by placing a drop of
the tannin-solution beneath the covering glass, and permitting a little
blood to insinuate itself into the solution under the microscope. As
the blood flowed in and mingled with the tannin, the corpuscles were
observed gradually to enlarge, and then suddenly, without previous
warning, to shoot out the projection. As a rule, it does not appear to
grow afterwards. The phenomenon was finely seen in the defibri-
nated blood of the fowl after it had+been allowed to sink through
a column of syrup (sp. gr. 1025) in a test-tube. Fowl’s blood
washed in this way was mixed, in a little glass, with about five times
its volume of the tannin-solution, and a drop immediately put under
the microscope. The disks first enlarge and become rounded, and
the central nucleus comes into view. In thirty or forty seconds the
pullulation begins ; and each corpuscle, with instantaneous rapidity
and without previous sign, throws out its bud. The disk itself suf-
fers not the least disturbance during this act; it preserves its sym-
metry unchanged, as if it had no concern, beyond that of proximity,
with the sudden apparition on its surface.

No visible rupture of the cell-wall took place. The circular out-
line of the latter could sometimes be distinctly followed through the
projection (fig. 2, ec); and as the altered corpuscles revolved in the
field of the microscope, the projection appeared to be organically con-
nected with it, but to form no part of its cavity. In the human

* There is a certain adjustment of the proportions between the tannin-solution
and blood required to bring out the effects described in this paper ; but the proper
proportions are, practically, very easily found after a few trials for each kind of
blood. In mammalian blood, one drop of blood mixed in a conical glass with
four or five of the solution generally answered perfectly. Any considerable excess
of blood or solution above these proportions caused destruction of the corpuscles.

Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, xi, 5

66 Royal Society :—

blood-disks the application of acetic acid, soon after the tannin,
caused, on two occasions, the pullulations gradually to subside, and
finally to disappear; and then the disk resumed its original circular
outline. I failed to produce this “redux”? effect in the fowl; and
did not always succeed with human blood, probably because the
change produced by the tannin had gone too far.

The modification noted under the term “hooded” appearance
depends, I believe, upon secondary conditions of concentration and
quantity of the tannin-solution in comparison to the blood. When
the hooded condition has been watched in the act of occurrence, it
was noticed that the outer hood was shot out first; and instantly after
this the highly refractive vesicular body made its appearance within.
The contents of the hood (excluding the vesicular body) appeared
usually to refract the light like the body of the cell, or even less
strongly ; sometimes, however, more strongly.

The effect of tannin did not cease with the production of the ele-
vations just described. At first the cells and their projections pre-
served their elasticity ; but after a while (a few minutes, or several
hours, according to the proportions used) the corpuscles and their
projections became solid, and they could be cracked by pressure
under the microscope like starch-granules. More slowly the same
destruction overtook the corpuscles spontaneously ; and this signifi-
cant fact was observed in the course of it:—sometimes the cell
ruptured before the projection, the latter persisting as a bright
granule amid or near the débris; sometimes, on the other hand (in
the horse), the projection broke up before the disk to which it was
attached. In this latter case, the hood (if there were any) broke up
first into a scattered nebula of granular appearance, and then the
nucleolus-like body within burst into three or four bright fragments
(fig. 2, d). This train of events seemed to remove all doubt as to
the complete isolation of the projection from the cavity of the disk.
Last of all, the disk itself began to crack ; in a few days all my spe-
cimens were thus destroyed.

In addition to magenta and tannin, the following substances were
tried, but they did not produce phenomena in the least analogous with
the foregoing :—gallic acid, ferrocyanide of potassium, santonine,
sulphate of magnesia, alcohol and water, solutions of carbolic acid,
of ree, morphia, iodine, sugar, gum, glycerine, and infusion of
coffee.

A solution of picric acid produced the appearance of a parietal
particle like that brought out by magenta, except that it was not
coloured. An exactly similar appearance was on one occasion ob-
eae in blood-corpuscles in the urine of a patient with acute Bright’s

isease.

When magenta was applied after the process of pullulation had
taken place, the projections were found to take the dye strongly, and
especially the vesicular body within the hood. By this proceeding
beautiful and remarkable objects for microscopical examination were
obtained. In the fowl, dace, and minnow the projection was tinted
earlier than the central nucleus—probably from its more ready access

Influence of Magenta and Tannin on Blood-corpuscles. 67

to the pigment. The explanation of these appearances presents
great difficulties, and in the present state of the inquiry can only be
offered provisionally.

The effect of the magenta-solution is not merely to tint, and so
render visible a very minute body. In watching the effect of ma-
genta, the first thing observed is that the natural yellowish colour of
the disk is discharged, and that a faint rose-tint is assumed in its
stead. The disks at the same time lose their biconcave shape. The
parietal macula is rather “brought out” than revealed, and the
action of the solution is, to a very great extent, of a simply osmotic
character. uA

The action of the tannin-solution is likewise in the main of a
similar nature, but modified in some very peculiar manner. Its first
operation is to cause the corpuscle to enlarge by imbibition, and this
goes on progressively until at length the cell is destroyed. If the
solution be strong, this destruction supervenes at once. The tannin
also unites with the cell-contents and coagulates them, imparting to
the corpuscle, finally, a solid consistence. The conditions of the
imbibition are disturbed by the previous application of magenta ;
for no pullulation, or at most only traces, occurs when the corpuscles
are treated first with magenta and ¢hen with tannin.

The bearing of these observations on the current views respecting
the structure of the vertebrate blood-disk is important. They
seem to warrant the inferences drawn in the two following para-
graphs :—

1. The exact identity of the appearances produced in the blood-
disks of the ovipara with those observed in the mammalian corpuscles
lends strong support to the view that these corpuscles are homolo-
gous as wholes; and that the mammalian blood-disk is not the
homologue of the nucleus of the coloured corpuscle of the ovipara,
as was conceived by Mr. Wharton Jones.

2. The observations likewise lead to the belief that the envelope
of the vertebrate blood-disk is a duplicate membrane ; in other words,
that within the outer covering there exists an interior vesicle which
encloses the coloured contents, and, in the ovipara, the nucleus.

Dr. Hensen* of Kiel had already in 1861 convinced himself, from
wholly different observations, that the blood-corpuscles of the frog
possess such a structure. On this view the blood-corpuscle is
anatomically analogous to a vegetable cell, and the inner vesicle
corresponds to the primordial utricle.

The present observations indicate, by direct proof, a duplication at
only one, or at most two points in the blood-disks of mammals and
birds. Nevertheless certain appearances, occasionally observed, favour
the notion of a complete duplication (fig. 1, 0).

The admission of this hypothesis, however, scarcely removes the
difficulties sufficiently to permit a tenable explanation to be offered
of the appearances described in this paper. Yet, as it may prove
suggestive to some other inquirer, I will not suppress what appears

* Zeitschrift fiir wissensch., Zoologie, Band xi. p. 263.
5x

68 Zoological Society :— .
to me the explanation least open to objections. It might be con-
ceived that the cells enlarged by imbibition, until at length the less
distensible inner membrane gave way, and permitted an extravasation
of a portion of the cell-contents between it and the outer membrane,
its own continuity being in the meanwhile instantaneously restored
by cohesion of the ruptured borders*. In this way a microscopic
drop of the cell-coutents would be lodged between the outer and
inner membrane, and completely severed from the general cell-cavity.
The peculiar modification spoken of as the ‘‘ hooded”’ appearance
might be due to imbibition of fluid between this microscopic drop
and the outer envelope.

The chief difficulties in the way of this explanation arise out of
the differences of nature which appear to exist between the projection
and the general cell-contents of which it is supposed to be a detached
portion. The projection refracts light much more highly than the
cell-contents ; it also is deeply dyed by magenta, whereas the cell-
contents are only very feebly so.

In conclusion, it may be added that important advantages may be
expected from the use of magenta in histological researches. Its
inert chemical character, its prodigious tinting power, and its solu-
bility in water eminently fit it for such a purpose. It will probably
prove of especial use in bringing into sight objects which otherwise
evade the visual organs from their absolute colourlessness and trans-
parency, and from the equality of their refraction with the medium
in which they exist.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

June 24, 1862.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.L.S., in the Chair.

On THE BREEDING OF THE NUTCRACKER (NUCIFRAGA CARYO-
caTacTes). By Atrrep Newron, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S.

About six months ago (P. Z. S. 1861, pp. 396-7), I expressed a
hope of being able before long to give the Society some more certain
information with respect to the breeding of the Nutcracker (Nuwev-
Sraga caryocatactes). In that I hope I have not been altogether
disappointed.

The nest and young bird now exhibited (the latter still showing
traces of its original downy clothing) have been received by me
within the last few days from my excellent friend Herr Pastor P. W.
Theobald of Copenhagen, to whom I think the Society will jom with
me in hearty congratulations on his success in obtaining these deci- _
sive facts in regard to the nidification of this mysterious bird, and
whose zeal in the quest of zoological discovery fully deserves, in my
opinion, all the praise that can be accorded to it.

* In the same manner as a soap-bubble when bisected, instead of collapsing,
forms, in virtue of the adhesiveness and fluidity of its envelope, two new and per-
fect bubbles. That the cell-wall of the blood-disk possesses some such endow-
ment seems highly probable. I have on several occasions witnessed, after adding

magenta, the total extrusion of the nucleus, both in the frog and in the newt,
without the least collapse of the corpuscles.

Mr. A. Newton on the Breeding of the Nutcracker. 69

Believing, however, that the Pastor will himself publish fuller
details of this interesting capture, I will only briefly recount the in-
formation with which he has supplied me.

It appears that, previously to the summer of 1860, a forester in
the island of Bornholm had satisfied himself that the Nutcracker
was in the habit of breeding there annually. He had seen it every
month in the year from May to November inclusive ; and this intel-
ligence being communicated to Herr Theobald, that gentleman made
an expedition to the island, but without finding the special object of
his search—a nest of the bird. This present spring, however, the
Pastor, accompanied by two of his friends, HH. Erichsen and Fischer,
both keen oologists, visited Bornholm a second time; and one of
their achievements I have now the pleasure of making known to
you. Writing from that island, on the 30th of May last, Herr
Theobald says :—

‘Returning to the result of our ornithological expedition, I can
tell you that, after many days’ inquiries, we succeeded in finding two
nests of Caryocatactes, the young birds flying near them. As we
presumed, we came too late for getting the eggs; but I think we
have advanced a good deal, and after this discovery we dare be almost
sure of receiving them next year. Our gentle and clever host, the
forester Rosen, who now knows the time and manner of nidification
of this bird, may be considered a guarantee for our hopes.

“We have thought it might be of interest to you to possess an
undoubtedly genuine nest of Caryocatactes, and also a young bird
in the first plumage; we’ therefore send you one nest and one skin.
Both the nests are of the same size and construction. They were in
fir-trees (Pinus rubra), not very private, but rather easy to find.
It is likely that the young birds had left the nest perhaps eight days.
None of them moved, except with difficulty, among the branches ; and
one of them fell on the ground. The old birds cried, but only some-
times, with an anxious voice that was not unlike a Magpie’s, and
then all was silent again. In the neighbourhood of the nest, where
the birds had been previously observed, we found on the rocky
ground a good number of freshly cracked hazel-nuts ; and as no nut-
trees grow there, the birds must fetch them from a distance of an
English mile at least. We are inclined to think that they collect
them in autumn and secure them in a private spot ; and perhaps it is
on this account also that the bird, whose economy is very hidden, is
seldom to be seen in the breeding-time.

“« As I have already mentioned, the nest is not of the most diffi-
cult class to find. It is not built on the top [of the tree], but close
to the stem, about 25 or 30 feet high. The bird is an early breeder,
but can scarcely have eggs before the beginning of April.

* Now you have the nest wherein the young birds were lately
hatched, and a young bird in its first plumage. Next year we hope
to send you very well authenticated eggs.”

I have only to conclude by mentioning that the nest, as will be
seen on examination, is of large size, some five or six inches in thick-
ness, with an outside diameter of about a foot, and a shallow depres-

70 Zoological Society :—

sion of six inches across; but the cup was probably a good deal
deeper before its brim was subjected to the weight of the young birds.
It is composed outwardly of sticks and twigs, among which I recog-
nize those of the larch, spruce, and birch. These latter show the
period at which it must have been built, as the buds, though enlarged,
had not burst. It has a thick lining of grass, which appears to have
been plucked while growing. The very small bits of moss and lichen
do not seem to have been intentionally added, but to have adhered
to the other materials. The down with which the nestling has
been covered, and of which traces may be observed on a few of the
back-feathers, is of a dark-brownish grey, as is usual among the
Corvide. The first plumage much resembles that of the adult,
being, however, duller in colour and with the white tear-like spots
less conspicuous; but the quill-feathers of the wings and tail are not
so entirely destitute of metallic reflexions as some authors lead one
to imagine.

Whether the Nutcracker builds the whole structure for itself, or
only furnishes the forsaken nest of some other animal, I do not know.
This and other particulars we shall probably soon learn from Pastor
Theobald himself; and I need scarcely say I look forward with the
greatest interest to the clearing up of our doubts as to what its eggs
are really like.

ON SOME POINTS RELATING TO THE ANATOMY OF THE HuM-

MING-BIRD (TROCHILUS CoLUBRIS). By Epwarps Crisp,
M.D. F.2.5.5 ETC.

. The recent dissection of the above-named bird has induced me to
place an account of some parts of its anatomy before the Society,
believing that the communication will not be devoid of interest.

I am indebted to Mr. Gould for the Humming-bird, which he
captured in America, and brought alive to this country ; but it lived
only a few days after its arrival.

It had been preserved in spirits for some time before I examined
it, and therefore the weight may not have been exactly the same
when first captured, but I believe that the difference would be very
slight. I have, in the accompanying drawing, depicted the bird with
and without its skin. I have also represented the skeleton and all
the viscera by measurement.

The bird (a female) weighed 61 grains; its length from beak to
tail 4 inches, the bill being three-fourths of an inch, the tail 1 inch ;
from the extremity of each wing, when extended, 4} inches. Tail-
feathers ten; wing-feathers in all sixteen, the first the longest.

On removing the skin, the bird, as represented in the drawing,
had a very plump, solid appearance, the pectoral muscles being of
very large size: they weighed 12 grains, being nearly one-fifth the
weight of the bird. The extremities of the os hyoides, as in the
Woodpeckers, reached the anterior part of the head. The thoracic
and abdominal viscera, when viewed in situ, presented nothing ab-
normal either in form or position. I failed to discover a gall-bladder.

Dr. E. Crisp on the Anatomy of Trochilus colubris. 71)

The brain weighed 3 grains, forming a large proportional amount to
the body (15); the alimentary canal measured 3} inches.

he crop membranous and capacious; the gizzard moderately
thick, with a soft cuticular lining. A small elevated spot was ob-
served (under the microscope) on the surface of the rectum, which
probably was the rudimentary appendix.

The trachea consisted of about sixty rings, and the left bronchus
of forty—the latter being nearly the length of the trachea. The
ovary very small. The os hyoides long and very muscular, extend-
ing, as before stated, to the space between the orbits. The tongue
from the base of the os hyoides fourteen lines in length, the bifid
portion being eight lines. This latter part appeared to be composed
of two elastic cylinders having a membranous web on their inner
sides; these webs towards their extremities, as seen in the drawing,
present a shreddy, torn appearance, the torn portions being of a
triangular shape, their bases towards the cylinders. These cylinders
were not hollow, but composed of a solid cartilaginous material.
The eyes measured two lines in diameter, and weighed about one

rain.

Skeleton.—The enormous depth of the sternum in this little bird
at once excites attention. The sternum is of a triangular shape, its
anterior and deepest portion measuring four lines, its length 64 lines:
the cervical vertebree twelve, the coccygeal five, ribs seven ; flat, broad,
andthin. The depth of the sternum and the great proportional size
of the pectoral muscles probably exceed those of any other bird,
judging from the sterna of several hundred species of birds that I
have inspected. The humerus very short, one line ; carpus two lines ;
metacarpus two lines ; phalanges 34 lines ; femur two lines ; tibia four
lines ; tarsus 13 line; longest toe three lines; the claws curved and
sharp. The bones of this bird did not contain air.

Remarks.—I have been somewhat minute in the description of
the measurements of the skeleton, because it is only by comparison
with the skeletons of other birds that any practical and useful results
can be arrived at. The shortness of the humerus is one remarkable
feature ; and in this respect there is a great resemblance to the same
bone in the Swifts(Cypseline). It is curious that this bone in our com-
mon Swift (Cypselus apus), although of very small size, contains air.
By some it will be thought singular that the very swift-flying bird
the Humming-bird should have no air in its bones; but when we
consider, as I have stated in my papers upon this subject in our
‘ Proceedings’ (1857, pp. 9 and 215), that the bones of two of our
swiftest-flying birds—the Swallow and Martin—contain no air, the
absence of it in the bones of this bird will appear less remarkable.
In the first paper alluded to (p. 12), I have stated that Professor
Owen, in his ‘ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ vol. ii. p. 34,
remarks, that the Swifts and Humming-birds are said “ to have air
in every bone of the skeleton, down to the phalanges of the claws.”

I repeat this because several physiologists and lecturers on com-
parative anatomy still adhere to the old doctrine of the presence of
air in the bones of all birds ; and on asking a celebrated physiolo-

72. Zoological Society :—

gist whether he believed that the bones of birds contained air; his’
reply was, ‘‘ Has a bird a brain?”

Professor Owen, in the Lectures on Birds that he is now deliver-
ing at the Government School of Mines, as reported in *‘ The Medical
Times and Gazette,’ May 24, 1862, p. 537, says,—‘ In the swift
Humming-birds and in other birds of flight, the air permeates the
interior of every bone of the skeleton.”

' Brisson and Lesson, as quoted by Sir W. Jardine, state that ‘ the
tongue of the Humming-bird is composed of two muscular tubes,
joined together for the greater part of their length, towards the tip
broadened or swelling, and, according to Lesson, terminated in a
spoon-like point on the upper surface. They assist in retaining the
different substances, which are immediately conveyed to the opening
of the cesophagus by the contractility of the tubes.” Sir W. Jardine
says that he has “ confirmed this statement, as far as the examina-
tion of the moistened parts would allow.’ He adds, “‘ Our own exa-
mination of the tongue of the Trochilus moschitus, relaxed with
warm water, gave the appearance of a fimbriated opening at the tip,
having the exterior margin of each fork set with recurved, sharp-
pointed, pliable spines, as if to assist its viscidity in securing any
substance seized by them.”

It is possible that in the different species of 7rochilide the
tongue, like the beak and tail-feathers, may differ somewhat; but I
believe it will be found that the cylinders are not hollow, and that
the recurved spines spoken of by Sir W. Jardine are shreds of the
membranous part of the tongue detached by maceration. The some-
what feather-like tongue of these birds is probably used chiefly for
dipping into the nectar, and for detaching the small insects upon the
flowers, the rapid motion of the organ enabling the bird to obtain a
large supply of nourishment in a short time.

The examination of recent specimens will be necessary to decide
the question as to the tubular character of the tongue; but there is
one thing tolerably certain, viz. that the food of these birds is chiefly
insects, and does not consist of the nectar of flowers only, as was
formerly supposed.

Nov. 11, 1862.—Professor Huxley, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING AYE-AYE IN THE ZOOLOGICAL
GarRpENs. By A. D. Barrurrr.

The subject of the following remarks is a fine adult female of the
Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis), which arrived in this country
on the 12th of August last. On the voyage, this animal produced
a young one, which lived about ten days. On arriving here she was
in poor condition and very feeble; she soon, however, began to feed
freely, and has now considerable strength, as is shown by the timber
destroyed in the cage in which she is kept.

This animal is much blacker, and appears larger, than the male of
this species now in the British Museum ; the long hairs on the_back of

Mr. A. D, Bartlett on the Living Aye-aye. 73

the neck, extending to the lower part of the body, have white points ;
these white points are thickest above, and become less numerous
towards the limbs and tail, which appear quite black ; the hairs of
the tail, however, are white or grey at the roots (this can only be
observed by separating them); the chin and throat are dirty white,
which colour extends over the chest; the short hairs on the face are
a mixture of dirty grey and white; the long hairs are black; the
eyes light brown, surrounded by dark-coloured hairs; the nose and
muzzle are of a dirty flesh-colour; the lips pink ; the ears, shining
black, and naked, but thickly studded with small protuberances ; the
feet and toes are sooty black, with the under surface and claws
lighter, inclining to flesh-colour. The situation of the mamme is
remarkable: they are two in number, and placed at the lowest part
of the abdomen (the animal differing in this respect entirely from the
Lemurs and Bats, the teats of which are on the breast).

The Aye-aye sleeps during the day; and the body is then gene-
rally curved round and lving on its side, the tail is spread out and
flattened over it, so that the head and body of the animal are almost
entirely covered by the tail.

It is only at night that the Aye-aye exhibits any activity. I hear
her crawling about and gnawing the timber when, to me, all is per-
fectly dark; and I have been surprised to find that upon the intro-
duction of a light, directed to the face of the animal, she does not
exhibit any signs of uneasiness, but stretches out her arm and tries
to touch the lamp with her long fingers. She frequently hangs by
her hind legs, and in this position cleans and combs out her large
tail, using the slender hook-like third finger with great rapidity, re-
minding one strongly of the movements of the large Bats (Pteropus).
This skeleton-like finger is used with great address in cleaning her
face and picking the corners of the eyes, nose, mouth, ears, and other
parts ef her body; during these operations the other fingers are fre-
quently partially closed.

In feeding, the left hand only is used, although she has the full
use of her right one. The mode of taking her food requires careful
attention, in consequence of the very rapid movement of the hand
during the process. The fourth finger (which is the longest and
largest) is thrust forward into the food, the slender third finger is
raised upwards and backwards above the rest, while the first finger
or thumb is lowered so as to be seen below and behind the chin; in
this position the hand is drawn backwards and forwards rapidly, the
inner side of the fourth finger passing between the lips, the head of
the animal being held sideways, thus depositing the food in the
mouth at each movement ; the tongue, jaws, and lips are kept in full
motion all the time. Sometimes the animal will advance towards
and lap from the dish like a cat, but this is unusual. I have never
heard her utter any cry, or produce any vocal sound, during the many
hours at night im which I have watched her habits, nor has she ap-

eared shy or angry at my presence.

With reference to food, this creature exhibits no inclination to take
any kind of insects, but feeds freely on a mixture of milk, honey, eggs,

74 Zoological Society :—

and any thick, sweet, glutinous fluid, rejecting meal-worms, grass-
hoppers, the larvee of wasps, and all similar objects. Consequently
I am inclined to think that this animal is not insectivorous. Its large
and powerful teeth lead me to infer that it may possibly wound trees,
and cause them to discharge their juices into the cavity made by its
teeth ; and that upon this fluid it probably feeds. This appears to
me the more likely, as I observe that our specimen returns frequently
to the same spot on the tree which she had previously injured. Iam
also strengthened in my opinion by noticing the little attention paid
by the animal to its food. It does not watch or look after it; for I
have on several occasions removed the vessel containing its food du-
ting the time the animal was feeding, and the creature continued to
thrust its hand forward, as before, upon the same spot—though
after a while, finding no more food, she discontinued, and moved off
to search for more elsewhere. This apparently stupid act is so unlike
the habits of an animal intended to capture or feed on living crea-
tures that I am inclined to believe that the Aye-aye feeds upon in-
animate substances. I have frequently seen it eat a portion of the
bark and wood after taking a quantity of the fluid food.

The excrement of this animal much resembles the dung of small
rabbits, being in separate nearly round balls.

On a New BirpD FROM THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR.
By Dr. G. Hartiavus, For. Mems.

Cucuxvus Rocut, sp. nov. Supra ardesiacus ; gutture pallidius
cinereo ; pectore et abdomine in fundo albo-flaricantibus, fasciis
rarioribus angustis nigricantibus ; subalaribus flavescenti-albi-
dis, tenuissime ardesiaco fasciolatis ; subcaudalibus ochraceis,
maculis nonnullis nigris ; rectricibus nigris, maculis rarioribus
minutis albis prope scapam notatis, omnium apicibus albis ; ala
extus unicolore, nigricante, remigum pogoniis interns albo
fasciatis vel postice transversim maculatis ; maxilla nigricante ;
mandibula flava, apice obscura ; pedibus flavis.
Long. 10-11"; rostr. a fr. 8!" al. 5 11" caud, 5” 7-8".
Syn. “ Cuculus canorus, L., common at Madagascar,”’ Desjardins,
P. Z. S. 1832, p.111. C. tenuirostris, Jules Verreaux, MS. (olim).

Nearly allied to certain Indian species, but in all probability di-
stinct. In an old MS. of my friend Jules Verreaux I find an accu-
rate description of this species, under the often misused name of
Cuculus tenuirostris.

Named after Dr. S. Roch, who accompanied the mission sent last

year by the Government of Mauritius to that of Madagascar.

Nov. 25, 1862.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq,, F.Z.S., in the Chair.

Norice or Two New Species oF BATAGUR IN THE COLLECTION
or THE British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray.

Dr. Giinther, who is re-examining the Indian Tortoises in the Bri-

tish Museum, has drawn my attention to two young specimens of

Dr. J. E. Gray on two new Species of Batagur. 75

the genus Batagur, which he believes to be different from those that
I have hitherto described; and as there appears every reason to believe
that they indicate species that have not hitherto been recorded in the
Catalogue, I shall proceed to describe them provisionally until we
receive more adult representatives of them. They both belong to
the subgenus called Kachuga, as defined in my ‘Catalogue of
Shield Reptiles in the British Museum’ (p. 35).

BATAGUR PICTA.

Pale grey-brown, with three interrupted dark brown streaks on
the back, and a more or less triangular dark brown spot on the front
margin of the marginal shields; beneath uniform pale yellow. Nu-
chal shield none. The first vertebral plate oblong, four-sided, rather
longer than broad; the second, third, and fourth six-sided, second
and third as long as broad, the fourth rather longer than broad.
The margin entire, bent up behind. The pectoral and anal plate as
long as broad. Head (when dry) pale olive, blackish on each side.

Hab. Borneo, Sarawak (Wallace).

Length 11, width 84 inches. Not full-grown, and with large inter-
costal spaces on the sides, showing that this species grows to a much
larger size.

BataGur Ex.iortt.

Young state. Pale grey-brown, one-coloured when dry ; the hinder
margin strongly and acutely serrated. Nuchal shield broad, short.
Second, third, and fourth vertebral shields strongly keeled, and end-
ing in an acute prominence; the first square, rather broader than
long ; second and third six-sided, broader than long; fourth six-
sided, longer than broad. Underside uniform pale yellow. The
gular plate triangular; the pectoral and anal shorter than broad.
The head dusky brown; temple and beak yellow, with a blackish
streak from the nostril to the orbit, and continued behind from the
orbit over the tympanum.

Hab. Southern India, River Kistna (Walter Elliot).

The specimen is very young, with very large narrow intercostal
spaces, showing that it grows to a considerable size. It is known
from all the other species by its sharp dentated margin. This cha-
racter may be obliterated in the adult specimens ; but I am not aware
that it occurs in any other young Batagur, and we have most of the
described species in a young state. The specimen here described was
procured from Mr. Warwick, the dealer, without any habitat. But
Dr. Ginther has shown me a drawing, which has been sent to him
by my excellent friend Mr. Walter Elliot, of Wolfelee, with the above
habitat attached to it, which is so like the specimen described as
almost to lead to the supposition that it was made from the same
individual. From the drawing we not only learn the habitat, but
also that the colour of the living animal is very like that of the dry
specimen,

76

MISCELLANEOUS,

Some Notes on Acclimatized Animals,

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c,

On my making some observations on the desirableness of obtaining
information with respect to the acclimatization of domestic animals
in different parts of the world, and especially in our distant colonies,
at the British Association Meeting at Cambridge, last year, the
Committee of the Natural-History Section recommended, and the
General Committee adopted the proposition, that a Committee should
be formed, consisting of Dr. Sclater, Mr. Alfred Newton, Mr. Wallace,
and myself, to report on the acclimatization of Domestic Quadrupeds
and Birds, and how they are affected by migration.

The following circular has been prepared by Mr. Wallace, and
adopted by the Committee, and is being extensively circulated, in the
hope of obtaining replies which will enable the Committee to form
their report on authentic information; and I can only say that I
shall be most happy to receive information on any of the points
which any of the readers of the ‘ Annals’ may have the kindness to
forward to me or to the other members of the Committee,

«Points oF INQUIRY TO WHICH THE ATTENTION OF PERSONS
RESIDENT IN EXTRA-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IS ESPECIALLY
REQUESTED.

«A .—As to Domesticated Animals which are also indigenous to the
Country.

**1, Ascertain what animals indigenous to the country are domes-
ticated in it.

«2, What external differences exist between the wild and domes-
ticated races ?

«3. Do the domesticated intermix with the wild animals?

«4, Can perfect domestication be produced in the wild individual ?
—if so, in what length of time, and through what means?

«<5. Do the offspring of the domesticated animals in any case show
a tendency to return to the wild state?

“<6. Where perfect domestication only takes place in the second
or future generations, state what particulars of the progress you can
ascertain.

‘«* B.— As to Domesticated Animals which have been introduced
from other Countries.

«©7, Give a list of the domesticated animals of this class in the
country.

“8. Ascertain, if possible, the date when any of these were first
introduced.

‘<9, State, in the case of each animal, whether fresh importations
are still frequently or occasionally occurring.

“10. State what external differences exist between any of these
animals and those of the same species in Europe.

a

Miscellaneous. 77

*©11. State what differences are observable in the nature of their
food, in their habits, their longevity, and their fecundity.

“12. State if any, and what, peculiar diseases occur; or, if any
diseases to which they are liable in Europe are absent.

** 13. State if crosses between European and native races are more
or less productive than when both parents are of native race ; and
state what differences are observable in the offspring in the two
cases.

“14, Observe what changes occur when domesticated animals
from other countries are first introduced ; and do these changes
occur in the individuals imported, or only in their offspring ?

* C.—Special Inquiries relating to the more common Domestic
Animals.

*©15. Sheep.—When sheep are introduced from another country,
does the quality of the wool change in the individual or in the pro-
geny ? what time is required to effect the change? Is any difference
perceptible in very young lambs? or at what age does it take place?
are they covered with wool or hair? does the altitude of the station
have any effect ?

“16. Horses.—Do introduced or native races of horses breed most
freely? are crosses between the two advantageous? do stripes or
bands on the back, legs, shoulders, or faces of horses ever occur?
and in all cases where such stripes occur, ascertain if the parentage
is pure or mixed.

‘17. Cattle.—Are there any truly native races of cattle in the
country? do they breed freely with foreign cattle? are the hybrid
offspring fertile, and capable of forming a hybrid race without any
second cross with either of the parent stocks ?

18. Dogs.—When wild dogs occur, is there any evidence to show
if they are truly indigenous species, or a race escaped from domes-
tication? do they intermix with domesticated races? and are the
offspring perfectly fertile?

“19. Ducks and Geese.—When an indigenous race of ducks or
geese is domesticated in the country, experiments of great value on
the phenomena of hybridity can be made. The point to be ascer-
tained is whether the cross between a pure native and pure foreign
breed produce offspring which are capable of propagating their kind
for several generations without any further intermixture with either of
the parent races. To carry out this experiment fairly, two persons
should co-operate, each breeding a number of hybrids and then ex-
changing their males, so as to avoid breeding too closely in-and-in.
This should be done at each successive generation, and the fertility and
character of the offspring accurately noted. Persons with facilities
for such experiments would confer a boon on natural science by
carrying them out with as many different races as possible. The
experiments need not be confined to ducks, though they offer many
advantages, from the ease with which they may be everywhere ob-
tained, and their greater propensity to cross than in the case of most
other animals.’ .

British Museum, June 21, 1863.

78 _ Miscellaneous.

Note on the Wombats living in the Gardens of the Zoological Society.
By Dr. P. L. Scuater.

Dr. Gray does not appear to have noticed that the Wombat de-
scribed by him in the last Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 458) as
Phascolomys Angasii had previously been named by Mr. Gould, in
his Introduction to the ‘Mammals of Australia,’ Phascolomys niger,
I may also remark that, one of the specimens of P. lasiorhinus
in the Gardens having died, I sent the skull to Mr. Flower, who
has kindly compared it with the typical skull in the collection of
the Royal College of Surgeons upon which Prof. Owen founded his
P.latifrons. Mr. Flower pronounces it quite distinct, and much more
nearly resembling that of the common P. ursinus. It would appear,
therefore, that we have yet to become acquainted with the external
form of P. latifrons, unless it shall turn out that P. niger, Gould, or
P. setosus of Dr. Gray (figured by Mr. Gould as P. latifrons) shall
prove to possess a skull with the peculiar characters pointed out by
Prof, Owen in his description of the skull of P. latifrons.

On the Functions of the Vessels of Plants.
By M. Gris.

After referring to the different opinions held by botanists regarding
the functions of the vessels, some maintaining that, although con-
taining only air at most seasons, they are filled with sap in the
‘spring, whilst others hold that, when once formed, they contain only
air, the author indicates a means of settling the question by the use
of Fehling’s solution. This liquid, which is used to determine the
presence of glucose, contains sulphate of copper, soda, and tartrates
‘of soda and potash; remains limpid when boiled alone; but if a
very small quantity of glucose be added to it, a red precipitate
of protoxide of copper is produced; and this, when examined
under the microscope, is seen to consist of small flakes of a deep
brown or almost black colour. If a few drops of sap be added
instead of glucose, the same precipitate of protoxide of copper is
observed.

On plunging for a few moments into the boiling solution thiek
fragments of the wood of the chestnut, beech, poplar, laburnum, &c.,
at the commencement of the spring, and cutting thin sections from
the heart of these fragments for examination with the microscope,
it will be seen that an abundant precipitate of protoxide of copper
clothes the inner face of the large vessels, so that their course
through the thickness of the woody layers is indicated even to the
naked eye, or with a simple lens, by very perceptible reddish
threads.

As the precipitate is generally very abundant in the cells of the
medullary rays, the author thinks we may conclude, from this expe-
riment, that the so-called lymphatic vessels (at all events in spring)
contain a sap of a nature closely analogous to, if not identical with,
that which is found in the cellular elements of these stems, and that

Miscellaneous, 79

the precipitate of protoxide of copper is probably caused in both
instances by the presence of glucose in the sap.

The author has extended his investigations to some herbaceous
plants, and proposes communicating his results to the Academy of
Sciences very shortly. He mentions as one of them, that the spiral
fibres of the reticulated, annular and spiro-annular, and other similar
vessels also present in their interior a red precipitate, formed of
small flakes, of a blackish-brown colour when observed under a high
power, and apparently identical with that mentioned above. This
fact appears to confirm the views of M. Trécu] on the structure of
these fibres.—Comptes Rendus, June 1, 1863, p. 1048.

The Mode of Development of the Marginal Tentacles in the free
Medusoids of some Hydroida. By A. AGasstiz.

M. Agassiz has investigated a point hitherto neglected in the deve-
lopment of the medusoids, namely, the mode of appearance of their
marginal tentacles. Each medusoid has really originally a limited
number of tentacles, which is subsequently increased by the succes-
sive appearance of several series of new tentacles. The series of
tentacles in these Acalephee may be compared to the cycles of septa
in the Zoantharian polypes; and, in fact, their order of appearance
coincides in certain cases with that of the visceral chambers of the
polypes, although the exceptions to this rule are very numerous.
It is also to be observed that in the Zoantharia the number of
chambers of the first cycle is almost always six. In the Acalephs
the number of tentacles of the first series is, on the contrary, ex-
tremely variable. For a great number of genera M. Agassiz has
drawn up formule showing the order of succession of the tentacles
of different series.

Certain Acalephs are singular, such as the medusoids of some
Tubularia. That of Corymorpha pendula, for example, has only a
single tentacle of the first series. The tentacles of the second series
are two in number, and placed at the extremities of a diameter per-
pendicular to that corresponding with the tentacle of the first series.
The third series consists of a single tentacle, opposite to that of the
first series—Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., August 1862; Bzdl.
Univ., 1863; Bull. Scient., p. 161.

On the Question whether Diatoms live on the Sea-bottom at great
Depths. By Wm. Stimpson, M.D.

In a paper on the Diatomaceze found in mud collected at great
depths from the bottom of the sea off the coast of Kamtschatka, in
soundings made by the North Pacific Expedition under Commander
Rodgers (Silliman’s Journal, ser. 2. vol. xxi. p. 284), the late
lamented Professor Bailey made the following remark :—“ The per-
fect condition of the organisms in these soundings, and the fact that
some of them retain their soft parts, indicate that they were very

80 iscellaneous.

recently in a living condition; but it does not follow that they were
living when collected/at such immense depths.’ My attention has
recently been called to this subject by the perusal of an account of
the recent discoveries of animal life in various forms at depths vastly
greater than had been previously suspected,—for instance, at 1400
fathoms by Torell, at 1000 and 1500 fathoms by Milne-Edwards,
and at 3000 fathoms by Dr. Wallich. The question of the nature
of the food of these abysmal animals is one of great interest; and I
wish to place on record, in advance of the publication of the Report
of the Expedition, the results of my examination of the specimens
alluded to by Prof. Bailey, when they were freshly taken from the
water.

n the sounding taken at the depth of 2700 fathoms, in lat. 56°
6’ N., long. 168° 18' E., Lieut. Brooke used, for the armature of
his lead, three quills, each about three inches in length, fastened to-
gether, and placed in such a position that, when the lead struck the
bottom, the quills would be forced perpendicularly into it, and thus
become filled with mud from a stratum a few inches below the general
surface of the sea-bottom. The experiment was successful, the quills
coming up compactly filled with mud of the usual character occurring
at such depths in such latitudes. One of the quills, having been
submitted to me for microscopic examination, was carefully wiped
and cut in two at the mzddle, in order to secure for examination a
specimen as nearly as possible free from any chance admixture from
the water near the surface. In this specimen I found an abundance
of Diatoms, some of which, apparently Coscinodisci, appeared to me
to be undoubtedly living, judging from their fresh appearance and
the colours of their internal cell-contents.

It is exceedingly doubtful whether sufficient light can penetrate
to so great a depth to afford the stimulus which these vegetable
organisms are supposed to require for their existence and multipli-
cation. On the other hand, it is by no means certain that some
amount of light does not so penetrate; and if we deny the existence
of vegetable life in these abysses, it will be difficult to account for
the existence there of animals which must ultimately derive their
sustenance from the vegetable kingdom. The supply which they
might obtain from the dead bodies of those organisms which die at
the surface, and slowly sink through two or three miles of water to
the bottom, seems totally insufficient; for Dr. Wallich has proved
that the animals (starfishes, for instance) not only exist at those
depths, but exist in great numbers. We would call the attention of
those who may have an opportunity of obtaining specimens of the
bottom at great depths, to the great importance of a microscopic
examination of these specimens as soon as taken from the sea.
Fresh water should, of course, be used in spreading the mud upon
the slide.—Stlliman’s Journal, May 1863.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. |

No. 68. AUGUST 1863.

VIII.—Species considered as to Variation, Geographical Distribu-
tion, and Succession. By Prof. Asa Gray*.

Ir is well known to botanists that M. DeCandolle has been
assiduously engaged in the elaboration of the order Cupuliferz
for the ‘Prodromus,’ and has had before him the authentic
types of almost every published species, and an amount of ma-
terials as to many of them which, so far as dried specimens may
serve, leaves little to be asked. A less inspiring task could
hardly be assigned to a botanist than the systematic elaboration
of the genus Quercus and its allies. The vast materials assem-
bled under DeCandolle’s hands, while disheartening for their
bulk, offered small hope of novelty. The subject was both ex-
tremely trite and extremely difficult. Happily, it occurred to
DeCandolle that an interest might be imparted to an onerous
undertaking, and a work of necessity be turned to good account
for science, by studying the Oaks in view of the question of
Species.

What this term Species means, or should mean, in natural
history, what the limits of species, inter se or chronologically,
or in geographical distribution, their modifications, actual or
probable, their origin, and their destiny,—these are questions
which surge up from time to time; and now and then, in the
progress of science, they come to assume a new and hopeful
interest. Botany and zoology, geology and what our author,
feeling the want of a new term, proposes to name Epiontologyt,

* From Silliman’s American Journal for May 1863.

+ A name which, at the close of his article, DeCandolle proposes for
the study of the succession of organized beings, to comprehend therefore
palzontology and all included under what is called geographical botany
and zoology, the whole forming a science parallel to geology,—the latter
devoted to the history of unorganized bodies, the former to that of or-

Ann, & Mag, N. Hist. Ser, 3. Vol. xii. 6

82 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

all lead up to and converge into this class of questions, while
recent theories shape and point the discussion. So we look with
eager interest to see what light the study of the Oaks, by a very
careful, experienced, and conservative botanist, particularly con-
versant with the geographical relations of plants, may throw
upon the subject.

The course of investigation in this instance does not differ
from that ordinarily pursued by working botanists ; nor, indeed,
are the theoretical conclusions other than those to which a similar
study of other orders might equally have led. The Oaks afford
a very good occasion for the discussion of questions which press
upon our attention, and perhaps they offer peculiarly good
materials, on account of the number of fossil species.

Preconceived notions about species being laid aside, the spe-
cimens in hand were distributed, according to their obvious re-
semblances, into groups of apparently identical or nearly iden-
tical forms, which were severally examined and compared.
Where specimens were few, as from countries little explored,
the work was easy, but the conclusions, as will be seen, of small
value. The fewer the materials, the smaller the likelihood of
forms intermediate between any two, and, what does not appear
being treated upon the old law-maxim as non-existent, species
are readily enough defined. Where, however, specimens abound,
as in the case of the Oaks of Europe, of the Orient, and of the
United States, of which the specimens amounted to hundreds,
collected at different ages, in varied localities, by botanists of all
sorts of views and predilections, here alone were data fit to
draw useful conclusions from. Here, as DeCandolle remarks,
he had every advantage, being furnished with materials more
complete than any one person could have procured from his
own herborizations, more varied than if he had observed a hun-
dred times over the same forms in the same district, and more
impartial than if they had all been amassed by one person with
his own ideas or predispositions. So that vast herbaria, into
which contributions from every source have flowed for years,
furnish the best possible data—at least are far better than any
practicable amount of personal herborization—for the compara-
tive study of related forms occurring over wide tracts of territory.
But as the materials increase, so do the difficulties. Forms which
appeared totally distinct approach or blend through intermediate
gradations ; characters stable in a limited number of instances,

ganized beings, as respects origin, distribution, and succession. We are
not satisfied with the word, notwithstanding the precedent of paleontology,

since ontology, the science of being, has an established meaning as referrmg
to mental existence, 7. e. is a synonym or a department of metaphysics.

ae

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 83

or in a limited district, prove unstable occasionally, or when
observed over a wider area; and the practical question is forced
upon the investigator, What here is probably fixed and specific,
and what is variant, pertaining to individual, variety, or race ?

In the examination of these rich materials, certain characters
were found to vary upon the same branch, or upon the same
tree, sometimes according to age or development, sometimes
irrespective of such relations or of any assignable reasons. Such
characters, of course, are not specific, although many of them
are such as would have been expected to be constant in the same
species, and are such as generally enter into specific definitions.
Variations of this sort. DeCandolle, with his usual painstaking,
classifies and tabulates, and even expresses numerically their
frequency in certain species. The results are brought well to
view in a systematic enumeration.
— (1.) Of characters which frequently vary upon the same branch :
upwards of a dozen such are mentioned.

(2.) Of those which sometimes vary upon the same branch: a
smaller number of these are mentioned.

(3.) Those so rare that they might be called monstrosities.

Then he enumerates characters, ten in number, which he has
never found to vary on the same branch, and which, therefore,
have better claim to be employed as specific. But, as among
them he includes the duration of the leaves, the size of the cu-
pule, and the form and size of its scales, which are by no means
wholly uniform in different trees of the same species, even these
characters must be taken with allowance. In fact, having first
brought together, as groups of the lowest order, those forms which
varied upon the same stock, he next had to combine similarly
various forms which, though not found associated upon the same
branch, were thoroughly blended by intermediate degrees.

‘The lower groups (varieties or races) being thus constituted, I
have given the rank of species to the groups next above these, which
differ in other respects, ¢7.e. either in characters which were not
found united upon certain individuals, or in those which do not show
transitions from one individual to another. For the Oaks of regions
sufficiently known, the species thus formed rest upon satisfactory
bases, of which the proof can be furnished. It is quite otherwise
with those which are represented in our herbaria by single or few
specimens. These are provisional species—species which may here-
after fall to the rank of simple varieties. I have not been inclined
to prejudge such questions ; indeed in this regard I am not disposed
to follow those authors whose tendency is, as they say, to reunite
species. I never reunite them without proof in each particular case ;
while the botanists to whom I refer do so on the ground of analogous
variations or transitions occurring in the same genus or in the same
family. For example, resting on the fact that Quercus Ilex, Q. cocci-

6*

84 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

fera, Q. acutifolia, &c. have the leaves sometimes entire and some-
times toothed, upon the same branch, or present transitions from one
tree to another, I might readily have united my Q. Tlapuxahuensis
to Q. Sartorii of Liebmann, since these two differ only in their entire
or their toothed leaves. From the fact that the length of the peduncle
varies in Q. robur and many other Oaks, I might have combined
Q. Seemanni, Liebm., with Q. salicifolia, Nees, I have not admitted
these inductions, but have demanded visible proof in each particular
case. Many species are thus left as provisional; but in proceeding
thus, the progress of the science will be more regular, and the syno-

nymy less dependent upon the caprice or the theoretical opinions of
each author.”

This is safe and, to a certain degree, judicious, no doubt, as
respects published species. Once admitted, they may stand
until they are put down by evidence, direct or circumstantial.
Surely a species may rightfully be condemned on good circum-
stantial evidence. But what course does DeCandolle pursue in
the case, of every-day occurrence to most working botanists
having to elaborate collections from countries not so well ex-
plored as Europe, when the forms in question, or one of the
two, are as yet unnamed? Does he introduce as a new species
every form which he cannot connect by ocular proof with a near
relative from which it differs only in particulars which he sees
are inconstant in better-known species of the same group? We
suppose not. But if so, little improvement for the future upon
the state of things revealed in the following paragraph can be
expected.

“In the actual state of our knowledge, after having seen nearly
all the original specimens, and in some species as many as 200
representatives from different localities, I estimate that, out of
the 300 species of Cupulifere which will be enumerated in the ‘ Pro-
dromus,’ two-thirds at least are provisional species. In general,
when we consider what a multitude of species were described from
a single specimen, or from the forms of a single locality, of a
single country, or are badly described, it is difficult to believe that
above one-third of the actual species in botanical works will remain
unchanged.”

Such being the results of the want of adequate knowledge,
how is it likely to be when our knowledge is largely increased ?
The judgment of so practised a botanist as DeCandolle is im-
portant in this regard ; and it accords with that of other botanists
of equal experience.

“They are mistaken,” he pointedly asserts, “‘ who repeat that
the greater part of our species are clearly limited, and that the
doubtful species are in a feeble minority. This seemed to be
true so long as a genus was imperfectly known, and its species

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 85

were founded upon few specimens—that is to say, were pro-
visional. Just as we come to know them better, intermediate
forms flow in, and doubts as to specific limits augment.”

DeCandolle insists, indeed, in this connexion, that the higher
the rank of the groups, the more definite their limitation, or, in
other terms, the fewer the ambiguous or doubtful forms,—that
genera are more strictly limited than species, tribes than genera,
orders than tribes, &c. We are not convinced of this. Often,
where it has appeared to be so, advancing discovery has brought
intermediate forms to lght, perplexing to the systematist.
“They are mistaken,” we think more than one systematic bota-
nist will say, “who repeat that the greater part of our natural
orders and tribes are absolutely limited,” however we may agree
that we will limit them. Provisional genera, we suppose, are
proportionally hardly less common than provisional species ; and
hundreds of genera are kept up on considerations of general
propriety or general convenience, although well known to shade
off into adjacent ones by complete gradations. Somewhat of
this greater fixity of higher groups, therefore, is rather apparent
than real. On the other hand, that varieties should be less
definite than species, follows from the very terms employed.
They are ranked as varieties rather than species, just because of
their less definiteness.

Singular as it may appear, we have heard it denied that spon-
taneous varieties occur. DeCandolle makes the important an-
nouncement that, in the Oak genus, the best-known species are
just those which present the greatest number of spontaneous
varieties and subvarieties. The maximum is found in Q. robur,
with twenty-eight varieties, all spontaneous. Of Q. Lusitanica
eleven varieties are enumerated, of Q. Calliprinos ten, of Q. cacci-
fera eight, &c. And he significantly adds that “these very
species which offer such numerous modifications are themselves
ordinarily surrounded by other forms provisionally called spe-
cies because of the absence of known transitions, or variations,
but to which some of these will probably have to be joined here-
after.” The inference is natural, if not mevitable, that the dif-
ference between such species and such varieties is only one of
degree, either as to amount of divergence or of hereditary fixity,
or as to the frequency or rarity, at the present time, of inter-
mediate forms.

This brings us to the second section of DeCandolle’s article,
in which he passes on, from the observation of the present
forms and affinities of Cupuliferous plants, to the consideration
of their probable history and origin. Suffice it to say that he
frankly accepts the inferences derived from the whole course of
observation, and even contemplates with satisfaction a probable

On Prof, A. Gray on Species considered as to

historical connexion between congeneric species. He accepts
and, by various considerations drawn from the geographical dis-
tribution of European Cupulifere, fortifies the conclusion (long
ago arrived at by Edward Forbes) that the present species, and
even some of their varieties, date back to about the close of the
Tertiary epoch, since which time they have been subject to fre-
quent and great changes of habitation or limitation, but without
appreciable change of specific form or character,—that is, with-
out profounder changes than those within which a species, at
the present time, is known to vary. Moreover he is careful to
state that he is far from concluding that the time of the appear-
ance of a species in Europe at all indicates the time of its origin.
Looking back still further into the Tertiary epoch, of which the
vegetable remains indicate many analogous, but few, if any,
identical forms, he concludes, with Heer and others, that specific
changes of form, as well as changes of station, are to be pre-
sumed. And finally, that “the theory of a succession of forms
through the deviation of anterior forms is the most natural
hypothesis, and the most accordant with the known facts in
paleontology, geographical botany, and zoology, of anatomical
structure and classification; but direct proof of it is wanting;
and moreover, if true, it must have taken place very slowly—so
slowly, indeed, that its effects are discernible only after a lapse
of time far longer than our historic epoch.”

In contemplating the present state of the species of Cupulifere
in Europe, DeCandolle comes to the conclusion that, while the
Beech is increasing, and extending its limits southward and
westward (at the expense of Conifere and Birches), the common
Oak, to some extent, and the Turkey Oak decidedly, are dimin-
ishing and retreating,—and this wholly wrespective of man’s
agency. This is inferred of the Turkey Oak from the great gaps
found in its present geographical area, which are otherwise in-
explicable, and which he regards as plain indications of a partial
extinction. Community of descent of all the individuals of spe-
cies is of course implied in these and all similar reasonings.

An obvious result of such partial extinction is clearly enough
brought to view. The European Oaks (like the American spe-
cies) greatly tend to vary; that is, they manifest an active dis-
position to produce new forms. Every form tends to become
hereditary, and so to pass from the state of mere variation to
that of race ; and of these competing incipient races some only
will survive. Quercus robur offers a familiar illustration of the
manner in which one form may, in the course of time, become
separated into two or more distinct ones.

To Linneus this Common Oak of Europe was all of one spe-
cies. But of late years the greater number of European botanists

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 87

have regarded it as including three species, Q. pedunculata, Q.
sessiliflora, and Q. pubescens. DeCandolle looks with satisfaction
to the independent conclusion which he reached from a long
and patient study of the forms (and which Webb, Gay, Bentham,
and others had equally reached), that the view of Linnzus was
correct, inasmuch as it goes to show that the idea and the prac-
tical application of the term species have remained unchanged
during the century which has elapsed since the publication of
the ‘Species Plantarum.’ But, the idea remaining unchanged,
the facts might appear under a different aspect, and the conclu-
sion be different, under a slight and very supposable change of
circumstances. Of the twenty-eight spontaneous varieties of
Q. robur which DeCandolle recognizes, all but six, he remarks,
fall naturally under the three subspecies, pedunculata, sessiliflora,
and pubescens, and are therefore forms grouped around these as
centres; and, moreover, the few connecting forms are by no
means the most common. Were these to die out, it is clear that
the three forms which have already been so frequently taken for
species would be what the group of four or five provisionally
admitted species which closely surround Q. robur (see p. 85)
now are. The best example of such a case, as having in all
probability occurred through geographical segregation and par-
tial extinction, is that of the Cedar, thus separated into the
Deodar, the Lebanon, and the Atlantic Cedars—a case admirably
worked out by Dr. Hooker two or three years ago*.

A special advantage of the Cupulifere for determining the
probable antiquity of existing species in Europe, DeCandolle
finds in the size and character of their fruits. However it may
be with other plants (and he comes to the conclusion generally
that marine currents and all other means of distant transport
have played only a very small part in the actual dispersion of
species), the transport of acorns and chestnuts by natural causes
across an arm of the sea, in a condition to germinate (and much
more the spontaneous establishment of a forest of oaks or
chestnuts in this way), DeCandolle conceives to be fairly impos-
sible in itself, and contrary to all experience. From such con-
siderations, 7. e. from the actual dispersion of the existing spe-
cies, with occasional aid from Post-tertiary deposits, it is thought
to be shown that the principal Cupulifere of the Old World at-
tained their actual extension before the present separation of
Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, or of Britain, from the European
continent.

This view once adopted, and this course once entered upon,
has to be pursued further. Quercus robur of Europe, with its

* Nat. Hist. Review, January 1862; see Sillimann’s Journal, ser. 2.
vol. xxiv. p. 148.

=, Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

bevy of admitted derivatives, and its attending species only pro-
visionally admitted to that rank, is very closely related to certain
species of Hastern Asia, and of Oregon and California—so closely
that “a view of the specimens by no means forbids the idea that
they have all originated from Q. robur, or have originated, with
the latter, from one or more preceding forms so like the present
ones that a naturalist could hardly know whether to call them
species or varieties.” Moreover there are fossil leaves from
diluvian deposits in Italy, figured by Gaudin, which are hardly
distinguishable from those of Q. robur, on the one hand, and
from those of Q. Douglasii, &c., of California, on the other. No
such leaves are found in any Tertiary deposit in Europe ; but
such are found of that age, it appears, in North-west America,
where their remote descendants still flourish. So that the pro-
bable genealogy of Q. robur, traceable in Europe up to the
commencement of the present epoch, looks eastward and far
into the past on far distant shores.

Q. Ilex, the Evergreen Oak of Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, reveals a similar archeology ; but its presence in Algeria
leads DeCandolle to regard it as a much more ancient denizen
of Europe than Q. robur; and a Tertiary Oak (Q. dlicoides),
from a very old Miocene bed in Switzerland, is thought to be
one of its ancestral forms. This high antiquity once established,
it follows, almost of course, that the very nearly related species
in Central Asia, in Japan, in California, and even our own Live
Oak with its Mexican relatives, may probably enough be regarded
as early offshoots from the same stock with Q. Ilex.

In brief, not to continue these abstracts and remarks, and
without reference to Darwin’s particular theory (which DeCan-
dolle at the close very fairly considers), if existing species, or
many of them, are as ancient as they are now generally thought
to be, and were subject to the physical and geographical changes
(among them the coming and the going of the Glacial epoch)
which this antiquity implies—if in former times they were
as liable to variation as they now are—and if the individuals of
the same species may claim a common local origin, then we can-
not wonder that “the theory of a succession of forms by devia-
tions from anterior forms”? should be regarded as “the most
natural hypothesis,” nor at the general advance made towards
its acceptance in some form or other.

The question being, not how plants and animals originated,
but how came the existing animals and plants to be just where
they are and what they are, it is plain that naturalists interested
in such inquiries are mostly looking for the answer in one direc-
tion. The general drift of opinion, or at least of expectation, is
exemplified by this essay of DeCandolle; and the set and force

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession, 89

of the current are seen by noticing how it carries along natu-
ralists of widely different views and prepossessions, some faster
and further than others, but all in one way. The tendency is,
we may say, to extend the law of continuity, or something ana-
logous to it, from inorganic to organic nature, and in the latter
to connect the present with the past in some sort of material
connexion. ‘The generalization may, indeed, be expressed so as
not to assert that the connexion is genetic, as in Mr. Wallace’s
formula: “Every species has come into existence coincident
both in time and space with preexisting closely allied species.”
Edward Forbes, who may be called the originator of this whole
line of inquiry, long ago expressed a similar view. But the only
material sequence we know, or can clearly conceive, in plants and
animals is that from parent to progeny ; and, as DeCandolle im-
- plies, the origin of species and that of races can hardly be much
unlike, nor governed by other than the same laws, whatever
these may be.

The progress of opinion upon this subject in one generation
is not badly represented by that of DeCandolle himself, who is
by no means prone to adopt new views without much considera-
tion. In an elementary treatise, published in the year 1835, he
adopted and, if we rightly remember, vigorously maintained,
Schouw’s idea of the double or multiple origin of species, at
least of some species—a view which has been carried out to its
ultimate development only perhaps by Agassiz, in the denial of
any necessary genetic connexion among the individuals of the
same species, or of any original localization more restricted than
the area now occupied by the species. But in 1855, in his ‘ Géo-
graphie Botanique,’ the multiple hypothesis, although i in prin-
ciple not abandoned, is seen to lose its point, in view of the
probable high antiquity of existing species. The actual vegeta-
tion of the world being now regarded as a continuation, through
numerous geological, geographical, and more recently historical
changes, of anterior vegetations, the actual distribution of plants
is seen to be a consequence of preceding conditions and geo-
logical considerations; and these alone may be expected to ex-
plain all the facts, many of them so curious and extraordinary,
of the actual geographical distribution of the species. In the
present essay, not only the distribution, but the origin, of con-
generic species is regarded as something derivative: whether
derived by slow and very gradual changes in the course of ages,
according to Darwin, or by a sudden inexplicable change of their
Tertiary ianitcatore as conceived by Heer, DeCandolle hazards
no opinion. It may, however, be inferred that he looks upon
“natural selection” (which he rather underrates) as a real but
insufficient cause ; while some curious remarks (pp. 57, 58) upon

90 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

the number of monstrosities annually produced, and the possi-
bility of their enduring, may be regarded as favourable to Heer’s
ylew.

As an index to the progress of opinion in the direction referred
to, it will be interesting to compare Sir Charles Lyell’s well-
known chapters of twenty or thirty years ago, in which the per-
manence of species was ably maintained, with his treatment of
the same subject in a work just issued in England, which, how-
ever, has not yet reached us.

A belief in the derivation of species may be maintained along
with a conviction of great persistence of specific characters.
This is the idea of the excellent Swiss vegetable palzontologist,
Heer, who imagines a sudden change of specific type at certain
periods ; and it perhaps is that of Pictet. Falconer adheres to
somewhat similar views in his elaborate paper on Elephants, -
living and fossil, in the ‘ Natural History Review’ for January
1863. Noting that “ there is clear evidence of the true Mammoth
having existed in America long after the period of the northern
drift, when the surface of the country had settled down into its
present form,” and also in Europe so late as to have been a
cotemporary of the Irish Elk, and, on the other hand, that it
existed in England so far back as before the deposition of the
Boulder Clay, also that four well-defined species of fossil Ele-
phant are known to have existed in Europe, that “a vast num-
ber of the remains of three of these species have been exhumed
over a large area in Europe, and, even in the geological sense,
an enormous interval of time has elapsed between the formation
of the most ancient and the most recent of these deposits, quite
sufficient to test the persistence of specific characters in an Ele-
phant,” he presents the question, “Do, then, the successive
Elephants occurring in these strata show any signs of a passage
from the older form into the newer ?”

To which the reply is, “If there is one fact which is impressed
on the conviction of the observer with more force than any
other, it is the persistence and uniformity of the characters of
the molar teeth in the earliest known Mammoth and his most
modern successor......Assuming the observation to be correct,
what strong proof does it not afford of the persistence and con-
stancy, throughout vast intervals of time, of the distinctive cha-
racters of those organs which are most concerned in the existence
and habits of the species? If we cast a glance back on the long
vista of physical changes which our planet has undergone since
the Neozoic epoch, we can nowhere detect signs of a revolution
more sudden and pronounced, or more important in its results,
than the intercalation and sudden disappearance of the glacial
period, Yet the ‘ dicyclotherian’ Mammoth lived before it, and

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 91

passed through the ordeal of all the hard extremities it involved,
bearing his organs of locomotion and digestion all but unchanged.
Taking the group of four European fossil species above enume-
rated, do they show any signs in the successive deposits of a
transition from the one form into the other? Here, again, the
result of my observation, in so far as it has extended over the
European area, is, that the specific characters of the molars are
constant in each, within a moderate range of variation, and that
we nowhere meet with intermediate forms.”......Dr, Falconer
continues (p. 80) :—

_ “The inferences which I draw from these facts are not opposed
to one of the leading propositions of Darwin’s theory. With him, I
have no faith in the opinion that the Mammoth and other extinct
Elephants made their appearance suddenly, after the type in which
their fossil remains are presented to us. The most rational view seems
to be, that they are in some shape the modified descendants of earlier
progenitors. But if the asserted facts be correct, they seem clearly
to indicate that the older Elephants of Europe, such as Z. meridionalis
and F. antiquus, were not the stocks from which the later species,
E. primigenius and E. africanus, sprang, and that we must look
elsewhere for their origin. The nearest affinity, and that a very
close one, of the European F. meridionalis is with the Miocene EF.
planifrons of India, and of EF. primigenius with the existing Indian
species,

*« Another reflection is equally strong in my mind—that the means
which have been adduced to explain the origin of species by ‘ natural
selection,’ or a process of variation from external influences, are
inadequate to account for the phenomena. The law of phyllotaxis,
which governs the evolution of leaves around the axis of a plant, is
as nearly constant in its manifestation as any of the physical laws
connected with the material world. Each instance, however dif-
ferent from another, can be shown to be a term of some series of
continued fractions. When this is coupled with the geometrical law
governing the evolution of form, so manifest in some departments of
the animal kingdom (e. g. the spiral shells of the Mollusca), it is
difficult to believe that there is not in nature a deeper-seated and
innate principle, to the operation of which natural selection is
merely an adjunct. The whole range of the Mammalia, fossil and
recent, cannot furnish a species which has had a wider geographical
distribution, and passed through a longer term of time, and through
more extreme changes of climatal conditions, than the Mammoth,
If species are so unstable, and so susceptible of mutation through
such influences, why does that extinct form stand out so signally a
monument of stability? By his admirable researches and earnest
writings, Darwin has, beyond all his cotemporaries, given an impulse
to the philosophical investigation of the most backward and obscure
branch of the biological sciences of his day: he has laid the founda-
tions of a great edifice ; but he need not be surprised if, in the pro-

92 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

gress of erection, the superstructure is altered by his successors, like
the Duomo of Milan from the Roman to a different style of archi-
tecture.”

Entertaining ourselves the opinion that something more than
natural selection is requisite to account for the orderly produc-
tion and succession of species, we offer two incidental remarks
upon the above extract.

First, we find in it, in the phrase “natural selection, or a
process of variation from external influences,” an example of
the very common confusion of two distinct things, viz. variation
and natural selection. The former has never yet been shown to
have its cause in “ external influences,” nor to occur at random.
As we have elsewhere insisted, if not inexplicable, it has never
been explained: all we can yet say is, that plants and animals
are prone to vary, and that some conditions favour variation,
Perhaps in this Dr. Falconer may yet find what he seeks: for
“it is difficult to believe that there is not in [its] nature a
deeper-seated and innate principle, to the operation of which
natural selection is merely an adjunct.” The latter, which is
the ensemble of the external influences, including the competi-
tion of the individuals themselves, picks out certain variations
as they arise, but in no proper sense can be said to originate
them.

Secondly, although we are not quite sure how Dr. Falconer
intends to apply the law of phyllotaxis to illustrate his idea, we
fancy that a pertinent illustration may be drawn from it in this
way. ‘There are two species of phyllotaxis, perfectly distinct,
and, we suppose, not mathematically reducible the one to the
other,—viz. (1), that of alternate leaves, with its varieties; and
(2) that of verticillate leaves, of which opposite leaves present
the simplest case. That, although generally constant, a change
from one variety of alternate phyllotaxis to another should occur
on the same axis, or on successive axes, is not surprising, the
different sorts being terms of a regular series—although, in-
deed, we have not the least idea as to how the change from the
one to the other comes to pass. But it is interesting, and in
this connexion perhaps instructive, to remark that, while some
dicotyledonous plants hold to the verticillate (7.e. opposite-
leaved) phyllotaxis throughout, a larger number (through the
operation of some deep-seated and innate principle, which we
cannot fathom) change abruptly into the other species at the
second or third node, and change back again in the flower, or
else effect a synthesis of the two species in a manner which is
puzzling to understand. Here is a change from one fixed law
to another, as unaccountable, if not as great, as from one specific
form to another.

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 93

An elaborate paper on the vegetation of the Tertiary period,
in the south-east of France, by Count Gaston de Saporta, pub-
lished in the ‘Ann. Sc. Nat.’ in 1862 (vol. xvi. pp. 8309-344)
which we have not space to analyse, is worthy of attention from
the general inquirer, on account of its analysis of the Tertiary
flora into its separate types—Cretaceous, Austral, Tropical, and
Boreal—each of which has its separate and different history ;
and for the announcement that “the hiatus which, in the idea
of most geologists, intervened between the close of the Creta-
ceous and the beginning of the Tertiary appears to have had
no existence, so far as concerns the vegetation ; that in general
it was not by means of a total overthrow, followed by a complete
new emission of species, that the flora has been renewed at each
successive period ; and that while the plants of Southern Europe
inherited from the Cretaceous period more or less rapidly dis-
appeared, as also the austral forms, and later the tropical types
(except the Laurel, the Myrtle, and the Chamerops humilis), the
boreal types, coming later, survived all the others, and now
compose, either in Europe, or in the north of Asia, or in North
America, the basis of the actual arborescent vegetation. Espe-
cially “a very considerable number of forms nearly identical
with Tertiary forms now exist in America, where they have
found, more easily than in our [European] soil (less vast and
less extended southward), refuge from ulterior revolutions.”
The extinction of species is attributed to two kinds of causes—
the one material or physical, whether slow or rapid, the other
inherent in the nature of organic beings, incessant, but slow, in
a manner latent, but somehow, assigning to the species, as to the
individuals, a limited period of existence, and, in some equally
mysterious but wholly natural way, connected with the develop-
ment of organic types—“by type meaning a collection of
vegetable forms constructed upon the same plan of organization,
of which they reproduce the essential lineaments with certain
secondary modifications, and which appear to run back to a
common point of departure.”

In this community of types, no less than in the community
of certain existing species, Saporta recognizes a prolonged ma-
terial union between North America and Europe in former times.
Most naturalists and geologists reason in the same way, some
more cautiously than others; yet perhaps most of them seem
not to perceive how far such inferences imply the doctrine of the
common origin of related species.

For obvious reasons such doctrines are likely to find more
favour with botanists than with zoologists. But with both the
advance in this direction is seen to have been rapid and great,
yet to us not unexpected. We note also an evident disposition,

94 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

notwithstanding some endeavours to the contrary, to allow de-
rivative hypotheses to stand or fall upon their own merits, to
have, indeed, upon philosophical grounds, certain presumptions
in their favour, and to be, perhaps, quite as capable of being
turned to good account as to bad account in natural theo-
logy *.

Among the leading naturalists, indeed, such views, taken in
the widest sense, have one (and, so far as we are now aware, only
one) thoroughgoing and thoroughly consistent opponent, viz.
M. Agassiz.

Most naturalists take into their very conception of a species,
explicitly or by implication, the notion of a material connexion
resulting from the descent of the individuals composing it from
a common stock, of local origin. M. Agassiz wholly eliminates
community of descent from his idea of species, and even con-
ceives a species to have been as numerous in individuals and as
widespread over space, or. as segregated in discontinuous spaces,
from the first as at a later period.

The station which it inhabits, therefore, is with other natu-
ralists in nowise essential to the species, and may not have been
the region of its origin. In M. Agassiz’s view the habitat is
supposed to mark the origin, and to be a part of the character,
of the species. The habitat is not merely the place where it is,
but a part of what it is.

Most naturalists recognize varieties of species; and many,
like DeCandolle, have come to conclude that varieties of the
highest grade, or races, so far partake of the characteristics of
species, and are so far governed by the same laws, that it is often
very difficult to draw a clear and certain distinction between the
two. M. Agassiz will not allow that varieties or races exist in
nature, apart from man’s agency.

Most naturalists believe that the origin of species is super-
natural, their dispersion or particular geographical area natural,
and their extinction, when they disappear, also the result of
physical causes. In the view of M. Agassiz, if rightly under-

. * What the Rev. Principal Tulloch remarks in respect to the philosophy
of miracles has a pertinent application here. We quote at secondhand :—

“The stoutest advocates of interference can mean nothing more than
that the Supreme Will has so moved the hidden springs of nature that a
new issue arises on given circumstances. The ordinary issue is supplanted
by a higher issue. The essential facts before us are a certain set of phe-
nomena, and a Higher Will moving them, How moving them? is a ques-
tion for human definition, the answer to which does not and cannot affect
the divine meaning of the change. Yet when we reflect that this Higher
Will is everywhere reason and wisdom, it seems a juster as well as a more
comprehensive view to regard it as operating by subordination and eyolu-
tion, rather than by interference or violation.”

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 95

stood, all three are equally independent of physical cause and
effect, are equally supernatural.

In comparing preceding periods with the present and with
each other, most naturalists and paleontologists now appear to
recognize a certain number of species as having survived from
one epoch to the next, or even through more than one formation,
especially from the Tertiary into the Posttertiary period, and
from that to the present age. M. Agassiz is understood to be-
lieve in total extinctions and total new creations at each succes-
sive epoch, and even to recognize no existing species as ever co-
temporary with extinct ones, except in the case of recent exter-
minations. .

These peculiar views, if sustained, will effectually dispose of
every form of derivative hypothesis.

Returning for a moment to DeCandolle’s article, we are dis-
posed to notice his criticism of Linneus’s “ definition” of the
term species (Phil. Bot. No. 157), “ Species tot numeramus quot
diversee forme in principio sunt create,” which he declares illo-
gical, inapplicable, and the worst that has been propounded.
So, to determine if a form is specific, it is necessary to go back
to its origin, which is impossible. A definition by a character
which can never be verified is no definition at all.”

Now, as Linneus practically applied the idea of species with
a sagacity which has never been surpassed and rarely equalled,
and, indeed, may be said to have fixed its received meaning in
natural history, it may well be inferred that in the phrase above
cited he did not sc much undertake to frame a logical definition
as to set forth the idea which, in his opinion, lay at the founda-
tion of species, on which basis A. L. Jussieu did construct a
logical definition : “ nunc rectius definitur perennis individuorum
similium successio continuata generatione renascentium.” The
fundamental idea of species, we would still maintain, is that of
a chain, of which genetically connected individuals are the links.
That, in the practical recognition of species, the essential cha-
racteristic has to be inferred, is no great objection, the general
fact that like engenders like being an induction from a vast
number of instances, and the only assumption being that of the
uniformity of nature. The idea of gravitation, that of the ato-
mic constitution of matter, and the like, equally have to be veri-
fied inferentially. If we still hold to the idea of Linnzus, and
of Agassiz, that existing species were created independently and
essentially all at once at the heginning of the present era, we
could not improve the propositions of Linnzus and of Jussieu.
If, on the other hand, the time has come in which we may accept,
with DeCandolle, their successive origination, at the commence-
ment of the present era or before, and even by derivation from

96 Prof. A. Gray on Species considered as to

other forms, then the “in principio” of Linneus will refer to
that time, whenever it was, and his proposition be as sound and
wise as ever.

In his ‘Géographie Botanique’ (ii. 1068-1077) DeCandolle
discusses.this subject at length, and in the same interest. Re-
marking that of the two great facts of species, viz. likeness among
the individuals and genealogical connexion, zoologists have geue-
rally preferred the latter*, while botanists have been divided in
opinion, he pronounces for the former as the essential thing, in
the following argumentative statement :—

*Quant 4 moi, j’ai été conduit, dans ma définition de l’espéce, a
mettre décidément la ressemblance au-dessus des caractéres de suc-
cession. Ce n’est pas seulement & cause des circonstances propres
au régne végétal, dont je m’occupe exclusivement ; ce n’est pas non
plus afin de sortir ma définition des théories et de la rendre le plus
possible utile aux naturalistes descripteurs et nomenclateurs, c’est
aussi par un motif philosophique. En toute chose il faut aller au
fond des questions, quand on le peut. Or, pourquoi la reproduction
est-elle possible, habituelle, féconde indéfiniment, entre des étres
organisés que nous dirons de la méme espéce? Parce quils se res-
semblent et uniquement a cause de cela. Lorsque deux espéces ne
peuvent, ou, s’il s’agit d’animaux supérieurs, ne peuvent et ne veu-
lent se croiser, c’est qu’elles sont trés-différentes. Si l’on obtient
des croisements, c’est que les individus sont analogues ; si ces croise-
ments donnent des produits féconds, c’est que les individus étaient
plus analogues; si ces produits eux-mémes sont féconds, c’est que la
ressemblance ¢tait plus grande; s’ils sont féconds habituellement et
indéfiniment, c’est que la ressemblance intérieure et extérieure était
trés-grande. Ainsi le degré de ressemblance est le fond; la repro-
duction en est seulement la manifestation et la mesure, et il est
logique de placer la cause au-dessus de l’effet.”’

We are not at all convinced. We still hold that genealogical
connexion, rather than mutual resemblance, is the fundamental
thing—first on the ground of fact, and then from the philosophy
of the case. Practically, no botanist can say what amount of
dissimilarity is compatible with unity of species; in wild plants
it is sometimes very great, in cultivated races often enormous.
DeCandolle himself informs us that the different variations which
the same oak-tree exhibits are significant indications of a dispo-
sition to set up separate varieties, which, becoming hereditary,
may constitute a race; he evidently looks upon the extreme
forms, say of Quercus robur, as having thus originated; and on
this ground (inferred from transitional forms), and not from their

* Particularly citing Flourens: ‘ La ressemblance n’est qu’une condition
secondaire ; la condition essentielle est la descendance: ce n’est pas la
ressemblance, c’est la succession des individus, qui fait l’espéce.”

Variation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession. 97

mutual resemblance, as we suppose, he includes them in that
species. This will be more apparent should the discovery of the
transitions which he leads us to expect hereafter cause the four
provisional species which attend Q. robur to be merged in that
species. It may rightly be replied, that this conclusion would
be arrived at from the likeness step by step in the series of
forms; but the cause of the likeness here is obvious. And this
brings in our “ motif philosophique.”

Not to insist that the likeness is, after all, the variable, not
the constant element,—to learn which is the essential thing
(resemblance among the individuals, or their genetic connexion),
we have only to ask which can be the cause of the other.

In hermaphrodite plants (the normal case), and even as the
question is ingeniously put by DeCandolle in the above extract,
the former surely cannot be the cause of the latter, though it
may, in case of crossing, offer occasion. But, on the ground
of the most fundamental of all things in the constitution of
plants and animals, the fact, incapable of further analysis,
that individuals reproduce their like, that characteristics are
inheritable*, the likeness is a direct natural consequence of the
genetic succession ; and it is logical to place the cause above the
effect.

We are equally disposed to combat a proposition of DeCan-
dolle’s about genera, elaborately argued in the ‘ Géographie
Botanique,’ and incidentally reaffirmed in his present article,
viz. that genera are more natural than species, and are more
correctly distinguished by people in general, as is shown by
vernacular names. But we have no space left in which to pre-
sent some evidence to the contrary.

Here we must abruptly close our long exposition of a paper
which, from the scientific position, ability, and impartiality of
its author, is likely at this time to produce a marked impression.
We would also direct attention to an earlier article in the same
important periodical (viz. in the Bibl. Univ. for May 1862), on
the European Flora and the Configuration of Continents in the
Tertiary Epoch, a most interesting abstract of, and commentary
on, the introductory part of Heer’s ‘Flora Tertiaria Helvetiz,’
as re-edited and translated into French by Gaudin, with additions
by the author.

* See Silliman’s Journal, ser. 2. vol. xxix. (March 1860) p. 165, for the
enunciation of this obvious principle.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xii. 7

98 Dr.J.E. Gray on Species of Chelymys from Australia.

IX.—On the Species of Chelymys from Australia, with the De-
scription of a new Species. By Dr. J. KE. Gray, F.R.S.

In establishing this genus, the only species then known had a
distinct nuchal plate, and the existence of this plate is made part
of the generic character. We have since received two specimens
of the shell of a Tortoise, without the animals, which has all the
other characters and appearance of the genus, but is destitute of
the nuchal shield; so I am inclined to amend the generic cha-
racters by leaving out this particular, and to use the presence
or non-existence of the nuchal shield as a sectional or specific
character; and we have received other specimens of the species
with the nuchal shield, which have further illustrated the spe-
cies, and show that this shield is always present in it.
The species will then stand thus :—

* Nuchal shield broad and well developed ; hinder margin entire.
1. Chelymys Macquaria, Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles, 57.

This animal presents two varieties, differing in the height of
the back and the width of the hinder marginal shields. Speci-
mens brought by the same collectors, probably from the same
locality, offer considerable variation in this respect, and appear
to form a series of gradations from one variety to the other.
The higher and more solid specimens are of the smallest size ;
but we have very depressed broad margins in the young speci-
mens as well as the more adult ones, the latter being twice the
size.

The solid, higher varieties may be only of different sexes, or
they may even prove to be species when more is known of their
habitation and habits; indeed I should be inclined to consider
them so now if we had not received both varieties from Capt.
W. Chambers and Mr. Cuming as coming from the same locality.

They vary considerably in the form of the gular shield: in
the small, solid, high-shelled variety it is broad and short; in
some of the older of the larger depressed specimens it is equally
short and broad; in the younger depressed specimens it is nar-
row, linear elongate.

** Nuchal shield none ; hinder margin dentated.
2. Chelymys dentata.

Shell ovate, wider behind ; hinder margin dentated ; side edge
revolute. Nuchal shield none. Back with a slight nodule at
the hinder part of the vertebral shields. The first vertebral
shield broader than long, the rest longer than broad; the fourth
the longest, rather urn-shaped, the margin shelving.

Younger shell: back slightly keeled; the margin more ex-

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Species of Pelomedusa. 99

panded, nearly horizontal ; the vertebral plates broader than
long, the fourth the largest, with five even sides.

Hab. N. Australia; Upper Victoria, in Beagle’s Valley. (Mr.
Macgillivray.)

“Native name, ‘Billymurry.’? It was caught with grass-
hoppers, and the stomach contained Pandanus-seeds.”

The gular shield in both the specimens is narrow, elongate,
extending down between the front edge of the second pair of
sternal shields.

This species is at once known from the former by the form of
the nodulose keel on the vertebral plates, and by the dentated
hinder margin, as well as by the absence of the nuchal shield.

X.—WNotice of a new Species of Pelomedusa from Natal.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Hiruerto there have been only two species of Pelomedusa re-
corded—one from the Cape of Good Hope, which has been
long known, and the other from Abyssinia, where it was dis-
covered by Dr. Edward Riippell; and they are so distinct from
one another in the form of the ventral shield that each has been
considered the type of a distinct subgenus, viz. Pentonya and
Pelomedusa. The British Museum received from Mr. Sargeant,
the Commissioner for Natal im the International Exhibition,
two specimens of the genus from Natal. They belong to the
same subgenus, and are very like the species from the Cape;
yet they seem to offer characters which mark them as distinct
species, or at least very distinct local varieties.

In the Cape species, or Pelomedusa subrufa, the head is wode-
rate (but they seem to vary in its size, perhaps in the two
sexes), and there are only a few small scales between the hinder
outer edge of the crown-shield and the upper edge of the temple-
shield, and the front one of these scales is over the middle of
the temple-shield.

In the Natal species, which may be called Pelomedusa nigra,
the head is larger and more depressed, and there are several
scales between the outer hinder edge of the crown-shield and
the temple-shield; and the front scale of the series is narrow,
and in the front part of the suture near the orbit which separates
these two shields.

When I published the ‘Catalogue of the Shield Reptiles,’
(1855, p. 53), I separated a specimen which I had obtained
from Mr. Warwick, as a variety of P. subrufa, thus: “ Black,
grey-spotted; shields all with close, rather granular, radiating

ridges and concentric grooves; areola small.” [ am now in-
: ke
7

100 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

formed that this specimen came from Natal; and in the above
character it agrees with the two specimens received from Mr.
Sargeant; while in all the specimens of P. sudrufa which I have
seen, the shell is more or less rufous brown, often very pale, and
the shields are smooth, with only a few distant concentric narrow
lines, or they are all over smooth, as if worn and polished.

The three Natal specimens agree also in the under side of the
margin being black, with triangular white portions on the inner
hinder edge of each shield, and the sternum is black or blackish
brown. From this distribution of the colours, I believe that
the “‘ Pentonyx du Cap,” figured by M. Auguste ‘Duméril in the
‘ Archives du Muséum,’ is this species.

I have no doubt of these being distinct species, not only on
account of their colour, but also on account of the difference in
the scales on the crown, which is very similar to the difference
that separates the Natal from the Madagascar Sternotherus.

X1.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.
CoxrrorTera : Lonercornes. By H. W. Barss, Esq.

[Continued from vol. ix. p. 458. ]
Subtribe AcANTHOCINITA.
Group Lagocheirine.
Genus Lacocuerrvs (De}. Cat.), Thomson.
Thomson, Classif. des Cérambye. p. 9.

Body of large size, broad, oblong, slightly convex. Antenne
stout, half as long again as the body, and of nearly equal length
in both sexes; the sixth joint in the males having a tubercle
beneath its apex, surmounted by a pencil of stiff hairs; the
basal joint is as long as the third, gradually thickened from the
base, and in both sexes toothed beneath at the apex. Thorax
obtusely tuberculated on its disk, and with large conical lateral
tubercles. Elytra very broad at the shoulders, gradually and
slightly tapering to the apex, which latter is briefly truncated.
Thighs abruptly clavate ; basal joint of the tarsi not much longer
than the second.

The females have not elongated ovipositors and sheaths; the
terminal abdominal segments, however, are much longer in the
females than in the males. In one of the two species which I
have examined (L. araneiformis) both the ventral and dorsal
segments have their apical edges excised, whilst in the other (L.
fasciculatus) they are entire. The males have their anterior tarsi
ciliated.

of the Amazon Valley. 101

1. Lagocheirus araneiformis, Linneus.

ace araneiformis, Linn. Syst. Nat. ii. p. 625; Drury, Illustr. ii.

t. 35. f. 4.

Acanthoderes araneiformis, Serv. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. p. 30.

L. oblongus, postice modice attenuatus: thoracis tuberculis laterali-
bus acutis: elytris nigro fasciculatis, olivaceo-griseis, macula
magna laterali triangulari fusco-nigra lineisque transversis pallidis
ornatis: tarsis articulis duobus basalibus griseis, duobus apicalibus
nigris nitidis. Long. 7-11 lin. ¢ 9.

This is a well-known and widely distributed msect. I found
it occasionally at most stations on the banks of the Amazons,
from Para to Peru: it is also a native of Guiana, the West Indian
Islands, and the Island of Tahiti, where, according to M.Vesco*,
it is common, the larva inhabiting the trunks of Spondias dulcis.
It is not stated whether the Tahitian examples differ from those
of America; those of the West Indian Islands form a tolerably
distinct local variety. The species, however, has probably been
introduced by the agency of man into the distant Polynesian
island.

2. Lagocheirus fasciculatus, White.
halts fasciculatus, White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 377,
pl. J. 1. J.

L. oblongus, postice valde attenuatus : thoracis tuberculis lateralibus
obtusis: elytris nigro fasciculatis, olivaceo-griseis, maculis duabus
lateralibus triangularibus (altera magna, altera parva) fasciaque
lata pallida ornatis: tarsis ochraceis, articulo ultimo apice nigro.
Long. 8-93 ln. ¢ Q.

Not uncommon at Ega, Upper Amazons, on dead branches in
the forest, in company with Acrocinus trochlearis and other wood-
eating Coleoptera. The tubercle at the tip of the sixth anten-
nal joint of the males is much larger in this species than in L.
araneiformis. The figure given in White’s Catalogue represents
a female.

Genus LEeprosty.vs.
Leconte, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. n. s. 1. p. 168.
Syn. Amniscus, Dej. Cat. (part.).

The chief characters given by Leconte as distinguishing this
from the allied genera are the shortness of the basal joint of the
posterior tarsi and the tuberculose surface of the thorax, whose
sides are simply prominent instead of being armed with a tooth
or spine. The genus consists of a number of small-sized species
more nearly allied to Lagocheirus than to Leiepus and Acantho-
cinus, being of compact, oval, convex form, and having short

* Léon Fairmaire, Coléoptéres. de la Polynésie, p. 88.

102 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

legs with thighs abruptly clavate. The basal joint of the poste-
rior (as well as the other) tarsi is scarcely longer than the second;
the thorax is very much narrower than the elytra, and its surface
is studded with obtuse tubercles, the lateral tubercles in some
of the species being scarcely visible, and in none spiniform : the
elytra are also tuberculated or uneven, and are not spined at
the apex. Most of the species which I have examined have the
basal joint of the antenne much flattened beneath ; and in all,
the apex of the same joint is produced beneath into a short
tooth. The elytra are generally fasciculated, but have not very
distinct centrobasal ridges.

Leptostylus appears to be closely related to Erphea of Erichson
(Consp. Ins. Peruana, p. 144), differing chiefly in the absence of
acute lateral thoracic tubercles.

1. Leptostylus pleurostictus, n. sp.

L. oblongo-ovatus, subconvexus, tomento cinereo-brunneo vestitus :
thoracis dorso quinquetuberculato : elytris multifasciculatis, lateri-
bus macula magna nigro-fusca ornatis. Long. 43 lin.

Head clothed with tawny-brown pile. Antenne not much
longer than the body, brown; basal joint (except the tip) and
base of the remaining joints grey. Thorax with five distinct
dorsal tubercles ; the lateral tubercles short, conical, obtuse, and
accompanied, near the front angle on each side, by a smaller one :
greyish or hoary, a lateral spot behind the tubercle dark brown.
Elytra ovate, not narrowed before three-fourths of their length ;
apex very briefly, obtusely, and obliquely truncate : surface coarsely
punctured (except near the tip), and furnished with numerous
small tubercles arranged in three irregular rows, and surmounted
each by a pencil of short bristles pointing towards the apex : the
colour is ashy or greyish brown, a large dark brown patch occu-
pying each side from the base to the middle, and an indistinct
oblique whitish belt traversing the middle of each elytron. Un-
derneath and legs brownish, varied with grey. The sterna are
all plane.

Occurred sparingly at Ega on slender dead branches.

2. Leptostylus cretatellus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, subconvexus, tomento canescente vestitus: elytris linea
laterali nigra, macula magna apicali fusca: thoracis dorso indi-
stincte tuberculato. Long. 3} lin.

Head clothed with grey pile. Antenne grey, spotted with
brown. Thorax uneven above; tubercles indistinct, the lateral
ones conical, obtuse, placed behind the middle; the colour is
hoary white, the fore part of the disk having two small dark
brown spots. Elytra oblong, sharply and obliquely truncated at

of the Amazon Valley. 103

the apex; surface punctured, and furnished with three faint
raised lines, on which rise a few small elevations, surmounted
each by a minute pencil of black hairs; the colour is hoary
white, except at the apex, which has a large brown spot re-
mounting in an angle on the suture; the sides near the base
have also a thick blackish line. Legs and underside greyish,
varied with brown.
One example taken at Obydos.

3. Leptostylus ovalis, n. sp.

I. curtus, ovatus, convexus, nigrinus: thoracis dorso trituberculato,
tuberculis lateralibus obtusis. Long. 3 lin.

Head olive-grey, with minute black spots. Antenne with the
three basal joints dark grey, speckled with black; the remainder
grey, with the tips blackish. Thorax with an elevation on the
front part of the disk, surmounted by three obtuse tubercles ;
the lateral tubercles very obtuse: punctured, scantily clothed
with dark grey pile irrorated with black. Elytra short, ovate,
very briefly truncated at the tip, coarsely punctured, and fur-
nished with rows of small tubercles, each surmounted by a short
pencil of black hairs ; the colour is sooty black, with scanty dark
grey pile, but towards the apex the grey pile forms a patch
speckled with black. Beneath iron-grey, slightly shining. Legs
grey, speckled with black.

Found at Obydos and Para, on slender dead twigs.

4. Leptostylus obscurellus, un. sp.

L. elongato-ovatus, fuliginosus : thorace brevi, dorso inzequali, tuber-
culis lateralibus prominentibus. Long. 3 lin.

Head clothed with sooty pile ; antennz of the same hue, with
the bases of the joints (after the third) pallid. Thorax small
compared with the elytra; disk very uneven, the depressed parts
coarsely punctured, the lateral tubercles prominent ; colour sooty.
Elytra elongate-ovate, the broadest part being about two-thirds
their length, the tip not perceptibly truncate; their surface is
thickly punctured, and is furnished with a few small tubercles
or ridges crested with hairs, as in the allied species; the colour
is sooty, with a few spots of white pile on the disk, sometimes
forming a patch near the apex. Beneath grey; legs sooty,
varied with grey; base of the thighs pallid.

Taken on slender dry twigs, in the suburbs of Santarem.

Group Leiopodine.
Genus Amniscus (Dej. Cat.).
Besides the species taken to form the genus Leptostylus, the

104 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

vague group standing in collections under the yet uncharacterized
name of Amniscus, Dejean, comprises others which might con-
veniently bear this title, as they differ in many respects from
the types of Lepzostylus. These have an elongated and sub-
depressed form, with the basal joint of the posterior tarsi equal
to the two following united. They form a connecting link be-
tween Leptostylus and Alcidion, differing from the latter in having
the elytra oblong without prominent shoulders, instead of the
triangular form, broad and elevated at the base, which so well
distinguishes Alcidion. The thorax is tubercular on the disk,
as in Leptostylus, and its sides are simply prominent in the
middle, without acute or spiniform lateral tubercles. The elytra
are briefly truncated or rounded at the apex. The thighs are
abruptly clavate. In the only species which I have been able
to examine closely, the apical segment of the abdomen is conical
and somewhat produced in both sexes; but in the male both
dorsal and ventral segments are truncated or slightly emarginated
at the tip, whilst in the female the dorsal segment is obtusely
pointed.

Alcidion polyrhaphoides of White (Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus.
p. 394, pl. 10. f.6) may be cited as the type of the genus Am-
niscus as here defined. In this and the species I have to de-
scribe the basal joint of the antenne is abruptly clavate near the
tip; but it is doubtful whether this will prove to be a generic
character, as some species of Alcidion also have the same feature,
whilst their nearest allied species have the joint of the same
shape as the generality of the Acanthocinite. The joint, al-
though abruptly clavate, is of the same relative length as in the
rest of the allied genera, and it presents also, near the tip on
the underside, the small dentiform process which is characteristic
of the subtribe.

Ammiscus. pictipes, 1. sp.
A. oblongus, testaceo-rufus, nigro canoque variegatus: thoracis

dorso trituberculato, tuberculis anticis fortiter elevatis: elytris
prope basin bifasciculatis. Long. 33 lin. 5 Q.

Head yellowish, spotted with black. Antennz reddish, joints
tipped with black; basal joint swollen beneath near the apex,
the latter toothed. Thorax with three tubercles im a triangle on
the disk, the two anterior very prominent ; lateral tubercles ob-
tuse; the colour is brown testaceous, with two black dorsal
stripes. Elytra oblong, gradually narrowed from the middle to
the tip, which latter is not truncated; the surface is thickly
punctured, especially towards the base, and in the place of the
centro-basal ridge there is a large pencil of black hairs ; the rest
of the surface even; the colour is testaceous brown, with the

of the Amazon Valley. 105

base and a few scattered marks blackish, an indistinct whitish
line obliquely crossing the disk. Body beneath testaceous,
clothed with pile of the same colour. Legs and tarsi reddish,
spotted with grey and black.

One example, taken at S. Paulo, Upper Amazons. The spe-
cies also inhabits South-eastern Brazil, specimens from Rio
- Janeiro (taken by Mr. Squires) not differing from the Amazonian
example except in being rather duller in colour.

Genus Axcipi10n (Dej. Cat.), Thomson.
Thomson, Classif. des Cérambye. p. 12.

Char. emend. Thorax free from tubercles on the disk, or at
most but slightly uneven, its sides unarmed. Elytra broad and
convex at the base, thence narrowing in a nearly straight line
to the apex, with the surface sloping equally in that direction ;
the apex truncated and toothed or spined, and the centrobasal
ridges more or less prominent. Apical segments of the abdomen
and ovipositor not produced in the female. Thighs abruptly
clavate ; basal joint of the tarsi generally longer than the two
following united.

As above defined, the genus Alcidion will comprise a con-
siderable number of species distinguished from Ammniscus by the
peculiar shape of the elytra, and from other allied genera by the
thorax wanting the lateral spines. It is divisible into two groups,
—one of which is distinguished by the species having a raised
hne along the whole length of the elytra on each side, from the
centro-basal ridge to the external apical angle ; and the other by
the absence of these lines, the centrobasal ridges at the same
time being very prominent. The Amazonian species belong
wholly to the second group*.

* A. latum (Thomson, 1. c.), of Mexico, seems to belong to the first group;
also Leiopus emeritus (Erichson, Conspectus Ins. in Peruana, p. 147) of
Eastern Peru. The two following should also be added :—

A. bispinum (Dej. Cat.). Modice elongatum, apud humeros latum, postice
declivum et attenuatum, fusco-testaceum griseo olivaceoque variegatum.
Caput nigrum. Antennz fusco-testacez, articulo basali subiter cla-
vato, clava infra barbata. Thorax griseo-olivaceus. Elytra apice
sinuato-truncata, angulo interno acuto, externo longe mucronato, supra
utrinque bicarinata, carinis levibus, interstitiis punctatis, carina centro-
basali nigro penicillata; grisea olivaceo varia, fascia pone basin nigri-
cante. Subtus testaceum, sternis nigricantibus. Pedes testacei, griseo
maculati. Long. 33 lin. Hab. Rio Janeiro.

A. lineatum, u.sp. Elongatum, apud humeros minus latum, olivaceo-
fulvum, olivaceo-fusco varium. Caput olivaceum, vertice fusco bi-
punctato. Antenne fusco-testacez, articulo basali sensim clavato,
infra planato et barbato. Thorax medio fusco bivittatus. Elytra valde
elongata, punctata, apice sinuato-truncata, angulo interno acuto, ex-

106 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

1. Alcidion oculatum, n. sp.

A. oblongum, postice modice attenuatum, tomento cervino subsericeo
vestitum : thorace maculis duabus nigro-fuscis, albo marginatis :
elytris lateribus acute carinatis, dorso leevibus, utrinque fascia dis-
cali interrupta nigro-fusco ornatis. Long. 3% lin.

Head and thorax tawny brown; disk of the latter with two
short blackish lines, narrowly margined with whitish. Antenne
dusky, base of each joint from the fourth pallid; basal joint
gradually clavate, the outline waved beneath. Elytra prominent
at the shoulders, gradually narrowed to three-fourths of their
length, then more quickly so to the apex, which is briefly and
very obliquely truncate, without spines: the sides are acutely
carinated ; the dorsal carina is effaced, but the centro-basal ridge
is very prominent, and crested with hairs; the surface is punc-
tured (except near the apex) ; the colour is tawny or violaceous
brown, with a slight silky gloss, having on the disk behind the
middle a short blackish-brown fascia, bordered on the basal side
with pale ashy; a small linear mark of the same colour is seen
also near the suture towards the apex, and the suture, disk, and
lateral margins have rows of small dark spots. Beneath tawny
ashy. Legs testaceous; thighs varied with ashy; tibie black
at the base and apex; tarsi with the middle joints black.

Ega; on slender dead branches in the forest.

2. Alcidion triangulare, nu. sp.

A, breve, postice valde attenuatum, fulvo-griseum : thorace fusco
bimaculato: elytris medio irregulariter cinereo fasciatis, apicem
versus cinereo strigosis, apice breviter oblique sinuato-truncatis.
Long. 33 lin.

Head dusky; antennz testaceous brown, apices of the joints
from the third black, basal jomt waved beneath. Thorax tawny
brown ; disk with two round blackish spots, sometimes wanting.
Elytra gradually narrowed from shoulders to apex, which latter
is very obliquely sinuate-truncate; the sides acutely carinated
from the shoulder, the carina effaced before the apex; surface
even and punctured, the centro-basal ridge extremely prominent
and destitute of hairs: the colour is tawny brownish, with a very
indistinct, waved, ash-coloured fascia across the middle, the
apical part being silky brownish, streaked with ashy. Beneath
and legs testaceous brown; base and apex of tibie and middle
joints of tarsi blackish.

terno obtuse dentato; carina dorsali tenui et acutissima, centrobasali
parum prominente, lateribus discoque etiam carinatis, carinis obtusis
et abbreviatis. Subtus nigricans ; pedibus fuscis. Long. 53 lin.
Hab. Venezuela.

of the Amazon Valley. 107

Var. Paraénse, rather more robust; the surface and sides of
elytra more thickly punctured, and the apex simply truncated,
without sinuation.

This was rather a common insect at Ega, on dead twigs. The
variety was found at Para.

3. Alcidion latipenne, un. sp.

A. crassum, postice modice attenuatum, apice transverse sinuato-
truncatum : elytris humeris valde productis lateribusque carinatis.
Long. 4-6 lin. 9 o.

Head dusky ; antennz testaceous brown ; base of all the joints
from the third pallid. Thorax much broader than long, surface
uneven, tawny brown, silky, with a V-shaped dusky mark be-
hind, joming two dusky spots on the sides of the scutellum.
Elytra very broad and convex at the base, gradually narrowed
to the apex, which is broadly and transversely sinuate-truncate,
with the external angles somewhat produced ; the shoulders are
very prominent, and from the acute edge of each commences the
lateral carina, which extends nearly to the apex; the surface is
even and moderately punctured, the colour being reddish or
tawny brown, slightly streaked here and there with ashy, espe-
cially in the middle, and having rows of small dusky specks, a
large violet-brown spot lying on the deflexed margin beneath
the shoulders. Beneath and legs testaceous brown.

Ega, and on the banks of the Cupari, a branch of the Tapajos.

4, Alcidion interrogationis, n. sp.
A, valde elongatum, postice parum attenuatum, carneo-griseum seri-

ceum : elytris apice longe mucronatis, litura nigra signum interro-
gationis simulante ornatis. Long. 53 lin.

Head brown; antenne dusky, base of joints from the third
pallid, the first joint strongly waved. Thorax tawny, sides
black, and disk with a black mark shaped like a horse-shoe.
Elytra elongated, quickly narrowed behind the shoulders, then
widening slightly, afterwards towards the apex again narrowed,
the apex itself being rather broad and sinuate-truncate, the in-
ternal angle dentiform, the external one produced into a length-
ened spine; the shoulders are acute, and from their edge com-
mences the lateral carina, which is very prominent, but is so
placed as to leave the deflexed portion of the elytra beneath it
visible from above; the surface is rather thickly punctured in
the middle towards the base, sparingly so in other parts; the
centro-basal ridges are short, but extremely elevated, hooked
posteriorly, and surmounted by a crest of black hairs ; the colour
is grey, with a rosy tint in some lights, and towards the apex
there is on the disk of each a black curved line and spot resem-

108 Mr. H. W. Bates on Longicorn Coleoptera.

bling the note of interrogation. Legs (especially the posterior
thighs) elongated ; like the under surface of the body, they are
of a dusky hue.

This elegantly shaped and curiously marked insect occurred
only at Ega, on dead branches in the forest.

5. Alcidion olivaceum, n. sp. .

A. oblongum, postice modice attenuatum, tomento olivaceo signa-
turis obscurioribus variegato vestitum: elytris apice breviter
oblique truncatis, femoribus crassissimis. Long. 53 lin.

Head dusky; antennz dusky reddish, base of joints from the
third pallid. Thorax olivaceous grey, with a short black streak
in the middle of the hind margin. Elytra rather broad at the
shoulders, and narrowed curvilinearly thence to the apex, which
is briefly and obliquely truncate ; the lateral carina is less pro-
nounced than in the last species, but the centro-basal ridges are
very prominent; they are hooked behind, although not crested
with hairs; the surface is rather uneven, having two faint and
obtuse dorsal carinze, which, however, are effaced shortly behind
the middle; the colour is olivaceous grey, varied with small
dusky spots which accompany the carinz, and two oblique discal
streaks placed behind the middle. Beneath and legs dusky,
varied with grey; base of thighs and tip of tarsi testaceous ; the
thighs are short and very thickly clubbed.

Ega, Upper Amazons.

6. Alcidion minimum, n. sp.

A. parvum, depressum, postice modice attenuatum, fusco-cinereum,
fuligimoso maculatum: elytris apice oblique sinuato-truncatis,
angulis obtusis, carina centrobasali modice elevata. Long. 2 lin.

Head sooty brown; antenne with the basal joint strongly
flexuous beneath, sooty brown. Thorax smooth, sides rounded,
hinder part punctured. LElytra subtrigonal, depressed, with
lateral carine ; centro-basal ridges moderately elevated, and not
abrupt posteriorly ; apex obliquely sinuate-truncate, angles not
produced ; the surface (except towards the apex) has a number
of large punctures, and is of an ashy-brown colour, with a num-
ber of oblong dusky spots on the apical portion. Body beneath
and legs dusky; base of thighs and of the first tarsal joint and
a ring on the tibie pale testaceous.

Taken flying in the evening, banks of the river, S. Paulo,
Upper Amazons.

The species, from its small size and general appearance, would
consort well with those I have placed in the genus Ozines; but

Prof. G. Gulliver on the Leaf-cells of Hymenophyllum. 109

the absence of lateral thoracic spines compels us to treat it as a
member of the Alcidion group *.

[To be continued. |

XII.—On the Leaf-Cells of the British Species of Hymeno-
phyllum. By Grorcr Guiuiver, F.R.S., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Physiology to the Royal College of Surgeons.

A COMPARATIVE examination of the leaf-cells of this genus seems
to be a desideratum, which I can only attempt to supply, at
present, as far as regards the British plants.

There is nothing satisfactory on the subject in the works of
Sir James Edward Smith and Mr. Sowerby. In the ‘ English
Botany’ no mention occurs of the cells; and the figure given
of those of H. Wilsoni (t. 2686) incorrectly represents the inter-
cellular spaces nearly or quite as large as the cells, though the
oval form is truly depicted, but without the slightest indication
of any difference in this respect between the two species. The
same remark is applicable to the descriptions and plate in the

* The following species also belong to the second section of Alcidion :—

A. bicristatum. Elongatum, postice sensim attenuatum, olivaceo-griseum,
fusco varium. Caput olivaceum. Antenne infra parce setose, articulo
basali angulo inferiore apicali producto, olivaceo-brunnez, articulis basi
pallidis. Thorax dorso obtuse tuberculatus, antice et postice punctatus,
olivaceo-griseus, subsericeus. Elytra elongata, depressa, postice sensim
attenuata, apice oblique sinuato-truncata, angulis externis productis ;
lateribus et disco obtuse carinatis; carinis centrobasalibus parum pro-
minentibus, singulis cristis duabus pilorum nigrorum ornatis ; elytris
utrinque penicillis minutis atris in duplici serie (altera suturali, altera
obliqua discoidali) notatis : olivaceo-grisea, tertia parte posteriore satu-
ratiore griseo lineata, marginibus nigro punctatis. Corpus subtus gri-
seum, pedibus olivaceo-griseis nigro punctatis, femoribus basi testaceis.
Abdomen foeminz segmento ultimo dorsali apice attenuato producto,
maris rotundato medio emarginato. Long. 5 lin. 6 2. Hab. Rio
Janeiro. (Coll. Squires.)

A. trivittatum. Elongatum, depressum, postice sensim attenuatum, brun-
neo-sericeum, vittis et maculis fusco-atris ornatum. Caput fuscum.
Antenne rufescentes, articulis basi pallidis, articulo basali equaliter
clavato. Thorax rotundatus, dorso zequalis, olivaceo-brunneus, sericeus,
vittis latis tribus atro-fuscis velutinis (una centrali, alteris lateralibus)
marginem anticum haud attingentibus ornatus. Elytra elongata, de-
pressa, apice sinuato-truncata, angulis internis acutis, externis valde
productis, humeris parum prominentibus, lateribus utrinque acute
flexuoso-carinatis ; disco equalia ; carina centrobasali valde prominente,
brevi, nuda; rufescenti-brunnea, certo visu carnea nitentia, passim punc-
tata et fusco maculata; lateribus prope basin fuliginosis; disco pone
medium plaga atro-fusca antice utrinque linea obliqua grisea marginata
ornato. Corpus subtus nigricanti-sericeum. Pedes nigricantes, tibiis
et tarsorum articulo primo cano annulatis. Long. 5 lin. Had. Ve-
nezuela.

110 Prof. G. Gulliver on the Leaf-cells of Hymenophyllum.

very recent book on British Ferns by Messrs. Sowerby and
Johnson. Sir William Jackson Hooker, in his ‘ Genera Filicum’
(1842), in like manner merely gives a figure, by Mr. Bauer, of
the cells of the same species, better than that im the ‘ English
Botany,’ but still with the intercellular passages too large.
Four species of Hymenophyllum are figured and described in the
‘Century of Ferns’ (1854), by the same author; but no infor-
mation is given about the cells; nor does any appear in the
works either of Mr. Francis, Mr. Newman, Professor Babington,
or Mr. Bentham. Even the great books of Mr. Moore and Mr.
Lowe contain no notice of any variety or difference in these leaf-
cells. Hence it might be inferred that they are all alike, or not
worth notice in the several species of this interesting genus.
But it will presently be shown how probable it is that the form
and size of the leaf-cells may afford good distinctive characters,
even in the absence of the fruit and of well-grown leaves; and
perhaps Sir W. J. Hooker had seen the difference as regards
size merely, since of H. Wilsoni, in the fourth edition of the
‘British Flora,’ he remarks, “more rigid and with larger reticu-
lations than the last.”

Of these plants Mr. Newman says, “In retaining the two as
distinct species I merely bow to the opinion of better botanists
than myself ;’’ while in the second edition of ‘ English Botany ”
it is stated, “ Were not the fructification so remarkably different,
H. Wilsoni could scarcely be considered a distinct species ;” and
lastly, Mr. Bentham describes this as a variety merely of H. Tun-
bridgense. But Sir W. J. Hooker, Professor Babington, and
other high authorities seem to have no doubt that these plants
are really different species; and this view is supported by the
observation of Mr. F. Clowes of Windermere, that “ all the fronds
of H. Tunbridgense are annual, while those of H. Wilsoni go on
growing from year to year.”

My own observations, having been confined to two tufts of
the plants, are only presented as a suggestion for further com-
parative examination of their leaf-cells, when, should the differ-
ence prove to be regular and constant, it is to be hoped that the
shape and size of these cells will in future form part of the
descriptive characters of both the British and exotic species.

H. Tunbridgense.—Ueaf-cells round, or nearly so, with an
average diameter of =+, of an inch.

H, Wilsoni.—Leaf-cells oval, with an average long diameter
of z4, and short diameter of ,1;, the mean of the two
diameters being z+, of an inch.

Thus, besides their much larger size, the form of the cells is
distinctly oval in H. Wilsoni; and the diagnostics of the two

Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters in Ameeba. 111

species might be given merely by the terms spherenchyma and
ovenchyma.

In both species the sides of the cells are somewhat flattened
from mutual pressure ; and the intercellular passages are either
very narrow or not easily seen when the parts are quite moist.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Outlines of leaf-cells of H. Tunbridgense.
Fig. 2. The same of H. Wilsoni.

[Both drawn to.the one scale of ;45th of an inch. |

Edenbridge, July 9, 1863.

XIII.—On the Value of the Distinctive Characters in Amceba.
By G. C. Watticnu, M.D., F.LS., &e. &e.

In a series of papers published in the ‘ Annals and Magazine
of Natural History’ for April, May, and June, 1863, I adverted
to the absolute necessity of long-continued and daily observation
whensoever it is desired to elucidate the characters and vital phe-
nomena which appertain to the lowest and, at the same time, the
most minute forms of organic existence—my remarks on this
head having been specially prompted by the truly Protean
aspects under which Ameba villosa presented itself to my notice.

A fourth month’s close study of that form has not only lent
additional force to my previous descriptions, but, whilst it en-
ables me to speak with still greater confidence on the subject, it
also demonstrates in a striking degree, as I shall presently show,
the fallacy of attempting to arrive at a correct knowledge of the
characters and ever-varying phases of such an organism under a
less laborious and protracted examination.

After the last paper of my series was completed, namely, on
the 20th of May, Mr. Carter called on me; and for the first
time I made the acquaintance of a naturalist whose researches
amongst the lower forms of animal life have always been justly
regarded as well worthy of attention. On a subsequent occasion,

112 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

I endeavoured to exhibit to him, as far as his time permitted,
the characters of Ameba villosa as then observable in living
specimens taken from my aquarium, dwelling strongly, how-
ever, on the marked changes which had already taken place in
them under the unfavourable conditions of long captivity.

Courting, as I have avowedly done, the fullest scrutiny into
the characters and vital phenomena of the Rhizopods alluded to
in my descriptions, I confess I was by no means prepared to
find that, under an evident misapprehension of my meaning,
the view entertained by me throughout my protracted survey
of the Ameba villosa (namely, that probably many, if not all,
of the previously described forms of Ameba are referable to,
and constitute mere phases of, this the most highly developed
type*) should have been adduced in support of the statement
that Ameba villosa is now regarded by me as identical with A.
princeps only.

That such has never been iny belief may be gathered both
from my own account of the first-named species, and from a
note appended to the résumé of my papers by Mr. H. J. Slack,
which appeared in the July Number of the ‘Intellectual Observer,’
simultaneously with Mr. Carter’s notice on A. princeps in the
‘ Annals.’

Much as I regret the necessity of having to become the critic
of Mr. Carter’s opinions, in order that I may adequately sustain
my own, I must state my reasons for declining to subscribe to
many of the conclusions at which he has arrived. These reasons
will appear whilst I endeavour to establish the four following
propositions :—

1. That it is entirely opposed to usage and rule to change the
name under which an object shall have been, for the first time,
accurately described.

2. That the characters of Ameba villosa, as first brought to
notice by me in the three published papers to which allusion has
been made, are sufficiently important and distinct from those of
any previously described form to warrant their being regarded
as typical.

3. That certain characters regarded by Mr. Carter as of pri-
mary importance, and typical of A. princeps (Ehr.) as now re-
constituted by him, are distinctive of A. villosa as already de-
scribed by me.

4, That the interpretation put by Mr. Carter upon certain
other characters which are common to all the Amebe is nega-
tived by the strongest evidence.

With regard to the first of these propositions, I beg to state

* See note at commencement of my first paper in the ‘Annals,’ No. 64,
for April 1863, p. 287.

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 113

at once, and distinctly, that in speaking of the most important
and previously undescribed characters of A. villosa, I specially
allude—(1) To the presence of a villous organ, and the varied
phases it assumes as occasion may require. (2) The invariable
situation of this organ with reference to the rest of the body, so
as to indicate a definite posterior and anterior portion. (3) The
well-marked prehensile office of the villi. (4) The extrusion of
effete matter through an aperture* in the midst of the villous
region, (5) The occasional extrusion of vacuolar vesicles by a
similar aperture. (6) The occasional circulatory movement + of
the nucleus and contractile vesicle along with the rest of the
endogenous as well as exogenous contents of the body. (7) The
circumstances under which one or both of the above organs re-
main, as it were, fixed in the vicinity of the villous region.
(8) The discharge, externally, of the contents of the contractile
vesicle through an aperture within the same region. (9) The
occasional extrusion of perfectly formed minute individuals,
also through an aperture in the villous region. (10) The
projection of pseudopodia from every portion of the surface ex-
cept the villous region. (11) The movements always in a direc-
tion opposite to the situation of the villous region. (12, and
last) The possibility of completely detaching the membranous-
walled nucleus from the parent mass by pressure, without lacera-
tion or destruction of its wall.

I confidently affirm that none of these characters had been
described in any published work whatever, prior to my descrip-
tion of them in the ‘ Annals’ for April, May, and June last.

As regards the first proposition, I may be permitted to ob-
serve that, in 1856, I detected an Ameba in Lower Bengal,
which I am now satisfied was identical with A. villosa or a va-
riety of it. This was figured in the first part of my work on
the ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-Bed,’ and referred to cursorily in the
‘Annals’ for April last (p. 290). But, putting this fact out of

* MM. Claparéde and Lachmann have stated their belief in the possible
existence of an oral aperture in Ameba, and its actual existence in Podo-
stoma. But they lave not noticed, as far as I am aware, the occurrence of
anything like an excretory orifice always showing itself at one determinate
portion of the body.

+ In one sense, this character may not be regarded as new, since the
permanent relation of the nucleus and contractile vesicle to the rest of the
body, whilst moving, has been clearly pointed out in some varieties of
Ameba by those excellent observers, MM. Claparéde and Lachmann. But
they appear not to have associated this character with any distinct and
permanent differentiation of a determinate portion of the body. What I
desire to indicate is the twofold character—these organs at one time remain-
ing fixed near the villous region, at another not holding any definite rela-
tive position either to any particular portion of the body or to each other.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 8. Vol. xii. 8

114 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

the question, inasmuch as the Bengal form has not been spe-
cially described, in order to render evident the true value at-
tached to all unpubiished researches, I need only quote the sub-
joined extract from the ‘ Report of the Committee of the British
Association for 1842, appoimted to consider the rules by which
the nomenclature of zoology may be established on a uniform
and permanent basis : ’—

** Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is given,
it cannot be recognized by others, and the signification of the name is
consequently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoological term can
acquire any authority, viz. definition and publication. Definition properly
implies a distinct exposition of essential characters; and in all cases we
conceive this to be indispensable, although some authors maintain that a
mere enumeration of the component species, or even of a single type, is
sufficient to authenticate a genus. To constitute publication, nothing
short of the insertion of the above particulars im a printed book can be
held sufficient.” * * * “Nor can any unpublished descriptions, however
exact, claim any right of priority till published, and then only from the
date of their publication. The same rule applies to cases where groups or
species are published, but not defined. Therefore (§ 12) a name which has
never been clearly defined in some published work should be changed for the
earliest name by which the object shall have been so defined.”

Here, then, it will be seen that, independently of the very
secondary question as to priority in discovery of the essential
characters which I believe indicate the typical Amba, the really
important point for determination (namely, the validity or other-
wise of the definition assigned by the original founder of the
species A. princeps, as embracing A. villosa) is not left in doubt
fora moment. And hence, although the characters so assigned
to A. princeps must be held as insufficient for the definition of
A. villosa, those assigned by me to the latter form are such as
to embrace every character previously assigned to A. princeps.
Under these circumstances, I apprehend it is quite unnecessary
for me, in view of the rule just quoted, further to discuss the
grounds upon which I am reluctantly compelled to object to the
course followed by Mr. Carter in making a new definition for
A. princeps so as to embody the characters of the all-important
organ to which attention was directed by me in my late papers.
The statement at page 4¢ of Mr. Carter’s paper in the ‘Annals’
for July, namely, that “the villous appendage which marks the
posterior end of A. princeps has lately been brought to notice by
Dr. Wallich in the species for which he has proposed the desig-
nation of A. villosa,” in the absence of any intimation of the
fact that both the discovery and the name are mine, coupled
with the remark which immediately follows as to having figured
the villous appendage in his “ Indian Journal” * so far back as

* Of course I am writing under the impression that by the term “ Indian
Journal” is meant a private and unpublished journal.

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 115

1854, and the declaration, at the commencement of the paper,
that the same nomenclature should be adopted as he had used
im papers published in 1856, necessitates the inference that
I had adopted his name without the usual and due acknow-
ledgment. Whilst distinctly stating that neither of these
conclusions is reconcilable with the facts of the case, I would
express my conviction that, as Mr. Carter could not inten-
tionally have conveyed such an impression, he will be the fore-
most to eradicate it, more especially when I point out that any
one unacquainted with my notices in the ‘Annals’ for April,
May, and June last, perusing his paper of July, could not fail
to regard every one of the characters peculiar to these Amebe
as having been brought to notice for the first time by Mr. Carter.
Moreover it will be seen, on a careful comparison of our re-
spective statements, that, although he does not indicate whose
opinions he is endeavouring to controvert*, the previously un-
known nature of the characters conclusively point to mine.

Although satisfied from Mr. Carter’s statement in the last
Number of the ‘ Annals,’ that the Ameba met with by him in
Bombay, in 1854, was in all probability the same form he now
describes under the name of A. princeps, it is very certain, from
what he wrote regarding the typical characters of Ameba in
1856 and 1857 (due reference to which will be made hereafter),
that he did not regard them as sufficiently distinct to demand
special notice ; otherwise it is difficult to conceive how he failed
to furnish a record of them in any of his published papers from
1854 to July 1863. For it is necessary to mention that, in a
paper by Mr. Carter, entitled ‘Notes and Corrections on the
Organization of Infusoria, &c.,” which appeared so recently as
the year 1861 (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. viii. p. 281), no re-
ference was made to any modification of his opinions on the
points now at issue.

Having thus stated my reasons for thinking it would have
been but just had Mr. Carter adduced under the same specific
designation whatever further information he possessed con-
cerning an organism which cannot be regarded as distinct from
Ameba villosa, it is due to myself to state explicitly (with
reference to my declaration that many of the so-called species of
Ameba, if not all of them, are referable to a single specific type)
that although of opinion that A. bilimbosa, A. radiosa, A. prin-
ceps, A. Reseli, and other varieties are nothing more than im-
perfectly developed phases of A. villosa, inasmuch as none of
the striking characters pointed out by me as appertaining to
A, villosa had been indicated in any of the published defini-

* Had Mr. Carter done so, the necessity for these observations would
have been altogether spared me.
8*

116 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

tions of these forms, and there were no grounds for assuming
that one of these varieties approached more nearly to it than
the rest, I had no alternative but to designate my new form
by a new specific name—leaving it to be determined hereafter
whether Ameba princeps and those other forms which have
received distinct specific appellations, on trivial differences in
their,configuration, are or are not mere transitional phases of
the most highly developed type, namely, A. villosa *.

Fortunately the means of verifying or refuting every state-
ment advanced by me with regard to A. villvsa, both in matters
of fact and deduction, are at hand, and will become more and
more abundant as soon as favourable habitats for this Rhizopod
shall be discovered. But should any lingering doubt remain as
to the impropriety of altering the original definition of A. prin-
ceps, in order to render it conformable with the characters ob-
servable in A. villosa, it is only necessary to refer to Mr. Carter’s
declaration} that “ Ehrenberg’st and Dujardin’s§ figures are
good representations of” A. princeps, and to beg the reader to
examine the plates and definitions here alluded to. On dog
so, he will find that neither in the figures themselves nor in the
letter-press definition accompanying them is reference made to
a single character on which I have based the typical stability of
A. villosa ||.

* The following extract from Mr. Carter’s supplementary paper on “ the
Infusoria of Bombay,” published in 1857, will show that, whilst he is fully
alive to the necessity of re-naming an imperfectly defined form, he has put
the principle into practice on differences of structure which bear no com-
parison, in point of importance, with those now assigned to Ame@ba villosa :
—‘ Euglypha pleurostoma is very like Ehrenberg’s Difflugia Enchelys and
Dujardin’s Trinema acinus ; but not being identical with the figure given
of the former, and though often presenting three radiated prolongations
like the latter, but by no means so constantly, it becomes necessary to give
it aname.” (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xx. p. 35.)

+ Aun. Nat. Hist. July 1863, p.31.

+ Infusionsthierchen, Atlas, fol., tab. 8. fig. 10 (1838).

§ Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes, Atlas, plate 1. fig. 11.

|| I subjoin the definitions in question :—‘‘ A. princeps. A. major dilute

flavicans, sextam linez partem repens, processibus variabilibus, numerosis,
eylindricis, crassis, et apice rotundatis.”” (Ehrenberg’s Infusionsthierchen,
' p. 126.)
Pa A. princeps, majeure. Large de 0°37 a 0°60, blanc jaunatre. Remplie
de granules qui refractent la lumiére, et se portent ou refluent dans les
expansions successivement formées, lesquelles sont trés-diaphanes a l’ex-
trémité et souvent trés-longues” (Dujardin, Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes,
1841, Paris); whilst appended to the plate is the subjoined remark, dis-
tinctly indicating that, irrespectively of the granules, there was nothing to
show the direction in which the animal might be moving:—“ Elle est
avancée a la fois ses deux branches en y poussent la substance glutineuse
dont elle est formée avec les granules nombreux et variés qui s’y trouvent
engagés et qui montrent bien la direction du mouvement”? (loc. cit.).

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. 117

Mr. Carter, at page 37 of his paper, says, ‘‘ Now, the worst
of theories is, that they take up so much time in discussion be-
fore they bring out fact; while the best of them is, when mul-
tiple, that they prove that the fact is still unknown.” Again,
at page 38, “ Unless we can state in a few words the facts we
may wish to establish, it is useless.to have recourse to long
argumentative theories for this purpose,”—the first remark fol-
lowing immediately on Mr. Carter’s reference to my view réegard-
ing the reciprocal convertibility of the ectosare and endosarc—
not of “ diaphane ” and “ sarcode,” as he, no doubt inadvertently,
puts it.

These remarks may be true in the abstract; but it will, I
think, be allowed that, in describing objects visible only under
the microscope, theories are unavoidable, inasmuch as the deter-
mination of the appearances and offices of each part depends
more or less on interpretation. In non-microscopic objects,
differences of interpretation as to actual appearances can rarely
take place, whatever may be the case as regards deductions
based on them. But emanating as these strictures do from an
author whose writings are so singularly fertile in speculative phy-
slology, they might perhaps advantageously have been avoided,
more especially since I do not advance my view touching the
reciprocal convertibility of endosare and ectosare as a bare spe-
culation, but as a theory supported by evidence so strong that
I have little doubt it will be very generally accepted.

Having, for the present, disposed of the question involving a
principle of scientific nomenclature, I would request attention
to matters of actual observation. And, in order to facilitate
reference, it shall be my endeavour to comment on the various
subjects, as far as possible, in the order in which they are treated
in Mr. Carter’s recent paper.

After stating that he met with Amba princeps in April 1863,
and his intention of applying to it specially the nomenclature
proposed by him in his “Notes on the Organization of the
Infusoria of the Island of Bombay” (1856), Mr. Carter says,

‘The most conspicuous features of A. princeps, when it is large, are its
size and the number of granules it contains, in both of which characters it
much exceeds any other Ameba with which I am acquainted. Its form, of
course subject to Protean changes, is for the most part limaceous, or once
or twice branched; and its pseudopodia, which are almost always lobed and
obtuse, proceed from a posterior end which is normally capped with a tuft
of villous prolongations; while the distinguishing character of the nucleus
.... consists in the nucleolus being so much extended,” &e. &c., as to
cause “ the pellucid halo which is seen round the nucleus of other Amebe
to be absent.”

If the usual practice of stating specific characters in the order
of their importance can be taken as a criterion of their value,

118 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

the villous organ must evidently be regarded as holding no very
prominent position in the form under definition. But although
this organ is noticed in the leading “specific description” given
by Mr. Carter of A. princeps, it is altogether omitted in the
enumeration of “the parts of which that form is composed,” to
which attention is drawn immediately afterwards*; whilst the
description of this most essential organ, deferred almost to the
close of that portion of the paper which treats of A. princeps,
and until the general features common to all Amebe have been
discussed (Annals, July, p. 43), is introduced under the head
“ Villous appendage,” with the subjoined remark :—

“The villous appendage which marks the posterior end of
A. princeps has lately been brought into notice by Dr. Wallich,
in the species for which he has proposed the designation of A.
villosa,’ it beg immediately afterwards added, that this ap-
pendage was figured in Mr. Carter’s “ Indian Journal, as far
back as 1854”’+. And yet, strangely enough, at page 44, he
writes thus: “I am not quite certain that they (the villi) “are
peculiar to A. princeps ;” and he adds, “I have a drawing of an
Ameba which has them, but does not appear to have the cha-
racteristic form of the nucleus of A. princeps. If they are con-
fined to A. princeps, then they form a good distinguishing fea-
ture for this species; but, as 1 have before stated, they are not
always present under the same form, and sometimes not at all”
—a most important admission, as will presently appear.

As regards the so-called distinguishing character of A. prin-
ceps derived from its nucleus, I have only to remark that, when
fresh and vigorous, the Hampstead specimens of A. villosa ex-
hibited a spherical or slightly oblong nuclear cell-membrane—
the nucleus itself being distinctly granular, spherical in outline

* It is worthy of note that, im the ‘ Annals’ for 1856 (ser. 2. vol. xx.
p- 33), out of all the various forms of Ameba, A. princeps is specially named
as being closely allied to the sponge-cell, which is figured, and exhibits not
a trace of the essential characters of A. villosa.

+ Without cavilling at mere words, I cannot help thinking that the fol-
lowing expression of Mr. Carter’s, coupled with what I am now stating, must
engender an idea that he, and not I, pointed out the extrusion of effete
matter from an orifice at the posterior portion of the animal :—“ One
point here is remarkable, viz. that while any part in front of the villous or
posterior end may inclose a particle of food, it is only, so far as my ob-
servation extends (and in this lam confirmed by Dr. Wallich), the posterior
extremity which gives passage to the egesta.” (Annals, July, p. 35.) Mr.
Carter then gives a reference to my statement to this effect in the previous
number of the ‘Annals’; but I have to repeat that, as he dwells so pointedly
on his previous knowledge of an Ameba possessing the villous organ, and,
after stating his intention of employing a nomenclature previously suggested
by himself, employs mine without any acknowledgment, the inference I
speak of, however unintentionally conveyed, is inevitable.

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 119

from all aspects, and occupying only so much of the vesicular
chamber as to leave a it a clear hyaline space or ring,
varying from about ~,th to =4th of the total diameter of the
organ, and that this. ting was broadest, in proportion to the
total diameter of the nuclear cell, in the smallest specimens.

Without stopping to discuss the propriety of placing in an
entirely subsidiary hight an organ of such importance as the
villous appendage (even granting, for the sake of argument,
that it had ever been previously included in any published
definition of A. princeps), I own myself at a loss to understand
how the character, specially alluded to as distinguishing that
form from all other freshwater Rhizopods examined by Mr.
Carter, could have been adduced under the circumstances ; for,
notwithstanding the “specific description” thus given of A.
princeps at the commencement of his paper, at the close of that
portion of it relating to Ameba we are distinctly informed that
the villous appendage is “sometimes” altogether absent in A.
princeps, and even the grand distinctive feature of the nucleus
is inconstant ; whilst, as if to add to the perplexity inseparable
from the characters of A. princeps, as thus reconstructed, at the
same time that, in Plate III. figs. 3d & f, illustrating the paper
on this form (Annals, July 1863), the absence of the pellucid
ring around the nucleus is distinctly exhibited, in the same
plate (figs. 2c & f) the missing pellucid zone reappears in quite
as marked a degree as in the figures of A. radiosa and A. Glev-
chen appended to Mr. Carter’s paper in the ‘Annals’ for 1856
(vol. xvii. pl. 5. figs. 4, 10,17 & 18). So that the only cha-
racters left intact of those named in the introductory specific
description are “ the size of A. princeps when it is large, and the
number of granules it contains” (Annals, July, p.31). It need
only be added on this head, that we are not left in doubt as to
the size of the specimen depicted on the plate ; for, instead of
being under ;},th of an inch in length (see the next page),
it is said in the explanatory references to be =;th of an inch
long, the nucleus itself (fig. 2c) bemg —1,th of an inch in dia-
meter, whilst in fig. 2 f it is as much as =+,th of an inch in
diameter.

But I regret to say the difficulty of arriving at a clear view of
the subject does not end here; for it seems doubtful whether
the pellucid ring referred to as characteristic surrounds the
nuclear cell-membrane, the nucleus within the membranous cell,
or the nucleolus within the nucleus. This will appear on refer-
ence to the three subjoined passages :—

‘Tt [the nucleus] is discoid in shape, of a faint yellow colour, and fixed
on one side of a transparent capsule, which, bemg generally more or less
large than the nucleus itself, causes the latter to appear as if surrounded

120 Dr. G, C. Wallich on the Value of

-by a narrow pellucid ring. In this state it is invariably present in Ameba,
Actinophrys, Spongilla, &c.”’ (Annals, ser. 2. (1856), vol. xvii. p. 221)..
“While the distinguishing character of the nucleus [in A. princeps| to
which I have above alluded, consists in the nucleolus being so much ex-
tended over the inner surface of the nuclear cell that it passes beyond the
equatorial line of the latter, and thus causes the pellucid halo which is
seen round the nucleus of other Amebe to be absent ; that is, the nucleolus,
being circular and of much less extent than the hemisphere of the nuclear
capsule, in most Amebe, causes it to appear in them as if surrounded by a
transparent area.” (Annals for July, 1863, p. 31.)
“The nucleus in A. princeps, as before stated, differs in appearance from
that of all other freshwater Rhizopods that I have examined in the absence
of a pellucid area round the nucleolus.” (Annals, July 1863, p. 39.)

Here we find the term nucleus at one time applied to the
nuclear capsule, at another to the granular body lying within
it; whilst, on the other hand, the whole of the granular body is
at one time termed the nucleolus, at another the clear space
within it receives that name. There can be no doubt that a
vast deal of confusion has arisen here as elsewhere in referrmg
to the nucleolus as if it were always a distinct portion of the
nuclear structure, endowed with some distinct function. As
referred to in my descriptions, the term nucleolus simply im-
plies the central portion of the nuclear body, rendered more
diaphanous than the marginal part by the partial or total ab-
sence of the granules, and the crowding of these bodies around
the circumference.

Mr. Carter’s views with reference to the feasibility of deter-
mining the appearances of so small an organ as the nucleus of
Ameba, or tracing specific characters, where the specimen is
small, are so diametrically opposed to all my experience that
they demand careful examination. He says, “ Whether” the
nucleus, before the period at which the creature has attained
the ;1,th of an inch in length, “is circular and presents the
usual pellucid area around it, or not, I do not pretend to deter-
mine, but I think it very likely ; and then this state and the
smallness of the Ameba would preclude all possibility of specific
distinction ; hence I do not think that there is any necessity for
us to concern ourselves about the appearances. At this period
the nucleus is not larger than a human blood-corpuscle, and the
consistence of the nucleolus apparently homogeneous, that is,
without granules, and composed of a fine delicate yellowish film
of transparent plasma, in which state it continues, with the ex-
ception of increasing in bulk, up to the time when the Ameba
has attained about one-tenth of the adult or maximum size, that
is, about ~1,th of an inch long.”

Whatever difficulty Mr. Carter may have experienced in deter-
mining the minute characters of organisms not larger than a
human blood-corpuscle, I repeat that I have, over and over

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 1D}

again, observed the nucleus with its hyaline ring, the action of
the contractile vesicle, granules, and the villous tuft in specimens
of A. villosa not exceeding ;;4,th of an inch im length, and
rotosth of an inch in breadth, the lens employed being a }th
with an A eye-piece. I candidly confess, therefore, that it would
have spared me no little pain had Mr. Carter abstained from
making an observation so uncalled for, and at the same time so
much at variance with his own experience.

In answer to Mr. Carter’s statement respecting the impossi-
bility of distinguishing the characters of an Ameba until it has
attained the length of =1,th of an inch, it may suffice to men-
tion that, out of the twenty-five so-called species of the genus,
six are generally described as being under ;2,th of an inch in
length, even when full-grown; whilst a refutation of the view
regarding the nucleus of such specimens will be found in some
important observations (by Dr. W. Roberts of Manchester) on
the minute structure of the human and other “ blood-corpuscles,”
which appeared in the same Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 60
of the present volume) as Mr. Carter’s remarks on Ameba
princeps.

But, irrespectively of the observations of others, those pre-
viously published by Mr. Carter himself contain abundant evi-
dence that he has not always held the same opinion on this
point ; and it is only necessary to adduce one, out of several that
might be brought forward, to show that the limits now assigned
to the successful employment of the microscope have been con-
siderably exceeded by him. Thus in his paper on the Infusoria
of Bombay, published in the ‘ Annals’ for 1856, we find a de-
scription and figures of Huglypha alveolata, exhibiting “ ovules”
with their capsules, both within and without the test—the nuclei
of these clearly defined when ;,,,th of an inch in diameter, an
equally detailed representation being afforded of “the separation
and development of granules into spermatozoids (?) within the
test’?—and, in one example (namely, Astasia limpida), a clearly
defined view of the discoid ovules only ,5,th of an inch in
diameter, but nevertheless “showing its capsuled character ;”
whilst in the ‘ Annals’ for the succeeding year (vol. xx. p. 33),
it is stated that certain bodies, ~,,,th of an inch in diameter,
‘“‘are polymorphic, and present the granule and contracting
vesicles like the monociliated sponge-cell of the ampullaceous
sac” [of Spongilla|, and that “they also enclose particles of
food.” A figure is given of these bodies. Here, then, at all
events, we have an Ameeboid organism, with some of the very
characters present which Mr. Carter has recently declared it to
be impossible to trace with accuracy,—the smallest of my
Amebe, as referred to, having been ;;!;th of an inch in length,

122 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

and these Ameebiform sponge-cells of Mr. Carter bemg — +, th
of an inch in diameter.

I may observe that few persons will be found to acquiesce in
Mr. Carter’s opinion (Annals, July, p. 39) as to there being no
“necessity for us to concern ourselves about the appearance of
the nucleus in A. princeps before it [the young Ameba] arrives
at the size just mentioned,” namely ;1,th of an inch in length ;
for it will be admitted that we stand but a sorry chance of being
able to trace out the development or reproductive process which
results in the viviparous parturition recently described by me as
occurring in A. villosa, and which forms a most important link in
the chain of its vital phenomena, unless we do concern ourselves
specially to investigate the configuration of the young animal
even prior to its extrusion from its parent. The failure to do
so will assuredly “ preclude all possibility” of ascertainmg the
correctness or otherwise of those highly complicated reproductive
phenomena which Mr. Carter has so zealously endeavoured to
elucidate.

I would here mention having repeatedly observed, during the
past month, young Arcel/e, varying in number from one to four,
within the test of the parent. These young specimens were
provided with a distinct test, the diameter of which was already
so far in excess of that of the aperture of the parent test as to
render their escape improbable otherwise than by its rupture.
I have also seen what appeared to be full-grown Arcelle, exhi-
biting every characteristic of the soft parts, but whose test was
still soft and membranous, and surrounded the body somewhat
loosely. Its surface, however, already presented traces of reti-
culation, but, stead of the usual mverted orifice, the margin
of the aperture through which the pseudopodia protruded was
corrugated externally, giving the structure the appearance of a
medlar. Here, then, it would seem that viviparous parturition
must necessarily be associated with the casting of the effete
test of the parent and the development of a new one. In other
respects, the occurrence of these young Arcelle fully bears out
Mr. Carter’s detection of young individuals within the test of
the closely allied Kuglyphe (Annals, 1856, ser. 2. vol. xvii.) ;
whilst in both cases the phenomena may be regarded as analo-
gous in their nature to the viviparous parturition described by
me as observable in Ameba villosa*.

* Perty records having “once seen two round motionless animals in
Arcella vulgaris, each haying a greater diameter than the mouth of the
shell containing them.” And he asks if these young Arcelle are set free
by the breaking up of the shell. Schultze also cites a similar example as
occurring in Gromia Dujardinii. (See Pritchard’s ‘ Infusoria,’ London,
1861, p. 215.)

the Distinctive Characters in Ameceba. 123

As also bearing directly on the characters of the Amcebina, I
have to record an important fact which revealed itself during my
examination of some of the material containing A. villosa. I
allude to the detection in Gromia oviformis of a well-marked
nucleus and nuclear vesicle. The contractile vesicle I failed to
trace ; but, in the presence of the manifest analogies between
the Gromide and Lagynide, suggested by this discovery, it is
extremely probable, I think, that this organ also may yet be
detected. Should it be so, the transfer of Gromia from the
lowest to the highest ordinal type of Rhizopod structure would
be rendered necessary.

If the object now alluded to, in the paper on A. princeps,
under the term “reproductive cells,” be identical, as I suppose,
with the “ovules” of Mr. Carter’s former papers, these bodies
must differ from the former in the very material point of not
being nucleated. In the ‘Annals’ (ser. 2. vol. xvi. p. 223)
the term “ovule is applied to a number of discoid or globular
nucleated cells, which appear together in the sarcode of some of
the Infusoria. At an early stage, in Spongilla, Ameba, &e.,
these bodies consist of a transparent capsule, lined with a faint
yellow film of semitransparent matter, which, subsequently be-
coming more opake and yellowish, also becomes more marginated
and distinct, and assumes a nucleolar form.” That these bodies
are the same seems certain, inasmuch as in Mr. Carter’s recent
paper they are spoken of as having been shown in A. verrucosa,
under the first designation ; whilst, on referring to the paper on
that form and on Spongilla (Annals, vol. xx.), the general cha-
racters are identical with those of the bodies called “ ovules”
in the latter place.

But here, again, I am perfectly at a loss to reconcile the ap-
pearances and descriptions presented in one series of observa-
tions with those presented in the other. Above, it is stated
that the ovules are “nucleated” (Joc. cit.). In the ‘ Annals’
for July 1863, p. 40, Mr. Carter affirms that he has “on no
occasion been able to detect a nucleus in these cells, or anything
like a germinal vesicle at any period of their existence—perhaps
because it eluded ” his “search.” It is true he is now speaking
of Ameba princeps ; but, inasmuch as the Ameba with a villous
appendage became known to him two years before he published
his general characters of Amba, in 1856, it is undeniable
that marked and apparently exceptional characters must have
been unnoticed by him. But, even as to the source whence
these bodies primarily spring, it is impossible to arrive at a
satisfactory conclusion regarding Mr. Carter’s view; for, in op-
position to the appearances presented by the ovules in their
earliest state, as above cited from the paper of 1856, Mr. Carter

124 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

now says, “ At first they are delicate, and their capsules so unde-
veloped that they present the appearance of cells composed of
nothing but a fine, delicate, semitransparent, homogeneous
plasma; but as they grow older, this becomes granuliferous,
and towards the adult state there is a distinct capsule,” it being
stated that they are the produce of the repeated binary division
of the parent nucleus.

On the last-named head I cannot speak with certainty, but
several reasons have led me provisionally to adopt a somewhat
different view. Two of these may be mentioned more particu-
larly. Mr. Carter says, “Of course, when present [viz. the
ovules], there is no nucleus to be seen with them.” (Annals,
July 1863, p. 41.) Now, I can confidently assert that im spe-
cimens of A. villosa, charged with quite as large a number of
these bodies as are described as having been counted by him in
a specimen of A. princeps, the nucleus was present also; whilst
in such as showed fewer sarcoblasts I constantly met with two,
and now and then three, distinct nuclei, of almost equal size.
And, again, in those individuals which contained sarcoblasts,
the nuclei, whether single or multiple, were invariably less
granular than those without them, the hyaline ring observable
between the inner surface of the nuclear capsule and the nucleus
itself of the latter specimens being more or less completely obli-
terated. But to this question I shall recur again presently.

From the description given of these bodies, now called “ re-
productive cells” by Mr. Carter, and which has appeared since
my last paper was published, it is evident that I was in error
when I stated my belief that the nucleated corpuscles of Ameba
villosa (in contradistinction to the non-nucleated sarcoblasts)
were probably identical with the “reproductive cells” of A.
princeps (Carter). But inasmuch as I was ignorant, at the time
my paper was written, that he had changed his view regarding
the constitution of these bodies since the date of his previously
published observations (1856 & 1857), it will be seen I had no
alternative but to assume that, out of two kinds of corpuscles,
differing from each other chiefly in the one being nucleated, the
other devoid of nucleus, the kind presenting a nucleus corre-
sponded with the “ovules” which up to that period stood de-
scribed by him as possessing a similar feature.

I am glad to find, however, that the detection of this error,
unavoidable as it was on my part, causes Mr. Carter’s and my
views regarding the reproductive office of his “reproductive
cells” and my sarcoblasts to coincide in a great measure, al-
though I am unable to confirm, by my own observation, the
opinion entertained by him as to their being surrounded by a
distinct membrane. But I cannot speak positively on the point

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. 125

until I have enjoyed further opportunities of studying the bodies
In question.

On the mode of development of the nucleated corpuscles
and sarcoblasts of Ameba, I have nothing to add to my pre-
vious observations; but I may avail myself of the opportunity
to state that, in the earliest recognizable condition in which
I have found Polyeystina and Acanthometrina occurring as
independent free-floating organisms at the surface of tropical
seas, their rudimentary shell or framework* has invariably been
enveloped in bodies precisely resembling the sarcoblasts of the
mature forms. Since every gradation in size of these organisms
has been met with by me, from that most minute condition in
which they are scarcely larger than the large sarcoblasts found
within the parent forms, to the fully-grown individuals,—and
since the sarcoblasts of Thalassicolla have been met with by me
in abundance, occurring both within and without the nuclear
capsule, within and without the shell or spicular representatives
of the shell in the form in which the latter are present, there
ean be no doubt, I think, that to this extent I have traced their
share in the reproductive process. But whether any true repro-
ductive act precedes their appearance or maturation, I have no
evidence whatever to show; nor ought any evidence to be ac-
cepted as proof until the unbroken chain of attendant pheno-
mena shall have been consecutively seen and described.

I may here mention that, as pointed out in Ameba, the nu-
cleated corpuscles as well as the sarcoblasts have been detected
by me in the Foraminifera, the Polycystina, the Acanthodesmide,
Acanthometrina, Thalassicollide, and Dictyochide—all pelagic
forms. In the Foraminifera the primordial segment is in reality
the homologue of the omphalostype ; and it seems by no means
improbable that the coccospheres, already alluded to as consti-
tuting a phase in the development of some of the genera (as, for
example, Textularia), may prove to be an advanced stage of their
sarcoblasts. I have never seen a coccosphere within the chamber
of a Foraminifer ; but I may state that I possess numerous spe-
cimens of these bodies (from the single primordial chamber to
the perfectly formed multiple segments of the shell) in which
each chamber has retained the characters of the coccosphere to
the last.

The first portion of the Amceban structure to which Mr. Carter
draws attention he terms “ the pellicula,” stating that “ inference
leads us to the conclusion that there is a pellicle over the surface
of A. princeps, however thin; and the fact that very frequently,

* As the earliest rudiment of the hard shell or framework of these

organisms furnishes a most important character in their classification, I
have applied to them the term omphalostypes.

126 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

on the application of iodine, the margin becomes of a deep violet
colour, while all the other parts of the Rhizopod exhibit nothing
but a more or less deep amber tint, seems to confirm it by che-
mical differentiation.” Again, “ Such a covering has been de-
monstrated by Auerbach in A. bilimbosa, and more satisfactorily,
on account, probably, of the pellicula in this species bemg more
rigid ; but Auerbach does not show that it is coloured by iodine,
although he figures starch-globules thus turned blue within it. »
We must also infer that it is possessed of great elasticity
and tenacity, so that it can yield a covering to the pseudopodia
almost to any extent (as proved by the actinophorous rays of
those Rhizopods which infest the cells of plants remaining after
the sarcode has withdrawn itself into an imterior or secondary
cell) ; also that it admits of rupture (asin the introduction of
food into the sarcode), and yet can heal over rapidly again.
Thus it can undergo comparatively unlimited extension even to
discontinuity, but possesses no adhesiveness externally, as evi-
denced by nothing adhering to it which is not seized and kept
there by the instinct of the animal. Furthermore, in 4. princeps
the pellicula is allied to the cell-wall of plants by position,
and, from chemical evidence (7.e. when treated with iodine),
by an amylaceous composition.” (Annals, July 1863, p. 32.)

In referring to the analogous organs of Ameba and Serpicula
verticillata, Mr. Carter goes so far as to say, “The difference
between cellulose and pellicula, and the absence of the vesicula,
&c., are points which have so little [!] to do with the analogy in
question when the latter is followed up through Astasia, Ruglena,
Navicula, Closterium, &c., into Gidogonium and Nitella, to Serpi-
cula, that very little doubt will, I think, then remain of the
offices of the nucleus in Ameba being similar to those of the
nucleus of the plant-cell, whatever these may hereafter prove to
be” (Annals, ser. 2. vol. xviii. p. 223), thus instituting a com-
parison between the plant-cell and a portion of the Amceban
structure regarded by him as typical, but of which not a trace
has ever yet been seen except in A. bilimbosa or the encysted
state of other species, and then making this comparison a basis
for assuming the identity in function of an organ which is pre-
sent in the plant-cell as well as in Ameba.

It appears to me that an error of a serious nature is com-
mitted in associating the Rhizopods, whose bodies are poly-
morphous, with the Infusoria, whose bodies are monomorphous.
Mr. Carter speaks of Astasia and Euglena as “freshwater Rhizo-
pods” (Annals, ser. 2. vol. xviii. p. 227). But even here, I think,
the distinction about to be drawn holds good, independently of
differences in internal organization. In Ameba villosa we have
a determinate indication, in a non-testaceous Rhizopod, of an

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. 427

anterior and posterior portion of the body, but nevertheless
associated with a very high degree of true polymorphism. In
Astasia, on the other hand, we have a definite shape of the body
when at rest, but subject to variation when the creature is
moving. A. villosa may be regarded, therefore, as a link, if
need be. But the absence of a permanent aperture, either for
inception or excretion of food, defines its position at the head of
the Rhizopods ; whilst the permanent “ buccal tube” of Astasia
marks that organism as belonging to a higher group.

With reference to the “diaphane” or ectosarc, Mr. Carter
goes on to say, “ This layer, as m other Amebe, hes immediately
underneath the pellicula, and is distinguished from the sareode
or endosare within by its greater degree of transparency and
peculiar functions ; for while the sarcode is clouded and presents
a rotatory motion, the diaphane is clear and distinctly endowed
with a locomotive and prehensile power. Analogy and actual
observation would lead us to infer that, in certain if not in all
instances, the ectosarc has the power of passing through (sic)
the pellicula by rupture of the latter—a fact which becomes
most evident when the pellicula is thick and resistant, as in
Ameba bilimbosa, where it has been demonstrated by Auerbach,
especially in his third figure of this species (Siebold und Kolli-
ker’s Zeitschr. vol. vu. p. 365, pl. 19. figs. 1-5, Dec. 1855)’’*.

Before touching on the nature of the evidence on which the
existence of the “pellicula” is based by Mr. Carter, I would
direct attention to what appear to me to be contradictory cha-
racters assigned to that portion of the structure,—namely, elas-
ticity so great as to enable it to yield a covering to the pseudo-
podia “almost to any extent,” and yet such an amount of
friability that “it admits of rupture (as in the introduction of
food)” ; for, since the pseudopodia are projected from the
“diaphane” (ectosarc), and it is also the “diaphane” “ which
seizes the nutritious body, whether living or dead, animal or
plant, surrounds it, and encloses it” (Annals, July 1863, p. 35),
it is certainly difficult to conceive how the extreme elasticity
insisted upon in the case of the pseudopodia should be com-
pletely cast aside in the case of the food-particles.

During my late survey of A. villosa, and after numerous care-
fully conducted examinations of the form usually known as 4.
princeps (from quite distinct localities, and kept separately from
my specimens of A. villosa), I can only say I have never detected
a trace of anything like a membranous outer investiture, except
in the single individual referred to in the May Number of the
‘Annals.’ That specimen was in a state of nearly perfect quies-
cence, and apparently encysted ; and consequently my experience

* Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1863, pp. 31, 32 & 33.

128 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

of these organisms leads me to the conclusion that nothing ana-
logous to a pellicle exists, save during the period of encystation
—for a similar reason that it would be unwarrantable to regard
the capsule within which any of the other Protozoa are enclosed
during their encysted condition as a true envelope belonging to
the creature at all times. I may repeat that I have completely
failed to render a membrane apparent even under the use of the
customary chemical reagents. By employing iodine and sul-
phuric acid, I have coloured the external layer to some depth at
times, and, as shown by Auerbach in his A. bilimbosa, have
caused the granular and other contents to shrink towards the
centre of the organism. But surely it demands much stronger
evidence than is derivable from this experiment, to prove that
the appearances so engendered are the exponents of a normal
condition that previously existed, and not mere effects of chemical
action on organic matter.

With due deference to M. Auerbach, I entertain the belief
(based on appearances repeatedly seen by me in A. villosa
when imperfectly defined under the microscope, coupled with
those observed by me in the encysted specimen) that A. bilim-
bosa will prove to be either an encysted condition of another
form, or one of the Protean phases of the typical form, namely
A, villosa. The very striking character of the irregular portion
of the surface shown in Auerbach’s figure tends to confirm this
view. This has been my opinion ever since the encysted speci-
men came under my notice; and I only hesitated to publish it
in the hope of obtaining the encysted form of A. villosa in suffi-
cient quantity, and with sufficient evidence of its being a trans-
itional condition, to enable me to speak more confidently on the
subject. Meanwhile I would simply direct attention to the fact,
admitted by Mr. Carter, that the existence of the “pellicula”
(except in those cases in which chemical reagents are employed)
is wholly hypothetical,—and hence that the phenomena said to
take place in it are equally so.

But my view with regard to A. bilimbosa is not an unsupported
one; for, in order to put it to some degree of test, I have msti-
tuted the following experiments within the last two days.

Having killed some Am@be by holding a portion of the ma-
terial containing them in a watch-glass over a spirit-lamp, I
placed them under the microscope. The specimens were
then motionless, and devoid of the usual contractile vesicle,
but otherwise they scarcely differed in aspect from the living
specimens. I now broke them up by carefully graduated
pressure ; and, by a slight displacement of the thin glass cover
beneath which they were being examined, the detached masses
were separated from each other. On dilute sulphuric acid and

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 129

iodine being now applied, the result was similar to that produced
in the case of living individuals,—with this exception, that the
broken-up masses were not spherical, but irregular and ragged
in their outline.

Here, then, the inference is legitimate, that, whilst vitality and
contractility were destroyed by the heat so as to preclude the
formation of ectosare over the torn surfaces, the recession of the
granular and other contents towards the centres of the masses
yielded unmistakeable evidence that the action was purely che-
mical, But still nothing at all resembling membrane was evoked;
and the tint imparted externally by the iodine was neither blue
nor purple, but brownish ; and, as in the case cited by Auerbach,
some of the internally contained particles assumed a purple
colour.

In Ameba, the true ectosare appears to me to be nothing more
than the outer layer of sarcode (for the time being) consolidated
by contact with external influences, its depth (or, rather, thick-
ness) being dependent on the length of time these influences
continue to act upon it without intermission; whilst the con-
solidation referred to is greater at the immediate surface, and
gradually diminishes in extent and finally fades away altogether
from thence inwards. Leaving just now the question of reci-
procal convertibility of ectosare and endosare, I would observe
that this view is essentially similar to that propounded by Du-
jardin. It is corroborated, however, by a fact open to the ob-
servation of every one,—namely, that in the nearly quiescent
condition of Ameba, when the outline becomes more or less
spherical, the greater amount of consolidation of the exterior
layer is shown by the hyaline margin becoming broader, and
the whole of the contents being consequently made to recede
towards the centre.

That an increased degree of consolidation does really exist in
the outer layer of sarcode, and that the particles of which the
entire body is composed are not held together only by the mo-
lecular cohesion of which we have examples in the formation of
water-globules or oil-globules when placed in fluid media in
which they are insoluble, I deduce from this fact, that whereas
a foreign body, when of great size and resistent—as, for example,
the large Pinnularie so frequently met with in the Hampstead
Ameba, when fresh (Annals, April, pl. 8. fig. 4, and May,
pl. 9. figs. 1-8, and in the Actinophrys figured in the number
for June, pl. 10. fig. 4)—causes the outer layer to project almost
to any extent without rupture (as in the last-named figure), the
moment the body is torn asunder by pressure or other violence,
such an object instantly slides completely out of the mass, and
becomes liberated.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. a

130 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

As to the power, spoken of by Mr. Carter, possessed by the
ectosare (sic) of passing through the pellicula, it will be seen,
on reference to my paper in the ‘Annals’ for May (p. 370),
that I distinctly point out this feature, and endeavour to prove
by it, for reasons there assigned, that the ectosare is gradually
dissolved, as it were, when pierced by a newly projected mass of
sarcode in the shape of a pseudopodium, in such a manner as to
envelope a portion of the old ectosare. Mr. Carter’s figure
(Annals for July, pl. 3. fig. 4) diagrammatically represents this
condition, and, to my mind, clearly proves one of two things,—
either that a new portion of ectosarc is instantaneously produced
on the contact of the endosare with the surrounding medium,
or that, where such pseudopodia are projected, their characters
must be of a different kind from the rest of the structure—an
inference which is obviously not tenable for a moment. Lastly,
I am unable to see that, by calling in to our aid any such pro-
cess as secretion from the surface of the newly projected portion
of sarcode, any more satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon
is afforded ; for it is obvious that, for every quota of ectosarc
secreted, an equivalent quota would have to be re-absorbed,
otherwise the whole body would rapidly be converted into ecto-
sarc; whilst, assuming the process to be one of alternate secre-
tion and absorption, the reciprocal convertibility of the ectosare
and endosarce for which I contend would be admitted @ priori *.
If not reciprocally convertible one into the other, as I have de-
scribed, how is it that the contractile vesicle is sometimes single,
sometimes multiple, in the same portion of the body—the
multiple vesicles now performing their office separately and in-
dependently of each other, now coalescing with one another, so
as to undergo their contraction in the shape of a single cavity?
How is it that we constantly see a tentative double or multiple
contractile vesicle—that is to say, two or more cavities separated
from each other only by the most delicate films of protoplasmic
substance which forms the partition-walls, these walls permitting
the union of the contents on either sids, not through a minute
specialized aperture, but in a similar manner to the coalescence of
two soap-bubbles? whilst on the next occurrence of distention
at the same spot the contractile vesicle may appear in the shape
of a single large cavity without supplementary ones. How is it
that an Ameba may be lacerated so as to form two or more por-
tions, each of which almost instantaneously presents, at every
portion of the surface, the same appearances as existed prior to

* Mr. Carter speaks explicitly on this pomt. He says (Annals for July,
p- 118), “ That the diaphane, therefore, should pass into the pellicula, or
the pellicula be secreted by the diaphane, seems untenable.”

the Distinctive Characters in Ameceba. 131

laceration, not necessarily by the folding together and union of
the torn margins, but by the immediate development of ectosare
upon the torn surface? ‘Let the process be called instantaneous
cicatrization, or what else we will, the phenomenon remains the
same.

Again, let me ask what prevents the food-vacuole* from
collapsing suddenly when relieved of its contents by absorptive
digestion, as often happens? Admitting that the watery con-
tents prevent collapse from taking place, why do not all the
vacuoles, when crowded together, as they frequently are, coalesce,
instead of remaining for the most part~4istinct from one an-
other? + And lastly, why do the globules of sarcode, when ex-
truded under pressure by rupture of some part of the surface,
and floating side by side (as described and figured by me in the
‘Annals’ for May, p. 370, pl. 9. fig. 8), show no tendency to
coalesce, unless it be that the inner layer in the former case,
and the outer layer in the latter, by which each globule is sur-
rounded, instantaneously becomes converted into ectosare by
simple contact with the surrounding medium ?

Chemical reagents, when applied to a mass of sarcode, prove
nothing beyond their effects on that substance; that is to say,
they do not demonstrate the primary presence of a membranous
layer, even where they succeed in producing the semblance of
one. And this is the case without reference to the well-established
fact that certain chemical substances frequently render more
distinct structures which are already imperfectly visible or de-
monstrable without their employment.

It is obvious that when a food-particle is incepted by an
Ameba, the vacuolar cavity receiving it must either be formed
of ectosare or endosare, or of both combined. If it be urged
that it is composed of the former, it follows that, at every incep-
tion of food, so much ectosare as is requisite to surround the
object must be abstracted from the general surface of the body.
Hence, when the quantity of ingesta is large, as frequently
happens, the greater part, if not the whole, of the ectosarc
must speedily be conveyed into the interior, leaving the viscid

* See my paper in the ‘Annals’ for June, p. 436.

+ It will be recollected that I have endeavoured to prove, by the
mode in which foreign bodies are incepted as food, that the food-vacuole
is formed either of an intussuscepted portion of the ectosare around
the poimt of inception, or, supposing the food-particle to be forced
through the ectosare by the rupture of the latter, that the simultaneous
admission of a portion of water at once converts the endosare, of which
the boundary of the cavity is formed, into ectosare. It is by this means
that the entire food-vacuole is sometimes extruded through an orifice in
the villous region—a thing which could not take place were the food-
vacuole formed of endosarc.

O*

132 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

surface unprotected. Such a view is therefore untenable ;- and,
as I have endeavoured to show, the appearances are only recon-
cilable with one or other of the following processes: that is to
say, the food-particle, on being dragged to the surface, or sur-
rounded, as the case may be, either penetrates the ectosare and
finds its way into a cavity extemporized in the endosare, or, the
cavity being formed partly by the inversion of a portion of the
ectosare, which is thrust in, as it were, before it, the sealing up
of the food-vacuole is effected by a portion of endosarc. In the
first case, the mere contact of the endosare with the portion of
water which is admitted along with the incepted object converts
it into ectosarc. In the second, that part of the food-vacuole
which does not already consist of ectosarc is converted into it
by the same means. But under no circumstances have the
appearances been such as to lead me to the inference that the
food object passed into the interior in the same manner that a
stone does when slowly dropped into water.

It might, at first sight, be imagined that the food-vacuole is
a simple cavity produced within sarcode by the presence of a
foreign body, after the fashion of a globule of oil in water, since
the incepted masses at times present no appreciable vacuolar
Space around them; or that the endogenous vacuolation, to
which reference has been made, negatives the above view. To
the first of these objections I would answer that the vacuole,
when present, undoubtedly contains watery fluid ; and it appears
almost certain that a distinct coagulative effect is produced in
the endosare by contact with it, from what takes place when
effete matter is extruded through a tubule in the neighbourhood
of the villous organ. We then perceive that, on reaching this
region, the contractile power is so great as to cause the vacuole
and its contents to move towards the margin, and the egress of
the effete matter proceeds slowly till its largest diameter has
passed outwards. When this has happened, the effete object
slips out with a jerk, whilst the residue of the contractile effort
causes the vacuolar spherule to assume a tubular and, very fre-
quently, an infundibuliform shape, similar to that described and
figured by me in the ‘Annals’ for May. But at this point the
special contractile effort ceases, and hence the consolidated layer
constituting the wall of the tubule requires a considerable period
for its reconversion into endosarc, which proceeds from within
outwards. In this case, it is very evident, I think, that, did no
difference exist between the degree of consolidation of the tu-
bular wall and the endosare by which it was immediately sur-
rounded, the reconversion spoken of, and the consequent obli-
teration of the excretory tubule and its external orifice, would
be comparatively instantaneous, instead of occupying, as it ge-

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. 133

nerally does, a period varying with its size, from a few minutes
to upwards of an hour.

Here, then, we have the strongest evidence that the degree
of consolidation necessary to establish the differentiation of the
ectosarc, so as to permit a tubule or excretory passage to be
formed, the walls of which do not instantly coalesce as water
does around any heavier object dropped into it, but close slowly
and gradually from within outwards, is due to the mere con-
tact of the fluid which is invariably present whenever such
tubules or excretory orifices are observable; whereas, in those
cases in which the watery matter has been removed by digestive
absorption prior to the discharge of an effete mass, the latter
passes out through the substance of the ectosarc, and without
the production of any passage whatever. In this case, more-
over, the ectosarc closes around the effete body almost as rapidly
as that body can escape.

When foreign substances appear within the endosarc, unsur-
rounded by any appreciable vacuole, I have almost invariably
found them to consist either of mineral particles or the effete
remains of food objects. But this by no means proves that they
obtained entrance into the interior without any accompanying
water, but only that the latter has been absorbed ; for, in view
of the conditions and the manner in which a foreien body is
invariably engulfed, it seems almost impossible to conceive the
entrance to take place without the simultaneous entrance of a
portion of the medium in which both the animal and the food-
particle are sustained.

The reciprocal convertibility of endosare and ectosarc, for
which I would propose the term amebasis*, constitutes, as it
appears to me, a very important and definite distinction between
the animal and the vegetable protoplasm,—the permanent dif-
ferentiation of the true cell-wall of the protophyte rendering
necessary nutrition by endosmotic absorption, whereas in the
Protozoan the continual interchange of parts enables the animal
to incept organic matter for food. But, as I shall endeavour to
show on a future occasion, this power of incepting solid organ-
ized substances does not present itself distinctly in the two lower
orders into which I propose to divide the Rhizopods, but only
in the third or highest order, in which the contractile vesicle
makes its appearance for the first time; whilst, as already
mentioned in my paper in the ‘ Annals’ for June, p. 440, if a

* >AyorBy (reciprocity). It is somewhat singular that the word from
which the generic name of Ameda is derived, and which was selected with
reference to the alternate expansion and retraction of the pseudopodia,
should in reality express the precise action now referred to as being in-
volved in the sarcode substance.

134 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

boundary line exists between the Rhizopods and the true Infu-
soria, it consists in there being, amongst the former, no perma-
nent orifice either for the inception or extrusion of foreign or
effete matter, and the phenomena of amcebasis are present; in
the latter, whatever parts exist are permanent formations, and
there is either a single or dual orifice for the inception and ex-
trusion of substances used for food.

“Of the peculiar and particular function of the sarcode,” says
Mr. Carter (Annals, July 1863, p. 36), “there can be no doubt,
viz. that of digestion.” Now, without calling in question the
function, I may be permitted to observe that Mr. Carter takes
for granted a most important histological as well as physio-
logical distinction between the ectosare and endosarc, which has
only been entertained by Cohn with regard to the Infusoria, as
far as I am aware,—namely, that the ectosare (“ diaphane”’) is
formed from the “ sarcode” (or endosarc), and that, “since it
has a distinct structure as well as office, having been produced,
it is not reconvertible into any other organ by any process but
that of digestive assimilation ” (Annals, July 1863, p. 37).

So that having, in the first place, assumed a histological dis-
tinction between endosare and ectosarc, the existence of a spe-
cial function is likewise assumed in one, and its absence in the
other, whilst an analogy is insisted on between a lower and a
higher grade of organisms,—solely, as it would appear, on the
ground that the microscope has failed, in both cases, to render
visible specialities of structure for the existence of which there
is not a vestige of evidence !

I am also compelled to avow that the theory put forward by
Mr. Carter regarding the pellicula “ possessing no adhesiveness,
as evidenced by nothing adhering to it which is not seized and
kept there by the instinct of the animal,” is not reconcilable
with a fact to which I drew attention in the ‘Annals’ for April
(p. 288), or with his subsequent admission to the same effect,
contained in his paper (July, p. 43), notwithstanding his pre-
viously expressed opinion (p. 32), namely, that the villi exercise
a distinct prehensile faculty, and one which unquestionably
resides in the external layer of which they are composed, and 1s
quite independent of any grasping action, such as we witness
in the rays of Actinophrys.

Before quitting the subject now under discussion, I may
mention that a vast fund of light has recently been thrown
on “the development of the organic cell” by Professor H.
Karsten, in a paper to which I shall have occasion to refer
more in detail at some future opportunity. At present I would
merely state that we are indebted to him for having been
the first to advance a definition of “ cell’’-structure conformable

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. * 3135

with the organization of the Rhizopods, at the same time that
it proves they cannot be regarded as unicellular. For although
my experience of Rhizopod structure compels me to deny the
normal presence of such an investiture as might legitimately be
termed either membranous, capsular, or vesicular—whatever
may be the true state of the case as regards A. bilimbosa, or the
encysted condition of any other form, I regard the exterior of
Ameba as falling strictly within the definition of a cell-“ wall,”
as propounded by Professor Karsten, the outer layer or ecto-
sarc for the time being, however indefinite, constituting the
homologue of the cell-membrane of the higher Protozoa and
Protophyta ; whilst the facts connected with the truly cellular
nature of the sometimes single, sometimes multiple nucleus
demonstrate the truth of the concluding sentence of that au-
thor’s paper. His views are summarily embodied as follows :—

“The primitive form which matter capable of organization
assumes is that of the vesicle—the cell, inseparably composed of
membrane (wall) and contents. Hach of these two constituents
of the elementary organ, constantly exerting the most intimate
influences upon each other, is capable of advancing further in its
development by the aid of the physico-chemical forces to which it
is indebted for its existence.” And again, “ Owing to the com-
plicated structure of the tissue-cells which enter into the com-
position of developed organisms, it is erroneous to speak of
unicellular plants and animals. With as little reason can we
imagine cells without membranes; such bodies, in my opinion,
should be designated drops or granules” *—thereby confirming
the opinion I guardedly expressed when speaking of the true
significance of a membranous nuclear cell in Ameba villosa
(Annals, June, p. 438).

The basal sarcode in Ameba, and probably in all the lower
animals, is generally regarded as a homogeneous, colourless or
nearly colourless, hyaline mucus, within which a number of
extremely minute granules are suspended. This granularity,
coupled with a high refractive power, serves at once to distin-
guish sarcode from water, and hence enables me to affirm that
the clear space surrounding the nuclear mass of A. villosa is
composed of this substance.

It will be observed that there is a discrepancy between Mr.
Carter’s and my estimate of the size of the Se his
measurement of the largest met with being 2a as zalsath
of an inch in length, whereas my largest is only =);,th of an
inch in length. But inasmuch as Mr. Carter states that the

* Translated by Dr. Arlidge from a separate impression from Poggen-
dorff’s ‘ Annalen’ (vol. exviii., Berlin, 1863), and published in the ‘ Annals’
for July 1863.

136 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

specimen he alludes to “was composed of an irregular crystalline
aggregate, based apparently upon an octahedral form,” the two
measurements of the single crystalloid are probably nearly
identical.

Contrary to the opinion expressed by Mr. Carter, I found that
the crystalloids of A. villosa are of the hexahedral series*, and
occur as such even in the smaller specimens. Whether the
crystalline state be the primary one or not, I am at present un-
able positively to say, although it seems highly.probable; for
the association with them of rounded granules, of nearly similar
size, in some but by no means in all specimens, although per-
haps indicative of the latter being a rudimentary condition of
the former, cannot be accepted as a proof of the fact, any more
than that in the oldest specimens, which sometimes present both
the granules and the crystalloids, the former necessarily consti-
tute a disintegrated stage of the latter. In my Streatham spe-
cimens of A. villosa, when first procured, the roundish granules
were almost entirely absent. Now (July 3) they are nearly as
plentiful as the crystalloids. On this head I have only to ex-
press my obligation to Mr. Carter for calling to my recollection
that I had inadvertently omitted to allude to Auerbach’s dis-
covery of crystalloids in A. dzlimbosa, although fully alive to the
fact when I penned my paper—more particularly as Auerbach
regards the crystalloids as hexahedral, which is the view I adopt
with regard to those of A. villosa and the other forms in which
those bodies have been detected by me (Annals, June, pl. 10.
fig. 7).

°Mr. Carter says that he observed the villous appendage in
1854; but it would appear that he failed to recognize its nature
or office ; for, writing in the ‘ Annals’ in 1856 (vol. xvii. p. 116),
the following passage occurs :— “Finally, when all activity
ceases and the Ama@ba becomes stationary (by fixing itself to
some neighbouring object through a pedicular prolongation of
the pelliculat), a new layer of the latter is formed below the old
one, and thus a capsule is formed, and the pellicula replaced on
the body of the Ameba, until the latter becomes firmly encysted.
To what part of the body of the Ameba the pedicular process
corresponds I am ignorant; but it is interesting to see that in
Euglena, where a similar process takes place, it is the anterior
extremity which is next the pedicle.” ‘This is precisely the re-
verse of the position of the prehensile portion in A. villosa, un-
less, indeed, Mr. Carter means to convey that the villous region

* T have succeeded in mounting these crystalloids in balsam, by which
their true shape is very distinctly brought out under a 3th or ;';th objective.

+ Proving that at this period he entertained a different view with regard
to its adhesive quality,

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 137

is not invested, as he supposes the rest of the body to be, with
the “ pellicula,” which I imagine is not the case, from what
he says in the ‘Annals’ for July 1863. In that paper, at
page 31, he says the “ pseudopodia proceed from a posterior end
which is normally capped with a tuft of villous prolongations.”
It will be seen that this expression admits of two diametrically
opposite interpretations ; that is to say, it may either mean that
the pseudopodia are projected from (in the sense of the opposite
direction to) the villous appendage, or that they are actually
projected from the midst of the villi themselves. If we accept
the first interpretation, it is evident that Mr. Carter, when de-
scribing the characters of Ameba generally, in 1856, must have
been unaware of the true significance of the villous appendage ;
for he referred to Ameba Gleichenii, and not A. princeps, in order
to exemplify the prehensile organ of the genus. In doing so,
moreoyer, he says, ‘To what portion of the body of the Ameba
the pedicular process corresponds I am ignorant. But it is in-
teresting to see that, in Huglena, where a similar process takes
place, it is the anterior extremity which is next the pedicle”—
that is to say, the opposite extremity to that in which it occurs in
A. villosa or A. princeps.

On the other hand, if we accept the second interpretation, as
already pointed out, it is altogether irreconcilable with the
appearances presented, which may be seen at a glance on exami-
nation of every form exhibiting the villous appendage.

I have seen no reason to call in question the generally re-
ceived opinion that, after each contraction, the contractile vesicle
reappears at the point of obliteration, or in immediate contact
with that pot. Alluding to this fact, Mr. Carter (in the
‘ Annals’ for 1856, vol. xvii. p. 128) says, “We may perhaps
infer that the situation of the vesicula in Ameba and Actino-
phrys also is fixed, though, from their incessant polymorphism,
it appears to be continually varying in position.” In the case
of Ameba villosa, however, the polymorphism does not interfere
with observation ; and hence it becomes manifest, at a glance,
that the contractile vesicle reappears as above stated—the villous
organ, in the midst, or at the margin, of which the contraction
invariably takes place, affording a fixed point for comparison.
In Actinophrys Eichhorni, again, when examined on a slide under
a thin glass cover, there is no difficulty in obtaining a tangential
position of the contractile vesicle at the same time that the body
of the creature is kept immoveable; and we thus obtain a per-
fect view of the alternating action. But in the latter species I
have never detected anything like supplementary vesicles given
off from the primary one, or any appearance indicating that the

138 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

contractile vesicle is in direct communication with the vacuolated
sarcode around.

Owing, doubtless, to an unintentional alteration of my de-
scription of the contractile vesicle of 4. villosa, Mr. Carter
makes it appear, however, that I assume the possibility of its
formation as in the case of spontaneously formed vacuoles, at
any portion of the body. Thus (Annals, July 1868, p. 39) it
is stated that I regard “all these dilatations as extemporized
vacuoles ;”” whereas I draw a marked distinction (Annals, June
1863, p. 439) between the contractile vesicle, to which I refer as
“a specialized vacuolar cavity,” the “ food-vacuole, which is in-
variably formed at the surface,” and those endogenous vacuoles
which appear and disappear spontaneously within the substance
of the organism (loc. cit. p. 436). The grounds for these dis-
tinctions will become manifest as I proceed. Meanwhile I would
direct particular attention to the definition of the contractile
vesicle given by Dr. Carpenter (‘ Introduction to the Study of the
Foraminifera,’ p. 14), namely, “a vacuole with a definite wall,”
inasmuch as [I shall hereafter endeavour to prove that to this
extent only can it, with propriety, be regarded as a distinct
structure.

In allusion to my remarks in the ‘ Annals’ for June (p. 489),
Mr. Carter says he is glad to find that I support him in the
opinion that the contractile vesicle of Ameba discharges itself
externally. As stated in the ‘ Annals’ for June (p. 441), it will
be seen that I had also satisfied myself of the fact with regard
to an Infusorial animalcule. It is right, however, to mention
that, so long ago as 1849, Dr. O. Schmidt asserted that the
contractile vesicle in Actinophrys opens externally—although
Dr. Lachmann, from whose writings I obtain this piece of in-
formation, is of a contrary opinion*. But Mr. Carter inadver-
tently omits to state that the determinate portion of the body
in Ameba at which the discharge of the contractile vesicle takes
place was pointed out, for the first time, as observed in A. vil-
losa; for when I quoted his very graphic description of the ac-
tion of this organ as occurring in Ameba and Actinophrys
(Annals, 1856, vol. xviii. p. 126), I was certainly under the im-
pression, from what was advanced in the same place (see next
paragraph), that, in indicating a definite spot at which the dis-
charge takes place in Amada, my opinion was at direct variance
with his. Thus, although Mr. Carter, in his recent paper (An-
nals, July 1863, pp. 38 & 39), says, “ It is a remarkable fact, that
although the vesicula is borne round the interior of A. princeps

_* Dr, C.F. J. Lachmann on the Organization of the Infusoria (Ann.
Nat. Hist. 1857, ser. 2. vol. xix. p. 227).

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 139

with the sarcode to which it belongs, it only discharges itself in
the neighbourhood of the villous or posterior end; and such is
the case also with the egesta of the digestive spaces; so that one
might also infer that there was a particular aperture through
the diaphane and pellicula at this part of the Ameba for this
special purpose, as we see in most of the other Protozoa, where
the vesicula is stationary, and frequently fixed close to the anal
aperture,’—in his observations on the contractile vesicle, pub-
lished in 1857 (Annals, ser. 2. vol. xvii. pp. 356 & 357), he writes
as follows :—‘ All the internal organs are imbedded in it [the
sarcode], part of which are fixed, and part moveable; it is also
the receptacle for food, which, in the Ameba, passes into and
out of it, directly through the diaphane, as they have no special
apertures of external communication for this purpose;”’ and,
as already stated, the latter view remained unaltered in any of
his published papers, up to the date of his recent notice on
A. princeps.

Having thus far shown the grounds on which Mr. Carter now
infers the existence of a permanent excretory aperture through
the diaphane and pellicula, which, according to the above ad-
mission, invest the sarcode-substance at the villous region, I
would adduce the evidence upon which I have arrived at an op-
posite conclusion, and accordingly consider the excretory orifice
as being neither a permanent portion of the structure of the
contractile vesicle nor of the ectosare of the villous organ.

Premising that the following details have chiefly been gathered
from Ameba villosa and its protean varieties, I have to observe
that, in its collapsed quiescent state, the contractile vesicle pre-
sents the appearance of a minute villous tuft suspended freely
within the endosarc. When the specimen is tolerably free from
foreign objects, the structure of the contractile vesicle can
readily be made out whilst it remains quiescent near the villous
organ, and then the identity in the intimate structure of the
two parts becomes at once manifest. This is a material point,
since it lends strong confirmation to the view, that whatever the
mode in which the excretory orifice is produced in the one organ,
it is in hke manner produced in the other. But to this subject
I shall more fully revert hereafter.

During the complete contraction of the contractile vesicle no
internal space is discernible. This is probably owing to the con-
solidation of the ectosare of which the minute villi are composed
engendering a slight degree of opacity. The external surface of
the contractile vesicle, however, can readily be distinguished as
being composed of a number of minute papilliform villi, closely
appressed, and imparting so rough an outline to the organ that
it is somewhat difficult to believe that it can be identical with the

140 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

hyaline and brilliant globule presented to view when observed in
its state of greatest distention. The transition, however, is gra-
dual, and leaves no room for doubt on this head. Sometimes the
diastole* is altogether confined to the main cavity of the organ.
When this happens, the central diaphanous space which shortly
presents itself increases slowly in dimensions, whilst pari passu
the boundary-wall becomes thinner, the villi grow shorter}, and
the opacity is exchanged for an almost crystalline transparence,
In this condition, the remains of the little villi can be faintly
detected, under a sufficient magnifying power, as minute spots,
distributed sparsely and unequally over the surface of the
vesicle. But no trace of a double outline is visible, even under
the highest power of the microscope; nor does its boundary wall
approach more closely to the appearance of distinct membrane
than the boundary wall of an oil-globule. Indeed, but for the
scattered papill on its periphery, it would be absolutely hyaline
throughout, and barely distmguishable frcm a solid globule of
sarcode. In this, its fully distended state, no supplementary
vesicles are evolved from any portion of its surface. During the
systole, the appearances are reversed in their order, and take
place in a much shorter period—the hyaline clearness becoming
first destroyed, and the faint spots growing, as it were, into a
crowd of villi, until finally the whole mass resumes its pristine
aspect. But now and then the systole seems to be checked
before completion, and the diastole recommences without entire
obliteration of the cavity. Again, instead of the diastole origi-
nating at a single point, sometimes from two to twenty minute
globules start into existence around or near that point, and
cover a space considerably in excess of that occupied by the col-
lapsed primary contractile vesicle. These globules are cavities
formed within the villi, which thus become temporarily con-
verted into ceca, admitting of distention to a certain point, and
then either bursting into each other or into the primary cavity,
as the case may be; whilst at other times one or two, but very
rarely more, of the supplementary vesicles thus formed become
altogether detached, after the fashion of a soap-bubbie given off
from a pipet, and circulate amongst the rest of the particles
within the endosare of the Amewba. When this occurs, I have

* Although the organ in question bears no analogy to the heart of the
higher animals, as it contracts and expands rhythmically, the terms diastole
and systole may be employed without impropriety, in order to distinguish
the action more clearly from that of the ordinary vacuoles.

+ An analogous effect is produced when a caoutchouc capsule, the wall
of which is tuberculated and opaque in its unexpanded state, is inflated
until the entire surface assumes a homogeneous and semidiaphanous
appearance.

t Mr. Carter suggests this simile in describing the disengagement of

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. 141

now and then distinctly seen the tubular isthmus which con-
nects the supplementary with the primary cavity contract, be-
come by degrees attenuated to a mere filament, and finally part
in the middle, its conical-shaped ends gradually melting into
the boundary-wall of the primary contractile vesicle on the one
hand, and the supplementary vesicle on the other.

Both seem now to be wholly independent of each other*.
The primary vesicle may either go on performing its diastole and
systole without moving from the villous margin, or may take
part in the pseudocyclosis. The supplementary one, again,
may move away to the opposite or anterior extremity of the
Ameba, changing its relative position to the villous organ and
the primary contractile vesicle in every possible manner, and
apparently for an indefinite period, and may ultimately return
to discharge its contents independently at some portion of the
villous region distinct from that occupied by the primary vesicle,
or may actually find its way to the parent from which it sprang,
and coalesce with it, reappearing, or otherwise, on the next dia-
stole of the primary organ, as the case may be. These supple-
mentary contractile vesicles rarely present papille on their sur-
faces ; when they do so, these are very few in number; so that
it is almost impossible to determine whether the object we are
looking at be an ordinary empty vacuole or a contractile vesicle,
unless we continue our observations over a period sufficiently
protracted to embrace the next systolic action.

Lastly, it is deserving of special notice, that whenever the
identification of one or more supplementary contractile vesicles

“digestive spaces”’ at the inner extremity of the “buccal tube” of Para-
mecium, &c. (Annals, 2nd ser. vol. xvil. p. 357).

* In Dr. Carpenter’s ‘Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera,’
it is stated, on the authority of MM. Claparéde and Lachmann, that in a
species of Ameba allied to A. princeps, after the contraction of the con-
tractile vesicle, from four to eight vacuoles were seen to spring up at dif-
ferent parts of the body, often at a considerable distance from the con-
tractile vesicle, and that these seemed to move towards the latter when
they had attained a certain size, and discharge their contents into it. Ina
note, Dr. Carpenter states his belief that distensible vacuoles have been
mistaken, by some observers, for multiple contractile vesicles, but that
they have not the well-defined boundary of that organ, and they do not
present the rhythmical contractions.

According to my experience, no vesicle, unless it be a true contractile
vesicle, under any circumstances bursts into the primary one.

According to my experience, contractile vesicles or supplementary con-
tractile vesicles, when detached, may burst into each other, but never into
vacuoles, or vice versd; I cannot help thinking, therefore, that the “ va-
cuoles ” which are here spoken of as seeming to burst into the contractile
vesicle must have been supplementary vesicles, not evolved spontaneously
in the substance of the endosarc, but disengaged and moved to a distance
from the primary one before the observation commenced.

142 . Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

has been rendered possible, owing to their having been con-
tinuously watched from the moment of their evolution, neither
they nor the primary contractile vesicle from which they were
evolved coalesce with the vacuoles or with the nuclear capsule,
even when powerfully appressed against each other. They
coalesce, however, with each other when they happen to come in
juxtaposition during their movements to and fro, even at a dis-
tance from the villous region. But they neither perform their
systole singly nor when so coalesced, until they once more reach
the posterior or villous margin,

Now, assuming, for the sake of argument, that the primary
contractile vesicle is furnished with a fixed and determinate
orifice for the discharge of its contents, and that a corresponding
orifice occurs at some spot on the villous surface, it is quite ob-
vious that the coimcidence of the two apertures can only be
maintained, in an organism of so polymorphous a nature, as long
as the contractile vesicle and the villous appendage maintain an
undeviating relation to each other. But it has been shown that
this is not the case in Ameba villosa; for the location of the
vesicle at the spot where it discharges is only temporary, and
its movements, when detached from that spot, conclusively prove
that all union whatever between the wall of the vesicle and the
villous region, apart from that provided by the general proto-
plasmic substance constituting the interior of the body, is de-
stroyed. Besides this, I am inclined to believe, from the ap-
pearances (although I cannot speak positively to it as a fact),
that the discharging orifice is not always in the same spot of the
villous surface, but that its position, although restricted to that
portion of the animal’s body, varies with the polymorphic cha-
racter of the villous organ itself and the situation it assumes
relatively to the nucleus or other contents when resting in the
vicinity. In the case of the supplementary vesicles formed
each in one of the minute villous cca, the isolation from the
primary vesicle and from the villous appendage is quite as cer-
tain; for, owing to their being generally of smaller diameter,
these supplementary vesicles move about with greater freedom,
passing in every direction round or along the different aspects of
the primary vesicle when at rest or when it also happens to be
roaming about the centre of the body, and, for the time being,
constituting as distinct organs as if they had been derived from
separate sources. This being the case, it seems, as already
urged, almost impossible to conceive that any permanent bonds
of union, such as sinuses, or any determinate apertures, should
exist either in the primary or supplementary vesicles. With re-
gard to the non-existence of a determinate and constant excretory
orifice at the villous surface, the evidence is quite as conclusive.

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 143

In the first place, no such permanent orifice can be detected
even with the aid of the highest powers of the microscope and
every essential accessory in manipulation. Iam aware that this
may be regarded as inconclusive by some persons ; but, whilst I
am quite as ready as Mr. Carter to believe that our optical ap-
pliances frequently fail, even under the most favourable circum-
stances, to resolve extreme subtleties of organic structure, I con-
ceive that, in the example under notice, this evidence is not of
the purely negative character that it would be were no trace dis-
cernible of the process whereby the contents of the contractile
organ, or the effete matter within the food-vacuoles, are extruded
at the surface.

The excretory aperture is extemporized, and its closure takes
place from within outwards, solely because the indefinite conso-
lidation of the sarcode, to which the name of ectosare has been
very appropriately given by Dr. T. Strethill Wright, being at
its maximum at the immediate surface in contact with the
medium around, and decreasing in degree from the surface in-
wards, the same cause that prevents the coalescence of the
pseudopodia of Ama@ba under ordinary circumstances, in the
first place increases the resistance to the passage of the object
about to be extruded as the surface is approached, and, in the
second, causes the coalescence to take place from within out-
wards, and its rate to depend upon the degree of consolidation
attained by the ectosare (see p. 182). Hence (and this is a most
important fact), whilst the viscidity of the endosarc, when an
Ameba is suddenly torn across, enables foreign bodies to slip
out as they do from a globule of oil (that is to say, without
driving a layer of the substance before them as they escape, or
leaving a depression on the surface behind them), the compara-
tive rigidity of the ectosarc causes a generally infundibuliform
tubule* or pit to be formed, which tubule or pit coalesces from
its inner pointed extremity in the direction of the exterior, and,
finally, becomes altogether obliterated. In the least active con-
dition of Ameba villosa, when several villi frequently combine
to form single larger ones, the latter are often so hyaline as to
render the detection of anything like a canal inevitable, did it
exist ; and it is in these that the mode of formation of the ex-
cretory tubule and its closure can be so clearly made out as to
leave no doubt on the subject; for as the point of the tubule
slowly advances outwards it leaves behind it a perfectly hyaline
tract, the appearance presented during the process of closure
being precisely similar to that observable in a thermometer-stem

* See my observation on the infundibuliform tubule in the ‘ Annals’ for
May 1863, pp. 366, 367.

144 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

where the capillary channel has been somewhat extended and
sealed up at one end under the action of the blowpipe.

In a former communication (‘ Annals,’ May, p. 367) at-
tention was drawn by me to the occasional occurrence of a
funnel-shaped tubule which opened out in the midst of the
villous organ; and it was stated that when this took place,
no contractile vesicle was observable. It was also stated that I
had seen effete particles, and, on three occasions, bodies which
resembled vacuoles, extruded through similar orifices. More
recent observations, however, have satisfied me that the failure
to detect the contractile vesicle during periods which I then
considered sufficient to ensure the occurrence of the diastole or
systole may have been due to the insufficiency of those periods,
and hence that this organ may have been present notwithstanding
its having escaped notice. The guarded manner in which I
stated what took place was the result of a doubt as to whether
the tubule was formed by the contractile vesicle, or by a vacuole,
or was in reality an extemporized channel. The opinion I now
hold—one based on actual observation—is, that whereas in some
cases a food-vacuole may be reabsorbed into the substance of
the body after the effete matter it contained has escaped, and in
this way be converted into an infundibuliform tubule, in others
the vacuole may be discharged along with the effete matter
which it encloses, and the tubule may be produced in the sub-
stance of the body at the point of extrusion,—the first of these
appearances presenting itself when the effete mass is of a shape
admitting of easy discharge as soon as the margin is reached,
the second when the mass is so irregular in outline as to en-
tangle its own vacuole and carry it along with it.

According to my experience of A. villosa, it seems almost
certain that, normally, the contractile vesicle is single, and that
the evolution of supplementary vesicles from the primary one,
in the manner already described, may take place without refer-
ence to approaching fission. For, did the evolution invariably
precede that process, we should, in all probability, detect a
plurality of nuclei also, which is not always the case. And,
unless we regard fission in these lower organisms as an accidental
phenomenon, the supplementary vesicles, when once detached
in such cases, would not coalesce again with the primary one.
On the other hand, there is every reason to believe that, when
fission takes place normally, each segment is provided with its
own nucleus and contractile vesicle. I say normally, because
examples have been observed by me, from the commencement to
the end of the process, in which sometimes the nucleus, and
sometimes the contractile vesicle was absent in one of the newly
formed segments. But I must mention that, whenever the

the Distinctive Characters in Amceba. (145

former has been absent, the segment remained comparatively
torpid and motionless, whilst the segment provided with this
organ moved away energetically as soon as the separation was
complete*. Under these circumstances it has yet to be deter-
mined whether the contractile vesicle at any time originates
spontaneously, or is invariably an integral part of the organism.
Judging from its presence in full activity in the minute vivi-
parously produced Amebe, the latter conclusion seems to me
most probable. But, I need hardly say, the point is one that
demands a great deal of careful investigation before it can be
regarded as settled.

Mr. Carter (‘ Annals,’ 2nd series, vol. xvii. p. 129) observes,
in allusion to the occasional plurality of the contractile vesicles
in Chilodon cucullulus and the Rhizopoda generally (loc. cit.
p- 130), that “the synuses of this system the sarcode of
Ameba not only seem to burst into each other and into the
vesicula, but, when the latter has contracted, another sinus, par-
tially dilated and situated near the border, may be seen to swell
out and contract after the same fashion before the reappearance
of the vesicula,””—a figure (plate 7. fig. 81 a a) being appended
in which two contractile vesicles, in a partially distended state,
are represented on opposite margins of the body of A. quadri-
lineata, and described in the explanatory text (p. 248) as being
“about to discharge themselves independently of the large,
apparently normal one,” which is centrally placed between them
at a considerable distance from the true posterior extremity of
the body.

In describing the contractile vesicle of A. villosa in the
* Annals’ for April last (p. 289), I mentioned that it sometimes
presented a reticulated appearance. I have repeatedly seen the
same appearances since then, and have no doubt now that each
contractile vesicle is able to project from its wall supplementary
vesicles at points answering to the reticulations or, as I now
regard them, villi. But, whilst it is quite possible to conceive
that the contractility of the wall of the supplementary vesicles
is sufficient to enable their orifices of communication with a
principal one to remain closed until their complete expansion
takes place, or even to expand and collapse independently
during the apparent obliteration of the principal vesicle, it
appears to me that the view expressed by Mr. Carter in the
‘ Annals’ for 1856 (vol. xviii. p. 129), namely, that ‘the sinuses

* From the extreme difficulty of determining whether we are looking at
a contractile vesicle or a mere passive vacuole, I am unprepared to speak
positively as to the behaviour of a detached segment when apparently
devoid of the former of these organs—the diastolic condition being some-
times maintained without interruption for upwards of an hour.

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 10

146 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

of this system in the sarcode of Ameba not only seem to
burst into each other and into the vesicula,” is not only alto-
gether irreconcilable with the facts advanced regarding the
“complete isolation of the contractile vesicle and its supple-
mentary cavities from the body and from each other,” but irre-
concilable with any other view than that the orifices of dis-
charge are extemporized, and not permanent portions of the
structure.

But we have some clue to the process by which the discharge
of the contractile vesicle is supposed to be effected, according to
Mr. Carter, from an observation made by him in the ‘ Annals’
for 1856 (vol. xvii. p. 181), namely, that “in Ameba it [the
contractile vesicle] is attached to the pellicula, and therefore no
sarcode exists immediately opposite this point.” Here, again,
we find no mention of what is now described as taking place in
A. princeps ; for the remark is illustrated, not by any reference
to that form, but to A. radiosa—no' allusion being made to any
fixed point of discharge or, indeed, any determinate aspects of
the body, but it beg simply stated that the figure appended
“presents a mammilliform projection preparatory to discharging
its contents.”

Reverting now to the number of contractile vesicles, it will be
seen that Mr. Carter expresses himself with perplexing ambi-
guity, as the subjoined extracts testify :—

“In Ameba and Actinophrys the vesicula is generally single ; sometimes
there are two, and not unfrequently in larger Amebe a greater number ”
(‘ Annals,’ 2nd ser. vol. xvii. p. 128).

“There is no knowing how many vesicule there may be in Ameba;
while Actinophrys Sol (Ehr.) is surrounded by a peripheral layer of vesi-
cles, which, when fully dilated, appear to be all of the same size, to have
the power of communicating with each other, and each individually to
contract and discharge its contents externally as occasion may require;
though, generally, one only appears and disappears in the same place”
(loc. cit., succeeding page).

“In A. princeps the normal number is one; but there are many smaller
ones which act as sinuses around it, and one of these occasionally becomes
so enlarged as to look like a second vesicula, yet it also ultimately dis-
charges its contents into the main one. Where the vesicula discharges
itself, it again recommences to appear; and there, also, the accessory
sinuses may be best seen as they successively become dilated and discharge
their contents into the vesicula ” (‘ Annals,’ July 1863, p. 38),

The condition of abnormal vacuolation referred to by me (in
the ‘Annals’ for June, p. 436) as presaging disruption and
death, is probably the same as that described by Mr. Carter as
‘an intense vacuolar state of the sarcode, which makes it look
like an areolar tissue composed of vesicles, diminishing to a
smallness that cannot be determined by the microscope.” But
he adds, “ whether this state be a part of the vesicular system, or

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 147

not, I am unable to decide.” And it would appear that a similar
opinion was held by him in 1856, from the subjoined statement
extracted from the ‘Annals,’ vol. xvii. p. 858. “In Ameba,
sometimes, the sarcode appears to be filled with such vesicles *,
which not only now and then durst into the large one or vesicula,
but, when the latter has discharged itself, frequently burst of
themselves externally.” *

Without dwelling on the perplexing modifications of opinion,
regarding the number of the contractile vesicles in Ameba and
Actinophrys, which are embodied in the above extracts, I may
observe that I regard the origin of the abnormal vacuolation as
totally distinct from that of the multiple or supplementary con-
tractile vesicles; and, bearing in mind that in Amewba it is con-
nected with an exhausted condition of the organism, it appears
explicable on the supposition that the effete watery particles,
being unable to obtain a discharge through the ordinary endos-
motic transference to the true excretory organ (namely the
contractile vesicle, which now acts very sluggishly), are poured
out, and produce vacuoles at any portion of the endosare where
a rudiment exists (see anté, p. 146). Should this view be
correct, it would appear that the endogenously formed vacuoles
constitute a rudimentary water-respiratory system +; whilst the
contractile vesicle serves to throw off such portions of the watery
particles as are effete; and the food-vacuoles (which are invari-
ably formed at the surface) ipso facto constitute digestive cavi-
ties, whose assimilative function is called into action by the sti-
mulus of organic objects capable of solution by them. In this
sense I fully acquiesce in Mr, Carter’s opinion that a digestive
power is essentially inherent in sarcode generally, although I can
no more admit the conversion of ectosarc and endosarc to be the
result of a digestive process, as urged by him (‘ Annals,’ July,
p. 37), than that the absorption of a morbid growth, or the con-
stant decay and renewal of parts, in the case of the higher animals
is similarly brought about.

The conversion of endosare into ectosare I regard as analogous
in its character, if not identical, with coagulation, the effect
being produced by the mere contact of sarcode with the medium
in which it resides; whilst the converse process constitutes an
inherent vital function of the animal protoplasm. Should this
view be admissible, we have presented to us a phenomenon bear-
ing, in the most important manner, on the general question of
development, and one which, I venture to affirm, is far more

* The context shows that the supplementary contractile vesicles are here
referred to.
+ The Diatomacez and Desmidiacez, when becoming languid and un-
healthy, present this inordinate vacuolation.
10*

148 . Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Value of

largely engaged in the production of specific type, not -only
amongst the lower, but also the higher orders of being, than we
have heretofore been inclined to allow. I allude to the recipro-
cal action of physical and vital forces.

Keeping in view, then, the proofs that have been adduced by me
to show, Ist, that no permanent or determinate aperture exists
either in the contractile vesicle, the supplementary vesicles, or
in the outer layer (by whatever name called) of the villous ap-
pendage of Ameba; 2ndly, that, whilst the ectosare is but a
more consolidated condition of the endosare, both endosare and
ectosare are reciprocally convertible one into the other; 3rdly,
that no appreciable difference is traceable between the ectosarc
of the organism and the wall of the contractile vesicle when seen
in its distended state; 4thly, that the coalescence of two distinct
contractile vesicles takes place without reference to the special
aspects in which they come into contact; 5thly, that no vestige
of a permanent system of sinuses is discoverable, and that the
facts actually observed militate in a direct manner against the
possibility of its existence; 6thly, that the non-coalescence of a
contractile vesicle with an ordinary vacuole, when coupled with
what has been advanced under heads 2 and 8, and the fact that
the obliteration of the extemporized aperture of the contractile
vesicle takes place only when it comes into immediate contact
with the ectosarc of the villous region, renders it extremely pro-
bable, if not certain, that the constitution of the wall of the one
is identical with the investing layer of the other,—it appears to
me to have been conclusively established that no determinate or
permanent orifice occurs either in the villous region or the wall
of the contractile organ *.

If, then, no permanent orifice exists at any portion of the wall
of the contractile vesicle, and yet, notwithstanding, two or more
of these organs have the faculty of coalescing, so as to constitute
one vesicle, even after being so far removed from each other, and
so subjected to change of relative position as to preclude the
possibility of any bond of union such as a sinus being present,—
it is manifest that we can only regard the coalescence of two or
more vesicles as due to the gradual attenuation and ultimate
disruption of the wall that intervenes between them. ‘The ap-
pearances are those that would ensue from this process, and not
such as would be likely to follow on an interchange of the con-

* On reference to the ‘ Annals’ for June 1863, p. 441, it will be seen
that I allude to the illusory appearance of an aperture in the contractile
vesicle, engendered by an imperfect systole of that organ. I am still of
opinion that this appearance is illusory, and shall reserve my views on the
precise mode in which the discharge of the contents of the vesicle is brought
about for a future occasion.

the Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 149

tents of two or more vesicles through a minute duct or aperture.
In short, the process is identical with that observable on the
coalescence of two adjacent soap-bubbles.

But it has been shown, I think, satisfactorily, both on evidence
adduced in the preceding pages and from the opinion expressed
by Dr. Carpenter (p. 138, anté)—namely, that “the contractile
vesicle may be regarded as a vacuole with a defined wall,”—that
the said wall is not identical in its degree of differentiation with
the wall of the ordinary vacuolar cavities. The fact, already al-
luded to, of the contractile organ never coalescing with the true
vacuoles would seem at once to establish this | differentiation.
Now it is not membranous in the usual acceptation of the term ;
but the appearance presented by its margin, its behaviour
when isolated from the body altogether, as spoken of by Mr.
Carter (‘ Annals,’ July 1863, p. 39), and, since the publication
of Mr. Carter’s paper, verified by myself (with the exception of
the iodine test), clearly prove that the differentiation in question
is identical both in degree and character with that of the ecto-
sare generally. It is true that Mr. Carter (loc. cit.) refers to
“the presence of condensed sarcode round the point of contrac-
tion manifested under the effect of iodine;” but this condensa-
tion is quite manifest without the iodine; and were it not so, I
am inclined to think, as already urged, that the appearances pre-
sented after amorphous structure (such as that under notice) has
been subjected to the action of a powerful chemical reagent are
no guarantee that those appearances existed normally and prior to
its employment. The condensed layer, moreover, may be seen
whilst the contractile vesicle is still within the parent endosarc ;
and should it be isolated whilst in a state of contraction, the
true villous character of the condensed layer becomes so palpa-
ble, that, but for the previous knowledge of its origin, it might
readily be mistaken for a fragment of the villous appendage itself.

Mr. Carter’s remarks on this head have such a material bear-
ing on the view I put forward, that it is necessary for me to
quote them in detail :—‘“ Towards death, the vesicula, growing
weak, is not easily refilled, nor do the small sinuses which sur-
round it readily discharge their contents into it; so that by a little
pressure, when the group is at the margin, they may be made
to pass out into the water without bursting; and, at this time,
if iodine be applied, each may be seen to retain its cell-form,
puckered and tinted yellow by the iodine, although they may be
all quite isolated and separated from the rest of the sarcode and from
each other” (see figures, loc. cit.). Mr. Carter then asks, “ If
the vesicula be distinct, why not the sinuses?” (p. 39 ut supra).

So far from admitting that Mr. Carter’s view as to the per-
manent nature of the channel of communication between two or

150 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Value of

more supplementary vesicles (the analogues of the sinus-system
of Paramecium, &c., according to that author), between the sup-
plementary vesicles and the primary contractile vesicle, or between
the principal one and the exterior, are borne out by the facts he
thus describes and their illustrative figures, it appears to me
that no facts could more directly negative the conclusions at
which he has arrived,—in the first place, from the circumstance
of “the small sinuses which surround” the primary vesicle be-
ing at all capable of isolation “from the rest of the sarcode
and from each other ;” and in the second, because the effect of
iodine being to cause sarcode to contract and become consoli-
dated, unless it can be shown that, besides mere reduction in
bulk, such an increase of contractile power is secured as would
prevent a determinate orifice from yielding under the tension to
which the wall of the vesicle is subject, the retention of the
cell-form, at the same time that the connecting sinuses are de-
stroyed, is only reconcilable with one supposition, namely, that
every portion of the vesicular wall is of uniform and unbroken
composition. For I must repeat that since the changes of posi-
tion usually undergone by every detached supplementary vesicle
are as fortuitous as the shape of the body or the size of the
pseudopodia, the difficulty of conceiving that these vesicles should
revert to the precise poimt at which the excretory aperture is
assumed to exist, so as to ensure that exact coincidence between
the latter and their own excretory orifices which is essential to the
stability of Mr. Carter’s theory, must be regarded as insuperable.

I must also call attention to the difficulty of comprehending
in what manner the prehensile power of the villi is effected, if
the pellicula, which Mr. Carter declares to have no prehensile
power (‘ Annals,’ July 1863, p. 32), save when exercised under
the “ instinct” of the creature, invests the villous organ. It
is clear that Mr. Carter assumes that it does so; otherwise he
would not have made use of the expression, that there is an
“aperture through the diaphane and pellicula ” at that particular
portion of the body.

Lastly, without offering any opinion on the question of “ in-
stinct,” as here introduced, I have no hesitation in saying that
the prehensile action observable in the vill of Ameba villosa is
not of a grasping kind, as if they were minute pseudopodia, but
distinctly adhesive and residing at the immediate surface. As
stated by me (‘ Annals,’ April, p. 288), so powerful is the pre-
hensile action, that at times the villi become stretched beyond
their endurance when the animal is moving. When this takes
place to an inordinate degree, they are rent asunder, the torn
extremity next the body starting back, at the instant of rupture,
as if resilient.

the,Distinctive Characters in Amoeba. 151

_ Taking into consideration, then, the various facts that have
been adduced on the subject in the present and preceding
papers—that the characters of A. princeps, as assigned to it by
Ehrenberg and Dujardin, have been universally accepted by
writers on the Rhizopods up to the period at which my obser-
vations on A. villosa were published—the strong evidence af-
forded that A. princeps (Carter) is not a distinct form, but, toge-
ther with other varieties to which separate specific names have
heretofore been assigned, referable to A. villosa—that the cha-
racters of A. villosa are such as to elevate the genus to which it
belongs considerably beyond the position it formerly oceupied—
and, lastly, that no descriptive notice or figures of any of the
characters brought to notice in A. villosa had previously appeared
in any printed work whatever,—I think it will be admitted that
A. princeps (Ehr.), if still recognized at all as a species, should be
retained under the definition originally assigned by its founder,
whilst A. villosa should henceforth constitute the true type of
Ameban structure.

I would state, in conclusion, that the length to which my
observations have unavoidably extended, coupled with the abso-
lute necessity for verbatim extracts, have precluded me from
referring, in many cases, to the works of Ehrenberg, Dujardin,
Schultze, J. Miller, Cohn, Lachmann, Claparéde, Reichert, and
others, and likewise from touching on numerous minor points
bearing on the questions at issue. These omissions I hope here-
after to rectify. Meanwhile let me claim the reader’s indul-
gence if I have been somewhat prolix in my treatment of a very
important and imperfectly understood subject. In sustaining
the accuracy of the opinions and statements published in my
preceding papers, I had two distinct objects in view, namely, to
advance science, and perform an act of justice to myself: for a
very cursory perusal of Mr. Carter’s notice on Am@ba princeps
will suffice to show that, directly or indirectly, nearly every
opinion and statement of mine has been therein assailed.

Under these circumstances, should I have appeared some-
what tenacious of the little fame attaching to good service, I
trust it may be taken into consideration that such service is not
heaven-born, but the fruit of long and assiduous study, and
that, however widely my friend Mr. Carter’s views and mine
may differ on certain points, we assuredly have no sympathy
with those intellectual eagles who, whilst they affect to see
everything at a glance, deny all credit to others, and would have
the world believe that their aims are purely unselfish.

Kensington,
July 15, 1863.

152 Mr. J. Y. Johnson on a new Species of Lycosa

XIV.—Description of a new Species of Lycosa living in the Island
of Madeira; with some Remarks on Lycosa_ tarentuloides
maderiana, Walckenaer. By James Yate Jounson, Corr.
Mem. Zool. Soe.

Lycosa Blackwalli, un. sp.

The /egs are long, robust, thickly clothed with hair, and fur-
nished with sessile spines; they are brownish grey, with broad
rings of dark brown. The metatarsus and tarsus of the two
anterior pairs of legs are black, and the undersides of the other
joints are black, or very dark brown. At the distal extremities
and on the upper sides of the femur and genua of the first two
pairs of legs, as well as at the extremities of some of the joints
of the two posterior pairs of legs, there is a patch of orange
hairs. Each tarsus is terminated by two curved pectinated
claws and a minute simple claw. The fourth legs are the longest;
and then come the first, second, and third, the last being the
shortest.

The palpi are rather short, and each is terminated by a curved
pectinated claw. The last joimt is black or dark brown, and
the uppersides of the penultimate and antepenultimate joints
are orange.

The falcés are powerful, conical, vertical, and armed with a
strong curved fang at the extremity, and five or six teeth on the
inner surface. The orifice of the poison-duct is conspicuous.

The mazille are straight, and have rounded extremities, which
are enlarged and obliquely truncated on the inner side. The lip
has the middle broader than either its base or apex, and the
latter is truncated and hollowed.

The sternum is oval, polished, and hairy. All these parts are
of a deep brown hue, sometimes almost black.

The cephalothorax is compressed at its anterior part, and
rounded at the sides; it is convex, has a slight longitudinal
furrow in the median line, and is densely clothed with short hair
of a brownish-grey colour. At each side is a series of brownish-
grey suboval spots surrounded by black ; these are more appa-
rent in the male than the female. On the median line in the
posterior half of the cephalothorax there is a delicate Y-shaped
black mark, the fork being directed forwards, and the extremities
of the tines being dilated. Posteriorly there are two broad longi-
tudinal black bands or blotches, one at each side of the median
line; and these bands are continued upon the anterior part of
the abdomen, where they have between them a patch of long
orange hairs.

The four anterior eyes are equal in size, and form a straight
transverse row near the frontal margin of the cephalothorax.

living in the Island of Madeira. 153

-. The abdomen is oviform, a little broader posteriorly than in
front, where it projects shghtly over the end of the cephalo-
thorax ; it is convex above, and thickly covered both above and
below with short hair, of a brownish-grey colour, plentifully
marked with small black spots. About the middle of the upper-
side is a pair of closely approximated black spots, having the
shape of right-angled triangles, and so disposed that the vertical
side of each is next the median line. Behind these, on the me-
dian line, is a series of triangular black spots, which have their
apices pointing forwards, and their posterior angles more and
more produced laterally as they approach the hinder extremity
of the abdomen. The first of these spots is the largest, and its
apex is truncated. The apical portion of the hinder ones be-
comes gradually less. At each side of this median series are
some groups of black spots, forming blotches of irregular shape.
Along the middle of the underside is a broad longitudinal black
band, which narrows behind. The spinnerets and sexual organs
are black or deep brown.

The male resembles the female, except that it is smaller, the
abdomen shorter, the legs of the third pair proportionally longer,
and the colours more decided. The following are the dimensions
of an adult male and female in parts of an inch :—

3 ?
DNS OT RSID hy SUED geet peat one 2e a2
Length of cephalothorax ...... =e os
Width ,, Ae et Se an —_
Width of the abdomen ........ as a
Length of a leg of the 4th pair.. 13, oe
Length of a leg of the 3rd pair.. 18 au

This handsome spider may be at once distinguished from the
great Lycosa of Deserta Grande (L. ingens, Blackw.) and from
that of Porto Santo (L. tarentuloides maderiana, Walck.) by the
Y-shaped mark on the cephalothorax, and by the black trian-
gular spots on the upperside of the abdomen. From the former
it may be further distinguished by the orange marks on the
palpi and legs, and from the latter by the black and grey annuli
on the legs, and by the eyes of the first row being nearly equal
in size, whereas in the Porto-Santan spider those forming the
middle pair of that row are decidedly larger than the other two.

Examples were first obtained by me three or four years ago,
from holes in a rock in the lower part of the ravine of S. Jorge,
on the north side of the island of Madeira. Others have been
lately obtained by Frederick Pollock, Esq., from banks of earth
covered with moss, in two localities upwards of 2000 feet above
Funchal, on the south side of the island; and my description

154 Mr. J. Y. Johnson on Lycosa tarentuloides maderiana.

has been drawn up from living specimens which he kindly pre-
sented to me.

This spider feeds eagerly in captivity on large “‘ blue-bottle ”
flies. The only web which has been observed was a small cir-
cular one fabricated by an individual whilst in captivity. This
web was of close texture, open above at the middle, and less
than a shilling in size. It was apparently the foundation of a
nest, in which, however, no eggs had been deposited.

It is remarkable that Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas
should each have their own peculiar large species of Lycosa—a
fact that goes to confirm the testimony already given by the
land-shells and beetles, as to the distinctness of the aboriginal
fauna in the different parts of this insular group.

This new species of Lycosa is dedicated to that able arachno-
logist, John Blackwall, Esq., the author of a Monograph of
British Spiders, the first part of which has been recently pub-
lished by the Ray Society. In the ‘Annals and Magazine of
Natural History’ for October 1859 will be found descriptions
by Mr. Blackwall of a collection of Madeiran Spiders made
by me in the preceding year, and in the same publication for
May 1862 descriptions of another collection from the same
island.

A remarkably fine female individual of Lycosa tarentuloides
maderiana, Walck., having been lately presented to me by the
Baron do Castello de Paiva, I will take this opportunity of
making a few remarks upon it, chiefly with reference to the co-
lours of the living spider. The example, which was found on the
uninhabited islet of Ferro, near Porto Santo, had the following
dimensions :—

ANS eR aa Core ivtngs ae ee ney ere ny 1
Length of cephalothorax .............. =
Breadth iF SN Riane Baa ab Spore Be rye os x¥
Breadth of abdomen (nearly) .......... —
Height ,, Pas al re PY Sah RN ta ee ps
Length of a leg of the 4th pair.......... 1

! 45 4 ora mare tse 14

The cephalothorax has a dark greyish-brown hue, and there
is a yellowish-grey band along each side, and another along the
middle, the latter having some small orange dashes at its poste-
rior part. The abdomen is of a brownish (or rusty) black colour.
On the upperside two obscure dark longitudinal lines enclose
an elongated fusiform or lanceolate space. These lines approxi-
mate very gently posteriorly, and their termination is behind
the middle of the abdomen. At each side of the median line,

Bibliographical Notice. 155

where the fusiform space is broadest, there is a small rounded
pit just outside that space; and immediately behind each, there
is a still smaller pit. Near the middle of the length of the
abdomen is another pair of pits, which are further apart than
the anterior pair. All of these pits have a chestnut-brown co-
lour. At each side of the anterior end of the fusiform space is
a black blotch, and between them is a small patch of yellowish
brown. On the underside of the abdomen there is a longitu-
dinal brownish band at each side of, but at some distance from,
the median line. These bands are furthest apart at the middle ;
they approximate, but do not meet, as they approach the spin-
nerets. As to the legs and palpi, the uppersides of the five
distal joints of the former and of the three distal joints of the
latter are orange, which is very intense on the palpi and the two
anterior legs. The undersides of the legs and palpi are black,
and of this colour are also the falces, maxille, labrum, and
sternum.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

English Botany ; or, Coloured Figures of British Plants. Third
Edition. Enlarged, rearranged according to the Natural Orders,

and entirely revised ; with Descriptions of all the Species. 8vo.
London: R. Hardwicke. 1863.

WE have waited for the completion of the first volume of this great
work before taking any notice of it. Now that seven monthly num-
bers have been issued and a volume completed, the proper time has
arrived for a few remarks. It is quite unnecessary to say anything
concerning the original ‘ English Botany,’ projected and the plates
executed by James Sowerby and accompanied by descriptions (each
limited to one small page) from the pen of Sir J. EK. Smith. It was,
and even now continues to be, the most complete illustration of the
flora of any country which has appeared. But, having been com-
menced in the year 1790 and concluded in 1814, the descriptive
part has long been somewhat obsolete, and mteresting chiefly for the
many curious historical facts to be learned from it. Its technical
accounts of the plants were meagre, even when published, and are
now very far from furnishing the information expected by botanists.
Also the plates are not always such as we now desire: the dissected
parts are not magnified to a proper extent, and many things required
in the present state of science are altogether wanting. It also appears,
from an examination of the original drawings from which the plates
were engraved, that alterations were often made by Smith, which
have sometimes been very unwise. He has occasionally altered
Sowerby’s drawing to correspond tolerably with the plant known to
him, whereas an examination of the original sketch shows that the
artist and the author had different plants in view. Again, the want

156 Bibliographical Notice.

of any scientific arrangement of the plates, which was impossible
under the plan of publication necessarily adopted, renders the refer-
ence to them inconvenient. A second edition was commenced in
1830, and carried on for many years to completion. In it Smith’s
part is left out, and new letterpress, of no very high order of merit,
is given. The plates were, we believe, untouched, and are therefore
a mere reissue of the original set, but arranged according to the
Linnzan system, and coloured in a less finished manner. Imperfect
as it was, this seems to have been a successful undertaking, as it is
now apparently nearly, if not quite, out of print. It is therefore
with much satisfaction that we see something more than a reissue of
this national work successfully commenced.

In the present edition, which is arranged according to the natural
orders, the original plates have been carefully examined by Mr. Syme,
the author of the descriptive part, altered in many cases, in accord-
ance with his directions, by Mr. J. E. Sowerby, transferred to stone,
and printed from thence. In general, this is done in a satisfactory
manner ; but we fear that the artist has not always fully carried out
Mr. Syme’s intentions ; and the colouring is certainly far inferior to
that of the original work in many cases. It is manifest that the
mantle of James Sowerby has not fully fallen upon his grandson.
We have spoken of the author of the text, and are justified in doing
so when referring solely to the scientific portion of the work; but,
in fact, there are two authors, and two quite distinct parts of the
book. Mr. J.T. B. Syme writes the scientific part and superintends
the revision of the plates; and Mrs. Lankester adds “popular de-
scriptions,” for which she is solely responsible.

We do not purpose to enter upon a minutely critical examination
of either of these three parts, but will make a few remarks upon
each of them. To begin with the plates :—Plate 23 professes to illus-
trate Ranunculus confusus (Godr.); but we very much doubt its
correctness. Neither the leaves nor the head of carpels are those of
RR. confusus, but rather belong to R. Baudotii. If this is tne only
R. confusus known to the editor, we can account for his joining that
plant to R. Baudotii. Plate 30 represents the true R. reptans
(Linn.), and is the first figure of that plant which has appeared in
this country, except the vignette on the title-page of Lightfoot’s
‘ Flora Scotica,’ published in 1776. Mr. Syme does not seem to
have found the plant in any place except the shore of Loch Leven,
near Kinross—the very spot from whence Sibthorp obtained it.
Most British botanists have mistaken the creeping form of R. Flam-
mula for this much rarer plant. Plate 72 (Fumaria Borai) retains
nearly all the faults (and they are many) of the original plate. We
think it a very poor representation of the plant. The new plate
of I’. pallidiflora is very far superior; that also of F’. muralis is
deserving of praise; but on neither of them is the lower part of the
fruit well shown. The artist has mistaken the fleshy mass form-
ing the base of the somewhat drupaceous fruit for a carpophore:
no such marked separation between that base and the rest of the
fruit exists in nature; it is altogether an invention of the artist.

Bibliographical Notice. 157

Plate 153 (Lepidium latifolium) is a bad copy of the original plate,
which is not itself good. But, as we have said, on the whole the
plates are satisfactory.

Let us now turn to the text. Mr. Syme furnishes a description
of each genus and species, and has performed his task thus far in a
very creditable manner. We do not like his mode of arranging the
plants as species and subspecies, neither can we see the use of it. It
also leads to a very inconvenient introduction of new names, and
especially to that of the prefix “‘eu,”’ as Thalictrum eu-minus for the
true T'. minus of botanists. The author’s theory leads him to take
for granted that in this case the term 7’. minus “ properly belongs
to the whole” of his “collective” species (and similarly in many
other cases), whereas it seems to us to be clearly the property of his
“subspecies 7’. ew-minus.’’ He thinks that this nomenclature will
tend to prevent confusion; and, indeed, such might be the case if
people could be persuaded universally to adopt his mixture of Greek
and Latin and his ideas of sub- and super-species exactly as he
holds them. But as this is exceedingly unlikely, we shall suffer
under the difficulty of not knowing to what an author refers when
using such a term as 7’. minus, until we have discovered the class of
“splitters” or “lumpers”’ to which he himself belongs ; and those
who, fortunately or unfortunately, belong to neither of these classes
must necessarily run the risk of being placed in one of them, pro-
bably very much against their will. The author himself is just in
that position. We have known him stigmatized as an extreme
subdivider of species, and have seen the remark in print that
Mr. Syme “will soon exhaust the patience of both publisher and
buyers” by the plan adopted. We do not admit the justice of
this remark. It is highly desirable for all botanists to see what
is really intended by authors who extensively divide plants, whether
they agree with their views or not; and probably Mr. Syme might
have wisely introduced plates of some other recognized forms. On
the other hand, his adoption of this system has led others to class
him with the very men from one of whom the recently quoted
remark is derived. We believe that he is endeavouring to follow
Nature wherever she may lead him, without caring for the theories
of either extreme class; and therefore amongst those botanists who
are unfortunately swayed (perhaps unknowingly) by party he has
no friends. He seems to be a “searcher after truth,’ such as would
have pleased the late Edward Forbes, who certainly did not belong
to either of those classes. We may not agree with Mr. Syme in
some of his views, but still think most highly of him as an honest,
learned, and painstaking botanist—just the man to edit ‘ English
Botany.’ It would be well if he had a little more absolute power
over his coadjutors, and especially over the artist.

Our remarks have extended to such a length that we must dismiss
the popular part of the book in a very few words. Mrs. Lankester’s
remarks are clever and interesting ; but they are sometimes too long,
and not always absolutely correct.

Although we have found it necessary to make a few adverse re-

158 Zoological Society :—

marks, we can safely add that this edition of ‘English Botany’ is
really deserving of support, and should be obtained by all botanists
to whom five shillings a month (a very cheap rate of charge) is not
too much cost.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Nov. 25, 1862.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq,, F.Z.S., in the Chair.

Notice oF A New SPEciEs oF DoGANtIA FROM ASIA.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., erc.

We have received for the Museum a dried and varnished speci-
men of a Dogania, unfortunately without any special habitat, which
appears to be distinct from Dogania subplana. It is scarcely two-
thirds the size of the specimen which we received from General
Hardwicke, which agrees with the type specimen of Geoffroy, on which
the species was originally described; yet the dorsal shield is more
ossified, the ribs more expanded, and the surface of the bone of the
back and chest more granulated. This leads me to believe that it
must be of a distinct species ; I shall therefore give diagnoses of the
two kinds.

DOoGANIA SUBPLANA.

The first odd transverse bone of the dorsal shield smooth, with a
narrow band of granules on the middle of the hinder edge. The
first, fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs narrow, the last being the narrow-
est and shortest ; the second, third, and fourth ribs broader, dilated
at the outer end, the width being about one-third of the length.
The sternum smooth, with a small, narrow, oblong, longitudinal
granular patch on the hinder edge of the transverse bone.

Hab. India, Singapore?

The dorsal disk of this species is well figured by Cuvier, Oss. Fos.
ii. t. 13. f. 5.

Mr. Swinhoe informs me that this animal is common in the rivers
of China and Formosa; that it is known to the Europeans there by
the name of “Terapan,” most likely a corruption of the American
word ‘‘ Terrapin,” and is esteemed a great delicacy by the Chinese,
and fetches a good price in the market to make soup.

The head of the older specimen is not so large compared with the
body. The animal has the power of drawing its head within the
skin of the neck.

DoGcaniA GUENTHERI.

The odd transverse bone in front of the dorsal shield entirely co-
vered with granulations, like the ribs. The ribs all nearly similar in
width (nearly four times as long as wide), and very slightly and
gradually dilated at the outer end; the last rib the smallest, narrow
and short compared with the others. The hinder sternal bones broad,

Mr. W. Williams on the Breeding of a West-Indian Tortoise. 159

with a large oblong patch of granulations at the inner hinder end.
The labral bones with a large indeterminate group of tubercles near
the suture that divides them.

Hab. India, ?

I have named this species after my friend Dr. Albert Gunther,
one of my colleagues in the Museum, who has prepared such admi-
rable catalogues of the Snakes and Fishes in the Museum Collection.
He first drew my attention to the specimen, and considers it as in-
dicating a very distinct and interesting species. It is to be regretted
that the head is so dried and covered with varnish that it is impos-
sible to see the distribution of the colours with any certainty ; for I
have found that the distribution of the colours on the head and ex-
posed parts of the body affords one of the best and most prominent
characters for the distinction of the species of this family, and one,
unlike the form of the bones, that is not at all, or but slightly,
altered by the age of the specimens.

On THE BREEDING oF a West-INDIAN ToRTOISE IN THIS
Country. By Wiiir1am WILLiAMs (or TREGULLOW).

A female Land-Tortoise, brought from the West Indies and given
to Mrs. Williams’s mother upwards of fifty years ago, was then about
the size of a watch. It has now been in the garden at Tregullow
about thirty-two years. Four years ago another Tortoise was obtained,
which turned out to be a male; they were allowed to roam in the
garden at their will. In 1860 some eggs were found, but, from in-
- sufficient heat, they were not hatched.

About the 25th of July last, the gardener, on passing a south
border, observed the female Tortoise making a pit with her hind legs
in a very peculiar manner. On watching her, he found she had
made a hole some four inches deep, quite flat at the bottom. On
returning, in about five minutes, he found she had deposited six eggs,
and was in the act of covering them with earth. He immediately
removed them, in a flowerpot-stand about two inches deep, filled
with white sand, to a pine-pit, and placed them on a tan-bed. On the
19th of October last he observed two of the eggs had been hatched ;
and on looking around he found, much to his astonishment, two
young live Tortoises. The eggs were about the size of those of a
pigeon, and much the same in appearance.

The young ones are kept in a wooden box (ina pine-pit) with some
earth and moss, under which they nestle. They are fond of lettuces
and strawberries, but do not eat much. They appear quite well and
lively, moving about briskly ; they are now a little larger than half-
crowns.

The eggs were not disturbed while in the pine-pit, the temperature
of which during the time they were there was from 85° to 90° by
day, and from 65° to 70° by night.

The female measures 12 inches long, by 124 inches wide over the
back ; the male 8 inches long, by 8} inches wide over the back.

160 Zoological Society :—

Descriptions or SixtEEN New Species oF BirDS FROM
THE IsLAND oF Formosa, COLLECTED BY RoBERT SWINHOE,
Ese., Her Masesty’s Vice-Consut at Formosa. By Joun
GouLp, Esa., F.R.S., Etc.

PARUS CASTANEOVENTRIS, Gould.

A bar across the forehead and cheeks white; crown of the head,
back of the neck, throat, and chest jet-black; on the nape a spot of
pure white, bounded below by a slight mark of chestnut; mantle,
back, shoulders, upper surface, wings, and thighs very deep blue-
grey; abdomen and under tail-coverts rich chestnut; bill bluish
black.

Total length, 4 inches; bill, 3; wing, 23; tail, 12; tarsi, 3.

Remark.—This species is very similar in colour to the Parus va-
rius of Japan; but differs in having a much smaller amount of
chestnut on the back, and in its smaller size.

ALCIPPE BRUNNEA, Gould.

Feathers of the crown and upper surface deep reddish brown,
those of the crown slightly fringed with a darker tint, giving that
part a scaled appearance; a longitudinal black stripe commences
above the eye and passes down towards the nape, separating the
brown colouring of the crown from the grey of the sides of the face
and ear-coverts; throat and under surface brownish grey; flanks
wood-brown ; primaries and tail-feathers uniform chestnut-brown ;
thighs reddish brown; bill horn-colour ; legs and toes flesh-white.

Total length, 4? inches; bill, =; wing, 22; tail, 2; tarsi, ?.

Remark.—A small brown bird, rather less in size than Accentor~
modularis.

MYIOPHONEUS INSULARIS, Gould.

Lores jet black; forehead crossed by a narrow band of shining
deep blue; crown of the head, throat, back of the neck, all the
upper surface and the tail obscure blackish blue; shoulders very
bright metallic blue; primaries and greater wing-coverts margined
externally with bright blue; feathers of the chest and upper part of
the abdomen black, with shining blue tips; lower part of the abdo-
men, thighs, under tail-coverts, and the under side of the tail-feathers
dull black ; bill and legs black.

Total length, 113 inches; bill, 13; wing, 62; tail, 51; tarsi, 24.

Remark.—This is a much larger bird than the Myiophoneus ceru-’
leus of China; it also differs’in the finer blue of the breast, and in the
total absence of the spangled spots of shining blue which occur on
the back of that species.

GARRULAX RUFICEPS, Gould.

Lores and chin black ; forehead and crown, down to the nape, light
orange-red ; ear-coverts orange-brown; mantle, back, rump, sides of
the chest, flanks, thighs, and two middle tail-feathers light brown ;
primaries blackish brown, margined externally with light olive-brown ;

Mr. J. Gould on new Birds from Formosa. 161

lateral tail-feathers light brown at their bases, and largely tipped
with white; throat, centre of the chest, and abdomen white; bill
blackish brown; legs, toes, and claws light flesh-brown.
Total length, 104 inches; bill, 13; wing, 5; tail, 51; tarsi, 13
Remark.—This species is allied to Garrulax albogularis and G.
ceruleatus ; but differs from both in the uniform orange-red colour-
ing of the crown.

GARRULAX P@CILORHYNCHA, Gould.

Crown of the head, nape, back, rump, throat, and chest deep
rusty brown; many of the feathers of the crown slightly fringed at
their tips with black, a hue which is also observable on the tips of
the ear-coverts; primaries and secondaries reddish brown on their
inner webs; the external edges of the former light grey, and of the
latter deep rusty chestnut; tail deep rusty chestnut, particularly the
six central feathers, the remainder being darker and having less of
the chestnut hue, these lateral feathers also become lighter and of a
reddish fawn-colour towards their tips; abdomen and thighs deep
blue-grey, tinged on the latter with rufous; under tail-coverts fawn-
colour; legs and toes yellowish olive.

Total length, 97 inches ; bill, 17; wing, 42; tail, 43; tarsi, 14.

Remark.—This species differs so much in colour from all other
known species of the form, that it cannot be confounded with any of
them.

PoOMATORHINUS ERYTHROCNEMIS, Gould.

A narrow bar across the forehead, knees, and under tail-coverts
rusty red; lores and ear-coverts grey ; crown of the head and back
of the neck brownish grey, passing into the deep rusty chestnut of
the back, shoulders, and external margins of the wing-feathers ;
inner margins of the wing-feathers blackish brown; tail blackish
brown, with rusty margins; a streak of black, commencing at the base
of the under mandible, passes downward to the chest, which is con-
spicuously spotted or rather blotched with black; throat and centre
of the abdomen white; flanks and upper part of the thighs rusty
olive:-brown ; bill much curved, and of a purplish brown.

Total length, 8 inches; bill, 12; wing, 32; tail, 32; tarsi, 14.

Remark.—This species differs conspicuously trom every other
known species of the genus, It is about the size of the common
Thrush (T'urdus musicus).

HYPSIPETES NIGERRIMA, Gould.

Entire plumage black, with the exception of the edges of the pri-
maries aud tail-feathers, which are pure grey, a tint which is also
observable, but in a minor degree, on the margins of the greater and
lesser wing-coverts, and on the feathers of the flanks and the back,
on the latter, however, it is rather of a greenish cast than pure grey ;
bill blood-red ; legs red.

Total length, 83 inches; bill, 13; wing, 5; tail, 4; tarsi, 3.

Remark.—This species is somewhat allied to, but is a smaller bird
than, the well-known [Hypsipetes psaroides of India.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. i

162 Zoological Society :—

PERICROCOTUS GRISEOGULARIS, Gould.

Male: forehead, crown of the head, back of the neck, back,
shoulders, aud two central tail-feathers sooty black ; wings black,
with an oblique bar of scarlet across the primaries and secondaries,
near their bases; throat and ear-coverts light grey ; chest, abdomen,
flanks, under tail-coverts, and rump rich scarlet ; lateral tail-feathers
black at their bases, and scarlet for the remainder of their length ;
thighs blackish brown; bill and legs black.

Total length, 63 inches; bill, 2; wing, 33; tail, 33; tarsi, 3.

Female: throat light grey, as in the male; crown, ear-coverts,
back, and shoulders deep leaden grey; rump sulphur-yellow ; chest,
abdomen, under tail-coverts, the oblique band across the wing, and
tips of the outer tail-feathers rich Indian yellow; bill and legs

lack.

Remark.—This species is somewhat allied to Pericrocotus sau-
laris, but differs from that bird in its clearly defined throat-mark
and other characters.

GARRULUS TAIVANUS, Gould.

Feathers covering the nostrils, a narrow bar on the forehead, and
a longitudinal mark down the cheeks black; crown of the head,
nape, back, and all the under surface vinous brown, tinged with grey
on the centre of the back; rump and under tail-coverts white ;
primaries black, fringed on their outer margins with greyish white ;
the secondaries have the usual speculum of blue disposed in broad
bars on their outer webs, and a patch of chestnut on the inner
margin of the two shortest feathers, as in most of the true Jays;
shoulders and spurious wing alternately barred with fine lines ot blue
and black ; tail black ; bill black ; tarsi and toes flesh-colour.

Total length, 10} inches; bill, 11; wing, 64; tail, 53; tarsi, 12.

Remark.—This very distinct species, the smallest of the genus I
have yet seen, has the same general colouring as the Garrulus bispe-
eularis of the Himalayas and the G. sinensis of China, but differs
from both in its smaller size and in the black colouring of the feathers
covering the nostrils.

Urocissa C&RULEA, Gould.

Crown of the head, nape, cheeks, throat, and chest jet-black ; body,
both above and below, and the thighs blue, of a cobalt tint in certain
lights ; all the primaries and secondaries fringed with white at their
tips; upper tail-coverts light cobalt-blue, with a broad bar of black
at their tips; two centre tail-feathers cobalt-blue, broadly tipped
with white; the lateral feathers blue at their bases, to which suc-
ceeds a broad band of black, beyond which they are snow-white ;
bill and legs blood-red.

Total length, 21 inches; bill, 12; wing, 74; tail, 147; tarsi, 12.

Remar k.—In size this fine new species is about equal to the Uro-
cissa sinensis, but it differs from that and every other member of the
genus in its stouter bill and in the blue colouring of the entire body.

Mr. J. Gould on new Birds from Formosa. 163

MrGaLama NucHALIS, Gould.

Forehead dull olive ; immediately before the eye a small patch of
red ; throat sulphur-yellow ; remainder of the cheeks, the ear-coverts,
back of the neck, and a band across the lower part of the throat pale
greenish blue, to which succeeds a band of red, separating the sulphur-
yellow of the throat from the yellowish green of the under surface ;
upper surface and tail green, with an obscure patch of red on the
mantle ; primaries blackish brown, externally margined with green ;
bill blackish horn-colour, except the base of the under mandible,
which is sulphur-yellow ; legs olive-black.

Total length, 7} in.; bill, 13; wing, 41; tail, 22; tarsi, 1.

Remark.—This very distinctly marked species is about the size of
Megalema asiatica.

Picus rnsunaris, Gould.

Male: forehead crossed by a narrow band of buff; crown of the
head scarlet ; lores, cheeks, sides of the neck, and throat white; a
black line, commencing at the base of the lower mandible, passes
down between the ear-coverts and the throat, on to the sides of the
chest, where it forms a broad patch; flanks buffy white, strongly
striated with black ; lower part of the abdomen and under tail-coverts
rosy scarlet; mantle, shoulders, upper tail-coverts, and four middle
tail-feathers black ; centre of the back white, crossed with irregular
rays of black, as in Picus leuconotus ; wings black, spotted with white
on both webs of the feathers, as in that species ; outer tail-feathers
alternately barred with black and white; bill bluish horn-colour ;
tarsi and feet lead-colour.

Total length, 91 inches; bill, 14; wing, 52; tail, 33; tarsi, 2.

Female like the male in every respect, except in having a black
instead of a red crown.

Remark,—This species is nearly allied to the Picus leuconotus,
but is very distinct from that and every other member of the Picide
I have yet seen; and it is certainly not included in the great work
on this family of birds just completed by M. Malherbe.

Gecinus TAanco.o, Gould.

Lores, a narrow band across the forehead, back part of the head,
nape, and a stripe down the cheeks black; centre of the forehead
blood-red ; back dull green, passing into greenish yellow on the rump ;
shoulders and upper part of the wings dull wax-yellow ; primaries
olive-brown, with small elongated marks of buff on their external
margins; internal webs of the greater coverts and primaries crossed
with distinct bars of greyish white ; throat and cheeks grey; under
parts of the shoulders and axillaries alternately barred with greenish
white and blackish brown; chest and under surface sordid green.

Total length, 104 inches; biil, 13; wing, 12; tail, 51; tarsi, 3.

Remark.—The species to which this bird is most nearly allied is
the Gecinus occipitalis of the Himalayas, from which however it is
conspicuously different. I have adopted its Chinese name for a
specific appellation.

Ie

164 Zoological Society :—

Evpitocamus Swinuotl, Gould.

Male: forehéad black, gradually blending into the snowy-white
lanéeolate plumes which form a slight crest, and continue in a
narrow line down the nape of the neck ; back snowy white, offering a
strong contrast to the narrow black line with which it is bounded
on each side, and the rich fiery chestnut of the scapularies; lower
part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts intense velvety black,
broadly margined with shining steel or bluish black, these scale-
like feathers gradually becoming of a larger size and of a more uniform
black as they approach the tail-feathers ; wings blackish brown ; the
greater and lesser coverts fringed with green ; two centre tail-feathers
snow-white, the remainder black; the somewhat elongated feathers
of the chest and flanks black, with shining blue reflexions; thighs
and under tail-coverts dull black ; legs and spurs blood-red, except
the tips of the latter, which are brown; sides of the face mottled to
an extent seldom seen even among Gallinaceous birds; in front this
appearance extends to the nostrils, while posteriorly it terminates in
a point near the occiput; a large lappet hangs down over each cheek,
and a more pointed one rises, in the form of a horn, high above the
crown, the whole being of the finest red, and covered with papille,
as in the Genneus nychthemerus ; bill light horn-colour.

Total length, 28 inches; bill, 14; wing, 9; tail, 17; tarsi, 4.

Female: this sex offers a strong contrast to the male, from there
being no appearance of a crest in any specimen I have seen, and in
the entire plumage being reddish or orange-brown, particularly the
under surface; when examined in detail, however, many different
but harmonizing tints are seen on the various parts of the body: on
the back of the neck, mantle, scapularies, and lesser wing-coverts, the
freckled brown feathers have lanceolate or spearhead-shaped mark-
ings surrounded with black down their centres, while the rump and
upper tail-coverts are more uniformly and more finely freckled with
orange and dark brown; primaries alternately barred on both surfaces
with chestnut and dark brown ; secondaries dark brown, conspicuously
barred with ochre-yellow; throat brownish grey; chest orange-
brown, each feather with two crescentic markings of dark brown
centre of the abdomen and thighs orange-brown, slightly freckled
with darker brown ; two centre tail-feathers dark brown, obscurely
barred with buff; lateral tail-feathers nearly uniform deep chestnut ;
bill horn-colour ; space surrounding the eye and the legs red.

Total length, 18 inches; bill, 1}; wing, 81; tail, 8; tarsi, 3.

Remark.—This exceedingly beautiful species is one of the most
remarkable novelties I have had the good fortune to describe; in
size it is Somewhat smaller than the Genneus nychthemerus, which it
resembles in its red wattles and in the form of its tail, while in its
strong legs, the scaly stiff feathers of the lower part of its back, the
red-and-white colouring of the anterior portion of its upper surface,
and in its steel-blue crest it more closely assimilates, in my oy.inion,
to the members of the genus Zuplocamus ; and with that group, the
Fire-backs, I have accordingly assuciated it.

Mr. J. Gould on new Birds from Formosa. 165

In dedicating this fine bird to Mr. Swinhoe, I feel that I am only
paying a just compliment to a gentleman who must ever rank among
the foremost of those travellers who have enriched ornithology by
their numerous Eastern discoveries.

\

Genus Bamsvusicoua, Gould. \

Generic characters.—Bill moderately long, and very
form to that of Perdix ; nostrils covered by an operculum wings
moderately long, round, ‘and concave, the fifth primary the lo Beak:
tail somewhat more lengthened than in Perdix, rounded or inc a5
to a wedge-shape ; tarsi rather long, and armed with a well-defitted
but blunt spur; toes longer than in Perdix, the two lateral one
equal in length, and united at their base by a membrane; hind toe
rather long and free.

Sexes alike, as in Caccadis, but the female destitute of a spur.

This is a very distinct form among the Gallinacee, the species of
which, so far as we yet know, are only two in number, namely, the
present bird and the Galloperdix sphenurus of China. Both evince
a predilection for forests of bamboo, which circumstance has suggested
the generic appellation. In point of affinity they equally approach
the members of the genera Perdiz and Caccabis.

BAMBUSICOLA SONORIVOX, Gould.

Male: crown of the head rusty brown, each feather obscurely
barred and freckled with blackish brown; lores, ear-coverts, chest,
back of the neck, and chest grey, each feather minutely freckled with
blackish brown ; back and rump olive, each feather minutely freckled
with blackish brown; those of the back, nearest the mantle, largely
blotched with deep chestnut ; these chestnut marks also extend over
the shoulders, near the tips of which is a lanceolate spot of white; a
similar but more obscure mark also occupies the sides of the wing-
coverts, but, instead of being white, it is pale fawn-colour; greater
wing-coverts chestnut in the centre, then black, fringed with deep
buff; primaries blackish brown externaily, margined with ‘reddish
chestnut ; two middle tail-feathers freckled brown, buff, and black ;
the remainder deep chestnut-brown; abdomen rich cinnamon, with
a bar of rich chestnut near the tip of all the feathers of the flanks ;
thighs ciunamon-brown; bill and legs blackish brown.

Total length, 94 inches ; bill, 1; wing, 54; tail, 4; tarsi, 12.

Female similarly coloured.

The young, at about a month old, have acquired much of the
colouring of the adults, but the centre feathers of the back and
shoulders are darker, with lighter edges, giving this part of the
plumage a very sparkling appearance.

NUMENIUS RUFESCENS, Gould.

Head, neck, upper and under surface reddish fawn-colour, deepest
and most conspicuous on the rump and tail-feathers; down the
centre of each of the feathers is a streak of blackish brown, broadest
and most conspicuous on the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts ;
primaries blackish brown, strongly toothed on their inner margins

166 Miscellaneous.

with greyish white; tail-feathers irregularly crossed with blackish
brown ; thighs light buff.
Total length, 23 inches ; bill, 7; wing, 123; tail, 33; tarsi, 5.
This is a very fine species, about the size of Numenius arcuatus and
N. australis, from the former of which it differs in the absence of
the white rump, and from the latter in its rufous colouring.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Do Diatoms live on the Sea-Bottom at Great Depths ?” *
By G. C. Wauticu, M.D.

Tue following are some of my reasons for believing this question
may with certainty be answered in the negative.

Although the soft parts are retained in specimens obtained from
extreme depths, they differ materially both in aspect and qualities
from those of Diatoms known to be living. Broken frustules are met
with, which retain the whole or a portion of the soft parts, in a con-
dition identical with that of unbroken specimens. Diatoms, when
obtained from extreme depths, never present a trace of motion—a
very important fact, inasmuch as it is difficult to conceive that the
mere transit from the bottom should destroy the power of locomo-
tion, which is so tenaciously retained by Diatoms under all other
circumstances. The Coscinodisci (which, as Dr. Stimpson very justly
observes) constitute the largest proportion of the Diatoms found in
the deep-sea deposits, are essentially inhabitants of shoal water—that
is to say, from one to fifty fathoms—being either independent free-
floating organisms, epiphytes on floating Algee, or epiphytes on the
immediate surface layer of the sea-bed down to that depth. They do
not live imbedded in mud. On the other hand, the upper waters of
the ocean actually teem with their frustules, beth in our own and in
tropical latitudes, although only visible at the surface during calms.
In the mud brought up from great depths, the Diatoms are distri-
buted equally throughout the mass of the soundings—a fact which,
with all deference to Dr. Stimpson’s views, I am inclined to regard
as (lirectly contraindicative of their vitality. And, lastly, there ap-
pears to me to be no satisfactory evidence that Diatoms, whether
living or merely preserved from decay, constitute the food of the
deep-sea Rhizopods.

On the questions of light, aération, &c., I have aiready written in
detail elsewhere, the above facts being merely offered for the guidance
of those who are pursuing this line of research.

Description of a New Coral (Lithoprimnoa arctica), and Remarks
upon its Systematic Position. By KE. Grube.

The new Coral (Lithoprimnoa arctica) described by Grube was
obtained on the Norwegian coast, in 70° N. lat. It presents several

* See a short paper on this subject, extracted from ‘Silliman’s Journal’ for
May 1863, and published at p. 79 of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’
for July 1863.

Miscellaneous. 167

very interesting peculiarities. Its axis is formed by a hard polypary,
resembling Corallium rubrum in appearance, except that its colour
is a greyish white. A transverse section of this polypary shows that
it is not calcareous throughout, but formed of regularly alternating
concentric layers of white calcareous matter, and a black substance,
analogous to the horny matter (corneine) which forms the axis of
the Gorgonie. The polypes are eight-armed. Their ccenenchyma
is covered with calcareous scales, and their mouth is surrounded by
eight valvules, which are likewise calcareous. These characters ap-
proximate it to the Primnoe (P. lepadifera), which alone among
the octactinian polvpes are furnished with a hard covering of this
kind. The genus Primnoa belongs to the Gorgonide. This family,
according to Milne-Edwards, shares with that of the Istdine in the
character of possessing a sclerobasic axis wholly or partially soft, of
a horny or corklike texture, in opposition to the Corallinide, in
which the common axis is entirely stony. Milne-Edwards adds
that in the Gorgonide a little carbonate of lime is sometimes united
with the corneine, but that this salt never predominates in such a
manner as to give the axis a stony consistence, like that of coral.
Lithoprimnoa, however, forms an exception to this rule, and the
characters of the family must therefore be modified. It will also be
necessary to give up the subdivision of the Gorgonide into Gorgo-
nacee and Gorgonellacee. The former of these groups was charac-
terized by the horny consistence of the sclerobasic axis, whilst in the
second this axis should be cerato-caleareous. The author shows
that the quantity of carbonate of lime is too variable to admit of
such a distinction.

M. Grube remarks, in passing, that a great part of the chemical
characters ascribed to corneine by Valenciennes are inexact, or not
generally applicable. Valenciennes states, for example, that corneine
is insoluble in caustic potash with the aid of heat. M. Lothar
Meyer has found it to be constantly soluble in that agent.—Bzd/.
Univ. March 1863, Bull. Sci. p. 240.

On the Crustacea which live in Species of Ascidians.
By T. THoRELL.

We have hitherto known only a small number of Crustacea para-
sitic on the Molluscoida. Diiben was the first to describe a Lernea
living on a compound Ascidian of the Norwegian coast. Subse-
quently Claus found a Sapphirina inhabiting the respiratory cavity
of Salpe; and Allman described, under the generic name of Noto-
delphys, a new type of parasites from the respiratory cavity of the
simple Ascidians ; lastly, Leuckart found a Crustacean of the genus
Notopterophorus of Costa in the respiratory cavity of a Phallusia.
Incited by these observations, Thorell has studied the Ascidians of
the shores of Bohuslaen in regard to their Crustacean parasites. Of
these he has fouad twenty species, nineteen of which are new. By
far the greater part belong to the two families Notodelphyide (13
species) and Sapphirinide (4 species).

The family Notodelphyide thus gains greatly inimportance. The

168 Miscellaneous.

first species of this family (Notodelphys ascidicola) discovered by
Allman was regarded by that naturalist as closely allied in its orga-
nization to the free Copepoda, although its mode of life and some
modifications in the buceal and natatory appendages seemed to ap-
proximate it to the parasitic Crustacea (Siphonostoma), He regarded
it as a free Copepod living in the respiratory cavity of an Ascidian,
as the Pinnotheres are true Brachyurous Decapods residing in the
cavity of the mantle of the Pixne. ‘This view is now confirmed by
Thorell, who detects a nearly perfect identity between the appendi-
cular organs of the Notodelphyide and those of the free Copepoda.

These little Entomostraca are found clinging to the inner wall of
the respiratory sac of the Ascid‘ans by means of the antenne of the
second pair. Only one species ( Botachus cylindricus, Thor.) resides
between the two lamellee of this sac. Notwithstanding this parasitic
mode of life, they possess buccal appendages adapted for mastication.
They appear, therefore, to derive their nourishment, not from the
fluids of the Ascidian, but from the Infusoria and organic particles
which float in the cireumambient water. The most remarkable pe-
culiarity of structure presented by these animals is that which gave
oceasion to the name of Notodelphys, given to them by Allman.
It consists in the presence, in the females, of a pouch situated beneath
the integuments of the back, and destined for the reception of the
ova on their emission from the ovary. This pouch therefore replaces
the external ovigerous sacs of the other Copepoda.

The present memoir contains a new classification of the Copepoda,
which, according to the author, include the Siphonostoma. In this
he concurs with Steenstrup and Liitken. He divides these Crustacea
into three series —Gnathostoma, Pcecilostoma, and Siphonostoma,
The second of these, establishing the passage between the masticatory
(Gnathostoma) and the sucking Copepoda (Siphonostoma) is of new
formation. It includes the Coryeeide, Ergasilide, Sapphirinide,
Miracide, and some other small families. It is distinguished from
the Siphonostoma by the want of the sucker, and from the Gnatho-
stoma by the absence of mandibles.—Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Hand.
iii. No. 8; Bzdl. Univ. March 1863, p. 235.

Characters of a new Species of Sedge-Warbler (Calamoherpe
Newtoni) from Madagascar. By Dr. G. Harrvavs.

3. Supra obscurius olivacea, subunicolor, subtus multo pallidior,
medio subflavicans ; mento gulaque albidis ; yugulo maculis lon-
gitudinalibus fuscis conspicue notato ; subalaribus flavo-albidis ;
subcaudalibus obscuris ; maxilla fusca, mandibula obscure au-
rantiaco-rubente ; ore interno lete aurantiaco ; iride helvola ;
ala brevi; cauda longa, rotundata, rectricibus engustatis,
apice rotundato-attenuatis.
Long. 63"; rostr. a fr. 63!"; rostr.a rict. 9!" al. 2" 7'; cand.
3; tars. L1!!".

Two male specimens of this unquestionably new species were col-
lected by Mr. Edw. Newton near Soamandrikazay, in the island of
Madagascar.— Proc. Zool. Soc. May 12, 1863.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. |

No. 69. SEPTEMBER 1863.

XV.—On the Impregnation in Orchids as a Proof of the two
different Effects of the Pollen. By Dr. F. Hitpesranp, of

Bonn.

Or late years most of the investigations on impregnation in
plants have been directed to the pollen-tubes acting on the
ovules to form the embryo. ‘That there are a great many other
interesting and important points respecting the fecundation of
plants, everybody will admit who has directed attention to the
two celebrated works of Darwin, ‘On the Origin of Species’
and ‘On the Fertilization of Orchids,’ bearing in mind at the
same time the inquiries of Koelreuter, Sprengel, Gaertner,
Herbert, &c.

Looking at some tropical Orchids cultivated in the Botanical
Garden of Bonn, I found no ovules in the ovarium of the ex-
panded flower; nevertheless I saw the enlargement of the ova-
rium after having applied the pollen to the stigma. This curious
circumstance seemed deserving of further examination, especially
as the numerous writers on the impregnation in Orchids*
have made out this point imperfectly ; and even Robert Brown,
in his paper on the Fecundation in Asclepiadez and Orchideet,
has merely alluded to it.

As my investigations are to be published at greater length in
Mohl and Schlechtendal’s ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ I shall describe
only the experiments and observations made on one species, and
then give the results of these and all the other experiments.
The ovarium of Dendrobium nobile has a diameter of about

* Brongniart in Ann. des Se. Nat. 1831, p.117; Amici, Flora, 1847,
p- 255; Mohl, Bot. Zeitung, 1847, p.465; Hoffmeister, Entw. d. Embryo
der Phanerog. p. 5; Schacht, Ann. des Se. Nat. 1851, p. 83; Henfrey,
Trans. Linn. Soc. xxi. p. 7.

+ Trans. Linn. Soc. 1833.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol, xii. 12

170 ~—CDrr. F. Hildebrand on the Impregnation in Orchids

2-24 millim., anda length of 10-15 millim.; its cavity is a very
narrow channel, on the walls of which are to be seen three
ridges, of an irregularly undulated appearance ; these ridges are
the placente that are not yet fully developed; there are no in-
cipient ovules upon them. The stigma of the expanded flower
is covered with numerous utriculi separated by a copious viscid
substance. If the pollen is applied to this viscid surface of the
stigma, very soon, at least after two days, the labellum of the
flower folds up round the column, and the petals and sepals in-
cline over it, and, withering in about nine days, do not fall off,
but are to be found at last on the top of the ripe fruit. If the
pollen is not applied to the stigma, the flower remains unchanged
for a long time ; in from twenty to thirty days it begins to wither,
and falls off: during this time the placente have not grown in
any way.

After the application of the pollen to the stigma, the petals
and sepals soon begin to wither, as stated above; at the same
time the column begins to swell hemispherically, and the pollen-
tubes, forming a cord, pass through the channel of the column.
On reaching the cavity of the ovarium, they divide into three
parts, and each of these parts divides again into two, running
down on each side of the placente. Soon after the application
of the pollen to the stigma, the ovarium began to enlarge both
in length and in diameter; in eleven days, the placentze were
more deeply undulated, and in twenty days they were dis-
tinctly divided into two parts, each part being fringed irregu-
larly ; no ovules were yet to be seen. Now I thought that the
enlargement of the ovaria which had no ovules on their placentze
was only abnormal, and that no ovules ever would be formed.
Therefore I did not examine a fruit before the 3rd of March:
this fruit had originated from a flower impregnated on the 5th
of January. I found the placentz quite covered with ovules
showing very different degrees of development: there were some
incurved, the outer and inner coats enclosing the nucleus ; some
where the nucleus was still protruding ; and some that appeared
only as a papilla a little incurved, and surrounded at its base by
the incipient coats. The cords of the pollen-tubes were in an
unchanged state on both sides of the placente. At this time
the fruit had a diameter of 20 millim., and a length of 60 millim.;
it had become green and succulent, and there were some sto-
mata on its surface; its much enlarged cavity was not yet filled
up with the ovules. Next a fruit that had originated on the
10th of January was examined on the 13th of April, and all the
ovules were found in a perfect state, filling up the entire cavity
of the ovarium; the embryo-sac was to be seen distinctly, but
no pollen-tube had reached it. On the 22nd of April, the ger-

as a Proof of the two different Effects of the Pollen. 171

‘minal corpuscles were distinctly evident, but the cords of the
pollen-tubes were unchanged as before. Finally, on the 12th
of May, when the diameter of the fruit was 25 millim., and its
length 80 millim., the first two or three cells of the embryo
were formed, one of the germinal corpuscles had disappeared,
and the pollen-tubes were seen in a decaying state between the
ovules.

Thus we see that a space of four months (January 10 to May 12)
was required in order that, after the application of pollen to the
stigma of a flower (the ovarium of which contained no ovules),
the ovules might attain perfection, and the formation of the
embryo begin.

Having thus described the observations made on Dendrobium
nobile, I pass over the experiments on other species, and proceed
at once to give the general results of my observations.

The experiments and observations were made on thirty different
species of Orchids, of which nine were tropical and twenty-one
indigenous ; therefore we may safely extend the results to the
whole Orchidaceous family as follows :—

1. In the recently expanded flowers of Orchids the ovules
are never fully developed. The degrees of development are
very different: there are some species (for instance, Listera
ovata and Neottia nidus-avis) that have almost perfect ovules,
which are incurved and have both of the coats, but the outer
is as yet shorter than the inner, and the embryo-sac is not yet
to be seen in the nucleus; in other species (for instance, in
Dendrobium nobile) the formation of the ovules has not yet com-
menced, even the placentz are not yet fully developed, but ap-
pear only as three narrow undulated stripes running down the
walls of the cavity of the ovarium, and the bifurcation of every
placenta is only slightly indicated. Between these extremes of
development there are different degrees of perfection of the
ovules.

2. After the application of the pollen to the stigma, the en-
largement of the ovarium begins; at the same time the ovules
become more and more perfect, or if there were only the pla-
centz, the ovules begin to appear after a certain time as minute
papillz projecting from the surface of the placenta. The en-
largement of the ovarium begins before the pollen-tubes reach
the placentz or the ovules; in the same manner the ovules
begin to grow without being touched by the pollen-tubes. —
From this it is clearly evident that the tubes of the pollen have
no direct influence on the original development of the ovules,
but that these tubes first act on the enlargement of the ovarium
only, and by this enlargement indirectly on the ovules. Flowers
that have no pollen applied to their stigmata do not wither so

12%

172. ~=Dr. F. Hildebrand on the Impregnation in Orchids
soon as those that are impregnated; their ovules. show in most
cases no further development; they sometimes become a hittle
more perfect, but are always decomposed before the ovarium
has withered and the flower has fallen off. After the stigmata
of the flower are impregnated with pollen, in most cases the
sepals and petals soon wither, but do not fall off, and are still to
be found in a dry state at the top of the ripe fruit ; sometimes
they fall off in a few days. One curious case occurred in
Listera ovata, where they change very little after impregnation,
and were still found in a fresh and succulent state on the top of
the ripe dehiscing capsule.

3. The time that elapses between the application of the pollen
to the stigma and the full development of the ovules and the
formation of the embryo depends on the degree of development
of the ovules in the recently expanded flower. This fact might
have been suspected, but it will appear to be made out sufficiently
after looking at the following summary (in which 7 means the
integumentum internum, the inner coat; ie, the outer; n, the
nucleus) :—

Time from the application of Pollen Degree of Development of the Ovules

to the Stigma to the incipient
formation of the Embryo.

Neottia nidus-avis, May 24 to June 2;
8-9 days.

Listera ovata, May 8 to 17; 9 days.

Orchis pyramidalis, June 22 to
July 1; 8-9 days.

Orchis coriophora, June 14 to 23;
9 days.

Gymnadenia conopsea, June 8 to 23;
about 2 weeks.

Orchis Morio, May 9 to 22; about
2 weeks.

Orchis maculata,
23 weeks.

Orchis hircina, May 24 to June 13;
3 weeks.

Orchis latifolia, May 17 to June 3;
23 weeks.

Ophrys myodes, May 24 to June 13;
3 weeks.

Orchis mascula, April 22 to May 22 ;
4 weeks.

Orchis mascula, May 3 to 24 (?);
3 weeks

Platanthera chlorantha, May 24 to
June 17; 33 weeks.

Orchis militaris, May 15 to June 16 ;
more than 43 weeks.

Cypripedium laticolus, May 16 to
June 20; 5 weeks.

June 8 to 25;

in the expanded Flower.

Ovules inverted, # overlapping »,
ze not yet overlapping 7.

The same.

Inverted, acorn-like, 7 and ze not

- yet overlapping 2.

The same.

Inverted, 72 beginning to appear.

The same.

The same.

Inverted, 22 and ie beginning to
appear.

Inverted, 7 beginning to appear.

The same.

Straight papille, seldom a little
incurved, with the beginning of 22.

The same.

Straight papille, seldom a little
incurved, without the beginning of iz.

The same.

Papille a little mcurved; begin-
ning of 7 very small.

as a Proof of the two different Effects of the Pollen. 173

Time from the Application of Pollen Degree of Development of the Ovules
to the Stigma to the incipient im the expanded Flower.
formation of the Embryo. :
Cephalanthera grandiflora, end of _ Papille a little incurved; begin-
May to beginning of July; 5-6 ning of @ very small.
weeks.
Eria stellata, Feb. 13 to April 15; Placentz irregularly fringed, with
2 months. very small wartlike projections.
Bletia Tankervillie, Jan. 26 to end The same.
of March; more than 2 months.
Dendrobium nobile, Jan. 10 to May Placentz undulated, not fringed.
12; 4 months.
Cymbidium sinense, Dec. 9 to be- The same.
ginning of June (?); 6 months (?).

It appears that those ovules which were most developed in
the expanded flower (for instance, in Listera ovata and Neottia
nidus-avis) wanted only nine days to attain perfection and to be
impregnated by the pollen-tubes; while, on the other hand, in
those cases where even the placentz were not as yet developed
(z. e. in Dendrobium nobile) an interval of four (in one case per-
haps of six) months elapsed before the embryo began to be
formed. Respecting the differences of temperature in the dif-
ferent years, it will scarcely be necessary to add that the above-
mentioned intervals of time will not be quite the same every

ear.
A Soon after the commencement of the formation of the embryo,
the six cords of the pollen-tubes disappear. R. Brown says (/. c.
p- 707) that they are to be met with even in the ripe capsule ;
but I could not find them anywhere. I saw them very often
in a decaying state, some time after the impregnation of the
ovules.

4. From these observations it follows that, in the formation of
the fruit in Orchids, the pollen acts in two different ways: on
the one hand, it effects the enlargement of the ovarium and the
development of the imperfect ovules without the pollen-tubes
directly touching the ovules; on the other hand, it impregnates
the ovules, directly touching the embryo-sac, and determining
the development of one germinal corpuscle into an embryo. It
is not necessary to allude further to the observations on this last
point, as they only confirm known facts.

Having given the results of a long series of observations and
experiments made on Orchidaceous plants, I may be allowed to
add a few words on the impregnating action of pollen in general.
It is a question, often spoken of among botanists, whether the
pollen acts only in impregnating the ovules, or whether, inde-
pendent of this power, it has yet another, and what this other
power might be, and in which way it might act. Professor

174 Dr. A. Giinther on the European

Treviranus, in a treatise recently published *, inclines to answer
the last question in the affirmative, but he says that he cannot give
any positive proof. I am therefore the more pleased to have made
the foregoing observations, which seem to give such a proof in an
incontestable manner. The pollen applied to the stigma of an
ovarium containing no ovules, making this ovarium swell, proves
that the pollen may act on the ovarium independently of the
ovules ; and if this is the case in Orchids, why should it not be
the same in all other phanerogamous plants? If we admit that
the ovules are enclosed more or less in a dark cavity, that of the
ovarium, and therefore have not the power of preparing the nu-
tritive substances themselves, but must receive them from the
exterior green parts of the ovarium, we can easily imagine how
the pollen, besides the direct action of its tubes on the formation
of the embryo within the ovules, effects in the same direct manner
the enlargement of the ovarium. We even see that, in Orchids,
this last-mentioned action on the ovarium is primary—that not
until this action has taken place do the ovules attain perfection
and become suited for the other, embryo-forming power of the
pollen-tubes. If the first power has not acted, the second
cannot act. Whether the same may be the case in all other
phanerogamous plants, we must leave to further but rather
difficult observations.

Finally, it may be repeated that, at least in Orchids, if not in
all plants, the pollen acts in two different ways: it effects the
enlargement of the ovarium, and impregnates the ovules.

I ‘close these short notices with the very just remarks of
Robert Brown which are to be found at the end of his treatise
on the fecundation of Orchidez and Asclepiadez :—“ I even ven-
ture to add that, in investigating the obscure subject of genera-
tion, additional light is perhaps more likely to be derived from
a further minute and patient examination of the structure and
action of the sexual organs in Asclepiadez and Orchideze than
from that of any other department either of the vegetable or
animal kingdom.”

XVI.—On the European Species of the Genus Labrax.
By Dr. A. GUNTHER.

M. Barsoza pu Bocacs, Director of the Museum at Lisbon,
has directed my attention to a remarkable difference in the
dentition of the vomer, by which he was enabled to distinguish
two forms of Labrax inhabiting the sea at Lisbon, viz. the
true Labrax Lupus and a second, spotted species. Fortunately

* Verhandl. d. naturhist. Ver. fir Rheinland u. Westph. 1862, p. 299.

Species of the Genus Labrax. 175

the British Museum has received several examples collected at
Gibraltar by Dr. Sclater, in two of which I have recognized the
spotted form ; whilst examples received from Alexandria, through
Consul Petherick, cannot be referred to either of those two species,
but evidently belong to a third. These three species, although
readily distinguished by their vomerine teeth, are externally
very similar to one another, so that it is not necessary to give a
detailed description of them.

1. We retain the name of Labrax Lupus for the species which
is the most common on the European coasts. The vomerine teeth

woese

* 11—12°
late, and I have seen only one young specimen with small
black spots on the back. British specimens have the scales
on the hind part of the tail rather larger than those from more
southern coasts ; but this does not appear to me to be of spe-
cific value. The following synonyms ought to be referred to
this species :—

Centropomus Lupus, Lacép. iv. p. 267.

Sciena Labrazx, Bloch, taf. 301.

diacantha, Bloch, taf. 302.

Perca elongata, Geoffr., Descr. Egypte, Poiss. pl. 19. fig. 1.
sinuosa, Geoffr. 1. e. pl. 20. fig. 3.

2. The second species, observed by M. Bocage at Lisbon, of
which we have two specimens from Gibraltar, is Labrax punc-
tatus ; it has the vomerine teeth arranged in an anchor-shaped

band 7. extending backwards to the end of the vomer.

D.9| 4. A.j L. lat. 62. The upper parts of the body are

constantly marked with small black spots. This is Sciena
punctata, Bloch, taf. 305.

3. The third species has the posterior process of the vomerine
band very short @. D.9|y. A.ay L. lat. 57. The

11-12°
upper parts of the body are black-spotted, as in the preceding
species. Two specimens sent by Consul Petherick from Alexan-
dria are perfectly alike. This is probably the species figured
by Geoffroy St. Hilaire in the ‘ Description de l Egypte,’ Poiss.
pl. 20. fig. 2, as Perca punctata—a name which cannot be re-
tained, as it belongs to the preceding species, and instead of
which we propose that of Labrax orientalis.

176 Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide.

XVII.—Notes on American Emydide, and Professor Agassiz’s
Observations on my Catalogue of them. By Dr. J. E. Gray,
F.R.S. &c.

Proressor Acassiz, in the appendix and errata to his “ Essay
on the North-American Tortoises,” in the ‘ Contributious to the
Natural History of the United States of America,’ published in
1857, observes :—

“« Ptychemys concinna is mentioned under four different names
by Dr. Gray—as Emys ornata, E. floridana, E. annulifera, and
Pseudemys concinna. Ptychemys mobilensis appears twice—as
E. mobilensis and E. ventricosa. Ptychemys rugosa also appears
twice—as LH. rivulata and Pseudemys serrata. These facts are
sufficient to show that Gray’s genus Pseudemys is not well
founded, as the two species which he himself had an oppor-
tunity of examining are only varieties of other species which he
refers to the old genus Emys. I am unable to refer his Emys
callirostris with certainty, as his figure, though well drawn,
does not exhibit the generic characters. I believe it, however,
to be one of the many varieties of Ptychemys concinna. The
same remark applies to Emys venusta” (vol. 11. p. 641).

These observations are only founded on an examination of
the figures, and not on the specimens themselves, and, as I
suspect, on but a cursory study of the descriptions,—which may
be an excuse for their inaccuracy; but that is a reason why
they ought not to have been made. It is very true that the
figures of the entire animal do not and cannot “exhibit the
generic characters ” used by Professor Agassiz, which are founded
on the ridges on the roof of the palate, and can only be seen in
a figure of the skull. The observation that these species appear
under more than one name is either a disingenuous statement
or one that neither Professor Agassiz nor any one else, from the
imperfection of the specimens, can confirm or contradict with
certainty: consequently any careful zoologist would be very
averse to giving an opinion on such a subject, unless he could
examine the specimens on which the species are established.

I am satisfied that if Professor Agassiz had examined the
specimens of Hmys ornata, he would himself allow that it not
only is not a variety of Pseudemys concinna, but that it does not
belong to the same genus. Pseudemys concinna belongs to his
genus Ptychemys, and Emys ornata to his genus Trachemys, ac-
cording to his characters. I only know Emys floridana, as stated
in the Catalogue, from Holbrook’s figure, and quote it as such ;
but I am still not satisfied that it is the same as EZ. concinna.
As to E. annulifera, that is only founded on a very young speci-
men, which differs in the pattern of its colouring from all the

Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide. 177

many young of #. ornata I have seen; and, like that species, it
is a Trachemys, and not a Ptychemys of Agassiz. Both H. ve-
nusta and E. callirostris, which the Professor believes to be only
varieties of his Ptychemys concinna, are also species (and, I be-
lieve, most distinct ones) of his genus Trachemys.

As to Emys mobilensis and E. ventricosa being the same, this
is only a repetition of the statement I have made in the Cata-

- logue ; but this is the case with many other observations which he
puts forward as his own, rather than copies of my own corrections.
But, as I only knew one species from a shell without any ani-
mal, and the other from the figure in Dr. Holbrook’s work, I
considered it better to let them remain for further examination.
Here, again, Professor Agassiz has never seen the original spe-
cimen on which £. ventricosa is founded.

The same observation is applicable to the proposed union of
E. rivulata and Pseudemys serrata. The former is described
from a shell without an animal; and it is so very unlike any
specimen of Pseudemys serrata that I have seen, that I think it
is very unsafe to unite them without further evidence.

This analysis will show how fallacious is the argument that
the genus “ Pseudemys is not well founded, as the two species
which he himself had the opportunity of examining are only
varieties of other species which he refers to the old genus Hmys.”
I may first observe that the genus Pseudemys is separated from
Emys by the form of the lower jaw and beak, and the scales
and size of the web of the feet—characters only to be seen on
the animal (so that my referring Emys ventricosa and E. rivu-
lata to species described from shells alone, without any part
of the animal attached to them, is no proof as cited) ; secondly,
that E. ornata, E. venusta, E. callirostris, and E. annulifera,
which are founded on perfect specimens, have proved, on exa-
mination, not to belong to my genus Pseudemys or M. Agassiz’s
genus Ptychemys; and thirdly, that HE. floridana and E. mobi-
lensis are only placed in the Catalogue on the authority of the
figures and description of Dr. Holbrook,—all proving that the
Professor’s observations are not well founded. I might as well
say that his genera Ptychemys and Trachemys are not well
founded ; for he regards E. ornata, E. venusta, E. callirostris, and
Ei. annulifera, from the examination of the figures or descriptions
alone, as varieties of Ptychemys concinna, when they are, in fact,
species of his genus Zrachemys, which would, according to his
argument, prove that these genera are not distinct!

But further, I have no doubt that Professor Agassiz will admit
that Pseudemys is well founded, when he finds that it and his
genus Ptychemys are synonyms of one another, founded on
nearly the same characters and on the same species, my characters

178 Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide.

being taken from the external part of the beak, and his from the
ridges on the palate; but then Pseudemys has the priority, which
may be a grievance.

Now it is quite evident, from these observations, that Prof.
Agassiz has never seen these species, and he must have formed
these opinions solely on the sight of the plates and descriptions;
and I think that he must have read the latter very cursorily, or
else he has not understood the importance of some of the cha-
racters there given, or I feel convinced that he could never have
committed such a mistake; for certainly his practice, as proved
by the paper in which these observations are contained, is not
to “lump ” species together, but rather the contrary, as is proved
by his previous work on Fossil Fish, on Echinida, and even by
the work here quoted ; for I must say, after examining a large
series of specimens, from different parts of the United States
and of different ages, that I cannot agree with him in separating
the specimens of Chrysemys, of Cistudo, &c., irto several species,
as he has done; and several of the new species indicated (for he
promises to describe them in some future work) appear to be
separated on very slight characters; while the species here pro-
posed to be combined not only are most distinct, but belong to
different genera, according to the characters which he himself
used in the family Emydidee for the separation of genera.

I am much surprised that such an experienced zvologist
should have been led to give such a crude opinion, ea cathedra,
without first examining the type specimens on which the species
were founded, or at least specimens obtained from the same
locality, which agreed with the description and figures.

My experience as a student of Tortoises does not agree with
the opinion expressed by Professor Agassiz “that there are
genera among our Emydoids in which neither the tint nor the
pattern of coloration affords any specific characters” (vol. 1.
p- 432, foot-note). Itis no doubt true that the tint of colouring
is not only liable to vary with age, but is also influenced by
the peculiarities of the locality, as the purity and clearness, or
muddiness, the stillness or current of the water in which they
happen to be located ; but as regards the pattern, it is far other-
wise. And I cannot think that Professor Agassiz would have
made such an observation if he had studied the subject with
sufficient care, or even had worked out the observations which
I have made on this subject in the Catalogue that he was criti-
cising; for he would there have seen that some of the groups
which he has called genera are separated and characterized by
the pattern of the colour.

The pattern, to be understood, should be studied in the young
animals, and traced up through all the stages until they are full-

Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide. 179

grown ; for in the full-grown and more adult or aged specimens
the colour is apt to become suffused, and the distinctive character
of the pattern more or less obscured, or rendered more difficult
to analyze; and I am satisfied that the best specific characters
of the species are to be derived from such a study.

But not only does the pattern afford good specific characters,
but, as far as I have been able to examine them, they seem to
give some of the best characters to separate the species into
natural groups, either genera or subgenera, as the student may
be inclmed to regard them. Thus the best character for the
group of which E. ornata may be considered as the type is fur-
nished by the fact that there is one eye spot under each shield ;
and an excellent character to separate the species is the position
which this spot occupies on the shield in the young and the
older specimens, as marked in my Catalogue above cited (p. 24).

As examples of the assistance which the distribution of the
colouring-matter, or the pattern, affords in the distinction of the
genera, I may observe :—-The underside of the margin of most
coloured American Emydoids has a series of eye spots. In
Graptemys the centre of this spot is on the hinder margin of
each of the marginal shields ; in all the other genera it is on the
suture between two neighbouring marginal shields, the spot
being on the middle of each of the marginal bones, and the
suture of the horny shields alternating with the suture of the
bones. The genera Chrysemys and Deirochelys have a distinct
continued vertebral line, not found in any of the other genera,
Chrysemys being peculiar for having a very distinct well-marked
pale edge to the dorsal shields, while Dezrochelys has a dark spot
surrounded by reticulated lines on each shield.

The variegated species of the genus Trachemys (if the genus
ought not to be restricted to those species) and Pseudemys
(Ptychemys, Agassiz) have several eye spots, which are often
more or less confluent and separated by pale or bright-coloured
lines under each dorsal shield, the former genus having a convex
horny lower beak, and the latter a flattened lower jaw with a
small thin lower beak and broadly webbed toes.

The genera Callichelys (of which Emys ornata may be con-
sidered the type) and Malaclemys have a single eye spot, sur-
rounded by regular concentric rings, under each dorsal shield.
The Callichelyes have a hard thin skin on the head, and the
centre of the rmgs approaches the hinder edge of the shield as
the shields enlarge. Some specimens of this genus have a pale
streak down the centre of the nuchal plates. The Malaclemyes
have a soft fleshy skin on the head, the centre of the spot re-
mains in the middle of the shields, and the feet of the latter are
largely webbed.

180 Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide.

The genera Deirochelys and Graptemys have a single eye spot
under each dorsal shield, which is surrounded with narrow poly-
gonal rings, sending out anastomosing cross lines to the margin.
Deirochelys has a central continued narrow vertebral streak, not
found in Graptemys, which is peculiar in having a nodulose ver-
tebral keel invested with oblong rings.

The genus Chrysemys is at once known by the pale margin to
the dorsal shields, and the continued vertebral streak.

Even the coloured lines on the fore legs seem to be charac-
teristic of genera. In Trachemys, for example, the upper streak
is continued on to the second toe; and in Pseudemys it is bent
and continued on to the third or middle toe.

The Nicotees, or West-Indian Emydoids, have a nearly uniform-
coloured back of the shell, with dark spots on the margin of the
shields. In the Catalogue (p.31) I pomted out the difference
in the form of the head and skull of the two species, E. decussata
and E. rugosa. Professor Agassiz refers the first to the genus
Ptychemys, and the latter to Trachemys. They appear to be
rather aberrant species of these genera, without colour, at least
in the adult state. I have never seen young specimens of either.
Do they in that state show the pattern which is typical of these
genera? for it is the younger animals that have the colours most
distinctly marked, and on which the disposition is best studied.
It is therefore more remarkable that Professor Agassiz should
make the statement that is here quoted, as he has studied these
animals in their young state, and figured the newly hatched
specimens of most of the North-American species ; but the pat-
tern, in some of the figures, is not so distinct as it might be, or
as it is in the specimens, even when they have been preserved
in spirits.

In the Catalogue will be found several additional observations
showing the coloration of the species of these genera.

The following are the genera and synonyma of the North-
American Emydoids :—
DerrocHELys, Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 414 (1857).

D. reticularia, Agassiz, 414, t. 1. f. 44; 16, t. 2. f. 1-8 (young).
Emys reticularia, Gray, Cat. 27.

Grapremys, Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 436 (1857).= Emys, Sect. **$§
Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. 29 (1855).
1. G. geographica, Agassiz, Contrib. 436, t.2.f.7,9. H. geo-
graphica, Gray, Cat. /. c. 29.
2. G. pseudogeographica. Emys pseudogeographica, Gray, /. c.
29; Holbrook, t. 15. G. Lesweurii, Agassiz, Cont, p. 436,
t. 2) f. 10; 12:

Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide. 181

CaLLicHELys, n. g.=Emys, Sect. *§ Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. 24
(1855).
1. C. ornata=E. ornata, Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. p. 24, t. 12.
2. C. venusta= E. venusta, Gray, 1. c. 24, t. 12a.
3. C. callirostris= E. callirostris, Gray, 1. c. 25, t. 12 6.
4. C.? pulcherrimus= EE. pulcherrimus, Gray, 1. c. 25, t. 25. £.1,2.

Tracuemys, Agassiz, Contrib. 434 (1857).= Hmys, Sect. *Q§
Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. 25 (1855).

1. T. Holbrookit. E. Holbrookii, Gray, Cat. U.c. 25, t. 15. f. 1.
E. cumberlandensis, Holbrook, t. 18. EE. sanguinolenta, Gray,
Cat. J.c.t.15.f.1. TJ. elegans, Agassiz, Contrib. i. 435, t. 3.
f.9-11. 4. elegans, Neuwied.

2. T. scripta, Gray, J. c. 26. EH. serrata, Holbrook, t. 5. T.
scaber, Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 434, t. 2. f. 18-15 (young).

3. T. Troostii, Agassiz, Contrib. 435. Hmys Troostu, Gray,
l.c. 28; Holbrook, 1, t. 20.

A, T. rugosa, Agassiz, Contrib. 436. Emys rugosa, Gray, Cat.
31; Shaw, Zool. ii. t. 4. Var. ? vermiculata, Gray, Cat.
t. 12d.

Curysemys, Gray, Cat. Tort. 27 (1844) ; Agassiz, Contrib. i.
438 (1857).
1. C. picta, Gray, Cat. 1. c. 83; Agassiz, Contrib. i. 438, t. 1.
ea tea, 4, t..9. 1. 22, 20:
C. Bellii, Gray, 1. c. 83; Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 439, t. 6. £8, 9
(very young).
C. Orbigniensis, Agassiz, Contrib. 444, t. 3. f. 1, 3 (young)
= C. Nuttallii, Agassiz, Contrib. ii. 642.
C. marginata, Agassiz, Contrib. 439, t. 1. f. 6, t. 5. f. 1.
C. dorsalis, Agassiz, Contrib. 440.

I do not say these local varieties are not distinct, but they
are not characterized ; and the series in the Museum shows that
the species is very variable, and seems to include some of
them.

I formerly separated C. Bedlii, which, when I had only a single
specimen, I thought probably might be distinct.

Matactemys, Gray, Cat. Tort. Brit. Mus. 28 (1844). Emys,
§** Gray, 1828. Malacoclemys, Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 437.
Fuchyloclemys, Sclater, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1. 292 (1858).

M. concentrica, Gray, Cat. 1. c. 87. Malacoclemys palustris,
Agassiz, Contrib. i. 437, t. 1. f. 10-12 (young).

Professor Agassiz truly observes, “ this species varies most re-

182 Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide.

markably in its colour and sculpture, as well as in the size of
the head,”—all characters used to separate other species of
Terrapins.

E. areolata, Dum. (Arch. Mus. vi. 223, t. 14), is also regarded
as a variety from Central America.

PsrupEmys, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855, 197; Cat. Shield Rept.
35 (1855).=Ptychemys, Agassiz, Contrib. 1. 431 (1857).
Nectemys, Agassiz, Contrib. 11. 642 (1857).

1. P. concinna, Gray, Cat. l. c. 34. Ptychemys concinna, Agass.
Contrib. i. 482, t.1. f.18, t.2. f.4-6 (adult). Emys flori-
dana, Holbrook, t. 8 (vide Agassiz).

2. P. hieroglyphica, Gray, 1. c. 34. Emys h., Holbrook, t. 17.

3. P. mobilensis. Ptychemys mobilensis, Agassiz, Contrib. 433,
t. 3. f.14,16. E. mobilensis, Holbrook, t.9. E. ventricosa,
Gray, Cat. 1. c. 28?

4, P. serrata, Gray, 1. c.34. Ptychemys rugosa, Agassiz, Con-
trib. 431, t. 26. f.1, 11, t.27. f. 1-3. E. rubriventris, Hol-
brook, t.6. EH. rivulata, Gray, Cat. t. 11 (vide Agassiz).

5. Pseudemys decussata. Emys decussata, Bell, Test.t.1; Gray,
Cat. 1.¢c.20. Ptychemys decussata, Agassiz, Contrib. i. 431.

6. Pseudemys? Berardi. Emys Berardi, Dum. & Bibr. Emys
D Orbignyi, Dum. & Bibr. Erp. Gén.; D’Orb. Voy.
Amér. Mérid. Rept. t. 1, from Buenos Ayres. Probably
belonging to this genus, from the distribution of the colour ;
but it is peculiar for having a pale margin to the dark ster-
num, like Rhinoclemys.

I am by no means satisfied that these species are well deter-
mined, that the extent of the notching and dentation of the
beak is a character of the importance that is attached to it, or
that when the pattern of the coloration and the changes that
each presents have been more carefully studied, they will not
afford better characters than those now used. The nuchal
shield, as in Calliclemys, is often marked with a central streak.

Rurnociemys, Fitzinger, = Emys +++, Gray, Cat. Shield Rept.
31 (1855), of Tropical America. Peculiar for being of a
dark, nearly uniform colour, with a pale ring round the cir-
cumference of the dark sternum.

Some species have the keel of the shell of the same colour as
the back; and the head is dark, with a streak on each side of
the nose and temple. The toes are very short, with a short
web.

1. Rhinoclemys scabra. Emys scabra, Gray, Cat. /. c. 31, and

Dr. J. E. Gray on American Emydide. 183

E. scabra, No. 2, Gray, Cat. 1. c. 78. Testudo punctularia,
Daudin ?

With a spot on each side of the nose, and a band on each
side of the crown, from the forehead, across the orbit, to the
edge of the temple, and a spot on each side of the occiput.
The underside of the margin of the young shell variegated.
Throat black, streaked on the sides.

Hab. Fast coast of tropical America. Guiana; Brit. Mus.

I only know this species in the young state; but they all
have the band on the side of the face interrupted by the orbit.

2. Rhinoclemys Belli. Testudo scabra, Bell, Test. t. 1, 2 (adult).

Head with a spot on each side of the nose and of the occiput,
and with a sinuous urn-shaped band on the crown, over the orbit
and temples.

Hab. Tropical America.

The figure differs from any species we have by the super-
ciliary bands being united by a short transverse band in front
between the eyes.

3. Rhinoclemys melanosterna. Geoclemmys melanosterna, Gray,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1861, p. 205. Emys scabra, No. 1, Gray,
Cat. l.c. p. 78. E. dorsalis, Gray, Cat. 1. c. 82, t. 14a (not
Spix).

The side of the head with a continued band on each side,
from the nose to the temple. Neck with four broad black
streaks on the sides ; fore legs pale, with some black stripes.

One of the bands on the neck arises from the streak on the
face under the eyes, and the upper one from the dark upper
margin of the streak on the sides of the head.

Hab. East coast of Tropical America. New Granada, River
Buonventura; J.O. Goodridge, Esq. Gulf of Darien.

Emys dorsalis of Spix, Bras. T. Il. t. 9. f. 1, 2, which is de-
scribed and figured from a young specimen, seems to be different
from those here described.

One species has the dorsal keel pale, and the head and neck
with several pale bands or streaks. The toes are short, conical,
without any web ; the second and third hinder toes are the least,
and nearly equal. I propose to call this group Callopsis.

4. Rhinoclemys annulata. Geoclemmys annulata, Gray, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1860, 281, t.

Hab. West coast of America. Esmaraldas, in Ecuador ; Frazer.
Gulf of Darien ; Salvin.

184 Mr. W. T. Blanford on Cremnobates Syhadrensis.

XVIII.—Descriptions of Cremnobates Syhadrensis and Lithotis
rupicola, two new Generic Forms of Mollusca inhabiting Cliffs
in the Western Ghats of India. By Wit.1aM T. Bianrorp,

A.R.S.M., E.G.
[Plate IV. ]

Family Littorinide.
CREMNOBATES, nov. gen.

Testa perforata, turbinato-globosa, costulata. Apertura mediocris,
subovata; peristomatis margine dextro simplici, columellari vix
calloso.

Operculum testaceum, subovatum, paucispirale ; nucleo sinistro ;
margine membranaceo.

Animal (pulmoniferum?) parvum; tentaculis duobus brevibus
subulatis, oculos in lobis tumidis ad basin gerentibus preditum.
Pes brevis, rotundatus. Proboscis brevis.

C. Syhadrensis, n. sp.

C. testa subobtecte perforata, globoso-turbinata, costulis elevatis
crenulatis circumdata, inter costulas liris minoribus spiralibus
lineisque obliquis decussantibus incrementi ornata, periomphalo
haud costulato concentrice decussato-striato albida, ad apicem
rubella, epidermide viridi-fusca induta; spira brevis, conoidea,
sutura impressa, apice acuto, plerumque erosulo ; anfractibus 3,
rapide accrescentibus, convexis, ultimo rotundato, cirea perfora-
tionem angulato; apertura diagonalis, ovata, lineis longitudina-
libus fusco-purpureis prope suturam et versus basin marginis
dextri, spatio interveniente, interne signata, interdum omnino
colorata; peristoma simplex, marginibus callo junctis, dextro
recto, basali expansulo, columellari reflexo, appresso, perforationem
partim tegente. Operculum normale.

Alt. 7, diam. 7 mill.; apertura 5 mill. longa, 4 lata.

Hab. in montibus “ Syhadri” seu ‘‘ Western Ghats,”’ Indiz orien-
talis, ad scopulos basalticos pendentes adhzerens.

This very remarkable and interesting form appears to be one
of the links connecting the Littorinide with operculated Pulmo-
nifera. It occurs abundantly on the precipitous bare rocks of
the Western Ghats of India, in the neighbourhood of Bombay.
These mountains, which are entirely composed of basaltic lava-
flows, rise suddenly from the low ground of the Concan, or
country bordering the sea, to a height of 2000 feet, their scarp
being extremely abrupt, and in many parts forming an almost
precipitous inland cliff. In consequence of the neighbourhood
of the sea, and the sudden change in the elevation of the ground,
the rainfall is very heavy during the south-west monsoon, from
June till October, and the surface of the rocks must be almost
continually wet. In December the only specimens of Cremno-

Mr. W.T. Blanford on Cremnobates Syhadrensis. 185

bates which J found in motion were living on the wet rock in a
place where a small stream trickled down the surface of a steep
rocky ledge ; everywhere else the shells were firmly attached to
the rock in crevices and hollows. I am therefore, I think, jus-
tified in considering this form as rather an amphibious than a
true land-shell ; and this view is confirmed by the circumstance
that when placed in a glass of water, the animals sometimes
crawl out and creep about the glass, but quite as frequently
remain beneath the water or just at its surface. Many Indian
species of the genus Litéorina itself are equally amphibious in
their habits, always keeping at the limit of the advancing tide
as long as possible, and, in some cases, inhabiting rocks far
above the extent of the spray in ordinary tides and fair weather.
I have thus met with Z. Malaccana, Phil., in crevices of rocks
several feet above high-water mark of ordinary tides, on the
coast of Burma, in a place where they must frequently have re-
mained many days, if not weeks, without being wetted by the
sea.

I have carefully examined several individuals of Cremnobates
without being able to detect any trace of gills, while the large
vascular sac at the back of the neck exactly resembles that in
the operculated land-shells*. The mantle-margin is free, and
the sexes distinct. The lingual ribbon is very long; one from
a large specimen measured 2 inch (17 mill.) ; the teeth are 7-
ranked, but differ in form from those of Cyclostomaceous genera.
The amphibious habits of the animal, the short foot, and the
olive-green epidermis, so characteristic of fresh-water shells, n-
duce me to place it in the vicinity of Lithoglyphus. Cremno-
bates is well distinguished from that genus by its perforation,
sculpture, and testaceous operculum, resembling in the two for-
mer characters the genus Fossar, species of which abound on
parts of the Indian coast. One of the common Indian species of
Littorina also, L. ventricosa, Phil., bears a considerable general
resemblance to the form now described, and has a somewhat simi-
lar though less strongly marked sculpture. Young specimens
of Cremnobates are frequently imperforate, the umbilicus being
entirely covered by the columellar margin of the peristome.

Should my opinion as to the pulmoniferous character of this
genus be confirmed, its place amongst the families of opercu-
lated land-shells will be difficult to determine. Its subulate
tentacles and undivided foot distinguish it from Cyclostoma, its
paucispiral and excentrically nucleated operculum from Cyclopho-

* My own experience in Molluscan anatomy is too small for me to state
positively that no gills exist, until my observations have been confirmed
by a better observer.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol, xii. 13

186 Mr. W.T. Blanford on Lithotis rupicola.

rus and its allies; it wants the long proboscis of Truncatella, and
differs in both operculum and tentacles from the minute Indian
shells ascribed to Hydrocena*, which otherwise resemble it both
in the form of the shell and in their rocky habitat. Every cha-
racter of shell, operculum, and animal, with the one exception of
the pulmoniferous sac, admits of the position I have assigned
to it amongst the Littorinide, in the neighbourhood of Fossar
and Lithoglyphus. If delegated to the Pulmonifera, a new family
must be founded for it; and it will certainly add to the doubts
of many naturalists as to the correctness of the retention of
two groups, so distinct in many of their characters as are the
Helicea and the Cyclostomacea, in the same “subclass” on
account of the identity of one particular organ.

No question can exist as to the Western Ghats having formed
a marine cliff in comparatively recent geological times. Whether
Cremnobates be a lineal descendant of the Littorimas or Fossars
then inhabiting the coast may perhaps not be an unfair subject
for speculation.

Fam. Helicide.
Sub-family Succinine.
Genus Succinea.

LitHotis, subg. nov.

Testa auricularis, ovata, tenuis, carina longitudinali externa,
sulco interno correspondente prope suturam munita; apertura
permagna, continua ; spira minima.

Animal tentaculis carentibus (?), oculis magnis in summis pe-
dunculis duobus retractilibus, brevibus, versus basin tumidis, po-
sitis : pes brevis, pyriformis.

LL. rupicola, sp. nov.

Testa ovata, pertenuis, succinea, curvate costulato-striata ; spira
plana, sutura vix depressa; anfractibus 14, ultimo prope aper-
turam descendente ; carina ex apice oriens, spiralis, peristo-
matis ad marginem dextrum, 2 mm. a sutura, desinens ; aper-
tura permagna, ovata, continua, intus politissima, nitida; peri-
stoma tenue, rectum, margine columellari callose appresso.

Diam. maj. 7 mill., min. 5, alt. 23.

Hab. in montibus Syhadri cum Cremnobate Syhadrenst.

The above are the dimensions of the largest specimen I possess.
This species appears to be very nearly as remarkable a link as
that last described; for it combines the characters of Camptony«

* H. sorrita, Bens., H. pyzis, B., H. frustillum, B., &e. The oper-
culum has no spiral structure, being simply excentrically striated, as in
Helicina; the tentacles are lobate. I propose to separate these species
under the generic name of Georissa.

Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 187

and Otina, belonging to the Auwriculea, with those of Succinea
and its allies. From the shell alone, which has the form of Otina,
with the substance, texture, and peculiar external ridge and
internal furrow of Camptonyx, I should have supposed the pre-
sent species to belong to the last-named genus ; but the retractile
eye-bearing peduncles prove its place to be in the neighbourhood
of Succinea, from which genus the internal furrow for a siphon
distinguishes it as a well-marked subgenus. Tentacles are ex-
tremely small and rudimentary in several of the subgenera of
Succinea, and, in the present case, appear to be wanting; if
present, they are certainly very inconspicuous. The animal of
Helisiga, Less., as represented in Adams’s Gen. Rec. Moll.,
‘pl. 73, closely resembles that of Lithotis, but has a larger foot,
while the shell only differs in the absence of the siphonal furrow.

Lithotis abounds adhering to the precipitous basaltic rocks
of the Western Ghats, like Cremnobates, but apparently in rather
more exposed situations, being perhaps more purely an air-
breather, and requiring less moisture than its congener. Both
probably feed upon the confervoid vegetation covering the sur-
face of the rock to which they adhere.

I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. A.B. Mynne for the
accompanying drawings of the shells above described.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Figs. 1, 2. Cremnobates Syhadrensis, natural size.

Fig. 3. The same, enlarged 2 diameters.

Figs. 4, 5. The same; opereulum enlarged 2 diameters,
Figs. 6, 7. Animal of the same.

Figs. 8, 9, 10. Lithotis rupicola, natural size.

Fig. 11. The same, enlarged 2 diameters.

Fig. 12. The same; animal from below.

XIX.—On Cephalization, and on Megasthenes and Microsthenes
in Classification (being in continuation of an Article on the
Higher Subdivisions in the Classification of Mammals). By
James D. Dana*.

In the paper on the “ Classification of Mammals,” published by
the writer in Silliman’s Journal (vol. xxxv. p. 65)+, and also in
his earlier paper on Crustaceans, the principle of cephalization
is shown to be exhibited among animals in the followmg
ways :—

f By a transfer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic
series.

* Communicated by the Author. From the ‘American Journal of
Science and Arts,’ vol. xxxvi. (July 1863).

+ See Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. March 1863, p, 207.
13%

188 Prof.J. D. Dana on Cephalization.

2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to
some extent in cephalic functions.

3. By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and
perfection of structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior
portion of the body.

4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of
structure, in the posterior, or gastric and caudal, portion of the
body : as, in the greater compactness and larger number of seg-
ments combined in the sacrum of the higher Megasthenes than in
that of Cetaceans or Edentates ; the less posterior elongation of
the vertebral column and body in the higher Megasthenes than in
Cetaceans, or in the ¢ailless Batrachians than in the tailed species
of the group, &c.

5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous sys-
tem. This rise reaches its extreme limit in Man. Birds thus
show their superiority to Reptiles, but not to Mammals; for the
Bird-type, like the Reptilian, is relatively diminutive in life-
system (infra, p. 196); its relation to the Reptilian type is
much like that of Insects to the Crustacean (p. 193).

A decline in the grade of cephalization is shown by the re-
verse of these conditions: as (1) by a transfer of members from
the cephalic to the locomotive series; (2) by the posterior ce-
phalic organs participating in locomotive functions; (3, 4) by
increased laxness, length and breadth, or spacing, among the
parts of either the anterior or posterior portion of the body, or,
further, a resolution, more or less complete, of the system of
structure into its equal normal elements or elementary parts ;
(5) by increased proneness in the position of the nervous system :
also—

6. By an adaptation of the organs of the senses to locomotive
or prehensile purposes,—as in the case of the proboscis of the
Elephant, which is a perverted nose; also the prehensile termi-
nations of the second antennze of many inferior Crustaceans.

7. By an abnormal multiplication of the parts in the anterior
portion of the body,—as in the excessive number of teeth in
some Cetaceans and Kdentates.

8. By an abnormal multiplication of the parts in the posterior
portion of the body,—as in the abnormal multiplication of mem-
bers and segments in Phyllopod Crustaceans, Myriapods, &c.

9. By a further degradation of the structure before and be-
hind, or a degeneration or obsolescence of the parts or organs,—
as in the absence of teeth in some Cetaceans and Edentates; the
degradation of feet into fins, as in Whales, or their total absence;
the absence of a series of abdominal members in Entomostracans;
the absence of antenne in Articulates, provided the senses corre-
sponding to these organs are absent or comparatively imperfect ;

Prof. J.D. Dana on Cephalization. 189

the coalescence of the head and thorax, or of these with the ab-
domen ; the extension of the gastric viscera towards, or into,
the head.

10. By excessive size of body through mere vegetative en-
largement,—as in the Megatherium, the female Bopyrus, Limu-
lus, &e.

Degradation, or a decline below the normal level, may hence
be—

I. Multiplicative. Methods 7, 8, above.

II. Degenerative. Methods 3, 4, 9.

III. Vegetative. Method 10. Also IV. Phytoid (or plant-
like), when animals (as Polyps) have (11) the power of budding,
or (12) a radiate structure, or (13) attachment below; and in
such cases the decephalization is often almost as complete as in
plants*.

Examples of cephalization by the first method, or by a transfer
of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series (or of
decephalization by the reverse), occur in the two highest sub-
kingdoms, those of Vertebrates and Articulates. They fail in the
two lower subkingdoms, those of Mollusks and Radiates, because
of the absence of the necessary structure for showing it.

The examples under Vertebrates and Articulates, and the rela-
tions of the orders among Mollusks, may be briefly considered.

I. Vertebrates.—Only a single example in the class of Mam-
mals, or even in the whole subkingdom of Vertebrates, is possi-
ble, owing to the fixed nature and simplicity of the head, and
also the limited number of feet, two pairs being the maximum.

This one example has already been pointed out and shown to
be the basis of the grand distinction between Man and other
Mammals. In passing downward from the exalted position
which Man holds, there is a transfer of the fore limbs to the
locomotive series : the structure of the head in Vertebrates, even

* The methods of decephalization in Crustaceans are embraced under
two heads, by the writer, in his paper on the Classification of Crustaceans
(Silliman’s Journ. ser. 2. vol. xxi. p. 28, and Expl. Exp. Rep. on Crustacea,
p: 1412), as follows :—

“1. A diminution of centralization, leading to an enlargement of the
circumference or sphere of growth at the expense of concentration, as in
the elongation of the antennz and a transfer of the maxillipeds to the
foot-series, the elongation of the abdomen and abdominal appendages, &c.

**2, A diminution of force as compared with the size of the structure,
leading to an abbreviation or obsolescence of some circumferential organs,
as the posterior thoracic legs or anterior antennz, or the abdominal ap-
pendages (where such appendages exist in the secondary type embracing
the species).

“These circumstances, moreover, are independent of a degradation of
intelligence by an extension of the sphere of growth beyond the proper
limits of the sphere of activity.”

190 Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization,

to the lowest Fishes, admits of no other case of analogous trans-
fer*. In the Walrus the tusks have some locomotive functions,
as they serve to rest the fore part of the animal, or its head, on
the ice while the body is in the water; but this is an example
under the second method. The feet are wholly absent in Snakes,
and the ribs aid in locomotion; but this is only a degradation
of the Vertebrate type, and not decephalization by the first
method. In most Fishes, and in Whales, the locomotive func-
tion is transferred mainly to the elongated vertebrated posterior
extremity of the body—a case of degenerative degradation similar
to the last, and analogous also to the multiplicative.

It is of sufficient interest in this connexion to be repeated
here, that among Mammals the four orders of Megasthenes ex-
hibit in their fore limbs four distinct grades of cephalization: in
the Quadrumanes these organs serve for carrying their young,
supplying the mouth with food, taking their prey, and for loco-
motion ; in the Carnivores, for taking their prey and for loco-
motion ; in the Herbivores, for locomotion only; in Mudtilates,
for fish-like locomotion, the members having the degraded form
of fins.

II. Articulates—In the subkingdom of Articulates, the three
classes are Insecteans, Crustaceans, and Worms : the first includes
Air-breathing species (Insects, Spiders, and Myriapods), and the
second and third the Water-articulates. Examples of cephali-
zation by the first method occur in the first two of these classes.
They cannot in the third, because Worms have no proper feet,
and are not a type with closed limits, but one admitting of in-
definite multiplication of parts behind, and therefore open pos-
teriorly.

1. Insects, the highest of the three orders of Insecteans, have
three pairs of mouth-organs and three pairs of legs. As the
wings belong to the same segments of the body with two of the
pairs of feet, they are not to be counted; for the transfer noted
is, in fact, a transfer of segments of the body along with their
appendages.

Passing down from Insects to Spiders, the mouth loses one

* To the zoological characteristics of Man, mentioned in the writer’s
article on Mammals (that is, the extreme cephalization of his system, and
the erect form connected therewith) should be added the followmg,—that,
while in the Quadrumanes the feet are clasping or prehensile feet, in Man
they are simply organs of support and locomotion. The former fit the
Apes for their climbing habits, the latter empower Man for human duty.
The discussion, now in progress, whether the hind limbs of the Gorilla
terminate in hands or in true feet (“in no sense hands,” in the words of
Prof. Huxley) is of small importance in this connexion.

The writer’s view of the characteristics of Man depending on his spiritual
nature are given in Silliman’s Journal, vol. xxxv. p, 452.

Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 191

pair of organs (the posterior), and the feet gain one pair, there
being four pairs of feet in Spiders; that is, there is a transfer of
one pair from the cephalic to the locomotive series. The absence
of antenne in Spiders is no mark of degradation, since the
senses exist in good perfection.

Descending lower, to the Myriapods, the Articulate type passes
below the range of normal variation into a degradational form,
and one which, like that of Worms, admits of indefinite posterior
elongation or multiplication of segments (by the eighth method
of decephalization), and hence it has no closed or fixed limits,
like that of Spiders or Insects. Under this loose and multiphi-
cative condition of the system, there is no regular transfer back-
ward of another pair of mouth-organs : the type is distinguished,
instead, by the degradational character just mentioned.

2. The facts among Crustaceans have already been pointed
out—that, descending from Decapods (Crabs and Lobsters),
which have siz pairs of mouth-organs and five of feet, to Tetra-
decapods, two pairs of the mouth-organs are transferred to the
locomotive series, making the number of pairs of feet seven, and
of mouth-organs four.

Descending further, to Entomostracans, or the third order, the
mouth-organs lose one or more of the remaining pairs, and some-
times (as in Limulus, or the Horse-shoe Crab, as it is called) all,
for the mouth-organs in this species are all true feet. The Ento-
mostracans exemplify decephalization by degeneration (ninth
method)—as in the absence of one or two pairs of antenne,
the absence of one or two or more posterior pairs of thoracic
feet, the absence of the series of abdominal members, and
sometimes (as in Limulus) by the reduction of the abdomen to a
mere spine. They are degradational forms as well as the Myria-
pods; and hence the apparent difference of grade, which might
be supposed to be marked by the number of pairs of mouth-
organs transferred backward, cannot serve to subdivide the
order. The distinction of the Entomostracans from the higher
Crustaceans consists rather in their degradational characters than
in any peculiarities of the mouth. In the tribe of Ostracoids
(Cypris, &c.) alone, one genus has two pairs of mouth-organs,
the rest being legs, another three, and another fowr, the Tetra-
decapod number.

III. Mollusks.—It has been remarked that the subkingdom
of Mollusks cannot, from its nature, exemplify the first method
of cephalization. The methods exemplified are the third, fourth,
ninth, and tenth. In the transition from the order of Cephalo-
pods, the first, to that of Cephalates (Gasteropods), the second,
there is a loss of the feet or arms, and a diminished perfection
of the senses, and activity is reduced to sluggishness. Descend-

192 Prof. J.D. Dana on Cephalization.

ing to the third order, or Acephals, the antenne fail, the eyes be-
come imperfect or obsolete, locomotion becomes very imperfect,
and in some fails altogether. Among Bryozoans, a still inferior
order, all the organs of the senses fail, and there is the radiate
structure of vegetation as well as its sessile character.

The difference in cephalization between an oyster and a clam
is very strongly marked,—the oyster, when placed in its normal
position, having its body nearly all posterior to the beak, being
merely a large gastric mass; and the clam having one-third of
the body anterior to the beak, and really exhibiting something
stately in mien compared with the oyster.

Other illustrations of the subject might be given; but they
are not necessary to explain the general principle in view.

The number of pairs of feet in the subkingdoms of Vertebrates
and Articulates, under those types which afford examples of the
first method of cephalization, is as follows :—

I. VERTEBRATES,
1 in Man; 2 in all other Vertebrates.

II. ArricuLaATEs.

1. Under Insecteans. 8 in Insects; 4 in Spiders.
2. Under Crustaceans. 5 in Decapods; 7 in Tetradecapods.

The number of pairs of feet in the different groups are then
1,2,3,4,5,7. Only one case of typical transfer occurs in each of
the three classes illustrating the subject—Mammaals, Insecteans,
and Crustaceans; and these cases occur uniformly between the
two highest orders of the class.

Man’s title to the place assigned him in our former paper
appears therefore to be unquestionable.

The types of Vertebrates and Articulates do not admit of
any homological comparisons.

The types of Insecteans and Crustaceans are modifications of
a common type; yet the two are so widely different, that it is
far from true that the five pairs in the highest Crustaceans cor-
respond to the four im Spiders plus a preceding pair of mouth-
organs. The head and locomotive part of the thorax in the
Land-Articulates appear to correspond unitedly, as stated by
Latreille, to the cephalic portion of the Crab,—that is, to nine
anterior segments out of the fourteen cephalothoracic. In other
words, this part of the body of an Insect is an extreme con-
centration of the anterior portion of a Crustacean—an example
of extreme cephalization; while a Crustacean is a diluted

Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 193

Insect, being much larger, and more numerous in segments and
members*.

The Lobster (or any ordinary Macrural Decapod Crustacean)
has an elongate body, and an abdomen well developed and fur-
nished below with a full series of members. In the male Crab,
also a Decapod, the body is very short, and the abdomen is
without its members, besides being so small that it folds into-a
groove in the under shell of the body: this diminution of size
and increased compactness are a consequence of the higher
cephalization of the species (Method 4). Passing from Crabs to
the still higher Articulates, Insects, there is an example of this
cephalization carried to its maximum,—it appearing in the ex-
treme diminution of size of body and members, in the very
small distinct head (comprising, normally, a third of the seg-
ments of the body, though so small), and in the thorax freed
from the viscera and devoted mainly to locomotion. By this
method an animal is made of the highest instincts under the
Articulate type.

From these examples it is evident that, where there is a com-
pacting of the body connected with rise m grade, it is not merely
a general compacting of the different parts alike, or a general
concentration and perfecting of the system, but a true cephaliza-
tion of the system,—the compacting and perfecting showing it-
self primarily in a greater concentration, predominance, and
domination of the cephalic extremity.

Among Articulates having feet, an Insect and a Limulus stand
at the opposite poles of cephalization. The mouth-organs and
feet in both correspond to those of the head (or the mouth-

* There appears to be no reason to doubt that in all types, not degrada-
tional, each pair of members (wings excluded) corresponds to a separate
normal segment of the body. Audouin and Edwards are sustained in their
views on this point by the fact that, in a Squilla, three anterior cephalic
segments (those of the eyes and two pairs of antennze) and four posterior
thoracic are actually distinct ; and in an Erichthus, other segments, ante-
rior to these four, are faintly mdicated. (See the author’s Expl. Exped.
Report on Crustacea, pl. 41.)

Assuming the number of normal segments anterior to the mouth in an
Articulate from that (three) in the head of a Crustacean, the complete
number in an Insect is eighteen, and in a Crustacean twenty-one, three
abdominal being present which are obsolete in an Insect. In the former,
half (or nine) pertain to the head and thorax (only three to the thorax) ;
in the latter, two-thirds (or fourteen), the rest bemg abdominal. In an
Insect, the viscera are abdominal ; in a Crustacean (excepting some degra-
dational forms), thoracic. The separation of the viscera from the thorax
in an Insect leaves this part to higher purposes. It is to be noted that the
tenth to the fourteenth segments, inclusive, are visceral segments in both
Insects and Crabs,—being the first part of the abdomen in an Insect, and
the last (and large-foot-bearing) part of the cephalothorax in Crabs,

194 Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization.

organs) of a Crab. But in Limulus there is extreme of degrada-
tion, all the members being large and stout feet, oniy the basal
joints of the feet serving as jaws,—the body being enormously
enlarged by mere vegetative growth,—the antenne wanting, or
reduced to a pair of pincers, and the animal sluggish, a sport of
the waves on the beach; while in Insects there is extreme of
cephalization, the pairs of feet only ¢hree and those small and
slender, and the body minute in comparison—the antenne well
developed, and serving as delicate organs of sense—the animal
active, and wonderful in its instinctive habits and knowledge.

The parallelism above shown between Insecteans and Crusta-
ceans proves that Insects, Spiders, and Myriapods are orders in
a single class, and not separate classes*. Moreover the orders
under the classes of Insecteans and Crustaceans constitute par-
allel series, the first two of each being closed types, within the
range of normal variation, and the last one of each (Myriapods
and Hntomostracans) beg a degradational type, though different
one from the other in kind of degradation. The parallelism
between the series would be well exhibited if the orders were
thus named :—

Those of Insecteans, (1) Hexapods, (2) Octapods, (3) Myria-

ods.
Those of Crustaceans (1) Decapods, (2) Tetradecapods, (3) Co-
lopods, this last term (from x0dAos and zrods) signifying defective
feet or members, which is the prominent characteristic of the
order.

The parallelism extends even further than has been men-
tioned. ‘The Tetradecapods are not an intermediate type be-
tween Decapods and Entomostracans; on the contrary, they lie
quite out of the range of either. The Decapods, in their de-
gradational species, pass almost into Entomostracan forms, and
not into Tetradecapod forms. So among Insecteans, the Spiders
have the same isolated position and defined limits. Insects, in

* The grand distinction of the subdivision of Insects consists in their
having three pairs of mouth-organs and three pairs of feet; of Spiders, in
having two pairs of mouth-organs and four pairs of feet ; of Myriapods, in
having, through degradation, an indefinite number of segments and feet.
Hence, to include Spiders, Myriapods, and the Hexapod group of Pulices,
Lepisme, Pediculi, and the like, in one division called Aptera, as is done
by some naturalists who adopt the general division of Insecteans, is a
violation of all true affinities.

Professor Agassiz recognizes the same three classes of Articulates as
above by the writer, and the same subdivisions, or orders, of Insecteans,
but “from embryological data.” The writer has not felt ready to deprive
Spiders and Myriapods of their place in separate classes, co-ordinate with
those of Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms (a common method among
zoologists), until recently, when the special application to these Articulates
of the principle above explaimed occurred to him.

Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 195

their degradation, approximate to Myriapods, not to Spiders.
In fact, Spiders stand more nearly between Insects and Crusta-
ceans than between Insects and Myriapods.

There is here a cross affinity between Insecteans and Crusta-
ceans which is of great interest. The relation of common Spiders
to Brachyural Decapods or Crabs is seen (1) in the general form
or habit of body (some Crabs are called sea-spiders), and
(2) in the coalescence of the thoracic and abdominal nervous
ganglions into a single central thoracic ganglion. At the same
time, the division of Scorpions, among Spiders, is corresponding]
related to that of the Macrural Decapods, (1) in the body con-
sisting of a series of segments ; and (2) in the nervous ganglions
being distinct, one to each abdominal segment. Moreover the
maxillipeds are long and chelate, like the outer pair in some
inferior Macrurans.

Again, the Myriapods are distantly related to the Tetradecapods,
they being similar in their annulated structure, each segment
having its pair of feet, and some species of the former (as those
of Glomeris) even resembling the latter quite closely in form,
articulation, and antenne, and many of them having also the
habit of some Oniscide (Tetradecapods) of rolling into a ball.

Thus, the second order of Insecteans is related, as regards
form, to the first of Crustaceans ; and the third of Insecteans to
the second of Crustaceans.

The earliest of Crustaceans, the Trilobites, one of the compre-
hensive types as styled by the writer, are therefore not only
intermediate between Entomostracans and Tetradecapods, but
also, im some respects, between these and the Myriapods. More-
over, like the latter, Trilobites are abnormal in the very large
number of segments of which the body is composed ; and some-
times also they present no distinction between the cephalothorax
and abdomen.

The facts pointed out prove conclusively that Insecteans and
Crustaceans constitute classes of equivalent value.

2. Megasthenes and Microsthenes.

The two grand divisions of typical brute Mammals, the Megas-
thenes and Microsthenes, are not separated by any very marked
difference in type of structure; and still there is a profound
fundamental difference between them—that to which the names
refer. This is in contrast with the fact among Crustaceans, the
Megasthenic and Microsthenic divisions of which (the Decapods
and Tetradecapods) stand widely apart. But in the class of Crus-
taceans the structure varies between remote extremes, while
in that of Mammals there is a remarkable fixedness or an ex-
tremely limited range of variation. Hence, in the distinctions

196 Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization.

of Megasthenes and Microsthenes, among Mammals, we cannot
look for the marked diversity that subsists between Decapods
and Tetradecapods, although the naturalness of the subdivisions
is none the less real. The words Megencephals and Micrencephals
(signifying large-brained and smaill-brained Mammals) may better
satisfy the desire for names expressing something tangible in
the structure. Yet they do not appear to indicate the funda-
mental distinction between the groups. <A general structural
characteristic may yet be detected corresponding to these mega-
sthenic and microsthenic qualities ; but even then the distinctive
idea of the subdivisions could hardly be better expressed than
by the names proposed.

The parallelism between the Megasthenes and Microsthenes
among Mammals, and the Decapods and Tetradecapods among
Crustaceans, suggests that if the subdivisions be called orders in
the latter case, they should be so called in the former.

The distinction between Megasthenes and Microsthenes may
perhaps become more intelligible if we regard a living structure
as a life-system, or, speaking dynamically, a life-battery. In order
that such batteries may have a very wide range of size, two or
more plans of construction, more or less different, appear to be
requisite. With one plan, there is a certain magnitude which is
that of most efficient action and power; and from this magni-
tude there may be a series of larger and smaller sizes, reaching
to the outer limits of normal perfection, and then, if these
limits be passed in either direction (that is, either on the side of
too great magnitude or of too little), degradation in the structure
and its powers begin to appear.

To carry the species through another range of sizes, with
normal perfection of structure, another somewhat different plan
is required. The Megasthenes represent one such plan, the
Microsthenes another.

This idea is brought out by the writer in his chapter on the
Classification of Crustaceans already referred to. He there says,
speaking of the orders of Crustaceans, viz. Decapods, Tetra-
decapods, and Entomostracans :—

‘“‘J. Each type corresponds to a certain system of force more or less
centralized in the organism, and is an expression of that force,—the
higher degree being suchas is fitted forthe higher structures developed,
the lower such as is fitted for structures of inferior grade and size. In
other words, the life-system is of different orders for the different
types, and the structures formed exhibit the extent of their spheres
of action, being such as are adapted to use the force most effectively,
in accordance with the end of the species.

‘II. In a given type, as the first, for example, the same system
may be of different dimensions, adapted to structures of different

Prof. J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 197

sizes. But the size in either direction for structures of efficient action
is limited. To pass these limits, a life-system of another order is
required. The Macroura, as they diminish in size, finally pass this
limit, and the organisms (Myside, for example) are no longer perfect
in their members ; an obsolescence of some parts begins to take place,
and species of this small size are actually complete only when pro-
vided with the structure of a Tetradecapod.

«The extreme size of structure admitting of the highest efficient
activity is generally three to six times lineally the average or mean
typical size. Of these gigantic species, three or four times longer
than the mean type, there are examples among the Brachyura and
Macroura, which have all the highest attributes of the species.
There are also Amphipoda and Isopoda 3 inches in length, with full
vigerous powers. Among Entomostraca, the Calanide, apparently
the highest group, include species that are 3 lines long, or three times
the length of the mean type.

“III. But the limit of efficient activity may be passed ; and when
So, it is attended with a loss of active powers. The structure, as in
the female Bopyrus and Lernzeoids, and the Cirripeds, outgrows
vegetatively the proper sphere of action of the system of force within,
This result is especially found in sedentary species, as we have exem-
plified in our remarks on the Cirripeds.

“IV. Size is, therefore, an important element in the system of
animal structures. As size diminishes, in all departments of animal
life, the structure changes. To the human structure there is a limit;
to the quadrupeds also, beyond which the structure is an impossibi-
lity; and the same seems to be the case among Crustacea. The
Decapod, as the size diminishes, reaches the lowest limit ; and then,
to continue the range of size in species, another structure, the Tetra-
decapodan, is instituted; and as this last has also its limit, the
Entomostracan is introduced to continue the gradation ; and, as these
end, the Rotatoria begin. Thus Crustacea are made to embrace
species from a length of nearly two feet (or 250 lines) to that of a
one-hundred-and-fiftieth of a line. These several types of structure
among Crustacea do not graduate, as regards size, directly from one
to another, but they constitute overlapping lines, as has been sufli-
ciently shown.”

While on this subject of life-batteries, the writer would suggest
that the grand dynamical distinction between Mollusks and
Articulates may be this :—

A Mollusk corresponds to a quantity-battery, but one of very
weak force; that is, it is analogous to a galvanic battery of two
or three small pairs at the most. This is indicated, (1) by the
structure of the species, especially the absence of all articula-
tions, the animal (a locomotive digestive system) being, as it
were, in one simple bag ; (2) by the number of ganglions, limited
to three; and (3) by the sluggishness of the animal.

An Articulate, on the contrary, corresponds to an intensity-

198 My. H. J. Carter on the Value of the “Vili”?

battery, or is analogous to a galvanic battery of many small pairs ;
for (1) the body consists of many segments ; (2) there are nearly
as Many nervous ganglions as segments (normally as many) ;
and (3) the animals in the more typical species have extreme
rapidity of movement and high instincts. The small number
of ganglions in most Spiders is evidently due to a coalescence of
several in the one central thoracic ganglion, as in Crabs.

In the highest Mollusks, the Cephalopods (Cuttle-fish, &c.),
the Invertebrate quantity-battery reaches its greatest power.

Vertebrates also appear to correspond to a quantity-battery
(as shown by the simplicity of the nervous system), but to one
admitting of vastly greater power.

XX.—On the Value of the “ Villi” on the surface of Amceba as
a Specific Distinction. By H. J. Carrur, F.R.S. &e.

In Article XIII. of the ‘Annals’ for August 1863, vol. xi. p.111,
Dr. Wallich calls upon me to account for many things—more
than I have time now to answer.

I rejoice, however, to see that he has taken up the study of
the freshwater Rhizopoda so zealously, and hope that he may
make much progress in it; for, regarding a correct knowledge
of these elementary forms of life as, at present, the alphabet, so
to write, of organized creation, I shall not be found wanting in
gratitude to him for every moment that he may devote, and for
the smallest trifie that he may add, to our information respecting
the Amebe; while, if I fail in this, or am guilty of the opposite,
viz. of detracting from him, which has not been, nor ever will be,
done intentionally, I am certain, on the other hand, that he will
obtain that justice and be allowed that priority from those
acquainted with the subject, which truth and right in the end
always secure in matters patent to public scrutiny. But not
being particularly ambitious of such awards myself (as I am for
the most part satisfied if I can obtain the publication of anything
which I think may be useful, in a truthful form and to the best
of my ability), I may perhaps on this account be backward in
acknowledging the assistance that I derive from others, where
this does not appear to me to be absolutely necessary for the
subject on which I may be writing.

I would, however, wish it to be understood that my remarks
on Ameba princeps (‘ Annals’ for July 1863, p. 80) were chiefly
derived from observations made on this species of Ameba, in
Devonshire, in April last; while those by Dr. Wallich were made
in London about the same time on an Ameba which he then
considered to be such “a well-marked species” that he adds

on the Surface of Amceba as a Specific Distinction. 199

“ T accordingly propose that it should be named A. villosa” (‘ An-
nals,’ May 1863, p. 366). Thus our observations were made inde-
pendently of each other, and, as I thought, on different species ;
for I could not conceive then that any one possessing a know-
ledge of the freshwater Amwbe could confound A. princeps with
any other form of Ameba, or give it a new name without
making particular mention of this circumstance. Nor had I sub-
sequently any reason to think otherwise, until I had the pleasure
of making Dr. Wallich’s acquaintance personally towards the
end of May, when [I learnt from him that he regarded A. villosa
and A. princeps as one and the same; upon which I added this
remark to the rough (as it now stands in the printed) copy of my
paper (loc. cit. p. 44)—not pointedly, at the commencement, but
cursorily, in the latter half of the paper.

But what is the value of this “ villous surface” on Ameba, as
a specific character, if Dr. Wallich assumes that “many of the
so-called species of Ameba, if not all,’ are mere “varieties”
(vol. xi. p. 287, and vol. xii. p. 115) of his A. villosa? since they
certainly all do not present the “villi.” And where is the
specific character to determine that all the other Amebe are
mere varieties of A. villosa when the “villi” are absent ?

Independently of not agreeing with Dr. Wallich in such an
assumption, I saw that the presence of the “villi” in A. prin-
ceps was inconstant, which induced me to lay stronger weight on
that which appears to me to be a peculiar form of the nucleus in
this species; and until convinced to the contrary, I must adhere
to these views. My opinions regarding the specific value of the
villi and the form of the nucleus respectively in A. princeps will
be found in my paper; so I need not repeat them here.

Let anyone conversant with the subject compare my figures
of ““Ameba radiosa (?) Duj.” (Annals, vol. xviii. 1856, pl. 5), dia-
grammatic as these are, with Auerbach’s A. bzlimbosa (Siebold
und Kolhker’s Zeitschr. vol. vu. pl. 19. figs. 1-10), and see if
they are not so much alike that they may be assumed to be the
same species. And then let him compare these with Ehrenberg’s,
Dujardin’s, and my own figures of A. princeps, and see if the
differences between these two Amebe are not quite sufficient for
specific distinction. Yet Dr. Wallich assumes that A. bilimbosa
and A. princeps are mere varieties of one species, of which the
typical form is his A. villosa, whether they have the villous sur-
face (his chief specific character) or not; while he further adds
that “the balance of evidence” appears to be m favour of the
“‘whole of the varieties of Ameba” being reducible to a single
specific type! (Annals, ser. 3. vol. xi. p. 443): the italics ave mine.

With these views, then, I saw that it was impossible for
Dr. Wallich and myself to get on together in this subject, and

20 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

erefore I sent my paper on Amoeba princeps to the press with
the few allusions which it contains to what Dr. Wallich had pre-
viously published on A. villosa.

As to this paper conveying the impression that “ every one of
the characters peculiar to the Amebe of which Dr. Wallich wrote
had been or were “for the first time” brought to notice by
myself (p. 115, vol. xii.), that I have not been “just” to
Dr. Wallich (ibid.), and that I have “assailed directly or in-
directly nearly every opinion and statement” that he has made
in the communications under reference (p. 151), I certainly do
not think that my paper calls for any such expressions, and,
without defending myself in long explanatory notes which no one
would read, am quite content to receive the verdict which those
acquainted with the subject may be disposed to give after reading
Dr. Wallich’s and my own papers respectively in the ‘ Annals’
for 1863, Nos. 64 to 68 inclusive.

Dr. Wallich (p.115) has completely distorted the application
of the term “nomenclature ” as I have used it in the commence-
ment of my paper (p. 30). The passage runs thus :—“ It may
be remembered by those who have read my ‘ Notes on the Orga-
nization of Infusoria, &e.’ [published in 1863], that I have therein
proceeded upon a certain nomenclature of their parts generally ;
and I shall pursue the same course here in the description of
A. princeps specially.”” Yet, to read Dr. Wallich’s objections, it
would appear that I had used the word “ nomenclature” with
reference to species. It was not until 1863 that I ever met with
A. princeps in such numbers as to be able to make so much out
of it as I have done of the other freshwater Rhizopods, viz. as
regards its “reproductive cells.” And as in this paper the
Amebe are not referred to generally, my remarks must be con-
sidered to apply to A. princeps specially, where it is not stated
otherwise.

Of Dr. Wallich’s criticisms on my ‘ Communications” on the
Infusoria generally previous to 1863, I must also leave the public
to judge; andif I ever carry out my intention of writing more at
length on the subject, I shall then, in the general review of what
I have written since 1856 inclusive, hope to benefit by what my
friend Dr. Wallich has written in 1863.

XXI.—On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.
By W. K. Parker, Hsq., and Prof. T. R. Jonus, F.G.S.

Part [IX.—The Species enumerated by De Blainville and Defrance.

De Brarnvi114, in the article “ Mollusques ” (Dictionnaire des
Sciences Naturelles, xxxii. 1824), enumerates several forms

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 201

of Foraminifera under various names, obtained from Fichtel and
Moll, Lamarck, Montfort*, and Defrance ; but the nomenclature
adopted requires revision, and the classification is necessarily
erroneous, since these microzoa were at that time still grouped
among the Cephalopods, and no clue had been obtained to the
right understanding of their zoological relations. Defrance at
the same time revised the several genera and species, especially
those of which he had obtained specimens in the fossil state,
and added accounts of some previously unrecognized forms.

Besides the Foraminifera thus treated of, there are several
others which De Blainville and Defrance arranged as “ Poly-
piers”’ (Dactylopora, Fabularia, Larvaria, Lycophris, Orbitolites,
Oryzaria, Ovulites, Polytrema, and Polytrypa).

In his ‘ Malacologie’+ and ‘ Actinologie’ t, based on articles
in the ‘ Dict. Se. Nat.,’? De Blainville also treats of these forms.

The publication of the ‘Dict. des Se. Nat.’ (60 vols. 8vo,
Paris and Strasbourg) extended from 1816 to 1830, during
which time Alcide Dessalines D’Orbigny also was busy with
the study of Foraminifera, and a systematic catalogue (in the
“Tableau méthodique de la Classe des Céphalopodes”’) was
published by him in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’
vil. 1825-26. Defrance and Blainville, in the later volumes
of the ‘ Dict. Sc. Nat.,’ refer to D’Orbigny’s work; whilst, in
the latter, references are made to the early volumes of the ‘Dict.
Se. Nat.’

De Blainville seems to have added very little to the knowledge
of Foraminifera, having chiefly laboured in their systematization
on false grounds. Defrance, by careful observation, added a
few new forms, chiefly fossil, to those already known, and ap-
pears to have had a clearer perception of the relationships of
certain of the Foraminifera than some of his contemporaries
had.

1. Alvéolite. 1816. Dict.i. p. 557. Under this head G. L.
Duvernoy here confounds Lamarck’s genus of corals (Alveolites)
and Bosc’s “ Alvéolite grain de fétuque” and “ Al. grain de mil-
let,” the first of which is an Alveolina. In the Supplement to the
same volume (art. “ Alvéolites,” p. 1386) Defrance refers to these
little fossil forms (see Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vil. p. 162); and

* Notes on the generic and specific names derived from the works of
Linnzus, Fichtel and Moll, Lamarck, and De Montfort, have already been
published, in our papers on the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, in the
‘Annals of Natural History,’ 1859 & 1860.

+ Manuel de Malacologie et de Conchyliologie, par H. M. De Blainville,
2 vols. (text and plates), 8vo, Paris, 1825.

+ Manuel d’Actinologie ou de Zoophytologie, par H, M. De Blainyille,
2 vols. (text and plates), 8vo, Paris, 1834.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol. xii, 14

202 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

subsequently in 1820 (Dict. Sc. Nat. xvi. p. 103) he again treats
of them, referring one to Oryzaria Boscit and the other to
Fabularia Discolithus (loc. cit.). Alveolina Boscit, Defr., is illus-
trated by D’Orbigny’s ‘ Modéle,’ No. 50, and Fabularia Disco-
lithes by Modéle No. 100. Defrance also alludes (Dict. i. p. 137)
to another form of Alveolina under the provisional name of
Alveolites Larva, fossil, from Valognes, smooth, pointed at the
ends, and sometimes 8 lines in length.

_ 2. Chrysaora damzcornis, Lamourouz. The specimen figured
in the Atlas, Zooph. pl. 42. f. 2, and Blainv. Actinol. pl. 64.
f. 2,1s not described in the Dict. Sc. Nat., but is treated of
by Blainville in his ‘ Actinologie,’ 1884, p. 414, pl. 64. f. 2, as
a zoophyte, and is probably a Carpenteria, which is a peculiar
form of Rhizopod, related to the Globigerinida; it is tent-like,
or like a small Barnacle, and fixed by the base; the frame is
calcareous and basket-like, boldly perforate, and containing the
sarcode, which appears to be full of spicules. It forms a link
between the Foraminifera and the Spongiade. See Carpenter’s
‘Introduction to the Study of Foraminifera’ (Ray Society),
1862.

3. Cibicides refulgens, De Montfort. Dict. ix. p. 188, xix.
p- 2, xxxii. p. 187; Atlas, Conch. pl. 19. f.25; Blainville, Malac.
p- 391, pl. 10. f. 2. This is Truncatulina refulgens. [Type:
Planorbulina farcta.| See ‘ Annals Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3. v. p. 177,
vi. p. 340, and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ p. 206.

4, Crepidulina Astacolus, De Blainville (Astacolus crepidu-
latus, De Montfort). Dict. xix. p. 8, xxxii. p. 188; Atlas, Conch.
pl. 19. f.8; Blainv. Malac. pl.10. f.8. This is Cristellaria
Crepidula. [Subtype: Crist. Calcar.] See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3.
v. p. 114.

5. Crepidulina Auricula, Fichtel and Moll, sp. Dict. xxxii.
p- 188; Bl. Malac. p. 383. This is Pulvinulina Auricula (var. B),
F.& M. sp. [Type: Pulvinulina repanda, ¥.& M.] See Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 8. v. p. 177, and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’

. 210.
i 6. Crepidulina elongata, De M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 188. This
is a variety of Cristellaria Calcar. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3.
vi. p. 344.

7. Cristellaria Calear, Defr. Dict. xi. p. 615. Defrance
adopted this name (used also by Linneus) for the rowel-like
forms found on the Italian shores and in the Tertiary deposits
of Tuscany, and figured by Soldani; and he defines them as
‘being smaller and more convex than C. Cassis, and having the
keel produced into projecting points. Defrance assures natu-
ralists that this Cristellaria really occurs in both the recent and
the fossil state. .

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 203

_ 8. Cristellaria Cassis, F.& M. sp. Dict. xi. p. 614, xxxii. p.188.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 115.

9. Cristellaria levis, Defrance, 1818. Dict. xi. p. 614. This
is a subvariety of C. Cassis, having no septal ribs, and a smaller
umbonal knob. Defrance does not insist on its being specifically
distinct.

10. Cristellaria producta, Lam. Dict. xi. p.614. Under this
name Lamarck placed two of Fichtel and Moll’s varieties (8 and
y) of Cristellaria Cassis ; fossil, from Coroncina, Italy.

11. Dactylopore. Dict. xii. p. 448. Dactylopora cylindracea,
Lamarck; Atlas, Zooph. pl. 47. f. 4, pl. 51. f.6; Blainv. Actinol.
pl. 72. f. 4, pl. 76.f.6. Defrance obtained his specimens from
the “ Calcaire coquillier” of Grignon, near Versailles, and the
sand of Pontoise. In the Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 20-27,
we described several varieties of Dactylopora, recent and fossil :
these descriptions have since been revised and illustrated in
Dr. Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ pp. 127-187, pl. 10. The va-
rieties now adopted are D. Eruca, D. Annulus, D. digitata, D.
clypeina (Clypeina marginoporella, Michelin ; Dactylopora mar-
ginoporella, P. & J. 1860), D. reticulata (Larvaria reticulata,
Defrance), D. glandulosa (Prattia glandulosa, D’Archiac), and
D. cylindracea, Lamarck.

The microscopic fossils (from Podolia and Volhynia) figured
and described by A. Zborezewski in the ‘ Nouv. Mém. Soe. Nat.
Moscou,’ 1834, p. 308, pl. 26. f. 1-3, as Cellulina Hichwaldii,
C. Besseri, and C. Puschii, are probably Dactylopore. Accom-
panying these, Polymorphina lactea, var. tubulosa, is figured both
as Raphulina Humboldtii (p. 211, pl. 28. f. 1 a) and as Apiopterina
D Orbignii (f. 2a). Montfort’s odd figure of his Lagenula is
here also referred to Apiopterina; and an obscure two-celled
form is figured and described as Lyrina Fischert.

The little annular Foraminifer from the “Sables IV" de
Grignon,” described by A. Zborezewski, under the name of Dac-
tylina Fischeri, in 1848 (Bulletin de la Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes
de Moscou, xvi. p. 363), appears to be the same as Dactylopora
Annulus. Zukowa in Podolia is also given as a locality, with a
note of interrogation. The woodcut illustrating D. Fischert is
a rough diagram, but characteristic. A figure of what seems to
be a Gyrogonite accompanies the woodcut above mentioned, and
is named “ Spirostegina;” but no description follows. The
author also mentions some others of his species of Foraminifera
under the names “ Baphulina,” “Cepiopterina,” and “ Pnylo-
morphina” (p. 364).

12. Discorbites Pedemontanus, Defr. 1819. Dict. xi. p. 347,
Indeterminable from the description givea—‘“‘Orbicular, discoidal;
spire entirely visible on one side only; chambers smaller and

14%

204 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

more numerous than in D. vesicularis; fossil in Piedmont and
Italy.” Defrance mentions also having obtained three recent
forms referable, he thinks, to Discorbis.

13. Discorbites vesicularis, Lamarck. Dict. xii. p. 346, xxxii.
p- 186; Atlas, Conch. pl. 14. f. 2; Blainv. Malac. pl. 6. f. 2.
This is Discorbina Turbo, D’Orb., var. vesicularis; the same as
Rotalia Gervillii, D’Orb. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 293,
and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ p. 204.

14, Discorbites vesicularis. Atlas, Conch. pl.13.f.3; Blainv.
Malac. pl. 5. f.3. This figure probably represents a Dendritina,
that is, a Nautiloid form of Peneroplis planatus, F. & M. sp.

15. Fabularia Discolithus, Defr. 1820. Dict. xvi. p. 108;
Atlas, Zooph. pl. 48. f.5 ; Blainv. Actinol. pl. 73. f. 5. “ Alvéolite
grain de millet.” Fossil, from Grignon; and a flattened variety
from Valognes. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p.471. This
Fabularia from Grignon was figured by Fortis in his Memoir on
Discolithi, Mém. Nat. Hist. Italie, 1. pl. 2. f. Z, 1, 2, p. 109
(Discolithus [X.), and was named Nummulites ovata by De
Roissy, Hist. Nat. Mollusques, 1804, v. p.59; hence De Roissy’s
is the oldest specific name, and the species should stand as
Fabularia ovata.

A full account of Fabularia is given by Dr. Carpenter in his
‘Introduction,’ p. 82 &c., pl. 6. f. 37, 38.

16. Fabularia spheroides, Defr. 1820. Dict. xvi. p. 103.
Fossil, from Chaumont. Given as a variety of the foregoing by
Defrance.

17. Frondicularia complanata, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxx. p. 178;
Atlas, Conch. pl. 14. f.4; Blainv. Malac. p. 371, pl. 6. f. 4.
This is a fine large Frondicularian form of Nodosarina; fossil ;
probably from Italy.

It was also termed Renulina complanata by De Blainville
(xxxii. p. 178). ‘ Renulina” was also applied by him (Joe. cit.)
to the reniform variety of Vertebralina= V. opercularia (see Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 471), a very different form.

Frondicularia complanata is one of the most beautiful of the
Foraminifera, and often of a relatively large size in the Italian
Tertiary clays and sands, and in those of Malaga, San Domingo,
and the Vienna Basin. The Chalk, Chalk-marl, and Gault
have numerous individuals of varieties of this form, but they are
of less size than those of the Tertiary deposits. Similar forms,
but still smaller, are also common in several of the older clays
of the Secondary epoch. In the recent state it is not common,
but occurs of full size at Jamaica (the late Mr. L. Barrett’s
dredgings) ; and we have met with a long narrow Frondicularia
(like F. striatula, Reuss) in Commander Dayman’s dredgings,
made in July 1859, off Lisbon, at 700 fathoms. Prof, William-

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 205

son has figured two specimens of Frondicularia (regarded by
him and Mr. Jeffreys as being recent, but most probably, we
think, derived from the chalk cliffs) from the coast of Kent.
In the sea-sand from Rimini worn specimens of I’. complanata
occur ; some, however, are not more worn than many of the
undoubted Planularia Cymba so common in, and characteristic
of, the Rimini coast, while others are filled with ferruginous clay,
and have been derived from Subapennine strata.

If we go back to the Liassic period, we find the Nodosarie
(then forming a large proportion of the Rhizopodous fauna in
certain clays) presenting innumerable gradations through some-
what flattened forms of Nodosaria (Linguline) into true Frondi-
cularie, and through them to Flabelline, Planularia, and Cris-
tellarie. It seems as if, in later times, these minor varieties
have become more specialized as to locality; and nowadays,
having gradually lost its potency as a genus, Nodosarina seldom,
in any recent deposit, shows such comprehensive suites of vary-
ing forms as we find in the Lias, one subspecies now predomi-
nating over the others in the several Rhizopodal faune.

As regards size, the largest individuals of all the Nodosarine
group are found in the Tertiary deposits above referred to,—the
recent Jamaica specimens (dredged by the late Mr. L. Barrett
in from 100 to 250 fathoms) alone rivalling them.

The passage from Frondicularia to Flabellina is very easy, as
may be seen in many specimens from the Cretaceous and other
deposits, in which the eccentricity of the primordial chamber is
so slight, or, in other words, the tendency to coiling so weak,
that the distinction between Frondicularia and Flabellina can
scarcely be said to exist in them, the shell in other respects
presenting the general characters common to the two forms.
Flabellina is to Frondicularia as Marginulina and Vaginulina are
to Nodosaria and Lingulina; that is, the shell is dimorphous,
having had two successive plans of growth—the first spiral, like
that of Cristellaria, the later rectilinear, like that of Nodosaria.
The Flabelline of the Gault and Chalk-marl rival the largest
Frondicularia, and have been figured and described by D’Orbigny,
Reuss, and others. Palmula sagittaria, Lea (Contributions to
Geology, 1833, p. 219, pl. 6. f. 228), from the Cretaceous de-
posits of Timber Creek, New Jersey, is either a Frondicularia or
Flabellina, almost certainly the latter; for, although the early
chambers are not shown, the later chevron-shaped chambers are
not quite symmetrical. Planularia cuneata, 8. G. Morton (Journ.
Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 1842, viii, pl. 11. f. 5), from the
Middle Cretaceous Limestone of New Jersey, is also most pro-
bably a Flabellina, closely resembling Fl. ovata, Minster, sp.
Reuss has pointed out that Von Minster’s Frondiculine are

206 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

Flabelline : see N. Jahrb. 1849, p. 839, where Flabellina ovata
M. sp., Fl. oblonga, M. sp., Fl. striata, M. sp., and FV. cuneata, M.
sp., are figured in pl. 10.f.23-26. In the ‘Galerie des Mollusques,
ou Catalogue méthodique, descriptif et raisonné de mollusques et
coquilles du Muséum de Douai,’ par V. L. V. Potiez et A. L. G.
Michaud (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1858), pl. 9. f. 1-3 illustrate their
Frondicularia scutiformis, which is a Flabellina; and f. 4-6
illustrate their Textularia scapelliformis, which is a Frondicularia.
These are Belgian fossils from Autreppe, near Mons.

18. Hélicite. Dict. xx. p.456. A name given by Gesner to
Nummulites.

19. Helicites perforatus, De M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 179; Bl.
Malac. p. 373. This is a small granulate Nummulina, the Nautilus
lenticularis, var. €, of Fichtel and Moll, Test. Micr. pl. 7. fig. 4.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 108 & p. 111. (See also Num-
mulites, further on.)

20. Helicites radiatus, De M. Dict. xxxii. p. 179; Bl. Malac.
p. 378. This is a small Nummulina, the Nautilus lenticularis,
var. 6, of Fichtel and Moll, Test. Micr. pl. 7. fig. g. See Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 108 & p. 111. (See also Nummulites,
further on.)

21-23, Larvaire. Dict. xxv. p. 287. (Larvaria.) Defrance
found, in the Calcaire grossier of the vicinity of Paris, and in the
Tertiary sands at Bracheux and at Abbecourt, near Beauvais,
some little cylindrical bodies, tubular, tapering at both ends,
and composed of rings that readily fall apart, and grouped them,
as three species of Larvaria, among the “ Polypiers.” These
we have already recognized as allied to Dactylopora cylindracea
(Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 473, and Carpenter’s ‘Introduction,’
p- 182, pl. 10).

Larvaria reticulata, Defr. 1822. Dict. xxv. p. 287 (Bl. Actin.
pl. 71. f. 3), has the axial hollow large.

L. limbata, Defr., zbid., has one end larger than the other, and
a smaller central hollow; and its circular ranges of holes are
less apparent.

L. Encrinula, Defr., zbid., is from the Tertiary beds of Haute-
ville (Manche), and has the central hollow very small; and the
cylinder has its rings constricted at intervals.

Both L. limbata and L. Encrinula may well be varieties of
L. reticulata. (See also Dactylopora and Polytrypa.)

24, Lenticulina araneosa, De M.sp, Dict. xxxu. p. 182; Bl.
Malac. p. 390. A variety of Cristellaria Calcar. Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3, vi. p. 344.

25. Lenticulina Calear, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 182; BI.
Malac. p. 390. This is the typical Cristellaria Calcar. See also
Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. xix. p. 290, & ser. 3. v. p. 111.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. ~ 207

26. Lenticulina costata, F. & M.sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 182; BI.
Malac. p. 390. C. Calcar, var. costata. See Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3. v. p. 113.

27. Lenticulina cucullata, De M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 182.
This is a variety of Cristellaria Calcar, Linn. sp. Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3. vi. p. 844.

28. Lenticulina cultrata, De M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 182; BI.
Malae. p. 390. Cristellaria Calcar, var.X, Fichtel & Moll, Test.
Mier, pl. 13. f.e-g. Ann. Nat. Hist. lig. p- 343.

29. Lenticulina diaphanea, De M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 182;
Bl. Malac. p. 390. The typical form of Cristellaria Calcar,
Linn. sp. Ann. Nat. Hist. 7. c. p. 339.

30. Lenticulina incrassata, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 182 ;
Bl. Malac. p. 889. Nonionina asterizans, F. & M. sp., var. in-
crassata. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 101.

31. Lenticulina margaritacea, De Bl. Dict. xxxu.p. 182; Bl.
Malac. p. 890. Cristellaria Calcar, Iunn, var. 5; F. & M. Test.
Mier. pl. 11. f.2,4. It is the “ Pharame perlé” of De Montfort.

32. Lenticulina querelans, De M. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 182; Bl,
Malae. p. 389. This is Fichtel and Moll’s Cristellaria Calcar,
var. 7. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 112, and vi. p. 343.
It is the same variety as C. rotulata.

33. Lenticulina rostrata, De M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 182; Bl.
Malac. p. 890. This is Cristellaria Calcar, var. e, Fichtel &
Moll, Test. Micr. pl. 12. f. a-c. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.

112.

‘ 34. Lenticulina rotulata, Lam. Dict. xxv. p. 453, xxxu. p. 181;
Atlas, Zooph. pl. 15. fig. 7; Bl. Malac. pl.7.f.7. The common
yes v variety of Cristellaria Calcar.

. Lenticulina Trithemus, De M. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 182;
Bl. “Nialae p- 390. Cristellaria Calcar, var. €, Fichtel & Moll,
Test. Micr. pl. 12. f.d-f. A modified individual of the var.
cultrata.
_ 86. Lenticulites complanata, Defr. 1822. Dict. xxv. p. 453.
Operculina complanata. The small recent form is O. ammo-
noides ; see Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vil. pp. 229, 230.

37. Lenticulites (et Lenticulina) planulata, Lam. Dict. xxv.
p- 452; Atlas, Conch. pl. 14. f.1; Bl. Malac. pl.6.f.1. Num-
mulina planulata. See Nummulites, further on. The figure
represents a rather convex variety of Nummulina planulata*,
Lam. sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 295, and viii. p. 233.

* An interesting series of small individuals of this subspecies, varying
in amount of convexity and other features, are figured and described by
J.G. Bornemann, under the name of Nummulina Germanica (Amphistegina
nummularia, Reuss), in the ‘ Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell.’ 1860, xil.
p- 158, pl. 6, f. 3-9.

t
\

208 Messrs. W. K. Parker und T. R. Jones on the

38. Lenticulites rotulata, Zam. Dict. xxv. p. 453; Bl. Malac.
p- 889. Cristellaria rotulata, from the Chalk of Meudon. This
is the common form of Cristellaria Calcar as it occurs in the
Chalk of Europe.

39. Lenticulites variolaria, Lam. Dict. xxv. p. 453. Num-
mulina variolaria, a small convex variety of N. planulata. See
also Nummulites, further on.

40. Licophris. Dict. xxvi. p. 270. See Lycophris.

41. Linthuris Cassis, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxvi. p. 555, xxxii.
p- 188; Atlas, Conch. pl. 19. f.3; Bl. Malac. p. 384, pl.10.f.3.
Cristellaria Cassis, F. & M. sp. [Type: C. Calcar.] See Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 115

42. Lituola [et Lituolites] nautiloides, Lamarck. Dict. xxvii.
p. 81, xxx. p. 190; Atlas, Conch. pl. 20. f.3; Bl. Malac.
p- 881, pl.11. £8. A common Lituola, recent and fossil. See
Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 297.

43, Lycophris Faujasi, Defr. 1823. Dict. xxvii. p. 272 (Orbi-
toides?). From a deposit at Mirambeau, regarded by Defrance
as equivalent to the Chalk of Maestricht. Prof. Reuss (in the
Sitzungsbericht Akad. Wien, xliv. p. 313) has corrected our
mistake in referrmg “ Lycophris Faujasii” of the Maestricht
Chalk to Orbitolina instead of to Orbitoides (Ann. Nat. Hist.
v1. p. 36).

44, Lycophris lentille [lenticularis]. Atlas, Zooph. pl. 49.
f. 3; Bl. Actinol. pl. 74. f.3. This is an Orbitoides, and is
not Montfort’s Lycophris lenticularis (Fichtel & Moll’s Nautilus
lenticularis, var. 8), which is a small granulate Nummulina (N.
Lucasana, Defrance, MS., according to D’Archiac and Haime).
See Nummulites, further on.

45. Mélonie. Melonia [erroneously for Melonis]. Dict. xxx.
p- 17. Melonis Etruscus, DeM., is the same as Nonionina
pompiloides, F. & M. sp. Polystomella Etrusca, Bl. Malacol.

. 389.
, 46. Mélonie. Dict. xxx. p.18. Defrance expresses the diffi-
culty he finds in matching this with any of Lamarck’s “ Mélo-
nies” (An. s. Vert. vii. p. 615), or with the one figured in
Encyel. pl. 467. f. la, fig & h.

47. Melonia spheerica, Lam. Dict. xxxil. p. 176; Atlas, Conch.
pl. 15. f.2; Bl. Malac. p. 369, pl. 7. f. 2.

48. Melonia spheroidea, Lam. Dict. xxxii. p. 176; Atlas,
Conch. pl. 15. f. 3; Bl. Malac. p. 370, pl. 7. f.3. This and
the preceding are the varieties of Alveolina Melo originally
figured by Fichtel and Moll. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.
p- 181, & vii. p. 163.

49. Miliola birostris, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 69. (Quinque-
loculina.)

Nomenclature of the Yoraminifera. 209

50. Miliola Cor-anguinum, Zam. Dict. xxxi. p. 68; Bl. Malac.
p. 369, pl. 4. f. 3. A swollen M. trigonula.

51. Milioia obscura, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxxi. p. 69. A flat
discoidal shell with a rough surface ; probably a Spiroloculina.
Fossil; Italy.

52. Miliola opposita, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 69. (Quinque-
loculina.)

53. Miliola planulata, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 68. (Spiroleculina.)

54. Miliola rmgens, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 68. (Biloculina.)

55. Miliola Saxorum, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 69, xxxii. p. 176;
Atlas, Conch. pl. 15. f.1; Bl. Malac. p. 369, pl. 7. f.1. (Quin-
queloculina.)

56. Milla trigonula, Lam. Dict. xxxi. p. 68, xxxii. p. 176;
Bl. Malac. p. 369. (Triloculina.)

For notes on the foregoing varieties of Miliola Seminulum,
Linn. sp., see Ann. Nat. Hist. ser 3. v. p. 469 &. See also
Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ pp. 74 et seq.

57. Miliolite; Mualiolites. Dict. xxxi. p. 69. De Blainville
expresses a doubt as to what Montfort’s Miliolites sabulosus
(which is an Alveolina) may be.

58. Miliolites Cor-serpentis, De Bl. Dict. xxxi. p.69; Atlas,
Conch. pl. 11. f.3; Bl. Malacol. p. 369, pl. 4. f..3. Miliola
Cor-anguinum, Lam. A swollen M. trigonula.

59. Nodosaria Bacillum (Nodosaire Baguette), Defr. 1825.
Dict. xxxv. p. 127, xxxvi. p. 487; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13. f. 4;
Bl. Malac. pl. 5. f. 4. Fossil, from Italy. This 1s Nodosaria
Raphanistrum, Linn. sp., a large variety of Nodosaria Raphanus,
Linn. sp., which is the type of the very various Nodosarian and
Cristellarian forms grouped in the great genus Nodosarina.
Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. i. pp. 477, 478, and Carpenter’s ‘ In-
troduction,’ p. 159 &c.

60. Nodosaria dentalina, Lam. Dict. xxxv. pp. 125,126. N.
Raphanus, Linn. sp., var. dentalina ; Dentalina communis, D’Orb.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 39.

61. Nodosaria fragilis, Defr. 1825. Vélins du Mus. no. 48.
f. 13; Dict. xxxv. p. 126. From the Maestricht Chalk of St.
Peter’s Hill. Occurring in fragments ; long, pointed, slightly
curved towards one end, with small gibbose chambers, some of
them slightly sulcated. A delicate form of N. obliqua, Linn.,
and equivalent to Lamarck’s N. acicula, which is a Dentaline
variety of N. Raphanus.

62. Nodosaria Radicula, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxv. pp. 125, 126.
N. Raphanus, var. Radicula. See Ann, Nat. Hist. ser. 3. iii.
p- 479. Defrance obtained specimens from the Maestricht
Chalk.

63. Nodosaria Siphunculus, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxv. pp.125, 126.

210 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T, R. Jones on the

A Serpula. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. iii. p. 480. See also
Orthocera and Orthoceras, further on. .

64, Nubecularia lucifuga, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxv. p. 210;
Atlas, Zooph. pl. 44. f.3; BI. Actinol. pl. 66. f. 8, 3a-8d. °
From the Calcaire grossier and the Faluniére of Hauteville,
Dép. de la Manche. .

Blainville and Defrance here grouped the curious Miliolitie
genus Nubecularia with the Zoophytes, giving some characteristic
figures of it. Soldani has depicted numerous individuals in
his great work ‘ Testaceographia,’ placing them with the Ser-
pula. We have found Nubecularie, associated with other Fora-
minifera, in very many recent sea-sands from shallowish water,
and have been enabled to recognize their relations with the
Mhliolite group*. These are very protean shells: in deep water
they are neither common nor large, but in the Algal belt they
attain the size of hemp-seeds and even of split peas ; and, grow-
ing attached to sea-weeds, shells, and other bodies, they become
scale-like, or resemble lichens; or, winding about stalks and
fronds, they form ring-like incrustations, shooting off into irre-
gular processes and forming grotesque cervicorn figures (N. luci-
fuga). Similar forms occur in abundance in some of the French
tertiaries. From the Clam-shells of the East Indian seas, and
from the Strombus gigas of the West Indies, we get minute
rectilinear individuals of Nubecularia, with a spiral commence-
ment (N. Tibia). An allied variety, without a spiral beginning,
is shown by D’Orbigny’s Webbina rugosa (For. Canar. pl. 1.
f. 16-18; and For. Vien. p. 74, pl. 21. f. 11, 12). In several
clays of the Oolitic formations we have met with these elongate
varieties attached to Gryphee, &c.

_ All these Nubecularian forms have an opake shell, frequently
arenaceous, and are composed of minute, tent-like, plano-convex
chambers, the base often being more or less imperfect; the
aperture is produced, oval, and often lipped, and becomes enve-
loped in the base of the new chamber, as in the true Mille.

_ The foregoing varieties of Nubecularia (N. lucifuga, N. Tibia,
and N. rugosa), however dissimilar among themselves, are all
referable to the same specific type, which is sufficiently well
represented by NV. lucifuga, Defr., above referred to.

65. Nummulites complanata, Lam. Dict. xxv. p. 224. Ca-
merina nummularia, Bruguiére. Defrance notices one specimen
having a width of 3 inches and a thickness of 3 lines; giving
the following localities :—Egypt, Soissons, Languedoc, Tran-
sylvania, Mont Aubrey en Suisse, Vicentin, et Véronnais; and
he remarks that “It is doubtful whether one and the same

* See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xvi. p. 455, pl. 20. f. 48-56; and Car-
penter’s * Introduction,’ p- 69, pl. 5. f, 1-15, RENE oi Foe

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. — 211

species be spread over so great an extent of country; but no
difference can be established except on the size and thickness ;
and so it is difficult to fix it in, this respect.” See also Ann,
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vil. p. 234.

_ 66. Nummulites concava, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 325.
“ White, like ivory.’ Brought from the Crimea by Dr. E. D.
Clarke (‘par le célébre voyageur Klark”). ‘It has a little
round central cavity in the interior, is complanate ;” “ probably
those from Cairo are the same.” Hence probably it is a variety
of N. complanata. Ann. Nat. Hist. . c. p, 234. ,

67. Nummulites globularia, Lam. Dict. xxxv. p. 224. A
globular variety of N. levigata, as Defrance judiciously suggested.

68. Nummulites levigata, Bruguiére. Dict. xxxii. p. 179, xxxv.
p- 224; Bl. Malac. p. 372. Nummulina levigata: a subtype,
characterized by inosculation of the septa of the alar lobes.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 290, & viii. p. 232.

Defrance remarks,—“ TI] est extrémement probable que c’est
la méme espéce, modifiée par les localités, que lon trouve en
Suisse, dans le Véronnais, en Dalmatie, sur le mont Pilate prés
de Lucerne, 4 Stubbington dans le Hampshire, et dans d’autres
endroits.”

69. Nummulites(?) Lenticula, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 226,
Sienna, Pisa, Vicentin, Oise, La Somme, Belgium, &c. This is,
according to D’Archiac and Haime, an Amphistegina (Monogr.
p- 161); and, judging from specimens brought from Pisa, we
are of the same opinion.

70. Nummulites lenticularis, De Bl. Dict.; Atlas, Conch.
pl. 11. f. 2; Bl. Malac. pl. 4. f. 2. This is in the index to the
Atlas, not in the text. It is Nummulina levigata, Bruguiére.

71. Nummulites Lenticulus, De B/, 1824. Dict. xxxii. p.179;
Malac. p. 373. Lycophris lenticularis, De M.; Fichtel & Moll’s
Nautilus lenticularis, var.8, A small granulose Nummulina (N.
Lucasana, Defr. vara, D’Archiac and Haime). De Blainville
says, “ Of a species of this section (Lycophris, De M.) Defrance
makes a genus of ‘Polypiers.’” Apparently they mistook a
rough Orbitoides for the little granular Nummulite figured and
described by Fichtel and Moll, and subsequently by De Montfort.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 108, 110, vi. p. 342, and viii.

. 233.

: 72. Nummulites Moneta, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 226.
One inch wide. Ronca; Dalmatia; lowest beds of the Isles of
Veglia, Pago, and Arbe; Croatia; Alicante. According to
D’Archiac and Haime, this is the N. Spira of Roissy, “ Discolithe
no. 6” of Fortis. An Assiline form of Nummulina.

_ 78. Nummulites Ramondi, Defr, 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 226.
Mont Perdu ; Montagne de Lex-d’Argentin ; Valley of Auzeindre

212 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

audessus de Bex; Placentin?; Bayonne? <A small Nummulina
adopted by D’Archiac as a species (Monogr. p. 128, pl. 7.
f, 13-17).

74. Nummulites Rotula, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 224.
Morlaie. A variety of N. levigata, in company with which it
occurs. See also D’Archiac and Haime’s Monogr. p. 105.

75. Nummulites scabra, Lam. Dict. xxxv. p. 224. The
granulose variety of N. /evigata. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.
p- 296, & viii. p. 235.

76. Nummulites spissa, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxv. p. 225.
Locality unknown. According to D’Archiac and Haime (Mo-
nogr. p. 115), this is a young Nummulina perforata, Montf. sp.

See also Helicites and Lenticulites, for other Nummulites.

77. There is another Nummulina named specifically by Defrance,
in MS., namely N. Lucasana, adopted by D’Archiac ; see D’Ar-
chiac’s ‘ Progrés de la Géologie,’ 1850, iil. p. 238, and D’Archiac
and Haime’s ‘ Monograph, p. 124. It is included with a granu-
late N. Spira under the name N. verrucosa by De Roissy. Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vil. p. 238.

78. Another Nummulite, named by Defrance N. nummiformis
in Alex. Brongniart’s ‘ Vicentin’ (1823), p. 51, was not repro-
duced in the Dict. Sc. Nat. It is related to N. complanata,
and is named N. Brongniarti by D’Archiac and Haime, ‘ Mono-
graph,’ p. 110, reasons for not using the name given by Defrance
being advanced at p. 111.

79. Orbiculina adunca, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 180; BI.
Malac. p. 375.

80. Orbiculina angulata, Ff. & M. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 180;
Bl. Malac. p. 374.

81. Orbiculina numismalis, Lam. (Nautilus Orbiculus, F.& M.)
Dict. xxxil. p. 180, xxxvi. p. 291; Atlas, Conch. pl. 15. f. 4;
Bl. Malac. p. 373, pl. 7. f. 4 (O. nwmmata). This and the two
preceding are Orbiculina adunca, F. & M. sp. and varieties. See
Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 180 &c., and Carpenter’s ‘ Intro-
duction,’ p. 93 &c.

82. Orbiculites lenticulata, Lam. sp. Atlas, Zooph. pl. 51.
f.5; Blaimv. Actinol. pl. 76. f.5. See Orbitolites.

83. Orbitolites complanata, Lam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 294; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 47. f. 2 (Bl. Actinol. pl. 72. f. 2). Paris; Hauteville.
Defrance notices that this species has a very close relationship
with that found livmg in the seas of New Holland. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 291.

84. Orbitolites concava, Lam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 295. This is
Patellina concava, Lam. sp. In 1860 we referred this and other
forms to D’Orbigny’s genus Orbitolina (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3.
vi. p. 29 &c.) ; but, in consequence of later researches by Dr.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 213

Carpenter, our list of the Orbitoline at p. 38, ibid., is consider-
ably modified: thus—

Orbitolina simplex, O. semiannularis, O. corrugata, and O. an-
nularis now stand under Patellina corrugata; Orbitolina concava
and O. lenticularis under Patellina concava; Patellina Cooki
(fossil at Scinde) is an added species (Carter) ; Orbitolina vesi-
cularis, O. congesta, O. levis, O. spherulata, and O. spherulo-
lineata are grouped under Tinoporus vesicularis (‘ Tinoporus ”
being preferred by Dr. Carpenter to “ Orbitolina” as a generic
term).

85. Orbitolites lenticulata, Zam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 295; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 51. f. 5. Madreporites lenticularis, Blumenbach.
This is Patellina concava, Lam. sp., var. lenticularis. See Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 29 &c., and especially Carpenter’s
‘Introduction,’ p. 231.

86. Orbitolites macropora, Lam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 295. A
large-celled variety of O. complanata, Lam. See Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3. vi. p. 38.

87. Orbitolites Pileolus, Zam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 295. A con-
cavo-convex variety of Patellina concava, Lam, sp. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 39.

88. Orbulites ‘planulatus, Bl. Dict. xxxvi. p. 295; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 47. f. 2; Bl. Actinol. pl. 72. f. 2. Orbitolites com-
planata, Lam. See Orbitolites.

89. Oreas auricularis, Bl. Dict. xxxii. p. 188, xxxvi. p. 155;
Atlas, Conch. pl. 19. f.4; Bl. Malac. p. 383, pl. 10. f.4. This
is the subglobose form of Cristellaria Calcar known as C. acut-
auricularis, F. & M. sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 114.

90. Orthocera Acicuia, Zam. Dict. xxxvi. p. 487. Nodo-
saria Raphanus, Linn. sp., var. Acicula (probably the same as
N. obliqua, Linn. sp.). See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 39.

91. Orthocera Fascia, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxvi. p. 486. Nodo-
saria. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. m1. p. 478.

92. Orthocera Legumen, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxvi. p. 487. No-
dosaria (Vaginulina) Legumen, Linn. sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist.
L. c. p. 479.

93. Orthocera obliqua, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxvi. p. 487. Nodo-
saria. Ibid. p. 477.

94, Orthocera Raphanistrum, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxvi. p. 486.
Nodosaria. Ibid. p. 478.

95. Orthocera Raphanus, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxvi. p. 486. No-
dosaria. Ibid. p. 477. The typical N. Raphanus is termed
N. Rapa by D’Orbigny (Ann. Sc. Nat. vil. p. 258, no. 27),
probably from the intermediation and retranslation of the French
word “rave.” For its Marginuline form D’Orbigny used the
term N. Raphanus: this often occurs in the Adriatic and else-

214 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones-on the

where (D’Orb. Ann. Sc. Nat. vii. p. 258; Modéles, No. 6), and
is well figured by Soldani in his Testac. i. pt. 2. pl. 94, and by
Ehrenberg in the Abhandl. k. Akad. Berlin, 1838 (1839), pl. 1.
f. 11. A,B, a,b,c. See also ‘ Nodosaria,’ above.

96. Orthoceras Radicula, Linn. Dict. xxxii: p. 192; Bl.
Malac. p. 179. The simple form of Nodosarina known as Nodo-
saria Radicula, Linn. sp. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. mi. p. 479.

97. Orthoceras Raphanus, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 192; Bl.
Malac. p. 379. This is the typical Nodosaria Raphanus, Linn.
sp. Ibid. p. 478.

98. Orthoceras Scorpiurus, De M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 192.
This is the Lituola Scorpiurus, De Montf. [Type: Lituola nauti-
loidea, Lam.|] See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 346.

99. Oryzaria Boscii, Defr. 1820. Dict. xvi. p. 106; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 48. f. 4; Blainv. Actinol. pl. 73. f. 4. “ Alvéolite
grain de fétuque.” Alveolina Melo, ¥. & M. sp., var. sabulosa
(Miliolites sabulosus, Montfort). See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3.
vill. p. 162.

100. Ovulites elongata, Lam. Dict. xxxvii. p. 134; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 48. f. 3; Bl. Actinol. pl. 73. f. 3. This is the var.
elongata of O. Margaritula, Lam. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 8. v.
p- 292; and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ p. 179, pl. 12. f. 9, 10.

101. Ovulites globulosa, Defr. 1825. Dict. xxxvii. p. 184.
(Vélins du Mus. no. 48. f.9.) This is described as being smaller
than a mustard-seed, almost spherical, the apertures at each end
scarcely discernible. Fossil at Grignon and Villiers (Seine et
Oise), and Courtagon near Rheims. Defrance also speaks of a
similar little globular fossil, of the same size, but solid and
more spherical, found in the same bed at Villiers, and also at
Rimini. '

The first of these is most probably a globular Ovulites, such
as occur in the Grignon deposits; and the latter may be
spherical atoms of carbonate of lime, not unusual in some marine
deposits.

102. Ovulites Margaritula, Zam. Dict. xxxvii. p. 134; Atlas,
Zooph. pl. 48. f. 2, & pl. 50. f.6; Bl. Actinol. pl. 73. f. 2,
pl. 75. f. 6. Ann. Nat. Hist. 7. c.

103. Peneroplis Auris, Defr. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 178; Atlas,
Conch. pl. 14. f.5; Blainv. Malac. pl. 6. f.5. This, wrongly
referred by De Blainville to Peneroplis, is the Planularia Auris
of Defrance, which see.

104. Peneroplis dilatata, Lam. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 178; Bl
Malac. p. 872. This is a variety of Nautilus planatus, F. & M.;
misnamed by Lamarck “ Cristellaria,” and rightly referred to
Peneroplis by De Blainville.

105. Placentula asterizans, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 180,

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, ~~ 215

xli. p. 193. ‘This is the Polystomella (Nontonina) asterizans,
F.& M. sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 101.

106. Placentula pulvinata, Lam. Dict. xxxu. p. 180, xii.
p. 193; Atlas, Conch. pl. 15. f.5; Bl. Malac. pl. 7. f.5. This
is the Pulvinulina repanda, F. & M. sp.

107. Planularia Auris, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxii. p. 178, xli.
p- 244; Atlas, Conch. pl. 14. £5; Bl. Malac. p. 371, pl. 6. f. 5.
This is a very thin outspread variety of Cristellaria Cymba,
D’Orb. (Planularia Cymba, Aun. des Se. Nat. vil. p. 260, no. 4,
pl. 10. f. 9; Modeéles, no. 27; Soldani, Testac. i. pt. 1, pl. 58.
f.c,c.) It is the same as Soldani’s Orthoceras Auris (Testac.
i. pt. 2, pl. 104. f. A).

Defrance’s term Planularia is applicable to a group of elegant
forms connecting the Nautiloid Cristellarie with their Marginu-
line varieties and with Vaginuling, and thus constituting a
noticeable member of the great genus Nodosarina.

108. Polystomella ambigua, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 183;
Bl. Malac. p. 388. A common variety of P.crispa. See Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 103, 104.

109. Polystomella Etrusca, De M. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 183;
Bl. Malac. p. 389. This is P. (Nonionina) nompilioidat, ¥, & M.
sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 102.

110. Polystomella macella, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 183;
Bl. Malac. p. 388. This is Fichtel and Moll’s var. B of P. ma-
cella, a flat form of P. crispa. Ibid. p. 104.

111. Polystomella margaritacea, DeM. sp. Dict. sexi. p18 ;
Bl. Malac. p. 889. This is P. (Nonionina) Faba, F. & M. sp.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 102, vi. p. 339.

112. Polystomella planulata, Lam. Dict. xxxii. p. 183; Atlas,
Conch. pl. 15. f.8; Bl. Malac. p. 388, pl. 7.f.8. <A flat P.
crispa. The same as P. macella, F. & M. sp.

113. Polystomella Vortex, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 183;
Bl. Malac. p. 3889. This is Cristellaria Vortex, F. & M. sp.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 118.

114. Polytrema miniacea, Esper, sp. Polytréme rouge, Bl.
Atlas, Zooph. pl. 44. f. 4, 4a; Actinol. p. 410, pl. 69. f 4,
4a. This was first recognized as Millepora miniacea, Esper,
Zooph. i. pl. 17; Gmel. Syst. Nat.3784; afterwards as M. rubra,
Lamarck, Hist. An. s. Vert. ii. p. 202, no. 8; Polytrema coral-
lina, Risso, Eur. Mérid. v. p. 340, no. 91; Polytrema miniacea,
Blainville, Actinol. p. 410, pl. 69. f. 4, 4a. It isa fixed, reddish,
often branching Rhizopod, related to Orbitolina (Tinoporus),
Patellina, and other Rotaline. See Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’
p- 235, pl. 18. f. 18-20.

115. Polytrypa elongata vel Polytrypes elongatus, Defr. 1826.
Dict. xl. p.453 ; Atlas, Zooph. pl.48. f.1 (Bl. Actinol. pl. 73.f.1).

216 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

Polytrypa was referred by Defrance to the “ Polypiers a
réseau ;”” and his specimens were obtained from the Eocene Ter-
tiaries of France. He acutely observed that the individuals
“vary according to the localities.” From Grignon he had it
5 lines long and about 1 line thick; from Orglandes (Manche)
half as thick again, and shorter; from Villiers, near Grignon,
scarcely a line long; and from Mortefontaine (Oise), from the
Grés marin supérieur, 4 lines long, not half a line in diameter.
He justly remarks that “these are probably varieties of one
species ”—a conclusion at which we have arrived by a careful
examination of numerous specimens, as explained in the Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 473 &c., where Polytrypa, Larvaria, and
Dactylopora are shown to be one. See also Carpenter’s ‘ Intro-
duction,’ p. 127 &c.

116. Pyrgo levis, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxxii. p. 273; Atlas,
Zool. pl. 88.f.2; Bl. Malac. p. 482, pl. 62 bis, f.2. Referred by
De Blainville to the Pteropods. This is the common Miliola
(Biloculina) ringens, Lam.,var. bulloides, D’Orb., and was regarded
by Defrance as belonging to the same group (the Spherulacea of
De Blainville).

117. Renulina complanata, Defr. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 178.
This is Blainville’s name for Frondicularia complanata, Defrance
(which see),

118. Renulina opercularia [opercularis], Lam. Dict. xxxil.
p- 178; Bl. Malac. p.3871. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.
p- 476 for an account of this curious and rare variety of Verte-
bralina; also Carpenter’s ‘Introduction, p. 74, pl. 5. f. 18.
Blainville’s term ‘ Renulina” is not required.

119. Rotalites Cidarollus, Bl. (Cidarollus plicatus, De M.).
Dict. xxxii. p.187.. A common variety of Pulvinulina repanda.
It is R. pulchella, D’Orb., Modéles, no. 71. Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3. vi. p. 340.

120. Rotalites Cortalus, Bl. (Cortalus Pagodus, De M.).
Dict. xxxii. p. 187. Quite indeterminable. See Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 3. vi. p. 340.

121. Rotalites lenticulina, Lam. Dict. xlvi. p. 302. Probably
a variety of Discorbina Turbo. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.
p- 294.

122. Rotalites depressa, Lam. Dict. xlvi. p. 803. Probably
one of the Truncatuline varieties of Planorbulina farcta.

123. Rotalites discorbula, Lam. Dict. xlvi. p. 303. This is
Rotalia Beccarii, Linn. sp.

124. Rotalites Storillus, Bl. (Storillus radiatus, De M.).
Dict. xxxii. p. 187. An indeterminate Rotaline. See Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. vi. p. 341.

125, Rotalites (et Rotulites) trochidiformis, Zam. Dict. xxxii.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 217

p- 187, xlvi. p. 303; Atlas, Conch. pl. 14. f. 3, & pl. 19. f.1;
Bl. Malac. p. 391, pl. 6. f. 8, & pl. 10. f. 1. Defrance remarks
that both dextral and sinistral shells occur.

This is a well-developed variety of Discorbina Turbo, D’Orb.
See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 294; and Carpenter’s ‘ Intro-
duction,’ p. 204.

126. Saracenaria italica, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxx. p. 177,
xlvii. p. 344; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13. f. 6; Bl. Malac. p. 370,
pl. 5. f.6. Fossil; from Italy: a trihedral Cristel/artia. De-
france likens it to “un petit grain de sarrasin :” 4 line to 14 line
in diameter.

This is found, both recent and fossil, where Cristellarie are
abundant. D’Orbigny had this from Rimini in the Adriatic,
and recognized it as a Cristellarian form, making it a subgenus
of Cristellaria, and illustrating it by his Models, nos. 19 & 85
(Ann. Sc. Nat. vi. p. 293).

127. Siderolina calcytrapoides et Siderolites calcitrapoides,
Lam. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 180, xlix. p. 98; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13.
f. 7; Bl. Malac. pl. 5. f. 7. From Maestricht. Calcarina
Spengleri, Gmel. sp. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. i. p. 480, &
v. p. 291; and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ pp. 216-223.

128. Siderolites Spengleri, Gmel. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 179;
Bl. Malac. p. 373. . This is Calcarina Spengleri, Gmel. sp.

129. Spirolina (et Spirolinites) cylindracea, Lam.* Dict. vol. 1.
p- 298; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13. f.1; Bl. Malae. pl. 5. fig. 1; and

130. Spirolina (et Spirolinites) depressa, Lam. Dict. vol. 1.
p- 298; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13. f.2; Bl. Malac. pl. 5. f. 2. De-
france alludes also to a recent species, apparently identical with
Sp. cylindracea, and living in the Mediterranean. He remarks
that, in the ‘Tabl. Méth. Céph.’ (Ann. Sc. Nat. vi. p. 287),
D’Orbigny notices also Spirolina striata, Sp. levigata, and Sp.
Pedum, found fossil near Paris, and groups these with Lituola
(Lituolites) nautiloides; but he thmks the difference in the
aperture does not depend on age, as D’Orbigny thinks. In this
indication of D’Orbigny’s mistake, Defrance is correct ; the Li-
tuole are very distinct from the so-called Spiroline, which are
narrow forms of Peneroplis planatus, F. & M. sp. See Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. v. pp. 297 & 466 &e.

131. Spiroloculina, D’Orb. Dict. vol. 1. p.299. Under this
head Defrance quotes nine fossil species from D’Orbigny’s
Tabl. Méth. Céph. (Ann. Se. Nat. vii. p. 298).

132. Spirula cylindracea, Zam. sp. Dict. xxxii. p. 190; BI.

* Lamarck figured two distinct forms under this name, namely Penero-
plis cylindracea, and a Clavuline variety of Valvulina triangularis (Valvu-
lina Clavulus). See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v. p. 467 &c,

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3, Vol, xi. 15

218 On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

Malae. p. 382, pl. 5.f.1. This is De Blainville’s name for
Lamarck’s Spirolina cylindracea (which see).

138. Textularia Sagittula, Defr. 1824. Dict. xxxu. p. 177,
liii. p. 344; Atlas, Conch. pl. 13. f. 5; Bl. Malac. p. 370, pl. 5.
f.5. This is Soldani’s Polymorphum Sagittula, Testac. vol. i.
part 2. p. 120, pl. 133, vas 260. f. 0. It occurs fossil near
Sienna and Castel d’Arquato, and lives in the Mediterranean.
We have only this one species; but, in his Tabl. Méth. Céphal.,
D’Orbigny enumerates twenty-six other species, of which most
are fossil.”

This is a common Textularia—indeed, the most common
variety. It is not the type of the genus, however, which is best
typified by 7. agglutinans, D’Orb., a more inflated form, and
generally of a larger size. 7. gibbosa, D’Orb., attains stil] larger
proportions, being a more exaggerated variety.

The figure given by Blainville and Defrance (Atlas, Zooph.
pl. 13. fig. 5) differs somewhat from that in Soldani’s book.
The specimen was of smaller size, flatter, the earlier chambers
smaller, and the newest chambers more contracted—the shell
well representing an unbarbed arrow-head in miniature. Sol-
dani’s figure seems to indicate the presence of a third series of
chambers on one of the sides; but we think that this feature
was probably only a low ridge arising from an irregular form of
the chambers on the unattached surface of the shell, and not
really due to an intercalated series of chambers. The specimen
figured by Soldani was of rather large size; and we have met
with several in the Mediterranean of equal magnitude: they
take on the more regularly sagittate form in their smaller con-
dition ; when largely developed, they often approximate to T.
agglutinans, D’Orb.

T. Sagittula is very common, ranging from shallow water to
a depth of 150 fathoms. The subgroup typified by Defrance’s
and Soldani’s figures, above referred to, comprises a large and
variable series of forms, recent and fossil, which have been
abundantly supplied with names. 7. Sagittula and T. aggluti-
nans are the commonest of all the Textularie ; they are world-
wide, and go far back in time. Of the Teatularie on our own
coasts they are the most abundant. In Prof. Williamson’s
Monograph, figs. 158 & 159 afford, we think, a good example
of the small 7. Sagittula (although that author refers it to 7.
cuneiformis, D’Orb., which appears to us to be a distinct va-
riety). 7. Sagittula and its larger allies become sandy in their
adult state; smaller varieties of 7. agglutinans (the type), such
as T. pygmea, D’Orb. (TI. aciculata, D’Orb.), remain hyaline and
poriferous. See also Ann. Nat. Hist. ser, 3. xi. p. 91 &c., and
Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ p. 189 &e.

Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles. 219

D’Orbigny (Ann. Se. Nat. vii. p. 264) refers to Textularia
si tune Defrance ; but it does not appear in the Dict. Sc.

at.

134. Vorticialis craticulata, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxx. p. 181;
Atlas, Conch. pl. 15. f.6; Bl. Malac. p. 375, pl. 7. f.6. A
large variety of Polystomella crispa, Linn. sp. See Ann. Nat.
re ser. 8. vy. p. 105, and Carpenter’s ‘ Introduction,’ p. 279,
pl. 16.

135. Vorticialis crispa, Linn. sp. Dict. xxxu. p. 181; BL.
Malac. p. 875. This is the Polystomella crispa, Linn. sp. La-
marck’s generic name “ Vorticialis ” is not required.

136. Vorticialis marginata, Lam. sp. Dict. xxx. p. 181;
Bl. Malac. p. 375. This is Polystomella crispa, Linn. sp., var.
strigilata, subvar. B, F. & M. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. v.
p- 105.

137. Vorticialis strigilata, F. & M. sp. Dict. xxxi. p. 181;
Bl. Malac. p. 375. Polystomella crispa, var. strigilata. This, like
the foregoing, is a somewhat flattened variety.

XXIL.—A List of the Formosan Reptiles ; with Notes on a few of
the Species, and some Remarks on a Fish (Orthagoriscus, sp.).
By R. Swinuog, F.Z.8., F.G.8. &c., H.M. Vice-Consul at
Formosa.

I procurep at Formosa the following fifteen species of Reptilia,

which have since been deposited in the British Museum. Dr.

Giinther has determined their species, and is describing the novel-

ties in the British Museum Catalogue now publishing. To that

gentleman’s kindness I am indebted for the names.

Cistupina (Tortoises).

1. Emys sinensis, Gray.

Abundant about the pools and inland waters of South-west
Formosa, near Taiwanfoo. They were brought to me by the
natives there in large numbers. I forwarded five live specimens
to England as a present to the Gardens of the Zoological Society.
Three of them arrived safe, and are now exhibited in the
menagerie at the Regent’s Park.

2. Trionyx sinensis, Coregm.

_ Very abundant in the rivers near Amoy, but rather rare in
South-west Formosa, where I procured but a very few examples.
It has a long projectile neck, and very sharp teeth, with which
it can inflict a severe bite. When once it seizes an object,

15%

220 Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles.

it is with the utmost difficulty that it can be prevailed upon to
let go. The Chinese boil it into soup, and esteem it a great
delicacy for the table; hence it commands rather a high price.

Genus Cistoctremmys, J. HE. Gray.

« Thorax convex, solid. Sternum nearly flat, rounded before
and behind; the front lobe large, partly enclosed inthe symphysis.
The fore feet subclavate; the toes very short, nearly enclosed,
not webbed; the claws short, blunt. The hind feet elephantine,
subcircular ; toes very short, enclosed. Soles with two series
of large prominent shields ; the hinder edge keeled, but scarcely
produced. Tail shielded beneath. Asiatic.

“This genus, in the convex and solid structure of the thorax,
is like Cistudo; but the foot is more like that of the land Tor-
toises; and the hind foot is subcylindrical, instead of elongate
as in the American genus.

3. “ Cistoclemmys flavomarginata, n. sp.

* Cuora trifasciata, var., Grays Cat. Shield Reptiles in Brit. Mus. p. 42,
specimen c.

“Dark brown; shields of the back deeply concentrically
grooved ; the sternum flat, black; the lower side of the margin
of the thorax yellow; head olive, temple yellow, with a yellow
streak on each side of the crown, becoming wider and triangular
behind.

«<The surface of the shell is often more or less eroded; the
one which we first received from Mr. Reeves was so on the whole
upper surface. The form of the foot, as well as the height and
thickness of the shell, at once separates this species from Cuora
trifasciata, with which I formerly confounded it.” (J. E. Gray,
P.Z.S. 1863, p. 175.)

In the British Museum there is a specimen of this species
brought home by Mr. Reeves from Canton. I should think
that it was more than probable that the animal had been carried
to that port in a junk, and is not indigenous to that locality ;
for in Formosa I found it extremely local. It did not occur in
the South-west at all; but about Tamsuy, North-west Formosa,
it was the prevailing species. I frequently observed it in ponds
about the rice-fields, with its round back showing above the
surface of the water and its head peering out. At times several
might be seen together on the tops of stones in the water, bask-
ing motionless, with limbs extended. On being alarmed they
would shuffle off the stones with all the energy in their power,
and plumping into the water, sink immediately. If the observer

Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles. 221

kept quite still, after the lapse of a few seconds they would
again reappear at the surface.

4, Chelona virgata, Schneid.

The Green Turtle of Europeans in China is of frequent occur-
rence, often of a large size in the warm waters of the Gulf Stream
on the east of Formosa. At Sawo it is taken in large numbers,
dried, and cut up into thin strips for food. It is of rarer occur-
rence on the west coast, where it is oftenest found in spring.
On the Chinese coast it is a great rarity. There the fishermen
have great reverence for it, as it is regarded as the emblem of
longevity. When accidentally entangled in the fishing-nets, it
is carried to the nearest large town and exhibited for a short
time. It is then usually purchased from its captors by some
well-to-do native, who has a few “good words” carved on its
back, in company with his own name and the date, and fills-in
the inscription with vermilion. The animal is then decked with
ribbons, and carried in a boat, with much ceremony, out to sea,
where it is consigned with state into its native element. Some
very large specimens were brought from Sawo to Tamsuy ; they
were kept in a boat filled with water during the day. In the
evening we used to bring them out on to the deck of a vessel.
One of them, for several consecutive evenings at 8 o’clock pre-
cisely, would commence scratching the deck with her fore flappers,
and then set-to laying eggs, usually twelve in number. She
would then turn round and commence pushing and scraping
with her hind flappers—evidently the manceuvre she was in the
habit of going through on the sandy beach, first scratching a
hole for the reception of the eggs, then filling it up. I had one
alive for some time in the yard of my house. It used to lie
motionless in the rain-puddles, with only the tip of its head un-
covered. When the thermometer fell below 50° it would sally
out of the water, and not return till it grew warmer.

5. Caretta squamata, Bont. (Tortoise-shell Turtle).

One of this species was brought to me at Tamsuy about the
25th of January 1861. It was very lively, and much more
active than the Green Turtle, walking about the floor with an
awkward but somewhat rapid gait. In walking it inclined the
inner edge of its fore flapper up, so as to bring the claw of the
outer edge as a purchase on the ground. It was killed by a
deep incision in the neck above the thorax. Thus wounded,
it flapped about from 1.80 till 4 p.w., when it ceased to move ;
but at 11 p.m., when I dissected the animal, I found the heart
still beating, and the muscles sensible to touch and conveying
motion to the limbs, though other signs of life had ceased, The

222 _Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles.

stomach contained bits of algz in small quantity; but the small
gut was choked with bits of black stone and shell mixed with
alez. The measurements, taken from the fresh animal, were as
follows :—

Tene th.of CamTmpace 2. eevee a = + <5 2 14 inches.
Breadth of carapace... map mem =~ -,- 12
Legeth a. tippers. sche ae «+= = 7
Greatest breadth of flapper.......... 2
Leneth or hend= © “Ree nee ee et 353;
Length of head to edge of carapace 5
Hind flapper from knee ............ 5
Greatest breadth of hind flapper...... 2

Sauria (Lizards).
6. Gecko Swinhonis, Giinther, n. sp.

The specimens of small Gecko I brought home from Taiwanfoo
Dr. Giinther of the British Museum has described as new. I
did not observe it in North-west Formosa; but in the South-
west it was especially abundant, and I had numerous opportu-
nities of making notes on its habits. I therefore make no
apology for extracting the following long account from my
journal of observations on this animal, together with the strange
native legend regarding it.

On the plaster-washed side of my bedroom, close to the
angle of the roof, every evening when the lamp was placed on
the table below, four little musical lizards used to make their
appearance, and watch patiently for insects attracted by the
light. A Spline or a beetle buzzing into the room would put
them into great excitement, and they would run with celerity from
one part of the wall to the other after the deluded insect as it °
fluttered in vain, buffeting its head, up and down the wall. Two
or three would run after the same insect; but as soon as one
had succeeded in securing it, the rest would prudently draw
aloof. In running over the perpendicular face of the wall they
keep so close, and their movements are made so quickly with
one leg in advance of the other, that they have the appearance
at a distance of gliding rather than running. The tail is some-
what writhed as the body is jerked along, and much so when
the animal is alarmed and doing its utmost to escape; but
its progress even then is in short runs, stopping at intervals
and raising the head to look about it. If a fly perch on the
wall, it cautiously approaches to within a short distance, then
suddenly darts forwards, and with its quickly protruded gluti-
nous tongue fixes it. Apart from watching its curious manceuvres
after its insect food, the.attention of the most listless would be

Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles. 223

attracted by the singular series of loud notes these creatures
utter at all hours of the day and night, more especially during
cloudy and rainy weather. These notes resemble the syllables
“ chuck-chuck ” several times repeated, and, from their more
frequent occurrence during July and August, are, I think, the
call-notes of the male to the female. During the greater part
of the day the little creature lies quiescent in some cranny
among the beams of the roof or in the wall of the house, where
however it is ever watchful for the incautious fly that approaches
its den, upon whom it darts forth with but little notice. But it
is by no means confined to the habitations of men. Every old
wall, and almost every tree, possesses a tenant or two of this
species. It is excessively lively, and even when found quietly
ensconced in a hole, generally manages to escape,—its glit-
tering little eyes (black, with yellow-ochre iris) appearing to
know no sleep; and an attempt to capture the runaway seldom
results in more than the seizure of an animated tail, wrenched
off with a jerk by the little fellow as it slips away, without loss
of blood. The younger individuals are much darker than the
larger and older animals, which are sometimes almost albinos.
In ordinary fly-catching habits, as they stick to the sides of a
lamp, there is much similarity between this Gecko and the little
Papehoo or wall-lizard of China ; but this is decidedly a larger and
more active animal, and often engages in a struggle with insects
of very large size. I once watched a Gecko seize a Sphina moth;
but the insect, after a serious struggle, succeeded in breaking
loose from it, not, however, without having been too seriously
injured to live. I was assured by a medical friend at Amoy
that he saw in his verandah there a large spider (Mygale species)
quietly sucking the body of a Papehoo. I suspect it would take
‘a very large spider to pay the same respects to a Formosan
Gecko.

I have found the eggs of this Gecko in holes in walls
or among mortar rubbish. They usually lie several together,
are round, and did not seem to me to offer any appearance other
than those of ordinary lizards. The young, when first hatched,
keep much to themselves under stones in dark cellars, where
they live until they attain two-thirds the size of the adults. At
this stage they begin to show out in conspicuous places, but
always evince alarm at the approach of their older brethren ; for
what reason, I could not make out. A little fellow that lived
behind some small boxes on my table, and used to sally out to
eatch the smaller insects attracted by the lamplight, would
always scurry away as soon as he spied one of the larger tenants
of the roof-top gliding down with hurried strides. It may have
been puerile modesty, or perhaps he was aware that his precocity

224 Mr. R. Swinhoe on Formosan Reptiles.

had induced him to affect a field to which he had no right in the
presence of his seniors.

The Chinese colonists show a respect for these animals, and
will not suffer them to be molested on the walls of their houses.
They relate a legend as the cause of this veneration. Many
years since, some rebels had taken possession of the Fungshan
Hien (the southernmost district of the Chinese territory in For-
mosa), and were threatening the capital itself, when the emperor
sent across from China a celebrated general to quell the insur-
gents. This valiant warrior had made several onslaughts on the
enemy, which only resulted in defeat and the decimation of his
army. He sat one evening desponding gloomily, when suddenly
his attention was drawn to something chuckling over his head.
He looked up and spied a Gecko, which, to his astonishment,
spoke out, and asked him the cause of his despondency. The
warrior, thinking that perhaps some good spirit was embodied
in the little creature, unbosomed his grief to it. The lizard
replied that by means of certain secretions im its body it coula
speedily poison the supplies of the enemy’s troops, and thus
reduce their strength to a shadow, and that the general could
proceed and make short work of them. The brave warrior was
delighted at the project, and promised, should the plot succeed,
that he would recommend the lizard to the emperor for distinc-
tion. The lizard was as good as his word, and next morning
large numbers of his tribe were observed making their way to
the Fungshan Hien; and in a few days rumour reached the
anxious general that the enemy were dying off by scores, and
that their strength was fast reducing to a shadow. Whereupon
he gathered his troops together, and soon succeeded in cutting
to pieces the miserable remnant of the once invincible rebel
band. The warrior returned elate from his victory. The lizard
was at his usual spot on the wall, and chuckled louder than ever
at the success of his plans, claiming for himself and four-footed
companions the promised distinction. The general was true to
his word, and memorialized the emperor on the subject, who
graciously ordained that henceforth the tribe of Formosan Geckos
should receive the rank of generals, and be respected by all classes
of men. The Geckos, on hearing the good news announced,
assembled and chuckled in concert ; and since then, every house
possesses its small family of miniature generals, who manoeuvre
about the walls and destroy the mosquitoes and other insect
pests that plague the colonists, as successfully as their forefathers
did the rebels ; and when the thunder roars and the hghtning
flashes, they think of the valiant deeds of their ancestors, and,
in the true spirit of generals, chuckle louder than usual at what
reminds them of the din of battle.

Mr. R. Swinhoe on a Sun-fish from Formosa. 225

7. Mabowia chinensis, Gray.
Found near Tamsuy. Ascends plants, and basks among their
leaves in the sunshine.
8. Lapalura Swinhonis, Ginther.

One of the comb-backed tree-lizards; procured also at

Tamsuy.
Opuipr1a (Snakes).

9. Coluber rufodorsatus, Cant.
From Tamsuy.

10. Simotes Swinhonis, Giinther, Brit. Mus. Cat. 1863.
From Tamsuy.

11. Tropidonotus annularis, Hallow.
From Tamsuy.
12. Tropidonotus stolatus, L.
From Tamsuy.

13. Bungarus semifasciatus, Kuhl.

A black-and-white banded snake, also common at Amoy in
China. Frequently resorts to cellars and under houses, where
it feeds on rats. Its bite is very deadly.

14. Pelamis bicolor, Schneid.

Common about the coral-reefs at Kelung, North Formosa.
Ts occasionally washed into the Tamsuy River.

15. Halys Blomhoffi, Boie.
From Tamsuy.

The few fish I brought home from South-west Formosa and
Tamsuy Dr. Giinther has not yet had time to determine. I
therefore cannot now give a list of them. I will only add a few
remarks on a species of that extraordinary genus Orthagoriscus,
which is probably the same as that described from Japan in
Von Siebold’s ‘ Fauna Japonica.’

Orthagoriscus, sp. (Sun-fish).

On the 21st of March 1862, some six miles up the Tamsuy
River, a large fish was observed close to a ship in harbour. It
floated near the surface of the water, moving lazily along,
splashing about its dorsal flapper. It must have been injured ;
for when a boat pulled up to it, it made no resistance, but
allowed itself to be taken hold of by the fin, and a rope to be

226 Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides and

passed round its body. The Chinese say that it is not rare in
the adjoming sea. They call it Tay-siun Ho. They eat the
skin, and describe it as crumbling in the mouth like biscuit ;
but the fleshy portions boil away to nothing, and are not worth —
the trouble of putting in the pot. The specimen measured in
length 5 feet 6 inches; across from tip to tip of fins 6 feet ;
length of fin 18 inches. It weighed 187 lbs. The intestine
was thick and fleshy, and measured 21 feet long, the duodenum
bemg 34 inches and the gut about 14 inch broad. It had
one thick fleshy cecum about 9 inches from the anus, 34 inches
long by 2 broad. The urethra has an opening distinct from
the anus, and squirted out water when the animal was stepped
upon. Its stomach was empty; but in the cavity between it
and the flesh was a long yellow tapeworm, with numerous small
parasitic grubs like the larvee of the lady-bird (Coccinella), yellow
and black, attached to different parts of it. Outside the skin
about the gills were sticking several large fish-lice. When first
caught, several sucking-fish were found fastened to its skin;
these had been torn off, and left bare and raw patches. Unfor-
tunately they were thrown away before I saw them. I observe
Cuvier says that this order of fish has no ceca. Has this genus
ordinarily none?

XXIII.—On Raphides and Spheraphides of Phanerogamia ; with
a Notice of the Crystal Prisms of Ividacee. By GroreE
- Guuiiver, F.R.S.
[Plate IV. fig. 13.]

Of the terms Raphides and Spheraphides—I have commonly
used the term Raphides according to its etymological import
(padis, acus, subula; fr. pamtw, suo, consuo), as proposed by
DeCandolle, for the needle-hke forms, though it has generally
been applied to all microscopic crystals, of what shape soever,
occurring in plants—thus causing such inconvenience that the
word should either be discarded or others used for crystals and
their aggregations of totally different shapes. Whenever either
the figure or chemical composition of them can be clearly de-
fined, a satisfactory designation follows as a matter of course ;
but this often cannot be done, especially with those very minute
crystals which occur most frequently. These, however, are so
commonly grouped in a particular manner, and are so widely
diffused throughout the phznogamous class, that a particular
word seems to be required to distinguish them, for the present,
from the typical raphides. As this last term has been so ge-
nerally adopted, we might retain it generically, and add some

Spheraphides of Phanerogamia. 227

prefix or affix for other forms of crystals. Among Phanero-
gamia they occur most commonly in a more or less globular
congeries, either naked or within a cell; and these I shall in
future call Spheraphides (c@aipa, sphera, and padis, A parte,
as above).

Size and Form of the Spheraphides—Common sizes of the
spheraphides are -;},th and =,};;th; but they often vary from
svoath to + 55th of an inch in diameter, and are occasionally
still larger. They are of a round form, and often appear as the
nucleus of a cell, and sometimes without any visible cell-wall.
The diameter of the individual crystals is frequently about
sotooth, varying from 554,,th to =;th of aninch. Of these
it is usually impossible to define the forms exactly, on account
both of their minuteness and of the difficulty there is in getting
them detached so as to roll about and display their shapes in the
microscopic field of vision. We can generally see that they are
more or less crystalline, and sometimes that they belong either
to the octahedral or prismatic system. But whether the forms
are primitive or secondary is not easy to determine; and, indeed,
the angles and edges are often more or less rounded off, or other-
wise so far modified as to make it difficult, without a careful
examination, to recognize them as crystals.

Distribution of Spheraphides.—For the above reasons the
spheraphides may often escape detection, as was the case in my
first examination of plants belonging to the order Caryophyl-
laceze, in which the individual crystals are commonly minute or
obscure, and yet are regularly present in more or less abundance,
either separately or aggregated into spheraphides. In some
species of this order (Siene Armeria for instance) the crystals
are larger, and compose such very distinct spheraphides as to
afford good subjects for preliminary examinations; for though
these sphzraphides vary much in size, numbers of them are
about +;';5th of an inch in diameter. They are most irregu-
larly scattered through the tissues of the plant. The diffusion
of spheraphides throughout PManerogamia, especially in the
leaves, and parts which are modifications of leaves, is so exten-
sive that I have never failed to find them in a single species of
of the orders Caryophyllacee, Geraniacee, Paronychiacee, Ly-
thracez, Saxifragaceee, and Urticacez, and believe that few, if
any, orders could be named in which spheraphides do not exist
as part and parcel of the healthy and growing structure of the
plant. Hence it would require a very extended series of obser-
vations to determine how far the spheraphides might be available
as botanical characters.

Spheraphid-Tissue—In some cases the spheraphides, far
from being very variable in size, and scattered without order

228 = Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides of Phanerogamia.

among the plant-cells, are so nearly uniform in magnitude and
regularly and beautifully dotted, in subcuticular cells, as to
form what might well be called sphzraphid-tissue. Of this,
excellent examples occur in Lythracee, Geraniacee, and many
other orders. Sphzraphid-tissue may generally be best seen in
the calyx, while the larger and more irregular-shaped sphera-
phides occur abundantly in the leaves. Of the last, Potentilla
reptans and its alles afford good specimens ; the first, or sphze-
raphid-tissue, is shown in Pl. IV. fig. 13, drawn to a scale of
=sloath of an inch, from the calyx of Lythrum Salicaria. Ob-
servations are yet wanting to determine how far the spheraphid-
tissue may be characteristic of different orders.

Distribution of Raphides.—This is a subject, independently of
its physiological interest, well deserving the attention of system-
atic botanists. Among Dicotyledones, raphides are not so widely
distributed as sphzraphides, and certainly occur so regularly and
plentifully in some plants, and sparingly or not at all in others,
as to afford good characters by which certain orders may be
readily distinguished from their allies of other orders, even by a
minute fragment of the leaf alone, and at any period of its growth,
which we have already exemplified (‘ Annals,’ May 1861; Jan.,
April, and July 1863) in Onagraceee and Rubiacee. Probably
Balsaminacee and Cucurbitaceze may be similarly characterized ;
but my examination of these orders and their allies is not yet
complete. The orders allied to Vitaceze must also be further ex-
amined, as I find that both the Grape-vine and Virginian creeper
are true raphis-bearing plants. So are some Monocotyledones,
as Asparagaceze, Araceze, Orchidacez, and part of Liliaceee. In
all the British Typhaceze raphides also occur,—which is now
noted because a remark to a contrary effect was in a former
paper (‘ Annals,’ Jan. 1863, p. 15), by my mistake, repeated from
the preceding paragraph to the species of Typha.

Site of Raphides.—Though raphides are commonly described
and depicted as contained within the cells of the leaf, and I have
inadvertently so mentioned them in Onagracee (‘ Annals,’ J uly
1863, p. 53), they are often not so situated. It was shown, in
the ‘Annals’ for May 1861, that raphides are clearly distinguish-
able within the cells of Lemna trisulca, and that they are longer
than the cells of L. minor. In many other plants it is certain
that the raphides do not he within the leaf-cells, such is the dis-
proportion between them ; for instance, in Circea lutetiana the
length of a bundle of raphides is often at least fifteen times
the diameter of the leaf-cell. As to a special raphid-cell and
cystolith, the article in the ‘ Micrographie Dictionary’ should
be consulted.

Crystal Prisms of Iridacee.—As 1s well known, the raphides

Zoological Society. 229

usually occur in bundles, each crystal, like a thin needle, being
very slender, long, and poimted at the ends. Unlike sphe-
raphides, the bundles of raphides are easily broken up, so that
these crystals are most readily seen swimming freely and sepa-
rately in the field of vision, though it is often difficult, if not im-
possible, to see on them any sharp edges or flat faces. But some-
times the crystals are larger and their shape very obvious, of
which instances occur in some Liliacez (as Yucca) and in most
Iridaceze. These crystals are regular prisms, that is to say, with
three parallel angles and faces, so that a transverse section thereof
would be an equilateral triangle. They are also very long in
proportion to their thickness, yet comparatively thicker than the
acicular forms; and their ends are either abrupt or sharply
pointed. Besides, these er ystal prisms generally, if not regularly,
appear either singly or in pairs, and are with difficulty detached
from the tissue of the leaf in which they are imbedded, thus
differing remarkably from the more slender fasciculated raphides.
When we do succeed in getting the crystal prisms to float freely
in the field of vision, they are seen to be beautiful objects; and
it is probable that they might prove useful in experiments on
the refraction, polarization, and decomposition of light. I have
chiefly examined them in Iridacez, in which order they occur
abundantly, as may be well seen in different species of Iris,
Trichonema, Crocus, and Gladiolus. In the leaves of the com-
mon and showy cottage favourite with large blue or purple
flowers (Jris germanica ?), the crystal prisms are quite as distinct
as in any of the British plants; so that even humble town
gardens may afford subjects for observations on these prisms
when the more fugitive leaves of other genera of the order have
disappeared.
Edenbridge, August 6, 1863.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Jan. 13, 1863.—George Busk, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

ConTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE BriTIsH
Cuarrs. Parr Il. By Atserr Ginruer, M.A., Pu.D.,
M.D., F.Z.8.

Since the publication of my first paper on this peculiar group of
Salmonide*, I have received very valuable materials for prosecuting
my researches. The additional specimens show that I have been
correct in distinguishing the three British species from those of the
Continent and from one another, and that the differences between

* ¢ Annals,’ Sept. 1862, p, 228.

230 Zoological Society :—

the young and mature fish of one species may be apparently greater
than between individuals of the same age but of two distinct species—
the laws according to which the changes in the external form proceed
from the young to the mature age appearing to be the same in the
different species, as far as our present experience goes. It has been
observed, in allied species of insects, that, whilst the perfect animals
are so completely alike as to be scarcely distinguishable, their larvee
are very different in their external characters, and even in their habits.
This is not the case with the Charrs: the young individuals of two
species differ as much from each other as the old ones. But in order
to find out the distinctive characters of two species, it is always
necessary to compare specimens of the same age. This can be ascer-
tained by the examination of the generative organs, by the develop-
ment of the jaws, and finally by comparison of a series of examples
from the same locality, assisted by actual observation or information
from persons who have heen for years acquainted with the Charrs
of a certain locality, and know to what size they attain there.

Among mammals and birds, difference in the size of full-grown
animals is admitted as a specific character, whilst ichthyologists have
scarcely ever used it as a distinction between closely allied species,
because numerous fishes continue to grow for an almost indefinite
period after they have attained to maturity. However, if we should
be able to ascertain for a series of fishes the age or the size at which
they first attain to maturity, the differences observed might be of as
great value for the distinction of the species of fishes as in the higher
classes of vertebrate animals. I have been induced to make these
remarks by the fact (to which we shall recur in the progress of this
paper) that the Salmo alpinus of Scotland attains maturity at a size
inferior to that of an immature Swedish Salmo alpinus. Now, if such
a difference in the size should be considered as a specific character at
a future time, the Scotch and Swedish fishes would be separated.

The specimens which I have examined since the publication of the
first paper are the following; they have been deposited in the Col-
lection of the British Museum :—

a. Salmo Salvelinus (L.), Nilss.

Diagnosis, taken from a male specimen from the Lake of Wettern,
17 inches long.—Body slightly compressed and elongate, its greatest
depth being contained five times and a half in the total length (to
the end of the middle caudalrays). The length of the head exceeds .
the height of the body, being contained four times and a half in the
total; it is rather more than one-half of the distance between the
snout and the vertical from the origin of the dorsal fin. The maxil-
lary extends beyond the orbit in the adult fish. Eye rather small,
its diameter being less than one-half of the interorbital space. The
length of the pectoral fin of the mature fish is equal to, or less than,
one-half of the distance of its base from the root of the ventral.
Dorsal rays fourteen* ; the length of its longest ray is much less
than that of the pectoral, and not much more than one-half of the

* Including the rudimentary rays in front of the fin.

Dr. A. Giinther on the British Charrs. 281

length of the head; the length of its base is twice that of its last ray.
190 transverse series of scales above the lateral line. Vertebree 65.
Teeth of moderate size.

This species is not represented by any of the British Charrs that
I have examined. The Irish Charrs form quite a distinct group, the
characters of which I shall point out hereafter. S. Willughbi and
S. cambricus have larger scales, much longer pectoral fins, and differ
besides in many other points. S. alpinus has the same number of
scales ; but in specimens of a corresponding age and size the pectorals
are much longer, the maxillary is less developed, &c. The Iceland
Charr has the dorsal fin much more elevated. This Swedish S. Sa/-
velinus may be identical with a part of the specimens comprised by
Heckel under the same name.

b. Salmo alpinus, L.

Diagnosis.—Body slightly compressed and elongate, its greatest
depth being one-fifth or one-sixth of the total length (to the end of
the middle caudal rays). The length of the head equals the height
of the body in mature specimens, but is somewhat more in immature ;
it is two-ninths or one-fifth of the total; it is rather less than, or
equal to, one-half of the distance between the snout and the vertical
from the origin of the dorsal fin. The maxillary extends but little
beyond the orbit in the fully adult fish. The eye is one-half, or
rather less than one-half, of the width of the interorbital space.
The length of the pectoral of the mature fish is more than one-half
of the distance of its base from the root of the ventral ; in immature
specimens its length is considerably less. Dorsal rays thirteen; the
length of the longest ray is much less than that of the pectoral, and
three-fifths or one-half of the length of the head; the length of its
last ray is a little more than one-half or two-thirds of the length of
its base. 195-200 transverse series of scales above the lateral line.
Vertebree 62 in the Scandinavian variety, and 59 in the Scottish.
Teeth of moderate size.

At the time when I first compared the Charrs of Windermere and
Llanberris* with Linné’s and Nilsson’s descriptions of Salmo alpinus,
I had not had the opportunity of examining specimens from Lapland.
Now, having specimens before me which, in all probability, are
identical with the species described by Linnzeus and Nilsson, I see
that I have misunderstood a part of the description of the former,
and that the latter has given his notes from young specimens. When
Linneeus says that the head of his specimen (12 inches long) was
13 inch, he measured only the top of the head from the end of the
snout to the oéciput ; whilst ichthyologists of the present time take
the lateral length of the head from the end of the snout to the gill-
opening. Nilsson says that S. alpinus has shorter pectoral fins than
S. Salvelinus ; this is correct if we examine specimens of the former
only 8-10 inches long, but in a mature state S. alpinus has the
longer pectorals. Therefore the characters by which I have formerly
distinguished the S. alpinus from S. Willughbii and S. cambricus

* ‘ Annals,’ Sept. 1862, p. 230.

232 Zoological Society :—

cannot be retained, whilst others, affording easy specific distinctions,
become evident on comparison of actual specimens. The two Bri-
tish species mentioned have a less number of transverse series of
scales; S. Willughbit, besides, has the body more elevated, whilst S.
cambricus has a longer head, and the base of the pectoral overlapped
by the gill-cover apparatus. The Iceland Charr, again, differs from
S. alpinus in its elevated dorsal fin.

Ihave mentioned above that I refer to this species a number of
specimens from Lapland, Scotland, and from the Orkneys. After
having hesitated for a long time, I prefer doing so, as they certainly
are more closely allied to one another than to any of the other forms.
Future observations on a more perfect series than that which I
have at present, and especially an examination of a greater number
of immature and of very old specimens, will settle this point. The
specimens from Scotland and Lapland appear to agree in almost every
point ofimportance, but in the number of vertebree and in the size :
whilst the Lap Charr does not attain to maturity before it has at-
tained to a length of 12-13 inches, the Scotch individuals are mature
at a size of 9 inches. The specimens from the Orkney Islands are
6 inches long, and apparently correspond in age to a Lap specimen
of 10 inches in length. The immature state of S. alpinus of both
countries is distinguished by short pectoral fins; but, whilst those
fins have attained to their full relative length in Scotch specimens of
9 inches in length, the Lap specimens are 13 inches long at the same
period. Other differences may be observed on comparing these
young Charrs, especially in the form of the head, which is consider-
ably less elongate in the Scotch individuals; but in order to ascer-
tain whether this character is constant, it would be necessary to com-
pare a greater number of specimens than I have at present.

I shall first describe one of the mature specimens sent by Mr.
Wheelwright from Quickjock.

Description of a male specimen, length 13 inches 8 lines.—Head
and body compressed, but slightly elevated; its greatest depth is
below the origin of the dorsal fin, where it is one-fifth of the total
length (to the end of the middle caudal rays). The least depth of
the tail is rather less than the length of the base of the dorsal fin.
The height of the head above the mandibulary joint equals the dis-
tance between the posterior margin of the orbit and the end of the
operculum. The top of the profile of the head is somewhat elevated
above the margin of the orbit, the diameter of which is nearly one-
sixth of the length of the head, two-thirds of the extent of the snout,
and rather less than one-half of the width of the interorbital space ;
the latter is convex, witha rather prominent ridge along the middle,
and with a pair of series of pores. Snout compressed, conical, with
the jaws equal anteriorly. The mawillary extends to the vertical
from the hind margin of the orbit; in the two largest specimens
(15-17 inches long) it reaches slightly beyond that vertical. It is
armed with 20-22 teeth of moderate size; six teeth in each inter-
maxillary, fifteen in each mandible; three pairs on the vomer, ar-
ranged in two longitudinal series slightly converging behind ; nine-

Dr. A. Giinther on the British Charrs. 233

teen on each palatine bone, and six pairs on the tongue. Operculum
obtusely rounded behind, its length being two-thirds of its height ;
the suboperculum projects but little beyond the hind margin of the
opercle, its vertical width being one-half of that of the operculum.

Wetter. lo. Polos Vs. £0.

The origin of the dorsal fin is a little nearer to the end of the
snout than to the root of the caudal; the length of its base is one-
third more than that of its last ray, and contained once and a fourth
in that of the fourth ray. The fifth and sixth rays form an acute
point, and the upper margin of the fin is straight. The first ray is
rudimentary, the second half the length of the third, the third two-
fifths the length of the fourth, the fifth simple, the sixth branched,
the last split to the base. The distance of the adipous fin from the
dorsal is but little more than twice the base of the latter.

The origin of the anal fin is exactly in the middle between the root
of the caudal and that of the outer ventral ray ; the length of its
base is somewhat less than that of the dorsal, and is contained once
and a fourth in the length of the fifth ray.

Caudal fin forked, one of the middle rays being two-fifths as long
as the outer ones, the length of which is contained six times and a
half in the total ; lobes pointed.

The base of the pectoral is entirely free, and not overlapped by the
gill-cover apparatus; 7¢ terminates at a considerable distance from
the vertical from the origin of the dorsal, equals the length of the
head without snout, and is contained once and a third in the distance
between its root and that of the ventral.

The ventral is inserted below the middle of the dorsal.

A specimen, 12 inches long, from the same locality, agrees very
well with the one first described ; its operculum, however, is as long
as high, and the length of the pectoral fin is nearly one-half of the
distance between its root and that of the ventral.

An immature specimen, 10 inches long, differs widely from the
preceding, its body and its head being much more elongate. The
length of the head is more than the height of the body, the
former being one-fifth, the latter one-sixth of the total length ; the
operculum is longer than high, and the height of the head above the
mandibulary joint is less than the distance between the posterior
margin of the orbit and the end of the operculum ; the maxillary ex-
tends nearly to the vertical from the hind margin of the orbit. The
length of the pectoral fin is considerably less than one-half of the
distance between its root and that of the ventral.

With regard to the coloration, this species does not differ from
S. Willughbii ; the immature specimen has the sides silvery, and the
red of the lower parts is replaced by a slight tinge of orange-colour.

Some of the specimens from Quickjock had the stomach filled with
food, which consisted of specimens of small species of Planorbis and
Limnea, of Ephemeride, of the larvee of Libellula, and of small
fresh-water Crustacea. The number of pyloric appendages is forty-
four.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol, xii. 16

234, Zoological Society :—

The largest of our Scotch specimens is a mature male 11 inches
long. It differs from the male from Quickjock in having a more elon-
gate body, the depth of which is one-sixth of the total length. The
operculum is as high as long ; the pectoral fin terminates at a consider-
able distance from the vertical from the origin of the dorsal, equals
the length of the head without snout, and is contained once and a
quarter in the distance between its root and that of the ventral. The
JSemales do not differ from the males. The immature specimens have
the same short pectorals which we have found in the young Lap
Charr ; but the operculum is much less elongate.

The stomach of the Orkney Charr contained large common earth-
worms (Lumbricus).

We distinguish, therefore, one of the Scotch Charrs by the name
of Salmo alpinus, which, although not entirely agreeing with a Charr
from Lapland described by Linnzeus under the same denomination,
is nevertheless closely allied to it,—the Scotch variety being consider-
ably smaller in size at the period of first maturity. This Scotch
species is found in Lake Helier in Hoy, Orkneys, and very probably
in certain other lochs of Scotland *.

c. Salmo Willughbir.

This species has been described and figured in the former paper
as the Charr of Windermere. A Charr for the knowledge of which
I am indebted to Lord Lovat is very closely allied to it. It is found
in Loch Bruiach (North Scotland) ; all the specimens sent are of
nearly equal length, between 7 and 8 inches; nevertheless they are
mature, and the development of the milt and ova indicates that
their spawning-season is the end of October. Lord Lovat writes
that “those specimens are smaller in size than usual ; but they are
the largest we have caught this season.”

This Charr of Loch Bruiach differs but slightly from the typical
S. Willughbii; it is somewhat more elongate ; it has thirteen dorsal
rays, the base of the dorsal fin being rather longer than the last dor-
sal ray. The number of vertebre is sixty or sixty-one, and that of
the pyloric appendages is thirty-five.

d. Salmo nivalis. Iceland Charr.

In the original description of S. Willughbii I mentioned several
specimens of a Charr from Iceland, which were not fit for an
accurate examination, owing to the manner in which they had been
preserved. Meanwhile I have received from Mr. G. G. Fowler two
very fine examples of the same species, which, although young
(10 inches long), prove that it is distinct from the other European
Charrs. It is probably identical with the dark variety of S. alpinus,
mentioned by Faber (Fische Islands, p. 169), for which he proposed
the name of S. nivalis, if some future ichthyologist should point out
its distinctive characters.

* The specimens purchased of Mr. Stevens for the collection of the British
Museum are from Scotland; but the exact locality whence they have been pro-
cured is unknown.

Dr. A. Giinther on the British Charrs. ‘235

Diagnosis.—Body slightly compressed and elongate ; its greatest
depth equals the length of the head, and is one-fifth, or somewhat
less than one-fifth, of the total length ; the length of the head is
rather more than one-half of the distance between the snout and the
vertical from the origin of the dorsal fin. The maxillary extends
beyond the orbit in the adult fish (15-20 inches long). The eye is
less than one-half of the interorbital space in the adult fish. The
length of the pectoral fin is, in mature and immature specimens, more,
or much more, than one-half of the distance of its base from the root
of the ventral. Dorsal rays fourteen ; the length of the longest ray
equals that of the pectoral, or that of the head without the snout ;
the length of the last ray is two-thirds of the length of the base.
190 transverse series of scales above the lateral line. Vertebre 62.
Teeth of moderate size.

Pyloric appendages 41. Specimens from 10-12 inches long are
still immature. The stomach of one contained numerous very small
freshwater bivalves.

e. Salmo Grayit.

The Earl of Enniskillen has sent several very fine specimens of
this species from Lough Melvin for the collection of the British
Museum ; they were all males, and perfectly like, even in size, those
from which I have taken my description. A few of them showed
the red of the belly of a deeper hue than the individual figured. A
female fish, however, has been discovered among a collection of Sal-
monide purchased of Mr. Stevens: this specimen does not differ
from the males; but the colours have disappeared, the specimen
being preserved in spirits. The eggs are of the size of a hemp-seed.

The number of pyloric appendages is thirty-seven ; and that of
the gill-rakers of the lower branch of the outer branchial arch varies
from nine to thirteen.

f. Salmo Colii, u. sp. The Charr of Lough Eske.

In the former paper on Charrs, I mentioned several Irish speci-
mens, the property of the Museum at Belfast, said to be perhaps
from Lough Melvin. I then doubted the accuracy of the ‘ habitat,”
as those specimens, although allied to the Charr of Lough Melvin,
differed in several not unimportant points from the types, and as
they evidently belong to a very small species which is mature at a
size of 5 inches. Owing to the kind assistance of the Earl of Enni-
skillen and of Th. Brooke, Esq., I have been able not only to ascer-
tain the exact locality where those specimens are found, but also to
determine the characters of this new species (for such has the
Charr of Lough Eske proved to be) ; and I name it after that noble-
man, who hank taken untiring interest in these researches.

Salmo Colii is not confined to Lough Eske ; a specimen procured
by R. H. Scott, Esq., from Lough Dan, agrees in every respect with
the Charr of Lough Eske. The following description, given strictly
in accordance with that of Salmo Grayii, will show the distinetive
characters on which this species is founded :—

16*

236 Zoological Society :—

Body slightly compressed and rather elongate, its greatest depth
being contained four times and three-fifths or five times in the distance
of the snout from the end of the middle caudal rays. The length of
the head is one-half of the distance between the snout and the vertical
from the origin of the dorsal fin. Head compressed ; interorbital
space nearly flat, its width being less than twice the diameter of the
eye. Jaws of the male of equal length anteriorly ; teeth very small,
four to six in each intermaxillary, fourteen to seventeen in each
maxillary. Pectoral shorter than the head, terminating at a consi-
derable distance from the origin of the dorsal and of the ventral.
Dorsal rays fourteen. 160 transverse series of scales above the
lateral line.

Description of a male and female specimen, 73 inches long.—Head
and body slightly compressed, not elevated, the greatest depth being
below the origin of the dorsal fin, where it is contained four times
and three-fifths (female) or five times (male) in the total length (to
the end of the middle caudal rays). The least depth of the tail is
considerably less than the length of the base of the dorsal fin. The
height of the head above the mandibulary joint is more than the
distance between the posterior margin of the orbit and the end of
the operculum. The top of the profile of the head is scarcely elevated
above the margin of the orbit, the diameter of which is one-fifth of
the length of the head, somewhat shorter than the snout, and two-
thirds of the width of the interorbital space ; the latter is but very
slightly convex, with a very indistinct ridge along the middle. The
nostrils are situated midway between the end of the snout and the
orbit. The maxillary extends scarcely to the vertical from the poste-
rior margin of the orbit, and is armed with from thirteen to seven-
teen very small teeth. All the other teeth are small; four to six in
the intermaxillary, fifteen in each mandible, three on the vomer,
fifteen on each palatine, and four pairs on the tongue. The sub-
operculum forms the hindmost part of the gill-covers, and does not
cover the exposed portion of the humerus above the root of the pec-
toral ; its vertical width is one-half of that of the operculum.

Dita AL. Pe Ae cae

The origin of the dorsal fin is a little nearer to the end of the
snout than to the root of the caudal; the length of its base is con-
siderably more than that of the last ray, and contained once and a
third in that of the fourth ray ; the upper margin of the fin is straight.
The first ray is nearly half as long as the second, the second and
third half as long as the third and fourth; the fifth, sixth, and
seventh are the longest, the former simple, and the two latter
branched ; the last is split to the base, and half as long as the sixth.
The distance of the adipous fin from the dorsal is equal to, or rather
less than, twice the length of the base of the latter.

The origin of the anal fin is in the middle between the root of the
caudal and that of the outer ventral ray; the length of its base is
less than that of the dorsal and two-thirds of the length of the fifth
ray. The fourth, fifth, and sixth rays are the longest, and form an

Dr. A. Gunther on the British Charrs. 237

acute point; the lower margin of the fin is slightly emarginate.
The fourth ray is simple, the fifth branched ; the last is split to the
base, half as long as the fourth.

Caudal fin forked, one of the middle rays being two-fifths as long
as the outer ones, the length of which is less than one-fifth of the
total. Lobes pointed.

The base of the pectoral is entirely free, and not overlapped by
the gill-cover apparatus ; it is shorter than the head, terminating at
a considerable distance from the vertical from the origin of the dorsal;
its length is one-half, or not much more than one-half, of the dis-
tance between its root and that of the ventral.

The ventral is inserted below the tenth and eleventh dorsal rays,
its length being four-fifths of that of the pectoral, and two-thirds of
that of the head.

Back bluish black; sides silvery, with scattered light salmon-
coloured dots; belly reddish; fins black, the anal and the paired
fins with a reddish stinge, the anal and the ventrals with a narrow
whitish margin.

Number of vertebree 63.

This is evidently one of the smallest species of this genus ; it is
mature when it has grown to a size of 5-6 inches, and, according to
inquiries made by the Earl of Enniskillen, it never exceeds the length
of the specimens described, viz. 7-8 inches. The locality where it is
found is Lough Eske, a small lake in the county of Donegal, the cir-
cumference of which is not above eight miles. Mr. Brooke, whose
family were residents on the shores of that lake for more than two
centuries, writes that “ Lough Eske (Eske, or Yesk, meaning Fish)
was the crater of an extinct volcano, as suggested by Dr. Wilde, of
Dublin; a high mountain-range runs close to the north-east shores.
In the season, salmon, white trout, and the common lake-trout are in
abundance. ‘The Commissioners of Fisheries have decided that the
Charr of Lough Eske are the Salmo alpinus, thus placing them in the
same Act as salmon; so that, except for scientific purposes, we are
not permitted to take them after August. Formerly, in the months of
October and November the fish were taken in large quantities by the
country-people, without any apparent diminution of their numbers.
Now, at the permitted season of fishing they remain in such deep
waters, the people have not nets sufficiently large to take them. The
Charr are not at all like the only ‘freshwater Herring’ with which
I am acquainted, that of Lough Neagh*, the flesh of which is quite
white ; and the shape of the fish was like Sea-Herring.”’

Conclusion.

When we recapitulate the results of our examinations contained in
this and in the preceding papers, we hope we have shown—

1. That three very distinct species of Charrs are found in Great
Britain, namely, S. Willughdii in the Lake of Windermere and in
Loch Bruiach, S. caméricus in Wales, and S. alpinus in certain parts
of Scotland.

* Mr. Brooke evidently alludes here to the Coregonus Pollan.

238 Zoological Society :—

_ 2. That those three species differ by most constant characters. from
the S. Umbla and S. Salvelinus of the Continent ; but that S. alpinus
of Scotland is closely related to the S. alpinus of Lapland, differing
merely by its smaller size when first attaining to maturity, and by
the number of vertebree.

3. That Iceland is inhabited by a distinct species (S. nivalis).

4. That the Charrs of Ireland form a separate group by them-
selves, distinguished by the feeble development of their dentition ;
and that the Charr of Lough Melvin (8. Gray?) is a distinct species
from that of Lough Eske and Lough Dan (8S. Coliz).

In conclusion, I subjoin a synopsis of the species which I have
examined up to the present time, observing, however, that this sy-
nopsis is given merely for the purpose of showing a few of the prin-
cipal characters by which the mature individuals of the different
species are distinguished :—

I. Jaws well developed ; teeth of moderate size.

A. The length of the pectoral fin in the mature fish less than
one-half of the distance between the roots of the pectoral
and ventral fins.

1. Thirteen dorsal rays. Intermaxillary teeth much
stronger than those of the maxillary. L. lat. 185.
Lower parts silvery. S. Umbla.

2. Fourteen dorsal rays ; intermaxillary and maxillary
teeth equal in strength. L. lat. 190. Lower
parts red. S. Salvelinus.

B. The length of the pectoral fin in the mature fish more than,
or equal to, one-half of the distance between the roots
of the pectoral and ventral fins.

1. The height of the body one-fifth or one-sixth of the
total length; the height of the dorsal fin three-
fifths or one-half of the length of the head. L.
lat. 195-200. S. alpinus.

2. The height of the body one-fifth of the total length;
the height of the dorsal fin equals the length of
the head without snout. L. lat.190. The gill-
cover not overlapping the root of the pectoral.
S. nivalis.

3. The height of the body one-fifth or one-sixth of the
total length ; the height of the dorsal fin two-
thirds of the length of the head. L. lat. 170.
The gill-cover overlapping the root of the pec-
toral. S. cambricus.

4. The height of the body one-fourth of the total
length; the height of the dorsal fin equals the
length of the head without snout. Li. lat. 165.
The gill-cover not overlapping the root of the
pectoral. S. Willughbir.

Dr. A. Giinther on a new Snake from West Africa. 239

II. Lower jaw very feeble ; teeth minute.

1. The pectoral extending to, or beyond, the origin of
the dorsal fin. S. Grayi.

2. The pectoral terminating at a considerable distance
from the origin of the dorsal fin. S. Colii.

On Atueris Burtoni, A New SNAKE FROM WEsT AFRICA.
By Dr. ALtBert GUNTHER.

A collection made by Major Burton, H. M. Consul in Fernando
Po, during an excursion in the Camaroon country, contained several
species of Snakes, namely, Grayia triangularis, Dryiophis Kirtlandii,
a brood of newly-born Clotho nasicornis*, and, finally, a specimen of
a Snake distinguished by its form, scales, and shields, and by a colo-
ration which is almost unique in the whole order of Ophidians. I
had named this genus Pecilostolus (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Jan.
1863) ; but having since received the last part of ‘ Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sc. Philad. 1862, I find that Mr. Cope has already proposed the
generic name of Atheris for congeners of our species (p. 337).

ATHERIS.

Head thick, broad, triangular, covered above with strongly-keeled
scales ; body compressed ; tail prehensile. Scales keeled. Sub-
caudal shields entire.

ATHERIS BurtTontt.

The head and neck are rough, in consequence of the keels of the
single scales forming prominent spines. ‘The rostral shield is very
low, linear, with other scale-like shields above ; nine upper labials.
Nostril in the middle of a single subquadrangular plate, situated
above the first labial ; eye surrounded by a ring of subequal scales ;
chin-shields scale-like, keeled, except the anterior pair, which are
smooth ; the posterior labial shields of the lower jaw keeled. Scales
of the body in nineteen rows. Ventral shields 163; anal entire;
subcaudals 58.

Entirely lemon-coloured ; some greenish scales are scattered about
on the upper surface of the body.

Total length 14 inches ; head 2 inch ; tail 23 inches.

Note on DIeMENNIA SUPERCILIOSA. By Dr. A. Gintuer.

The Proceedings of this Society of last year+ contain a very inter-
‘esting observation of Mr. Krefft, of Sydney, according to which a
small banded Snake, which he identifies with Furina tewxtilis, Dum.
& Bibr., is merely the young of a very large species, the adult of
which is of a nearly uniform coloration. Mr. Krefft (who, for the
benefit of the collection entrusted to his care, is very anxious to have
his specimens identified with the types contained in European col-

* There is also a specimen, in a very bad state of preservation, which appears

to belong to Neusterophis levissima (Natrix levissima, Gthr.).
T ‘Annals,’ Nov. 1862, p. 393.

240 Zoological Society :—

lections) has sent us an old and two young examples of this Snake ;
and having re-examined the species of Diemennia and the literature
referring to them, I am enabled to settle some points on which doubts
have been entertained.

The young specimens, then, found by Mr. Krefft do not belong
to Furina textilis, Dum. & Bibr., which has three posterior oculars,
but to Diemennia annulata, described by myself in the ‘ Catalogue
of Colubrine Snakes,’ p. 213; and the old individual sent by Mr.
Krefft is identical with Pseudoélaps superciliosus, Fisch. M. Jan,
of Milan (who says that he has examined the Snakes of the Hamburg
Museum), describes the adult Snake under two names, Pseudoélaps
Sordellii and Ps. Kubingii, the latter being founded on an accidental
variety, in which some of the head-shields are confluent.

Mr. Krefft, in a letter addressed to me, alludes to Pseudonara
nuchalis as a species which, perhaps, might be identical with an old
Diemennia superciliosa. These, however, differ toto celo, as may

be seen from the description given by myself (Colubr. Sn. p. 227),
and from the figures (anted, p. 1), where fig. a represents the
head-shields of Pseudonaia nuchalis, and fig. 6 those of Diemennia
superciliosa.

The synonymy of this species, therefore, would be :—

DIEMENNIA SUPERCILIOSA.
a. Adult.

1856. Pseudoélaps superciliosus, Fischer in Abhandl. Geb. Natur-
wiss. iii. p. 107, taf. 2. fig. 3 (head, not quite correct).

1859. Pseudotlaps Sordellii, Jan in Rev. & Mag. Zool. 1859,
pl. C (head).

1859. Pseudoélaps Kubingii, Jan, l.c. (founded on an accidental
variety).

bd. Young.

1858. Diemansia annulata, Giinth. Colubr. Snak. p. 213.
1862. Furina textilis, Krefft, P. Z. 8. 1862, p. 149.

Mr. G. Krefft on a new Species of Dromicia. 241

Jan. 27, 1863.—G. R. Waterhouse, V.P., in the Chair.

DescripTION oF A New Species or THE Genus Dromictia,
DISCOVERED IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF SyDNEY. By
GERARD KREFFT.

DROMICIA UNICOLOR, Sp. nov.

pe ue 3—3 By othe 8—3
Dentition.—Incisors ;—;- Canines jj. Preemolars 5—;. Mo-
aoe

lars pap) 5 0)e

Of the grinders in the upper jaw, two are large and four cuspidate ;
but the last one is much smaller, of a triangular form, and furnished
with three cusps only. The premolars are three in number, of
which the posterior one is large, and furnished with two fangs and
two roots ; the other two are rudimentary, with flat surfaces ; there
is an interspace between these teeth and the long canine ; of the three
incisors the anterior one is the largest.

In the lower jaw there are three true molars, with four cusps to
each, but the last or posterior one smaller than the other two ; these
are preceded by a large two-rooted false molar (which, in one speci-
men examined, is furnished with one, in the other with two fangs),
the anterior preemolars (two) and the canine bemg small and rudi-
mentary, with flat crowns; the single incisor is very long.

Coloration.—Fur of a uniform mouse-colour, lighter on the sides
and beneath, with a blackish patch in front of the eye.

All the hairs are slate-grey at the base, tipped with yellowish at
the back and sides, and with grey beneath ; longer black hairs, tipped
with white, are interspersed, except on the underside of the body.
Bristles black to within one-third of the tip, which is white; a few
long bristly black hairs before and behind the eye. Tail somewhat
longer than the body, prehensile, thin, showing every joint ; slightly
enlarged at the base, and gradually tapering ; covered with a mixture
of light-coloured and black hairs ; apical portion, about 3" from the
tip, wide beneath.

inches
Eenetis from, tip tortip\ 2). ae. sa. )cns eas teen OL
AEE tac are aye caer aoe erent at oats PPA LE iho pile ot
Puce, 10\ base Ol Cari we saan eee woe ae Pei z
Har ys. ae Pak pr earn PROCES © n¥a diaeresis +
Armand hands 3 ides. dst s sie tale i
Maes ANIC HOGS: SS al Sraelale 15:4 eee ates Wale Aare e 5 2

This beautiful little creature was captured near St. Leonard’s,
North Shore, Sydney, feeding upon the blossoms of the Banksia,
and lived a few days in captivity. In its habits it is nocturnal. The
tongue of this Dromicia is well adapted for sucking the honey from
the blossoms of the Banksie and Eucalypti, being furnished with a
slight brush at the tip. This species differs from the D. concinna of
Western Australia in being of a uniform dark colour without the
white belly, and having the base of the tail slightly enlarged ; it is
of about the same size as D. concinna.

242 Zoological Society :—

Notice or A New AMERICAN Form oF MARSUPIAL. -
By R. F. Tomes, Corr. Meme.

Genus Hyracopon, Tomes.

General form somewhat slender. ‘Tail as long as the head and
body, tapering evenly to a fine point, Feet long, and furnished with
an opposable thumb; nails somewhat long and pointed. Head
rather long; muzzle pointed; ears of medium size, ovoid. Upper
incisors: middle teeth simple, pointed, small, and in a vertical posi-
tion; the following two large, thick, and short, but having a semi-
acute point, which has a very backward direction ; the following one,
or fourth, similar, but very small; the fifth, or canine, separated
from the preceding by a considerable interval, small, conical, acute,
and nearly vertical in position; the two succeeding teeth nearly
similar. Lower incisors: middle teeth long, nearly straight, and
horizontal in position, as in the Shrews ; the four following teeth
more or less conical in form, closely packed together, and sloping
forward, small in size, and evenly diminishing from the first to the
last ; the fifth tooth has a canine-like form, a little more prominent
than the preceding, and curved forward ; the sixth small, conical,
vertical in position, and widely separated from the fifth.

H. FULIGINOSUS, 0. 8.

Tail sparingly covered with short hairs of a dusky colour, through-
out the whole of its length, both above and below ; upper surface of
the feet sparingly covered with hairs similar to those of the tail ;
ears nearly naked, and of a dark brown colour; fur on all parts of
the body of a deep sooty-brown, scarcely paler on the under parts ;
all the naked parts brown.

Length of the head and body.............. 3.8
PME CAD eas. Pe SOR iN See eee 3 8
OP GHe hens: Wigs i ees eae lL 2

Hab. Ecuador; collected by Mr. Fraser.

On THE SPECIES OF CRASPEDOCEPHALUS WHICH OCCUR IN
THE Province or BautA, Brazit. By Dr. Orno Wu-
CHERER, Corr. Meme.

In a former paper, containing the first portion of a list of the
Ophidians which I had been able to collect in this province, I abs-
tained from certain remarks on some species of the above genus
until I should have collected more ample materials to corroborate
them.

In the first place, I was struck by the fact that all the specimens
of “ Jararaca”’ which had up to that time come to my notice were
very similar, and belonged to one species, Craspedocephalus atrox.
Having collected more than thirty specimens, I proceeded to examine
them more closely for comparison. Dr. Gray, in the ‘ Catalogue of
Viperine Snakes in the Brit. Mus.’ 1849, comments on the difficulty

Dr. O. Wucherer on the Craspedocephali of Bahia. 243

of separating the species of this genus. His diagnoses do not agree
exactly with those of Schlegel in his ‘ Essai,’ nor with those of
Duméril and Bibron in their ‘ Erpétologie Générale,’ I may therefore
be excused if I offer the following remarks on my specimens. In
my former paper I stated that I had neither seen Craspedocephalus
lanceolatus nor C. brasiliensis. At the present time I have examined
very nearly forty specimens of ‘ Jararaca,”’ all of which, except three,
agree sufficiently in every character, and are, according to the de-
scriptions of herpetologists, referable to C. atrox. These three spe-
cimens show certain slight differences which justify a doubt of their
specific identity with the others.

Dr. Gray mentions C. atrow as having seven upper labial shields.
Schlegel, in his ‘ Essai,’ i. p. 189, and again ii. p. 535, describes this
species as having eight labial shields ; still this may perhaps be con-
sidered a mistake, for in his plate 19 of the above work C. atroz is
represented as having only seven upper labial shields. Duméril and
Bibron make no allusion to this character in C. atrow. Now all the
specimens of C. atrox which I have had occasion to examine have
seven upper labial shields. Only one has on one side eight, which
must be considered an irregularity. ;

Dr. Gray describes C. brasiliensis as having nine or ten upper
labial shields, the hinder ones of which are smaller; Schlegel de-
cribes it as having nine; and Duméril and Bibron do not mention
the number of labial shields at all.

The three specimens differing from those of C. afrox mentioned
above have all eight upper labial shields on each side, the last one
narrower than the last one in C. atrozw.

A statement I made in my former paper, that my specimens of C.
atrox differed from those described by herpetologists in having fewer
longitudinal rows of scales, I now take the opportunity to rectify.
The number of longitudinal rows of scales in the species of this genus
is not always mentioned as a specific character, and indeed it does not
appear very serviceable as such. Schlegel’s C. jararaca, the C. bra-
siliensis of Dr. Gray’s catalogue, has twenty-seven rows of scales ;
of C. atrox he says (Essai, ii. p. 536), ‘On compte quelquefois 29
rangées d’écailles,” leaving it perhaps hence to be inferred that it has
generally a lesser number, or twenty-seven, like the one just de-
scribed, which is C. brasiliensis. Duméril and Bibron (vii. p. 1509
and p. 1511) give to C. atrow from twenty-nine to thirty-two, to
C. brasiliensis twenty-seven rows. All my specimens of C. atroz,
with few exceptions, have twenty-seven rows of scales, a few having
twenty-five. Of the three specimens differing from them, two have
twenty-five and one twenty-three rows of scales.

Schlegel and Duméril and Bibron draw some specific differences
from the shape of the head, the former saying (ii. p. 535) that the
snout of C. atrox is more conical, by which I suppose is meant more
rounded, Duméril and Bibron stating that the sharp edge on the
anterior part of the head is almost effaced, and does not reach back
to the orbits, furthermore that the scales on the anterior part of the
head are comparatively much larger than on the posterior part in C.

244 Zoological Society :—

brasiliensis; but all these differences do not appear very striking in
Schlegel’s excellent figures on plate 19 of the ‘ Essai.’ My three
specimens distinct from C. atrox would rather agree in these poimts
with the descriptions of C. brasiliensis of these authors.

Schlegel points to the larger size of the superciliary and superior
labial shields in C. atrowx, to its larger and more numerous mental
shields, to the stronger keel on its scales, showing a strong tendency
to take the form of a tubercle, by which I understand that it is
higher and shorter, not reaching the tip. Now these characters, if
they occurred simultaneously, might very well serve as some of the
specific characters; and it does not appear just in Duméril and Bi-
bron to say (vii. p. 1508), ‘‘ M. Schlegel, dans lembarras ow il s’est
trouvé, n’a indiqué que des différences peu importantes, tirées de la
forme des écailles dont la caréne parait plus forte ; des lames noires
alongées, ou de |’étendue relative des plaques surciliaires ainsi que les
plaques labiales,’”’—although they confess their inability to suggest
any better characters, and still persist in considering them individuals
belonging to two species, having no other basis for their separation
than the frequent occurrence of C. atrox in Guiana, whilst the other
species is never found there.

Comparing my three specimens, which differ from those of C. atrox
in the last-mentioned respects, and first as regards the size of the
superciliary shields, I cannot come to any very precise decision, as
they are not full-grown. Comparing with one another old and
young specimens of C. atrox, I find that not only the superciliary,
but all other head-shields are proportionately larger in young indi-
viduals, so is the pit in the cheek; and the whole head is flatter,
especially the occiput, and more elongate in adult specimens. I
compared the three specimens with those of corresponding size of
C. atrox, but I could not arrive at any decided opinion; and, con-
sidering the difference in size of the figures in Schlegel’s plate 19,
they also do not allow me to draw any safe inference from the rela-
tive size of the superciliary shields in each species. Besides, I
am not acquainted with the absolute size each species may attain.
As regards the size and number of the mental shields, I cannot
find any very striking difference; in some specimens of C. atrox I
have found one, in others two, and even three pairs of chin-shields ;
in the three specimens which differ in other respects from them,
I always found only one pair. The labial shields are certainly
smaller in my three specimens which do not agree with C. atroz.
But more striking still is the shape of the scales and their keel.
The three specimens I am inclined to regard as referable to C. brasi-
liensis have narrower scales, their keel lower, narrower, longer, and
reaching to their tip. At first glance these specimens have a less
hirsute appearance than those of C. atroz. In accordance with the
narrowness and the smaller number of their scales, their body ap-
pears more slender.

I am well aware that the coloration does not afford safe specific
characters, except in comparatively few instances ; but as all the
specimens I referred to C. atrox agree so well in this respect, dif-

Dr. O. Wucherer on the Craspedocephali of Bahia. 245

fering from my three supposed C. brasilienses, which again agree
among themselves, I may be allowed to state in what one and the other
are peculiar. The specimens I refer to C. atroz are all greyish yel-
low or olive, and have along the body irregular brown, black-edged
spots with sinuated margins, which occupy about as much space as
the ground-colour. In young specimens the colours are generally
brighter, and the spots more distinct. Underneath they are all, with-
out exception, chequered with dark grey or black.

The three specimens of supposed C. brasiliensis are olive-green ;
similar brown, black-edged spots, with sinuated margins, occupy
their back, but occur at much wider intervals, so that they occupy
much less space than the ground-colour ; underneath, all three are
dirty-yellow, punctulated with black, but not at all chequered.

These differences appear very striking, but I refrain from attach-
ing undue weight to them. Schlegel describes some specimens of
C. brasiliensis with ‘‘larges taches carrées”’ (Essai, ii. p. 533).
Duméril and Bibron are not explicit as regards the coloration of C.
brasiliensis.

In Prof. Jan’s ‘ Prodrome d’une iconographie descriptive des
Ophidiens,’ published in 1859, I find Trigonocephalus Neuwiedi,
which is synonymous with C. atrox, enumerated as a distinct species.
I also find that Duméril and Bibron consider specimens with a white
tip to the tail as a variety ; I may therefore be allowed to make the fol-
lowing remarks. Seven of my specimens of C. atrow are quite young,
their total length ranging from 0°333 to 0°382; in all the tip of the
tailis white. Besides these, I have seen many other small specimens,
which always showed the same peculiarity. In two specimens of
0620 and 0530 total length, which may be considered half-grown,
the tip of the tail is lighter-coloured than the rest of the body, show-
ing the transition to the black colour in the tail of adults. From
this I think it reasonable to infer that the difference in the colour
of the tip of the tail in individuals of C. atrox depends on their age,
and does not constitute a variety, much less a species. The Bra-
zilians, however, consider small individuals as a distinct species, which
they call ‘“Caisacca.” Of the young of C. brasiliensis Schlegel
states expressly (Hssai, li. p. 533), ‘‘ Les petits offrent le bout de
la queue blanc.”

The largest of my three supposed specimens of C. brasiliensis has
a total length of 0°872, and may be considered therefore about half-
grown ; the tip of its tail is lighter-coloured than the body ; under-
neath to a greater extent, and above at the extreme tip it is quite
white. In one of the other two specimens the tip of the tail is
lighter-coloured, in the other white.

According to the statement of Schlegel, the iris of C. brasiliensis
is dark red ; he does not mention how the iris of C. atrow is coloured.
In many live specimens of the latter species which I have seen, I
always found it of a dark grey. I never saw a live specimen of a
snake corresponding to my supposed specimens of C. brasiliensis.
In these the colour of the iris is not preserved.

As to C. lanceolatus, I very much doubt whether it occurs in
Brazil at all.

246 Miscellaneous.

Trigonocephalus Landsbergii, Schi., Bothrops Castelnaudi, and
Bothrops alternans, D. & B., have not yet come under my notice.

Of Craspedocephalus bilineatus I have seen eight specimens—seven
from the vicinity of Villa Vicosa (where the Prince of Wied, who
first described the species), found his specimen, and one of unknown
origin.

I had previously observed that some Brazilian species of Snakes
(as Spilotes variabilis and S. pecilostoma, Coryphodon pantherinus,
Xenodon colubrinus, &c.) have the habit of striking the ground
rapidly with their tail when irritated; I had lately occasion to
notice the same peculiarity in a large specimen of Craspedocephalus
atroz.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Additional Observations on Chelymys dentata.
By Dr. J. BE. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

In the previous Number of the ‘ Annals’ (p. 98), I described a new
species of Chelymys, from the Upper Victoria River, brought to
England by my late friend Mr. Elsey, and not by Mr. Macgillivray,
as inadvertently stated in that paper.

When I[ made that description, I had forgotten that we had also
an adult specimen, brought from the same locality at the same time,
which is doubtless the adult of this species ; and this specimen proves
that the dentated form of the margin is only a peculiarity of the
younger state of the species; and therefore the specific name is not
one that I should have chosen if I had had the adult form of the
species before me when I selected it. But as the margin is not
dentated in the young of the other species, it is still characteristic.
The species is easily known from the other, both in its adult and
young state, by the absence of the nuchal plate.

The adult shell is oblong-ovate, solid, and high ; the back is worn
smooth, and the margin is entire, the edge over the legs being rather
expanded, and the hinder part over the tail rather inflexed; the
vertebral plates are very long, slender, with straight parallel sides,
nearly twice as long as they are wide; the hinder part of the fourth
shield is rather narrowed. The sternum is narrow, rounded in front,
and with a deep semicircular notch behind, high on the sides. The
underside is black, with a few unequal-sized yellow blotches. The
length is 13 inches; width over the back 103 inches.

On a New Genus of Humming-Birds.
By Joun Gouxpn, F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I send for insertion in your next Number a de-
scription of a new and very singular Humming-Bird which I have
lately received from Ecuador. Not only does it differ specifically
from every other with which I am acquainted, but it also differs in
its structure from every form comprised in the great family of Tro-
chilidee. I therefore propose to call it

Miscellaneous. 247

Androdon equatorialis.

This new bird is so very singular that it is not easy to say to which
section of the family it is most nearly related; but in some of its
characters it assimilates with Gryphus, Eutoxeres, and Doryfera.
In size it is about equal to Lampornis Mango ; the edges of its man-
dibles are thickly set with fine teeth, like those of Gryphus, but are
more strongly developed ; the bill is very long for the size of the bird,
and has rather an upward curvature; the wings are moderate in propor-
tion to the body, and the tail is square or slightly rounded. The bird
must be ranked among the dull-coloured species of its extensive family ;
at the same time it exhibits some approach to a metallic lustre in the
blue or bronzy-red colouring of the hinder part of the crown. I
say blue or bronzy-red, because the only two specimens I have seen
differ in this way, as they also do in the form of the bill,—the one
with a blue crown having the toothing very strongly developed, and
the bill terminating in spiny hooks which cross each other when
that organ is closed; while the other with a bronzy-red crown has a
longer bill, the serrations less developed, and the spiny hooks want-
ing. The tarsi are bare of feathers; and the feet are small, pale in
colour, and with very long black nails. The back in both is bronzy
green ; the rump apparently crossed with white feathers, while the
upper tail-coverts are bluish ; the tail-feathers are pale olive-grey at
the base, crossed with a band of blackish green near the tip, the
three outer ones on each side being largely tipped with white ; wings
purplish brown, with epaulets of light grey, similar in form to those
seen in Helianthea Kos; all the under surface grey, with a conspi-
cuous streak of blackish brown down the feathers of the throat, as
in Hutoweres.
Total length 52 inches; bill 12; wing 13; tail 13.
Habitat. Ecuador.
I remain, Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
Joun GouLp.
26 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square,
August 26, 1863.

Description of a New Species of Lemur.
By A. D. Bartuerr.

In size this animal nearly equals the Ruffed Lemur (Lemur Ma-
caco), which it also much resembles in form and habits.

The living specimen now exhibited was purchased for the Society
from a dealer in Liverpool, in the month of October 1861, and has
been in the Menagerie since that time. It was stated, by the person
who brought it to this country, that the natives of Madagascar, from
whom it was obtained, said it was of a very rare kind, and that it
had been kept as a pet upwards of two years in that country.

I have compared this animal with the descriptions and specimens
that I have been able to find in the British Museum and several
museums on the Continent, and I feel satisfied that this animal

248 Miscellaneous.

is specifically distinct from any that I have met with. I therefore
propose to call it the White-whiskered Lemur (Lemur leucomystax)—
a name that will, I think, enable any one to recognize the species, it
being remarkable for its long and perfectly white whiskers, in which
its ears are almost entirely concealed; the face is greyish black,
darkest on the nose and back part of the head; the feet are brown,
inclining to black on the toes. The prevailing colour of the body,
limbs, and tail is reddish brown on a grey ground, darkest on the
middle of the back ; on the lower part of the back, at the base of the
tail, is a white patch; the tail is lighter in colour than the body, the
underside and tip nearly white ; the belly is greyish white; the eyes
are yellow-brown. On examination, I find the animal is a female ;
and I imagine, from her voice, which is a kind of hoarse croaking
bark rapidly and frequently repeated, that the male would probably
produce a louder and more powerful note. .

I am led to infer this from having repeatedly heard the voice of
both male and female of Z. Macaco. The voice of the male of this spe-
cies is certainly very astonishingly powerful, and can be heard a great
distance ; while the voice of the female, although loud and discordant,
is comparatively weak. Nevertheless it is a very unpleasant series
of loud, grunting, grating barks, sufficient to alarm a nervous traveller
should he be in the forest at dark and unacquainted with the size
and nature of the animal producing these loud and dismal sounds.—
Proc. Zool. Soc. Dec. 9, 1862.

On a New Species of Chameleon. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.
Chameleo levigatus.

Grey or bluish in spirits. Scales small, flat, subequal, uniform ;
dorsal line nearly smooth, scarcely crested. Belly with a crest of
larger acute white scales. Occiput slightly raised in the centre by
a slight keel; the superciliary ridges and the central keel scarcely
dentated. The legs elongate, very slender. Had. Khartoom.

This species is very like Chameleo senegalensis ; but the scales on
the ridges of the head and the ridges of the back are of the same
size as those of the neighbouring parts, and therefore do not form
any appreciable crest. The occiput is rather differently shaped, the
hinder central keel being a little more prominent. The scales of the
head, body, limbs, and tail are smaller and less raised. The limbs
are longer and more slender.

This species is very different from the Chameleo affinis of Riuppell
(which is the C. abyssinicus of the Berlin Museum), from Abyssinia,
which differs from both C. senegalensis and C. levigatus in the scales
being much larger and more convex, and in the scales of the ridges
of the head and back being larger than those on the neighbouring
parts, so as to form distinct crests; and in C. afinis the body is
grey or blackish, with two or three broad, irregular-shaped, opake-
white spots, forming an interrupted streak on each side of the back
of the animal.— Proc. Zool. Soc. March 24, 1863.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 70. OCTOBER 1863.

XXIV.—On the Presence of Chlorophyll-cells and Starch-granules
as Normal Parts of the Organism, and on the Reproductive
Process, in Difflugia pyriformis, Perty; also on a Freshwater
Species of Kchinocystidia. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &c.

For some time past I have been inclining to the view that,
although the Rhizopoda must be placed on the animal side of
organized beings, still they have very strong alliances with the
vegetable kingdom; and this opinion has been confirmed by
what I have lately observed in Difflugia pyriformis, Perty (mihi),
wherein the body, apparently after conjugation similar to that
of the contents of the cells of Spirogyra, contracts itself into an
elliptical form, densely charged with chlorophyll-cells and stareh-
granules. I cannot now state confidently that the contents of
both tests, after amalgamation, finally become fixed in one only,
as in Spirogyra; nor, on the contrary, am I prepared to state
that they become divided between the two individuals, for rea-
sons which will be mentioned hereafter; but this much may be
stated—that the number of chlorophyll-cells and starch-granules
greatly increases in the body of this Difflugia just previously to
subsequent changes, in which they seem to disappear altogether
(at all events, the former) and are replaced by a mass of colour-
less granuliferous cells which may be inferred to be the elements
of a new generation.

Before, however, proceeding to that which I have to offer on
the subject, it is desirable to describe the species which is about
to come under our consideration; and this may stand as fol-
lows :—

Difflugia pyriformis, Perty.

Test ovate-elongate, closed and rounded posteriorly, open and
truncate, with even or undulating aperture, anteriorly ; composed
of hyaline grains of quartz-sand, held together by a glutinous

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser, 3, Vol, xii. as

/

?) substance. Animal consisting of diaphane and
e former disposed in a transparent layer around the
nd sending off processes of attachment from its posterior

clouded by the presence of chlorophyll-cells, which impart a
‘gen colour to the body, by the “ molecule,” the “ granules,”
‘and portions of food in process of digestion. Granules abun-

dant, minute, colourless. Nucleus situated in the posterior

end of the body, fixed, and consisting of a transparent spherical

cell bearing on one part of its inner surface the nucleolus im

the form of a circular, colourless, opake, discoid body much
less in diameter than the nuclear cell. Contracting vesicles or

“‘vesiculee”? not seen, but probably in plurality, and situated

round the border of the posterior end, as in D. tricuspis, Cart.

Hab, Fresh water, in stagnant pools, with decaying leaves
and vegetable matter. Active in the spring (April), passive and
more or less retracted within the test in the autumn (August).
Locomotion and capture of food performed by digital prolonga-
tions of the body slowly projected through the aperture of the
test, and into which the chlorophyll-cells do not enter.

Size. Length ;3,th, greatest breadth -1,th, and width of
aperture =1,th of an inch. Thus the test is a little longer than
twice its breadth. In upwards of 200 specimens the measure-
ments varied very little from those given.

Loe. England, south coast of Devonshire.

Observations.—I learn from MM. Claparéde and Lachmann
(Etudes sur les Infusoires et Rhizopodes, p. 448, for a copy of
which work, received since my return from India, I now beg to
acknowledge myself under great obligation to the authors—the
latter, alas! removed by death too soon for the interests of
science) that there is a Difflugia pyriformis, Perty (Zur Kennt-
niss, &c., p. 187, pl. 9. ob. Abth. f. 9); and I see a figure of
D. pyriformis in pl. 21. £.17 of Pritchard’s ‘ History of the
Infusoria’ (ed. 1861) without further mention, but so much like
the one which I have above described, that, on the evidence
altogether, I do not hesitate to call the Devonshire specimens
D. pyriformis, Perty. Also, among upwards of 200 specimens
of D. pyriformis, I have only found five with that diverticulum
at the posterior end which led Ehrenberg to call it D. acuminata,
but in other respects so like, in the green body and sandy com-
position of the test, that I cannot help thinking it is only a
variety of D. pyriformis. Hach of these five, however, were only
about ++,th of an inch long, including the diverticulum, while
D. acuminata (ap. Pritchard) is set down at th of an inch in
length. Lastly, among the 200 were also three or four sub-
globose specimens, like D. proteiformis, Ehr., which are set

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis. 251

down as =1,th of an inch in Pritchard (p. 553), but mine ave-
raged only ;2,th of an inch in length; yet in April last I found
two others in the same place larger than Pritchard’s measure-
ment, viz. =;th of an inch long; so that all three of these
Diffugie are found together here; and although the latter, in
the few specimens of it which I obtained, did not present the
green colour of the two former, yet it is so like them in every
other respect, that I cannot help thinking that D. acuminata
and D. proteiformis are but small varieties of D. pyriformis,
which is by far the largest in body of all, because the measure-
ment assigned to D, acuminata (viz. “jth of an inch) probably
includes the diverticulum. Still the Rlizopoda vary so much
both in size and form, that the tailed variety may be the largest,
and the pyriform one subordinate in size and number, or the
subglobose one, and so on, in another locality. In the present
instance, however, it is D. acuminata and D. proteiformis which
are so very subordinate in size and number. The absence of
the green colour in D. proteiformis may have taken place in the
process of generation, as it will hereafter be shown to do in D.
pyriformis; at the same time, if future evidence should prove
that it is never green, then it will be necessary to regard D.
proteiformis as a different species; for the green colour in D.
pyriformis and D, acuminata is due to the presence of chloro-
phyll-cells, as much as the green colour in the body of Hydra
viridis. ° .

Of the 200 specimens of D. pyriformis mentioned, there were
eighteen colourless ones, owing, as just stated, to the total ab-
sence of chlorophyll-cells, which appears to indicate the stage in
the generative process to which I have just alluded.

There were also fourteen empty tests (and I have found many
more since, with a less number of filled ones), which may have
arisen from their contents having left them during the process
of conjugation, or, in a more advanced stage of the genera-
tive process, from the old animal having become effete, and
the new generation having left the test, or from the death of
the animal accidentally. The number, however, is so much out
of proportion to the filled tests, both green and colourless, that
it stands much against the possibility of the conjugation being
exactly like that of Spirogyra, i. e. of the result of this conjuga-
tion being always to leave one cell empty.

All my specimens were collected from the same place where I
found Ameba princeps in April last (see Annals, vol. xi. p. 30,
1863), and in the following way, viz. by taking up the surface
of the bottom of the little pools of water among the dead leaves
with an india-rubber bottle and tube, and transferring it to a
glass bottle, then taking out the sediment by portions with a

17*

252 Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis.

large hair pencil, and spreading it over a glass slide with a piece
of white paper under it for the green, and one of black for the
colourless specimens, after which the Difflugie may be easily
recognized with a magnifying-glass, separated with a needle,
and finally transferred to some clean water previous to further
examination.

On the sides of the bottle holding the sediment I have ob-
served several specimens at different heights, and all green but
one, which was colourless ; besides, all the specimens which I
have crushed under the microscope have contained portions of
food ; from which circumstances both green and colourless spe-
cimens may be assumed to be still more or less active, although
not near so much so as in the spring of the year,—thus not
differing from other beings (as will be seen hereafter) in con-
tinuing to take in nourishment throughout the greater part of
the generative process. During the time that the body is densely
charged with chlorophyll-cells, and the grains of sand of which
the test is composed are thick and irregular, it is impossible to
see the different parts of the animal in situ; hence it was only a
chance specimen which fell under my eye in April last, from the
locality to which I have alluded, that, with few grains of sand
on it, and very few chlorophyll-cells in the interior, then per-
mitted me to make the drawing from which the above descrip-
tion has been taken.

It is remarkable, too, that in no instance have I yet found a
coloured grain of sand in the test; ail have been composed of
hyaline quartz, as if the animal had exerted a choice in this re-
spect—a choice of those particles only which allowed the light
to pass through them uninterruptedly.

Further, with the exception of one adult specimen of Ameba
princeps, I have not seen a single Ameba, large or small, during
these examinations, where, in April last, A. princeps so abounded.
It should perhaps be added that there had been very little rain
previously for many days, the water had become low, and there
was no development, at this place, of the Confervoid Algz,
which, on decomposing, afford so much nutriment to the Rhizo- —
poda. Whether this, or the season of the year, has led to the
scarcity of Amabe at this time or place I have not yet had an
opportunity of proving.

With this short introduction, let us turn our attention, first,
to the composition of the green spore-like body, as it is now
found in the tests of Difflugia pyriformis, and then to the colour-
less one; for which purpose it will be necessary to remove one
of the Difflugie with the green body (as that is the first to be
examined) to a slide, with a little water, and then cover it with
a light thin bit of glass; after which it should be placed under

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis. 253

the microscope, and, watching it while it gradually becomes
crushed and its contents issue, by abstracting part of the water
with a little bibulous paper we shall observe that these contents
are composed of—

1. A small quantity of thin protoplasm, with its imbedded
“molecule,” which suspends and holds together the general
mass. ‘This frequently oozes out, too, in spherical portions, of
different sizes, each of which may contain more or less of the
molecule, but must not be mistaken for separate cells—the
variety in size helping to show that they do not belong to any
special set of cell-organs.

2. A great number of spherical cells, of a fresh green colour,
about = sath of an inch in diameter, containing chlorophyll
and granular protoplasm.

Iodine with sulphuric acid causes their contents to assume a
dark brown colour. Sulphuric acid alone gives them first a sea-
green or bluish-green tint, and then extracts the colour*.

These cells are exactly like the chlorophyll-cells of Hydra
viridis, with the exception of being a little smaller. Fortunately
this animal was present for me to make the comparison.

3. A nearly equal number of colourless refractive granules, of
globular, oval, and irregularly round forms, more or less com-
pressed, and of different sizes, varying from >,5,5th to =1,th of
an inch in their greatest diameter respectively, the smallest
being the most numerous.

Very diluted sulphuric acid, followed by iodine, gives them
for the most part a deep claret colour, and, to many, very fre-
quently the deep blue colour characteristic of genuine starch.
Strong sulphuric acid, preceded by iodine, causes on its approach
much blue colour to appear, indicative of the presence of amor-
phous starch in the mass, which colour disappears on the strong
acid reaching it ; it also causes a pellicle to appear on the large
granules, which swell up and, bursting, frequently display a
crevice in the centre, or radiating cracks which show that the
interior of the granule is filled with a homogeneous, semitrans-
parent, pulpy substance; while the small granules lose all their
colour, but the pellicle remains, and still retains their forms re-
spectively. Indeed the indications, both physical and chemical,
in these granules, of an amylaceous composition are so strong,
that although the genuine blue colour may not always be
brought out in them by chemical means, yet no doubt can re-
main that they are starch in some form or other.

4. There are also a few oil-globules frequently present; but

* By “iodine” I mean a solution of iodine in one of iodide of potas-
sium.

254 Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis.

the great bulk of the mass is composed of the wang
and starch-granules in nearly equal proportions.

5. The nucleus is no longer a discoid semiopake body at-
tached to the inner surface of a transparent spherical cell; but
this spherical cell, which is now about the ;1;st part of an inch
in diameter, is filled (lined?) with refractive spherules, about
soooth of an inch in diameter, mingled with minute granules
and protoplasm. These contents are now adherent to the ex-
ternal thick cell of the nucleus (or “nuclear utricle,” as it has
been termed by Nageli), but subsequently become separated
from it, while in one part of the spheruliferous mass may be
observed a small transparent area, about ~2>,th of an inch in
diameter, which appears to be the nucleolus : the last is compressed
in shape, and will hereafter be found to form a more intimate
bond of union between the spheruliferous mass and nuclear
utricle than any other part. The spheruliferous mass seems to
be a thus altered state of the transparent protoplasm of the
nucleus, and not an increased development of the opake nucleus,
as I formerly thought.

Here I would take the opportunity of correcting what now
appears to be an error in my description of the nucleus in
Ameba princeps, viz. that whereas I have viewed the “ transpa-
rent area” there as caused by the nucleolus partially spreading
over the inner surface of the nucleus or nuclear utricle, from the
opposite poimt, and thus leaving this area, I would now regard
the “transparent area” as [ have done that one which is similar
to it in the granulated nucleus of Difflugia pyriformis, viz. as
the nucleolus, and the opake portion as a thus altered state of
the transparent protoplasm of the nucleus, which ultimately
becomes granuliferous both in the “ reproductive cells” and in
what I have termed the “ granulation of the nucleus.” This,
too, will, I think, accord better with Dr. Wallich’s figure of the
nucleus in his Ameba villosa (Annals, vol. xi. pl. 9. fig. 7, 1863);
for I, of course, do not regard this condition now as the primi-
tive state and form of the nucleus, which is that probably of a
discoid opake body attached to the inner surface of a transparent
globular vesicle, as in other cells, but, on the contrary, as the
first phase of its generative development. Hence my assump-
tion that the latter state may form a specific character for A.
princeps falls to the ground, and the villous tail, first pointed —
out by Dr. Wallich, may prove a better indication.

Todine causes the nucleus of Difflugia pyriformis, in the state
last described, to assume a light amber-colour, which passes
into a violet tint with undiluted sulphuric acid, when the whole
body suddenly swells up, but does not burst, the spherular
structure is destroyed, and the violet tint appears to be deepest

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis. 255

in the situation of the nucleolus. Iodine alone, however, does
not alter the colour of the spherules, even when, by forcibly
bursting the nucleus, they are pressed out into the surrounding
liquid.

6. Lastly, portions of food are always present, which show,
by the yellow and brown state of their chlorophyll, that they
are undergoing digestion, while they thus contrast strongly with
the fresh green colour of the chlorophyll-cells, which form part
of the organized structure of the Diffugia.

Thus we have gone through the contents of the body of
Difflugia pyriformis under its green colour, and have seen that
the bulk of these contents chiefly consists of chlorophyll-cells
and starch-granules. Let us now examine the body in the co-
lourless animal, where we shall find our attention drawn from
the striking characters just mentioned, which so strongly con-
nect D. pyriformis with the vegetable kingdom, to that part in
the economy of this species which is intimately connected with
the process of generation.

Taking, then, one of the colourless specimens and placing it
in the field of the microscope under similar circumstances to
the green one, we shall observe that in the body there is now—

1. The same kind of protoplasm as in the green state, but
much more plentiful and much more plastic.

2. An entire absence of the green or chlorophyll-cells.

3. The number of starch-granules more or less reduced.

4, Little or no appearance of oil-globules.

5. The greater part of the bulk of the mass, now consisting of
small, colourless, acapsular, granuliferous cells, of a globular or
oval shape, about ;,,>th of an inch in diameter, most of which
are undergoing multiplication by duplicative division, in which
condition they are just twice the length of the single ones.
These bodies are smaller in some colourless specimens than in
others, indicative of an earlier state of development.

Iodine gives them a light amber tint, which is slightly deep-
ened by sulphuric acid.

6. The nucleus, of the same size as in the green specimens,
viz. the ;3;st part of an inch in diameter, but now more or less
effete, imasmuch as the spherules have nearly or wholly dis-
appeared, as the case may be, from the nuclear protoplasm, and
have left a delicate deciduous structure, apparently sacciform,
which, by the aid of chemical tests, is now found to be detached
from the nuclear utricle at all parts, except where the nucleolus
still connects it with this utricle. But the nucleolus, now that
it can be more distinctly viewed, is seen to be composed of a
circular compressed cell, which, while it unites the effete proto-
plasm to the nucleus, also presents a number of small spherules

256 Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis.

in its interior, within which, again, is another cell or transpa-
rent area: that is, the nucleolus appears to be composed of its
proper cell, then a protoplasm in which its spherules are de-
veloped, and then within this again a central cavity filled with
some transparent fluid—being now, in fact, only a repetition in
structure of the nuclear utricle which surrounds it, and of the
vegetable cell generally.

Out of the fourteen colourless specimens, only two afforded
me the opportunity of seeing the effete nucleus, it having pre-
viously disappeared in the rest through atrophy, or having be-
come destroyed by contact during compression with the rough
grains of sand of which the test is composed—a frequent occur-
rence in examining the contents of the green specimens.

One of these effete nuclei represented the description just
given; and the other differed from it only in a large portion of
the grumous contents of the nuclear protoplasm still remaining
in it, but no spherules, while the nuclear utricle had become
ruptured at one point, and a small portion of the nuclear proto-
plasm, now presenting a sacciform appearance, entangled in it,
to which one of the granuliferous cells above mentioned adhered
outside, and so strongly that it could not be separated by any
means that would not destroy the whole structure of the nucleus.
This granuliferous cell I therefore infer to have been one of the
spherules, which was still so far united to the parent protoplasm ;
but whether the rupture was caused by the pressure to which
the nucleus had been subjected, or had occurred naturally, to
allow of the passage of the spherules from the nucleus into the
body of the animal (as appears to be the case in the process of
reproduction in the Rhizopodous cell which inhabits the proto-
plasm of Nitella, of which more hereafter), remains to be deter-
mined. There was also an appearance, on the external surface
of the nucleus, of a minute hole extending through the nuclear
utricle to the centre of the nucleolus ; but whether, again, this
was caused by the presence of the transparent area in the centre
of the spherules of the nucleolus, or by a real hole, I was not able
to decide. In much of this examination I was greatly assisted
by the use of iodine and sulphuric acid, which, it should be
remembered, must be used cautiously, and time given to them
to produce their respective effects, or they will fail to elucidate
that amount of structure which otherwise may be brought out
by their application.

7. Lastly, surrounding the whole animal portion in one spe-
cimen of the colourless Difflugia, was a tough transparent mem-
brane like a capsule, which, tested with iodine and strong sulphuric
acid, showed a violet tint, and seemed to have been secreted for
the protection of the young; but, as it only occurred in one

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis, PY i

instance, I merely mention the circumstance for what it may
hereafter prove worth.

Thus, from the granuliferous cells having been added to the
animal mass, and their being smaller in some specimens than in
others, owing apparently to an earlier stage of development, the
absence of the spherules in the nucleus while it presented an
effete form, and the diminution in the quantity of starch-
granules—to say nothing of the total disappearance of the green
or chlorophyll-cells, and the presence, m one instance, of a
capsular membrane—the colourless specimens of this Difflugia,
altogether, afford strong evidence of that stage of generative
development in which the young brood, as yet without the
power of locomotion, have passed from the nucleus into the body
of the parent for further development.

Since the above was written, I have examined eight more
colourless specimens with the same results. In four of these
only, however, was the nucleus seen, and in all it was more or
less emptied of the spherules, but not sufficiently well situated
for more extended examination with chemical tests.

Of the value of the conjugation in this process it is not in
my power to state more than that two tests become united at
their apertures, and that in the pair which I found thus united
the chlorophyll-cells were still present, and the whole of these,
that is, the green matter at least, had gone over to one indivi-
dual; but subsequently, part returned to their original test, and
a flow of contents backwards and forwards between the two tests,
which could be plainly witnessed under the microscope, went on
for a whole day after they were first discovered in conjugation ;
at the end of which the tests separated, and the green or chloro-
phyll-cells became so unequally divided, that one test only con-
tained one-fourth and the other the remaining three-fourths of
these organs,—with what amount of the rest of the contents
could not be seen.

This is similar to what I have already figured and described
in Kuglypha (Annals, vol. xvin. p. 230, 1856), observing that,
“When we find Huglypha as well as Arcella united not only in
pairs, but triply and quadruply in this way, and the same with
Euglena viridis, the connexion of these phenomena with repro-
duction, as Claparéde has stated, becomes exceedingly doubtful.”
Now the same kind of plurality in conjugation may, and proba-
bly does, take place with Difflugia pyriformis; but, then, has it
no analogy with other organisms, where reproduction is evidently
the effect of conjugation? Certainly in Spirogyra, wherein the
protoplasm becomes richly charged with chlorophyll and starch
just previous to conjugation, we occasionally see two cells tubu-

258 Mr. H.J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis:

lating towards one, and one towards two, or the whole of the
contents of one cell going over to mingle with those of another,
to form the rounded or elliptical spore, as the case may be; or
a portion only of the contents doing this, that is, the mass ulti-
mately becoming unequally divided, while each portion assumes
the rounded spore-form in its respective cell; or an arrest of the
process after union of these contents, when the two portions re-
main connected by an isthmus band through the tube of inter-
communication ; or, finally, the contents of each cell assuming
the spore-like form in their respective cells, without ever min-
gling at all, &e. Nay, I have drawings of a Spirogyra trying to
tubulate with the cells of a filament of Cladophora,—that is,
the tube of intercommunication of the cells of the filament of
the Spirogyra respectively being projected against those of the
Cladophora, but ending upon the latter in a bunch of cecal
tubuli which present a rootlike appearance in each instance.

I have not data to state, as before mentioned, whether, in the
conjugation of Diffugia pyriformis, the whole of the contents of
the two individuals normally remains in one test or not; for,
in the instance mentioned, although this was the case at first,
the contents, as I have stated, subsequently became very un-
equally divided; nor have I found a sufficient number of the
empty tests among the filled ones to indicate this ; but as regards
the union of more than two tests together throwing doubt upon
the view that such is a true act of generative conjugation, we
have seen that there is just as much variety in the conjugation
of the cells of Spirogyra, where the conjugation is undoubtedly
part of the process of reproduction. Whether the spore-shaped
contents of the cells of Spirogyra, which thus appear to be im-
perfectly formed, ever germinate, has not, to my knowledge,
been determined. I should think that at least the smaller
portions became abortive.

Lastly, we have to consider the import of the small spherules
of the nucleolus. Formerly, I thought that they might be
sperm-cells, or impregnating-agents, when studying the germi-
native process in the Rhizopodous cell that inhabits the proto-
plasm of Nitella (see good drawings of this cell, and a descrip-
tion of them, in ‘ Annals,’ vol. xvill. p. 237, pl. 7. figs. 93-98) ;
but on looking over my sketches of this cell in connexion with
what I have lately witnessed in the nucleus of Difflugia pyri-
formis, it seems to me that the “protoplasmic zone,” which in
this instance becomes mulberry-shaped, and which I then sup-
posed to be developed around (outside) the nucleus, should
have been regarded as homologous with the protoplasm in
which the spherules of Difflugia are developed—that is, as the
nuclear protoplasm. - Certainly, here, in the. Rhizopodous cell of

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis. 259

Nitella, the spherules become the new brood, and, on leaving
the nucleus, pass into the effete cell of the parent, where still
remain the contents (starch and chlorophyll) originally incepted
by it in the internodal cell of its host; after feeding on which
(for portions of it may be seen in their bodies), these mono- and
diplo-ciliated monads (individuals of the new generation) find
their way out through the effete parent-cell, and commence their
independent existence.

It is thus, in all probability, that the granuliferous cells in
Difflugia pyriformis leave the nucleus, multiply rapidly by. du-
plicative division (for their number in the body of the parent far
exceeds that of the number of the spherules of the nucleus),
feed on the starch laid up for them, and finally, becoming ciliated,
leave the effete parent, to obtain their future maintenance and
development.

The granulation of the nucleus in Difflugia, as before stated,
seems to be the same as that which I have described in Ameba
princeps ; but that of generation by the “ reproductive cells” in
A. princeps is altogether a different process. In the former,
several centres of new individuals become developed in the pro-
toplasm of the nucleus, while in the latter the nucleus appears
to begin to form the “reproductive cells” by dividing at once
into two equal portions, and so on. But both processes, in
their generative imports respectively, are as yet very imperfectly
understood ; and at present we know no more of them, as regards
impregnation, than we do of that of the conjugating Confervoid
Algze generally, the Diatomacee or the Desmidiacee.

Observations.—In the starch-granules of Difflugia pyriformis
I cannot help seeing the refractive “cells” (or, rather, granules),
with the small granules and protoplasm, which fill the globular
cells of the seed-like body of Spongilla, each of which globular
cells, in the early stage of this body, is a bond fide Ameba; and
when the new sponge-substance issues from the hilous aperture
(that is, when the seed-like body germinates), each of the glo-
bular cells (now become effete), with its contents, appears to
pass into one of the “ampullaceous sacs” (see a description of
this, ‘‘ Ultimate Structure of Spongilla,” ‘ Annals,’ vol. xx. p. 21,
1857), while the refractive cells or granules gradually disappear,
and are replaced by the polymorphic cells which chiefly enter
into the composition of this ‘‘sac.’” Thus my original view,
that these refractive grains are “ovules,” is changed, as an-
nounced in 1859, in my observations “ On the Identity in Struc-
ture and Composition of the Seed-like Body of Spongilla with
the Winter-egg of the Bryozoa, &c.” (Annals, vol. ui. p. 331),
where I have also stated, for reasons therein mentioned, that.
these refractive granules appear to pass into the formation: of

260 Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis.

the sponge-cells by the “ vito-catalytic”’ influence of a thin film
of protoplasm with which they become surrounded.

Now it seems to me that this thin film may be an expansion
of one of the “small granules” of the globular cell of the seed-
like body, and that these granules might have originated from a
granulation of the nucleus of the globular cells respectively ; for
certainly no trace remains of the nucleus, which as certainly existed
when the globular cell was in an active state. It must be un-
derstood here that the “granule” is viewed as a nucleus, or
centre of vitality, capable of developing a cell around itself in
the manner of the germ of the “cell” generally, which membrane
in this instance would be plastic and polymorphic, and therefore
become expansible into the thin film mentioned.

In this way we should have a direct analogy between the
development of the amcebous cell, which, in its plurality, makes
up a great part of the ampullaceous sac of Spongilla, and that of
the new granuliferous cells of the colourless Difflugia pyriformis,
assuming that the granuliferous cells are the new brood, and
that im both instances, viz. in the amcebous cells of the ampulla-
ceous sac and the granuliferous cells of Difflugia, respectively,
the germs are derived from a granulation of the nucleus.

Further, should the conjugation of the tests of Difflugia pyri-
formis be hereafter shown to be connected with the impregnating
process, then it may be fairly assumed that a similar conjugation
takes place between two reproductive cells of Spongilla, which
may lead to a granulation of thé nucleus there also, and this,
again, to the production of the number of amcebous cells which
make up the chief bulk of the seed-like body at the commence-
ment, and which, after the capsule has been secreted round
them, ultimately enlarge and pass into the globular cells which
fill the cavity of the seed-like body, and which, lastly, in their turn,
on the issue of the sponge-substance, follow the development
above mentioned.

If, then, the refractive ‘‘cells” or granules of the globular cells
of the seed-like body in Spongilla be the same as the refractive
amylaceous granules of Difflugia pyriformis, then in those Amebe
in which I have described them as “ovules,” and wherever they:
occur in the Rhizopoda, the same view must be taken of them,
viz. that they pertain to the nature of, if they be not fully deve-
loped starch-granules.

I long since pointed out that Spongilla abounds with starch
in all forms. Auerbach has demonstrated it in Ameba bilim-
bosa, and I have also shown that it exists in the chambers of the
Foraminifera (viz. in Operculina Arabica), and now in Difflugia

pyriformis.
Again, as in Euglena (where I also formerly thought similar

Mr. H. J. Carter on Difflugia pyriformis. 261

refractive cells might be “ovules”), it seems to me now that
they might also be considered as analogous to the refractive
granules of Spongilla, &c. (that is, of an amylaceous composi-
tion), which, with the chlorophyll-vesicles of Huglena, would
then constitute just as much a part of this and all similar or-
ganisms as the chlorophyll-cells and starch-granules have been
shown to do of the body of Difflugia pyriformis.

Lastly, when we extend this analogy to the Euglene, &c., it
passes us on to: Spirogyra, Hidogonium, and the composition of the
contents of the cells of all the Confervoid Algze, where we find
all these refractive granules are actually composed of genuine
starch, as much as in the common vegetable cell.

Résumé.—This article is to show—
1. That chlorophyll-cells exist in the body of Diffugia pyri-

formis as part of its organization.

2. That starch-granules form part of its products.

3. That the tests conjugate.

4. That, apparently after this conjugation, when the body of
the Difflugia is densely charged with chlorophyll-cells and starch-
granules, the nucleus becomes charged with spherular, refractive,
homogeneous bodies, which appear to be developed in the proto-
plasm that lines (?) the nucleus.

5. That the spherules pass from the nucleus into the body of
the animal, and there, becoming granuliferous, so increase by
duplicative division as to form the chief bulk of the whole
mass, while the chlorophyll-cells have entirely disappeared, and
the starch-granules have become more or less diminished in
number.

It now remains to be shown whether the granuliferous cells
become polymorphic and ciliated, like the spherules in the Rhizo-
podous cell of Nitella, and, finally, whether they pass into young
Diffiugie,—tfor which purpose I have collected a great many of
the tests, both green and colourless, and have placed them aside
for observation.

The first question is thus answered :—

Since the above was written, the bottom of a watch-glass,
in which four of the colourless specimens were placed with a
little water four days ago, has become covered with granuli-
ferous cells of the same size and appearance as those peculiar to
the colourless specimens, but with the following differences,
viz. that they are all provided with a cilium (perhaps two) ;
most are fixed to the watch-glass, and retain their globular
form; others are swimming about by means of their cilium ;
many of the fixed globular forms are altering their shape by
becoming polymorphic ; and some have lost their cilium, and

262 Mr, H.J. Carter‘on Difflugia pyriformis.

have become altogether reptant and amoebous. Their sizes
average between ;;);,th and =.,;th part of an inch in diameter,
the former being that of the globular, and the latter that of the
plane or ameebous forms. This has been confirmed by a repeti-
tion of this experiment.

Now, as the granuliferous cells on the watch-glass are so
much like those in the interior of the colourless specimens of
Difflugia pyriformis (which granuliferous cells have heretofore
been inferred to have come from the spherules of the nucleus in
the coloured or green state of the animal), and there is no other
source in the watch-glass, apparently, from which they could
have been derived, while the four Difflugie are still alive (for
this is a necessary adjunct, since we are now among a class of
beings where the death of one frequently affords nutriment for
the almost instantaneous evolution of another species), and a
gelatinous mass is projecting from their apertures respectively,
which may also be inferred to be the protoplasm charged with
the granuliferous cells, there can be no reasonable doubt that
the granuliferous cells of the watch-glass came from these Dif-
flugig. And when we find that a cilium is added to them,
that they are polymorphic, and that some have lost this cilium
and have assumed an amcebous state, which strictly accords
with what has been seen in the generative development of the
rhizopodous cell of Nitella, there can be just as little doubt that
these Amabe are the young brood of Difflugia pyriformis. Thus
the cycle of generative development in Difflugia pyriformis, by
“oranulation of the nucleus,” is so far completed. It is pro-
bably the same in Amba princeps.

The next step will be to follow the development of the young
Amebe into the adult testaceous Difflugia. But this will be
much more difficult, since it may not take place for many months,
during which time these little dmebe may become pro tempore
inhabitants, and probably subsequent destroyers, of vegetable
cells into which they have penetrated for nutriment. Myriads,
of course, as in every other case, are themselves destroyed by
the contingencies which intervene between infancy and adult age.

While studying Difflugia pyriformis, it has been my good
fortune to meet with two specimens of another Rhizopod con-
taining chlorophyll-cells and refractive amylaceous granules as
normal parts of the animal; but this novelty, if such it may
now be termed, does not rest here; for this Rhizopod, which
I at first thought to be a loricated Actinophrys, proves, on fur-
ther examination, to be so nearly allied to Acanthometra among
the Echinocystidia, that I cannot help viewing it as a freshwater
species of this order, and shall for the present describe it as

Mr. H. J. Carter on a Freshwater Species of Hchinocystidia. 263

Acanthocystis turfacea, n. sp, et gen.?

Globular, subround, of a green colour, loricated, spiniferous,
and tentaculiferous. Lorica flexible, covered with minute, fusi-
form, slightly curved spicules, which give the outline a fibrous
wavy appearance. Spines straight, hollow, of uniform breadth
in the shaft, bifid or forked at the distal, and discoid at the
proximal extremity, which rests upon the lorica ; very numerous,
apparently rigid, radiating or turned across each other and move-
able as the spines in Hchinus. Tentacula three times the length
of the spines, colourless, delicate, rough or granular, and re-
tractile. Interior of the body lined with granular protoplasm,
ehlorophyll-cells, and refractive colourless amylaceous granules.
Nucleus peripheral? Contracting vesicle also peripheral, and
in plurality, if certain temporary and conical projections of the
lorica indicate this.

eee Lorica ;+;th of an inch in diameter ; fusiform spicules
<oscth long; spines -1;th long, and disk of same ;,1,,,th, or
twice the width of the shaft ; tentacles zizth of an inch long.

‘Hab. Heath-bog water. Locomotive 3 progressing by means
of the spines, which are ambulacral, and by the tentacles(?).
Kind of nutriment and mode of incepting the same undeter-
mimed; probably in very minute portions, or by suction, as with
Acineta.

Loe. South coast of Devon.

Observations.—I have found several specimens of this Rhizo-
pod, one of which was one-third larger than the measurements
above given; some are colourless. It at first looks like a
spiniferous Actinophrys; and not unlike the figure of A. viridis,
Ehr.

Dilute sulphuric acid, followed by iodine, gives a deep claret-
colour to the refractive granules, and a dark brown colour to
the chlorophyll-cells, which are thus seen to contain a granular
protoplasm. Strong sulphuric acid colours the substance of the
tubes apparently black, but, after deepening, extracts the colour
of the refractive granules entirely. On the addition of more
iodine (7. e. iodine in solution of iodide of potassium), the dark
colour of the interior of the spines disappears from both ends
towards the centre, thus showing that the spines are hollow,
Neither strong sulphuric nor nitric acid dissolves the spines
nor the “fusiform spicules” on the lorica; while their rigid
nature, in addition, inclines to the view that they are both
siliceous. During life, the free or forked extremity of some of
the spines is closed and pointed. The tentacles disappear, and
some of the spines (which are much longer than the general
average in certain specimens) become detached under the effect

264 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders.

of the acid, when they are easily examined. I have not been
able to see any tentacles projected through the spines, as in
Acanthometra, nor do the spines extend further inwards than
the lorica. The whole organism very much resembles in its
capsular elements those of the seed-like body of Spongilla
Meyeni. I saw no crude food in the interior ; but the nature of
the nutriment, as well as other points in the history of this
Rhizopod, may be elucidated by further examination.

XXV.—WNotice of a Drassus and Linyphia new to Science, and a
Neriene hitherto unrecorded as British. By Joun Buackwatt,
F.LS:

Tribe Octonoculina.

Family Drassipz.
Genus Drassus, Walck.
Drassus gracilipes.

Length of an immature male ;®-ths of an inch; length of the
cephalothorax ;,; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen ;_;
length of a posterior leg 3; length of a leg of the third pair 3.

The cephalothorax is convex, compressed before, rounded in
front and on the sides, with slight furrows on the latter con-
verging towards a narrow indentation in the medial line; it is
soot-coloured, sparingly clothed with white hairs, and has a
narrow fringe of hairs of the same hue on the lateral margins.
The falces are conical and vertical; the maxille are convex at
the base, and somewhat inclined towards the lip, which is nearly
quadrate, and slightly hollowed at the apex. These parts are of
a brown hue, the inner side of the maxillz and the extremity of
the lip and falces being much the palest. The sternum is
heart-shaped, with small eminences on the sides opposite to the
legs, and is soot-coloured, but rather browner than the cephalo-
thorax. The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the
cephalothorax in two transverse, slightly curved, nearly parallel
rows, the anterior row being rather the more curved ; the lateral
eyes are the largest, and the intermediate ones of the anterior
row are the smallest and darkest of the eight. The legs are
long, slender, and provided with hairs and spines, two parallel
rows of long sessile spines occurring on the inferior surface of
the tibize and metatarsi of the first and second pairs; the fourth
pair is the longest, then the first, and the third pair is the
shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by two small curved claws,
below which there is a minute scopula; the anterior legs have a _
black hue, with the exception of the base of the genual joint,

Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered Spiders. 265

the extremity of the tibia, the base of the metatarsus, and the
entire tarsus, which have a brownish-yellow colour; the fourth
pair resembles the first in colour, the coxa and exinguinal joint
excepted, which are of a brownish-yellow hue, with a few soot-~
coloured marks; and the second and third pairs differ from the
fourth pair in shaving the femur, tibia, and metatarsus marked
with brownish yellow. The palpi are of a brownish-yellow hue,
that of the base of the humeral joint being brownish black ; the
digital joint of all the specimens examined was of an elongated
oval form, and very tumid, indicating that they had to undergo
their final ecdysis before they became adult. The abdomen is
of an oblong-oviform figure, convex above, glossy, and of a black
hue, the under part being the palest ; the anterior region of the
upper part is sparingly clothed with white hairs, and a short,
transverse, curved bar, consisting of white hairs, and having its
convexity directed forwards, occurs in the posterior region, a
little above the coccyx, which has a few white hairs distributed
upon it; the colour of the branchial opercula is brown, and that
of the spinners brownish yellow.

Three immature males of this species, captured in the vicinity
of Lisbon, were presented to me by the Rey. Hamlet Clark.

*Family Linyeui2.
Genus Linyputa, Latr.

Linyphia crucigera.

Length of the female ;4,th of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax ;1;; breadth *,; breadth of the abdomen 51; length of
a leg of the third pair ;3,.

The eyes are seated on black spots on the anterior part of the
cephalothorax; the four intermediate ones form a trapezoid,
the two anterior ones, constituting its shortest side, being the
smallest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are placed
obliquely on a tubercle, and are almost in contact. The cephalo-
thorax is slightly compressed before, rounded on the sides,
convex, glossy, and has an indentation in the medial line ; it is
of a yellowish-brown colour, the sides and a spot at the posterior
point of the cephalic region having a brown hue. The falces
are long, conical, somewhat divergent at the extremity, inclined
towards the sternum, and armed with teeth on the inner surface;
they are of a pale reddish-brown colour, with an obscure brownish
streak passing from their base, on the inner side, obliquely out-
wards. The maxille are straight, and have the exterior angle of
their enlarged extremity curvilinear; the lip is semicircular ;
and the sternum is heart-shaped. These parts have a dark

Ann, &§ Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 18

266 Mr. J. Blackwall on a new British Spider.

brown hue, tinged with red, the lip being the darkest, and the
base of the maxillz the palest. The legs of the specimen from
which the description was made were mutilated, with the ex-
ception of one of the third pair; but, from the relative length
of the uninjured joints, it is evident that the first pair is the
longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ; and
they are of a pale yellowish hue. The palpi are slender, and —
resemble the legs in colour. The abdomen is oviform, convex
above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax; the
upper part has a yellowish-white hue; im the middle of the
anterior half there is a soot-coloured cross, and on each side of
the posterior half there is a strong longitudinal black band;
these bands converge towards the spinners, immediately above
which they unite; the colour of the sides and under part is
brownish black, and that of the branchial opercula is yellow ;
the sexual organs are well developed, of a red-brown hue, and
have in connexion with their posterior margin a long, slender,
semidiaphanous process, tinged with red-brown at its extremity,
which is directed backwards.

This Linyphia was taken in Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire, and
was received from Mr. R. H. Meade in the summer of 1862.

Genus NEeriEene, Blackw.
Neriene dentipalpis.

Theridion dentipalpe, Wider, Museum Senckenb., Band i. p. 248,
taf. 17. fig, ‘1.

Length of the male 51th of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax 1; breadth ;.; breadth of the abdomen 3,; length of
an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 4.

The male of this species is rather smaller than the male of
Neriene longipalpis, but it bears a very close resemblance to it
in structure and colour. Its most distinctive characters are, the
deeply emarginated or somewhat crescent-shaped termination of
the superior apophysis at the extremity of the radial joint, whose
outer limb is the shorter; and a minute pointed process on the
inferior surface of the apophysis at the extremity of the same
joint, on the under side. The males of both species have a small
pointed conical process at the extremity of the humeral joint of
the palpi towards the outer side, and another on the upper part
of the exinguinal joint of the anterior pair of legs.

Neriene dentipalpis may be found during the summer and
autumnal months, among the grass of old pastures, in various
parts of Denbighshire and Caernarvonshire.

M. Lestiboudois on the laticiferous Vessels of Plants. 267

XXVI.—Second Communication on the Vasa Propria, Laticiferous
Vessels, &c., of Plants, By M. T. Lestizovupois*,

Tuts second communication by M. Lestiboudois was made to the
Academy of Sciences in April last, and forms a continuation of
the memoir previously presented to that learned body, of which a
translation appeared in the ‘Annals’ for June last (vol. xi. p. 402).

We have established (writes M. Lestiboudois) beyond doubt
the existence, in certain plants, of vessels containing coloured
liquids.

It has indeed been held that such vessels are primitively no-
thing more than passages or interspaces, permeated by a thread
of granuliferous fluid, and that the formation of a wall to limit
them as vessels is a subsequent event. But what dves this
signify? Are there not cells whose walls are only developed
subsequently to the nucleus? and such cells are as perfectly
characterized as others. If therefore these vasa propria have
such delicate walls as can only be detected at a later period of
their existence, they nevertheless constitute a vascular system
distinguished by the characters heretofore described. In this
we have an established scientific fact.

However, it must be conceded that this vascular system is
not in all points a counterpart of that of the blood-vessels of
animals. In the leaves these proper vessels form at their origin,
by means of their ramifications, a capillary network ; but at their
termination they do not further divide into delicate branches,
to distribute, like the blood-vessels of animals, the nutritive
juices to the several organs; they do not extend themselves into
all parts ; they leave spaces, often of considerable extent, between
them, and the liquids they enclose can only reach the surround-
ing tissues by percolation through their walls ; and consequently
they are not better adapted for the distribution of nutritive ma-
terial than fibres and cells, and indeed not so well fitted for that
purpose as are passages and lacune. There is therefore a notable
difference between them and the sanguiferous system of animals,
the distributor of nutritive material, and one such as may be
held to intimate that they do not fulfil precisely the same
purpose.

We have now to inquire whether the fluid contents of the
vasa propria are engaged in an act of circulation. On placing
under the microscope a petal which has been rendered transpa-
rent by soaking in oil, the globules are perceived in rapid mo-
tion. This movement may be very completely seen in the living
parenchyma of the stipule of Ficus elastica, after the removal of
the epidermis from both surfaces, In this preparation the micro-

* Translated by Dr. Arlidge from the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for April 27,1863.
18*

268 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

scope shows the liquid in rapid motion, dragging the globules
along with it, taking its course through the vessels and their
anastomotic ramifications, and reaching their collateral branches,
where it encounters other currents either pursuing the same or
an opposite direction. At times the globules accumulate at
some part of the vessel, and appear to block it up, until, by an
effort of organic power, the obstacle is removed, and the stream
resumes its ordinary course, unless it be diverted into an-
other.

At points where the vessels are contracted, the globules may
be frequently seen to overcome the incomplete barrier to their
course by a leaping movement. All these phenomena can be
indisputably made out; they represent a circulatory or at least
an oscillatory movement, which cannot be gainsaid. The term
cyclosis has been applied to it to distinguish it from the ordinary
circulation, which conducts fluids regularly and towards a cer-
tain organ.

It has been asserted that this movement is due simply to the
escape of fluid consequent on the wounding of the vessels prior
to examination, or on the effects of heat, or on those of pressure
or twisting to which the tissues are subjected. However, this
same movement may be observed in entire and uninjured organs,
and neither its constancy nor its rapidity can be explained by the
occurrence of pressure. If the act of cyclosis be denied, there
are equal, and indeed stronger, reasons for denying the gyration
or rotation of the liquids within cells. The movements in these
are sometimes so complicated that their granules, as they course
along in reticulated lines through a substance of mucilaginous
consistence, seem to circulate in an outstretched capillary net-
work, either from the centre to the periphery or from the peri-
phery towards the centre, and either to collect in a mass or to
distribute themselves abroad. The transfer of granular liquids
in the vasa propria is not less remarkable nor less constant than
is that witnessed in the interior of cells.

The explanations offered by M. Schultz may at the same time
be rejected. For our part, we are not disposed to adopt the
hypothesis of repulsion and attraction among the granules of
the proper juices; we do not look upon the contractility of the
vessels as proved, but we cannot overlook the constant pheno-
menon of the transportation of the liquid contents of the vasa
propria—not regularly from one point towards another, but in
such a manner that the granules are driven into all the ramifi-
cations of a more or less complicated network. The force which
causes their circulation also contributes, in all probability, to
their frequently rapid effusion when the tissues are wounded ;
and this force is destroyed with the cessation of life. Not a drop

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 269

of coloured liquid escapes from the section of a plant which has
been plunged for a few seconds in boiling water. [This seems,
to our mind, not to prove the effects of death simply on the
escape of the laticiferous fluid, but to show the coagulability of
that fluid by the heat employed. In other words, is not the
retention of the fluid a consequence of its coagulation by heat ?
—Trans. |

A very high importance should therefore be assigned to the
coloured juices and to the apparatus which contains them, if this
structure be found to present a uniform character in all those
plants which are provided with laticiferous fluid. Let us there-
fore inquire whether this system possesses in its organization
that character of uniformity which the general function attri-
buted to it seems to demand. In other words, have ail lactescent
plants a vascular system ?

We have already remarked that vasa propria are more scarce
in certain parts of lactescent plants than in others, and that
they are not met with at all in some of their important organs,
and notably in the roots. For example, these vessels, which
occur so plentifully in the stem of Asclepias syriaca, are infre-
quent in that portion of the stock which is furnished with buds,
and are nearly or altogether wanting in the inferior part of this
organ.

Moreover the proper vessels may become altered in character,
and, so to speak, lose their primitive conformation, their con-
tinuity, their divisions, and their anastomoses.

In Sambucus Ebulus I have met with, in the bark and medulla,
rigid, isolated, straight, and thick-walled tubes, which contained
a coloured substance of considerable consistence, that became
of an intense red in contact with the air, and was collected in
irregular masses, grouped confusedly. These tubes were cer-
tainly more like fibres than vasa propria, nevertheless they
contained special juices. I have also seen the like in Sambucus
nigra, except that here the contained matter was less deep in
colour.

In Ferula tingitana, and in several plants of the family Um-
belliferze, the proper juices are likewise contained in thick-walled
tubes.

On approaching the roots, the reservoirs of coloured juices
are found to change their nature. Thus in Chelidonium majus
the yellow juices of the stem circulate in long and continuous
vessels, whilst in the root the juices, which have acquired an
orange-colour, are contained in cells of greater or less thickness,
united end to end, so as to form irregular fibres. Further, in
several Convolvulacez the coloured juices in the roots are found
collected in utricles—a circumstance observed in the external

270 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

bark and in certain cortical layers interposed between the lig-
neous tissue of one of the Convolvuli from Brazil. The same
thing may be seen in the Convolvulus nervosus.

In the root of Convolvulus Turpethum the proper juices are
very abundant, and concrete into a yellow resinous substance
enclosed in utricles, often considerably elongated.

This modification of form of the reservoirs of the coloured
juices is not encountered only in the roots of plants, but also
elsewhere. Thus, both in the external and intermediate cortical
lamine of the stem of Glycine, red points are seen scattered
here and there on the outside of the cortical fibres, formed of
cells (utricles) varying in length, more or less regular, and
having their internal wall lined with a substance which appears
yellow under the microscope. These utricles are disposed in
such a fashion as to constitute fibres or bundles, which cannot
be regarded otherwise than as analogues of vasa propria, although
no exudation of coloured fluid ensues when sections of this plant
are made. Certain species of Sapindacez also present series of
coloured utricles, which, on a section of the stem, look like co-
loured specks, and whose organization is analogous to those of
Glycine.

It follows, therefore, that the appellation “ vessels” cannot be
always given to those organs that contaim coloured juices, and
that the more general term reservoirs is better adapted to them.

This conclusion is so much the more necessary, inasmuch as,
in certain instances, the utricles are not even disposed in linear
series. For example, in Piper Siriboa the parenchyma of the
external bark, as well as that of the intermediate cortical layers
and the pith, has numerous reddish spots scattered throughout
it, composed of cells having walls discernible with difficulty
on account of their being overspread with a coloured material
that is unequally diffused and analogous to that which lines
the cells of Glycine and Sapindacez ; but these utricles, instead
of being placed in rows, and thereby approaching the characters
of vessels, are accumulated in irregular masses of a more or less
rounded outline.

Further, the elaborated juices of plants are met with not only
enclosed within vessels and utricles, but also diffused in inter-
cellular passages, or the natural interspaces between the cells,
found especially at their angles of junction. They are likewise
met with in regular lacunz, formed by the separation of adjoin-
ing cells, and also in irregular lacune resulting from lacerations
of the tissues. When they occupy intercellular spaces, they do
not attain the same dimensions as the cells, inasmuch as they
are contained in the intervals left between those portions only
of the cell-walls which are not adherent throughout their whole

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 271

extent. It is this which distinguishes them from reservoirs
formed by lacune of greater or less size, resulting from a com-
plete severance between contiguous cells. They exhibit them-
selves as flexuose vessels, of very unequal diameter—an appear-
ance due to the circumstance that the line of junction of the
cell-walls, which is obscure to a certain extent, resembles a spe-
cial wall, and that the passages (meatz) follow exactly the outlines
of the cells between which they occur, and exhibit enlargements
at the angles of junction of the cells. Their granular liquid
occasionally intrudes into the transverse lines of junction be-
tween the cells; and when this does not happen, the obscure
line which bounds the reservoir inflects itself between the cells,
and no vascular wall passing directly in face of or across the line
of junction can be perceived—aindicating thereby that the reser-
voir of the elaborated fluid is not a true vessel. I have observed
this arrangement in several Monocotyledons—a division of plants
less frequently provided with milky juices than Dicotyledons,—
as for instance, in several Aroidez, such as the Pothos aurita
and the Caladium seguinum, where utricles occur filled with gra-
nular fluid, and where such fluid is particularly found in inter-
cellular spaces. In certain cases, the mass of proper juices
accumulated in these meati is so dense and dark, that it cannot
be determined whether it is contained in a vessel or in a space
formed by the separation of adjoining cell-walls; in most in-
stances, however, it can be made out, from the indications above
pointed out, that it does not occupy a vascular cavity. In Cala-
dium seguinum the milky juice is less abundant than in Pothos
aurita; and in some old leaves the section of the petioles does
not give issue to any white fluid; but when young and fresh
leaves are selected, a pale though an undoubted milky liquid
escapes, which, after the preparation has been boiled, may be
demonstrated under the microscope to be contained within cells,
but particularly in the intercellular passages.

We shall, moreover, find that, though the Colocasia odorata
has no distinct latex, a section of its petiole gives vent to a
copious discharge of mucilaginous, thick, and granular juice,
which is enclosed within cells as well as diffused in a character-
istic manner in the intercellular spaces. This observation proves
beyond cavil that a great analogy subsists between the different
proper juices of plants, and that these fluids may disseminate
themselves in the intercellular passages.

Let us now examine those lacunz, of a more or less regular
character, which result from the disunion of tissues.

In Rhus typhina (Sumach) we find reservoirs of proper juices
which may perhaps retain in a considerable degree a vascular
appearance, but in reality have a structure still more widely re-

272 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

moved from what we are accustomed to regard as that of vessels
properly so called.

In the external layers of the bark the juices are contained in
cylindrical straight channels, simple or at times having some
anastomoses, which occupy the centre of the fibrous bundles of
the cortex. Their diameter is so considerable that they can be
detected by the naked eye; and if their surface be scraped with
the edge of a sharp instrument, the fluid is seen to flow back
under the pressure.

In the deeper layers of the bark, these channels of the proper
juices become smaller and smaller and more ramified, but they
occupy the same relative position; that is to say, they occur in
the centre of the fibrous bundles.

On the internal surface of the bark they assume the form of
a vascular network, with very slender ramifications and very
irregular anastomoses.

These channels, however, notwithstanding their appearance,
are not true vessels. On examining under the microscope the
walls of such of them as occupy the centre of the bundle of
primitive cortical vessels, they are seen to be formed of short cells
(utricles) of a rectangular shape having thin walls, which appear
to be filled with the milky liquid. These channels consequently
are very analogous to the lacune which enclose the resinous
secretions of the Coniferee, and to those of the Cycadez which
contain the gummy juices; and there is no more reason for re-
garding them as vessels with cellular walls than for giving the
same appellation to the lacune holding the gummy and resimous
secretions just referred to. The precise limit of their walls cannot
be assigned. ‘The channels of the laticiferous juices of the
middle cortical layers have their walls similarly organized to
those of the external lacune.

With respect to the network of the inner cortical layers, it is
made up of cells apparently opake from the laticiferous fluid
they contain; and no appreciable lacune can be discovered be-
tween them. Their actual existence, however, cannot be denied;
for on cutting very thin sections of the tissue which contains
this network, and placing them under the microscope, the reti-
culations, naturally of an opake white, will be found to have
entirely vanished, as if the liquid to which the opacity is due
had escaped, and the cells which surrounded it had become
similar to the others in the tissue, and were no longer distin-
guishable from them.

The root of the Sumach contains lactescent juices which
exude abundantly from the recently cut bark both of its larger
divisions and of its most minute ramifications. On making a
transverse section of a large root, the white juices are observed

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 273

to escape from a number of points disposed circularly and con-
centrically betwixt the cortical layers, and separated by the
thickness of those layers in such a manner that these latex-
carrying canals appear to be limited to the external aspect of
the several cortical layers. The juices of the outer layers are
somewhat yellow, at least at the period when I have examined
them (between November and February), whilst those which
exude from the outer aspect of the innermost layers of the bark
have a pure white hue. These juices thicken and coagulate with
much rapidity, and are very glutinous. They are contained in
lacune of smalier size, less apparent and less regular in character
than those met with m the stem. Their cavity is very visible
in the external layers, but very much smaller and even quite
inappreciable in the internal ; so that these lacunz are no longer
distinguishable except by the opake speck formed by the milky
juice. They are surrounded by large, short, rectangular cells
filled with rounded granules of variable size. These cells are
placed end to end in such a manner as to resemble wavy fibres
united in a network ; but these fibres form bundles less defined
than those in the stem, so that the lacunz also are less regularly
circumscribed than their like in the stem, and no longer present
the appearance of cylindrical canals with cellular walls; for the
tissue that surrounds them is confounded with that adjacent to
it. Besides these cells filled with numerous and large granules,
a thin tissue is often discoverable immediately around the lacune,
either empty or occupied with a yellowish granular matter, appa-
rently a special secretion [“ proper juice”’]. Sometimes, how-
ever, the cavity of the lacune is immediately enveloped by a
tissue of rounded granules, the thin tissue failing, at least, at
parts.

If a drop of the milky liquid be placed on a piece of moistened
glass, although it be partially coagulated, it is seen (at least from
November to February) by the microscope to be composed of a
multitude of globular granules, of all sizes, identical in appear-
ance with those which fill the cells adjoining the lacunz; and
the impression is, that these latter contain a proper juice sepa-
rated into globular particles. However, it can be shown that
the grains in these cells are starch-corpuscles; for, when com-
pressed or rolled about under the microscope, they are found to
retain their globular shape, and are moreover turned blue when
moistened with tincture of iodine; whereas the globules of lati-
ciferous juice coalesce when placed between two. pieces of glass
and subjected to a gliding or rolling movement, and, further,
instead of being coloured blue with iodine, they acquire only a
yellowish tint. The tincture of iodine has often, moreover, the
peculiar effect of inducing a remarkable segmentation in them,

274 M. Lestiboudois on the laticiferous Vessels of Plants.

so that these granules, particularly those of considerable magni-
tude, appear to be constituted of a multitude of others of extreme
tenuity. When the granules are allowed to dry upon the glass
slide, they at times continue distinct, and retain their globular
aspect; but, on the other hand, they often collapse and spread
out, uniting together to form films, excessively thin and trans-
parent, and singularly irregular. On dropping tincture of iodine
upon a slice of cortical tissue, this agent quickly removes nu-
merous granules of the milky fluid which were contained in the
lacunee. The largest number of the cells become coloured blue as
well before as after boiling, although this process causes the disap-
pearance of the starch-corpuscles by transforming them into an
amorphous mass. There are nevertheless certain cells which are
not so coloured by the iodine, but contain a yellowish granular
matter. The elongated cells are either empty or contain a few
yellowish granules. Hence, in the Sumach, the coloured juices
may be contained in cells, and are certainly met with distributed
in the lacunz ; these latter are met with as well in the root as in the
stem, and are sometimes regular like vessels, but at other times
less distinctly defined and less uniformly cylindrical. The milky
juice of Acer platanoides is likewise composed of rounded gra-
nules capable of coalescing and of forming regular or irregular
spots when allowed to dry upon a glass slide. Lastly, there are
plants, such as certain Euphorbia, the proper juices of which
become extravasated, and occupy irregular lacune formed by
the laceration of the tissues.

It follows from what has been stated, that the proper juices
of plants are enclosed within reservoirs of widely different struc-
ture, which may constitute vessels, or cells, or channels (meati), or
lacune. Those which must be looked upon as vessels are some-
times long, rigid, thick tubules, without anastomoses, or with
few intercommunicating branches; whilst at other times they
are thin, flexuose, and branching, with frequent inosculations,
and form a more or less delicate network; they present, more-
over, at times constrictions here and there, sometimes joints
without septa, and at others articulations with septa. Those
reservoirs which are nothing more than utricles retain in certain
plants a vascular appearance, by reason of the grouping of the
cells in linear series more or less marked. Further, these cells
are either short or elongated, regular or irregular, thin or fur-
nished with firm and thick walls. In other plants the cells are
collected so as to form rounded masses, of very variable figure,
making no approach in appearance to a series of vessels. The
reservoirs which are intercellular passages (meati) present them-
selves in the form of slightly branching vessels, constituting
now and then a sort of framework around cells. Those which

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazon Valley. 275

are lacunz occur in the form of large regular vessels, but slightly
anastomotic, or otherwise they constitute a network with ana-
stomoses more or less numerous and meshes in considerable
though varying number and regularity of arrangement. Lastly,
the reservoirs may be nothing more than irregular cavities pro-
duced by laceration.

XXVII.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.
Corzorrera: Loneicornes. By H. W. Barns, Esq.

[Continued from p. 109.]
Genus LopHora@um, noy. gen.

Head, antennz, and general shape of the body as in Alcidion.
The thorax differs from that and the allied genera in being
armed near the centre of each side with an acute tubercle or
spine. The surface of the thorax is generally smooth on the
disk, but is in some species slightly uneven. The elytra are
subtrigonal in shape and depressed as in Alcidion ; the shoulders
are moderately prominent, and in most species a lateral carina
extends thence towards the apex, but, as in Alcidion, this be-
comes very obtuse or almost obliterated in some of the species.
The apex of the elytra is more or less truncated and spined, and
the centro-basal ridges are always prominent, although uncon-
nected posteriorly with a dorsal carina, the disk of the elytra
being always even. The ovipositor is not exserted in the females,
nor is the apical segment of the abdomen produced. The thighs
are thickly and abruptly clavate, and the tarsi very moderate
in length.

1. Lophopeum carinatulum, un. sp.
L. curtulum, minus depressum, postice rotundato-attenuatum, fusco-
ferrugineum, nigro-fusco maculatum: elytris lateribus haud cari-

natis, carina centrobasali parum elevata nigro setosa, disco plagis
tomentosis ochraceis variegato. Long. 33 lin.

Head rusty brown. Antenne rust-coloured, base of each
joint (from the third) paler; the basal joint somewhat evenly
clavate, the upper side being convex, and the lower scarcely
flexuous, but tubercled at the apex. Thorax rusty brown, varied
with dingy ochreous ; the lateral spine quite central and acute.
Elytra less depressed than in allied species, and attenuated
curvilinearly to the apex, which is briefly and obliquely trun-
cated, and without acute angles to the truncation: there is no
lateral carina, and the centro-basal ridge is only moderately
raised, but is crested with black hairs; the surface is thickly
punctured, except near the apex, and is without raised lines or

276 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

inequalities, the colour being rusty brown, sprinkled over with
darker spots, and varied behind the middle with two or three
linear patches of decumbent hairs of an ochreous hue. The legs
are rusty brown, with paler rings; the posterior tarsi, with their
basal joints, are almost as short relatively as in the genus Lepto-
stylus. .

One example ; Ega, Upper Amazons.

2. Lophopeeum fuliginosum, nu. sp.

L. oblongum, depressum, postice angustatum, fuliginosum, cano
nigroque parce variegatum: elytris apice breviter truncatis, lateri-
bus obtuse carinatis, carina centrobasali valde elevata et nuda.
Long. 33 lin.

Head dingy brown. Antenne (in ¢) greatly elongated and,
towards the apex, fine as a hair, sooty brown, the extreme base
of each joint (from the third) pallid ; basal joint strongly flexuous
beneath. Thorax dingy brown, punctured on the disk, which
also is marked with four indistinct black spots. Elytra depressed,
sides nearly straight, apex briefly truncated, angles of the trun-
cation obtuse ; humeral angles moderately prominent, the lateral
carina extending thence towards the apex, obtuse, but the centro-
basal ridges are strongly elevated, acute, and naked ; the surface
is somewhat evenly punctured throughout, and of a sooty hue,
like the rest of the body, but the apical half has a few whitish
specks, and on the disk behind the middle on each side is a short
oblique black line. Body beneath and legs olive-brown, base of
thighs pallid ; tibize and basal joint of tarsi also each with a pale
ring. The basal joint of the posterior tarsi is longer than the
two following taken together.

Neighbourhood of Santarem, Lower Amazons.

3. Lophopeum circumflexum, un. sp.

L. curtulum, depressum, postice valde attenuatum, ferrugineo-fuscum :
elytris singulis pone medium linea abbreviata cinerea maculaque
laterali notatis, apice breviter transverse truncatis, carina centro-
basali magna acutissima. Long. 33 lin.

Head dull brown. Antenne greatly elongated, fine as a hair,
most of the joints furnished with a short bristle at the apex
beneath ; rust-coloured. Thorax with the lateral tubercles spini-
form, disk punctured, rusty brown, the middle with two broad
dusky stripes, flanked by spots of the same colour. lytra tri-
gonal, shoulders prominent ; lateral carina obtuse,. apex briefly
truncated, with the angles rounded; surface thickly punctured
towards the base; centrobasal ridges strongly raised and acute,
naked, or nearly so; ashy or rusty brown, spotted with darker
brown, the disk behind the middle having on each side a short,

of the Amazon Valley. 277

oblique pale ashy line, accompanied on the side nearer the base
with a smaller line of the same hue, lying at right angles to it,
the pale lines margined with dark brown. Body beneath and
legs rusty brown.

Ega; on dried twigs.

4. Lophopeum bituberculatum, White.

Leiopus bituberculatus, White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 382.
“ZL. punctulatus, cinereo-fuscus: antennis subferrugineis: oculis

supra approximatis: elytris supra subplanis, arcu postmediano ci-

nereo, singulis ad basin medio tuberculo parvo uncinato, ad me-
diam et posticam partes cinereo variegatis ; femoribus basi palli-
dis ; tibiis pallido uniannulatis ; tarsorum articulo primo pallido.

Long. 33 lines. Ega.’”? (White, J. c.)

This species very closely resembles L. circumflezum in shape
and colours ; but the centro-basal ridges are reduced to a tuber-
cle. The lateral thoracic spines are placed near the middle of
the thorax—the position they occupy in the genus Lophopeum ;
but the sides behind them are deeply sinuated, which gives the
thorax a similar shape to that possessed by the typical Lecopi.

5, Lophopeeum acutispine, n. sp.
L. latiusculum, depressum, brunneum, postice cano marmoratum:

thoracis disco obtuse tuberculato: elytris apice sinuato truncatis,
angulo interno acuto, externo longe mucronato. Long. 53 lin.

Head and antenne dingy brown, basal joint of the latter
flexuous beneath. Thorax wide; disk obtusely tuberculated,
sides with the lateral tubercle very prominent and acute ; colour
dingy olivaceous brown, silky. Elytra rather broad; shoulders
prominent, lateral carma proceeding thence, strongly marked
and acute, apex rather broadly and transversely sinuate-truncate,
the internal angle acute, the external produced into a long tooth
or spine ; the centro-basal ridge not much raised, but surmounted
by a very high crest of hairs; the surface is coarsely punctured
only near the base; the colour is the same as that of the thorax,
but the posterior half is marbled with light grey. Body beneath
silky brownish; legs the same, varied with grey. The basal
joint of the tarsi is a little longer than the two following taken
together.

Para; on dead branches in the forest.

6. Lophopeum cultrifer, White.
Aigomorphus cultrifer, White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 374.
‘(#f. griseus, fusco variegatus: thorace supra subtuberculato, dorso

medio maculis duabus subtriangularibus fuscis, lateribus tuberculo
apice acuminato et elevato: scutello fusco-griseo subcincto: ely-

278 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

tris singulis basi subtuberculatis, medio tuberculo supra acuto et
apice postice producto: elytris singulis apice fasciis duabus fus-
cis: abdominis segmentis subtus lateribus fusco maculatis : pedi-
bus griseis; femoribus intus fusco punctulatis; tibiis apice late
fusco. Long. 6 lin.’ (White, Z. ¢.)

The elongated form and grey colour of this species give it
some resemblance to 4igomorphus, in which genus Mr. White
placed it; but its depressed body would seem to suggest rather
a relationship with the Oreodere. The great length and flexuous
shape of the basal joint of the antennz show, however, that its
true place is amongst the Acanthocinitz ; and its strongly raised
centro-basal ridges and acute lateral thoracic tubercles point out
an affinity with the species I have grouped under the genus Lopho-
peum. Its form is elongate-oblong and depressed; the elytra
have not very prominent shoulders, and do not taper to the apex ;
they therefore have not the trigonal shape which is usual in Zo-
phopeum and Alcidion: as the species of these genera, however,
vary in general shape, this is of less importance. The elytra are
sinuate-truncate at the apex, and have both angles of the trun-
cation slightly produced; there is no lateral carina, and the
dorsal surface, with the exception of the strongly raised and
naked centro-basal ridge, is free from raised lines. The thighs
are strongly clavate, and the basal joint of the tarsi elongated.

Taken at Para, and also at Ega on the Upper Amazons; the
species has therefore a wide range.

Genus OzINEUS, nov. gen.

Body small, slender, depressed, and posteriorly attenuated.
Antenne as in Alcidion and the allied genera. Thorax with the
lateral spines short, placed much behind the middle—in some
species close to the hind angles, and in others coincident with
them, but remaining always distinct. Elytra narrowed to the
tips, which are truncated and toothed or spined; the centro-
basal ridges prominent, but generally much smaller than in
Lophopeum and Alcidion. Legs moderate in length; thighs
abruptly clavate; tarsi slender, with the basal joint elongated.

This genus seems to form a connecting link between Lopho-
peum and the well-known group Anisopodus. Some of the
species are almost as much flattened as the Anisopodi, but their
hind legs are never elongated as in Anisopodus; the possession
of prominent centro-basal ridges on the elytra is also a good
distinctive character.

The species are all small and fragile; they are found, like
most of those of the allied genera, on the bark of broken and
decaying branches of trees in the forest, undergoing their trans-
formations beneath the bark.

of the Amazon Valley. 279

1. Ozineus elongatus, n. sp.

O. angustatus, elongatus, postice parum attenuatus, carneo-cinereus,
ferrugineo-fusco maculatus: thoracis spinis lateralibus pone me-
dium positis. Long. 33 lin.

Head dusky: eyes large, nearly touching above; labrum yel-
low. Antenne much elongated, capilliform, rusty brown, base
of joints pallid. Thorax rather elongated, the lateral spines
placed behind the middle, but leaving a considerable space be-
tween them and the hind angles; surface punctured, pinkish
ashy, with dark-brown spots. Llytra narrow and elongate,
tapering posteriorly to the apex, which is briefly truncate, the
angles not produced; sides and disk without raised lines, the
centro-basal ridges rising in the form of small tubercles crested
with hairs; the surface (except the apical part) is punctured,
and is of a pinkish-ashy hue, with numerous darker-coloured
spots, some of which are collected into a transverse belt a little
beyond the middle. Body beneath and legs pale testaceous ;
thighs with a large dusky spot; base and apex of tibize and tips
of tarsi also dusky.

Ega. The position of the lateral thoracic spines is almost the
same as in Lophopeeum bituberculatum ; the species would there-
fore seem to belong to the last genus rather than to the present
one; but in the general shape of the body it agrees better with
the species placed in the group Ozineus, the distance of the
thoracic spines from the hind angles being probably due to the
general elongation of the thorax and the rest of the body.

2. Ozineus mysticus, 0. sp.

O. subelongatus, depressus, cinereo-fuscus, lineis angulatis canis
ornatus: thoracis spinis lateralibus ab angulis posticis paulo di-
stantibus: elytris postice modice attenuatis, apice peroblique
sinuato-truncatis, angulis externis productis, carina centrobasali
paulo elevata, elongata, pilis nigris cristata. Long. 3 lin.

Head ashy brown; eyes distant above. Antenne greatly
elongated and hair-like, rusty brown; tips of joints (from the
third) blackish. Thorax with the lateral spines placed at a short
distance from the hind angles ; surface rusty brown, with several
curved ashy lines. Hlytra depressed, curvilinearly narrowed to
the apex; sides with an obtuse carina; tips very obliquely
sinuate-truncate, with the outer angles produced; the centro-
basal ridge is elongated, very slightly raised, but fringed with
black hairs; the surface is moderately punctured in some parts,
and is of an ashy-brown hue, with whitish ashy markings, which
are in the form of lines near the base, but united in a very
oblique angulated belt near the middle, two curved letters re-

280 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

maining close to the suture near the apex. Body beneath and
legs pallid; thighs and tibize dusky near their apices.
Ega, Upper Amazons.

3. Ozineus doctus, n. sp.

O. oblongus, modice depressus, postice rotundato-angustatus, fuligi-
nosus, lineis curvatis albo-cinereis notatus: elytris apice oblique
sinuato-truncatis et dentatis, carina centrobasali modice elevata,
nigro penicillata. Long. 3 lin.

Head sooty black. Antenne the same, with the bases of the
joints (from the third) pallid. Thorax with the lateral spines
placed near the hind angles, sooty brown, with a few whitish
specks. Llytra oblong, curvilinearly narrowed to the apex,
which is very obliquely truncated, both angles pointed ; sides
with an obtuse lateral carina; centro-basal ridges slightly raised,
fringed with black hairs; the surface thickly punctured nearly
to the apex, sooty brown, with a number cf ashy-white letter-
like marks, some of which are united near the middle of the
disk of each elytron so as to form the letier V. Body beneath
rust-coloured: legs dusky, base of thighs pale testaceous, the
tibie in the middle and the basal and claw-joints of the tarsi
ringed with pale testaceous.

On dried twigs in the forest at Obydos, on the Guiana side of
the Lower Amazons; also at Para. A closely allied species,
having, however, different markings on the elytra, is found at
Cayenne, and exists in several collections*.

4, Ozineus cinerascens, n. sp.

O. subellipticus, olivaceo-cinereus fusco variegatus: thoracis spinis
lateralibus prope angulos posteriores sitis: elytris oblique sinuato-
truncatis; carinis centrobasalibus parvis, convexis, penicillatis :
antennis pallide annulatis. Long. 33 lin.

Head and thorax olivaceous ashy.- Antennze brown, the third,
fourth, sixth, and eighth joints with their basal halves pale
testaceous. Thorax partially punctured, its small acute lateral
tubercles placed very near the posterior angles, a minute notch
only appearing between them and the hind margins. LElytra

* O. strigosus.—Oblongus, modice depressus, postice rotundato-an-
gustatus. Caput fuligmosum, Antenne obscure rufescentes, arti-
culis apice nigricantibus. Thorax spinis lateralibus prope angulos
posticos sitis, dorso fuliginoso-cinereo notato. Elytra apice per-
oblique sinuato-truncata, angulis acutis, lateribus obtuse carinatis ;
carina centrobasali modice elevata, pilis nigris cristata, punctata, fuli-
ginosa, singulis lineis quinque fusco-cinereis basin haud attingentibus
et plus minusve confluentibus ornatis. Corpus subtus obscure rufes-
cente. Pedes fuliginosi, femoribus basi rufescentibus, tibiis tarsisque
rufescenti annulatis. Long. 3 lin, Hab. Cayenna.

of the Amazon Valley. 281

subelliptical and depressed, the tips obliquely sinuate-truncate ;
the centro-basal ridge slightly elevated and crowned with blackish
hairs; the basal half of the surface is punctured, and the colour
is the same as that of the head and thorax, but varied with small
olive-brown specks placed partly in rows, and an undulated
fascia of the same behind the middle interrupted at the suture.
Body beneath and legs yellowish testaceous, thinly clothed with
ashy pile; apex of femora and tibie and middle part of the
tarsi blackish.

Taken on dead slender branches at Santarem and on the
banks of the Tapajos. At Villa Nova, on the banks of the
Lower Amazons, I obtained one example, which differs consider-
ably in colour from the Tapajos form. This may be called

Local var. O. pallipes. Same size and shape as the type.
General colour tawny ashy. Antenne with the basal joint red-
dish, the remaining joints dusky, with the basal portions of the
third, fourth, sixth, eighth, and following joints clear pale testa-
ceous. The disk of the thorax has several olive-brown spots.
The elytra are of a reddish-tawny hue, with tawny-ashy pile ;
they are spotted as im the typical O. cinerascens, but instead of
a waved fascia behind the middle, they have simply a short
oblique stripe on the disk of each. Body beneath and legs
pale testaceous; knees, tips of tibie, and middle of the tarsi
dusky.

O. cinerascens resembles much in markings a small allied
species from Rio Janeiro, which is as yet unnamed in collec-
tions*,

* O. ignobilis, n. sp.—Parvus, subellipticus, olivaceo-cinereus fusco va-
riegatus. Caput fuscum. Antenne rufo-picez, articulis (duobus
basalibus exceptis) apice nigris. Thorax olivaceus, spinis lateralibus
longioribus acutissimis, prope angulos posteriores sitis. Elytra sub-
depressa, apice peroblique sinuato-truncata, angulis externis longe
mucronatis, carinis centrobasalibus longe nigro penicillatis; dorso
punctata, cinereo-olivacea, maculis minutis fasciaque lata pone medium
fuscis. Corpus subtus nigrum. Pedes nigricantes ; femoribus, tibiis
tarsisque dimidiis basalibus testaceis. Long. 2 lin. Hab. Rio Ja-
neiro. Coll. Bakewell, Bates.

A very pretty species of this genus, captured near Rio Janeiro, by Squires,
in some number, is

O. rotundicollis—Oblongus, latiusculus, depressus, cinereus, griseus
vel fulvus, cano fuscoque variegatus. Antenne rufescentes, articulis
(duobus basalibus exceptis) apice nigris. Thorax brevis, latus, lateri-
bus ante medium dilatato-rotundatis, utrinque spina minuta distincta
ab angulo postico distante; dorso punctato, nigro bimaculato, lateri-
bus (infra spinam) plaga fusca cum vitta basali elytrorum conjuncta
notatis. Elytra subtrigona, depressa, apice peroblique sinuato-
truncata, angulis externis longe mucronatis, carinis centrobasalibus
brevibus, carinis lateralibus acutis; dorso punctato, griseo vel fulvo,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol, xi. 19

282: Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Genus Anrsopopus, White.

White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 349.
Syn. Anisopus, Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. p. 30 (name preoccupied).
Leptoscelis, Erichson, Consp. Ins. Peruana, p. 145 (name preoccupied).
Char. emend. Body elongated and extremely flattened. Pro-
thorax even on its upper surface, its lateral spines placed near
the hind angles. Elytra oblong-oval, flattened, without centro-
basal ridges; their apices sinuate-truncate and mucronate, their
sides each furnished with a sharp lateral carina extending from
the humeral angle to the tip. Thighs abruptly clubbed; the
hind legs elongated, in the males of some species excessively so.
Ovipositor of the female not apparent.
The last genus (Ozineus) seems to form the connecting link
between the groups allied to Alcidion and the present genus,
some of the species of Ozineus (e. g. O. mysticus and O. rotundi-
collis) having very much the general appearance of Anisopodi.
The absence of the centro-basal ridges of the elytra, and the
elongation of the hind Jegs, however, amply distinguish Aniso-
podus from the four preceding genera.

1. Anisopodus phalangodes, Erichs.
Leptoscelis phalangodes, Erichson, Consp. Ins. Col. Peruana, p. 145.
A. “oblongus, planus, badius, dense cinereo pubescens, infra lateri-
bus nigro vittatis: elytris seriatim fusco punctatis, apice mucro-
natis: pedibus posticis fortiter elongatis, femoribus abrupte cla-
vatis. Long. 5} lin.” (Erichs. /.c.) Eastern Peru.

This species is distinguished from its congeners, to some of
which (A. arachnoides, A. cognatus) it is very closely allied, by
the sides of the breast and the abdomen being marked each with
a streak of a sooty-brown hue (extending to the deflexed margin
of the elytra), which, from the silky nature of the pile that
clothes the under surface of the body, is fainter in some lights
than in others, and in small examples is scarcely perceptible. The
site of the centro-basal ridges of the elytra is marked bya small
rounded tubercle coloured black. The male is much larger than
the female, reaching 54 lines in length, the female being seldom
longer than 44 lines. The hind legs in the male are sometimes
10 lines long. Besides the black spot on the elytra over the
centro-basal tubercle, there is, in the males, a larger and irre-

medio late cano fasciato, fascia fusco maculata, postice sinuata et
fusco marginata. Corpus subtus testaceum. Pedes rufescentes, tibiis
apice tarsisque nigro maculatis; tibiis anticis medio intus tuberculo
conico instructis. Long. 3} lin. Hab, Rio Janeiro. Coll. Bakewell,
Bates, &c.

of the Amazon Valley. 3 288

gular spot on the disk of each towards the apex, and in most
specimens a small lateral streak on the edge of the lateral carina
a little behind the middle; this latter, however, never extends
towards the disk of the elytra, as does the similarly placed spot
in A.arachnoides, A. cognatus, and A. sparsus. A. phalangodes also
differs from its relatives in the shape and direction of the lateral
thoracic spine, this being large, robust, and prominent, directed
obliquely towards the edge of the humeral angle of the elytra,
and not standing at right angles to the side of the thorax, as in
A. arachnoides, or having its point directed in continuation
of the thoracic outline, as in A. cognatus. Both angles of the
truncation of the elytra are mucronate.

The species occurred, sometimes abundantly, on the boughs
of fallen trees, in moist hollows of the forest at Ega, Upper
Amazons. I could not ascertain the special use of the elongated
hind legs of the male. Like all the species of this and the allied
genera, the insects pass their lives on the bark, their larvee feed-
ing and undergoing their transformations between the bark and
the wood, and the perfect insects rambling on the outside of the
fallen boughs, on which, after copulation, the females deposit
their eggs.

In the collection of Mr. Bakewell there is a specimen of this
species from Cayenne, differing from Upper-Amazons examples
only in the dark-brown points of the elytra being a little more
distinct and encircled with grey.

2. Anisopodus arachnoides, Serv.
Anisopus arachnoides, Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. p. 31.

A, oblongus, griseus, sericeus, fusco punctatus: thoracis spinis late-

ralibus distinctis porrectis : elytris apice modice spinosis; tuberculis
~ centrobasalibus hirsutis ; lateribus atro-fuscis, maculis tribus adja-

centibus, una pone medium, irregulari, majore: pedibus posticis

vix elongatis. Long. 43-6 lin.
- Head brown. Antenne pitchy red, tips of joints (from the
third) dusky. Thorax greyish, with two black spots on the fore
-part of the disk; sparsely punctate; the lateral spines standing
out at right angles from the sides. Elytra transversely smuate-
truncate at the apex, the inner angle of the truncation pointed,
the outer moderately prolonged as a spine; the surface is grey,
with scattered black points and a black pencil of hairs over the
centro-basal tubercles: the deflexed sides are dark brown and
silky, and, above, this colour extends in three irregular spots—
one near the base, one after the middle reaching to the disk of
the elytron, and one smaller near the apex. The underside of
the body is silky ashy. The legs are dusky, ringed with grey.
‘The hind legs of the male are only slightly elongated.

19*

284, Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

The above description applies to a species which I have seen
in collections at Paris under the name of A. arachnoides of
Serville, and to which the description of Serville applies, as far
as it goes. I found it on the same trees with A. phalangodes
at Ega, and also met with it at Para.

3. Anisopodus cognatus, n. sp.

A. subellipticus, carneo-griseus, sericeus, nigro punctatus: thoracis
spinis lateralibus unciformibus : elytris absque tuberculis centro-
basalibus, apice breviter mucronatis, pone medium macula laterali
nigra obliqua notatis: pedibus posticis maris elongatis, fortiter
clavatis. Long. 4 lin.

Head brownish. Antenne pitchy red, tips of the joints dusky.
Thorax greyish, fore part of the disk with two black spots,
punctured ; the lateral spines pointing to the hind angles, their
anterior sides (nearest the head) being continuous with the lateral
outline of the thorax, and therefore giving them a hooked shape.
Elytra sinuate-truncate at the apex, both angles of the trunca-
tion pointed, but neither prolonged into a spe; the surface is
grey with a pinkish shade, irregularly spotted with blackish, and
having each, behind the middle, an oblique spot or fascia ex-
tending from the side to the middle; the deflexed margins are
of a light silky-brown hue, like the under surface of the body.
Legs dusky, base of thighs and tarsi pale testaceous. The hind
legs of the male considerably elongated; the thighs in both
sexes abruptly clavate.

Ega and 8. Paulo, Upper Amazons, in the same situations as,
and sometimes in company with 4. phalangodes.

4. Anisopodus sparsus, n. sp.

A. subellipticus, carneo-griseus, sericeus, nigro punctatus: thoracis
spinis lateralibus brevissimis, antice a lateribus vix distinctis:
elytris apice oblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis vix productis, absque
tuberculis centrobasalibus, pone medium atro-fusco fasciatis.
Long. 43-53 lin.

Head greyish silky. Antenne reddish, tips of joints dusky.
Thorax pinkish grey, punctured, bimaculate ; lateral spines on.
their anterior sides scarcely distinct from the sides of the thorax,
ther minute points only being directed outwards; they have,
therefore, not the hook-like shape of those of A. cognatus.
Elytra with the angles of their truncation scarcely produced ;
their surface is grey, with a pinkish tinge, finely spotted with
blackish, and with a largish black spot marking the site of the
centro-basal tubercles (which are quite absent), besides an angled
fascia of the same hue crossing behind the middle. The deflexed
sides and under surface of the body are light brown and silky.

of the Amazon Valley. 285

The legs are reddish, with the tips of the thighs, tibie, and tarsi
dusky. The hind legs of the males are greatly elongated, but
their thighs are not very abruptly clubbed.

Santarem and Obydos; generally on severed and hanging
sipds, or woody climbers, near the borders of clearings. It ap-
pears to be not uncommon in Cayenne, examples from which
country have been sent to me from Paris as A. sparsus of Dejean’s
catalogue.

5. Anisopodus pusillus, n. sp.

A. oblongus, griseus, fusco maculatus: thoracis spinis lateralibus
antice a lateribus vix distinctis, retrorsum spectantibus: elytris
apice breviter sinuato-truncatis ; angulis internis acutis, externis
productis; carinis lateralibus obtusis: femoribus modice clavatis.
Long. 3 lin.

Head brown. Antenne reddish, tips of joints dusky. Thorax
thinly clothed with grey pile, sides with rufous-brown patches,
and disk with two large rounded blackish spots; lateral spines
large and acute, scarcely distinct anteriorly from the sides of
the thorax, and pointing obliquely towards the humeral angles
of the elytra. Elytra oblong, the lateral keels not sharp, and
hence the surface apparently less flattened than in the preceding
species; apex moderately mucronated; surface greyish, with a
moderate number of rather large round brownish spots more or
less confluent, one on the site of the centro-basal tubercles
(which are quite absent), and another, lateral, near the middle
of the elytra, being larger than the others. Body beneath and
legs reddish. The legs are rather slender, and the thighs not
abruptly, although distinctly clubbed.

This small and delicate species was found only at Para.

6. Anisopodus elongatus, n. sp.

A, elongatus, ellipticus, fulvo-griseus, cano fuscoque punctatus: tho-
racis spinis lateralibus acutissimis, retrorsum curvatis, basi tumidis:
elytris apice utrinque bimucronatis: pedibus posticis femoribus

-modice clavatis. Long. 52 lin. 9.

Head clothed with shining tawny pile. Antenne reddish,
tips of joints dusky. Thorax with the sides rather dilated and
tumid at the base (on the fore side) of the lateral spines, which
appear curved posteriorly, and have very acute points; disk
punctured, tawny brown, with a short polished dorsal line and
two discal black spots edged with light grey. Elytra narrow
and greatly elongated, both angles of the truncation produced
into spines; lateral carine rather obtuse, surface punctured,
except near the apex, and of a tawny-brown hue, with three
rows of alternate whitish and brownish spots, besides a sutural

286 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

row of brown and grey specks. Body beneath and legs “pale
brown; hind thighs moderately clubbed in the female.
Found only at Ega, Upper Amazons.

7. Anisopodus macropus, n. sp.

A. elongatus, planus, griseus, fusco punctatus: elytris dimidio api-
cali nigro, cano notato, apicibus utrinque bispinosis: pedibus pos-
ticis maris maxime elongatis, tenuibus, femoribus abrupte clavatis,
Long. 43 lin.

Head dusky. Antenne rust-coloured. Thorax rather long,
narrow in front, sinuated on each side, and then abruptly di-
lated, the dilatation terminating at the apex of the spine, which
is obtuse, and points towards the hind angle; the surface is
punctured, and has an impressed dorsal line, the colour being
obscure greyish, with four indistinct oblong sooty spots not
reaching the hind margin. LElytra elongate, narrow, flattened,
although having the lateral keels obtuse ; the apex transversely
sinuate-truncate, with both angles spiniform; their surface is
covered with equidistant punctures, and is, on the basal half, of
a dull pinkish-grey hue, spotted with dark brown, whilst the
apical half is dull black, with a few greyish marks. Body be-
neath clothed with silvery ashy pile. Legs slender; all thighs
abruptly clubbed, the fore and middle pair having on their
under side near the base a small tooth ; they are of a dusky hue,
with the base of the femora pallid. The hind legs in the male
(the only sex known) are extremely long and slender.

Of this elegant species I found only a single example at 8,
Paulo, Upper Amazons.

8. Anisopodus gracillimus, un. sp.

A, oblongus, gracilis, olivaceus, nigro punctatus: thoracis spinis late-
ralibus retrorsum curvatis, basi tumidis: elytris apice utrinque
bidentatis, pone medium nigro undulato-fasciatis : pedibus pos-
ticis (¢) fortiter elongatis, femoribus abrupte incrassatis. Long.
23—4 lin.

Head olive-green. Antennee blackish, base of joints reddish.
Thorax with the sides dilated and tumid before the spines, which
latter consequently appear curved, and are placed close to the
hind angles; the pile of the surface has an olive-green hue,
leaving three blackish streaks in the middle—two touching the
front margin, and one, lying between the anterior two, the hind
margin. LHlytra with both angles of the truncation produced,
but not to a notable length, the external one longest; lateral
keels obtuse ; surface olive-green, spotted with blackish, an un-
dulated fascia of the same colour crossing the middle, and two
small patches lying on the sides, namely, one near the base, and

of the Amazon Valley. ee 287

one near the apex. Body beneath of an olive-ashy tinge. Legs
dusky, base of thighs pale. Hind legs of the male greatly
elongated ; the thighs much more thickly clubbed in the male
than in the female.

Taken once abundantly on dried twigs in the forest at Ega.

9. Anisopodus ligneus, n. sp.

A. oblongo-ovatus, fulvus, strigosus: thoracis spinis lateralibus co-
nicis, prope angulum posticum sitis: elytris postice valde attenu-
atis, apice peroblique truncatis, angulis externis mucronatis ; fe-
moribus abrupte clavatis. Long. 43-5 lin.

Head tawny brown, vertex spotted with dark brown. An-
tenne reddish, tips of joints dusky. Thorax rather short,
coarsely punctured, the lateral spines conical, and placed very
close to the hind angles; colour tawny brown. Elytra rather
oval in shape, rapidly attenuated from three-fourths their length
to the tip; the tip is consequently pointed, and the truncation
so short that each elytron may be said to end in a spine notched
on the inner side, instead of being obliquely sinuate-truncate ;
the lateral keel is sharply marked, the surface is marked with
several (seven or eight) slightly raised lines extending from the
base to near the apex, but most of them bent near the base, and
with as many corresponding depressed lines between them, the
latter of which are thickly punctured, whilst the raised lines are
impunctate; the colour is of a tawny-brownish hue, the base
being dusky, and the apical third of a deeper tawny hue—the
whole giving to the insect a striking resemblance to a chip of
wood. Body beneath and legs reddish. Thighs abruptly clubbed;
hind legs of the male greatly elongated.

Taken in the forests of the Tapajos and at Ega. Rare.

10. Anisopodus lignicola, n. sp.

A. oblongo-ovatus, cinereo-ochraceus, humeris fulvescentibus: tho-
racis spinis lateralibus magnis, acutis, obliquis : elytris postice valde
attenuatis, apice peroblique sinuato-truncatis, subplanis, punctatis.
Long. 3 lin.

Head reddish. Antenne reddish, tips of joints dusky.
Thorax ochraceous or yellowish ashy, with two obscure dusky
lines on the disk; the lateral spines large, thick, directed obliquely
rearwards, the thorax behind the spines being much narrowed.
Elytra narrowed to the tips, which are obliquely smuate-trun-
cate, the inner angles pointed, the outer spinifurm ; the lateral
keels are obtuse, but distinct; the surface is plane, but not
notably depressed, minutely punctured, ashy-ochraceous in hue,
with obscure spots and oblique fasciz (on the sides) of a darker
colour, a.triangular spot on each shoulder, extending over the

288 Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides of Onagracee.

scutellum, being of a ruddier ochreous tinge. Body beneath
and legs of a tawny colour; thighs moderately clavate.
Para and the banks of the Tapajos.

11. Anisopodus humeralis, un. sp.

A. oblongo-ovatus, niger: thoracis lateribus humerisque fulvescen-
tibus; spinis lateralibus magnis, acutis, obliquis. Long. 3 lin.

Head dusky, with the sides bright tawny. Antenne pitchy
red, tips of jomts dusky. Thorax with the sides shinmg tawny,
the middle portion dusky, with two more distinct black dorsal
stripes; the spines as in A. lignicola—namely, large, acute,
obliquely directed rearwards, and followed by a narrowing of the
thorax to the base. Elytra oval, narrowed to the tips, which
are obliquely sinuate-truncate, the inner angles pointed, and the
outer spiniform ; the lateral keels are indistinct ; the surface is
closely punctured, the colour sooty black, varied with a few
ashy marks, the shoulders having each a triangular tawny spot,
which does not cover the scutellum. Body beneath and legs
dusky; hind femora (in the ?) but slightly clavate.

One example, 8. Paulo, Upper Amazons. It is possible, not-
withstanding the great difference in colour, that it may be but
a local variety of A. lignicola.

Two other species of Anisepodus, in addition to the eleven
here enumerated, have been described, namely, A. curvilineatus
(White, Brit. Mus. Cat. ii. p. 350, pl. 9. f.1) of South Brazil, and
LL. prolizus (Erichson, Consp. Ins. Peruana, p. 145) of Eastern
Peru. The latter is the largest species at present known, and
seems to be closely allied to A. arachnoides. I add a description,
at the foot, of a fourteenth species*.

XXVIII.—On the Raphides of Onagracee.
By Grorce Guiuiver, F.R.S.

We have already seen (‘ Annals’ for April:and July 1863) how
well this order is characterized by raphides, so that not only can
a plant belonging to it be henceforth truly distinguished from
others of nearly allied orders by these acicular crystals alone,
but a minute fragment of the leaf or its modifications may be

* A. canus.—Oblongus, planus, tomento denso canescente vestitus. An-
tennz rufescentes, articulis apice nigris. Thorax punctatus, antice
nigro bivittatus, spinis lateralibus tenuibus porrectis. Elytra lateribus
parallelis, prope apicem subito attenuata, dorso ineequalia, medio for-
titer depressa, carinis lateralibus acutissimis, apicibus longe mucro-
natis; canescentia, maculis minutis nigris sparsa, quarum duabus di-
stinctioribus prope apicem. Pedes nigricantes, femoribus tibiisque
dimidiis basalibus rufis. Femora postica (maris?) elongata, subito
clavata. Long. 23 lin. Had. Brasilia meridionalis. Coll. Bakewell.

Prof. G. Gulliver on the Raphides of Onagracee. 289

sufficient for the diagnosis; nay, that even a seed-leaf would be
so was proved in Ginothera and Epilobium.

This last fact appeared so remarkable, that I have lately made
it the subject of experiments with other plants, when a careful
examination of numerous species showed that those belonging
to orders previously ascertained to be regularly destitute of ra-
phides in the adult leaves, are also equally devoid of them in the
seed-leaves. Then the seeds of such Onagracez as were easily
procurable (to wit, Circea lutetiana, Eucharidium grandiflorum,
Clarkia elegans, C. pulchella, and Godetia vinosa) were sown in
pots ; and as soon as the seed-leaves were well developed above
the soil, they were all examined, and found in every instance to
contain raphides. These could be seen both scattered in bundles
throughout the parenchyma, and floating freely and singly in the
water wherein the part had been broken by pressure and friction
between the glass object-plate and cover. The raphides in the
green cotyledons were somewhat smaller and less plentiful than
in the plumule and in the fully developed stem and leaves.

The difference in question between Onagracee and their nearest
allies of other orders is not only very curious, but is one of those
numerous phenomena which remind us how little we know of
the recondite operations of vegetation. Take, for example, two
plants, as Epilobium hirsutum and Lythrum Salicaria, similar in
habit and growing closely together in the same soil of the river-
bank, and observe the signal difference of their products,—the
one plant, as a regular part of its healthy structure, abound-
ing during its whole existence in raphides; the other as regu-
larly destitute of them, and affording spheraphides instead, dif-
fering as much in form as they probably do in chemical com-
position from raphides. Supposing, then, as there is some
reason to do, that these crystals respectively are phosphate and
oxalate or some other salt of lime, a leading and constant func-
tion of the Onagracez would be the formation of the phosphate,
while the Lythracez would be a laboratory of a different salt,—
the performance of each of these diverse operations bemg a re-
gular and special design of the plant-life in such cases.

But though we know so little of this subject that its signifi-
cance remains a mystery to us, we may now make good use of
the facts already revealed as botanical characters, provided we
distinguish truly, as proposed in the last Number of the ‘Annals,’
raphides from sphzraphides, so as not to confound such different
things under one and the same term,—taking care also to ob-
serve how far the spheraphid-tissue (of which an engraving* was

* The outlines of the crystals are often more or less rounded or granular,
not so sharp and distinct as there represented. In that Number of the
‘Annals,’ p. 228, for Cucurbitacee read Dioscoreacee,

290 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

given in the same Number of the ‘ Annals’) may be characteristic
of certain orders. If we confine the word raphides to the
needle-like crystals commonly occurring in bundles, it may be
the expression of a more universal diagnosis between such orders
as Onagracee and their next allies, and yet not less simple and
sure, than any single character hitherto employed. Thus, too,
we could determine the affinities and contrasts of certain plants
by a method at once easy, novel, and practical, and all this in
the absence of those parts heretofore exclusively used for the
descriptive distinctions. And there would be another advantage
in enlisting these crystals into the service of systematic botany ;
for we should not be thus employing merely an empirical formula,
but methodically recognizing some really fundamental results of
plant-life, well fitted to keep before us such interesting and
important phenomena in the economy of vegetation as must be
especially valuable in a natural system of classification.

Still these observations are only offered suggestively, and not
dogmatically, in the hope of exciting such further research as
may yet be required either to extend, confine, or correct them,
—+since I have had so little opportunity of examining numerous
species, that it is desirable that other botanists who may be
more favourably situated will continue the inquiry, especially as
regards exotic plants.

Edenbridge, August 17, 1863.

XXIX.—On the Part played by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary
Floras previous to the Miocene properly so called, and especially

in that of the Gypsum of Aiz. By the Count Gaston DE
Saporta*,

Tue part played by deciduous plants, congeneric with those of
Europe in the present day, in the Tertiary floras of a far-distant
age is one of the most singular questions raised by the still
modern study of the fossil plants of this period. The very ex-
istence of these plants, or, rather, the contrast resulting from
their association with perfectly tropical forms, constitutes of it-
self a very remarkable phenomenon. We should in vain attempt
to explain it by a cause analogous to those which are still in
action. Itis true that the supposition of an alpine region situated
in the vicinity of the ancient deposits, sufficiently elevated and cold
to cause the presence of these species, presents itself immediately
to the mind as a natural hypothesis ; and yet, when we consider
that it is not only upon an isolated point, but constantly and in

. * Translated from the Bibliothéque Universelle, Merch 1863, p. 186, by
W.S. Dallas, F.L.S.

by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 291

all the floras, starting from the Upper Eocene, that we meet with
European forms (limited in number, it is true, but with remark-
able fixity), we are compelled to see in them, not the result of
an accident of locality, but one of the elements of the vegetation
of that period—an element which must be taken into considera-
tion in analyzing the totality from which it depends. The
regular development of this same element, at first very slowly,
constitutes the most salient feature of the Tertiary vegetation in
its course towards modern times. We have not here to appre-
ciate this progress, but to seize the true character of this group
of species at its origin, when, far from predominating, it is, so
to speak, lost in the midst of the most varied exotic forms. As
they remove from their starting-poimt, the organisms (essences)
with deciduous leaves tend progressively to become what theyare at
present ; but, notwithstanding the chain which binds their present
to their former state, it does not necessarily follow that their mode
of being was the same at all times. It would be to draw a forced
conclusion from what they are under our eyes if we pass beyond
a simple analogy of form. The mere fact of their association
with plants the presence and preponderance of which announce
an order of things different from that which exists in our days
is an important indication that these species were far from being
then adapted to the external conditions to which their congeners
are now subjected, and consequently that some difference must
distinguish them from the similar organisms of the present day.
' The existence of an annual temperature attaining an average
of 68°-77° F, (20°-25° Cent.) at the time of the gypsum of Aix
follows from all the indications furnished by the plants of the
period. Nor is the successive diminution of the temperature
less evident from the gradual disappearance of all the tropical
forms—a disappearance which need not have taken place if these
forms had originally been adapted to a ruder climate than that
which is now necessary to them. In fact, if there is nothing in
opposition to the assumption that the types which have since
continued to be European were at first adapted to a hotter climate,
the contrary supposition (that is to say, that of tropical types
conformed to a colder climate) appears to be by no means admis-
sible, not only because these types, from their organization, do
not appear to be susceptible of such a deviation, but also because
(leaving the possibility of this out of the question) their associa-
tion, their mode of grouping, their preponderance, and their
analogy with the most characteristic forms of tropical regions
sufficiently indicate that the general vegetation of this epoch is
the expression of a temperature sufficiently high, or at least
sufficiently uniform, to give rise to the external conditions which
are now characteristic of the countries near the tropics.

292 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

We might, indeed, suppose that the Flabellariea of the gypsum
of Aix, like the Chamerops excelsa lately planted in our gardens,
were capable of bearing several degrees of cold without perish-
ing, if these trees occurred isolated in the midst of a multitude
of organisms of European physiognomy ; but it would be con-
trary to all the data furnished by the study of the laws of nature
to extend gratuitously the same supposition to the assemblage
formed along with the Palms by the species of Dracena, Mu-
sacee, Myrica, Andromeda, Zizyphus, and Rhus, of tropical phy-
siognomy, the Laurinee, Bombacia, Anacardiacee, Cesalpiniea,
and Mimosee, of which the mass encumbers the vegetation of
Aix, whilst the species with deciduous leaves, isolated and lost
in the midst of the others, would hardly attract attention, if
their analogy with their European congeners of the present
epoch did not lead us, justly, to attach a very peculiar signifi-
cance to their presence.

In any case, these plants were then only a very limited acces-
sory; it is therefore more simple to inquire how these plants
accommodated themselves to a climate which favoured the growth
of all tropical forms than to assume that the climatic conditions
were established for the smallest portion of the total vegetation.

Thus, therefore, if we accord to the period of the deposition
of the gypsum of Aix and the beds immediately subsequent to
it a climate hot enough to cause the presence of the tropical
forms, this hypothesis, which is justified by the general facts, is
at the same time the negation of a cold season sufficiently severe
to produce, by this alone, the stripping of the organisms with
deciduous leaves.

It is nevertheless easy to see that the Tertiary species analo-
gous to those which now bear deciduous leaves present no dif-
ference from the latter in their consistence, aspect, or any other
circumstance ; so that we are justified in concluding, from the
examination of this category of Tertiary plants, that they lost
their leaves periodically in the same manner as the existing
plants which reproduce the same model. To cite only the most
striking examples, Betula gypsicola, Populus Heeru, Crataegus
nobilis, and Cercis antigua, in the flora of Aix, and Betula ulna-
cea, Alnus prisca, Carpinus cuspidata, and Acer primevum in that
of Saint-Zacharie, are in this case; and if there be anything in
the texture of their leaves to distinguish these ancient plants, it
is a greater delicacy of tissue; so that it becomes probable that
they bore leaves of a finer texture, traversed by nervures of
much greater tenuity, than any of the modern species with
which they are most nearly allied.

If the ancient temperature was sufficiently high to exclude
the possibility of a cold season, and if, on the other hand, the

by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 293

Tertiary plants congeneric with those of modern Europe lost
their leaves, like the latter, at a certain period of the year, it is
evident that we must seek for this periodical fall an original de-
termining cause other than that of a diminution of temperature.
It is true that we may, and that we even must, assume the exist-
ence of a season, not cold, but fresher and moister, succeeding
to the hot season, reanimating vegetation instead of extinguish-
ing it, and bringing on the flowering of the plants—a season
rather of life than of sleep and death, and therefore very different
from our winter. What might be the effects of such a season
upon the plants which we believe to have had deciduous leaves
is the problem which is now before us; but it is necessary, in
the very first place, to ascertain whether cold—that is to say,
the sinking of the thermometer below the degree of heat ne-
cessary to the vegetation of each species—is the actual cause
of the interruption of this vegetation during winter, or whether
this cold only serves to render this interruption longer, more
complete, and more radical, by coinciding with the period at
which it is naturally manifested.

Now, when set in these terms, the question is easily solved.
It is evident that all trees suffer from thermometric cold. For
those of our continent this cold is a crisis which they pass
through at a moment when their organs are in a condition to
offer it the most resistance. The sleep in which they are sunk,
at the same time that it favours the internal elaboration of their
organs, allows them to undergo the crisis of cold without incon-
venience ; but this crisis, it must be said, is neither the reason
for the existence nor the true cause of their physiological con-
dition, as may easily be proved. We may, in fact, lay down as
a principle, that, in the very great majority of cases, the trees
with deciduous leaves lose their leaves at a higher temperature
than that which subsequently causes the evolution of new leaves,
This phenomenon may be easily proved in southern countries,
and even in Provence; it becomes very striking in the hot
regions which permit the growth of tropical organisms side by
side with those which are peculiar to the northern parts of our
hemisphere. In Madeira, for example*, where, in consequence
of a very great uniformity of temperature, there is scarcely any
winter, the vegetation, taken in its totality, is never interrupted.
A multitude of plants, and especially the Laurinee, Myrtacee,
Passiflore, Bignoniacee, &e., both indigenous and exotic, blossom
during this season, which is that in which the gardens present
the most ravishing spectacle. Nevertheless this continuous
mildness of the temperature is no obstacle to the progress of

* This observation is due to M, Heer, who resided for a considerable
time in Madeira.

294 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

European plants; the poplars, willows, alders, and maples
behave just as they do in Europe; and the contrast between the
verdure and the flowers of the indigenous or tropical plants and
the naked aspect of the European trees is not one of the least
astonishing spectacles presented by the flora of this island. We
may say, with justice, that the cold which, in northern countries,
hastens the fall of the leaf, instead of being the true cause of
this phenomenon, rather disturbs it in its regular course by
accelerating it and rendering it sudden; whilst in temperate
climates (and even in the south of France), where, in consequence
of an almost insensible diminution of temperature, the physio-
logical action is the only one manifested, the denudation of the
trees with deciduous leaves takes place with a regularity which
clearly shows the real tendencies of each specics—so that, instead
of assisting in that shower of leaves which denudes the branches
in so short a time in central and northern Europe, each species
parts with its leaves in its turn with more or less rapidity, in
obedience to aptitudes equally diverse with the specific differ-
ences themselves.

Thus, the absence of thermometric cold, far from depriving
plants with deciduous leaves of their true character, really re-
stores it to them. It leads us to recognize in them what they
really are—namely, trees whose leaves, being limited to a dura-
tion of a few months, tend to separate from the branch as soon
as the latter possesses formed buds, organs into which the sap
flows, abandoning the leaves to elaborate the rudiments of new
organs destined to become developed after an interruption of
variable length according to the species.

In fact, the fall of the leaves in plants in which they are
deciduous is not always the sign of a complete sleep, but rather
the occasion of an intermittence of vegetation; and for many
genera, such as Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Ulmus, Populus, &c., of
which we have to note the characteristic presence during the
Tertiary epoch, this state is only, so to speak, the signal of the
floral evolution which is accomplished in the absence of the
leaves. The cold of our countries only opposes, retards, or even
interrupts the flowering of those trees which, when transported
into a milder climate, expand their flowers towards the end, or
even in the depth, of winter. Here, again, the thermometric
cold, far from coinciding with the phenomenon, arrests or con-
fuses its phases by its occurrence, and especially by its irregular
return.

The plants of which we are speaking are in reality in the same
circumstances as many tropical organisms the flowering of which
constantly takes place in the absence of the leaves, one por-
tion of the year being devoted exclusively to the evolution of

‘by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 295,

leaves, and the other to that of flowers. It is thus that we
must conceive the position of the deciduous plants at an epoch
when the seasons were far from being regulated as they are at
present. Their existence only apparently contrasts with that
of the exotic plants with which they are associated; this dis-
parity is effaced when we take into account, as we have just tried
to do, what are these vegetable forms considered in themselves,
abstracted from the changes to which they subsequently yielded
more readily than the others. Their subsequent development
and actual preponderance lead us to exaggerate their original
importance, which in reality was very small. If afterwards it
was otherwise—if the changes of temperature brought about by
the lapse of time have contributed to increase the importance of
these plants, this result (the effect of causes which were not yet
in action at the epoch when we see them for the first time) must
not lead us into error as to what they originally were. It is this
first stage that we propose to analyze; and its knowledge will
allow us to appreciate more justly the circumstances which sub-
sequently brought about their multiplication correlatively with
the exclusion of the forms which had previously predominated.

The frutescent plants with deciduous leaves and a European
physiognomy, in the flora of the gypsum of Aix, amount to 15
at most, out of 118 dicotyledons. If from this number we
deduct the more doubtful forms (those which present some
analogy with living forms with persistent leaves, and those of
which the leaves are still unknown), the number is reduced to
8 species only, that is to say, the insignificant proportion of
6°77 per cent. These species are the following :—

Betula gypsicola, Sap. Acer ampelophyllum, Sap.
Ulmus plurinervia, Ung. Paliurus tenuifolius, Heer.
Populus Heerii, Sap. Crategus nobilis, Sap.
Ribes Celtorum, Sap. Cercis antiqua, Sap.

Nearly all these species belong to genera in which the flowers
are often developed in the absence of the leaves, as in most of
the Betulacee, Ulmus, many species of Populus, Acer, Ribes,
Cercis, &e. It is probable that this was the case with the Ter-
tiary species, and that their flowering coincided with the cool
season, or that which took the place of winter, and during a
portion of which these plants remained denuded of leaves as at
present.

The most abundant of all these trees is the Cercis antiqua ;
all the others are excessively rare, or even unique. The Cercis,
notwithstanding its identity with a genus now represented in
Southern Europe, North America, and Japan, is not a charac-
teristic type of the boreal zone. The living species of this genus

296 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

appear to be a last vestige of an ancient type on the point of
disappearing, rather than an essential element of the vegetation
of the north of the two hemispheres, as are the Betulacea, Sali-
cinee, Cupulifere, and Ulmacee. If we limit our remarks to
these last groups, adding to the species above cited those which
enter into the same category, such as Alnus antiquorum, Sap.,
and Ostrya humilis, Sap. (although the leaves of the former were
no doubt persistent, like those of Alnus nitida, Spach, its Ne-
paulese analogue, and the involucra alone of the latter are known),
we shall obtain a total of ten species actually representing the
boreal element of the flora of the gypsum of Aix,—all these
species, as has been said, being extremely rare in individuals.
This rarity is the more remarkable because, if we consider the
present importance of these organisms, and even that which
devolved upon them in the latter half of the Tertiary period,
they are amongst the most generally distributed species, for the
natural reason that most of them, and especially the species of
Alnus, Populus, and Acer, frequent the margins or the vicinity
of water—a circumstance which must have favoured the pre-
servation of their shed leaves.

To be convinced of this, all that is necessary is to glance
through the principal fossil floras, starting from the true Mio-
cene. Betula Dryadum, Brongn., in company with an Acer, has
filled with its fruits and leaves the strata of Armissan (Aude).
The two, no doubt, covered the Secondary slopes in the neigh-
bourhood of the lacustrine basin in which are deposited the
flags with impressions which are quarried in that locality. At
Manosque Alnus nostratum, Ung., and Carpinus grandis, Ung.,
are amongst the commonest species, In the Swiss Mollasse
deposits this is the case with the species of Alnus and Carpinus,
and next with those of Populus, Salix, Platanus, and Liquidambar ;
at Giningen, Populus latior, A. Braun, and Acer trilobatum, A.
Braun, are seen on every slab, in company with several species
of Saliz. Nothing is more natural than the abundance of these
forms in reference to the present condition of things; but no-
thing is better established than their rarity as soon as we descend
the series of beds and approach the Tongrian. At Saint-Zacharie*
Alnus prisca, Sap., Betula ulmacea, Sap., and Ostrya tenerrima,
Sap., are very thinly scattered ; Acer primevum, Sap., and Car-
pinus cuspidata, Sap., are more abundant, but still much less so

* The actual age of this flora, at one time referred back by us, with
doubt, to the Bartonian (see ‘ Recherches sur le Climat et la Végetation du
Pays Tertiaire,’ par O. Heer, traduit par C. T. Gaudin, p. 135), has since
been found, after fresh explorations, to be less ancient than the gypsum of
oak not very distant from that of Heering in the Tyrol, a Tongrian

ocality.

by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 297

than the Myricee, Proteacee, and Araliacee, which abound in
this deposit. The same rarity of European forms occurs also at
Heering, at Sotska, and at Mt.-Promina: the fact which we
remark at Aix is therefore not isolated; it is related to circum-
stances which were uniformly repeated at the same epoch in all
parts of Europe.

We are therefore led to this conclusion,—that the frutescent
genera of European physiognomy, and particularly the Betu-
lacea, Ulmacee, Salicinee, and Acerinee, were not then distri-
buted as at the present day, and that they were destined neither
to play the same part nor to mark in the same way the masses
of the landscape.

What, then, was really the place occupied by these plants?
On this subject there are but few suppositions to be made; and
amongst these, one, no doubt, must express the truth.

It is nearly certain that, at the epoch of the gypsum of Aix,
the species of Alnus, Betula, Populus, Ulmus, Acer, &c., did not
inhabit the immediate vicinity of the ancient lacustrine shores.
This part was reserved for species of Palms, Conifere, Proteacee,
and Laurinee ; but we may, strictly speaking, remove the sta-
tion devoted to the European forms of plants beyond the imme-
diate margins, without by this excluding them from the neigh-
hourhood of the waters. In fact, they may have adorned the
banks of small streams, or the damp bottoms of the woods, or,
lastly, cool and northern exposures, at a sufficient distance apart
to prevent their shed leaves, &c., from being carried otherwise
than exceptionally into the deposits in course of formation.

Nevertheless, if we admit this hypothesis as the true one, it
brings with it many difficulties.

If the genera in question did really haunt the places which
we should ascribe to them as their habitation, it is difficult to
believe that they there formed great masses; for in that case
their leaves, being transported by the winds or streams of water,
would have reached the lake in comparative abundance, at least
at certain times, although, no doubt, they would have left more
scattered traces than the other species. It will be seen, in fact,
that it is to a sort of chance alone that is due the preservation
of an isolated species lost in the midst of others, whilst strong
and numerous groups, notwithstanding distance, must have their
leaves and fruits carried away with a certain regularity, and in
such a way as to leave their impressions, perhaps not abundantly,
but more or less repeated. Now we have seen that this is not
the case with the species of European physiognomy belonging
to the flora of Aix. The remarkable preservation of the impres-
sions belonging to this category of plants is also opposed to our
full adoption of this opinion. These impressions are very rare,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xi.

298 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

or even unique, in most cases, but they belong to very different
organs. The fruit of the Betula occurs in a different stratum
from that which contains the leaf. The fruit of the Populus has
been found isolated from its leaf, and the latter separate from a
ciliated bract, probably forming part of the same species. The
involucra of Ostrya are not yet accompanied by their leaves;
there exist a leaf of Ulmus, but hitherto no trace of its fruit,
and leaves of Acer without any fruit. We must therefore notice
a very great irregularity in the mode of transmission of the
organs; and all that we can conclude from the state in which
they have come down to us is, that no obstacle difficult to get
over has stood in the way of their reaching the waters of the
lake, that they did not get there from any great distance, and
that small and delicate organs, especially those of fructification,
have been preserved pretty frequently in a state of perfect imte-
grity ; whilst, on the other hand, winged fruits, easily carried
by the wind, are sometimes wanting, in cases where the leaves
have, on the contrary, passed into the fossil state.

What are we to conclude from these various observations, if
not that the hypothesis first put forward as the most natural
in appearance is at least contestable from the side of the facts ?
that these facts do not tend to confirm it, and would, on the
contrary, rather lead one to think that the plants with a Euro-
pean physiognomy and deciduous leaves, although evidently ex-
cluded from the vegetable masses of the epoch, and forming
arborescent groups of considerable size neither on the immediate
margin of the waters nor in the vicinity of the ancient lake, do
not appear nevertheless to have occupied a very distant station ?
and lastly, that their organs have reached the sediments im
course of formation with complete irregularity, and without the
aid of the wind having contributed to augment the proportion
of such organs as the winged fruits, by assisting them to get
over greater distances? It remains for us, therefore, to seek
another series of hypotheses more in accordance with the facts.

Perhaps the plants in question, not possessing originally the
appearance, size, and habits which they subsequently acquired,
isolated in the midst of the robust plants of the period, only
occupied a secondary place among them, which would explain at
once their rarity as individuals and the limited proportional
quantity of their organs, of which only a very small number could
reach us.

On this hypothesis we should have to establish three points
with regard to the plants under consideration :—(1) a sensible
difference in their habitual station ; (2) a peculiar mode of group-
ing, a natural consequence of the preceding, producing a greater
rarity of individuals; (3) lastly, a comparatively small stature,—

by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 299

circumstances all of which would have concurred to limit the
quantity of organs fitted to pass into the fossil state.

The difference of station can only be proved by means of in-
direct negative evidence. It appears to be certain, however,
that, as we have stated above, the plants nearest to the ancient
lacustrine shores were not forms with a European physiognomy,
but Palms, Conifere, Proteaceae, Zizyphi, Diospyrt, &e.—genera
the impressions of which are met with in all the beds; and next
to these, Laurinea, Ericacea, Leguminose, &c., which usually
make their appearance after the former. If the Betulacee,
Salicinee, Ulmacea, and Acerinee, even in limited numbers, had
inhabited the immediate margin of the ancient waters, their
remains would have been buried annually, either at the period
of the fall of the leaf or at that of the maturity of the fruit.
Moreover it is the nature of plants inhabiting moist localities
to multiply in colonies, in consequence of the uniformity of con-
ditions, which uniformly favours the propagation of the same
organisms; there is therefore, we repeat, but little probability
(although nothing can be stated with absolute certainty) that
the group of species of which we are speaking inhabited the
zone immediately contiguous to the ancient shores ; it is more
natural to suppose that they were a little thrown back upon the
second plane; but we remain of necessity in ignorance of their
true aptitudes, not knowing the exact configuration of the an-
cient land. From stratigraphical observations, it appears that
on one side (towards the north-east of the town) it was, if not
commanded by escarpments, at least considerably elevated and
broken. The repeated occurrence of Conifere (Callitris, Juni-
perites, Widdringtinia, Pinus) and of trees which, like Cercis and
the Proteacee (Grevillea, Lomatia), haunted undulating ground
rather than low and moist spots, must lead us to this opinion.
On the other hand, the abundance of species of Andromeda and
Vaccinium appears to indicate turfy and inundated ground, occu-
pying probably a great extent. It is difficult to decide whether
the organisms with deciduous leaves of the flora of Aix inhabited
one or other of these two zones, and dwelt consequently upon
the broken slopes or in moist, low, and marshy ground ; the
nature of the sediment in which their impressions are observed,
and the kind of species with which they are associated in the
beds, are the only indications which can be consulted in a ques-
tion of this kind. The following are the notions which may be
obtained upon this point.

There exist in the stratum of Aix two kinds of beds with
vegetable impressions, indicating two modes of sedimentation,
of different nature. The first includes schistose and especially
marly limestones, in very thin lamin, denoting a deposit formed

20%

300 Count Gaston de Saporta on the Part played

in calm waters, very feebly charged with a few particles of very
fine mud. The vegetable impressions observed in these beds
are due to organs which have either fallen in naturally, or been
carried by the wind, or, lastly, transported into the lake by a
very weak current of very clear water.

Other beds, on the contrary, are composed of deposits or strata
of some thickness, either purely calcareous or composed of a
whitish marly limestone, the body of which denotes an abundant
mud, arising from the freshets which at certain periods exerted
their action with more or less force upon certain points of the
lake. They present vegetable impressions belonging to species
which, in many cases, may have been carried for a considerable
distance, or have arrived from other parts of the country, or at.
least have been entombed under different circumstances from the
former.

It is therefore probable that the flora of the schistose beds is
composed chiefly of the species living nearest to the ancient
shore, or within a certain distance of it, and that it contains but
few species brought from a distance, except perhaps seeds or
light fruits. The flora of the marly beds, on the contrary, pre-
sents at once the littoral species and those brought by the muddy
waters even from the interior of the country.

It may also be observed that the forest-trees of the genera
Quercus and Cinnamomum and most of the Anacardiacee occur
in those beds which also contain numerous Andromede. The
leaf of Ulmus plurinervia, Ung., has likewise been met with in a
marly bed.

The schistose beds contain rather the remains of the littoral
plants, or of those which inhabited the neighbouring slopes and
served as a cincture to the ancient lacustrine sheet on the eastern
side. These are Palms, Gramineae, Conifere, Myricacee, Pro-
teacee, and a few Laurinee, and, lastly, some Rhamnee and
Leguminose. The most abundant species are common to both
sorts of beds.

It is also in the schistose limestones, or in the laminated
marly limestones, that all the scattered fragments of fruits or
leaves belonging to deciduous plants of European physiognomy
have been met with, with the exception of U/mus plurinervia and
of a strobile of Alnus antiquorum (the leaves of the latter species
were probably persistent). It is therefore probable that most
of these plants (that is to say, the genera Betula, Populus, Ribes,
Acer, Paliurus, and Crategus), without inhabiting the margin of
the water, occurred in a station within easy access of the ancient
shore, and that they were associated rather with the Conifere,
Proteacee, and Leguminose, than with the Quercus, Andromeda,
Cinnamoma, and Anacardiacee, which occur more frequently in

by Deciduous Plants in the Tertiary Floras. 301

the marly beds. It is true that we only advance this opinion as
a conjecture; there exists, however, if we attend to the preceding
indications, a certain probability for the belief that the species
with deciduous leaves, at the epoch of the gypsum of Aix, in-
habited a station intermediate between the immediate margin of
the waters and the more distant parts of the interior of the
country.

With regard to the mode of grouping, that is to say, the
manner in which the individuals of this series of plants was
distributed, the same reasons which have inclined us to think
that they were not situated on the margin of the waters, or in
the inundated and marshy parts, lead us equally to believe that
they did not form colonies of individuals or numerous and fre-
quently repeated associations; the rarity of the impressions
must rather lead us to assume that these organisms were then
scattered here and there, and occurred only in certain situations
the precise nature of which it 1s impossible to indicate. Ina
word, these organisms nowhere formed a wood, or even a group
of considerable extent, but we should have met with them from
time to time as isolated plants growing under the influence of
some particular exposure which protected and favoured their
development.

There are not wanting examples of a similar mode of existence
for trees or shrubs which, not living in society, make their
appearance here and there isolatedly or in very small groups,
without ever multiplying greatly.

Another circumstance may have assisted in limiting the num-
ber of impressions of trees with deciduous leaves in the flora of
the Gypsum of Aix—namely, the small size of the species, which
were probably reduced to the proportions of mere bushes.

It sometimes seems that the gigantic must necessarily have
been the appanage of the ancient creations: one 1s led to see it
everywhere, even in species really inferior in dimensions to their
living analogues. The large size of certain Cryptogamic plants
of the Paleozoic epoch, the enormous Saurians of the Secondary
strata, and the no less astonishing Pachydermata of the last
Tertiary epoch may have led to the notion that magnitude was,
as it were, a general character of extinct organisms; but this is
by no means the case. On quitting animals for plants, we
quickly see that in these at least the proportions have varied
according to the age and classes. There are even times in
which the size of species seems to diminish in comparison to
that which now exists; and this phenomenon is particularly
distinct in the Gypsum of Aix. Nothing in the fragments of
stems and branches, nor in the aspect of the fruits and appendi-
cular organs, indicates anything but plants of middling size;

302 On the Deciduous Plants of the Tertiary Floras.

the ancient organs, when compared with those which corre-
spond with them in the present day, almost always appear con-
siderably smaller, and sometimes even very much so. The
silicified trunks of Palm-trees indicate the existence of small
species, of which the stem, even in the largest forms, scarcely
equals that of Chamerops excelsa in diameter. The Pines
only present slender: and sparingly divided branches. . The
leaves of Dicotyledonous plants are almost always small, narrow,
oval, elliptical, or linear; and although very large trees may
have small leaves, the persistence and generality of this character
cannot but raise great doubts as to the size of the individuals to
which they belonged. This doubt has the more foundation as
most of the Proteacee most nearly allied to species of Aix in the
present order of things only form shrubs of middle size or even
mere bushes.

These data may be applied to the series of species with deci-
duous leaves in the flora of Aix; but for them there are further
reasons which would lead to the belief that they were still smaller
in their dimensions than the preceding. These plants, not nu-
merous as species, and very rare as individuals, are subordinated
to organisms in which the variety of combinations and the pro-
fusion of forms indicated a development arrived at its climax ;
it is among these that we must of course find the strongest spe-
cies of the epoch. It appears to us more probable, in fact, that
we should find the arborescent organisms of that period amongst
the groups as to the preponderance of which there is no ques-
tion, such as the Palms, Proteaceae, Laurinee, Anacardiacee, and
Leguminose, than amongst the scarce plants with deciduous
leaves, which had so inconsiderable a part to play. Considered
in themselves, these species, by the knowledge we possess of
their organs, confirm the supposition that they only attained to
small dimensions. If we except Alnus antiquorum, the leaves
of which were probably persistent, hke those of A. nitida and A.
Nepalensis, and Cercis antiqua, which only differs from its living
congener in the outline of its leaves, the appendicular organs of
the other species with a European physiognomy, either by their
comparative smallness or by the analogy of the forms which
correspond with them at present, indicate rather shrubs than
true trees. There can be no doubt in this respect with regard
to the Ribes, Crategus, and Paliurus, which are only bushes.
But, among others, Betula gypsicola belongs to a section of the
genus which contains species of very small size, and which is
characterized by Regel, the author of the Monograph of the
Betulaceze, as ‘‘ Frutices plerumque humiles ;” Populus Heerii is
remarkable for the smallness of its narrow saliciform leaf, be-
yond any existing Populus of the section Balsamea, to which it

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Bee’s Cell. 303

seems to belong; the Acer ampelophyllum, as to the true nature
of which there is still much doubt, especially in the absence of
its fruit, would take its place, judging from its leaf, among the
smallest species of the genus.

Thus there would remain only Ulmus plurinervia, the leaf of
which is of tolerable size, and which, even without this indica-
tion, might have constituted an actual tree. For this, its pro-
bably distant station may sufficiently explain the rarity of its
impressions.

To sum up,—in spite of obscurities which it is impossible
entirely to elucidate, it is certain that nearly the whole of the
organisms with deciduous leaves in the flora of Aix indicate
limited dimensions, denoting mere shrubs; and if there were
trees among them, this denomination could only be applied to
the smallest number, and, so to speak, to a single species.

We terminate these considerations, which have been perhaps
treated at rather too great a length, but in which the novelty of
the subject necessitated more development than in ordinary
cases, by formulating our conclusions as follows :—In accordance
with all the indications, it is extremely probable that the plants
with deciduous leaves of the flora of Aix only played in it a
secondary part; and if their impressions are very rare in the
beds formed at that epoch, their station at a little distance from
the ancient shores, their distribution as isolated individuals, and
the small size of most of them have concurred to produce that
result. We affirm, lastly, that the periodical fall of the leaves
in these species, far from implying the existence of a cold season,
is a phenomenon very reconcilable with the high temperature
which is indicated by the profusion of tropical forms in the
flora of the Gypsum of Aix.

ee —

XXX.—Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton’s Paper on the Bee’s
Cell, and on the Origin of Species. By ALFRED R. Wauxace.

My attention has been called to the paper in the ‘ Annals’ for
June last on the above subjects, the author of which seems to
me to have quite misunderstood and much misrepresented the
facts and reasonings of Mr. Darwin on the question. As some
of your readers may conclude, if it remains unanswered, that it
is therefore unanswerable, I ask permission to make a few re-
marks on what seem to me its chief errors.

Mr. Haughton combats the views not only of those who believe
that the regular structure of the Bee’s comb can be accounted
for through the agency of “natural selection” and variation,
but also of the opposite school, who impute to the Bee a super-

304 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Bee’s Cell,

natural or divinely inspired instinct, by which it is enabled to
construct its cells on true mechanical and mathematical princi-
ples, so as to combine the requisite accommodation for rearing
its brood and storing its honey, with the greatest amount of
strength and the utmost economy of material. In his opinion
of this last school I quite agree with him, but think he has not
pointed out its weakest pomts. If we consider the cell as
adapted to the size of the grub and young bee, and in its re-
lations to the cells immediately surrounding it, there can be
no doubt that the form of the cell itself, with its pyramidal
base and arrangement in double tiers, gives the greatest eco-
nomy of space and material possible. But if we look at the
whole comb suspended vertically by its upper side only, we shall
immediately perceive that the strain upon its uppermost rows of
cells is many times greater than that upon its lower ones; so
that, if economy of material was the main object of this beautiful
structure, and the attainment of such economy was secured by
unerring wisdom, the walls of the cells should regularly decrease
in thickness from the upper to the lower part of the comb. The
same mathematical knowledge that enables us to see the beauty
and economy of the form of the mdividual cells, as surely points
out the great waste of material in building the upper and lower
portions of the comb of the same thickness and strength. We
have here, I think, a conclusive argument against the notion
that the bees are guided by any supernatural impulse to con-
struct their cells on the best mathematical principles, so as to
economize, in the highest degree, labour, space, and material.
When Mr. Haughton attempts to overthrow the theory of Mr.
Darwin on this subject, we are compelled to demur to many of
his statements, which, indeed, are often so deficient in clearness
as to suggest the idea that ‘The Origin of Species’ has been
but superficially studied by him. In his first paragraph, for
example, he speaks of a class of writers by whom “the geo-
metrical properties of the cells are alleged as a sufficient cause
for the production of the insects that make them, from the ad-
vantage which these forms of cells are supposed to possess over
other forms—advantages said to be so important as to decide
the battle of life in favour of the insects that adopt the geo-
metrical plan of making their cells.” This is surely a most
unfair statement of the doctrine that simultaneous favourable
variations in structure and habits, accumulated by natural selec-
tion, may act and react on each other, and thus ultimately lead
to such a modification of the insect as may better adapt it for
constructing the most advantageous form of cell. Mr. Haugh-
ton’s statement of the case is, that the cell made by the bee is
a sufficient cause for the production of the bee; and he would

and on the Origin of Species. 305

have his readers believe that this absurdity is maintained by the
writers he alludes to.

The author then describes the following three forms of cells
which he has observed, but does not always express his meaning
with sufficient accuracy :—1. Hexagonal cells, somewhat pyra-
midal, with a rounded extremity. The British tree-wasp and
the genus Polistes make cells of this form, in small groups, and
often of a very fragile papery material. 2. ‘“ Hexagonal cells
formed of adjoining prismatic figures, with rectilimear axes, ter-
minated by a truncated plane, at right angles to the axes of the
prisms.” I have quoted this elaborate description literally, be-
cause I am quite unable to understand what the author means
by a “truncated plane,” which renders his meaning somewhat
obscure. The cells of this form are said to occur in wasps’
nests from the West Indies and South Africa. 3. The bee’s
hexagonal cell terminated by three faces of a rhombic dodeca-
hedron, each of which forms one-third of the base of one of the
cells of the opposite layer. It is not stated, but may be inferred,
that the first two forms of cells are in a single layer only; and
all these varieties of cells, it is said, may be accounted for
“simply by the mechanical pressure of the insects against each
other during the formation of the cell.” Again, at page 428,
“ The true cause of the shape of the cell is the crowding together
of the bees at work, as was first shown by Buffon. From this
crowding together they cannot help making cells with the di-
hedral angles of 120° of the rhombic dodecahedron ; and the
economy of wax has nothing to do with the origin of the cell,
but 1s a geometrical property of the figure named.” There are,
however, several important objections to this pressure-theory.
Many exotic tree-wasps construct little groups of three or four
hexagonal cells, only one or two insects working at them toge-
ther. Here is no crowding, yet they are hexagonal. Again, a
Mexican bee (Melipona domestica) makes a comb of cylindrical
cells, only partially hexagonal; and in the Malay Islands there
is a domesticated bee which makes oval cells, and though the
insects are kept in hollow bamboos for hives, yet the crowding
together does not make their cells hexagonal. The wild bee of
Borneo, on the other hand, suspends its comb from the arms of
lofty trees in the free air; and if crowding had al/ and economy
nothing to do with it, one would think that here the cells should
retain their normal cylindrical form; instead of which, they
are as beautifully geometrical as those of our own hive-bee.
But, what is still more important, Mr. Darwin states (Origin of
Species, ed. 3, p. 251) that our bees build the cell-wall at first
rough and ten times as thick as it is to remain when finished,.
it being afterwards gnawed down to the proper thinness. Here

306 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Bee’s Cell,

is a complete proof of economy of wax rather than economy of
labour, and a complete disproof of the theory of circular walls
pressed into hexagons by the crowds of struggling bees, which
is given us as a new theory of the formation of the bee’s cell,
unsupported by a single original observation.

To finish this subject of the bees, we will now pass to
page 427, where Mr. Haughton produces his most crushing
argument. He seems to suppose that it is necessary to the
theory of Mr. Darwin that there should have been a number of
species of bees, now extinct, fillmg up the gap between the
single round cell of the humble-bee and the perfect geometrical
structure of the hive-bee, each of them using a little less wax
than the preceding one, and that, to effect this, it is necessary
that there should have been a bee building a triangular cell,
and after that, one building a square cell, before arriving at the
hexagonal cell of the hive-bee. But in this view there is a mis-
conception of the conditions of the problem. It is true that, to
fill up a given space with cells of a given area and walls of equal
thickness, the triangle will be more economical of material than
the circle (with solid intervals), and the square more economical
than the triangle. The primary use of the cell, however, is not
the storing of honey—but the accommodation of the larva and
pupa; for this it must have a certain diameter, and the trian-
gular cell must therefore circumscribe the circular one, and will
then be found to require more materials even than the circular
cell with solid intervals, without taking into account the fact
that the sides of the triangular cells, being without support in
their whole length, would have to be thicker than those of any
other form, if of equal strength. The same argument will apply
in a less degree to the walls of a square cell.

A still more serious error exists, however, in supposing any
such extravagantly shaped cells requisite to form the gradual
passage from the circle to the hexagon, in order that every step
of the process may give its proportionate saving of material.
Let the reader draw a number of equal circles in contact, and
he will at once perceive how very simple it is (considering that
the bees build the cell-wall of a uniform thickness, and reduce
it to the smallest serviceable dimensions by gnawing down the
growing walls) to suppose them, when material was scanty, to
gnaw out a little of the solid triangles left between the circles.
The amount of intelligence perceptible in the habits of most
insects renders such an act by no means beyond their capacities;
and as every step in this direction would tend to the well-being
of the community, what was at first done under the pressure of
necessity would at length become a regular practice, and finally
settle into that class of hereditary habits which we call instinct.

and on the Origin of Species. 807

Some of these steps do actually occur in the Melipona domestica
and other bees; and the immense quantity of honey consumed
by the hive-bee to make a small quantity of wax, as well as its
curious habit of cutting down the walls of its cells to a uniform
thickness, are certainly very strong arguments in favour of this
view.

Exactly the same arguments will apply to the origin, step by
step, of the lozenge-formed planes forming the pyramidal base
of the cell as to the hexagonal form of its wall; for these planes
are the simple result of gnawing away the superfluous wax in
the angles between the alternate spherical bases of the opposite
layer of cells; and when this wax is so much gnawed away as to
reduce all the walls of the cells to an equal thickness, the true
geometrical figure which we see is the necessary result. (Origin
of Species, p. 247.) Itis evident, therefore, that all the minute
calculations of geometers respecting the amount of saving in
this pyramidal base over a flat base to the cell is altogether be-
side the question, because a flat base could not arise out of
spherical alternate bases in contact, by any such simple succes-
sive steps as are shown to result in the existing form.

On the question of the “origin of species” Mr. Haughton
enlarges considerably ; but his chief arguments are reduced to
the setting-up of “three unwarrantable assumptions,” which he
imputes to the Lamarckians and Darwinians, and then, to use
his own words, “brings to the ground like a child’s house of
cards.” The first of these is “ the indefinite variation of species
continuously in the one direction.” Now this is certainly never
assumed by Mr. Darwin, whose argument is mainly grounded
on the fact that variations occur in every direction. ‘This is so
obvious that it hardly needs insisting on. In every large family
there is almost always one child taller, one darker, one thinner
than the rest ; one will have a larger nose, another a larger eye:
they vary morally as well; some are more poetical, others more
morose; one has a genius for numbers, another for painting.
It is the same in animals: the puppies, or kittens, or rabbits of
one litter differ in many ways from each other—in colour, in

‘size, in disposition; so that, though they do not “ vary con-
tinuously in one direction,’ they do vary continuously in many
directions ; and thus there is always material for natural selec-
tion to act upon in some direction that may be advantageous.

In his remarks upon this “unwarrantable assumption”
(which is altogether his own), Mr. Haughton has the following
passage :—“ In the writings of Darwin there is this singular in-
consistency, that, while he shows the utmost effects of human
breeding on domestic animals to be capable of production in ten
or twenty years, he denies the right of his adversaries to appeal

308 'Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Origin of Species.

to the unaltered condition of the ass, the ostrich, and the cat
for 3000 years,” &c. The first part of this sentence is so com-
pletely out of the pale of grammatical construction, that I must
conclude Mr. Haughton writes a very bad hand, and did not
correct the proofs. But, so far from Mr. Darwin denying his
opponents the use of the facts above alluded to, he himself offers
them far stronger ones, in the many species of shells which have
lived unchanged since the middle tertiary epochs, and of mam-
mals whose remains are found in beds which testify that they
have survived important changes of the earth’s surface. No
one who understands the theory of natural selection will imagine
that these facts are in any way opposed to it.

. The second supposed “ unwarrantable assumption ” is, “‘ That
the causes of variation, viz. natural advantage in the struggle for
existence (Darwin), are sufficient to account for the effects asserted
to be produced.” ‘There certainly never was a more unwarrant-
able assertion made, than that Darwin assigned “ natural ad-
vantage in the struggle for existence” as “the cause of varia-
tion.” Darwin over and over again declares that the cause of
variation is unknown (Origin of Species, pp. 8, 38), though the
fact is certain and undeniable. Natural selection, acting through
advantage in the struggle for existence, accumulates favourable
variations, but in no sense causes them. This is the very foun-
dation of Mr. Darwin’s theory ; yet even this is misunderstood
or misrepresented by Mr. Haughton.

The third “unwarrantable assumption” charged upon Mr.
Darwin is, “ That succession implies causation,” “that the Palzo-
zoic Cephalopoda produced the Red-Sandstone fishes,” ‘ that
these in turn gave birth to the Liassic reptiles,” &c. &. Now
those who have read the ‘Origin of Species’ know that such
absurd doctrines as these are nowhere taught there; and I can
only say to those who have not read it that I challenge them or
Mr. Haughton to produce any passages which will bear such a
meaning.

In conclusion, it is asserted “ that naturalists who have ac-
cepted by multitudes the new theory of the origin of species
are, as a Class, untrained in the use of the logical faculties, which,
however, they may be charitably supposed to possess in common
with other men.” This is the judgment of the Rev. S. Haughton
on such men as Lyell, Hooker, Lubbock, Huxley, and Asa Gray.
A perusal of his paper, with the remarks I have now made upon
it, will enable any one to judge how far Mr. Haughton himself
possesses those “logical faculties” which he is half inclined to
deny to the mass of British naturalists. There are several other
minor points in his paper which might be alluded to ; but it has
already occupied as much space as it deserves, and I will only,

Prof. G. Gulliver on the Tissue-cells of Hymenophyllum. 309

in conclusion, quote from it a short paragraph which contains
an important truth, but which may very fairly be applied in
other quarters than those for which the ‘author intended it :—
“No progress in natural science is possible as long as men will
take their rude guesses at truth for facts, and substitute the
fancies of their imagination for the sober rules of reasoning.”

eee A aa RO iS Bd vie |S

XXXI.—On the Tissue-cells of the Involucres of Hymenophyllum.
By Grorce Guuxiver, F.R.S.

SINCE the publication, in the August Number of the ‘ Annals,’
of my comparison of the leaf-cells of the British species of
Hymenophyllum, which was done from poor specimens of these
plants, Mr. F. Clowes has kindly*given me some better-grown
leaves of them; and, as he mentioned, I find that they will
freshen in water like mosses. Accordingly, after these dried
ferns had been put for an hour or two therein, the cells were

Scale, ;4,ths of an inch.
Fig. 1. Tissue-cells of involucre of Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense.
Fig. 2. Ditto of H. Wilsoni.
Fig. 3. Spores of Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense.
Fig. 4. Ditto of H. Wilsoni.

found as perfect as in the growing plants; and many examina-
tions confirmed the accuracy of the fact before stated, that the
leaf-cells of H. Wilsoni are more elongated and larger than those

310 Bibliographical Notices.

of H. Tunbridgense. In the perfect specimens from Mr. Clowes
the cells are generally polygonal, often hexangular, whereas they
are frequently quite round or oval in my more stunted plants.
This variation is such as might be expected from the more or
less distention of the cells, as the round and oval forms are well
known to become angular from mutual pressure in luxuriant
growth.

And now, from an examination of the tissue-cells of the invo-
lucres of these plants, it results that in-them also there is a
difference of size, similar to that in the leaf-cells. After repeated
comparisons of the involucre-cells of the two plants, it was found
that these cells are regularly the largest in H. Wilsoni, and that
the two species could be easily distinguished by this character
alone, as may be seen in figures 1 & 2.

The spores also were larger in these plants of H. Wilsoni than
in H. Tunbridgense. But as the spores were mostly misshapen,
though some of them seemed perfect, they should be carefully
compared in fresh and mature plants before we conclude that
this difference of size is regular and constant. Figures 3 & 4
will show the comparative sizes as I saw them in the plants from
Mr. Clowes.

Probably sufficient evidence has now been adduced to show
that the cells both of the involucres and leaves may be available
as specific characters in Hymenophyllacee. In Trichomanes
radicans the leaf-cells are nearly like those of Hymenophyllum
Wilsoni, and consequently larger than those of H. Tunbridgense.

Edenbridge, Sept. 17, 1863.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Angler-Naturalist : a Popular History of British Freshwater
Fish ; with a plain Explanation of the Rudiments of Ichthyology.
By H. CuoutmonpeLey Pennetut. London: Van Voorst.
1863. 12mo.

Wuen old Izaak Walton published his ‘Complete Angler,’ it was
his endeavour to bring together all the scientific knowledge of his
time connected with Fish and fishing; and, absurd as many of his
tales appear to us, they were undoubtedly vouched for in his day by
naturalists of high authority. But even these erroneous statements
have often a charm, partly from the quaintness with which they are
related, and partly from the perfect good faith with which they are
woven into the narrative ; and Walton’s book was certainly, at the
time of its publication, a mine of information upon natural history,
in the angling point of view, such as has never since been equalled.
Indeed in most of our angling-books the descriptions of the habits
of Fish are borrowed more or less directly from Walton; and some

Bibliographical Notices. 311

of those authors who have endeavoured to write with more originality
have been misled, by the continued popularity of Walton’s charming
work, into attempting an imitation of it, though generally desti-
tute either of the imagination, poetic and literary power, or talent
for the observation of nature, the combination of which enabled
the old hosier of Fleet Street to produce his prose-pastoral. In the
‘Salmonia’ of the great Sir Humphry, to choose one of the highest
examples, the conversation resembles that of a set of priggish pre-
tenders to learning, talking to show off the greatness of their attain-
ments ; and the sporting dialogues of some other writers are offensive
in a different way. Under these circumstances, it was no small
gratification to us to find, on opening Mr. Pennell’s little book, of
which the title stands at the head of this article, that, although a
sportsman, he had avoided making his work a conversation-piece,
and been content to tell ‘‘a plain unvarnished tale.”’

Mr. Pennell appears to have been induced to undertake the pre-
paration of his book by the perception of the general ignorance on
all ichthyological matters pervading the generality of anglers, and
by the desire to indicate to them the greatly increased gratification
that will accrue to them from the practice of their art by learning
to understand a little of the life-history of the objects of their pur-
suit, and thus qualifying themselves for the observation of many
phenomena which would otherwise take place before their eyes un-
noticed. With this view he has commenced with a general outline of
the structure and physiology of Fish, which is written in a clear and
plain manner, and, notwithstanding one or two little defects, will
undoubtedly furnish the reader with a very good notion of the mode
in which life is carried on in the denizens of our waters.

In the second part of the work, which treats of the natural history
of our Freshwater Fishes, Mr. Pennell has adopted the Cuvierian
classification, which is no doubt the best course he could have taken
in order to render his subject readily intelligible to those for whose
use the book is specially imtended. In order to enable the readers
to determine the species of fish which may come in their way (a
branch of knowledge in which many anglers even are wofully deficient),
careful descriptions are given of all the known species, which amount,
according to the author’s enumeration, to fifty-three. He has, how-
ever, omitted all notice of the Smelt and the Flounder, which never-
theless may fairly be reckoned among river-fish, the latter especially
being often met with far above the influence of the tide. The most
important sections of this part of the work are those treating of the
Pike and the numerous species of Salmonide, the difficult natural
history of the Salmon especially being admirably described. Of the
Charrs, Mr. Pennell, following Dr. Ginther, makes three species ;
but of this group, as also of that of the true Trouts, it seems proba-
ble that further researches will prove the existence in our waters of
a larger number of species than is now known; and Mr. Pennell’s
book will do much to call the attention of anglers and others who
may have the opportunity of investigating the productions of our
rivers to this important point in British ichthyology. Indeed, as a

ole Bibliographical Notices.

manual of our Freshwater Fishes, this little work will be welcome to
many a naturalist who may be desirous of working upon this branch
of zoology.

It seems to us, however, to be rather a defect in the book, that it
is too exclusively zoological. The infusion of a little more angling
information into it would have rendered it a far better angler’s hand-
book than any that we possess; and this information might easily
have been given in the space which is at present occupied by con-
siderable digressions, such as that at pp. 222-232, in which numerous
examples of fishes making terrestrial excursions are detailed. In
one of these little digressions, which happens to be peculiarly a propos
de bottes, the author falls into a curious muddle, describing the
Pinna under the name of “ Nacre,’’ as the source of mother-of-pearl,
and giving Oppian’s account of the relation between the Mollusk and
the Pinnotheres. It would, however, be an invidious task to point
out the two or three little errors of this description which have crept
into.a book otherwise excellent, and which we can highly recommend
to all who are desirous of investigating the fishes of our fresh waters ;
and in taking leave of Mr. Pennell, we can only hope that we may
speedily see a second edition of his book, containing some additional
species, to the discovery of which it may have contributed.

Introduction to Zoology; for the Use of Schools. By Roxperr Par-
TERSON, F.R.S. Twenty-eighth Thousand. Belfast: Simms
& M‘Intyre. London: Longmans & Simpkins. 1863. 12mo.

Mr. Patterson’s ‘Zoology for Schools’ has been too long and
favourably known to need much notice at our hands. We are glad
to see that it has attained so large a circulation, as, from the cha-
racter of the information contained in it, and the clearness and
attractiveness of its style, it cannot fail to communicate to the young
readers for whose benefit it is intended sound views of the general
subject of zoology.

In the present edition, we find that Mr. Patterson has introduced
many changes rendered necessary by the recent progress of zoological
science. Amongst these we may mention especially the adoption of
the subkingdom Protozoa, the transfer of the Polyzoa to the Mol-
lusea, and of the Entozoa and Rotifera to the Annulose series, and
the separation of the Batrachia from the Reptiles as a distinct class.
Mr. Patterson still retains the subkingdom Radiata, although indi-
cating the existence of the great group of Ccelenterata ; it seems to
us that he would have done better to have adopted the latter divi-
sion, with its subdivisions, as giving a far clearer insight into the
somewhat difficult subject of the diversity of generations in the
Hydrozoa. This, however, is a small matter; and in other respects
this little book is deserving of the highest praise, the author having
succeeded in giving a remarkably uniform picture of the whole ani-
mal kingdom, well illustrated by references to examples, and enlivened
by a number of interesting anecdotes told in a lively manner.

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 3138

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Jan. 13, 1863.—George Busk, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Descriptions or Five New Species or FISHES OBTAINED AT
Maperra. By James YATE Jounson, Corr. Mem. Z.S8.

Fam. ScoMBRID&.

BRAMA PRINCEPS, Sp. 0.
Di. 2f—-do beet NV. V0. A. 3.20,, C, Iv. 1d) ay. le Bae

Body oval, compressed, and elevated, the height compared with
the length being as 1 to 23 or 22. It is of a blackish-grey colour,
beautifully reflecting white and iridescent hues. A coppery lustre
is reflected in certain lights from the sides of the body and the head.
The hinder portion (black) of the body is covered with large striated
scales ; those on the head have finely pectinated edges, those on the
body have simple borders. Between and in front of the eyes the
head is scaleless.

The head is short and abrupt; its length to that of the whole fish
is as 1 to 22, The eye is vertically oval; the pupil a pale grey, the
iris a dark brown. It is contained about 44 times in the head, and
is removed from the muzzle by a space equal to about 1+ times its
longer axis. Above it there is a space equal to 1} times its longer
axis, and below it a space equal to twice that axis. There is only
one opening on each side to the pituitary sac, and that is small and
transversely oval. The mouth-cleft is small and subvertical; the
under jaw rather longer than the upper. The superior border of
the mouth is formed by the narrow premaxillary, much of which,
when the mouth is closed, passes underneath the maxillary. The
latter is much dilated below, and its exposed portion is triangular.
It reaches back to the vertical from the middle of the eye. There
are small scales on the premaxillary, and large ones on the maxillary.
There is a broad band of small, conical, slightly curved teeth, nar-
rowing backwards in each jaw, the innermost row being slightly
longer. There is also a narrow band of small teeth on the palatines ;
but the vomer and tongue are unarmed. The tongue is broad, fleshy,
and black. Inside the teeth in each jaw there is a black flap ex-
tending from one side of the mouth to the other. The opercular
pieces are clothed with scales, and their margins are unarmed and
rounded.

The long dorsal fin is very high and falcate in front, this portion
being covered with small scales. The fin is low behind, and near its
termination the broadly expanded apices of the rays project beyond
the membrane. The length of the fin, compared with the total
length of the fish, is as 1 to 24. The pectoral fins are long, pointed,
and subfalcate, and they reach back as far as the middle of the dorsal
fin. The base is clothed with small scales ; and in the axil there is
a membrane bearing eight or nine scales, which connects the upper

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 21

314 Zoological Society :—

side of the base with the side of the body. When the fin is pulled
away from the body, these scales spread out and cover up the hollow
of the axil. The ventral fins are inserted under the bases of the
pectorals ; they are short, and their apices are truncate. The spine
is very short, and there is a scale-like appendage in the axil. The
long anal fin resembles the dorsal in shape, being high and falcate
in front ; the falcate portion scaly ; the hinder portion low, with the
rays projecting beyond the membrane. It terminates on the vertical
of the termination of the dorsal. The vent is placed a little before
the commencement of the anal fin. The caudal fin is lunate, and
has a wide spread ; its base is scaly.

The middle portion of the tail is raised or thickened longitudinally,
so as to form a kind of flat, broad keel. Near the base of the caudal
fin there are some transverse grooves above and below.

Forty-five rows of scales may be counted between the border of the
opercle and the base of the caudal fin, and on the fin itself there are
nine or ten rows of small scales. There are about twenty-five series
of scales in the height of the body. The scales are very broad, and
their surfaces are radiate-striate, without the slightest trace of an
umbo or spine.

One of the examples, measuring 323 inches in length, proved on
being opened to be a female, and had an egg-sac 33 inches long and
12 inch across. There were five stout pyloric ceca, four of which
were 3 inches long, the fifth only half as long. The intestine was
convoluted, and 22 inches in length. The stomach was small; the
liver of moderate size ; the gall-bladder large.

The fishermen call this handsome fish “ Freira do alto,’ Brama
Raii being called “ Freira.’’ Several specimens have been taken in
the months of February and March, the lengths of which ranged
from 27 to 33 inches.

In form it bears a close general resemblance to Brama Razi, which,
however, is less thick in proportion, has much smaller scales, and
is without the broad ridge at each side of the tail and the white
borders of the vertical fins. Moreover in that species the anterior
portions of the dorsal and anal fins are much less developed. If ad-
mitted into the genus Brama, the definition of that genus given in
Dr. Giinther’s Catalogue will require modification in regard to the
size of the scales, the number of the dorsal spines, and the jaw-teeth,
which are there said to have an outer series of stronger teeth. No
such series is discoverable in the species now described.

The following measurements were taken from two examples of
nearly the same leagth :—

A. B.
inches. inches.

Motalieneihi ey iaemataays ea wn wisi atsie,% 325 33
Herc ht) Sergi ees tee aione aye 5 eleratanes 13 13
Thickness under anterior part of dorsal.. 4 4
Length of body without caudal........ a 25
Head (7deieeiet SEAR R UAL eae 63 74
Bye, ‘diameter? 5", shart Gai beer as 12

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 315

A. B.
inches. inches.
Teeth, width of band in jaws ........ 35
Rictus:d nanos 42 1s See pynee se wih 255
Dorsal, distance from muzzle ........ 83 102
Gua E NOR BRE {fys 23.1 Sieie)d c ahae a2 14
siete atmirone:).). es alk tes! yee 6 73
Pectorals, distance from muzzle........ is
ee SE a a re she 84
Wentrals, length. <2.) ceesi oe de wen 14 3
Amis leaotinim 352%). sieis'a) hd cid netgats on LOZ
p Heit MONE. 6/3f4 65 5/6. vie se 6
, distance from muzzle .......... 32 1434
Candal pexpanses 4250.2. He ied sae et 2 12
Beales of Mimdiys Wide le. 45 5 ices qiarld d! Widiate 13

Fam. Tzn1ope# (LopnHotip#, Giinther).

LOPHOTES CRISTATUS, Sp. 0.
Picabout 250. %,b: lo.) Vee, As 193) 0.15. Mi B..G.

Elongated, compressed, blade-like ; the line of the unarmed belly
nearly straight; the back curving upwards slightly for the first
third, then falling gently to the tail. The height of the body, com-
pared with the length, is as 1 to 54. The colour is uniformly a sil-
very grey, without spots. The body is clothed with simple scales,
which are buried in the skin, and set obliquely so as to give a reti-
culated appearance. They are rather large and very delicate.

The head is short and unarmed ; it bears a high fleshy crest, the
horizontal line of which is straight with the back. This crest carries
the anterior portion of the dorsal fin, and it projects, at an acute
angle, beyond the vertical of the snout. At the angle rises a single
bony ray, which is equal in length to one-fourth of the total length
of the fish. A fringe of red membrane connects it with the dorsal
fin, of which it appears to be the first ray. The edges of the gill-
covers are simple, the bones radiate-striate. The round eye is large,
its diameter being contained three times in the head; the iris is
silvery white, the pupil oval. The space intervening between it and
the front of the head above the jaw is much less than a diameter ;
but the space between the edge of the capital crest and the superior
part of the orbit is considerably more than a diameter. The space
between the eye and the snout is reddish and scaleless. The mouth
is oblique and rather small ; the rictus about two-thirds the diameter
of the eye, and its width almost equal to adiameter. There are
about four rows of small conical-pointed teeth, which curve back-
wards, at the front of the premaxillary ; and about two rows of similar
teeth at the sides of the lower jaw, whilst in front they are crowded
four or five deep. Small teeth, very few in number, are planted on
the vomer and on the anterior extremities of the palatine bones ; but
there are none on the tongue. Inside the mouth, above and below,
there is stretched a black membrane from side to side. The maxil-

21*

316 Zoological Society :—

lary is toothless, and is much dilated below. It covers the pre-
maxillary at the sides, and reaches back to the vertical through the
middle of the eye. ;

The single dorsal fin extends from the capital crest to the caudal
fin, from which it is not easily distinguished. Behind the long bony
ray, already mentioned, it is low, the middle portion being higher
than the rest. The base is sheathed in transparent membrane, an
extension of the skin. The pectoral fins are of moderate size, placed
low down, and at a distance from the top of the lower jaw equal to
about an eighth of the total length of the fish. The first ray is bony
and very strong, but not longer than the rest, which are branched.
The ventral fins are very short, and are inserted a little behind the
pectoral fins, and only slightly below them. Only five, slender, simple
rays were counted in the specimen. The anal fin is low, it is placed
far behind, near the caudal fin, and its first three or four rays are
short. The vent is placed just before the fin. The tail, behind the
anal fin, has parallel margins, and is much compressed. It is low,
and its lower edge is finless ; whilst its upper edge carries the poste-
rior portion of the dorsal fin. The caudal fin is short, and is not
well distinguished from the dorsal fin; but there seem to be fifteen
rays, viz. ten below the lateral line and five above. The lower angle
only projects. This fin is not set on obliquely, as in some of the
genera of the family.

The unarmed Jateral line descends at an angle of 45° from the
angle of the capital crest to behind the eye; it is then straight along
the body to the base of the caudal fin.

The stomach is cecal, narrow, and tapers downwards. Numerous
ceca are attached to the intestine. The intestinal canal is long and
straight ; the egg-sac long and forked; the liver of moderate size.
The stomach of the specimen examined contained the much-digested
remains of a small fish and a Cephalopod.

Only a single individual of this curious fish has occurred. The
single species of the genus hitherto known, a Mediterranean fish
(Lophotes Cepedianus, Giorna), appears to be likewise very rare ; for
M. Valenciennes (Hist. Nat. des Poiss. x. 401) says that only three
specimens had been examined by naturalists, two of which had been
deposited in the Museum at Turin, and the third in the Museum at
Paris. In the British Museum are two stuffed specimens and one
preserved in spirits. The differences between the Madeiran fish and
the Mediterranean fish (as described in the Hist. Nat. des Poiss.),
which seem to justify the formation of a new species, are these :—
In the latter the height, compared with the length, is said to be as
1 to 7; and the thickness, compared with the height, as 1 to 3;
whereas in the Madeiran fish the height is to the length as 1 to 53,
and the thickness to the height as 1 to 6. Moreover, Valenciennes
says the skin is without scales, that its silvery-grey colour is relieved
with round spots of pure white, and that all the fins are of a lively
rose. Now the skin of the fish here described possesses scales, and
the colouring of the body and fins is a uniform grey. I may add
that I have examined the fish preserved in spirits at the British

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 317

Museum, but I could not detect any scales in the skin. The di-
mensions of the specimen, which will hereafter find its way to the
British Museum, are given in the following table :—

inches
Total length. . drsieysapi'g tars 50
Height (14 inches from snout) . b Be sesiersiaien farses cS nie
Height of bead through the eye...........-.... 7%
Thickness for the aes pene of ema bicep sing gl «5 11
Head .... ati ty iO
Eye, BE cn siconiet auhy G8 Sees Rees 22
, distance from front of head .............. 1
, distance from edge of crest . 3585
DURGA ig CHEGUIN Te OOS. Niciya-s urn! sesh her ete he, sessed) aig’ ate wav Pee
DOVER CME He APNE fad hai t; ores hp wid new ls ed «ibys RE 2
Teeth, length . pbs dep ee wee aa sae tew ADRES
Maxillary, MaMa uhelowéiakyocths alien waabeentt em nsiy (oe
Dorsal, demethy of firatomeyy ys. ci) sain ye weed dieser eis 124
y height of middle portion: .)<.. 6). M46 erm 1 2
Peetorals;jlensthy aS reeeend iis es Gini ietepinionh 3 3k
-, distance from tip of lower jaw.......... 62
, distance from lower pee of sald daisy sya 11
Be ES plik aelaeselaietn i: A ited he 7 ere
Weatralsl lengthy is hogs uct <sym ed ool lode + enemas 4
, distance from root of pectorals...... eiserselyhy eh
prrmpillaclolaty hs Foye. ahs coleranye. Rate syste xe persed elke fr
; distance fron; GAMMA: Ais, 5.d/<.0 ays sate Seco B ae 14
Pa eI G gs aeecsiebyet ded acer scsu aban oe eoteeays vo
Caudal, length at lower angle............ 0.0.05 14

Fam. ScoreLip&.
SAURUS ATLANTICUS, sp. n.

Ist Did: 2ud , Dy adipose... (P. 11. (.V..8.. As 9, Co 18.
M.B. 16.

Form of Saurus Lacerta, i.e. elongate and cylindrical. The height,
compared with the length, is as 1 to 7 nearly. The head, cheeks,
and back are of a dull red colour, with irregular patches of bluish
purple. The belly is white, as well as the sides, which, however,
are variegated with irregular patches of dull red and brownish yel-
low, arranged alternately and longitudinally. The rays of the first
dorsal fin are spotted with red. The anal fin is blotched with red-
dish marks in transverse lines, and with some opaque white marks.
The cycloid scales are of moderate size.

The long, depressed, unarmed ead is contained in the total length
about 41 times. The space between the eyes is hollowed, and the
head behind the eyes is flat and marked with radiating strie. Near
the tip of the muzzle there is a shield-shaped depression. There are
scales on the cheeks, and the opercle is bordered with a transparent
membrane. The eye is nearly round; its diameter is equal to one-
seventh of the head, and it is distant about two diameters from the
tip of the muzzle. It is placed rather before the middle of the upper

318 Zoological Society :—

jaw, and the upper part of the orbit forms part of the profile. The
space between the eyes is rather less than a diameter. The lower
jaw is more pointed than the upper, the upper rather longer than
the lower. The rictus is long, being equal to the height of the fish,
and extending much beyond the eyes. The upper border of the
mouth is formed entirely of the strong and thick dentiferous pre-
maxillary, the much weaker maxillary lying behind. Both bones
are covered, like the bones of the lower jaw, with a thick scaleless
skin. In the lower jaw there are two rows of small slender teeth
with hastoid apices ; those of the inner row are larger, they are rather
distant from each other ; and in the intervals are set some very much
shorter teeth of the same shape. All these teeth are directed inwards.
In the upper jaw there are also two rows of similarly shaped teeth,
which are about equal in size to those of the inner row in the lower jaw.
The teeth of the inner roware moveable. On the tongue are several
irregular rows of slender teeth, directed backwards. On the palatines
are about three rows of acicular moveable teeth, which are more
slender than those of the jaws. There are also teeth on the pharyn-
geal arches, but none on the vomer.

The gill-openings are large, and the branchiostegal membrane is
supported by sixteen rays on each side.

The first dorsal fin has a trapezoidal shape, and rises from a shal-
low groove posterior to the base of the ventral fins. It is short, and
terminates over the middle of the body. The two first rays are un-
branched ; the longest rays are the second and third, which neither
equal the height of the trunk nor the base of the fin. The minute
second dorsal fin is adipose, without rays, and is placed over the
middle of the anal fin. The pectoral fins are about one-eleventh of
the total length of the fish, and about half as long as the ventral fins ;
the first ray is shorter than the succeeding three, but longer than
the last. The ventral fins are inserted about halfway between the
pectoral and first dorsal fins. Their length is about one-fifth of the
total length of the fish. The lower rays are longer, the last but one
being the longest in the fin. The vent is far behind, being three-
fourths of the length of the fish, minus the caudal fin, from the
muzzle. The anal fin is short, and rises out of a shallow groove.
The caudal fin has eighteen rays, besides short external rays. On
each face of this fin there are two scale-like appendages, such as are
seen in Saurus Lacerta (“un appendice écailleux prolongé en une
petite palette.’’— Valenciennes).

The lateral line is straight, and is placed rather above the middle
of the body.

This description has been drawn up from a single specimen, ob-
tained in the month of April, which has been sent to the British
Museum. Another example, taken in May, only a trifle more than
3 inches long, had fourteen rays in the first dorsal fin, and ten rays in
the anal fin. There was a distinct dark spot at the tip of the muzzle.

The fish described by Mr. Lowe, in the ‘ Trans. Zool. Soc.’ vol. ii.
p- 183, under the name of Saurus griseus, is not to be distinguished
from S. Lacerta, as defined by Valenciennes (Hist. Nat. des Poiss.

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 319

vol. xxii. p. 463) ; and to the same species is to be assigned the fish
described by Valenciennes, in his ‘ Ichthyologie Canarienne,’ under
the name of S. ¢rivirgatus. Both these forms have been obtained
by me at Madeira.

The following are the dimensions of the larger of the two speci-
mens of S. atlanticus :—

inches.
OU teas RE ok ed ota; 0m si2 bo) 51d doles ahey a oie ssta bs dois 1]
EGU PEERY off 6 cals eeu ps osapa.a pibhviat « pines ft naan iad ot 1,5
1501? Ey, (C8 ate anv a eran ar oe PR Pee Ser 253
Hye; diameter. ..06 0% ++ “Sap Sa aati ea
First dorsal, distance from muzzle .............. 4
BREET AY S a3, 3 oars) preteens Sesser gynnsca ute
Second dorsal, BOMBING 2b, 5 vopacaiel slung Solayahel a gi eter vaode iy
= MAID wn Sc eres: segettne cy c aea oy
BOCh Oral eM Oty 24 6.5 out eh boca deg na sletann aay See l
Wien Graben 6 i 2 icp aa nce} ch segua acta peer seisie' diese 2
, distance of their vertical from muzzle .... 34
Vent, distance from muzzle. .......... 2.000. cece Fine
Prt aa CURIA ras oP cits, hina Sin Sse, witexece w+. 9 ace, eye ed eeprelsioddods ES
RET RO DASE © Facets wrcaa seialo isthsa nas etialaie to
, distance from base of ventrals ............ 44
Caudal; lengths. «6 nn x +06% 1,5

ScoPELUS CAUDISPINOSUS, Sp. nl.

ist, D.-26. 2nd I. adipose. .P..12. V..9.. Ai 192 C. yi.
10+11. vii. M.B. 10.

Body slender, with the head of a peculiar aspect, from the steep
profile, the forward eye, and the deep mouth-cleft. The height is
to the total length as 1 to 7, and the thickness about one-twelfth of
the total length. The scales are cycloid.

The head curves rapidly downwards in front of the eyes, forming
a quadrantic profile. Compared with the total length, it is as 1 to
4%. It is scaleless, unarmed, and arched above. The eye hasa
diameter equal to about one-fifth of the length of the head, and is
placed less than half a diameter distant from the muzzle, which is
short, blunt, and truncate. The oral cleft is oblique, and reaches
much beyond the eyes. The upper border of the mouth is formed
by the premaxillary, the slender maxillary lying behind. There are
villiform bands of ¢eeth in each jaw, on the palatines, and on the
pharyngeals, as well as three longitudinal bands on the tongue, the
middle one widening backwards. ‘There are also patches of similar
teeth on the entopterygoids ; but the vomer is unarmed. The rakers
of the branchial arches carry small teeth. The gill-openings are
large, and the gill-covers are of a dark blue colour inside ; the opercle
has an angular form near the root of the pectoral fin.

The pectoral fin is small, being to the total length as 1 to 114.
It is inserted low down, and reaches nearly to the root of the ventral
fins. The first dorsal fin is placed at the middle of the back. It is
higher in front, but its height does not equal that of the fish. The

320 Zoological Society :—

abdominal ventral fins are inserted under the anterior part of the
first dorsal; they do not reach quite so far back as the commence-
ment of the anal fin. The anal fin is of moderate length ; it com-
mences under the middle of the first dorsal fin. On the upper edge
of the tail there are eight small sharp spines, followed by two larger
spines ; on the lower edge are nine small spines, followed by two
larger ones.

The single example of this fish that has occurred (taken in the
month of February) was so much damaged that little can be said
about the scales or colour. It appeared, however, to have been
nearly black ; but there were no traces of silvery spots on the sides.
The muscles abounded with oil.

It appears to be nearly allied to Scopelus Crocodilus, Valenciennes,
who assigns twenty rays to the first dorsal and eighteen rays to the
anal fins of that species (H. N. Poiss. xxii. 447). Of that fish it is
stated that the eye is contained 34 times in the head, and that the
pectoral fins do not reach to the ventral fins. No dark blotch at the
base of the caudal fin was observed in my fish. It would seem to
fall into Rafinesque’s subgenus Myctophum ; but it is distinguishable
from all the four species described and figured in the ‘ Fauna Italica,’
by the greater length of the first dorsal fin, and by the larger number
of rays in that fin, which, in the four species referred to, range from
twelve to seventeen.

The following are the dimensions of the example which has been
sent to the British Museum :—

inches.
QcOMMAN OA; e254 cia ere sind ppee o's ee Frakes le geal 64
Height under ifirst:dordal: «\.j0 5 2s sid lew ie eee 5
PRA ERESR Ss wrk oer Mid eg URee Mee deen Miele tk
rend atly Badan. oe. dey sia. Ma 154
Hive; aime lenis «sis Peden sep nadine al whe wmee 4 5
MMonthecleftjdleneth: is ieee 0 ee i sale eee eee
First dorsal, distance from muzzle .............. 2
= MBE rac ish gs ld .ad Ais Sao Mala / igre aa
=; length: af ibase.'s .i0isisies 6a/0.'S. eaccalae baa
Pectorals; lengthy. )2 3.0 selene. veleea sivietodthlale cpehans s
Wentralg, leneth |.) '.qess0% LBA A Sea ee ee 5
, distance from tip of mandible .......... 2
mines lene thot base® \4..Giil HP Adee Ri sie li
, distance from tip of mandible ............ 2355
Caudal; length,....3...%.. 15

NEOSCOPELUS, gen. nov.

Oblong, compressed, covered with large caducous scales. First
dorsal fin placed over the abdominal ventral fins. The pectoral fins
long; their inferior rays not thicker than the rest. Mouth-cleft
not extending beyond the eyes. The maxillary dilated below, and
furnished with a small supplementary piece. The upper border of
the mouth formed entirely of the premaxillary. Scobinate bands of
teeth in both jaws, on the palatine bones, and on the vomer ; scobi-

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on new Fishes from Madeira. 321

nate patches of teeth on the entopterygoids. Branchiostegal mem-
brane with nine rays. '

This new genus is allied to both Aulopus and Scopelus. In its
moderate number of branchiostegal rays and scopeloid form of body
it approaches the latter genus; the shape of the teeth and the den-
tiferous vomer ally it to the former. From Odontostomus it is di-
stinguished by the moderate size of the eye and the immobility of
the teeth; from Lampanyctus by the greater height of the body
and by the comparatively short rictus, which, in that genus, extends
much beyond the eye.

NEOSCOPELUS MACROLEPIDOTUS, Sp. n.

Ist D. 4.9. 2ndadipose. P.18. V.8. A.13. C. iv. 1049.
iii, B.M.9. Scales of lateral line 30.

Oblong, compressed, the height contained 43 times, and the thick-
ness 10 times in the total length. Back and sides dark red, becom-
ing uniformly fuscous in spirit; cheeks silvery; throat and belly
black ; the scales on the belly having a pearly iridescent centre, and
forming about five longitudinal rows of spots; all the fins a pinky
red, approaching scarlet. None of the fins, except the caudal, are
sealy.

The head is contained rather less than four times in the total
length. It is somewhat compressed, and the cheeks are flat. On
the vertex, above the posterior margin of the eyes, are two small
spines. The opercular pieces, the head between the eyes, and the
jaws are scaleless. The upper part of the opercle is marked by a
low longitudinal ridge. The neck and shoulder are rather high.
Between the eyes are two broad, shallow, longitudinal grooves, with
two low ridges between them. This part has an adipose or gelati-
nous appearance, and it is marked with some twenty or more trans-
verse beaded lines, and in the neighbourhood of the eyes with nume-
rous gelatinous papille. The round eye, the iris of which has a
golden-greenish colour, is contained about five times in the head,
and is placed at a distance of not quite a diameter and a half from
the tip of the muzzle. It is surrounded by an adipose border, which
intrudes upon it at the antero-superior side, and which has a small
notch at the posterior side. The distance from eye to eye is nearly
equal to a diameter and a half. The nostrils are close together, and
placed halfway between the eye and the jaw; the hinder one of
each pair is large. The muzzle is rounded, and short but not ab-
rupt. There is a protuberance on the premaxillary, behind the sym-
physis of the jaw. The under jaw projects slightly beyond the up-
per. The upper border of the mouth is formed entirely of the pre-
maxillary, behind which is the toothless maxillary, having a length
one-half that of the head. The latter is dilated below, is furnished
with a very small and narrow supplementary piece, and extends back
to the vertical from the posterior border of the eye. There is a sco-
binate band of teeth on each jaw, the inner rows being rather larger
and almost cardiform. A portion of these dental bands is seen out-
side the mouth when it is closed. A narrow band of similar teeth

322 Zoological Society :—

is found on the palatines, and a chevron-shaped patch on the vomer.
The thick tongue is toothless in front ; but behind there is a narrow
band of small teeth along the middle as far as the branchiz extend.
On the entopterygoids there are large oval patches of minute teeth.
On the outermost free branchial arch are long rakers, of which one
edge is set with a band of minute teeth ; and on its hinder surface is
a series of short rakers, the apices of which bear numerous minute
teeth. The other branchial arches bear short stout rakers, which
have teeth at their ends; and the hinder faces of these arches have
similar processes to those of the first arch.

The tongue, the mouth, and the insides of the gill-covers are
bluish black. The gill-openings are large. The delicate branchio-
stegal membrane is supported by nine rays, of which the first is hair-
like, and the last very broad, with a raised posterior edge. The first
dorsal fin has a trapezoidal shape, and is placed well forward over
the ventral fins. The four first rays are unbranched, and the first
of these is very short. The longest ray is the fifth, and this is about
two-thirds the length of the head. The second dorsal fin is adipose
and scaleless ; it is placed over the hinder part of the anal fin. The
pectoral fins are longer than the ventral fins. They have about
two-thirds of the height of the fish above their bases, and they reach
back beyond the end of the first dorsal fin, but not quite so far as the
vent. Their inferior rays are not thicker than the rest. The ab-
dominal ventral fins have stout rays, and the first one is unbranched
and shorter than the next three, which are about equal to each other.
The abdomen is flat between the roots of these fins. The vent is
immediately in front of the trapezoidal anal fin, the first ray of which
is unbranched and very short; the fourth ray is the longest. The
tail is much compressed. The caudal fin is deeply furcate, spotted
with minute black spots, and covered with small scales.

The distinct lateral line descends rather rapidly from the shoulder ;
but from the pectoral region it is straight along the middle of the
body. The caducous scales which clothe the body are large and re-
markably broad, with the exposed margins armed with several rows
of small spines. Those of the lateral line are about thirty in number,
and in the height of the body ten rows may be counted, viz. four
above, and five below the lateral line, which is itself formed of the
tenth row.

Of this species only a single example (now in the British Museum)
has oceurred, and this was taken in the month of January. Its
dimensions are given below :—

inches
Mataltenstin Le Hueeney way ilk Soa lewreeiier 1053;
Height, a little in front of first dorsal .......... 2y0
PU Hickinesaenct Mateatere cette ale wink 8's =f atsi ges eee ly
lead) < s3/ BY ARE e Sees se 2s ses Ee ee ae ee
Byes, diameter setae stab ja 2 aot Raj bee jawter -
. «@istanee wpanty ji o\s4-2. Liwid aeesers ato 2k ne, vo
Mouth, width behind when open ...........-.- l

» length of upper jaw .......06.-++0+ sees 12

Dr. O. Wucherer on the Ophidians of Bahia. 323

‘ inches.
First dorsal, distance from muzzle .............. 32
ap lemme Gitere ABE: 1s). /3-<.cletaie wis vs /slels ss « 12
—— - , length of first branched ray ........ 12
—, length of last ray 2... eee een 3
Secondidarsaly height. 6.042). eraser lale tbe 4
, distance from first dorsal.......... 12
Peetardmislenerlasc ts ohea a. ho et acotdeasaitee Wid orale aya 24
_ eastiance from: muzZes s-.) be...) wr soe ee 22
MNVECDEL CHG DASE ae lore i ds arars> osseotd Bek vi Grantee is
Woriralywlemaphin ga. ste. -3, 5 Steves os SU Asi as 9 boats 1}
, distance behind pectorals .............. 1
Vent, distance of vertical from muzzle .......... 555
Ang, lensebrof fourth, ray. .-.:2)..bs-satrcied wand Zs 14
paket Gf basen § 2 ..c66 ba 4 eteahaed dl ducrsia eeaesbt 11
+ Gistance trom) ventirals: «8s... series. oe alete cece 23
Pail, Hermite ise arses nord Shak Aas 5 0 os See &
Wapdals Temata rarsinitel dove ala at seen nh eee 6 aed 2

Jan. 27, 1863.—G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

On THE OPHIDIANS OF THE PROVINCE oF Banta, BRAZIL.
By Dr. Orso Wucuerer, Corr. Memes. (Part III.*)

The Dryadidz which I have here been able to obtain belong to
two genera—Herpetodryas and Philodryast. The specimens of
Herpetodryas were in very considerable number, but I am disposed
to consider them all belonging to H. carinatus. They showed many
varieties as regards their scales; some appeared to possess no keels
at all, indeed the keel was almost effaced, and barely perceptible, on
very close inspection, in a few only of the scales. But these speci-
mens agreed in every other respect so much with undoubted speci-
mens of H. carinatus that I could not help considering them spe-
cifically the same, and supposing Schlegel was right in not regarding
H. fuscus as a species. HH. carinatus is one of the few Snakes pos-
sessing the peculiarity pointed out by Reinhardt, that, though they
have keeled scales, these have but one groove at the tip. The groove
is often very indistinct in H. carinatus, and to be found only on
some of the scales of the neck.

Of the genus Philodryas I have seen two species—Philodryas
Reinhardtii and P. Olfersii. Of these, the former is by far the most
common in our neighbourhood. Soon after my attention was drawn
to the small grooves on the scales, I found that all my specimens of
P. viridissimus had but one groove on each scale. I therefore thought
Reinhardt was wrong in stating this Snake to have two grooves,
until Dr. Ginther showed that there were two species comprehended
under the name P. viridissimus, to the one of which with two grooves
he has left the name viridissimus (Surinam), establishing the other
with one groove as a new species— P. Reinhardtii (Brazil).

* See ‘ Annals,’ 1861], vol. viii. p. 179 ; 1862, vol. ix. p. 251.

+ [To these we may now add the genus Dromicus; see page 325.—A. G.]

324 Zoological Society :-—

Of P. Olfersii I have seen about half-a-dozen specimens. One
was sent to me lately from Rio de Janeiro, the rest were from this

rovince.

Of the family Dendrophide a single species, dhetulla liocerea,
has come to my notice, but in few specimens. One was sent to
me from Rio de Janeiro; when alive, it is a very beautiful animal.

The family of Dryiophide is represented in this province by two
species of the genus Dryiophis—D. argentea and D. acuminata, of
which the former seems to be very scarce, whereas the latter is ex-
ceedingly common. I have nothing to add to what is already known
of these animals. I have repeatedly tried to keep live specimens in
confinement, but they all soon perished, after incessant disquietude,
without ever taking food of any kind.

The Brazilian Dipsadide are all, as far as I have been able to
ascertain, of nocturnal habits. During the day, specimens are found
only in dark, sheltered places ; at night they are frequently met with
abroad. A specimen of Leptodeira annulata, which I kept for a
long time in confinement, was never visible during the day, being
hid in a crevice of its cage, but soon after sunset it became very
lively. I never saw it take any food; and it died after several
months’ confinement, probably from inanition. This species is very
frequently found close to dwellings and in the thatch of houses.

Of Thamnodynastes Nattereri I have obtained a great many spe-
cimens; but of 7’. punctatissimus only a few from Canavieras.

My statement to Dr. Ginther, that I had seen a specimen of Eu-
dipsas leucocephalus, was founded on a mistake ; no specimen of this
species has yet come to my notice.

Leptognathus Catesbyi is not very scarce. Of L. Mikanii I have
only lately received specimens from Caravellas.

The Brazilian species belonging to the family Scytalidee are nu-
merous. Of Scytale coronata I have seen only the variety B.
of Dr. Giinther’s Catalogue. It is exceedingly common, and very
remarkable for the different changes of coloration it undergoes by
age. Young specimens are of a pale pink colour; adults are of an
almost uniform black colour above, and white beneath. It lives, like
all the members of this family, on lizards, chiefly on our most com-
mon species, Trachycyclus marmoratus. I have frequently had
specimens of Scytale and Oxyrhopus alive for months; they are all
of seminocturnal habits, and pursue their prey, not during the night,
but at beginning of dusk, or a short time before sunset. On seizing
they seldom crush their victims, unless these offer strong resistance ;
and considering how vigorous and tenacious of life lizards are, I have
often been surprised at the little resistance they offer when caught
even only by a leg. They seem paralyzed. If they struggle, the
snake quickly throws a coil or two over them; if not, they allow
their pursuer, after a little while, to relinquish its hold and to seize
them deliberately by the head. Is it that the Snakes with grooved
teeth are, after all, not quite innocuous, at least for cold-blooded
animals? I was once severely bitten by a Philodryas Reinhardtu
without feeling the slightest subsequent inconvenience.

Dr. A. Giinther on a new Snake from Bahia. 325

Of the genus Oxyrhopus I have seen the following species :—
O. Clelia, O. formosus, O. petolarius, O. immaculatus, and O. tri-
geminus. The last-named one and O. petolarius are the most
common. Of O. immaculatus I have seen a single specimen.

Of the family Elapidze two species are very common— Laps lemnis-
eatus and EL. corallinus. The variety of the latter with white-edyed
black rings never attains but a small size; it differs also in colora-
tion from the others, being brick-red. I am therefore inclined to con-
sider it as a distinct species—the LZ. circinalis of Dum. and Bibron.

ApDITION TO Dr. WucHERER’S ARTICLE ON THE OPHIDIANS
oF Baunia. By Dr. A. Ginruer, F.Z.S., etc.

Almost simultaneously with the concluding part of Dr. Wucherer’s
paper ‘On the Ophidians of Bahia,” I received from him a small
Snake, which on examination proved to be a new species of the
genus Dromicus.

Mr. Cope has lately * pointed out the complete gradation existing
between the most slender species of Dromicus and the stout forms of
the genus Liophis, dividing them into six divisions, characterized by
the structure of the scales and by the relative length of the tail.
This new species would enter the division Lygophis of his arrange-
ment, having the scales without grooves, and a tail the length of
which is one-fourth of the total.

Dromicvus (LyGorui1s) WUCHERERI, sp. noy.

Scales in fifteen rows. Loreal square; one preorbital, reaching
to the upper surface of the head, but not touching the vertical ; two

ase

_
ee ZS
Seg ees

postorbitals ; eight upper labials, the third, fourth, and fifth enter-
ing the orbit (the third with its posterior angle only) ; the seventh
labial forms only a small portion of the lip, and on one side it is

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1862, p. 75.

+ Mr. Cope’s general observations on the species of these genera are perfectly
correct, and the divisions proposed by him are most convenient for the determi-
nation of the species, but they do not appear to me to be more natural groups than
those which we had before; for instance, Liophis Regine is certainly more closely
allied to ZL. Merremii and to L. Cobella than to Dromicus Temminckii; yet L. Re-
gine and D. Temminckii are united into one group, and the two others into
another. JL. conirostris cannot be separated from L. Regine. And if Liophis and
Dromicus be brought into so close a proximity as they are by Mr. Cope, Zamenis
and certain species of Coronella, Leptodira, &c., cannot be kept at a distance.

326 Miscellaneous.

even somewhat remote from the labial edge, the sixth and eighth
labials being in contact with each other (as in Diemennia, where this
shield is generally described as a temporal). An elongate temporal
shield is in contact with both oculars; five scale-like temporals be-
hind, in two transverse series. Five pairs of the lower labials are in
contact with the chin-shields. 160 ventral shields; anal bifid;
66 subcaudals.

The posterior maxillary tooth is the strongest, and somewhat re-
mote from the preceding.

Light brownish olive, minutely dotted with brown. Anterior part
of the trunk with twelve pairs of brown spots, which are arranged in
a zigzag series; the spots of the two anterior pairs are confluent.
Head brown, with a pair of rounded, well-defined, yellowish spots ;
a yellow line from above the eye, along the canthus rostralis, round
the snout; upper lip yellow, separated from the brown colour by a
black line; anterior ventral shields with an irregular series of black
dots on each side; belly yellow.

The typical specimen is an adult male, 16 inches long. I name
the species after my friend Dr. O. Wucherer of Bahia, its discoverer,
who informs me that he has seen only three specimens of it, alike
in size and colour. The species, therefore, appears to be scarce.

MISCELLANEOUS.
On the Acanthocephali. By Rupotea Levucxkart.

Tue Acanthocephali are the only group of Entozoa the develop-
ment of which has hitherto eluded the investigations of naturalists.
Dujardin and Siebold have indicated that the ova of the Hchino-
rhynchi contain embryos very different from their parents ; but this
constitutes the whole of our knowledge, and the attribution to these
animals of a simple metamorphosis by Van Beneden and G. Wagner
is a pure hypothesis.

Prof. Leuckart was struck more than once by the presence of an
imperfectly developed Kchinorhynchus in the freshwater Gammarus
(G. Pulex), and he thought that he recognized a certain resem-
blance between this parasite and the Echinorhynchus Proteus of
the Carps. He therefore scattered the ova of six or eight Hchino-
rhynchi of this species in a bottle containing Gammari, and in a _
few days found a great number of these ova in the intestine of the
Gammari. He also found that the embryos quitted their envelopes,
pierced the wall of the intestine, and passed into the abdominal
cavity of these Crustaceans. These young worms are truncated an-
teriorly, and the truncated surface bears a double bundle of chitinous
spines. In the interior of the body there is an accumulation of oval
granules, previously indicated by Siebold as a constant organ of the
embryos of Echinorhynchi: Siebold regarded this organ as an un-
assimilated residue of the vitellus. To avoid prejudging, it may be
called the nucleus.

The young embryo increases in size for about three weeks, after
which it undergoes a singular metamorphosis. Its nucleus is elon-

Miscellaneous. 397

gated, organized, and gradually converted into a true Echinorhynchus.
The latter is therefore formed within the primitive embryo like an
Echinoderm in its Pluteus, or a Nemertes in its Pilidium. It
rapidly increases in size, becoming twice or three times its former
length, and finally fills the body of the embryo completely. The
latter is not destroyed, but persists and becomes transformed to con-
stitute the envelopes external to the muscular tube of the worm—
envelopes which are distinguished, as has long been known, by the
existence of a proper vascular system. The primitive cuticle and
the bundles of spines disappear ; but this slight moulting is a phe-
nomenon of far less importance than the casting of the Pilidium by
the young Nemertes.

When the cephalic armature of the Echinorhynchus is formed, it
draws back into the posterior part of its body like a Cysticercus in
its vesicle.

The number of these parasites is sometimes very considerable.
Prof. Leuckart has counted as many as fifty or sixty in a single
Gammarus; but in this case they often destroy their host.—Nach-
richten der kin. Ges. der Wiss. zu Gottingen, Oct. 1862; Bidl.
Univ. March 20, 1863, Bull. Scient. p. 245.

Note on the Animal of Lithotis Tupicola.
By Wrixu1am T. Bianrorp, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.

Since sending the descriptions of Lithotis and Cremnobates (see
p- 184) I have obtained much finer specimens of the former shell
from the same locality—the rocks of the Bhore Ghat. The animals
being in full vigour, I had a better opportunity of observing them :
those previously captured were estivating and very sluggish. One
or two of the characters previously noted require correction, and I
have observed some additional particulars of interest.

The foot, during the monsoon, is rather longer than the shell, and
oval, the head-lobe being separated by a groove. ‘There is no trace
of the lower pair of (true) tentacles; the upper pair, or eye-pedicels,
are much swollen and mammiform towards the base. The upper jaw
is horny and arcuate; the lower lip deeply cleft. Mantle closed,
with the exception of a circular orifice at the end of the siphonal
ridge in the shell.

The largest specimen I now possess measures 103 millimetres by 7,
and is 33 mill. high.

Lithotis abounded upon the surface of the damp rocks. Cremno-
bates occurred only where water ran down the face of the cliff, thus
confirming my expectation of the latter proving to be an amphibious
rather than a terrestrial form.

Poona, Aug. 6, 1863.

Habits of the King-Craé (Polyphemus).
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

Several uses have been suggested for the elongated spine-like tail of

this genus of Crustacea. They have several specimens alive in a

shallow tank in the Liverpool Museum ; and Mr. Moore showed me

3828 Miscellaneous.

one use these crabs make of this appendage. If they are turned
over on their backs, they bend down the tail until they can reach
some point of resistance, and then use it to elevate the body and
regain their normal position; and they did this repeatedly and
quickly. They have never been seen to use this tail for the purpose
which has often been assigned to it—that is, for leaping from place
to place by bending it under their body, like the toy called a “spring-
jack”’ or “leaping-frog.”

Delphinus crassidens.

This Cetacean, which was described by Professor Owen, in his
work on Fossil Mammalia, from a skull found in the bottom of a
fen in Lincolnshire, has lately been discovered as a recent species,
which occurs in great shoals in the North Sea. The animal and its
anatomy have been described by Professor Reinhardt of Copenhagen,
under the name of Pseudorca crassidens, as forming a genus inter-
mediate between Grampus and Orca. .

Distribution of Bos Taurus and Bos Dante in Africa.
To Dr. J. L. Gray, F.R.S. &e.
Kno, Central Africa, July 25, 1862.

Dear Sir,—I am desirous, through you, of correcting a slight
error in Barth’s ‘ Travels,’ into which he has apparently been led from
want of acquaintance with zoological divisions. In Appendix to
vol. iii. p. 574, in speaking of a place named ‘ Warji’ (but which
ought to be ‘ Warzhi’), he says, “Cattle of a peculiar kind called
Miuturti are frequent here, much smaller than the ox,” &c. Now
this ‘Muturt’ is the Bos Taurus, which is the ox of the south and
south-west countries to the Gulf of Guinea, and which, from being
- abundant in Gbari or Gwari, is often called the Gbari ox. I have
seen numbers of them, and, about two months ago, while among a
wild tribe dwelling on rocks, I saw cattle which I could not have
told from small Highland cattle or from our old Orkney cattle; but
all are B. Taurus. The cattle of Hausa, again, and of Bérnu and
the countries on the Great Desert, and westward to Firta Toro, are
all B. Dante; and when in his writings Dr. Barth speaks of cattle
or oxen, he always means this species. If not noticed, Dr. Barth’s
remark might lead to the belief that there is here a new species of Bos.
B. Dante has not always a hump: three days ago I bought one,
a pack-ox, with enormous horns, but no hump. Old bulls have a
regular falx-shaped hump. The prevailing colour is white, with.
black muzzle, eyes, and inside of ears, like some wild cattle in Eng-
land ; but in some places red and. brown are also frequent. In Nupe
and other places, the species are crossed, and the offspring has no
hump, and approaches more to B. Taurus. I have had several op-
portunities of comparing the two, and will, when I am able, send you
my remarks. B. Taurus is the prettier of the two. Excuse these

few hurried lines, and believe me, dear Sir,

Very truly yours,

Wo. Batrovur BatrkIE.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. |

No. 71. NOVEMBER 1863.

XX XII.—Further Observations on the Distinctive Characters and
Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. By G.C.
Wattuicy, M.D., F.L.S., &e.

ALTHOUGH certain changes have taken place in the aspect of
the specimens of Ameba villosa still met with in the remain-
ing portion of the Hampstead material in which they were
originally discovered, these neither involve the loss of any
essential characters, nor can they justly be regarded as any-
thing more than mere changes in degree. As now seen, the
individuals have become somewhat reduced in size; they con-
tain less fresh-looking organic food-particles; their movements
are more sluggish; the nucleated corpuscles and sarcoblasts
are not so frequently met with; the crystalloids, although not
less numerous, are smaller; the nucleus is shrunk somewhat,
but still retains its very marked membranous capsule; the con-
tractile vesicle performs its diastole and systole at longer inter-
vals ; and, lastly, the villi are not so densely studded over the
surface of the villous region. But inasmuch as these evidences
of impaired vitality are equally manifest in very recently pro-
cured specimens, it 1s probable that they are due to the opera-
tion of identical causes—namely, failure of proper nutriment
incidental on the season, or temporary stagnation, without ab-
solute drying-up, of the water in which they live.

In the August Number of the ‘ Annals’ (p. 124) I expressed
my doubts as to the “reproductive cells”’ of Mr. Carter (assum-
ing these to be the same bodies to which I had given the name
of sarcoblasts) being the product of repeated binary division of
the nucleus, and I gave reasons for inclining to an opposite
conclusion. My late observations show that these doubts were
not unfounded ; for whilst I am able to confirm Mr. Carter’s
statement regarding the recurrence of nuclear division up to a
certain limit, I still experience the same difficulty in reconciling

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xu.

330 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters and

presence, sometimes of a single, sometimes of multiple en-
_yeapsuled nuclei, which I have frequently witnessed, with the
~ occurrence in the same individual of a large number of sarco-
blasts of nearly uniform average size, but which size differs very
materially from the also uniform size of these multiple nuclei.
In short, I believe that whilst duplicative division does take
place in the nucleus and the nuclear capsule up to a certaim
point, it stops there—and that the sarcoblasts are formed within
the body of the nucleus, and are not segments of it and its cap-
sule combined. This view is strengthened, moreover, by some
curious facts which have been observed by me only within the
past few days—facts which would seem to indicate that the
office of the true nuclei is not identical with that of the sarco-
blasts, although in both cases a new brood is the result. How
the sarcoblasts escape though the apparently imperforate cap-
sule of the nucleus I am ignorant; but I would remark that in
Acanthometra and Thalassicolla they occur within the nuclear
body, as well as externally to its capsule (that is to say,
throughout the endosare generally), whereas amongst a multi-
tude of the last-named organisms examined by me I have not
met with a divided or a dividing nucleus in a single instance ;
and in the Foraminifera and Polycystina, which possess no true
nucleus at all, the sarcoblasts (‘yellow cells” of authors) are
present in great number. It is possible, however, that I may
be in error in regarding my sarcoblasts as identical with the
“ reproductive cells” of Mr. Carter, more particularly as he de-
scribes the latter as invariably exhibiting a distinct capsule in
their mature state, whereas I have entirely failed to detect any
endogenously formed bodies, besides the nucleus or few multiple
nuclei, which possess a definite capsular covering. It only re-
‘mains for me to point out that the sarcoblasts in their early
stage present a pale-yellow tint, and are somewhat oily-looking,
which is not the case with the multiple nuclear bodies. Addi-
tional evidence, however, must be produced before these ques-
tions can be regarded as definitively answered.

Recent examples also enable me to corroborate the statement
advanced in my previous papers respecting the occasional occur-
rence of a simultaneous tripartite division of the nucleus. When
this happens, it is brought about by the inversion of two folds of
the nuclear capsule nearly at right angles to each other, one
fold passing completely across so as to isolate a segment, whilst
the other bisects the remaining portion. In this manner the
three divisions, although originally differing in shape, may each
contain equal quantities of nuclear matter, and by the gradual
rounding of their outline ultimately assume isometrical propor-
tions. In these instances, and indeed in the case of the multiple

Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 331

nuclei generally, I have detected no nucleolus, and the granular
mass of the nucleus has invariably filled up its own capsule. In
no example, whether amongst the youngest or most mature spe-
cimens, have I observed the nucleus (that is, the entire nuclear
cell and contents) attached to the. ectosarc, or the granular
mass of the nucleus itself attached at one point to the interior
of the capsule containing it,—the granular mass being free, and
its component granules merely sustained within a matrix of
viscid protoplasm, although frequently these granules cling, as
it were, to the interior of the cell, just as the chlorophyll-gra-
nules of the vegetable cell, generally speaking, form a layer im-
mediately within the denser granular protoplasm which lines
and circulates within its interior.

It will be seen, on reference to Mr. Carter’s last paper in the
‘Annals’ (October 1863, p. 254), that he now entirely relin-
quishes the character derived from the supposed anomaly in the
configuration of the nucleus, on which he so strongly insisted
in his reconstruction of the typical characters of Ameba princeps,
and accepts, as the distinctive feature of that form, the villous
appendage and, as a matter of course, the novel phenomena in-
volved in the discovery of its presence in Ameba villosa. Further
comment upon this is accordingly unnecessary.

Another point on which my previous views have been mate-
rially strengthened by recent experience is the nature of the cir-
culation in Ameba. Iam more than ever convinced that this
is not a vital act, but a secondary and mere mechanical effect
consequent on the inherent vital contractility of the sarcode. It
is only necessary to watch a specimen of Ameba carefully, to
become convinced that the appearance of a returning as well as
an advancing stream of granules is illusory. The stream, it will
be observed, is invariably in the direction of the preponderating
pseudopodial projections. The particles simply flow along with
the advancing rush of protoplasm. There is no return stream ;
but the semblance of one is engendered by one layer of particles
remaining at rest whilst another is moving past them. In
short, the effect is similar to that which would be produced were
an empty and transparent bladder or caoutchouc sac, containing
granular bodies of greater specific gravity than the viscid fluid
within which they were sustained, to be rolled along a plane
surface. In such a case it is obvious that only those granules
on the upper or free aspect of the sac would be carried onwards
—that, having arrived at the most advanced point, they would be
deposited, as it were, and remain stationary, as would also that
portion of the sac on which they rested, until the rest of the
mass should have flowed over them again, causing them now to
appear at the posterior extremity, when they would once more

22%

802 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters and

be urged onwards as before. The same explanation will, I think,
be found to, hold good even in the attenuated pseudopodia of
some families, as, for instance, the Foraminifera. The essential
attributes of sarcode (namely, extensibility and contractility),
coupled with the polymorphism evident in every example im
which definite form is not partially maintained by the pre-
sence of a shell or test, necessarily involve the power of retract-
ing as well as projecting these processes, whereas the tenacity of
the substance is not such that a pseudopodium once projected
can be retracted towards the body in the same way that a piece
of rope thrown forwards from a given point can be hauled in
again inch by inch. In the broad pseudopodium of Ameba, as
also in the attenuated filament of the Foraminifera, or the still
more subtle filament of Acanthometra or Euglypha, the process
is the same, and is brought about by a reciprocal outward and
imward flow of the sarcode-substance; and thus the granular
particles are merely the passive exponents of a vital foree which
exists quite independently of them. Hence, with all deference
to so high an authority as Professor Schultze, I would still re-
gard the circulation of granules in the Rhizopods as a pseudo-
cyclosis, analogous, I grant, in appearance, but not in origin, to
the cyclosis observable in certain vegetable cells, as for example
Tradescantia.

Whilst recently endeavouring to establish the relation between
the phenomena of the circulation seen in Ameba and the cell of
Vallisnerta, the following very singular facts revealed themselves.
As is well known, within each cell of Vallisneria is to be found—
in addition to the more watery portion (or, as Mr. Carter has ap-
propriately termed it, the “axial fluid”’), the layer of very finely
granular protoplasm which seems to hug and flow round the in-
terior of the wall, and the chlorophyll-granules—a single colour-
less mass of protoplasm (of considerable size) which, generally
speaking, is only partially affected by the cyclosis, but neverthe-
less sometimes flows round with the chlorophyll-granules and
occasionally adheres to the peripheral protoplasm so as to form
a nodule on its internal aspect. This mass of protoplasm, which
has been termed the nucleus or cytoblast, presents at its centre
a nucleolus which may be rendered very palpable by the ordinary
chemical reagents, but especially so by solution of magenta.
Occasionally also some of the chlorophyll-granules form an in-
vesting layer over the surface of the nucleus, remaining adherent
to it in such a manner as to prove that their presence is not acci-
dental. This association of chlorophyll-granules and nucleus is
very constant in the mature leaf, but, together with the cyclosis
and other phenomena now about to be mentioned, is most di-
stinctly visible in the perianth. On examining a delicate lon-

Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 3338

gitudinal section taken from the free margin of the perianth,
the gradational changes which take place in the cytoblast, from
the free state first described to that in which it is embraced by
the green chlorophyll-granules, and, after divesting itself of these
bodies, becomes differentiated into a distinct anterior and poste-
rior portion, the former throwing out the flagelliform proboscis
of Astasia, whereas a regularly pulsating contractile vesicle inva-
riably occupies a position in the latter, are most strikingly ma-
nifested. Of the purely endogenous origin of the Astasia-like
bodies I feel perfectly satisfied, having, as already stated, not
only detected the single cytoblast in every cell both of the leaf,
the spiral flower-stem, and the perianth, but also assured my-
self by the most careful examination that no lesion had taken
place in the cell-walls whereby the entrance of zoospores might
have been effected. But the most wonderful feature remains
yet to be noticed—namely, the multiplication of the Astasza-
like bodies by longitudinal fission whilst still within the parent
cell, until sometimes as many as ten have been congregated
together. In several cases the entire process, which did not
occupy more than half an hour, took place under my eyes—com-
mencing at the ciliated extremity, and proceeding backwards
until it reached the contractile vesicle, which, after sundry parti-
tions and reunions, finally divided into two halves, one of which
was apportioned to each of the new individuals.

Without entering at present into the subsequent history of
these bodies, I am desirous of pointing out wherein they resemble
and wherein they present marked differences from the characters
described by me as pertaining to Ameba. Like the Amoeban
Rhizopods generally, without any exception, whether naked or
testaceous, their protoplasmic substance is differentiated into
an anterior and posterior portion. ‘Their contractile vesicle
discharges itself invariably in the latter region, but, unlike that
of the Ameba, it is fixed in that position permanently. When
supplementary contractile vesicles are given off from or near the
primary one, they either coalesce with it or discharge themselves
independently as in Ameba. The nucleus which is in the centre
of the body never alters its position. And lastly, whereas the
movements in Ameba are strictly polymorphous, those of the
Astasia-like organisms have the power of altering their outline
only, by extending and contracting the body round an imaginary
axis; so that although it is conceivable that the reparation of
lost parts may take place, such reparation would consist in the
renewal of a determinate and not an indeterminate figure.
Coupling this, then, with the absence of any digestive apparatus
whatever, we are furnished with a clear line of demarcation
between the animal and vegetable, whilst in the simpler forms

3834 Dr.G.C.Wallich on the Distinctive Characters and

of Infusoria the presence of a fixed and determinate aperture or
apertures connected with a digestive system sufficiently separates
them from the Ameeban or highest type of Rhizopod structure.

But, to revert once more to the Amebe. Within the past
fortnight my friend Mr. J. N. Tomkins, the able Inspector of
the Government Vaccine Department, called my attention to his
having unexpectedly detected a profusion of Amebe, possessing
all the characters of A. villosa, in some damp confervoid material
which had been scraped off a stone slab in his garden and con-
signed to a vessel containing water, about two months previously.
I confess that, even putting out of the question the untenable
theory of “spontaneous generation,” the development of these
Amebe from germs either constantly present in damp soil or
deposited on it through the medium of wind or rain from distant
localities was regarded by me with doubt, if not actual incre-
dulity. For knowing how zealously my friend collects the various
microscopic forms of life, it seemed far from improbable that
these Amebe were derived from the refuse cast aside from his
aquaria. The sequel, however, showed that my doubts were
altogether groundless. But, leaving this point for the present, I
may state that the question I was especially desirous of deter-
mining—namely, the possibility ofa gelatinous organism hke an
Ameba being able to withstand the desiccation to which it must
be subject during summer if it be the normal inhabitant of con-
fervoid growth met with in similar positions—was deemed by me
sufficiently important to merit immediate inquiry.

On examination of a portion of the material which had been
kindly placed at my command, I found it contained an abundant
stock of Amebe, both old and young, and that these exhibited
(at a bird’s-eye view, as it were) the collective characters of
Ameba radiosa, diffluens, globularis, Schultzi, limax, princeps,
guttula, verrucosa, quadrilineata, actinophora, and villosa. But
whilst it would have been easy to select individual specimens
presenting in a marked degree those purely external characters
which have been held to distinguish all but the last-named of
these forms, it would have been equally easy to demonstrate, by
means of the infinite intermediate varieties, that all are the off-
spring of a common parent, and that the mere outward deviations
in figure and degree of differentiation are dependent on those
ever-varying physical conditions to which they are amenable, and
which will probably for ever elude our scrutiny.

It is necessary to state explicitly that I lay no claim to the
discovery that many Infusoria and some even more highly or-
ganized forms (as, for example, Rotifera) undergo desiccation
without perishing. Professor Ehrenberg, Dr. B. Hicks, and
more recently M. Balbiani in conjunction with Mr. Samuelson,

Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 335

have clearly established this fact. My object in dwelling on the
observations now recorded is to show how inseparably most of
the minor distinctions are connected with accidental changes of
physical conditions, and how guarded we should be in assigning
limits to variation before we have become acquainted with the
extent to which such changes may operate.

In my previous papers it was stated that many incidental facts
led me to believe in the narrow limitation of species in Ameba,
if not in their absolute unity. The appearances presented by
the specimens now under notice have served to confirm that
belief, and I can hardly imagine it possible that any person,
viewing them unbiasedly and witnessing the occurrence of ex-
treme variability even in the earliest stage of the Amewebe, when
(as seen by me within the past few days) countless numbers of
these minute organisms alternately assume the characters of
the most “ lobose” type and of Actinophrys, could arrive at any
other conclusion.

But the history of these Amebe is not left in doubt; for not
only did a fresh supply of confervoid material, scraped off and
delivered to me as procured, present specimens after being im-
mersed in water for a few days, but (in order to exclude those
sources of error that might be supposed to attach to my observa-
tions had the supply been obtained from my own garden, where
the refuse of aquaria is at times flung out) a portion of confer-
void growth taken from another locality*, having been consigned
to water for a few days, was found to furnish similar results.
Lastly, with a view to put the matter to a still more severe test,
a small quantity of the material first obtained from Mr. Tom-
kins was placed on a plate of glass and left to dry completely
by evaporation. In three days it was again covered with water.
Twenty-four hours afterwards no traces of life beyond a few
young Chilodontes and monads were visible. In forty-eight hours
Amebe were observed, although in much smaller number and
more sluggish in their movements than was the case prior to
this second desiccation ; whilst after the lapse of four days the
Amebe, although still less numerous, were as active as ever.

In the confervoid material recently obtained I detected nume-
rous effete cysts of Ameba, some quite empty and crumpled up
into angular folds, some enclosing the empty frustules of a
diatom that occurs abundantly in a living condition in the damp
soil associated with the confervoid layer—namely, Nitzschia
Amphiozys; whilst others enclosed sarcoblasts, and in some
examples coarsely granular nuclear bodies which I at once

* The spot selected was a gravel walk, at one part of which rain had
lodged occasionally. It had, to my knowledge, been repeatedly raked
over during the past three months.

336 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters and

recognized as analogous, if not identical in their origin, with the
naked nuclear masses described and figured by me in a previous
Number of the ‘ Annals’ as occasionally resulting from the extra-
capsular subdivision of the granular contents of the primary
nuclear cell (Annals, May 1863, p. 368).

The presence of these dead and empty frustules of Nitzschia
is well worthy of note, as yielding evidence, almost tantamount
to proof, that their soft contents had undergone digestion, and
hence that they had been received into the interior of the Amabe
prior to encystation and desiccation; whilst the fact of their
being commonly taken as food by the Amebe is manifest from
the numbers of Ame@be now living on the material, that contain
within their endosare frustules full, as also partially relieved, of
their endochrome.

It may be recollected that, in the same Number (loc. cit.), I
expressed doubts as to the normal investiture of any Ameba
by a membranous ectosarec, and inclined to the view that the
single example of such investiture which had fallen under my
notice up to that period betokened encystation. The strongest
confirmation of that opinion is hence afforded; for not only were
empty and effete cysts now met with, but a few examples of cysts
in which the sarcode-mass, although apparently in a deteriorated
state, had recovered a sufficient degree of contractility to pro-
duce distinct changes in their form. Of the ultimate fate of
these revivified cysts I have not as yet been able to satisfy myself.
There are reasons, however, for supposing that they are only
destined to afford protection to the reproductive elements until
such period as the latter are in a fit condition to be set at liberty.
It would also seem probable that the encystation of Amada does
not take place, as a matter of course, at certain seasons, but only
when the normal conditions of the creature’s existence become
impaired or altogether deficient—the increased consolidation
of the external layer being the exceptional result of prolonged
contact with the vitiated medium around, and the cessation
of that reciprocal interchange between endosare and ectosare,
described by me under the name of Ameebasis, which is con-
tinually going on in the healthy state of the organisms. That
such is the case may be reasonably inferred from the absence of
anything like the encysted condition in the specimens of Ameba
villosa which have now been seven months under close observa-
tion, and carefully protected from desiccation. Should encysta-
tion in the remaining Hampstead material follow on slow de-
siccation being permitted to take place, the proof required will
be complete. .

Want of time and space preclude me from entering into full
details respecting the several modes in which, in addition to

Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 337

those previously described under the heads of “ gemmation” and
“viviparous parturition,” a new brood of Amebe appears to be
ushered into existence. For the present, therefore, I would
merely state that one series of young individuals seems to be
derived from the conversion of each free sarcoblast into a poly-
morphous body, devoid of cilia or flagelliform organ, but pro-
vided from the first with a nucleus, a contractile vesicle, and a
rudimentary villous organ—that a second series, less frequent
than the last, seems to result from the similar conversion of each
encapsuled nucleus into a polymorphous body, in which, besides
the organs just enumerated, may frequently be seen two or three
spherical masses undistinguishable from the sarcoblasts ; whilst
a third and by far the most numerous brood appears to be de-
rived from each separate granule of the naked mulberry-like
nuclear masses which were described by me in the ‘ Annals’ for
May (p. 368) as being occasionally formed within the parent
Ameba. The evidence of this last-mentioned mode of increase
consists in the admixture of minute Am@be with some of the
granules which are still quiescent, in their barely exceeding the
latter in size, and especially in the gradual transition observable
from the quiescent to the motile and polymorphous condition
of the granules. Of course it would be futile to attempt
an explanation of these processes in the present state of our
knowledge; for, although satisfied of the occurrence of these
varied methods of increase, I consider the questions they involve
as too important to be solved without much additional informa-
tion or on mere inferential reasoning.

Lastly, I would mention another interesting fact which has
revealed itself within the past few days, but the details of which
must be supplied hereafter. I allude to the transition observed
to have taken place, in specimens of free Amebe preserved alive
in shallow glass cells, from the naked to the testaceous condi-
tion—a form closely resembling, if not identical with, A. radiosa
having first assumed a state of comparative rest, as if about to
become encysted, and then gradually secreted the delicate hya-
line outer wall which ultimately presented the unmistakable
characters of the test of Arcella vulgaris.

Kensington, October 20, 1863.

Note.—I am permitted by Mr. Tomkins to state that, whilst
looking over the same material, he has distinctly seen the animal
of Arcella vulgaris evacuate its test, and move away in the garb
ofanaked Ameeban. This occurrence has often been regarded as
probable, but I am not aware that it had previously been actually
witnessed by an'¥ trustworthy observer.

338 Rev. R. T. Lowe on two new Madeiran Land-Shells.

XXXIII.—Description of two new Madetran Land-Shells lately
discovered by the Baraé do Castello de Paiva and S'J. M. Moniz.
By R. T. Lows, M.A.

Tue two following valuable additions to the Helicological Fauna
of Madeira are at once proofs of the inexhaustibility of that
singularly fertile region and of the acumen and activity of its
present explorers. The discovery of a new semifossil Helix in
the S. Deserta, belonging to a group so imperfectly represented
in Madeira as Euromphalus, Beck, is scarcely less interesting
than that of a fourth species of C/ausilia in addition to the very
small number of that genus, proportionately to the Helices and
Pupe, previously observed in Madeira. The fossil Desertan
Heliz is indeed so nearly allied to H. Gueriniana that it may
reasonably be expected to reward future research, in the remoter
sylvan districts of Madeira proper, in a living state. It is, at ail
events, a proof how closely the topographic end climatic condi-
tions of even the Desertas must have formerly resembled those
of the principal island of the group, from which they are now in
all respects so widely separated.

1. Helix calathoides, Paiva, MSS.

Testa latissime et perspective concavo-umbilicata, subtus excavata, ro-
tundata, utrinque conveaxiuscula, arctispira, obsolete v. obtuse ca-
rinato-angulata, subsolidiuscula ; supra grosse crebricostata, costis
prominulis ad angulum abrupte desinentibus ; subtus obsolete vix
striatula, leevigata; spira convexiuscula, subconoideo-depressa,
apice obtusa, laevigata; sutura distinctissima, valde impressa ;
anfr. 7-8, convexiusculis, lente crescentibus, ult. antice recto, haud
deflexo, supra carinam obsoletam crebricostato, convexiusculo,
subplanato, infra ecostato, levigato, rotundato-convexo ; umbil.
latissimo, infundibuliformi, pervio, patulo, profundo; apertura
oblique ovali, altiore quam lata ; peristomate simplici, recto, tenui,
acuto.

Diam. maj. 7-8, min. 63-73, alt. 3-4 mill.

Hab. semifossilis in insula Deserta australi “ Bugio”’ dicta.

Very closely allied to the Madeiran recent H. Gueriniana, Lowe
(H. semiplicata, Pf.), but assuredly a genuine species, and not a
merely large fossil form of that shell. It is distinguished by its
larger size, less discoidal shape, greater convexity beneath, more
elevated spire, obsolete keel, deeply impressed suture, and much
coarser, more abrupt, and prominent ribs above, resembling, in
the latter respect and in the abrupt ending of the ribs at the
obsolete keel or angle of the last volution, H. Calathus* or H. bi-
frons, Lowe. Not much reliance can be placed on its greater
thickness of substance as compared with H. Gueriniana, seeing

* According to Pfeiffer = H. stephanophora, Desh. in Fer.

Rev. R. T. Lowe on two new Madeiran Land-Shells. 339

that it is only known at present in a dead or semifossil state.
The specimens, however, for three of which I am indebted to
the liberality of the Baron de Paiva, are in excellent condition
as to form and sculpture, though completely colourless. Two
of them are even partially semitransparent or opake milky hya-
line, like H. coronata, Desf. They were obtained last spring in
the South Deserta (Bugio), by a person employed as a collector
by the Baron, whose note upon them states, ‘in rupibus sub-
inaccessis.”” It is perhaps more probable, however, that they
were found in the fossil deposit at the top of the island, in which
H. coronula occurs. They must, at any rate, be very rare or
local to have escaped the observation of Mr. Leacock and myself
in 1849, and again of Mr. Wollaston and myself in 1855.

2. Clausilia obesiuscula.

T. subrimata, fusiformis, tenuiuscula, subabbreviata, obesiuscula, ob-
tusa, fusco-castanea, cinereo submaculata y. strigillata, nitidius-
cula, tenuiter creberrimeque longitudinaliter striata; spira apice
obtusa, szepe decorticata, nec gracili producta; anfr. 8-81, planu-
latis, ultimo ad basin v. cervicem unicanaliculato, varice colu-
mellari distincto, haud cristato; apertura ut in C. deltostomate,
lamellis plicisque peristomateque tenuioribus.

Long. 10-113, lat. 23 mill. ; apert. 23 longa, 2 lata.

Hab. in Madera prope Canico secus aqueeductum ‘“ Levada Debaixo’”’
dictum, supra “ Kib. do Porto Novo,”’ sub foliis Sempervivi glan-
dulosi (Ait.), Maio 1863, invenit S'. J. M. Moniz.

Intermediate between C. deltostoma and C. exigua, Lowe, with
the fine close-crowded striz of the latter. Size and shape more
of the former, but shorter and more obese, with a blunt spire
not slender or drawn out upwards, and one or two fewer, rather
more flattened volutions, with the suture somewhat less de-
pressed, the longitudinal striz less prominent, distinct, and re-
mote, than even in var. 6, subvar. 1]; the shell altogether more
glossy and shining, not grey or ash-colour, but brighter chestnut-
brown, speckled or blotched with grey; the two plaits of the
mouth Jess developed, and the whole peristome thinner than in
C. deltostoma, 8, except in specimens of the latter from high
elevations (2000-3000 feet) remote from the coast, e.g. in the
Curral das Freiras.

Possibly a mere local form or variety of the extremely poly-
morphous common Madeiran C. deltostoma, though at present
I am inclined to agree with its discoverer, St Moniz, in con-
sidering it distinct. Except in size and shape, it approaches
nearest to var. 8, subvar. 2, depauperata, of that variable species;
but it is a much larger and more obese or ventricose shell,
though agreeing with it in the number of its valutions and in

340 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

the fineness and closeness of their striz. And though specimens
of 8, subvar. 1, normalis, occur occasionally quite as obese, yet
they are generally far more slender, being always, moreover,
distinguished from the present shell by their uniform dull pale-
grey cinereous colour without lustre, stronger, more distinct,
and remote longitudinal striz, more acute and drawn-out spire,
with the volutions slightly more convex, and suture more im-
pressed, having also at least one more volution. Thus, as a
variety of C. deltostoma, its proper place would be between sub-
var. 1 and subvar. 2 of var. 8; but, if admitted as a species, it
must stand between C. deltostoma (8, subvar. 2) and C. exigua.
In the former case, I would propose the following fresh arrange-
ment of the varieties or subvarieties, instead of that given in
“Catal. Moll. Mad.,” in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1854, part 22.
p- 215 :—
C. deltostoma, Lowe.

* Striis longitudinalibus remotiusculis distinctis.

a. raricosta, subvarr. 1 (=C. Lowei, Alb.), 2, 2. c. p. 215.
B. crebristriata, subvar. 1, normalis, 1. c. p. 216.

** Striis longitudinalibus confertis tenuissimis.

y. obesiuscula= C. obesiuscula supra.
6. depauperata = C. deltostoma, 8, subvar. 2, depauperata, I. c.
p- 216.

I have received also from the Baron de Paiva several examples
of a minute Madeiran Vitrina, with only two volutions, collected
between S* Anna and S. Jorge, in April last, which, from its
globose shape and aspect, seemed at first sight possibly distinet ;
but, on close and careful examination, I find it to be merely the
very young (pudlus) of V. Lamarckii, Fér., with the very minute,
puncticulate, spiral striz which characterize the young of that
species and of V. media, and which are also visible on the nucle
or two primary volutions of most adult specimens of those two
species, though wanting in V. Teneriffe, Q. et G.

Lea Rectory, Oct. 15, 1863.

XXXIV.—Third Communication on the Vasa Propria, Laticiferous
Vessels, &c., of Plants. By M. T. Lestisoupors*.

Ir has been shown in the two preceding communications that
the coloured juices of plants are contained in reservoirs extremely
diversified in structure, and that these are at times anastomosing
vessels constituting a network, at others straight and rigid
tubes or utricles, either in rows or collected into irregular

* Translated by Dr. Arlidge from the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for July, 1863.

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 341

masses or meati, or vasiform or irregular lacune. Consequently
these reservoirs cannot be said to possess the characters of a
vascular system; indeed, when they have unquestionably the
form of vessels at their origin and during the greater portion of
their course, they are not distributed in the manner of vessels
in the organs in which they terminate. It must, moreover, be
added that they are not met with in the generality of plants,
nor in all portions of the plant in which they may occur. For
instance, they cease to exist in the roots of Asclepias Syriaca.

A still more remarkable condition may be seen in the Acer
campestre. In this tree the bark of the young stems and the
young branches possesses an abundant lactescent fluid, contained
within wide flexuous vessels difficult of detection in consequence
of their being surrounded by cells filled with rather greenish
granules, not coloured blue by iodine. On tearing, however, a
fragment of bark, extremely slender threads are seen interposed
among the cortical fibres, and to be very extensible ; these are
nothing else but the laticiferous fluid itself, coagulated into a
solid substance, eminently elastic, which is drawn out into very
delicate filaments having various bulgings here and there, and
accurately corresponding in appearance to vessels when said to
be in a “ state of contraction.” In portions of the cortical tissue
of sufficient transparency, the real vessels are visible, and are
seen to be very different from these fibres, and, among other
things, to possess walls, which are scarcely distinguishable from
the liquid they enclose. Their appearance is so singular that
there is little question that they are the structures which have
been described (with little precision, indeed) as the laticiferous
vessels of the Acer platanotdes.

The existence of vasa propria in young stems cannot certainly
be called in question; but those layers of the bark which are
more than three or four years old are deficient of them, and
they are not discoverable in the roots. Hence in old stems and
in roots, the new tissues which belong to the same formation in
regard to age as do the most recent branches exhibit no traces
of laticiferous juices, although these are abundant in the tissues
produced in the course of the same year. “

The laticiferous juice, therefore, is not an essential element
in the growth of plants. It is sometimes wanting in the most
essential portions of plants. It, moreover, is found in certain
species, and disappears in others closely allied: thus, the Acer
platanoides has a perfectly milky juice, whilst the Acer pseudo-
platanus, which is so closely related to it, possesses juices of a
perfectly limpid character. The same observation may be re-
peated with respect to the Umbelliferee. Consequently the
coloured juices cannot be considered agents indispensable to

342 . M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

life: they exist or are absent in the most intimately allied spe-
cies ; they are wanting in the most important organs; they are
enclosed in reservoirs of entirely different structure. There are
certainly some vessels which appear articulated, because the
constrictions they present extend so as to constitute septa, or
because, when they are observed, they are broken into several
pieces—a circumstance which happens because the reservoirs
are originally constituted of cells united end to end. There are
some which occur in the form of irregular masses; such there-
fore cannot be regarded as having primitively formed vessels.

These facts being beyond dispute, the opinion has been put
forward that it is necessary to distinguish the coloured liquids
enclosed within vessels from those contained in cells, meati, and
lacune, and that the former alone constitute the nutritive juice
and have their analogues in all plants. This brings us to the
examination of the fifth and sixth questions we have propounded,
and leads us to inquire, in the first instance, whether, in fact,
two distinct categories of coloured juices can be instituted.

At any rate, no character can be seized upon which will
serve to establish a line of demarcation between them: often the
juices which are contained in vessels differ more among them-
selves in composition than they do from those which are found
in cells. Some juices contain fatty matters, others substances ofa
totally different nature, such as caoutchouc ; some are bland and
nutritious, others are acrid and poisonous; some possess alka-
loids endowed with energetic properties, others contain no such
compound principles. No greater differences are met with be-
tween the liquids contained in different reservoirs. If, therefore,
no indication can be discovered. sufficient to distinguish one
from the other, on what grounds, it may be asked, can it be
asserted that some are special, secreted, excrementitial juices,
and others of the nature of vital and of alimentary fluids? Such
a distinction is assuredly too arbitrary.

It can with still less reason be admitted in certain plants,
such as Chelidonium, previously cited,—where the coloured juices
of the stem are contained in vessels, whilst those of the root are
enclosed in cells. These juices preserve their properties in their
integrity, although their receptacles differ in form and may
assume the numerous configurations which are peculiar to ve-
getable tissues.

We have now to inquire whether it is true that in all -non-
lactescent plants there are vessels which constitute a capillary
network such as M. Schultz has described and figured, differing
only from lactescent vessels by reason of their fluid contents
being limpid instead of coloured. In instituting this inquiry we
encounter the most important of the problems to be solved ; for

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 3438

if we find in all plants a system of vessels of the like kind, oc-
cupied by liquids differmg only by being either limpid or else
coloured, then functions of a general importance must be attri-
buted to this vascular system, and both forms must be regarded
as canals permeated by the descending sap or the nutritive
uice.

The numerous observations we have made place it beyond
doubt that, in the generality of non-lactescent plants, tubes are
to be found filled with an elaborated liquid, in which granules
are frequently to be seen in great abundance and of variable
magnitude. I have found such in almost every plant in which
I have sought them ; for example, their presence may be descried .
with great facility in the Cucurbitacee, the thin transparent
tissues of which are of large size. If a vertical slice of a fibro-
vascular bundle be removed from Pepo after the plant has been
boiled, the cortical portion of these bundles may be seen to be
almost. entirely formed by tubes filled with a liquid holding
numerous granules in suspension. These granules are small,
unequal, ill-defined in form, and sometimes of a greenish hue.

But these liquids essentially differ from the coloured juices.
The latter contain caoutchouc, fatty matters, organic principles
possessing properties often of singular energy, and which stand
in no sort of relation to the organs with which they are
associated ; moreover they do not turn blue under the action
of iodine. The juices of the straight tubes are simple in com-
position. M. Trécul has shown (Institut, No. 1487, p. 215)
that the granules of the cortical fibres become blue when per-
meated by an aqueous solution of iodine; they therefore contain
starch—a principle isomeric with cellulose, the base of all the
tissues.

In relation to physical properties, the juices compared to-
gether are not less distinct : the one sort is coloured, as already
stated, and the other limpid; and although the fluids of the
latter description may contain granules, the appearances they
present when extravasated differ from those exhibited by the

»former. The difference is particularly striking when the milky
and the limpid juices of the bark are examined in a plant in
which they are readily separated—for example, in the Acer
campestre. If a drop of the milky juice be placed on a glass
slide, it is seen that, as it dries up, it becomes progressively
capable of being drawn out into very long elastic threads:
when dried, it has the appearance of a uniform semitransparent
mass, in which the granules cannot be detected, and which
remains completely undivided and homogeneous. But if a drop
of the limpid fluid be placed on the glass, it rapidly dries and
breaks up in the fashion of gummy substances. The meshes

344 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

produced are of smaller or larger dimensions, and anastomoses
occur in an irregular manner among them, whence a resemblance
(sufficient to cause deception) to a group of reticulated fibres is
set up. The appearance is that of the network of a leaf. It is
one of the most singular illusions that can occur under the micro-
scope. But it may be proved that the parts which give this
image of anastomotic fibres are the fissures formed in the act of
desiccation of the gummy fluid: some of these appear in an
instantaneous manner; others elongate themselves by their
extremity, much as fissures of glass do under the influence
of slight pressure. It is at times difficult to trace this forma-
tion, so great is the rapidity with which the dried substance
breaks up. But the formation of this network may be readily
seen by placing under the lens of the microscope a particle of
dried cortical juice, lightly breathing upon it without causing
displacement, and then observing it as speedily as possible. At
first everything is obscure, for the moisture of the breath has
destroyed the transparency of the glasses ; but ere long the ob-
jects come well into view: the moisture allows the gummy sub-
stance to combine in a single mass, and the subsequent desic-
cation reproduces a new network, altogether different from the
first. If we examine the cortical juice of young shoots, or of
the aged bark of the Acer pseudoplatanus, which contains no
milky fluid, all the phenomena exhibited by the limpid juice of
Acer campestre are clearly shown. It therefore cannot be as-
serted that the limpid juices of non-lactescent plants are the
analogues of the coloured fluids; they have, indeed, their ana-
logues in lactescent plants, but not in those juices possessing a
special colour and peculiar qualities. We may add that the
tubes which enclose them do not resemble reticulated vessels ;
they especially occur in parts recently formed; they are thin,
transparent, and of variable diameter; further, they do not
anastomose so as to form a network, but are straight, parallel,
and terminate in more or less acute points placed in apposition
with other similar tubes, or else unite end to end, along a trans-
verse line, with the tubes following them. We have observed
similar tubes in the Vine, Antirrhinum majus, Nicotiana Taba-
cum, Mercurialis annua, Pelargonium zonale, Cheiranthus Cheiri,
Brassica oleracea, &e.

If the tissues possessing granuliferous tubes be macerated for
several days, they may afterwards be easily separated, and their
characters be well explored.

If they are submitted to prolonged maceration, they become
extensible, and are constricted by traction in such a way that
their cavity, at certain points, is almost completely effaced, and
they assume the appearance of slender threads, of which the

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 345

granuliferous liquid is reduced to the appearance of a feeble
streak of little corpuscles ranged in a single line. Some of these
tubes present oblique or transverse articulations derived from
the union of the tubes with those which are continuous with
them. These tubes, by reason of their transparency, of the
tenuity of their walls, of the absence of fissures (clefts) and
perforations, and of the presence of granules floating in their
contained fluid, resemble in some respects the vessels filled with
coloured liquids ; but, on the other hand, they present differences
of a very decided nature. The tubes filled with milky juices
are flexuose, branching, and anastomotic, whereas these others
are straight, parallel, placed in close juxtaposition, and closed at
their extremities, as in the plants already enumerated, and in
many others we have examined—as, for instance, Arwm Italicum,
Impatiens balsamina, Menyanthes trifoliata, Cynara Scolymus,
&e. We have observed in certain plants (for instance, in Bras-
sica oleracea) the commencement of divisions of the tubes, but
no anastomoses, and no indications of a complex network.

How does it happen that so skilful an observer as M. Schultz
has assumed the existence of, and figured, this reticulated arrange-
ment? Is it owing to the influence of the hypothetical system
he adopted? Is it on account of the partial divisions he may
have noticed? Is it because that in certain cases, where the
cells have been partially destroyed by maceration, they still
offer resistance to separation along their lines of junction, and
exhibit a sort of network, as we have seen them do in several
instances? Or is it, lastly, on account of mycodermic filaments
developed in the macerating fluid, and presenting themselves in
the form of transparent, ramifying, and sometimes articulating
tubes, having been mistaken for structures belonging to the
plant on which they were produced? We cannot reply to these
queries ; but in the many observations we have made and often
repeated, we have failed to encounter these reticulated tubes,
which have been represented as the analogues of proper vessels.

With reference to the three states of articulation, expansion,

“and contraction admitted by M. Schultz, these appear to me
to be the consequences either of the natural structure of the
tubes, or of the modes of preparation to which they have been
subjected. Naturally, indeed, tubes may be articulated, since
they are more or less short, and unite at intervals end to end
by their rectangular extremities ; they may further appear te be
articulated when the walls are broken through in consequence of
maceration, and the continuity of the tube is maintained by the
thickened juices of its interior; the tubes, again, may appear
in a state of expansion or of contraction because their diameter
varies considerably in their course—and they may be either full

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii,

346 M. Lestiboudois on the Vessels of the Latex,

or empty, according to circumstances. Lastly, their walls lose
consistence by maceration; they are then rendered extensible,
and may assume the appearance of a simple filament ; indeed it
is possible to mistake a streak of granule-bearing liquid, more
glutinous and resistant than the walls themselves, for a tube.

These tubes, moreover, exhibit transitions to the nature of
fibres, so that we see intermediate forms in every variety between
fibres with thick and porous walls and nearly obliterated cavity and
those whose walls are of extreme tenuity. The fibres are firm and
porous in completely formed tissues, whilst their walls are less
and less thick in proportion as the tissues in which they occur
are more recent; hence in tissues most lately produced they
exhibit that conformation which has led to their being taken for
laticiferous vessels: in all these instances their extremities are
formed in the same manner. The fibres not only present trans-
itional phases in the degree of thickness of their walls, but also
in the quantity of granular matter contained in their interior :
this substance grows scarcer in proportion as the tubes advance
in age, and as their walls augment in thickness and their cavity
contracts; yet, however reduced the diameter of their cavity
may be, it is rare that a certain number of granules is not found
in it. ;

When the cavity is very distinct, the granules are often seen
in abundance; but when the tissues are incompletely formed,
their walls are not very evident, and the granules within are in
scanty proportion.

These tubes are met with in the fibro-vascular bundles, and
are not distributed in the medulla or in the parenchyma of the
bark, as are the proper vessels.

To further demonstrate that these granule-bearing tubes are
not identical with vasa propria, it may be noticed that they
occur as well in vegetables having coloured juices as in those
which have not. Thus, Asclepias Syriaca and other species of
this genus, Acer platanoides, &c., have fibrous bundles very
distinct from the proper vessels, though erroneously assumed
by Mirbel to be milk-vessels, and are perfectly like the ordinary
cortical fibres, and pass through all those phases just described,
presenting thick walls and punctiform cavities, or thin walls
and very apparent cavities, containing few or many granules.
This fibrous tissue, as we have stated, accompanies the spiral
bundles in the leaves. The tubes which compose it taper and
decrease in length as they follow the course of the nerves in their
divisions, and concur in forming the network of the leaves.

Their walls having lost their thickness, they cannot be any
longer so easily distinguished in the exterior zone of the cortical
fibres of the stem. However, in certain plants, as the Ficus

the Vasa propria, and Receptacles of the Juices of Plants. 347

elastica, a semicircle of transparent small points may be seen
beneath the inferior bundles of the petiole and above the superior
ones.

In most plants the tissue enclosing the cortical tubes may be
easily separated from the spiral vessels, and the proper vessels
be readily and distinctly demonstrated. It must therefore be
supposed that they represent an entirely different histological
constituent, and the more so because we know that the liquids
they contain are also of a different character.

We therefore conclude that the tubes met with in the greater
number of plants, enclosing transparent and granular fluids,
have not the structure of proper vessels: they are not ramified ;
they do not anastomose and form a network; they are, on the
contrary, analogous to fibrous tubules, and shade off into them ;
they occupy the same position; their walls are proportionately
thicker as they grow older; they are straight, simple, aggregated
in bundles, and have acute or rectangular extremities placed in
apposition with those of similar tubes so as to form filaments or
fibres, but not a vascular system or network ; lastly, they all
contain the same sort of fluid. They occur not only in non-
lactescent plants, but also in those possessing coloured juices
and vessels. They must therefore be regarded as distinct from
the last-named reservoirs. They constitute the commencement
of fibrous tubes, shade off into them, and progressively assume
all their characters.

We do not go so far as to assert that vessels anastomosing to
form a network, and containing granular uncoloured juices, are
never to be met with. The immense varieties of vegetable pro--
ducts justify the belief that the juices contained in the vessels
need not necessarily be always coloured by the granules they
hold in suspension; indeed it is a fact, remarked in the case of
certain lactescent plants, natives of tropical climates, that the
coloured juices are absent from them when grown in our climate;
that is, they fail to secrete, under the influence of a lower
temperature, those juices marked by a higher degree of elabora-
tion. Nevertheless they retain the special apparatus belonging
to them, and the only change is that the liquids they contain
do not possess thosé properties that they would have acquired
had their vital activity been sustained in full vigour. The cir-
cumstance we have sought to show is, that the tubes of plants
normally devoid of coloured juices do not seem the analogues of
proper vessels.

In our opinion, therefore, it is sufficiently demonstrated that
a vascular system like that existing in animals, concerned in
transporting and distributing the nutritive juices prepared by
special organs, is not found in plants: the proper vessels them-

23%

348 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

selves do not possess this character. If they do constitute ca-
pillary anastomotic tubes at their origin, this condition does not
last.

The spiral vessels have closed extremities, and anastomose ;
if they communicate with each other, it is an accidental circum-
stance. They are adapted by their length to serve as channels
for the rapid transmission of liquids to a great distance; but
they do not disperse or diffuse them except so far as the per-
meability of their walls permits.

The cortical tubes and fibres, which are only modified con-
ditions of the same structure, present a similar disposition : they
are closed at their extremities, and by intermediate phases ap-
proximate in characters with cells; their walls are permeable
only to liquid substances.

The appellation datex cannot advantageously be applied to the
liquid they enclose, for the name has been given to juices essen-
tially different: nor can the name Jaticiferous vessels be given
to these tubes, for they are not vessels in the usual signification
of the word; it has, moreover, been employed to designate
channels of another description. The expressions latex and
laticiferous vessels seem to me calculated only to cause confusion
in science, and to be rightly rejected; they perpetuate an erro-
neous idea, by assigning to plants those centralized functions
peculiar to animals. In plants, all the organic constituents
possess an individual life, and concur in the maintenance of the
common life; all, even to the cells which compose the simplest
hairs, are organs of transmission and the seat of processes of
elaboration ; in all, the fluids undergo movements of cyclosis or
of gyration, and the materials peculiar to nutrition are prepared
by a process which combines the elementary principles, or sepa- |
rates those which are hurtful or useless. Every single cell or
vessel thus creates the substances which are required for its
growth; each allows the transudation of those materials which
form, in contact with its walls, the new tissues which preserve
unchanged the characters of the species, even when the mass of
elaborated juices is derived from another species grafted on the
plant; lastly, each one is able to supply juices to distant parts,
just as it has itself received such from them.

XXXV.—Third Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection
of the British Museum. By Ausert Guntuer, M.A., M.D.,
Ph.D:

[Plates V. & VI.]

Tue following species of Ophidians have been added to the
Collection of the British Museum since the publication of

rs

in the Collection of the British Museum. 349

two papers on the same subject in this Journal*. The total
number of species in that Collection is now 745, and that of
the typical specimens 260.

This considerable increase, within the period of less than a
year, is partly caused by the particular attention which the au-
thor has paid to the herpetology of the Kast-Indian continent.
The descriptions of the new species belonging to that fauna will
be found in his forthcoming work on this subject, published by
the Ray Society.

I. List of Species which were formerly desiderata.

Typhlops mirus, Jan. Ceylon. Purchased.
Silybura ocellata, Bedd. Nilgherries. Capt. R. H. Beddome.

Rhinophis sanguineus, Bedd. Wynand. 5s 55
pulneyensis, Bedd. Pulney Hills. ¥e Be
Plectrurus Giintheri, Bedd. Nilghervries. re

Melanophidium wynandense (Plectrurus wynandensis, Bedd.).
Wynand. Capt. R. H. Beddome.

Calamaria Alkeni, Blkr. ? J. Bowring, Esq.

Oxycalamus longiceps, Cant. Pinang. Dr. Cantor.

Aspidura trachyprocta, Cope. Ceylon? Purchased.

Elapomorphus lemniscatus, Dum. & Bibr. Paraguay. Prof. Grant.

Simotes venustus, Jerdon. Madras. J.C. Jerdon, Esq.

aphanospilus, Cope. Philippines. H. Cuming, Esq.

punctulatus, Gray. Himalayas.

anchoralis, Jan. East Indies. A. Ginther.

Ablabes sagittarius, Cant. (=Enicognathus Grayi, Jan). Pinang.
Dr. Cantor ; and Himalayas. Messrs. von Schlagintweit.

Humberti, Jan. Ceylon. R. Templeton, Esq.

bicolor, Blyth. Khassia. Hast India Company.

—— tenuiceps, Blyth. Nepal. B. H. Hodgson, Esq.

Tomodon ocellatus, Schleg. Paraguay. Prof. Grant.

Salvadora Grahamiit, Baird & Gir. Mexico. Sallé.

Tropidonotus junceus, Cant. Pinang. Dr. Cantor.

Hypsirhina Jagorii, Peters. Siam. M. Mouhot.

Elaphis teeniurus, Cope. China. College of Surgeons.

Zamenis diadema, Schleg. Affghanistan. East India Company,

Zaocys nigromarginatus, Blyth. Sikkim. Messrs. von Schlagintweit.

Taphrometopon lineolatum, Brandt. Siberia. Prof. Peters.

Dromicus tzeniatus, Peters. Mexico. Purchased.

perfuscus, Cope. . ? Royal College of Surgeons.

Aheetulla natalensis, Smith. Port Natal. Rev. H. Calloway.

—— heteroderma, Hallowell. Gold Coast. Purchased.

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. January 1862, p. 52; ibid. Jan. 1863, p. 20.

+ Two species are known of this genus,—Zamenis mexicanus, Dum. &
Bibr., and Salvadora Grahamii: the lateral shields in the head of the
latter are subject to variation; and S. Bairdii of Jan is only an individual
variety of S. Grahamii.

350 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Dipsas colubrina, Schleg. Madagascar. A. Newton, Esq.
multifasciata, Blyth. East Indies. Purchased.
Lycodon striatus, Shaw. Anamallay Mountains. Capt. Beddome.
Ungalia melanura, Schleg. Cuba. Zoological Society.
Diemeniat Miilleri, Schleg. North Ceram. Purchased.
*Pseudechis australis, Gray. North-east Australia. Royal College
of Surgeons.
*Tropidechis carinata, Krefft. Clarence River. G. Krefft, Esq.
Hydrophis fasciata, Schneid. East Indies. Capt. Beddome.
viperina, Schmidt. Madras. J.C. Jerdon, Esq.
Acalyptus superciliosus, Dum. & Bibr. ——-? A. Giinther.
Platurus Fischeri, Jan. New Guinea, &c. Purchased.
Aipysurus levis, Lacép. New Guinea.
Craspedocephalus alternatus, Schleg. Paraguay. Prof. Grant.
Vipera confluenta, Cope. ? Zoological Societyf.
Bothrops Lansbergii, Schleg. Vera Paz. Messrs. Godman and
Salvin.
Schlegelii, Berthold. South America. A. Giinther.
Trimesurus strigatus, Gray. Dekkan. Col. Sykes.
Atheris squamata, Hallow. West Africa. A. Giinther.

Il. List of the new Species described and procured in the course
of the Year 1863.

Typhlops bothriorhynchus. Pinang. Dr. Cantor.
siamensis. Siam. M. Mouhot.

tenuis. Madras. Walter Elliott, Esq.
Silybura bicatenata. Dekkan. East India Company.
Calamaria siamensis. Siam. M. Mouhot.
nigro-alba. Pinang. East India Company.
Macrocalamus lateralis. India. Old Collection.
*Homalocranium meestum. Peten. Messrs. Salvin & Godman.
Aspidura Copii. East Indies. Purchased.
Oligodon modestus. Philippines? Purchased.
Elliotti. Madras. Walter Elliott, Esq.
spilonotus. Coast of Malabar. Purchased.
—— fasciatus. Dekkan. East India Company.
Simotes cinereus. Gamboja. M. Mouhot. .
albiventer. Kandy. Capt. Gascoigne.
fasciolatus. Siam. M. Mouhot.

Swinhonis. Amoy. Consul Swinhoe.
labuanensis. Borneo. Purchased.

signatus. Singapore. Old Collection.

— cochinchinensis. Lao Mountains. M. Mouhot.

+ This is the correct spelling of the word, which evidently has been de-
rived from Van Diemen(’s Land). Originally written Demansia by Dr. Gray,
it has since been altered into Diemansia by myself (Colubr. Snak. p. 254),
and into Diemennia by the editor of the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society’ (1863).

t We possess now two specimens of this species, one being nearly 5 feet
long. I suppose it is a native of Persia or Syria.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 351

Simotes bicatenatus. East Indies. Royal College of Surgeons.

Nymphophidium maculatum. India. Old Collection.

Coronella orientalis. Dekkan. East India Company.
*Mizodon longicauda. Fernando Po. A. Ginther.

*Xenodon Neuwiedii. Rio Janeiro. Purchased.
= irregularis. Para. Purchased.
*Tropidonotus ferox. Fernando Po. Purchased.
leucomelas. Singapore. Old Collection.
ceylonensis. Ceylon. Purchased.

— himalayanus. Himalayas. Messrs. von Schlagintweit.

—— Beddomii. Anamallay Mouutains. Capt. R. H. Beddome.
*Bothrophthalmus brunneus. Fernando Po. Purchased.
*Heterodon modestus. Madagascar. Leyden Museum.
*Xenurophis Cesar. Fernando Po. Purchased.

Lielaphis holochrous. Ceram. Purchased.

Gonyosoma gramineum. Khassia? East India Company.

Phyllophis carmata. China. A. Ginther.

Dromicus Wuchereri. Bahia. Dr. O. Wucherer.

Aheetulla heterolepidota. Africa. Purchased.
hoplogaster. Port Natal. Purchased.

~— nitida. Demerara. Purchased.

Tragops dispar. Anamallay Mountains. Capt. Beddome.
*Dipsas nigriceps. East Indies. Zoological Society.

Pareas nuchalis. Khassia? East India Company.
*Simocephalus Grantii. West Africa. Prof. Grant.

Lycodon laoénsis. Lao Mountains. M. Mouhot.
anamallensis. Anamallay Mountains. Capt. Beddome.

Odontonomus gracilis. Anamallay Mountains. Capt. Beddome.
*Enygrus superciliosus. Pelew Islands. G. L. King, Esq.
*Cacophis Krefftii. Port Macquarie. G. Krefft, Esq.
*Hoplocephalus nigriceps. Australia. A. Giinther.
= minor. Swan River. Purchased.

Bungarus ceylonicus. Ceylon.

Callophis annularis. East Indies. J. Bowring, Esq.
*Atractaspis aterrima. West Africa. Prof. Grant.
*Bothriechis Godmanni. Guatemala. Messrs. Godman & Salvin.
*Causus rostratus. East Africa. Capt. Speke.

Hydrophis diadema. Last Indies? Old Collection.
torquata. Pinang. Dr. Cantor.

— Elliotti. Siam. Purchased. ~

stricticollis. East Indies. East India BON
Cantoris. Pinang. East India Company.
latifasciata. Mergui. Prof. Oldham.

atriceps. Siam. Purchased.

coronata. Bengal. Old Collection.

robusta. ? Purchased.

Trigonocephalus himalayanus. Gurval. Messrs. von Schlagintweit.
*Ancistrodon bilineatus. Guatemala. Messrs.Salvin & Godman.

Trimesurus monticola. Himalayas. B. H. Hodgson, Esq.
anamallensis. Anamallay Mountains. Capt. Beddome.

352 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Homalocranium mestum.

Entirely deep black, with a broad yellow collar extending over
the hind part of the occipitals ; laterally ; to the eyes; and below,
over the whole chin and throat.

Anterior frontals very broad, with the lateral portion produced
backwards, about half as large as the posterior frontals. Vertical
six-sided, much longer than broad, with an obtuse angle in front,
and an acute one behind; occipitals rounded behind, as long as
the vertical and posterior frontals together ; posterior nasal low,
elongate, in contact with the single preeocular ; two postoculars ;
upper labials seven, the third and fourth entering the orbit, the
last being the largest and highest. The median lower labial is
in contact with the chin-shields, which are twice as long as broad;
there follow two or three other pairs of small scale-like chin-
shields. Scales smooth, in 15 rows. Ventrals 150, anal bifid,
subcaudals 82+... (tail injured).

The posterior maxillary tooth is stout, and provided with a
very shallow groove.

A single specimen has been found by Messrs. Salvin and
Godman in the Province of Peten: its head and trunk are
10 inches long; probable length of the tail 22 inches.

Mizodon longicauda. PI. V. fig. A.

Scales in seventeen rows; anal bifid. Length of the tail more
than one-third of the total. A reddish-yellow, black-edged collar.

Habit like that of Dromicus melanotus, but with a longer tail.
Snout rather short; rostral shield not extending on the upper
surface of the crown; frontals small; loreal square; one prz-
ocular, just reaching to the upper surface of the head; three
postoculars ; eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth entermg
the orbit. Temporals 1+ 2: the anterior is elongate, in contact
with the two lower postoculars ; the upper of the two posterior
temporals also is elongate, bordering the occipital. Two pairs
of chin-shields, the posterior of which are much longer than the
anterior ; the anterior in contact with four labials. Ventrals 137,
without any keels; subcaudals about 100*. Maxillary teeth
gradually increasing in length behind, in one continuous series.
Upper parts uniform brownish olive. A reddish-yellow band
across the nape, broadly edged with black in front and behind ;
the hinder black edge is the more intense, and is again followed
by an indistinct lighter band. Upper lip yellow, with some
black spots; lower parts nearly uniform yellowish.

Fernando Po. Length of the cleft of the mouth 4 inch, of
the trunk 114 inches; probable length of the tail 8 inches, of
which 54 inches are preserved.

* The tail is mutilated: 64 subcaudals on the preserved part.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 353

I refer this species provisionally to Mizodon, although it dif-
fers in several points from the typical species of this genus, viz.
in the length of the tail, and in the entire anal shield. West
Africa appears to be inhabited by many Coronelline Snakes ;
and before other additions to our knowledge of them have been
made (which we may shortly expect), it appears hazardous to
propose further generic divisions.

XeEnopon, Boie.

This genus ought to be restricted to the South American spe-
cies with smooth scales. Having lately received a form with
twenty-one series of scales, from Rio Janeiro, and another with
seven labial shields from Central America, I was induced to re-
examine all our specimens, the number of which has been con-
siderably increased since the publication of the ‘Catalogue of
Colubrine Snakes,’ and I am now enabled to distinguish seven
species. Xenodon typhlus, L., differs from the others in having
the scales more uniformly rhombic and less imbricate. The
remaining six species may be distinguished as follows :—

* None of the labial shields enter the orbit. ‘
Labials eight; anal entire ............ X. gigas, D. &B.
** Only one labial enters the orbit.
Labials seven; anal bifid ............ X.érregularis, un. sp.
*** Two labials enter the orbit.
Labials eight; anal bifid. Ventral shields
131-144. Coloration uniform, or with
about eight very broad dark bands across
Gite truiiclnat hie con os Ba Ret eee Ae SCUErUE. Ls
Labials eight; anal entire; ventrals 141-
151. Eye large; crown of the head uni-
formly coloured. (This species appears to
be confined to the province of Bahia). .. X. colubrinus, Gthr.

Labials eight ; anal bifid; ventrals 163-174; (Pl. V. fig. E.)
scales in twenty-one series; trunk with
about twenty dark cross bands ........ X. Neuwiedit, n. sp.

Labials seven; anal bifid or entire ; ventrals

144-157; trunk with about fourteen dark-

brown, black-edged cross bands, contracted
am, Che Verteoeal Wes. oe 55 ia. 0's) iene ss se'> X.rhabdocephalus*.
(Pl. V. fig. B.)

* Prince Maximilian of Neuwied has evidently represented two distinct
species under the name of X. rhabdocephalus. We preserve this name for
the more common species (Bahia, Pernambuco), figured on plate 4 of the
10th part of the ‘ Abhildungen,’ whilst plate 3 appears to be intended either
for X. colubrinus or X. Neuwwiedii, probably for the former, although the
physiognomy of the snake is not well represented.

354 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Xenodon irregularis. Pl. V. fig. D.

Similar in habit to X. severus. Head broad, rather depressed,
with the snout short; eye of moderate size. Rostral broader
than high, reaching the upper surface of the snout; vertical
nearly as broad anteriorly as long ; occipitals small, somewhat
longer than the vertical. Loreal quadrangular, as high as long.
One elevated preocular, reaching the upper surface of the
head; a second, minute one, below, excluding the third labial
from the orbit ; three or four postoculars. Seven upper labials,
only the fourth of which enters the orbit. There are about
seven temporals on each side, which are rather irregularly
arranged ; the foremost is the largest. Scales in nineteen rows,
one-grooved: those of the vertebral line are somewhat larger
than those on the sides; those of the six following series are
narrow, the remainder rhombic. Ventrals (147-) 153; anal
bifid; subcaudals 36.

An adult specimen from Para, 43 inches long (tail 5 inches),
is uniform brownish grey above; each scale has a white streak
along its outer margin, as in Ahetulla irregularis; the lower
parts uniform whitish. Some very faint traces of ornamental
markings on the head are still visible.

I consider a specimen from Demerara, 15 inches long (tail
23 inches), as the young of this species, although it is differently
coloured. The head has nearly the same markings as a young
X. rhabdocephalus. Trunk with seventeen broad brown cross
bands, each with a black-and-white edge ; these bands are much
contracted in the middle of the back, and the three anterior are
entirely severed, forming three pairs of semicircular lateral spots ;
lower parts with scattered brown dots.

Xenodon Neuwiedii. Pl. V. fig. C.

Head but slightly depressed, rather broad behind, with the
snout of moderate length; trunk not very stout. Eye of mo-
derate size. Rostral shield broader than high, just reaching the
upper surface of the snout; vertical longer than broad, scarcely
shorter than the occipital; loreal rather higher than long; one
preocular reaching to the upper surface of the head; two post-
oculars; eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth entering the
orbit; temporals 1+2. Scales in twenty-one series, those of
the vertebral line not larger than the others, those on the sides
much narrower than the outer ones; most of the scales have a
very indistinct single apical groove. Ventrals 163-174; anal
bifid ; subcaudals 56-67. Greenish or brownish olive, with
twenty or more very broad brown cross bands on the trunk,
each being about four times as broad as the interspaces. A more
or less distinct brownish band across the snout, and another

in the Collection of the British Museum. 355

across the interorbital space, the latter sometimes confluent
with a triangular occipital spot. A deep-brown biack-edged
band from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Belly with more
or less distinct, marbled cross bands. The dorsal bands are
sometimes very light in the middle, having the appearance of
double bands. One variety is almost entirely brownish black
above.

This species comes from Rio Janeiro: it is the most slender
species of the genus, and has the body distinctly compressed
and the ventral shields obtusely keeled.

Tropidonotus ferox. Pl. VI. fig. F.

Scales strongly keeled, in twenty-one or twenty-three series ;
anterior frontals very small, pointed; eye surrounded by a ring
of small shields ; maxillary teeth in a continuous series, slightly
increasing in length posteriorly.

Habit stout ; head somewhat depressed, of moderate width
and length; eye rather small. Nostrils obliquely directed up-
wards; the nasal shield is entire above the nostril, and divided
below. Rostral shield small, rather broader than high, scarcely
reaching to the upper surface of the snout; anterior frontals
very small, longer than broad, pointed in front, in contact with
the rostral; posterior frontals small, about one-third the size of
the vertical, broader than long. Vertical five-sided, with the
outer edges parallel; occipitals rather small, rounded behind.
Loreal rather large. Eye surrounded by six or seven small shields
(the supraorbital not included), two of which may be considered
as preoculars, and two as postoculars. Nine upper labials,
the fifth of which is below the middle of the eye. Temporals
1+2+48, the first bemg rather large, the others scale-like.
Ventrals 146; anal bifid; subcaudals 72.

Upper parts dark brown or brownish black; sides lighter, with
a row of subtriangular black spots. Hach ventral shield with a
black base; subcaudals entirely blackish.

Fernando Po. Total length 194 inches, the tail measuring
54 inches.

Besides the specimen in the British Museum, I have seen a
second, larger one, alive, in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s
Park. It measures about 2 feet, and is darker in coloration.
It is very fierce, and, when driven into a corner of its cage, will
raise the anterior part of the body and extend its gape, ready to
strike. It is very nimble; and I never succeeded in catching it
without being bitten.

The discovery of this snake proves the existence of Tropido-
notus in West Africa—a fact new to our knowledge of the geo-
graphical distribution of Ophidians.

356 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Bothrophthalmus brunneus. PI. V1. fig. E.

Scales in twenty-three rows ; upper parts of the body and tail
uniform brown.

Body and tail rounded, of moderate length ; head depressed,
with a flat crown, of moderate length and width; the length of
the snout equals the width of the interorbital space; a deep
groove before, and a smaller one behind, the eye, which is
of moderate size and has a round pupil. Cleft of the mouth
wide. Rostral shield as high as broad, just reaching to the
upper surface of the snout; anterior frontals small, one-third
as large as the posterior, as long as broad; posterior frontals
longer than broad. Vertical large, six-sided, with a very
obtuse angle in front; occipitals not much longer than the
vertical, somewhat pointed behind. Nasals two, the anterior
lower than the posterior; loreal long, forming the bottom of
the preocular groove; przocular bent, the lower portion form-
ing the hinder wall of the groove, the upper being raised on
the upper surface of the crown, without touching the vertical ;
two postoculars. Hight upper labials, the fourth and fifth
entering the orbit. Two small temporals in front, only the
upper of which is in contact with the oculars; then follows a
long shield placed alongside the occipital; two other pairs of
small temporals below this long one. Two pairs of elongate
chin-shields, the anterior in contact with four labials, and longer
than the posterior. Scales in 23 series, keeled. Ventral shields
205, not keeled; anal entire; 75 pairs of subcaudals.

The maxillary teeth are closely set, and form a continuous
series ; the anterior are the longest, and gradually decrease in
size posteriorly.

Upper parts uniform brown, the lower yellowish. A brownish-
red streak runs along the median line of the snout, and is bifur-
cate on the vertical shield, the branches terminating on the
occipitals ; labials with a whitish longitudinal band.

Fernando Po. Total length 32 inches; tail 6 inches; cleft
of the mouth 94 lines.

Heterodon modestus.

Scales smooth, in 21 series; ventrals 165 ; subcaudals 62, all
in pairs. Above, uniform light brown ; uniform yellowish below.
Madagascar.

This species agrees in almost every point with H. madagas-
cariensis*, but is sufficiently distinguished from it by the cha-
racters given. The latter species has 23 series of scales, from
207-210 ventral shields, the anterior subcaudals simple, and

* We have lately received two specimens of this species, together with
Herpetodryas quadrilineatus, D. & B.=H. Bernierti, D. & B.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 357

numerous large, more or less regular, black spots on the upper
parts, and smaller ones on the belly. Our specimen is 37 inches
long, the tail measuring 8 inches.

XENUROPHIS.

Body rather slender, rounded ; tail elongate, strong, with two
series of very large shield-like scales above, so that there are
only four series of scales nearly from its root ; head of moderate
length and width; eye large. Loreal present; one pre-, two
post-oculars. Scales smooth, in fifteen rows. Ventrals less than
200, without keel; subcaudals two-rowed. Maxillary teeth of
equal length, smooth.

Xenurophis Cesar. FP. VI. fig. C.

Scales perfectly smooth, in fifteen rows. Body rounded, rather
elongate ; tail long, not compressed; head of moderate length
and width ; eye large. One large preocular, just reaching to
the upper surface of the head; two high, narrow postoculars ;
eight low upper labials, the fourth and fifth of which enter the
orbit; temporals 2+3, of moderate size. Occipitals scarcely
longer than the vertical, rounded and slightly divergent behind.
Two pairs of elongate chin-shields, the anterior in contact with
five lower labials. Ventrals 145, rounded, without keel; anal
bifid; subcaudals? The maxillary teeth are closely set, nu-
merous, equal in size, and forming one continuous series. Upper
parts brownish olive, with 28 narrow, greyish, black-edged
cross streaks extending to the belly : these bands are less distinct
on the tail. Six yellow dots disposed in a ring on the crown of
the head. Two oblique, yellow, black-edged bands on each side
of the hinder part of the head,—one commencing from the post-
oculars, and descending to the angle of the mouth, the other
from the occipital to the side of the neck. Lower parts uniform
yellowish.

This beautiful snake is from Fernando Po. The single speci-
men we have observed has the tail injured ; but a sufficient por-
tion of it is preserved to show that it is of considerable length.
Length of the cleft of the mouth 10 lines, of the trunk 184 in.,
of the remaining portion of the tail 5 inches; probable length
of the entire tail 9 inches.

Dromicus callilemus.

Natriz callilema, Gosse.
Scales in 19 rows, without apical groove. Head slightly de-
pressed, of moderate width and length; rostral shield not quite

as high as broad, just reaching the upper surface of the snout ;
anterior frontals one-third the size of posterior. Vertical five-

358 Dr. A, Giinther on new Species of Snakes

sided, with the anterior and lateral borders equal in: length ;
occipitals rather rounded behind, nearly as long as the vertical
and posterior frontals together. Loreal square; preorbital
single, extending on the upper surface of the crown, but not
reaching the vertical ; two postorbitals ; seven low upper labials,
the third and fourth entering the orbit; temporals 1+2+3.
Two pairs of chin-shields, the anterior rather shorter than the
posterior, and in contact with four labials. Ventrals 134; anal
bifid; subcaudals 69.

Uniform brown, the anterior part of the lower side somewhat
lighter ; a faint yellowish line from the lower postocular to the
angle of the mouth.

Jamaica. An adult specimen is 17 inches long, the tail
measuring 5 inches. I have described it because I am not
aware that this has been done from an old example.

Herpetodryas dendrophis and H. brunneus.

M. Jan, in a list of names, entitled ‘ Elenco sistematico degli
Ofidi,’ p. 81, attempts to give out Herpetodryas brunneus, Gthr.,
from Guayaquil, as a variety of H. dendrophis, Schleg. Probably
he has never properly examined the former, if he has seen it at
all. H. brunneus is distinguished by feeble keels on the dorsal
scales, the four outer series being entirely smooth ; H. dendrophis
has very strong keels, visible even in the outermost series. Hl. brun-
neus (PI. VI. fig. A) has an eye of moderate size, its longitudinal
diameter being equal to the width of the vertical shield; in H.
dendrophis (P1. V1. fig. B) this organ is extremely large, the same
diameter being much more than the width of the vertical shield.
H. dendrophis has cross bands; H. brunneus never. However,
the two species are similar to each other, both having 17*
series of scales and almost the same number of ventral shields,
157-160.

I have but little doubt that H. nuchalis (Peters, Berl. Monats-
ber. 1863, p. 285) is identical with H. dendrophis; however, it
has a black band round the occipitals, which I do not observe
in any of the specimens collected by M. Sallé in Mexico and by
Messrs. Godman and Salvin in Guatemala. The coloration va-
ries a little, sometimes the black being prominent in the bands,
and sometimes the white. One very large specimen is almost
uniform black above, with a red tail; yet traces of the cross
bands are visible. It was found at the same time and at the
same place with others of the usual style of coloration.

* The number 15, stated by Schlegel and myself, is incorrect; in the
single specimen which I formerly had for comparison there are 15 series
only on the anterior part of the trunk, but 17 in the middle: Schlegel also
represents 17 series of scales in his ‘ Abbildungen.’

in the Collection of the British Museum. 309

Dipsas nigriceps.

Scales in 21 series; head uniform blackish above.

Body and tail very long and slender, much compressed ; head
broad and depressed; eye large. Vertical shield large and
broad; loreal as high as long; one preocular, in contact with
the vertical; two postoculars. Hight upper labials, the third,
fourth, and fifth of which enter the orbit. Vertebral scales
large, six-sided. Temporals rather irregular, 2+2+43. Ven-
trals 263; anal entire; subcaudals 120. The two or three
anterior teeth on the palate somewhat larger than the others.
light reddish olive, irregularly mottled with brown ; upper parts
of the head uniform blackish, the lower yellowish.

Habitat ?

Total length 65 inches ; tail 153 inches.

Hereroeris, Smith, and SimocrepuHa.us, Gray.

Sir Andrew Smith was the first who introduced these highly
interesting Snakes into science, in his magnificent work on the
‘Zoology of South Africa.’ He was acquainted with two kinds:
one of them, discovered by himself in the Cape Colony, was named
and described by him as Heterolepis capensis; the second, from
Fernando Po, was known to him from a specimen in the British
Museum, named by Dr. Gray Simocephalus poénsis. Although
he did not give a detailed description of the latter, he charac-
terized it sufficiently well to ensure its identification by later
herpetologists, referring it to the same genus as the form dis-
covered by himself. Therefore it was perfectly superfluous on
the part of Duméril and Bibron to introduce another name for
the second species, which had previously been given to it in a
manuscript or in a museum, but which could not have any claim
to recognition whatever, because it had never been published
with a proper diagnosis.

When the ‘Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes in the British
Museum?’ was published, it appeared to me that the great dif-
ference in the form of the head between these two snakes would
be sufficient for their generic distinction, Heterolepis capensis
being distinguished by an ovoid head, with a truncated and
scarcely depressed snout, whilst the head of H. poénsis is much
depressed, with the snout broad and spatulate. Therefore I
adopted for this second species a generic name proposed by
Dr. Gray, and characterized this genus Simocephalus. On re-
examination, I still adhere to this opinion, although I have not
had the opportunity of seeing the typical specimen of Hetero-
lepis capensis, which, I am sorry to hear, has gone, with man
other equally valuable typical specimens of the ‘Illustrations of

360 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

the Zoology of South Africa,’ to the vaults of a second-rate
collection.

I can now add a third species, for which the British Museum
is indebted to Professor Grant. On account of the form of its
head, it belongs to the genus Simocephalus. The two species of
this genus may be distinguished thus :—

1. Simocephalus poénsis.

1849. Heterolepis poénsis (Gray), Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Africa: Reptiles.
1854. Heterolepis bicarinatus (Schleg.), Dum. & Bibr. vii. p. 422.
1858. Simocephalus poénsis (Gray), Giinth. Col. Snakes, p. 194.

All the vertebral scales strongly bicarinate ; posterior oculars
two; the occipital is not in contact with a labial. Body and
tail very much elongate ; ventrals 250-257*; subcaudals 67-105.

Fernando Po; coast of Guinea; Camaroon Mountains; Old
Calabar.

2. Simocephalus Grantu. PI. V. fig. F.

The vertebral scales of the anterior two-thirds of the body
very obtusely and indistinctly bicarinate. One postocular; the
occipital is in contact with the fifth upper labial. Body and tail
rather elongate ; ventrals 167 ; subcaudals 55.

This species, although similar to the preceding, may be at
once distinguished by its less elongate body, by the much
smaller number of ventral shields, and by the is distinct keels.
The head is flat and depressed, but the snout is less dilated than
in its congener. Anterior frontals very small, posterior very
large, nearly as large as the vertical, which is five-sided and as
broad as long. Loreal elongate; pree- and post-ocular narrow ;
seven upper labials, the third and fourth of which enter the
orbit; the fifth is im contact with the occipital ; temporals
elongate, 1+2. Scales in 15 rows, only those of the three
series nearest to the vertebral row are keeled. Uniform black
above, yellowish below ; tail sometimes with black spots below.

West Africa. Several specimens are in the collections of
Prof. Grant and of the British Museum ; the largest is 18 inches
long, the tail measuring 34 inches.

Enygrus superciliosus. Pl. VI. fig. D.

Two shields on each superciliary region.

This species is similar to E. carinatus, its snout being fiat,
prominent, obliquely truncated in front, with the canthus
rostralis angular. Four pairs of small shields, longitudinally
arranged, cover the upper surface of the snout, only the canthus
rostralis and the superciliary edge being scaly ; two larger shields,

* Counted in four individuals.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 361

one behind the other, cover the superciliary region. Twelve
upper labials, the seventh and eighth of which enter the orbit ;
mental shield triangular, broad. Scales strongly keeled, in 32
or 33 series. Ventrals 180; subcaudals 44.

There are two distinct variations of colour, as in the other
species of this genus :—

a. Light brownish, with large, angular, partly confluent dark-
brown spots along the back; small black dots, irregularly disposed,
along the margin of the abdomen. A brown band from the
nostril through the eye to the side of the neck.

(8. Uniform reddish brown.

Pelew Islands. Total length 184 inches.

Cacopuis.
This genus differs from Diemenia in having a single nasal

shield.
Cacophis Kreffti.

Scales smooth, in 15 rows. Head rather depressed, of mode-
rate width and length. Rostral shield nearly twice as broad as
high, scarcely reaching the upper surface of the head ; anterior
frontals not much smaller than posterior ; vertical rather longer
than broad, six-sided, with an obtuse angle in front, and with a
somewhat acute one behind; occipitals rounded behind, nearly
as long as the vertical and posterior frontals together. Nasal
elongate, simple, pierced by the nostril in the middle, in contact
with the single preocular (there is a small shield intercalated
between the posterior frontal and the hind portion of the
nasal*). Two postoculars. Upper labials 6; temporals 1 +2.
Three pairs of small chin-shields, subequal in size. ye rather
small, with the pupil round. Body rounded, of moderate length ;
tail rather short. Ventrals 156; anal bifid ; subcaudals 28.

Upper parts black, each scale of the outer series with an indistinct
dark violet streak. A yellowish band commences on the snout
and passes through the eye and round the nape, where it is pure
yellow, whilst its anterior and lateral portions are dotted with
black; it is also longitudinallysdivided by a black line running
from the eye for some distance backwards. Lower jaw brownish,
marbled with yellowish. Hach ventral shield yellow, with a
black outer and hinder margin; a black band along the middle
of the subcaudals.

Two specimens of this pretty species have been sent by Mr.
G. Krefft; it is probably from Port Macquarie. The larger
specimen is only 12 inches long, the tail measuring 13 inch.

* This is an individual peculiarity, as this small shield is united with
the posterior frontal in the smaller specimen.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 24.

-

362 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Pseudechis australis.
Naja australis, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 55.

We have received a second specimen of this Snake from the
College of Surgeons, which agrees in all respects with the
typical specimen; so that every doubt is removed as to its
specific distinctness from P. porphyriacus*.

The diagnoses for the two species would be as follows :—

1. Pseudechis porphyriaca, Shaw. Black above, each scale of
the outer series red at the base, and black at the tip; ventral
shields with black posterior margins. Ventrals 184-191; most
of the subcaudal shields in pairs. S.W. Australia.

2. Pseudechis australis (Naja australis, Gray). Uniform light
brown above, and yellowish below. Ventrals 214-221; only a
few of the last subcaudals in pairs. N.E. Australia.

Hoplocephalus nigriceps.

Scales in fifteen rows ; upper parts of the head and nape of the
neck uniform black.

Body of moderate length ; head rather depressed ; tail short ;
eye small, with vertical pupil; snout broad. Vertical shield
five-sided, two-thirds as broad as long; two postoculars; six
upper labials, the third and fourth of which enter the orbit ;
temporals 2+2+43,; only the upper of the two anterior tem-
porals is in contact with the postoculars, the lower being in-
tercalated between the fifth and sixth labials. The anterior pair
of lower labials are large, as large as the front chin-shield.
Ventrals 154; subcaudals 29. Uniform brownish olive above,
each scale being lighter at the tip. Upper parts of the head and
nape uniform black ; lower parts whitish, immaculate.

Total length 16 inches, the head measuring 63 lines, and the
tail 2 inches. This species is probably from Australia, like its
congeners, but from what part we do not know.

Hoplocephalus minor.

Scales in fifteen rows ; vertical shield not .quite twice as long
as broad; temporals 2+2+2: Uniform olive-brown above,
yellowish below.

This species is similar to H. superbus, but it remains much
smaller. The head is rather small, of moderate length and width,
not depressed. The lower of the two anterior temporals is small,
smaller than the last labial. The chin-shields of the posterior
pair are separated from each other by scales. Ventral shields
125-128 (H. superbus, 148-153) ; subcaudals 59 in the male,

* See Giinth. Col. Snak. p. 218.

tn the Collection of the British Museum. 363

54 in the female. All the lower parts are yellowish, each ventral
shield having a blackish base.

An adult (pregnant) female is 17} inches long, the tail measur-
ing 4 inches. All our other specimens are still smaller, although
mature. This species inhabits S.W. Australia, whilst H. super-
bus proves to be a Tasmanian species.

TROPIDECHIS.

Mr. Krefft has described a very interesting Snake from the
Clarence River district as Hoplocephalus carinatus*. Although
it agrees in other points with the species of that genus, the
scales have quite the same structure and arrangement asin 7ro-
pidonotus—a point by which this species appears to me to be
entitled to generic distinction, and I propose the name of Tro-
pidechis for this new type.

Atractaspis aterrima.

Entirely deep black. Trunk slender, the circumference of,
its anterior portion being contained twenty-three times in the
total length; ventrals 274; subcaudals simple, 20. Scales in
21 series. Two pairs of frontal shields ; one pre-and one post-
ocular; five upper labials; temporals 1+1, the anterior very
large, four-sided, partly intercalated between the fourth and fifth
labials.

West Africa. This species is very similar to A. Bibronii, from
which it may be readily distinguished by its coloration, by its much
more slender body, and by the increased number of ventral
shields,—A. Bibroni having only 225-255. Our specimen is
14 inches and 2 lines long, the tail measuring 7 lines.

I have formerly identified 4. Bibronii with Elaps irregularis,
Reinh. (Colubr. Snak. p. 239). Both are, indeed, extremely
similar to each other; but as Reinhardt speaks of scutella cauda-
ha, it is possible that they are different, the term “ scutella ”
usually implying that the subcaudals are paired, and not simple.

Causus (Heterophis) rostratus.

Rostral shield turned upwards, forming a prominent, sharpish,
transverse ridge above ; scales in seventeen rows ; a series of large
spots along the back.

The rostral shield has a flat oblique inferior surface, and
forms above a curved, prominent, transverse ridge; it termi-
nates posteriorly in a triangular process intercalated between
the front part of the anterior frontals. The nostril is be-
tween three shields, viz. between a narrow longish anterior
nasal, a small square posterior nasal, and the anterior frontal ;

* Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863, p. 86.
24

364: Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes.

the latter shield is larger and longer than the posterior, which is
twice as broad as long. Vertical five-sided, rather large; occi-
pitals small, shorter than vertical, truncated behind. Loreal
square. The orbit is surrounded by four narrow shields (the
supraorbital not included), so that none of the labials enter the
orbit. Six upper labials ; temporals2 +3. Scales small, smooth,
in 17 rows. Ventrals 121; anal entire; subcaudals 15.
Greyish olive above, with a vertebral series of subrhombic
white-edged black spots; neck with a triangular blackish spot,
the point of which is directed forwards, and resting on the ver-
tical shield. Lower parts whitish, along the middle blackish.
This interesting species was discovered in Ugogo by Captain
Speke, on his expedition to the sources of the Nile. The single
specimen is 10 inches long, the tail measuring 10 lines.

Ancistrodon bilineatus.

Shining deep black, with scattered white spots, arranged in
narrow, distant, transverse bands ; the white spots are more nu-
merous and irregular on the belly; a yellow line runs from the
rostral along the canthus rostralis and the supraciliary edge to
behind the angle of the mouth. A yellow band along the upper
labials, the lower margin of which is black. Rostral with a ver-
tical yellow band, continued on the chin. Upper labials eight.
Scales keeled, in 23 series. Ventrals 137; subcaudals 65, the
14 last double.

This beautiful species appears to be scarce; Mr. Salvin found
it only once on the Pacific coast of Guatemala: the specimen is
39 inches long.

Bothriechis Godmanni. PI. VI. fig. G.

Scales in 21 series, strongly keeled, except those in the outer
row, which are smooth. Scales on the upper surface of the
head faintly keeled and of unequal size, three of them being as
large as the largest scales of the trunk; supraciliaries well de-
veloped, without small scales along the orbital margin; canthus
rostralis angular, covered with small shields, the posterior of
which enters the orbit. Rostral shield triangular, erect, not pro-
minent or elevated ; nasals small, separated by a suture; nine
upper labials, the third of which is almost immediately below the
facial groove ; the fifth is the largest, below the eye, from which
it is separated by two series of very small scales ; the posterior
gradually decrease in size; ten lower labials. Ventrals 142;
subcaudals 28, the tail being short, very thin, and not prehensile.
Upper parts uniform brown; a black band runs from the eye to
behind the angle of the mouth; labial shields yellow; a series
of rounded, light-edged black spots along the side of the anterior

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides. 365

part of the trunk. Lower parts yellowish, marbled with black-
ish in the posterior half of the body ; an irregular series of sub-
quadrangular black spots along each side of the anterior half of
the belly.

This species was discovered by Messrs. Godman and Salvin,
near Duefias and on other parts of the tableland of Guatemala.
An adult female measures 174 inches, the tail being 12 inch.

XXXVI.— Observations on Raphides.
By Georce Guiiiver, F.R.S.

Tue term raphides will be here used as defined in the ‘Annals’
for September last. Much perplexing obscurity has arisen from
the too frequent practice of confounding such very different
things as spheraphides, or other microscopic crystals, with
raphides.

The importance of these objects has been so far shown (see
the October and preceding Numbers of the ‘ Annals’) that de-
scriptions of certain orders can never henceforth be regarded as
complete, in any system pretending to be a natural one, without
notice of the fact which implies that a fundamental end of the
existence of those plants is the production of raphides; for,
during their whole healthy lives, such plants may be truly
characterized as Nature’s laboratories of these curious crystals.
And yet, valuable, weighty, and central as this character cer-
tainly is, I know not that it has ever yet been recognized by
systematic botanists. No other single diagnosis for the orders
in question is so simple, fundamental, and universal as this;
and the orders to which it applies should be designated raphis-
bearing or raphidiferous, and so of the genera or species when all
the plants of an order do not produce raphides.

Onagracee.—This order, as shown in former papers, is so
well and truly characterized in this manner that the raphides
even in the seed-leaves may be sufficient for the diagnosis; and
I know not that it had ever before been suspected that this
rudimental part of the plant of one order would thus be ade-
quate to distinguish it from other plants of the nearest allied
orders.

Further, I have now to observe that the same difference may
be demonstrated in the ovule. In its sacs and in the placenta
the raphides abound, while they do not exist there or else-
where in plants of cognate orders. Though I have made a few
observations to this effect in other raphidiferous plants, I have
chiefly studied the facts in Onagracez, because these are easily
obtained, germinate freely, abound so much in raphides, and

366 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides.

stand in the natural system between orders not thus producing
raphides. The annexed woodcut (figs. 1 & 2) represents them in
the ovule and in the berry of Fuchsia.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Seale, ;3;ths of an inch.

Fig. 1. Raphides in the ovule of Fuchsia.
Fig. 2. Raphis-cells of the berry of Fuchsia.
Fig. 3. Raphis-cells of the berry of Arwm maculatum.

Thus, taking the order Onagracezx as a typical raphidiferous
one, we have shown the presence regularly of raphides through
every part and period of growth of the vigorous plant, from the
ovule, cotyledons, axis, leaves and their modifications, to the
parts of fructification, and, finally, to the pulp of the berry. In
most, if not all, species of the order, the raphides occur more
or less in the anthers, filaments, style, and stigma, and, less
plentifully, in the petals.

Dioscoreacee.—The raphides are sometimes so very distinct
and beautiful in this order, that they would be excellent exam-
ples for demonstration at lectures. By sintply drying on glass
some of the juice of the berry of Tamus communis, the raphides
may be preserved for an indefinite time; and, as they are about
izth of an inch long and ;,),,th thick, they may be seen
merely with the aid uf a common hand lens. In the ripe berry
the raphides generally occur naked, either singly or in the cha-
racteristic bundles, destitute of a cell-wall.

Aracee.— But the raphis-cells are so large and plain in the
berry of Arum maculatum, and thus continue for a long while in
its ripe state, as to afford as good an example for the study of
the development, form, and relations of the raphis-cell as the
berry of Tamus is for the examination of the separate raphides.
And, in this point of view, these very common berries are well
worthy of the attention of teachers and pupils. In the woodcut,

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazon Vailey. 367

fig. 3, it will be seen that some of the raphis-cells of Arum are
nearly =,th of an inch in length and =+;th in breadth.

Asparagacee.—This is probably a true raphidiferous order ;
for, though I have not examined the exotic species, I have found
raphides in all the British plants (except Mazanthemum, which
I have not seen). In Asparagus officinalis, raphides occur
throughout the plant, and at all periods of its growth, from the
first leaf-bud to the ripe berry.

Edenbridge, Oct. 14, 1863.

[To be continued. |

XXX VII.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.
CoxzopTeRA : Lonercornes. By H. W. Barss, Esq.

[Continued from p. 288. ]
Genus LEPruRGES, nov. gen.

Body depressed, oblong, elliptical or elongate, free from irre-
gularities or tubercles on its surface, and clothed with fine,
prettily variegated tomentum. Antenne long and _ hair-like,
sparsely clothed with short, stiff hairs; the basal jot greatly
elongated, gradually thickened from the base, the club thus
formed being waved or not in its outline beneath; the remaining
joints (except the second) very slender. Thorax trapezoidal,
depressed, the lateral spines placed close to the hind angles, or
at a short distance from them. LElytra free from centro-basal
ridges or tubercles, more or less truncated at the tip, except in
rare instances, where they are entire. Abdomen with the ter-
minal segment slightly elongated in the females, the dorsal
plate obtusely pointed at the tip, the ventral truncated or scarce
perceptibly emarginated ; in the males the same terminal seg-
ment has both its ventral and dorsal plates entire at the tips.
Legs moderate in length, the thighs moderately clavate, and
the basal joints of the tarsi elongated.

This group, which comprises a large number of small Leiopo-
dine Longicorns of Tropical America, is so closely allied to the
European genus Lezopus that I have great hesitation in sepa-
rating it. All the species, however, differ from the European
Leiopus nebulosus (the type of the genus) in the shape of the
thorax, and m the antennz having very slender and elongated
joints more or less clothed with stiff hairs. The thorax has, in
nearly all the species, a trapezoidal outline, the lateral spines
being placed very near to, or coincident with, the hind angles,
the surface depressed, and the sides widening from the head
towards the base. In one section, however, the spines are more
or less distant from the hind angles, and they then have the

368 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

acute tips and recurved shape of the thoracic spines of Letopus ;
so that this character is not wholly to be relied on. The flatness
of the thorax and the great slenderness of the antennz are per-
haps distinctive characters of more value. The species are pret-
tily variegated in the hues of the fine pubescence with which
they are clothed; and the group, whether treated as a section of
Leiopus or as an independent genus, appears to me a very natural
one*,

§ 1. Thoracic spines very near to, or coincident with, the hind angles ;
small, not curved posteriorly.

1. Lepturges elegantulus, nu. sp.

L. subellipticus, depressus, carneo-fulvus, fusco variegatus: elytris
oblique et obtuse truncatis: femoribus posticis vix clavatis, tarsis
maxime elongatis. Long. 33 lin. ¢.

Head pinkish tawny. Antenne the same, with the extreme
tips of all the joints dusky; they are filiform, or rather stout,
and nearly three times the length of the body (¢). Thorax with
the lateral spines nearly coincident with the hind angles, porrect
or standing out at right angles to the body; surface pmkish

* The genus Leiopus is represented by three European species, one only
of which (L.nebulosus) I have been able to examine. Leconte enumerates
several North-American species, and, according to the characters he gives
of the genus, these seem to agree generically with the European forms ;
but one (L. angulatus of Georgia) would appear rather to belong to our
new genus Lepturges. The chief features enumerated by Leconte as dis-
tinguishing Leiopus from the many allied genera are—(1) the shortness
and conical shape of the ovipositor of the females (to which may be added
the uncleft tip of the apical ventral segment which forms part of it),
(2) the rounded apex of the dorsal plate of the apical abdominal segment
in the males, (3) the naked antenne, and (4) the elongation of the basal
joint of the posterior tarsi. I propose to limit the genus to those species
which have, in addition to the above characters, the thorax of quadrate
outline and of more or less convex shape, with the lateral spines placed at
a distance from the hind angles, long, acute, and curved posteriorly. I did
not meet with a single species answering to this definition in the Amazons
region: the following, however, found in South-east Brazil, seems to be a
true Leiopus, with the exception of the antennz being long and slender,
and furnished with stiff hairs :—

L. amenulus. Oblongus, convexiusculus, tomento carneo-griseo leete varie-
gatus. Caput nigrum, vertice rufo. Antennz elongate, tenues, setifere,
rufo-picez, articulis (duobus basalibus exceptis) apice nigris. Thorax
subquadratus, convexus, spinis lateralibus pone medium sitis, acutis,
recurvis; tomento carneo-griseo vestitus, maculis duabus dorsalibus
claviformibus nigris. Elytra apice breviter et obtuse truncata, modice
couvexa, punctata, nigricantia, utrinque plaga irregulari ab humero
usque ad apicem extensa grisea, nigro quadrimaculata, apud humeros
roseo tincta ornata. Corpus subtus rufo-piceum. Pedes picei, femori-
bus omnibus valde clavatis. Long. 2 lin. ¢. Hab. Rio Janeiro
Brasiliz. Coll. Bakewell, Bates. *

of the Amazon Valley. 369

grey, with a large irregular brownish blotch in the middle, and
a stripe of the same colour on each side beneath, above the
sockets of the haunches. LElytra depressed, tapering from base
to apex, the latter obtusely and obliquely truncated; base near
the scutellum slightly convex; surface punctured, pinkish ful-
vous or grey, silky, with a few brown spots and patches, namely,
one on the convex part near the scutellum ; a second, kidney-
shaped, on the margin near the humeral angle; a third, behind
the middle, extending as a large angulated blotch towards the
suture ; and a fourth, small and oblique, near the apex. Body
beneath and legs pinkish fulvous or grey; front and middle
thighs with dusky patches. Hind thighs gradually thickened.
Tarsi greatly elongated, the hind pair nearly as long as the tibiz,
the basal joint especially being of excessive length.

This handsome little species was only once met with, namely,
flymg in the evening twilight on the banks of the river at
S. Paulo, Upper Amazons. It differs from all other species of
the genus in the length of its tarsi and the slenderness of its
hind thighs, in which characters it approaches the genus Pare-
cus; but the depressed form and general facies make it consort
better with Lepturges than with Parecus.

2. Lepturges linearis, n. sp.
L. linearis, fuliginosus: elytris griseo bilineatis. Long. 4 lin. ¢ 9.

Head sooty, with a shining olivaceous pile. Thorax with the
lateral spines placed near the hind angles, and forming each a
large acute tubercle separated by an impressed line from the
body of the thorax ; surface with an impressed dorsal line, sooty,
varied with silky greyish-olivaceous pile. Elytra greatly elon-
gated, almost linear, sinuate-truncate at the tips, the external
angle of the truncature produced and acute; surface coarsely
but somewhat evenly punctured, sooty brown, each elytron with
two olive-grey vittee united before reaching the apex. Scutellum
grey. Body beneath and legs clothed with iron-grey pile. Legs
rather short; all the thighs clavate; tarsi slender and elongate.

Ega; not uncommon on dry twigs in the forest.

3. Lepturges flaviceps, n. sp.
L. elongatus, sublinearis, niger : capite, vittis duabus thoracis, annu-
loque antennarum flavis. Long. 4 lin. 9°.

Head shining testaceous yellow, with two black vitte extend-
ing from the front of the eyes to the occiput. Antenne twice
the length of the body, the basal joint very greatly elongated ;
black, with the basal half of the fourth joint pale yellow. Thorax
with the lateral spines placed near to the hind angle; surface
behind with a transverse depression, testaceous yellow, silky,

370 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

with a broad black vitta in the middle, and another still broader
on each side above the sockets of the haunches. LElytra elon-
gated, depressed, with the sides nearly parallel, obliquely trun-
cated at the apex, with the external angle of the truncature pro-
duced and acute; surface thickly punctured, sooty black, with
an indistinct pale streak in the middle of the base on each side.
Body beneath black, with the exception of the pro- and meso-
sterna, which are yellow. Legs black, cox and base of thighs
yellow ; thighs slenderly clavate ; tarsi slender, the basal joint
elongated.
One example, taken at Para.

4. Lepturges complanatus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, depressus, carneo-griseus, fusco maculatus: thoracis
spinis lateralibus angulos posticos constituentibus: elytris apice
singulatim rotundatis. Long. 33 lin. 3.

Head black. - Antenne reddish, with the extreme tips of all
the joints dusky. Thorax blackish, clothed with ashy change-
able pile, the lateral spines coincident with the posterior angles.
Elytra oblong, broadly rounded at the tips, plane above and
thickly punctured, with a shght indication of two longitudinal
raised lines on each, pinkish grey in colour, with five dark brown
spots or patches,—namely, one, minute, under the humeral angle;
one, linear-oblique, in the middle of the base; a third, subtri-
angular, on the side near the base ; a fourth extending as a broad
irregular fascia nearly to the suture ; and a fifth, wedge-shaped,
near the apex. Body beneath and legs dusky. Front and
middle thighs thickly clavate ; hind thighs more slender. Tarsi
moderately elongated.

One example, taken at S. Paulo, Upper Amazons, flying in
the evening.

5. Lepturges amabilis, un. sp.

I. oblongus, depressus, griseus: thoracis spinis lateralibus prope
angulos posticos sitis: elytris griseo nigroque leete variegatis, apice
breviter oblique truncatis. Long. 37 lin. 3 Q.

Head sooty black. Antenne greatly elongated, pitchy black.
Thorax grey ; the disk occupied by two large square black spots,
which leave only a central line and the margins of the ground-
colour; the lateral spines are prominent and porrect, a small
space only intervening between them and the hind margin.
Elytra oblong, very slightly narrowing towards the apex, which
latter is obliquely and briefly truncated; the surface is slightly
depressed and closely punctured ; the colour is clear grey, with
(on each) four black spots,—namely, one, oval-oblique, in the
middle of the base; a second, elongate-bilobed, on the side near

of the Amazon Valley. 371

the base; a third extending as a broad fascia behind the middle
to the suture ; and a fourth, small and transverse, near the apex:
the lateral spots are sometimes united on the extreme margin.
Body beneath and legs clothed with grey pile; club of hind
femora slender.

Ega; on dry twigs in the forest.

6. Lepturges inscriptus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, subdepressus, griseus, fusco leete variegatus: thoracis
spinis lateralibus prope angulos posticos sitis: elytris oblongo-
ovatis, apice sinuato-truncatis, griseis, plagis maculisque fuscis
notatis. Long. 3}lin. 9°.

Head reddish brown. Antenne reddish, extreme tips of the
joints (from the third) black. Thorax regularly widened poste-
riorly ; the spines situated near the hind angles, very acute and
directed obliquely outwards ; the surface finely punctured, grey-
ish, with the sides and two dorsal vitte brownish. LElytra
oblong-ovate, briefly sinuate-truncate, with the angles obtuse ;
the surface finely punctured, slightly convex, grey, with various
patches of a reddish-brown hue,—the patches consisting of a
spot in the middle of the base, an elongate hooked spot on the
side at the base, a lateral twin spot behind the middle, a V-like
spot in the middle near the suture, and an oblique zigzag fascia
between these latter and the apex. Body beneath and legs
reddish brown. Legs rather slender; all the thighs slenderly
clavate.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

7. Lepturges candicans, n. sp.

L. oblongus, subdepressus, canescens: elytris pone medium fasciis
duabus fuscis ad suturam convergentibus ornatis. Long. 3j lin. 2.
Head clothed with hoary pile. Antenne reddish, clothed

with hoary pile. Thorax not much widened posteriorly, the

spines placed near the posterior angles, the disk with a few
scattered punctures, and clothed uniformly with hoary pile.

Elytra oblong, the sides rounded and rather enlarged behind the

middle, the tip sinuate-truncate, both angles slightly produced

and acute; the surface punctured, hoary, with two irregular
brown fascize behind the middle converging on the suture; the
anterior fascia is broken towards the sides, and a narrow line

connects the two in the middle; besides these fasciz, there is a

V-shaped brown mark in the middle of the base on each elytron

and a streak on each side from the base to the middle. Body

beneath and legs reddish, clothed with hoary pile. Thighs slen-
derly clavate.

Ega.

372 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

8. Lepturges venustus, n. sp.

L. subelongatus, griseus: thorace supra nigro trivittato: elytris

maculis vittisque nigris. Long. 23-37 lin. ¢ Q.

Head greyish. Antenne black. Thorax grey or light brown,
the upper surface having three broad and regular black stripes,
and the sides each having a similar stripe above the insertion of
the cox; the lateral spines placed close to the hind angles,
short, obtuse. Elytra oblong, rounded, and somewhat widened
behind the middle in the ?, shorter and more tapering in the ¢,
broadly sinuate-truncate at the apex, outer angle of the trunca-
ture produced into a tooth in the 2, both angles produced and
acute in the d; upper surface with punctures scarcely apparent
through the tomentum, grey or light brown, with a black vitta
over the suture, dilated about the middle and narrowed towards
the apex, a similar vitta, of more equal breadth, on each side,
beginning at the shoulder, detached from the margin of the
elytron at one-third its length, and ending im a curve before the
apex, and two elongate black spots in the middle of each elytron
—one near the base and one behind the middle. Body beneath
and legs blackish, with grey pile.

Ega and Para, on dried twigs and branches. The lateral
vitta of the elytra is sometimes interrupted near its termination,
leaving a detached spot on the disk near the apex.

9. Lepturges dilectus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, depressus: thoracis spinis lateralibus magnis, acutis,
subporrectis: elytris profunde sinuato-truncatis, fuscis, plaga
communi irregulari ante medium maculisque posticis griseis.
Long. 3} lin. S.

Head brown. Thorax brown, with grey pile, punctured on
the disk and hind margin ; lateral spines placed near to the
hind angles, large, prominent, and acute, standing out somewhat
from the sides of the thorax. Elytra deeply sinuate-truncate,
both angles of the truncature produced and acute, the outer
ones most so; surface closely punctured, brown, with a large
common grey patch about the middle, which emits short lines
towards the base and apex; at the base, on each side the scutel-
lum, there is a small round grey spot, and behind the large grey
patch there are, on each elytron, two short grey lines, followed
by a transverse grey streak connected with the suture near the
apex. Body beneath and legs reddish, with grey pile.

Ega, on dead branches. ‘There is a Cayenne species* resem-

* L. Barii, n.sp. Oblongus, depressus. Caput et antennz rufescentes.
Thorax rufescens, griseo-sericeus, disco et margine posteriore punc-
tatis; spinis lateralibus prope angulos posticos sitis, parvis, subpor-
rectis, acutis. Elytra apice sinuato-truncata, angulis truncature pro-

of the Amazon Valley. 373

bling the present one greatly in markings, but differing in the
smaller size of the thoracic spines and in other minor features.

10. Lepturges perelegans, n. sp.

L. parvus, oblongo-ovatus, griseus: thorace lituris duabus nigris :
elytris sinuato-truncatis, griseo fuscoque lituratis. Long.2?lin. 9.
Head blackish. Antenne pitchy red. Thorax grey, with two

black vittze on the disk, and an oblique spot of the same colour

on each side ; lateral spines short, not distinct anteriorly from
the outline of the thorax. Elytra sinuate-truncate, angles of the
truncature not produced, surface punctured, grey, with several
flexuous black bands and spots,—namely, one basal, S-shaped,
extending from the shoulder to the suture; a second, in the
form of a large spot, on the side; a third extending as a broad
zigzag belt across the elytra behind the middle; and a fourth,
comma-shaped, near the apex. Body beneath and legs dusky.

One example; S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

11. Lepturges lineatocolls, n. sp.

L. parvus, oblongus, minus depressus, griseus: thorace supra nigro
quinquelineato : elytris nigro lineatis et plagiatis, apice sinuato-
truncatis. Long. 2 lin. ¢.

Head greyish, vertex with two dusky stripes. Antenne pitchy
red. Thorax with the lateral spines short and conical, placed at
a short distance from the hind angles; grey, with five black vitte,
the middle one much the broadest ; the sides of the thorax are
also blackish. Elytra oblong-ovate, narrowed near the apex(<¢),
sinuate-truncate, angles of the truncature slightly produced ;
surface slightly convex, punctured, greyish, with irregular black
patches near the base ; middle, sides, and apex partially connected
with each other by indistinct lines of the same colour. Body
beneath and legs dusky.

Santarem ; on dried twigs.

12. Lepturges fragillimus, n. sp.
L. parvus, oblongus, minus depressus, griseus: thorace supra fusco

bivittato: elytris maculis circa septem fuscis ornatis, apice leviter
sinuato-truncatis. Long. 27 lin. 2.

Head dusky or reddish. Antenne very long and thin, red-
dish ; apical halves of the joints (including the basal one) blackish.
Thorax grey ; disk with two black vitte ; sides deep black, with

ductis et acutis ; dorso punctata, rufescentia vel brunnea, ante medium
fascia antice posticeque dentata latera haud attingente, pone discum
punctum minutum et prope apicem ad suturam macula unciformi
griseo-albis. Corpus subtus rufescens, griseo tomentosum. Pedes
pallidiores. Long. 3¢]lin. 9. Hab. Cayenne. Dom. Bar legit.

374: Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

silky grey pile; lateral spines placed close to the hind angles,
acute. lytra oblong, rounded on the sides; apex sinuate-
truncate, angles of truncature not produced ; surface grey, with
(on each) about seven angular blackish spots,—namely, one under
the shoulder ; a second, oblique, near the scutellum ; a third, of
large size, on the side near the middle ; a fourth, elongated, near
the apex; and, finally, three, more or less contiguous, on the
disk behind the middle: some of the spots are partially confluent
in some examples. Body beneath and legs reddish, clothed with
grey pile.
Santarem, on dry twigs.

13. Lepturges pulchellus, un. sp.

L. parvus, elongatus, carneo-griseus: thorace supra fusco trivittato :
elytris maculis magnis fuscis, apice late sinuato-truncatis. Long.
akin, ;
Head clothed with changeable grey pile. Antenne dusky.

Thorax pinkish or tawny grey, with a broad black vitta in the

middle and one on each side, the latter varying in hue according

to the light; lateral spines placed close to the hind angles,
very small and obtuse. LElytra oblong, rather narrow, broadly
sinuate-truncate, the external angles of the truncature produced;
surface punctured, pinkish or tawny grey, with a large dusky
spot close to the scutellum, a second, larger and rounded behind
the middle, near the suture, and a third, smaller, near the apex ;
the sides also, except near the apex, occupied by an elongate stripe
or spot of a dusky colour. Body beneath and legs tawny grey.

Santarem ; on dry twigs in the woods.

14. Lepturges delicatus, n. sp.
L. parvus, oblongus, depressus, griseus: thorace vittis duabus rufes-
centibus : elytris punctis numerosis rufescentibus, utrinque macula
magna posteriore nigra. Long. 2 lin. ¢ Q.

Head reddish, clothed with grey pile. Antenne reddish
testaceous, each joint from the third tipped with black. Thorax
reddish testaceous, clothed with grey pile, and with two abbre-
viated vittee on the disk of a darker reddish-brown colour;
Jateral spines distinct, acute, placed very near the hind angles.
Elytra oblong-oval, depressed; apex obliquely sinuate-truncate,
both angles of the truncature produced; surface punctured,
grey, sprinkled with brownish-red spots, and having on each
elytron behind the middle a large black spot extending from the
side to the disk: in some specimens there is also a dusky spot
on the side towards the base. Body beneath and legs reddish
testaceous ; tips of tibize and tarsi black.

Upper and Lower Amazons, at S. Paulo and Santarem.

of the Amazon Valley. 375

15. Lepturges musculus, n. sp.

L. parvus, oblongo-ovatus, minus depressus, postice apicem versus
rotundato-attenuatus, fuliginosus: elytris obscure griseis, punctis
fuliginosis sparsis: corpore subtus rufo. Long. 27 lin. ¢.
Head blackish ; labrum hirsute. Antenne dull black. Thorax

sooty black, with obscure greyish pile, which leaves two abbre-

viated oblique vittee on the disk, of the sooty ground-colour ;
lateral spines placed near the hind angles, short, porrect, or
standing out from the sides of the thorax. EHlytra oval, apex
briefly and obliquely sinuate-truncate ; surface dull grey, sprin-
kled with small soot-coloured spots, some of which unite to form
patches ; in some specimens there is also a whitish speck on the
side of each elytron near the middle. Body beneath, coxze, and
base of the thighs reddish; legs dusky. Tarsi shorter than
usual in this genus; the basal joint of the hind foot, however, is
as long as the two following taken together.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons; flying, in the evening, on the
banks of the river.

16. Lepturges deliciolus, n. sp.

L. parvus, oblongus, carneo-griseus, fusco lete variegatus : antennis
pedibusque testaceis, nigro maculatis. Long. 12 lin. ¢.

Head dusky or reddish. Antenne reddish testaceous, tips of
the joints (from the third) blackish. Thorax reddish (black on
the sides), clothed with pinkish or tawny-grey pile, and varied
with four arcuated streaks or vitte of a reddish-brown hue;
lateral spines placed a short distance from the hind angles, and
bent posteriorly, as in Leiopus. Elytra oblong, narrowed behind
towards the apex, briefly simuate-truncate, angles of the trunca-
ture slightly prominent; surface punctured, pinkish or tawny
grey, varied with numerous reddish-brown spots,—namely, one,
angular, over the shoulder; a second, transverse, near the su-
ture behind the scutellum; three, oblong-linear, in an oblique
row across the elytron before the middle ; a sixth, N-shaped, on
the disk behind the middle; and a seventh, minute, near the
apex. Body beneath and legs reddish testaceous ; tips of femora,
tibize, and tarsi dusky.

This very pretty little species occurred only at Santarem, on
dry twigs on the borders of woods.

i wig Lepturges angustatus, 1. sp.

L. parvus, angustatus, postice attenuatus, nigricans: elytris maculis
linearibus obscure griseis. Long. 2} lin. ¢.
Head and antenne black. Thorax black, with obscure grey
pile and a faint grey dorsal line; lateral spines acute, placed
almost coincident with the hind angles. Elytra elongated, nar-

376 Mr. Hf. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

rowed towards the apex, briefly sinuate-truncate, outer angle of

the truncature much produced ; surface punctured, black, clothed

with olivaceous-sooty pile, and varied with a few short grey
streaks arranged in lines from base to apex. Body beneath and
legs pitchy black, clothed with dull greyish pile.

Ega.

18. Lepturges inops, n. sp.

L. parvus, angustatus, depressus, obscure rufescens: elytris griseo
lituratis, apice truncatis: femoribus posticis vix clavatis. Long.
2i lin. SC.

Head reddish, with scanty grey pile. Antenne dull reddish.
Thorax reddish, with a dusky tinge, and scanty silky grey pile ;
sides reddish; lateral spines large, pointing backwards, and
situated close to the hind angles. Elytra narrow, slightly widen-
ing towards two-thirds their length, truncated at the apex, with the
outer angles of the truncature slightly produced ; surface punc-
tured, dull reddish, dusky on the sides near the base, variegated
with dull greyish marks, there being a line on each side of the
scutellum, an irregular, elongate, flexuous spot extending from
the base to the middle near the suture, a small spot on the disk
near the termination of the before-mentioned streak, and three
oblong spots in a transverse row behind the middle of the disk ;
besides these marks, the suture near the apex and the apex itself
of the elytra are bordered with dull grey. Body beneath and
legs dull testaceous red. Legs feeble; hind thighs scarcely
clavate.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons*.

19. Lepturges griseostriatus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, postice attenuatus, fuscus: elytris rufescenti-fuscis,
utrinque lineis griseis octo, quarum tribus interioribus postice in-
terruptis, notatis: pedibus validis, femoribus fortiter clavatis ;
tarsis posticis maxime elongatis. Long. 3{ lin. ¢.

Head and antenne dull reddish. Thorax above blackish,
thinly clothed with hoary pile; the disk with a few punctures ;
lateral spines large and thick, placed very near to the hind

* A species inhabiting South-east Brazil closely resembles L. inops in
general appearance and markings; the following is a description of it :—

L. miser. Parvus, oblongus, subangustatus, depressus, obscure fuscus,
griseo variegatus. Caput nigricans, tomento fulvo vestitum. Antenne
tenues, parce setose, rufescentes, articulo basali piceo, reliquis apice
obscuris. Thorax nigricans, griseo parce tomentosus ; spinis laterali-
bus parvis, acutis, paulo ante basin sitis. Elytra apice integra, dorso
punctata, obscure fusca; fascia valde dentata ante medium liturisque
subapicalibus griseis. Corpus subtus pedesque nigro-picea; femori-
bus omnibus clavatis. Long. 2lin. g. Had. Rio Janeiro. Coll.
Bakewell.

of the Amazon Valley. 377

angles. Elytra rather elongate, narrowed from base to apex,
sinuate-truncate, both angles of the truncature slightly produced;
surface feebly convex, punctured, light brown, each with eight
longitudinal lines (besides a short one near the scutellum) of an
ashy-grey colour; the second, third, and fourth from the suture
interrupted a little beyond the middle of the elytron, and leaving
a considerable space free from lines; towards the apex these
three lines are represented by a thick streak. Body beneath and
legs dull reddish, clothed with ashy pile. The legs are rather
long and stout, the thighs thickly clubbed, the hind tarsi greatly
elongated, especially the basal joint, which is much longer than
the remaining three taken together.
Forests of the Cupari, River Tapajos.

20. Lepturges alboscriptus, n. sp.

L. oblongo-ovatus, niger: elytris utrinque linea arcuata lineolisque

duabus albis ornatis. Long. 33 lin. 2.

Head black, with a few silvery-grey hairs. Antenne black,
furnished with numerous bristles. Thorax black, with patches
of silvery-grey pile; surface sparingly punctured; lateral spines
prominent and acute, placed very near the hind angles. Elytra
oblong-ovate, slightly convex, very briefly and obtusely trun-
cated; surface punctured; each elytron with a distinct white
line extending from the shoulder to the suture behind the mid-
dle, and then sharply bent, terminating on the lateral margin ;
besides this line, there are two short white streaks placed trans-
versely,—namely, one on the side, at one-third the length of the
elytron, and the other very near the apex. Body beneath and
legs dusky. Legs moderately stout; hind tarsi moderately
elongated.

One example, taken at Caripi, near Para.

21. Lepturges dulcissimus, n. sp.

L. oblongus, depressus, testaceo-flavus : capite nigro, lineola flava :
elytris fulvo-griseis, apice flavis; marginibus, sutura fasciaque sub-
apicali nigris. Long. 3$lin. 9.

Head deep shining black ; labrum and a short and broad line
on the crown yellow. Antenne black. Thorax testaceous yel-
low; disk clothed with rich golden pile; lateral spines reduced
to mere tubercles, and placed near to the hind angles. LElytra
oblong, slightly narrowed near the tip, depressed, broadly trun-
cated, outer angle of the truncature slightly produced ; surface
punctured, clear tawny grey, with the suture, lateral margins,
and a fascia near the tip deep black ; the apical space behind the
fascia yellow. Body beneath reddish testaceous, except the tip

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, xii, 25

378 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

of the terminal abdominal segment, which is shining. black.
Legs shining black; basal halves of the femora reddish testaceous.
Thighs all somewhat abruptly clavate; basal joint of the hind
tarsi moderately elongated.

I met with only one example of this charming species. S.
Paulo, Upper Amazons.

§ 2. Thoracic spines placed at a distance from the hind angles: large,
acute, curved posteriorly.

22. Lepturges dorcadioides, White.
Leiopus dorcadioides, White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 382.

“7. punctulatus, brunneus, cano sublineatus: capite inter antennas
linea impressa transversa et linea longitudinali ab ore ad verticem
currente ; oculis supra distantibus : thorace cimereo, fusco punctu-
lato, vittis duabus medianis antice approximatis ; scutello cinereo :
elytris singulis apice oblique abruptis; margine, sutura et lineolis
abbreyiatis cinereis.”” (White, /.c.) Long. 34 lin,

The lateral spines of the thorax are placed at some distance
from the hind angles, and are long, acute, and directed obliquely
outwards with a slight curve. The elytra are obliquely trun-
cated in a waved line, and the external angle of the truncature
forms a small tooth directed outwards; their colour would be
better described as hoary or ashy, with (on each side) a broad,
irregular, arcuated, blackish vitta, extending from near the scu-
tellum to three-fourths the length of the elytra, and followed by
a small, angular subapical spot of the same colour. The legs
and antennz are of the same shape as those of the many allied
species.

Ega and Para. In my own Collection and that of the British
Museum.

23. Lepturges obscurellus, nu. sp.

L. parvus, elongatulus, fuliginosus: elytris griseis utrinque medio
macula magna triangulari nigricante, apice sinuato-truncatis, an-
gulis obtusis. Long. 21 lin. g.

Head blackish. Antenne reddish. Thorax dusky, with ob-
scure grey pile; the lateral spines placed a short distance from
the hind angles, acute, and directed posteriorly. Elytra oblong,
apex briefly sinuate-truncate, angles of the truncature not pro-
duced; surface punctured, dull grey, with (on each side in the
middle) a large triangular blackish spot, whose apex touches on
the suture the apex of the corresponding spot on the other ely-
tron. Body beneath and legs dull pitchy red, shining.

Ega.

‘of the Amazon Valley, © =. 87%

24. Lepturges minutissimus, un. sp.

L. minutus, oblongus, rufescens, tomento rufescenti-griseo variegatus:
' elytris apice integris. Long. 1} lin. ¢. :
~ Head rust-coloured. Antenne twice the length of the body,

reddish testaceous, naked. Thorax rusty red, clothed with dull
grey pile, leaving the sides and two dorsal vittz of the rusty
ground-colour ; lateral spines placed a little behind the middle,
large, acute, slightly curved posteriorly. Elytra elongate-ovate,
convex, entire at the apex ; surface coarsely punctured, rusty red,
clothed partially with dull grey pile, leaving the region of the’
scutellum, two short basal vittee, and an irregular dentated fascia
behind the middle, of the ruddy ground-colour. Body beneath
and legs testaceous red. Thighs all clavate; basal joint of the
posterior tarsi moderately elongated.

_ Santarem ; on dry twigs*.

Genus PAaRra@cus, nov. gen.

Body elliptical, narrowed equally anteriorly and posteriorly,
and slightly convex. Antenne stout, filiform rather than seta-
ceous, greatly elongated, two and a half times the length of the
body in both sexes. Thorax of trapezoidal outline ; lateral spines.
thick and conical, placed close to the hind angles. Elytra with-
out prominences on the surface, apex of each sinuate-truncate,
and bispinose. Legs rather long and stout; front and middle
thighs thickly clavate; hind thighs gradually thickened from
base to apex ; hind tarsi greatly elongated, the basal joint longer

* The following species also belong to section 2 of this genus :—

L. spinifer, Elongatus, modice depressus, cinereus, brunneo lineolatus et
maculatus. Caput brunneum, oculis postice cinereo marginatis.
Antenne testacez, tomento cinereo parce vestite. Thorax cinereus,
dorso maculis duabus brunneis cinereo marginatis ; spinis lateralibus
magnis, acutis, retrorsum oblique spectantibus, basi cinereis. Elytra
angustata, apice peroblique et obtuse breviter truncata ; dorso punc-
tata, cinerea, vittis abbreviatis basalibus quatuor pallide brunneis,,
maculis et fascia irregulari pone medium obscurioribus. Corpus sub-’
tus et pedes testacea, tomento cinereo parce vestita ; femoribus omni-
bus clayatis, tarsis posticis elongatis. Long. 2-2} lin. 6. Had, Rio
Janeiro. Coll. Bakewell, Bates.

L. humilis. Oblongus, postice paulo ampliatus, demde apicem versus
attenuatus, fuliginosus, cinereo lineatus et fasciatus. Caput piceum,
vertice linea cinerea. Antenne rufo-pices. Thorax fuliginosus, dorso
cinereo trilineatus ; spinis lateralibus grossis, minus acutis. Elytra
thorace latiora, pone medium paulo ampliata, apice vix truncata; dorse
conyexiuscula, punctata, fasciis duabus e maculis oblongis obscure
cinereis, una ante, altera pone medium. Scutellum cinereum, Corpus
subtus et pedes rufo-picea; femoribus omnibus clavatis; articulo
primo tarsorum posticorum modice elongato. Long. 2-23 lin. g 3.’
Hab. Rio Janeiro. Coll. Bakewell, Bates. ens ae

25%*

380 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazon Valley.

than the three remaining taken together. Ovipositor of the

female elongated (14 line long), tubular; dorsal plate of the

terminal abdominal segment pointed, ventral plate notched ;
ventral plate of the same segment in the males notched or
sinuated, dorsal plate entire or sinuated.

The general appearance of the two species which I place in
this genus resembles that of the Anisopodi and of the larger
species of Lepturges; but the thickness of the antennz and the
length of the ovipositor of the females forbid their being asso-
ciated with either genus.

1. Parecus ellipticus, n. sp.

P, ellipticus, tomento carneo-cinereo vestitus: elytris plaga magna
communi irregulari subtriangulari maculisque posticis nonnullis
adjacentibus. Long. 33-5 lin. ¢ Q.

Head clothed with ashy-fulvous pile; forehead dusky. An-
tenne reddish ashy ; tips of most of the joints slightly thick-
ened. Thorax clothed with pinkish-ashy pile, sparmgly punc-
tured on the disk and hind margin; lateral spines conical,
oblique, placed very near to the hind angles, and separated from
the body of the thorax by a deep fovea. Elytra sinuate-truncate
at the tip, both angles of the truncature produced into a short
spine; surface faintly punctured, thickly clad with pinkish-ashy
changeable tomentum, and having a large, common, dark brown
blotch of irregular triangular shape, the apex of which touches
the scutellum, and the base (behind the middle of the elytra)
broken into two or more elongate spots followed by an oblique
spot (on each elytron) of the same hue lying nearer to the apex.
Body beneath reddish; sides of breast dusky. Legs dull reddish,
sparsely clothed with ashy pile. Arpical ventral segment in the
males deeply notched, dorsal entire.

Fonte Boa, Upper Amazons, on fallen trunks of gigantic trees
of the order Leguminose. The pupe were found in numbers,
lying in oval chambers formed by the larve between the bark
and the wood.

2. Parecus rigidus, n. sp.

P. oblongo-ellipticus, parum convexus, tomento cinereo vestitus :
thorace fusco notato: elytris lateribus fuscis, cinereo maculatis.
Long. 43 lin. ¢.

Head clothed with ashy-fulvous pile, forehead dusky. An-
tennee reddish, clothed with ashy pile. Thorax rather strongly
punctured on the disk; lateral spines conical, oblique, placed
very near the hind angles; ashy, varied with small, oblong fus-
cous spots, two of which form an interrupted vitta on each side
of the dorsal line. Elytra strongly sinuate-truncate at the tip,
both angles of the truncature produced into spines, the external

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Species of Tortoise. 381

one very long; surface punctured, ashy, the sides occupied by a
dark-brown streak or elongate patch, of very irregular outline
and broken throughout with short spots and lines of the ashy
ground-colour of the elytra. Body beneath clothed with ashy
pile. Legs reddish ; hind tibiz with rather long apical spurs.

Ega.
[To be continued. ]

XXXVIII.—Notice of a new Species of Kinixys and other Tor-
toises from Central Africa. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Amone the other very interesting zoological specimens brought
from Central Africa by Capt. Speke, and presented to the British
Museum, is an imperfect specimen of a Land-Tortoise, which
appears to indicate the existence of a species that has not hitherto
been recorded in the catalogues.

I therefore propose to record it provisionally as Kinixys
Speku, hoping that some other traveller will be able to bring
more perfect specimens, and thus give us a more complete no-
tion of the animal.

Kiniays Spekiv.

Shell oblong, rather depressed, pale brown; the dorsal and
upper part of the marginal plates yellow, deeply and distinctly
concentrically grooved, with a black spot on the areola of cach
shield. The areola of the dorsal plates subcentral, small, gra-
nular, of the marginal plates small, rather behind the middle of
the shields. The nuchal plate distinct, oblong-elongate. The
sternum flat, convex on the sides, yellow, varied with numerous
black-brown rays, which reach nearly to the margin; the an-
terior [part of the sternum rather produced and truncated in
front, the gular plates being short and rather small; the hinder
end of the sternum short and rounded, and slightly nicked in
the middle.

It is most lke K. Homeana; but unfortunately it wants the
hinder moveable part of the back, and therefore we cannot tell
whether it has the prominence of the upper part of the fifth
vertebral plate, which is characteristic of that species.

It differs from the older specimens of that genus (and the
young have not occurred to me) in being longer and more ob-
long, and it has a very distinctly marked, large square spot
occupying the areola of each of the dorsal plates, and a smaller
but equally distinct black spot occupies the upper part of the
areola of each of the marginal plates.

It may be only a richly coloured specimen of the young of
K. Homeana; but the adult animal shows no indications of

382 Mr. R. Walker on the Skeleton of a Seal

having a dark areola, and there is a very great difference in the
form and extension of the marginal (and especially of the ante-
rior marginal) plates,

- Along with the above specimen, Capt. Speke has also sent to
the British Museum a specimen of Testudo pardalis, which dif-
fers from the general ventricose form by being elongated, like
the Indian Testudo stellata. It is very.solid for its size, and the
black mark forms rays rather like the Indian species above-
named. There are the head and feet of a Testudo in the same
Collection, in spirits, which are believed to belong to the above
shell. They agree with 7. pardalis, which is peculiar for having
the head covered with small scales, and only a pair of rather
small thin frontal shields just over the ends of the nose.

XXXIX.—On the Skeleton of a Seal (Phoca Greenlandica ?), and
the Cranium of a Duck, from the Pliocene Beds, Fifeshire. By
Rospert WALKER.

Fosstis have not heretofore proved common in any of the Plio-
cene beds of the east of Fife; and although some of our clay-
beds have been worked for many years, the discovery of fossil
remains in any of them is of rare occurrence; and when they
happen to be met with, it is always in the upper clays, no fos-
sils of any kind, so far as I know, having ever been found in the
boulder-clay of this district. In the spring of 1857, a nearly
entire skeleton of a Seal was discovered in the red brick-clay of
Stratheden, about nine or ten miles inland, and ranging from
100 to 150 feet above the level of the sea. This specimen was
exhibited, and a paper on its discovery read, by Mr. Page, at the
meeting of the British Association in Leeds: the specimen is in
the Natural History Museum, Edinburgh. Another Seal, in
fully a better state of preservation, was found in the same clay-
pit m April 1859, and is now in the Natural History Museum,
St. Andrew’s. This skeleton, as well as the preceding one, had
belonged to a young animal, and had evidently been imbedded
in the clay while all the ligaments, if not the muscles, were en-
tire. That this was the case may be inferred from all the bones
being in their respective places, any little derangement of posi-
tion being merely due to subsequent pressure. This skeleton
measures about 3 feet 2 inches in extreme length. The vertebral
formula is—?7 cervical, 15 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 3 sacral, 13 caudal.
The skull, which is very thin in this as well as in most of the
Seal family, was completely crushed; and it was found impos-.
sible to restore more than the occipital and part of the parietal
and temporal regions, The cervical vertebre are all in. good.

from the Pliocene Beds, Fifeshire. 383.

order; and it may be remarked that the transverse processes
of the last are not perforated. But a few of the dorsal are a
good deal broken and decayed, more especially the centra, some
of which are completely gone: this appears to have been mainly
caused by the corroding action of the contents of the stomach
and intestines, as all the bones in the gastric region were more
or less stained black, while the rest were of a cream-colour. All
the other bones may be said to be in good order, although many
of them were broken by the pressure they had sustained. They
are now, however, restored, and put in their several places, with
the exception of a few of the carpal bones of the left arm and
two or three of the phalanges of the posterior extremity, which
had unfortunately been overlooked in lifting the specimen. The
superior maxillaries are completely destroyed ; the only portions
of them remaining entire consist of little more than the alveoli
of the left side contaiming the teeth, and a fragment of the right
side containing the two posterior grinders. There are five molar
teeth on each side, above and below, placed straight in the jaws,
with a small space between them. In the upper jaw, the first
grinder has a single fang, the next four have double fangs; but
in the second the fangs are connate. Hach molar has an anterior
and a posterior basal cusp, besides a centre one, which is coms
pressed, conical, and slightly curved backwards in the first four
teeth ; in the fifth it is not so large, and is straight up. The
anterior cusps are but feebly indicated on all the upper teeth,
more especially on the first three or premolars. In the lower
jaw, the first two molars of the left side and the first three of
the right side are wanting; of those present, the third, fourth,
and fifth have double fangs. The alveolar cavity of the second
shows that that tooth had double fangs also, but the fangs
appear to have been connate; the first molar, hke that of the
upper jaw, had only a single fang. The crowns of the third
and fourth molars have each a central conical cusp, slightly
curved backwards, one anterior and two posterior basal cusps,
while the fifth has only one cusp before and one behind the
centre one: in all these lower-jaw teeth the anterior basal cusps
are larger than the posterior. The canine teeth are strong, with
compressed roots, their upper part round, sharply pointed, and
bent backwards. Some of the-incisive teeth are lost; of those
preserved, two are much larger than the rest, and have com-
pressed roots and round pointed crowns, with the tips hooked
inwards. They appear to belong to the outside of the upper
series. The middle incisors are very small and somewhat com-
pressed, the crowns sharp and hooked inward. With the ex-
ception of the dorsal vertebre (which will be immediately
noticed), the rest of the bones correspond so closely to those

384, Mr. R. Walker on the Skeleton of a Seal

of the common Seal that there appears to be no peculiarity
about any of them deserving of special notice in this place; and
some of them will be noticed in the sequel. The dorsal ver-
tebree are chiefly remarkable for the depressed condition of
the neural arches, and the total absence of neural spines in
all but the first, and perhaps the second vertebra. In these
vertebrae the neurapophyses form a series of flattened domes
over the central axis ; they are completely coalesced, and project
backwards, somewhat lapping over the anterior notch of the
contiguous vertebra. In the second vertebra the anterior edge
of the middle of the neural arch is exactly on a level with the
upper edges of the diapophyses; in its course backwards, it
gradually rises, till, at its posterior margin, it is about ;®ths of
an inch higher; in the third, the neural arch, at its posterior
extremity, where it is highest, is exactly the same height as the
diapophyses; and here the margin is about 8ths of an inch
broad from side to side, and slightly notched in the middle.
From this part these arches become gradually lower and lower,
till in the tenth vertebra the top of the arch is almost flat, and
about an eighth of an inch under the height of the diapophyses.
In the eleventh the arch is quite flat, and is exactly at a right
angle with the anterior face of the centrum: this, as well as
some of the preceding vertebre, has a round posterior margin,
which begins a little behind the zygapophyses; they have like-
wise a small notch on the middle of their posterior edge. From
this to the second last dorsal the arches are still flat ; but in the
last dorsal and succeeding lumbar they rise high in the middle ;
and then the neural spines, although not particularly prominent,
are still distinctly developed. From the eleventh dorsal vertebra
the round on the posterior margins of the neural arches becomes
gradually less as they approach the first lumbar, where the margin
is straight across; after this the margins are slightly concave,
but in the posterior lumbar they are notched under the neural
spines. The diapophyses are similar in size to those of the
common Seal, P. vztulina; and there are metapophyses feebly
developed on the last four dorsal vertebre.

I have thus far attempted to describe this Pliocene Seal; for,
although the bones of Seals have been occasionally met with in
the upper clay-beds of Scotland and other places, they have
heretofore been found in too detached and fragmentary a condi-
tion to admit of any description showing their specific identity.

How far the present Seal agrees with or differs from any of
the existing species is the next point of importance to be con-
sidered. The broken condition of its cranium, the absence of
the characteristic palatal and nasal bones, and the immature
state of the specimen, on the one hand, and, on the other, the

from the Pliocene Beds, Fifeshire. — . 385,

little that seems to be known of the osteology of many of the
recent species, the discrepancies in the different works on the
subject, and the confusion in which some of the species are still
enveloped, make this not a very easy nor perhaps certain matter.
In Phoca vitulina the oblique insertion of the molar teeth, the
two posterior cusps on those of the upper jaws, and the much
larger size of the molar teeth of young individuals about the
size of the fossil make it obvious that it does not belong to that
species. P. hispida appears to me to be the next Seal deserving
of notice; and the close resemblance its cranium bears to that
of the fossil requires for it a somewhat lengthened comparison.
The osteology of this species appears to be but indifferently
known; but its cranium, as figured by F. Cuvier in the ‘ Mé-
moires du Muséum,’ tome xi., agrees exactly with the fossil, so
far at least as the latter is entire, not only in the extreme length,
but when taken in detail. Thus, when the lower jaw is measured
from the anterior edge of the canine tooth to the articular con-
dyle, and then from the posterior edge of the glenoid cavity to
the extremity of the occipital condyle, the lengths in both cases
are exactly the same proportionally as those of the figure. F.
Cuvier’s description of the teeth is not very clear; he only says
of them, “et qui ont des macheliéres un peu plus simples que
celles du Phoque commun.” Nilsson * appears to consider P.
hispida as only a variety of his P. annellata, but states that he
dare not positively say so; and of this variety he says that there
are ‘nicht mehr als 1 Spitze hinter und | vor der Hauptspitze
im Oberkiefer.”” This description is so applicable to the fossil
teeth, that had Nilsson been decided that this variety included
P. hispida, it would have gone far, I think, taken along with the
corresponding size of the cranium to Cuvier’s figure, to have
settled the question as to the species. G. Cuvier’s description
of P. hispidat+ comes near enough the fossil: he says P. hispida
resembles P. Grenlandica and P. vitulina, but has a larger head
and a shorter snout ; his account of the teeth, however, is some-
what at variance both with those of the fossil and with Nilsson’s
description given above: he says, “Ses dents sont comme au
Greenlandica, et méme les supérieures, excepté la derniére, man-
quent du petit lobe en avant.” Such being the case, the next
Seal deserving attention in connexion with the present inquiry
seems to me to be P. Grenlandica, which, taken in all, ap-
pears to be the Seal to which the fossil has the closest alliance.
Indeed, I have little doubt that it is a young individual of
that species. At the same time there are one or two matters in
connexion with this requiring a little consideration. Bell’s

* Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,’ 1841,
+ Ossemens Fossiles, tome viii. Lar

386 Mr. R. Walker on the Skeleton of a Seal and the

figure of the cranium of this Seal, in his ‘ British Quadrupeds,’
appears to be drawn one-third of the natural size, and is the
same proportionally as Home’s full-sized figure*. When the
fossil cranium is compared with these figures, the posterior part
is found to be nearly the same in length. But there is a con-
siderable difference in the length of the lower jaws: in the
figures they are represented as 5 inches in length (that is, from
the posterior part of the articular condyle to the anterior part of the
canine tooth) ; in the fossil jaw the same measurement only gives
31 inches. In both cases, however, the teeth occupy precisely
the same space proportionally in the jaws. The fossil teeth
likewise agree in size with those of Home’s figure: they are not,
however, nearly so wide apart; but as they belong to an imma-
ture individual, perhaps the space between them would have
gradually increased as the jaws grew longer. The lower jaw
agrees with Bell’s figure both in its upper curve and in the
straight margin about the middle of its lower edge; the molar
teeth, in like manner, are exactly the same in shape as those
given in his figure. Most authors on the subject to whose works
I have had access state that the anterior cusps are obsolete on
the upper molar teeth of P. Greenlandica ; if this were invariably
the case both in old and young animals, then, of course, there
could be no doubt whatever that the specimen in question could
not be of that species. Nevertheless these anterior cusps appear
to me to be indicated in Prof. Bell’s figure of the skull of this
species, which Nilsson says belonged to a young animal. It
would likewise appear, from F. Cuvier’s description+, that these
cusps were developed on the teeth of some at least of the crania
examined by him, which he says he had of all ages, and remarks
that the molars are small, separate from each other, “et qui
n’ont qu’un -seul petit tubercule en avant ou en arriére du grand,
aux macheliéres supérieures.” In the ‘ Dictionnaire d’ Histoire
Naturelle,’ tome ix. 1847, the description of the teeth of P.
Grenlandica is “& macheliéres petites et écartées, n’ayant, a la
machoire supérieure, qu’un seul tubercule en avant ou en arriére
du tubercule moyen.” Macgillivray gives a short notice, in the
‘Nat. Library, vol. vii., of a young individual of the present
species examined by him: “It was 39 inches in length, the
head being 64. The incisors conical, compressed; the canine
teeth conical; the grinders tricuspid.” This account is valuable,
short though it be, as it shows the length of the head, in pro-
portion to the body, in an individual about the size of the fossil,
the skull of which, measured from the anterior of the lower
canine, is 5g inches in length, to which a httle must be added

* Philosophical Transactions, 1822.
+ Mémoires du Muséum, tome x1.

Cranium of a Duck, from the Pliocene Beds, Fifeshire. 387

for the projection of the upper jaw. It would likewise appear,
both from the fossil and from Macgillivray’s statement, that the
head is larger in the young animal, in proportion to the body,
than it is in the adult. Macgillivray does not give the length
of the lower jaw of his specimen ; but it will be seen, from the
length of that organ already given, that in the fossil the extra
size is in the cerebral portion of the cranium. In Prof. Owen’s
description of the skull of P. Grenlandica*, which was originally
figured by Home, and previously referred to, he speaks of “ the
principal cusp in all but the last lower molar having one acces-
sory basal cusp in front, and two behind. According to Cuvier’s
statement in the ‘Ossemens Fossiles, this was likewise the
cranium of a young animal. The truth would seem to be, that
the cusps vary somewhat with age, and of course the number
given by an author will depend much upon whether the animal
he is describing be old or young. The dorsal vertebra of P.
Grenlandica, as described by Prof. Owent+, appear to correspond
nearly with those of the fossil. The neural arches, he observes,
of the middle dorsal vertebree “are without spines, and are very
narrow, leaving wide unprotected intervals of the neural canal.”
He also states that there are “ metapophyses developed on the
last five dorsal vertebre.” The vertebral formula, however, is
somewhat different: he gives 4 sacral and 8 caudal for his spe-
cimen. In the fossil there are 3 sacral and 13 caudal (allowing
Cuvier’s opinion to be correct, that there are 4 sacral in the Seals
when the animal is adult, there would still be 12 caudal), and
metapophyses are only developed on the last 4 dorsal vertebree.
Whether these and some other minor characters are of sufficient
specific importance to separate the fossil from P. Grenlandica I
must meantime leave to those possessed of the requisite know-
ledge of the subject to determine. In 1860 there was a right
humerus cf a Seal found in the red clay of the Gar Bridge Tile-
works: this clay is about 50 or 60 feet above the level of the
sea, and some four miles west from St. Andrew’s. This bone had
belonged to a larger Seal than the preceding, but, except in its
larger size, it does not differ from the humeri of the latter in
any appreciable way; there are the same strongly pronounced
deltoid ridges and the prominent inner tuberosity observable in
both ; they are likewise similar in having the inner condyle per-
forated for the passage of the cubital artery.

About the time that the last-mentioned Stratheden Seal was
found, there were likewise discovered, in the same clay-bed,
some bones apparently belonging to two genera of Ducks, which

* Catalogue, Osteological Series, Royal College of Surgeons, vol. ii. _
~ ¢ Op. cit. ot RIB OS :

388 Lieut.-Col. Stuart Wortley on the Habits of

are now, I believe, in the Natural History Museum, Aberdeen.
I only saw a portion of these bones for a few minutes shortly
after they were discovered, and have had no opportunity of exa-
mining them since; but Mr. Page (in whose possession they
were) stated, at the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association,
that they belonged to some species of Ozdemia and Somateria.
However this may be, there is, in the Natural History Museum,
St. Andrew’s, the cranium of a duck, minus the bill, the zygo-
matic, tympanic, and pterygoid bones, that was found in the
brick-clay of Tyrie, near Kirkaldy. This cranium has the
closest resemblance to that of Oidemia nigra, but is much larger
than the cranium of this or any other of the genus that now
frequents our coasts. The skull of O. perspicillata, however, I
have never seen; but Gould and others represent O. fusca as
the largest of the genus. When the fossil cranium is compared
with the latter species, it is found to be a full eighth of an inch
larger in transverse diameter; its vertical diameter is likewise
greatest. The cranium of Somateria mollissima exceeds the
fossil in size exactly in the proportion that the latter exceeds O.
fusca. If the body bore the same proportion to the cranium in
Pliocene times as now, this Duck must have been intermediate
in size between O. fusca and S. mollissima. This is the more
remarkable when we consider the close resemblance which exists
between the fossil cranium in all its parts and that of O. nigra;
for, excepting the larger size of the former, there appears to me
to be no tangible difference whatever in the crania of sufficient
importance to separate them specifically. The fossil cranium is
perhaps a little more depressed than the recent, and the post-
orbital processes form a rather better defined angle on each side
with the posterior of the orbital cavity than they do in O. nigra,
and in this respect somewhat resemble O. fusca. But there are
the superiorly approximating orbits, the upward and backward
ascending processes on the Jachrymal (?) bones ; although large
in the fossil, they form part of the circular ridge across the base
of the bill, followed by a deep median depression, as in O. nigra.
The foramina appear to be the same in both; the fossil cranium
has likewise a single optic foramen, and well-defined grooves for
the olfactory nerves.

XL.—On the Habits of Pagurus Prideauxii and Adamsia
palliata. By Lieut.-Col. Sruarr Wort.ey.

In the month of July last, while dredging on the ‘ Diamond’ off
Hastings, I obtained many specimens of this interesting Hermit
Crab with its lovely lilac-and-white companion. I selected a
pair, of convenient size, living in the shell of a Natica monil-

Pagurus Prideauxii and Adamsia palliata. 389

fera. Bringing it to London, I gave it a glass vase, 12 inches
in diameter, with 3 inches of water, and about an inch or
sand, for its future home. At first the Pagurus was very shy,
withdrawing itself into the shell whenever I went to look at it;
but it gradually became less timid, and after I had had it about
three weeks in the aquarium, I was pleased to find it eagerly eat
a small piece of meat dropped into the vase by its side. It ate
a second piece; but on my giving it a third, I was agreeably
surprised to see it seize the piece with its large claw, and insert
it into the expectant mouth of the Adamsia. Being anxious to
verify this somewhat singular fact, I waited a few seconds, and
then lifting the pair out of water, found the piece of meat dis-
appearing down the throat of the Adamsia. About half an hour
after, he acted in a precisely similar manner with a fourth piece
of meat. The digested pieces were afterwards rejected by the
Adamsia. Whenever I feed him, I see him feed the Adamsia
as soon as he has had enough himself.

On two occasions of my dropping meat into the vase at a time
_ when the Pagurus was not hungry, he inserted his claw within
the tentacles of the Adamsia, and jerked it backwards and for-
wards; but the tentacles not closing on the claw, he appeared
to decide that Adamsia was also not hungry, and rejected the
meat altogether.

This attachment of the Pagurus to the Adamsia appears very
great, and it cannot bear to be separated from it. When it
changes from one shell to another, immediately on having se-
curely established itself in its new house, it returns to the shell
just vacated, and drags the Adamsia off with its pointed legs,
holding fast the shell the while with its large fore claw. The
Adamsia does not resent this rough treatment from its friend
(though the slightest irritation from any other source will cause
it to pour forth in great quantity its acontia), but, detaching its
broad lobes, drops off the shell. As soon as Adamsia is free,
Pagurus takes it up, and holds it firmly in his fore arms pressed
against the shell, till the Adamsia has re-attached its base. On
one occasion, Pagurus had to hold Adamsia thus in his arms for
upwards of an hour, Adamsia evidently disliking the new shell,
and being reluctant to fasten itself to it. When fastened, Adamsia
did not feel at home, as instead of firmly attaching the lobes to
the shell above Pagurus’s head, they were allowed to float loosely
in the water. This was evidently a hint to Pagurus that the
shell was an unsuitable one; and he shortly vacated that shell,
and returned to the old one, where Adamsia soon attached itself
as completely and firmly as before. On all other occasions of
Pagurus changing his shell, I have constantly observed that his
remaining or not in the new one appeared entirely to depend on

890 On Pagurus Prideauxii and Adamsia palliata.

Adamsia finding it suitable or not, the latter showing its dislike
to the shell by not attaching the lobes above the crab’s head.
Finding, after an hour or so, this to be the case, Pagurus in-
variably sought another shell.

On one occasion I found Pagurus out of his shell, in the
act of searching for a new habitation; and it was curious to
see how little he seemed to care for the exposed position of
his own tail, so long as he could continue firmly to clasp the
Adamsia in his arms. On another occasion, Pagurus was in
his new shell, and had not yet succeeded in detaching Adam-
sia from the old one, when I was anxious to take out the
Adamsia in order to examine the acontia under the microscope.
I took up the shell to which Adamsia was still fixed; but the
crab could not be induced to leave hold, preferring to be lifted
quite out of the water to forsaking his companion.. I was
obliged to drop them both back into the water, when Pagu-
rus, with the most rapid of movements, whipped his tail from
out the new shell and back into the one to which Adamsia
was still attached; he then stood and gazed at me in the most
impudent and provoking manner, evidently feeling that he had
disappointed his enemy and saved his friend.

He is now very sociable and not at all shy; but the way m
which he constantly twiddles his antenne prevents me, |] am
sorry to say, from obtaining a satisfactory photograph of him,
which I am anxious to obtain, to add to my other photographie
illustrations of marine natural history.

It is difficult to imagine why the Pagurus so insists on the
companionship of the Adamsia. He may be luxurious enough
to appreciate the soft cushion which Adamsia makes for his back
and chest, or he may find that the white worm-like tentacles of
the Adamsia act as a sort of bait to small creatures, who thus
bring themselves incautiously within the reach of Pagurus’s
sharp claws.

Anyhow, I see enough to prove that Adamsia palliata is
almost a necessity of existence to Pagurus Prideauxii.

The Pagurus has changed his skin once since he has been in
my possession.

I have thrown these few remarks together, as I am told by
those keepers of aquaria with whom I am acquainted that they
have never succeeded in keeping these animals alive ; and it is
possible that some of their peculiarities may be new to the
readers of the ‘Annals of Natural History.’

Oct. 18, 1863.

891

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES,

The Naturalist on the River Amazons: a Record of Adventures,
Habits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life, and
Aspects of Nature under the Equator, during Eleven Years of
Travel. By Henry Water Bates. 2 vols. 8vo, London:
John Murray, 1863.

PENNED with a homely simplicity which almost seems studied, and
owing certainly no charms to what is called ‘‘ word-painting,” the
record of Mr. Bates’s long sojourn in South America is perhaps one
of the most important works of its kind that has ever appeared. In
these days it is somewhat of a relief to come across a book honestly
written, without any attempt on the part of its author to produce a
‘sensation.’ If we were disposed to find fault with these volumes,
we should say that Mr. Bates, by sinking his own individuality too
much, has failed to make them as interesting as they might have
been. There are few of those touches in them which show that a natu-
ralist, after all, may be as other men are. The world gives the class
eredit for having eyes—albeit, as it appears in the present case from
some of the illustrations, they require the aid of spectacles ; but the
enjoyment of other ‘‘ organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions,”
seems to be sometimes denied to the fraternity, as Shylock imagined it
was to his kindred. Consequently this book, it must be confessed, has a
certain dryness about it. Still the mellifluous phrases of a Macaulay
or the glowing periods of a Gibbon do not of themselves constitute
history ; and, in the interests of science, there is no need to quarrel
with Mr. Bates because to him has not been vouchsafed the classic
grace of a Gilbert White, the poetic fancy of an Alexander Wilson,
or the fiery ardour of a Charles Waterton.

The name of Mr. Bates, from his frequent and valuable contribu-
tions to our pages, must be so well known to our readers that it is
unnecessary for us to say a word by way of introduction. Through-
out the protracted period of voluntary exile which he has endured,
he has been so unremitting in his consignment of zoological speci-
mens to his agent in London, that there can be but few collections of
importance, in any branch of the animal kingdom, which his labours
have not served to enrich. Yet, knowing all this, we confess at
having been utterly astonished at the tabulated results of his eleven
years’ wanderings. In his preface, Mr. Bates gives the following as
an approximate enumeration of the total number of species which he
obtaimed :-—

amine Ge is ee, S 52
WONG) ie i oe Ba LO 360
TrCOGER Wiha vest vs Soatas 140
pclae | i ae aa 120
AS GehiEe Kee tte. ck: wie 14000
TRS ES) ee ee TP eet af
ree) TC a ae 5

392 Bibliographical Notices. -

adding that ‘no less than 8000 of the species here enumerated were
new to science.’ This stupendous amount has, not unnaturally,
been received with some hesitation in certain quarters ; but our con-
viction is that Mr. Bates will prove there is no exaggeration in his
estimate*. The temper of the times is against testing the accuracy
of any book by the application of simple arithmetic; but we may
take the liberty of remarking that his computation amounts to the
capture of more than two new species daily (omitting Sundays) for
the eleven years of his absence—a feat, indeed, of which any man
may well be proud. With respect to Insects, our author, it will be
seen, deals in round numbers; and therefore to him will not apply
(as it might to many another collector) the story of the American
gunner, who, when boasting that he had killed ninety-nine Canvas-
backed Ducks at a single “shoot,” was asked by.a bystander why
he did not make it a clean hundred at once. ‘‘Sirree,”’ said the
Yankee, with dignity, “‘do you think I’d tell a lie for one darned
duck ?”” We imagine, however, that we have cause for complaint
against Mr. Bates that he has nowhere told us how many of these
8000 new species remain yet to be described : he speaks of the work
done or doing, in the way of description, by Drs. Bowerbank, Gray,
Giinther, and Sclater ; but how about the insects? Some, it is true,
he himself has already described; but when, where, and by whom
will the rest, forming (as of course they do) the bulk of the 8000,
be named and distinguished? We entirely participate in the regret
he expresses that ‘“‘a complete set of the species has nowhere been
preserved,’ not only for the reason he modestly assigns (a very
proper one though it be), but because we conceive that, for the very
honour of our country, the national collection should have become
possessed of a perfect series of Mr. Bates’s specimens, if it were
merely to show foreigners what the perseverance and industry of one
of her sons, not supplied from the public purse, and not equipped
with state documents, in his own private capacity was able to
accomplish.

Though, as we have said, Mr. Bates is no sluggard, yet he has
taken the advice of the wise man, and gone to the ant to consider
her ways. It seems as if the interest connected with each of the
widely differing groups that in English bear that name in common
were inexhaustible. Notwithstanding the mass of information re-
specting Termites and Ants (properly so called) to be found in books
of natural history, Mr. Bates has a good deal that is new to tell us

* Tn confirmation of the assertion, we may refer to two statements made
by Mr. Wallace, in his ‘ Narrative of Travels on the Amazon, &c.’—a work
to which naturalists generally have accorded all the praise bespoken for it
in this Journal nearly ten years since (Annals, ser. 2. vol. xii. p. 57). In
two months that gentleman, being then in company with Mr. Bates, col-
lected 1300 species of insects (p. 49); and at the time of his writing, he
mentions that our author had‘ then obtained 1200 species of diurnal
Lepidoptera, 600 of which might be met with within a day’s journey of
Para (p. 469) !

Bibliographical Notices. 1898

‘about them. Here is an extract from what he says of the Satiba
(codoma cephalotes) :—

“The workers of this species are of three orders, and vary in size
from two to seven lines......... The true working-class of a colony is
formed by the small-sized order of workers, the worker-minors as
they are called. The other two kinds, whose functions, as we shall
see, are not yet properly understood, have enormously swollen and
massive heads: in one the head is highly polished, in the other it is
opake and hairy. The worker-minors vary greatly in size, some
being double the bulk of others. The entire body is of very solid
consistence, and of a pale reddish-brown colour. The thorax or
middle segment is armed with three pairs of sharp spines; the head
also has a pair of similar spines proceeding from the cheeks behind.
Eset 3 The perfect sexes are winged on their first attaining the adult
state ; they alone propagate their kind, flying away, previous to the
act of reproduction, from the nest in which they have been reared.
This winged state of the perfect males and females, and the habit of
flying abroad before pairing, are very important points in the economy
of ants; for they are thus enabled to intercross with members of
distant colonies which swarm at the same time, and thereby increase
the vigour of the race—a proceeding essential to the prosperity of
any species. In many ants, especially those of tropical climates, the
workers, again, are of two classes, whose structure and functions are
widely different. In some species they are wonderfully unlike each
other, and constitute two well-defined forms of workers, In others
there is a gradation of individuals between the two extremes. The
curious differences in structure and habits between these two classes
form an interesting but very difficult study. It is one of the great
peculiarities of the Saiiba Ant to possess ¢hree classes of workers,
My investigations regarding them were far from complete. I will
relate, however, what I have observed on the subject.

«When engaged in leaf-cutting, plundering farinha, and other
operations, two classes of workers are always seen. They are not, it
is true, very sharply defined in structure, for individuals of inter-
mediate grades occur. All the work, however, is done by the indi-
viduals which have small heads, whilst those which have enormously
large heads, the worker-majors, are observed to be simply walking
about. I could never satisfy myself as to the function of these
worker-majors. They are not the soldiers or defenders of the work-
ing portion of the community, like the armed classes in the Termites
or White Ants, for they never fight. The species has no sting, and
does not display active resistance when interfered with. I once
imagined they exercised a sort of superintendence over the others ;
but this function is entirely unnecessary in a community where all
work with a precision and regularity resembling the subordinate
parts of a piece of machinery. I came to the conclusion at last that
they have no very precisely defined function. They cannot, how-
ever, be entirely useless to the community ; for the sustenance of an
idle class of such bulky individuals would be too heavy a charge for
the species to sustain. I think they serve, in some sort, as passive

Ann.& Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xix

394 Bibliographical Notices.

instruments of protection to the real workers. Their enormously
large, hard, and indestructible heads may be of use in protecting
them against the attacks of insectivorous animals. They would be,
on this view, a kind of ‘ piéces de résistance,’ serving as a foil against
onslaughts made on the main body of workers”? (vol. i. pp. 23-31).

This last is an ingenious suggestion of our author’s, and if he had
not so honestly confessed the incompleteness of his investigations,
we should have been inclined to attach much weight to it; but, as
the case stands, it must remain for future observers to establish its
probability. We may here remark that Mr. Bates (as might be in-
ferred from the foregoing passages) is a strenuous advocate of Mr.
Darwin’s views* ; indeed he states that it is owing to the encourage-
ment given him by that gentleman that we see the work now before
us. But we have here no intention of being dragged into the depths ofa
discussion on the derivative theory. Both opponents and promoters
of that hypothesis will find much in the ‘ Naturalist on the Amazons’
to interest them; and in future Mr. Bates’s work is certain to be
constantly referred to by either side.

But other Ants there are not so innocuous in their disposition.
The terrible “ Formiga de fogo ” (Myrmica sevissima), ‘‘ whose sting
is likened by the Brazilians to the puncture of a red-hot needle,”
abounds on the Tapajos, a river flowing into the Amazons at Santa-
rem. ‘It is found only on sandy soils in open places, and seems to
thrive most in the neighbourhood of houses and weedy villages, such
as Aveyros: it does not occur at all in the shades of the forest. I
noticed it in moist places on the banks of the Amazons; but the
Species is not very common on the main river, and its presence there
is scarcely noticed, because it does not attack man, and the sting is
not so virulent as it is in the same species on the banks of the Ta-
pajos. Aveyros was deserted a few-years before my visit, on account
of this little tormenter, and the inhabitants had only recently re-
turned to their houses, thinking its numbers had decreased.....'They
seem to attack persons out of sheer malice: if we stood for a few
moments in the street, even at a distance from their nests, we were
sure to be overrun and severely punished; for the moment an ant
touched the flesh, he secured himself with his jaws, doubled in his
tail, and stung with all his might” (vol. ii. pp. 95-97). The re-
medy for this pleasant state of things is found in anointing the legs
of chairs and foot-stools and the hammock-cords with copaiba bal-
sam, which drug, it appears, is more than even Fire-ants can stomach,
and by its application people are enabled to have a little peace.

We have not space to quote the long and extremely interesting
account which Mr. Bates gives (vol. ii. pp. 350-365) of the ants of
another group, the genus Heiton. ‘These inhabit the densest parts
of the forest, moving in vast armies. The main column, from four
‘o six deep, marches forward, clearing the ground of all animal

* See also the clever paper in the ‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society,
vol. xxui. p. 495, the principles maintained in which, be they right or wrong,
at least possess the merit of entire originality.

Bibliographical Notices. 395

matter, dead or alive, throwing off here and there a thinner column
to forage for a short time on the flanks of the main body, and re-
enter it again after their task is accomplished. On meeting with a
place rich in spoil, such as a mass of rotten wood abounding in insect
larvee, a delay takes place, and a strong force is concentrated upon
it. ‘The excited creatures search every cranny, and tear in pieces
all the large grubs they drag to light.’ Even wasps’ nests are no
impregnable fortresses to them: they escalade the low shrubs on
which they are built, gnaw away the papery covering to get at the
larvee, pupze, and newly-hatched wasps, and, regardless of the infuriated
owners, cut everything to tatters. Mr. Bates says, they “never
march far on a beaten path, but seem to prefer the entangled thickets,
where it is seldom possible to follow them.” He was not once able
to find an army that had finished its day’s course and returned to its
hive. Indeed, he never met with a hive at all: ‘* Wherever the
Ecitons were seen, they were always on the march.’ No wonder,
then, that ‘wherever they move, the whole animal world is set in
commotion, and every creature tries to get out of their way.” How-
ever, their life, even on the march, is not always spent in marauding,
“fighting still and still destroying.” In sunny glades, the hosts would
sometimes halt, and while the columns preserved their relative posi-
tion, the ranks would be broken, and the plunderers would walk
slowly about, or busy themselves by attending to their toilette, brush-
ing their own or their neighbours’ antennee. Here and there an ant
was to be seen stretching forth first one leg and then another to be
washed by a comrade, who performed the task by passing the limb
between the jaws and the tongue, finishing by giving the antenne a
friendly wipe. ‘‘ It is probable,’’ says our author, ‘ that these hours
of relaxation and cleaning may be indispensable to the effective per-
formance of their harder labours; but whilst looking at them, the
conclusion that the ants were engaged merely in play was irresist-
ible.” Two species at least of Eciton are blind. These fellows are
great engineers, moving wholly under covered roads, which they
construct rapidly as they advance, and, protected by them, push on
till they reach some happy hunting-ground in the shape of a rotting
log, into the crevices of which they pour in search of booty. Their
arcades extend occasionally for a distance of one or two hundred
yards; but Mr. Bates does not give us as full an account of these
extraordinary creatures as of their congeners who are blessed with
organs of vision.

However, we have passed enough time with the ants, and must
press onwards. Nearly every class of animal and vegetable life ob-
tains a notice in Mr. Bates’s book, whose pages absolutely teem with
valuable information respecting beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes,
insects of all orders, and curious plants. We must not omit to draw
the reader’s attention to his observations on the origin and variation
of species (vol. i. pp. 255-265) ; but, for the reason we have before
given, we content ourselves here with only mentioning these much-
vexed questions. In like manner, without going into the subject, we
can but refer to our author’s pertinent remarks on animal distribu-

26%

396 Bibliographical Notices.

tion (vol. i. pp. 108-111) in the Amazons’ delta, and his judicious
-deductions therefrom.

Before concluding, however, we must express our satisfaction at
the handy size of Mr. Bates’s work. Instead of a mighty cumbrous
book, we have here two volumes of small and convenient dimensions;
and the first is furnished with a very excellent map, which greatly
enhances the pleasure we have in following the traveller's progress
on the “Mediterranean of South America.” The work, too, has a
liberal supply of illustrations, some of which are good, though of
others we cannot say much. They are all woodcuts, and, for figures
to be inserted in the text, nothing more is required; but for whole-
page engravings, we think this system, so much employed in the
publications of Mr. Murray, is decidedly to be reprobated. Mr.
Wolf’s designs are, of course, beautiful: nothing can be more ani-
mated than the drawing of the frontispiece, representing Mr. Bates
“mobbed” by an angry crowd of croaking Toucans, or of the assem-
blage of water-birds in the foreground of the river-view in the first
-volume.. But both are marred, and the first absolutely spoilt and
rendered ridiculous, by the coarse clumsy hand of the wood-cutter,
whose name, though it is perceptible in the corner of the engraving,
we will mercifully withhold here*. What, however, shall we say of
the illustration representing the big Spider garotting the Finches, or
rather, we suppose, the Tanagers? We should like to know whether
Dr. Sclater (for whose special delectation that pretty family of birds
‘is supposed to have been developed) is aware of a species having
four anterior toes, and these toes equally articulated ; for such a
one is here delineated by the artist, whose name, whether Brown,
Jones, or Robinson, is immaterial. It is enough to say it is not
Wolf.

Here, then, we must leave this interesting work. We can only
‘tender our hearty congratulations to Mr. Bates on his safe return
among us; and trusting that his four years’ residence at home may
have fully restored his health, so materially impaired by his unre-
mitting toil on the Amazons, hope that in England he will not forget
that virtue which carried him so successfully through all his difficul-
ties in Brazil, but that, by still continuing the wholesome practice of
‘“paciencia,” he may be enabled thoroughly to work out all his
remaining collections, and thus reap to the full the well-merited
fruits of his labours.

Iceland; its Scenes and Sagas. By Saxsine Barine- Govt,
M.A. &c. With numerous Illustrations and a Map. London:
Smith & Elder, 1863.

A nephew of so distinguished an Arctic voyager as the present
highly respected President of the Royal Society, it seems but natural

* Since the above was written, we perceive that the critic of our learned
cotemporary, the ‘ Natural History Review’ (July 1863, p. 389), especially
commends this frontispiece as “one of the best ewecuted scenes” ever

produced! Of a truth, tastes differ. ix

Zoological Society. 397

for Mr. Sabine Baring-Gould to exclaim with the Prince of Morocco,
** Farewell heat, and welcome frost.” The magnificently illustrated
volume on Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas, without doubt deserves
a brief mention in these pages; for the author, in addition to his
accomplishments as a classical and an Icelandic scholar, shows that
he has a very fair knowledge of natural history. Indeed, if we are
not greatly mistaken, the book before us contains more information
on the zoology of Iceland than has ever hitherto been given by any
of our fellow-countrymen, and, with regard to the botany, more than
has been published in the English language since Sir William Hooker,
some fifty years ago, brought out his ‘Journal.’ Mr. Baring-Gould
narrates his adventures in a very agreeable manner, interspersing
them with fragments of Sagas, most of which will be new to the
British public, and, what is more to our purpose, with notices of the
natural history of the island. To these are added certain appendices
—one, on Icelandic Ornithology, contributed by Mr. Alfred Newton,
and another, by the author himself, giving a list of Icelandic Plants.
The former seems to have been drawn up with some care, though at
least one species, [dis falcinellus, recorded so long ago as 1836, and
by so distinguished an authority as the late Professor Reinhardt
(Vidensk. Selsk. Afh. vii. p. 96), has escaped attention. Altogether
we feel sure that our readers will derive a large amount of amusement
and interest from the perusal of this work, and we have much plea-
sure in recommending it to their notice generally, but more especially
to any intending visitor to Iceland.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 27, 1863.—G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

CoNTRIBUTION TO THE HeERPETOLOGY OF CERAM.
By Dr. A. GUNTHER.

We are indebted for our knowledge of the reptiles of Ceram to
Dr. P. v. Bleeker, who, in a paper, ‘‘ Over de Reptilien-Fauna van
Ceram”*, enumerates thirty-eight species collected at Wahaai, on
the northern coast of that island, and at Paulohi on the southern
coast.

Having received a small collection of these animals from North
Ceram, I am enabled to add the following species :—Tilqua rufes-
cens ; Cyclodus carinatus, un. sp. ; Coluber holochrous, n. sp.; For-
donia unicolor, Gray ; Cerberus acutus, Gray; and Diemennia Miil-
leri, Schleg. However, it is probable that three of these species are
comprised in Bleeker’s list, but under different names, viz., Cyclo-
dus carinatus, mihi, as C. Boddaértii, D. & B.; Fordonia unicolor,
Gray, as Eurostus plumbeus, D. & B.; and Cerberus acutus, Gray,
_as Cerb. boeformis, D. & B. Therefore, taking the number of
Ceramese reptiles known as forty-one, we find that thirty-five of

* Nat. Tydschr. Nederl. Ind. 1860.

398 Zoological Society :—

them are referable to the fauna of the Indian Archipelago, whilst
the remaining six belong to genera which have hitherto been consi-
dered as peculiar to the Australian region. Those six are Cyclo-
dus, Liasis, Enygrus, <Acanthophis, Diemennia, and Pelodryas
(Hyla cyanea).

Dipsas irregularis appears to be one of the most common Snakes
in Ceram. One large specimen had swallowed the egg of a bird,
probably that of a middle-sized parrot ; it was but slightly cracked
on one end. This Snake has no cesophageal teeth.

Fordonia unicolor feeds on freshwater crabs.

Enygrus carinatus has twenty-seven series of scales. Schlegel has
counted thirty-three.

Acanthophis cerastinus.—The specimens from Ceram differ from
those of the Australian continent in the coloration. They are light
reddish olive, with indistinct darker cross-bands in young age; a
series of black dots runs along each side of the front part of the
belly and of the tail. The other markings of the head are the same
as in Australian specimens; and as there is no other difference in
the form, in the shields, or scales, I consider it merely as a variety,
for which I propose the name of ceramensis.

The two following species appear to be new :—

CyCLoDUS CARINATUS.

Similar to C. gigas, and with the same elongate temporal shields ;
but the scales are larger, there being thirty-two in a series round
the body, and fifty in a longitudinal row between the axils of the
fore and hind limbs*. The median scales along the back are very
distinctly keeled, the keels forming slight longitudinal ridges along
the back of the tail.

Brownish olive, with about ten narrow black bands across the back
of the trunk ; sides and belly marbled with black ; limbs black.

Total length 18 inches, of which the tail measures 8 inches.

CoLUBER HOLOCHROUS.

Scales smooth, without groove, in seventeen rows. Seven upper
labials ; two anterior and two posterior oculars. Uniform brownish
grey ; belly and the outer series of scales dull yellowish.

Body and tail moderately elongate, but slightly compressed.

* Cyclodus gigas, from New Holland, has thirty-six series of scales round the
body, and fifty-seven or sixty between the fore and hind limbs.

Miss E. M. Smee on thé Caddis-worm. 399.

Rostral shield broader than high, scarcely reaching to the upper
surface of the head; anterior frontals not quite half as large as the
posterior ; vertical pentagonal, as broad as long, the lateral edges
being shorter than the anterior. Occipital shields moderate, slightly
notched behind. Nostrils wide, the suture between the two nasals
being very indistinct. Loreal large, longer than high ; two anterior
and two posterior oculars, the upper anteocular not being in contact
with the vertical. Seven upper labials, the third and fourth coming
into the orbit. Eight temporal shields in three transverse series ;
the two anterior temporals are somewhat elongate, and the upper of
them is in contact with both postoculars, the others are scale-like.
Eight lower labials, five of which are in contact with the chin-shields.
Ventral shields 206; anal entire; subcaudals eighty-seven. There
are six or seven rather strong teeth in each maxillary, and ten in each
mandible. Eye rather small, two-fifths of the length of the snout.

Total length 43 inches.

If we divide the Coluéri with equal or subequal teeth into the
subgeneric divisions of Coluber, Elaphis, Cynophis, Spilotes, and.
Coryphodon, as indicated in my ‘Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes,’
p- 84, the present species does not enter any of these sections; and
we may propose the name of Lelaphis for a sixth group, of which
C. holochrous is the type, and to which also Spzlotes samarensis,
Peters, belongs. Its characters would be :—Rostral moderate ; body
and tail rather elongate and compressed ; two anterior and two poste-
rior oculars. Scales smooth. Teeth subequal, in small number.

Feb. 24, 1863.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., in the Chair.

The following letter, relating to the habits of the Caddis-worm
(larva of Phryganea), addressed to Dr. Gray by Miss E. M. Smee,
was read to the Meeting :—

“ Feb. 19, 1863.

‘My pear Sr1r,—I have ventured to send for your inspection a
box containing cases made by the Caddis-worm, the worms of which
were collected by myself from that part of the Wandle which runs
through our garden at Wallington.

“‘ T found, on examining the natural cases, that they were made of
different materials. For instance, some were constructed of small _
stones finely glued together, others of sticks, and some were formed
of sticks and stones combined. Again, some were made of leaves of
water-plants, and I observed that others were formed of the shells of
creatures which inhabited the same stream.

«© As I had never seen or heard of these Caddises before, I felt
much astonished that creatures somewhat resembling maggots, and
living at the bottom of the river, should live in houses built by them-
selves, and yet that these houses should differ so greatly in their con-
struction. Indeed I was so interested that I determined, if possible,
to discover the capabilities which these creatures possessed of form-
ing different kinds of dwellings under different circumstances. I very
much desired to know whether they could construct cases from other

400. Zoological Society :—

kinds of materials, besides those usually existing in the river in which
they lived.

** To ascertain the fact, I accordingly turned the worms out of their
natural cases, and gave them different substances to work upon ; but
I found that they had not an equal facility with every material ; for
whilst with some they formed cases which were attended with good
results, with others they entirely failed.

‘“* The worms succeeded well when they were supplied with pieces
of glass, amethyst, cairngorm, cornelian, onyx, agate, coral, coralline,
marble, shells, jet, brass shavings, gold-leaf, silver-leaf, when existing
as small fragments.

“When, however, the worms were supplied with round objects,
they invariably failed ; and although I have repeatedly tried them
with small glass beads and other round objects, I never found that
with these they were capable of forming a case.

** But these Caddises also failed to make themselves houses from

other causes than that of the roundness of an object ; for I found that
if these creatures were placed among materials strongly scented, or
which contained poisonous matter, not only were they unable to
build with them, but in most cases the substances proved fatal to the
worms. When I tried them with pine-wood, my Caddises would in
a short time become completely stupified from the turpentine con-
tained in the wood, from which they often never recovered. With
pieces of coal, brick, or slate they never succeeded in making a
case, although these substances did not cause their death. The rea-
son for their failure I attributed to some kind of odour which might
have emanated from these different materials. With painted or var-
nished objects they also failed. Not every kind of metal was suit-
able for their buildings ; for neither with tin, or lead, or copper did
they succeed. I found that if one Caddis was not able to make a
case out of any one kind of material, no other Caddis could succeed,
although I might try several others with the same material.
_ “ After a Caddis had made two or three houses, I used to give it
something fresh to work upon, and oftentimes I supplied it with a
totally different material. With these new substances it proceeded
to build as quickly as before, constructing its new habitation accord-
ng to the shapes of the pieces it had then to deal with.

“ The maximum amount of artificial cases I could get any Caddis-
worm to make was five, the last one being very brittle, the parts being
scarcely glued together. After they had built so many houses, if
turned out of the last house, they would simply bury themselves and
remain in a quiescent state. But I think that if the Caddises were
procured early in the year, the number of their cases might be con-
siderably increased.

*‘ Tt is a most curious sight to see these little creatures building
their houses, beginning by cementing a number of pieces loosely to-
gether. This is merely used as a foundation for building its subse-
quent structure ; for it is always cast off before the house is completed.
After they have laid the foundation, they proceed by lifting up each
piece of stone, or whatever the material may consist of, with their

Miss E. M. Smee on the Caddis-worm. 401

feet, turning it on all sides to discover whether it will fit into the
space, and if it does not, as is frequently the case, that piece of stone
is instantly rejected, and another is tried after the same manner, until
they succeed in finding a suitable piece, when it is cemented to the other
stones by a secretion which I ascertained proceeded from their mouth.

** When their house is made, the body of the creature is completely
encased ; their heads and feet alone protruded.

“In their natural state, the weight of these cases varies much.
They are twice as heavy, and made of more solid materials, when the
creatures inhabit rapid streams than when they live in still waters.
The reason of this difference is, I suppose, to enable themselves to
keep, by the weight of their cases, at the bottom of the water.

“I noticed that, after the Caddis-worms were turned out.of their
cases, air-bubbles appeared on the surface of their bodies. If placed
under these circumstances in ruuning water, these air-bubbles would
cause the creatures to rise to the surface and there float until they
died from exhaustion, caused by their hard endeavours to reach the
bottom. According to the roughness of the water, so must be the
weight of their cases.

** When in the pupa-state, their heads and feet are entirely with-
drawn into their cases ; and they remain in a dormant state, neither
eating nor moving, until they turn into flies, their cases being more
or less split in the act of transformation.

** T used to feed some of my Caddises whilst in the larva state with
small pieces of raw meat, which they ravenously devoured; they would
even eat a common house-fly, leaving only the wings, head, and legs ;
but however hungry they might be, yet they never could be induced
to touch cooked meat.

“I found it was quite necessary for the Caddises to have plenty of
food whilst in the larva state, to enable them to have strength to un-
dergo the transformation.

“ Trout are the great enemies of the Caddises, as they eat them up,
cases and all, in every stage of their existence; but they consider the
worms without the cases as especially dainty morsels.

** On the 24th of January this year, I observed that the Caddises
were just hatched ; and although some were so small that they were
only visible with a lens, yet every one was busily employed in making
its little house.

“ They have grown so quickly that, since that date, they are now
quite conspicuous at the bottom of the river.

“‘ The box I send to you contains in the centre the cases made
from the various materials I gave to the worms, and encircling the
artificial cases are the natural habitations as taken from the river.

“ Trusting you will find them worthy of your inspection,

‘* Believe me to remain,
‘* My dear Sir,
“To Dr. Gray, F.RS., ** Yours faithfully,
of the British Museum.” *“ELIzABeETH Mary SMEE.”

“P.S. The Caddises are so excessively pugnacious that I am

402 Zoological Society :—

always obliged to keep each in a separate vessel. If that precaution
were not taken, instead of peaceably constructing their houses, a fierce
warfare would be carried on between them, which would result in
the death of the weakest party. After one was killed, the survivor
would set about building its house. I generally kept about thirty
small white earthen jars at a time, each being filled with water, and
containing a single Caddis-worm, with the particular material of which
I wished its house to be constructed.

“‘ The Caddises are provided with two little hooks, situated one on
each side of the tergum. These little hooks are curved and sharply
pointed. With these they securely fasten themselves in their houses,
by which extra strength is given to resist their being torn from their
cases. At first, on account of these hooks, I experienced some diffi-
culty in turning them out of their habitations. Indeed, I was often
so unfortunate as to break and consequently spoil their cases; or
sometimes, after catching the creature by its head and trying to pull
it forcibly out, I have known the creature to retain its hold so firmly
by means of its hooks, that its body has been pulled in two rather
than it would let go its hooks and suffer its house to be taken from
it. At last I found that when a pin was gently pushed into the end
of the case, the slight irritation would cause the Caddis to crawl
entirely out of its house, and thus I was enabled to preserve the case
without causing injury to the worm.”

On A New Brrp FROM THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR.
By AtFrrep Newton, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

My brother, Mr. Edward Newton, Assistant Colonial Secretary at
Mauritius, and a Corresponding Member of this Society, having had
last autumn the good fortune to make a second visit to Madagascar,
has sent me a collection of birds from that island, containing many
objects of great interest, among which is one that I believe forms a
genus very distinct from any previously known. This I have now
the honour to exhibit and describe.

HypHERPES*, genus novum Certhianum vel Sittinum.

Char. Gen.— Rostrum breve, robustum, leviter emarginatum, ad
apicem aliquanto compressum, rictu setoso. Ale mediocres,
rotundate, ad caudam mediam attingentes, remige quarto, quinto
et sexto equalibus ; tertio septimum, et octavo secundum, super-
antibus; primo multo breviore. Cauda mediocris, prope equalis,
rectricibus duodecim aliquanto rigentibus. Pedes validissimi,
tarsis quam digitt medi posticique longioribus, unguibus com-

' pressis, subvalidis.

HypHERPES CORALLIROSTRIS, Sp. nov.

Capite, gutture, pectore et abdomine schistaceo-brunneis, olivaceo
indutis ; collo, dorso, alis caudaque supra fusco-ceruleis, virente
tinctis: remigibus fuscis, extus pallide marginatis, intus cer-

* dd, sub; Eprns ex EpTru, repo.

Mr. G. Krefft on a new Hoplocephalus. 403

vino latius limbatis, ut in Tichodroma: uropygio et crisso
subrufescentibus, rectricibus obsolete fusciatis: rostro toto
coccineo ; pedibus plumbeis : tridibus obscure rubris.
Longitudo tota 4‘8 poll. Angl. et dec. ; rostri a fronte °4, a rictu
"65; alee 2°9; caudee 2:2; tarsi 0-9; digiti medii cum ungue 0°8,
postici 0°97,

March 24, 1863.—W. H. Flower, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

Description OF A New Species or HorLocerHaAus witu
KEELED Scates, By Grerarp Krerrt, Corr. Memp.

HopLocerHALus CARINATUS, Sp. Nov.

Scales in 23 rows. Anal entire. Ventrals 165. Subcaudals 54.

Body elongate and rounded ; tail rather short, not distinct from the
trunk, tapering, ending in a conical spine. Head broad, quadrangular,
distinct from the neck ; muzzle short and broad ; eye moderate, pupil
rounded ; rostral broad, just reaching the surface of crown, with a
groove along the lower edge ; anterior frontals moderate ; posterior
frontals much larger, five-sided, rounded behind. Vertical moderate,
five-sided, with an acute angle behind; superciliaries large, raised
above the eye; occipitals moderate ; one anterior ocular, slight]
grooved ; two posterior ones ; one large temporal shield, two smaller
ones behind; no loreal, this being replaced by the nasal; the second
upper labial, anterior ocular, and posterior frontal bend down on the
sides. Seven upper labials, the third and fourth touching the orbit,

Sen,

=~;
=
Sa

Vibea

V2

Scales rather narrow and elongate, in twenty-three rows anteriorly,
somewhat broader, and in nineteen rows posteriorly, strongly keeled,
forming fourteen raised lines upon the back and sides; brownish
olive above, with some irregular interrupted blackish rings, which
become more and more obsolete towards the tail ; skin between and
upon the underside of the scales black ; belly whitish, clouded with
purplish grey on the sides, much darker towards the tail, which is
of a uniform purplish colour below.

This Hoplocephalus differs from all the other known species in

404, Miscellaneous.

the strongly keeled scales and the seven upper labial shields. Total
length 38".

Discovered by Mr. James J. Wilcox near Grafton, in the Clarence
River district.

MISCELLANEOUS.
On the Habits of Lycosa Blackwallii.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—In the description of the large Madeiran Lycosa
(L. Blackwallii), printed in the August Number of the ‘ Annals,’ I
was not able to say much about the habits of this spider. I have,
however, been lately favoured with some notes on this subject by my
friend Mr. F. Pollock, who obtained specimens from the mountains
above Funchal, in localities at a height of 2000 feet at least above
the sea. He kept them alive for some months, and brought several
females with him to England. These notes you will, 1 dare say,
consider worthy of being printed.

“Tt seems to be the custom,”’ Mr. Pollock writes, ‘for this spider
either to take possession of or to excavate holes, four or five inches
deep, in a sloping bank, at the height of four or five feet above a
piece of level ground. At the mouth of the hole is placed a web,
with an opening at the middle for the egress of the spider ; but I do
not think the inside of the hole is led with a web. They are rather
slow in their movements when dug out during the daytime. Instead
of running away, they would stand at bay, even showing fight and
seizing with their falces any stick presented to them. As I never
met with one outside its hole, their habits are probably nocturnal ;
and when they issue from their places of concealment in search of
prey, their movements are doubtless more rapid than by day. When
two or three have been put into the same box, I have seen them run
after one another with great quickness. They are exceedingly
pugnacious; for on one occasion, when I placed several individuals
together in the same box, they all fought together, and not one sur-
vived. They are remarkably fearless, and would seize a wasp and
devour it at once, without any sort of protection such as an Epeira
makes by surrounding its prey with web.

«From the 7th to the 19th of April, I kept some of these spiders
alive in separate cells of a box, feeding them on bluebottles and
wasps. I then brought them to England with me, where they arrived
on May 7th, having been shut up in a box which was placed in a
packed portmanteau, which portmanteau was also put in the hold of
the ship ; so that it is evident they require very little air, and can go
a long time without food. On arriving in England, they were placed
in small sieves with a sheet of glass over them. They never seemed
to make any lines, except on one occasion, when two very fine females
got loose and fought like bull-dogs, and I had great difficulty in se-
-parating them :. during the combat, I observed one of them attach

Miscellaneous. ‘405

herself by a line to the box she was in. In the middle of the sum-
mer, however, they began to line the whole of the inside of their
cage with fine whitish web, not quite so close as the web of a house-
spider. They then each made a white cocoon (this was about
the middle of July), about the size of a damson-stone, which they
kept jealously under their bodies, carrying it about with them where-
ever they went ; and one of them shut herself up for a day or two in
a kind of den, which she wove in the corner of her cage, but soon
cut her way out again, to get food, I conclude. About the Ist of
September the eggs in both the cocoons appear to have been hatched;
but I did not see the young ones till they were some ten or twelve
days old; and when I first observed the mothers after this event,
their abdomens had the appearance of being covered with a thick
brown moss, which, when examined with a lens, proved to be a col-
lection of some fifty young spiders, holding on to the mother, with
their heads downwards and their legs and abdomens sticking out.
Now (the 17th of September) they have evidently much increased
in size since they were hatched; and I am puzzled to think what
they have had to eat—whether they have derived any sustenance from
the mother herself, or whether they have devoured each other, which
latter I think highly improbable ; neither do I think that they take
any part of the food given to the mother (for the old ones still con-
tinue to feed on bluebottles rather largely). The handsome appear-
ance of the mothers has certainly-very much fallen off since they
were first taken ; and this, in conjunction with the fact of the young
ones adhering so closely all round the abdomen of the mother, would
rather incline one to suppose that they receive some nourishment
thereby.

“For the last two or three days, the young spiders have got very
restless, and several of them have left the mother, to wander about
the cage.” ;

I am, Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
Sept. 22, 1863. JaMES YATE JOHNSON.

On a Sternotherus from Central Africa.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Dr. Kirk has just presented to the British Museum a living spe-
cimen of a young Sternotherus from the river Shiré, near the Mur-
chison Rapids, in the Zambezi.

It appears, from the small temporal shields, to be the young of S.
subniger ; but it differs so much from the adult specimens of that
species as to be worthy to be described.

Shell oblong, rather shelving on the sides, with a sharp inter-
rupted dorsal keel, more prominent and forming tubercles behind,
It is blackish olive and black beneath, with a large central white
blotch occupying the greater part of the sternum,

The dorsal and marginal shields have a rather large, rugose, sub-
posterior areola, with very numerous regular radiating grooves, and
a few distinct concentric grooves near the margin. The first vertebral

406 Miscellaneous.

shield is quadrangular, about as broad as long, and narrowed behind ;
the second, third, and fourth are hexagonal, the second rather
broader than long, and the fourth longer than broad ; the second has
a very blunt keel, occupying its hinder half; the third and fourth
are sharply keeled, the keel being prominent near the hinder edge,
especially of the fourth shield; the fifth shield four-sided, much
contracted in front, and with a slightly raised sharp central keel.

The margin is very narrow on the sides, wider and sharper-edged
in front, wide and rather arched over the hinder legs, rather narrow
and very strongly dentated behind. The sternal shields are like the
dorsal ones, radiately and concentrically striated, but not so strongly.
The head is olive black-speckled above, beneath pale yellowish,
darker-marbled on the sides; the legs and feet are uniform brown,
covered with small scales, the front ones with two broad band-like
scales just over the feet; the toes are united together to the end ;
the claws are narrow and sharp. Length 33, breadth 3 inches.

Note on a Species of Molva from the Gulf of Genoa.
By Dr. A. Ginturr.

M. Canestrini, in a paper ‘‘I Gadidi e Macrouridi del Golfo di
Genova’’*, has briefly mentioned and figured a Gadoid fish which
he considers as identical with Lota lepidion, Risso. Mr. J. Y. John-
son was so fortunate as to rediscover this fish of Risso at Madeira ;
and the specimen, which I have fully described under the name of
Haloporphyrus lepidion +, proves that the main characters given by
Risso, especially that of the four-rayed first dorsal fin, are correct.
On the other hand, M. Canestrini’s fish has fourteen rays in that fin,
and therefore it cannot be identified with that of Risso. It is evi-
dently a species of Molva, and, if not identical with M. vulgaris, one
closely allied to it. I must leave M. Canestrini to settle this point,
and can only add that it is improbable that a northern species like
the Ling should be found in the Mediterranean.

On the Osteography of the Sirenia compared with that of the
Pachydermata and Cetacea. By J. ¥. Branpr.

In his memoir on Rhytina Stelleri, Professor Brandt compares
_ the skeleton of that animal with those of the Manatees, Dugongs,
and Halitheria. The latter fossil animals may be regarded, from
the presence of traces of hind limbs, as the most perfect forms of the
Sirenia; the Rhytine, on the contrary, from the want of teeth in
the adults, as the most imperfect. Thus the Dugongs would con-
stitute a form intermediate between the Halitheria and the Rhytine,
whilst the Manatees, notwithstanding the different affinities which
they present with the Dugongs, Halitheria, and Rhytine, would be
collateral forms, distinguished by the tail and teeth, and approaching
the Pachydermata, especially the Tapirs and Dinotheria. In this
way the Sirenia would be related to the Pachydermata on two dif-
ferent sides, by the Halitheria and the Manatees.

* Arch. per la Zool, ii. p. 366. + Catal, Fish, iv. p. 358,

Miscellaneous. 407

The Sirenia, according to Brandt, are not Cetacea, but rather
purely aquatic Pachyderms, which, however, in accordance with our
principles of classification, may very well form a distinct order.—
Comptes Rendus, Sept. 7, 1863, p. 489.

Note on the Lemming (Lemmus norvegicus, Desm.).
By M. Guyon.

The emigrations of the Lemmings, like those of the migratory
Locusts, are not periodical, and are attended, like them, by a greater
or less amount of damage in their course. The Norwegian Lemming
inhabits the highest parts of the mountains, where it lives chiefly
upon mosses and lichens. Like all its congeners, it sleeps through
the day, and only wakens at the approach of night. Its activity is
then extraordinary : it moves, as it were, in every direction at once— .
tearing, gnawing, and murmuring.

For some years the Norwegian Lemmings had not migrated ; but
they migrated again in the spring of the present year, although in
smaller numbers than usual. Towards Lillehamar, in the early part
of July many were still to be seen running about in the gardens,
and along the houses, and crossing the streets, which were completely
strewed with their dead bodies. Notwithstanding its tenderness, the
Lemming is strong and courageous. When pursued, it flies at first,
but soon turns and defends itself with teeth and claws: it bites
severely. Whilst on its defence, it utters very sharp cries. The
Lemmings often fight together; and it seems probable that, under
certain circumstances, they devour each other.

The cause of the emigration of the Lemmings has been supposed
by some naturalists to be the presentiment of a severe winter, by
others the deficiency of nourishment at the points where they live,
and by others, again, their too great multiplication in certain years.
Let us examine these three supposed causes of the emigration of the
Lemmings.

1. A severe winter, of which the animals have a presentiment.—If
this were the case, the emigration would always take place at a period
more or less approaching winter. But the emigration took place this
year in the spring.

2. The deficiency or scarcity of nourishment at the points inha-
bited by them.—The Lemming, as already stated, lives upon lichens
and mosses; and these plants have not been less abundant on the
mountains this year than in preceding ones.

3. The great multiplication of the animals in certain years.—This
cause appears the most plausible, and we may adopt it until a more
probable cause is discovered.

It has been said that the Lemming, in its emigrations, follows in-
variably a direct line, and is stopped by no obstacle, however large ;
but no doubt a little of the marvellous has been intermixed with the
history of this interesting little mammal. In all probability, the
direction which it follows in its emigrations is given to it by the
declivity of the soil, so that it will always descend like water from
its mountains.

408 Miscellaneous.

In all probability, also, at a given moment in the years of emigra-
tion, and as if responding to a general call, the Lemmings will de-
seend from their respective mountains, unite their bands at the base,
and continue their march across the country. This march is made
in columns more or less close, according to the number of emigrants,
which diminishes from day to day by death. In inhabited districts,
numbers perish by the agency of man and the domestic animals (the
dog, cat, and pig); and the wild animals which follow their columns
wage a continual war upon them: these are the birds of prey, and,
among mammals, the Isatis and the fox. It is also asserted that
the reindeer, notwithstanding its herbivorous nature, does not spare
them. Hence the Lemmings quit their mountains never to see them
again ; but it is not known whether the emigrants consist of old or
young individuals.

The author procured five specimens, with the view of bringing
them to France; but three of them died before he quitted Norway.
They fed freely upon biscuit, and also ate walnuts, nuts, almonds,
and raisins, which were varied on the voyage with some fruits from
their mountains.— Comptes Rendus, Sept. 7, 1863, p- 486.

Description of a new Species of Galago.
By A. D. Bartuert.

In the month of November last I had occasion to call at the house
of Mr. L. A. Monteiro, and that gentleman showed me a specimen
of a Galago. I at once told him that the animal was new and
unknown to me. It differs from the known species in being
larger and lighter in colour and in having a much longer tail. Mr.
Monteiro informs me that it was sent to England by his son, Mr.
J.J. Monteiro, who obtained it at Cuio Bay, to the south of Loando,
in Angola. It is very gentle, and sleeps much during the day, feeds
on fruit, bread, milk, and other sweet things, particularly bananas.

The entire length of the animal is 28 inches, of which the tail
measures 16 inches.

The colour is light chinchilla grey all over the head, body, and
tail, nearly white on the throat ; the toes and feet dark brown, nearly
black ; nose black ; the eyes greyish brown; the ears nearly black,
2 inches long, 14 inch broad at the base. The animal has. the
power of turning its ears back and folding them up when at rest:
when moving about or in search of food, they spread out and
stand upward and forward, reminding one of the Aye-Aye; but
when folded back and down, the animal’s face bears a strong resem-
blance to the Douroucouli. The pupils of the eyes are oval and ver-
tical.

This animal is considerably larger than the specimen in the British
Museum, known as Ofolicnus crassicaudatus; but as I am unable
to determine the exact structure of its teeth, in order to say posi-
tively that it belongs to that genus, I propose to name it Galago
Monteiri, in order to identify it with the gentleman who has added
from time to time many rare specimens to our collection.—Proe.
Zool. Soc. June 9, 1863.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 72. DECEMBER 1863.

XLI.—On Polytrema miniaceum, a Polythalamian.
By Professor Max ScHu.rze*.

[Plate VII. figs. 1-10. ]

Unper the name of Polytrema corallina, Risso+ describes cer-
tain small, red, coral-like calcareous structures which occur
pretty widely in the Mediterranean upon seaweeds, shells, and
other marine productions. They form calcareous crusts, mea-
suring 3-4: millims. or less in their greatest diameter, of a dingy
carmine-red colour, and with an irregular surface; they adhere
firmly usually to a flat surface, but are also frequently met with
forming rings round thin stems of Algee.

These structures resemble small Millepores, with which in-
deed they were formerly placed. Linnzeus’s Millepora miniaceat
must be referred to our species. Lamarck describes them as
Millepora rubra§, whilst De Blainville|| combined Risso’s generic
name Polytrema with the Linnean specific name miniacea (or,
more properly, miniaceum), which appellation is here adopted.

On the surface of these structures the lens shows numerous
roundish shallow depressions, which extend equally over the
lobed or cock’scomb-like elevations and over the depressed
parts between these. (PI. VII. fig. 1). The depressions are
usually very shallow, and are occupied at the bottom by pre-
cisely the same mass which is seen between them. Frequently
the bottom of the little depressions rises in the form of a some-
what spherical dome, like a mountain cone ascending from the
depths of a crater and gradually filling the latter completely.

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1863,
p- 81.
+ Hist. Nat. Eur. Mérid. v. p. 340.
{ Systema Nature, ed. Gmel. vi. p. 3784.
§ Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert. || Man. d’Actin. p. 410, pl. 69. fig. 4.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 27

4.10 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

The apices of the lobes and combs of the surface also bear similar
shallow depressions. But, on these, orifices passing further in-
wards are very frequently met with—the commencement of
canals which penetrate the interior. These orifices I do not
regard as natural, but as produced by the breaking off of the
processes or by the erosion of the surface.

Dr. Krohn had the kindness to give me some Polytremata
which he had collected on seaweeds at Nice and brought with
him in a dry state. At the first glance of these I was vividly
reminded of the Polythalamian structures from the Philippines,
described by me as Acervulina acinosa*, which are of the same
size and colour, and occur under similar circumstances, but pre-
sent a somewhat different relief on the surface. Krohn had
already ascertained that Polytrema exhibits a structure of the
calcareous walls similar to that presented by the thick-walled
Polythalamian shells. But what had especially attracted his
attention was, that in Polytrema it appeared that siliceous spicules
occurred constantly, as in the Sponges, sometimes projecting
freely from the above-mentioned orifices at the apices of the
lobes, but in other cases only becoming visible when the calca-
reous shell was crushed.

The examination of the dry specimens given to me at once
confirmed the similarity of the structure of the calcareous walls
with that of the thick-walled Polythalamian shells, and at the
same time the occurrence of sponge-spicules in the interior of
the Polytrema. These were chiefly siliceous, and exactly of the
structure of ordinary sponge-spicules, awl-shaped, with a fine
axial canal, and either pointed at both ends or knobbed at one
of them. (Pl. VII. fig. 10.) A few calcareous spicules were inter-
mixed with them, as could be ascertained at once, and without
chemical tests, by means of the polarizing apparatus. Very
small spicules, hooked at both ends, also occur (fig. 10a). Of
any organic matter occupying the cavity the dried specimens
showed mere traces.

The interest attaching to the structures under investigation
could not but be extraordinarily increased when it appeared,
from further inquiry into the literature of the subject, that very
nearly allied structures had been examined by Dr. Gray, and
placed as intermediate forms between the Rhizopoda (Foramini-
fera) and Sponges. Gray found structures resembling Poly-
trema adhering to various marine productions (corals and shells),
and published descriptions of them under two new generic
names, Carpenteria and Dujardiniay+. By the examination of
thin sections of the calcareous shells of these parasitic organisms,

* Ueber den Organismus der Polythalamien, p. 68.
Tt Aun. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. ii. p. 381 (1858).

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 411

Carpenter had proved their Foraminiferous nature; but, as
sponge-spicules occurred in their chambers, Gray regarded the
structures as transitional forms between Foraminifera and
Sponges. Gray also met with the Polytrema miniaceum of the
Mediterranean, but leaves it doubtful whether this is to be
arranged with the Foraminifera or with the Bryozoa near Cri-
brillina. He gives it the new name of Pustularia rosea*.

At Gray’s request, Carpenter then more fully investigated the
structures arranged in the genus Carpenteria, and published a
memoir upon them in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1860
(vol. cl. pp. 564 e¢ seg.), in which he also mentions the Polytrema
miniaceum of De Blainville as an organism which possesses a
Foraminiferous structure of the calcareous shell, and is most
nearly allied to the genus Tinoporus (p. 561). Carpenter found
the sponge-spicules constantly in the chambers of the Polytha-
lamian named after him, and intimates his adhesion to Gray’s
view that it is a transition form between Foraminifera and
Sponges.

Whether we regard Sponges as animals or plants, the occur-
rence of transition forms between them and the Polythalamia
must, under any circumstances, be in the highest degree inter-
esting. An organism of the nature of the Rhizopod-body is
supposed to produce simultaneously an external calcareous shell
and an internal framework of siliceous spicules. The Sponge-
structure, the characteristics of which consist in a much higher
histological differentiation of the living substance than appears
to occur in the Polythalamia, is supposed to pair with the simple
protoplasm-body, not divisible into cells, of the calcareous-
shelled Rhizopoda. The affair evidently deserved the most
thorough consideration and the most careful testing; there was
a fundamental importance attaching to it. For this reason, it
was with much pleasure that I found amongst the spirit-speci-
mens collected, in the summer of 1861, by Prof. de la Valette,
for the Anatomical Museum of this place, a Crab and a tube
of Vermetus covered with numerous specimens of the same
Polytrema miniaceum which I had previously examined in the
dry state. As these specimens contained sponge-spicules and also
exhibited the organic contents of the chambers in a very perfect
state of preservation, I resolved to make a careful investigation
of all the specimens at my disposal, in order to determine whe-
ther any facts could be discovered which would show it to be
either certain or probable that the calcareous shell with its or-
organic contents and the siliceous spicules all three combine to
form one organism.

* Annals, ser. 3. vol. i. p. 386.
a7T*

412 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

There were evidently three possibilities to be taken into con-
sideration here :—

1. Polytrema might be a Sponge with a reticulated calcareous
skeleton, forming a network like the horny substance of the
officinal sponge. Within the gaps of this network would be the
organic sponge-substance which forms siliceous spicules.

2. Polytrema might be a Polythalamian. The organic sub-
stance within the calcareous skeleton would then be a Rhizopod-
body, and the siliceous spicules must have penetrated accident-
ally, or been eaten, or derived from a Sponge living parasitically
in the Polythalamian.

3. The structure might, like Carpenteria in the opinion of
Gray and Carpenter, represent a transitional form between
Sponges and Polythalamia, inasmuch as the calcareous walls
possess Foraminiferous structure, but the body of the animal is
allied to the Sponges in its faculty of producing siliceous
spicules.

As regards the first possibility, the preparation of thin sections
of the calcareous mass shows that it does not consist of caleareous
rods anastomosing in a netlike form like the horny skeleton of
the common Sponge, but of lamella which enclose a system of
anastomosing chambers nearly similar in form and size, and,
further, that these lamelle (the walls of the chambers, as has
already been stated) possess an exquisite Foraminiferous struc-
ture. A thin section of Polytrema, perpendicular to the surface
and viewed by transmitted light, is shown in Pl. VII. fig. 3.
The colour of the calcareous walls is reddish, even in thin sec-
tions. They are all penetrated by the ordinary pore canals of
the Polythalamia, which usually run perpendicularly and by the
shortest course towards the surface. The thickness of the cal-
careous walls varies, although no definite rule could be detected.
In fig. 3 a thicker calcareous wall runs from a towards 6 on the
surface of the section of Polytrema; but similar thick walls are
also frequently met with through considerable spaces in the in-
terior of the structure. In very thin sections a stratified struc-
ture may be detected, especially in the thicker walls; and, corre-
sponding with this, the canals of the wall exhibit a peculiar
division into segments|*, which may be perceived very distinctly,
after the solution of the calcareous matter, in the membranous
tubes which occupied each canal (fig. 9).

The pore canals of the surface are very closely approximated,
being at an average distance of 0°009 mill. from each other. In
the interior septa, on the contrary, they are often much further
apart. The width of the canals themselves is 0‘004—0-006 mill.,

* Figured in the same way by Carpenter in Carpenteria, Phil. Trans.
1860, pl. 22. fig. 15.

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 413

which is not unimportant for the determination of the species.
Thus, for example, Acervulina acinosa is very clearly distinguished
from Polytrema miniaceum by the greater diameter of its canals,
which usually measure 0:012 mill.

If the calcareous matter be dissolved by dilute muriatic acid
from specimens which have been preserved in spirits, the organic
substance occupying the chambers is obtained free, forming a
true and connected cast of the internal system of cavities. From
these casts it can be proved, much better than from sections
which never open out more than one plane, that the interior of
the calcareous shell is divided into chambers (figs. 5, 6, & 7),
which are connected together by siphons. Especially at the base
and in the centre of the Polytrema the siphons are very sharply
divided from the chambers, whilst towards the surface the siphons
are frequently so dilated that they attain the diameter of the
cavities of the chambers, as is shown in the representation of
the cast. of a small portion of the inner space of the rind of a
Polytrema in fig. 4. Although no regularity is to be detected
in the general arrangement of the chambers, the portion of a
natural cast of Polytrema shown by me in fig. 6 deserves especial
consideration. This was brought to light by breaking up a pre-
paration treated with muriatic acid. The perfectly irregular
contents of the superficial chambers having been removed, an
unmistakably spiral arrangement in the more deeply seated
chambers made its appearance. The connexion with the rest of
the mass was broken; so that only the six chambers figured could
be seen in their natural connexion. The finer structure of the
membrane and contents of these segments left no doubt that the
regularly grouped masses in figure 6 and those represented in
figures 5 and 7 really belonged to the same specimen. This
discovery agrees with that described by Carpenter in Tino-
porus*®,

The organic substance remaining after the treatment of speci-
mens of Polytrema preserved in spirits consists of an external
membrane and a tenacious brownish-red substance, rich in
strongly refractive granules and drops, which render it opake.
Both the envelope and contents precisely resemble the brownish-
red contents of the chambers of many Polythalamia. I have
figured this in plate 3. figs. 11 & 12, plate 5. figs. 12 & 13, and
im other parts of my work on the Organization of the Poly-
thalamia, and indeed partly from spirit-specimens, so that the
figures cited are directly comparable with those here given of
Polytrema. The organic envelope of the contents of the cham-
bers of the Polythalamia is described by me as follows, at p. 15

* Phil. Trans. 1860, pl. 21. fig. 11, and pl. 22. figs. 2, 3 & 4.

414, Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

of the same book :—“ The calcareous shell of the Rhizopoda is
lined by a delicate organic membrane. If a Rotala, Rosalina,
or Textularia, living or preserved in spirit, or dried with its
organic contents, be dissolved in dilute acid, there is observed
within the above-mentioned organic foundation of the calcareous
shell, a thin, but sharply contoured, homogeneous membrane, of
a more or less brown colour, which lies close to the former, and,
like it, is penetrated by pores. This uniformly lines all the
chambers, and is continued through the siphons of the septa
from one to the other. It is only in the last and youngest cham-
bers, which during life are nearly colourless, that this membrane
is so delicate that one might suppose it to be formed only simul-
taneously with the reception of colouring matters into the ani-
mal contents.” This description applies perfectly to the organic
lining of the chambers of Polytrema as here represented (fig. 8).
It forms a delicate, brownish, empty tube, occupied only at its
lower part with granular remains of the body of the animal,
which remained after the solution of the lime, but is not the
organic foundation of the shell itself. The latter contains so
‘ little organic substance, that, in dissolving it in acids, I never
could succeed in obtaining a coherent portion of membrane.
But the place which it occupied, and its thickness, may never-
theless be recognized in shells which have been carefully dis-
solved, and, indeed, in the organic linings of the pore canals
which penetrate the latter. As the cavities of the chambers are
limited by a dense organic membrane, the tubules which pass
straight through the thick shell, and which are rather wide in
Polytrema, are also lined with a similar membrane. Some such
delicate tubes, isolated by the acid, are shown in figure 8, lying
partly upon and partly near the membrane; others, in much
greater number, are shown in their natural position in figure 4;
and figure 9 represents some similar tubes, of remarkable length.
They therefore correspond with the pore canals passing through
the shell, represented in figure 38. They exhibit the same differ-
ence of length according to the thickness of the shell, and show
the same peculiar segmentation, which seems to be connected
with the stratification of the shell.

The brownish-red contents of the chambers, lastly, show no
other structure than that which I have described for the con-
tents of the shells of Polythalamia.

If, however, from the structure of the calcareous walls of the
shell of Polytrema, and from the nature of its contents, the no-
tion that we might have in it a Sponge with a reticular calca-
reous framework is to be regarded as set aside, and it is rather
proved that Polytrema approaches the Polythalamia in every
respect, we have still to settle the question as to how the siliceous

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 415

spicules get into the interior of the chambers. Are they pro-
duced in the Polytrema? Have we to do with a transitional
structure between Rhizopods and Sponges, according to the no-
tion of Gray and Carpenter? or are the siliceous spicules foreign
bodies in the Polythalamian, either introduced as food or belong-
ing to a parasitic Sponge? With regard to this question, the
following observation is to be made :—The siliceous spicules
never occur in the above-described yellowish-brown animal con-
tents of the Polytrema, which are to be regarded as the Poly-
thalamian body, but always beside these, in an extremely destruc-
tible, transparent, colourless, finely granular substance, which
shows but little coherence, and is consequently distinct from
the former. During the solution of a Polytrema, with its ani-
mal contents well preserved, in a dilute acid, the difference be-
tween the two substances (the dense yellowish-brown one, and
that which contains the spicules) at once strikes the eye. The
latter is, however, usually so extremely small in quantity around
the siliceous spicules, which frequently lie as if quite uncovered,
that it is impossible to prepare it in connexion. It breaks up
as the spicules separate from each other ; and only traces of it
adhere to individual spicules or groups of spicules (fig. 10). It
is, moreover, of particular importance that by no means all speci-
mens of Polytrema contain spicules, and that, when these do
occur, they usually occupy only the peripheral chambers. The
twelve spirit-specimens of Polytrema which I examined by means
of dilute acids gave the following results :—Two of them had no
trace of siliceous spicules; all the chambers were completely
filled with the yellowish-brown substance, which diminished a
a little in intensity of colour towards the periphery. Three
specimens contained the remains of the yellowish-brown sub-
stance only in the more deeply seated layers; nearly all the
chambers were full of siliceous spicules and the small quantity
of colourless organic substance belonging to them. All the rest
likewise contained siliceous spicules, but only in the peripheral
chambers, and often only in one part of them; the greater part
of the interior system of cavities was filled with the brown sub-
stance, as shown in figs. 4-7. The siliceous spicules therefore
may be entirely wanting; and when they occur, they never le
in the true Polythalamian substance, but rather diffuse them-
selves, with displacement of the latter, from the periphery to-
wards the deeper parts; moreover they are imbedded in an
organic substance which does not appear to belong to the Poly-
thalamian body. The nature of the last-mentioned substance
certainly cannot be positively determined. It might possibly be
colourless Polythalamian substance. But, in opposition to this,
we have, in the first place, its want of solidity, its want of co-

416 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

hesion after the solution of the calcareous shell, and then its
diffusion, in certain cases, even into the central parts of the
shell. Polythalamia which exhibit a yellowish-brown coloration
of the body in the central chambers always, according to my
observations, present the same or nearly the same colour through
all the chambers, with the exception only of the few last-formed
ones. This was also the case in several Polytremata which con-
tained no siliceous spicules, and as to the true Polythalamian
nature of which there could be no doubt. Now, may the origi-
nally brown substance become colourless again during the ap-
pearance of these spicules? Our previous experience furnishes
no reason for such a supposition ; and therefore we must argue
against it, so long as another course is open to us.

Of such, three present themselves :—Hither the siliceous spi-
cules have penetrated accidentally, or they have been taken in as
food, or, lastly, they belong to a parasitic Sponge. I have
already mentioned that many specimens of Polytrema exhibit
erosions of their surface, especially at the apices of the comb-
like or tooth-like elevations—apertures by which a glimpse is
afforded of the inner system of cavities. The siliceous spicules
are always to be found in abundance at such spots, in the cham-
bers nearest to the orifice. Frequently, as was observed by
Krohn at Nice, the spicules project freely from the apertures, so
as to be detected at once by the microscope. The siliceous spi-
cules, if not produced in the Polythalamian body, have certainly
penetrated from the apertures. It might be in vain to attempt
to prove that they have not penetrated accidentally, or been
taken in as nourishment. But no probable grounds can-be ad-
duced for either of these views. How could sponge-spicules,
however numerous they might be in the water surrounding the
Polytremata, find their way into the innermost chambers of the
labyrinthic system of cavities, still at least partly filled with
organic substance? Must not the filling of the peripheral
chambers with such spicules, crossed in all directions, prevent
the penetration of the latter into the deeper layers? And if
Sponges were the favourite food of the Polytremata, how could
adherent Polythalamia get at adherent Sponges in order to de-
vour them ?

There is consequently no reason why we should not embrace
the last possibility, and assume that Polytrema is infested by a
parasitic Sponge. That Sponges bore into many calcareous
structures, and live like parasites, is well known. The genus
Cliona, upon which Lieberkiihn * has recently published some
exact observations, is one of these boring Sponges. Its extra-
ordinary diffusion appears from the fact that on many coasts

* Miiller’s Archiv, 1859, p. 515.

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 417

(Heligoland; Northumberland, according to Hancock) it is
scarcely possible to find an oyster-shell or a piece of limestone
which is not completely riddled by Clione. In any case the
parasitism of a Sponge in Polytrema presents nothing remark-
able; and the next question is, whether the form and arrange-
ment of the spicules support the notion that they belong to a
Sponge like Cliona. Of the spicules of Cliona celata, which
occurs in particular abundance in oyster-shells on Heligoland,
Lieberkiihn says that they are knobbed at one end, but that
“frequently a very short point projects beyond the knob; and
an inflation of the middle of the spicule also occurs, although
extremely rarely.” This is all that I can learn as to the forms
of the spicules m the Clione. Unfortunately it does not suffice
for the discrimination of a siliceous Sponge ; for knobbed spicules
are common to many species, and often associated with ordinary
awl-shaped spicules. The greater part of the spicules of our
Polytrema-Sponge are subulate at both ends, as shown in PI. VII.
fig. 10. Many are broad; but the small forms resembling a
clasp or cramp (fig. 10a) are rare. Capitate spicules also occur,
in which the axial canal, which is wanting in no siliceous spi-
cule, presents an inflation in the knob. All the spicules are
comparatively short, so that they extend at the utmost through
two or three chambers of the Polytrema. A few fragments of
larger spicules that I have seen, as also the extremely rare and
likewise fragmentary calcareous spicules which are sometimes
observed, I should regard as accidental admixtures. The short
subulate spicules frequently lie parallel to each other in groups,
as they are found i situ in Sponges.

The preceding statements suffice, in my opinion, to prove
that, when siliceous spicules occur in the shells of Polythalamia,
together with the organic contents of the chambers, the notion
that in such cases we have before us transition forms between
Foraminifera and Porifera has but little probability in it. The
question now is, whether, in the case of Carpenteria, in which,
according to Gray and Carpenter, a Foraminiferous structure of
the calcareous shell and an occupation of the chambers by sili-
ceous spicules also occur, there is any more reason to uphold the
view promulgated by the English zoologists. Carpenter’s de-
scription of the Polythalamian named after him, which is found
living parasitically upon various marine productions, and espe-
cially numerous upon a fragment of a Porites, is, like all his
works upon Polythalamia, so careful and accurate that we can
obtain from it a perfectly clear idea of the structures in question.
I am therefore the more confirmed in my opinion, because there
does not appear to me to be the least reason for conceiving the
relation between the sponge-spicules and the calcareous shell in

418 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

Carpenteria otherwise than in Polytrema. The calcareous shell
in both cases is completely Foraminiferoid. The siliceous spi-
cules lie scattered in the chambers, and are enveloped by but a
small residue of organic substance. The central chambers (and
this is of particular importance) were filled, in Carpenteria, also
with a firmer yellowish-brown substance containing no spicules,
exactly as in Polytrema. Lastly, the form of the spicules, ac-
cording to Carpenter’s figures (/. c. pl. 22. fig. 16), agrees almost
exactly with that of those found in Polytrema, inasmuch as
they are either pointed at both ends or knobbed at one end,
bowed, and of small size.

As might have been expected, it occurred to Carpenter also
that the spicules might be referred to a Sponge living pa-
rasitically im the Polythalamian. But, in finally coming to
the conclusion that both belong to one organism, he lays
particular stress upon the discovery of the above-mentioned
yellowish-brown organic substance in the cavities of the central
chambers, regarding this as true sponge-substance, without
spicules indeed, but too dense and firm to be taken for the
sarcode-body of a Polythalamian. Here Carpenter is in error.
As I have already stated, from innumerable examinations of
Polythalamia and Sponges, both dry and preserved in spirits,
the substance of the Polythalamia is much denser, firmer, and
more resistant than the organic substance of the Sponges. With
the exception, of course, of the horny substance of the horny
Sponges, the organic envelope of the sponge-spicules breaks up
and becomes decomposed with such remarkable ease and rapidity
that I have never succeeded with spirit-specimens of Sponges,
even when I had myself put them quite fresh into spirit, in iso-
lating moderately large coherent portions of the organic sub-
stance, or making any investigations into its nature. In Poly-
thalamia, on the contrary, in which the organic substance is so
resistant that it remains capable of life for weeks even in the
midst of decaying substances, and that they may be kept alive
for months far more easily than any other marine animals, the
action of spirit or desiccation causes such a hardening that the
contents of the chambers may be isolated precisely in the state
which Carpenter adduces in opposition to their Polythalamian
nature.

For this reason I cannot regard the conditions in Carpenteria
otherwise than as in Polytrema, and therefore believe that the
boundary between Polythalamia and Sponges, which has hitherto
been considered as a very sharp line, must still be maintained in
all its integrity.

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 419

Supplementary.

In combination with W. K. Parker and T. Rupert Jones, two
naturalists who have made themselves celebrated by their re-
searches upon Foraminifera, Dr. Carpenter has just published a _
great work, through the medium of the Ray Society, under the
title of ‘ Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera.’ In this
(pp. 235 et seq.), Polytrema, which was only mentioned inci-
dentally by Carpenter in his previous works, is described in
detail, and illustrated by figures (pl. 18. figs. 18-20). During
a visit which I lately paid him in London, Dr. Carpenter had
the kindness to show me his rich collection, including his pre-
parations of Polytrema. Although his specimens were obtained
from the South Sea, and mine from the Mediterranean, and
his exhibit more variation than mine in their external form, I
do not think that there can be any doubt as to their specific
identity. Carpenter has arrived at the same result as myself—
namely, that Polytrema is a Polythalamian. His investigations
have, however, been made only with dried specimens, and have
no reference to the organic contents of the chambers. Carpenter
had no inducement to discuss the question whether Polytrema
produces spicules, and is thus allied to Carpenteria, as his spe-
cimens contained no spicules in their interior. Nevertheless he
mentions having seen specimens with the surface entirely covered
with a parasitic Sponge, the spicules of which, however, pene-
trated scarcely, if at all, mto the interior of the chambers. By
this means Carpenter establishes a sharp distinction between
Polytrema and Carpenteria. If in the former there could be no
doubt as to the parasitic nature of the Sponge, as to the second
Carpenter still adheres to Gray’s opinion that the sponge-spicules
are produced in the interior, and that Carpenteria is consequently
a transition-form between Sponges and Foraminifera. Perhaps
my observations upon Polytrema, which indicate the remarkably
close affinity between that genus and Carpenteria, may serve to
shake Carpenter’s faith in his opinion.

Upon the systematic position of Polytrema among the Poly-
thalamia I have hitherto said nothing, except mentioning its
near affinity in appearance with my genus Acervulina. The
Acervulinide, which form a peculiar family in my System of the
Polythalamia as established in 1854, are characterized chiefly by
the irregularity of their growth, in consequence of which they
appear like a misshapen aggregation of chambers deposited one
upon the other without any-definite system. I was indeed aware
that in several families, especially that of the Rotalide, an irre-
larly growing form may be produced from a Polythalamian
which was at first regularly spiral ; but these, from their com-

420 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

paratively great transparency, were always easily referred to the
Rotalide type, whilst in the form which I named Acervulina no
such spiral nucleus had been detected; so that, without forgetting
that the boundaries of the families of the Polythalamia generally
are very artificial, and that every system cannot be satisfactory
in every direction, I did not hesitate to form a distinct family
for the sake of the preliminary revision. Nevertheless it appears
that the irregular increase in age occurs more frequently than
was previously supposed in species which showed regular spiral
shells, and that a spiral nucleus is to be detected in the centre
of many apparently quite irregular aggregations of chambers,
which were therefore true Acervuline. Hence it would be better,
with Carpenter, to adopt the irregular growth only in the generic
or specific diagnoses, and to give up the family Acervulinide.
With this I perfectly agree, only remarking that in Acervulina
acinosa, the typical form on which the genus was founded by
me, no spiral or other regular commencement has been detected,
and that, for all such forms, the genus Acervulina must still be
provisionally retained. In Carpenter’s system, Polytrema would
come in the family Globigerinide, near Tinoporus, on account of
the spiral commencement (imperfectly seen even by that observer)
and of its shell-structure. Carpenteria must then be reckoned
among its nearest allies.

If I say a few words in conclusion upon the systematic divi-
sion of the Foraminifera proposed by Carpenter, I can only give
my general approval of it. It is distinguished from previous
attempts of the same nature by its placing in the foreground,
for the definition of the principal groups and families, certain
peculiarities of the shell-structure which have hitherto been either
employed only for the determination of genera and species, or
not sufficiently recognized, whilst that which has hitherto fur-
nished the main classificational character—the arrangement of
the chambers—has only a secondary importance attached to it.
There is no doubt that the two suborders formed by Carpenter,
Foraminifera imperforata and F. perforata, form sharply dif-
ferentiated and in themselves coherent groups. It must, how-
ever, be expected that, however natural the classification may be
in general, in detail many apparently unnatural separations may
occur. I instance only the dismemberment of the genus Cornu-
spira, one species of which has a brown, translucent, imperforate
shell, and the other a hyaline perforated one, although perfectly
similar as regards the internal cavity, the direction of the spiral,
the size, &c.; so that the two species now naturally stand, with
different generic names, in two different suborders.

The six families which Carpenter distinguishes are, of the
Imperforata—l, Gromida, with a membranous shell; 2, Milio-

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 421

lida, with a calcareous porcellanous shell ; and 3, Ltuolida, with
a calcareo-siliceous shell containing sand-grains: of the Per-
forata—4, Lagenida, with very fine pore canals; 5, Globigert-
nida, with larger pore canals; and 6, Nummulinida, in which,
in addition to the ordinary pore canals, never usually very fine,
there is a system of peculiar cavities and canals, giving the shell
a very complicated structure. The families are sometimes very
large, and might well be divided into subfamilies, which would
nearly agree with the families established by me,—for example,
Carpenter’s Miliolida into the true Miliolida, the Peneroplide,
Soritine (Orbitulitine), Alveolinide, &c. From the wonderful
perseverance and great skill which Carpenter has shown in his
researches upon the shells of the Polythalamia during many
years, and considering the enormous amount of materials, con-
sisting of the most various forms from every zone, which he had
at his disposal, one can understand how he comes to undervalue
a little the works of his predecessors, and especially mine, in so
far as they treat of the shell-structure. Indeed it was the chief
object of my researches to ascertain the exact nature of the ani-
mal body which inhabits and forms the shell, for which reason
I confined myself especially to the forms observed by me in a
living state, and their nearest allies. Moreover, although I was
assisted by many of my friends, I found it impossible to bring
together all the species, as I desired and indeed required for the
elaboration of a systematic revision. For example, I was almost
entirely destitute of the living species of Carpenter’s Nummu-
linida, and thus had not the opportunity of seeing the system
of ramified tubes first described by Carter, as stated at page 15
of my book. Nevertheless my observations upon the shell-
structure are not so scanty as Carpenter seems to suppose. In
opposition to his repeated assertion*, that I have too much
neglected the investigation of the shell-structure, and confined
myself to the examination of the animal, I may be allowed to
urge that, independently of the representations of the shell-
structure of the species observed living by me, such as Polysto-
mella strigillata (pl.4 & 5. figs. 2, 6,7, 9,10), P. gibba, P.stella,P.
borealis, and P.venusta (pl. 6. figs. 2, 5, 8),of which I think I may
assert that they are not exceeded by Carpenter’s, there are in va-
rious parts of my work (especially in the chapter “ On the Shells
of the Marine Rhizopoda,” and in section ii. p. 37) a great num-
ber of remarks, founded upon personal observation, as to the
structure of numerous exotic Rhizopod-shells, such as the Sori-

* Phil. Trans. 1856, p.187; Introduction to the Study of the Foramini-
fera, p. 10.

422 Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum.

tine (Orbitolitine), Orbiculine, Alveoline, Siderolites, Calcarine,
Fusuline, &c., which Carpenter has nowhere quoted. Even the
foundations of Carpenter’s new system of the Foraminifera are to
be found expressed in my book (p. 12), in the following words :—
“Tn respect of the finer structure of the shell, the calcareous Fora-
minifera may be divided into two series, namely, into those which
have the shell perforated throughout with numerous fine aper-
tures or canals, and those in which the shell appears solid and
homogeneous.”...“ Sufficiently transparent forms, or thin sections
of opake ones, when examined under the microscope by trans-
mitted light, either appear as colourless as glass or show a brown
coloration. To the latter belong all the solid and not finely
porous shells, and therefore the whole of the Milolide, the
Ovuline, Cornuspira planorbis, and the Peneroplide’’ To the
same category I referred also Orbiculina and Sorites (Orbitolites),
although here I erroneously supposed their shell to be perforated
by small apertures, which, as Carpenter rightly asserts, they do
not possess. In opposition to these calcareous-shelled Rhizopods,
I placed the only szliceous-shelled species then known, the Poly-
morphina silicea*, observed by me at Ancona. Carpenter might
consequently have sought the first sure foundation of his family
Lituolide also in my observations, which, however, appear to
have been quite unknown to him, as also my later communica-
tions upon a form resembling Nonionina, with a granular sili-
ceous shell+. The latter possesses a particular interest, inasmuch
as it contained in its interior numerous small globular shells
agreeing in structure with the large shell, and which, in accord-
ance with my observations on the reproduction of the Milolide
and Rotalig, must be regarded as young. If these, therefore,
form a siliceous shell while still within the body of the parent,
Carpenter’s notion that the siliceous particles of the shells of
Foraminifera are always derived from the surrounding sand t
must require modification.

However, I must repeat that I weleome with pleasure the
classification of Foraminifera proposed by Carpenter, as a real
step in advance. That it is a natural and true expression of our
knowledge of the Foraminifera, which has made such consider-

* Ueber den Organismus der Polythalamien, pp.9,11&61. Reuss
has since (Sitzungsber. der bohmischen Ges. der Wiss. zu Prag, Nov. 28,
1859) justly called attention to the fact that the species would be better
referred to the genus Bulimina, in which many sandy siliceous forms occur.
Lleave it to Reuss to give the species a suitable name.

Tt Nonionina silicea (Miiller’s Archiv, 1856, p. 171, pl. 6. fig. 4) will
also have to receive a new name, and must be referred to the genus Lituola
or Haplophragmium, Reuss.

{ Introduction, &c., pp. 47 & 140.

Prof. M. Schultze on Polytrema miniaceum. 423

able progress during the last ten years, is strikingly shown by
the fact that the most experienced student of the Foraminifera
in Germany, Professor Reuss, of Prague, in his most recent
works, proposes a systematic distribution of these animals ac-
cording to exactly the same principles as those adopted by Car-
penter. Reuss’s chief work, ‘“ Entwurf einer systematischen
Zusammenstellung der Foraminiferen,” is printed in the Number
of the ‘ Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences at Vienna ’ for
October 1861, and is cited by Carpenter in the bibliographical
section of his last work (p. xxi. no. xci. a), but appears to have
reached him after the impression of the text, as it is nowhere
quoted in the latter. In it (see especially the ‘ Nachschrift,”
p- 394) the Foraminifera are divided, as by Carpenter, into those
with non-porous and those with porous shells; and, as Reuss
excludes the Gromida, there remain two groups in the first
section,—(1) those with sandy siliceous shells; (2) those with
compact porcellanous shells. In the second group Reuss dis-
tinguishes—(1) those with finely porous, hyaline calcareous
shells; (2) those with manifoldly (?) porous calcareous shells ;
(3) those with calcareous shells permeated by ramified systems
of canals. It is evident that the systems of Carpenter and
Reuss perfectly agree. In its further development, however, I
am inclined to prefer that of Reuss, as he distinguishes smaller
families, more closely following the necessities of the zoologist
and the previous systematic works, and, I believe, agreeing
better with nature.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. A specimen of Polytrema miniaceum from the surface of a Crab ;
magnified 15 diameters.

Fig. 2. Part of the surface of the same Polytrema; magnified 300 dia-
meters, to show the apertures of the pore canals.

Fig. 3. Thin section through the calcareous wall of Polytrema; magnified
300 diameters.

Fig. 4. Part of the animal-body of a Polytrema preserved in spirits, laid
bare by muriatic acid. In the place of the thick calcareous wall,
only the membranous linings of the pore canals are retained in
situ.

Figs. 5,6 &7. Parts of the body similarly prepared. Fig. 6 shows the
spiral arrangement of the chambers, probably the first-formed
part of the Polytrema.

“ig. 8. Membranous lining of the chambers without the body, or with only
a few traces of the latter; isolated by acid.

Fig. 9. Two membranous linings of pore canals, with many indications of
joints. :

Fig. 10. Siliceous spicules from different chambers of Polytrema.

424 Mr. A. Adams on Mollusca from Japan.

XLII.—On a new Genus of Terrestrial Mollusks from Japan.
By Artuur Apams, F.L.S. &c.

[Plate VII. figs. 11, 12.]
Genus Buanrorpia, A. Adams.

Rostrum elongatum, transverse corrugatum, ad apicem emargina-
tum. Tentacula brevissima, triangularia, depressa, ad apicem acuta;
oculi sessiles ad basin superiorem tentaculorum ; pes magnus, sulco
transverso in partes duas divisus, ad latera utrinque lobatus, postice
lobo dorsali operculum gerente preeditus.

Operculum corneum, subspirale.

Testa ovato-conica, epidermide olivacea obtecta, apice truncato ;
anfractibus leevibus.

Apertura elliptica; peristomate continuo, incrassato, duplicato,
interno subacuto, externo subvaricoso.

1. B. japonica, A. Adams. Sado, Japan. Pl. VII. fig. 12..
Tomichia, sp. Annals, Oct. 1861.

2. B. Bensoni, A. Adams. Matsumai, Japan. PI. VII. fig. 11.
Tomichia, sp. Annals, Oct. 1861.

In Japan, at Matsumai and Sado, I discovered two species of
terrestrial Mollusks, with similar animals, which (in the ‘ Annals’
for October 1861) I referred to the genus Tomichia, Benson, a
form of Truncatellide from the Cape. Since then, I have sent
specimens of the shells, accompanied by drawings of the ani-
mals, to Mr. Benson; and he assures me that his Tomichie are
very different. He writes to me as follows :—

““A comparison of the animal of the Cape Tomichia with that
of your Japanese shells leads to the impression that your dis-
coveries belong to a distinct genus, which, but for the opercu-
lum, may rather be regarded as a land-shell. 1 have examined
a specimen, and find it horny and subspiral in construction, the
same as that of Tomichia, but more solid.”

In Tomichia the animal is similar to that of Truncatella, the
tentacles being filiform, and the eyes on tubercles, near the
upper bases of the tentacles. The foot is short, with anterior
lateral lobes, and with a simple operculigerous lobe.

Mr. Benson found Tomichia at the Cape, in a freshwater
ditch communicating with a stream which discharges itself into
False Bay. “At Bazuarm’s Kraal, the adult specimens, for the
most part, crept about on the moist earth by the edge of the
water ; but the younger individuals were immersed, in company
with a small soleniform Cypris. I observed that, aided by the
lightness of their shells, the young Tomichie were enabled to
swim resupinate at the surface.”

In Blanfordia the tentacles are short and triangular; in Jo-
michia they are filiform: in Blanfordia the eyes are sessile on

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Operculate Land-Shells. 425

the upper bases of the tentacles ; in Tomichia the eyes are placed
upon tubercles near the upper bases of the tentacles. The
foot in Blanfordia would seem to be somewhat similar to that of
Tomichia, being lobed on each side in front and with a posterior
dorsal lobe which bears the operculum. Both my species are
found on damp banks covered with vegetation, in rocky situa-
tions near the sea.

I have dedicated the genus to my friend W. T. Blanford,
who has discovered many new and interesting forms of Land-
Mollusks in India.

XLITI.— Characters of new Operculate Land-Shells from the An-
damans, and of Indian and Burmese Species of Pupa. By W.
H. Benson, Esq.

1. Helicina Scrupulum, B.

H, testa parva, sublenticulari, crassiuscula, sublevigata, vix nitidula,
minutissime oblique striatula, superne fuscescente, anfractu ultimo
albido-cornea, supra peripheriam fasciis 2 rufescentibus inferiore
latiore ornata; spira depresso-conoidea, apice obtuso, sutura li-
nearl; anfractibus 44, superioribus vix convexiusculis, ultimo ob-
tuse angulato; apertura obliqua, subtriangulari-lunata ; peristo-
mate expanso, reflexiusculo, marginibus callo magno incrassato
subcirculari retrorsum expanso polito junctis. Operculo tenui,
albido.

Diam. 5, alt. 3 mill.

Habitat in insulis Andamanicis.

This is the second species of Helicina which has been found
in the Andamans. A single specimen, fortunately in good order,
was received by Mr. W. Theobald.

2. Omphalotropis distermina, B.

O. testa perforata, globoso-conica, oblique striatula, supra suturam,
ad peripheriam, et circa, umbilicum oblique vel radiatim costulato-
striata, sub epidermide fusca non nitente albida; spira acuminato-
conica, apice acutiusculo, sutura profunda; anfractibus 6, con-
vexis, ultimo ad peripheriam et circa umbilicum subcarinato,
carina umbilicali extus linea impressa notata ; apertura subobliqua,,.
angulato-ovata, spiram zequante; peristomate recto, acuto, mar-
ginibus remotioribus callo tenui junctis ; columellari subincrassato.
Opere. ?

Long. 3, diam. 23 mill.

Habitat in insulis Andamanicis.

A single specimen, deprived of the operculum, was sent by
Mr. W. Theobald as a Cyathopoma. The aperture, the mode of

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 28

426 Mr. W. H. Benson on Indian and

carination, and umbilical radiate costulation at once prove its

proper place.

3. Cyathopoma(?) tignarium, B.

C. testa minuta, umbilicata, turbinato-conica, liris spiralibus subtus
confertioribus cincta, oblique striatula, sub epidermide luteo-fusca
albida; spira conica, apice obtusiusculo, sutura profunda ; anfrac-
tibus 5, valde convexis, ultimo cylindrico; apertura vix obliqua,
circulari; peristomate continuo, simplici, recto, acuto, ad anfrac-
tum penultimum breviter adhzrente. Operculo calcareo, medio
anguste concavo, nigrescente, polito, margine lato planato, arctis-
sime spirali.

Diam. 2, alt. 23 mill.

Habitat in insulis Andamanicis.

A single specimen, forwarded by Mr. W. Theobald, is deficient
in the double peristome observable in the typical species of Mr.
W. T. Blanford’s group, Cyathopoma filocinctum, Bens., and
C. Malabaricum, Blanf. The operculum has not attained the
singular development of the margin exhibited in the Nilgherry
shells and in a new species found by Mr. Blanford on the Bhore
Ghat, near Khandalla, one specimen of which, however, with an
immature operculum, received from the discoverer, has a ten-
dency to the formation presented by the operculum in the
Andaman species.

My description of the operculum of C. filocinctum, recorded
in the paper on Opisthoporus published in the ‘ Annals’ for
January 1855, p.16 (“Operculo extus concavo; anfractibus
paucis, margine scabre elevato”), indicates a more advanced,
but not the full development of the operculum first observed by
the Messrs. Blanford.

4. Pupa bathyodon, B.

P. testa profunde rimato-perforata, ovato-conica, oblique striatula,
fusco-cornea, translucente; spira conica, apice obtuso, sutura
subprofunda; anfractibus 5, convexis, ultimo antice ascendente
circa umbilicum excavatum compressiusculo; apertura quadrato-
ovata, marginibus expansis subreflexis concoloribus callo parie-
tali expanso superne junctis, 4-dentata, dente parietali 1 intrante
majore, palatalibus 2 minutis remotiusculis, columellari 1 pro-
fundo.

Alt. 3, diam. 2 mill.

Habitat ad Teluk Sendur, prope Hoshungabad, non procul a flumine
Nerbudda. Detexit W. Theobald, jun.

5. Pupa Planguncula, B.

P. testa perforata, elliptico-cylindrica, oblique striatula, striis an-
fractus ultimi et prope suturam magis- conspicuis, non nitente,
albida; spira oblonga, versus apicem obtusum convexa, sutura
subprofunda, margine crenulato; anfractibus 6, convexis, ultimo

Burmese Species of Pupa. 427

subtus angustato, antice leviter ascendente, medio pone aperture
marginem foveato; apertura subaxiali, elongato-auriculari; peri-
stomatis margine expansiusculo, subreflexo ; plica parietali sub-
torta, intrante ; dentibus 2 palatalibus, superiore magno incrassato
dicruri, columellari 1 crasso, marginali subduplici, basali minuto
remoto.

Long. 3, diam. 14 mill.

Habitat in regione Orisse et prope fluvium Nerbudde. Detexit
W. Theobald.

This shell has some relation to Ennea, but is at once distin-
guished by the parietal tooth.

6. Pupa Diopsis, B.

P. testa perforata, oblongo-ovata, oblique striatula, striis nonnullis
remotis elevatiusculis, sub epidermide cornea albida; spira ob-
longa, versus apicem obtusiusculum cenoidea, sutura impressi-
uscula; anfractibus 5, convexiusculis, ultimo antice leviter ascen-
dente ; apertura oblongo-ovata, superne angulata, bidentata, plica
parietali mediana angusta oblique intrante denteque columellari
obliquo remoto superne munita; peristomate tenui, margine
dextro simplici recto, columellari expanso.

Long. 2, diam. | mill.

Habitat in valle Nerbudde.

A single specimen, in a worn state, was sent by Mr. W. Theo-
bald for examination.

7. Pupa Serrula, B.

P. testa rimata, ovato-conica, oblonga, oblique subcostulato-striata,
albida; spira elongato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura profunda
crenulata ; anfractibus 5, superioribus, valde convexis, ultimo
antice ascendente; apertura quadrato-ovata, sexdentata, lamina
parietali 1 subduplici, columellari 1 superiore denteque minuto _
inferiore, dente minuto,basali, palatali 1 superiore laminaque in-
feriore profunda munita ; peristomate undique expanso, margini-
bus tenuibus callo lato superne junctis.

Long. 2, diam. 2 mill.

Habitat in India centrali. Detexit W. Theobald.

A single derelict specimen was received from Mr.W. Theobald,
jun. It approaches the Ceylon P. mimula, B.

8. Pupa Seriola, B.

P. testa vix perforata, ovato-oblonga, subcylindrica, oblique striatula,
sericina, flavescente, cornea; spita oblonga, apice obtusiusculo,
sutura impressa; anfractibus 5, superioribus convexis, ultimo
convexiusculo antice vix ascendente; apertura subovata, superne
angulata, dente 1 parietali mediano remotiusculo oe peristo-

428 Mr. W.H. Benson on Indian and Burmese Species of Pupa.

matis marginibus callo tenui junctis, dextro vix, columellari su-
perne late expanso.

Long. 23, diam. 14 mill.

Habitat in regione Orissee (Cuttack). Detexit W. Theobald.

Mr. W.T. Blanford, in his description of the South-Indian
Ennea Salemensis, has referred to this species as an Ennea. It
has more affinity to Bulimus than to that genus. In one of the
two specimens received, the parietal lamina is not apparent.

9. Pupa Himalayana, Hutton, MS.

P. testa rimato-perforata, ovato-oblonga, subcylindracea, oblique
minutissime costulata, translucente, pallide cornea ; spira oblonga,
apice obtuso, sutura impressa; anfractibus 7, brevibus, convexis,
ultimo antice leviter ascendente ; apertura rotundato-ovata, eden-
tata; peristomate tenui, margine expansiusculo, dextro superne
levi iter antice progrediente.

Alt. 2, diam. 1 mill.

Habitat in montibus Himalayanis occidentalibus, ad Simla et Mus-
soorie. Detexit Capt. T. Hutton.

In form and general appearance, as well as in the toothless
aperture, it approaches the Swiss Pupa inornata, Michaud.
Capt. Hutton found three specimens near Waverley at Mussoorie.

10. Pupa Avanica, B.

P. testa umbilicata, ovato-oblonga, subcylindrica, vix striatula, ni-
tida, fusco-cornea, translucente ; spira oblonga, versus apicem ob-
tusiusculum conica, sutura valde impressa ; anfractibus 53, sub-
convexis, ultimo antice ascendente ; apertura ovata, superne ob-
tusa sexdentata, plica parietali 1 duplicata intrante, dentibus
columellaribus 2 profundis et palatalibus 3 profundis munita ;
peristomate undique expanso, marginibus tenuibus callo parietali
lato junctis.

Long. 23, diam. 14 mill.

Habitat in regione Ave. Detexit W. T. Blanford.

This shell is related to the Western Himalayan P. Huttoniana,

Bens., but differs in surface, in having an additional upper

palatal tooth and a more distinctly double parietal plica.

Cheltenham, Nov. 3, 1863.

Note.—In the ‘Annals’ for last May I described Clausilia
Bulbus, a singular form from Moulmein. I find that, in the
‘Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.’ for July 1856, Dr. Gould de-
scribed an allied species from Tavoy. With reference to the
dimensions recorded, it would appear that Gould’s species is
longer as well as narrower than C. Bulbus. It scarcely exceeds
C. Philippiana in breadth, while the length attains to that of

On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 4.29

specimens of C. insignis,—approaching, therefore, in nowise to
the stout bulbous form of the Moulmein shell.

In order to allow a comparison, I add Gould’s published de-
scription, in which several material characters are omitted :—

“‘ Clausilia Vespa. Testa solida, sinistrorsa, vespzeformis, deflecta,
levis, intense rufa; anfr. 6, anteriori raptim attenuata, proxima
corpulenta, apicalibus cito decrescentibus ; sutura impressa, vix
marginata: apertura ovata; columella biplicata ; peritremate late
reflexo, rufo.

* Long. 1, lat. ;8, poll. Inhabits Tavoy. Rev. F. Mason.

“This very singular wasp-like shell is allied to C. imsignis,
Philippii, C. Cochinchinensis, &c., but distinguished from all by
its peculiar form.”

XLIV.—On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.
By W. K. Parxer, Esq., and Prof. T. R. Jones, F.G.S.

Part X.—The Species enumerated by D? Orbigny in the ‘ Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, vol. vii. 1826.

We have now to take in hand a critical review of the many
species and varieties of Foraminifera enumerated by D’Orbigny
in his “ Tableau Méthodique des Céphalopodes,” published in
the 7th volume of the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 1826.
The principles on which D’Orbigny grouped these Microzoa as
“ Cephalopoda Foraminifera” were long since known to himself
to be erroneous; and the errors in his classification have been
fully pointed out by Dr. Carpenter*, But we must never forget
that D’Orbigny laboriously and conscientiously worked out an
enormous mass of material, and reduced it to such order that
naturalists could recognize hundreds of organic forms previously
either quite hidden or vaguely known, and could advantageously
add the results of their own research to his classified material,
although his plan of arrangement} was artificial and defective.
By his careful, though imperfect, elaboration of what earlier
observers had done towards the elucidation of specitic forms of
Foraminifera, and his illustration of many of the most important
species by means of a hundred large plaster models, and by the
eight plates accompanying the ‘ Tableau Méthodique,’ he opened
the way towards a knowledge of these little creatures, thousands
of which he had himself collected from sea-sands of every region
and from many fossil strata. He adopted many already pub-
lished specific determinations, often correcting the generic rela-

* Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera, 1861, Ray Soe.
+ Based on the arrangement of the chambers of the shell.

430 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

tionships; he made a selection of the Foraminifera figured in
Soldani’s great work (‘Testaceographia et Zoophytographia parva
et microscopica,’ 1789-98), grouped, and named them; and he
enumerated (with binomial appellations) a very large number of
specific and varietal forms observed by himself, and many of
which were subsequently described and figured in his several fine
monographs on the Foraminifera of Cuba*, of South Americat,
of the Canariest, of the White Chalk of Paris§, and of the Vienna
Tertiary Basin ||.

D’Orbigny’s views relating to the Foraminifera, in 1844, are
expressed in the article “ Foraminiféres,” in the ‘ Dict. Univers.
Hist. Nat.’ vol. v. pp. 662, &c.; and his latest published deter-
minations as to their generic and family relationships are to be
found in his ‘ Cours Elémentaire de Paléontologie et de Géologie,’
vol. il. fasc. 1. pp. 189-207 (1851). |

In treating of the species accepted and determined by D’Or-
bigny, we propose, firstly, to enumerate the species adopted by
him*from earlier authors; secondly, to pass in review those that
he illustrated, in 1826, by engraved figures (in the ‘ Ann. Se.
Nat.’ vol. vii.), and by models in 1828 ; thirdly, to determine the
forms selected by D’Orbigny from Soldani’s figures ; and after-
wards to enumerate the other species determined by him, as far
as the means at our disposal serve.

In the determination of the right specific names for the several
type forms indicated, we are guided, as heretofore, by the fitness
of the several forms to stand as types, in accordance with their
possession of some trace of all or nearly all the features charac-
teristic of their species, priority of publication giving permanence
‘to one of any two or more names of identical forms. The
‘ Models’ having been published in 1823, the type forms repre-
sented by them take precedence of identical forms subsequently
published in the ‘ Tabl. Céph.’ or elsewhere.

It should be recollected that, in our continued critical exami-
nation of the works of earlier labourers in this particular field
of research, we still have in view only the careful elaboration of
the several groups of Foraminifera that are sufficiently distinct

* Histoire Physique, Politique, et Naturelle de Pile de Cuba, par Ramon
de la Sagra. Paris, 1839, 4to. Foraminiferes de Cuba et des Antilles, par
M. d’Orbigny.

+ Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale pendant les années 1826-33.
Paris, 4to, 1834-42: vol. v. partie 5, Foraminiféres. 1839.

{ Histoire Naturelle des iles Canaries, par MM. P. Barker-Webb et
Sabin Berthelot. Paris, 4to, 1835-50: vol. ii. partie 2. p. 123, Foramini-
féres, par M. d’Orbigny, 1839.

§ Sur les Foraminiferes de la Craie blanche de Paris: Mémoires de la
Soc. Géol. de France, vol. iv. p. 1. 1840, 4to, Paris.

|| Foraminiféres fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de Vienne. Paris, 4to, 1846.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 431

from other groups, as to their shell-tissue, the form and mode
of growth of their shells, and their habits of life (as indicated
by their habitats), to warrant our retaining for them “ specific”
names on zoological grounds. Having indicated these more or
less exactly defined “species” (and, in many instances, their
subspecies, varieties, and even subvarieties), we feel ourselves at
liberty still to use, for convenience-sake, distinct binomial terms
even for varieties of minor value in a zoological sense, because
the whole tale of specific and subordinate denominations of not
a few of the recognizable forms would be very cumbersome, and
because even subvarietal forms are often characteristic of certain
sea-zones and of certain fossil deposits, and therefore often the
subjects of discussion.

I. Species adopted by D’ Orbigny in the ‘ Annales des Sc. Nat.’
vil. (1826), from earlier Authors.

1. Alveolina Boseii, Defrance, sp. Page 306, no. 5. Modéle
no. 50. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. viii. pp. 161, &c., for a notice
of the Alveoline. This form was previously named Miliolites
sabulosus by De Montfort.

2. Alveolina Melo, Fichtel & Moll, sp. Page 306, no. 2.
Comprising the two varieties indicated by Fichtel & Moll. Ann.
No He sen: 3: v. pe 181.

3. Biloculina levis, Defr. sp. Page 298, no. 8. The same
subvariety of Milola ringens that D’Orbigny has named B., bul-
loides, Ann. Se. N. vii. p. 297, no. 1. Modéle no. 90. A common
Biloculine Miliola. Ann. N. H. ser. 2. ii. p. 299; ser. 3. v.
p- 469; & xi. p. 216.

4. Biloculina ringens, Lamarck, sp. Page 276, no. 2. A com-
mon Miliola. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 469.

5. Calcarina Spengleri, Gmelin, sp. Page 276, no. 4. Calca-
rina is so Closely allied to Rotalia that at first we thought the
former to be subordinate to the latter (Ann. N. H. ser. 3. iii.
p. 481) ; but we now regard Calcarina as of equal value with
Rotaha. (Carpenter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 223.) Among the
synonyms of this species, D’Orbigny has “ Tinoporus baculatus,
Montf. ;” this, however, according to Montfort’s figure, has
more of Orbitolina than of Calearina in it; and Dr. Carpenter
proposes to use the term “ Tinoporus ” instead of “ Orbitolina ”
(Introd. Foram. p. 224).

6. Cristellaria [acut-]auricularis, Fichtel & Moll, sp. Page
292, no. 23. <A subglobose Cristellaria.’ See Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
v. p. 114.

7. Cristellaria Cassis, F.&M. sp. Page 290, no. 8. Modéles
nos. 44 & 83. A more or less discoidal and foliaceous Cris-

432 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

tellaria, often of large size and elegant shape. Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
vip: 115:

8. Cristellaria Galea, F. & M. sp. Page 291, no. 6. An ex-
tremely outspread, flat Cristellaria. Ann. N.H. ser. 3. v. p. 115.

9. Cristellaria (Saracenaria) Italica, Defrance, sp. Page 2938,
no. 26. Modeéles nos. 19 & 85. This is a trihedral Cristellaria.
D’Orbigny regarded Saracenaria as of subgeneric value only.
pan. N. i. ser! 3.x. -p. 217.

10. Fabularia Discolithus, Defrance. Page 307, no. 1, pl. 17.
f. 14-17. Modéle no. 100. This form was previously named
by De Roissy Nummulites ovata. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. xii. p. 204.

11. Frondicularia complanata, Defr. Page 256, no. 5. For
remarks on this subspecies, see Ann. N. H. ser. 3. xii. p. 204.

12. Marginulina Raphanus, Linn. sp. Page 258, no. 1, pl. 10.
f. 7,8. Modéle no. 6. This is a variety of Nodosaria Raphanus,
Linn. sp., in which the septal aperture is excentric, and the early
chambers arranged on a curved instead of a straight line ; the
shell, too, is more or less compressed, and the septal floors more
or less oblique. In all these points the degrees of modification
are gentle and indefinite, insensibly leading Nodosaria into Mar-
ginuline, Vaginuline, Planularian, and Cristellarian varieties,—
all being members of the generic group (Nodosarina) of which
Nodosaria Raphanus is a leading member. Ann. N. H. 1859, iii.
p-477, & 1868, xi. p. 213. The slightly Marginuline modification
of N. Raphanus, having plain indications of all the chief charac-
ters found in the various members of the group, presents the
best type of Nodosarina, as it has the rectilinear plan of Nodo-
saria combined (in the early chambers) with the curvature of
Cristellaria: it has also a tendency to compression, and a variable
eccentricity of the stolon-tube, and shows the characteristic
costation of the genus.

13. Nodosaria Bacillum, Defr. Page 254, no. 84. This is
N. Raphanistrum, Linn. sp.; the full development of symmetrical
Nodosarian rectilinear growth. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. ii. p. 478.

14. Nodosaria costata, Montagu, sp. Page 253, no. 23, The
same as N. Raphanus: probably from the London Clay. Ann.
N. H. ser. 3. iv. p. 345.

15. Nodosaria (Dentalina) Scorpionus (Reophax Scorpiurus,
Montfort). Page 255, no. 40. We have explained that this is
Lituola nautiloidea, Lam., var. Scorpiurus, in Ann. N. H. ser. 38.
vi. p. 846.

16. Nodosaria Fascia, Linn. sp. Page 253, no. 22. A variety
of N. Raphanus.

Among the abundant and fine Foraminifera found in the sea-
sand near Rimini, on the Adriatic, are some Nodosarians allied
to the beautiful Vaginulina Legumen, Linn. sp., some smooth,

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 433

some gently striated, that have the septal lines coated with exo-
genous shell-matter to a great extent, or, in other words, are
intensely limbate. One specimen in particular, a smooth form
intermediate to D. communis, D’Orb., and Vaginulina Legumen,
has the clear exogenous septal bands of nearly equal width with
the intervening portions of the chamber-walls. Soldani has
figured such a limbate Dentaline Nodosaria (named N. interrupta
by D’Orbigny, Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 252, no. 11) in his ‘ Testaceogr.’
vol. i. pt. 2. pl. 102. vas 236. fig. B, and described it, at page 96,
as fossil near Sienna.

At Rimini there are also other Nodosarians that are nearly as
strongly limbate as the above-mentioned, and which might be
classed, some with Nodosaria Raphanus, Linn. sp., others with
Dentalina Acicula, Lam. sp., and others with D. communis, D’?Orb.;
but it is to be noticed that, whenever a specimen of either of
these three groups (to the first or second of which Nodosaria
Fascia, Linn. sp., probably belongs) becomes strongly limbate,
it is sure to be passing into Vaginulina Legumen.

17. Nodosaria (Orthocerina) Clavulus, Lamarck, sp. Page 255,
no. 48. Modele no. 2. This is Valvulina triangularis, D’Orb.,
var. Clavulus; the same as Spirolina cylindracea, var. B (recta),
Lamarck, and Nodosaria Clavulus, Lam. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v.
p. 287 & p. 468.

Though the one species here mentioned does not belong to it,
yet Orthocerina is kept as a genus, to which Orthocerina quadri-
latera, D’Orb. (For. Cuba, pl. 1. f.11, 12), O. Murchisoni, Reuss,
sp. (Denkschr. Akad. Wien, vil. pl. 25. f. 1, 2), O. anomala,
Reuss, sp. (Sitzungs. Akad. Wien, xl. pl. vii. f. 5), O. Remeri,
Reuss, sp. (2bad. f. 6), and O. globulifera, Reuss, sp. (ibid. f. 7),
belong. We regard the second of these as the type. See Car-
penter’s ‘ Introd. Foram.’ p. 166.

18. Nodosaria Radicula, Linn. sp. Page 252, no. 3. Modéle
no. 1. A simple form of Nodosaria. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. 11.

. 479.
: 19. Nodosaria spinulosa, Montagu, sp. Page 253,no.15. A
delicate, spiny, Dentaline variety of N. Raphanus, Linn. sp.
From the Londen Clay. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. iv. p. 346.

20. Nonionina asterizans, F.& M. sp. Page 294, no. 22. A
Nautiloid Nonionina with a radiating growth of exogenous shell-
matter around the umbilicus. As it stands between the smooth
forms and those with much astral limbation, we take it as the
type of the Nonionine subgroup of the Polystomella genus.
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. pp. 101, 103.

21. Nonionina Auricula, F. & M. sp. Page 295, no. 24. This
is Pulvinulina repanda, F. & M. sp., var. Auricula. Ann. N. H.
Ser ion Ver pe L7G;

434 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

22. Nonionina crassula, Walker & Jacob, sp. Page 294, no. 7.
A subvariety of N. asterizans, with sunken septal lines and
rather open spire. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. w. p. 339.

23. Nonionina Faba, F. & M. sp. Page 295, no. 23. An
oblong form of N. striatopunctata. With this D’Orbigny asso-
ciates Fichtel and Moll’s N. Scapha, which, however, is the same
as D’Orbigny’s N. communis, Ann. Sc. Nat. vii. p. 294, no. 20,
and For. Foss. Vien. pl. 5. f. 7,8. Ann. N.H. ser. 3. v. p. 102.

24. Nonionina incrassata, F.& M. sp. Page 293, no.6. An
umbonate subvariety of N. asterizans. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v.
pe LOL.

25. Nonionina pompilioides, F.& M. sp. Page 294, no. 15.
A subglobose form of N. asterizans. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v.
p- 102. .

26. Nonionina striatopunctata, F.& M. sp. Page 294, no. 21.
This is a link between Polystomella proper and its feeble member
Nonionina. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 102.

27. Nummulina complanata, Lamarck, sp. Page 296, no. 3.
This is a good representative of the “sinuate” group of Num-
muline: it ranges from Western Europe into Africa and Asia,
and is one of the largest known. Lamarck had his specimens
from Soissons, apparently. This is the Camerina nummularia of
Bruguiére, 1792. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 296, & viii. p. 234.

28. Nummulina levigata, Bruguiére. Page 295,no.1. Typi-
cal of the “reticulate” Nummuline, and of wide range. Ann.
N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 290, viil. p. 232.

29. Nummulina globularia, Lamarck, sp. Page 296, no. 2.
A variety of N. levigata, Brug. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 296.

30. Nummulina lenticularis, F. & M. sp. Page 296, no. 5.
This is the var. 8 of Fichtel and Moll’s “ Nautilus lenticularis,”
and is regarded by D’Archiac and Haime as the same as Num-
mulina Lucasana, Defrance, sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. pp. 108,
110.

31. Nummulina perforata, Montfort, sp. Page 296, no. 7.
“ Nautilus lenticularis,” var. e, of Fichtel and Moll. The adult
N. perforata is the same as N. obtusa, Sow., and is a good type
of the “sinuate”” Nummulites, and probably of the Nummuline
generally. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 108, & vi. p. 342.

32. Nummulina planulata, Lamarck, sp. Page 296, no. 4.
Modele no. 87, young specimen. A type of the “radiate” or
“‘sinuo-radiate”? group of Nummuline. Ann. N. H. ser. 2. v.
p. 295.

33. Nummulina radiata?, Montfort, sp. Page 296, no. 6.
“ Nautilus lenticularis, var. 6,” of Fichtel and Moll: regarded
by D’Archiac and Haime as the same as N. Biaritzensis, D’Arch.
Ann. N. H. ser. 8. v. p. 111, & vi. p. 342.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 435

34, Nummulina rotulata, Lamarck, sp. Page 296, no. 8.
This is Cristellaria rotulata, Lam. sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v.
p- 296. D’Orbigny correctly placed this form under Cristellaria
in his memoir on the Foraminifera of the White Chalk of Paris
(Mém. Soc. Géol. France, 1840, iv. p. 26).

35. Orbiculina numismalis, Lamarck. Page 305, no. 1, pl. 17.
f. 8-10. Modéle no. 20. This is Orbiculina adunca, F. & M. sp.,
including its modifications or varieties angulata and Orbiculus.
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. vy. p. 181.

36. Operculina complanata, Defrance, sp. (Erroneously re-
ferred to “ Basterot” by D’Orbigny.) Page 281, no. 1, pl. 14.
f. 7-10. Modéle no. 80. The history of Operculina and its
relationship to Nummulina are treated of in Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
vil. p. 229. See also Carpenter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 247.

37. Peneroplis opercularis, Lamarck, sp. Page 286, no. 6.
Renulites of Lamarck ; misplaced in Peneroplis by D’Orbigny ;
and really a peculiar modification of Vertebralina. In Annals
N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 471, we treated of it as V. striata, D’Orb.,
var. opercularis. See also Carpenter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 74,
pis. f. 18.

38. Peneroplis planatus, F. & M. sp. Page 285, no. 1. Mo-
deéles nos. 16 & 48. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 179; and Carpen-
ter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 84.

39. Planularia Auris, Defrance. Page 260, no. 5. Ann. N.H.
ser. 3. xu. p. 215. Planularia is a noticeable member of the
Cristellarian subgroup ; and, for convenience-sake, several of the
Planularian forms are recorded binomially. The form under
notice may, however, be regarded as a very thin outspread va-
riety of Cristellaria Cymba, D’Orb.

40. Planularia Crepidula, F. & M. sp. Page 260, no. 6.
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 114. Though really only a delicate,
elongate, flattened Cristellaria, yet, like some others of the group,
this pretty form enjoys a special name, for the convenience of
collectors and others.

41. Polystomella ambigua, F. & M. sp. Page 285, no. 10.
A flattish and crenulate variety of P.crispa. Ann. N. H. ser. 8.
v. p. 103.

42. Polystomella ecraticulata, F.& M. sp. Page 284, no. 3.
See Aun. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 105, and Carpenter’s ‘ Introd. Fo-
ram.’ p. 279, for an account of this ver y thick, largely umbonate,
and frequently gigantic Polystomella.

43. Polystomella crispa, Linn. sp. Page 283, no. 1. Modéle
no. 45. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 105, and Carpenter’s ‘ Introd.
Foram.’ p. 278.

44. Polystomella strigillata, F. & M. sp. Page 284, no. 4.
With Fichtel and Moll’s two varieties of P. strigillata, D’Or-

436 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

bigny here unites their two varieties of P. macella. These are
all more or less compressed forms of P. crispa. Ann. N. H.
ser. 3. v. p. 105.

45. Quinqueloculina birostris, Lamarck, sp. Page 301, no. 2.
A feeble variety of Miliola (Saxorum?). Ann. N. H. ser. 8. v.
p. 471.

46. Quinqueloculina Saxorum, Lamarck, sp. Page 301, no. 1,
pl. 16. f. 10-14. Modéle no. 33. A peculiar Miliola, a link with
the subgroup Hauerina. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 470.

47. Quinqueloculina Seminulum, Linn. sp. Page 303, no. 44.
The typical Miliola. Ann. N. H. ser. iii. p. 480.

48. Quinqueloculina subrotunda, Montagu, sp. Page 302,
no. 36. A feeble variety of Miliola Seminulum, Linn. sp. Ann.
N. H. ser. 3. iv. pp. 336, 344.

49. Robulina Calcar, Linn. sp. Page 289, no.12. Robulina
is the same as Cristellaria with a triangular aperture—an unim-
portant variable feature. C. Calcar is a well-developed sym-
metrical form, with a more or less dentate keel, and typifies the
Cristellarian subgroup of the genus Nodosarina. Amn. N. H.
ser. 3. ul. p. 476; v. p. 112; & vi. p. 343.

50. Robulina costata, F. & M. sp. Page 289, no. 18. An
important subvariety of Cristellaria Calcar. Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
il. p. 113.

51. Robulina cultrata, Montf. sp. Page 287, no. 1. Modéle
no. 82. This is one of the most common of the whole-keeled
varieties of the Nautiloid Cristellarie: it often has a triangular
aperture; but this is a feature of extreme variability, and in-
sufficient for the differentiation of Robulina from Cristellaria.
The keel itself, also, is a variable feature, sometimes reduced to
aminimum. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 112; & vi. p. 343.

52. Robulina Vortex, F.& M. sp. Page 288, no. 4. Cris-
tellaria Vortex (Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 113): its chambers are
very narrow and much curved.

53. Rotalia trochidiformis, Lamarck. Page 272,no.1. This
is Discorbina Turbo, D’Orb. sp., var. trochidiformis. See Ann.
N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 294; and Carpenter’s ‘ Introd. Foram.’ p. 204.

54. Rotalia (Turbinulina) Beccarii, Linn. sp. Page 275,no. 42.
Modele no. 74. The common Rotalia Beccarii, Linn. sp. This
is the same as D’Orbigny’s Turbinulina tortuosa (loc. cit. no. 40),
for which name he erroneously quotes Fischer as the authority.
G. Fischer de Waldheim, in the ‘ Mém. Soe. Nat. Moscou,’ 1817,
vol. v. p. 449, pl.18. f. 5 a, b, and in his ‘ Adversaria Zoologica’*,
p- 75, amongst his “ Cephalopoda conchylifera,” has “ Streblus
(& otpeBros, tortuosus), tab. 13 [pl]. ui.J. fig. 5, ab,” and pro-

* Fase. I. et IL. (Ex parte ex Actis Soc. Nat. Scrut. extractus.) Cum vii.
tabulis eneis. Mosque, 1819.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 437

ceeds to note that it comes from the Mediterranean, and is
known to many authors, referring to the figures and descriptions
given by Gualtieri, Linné, Gmelin, and Martini of Ammonia
(Nautilus) Beccarii. Fischer therefore proposed a new generic
name only, not a specific name, for this Rotalia, which was
Linné’s Nautilus Beccarii in 1758, and Lamarck’s Rotalia
Discorbula in 1804.

55. Siderolina calcitrapoides, Lamarck, sp. Page 297, no. 1.
Essentially the same as Calcarina Spenglert, Gmelin, sp. _ Prof.
Reuss prefers to keep these apart (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wien,
1861, xliv. p. 315). Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 65, & vi. p. 341.
See also Calcarina Spengleri, above.

56. Spirolina cylindracea, Lamarck. Page 286, no. 1. Mo-
déle no. 24, This is a very narrow Peneroplis planatus, F. & M.
sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 466.

57. Spirolina depressa, Lamarck. Page 287, no. 3. The
same as Peneroplis planatus, F. & M. sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 8.
v. p. 466.

58. Spirolina nautiloides, Lamarck. Page 287, no. 6. This
is very distinct from the other “ Spirolinee” (Peneroplides) ; it
is a Lituola (L. nautiloidea, Lam.), as is also Spirolina aggluti-
nans, D’Orb. For. Foss. Vien. p. 137, pl. 7. figs. 10-12. The
misplacement of this species as a “ Spirolina”’ was corrected by
Defrance. See also Ann. N. H. ser. 2. xix. p. 301; & ser. 3. v.
p- 297.

59. Textularia Sagittula, Defrance. Page 263, no. 20. Ac-
cording to our view of the relationships of the Tevtularia, this
is T. agglutinans, D’Orb., var. Sagittula. Aun. N. H. ser. 3. xu.
p- 218.

60. Triloculina oblonga, Montagu, sp. Page 300, no. 16.
Modéle no. 95. A very common modification of Miliola Semi-
nulum ; often it is rather a contracted ill-grown Quinqueloculina
than a true Triloculina. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. iv. p. 348.

61. Triloculina trigonula, Lamarck, sp. Page 299, no. 1,
pl. 16. f. 5-9. Modéle no 93. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 470.

62. Truncatulina refulgens, Montfort, sp. Page 279, no. 5,
pl. 18. f. 8-11. Modéle no. 77. We have given some particulars
of this interesting variety of Planorbulina farcta, F. & M., in
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. vi. p. 340.

63. Vaginulina Legumen, Linn. sp. Page 257, no. 2. See
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. 1. p. 479.

I*, The following Forms, already illustrated by Figures given by -
older authors (not including Soldani), recewved names from
D’ Orbigny, in the ‘ Annales des Sc. Nat. vii. 1826.

1. Alveolina oblonga. Page 306, no. 4. Fossil at Soissons.

438 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

This was figured by Parkinson (Org. Rem. 1811, pl. 10. f. 28-
31). It is one of the elongate-oval varieties (such as A. ovoidea,
D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 806, no. 8) of A. Melo, F. & M. sp.
Ann. N. H. ser. 3. viii. p. 165.

2. Nodosaria Rapa. Page 253, no. 27. Wrongly referred
to by D’Orbigny as a Lamarckian species. D’Orbigny applied
this term to the straight form of N. Raphanus, Linn. sp., and.
indicated its Marginuline condition by the name of Marginulina
Raphanus, Ann. Se. N. vii. p. 258, no. 1. See Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
xu. p. 213, and above, p. 432.

3. Robulina aculeata. Page 289, no.14. Under this name
D’Orbigny grouped some more or less rowelled forms of Cristel-
laria Calcar*, Linn. sp., figured by Fichtel and Moll,—namely,
their Nautilus Calcar, Linn., var. a (pl. 11. f. a-c), keeled and
rowelled (the type of this subspecies) ; var. 8 (pl. 12. f. 7, k), keel-
less, slightly rowelled; var.« (pl. 13. f. c,d), keel slight, with
some teeth (a specimen of C. Calcar developed but faintly in its
several features); and var. w (pl. 13. f. A, 7), sharply rowelled.
See Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 112.

4. Rotalia (Turbinulina) tortuosa. Page 275, no. 40. Modéle
no. 74. For this name D’Orbigny erroneously quotes Fischer
(who gives a figure of it under the name of Streblus Beccarii) as
the authority. See above, “Rotalia (Turbinulina) Beccarii,”
p. 436.

II. Species of Foraminifera illustrated by D’ Orbigny in the
Plates 10-17 of the ‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ vol. vii. 1826.

1. Amphistegina Lessonii, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 304,
no. 3, pl. 17. f. 1-4. Modéle no. 98. From the Isle of France.
This differs from A. vulgaris, D’Orb., ibid. p. 305, no. 8, Modéle
no. 40, in an exaggerated convexity of its faces; and although
it stands before A. vulgaris in the ‘Tabl. Méth.’, yet the latter,
being foremost in the Models, and being the better type, may
well take precedence and bear the specific name. In 1825,
Defrance noticed an Amphistegina (fossil near Pisa and else-
where) as Nummulites ? Lenticula, which is not essentially distinct
from A. vulgaris, D’Orb. (Ann. N. H. ser. 3. xi. p. 211). For
a full account of Amphistegina, see Carpenter’s ‘ Introd. Foram.’
p- 241, &e.

2. Anomalina punctulata, D’Orb. Ann. des Sc. Nat. vii.
p- 282, no. 1, pl. 15. f. 1-3 dzs. From the Isle of France. With
some exceptions, D’Orbigny’s Anomaline are somewhat biconvex
Truncatuline Planorbuline ( Truncatulina being a term useful in in-
dicating the arrested, few-chambered thickish plano-convex mem-

* D’Orbigny refers C. Calcar, Linn. sp., to C. Cassis, F. & M. sp. (Ann.
Se. N. vii. p. 291) as well as to Robulina Calcar, Linn. sp. (op. cit. p. 289).

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 439

bers of the Planorbuline genus), and A. punctulata is one of these
subsymmetrical, bun-shaped arrested varieties of Planorbulina
farcta, F. & M. sp. See Carpenter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 208.

3. Bigenerina Nodosaria, D’ Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vil. p. 261, no. 1,
pl. 11. f. 9-12. Modéle no. 57. From the Adriatic. A dimor-
phous Textularia. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. xi. p. 97.

4 Biloculina bulloides, D’ Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vu. p. 297, no. 1,
pl. 16. f. 1-4. Modéle no. 90. From the Adriatic; and fossil
near Paris and Bordeaux. The same as B. levis, Defrance, sp.
A Miliola.

5. Bulimina marginata, D’Ord. Ann. Sc. N. vu. p. 269, no. 4,
pl. 12. f. 10-12. From the Adriatic. This is one of the Buli-
mine varieties that have sharp edges to the chambers, sometimes
produced into prickles (as in B. aculeata, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vu.
p- 269, no. 7). The best type of Bulimina is the form figured
and described by Reuss as B. Presi, Verst. Bohm. Kreid. 1846,
pl. 13, f. 72.

6. Calcarina Defrancii, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 276, no. 3,
pl. 18. f. 5-7 bis. From the Red Sea. This is a variety of C.
Spengleri. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. i. p. 481.

7. Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vi. p. 282,
no. 1, pl. 15. f. 4, 5 bis. Modéle no. 41. From a ballast-sand.
See Carpenter’s ‘Introd. Foram.’ p. 197.

8. Clavulina angularis, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vu. p. 268, no. 2,
pl. 12. f.7. From the coast of Corsica. A dimorphous modi-
fication of Valvulina triangularis, D’Orb. It is the same as
Clavulina tricarinata, D’Orb. For. Cuba, pl. 2. f. 16-18; and
shows more triserial chambers in its first-formed portion than
Valvulina triangularis, var. Clavulus, does. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v.
pp. 467-8.

9. Dendritina Arbuscula, D’ Ord. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 285, no.1,
pl. 15. f. 6, 7 bis. Modéle no. 21. Fossil from Bordeaux. This
arrested Nautiloid form of Peneroplis planatus, F. & M. sp., is
not uncommon in warm seas. See Carpenter’s ‘ Introd. Foram.’

. 89.
; 10. Fabularia Discolithus, Defrance, Aun. Sc. N. viii. p. 307,
no. l, pl. 17. f. 14-17. Modéle no. 100. See above, p. 432.

11. Marginulina Raphanus, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 258,
no. 1, pl. 10. f. 7,8. Modéle no. 6. Marginuline condition of
N. Raphanus, Linn. sp. From the Adriatic, and fossil at Castel-
Arquato, Italy. See above, p. 432.

12. Nodosaria (Glandulina) levigata, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vii.
p- 252, no. 1, pl. 10. f. 1-3. A short, acute-oval, smooth Nodo-
saria, from the Adriatic, and found fossil at Sienna. It is abun-
dant alsu in the Lias and other strata, and is not rare in various
parts of the existing seas.

440 On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

13. Nodosaria lamellosa, D’Ord. Ann. Se. N. vii. p. 253,
no. 17, pl. 10.f.4—6. From the Adriatic. A neat sharp-ribbed
N. Raphanus, Linn. sp.

14, Nonionina umbilicata, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vil. p. 293,
no. 5, pl. 15. f. 10-12. Modéle no. 86. From the Adriatic and
Mediterranean, and fossil at Bordeaux and Sienna. A variety
of N. asterizans, F. & M. sp., closely related to N. pompilioides,
F.& M. sp., N. Soldanii, D’Orb., and several other modifications
of the Nonionine subtype of the genus Polystomella. See Ann.
N. H. ser. 3. v. pp. 1OL ef seq.

15. Operculina complanata, Defrance, sp. Ann. Sc. N. vii.
p- 281, no. 1, pl. 14. f. 7-10. Modéle no. 80. See above,
p- 435.

16. Pavonia flabelliformis, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vii. p. 260,
no. 1, pl. 10. f. 10-12. From Madagascar. We do not know
this Foraminifer ; possibly it is a symmetrical Peneroplis; more
probably a semidiscoidal modification of Orbitolites.

17. Planorbulina Mediterranensis, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii.
p- 280, no. 2, pl. 14. f. 4-6 d7s. Modeéle no. 79. From the
Mediterranean ; parasitic. A delicate scale-like variety of Pl.
farcta, F. & M. sp., having Pl. nitida, D’Orb., between it and
the type; whilst P/. vulgaris, D’Orb., stands next beyond it in
divergence from Pl. farcta. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 178.

18. Planularia Cymba, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 260, no. 4,
pl. 10. f.9. Modéle no. 27. A flattened, elongate, ribbed Cris-
tellarian form, of variable width, standing between Vaginulina
and Cristellaria proper. See above, p. 435.

19. Planulina Ariminensis, D’Orb. Aun. Se. N. vii. p. 280,
no. 1, pl. 14. f. 1-3 dis. Modele no. 49. From the Adriatic.
This is a flattened, limbate, and subsymmetrical variety of Pla-
norbulina farcta, F. & M. sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. p. 178.

20. Polymorphina (Guttulina) communis, D’Orb. Ann. Se.N.
vu. p. 266, no. 15, pl. 12. f. 1-4. Modéle no. 62. From the
Adriatic Sea; and fossil in the Tertiary beds of Paris, Bordeaux,
and Castel-Arquato. A well-developed form of P. lactea, Walker
& Jacob, sp., which has interminable degrees of size and
shape.

a. Polymorphina (Pyrulina) Gutta, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vii.
p- 267, no. 28, pl. 12. f. 5, 6. Modéle no. 30. Fossil at Castel-
Arquato. An elongate form, with the chambers more closely
packed than in the common P. lactea, W. & J. sp.

22. Quingueloculina Saxorum, Lamarck, sp. Aun. Se. N. vii.
p- 301, no. 1, pl. 16. f. 10-14. Modéle no. 33. Fossil near
Paris. A Milola. See above, p. 436.

23. Robulina orbicularis, D’Orb. Ann. Se. N. vii. p. 288,
no. 2, pl. 15. f. 8,9 d¢s. Fossil near Sienna. A Cristellaria

Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Fishes. 441

nearly identical with C. Vortex, F. & M. sp. Ann. N. H. ser. 3.
v. p. 113.

24. Rosalina globularis, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 271, no. 1,
pl. 13. f. 1-4. Modéle no. 69. Widely distributed, fixed to sea-
weeds and corals. This is a variety of Discorbina Turbo, D’Orb.
sp. Prof. Williamson figures it in his ‘ Monograph Brit. Rec.
Foram.’ pl. 4. f. 104, 105, as “ Rotalina concamerata, young,
and refers (p. 52) D’ Orbigny’s Rosalina globularis to R. con-
camerata, Montagu, sp.; but we believe that Montagu’s Serpula
concamerata is a variety of Planorbulina farcta, and that William-
son’s adult R. concamerata (f. 101-108) is Pulvinulina repanda.

25. Textularia aciculata, D’ Ord. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 263, no. 15,
pl. 11. f. 1-4. From the Adriatic. The same as 7. pygmea,
D’Orb., ibid. p. 263, no. 13; and Modéle no. 7.

26. Triloculina trigonula, Lamarck, sp. Aun. Sc. N. vii. p. 299,
no. 1, pl. 16. f. 5-9. Modéle no. 93. Fossil near Paris, Soissons,
and Valognes. A Miliola of not uncommon occurrence.

27. Truncatulina refulgens, Montfort, sp. Ann. Sc. N. vii.
p. 279, no. 5, pl. 18. f. 8-11. Modéle no. 77. This is Planor-
bulina farcta, ¥. & M. sp., var. refulgens. See above, p. 437.

28. Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vii. p. 269, no. 2,
pl. 12. f. 8, 9. Modéle no. 67. Fossil near Sienna. The typical
form of Uvigerina : its home may be said to be at about 100-
300 fathoms in warm seas; smaller individuals are abundant in
shallower as well as in deeper water; the ribbed shells, as here
figured, are more abundant in shallow than in abyssal water.

29. Vulvulina Capreolus, D’Orb. Ann. Sc. N. vi. p. 264,
no. 1, pl. 11. f. 5-8. Modéle no. 57. From the Adriatic. A
Textularian form. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. xi. p. 93, &c.

XLV.— On new Species of Fishes from the Essequibo.
By Dr. AuBert GUNTHER.

A cot.ection of freshwater fishes made in Guiana by Mr.
Ehrhardt for the British Museum contained so many duplicate
specimens, that probably a portion of them will reach other col-
lections before the part of the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes’ containing
their descriptions will be published; therefore I add diagnoses
to the names under which the new species are deposited in the
British Museum, referring for detailed descriptions to the forth-
coming parts of that work.
Acara punctulata.
BD: ~. A. >, L. lat. 26. LL. transv. 3/8.

Three series of scales on the cheek. The height of the body
Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xii. 29

442 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Fishes

is two-fifths of the total length (without caudal), the length of
the head two-sevenths; the greatest width of the head is two-
fifths of its length. The spinous dorsal fin is rather elevated,
the length of the posterior spines being somewhat more than
one-half of that of the head. Young specimens have the middle
soft rays of the dorsal and anal produced into a filament. Yel-
lowish brown, each scaie with a brown central dot and brown
margin ; a blackish band along the middle of the side, continued
on the caudal fin, where it encloses numerous round white spots ;
no black spot on the tail. Upper side of the head with nume-
rous brown dots; a blackish, white-edged band between the eye
and the cleft of the mouth; another blackish band descends
from the eye to the angle of the preoperculum, and is more
distinct in young examples than in old ones ; an orange-coloured
spot behind the eve. Dorsal fin blackish, with numerous small
whitish spots.
The largest specimen is 4 inches long.

Pimelodus holomelas.
D, 1/6. Av 9=-10; PB. 1/826 Veo:

Head covered with skin above; occipital process triangular,
considerably longer than broad, not reaching the basal bone of
the dorsal spine. Adipous fin very long, its length being con-
tained twice and a fourth or twice and a fifth in the total (with-
out caudal) ; it commences at a short distance from the dorsal.
Maxillary barbels extending beyond the commencement or to
the middle of the adipous fin, the outer ones of the mandible to
the middle of the pectoral.

The height of the body is contained five times and a half or
five times and two-thirds in the total length (without caudal),
the length of the head four times. The lower jaw is distinctly
shorter than the upper; the band of intermaxillary teeth is
seven times as broad as long. The diameter of the eye is
one-half of the width of the interorbital space. No porus
axillaris. Dorsal fin with the spine very feeble, scarcely higher
than long. Pectoral spine serrated along both edges, as long
as the head without snout. Caudal fin cleft to the base. Uni-
form black, with a brownish shade, somewhat lighter on the
belly.

Auchenipterus obscurus.
DA. 7A 19-20... P. 7-8. (No:

The bones of the head and neck are rather coarsely granu-
lated ; a small, round groove between the frontals, surrounded
by bone. Lower jaw rather longer than the upper ; the maxil-
lary and the hinder mandibulary barbels extend to, or somewhat

from the Essequibo. 443

beyond, the extremity of the humeral process; the anterior
mandibulary barbels are twice or thrice as long as the eye. The
numeral process extends backwards beyond the middle of the
pectoral spine. Dorsal and pectoral spies serrated, the former
along its anterior edge, the latter along both edges ; the dorsal
spine is considerably shorter than that of the pectoral fin, the
latter being as long as the head, and one-fourth of the total
length (without caudal). Caudal fin slightly emarginate, the
upper lobe being scarcely longer than the lower. Lateral line
irregularly undulated. Uniform brownish black.

Herocenss (Siluride).

Adipous fin very small; dorsal fin very short, without pungent
spine, inserted behind the ventrals ; anal verylong. The upper
jaw is a little longer than the lower. Barbels six. A band of
small teeth in the jaws, and two patches on the vomer. No
dermal bones. Eye very small, covered over by the skin. Gill-
openings very wide, the gill-membranes being entirely separate.
Pectorals without pungent spine; ventrals six-rayed.

Helogenes marmoratus.
BOS. DiS). AG aes!) PB. Ve Gs
Only three inches and a half long.

Crenucuvs (Characinide).

Adipous fin none ; dorsal fin of moderate length, above the
ventrals ; anal short ; scales of moderate size ; abdomen rounded;
head and body rather compressed, of moderate length. Inter-
maxillary and mandible with a single series of tricuspid teeth ;
maxillary and palate without teeth ; canine teeth none. Mouth
of moderate width.

Crenuchus spilurus.
Dele SAGs. Vie Se & le Jat. 30)

Dorsal and anal rays somewhat prolonged ; a round, black
spot near the root of the caudal fin.

Leporinus megalepis.
D.12. A.12. UL. lat. 33. LL. trans. 5/5.

Body with large blackish spots, arranged in two or three
series ; fins red.
Xiphorhamphus ferox.
D.11. A. 25-26. V.8. L. lat. 95.

A large blackish blotch on the shoulder; the inner caudal
rays red, with a black spot in the middle.
29%

444 Rev. S. Haughton on the Fossil Red Deer of Ireland.

XLVI.—On the Fossil Red Deer of Ireland : Observations founded
on the Skeletons found at Bohoe, in the County Fermanagh, in
1863. By the Rev. Samurt Haveuton, M.D., Fellow of
Trinity College, Dublin.

Durine the spring of the present year, in the drainage of a
small lake near Bohoe, in Fermanagh, a number of bones of
Red Deer, with those of some other animals, were discovered in
the sludge that underlay the bog through which the drainage
operations were being carried on. These bones were secured by
the Rev. William Steele of Portora, and were by him presented
to the Geological Museum of Trinity College.
The following list contains an enumeration of the bones
found :—
Red Deer.
2 lower jaws.
2 heads, with antlers.
2 heads without horns, and | fragment jive individuals.
of upper jaw. a
3 atlantes.
3 axes.
15 other cervical vertebrz.
66 dorsal and lumbar vertebre.
4 sacra.
4 pelves.
91 ribs.
6 scapule ; 3 right and 3 left.
9 humeri; 5 right and 4 left.
8 radii and ulne; 4 right and 4 left.
8 femora; 4 right and 4 left.
10 fibule and tibie; 6 right and 4 left. (Six individuals).
6 metatarsal bones.
8 metacarpal bones.
7 sternal bones.
3 ossa calcis.
6 phalanges and 2 hoofs.
18 small tarsal and carpal bones.
25 fragments of other bones.

In addition to these bones, which were all those of the fossil
Red Deer, there were found the following :—

1 right humerus of a young pig.
1 left femur of a calf (?).

These fossils were all found in marl underlying bog, in the
same situation, geologically speaking, as that in which the Cer-
vus megaceros has been always found in Ireland.

One of the ribs had been broken and repaired during life,
with the production of bony spicule, which must have caused
the unfortunate brute much pleurodynia during the process of
healing.

I was fortunate enough to be able to demonstrate the exist-

Rev. S. Haughton on the Fossil Red Deer of Ireland. 445

ence, among these bones, of two complete spinal columns, from
an examination of which it became evident that the fossil Red
Deer of Fermanagh had 14 ribs; so that its vertebra, as com-
pared with the living Red Deer, are as follows :—

Fossil Red Deer. Recent Red Deer.
7 cervical. 7 cervical.
14 dorsal. 13 dorsal.
5 lumbar. 6 lumbar.
26 26

On examining the teeth, I found the posterior molars tri-
lobate, while those of the recent Red Deer are, at least some-
times, only bilobate ; however, on examining for me an excellent
skeleton of the recent Red Deer preserved in the Museum of the
Royal Dublin Society, Dr. A. Carte found the posterior molar of
one side bilobate, and that of the other side trilobate—thus -
demonstrating the trivial character of the lobation of the molars.
Two of the tarsal bones, also, were soldered together in both
legs, while they are separate in the recent Red Deer ; but upon
this character I am not disposed to lay much stress, as it fre-
quently occurs in the Cervus megaceros, and is probably the
result either of old age or of rheumatic disease of the ankle-
joint.

: It will be observed, from the list of bones, that six individuals,
at least, contributed their remains to the “find” of the Bohoe
bones.

These bones are considerably larger than those of the only
two skeletons of Red Deer to which I have had access, and are
also larger than the corresponding bones of the fossil Reindeer
in the Royal Dublin Society’s Museum. This fact and the
presence, in two specimens, of 14 instead of 13 dorsal vertebrae
indicate a considerable difference between the fossil Red Deer
of Ireland and the existing Red Deer, and may justify the name
by which the fossil Red Deer is known in many parts of Ireland
—viz. the Marsh Deer, which is considered to be like, but not
the same as, the Red Deer.

The restored skeletons of the Fermanagh Red Deer are pre-
served in the Museums of Trinity College and of the Royal
Dublin Society, and are well worthy of the examination of
anatomists.

I believe that we are entitled to consider our fossil Red Deer
as a well-marked variety, and would propose for it the provi-
sional name of Cervus elaphus, var. fossilis Hibernica.

In addition to the bones described above, the skull of a pig
was found; and the animal to which it had belonged had evi-

446 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and Spheraphides.

dently been killed by a blow on the forehead, that had broken
the skull. This circumstance shows that the bones of the Red
Deer, Pig, &c., belong to the human, and probably historical,
period, to which also, I believe, in common with Irish antiqua-
rians, the remains of the Cervus megaceros belong.

XLVII.— Observations on Raphides and Spheraphides.
By Grorce Guiuiver, F.R.S.

[Continued from p. 367.]

Balsaminacee.—We have already incidentally mentioned this
as a raphis-bearing order (Annals, Sept. 1863), and will now
compare it with its relations. In our Flora they stand thus :—

Oxalidacesze.
Celastratez.

Linacee.

: BaLSAMINACEA.
Geraniaceze.

And Balsaminacez is not more plainly isolated and distinguished
here in print than in the type of nature as a raphidiferous order.
All the plants belonging to it which I have examined (to wit,
Impatiens glandulifera, two other exotic species, and numerous
varieties of the common greenhouse Balsam) abound in raphides,
while the other orders, allies of Balsaminacez, are not so cha-
racterized.

But these other orders afford, in the leaves and other parts,
spheraphides instead, and sometimes so beautifully in the form
of spheraphid-tissue as to exhibit a better example of it than
that depicted in Lythrum salicaria (Annals, Sept. 1863). In the
sepals of Geranium striatum and G. sanguineum, for instance, this
is very remarkable—a tissue of cells, each cell containing a
distinct nucleus of spheraphides. Doubtless John Quekett saw
the same thing as an isolated fact in this genus (Lindley’s Elem.
Bot. 1849, p.17). The leaves and other parts of Oxalidacez
abound in spheraphides, like those of Polygonacez.

How completely such functions of plant-life are dependent on
the species itself, rather than either on the soil, food, or situation,
is as well shown by these examples as by those formerly described
in Onagraceze and Lythracez, and in the different species of
Lemna. The two Geraniums above-named and Balsams have
been growing close together in my garden, and yet each plant
always afforded its peculiar crystals—constantly spheraphides in
the first- and as constantly raphides in the last-named plants.

In short, this is not merely an incidental or artificial distine-
tion, but a regular and natural difference—by no means a trivial
or minor fact, but a central and comprehensive phenomenon.

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and Spheraphides. 447

And we have seen how well the sanieremarks are applicable to
such raphis-bearing orders as Rubiaceze and Onagracee.

Haloragacee.—In the stem of Myriophyllum many spheera-
phides occur. They are about ;~,,th of an inch in diameter,
remarkably distinct, globular, and with sharp angular asperities
on the surface, formed by the individual crystals. edly
raphides are most abundant on the surface of the medullary
rays, as admirably figured, about a quarter of a century ago,
Unger. The spheraphides are scanty or obscure in the leaves,
but sometimes plainly seen within delicate cells in the tissue of
the stem.

Ficoidee.—S8ix species were examined, including Mesembry-
anthemum crystalinum and M. rubrocinctum, and all found to
abound in raphides.

Crassulacee.—Several of these were compared with the fore-
going, but found to be regularly destitute of raphides. There
were examined Sempervivum tectorum, Cotyledon umbilicus,
Echeveria secunda, and six British species of Sedum.

Vitacee.—This order affords good examples of raphides and
spheeraphides in the same plant. Raphides are plentiful in the
leaves of Ampelopsis hederacea and Vitis vinifera. The pulp
of the berry and the fruit-stalks of Ampelopsis abound both in
raphides and spheraphides. The raphides often appear naked,
and sometimes in a cell like that of the Fuchsia-berry, depicted
in the last Number of the ‘Annals.’ The spheraphides occur
in the testa, and in the fruit-stalk present a distinct sphera-
phid tissue—each of the spheraphides, about +);,th of an inch
in diameter, forming the nucleus of a delicate cell, these cells
being arranged in lines along the outside of the vessels. In the
grape-berry the raphides are less abundant than in the leaves,
but it contams many spheraphides as well, which occur also,
together with the raphides, in the leaves.

Urticacee.—I have not found raphides in this order; but it
abounds in spheraphides, fine examples of which, about =1.nd
of an inch in diameter, may be seen, in the form of pale pellucid
dots, in the young leaves of Urtica dioica. They are also very
plain in Parietaria. Meyen discovered such objects, with their
pedicel and cell, in Ficus; and their presence in many other
plants of the order was remarked by Payen. Weddell called
them cystoliths, and observed that they afford a valuable dia-
gnostic character.

Edenbridge, Oct. 24, 1863.

[To be continued. |

448 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

XLVIII.—Further Observations on the Distinctive Characters,
Habits, and Reproductive Phenomena of the Amceban Rhizo-
pods. By G. C. Waxuicu, M.D., F.LS., &c.

[Plate VIII.]

In order to show the fallacy of regarding mere external modifi-
cations of the sarcode-substance as indicative of specific indi-
viduality amongst the Amceban Rhizopods, attention was di-
rected in my previous papers to the intimate relation existing
between such modifications and the varying nature of the con-
ditions by which most of these lower forms of animal life are
surrounded. I have now to offer the following observations in
support of this view.

Whilst describing the singular phase in the history of Ameweba
whereby, in common with many of the more highly organized
Protozoa, it survives the contingencies to which it is exposed
through the drying up or deterioration of the medium it inha-
bits, I mentioned having detected, amongst certain confervoid
matter, an abundant brood of this organism, and that in it
were embodied the collective characters of numerous forms whose
specific distinctness had been based almost entirely on the cha-
racters of their pseudopodia. The specimens alluded to, in
conjunction with some obtained from other sources, afford ex-
cellent illustrations of the incidental nature of these varieties,
and seem to furnish conclusive evidence not only that the figure
assumed by the pseudopodia is subject to such a degree of
variation as to become valueless as a distinction between the
Ameeban species, but that the extent of the variation is so great
as even to invalidate the boundary-line between Ameba and
Actinophrys, in so far as it depends on the character in question.

This view may, at first sight, appear overstrained; for I
confess that, im my own case, nothing short of the constant
repetition of the appearances through an extended series of
specimens could have induced me to entertain it. It is true,
moreover, that the transition from the form of pseudopodium
said to be typical of Ameba to that held to be typical of Acti-
nophrys had not previously been noticed by me with anything
like the same distinctness. But, in the material under notice,
the specimens exhibiting the transitionary characters were so
numerous, the alternation of the characters so frequent, and the
type assumed so well sustained, that, should the case be deemed
exceptional, it ought certainly to be regarded as one of those
very important exceptions that disturb the established rule.
And hence, admitting the accuracy of the facts recorded, namely
that, under any circumstances whatever, a true Ameba possesses
the power of projecting from its surface the tapering and pointed

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 449

pseudopodia of Actinophrys—that these pseudopodia are for a
time rigid—that occasionally they are bent at an angle, and
again straightened—that sometimes, though rarely, they coalesce
with each other—that they are retractile into the parent mass—
that, within a period ranging from afew minutes to a few hours,
the whole of these pseudopodia may vanish and give place to
the lobose and polymorphous pseudopodia of Amaba—and,
lastly, that the organism is stamped as a true Ame@ba by the
presence of the villous appendage, the characters of the nucleus
and contractile vesicle, and the definite differentiation into an
anterior and posterior portion—I say, admitting the accuracy
of these facts, it is impossible to regard characters based on the
figure of the pseudopodia as of distinctive value either in the
case of species or of genera, in default of other and more im-
portant structural peculiarities.

The following are the more detailed particulars of the transi-
tion in question. In the ‘ Annals’ for June last, a figure was
given of a specimen of Actinophrys under distention by a large
Pinnularia (see Annals, June, Pl. X. fig. 4)—a remark being ap-
pended to the effect that it would be difficult to distinguish this
form from an Ameba on the retraction of the pseudopodia. No
contractile vesicle was noted, but oil-globules were present
within the protoplasm of the diatom. For reasons to be given
hereafter, it is most probable that the figure is really that of an
Ameba in the state preparatory to encystation, and that the
specimen was of a similar nature to the one figured in the plate
appended to this paper (Pl. VIII. fig. 12), inasmuch as the pool
in which it occurred, like the pool in which my recent specimens
were found, was being rapidly dried up.

But by far the most striking examples of Ameba assuming
temporarily the external characters of Actinophrys were de-
tected recently. Whilst I write, they are still plentiful. They
are of small size, rarely exceeding in length ¢}pth of an inch.
Before the transition from their normal state begins, they
exhibit every character of a small-sized but fully developed
specimen of Am@ba villosa—that is to say, a distinct villous
tuft, a spherical nucleus enclosed within a hyaline zone, one or
more active contractile vesicles, crystalloids, granules, and the
usual lobose pseudopodia of the species. But from one portion
of the surface we now see projected a group of short, tapering,
pointed pseudopodia, which rarely curve, but bend freely on
their axes like the spines of Echinus, although, of course, with-
out a vestige of special structure. In short, they closely re-
semble the short ciliary appendages of Plesconia or Kerona,
without serving, as the latter do, for locomotion (Annals, April
1863, p. 290).

a

450 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

The pseudopodia, however, soon begin to extend, and finally
cover the greater portion of the surface. As they increase in
number, the power of locomotion and projection of the ordinary
pseudopodia ceases ; and ultimately the structure seems to un-
dergo a period of nearly complete quiescence, durmg which the
pseudocyclosis does not continue, and the alternating action of
the contractile vesicle is very slowly carried on without removal
from the villous region. (See Plate VIII. fig. 11.)

Lastly, after varying periods, these Actinophryan pseudopodia
are, one by one, retracted into the substance of the body; loco-
motion recommences in the usual manner, and with it the pseudo-
cyclosis; and we have again presented to us the entire cha-
racteristics of Ameba villosa.

Whether the transition between Ameba and Actinophrys is
ever of a permanent nature there are no means of determining
in the present state of our knowledge. But, although unable
to perceive any valid ground for doubting its possibility, I would
observe that the line of demarcation between the two genera is
sufficiently marked to render it available for purposes of classi-
fication. In short, whilst the shape, dimension, and number of
the pseudopodial processes appears to be determined, in a great
measure, by accidental and varying conditions of the medium by
which they are surrounded, their physiological characters remain
nearly unaltered.

The prehensile faculty in Ameba and Actinophrys is very dif-
ferently brought about in the two genera. In Actinophrys it is
similar in kind, but far superior in extent, to that present in the
Foraminifera and Polycystina, and is principally dependent on
the adhesive viscidity of the ectosare. In Ameba, the ectosare
possesses little or no adhesive power, except in the villous region,
and an object is held or dragged towards the body simply by
being encircled and then subject to the contractile action of the
sarcode. Hence it is evident that the ectosare of the villous
appendage of Amaba, in which a powerful prehensile power
resides, is not differentiated to the same degree as that of the
rest of the surface. This fact, which analogy would lead us to
expect (since it is only at the villous region that the contractile
vesicle discharges itself, and effete matters are extruded), is
strengthened by the near approach in character of the villi them-
selves to the ciliary legs of Plasconia and Kerona, masmuch as
the latter organs are the only portions of these creatures in which
the tendency to sudden solution of continuity is observable.

It is deserving of special notice, moreover, that the facility
with which coalescence takes place between the pseudopodia, and
the adhesive faculty of the ectosarc, are such mutually dependent
conditions as to be inseparable. In Lieberkuhnia, the Forami-

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 451

nifera, and the Polycystina these characters are at a maximum ;
in Ameba they are at a minimum, and consequently denote the
closeness of the relation existing between the degree of differentia-
tion, as thus manifested, and the presence or absence of a nucleus
and contractile vesicle.

The higher the degree of differentiation, or, in other words,
the higher the grade of the organism, the more completely does
amcebasis take place in it. In Ameba, which occupies the
highest position amongst the true Rhizopods, the distinction
between the external and internal portions of the sarecode-sub-
stance is at a maximum, and hence there exists an opposite
condition to that present amongst the Herpnemata or lowest
order (see ‘ Annals’ for June, p. 439), and we meet with the
smallest amount of inclination to coalescence and the least de-
gree of adhesive viscidity of the ectosare.

Lastly. And equally deserving of notice is the fact that the
lower the degree of: differentiation of the sarcode-substance, the
more distinctly is the pseudocyclosis of granules observable, and
the more completely does it approach and even involve the im-
mediate surface of the pseudopodia—being dependent, as already
shown by me (Annals, November, p. 332), not on a vital ten-
dency to circulate inherent in the protoplasm or its granules,
but on the inherent contractile power of sarcode, by means of
which a constant interchange takes place between the interior
mass and the external layer, and an equable distribution of
nutritive material is secured in the bodies of the most rudiment-
ary and testaceous types. When it is borne in mind that in
none of the families of Rhizopods is the circulation uninterrupted,
but that it not only continually varies in rate, but very frequently
ceases altogether for a time, it will, I think, be allowed that
any analogy between the phenomena and a special circulatory
force is altogether discountenanced ; whilst we further discern
that the stoppage of a circulating granule, its occasional transfer
from one pseudopodium to another, and its subsequent advance
or retrogression towards the parent body (on which so much
stress has been laid by those who advocate the operation of a
special and true cyclosis) are ordinary mechanical results de-
pending, in the first place, on the coalescence of adjoining pseu-
dopodia, and, in the second, on slight inequalities in the rates
at which the efferent and refluent streams of protoplasm are
moving (see Annals, November 18638, p. 332)—the granule
being, of course, borne along by the pseudopodium in which
that rate is the greatest, without any reference to its direction.

Without embarking in a vain attempt to determine whether
the actions of the Rhizopods are dictated by mstinct or are to be
regarded merely as the outward manifestations of a natural law

452 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

impelling the animal organism to sustain existence and repro-
duce its kind, as it does the vegetable, I beg to direct attention
to some singular facts, which throw light on the subject at the
same time that they serve the more practical purpose of denoting
the true characters of the phenomena to which they relate—pre-
mising that it will be a fitting period to discuss the question
of instinct when we shall have become sufficiently acquainted
with these lower forms to state, with any approach to accuracy,
the relations and limits of those vital and physical forces whereby
their functions are governed.

Both Ameba and Actinophrys, undoubtedly possess discrimi-
native power in the selection of their food; that is to say, they
do not incept every particle that happens to come in their way,
organic and inorganic alike, but, generally speaking, only such
substances as are best fitted for their nourishment, whilst they
reject those that are not so fitted. It is true that morganic objects
are frequently present in the body of Ameba, which there is
reason to believe have gained ingress accidentally. But, in most
cases, the minute size of these objects, as compared with the
organic food-particles associated with them, testifies to their
having been admitted along with the latter, and not in lieu of
them, or to their having been forced into the interior of the
plastic mass of the creature whilst moving, as it constantly does,
amongst organic and inorganic débris. The discriminative faculty,
however, is exemplified in the most remarkable manner when
one Ameba comes in contact with another, or with an Actino-
phrys.

Amongst the numerous instances in which I have seen Amebe
come into contact with each other—whether in the course of
their own movements or through any manipulatory effort on my
part—it has not been my lot to witness the coalescence or fusion
of two individuals, which has been regarded by some observers
as a “zygotic” or reproductive process. On the contrary, such
individuals, after remaining for a time in contact, have in-
variably “sheered off” from each other, under circumstances
which proved that they were not inconvenienced by the restraint
to which they were subject. In like manner, I have never seen
the re-amalgamation of two or more portions of a divided Ameba. °
This is the more remarkable, since this phenomenon unquestion-
ably takes place in Actinophrys ; for, although the more viscid
and adhesive quality of the ectosare of the latter genus may, to
some extent, account for the apparent anomaly, it can hardly be
accepted as a satisfactory explanation of it.

In Actinophrys, the coalescence of two individuals, which is
by no means of rare occurrence, has been repeatedly watched by
me from beginning to end ; and, with a view to ascertain whether

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 453

the process was followed by any modification in the appearance
of the sarcode-substance generally or the nucleus, specimens in
which fusion had taken place, and which, owing to their very
large size and hyaline nature, were admirably adapted for ex-
hibiting any change, were kept carefully isolated in shallow glass
cells for several days. In these examples, however, there was
no other change observable than the increase in bulk, which
dated, of course, from the time that fusion was complete.

Those who have watched the behaviour of Actinophrys when
in search of food, are aware with what stolid but unfailing
energy it frequently drags into its interior organisms not only
superior to it in type, but in activity of movement. Yet, withal,
it succumbs to Amwba. It is possible that the more rapid loco-
motive power of Ameba may serve in some degree to give it the
mastery; but, on the other hand, there is evidently some other
obstacle to an Ameba becoming a prey to Actinophrys, masmuch
as the largest specimens of the latter generally decline all contest
with Amebe, even when sufficiently small to ensure their de-
struction were it a mere question of strength. When, by accident,
the two organisms come into collision, the Ameba seems to be
forthwith aroused to an unwonted degree of activity, and an
effort is made by it to envelope the Actinophrys with the folds of
its pseudopodia. Failing, however, in the attempt to secure the
entire mass, the Ame@ba now employs its pseudopodia in tearing
out portions of its adversary ; and these are in due course con-
signed to vacuolar cavities. On one occasion I saw nearly half
of a large Actinophrys transferred piecemeal, after this fashion,
into the interior of its captor—the several fragments torn out
(not simultaneously, but by a series of consecutive efforts) be-
coming rapidly absorbed under the digestive action to which they
were immediately subjected (see Pl. VIII. fig. 18). In so far,
therefore, as it is legitimate to draw conclusions from appearances
and the behaviour of the organisms in question, instead of con-
firming the opinion as to their betokening a reproductive act,
they tend rather to show that, between the so-called zygosis of
two specimens of Actinophrys and the inception of an Actino-
phrys by an Ameba, there is but this difference—that in the one
case the act is akin to cannibalism, whereas in the other it is
not so.

In tracing the development of the young Ameda, either from
the free sarcoblasts or large mulberry-shaped masses that re-
semble acapsular nuclei, the different steps are essentially
similar. They would seem, in the first place, to be associated
with an increase of the more fluid hyaline protoplasm within
which the granules of these bodies are suspended, and which may
increase to any extent without any alteration taking place in its

454 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

initial character. The sarcoblast and mulberry-mass alike have
no capsular investiture, but are supported by the layer of ecto-
sare into which the surface of the protoplasm is differentiated.
But, prior to the first stage of development about to be described,
amcebasis does not take place ; that is to say, the outer layer is
consolidated by mere contact with the medium around, but the
reciprocal interchange between it and the endosare has not as
yet received its first impulse. This impulse consists in the evo-
lution of one or more contractile vesicles, which make their
appearance in the interior, but whether at any definite point
I am unable to determine. At first extremely minute, the con-
tractile vesicles gradually increase in size, causing the entire
body to enlarge materially, but without as yet impairing its
perfectly globular figure (Pl. VIII. figs. 1 to 3,6 &7). In
some cases two or even three of these vesicles appear; but, as
the increase in the protoplasmic substance is uninfluenced by
that of the vesicles, it frequently happens that the latter con-
stitute as much as four-fifths or five-sixths of the contents of
the spherule. It is during this distention that the minute nu-
cleus, previously absent or obscured by the closely compacted
nature of the granules in the sarcoblast or mulberry-mass, may
be seen. Of course, up to this point the young Ameba is mo-
tionless, and without the faintest trace of internal circulation,
except in so far as the gradual distention of the contractile
vesicles causes the granules of the protoplasm to shift their
positions. In short, the organism consists essentially of a qui-
escent spherical globule of sarcode containing granules, a con-
tractile vesicle, and a nucleus.

The second and most important stage now commences. The
tension to which the ectosarce is subjected by the endosmotic en-
largement of the contractile vesicle, causes it to yield at a certain
point ; the spherical outline is at once destroyed by the projecting
portion of the vesicle (Pl. VIII. fig.4). The latter bursts, for
the first time, through the ectosare, leaving behind a minute mam-
milliform projection which constitutes the first rudiment of the
villous appendage*. Should more than one contractile vesicle be
present, it is invariably urged, by the contractile effort now made,
towards the same point to discharge itself; and from this time
the discharge occurs only in this region. But polymorphism
has now set in. The little machine has been put m motion,

* Inthe ‘ Annals’ for June (Plate X. fig. 8), I figured a minute spherical
Ameba—one of the few I had then seen, and regarded by me as a “ gem-
mule.” I had not witnessed the detachment of these from the parent
mass. This specimen exhibits a “ mammilliform process”’ at one portion
of its periphery, which was evidently the site of discharge of the contrac-
tile vesicle, although not recognized by me as being of this nature.

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 455

as it were, by the artificial impulse received on the discharge
of the contractile vesicle ; pseudopodia are projected and with-
drawn, and, as a necessary consequence of these movements,
pseudocyclosis goes on; food-particles are imcepted, effete
matter extruded at the point of /east resistance—namely, in the
midst of the villous organ ; and, following as a natural result
from these combined changes and the more subtle actions they
involve within the body, the phenomena of ameebasis are esta-
blished (see Plate VIII. figs. 4 & 5).

Although it would appear, at the first glance, that the villous
appendage constitutes the most highly differentiated portion
of the Ameeban structure, since the contractile vesicle in-
variably discharges, and all effete objects are extruded, in its
midst, the reverse is probably the case, inasmuch as, the con-
tinuity of the endosarc in this region being constantly disturbed
by the causes just named, time is not allowed it to attain the
same degree of consolidation that is attaimed by the rest of the
surface. It must be borne in mind that the coalescence of the
pseudopodia is rare in dmeba. Indeed it hardly ever takes place
except under an effort to envelope some living object, or when
the surface is broken, and a portion of the ectosare driven back
along with it into the interior of the body*, by the admission of
some large food-particle.

But inasmuch as inception of food is only an occasional act,
the disturbance of the ectosarc, which is its necessary conse-
quence, must also be occasional. On the other hand, the con-
tractile vesicle is constantly discharging itself at a single spot,
namely, in the midst of the villous appendage ; and it is here that
the effete residue of every object incepted, either for food or by
accident, is extruded. Moreover, whilst the inception of a food-
particle can very rarely take place twice consecutively at the
same spot, every act of extrusion does so; and this being the
case, it is easy to perceive why the consolidation of the external
layer of sarcode (ectosarc), being the result of contact with
water, and dependent in degree on the period of exposure, should
be greater in every other part of the body than in the villous
region.

Again, it thus becomes easy to understand why the contractile
vesicle discharges itself, and effete matters are extruded, in the
villous region. It has been shown that the circulation of the
contents of the sarcode-body is not a special vital act, but due
to its polymorphism. Now contractility is the inherent property

* On two occasions I have seen a full-grown Arcella so incepted, not
through an aperture extemporized, but evidently in the same way that a
small object, if pressed against an inflated caoutchouc capsule, would push
before it a portion of the wall.

456 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

of sarcode, but not till it has become consolidated to a certain
extent ; and this consolidation does not take place within the
substance, but only at the surface. If we take the example of
an ordinary contractile substance, the process is to all intents the
same. Thus caoutchouc, when oozing from the parent tree, is
not contractile, but a semifluid adhesive mass. So is the
sarcode of the interior of an Ameba. But as soon as the action
of the atmosphere causes coagulation or consolidation of the
caoutchouc tears, the innate contractility becomes at once
manifest. A precisely similar effect is produced by the contact
between the endosare and water.

. It is quite evident that in the case of caoutchouc, the con-
solidation once produced, there is no return to the previous
condition. Why? simply because its vitality ceased with its
extrusion. But even here the analogy is not altogether de-
stroyed; for the contractility of the caoutchouc may be materially
diminished by heat, and it may again become an adhesive
semifluid mass, capable of permanently assuming any figure.
Yet, on reduction of the temperature, again consolidation takes
place, and with it the mass resumes its elasticity. So that,
assuming sarcode to be endowed with vitality—a fact, I presume,
not admitting of denial—and also that it is contractile, we have
not only all the conditions that place the phenomena observed
in the light of simple cause and effect, but it appears to me
obviously impossible to account for them in any other rational
way.

In the ‘ Annals’ for June (p. 451) a cursory allusion was made
to two varieties of the common Difflugia proteiformis, which were
present in the Hampstead pools. These varieties afforded good
illustrations of the tendency of the test to undergo considerable
modifications in shape and likewise in the disposition of the
extraneously derived materials of which it is for the most part
built up. It was stated that whereas the basal substance, with
which the sandy particles commonly present in the test are
cemented together, is secreted by, or, to speak more correctly, is
an exudation from, the animal, examples are frequently met with
in which there is no readily appreciable intermixture of mineral
particles, and the entire test would seem to be composed of
almost colourless pellets, differing only from those seen in the
tubes of Melicerta in their shape and freedom from colouring
matters. These pellets are minute cylinders having rounded
ends. They are occasionally straight, occasionally more or less
curved, and vary in length from =,)5th to s))ppth of an inch,
whilst their diameter varies from spp oth to +4 th of an inch.
They are distributed over the surface in a single layer, the larger
and smaller pellets being made to fit to each other. Some

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 457

specimens, however, are built up partly of these pellets and
partly of sandy particles combined; whilst others appear to
have one portion of the test built entirely of pellets and the
other entirely of sandy particles. But the polariscope enables
us to perceive that in nearly every specimen the basal layer of
chitinous matter is strengthened by delicate films of mica, and
that the external wall, whether formed of coarse sandy particles
or pellets, is superimposed upon it. This structure of the test is
to be traced in the curious variety of Difflugia proteiformis alluded
to by me in the ‘ Annals’ for June (p. 451, pl. 10. fig. 12) as bemg
remarkable on account of the development of a septum between
the main cavity of the test and its broad tubular neck, which
causes it to resemble the two earliest chambers of the shell in
Miliola. But one and all of these modifications, as before stated,
are manifestly confined to the test, and in no appreciable manner
associated with equivalent differences in the animal mass.

During the past summer and autumn, the same forms have
been met with by me very generally in bogey pools—merging,
on the one hand, into the “ pyriform ” variety, both with and
without the little apical appendage of the test, and, on the
other, passing into the equally common subglobular variety.

I have now to notice two still more aberrant forms recently
obtained from the Hampstead pools. Of the first of these, only
a single specimen has as yet presented itself from that locality.
I had previously, however, met with one or two nearly similar
specimens in a boggy streamlet on the west coast of Greenland*.
Owing to the extraordinary transparency of the Hampstead
specimen, which was still alive when examined under the micro-
scope, it afforded a good opportunity for the detection of any
novel characters within the sarcode-mass, had these existed.
The pseudopodia were finely granular, free from incepted matters,
and more or less cylindrical and lobose as in the ordinary
Difflugie ; the sarcode-substance charged with variously coloured
food-particles ; the nucleus spherical, apparently homogeneous
throughout, and sustained in the usual hyaline cavity towards
the fundus of the test; whilst the contractile vesicle was single,
and, although partaking in the movements within the test
dependent on the protrusion and retraction of the pseudopodial
processes, returned to discharge itself, as in Amaba, at the
posterior portion of the body. So that the characters are iden-
tical with those of Difflugia proteiformis, although, owing to the
irregular structure of the test in that species, they are observable
with much greater difficulty, and hardly ever simultaneously as
in the present example.

* A figure of the Greenland Difflugia may be seen on reference to Part I,
of ‘The North Atlantic Sea-bed’ (pl. 4. fig. 17).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xi. 30

458 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

It is in the configuration of the test, however, that the most
striking peculiarity occurs. In figure it is like that of the pyri-
form variety of D. proteiformis; but, instead of being built up
of irregular mineral particles, so as to present a rugged outline
exteriorly, it was entirely composed of hyaline rectangular plates,
arranged with the greatest regularity in consecutive transverse
and longitudinal series—the smaller plates being disposed at the
two extremities, whilst the larger ones occupied the central and
widest portion of the structure. This specimen is represented,
in its mounted state, in the plate appended to this paper (fig. 16),
under the name of D. proteiformis, var. symmetrica.

Of the chemical composition of these remarkable rectangular
plates I am as yet unable to give any definite account. But
there is some reason to believe they are crystalline and siliceous
in their nature,—in the first place, from the perfectness of the
angles and their resisting the effects of the heat to which the
specimen was subjected during mounting in balsam ; and in the
second, from their exhibiting no coloration when seen with the
aid of the polariscope.

The second aberrant form, however, involves not the test, but
the animal inhabiting it, at least so far as the preponderance of
evidence goes, and is in fact but an example of the transition,
in a testaceous Rhizopod (namely, Diffugia proteiformis, var.
acuminata), of the typically lobose pseudopodia into those of an
Euglypha or Gromia*,

In the specimen under notice, the large and coarse sandy
particles entering into the formation of the test completely pre-
cluded observation of the characters of the soft parts within.
But it is almost unnecessary to point out that, whatever these
may have been, if betokening a Gromia, the test must be re-
garded as abnormal; if a Difflugia, the pseudopodia must be so.

It is well known that the dmebe are generally to be found in
shallow pools or streamlets, more or less charged with disinte-
grating organic matter, and liable to stagnate, or to become
altogether dried up, by periodical failure of the water-supply. I
say, charged more or less with organic matter undergoing disin-
tegration, because it is an error to suppose that the Amebe, or
indeed any of the Rhizopods, are able to continue existence long
in water which has parted with its oxygen to the extent of be-

* I may repeat in this place the statement made in a former com-
munication (Annals, August, p. 123), that I had detected a distinct
nucleus in Gromia oviformis, and at a later period, but only once, an
equally distinct contractile vesicle. But, until further opportunities pre-
sent themselves of determining whether or not these organs occur uni-
versally amongst all the members of the genus, I would reserve my final
opinion on the subject.

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 459

coming putrescent. The decadence of every Rhizopod dates
from the commencement of this process; and there seems reason
to believe that the putrescence of the medium in which they
live is the only condition against which nature has furnished
them with no safeguard—in short, that the entire extermination
of the brood takes place whenever such putrescence has become
fairly established.

Some of the aspects under which the Amebe resist partial,
if not complete, desiccation have already been noticed. The
following additional example, however, has a twofold interest ;
for, on the one hand, it illustrates the nature of the relation
between the animal and the state of the medium by which it is
surrounded, and, on the other, serves to explain what has long
been regarded by myself, and probably by many other observers,
as a very anomalous occasional condition of the Diatomacez.

Some Diatoms would seem to be endowed with an increased
motile power, to assume a deeper colour from the inordinate
thickening of the endochrome-layer, and to generate an undue
quantity of oily matter, as soon as the water sustaining them
begins to be putrescent. Their healthy growth and multiplica-
tion are inseparably associated with an abundant supply of
oxygen and light. In common with the rest of the lower Alge,
they are frequently to be found in.the same localities as the
Ameeban Rhizopods; and, like the latter, they are provided
with special means for resisting the extinction of their kind to
which they are consequently liable. But at a certain point,
although by no means so readily as the Rhizopods, they suc-
cumb in like manner to the action of putrescence ; and it seems
probable that the increased motile power and accumulation of
endochrome referred to are evidences of an expiring effort to
tide-over this condition, should it prove of a transitory nature.

Some species certainly resist decomposition more successfully
than others; but there is no ground for supposing that this
increase of power signifies anything more than habituation
to conditions to which other species, or the same species when
inhabiting localities uninfluenced by such conditions, are not
amenable. The genus Pinnularia affords a notable example of
the kind, both from the circumstance of its occurring in the same
habitats as the Amceban Rhizopods, and from its being frequently
of a size to render it admirably fitted for observation.

The appearances about to be described have been seen by me,
not only in this country, but in the tropics and sub-Arctic
regions, always, however, in streamlets and pools such as those
referred to, and in connexion with Naviculoid Diatoms, as for
example, Pinnularia, Epithemia, Navicula, Stauroneis, and more
recently NMitzschia; so that they are byno meansuncommon. I

30*

460 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

allude to the enclosure of one or more of these Diatoms within
a distinct capsule, which it has been customary to regard as indi-
cative of encystation, connected either with the production of its
sporangium or with some heretofore unrecognized reproductive
process.

The frustules, when simply surrounded by this capsule, and
nearly altogether deprived of their soft and coloured contents,
could hardly convey any other impression than that they are
undergoing one or other of these processes; for there are no
characters discernible in the capsular investiture whereby its real
source and function could be determined. And, coupling the
undoubted faculty possessed by the Diatomacez, of occasionally
secreting in augmented quantity the gelatinous film by which
they are normally surrounded at all times, with the occasional
imprisonment of more than one frustule, it is only necessary to
assume that the external layer of this film becomes consolidated,
and the appearances would seem to be sufficiently accounted
for. But wherever the distinct capsular investiture is present,
for reasons now about to be adduced, such an explanation would
appear to be erroneous, and the condition described to be de-
pendent on animal, and not on vegetable, agency. In short, an
Ameba has become encysted, and not a Diatom*.

In the course of some experiments on feeding freshwater
Rhizopods by artificial means, towards the close of last month
(October) my attention was particularly drawn to this subject |
on perceiving that in some of the Hampstead material then
freshly procured, but nevertheless presenting traces of disin-
tegrative decay, a large proportion of the Amebe were distended
(as in the case of some of the specimens referred to in my paper
of April last) with frustules of Pinnularia, and that, whilst these
Amebe were rapidly ridding themselves of the rest of their ex-
traneous contents, they appeared to select and retain those frus-
tules which were most copiously charged with endochrome and
oil-globules, and to be gradually assuming a consolidated invest-
ing layer.

The artificial food employed consisted of weak solutions of
gum and gelatine. Deeming it possible, however, that the
intermixture of these substances with the water containing the
Amebe might have something to do with the encysting process

* In speaking of the solitary example of an encysted Amwba recognized
by me at the time my observations contained in the ‘ Annals’ for May
(p. 368) were written, I was unaware that Schneider had pointed out the
occurrence of a “resting-stage”’ in the history of Ameba. This writer
distinctly refers to the formation of a membranous sac, although he failed
to trace the encysting process beyond this pomt. My observations on this
head, in the last Number of the ‘ Annals’ (p. 334), ought, therefore, to be
regarded as supplementary to and confirmatory of his.

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 461

and the singular features the specimens assumed, a fresh supply
was obtained from the same locality. ‘This was retained in its
natural state, and on examination was found to contain specimens
in every respect similar to those described as occurring in the
mixed material. The encysting process was thus shown to be
in no way dependent on conditions artificially produced, but to
be the result of an effort on the part of the creature to furnish
itself with nutritive matter during the development of the sarco-
blasts into which the sarcode-mass is destined, under these cir-
cumstances, to resolve itself*.

The first step, as already stated, consisted in the extrusion of
all foreign particles besides the diatom-frustules—the vacuolar
cavities in which the latter were enclosed being, for a time, dis-
tinctly visible and often of great size (see Pl. VIII. figs. 12 & 138),
but gradually disappearing as their fluid contents became
absorbed. Finally, all trace of pseudopodia, nucleus, contractile
vesicle and villous organ vanished; all motion to and fro, and
the pseudocyclosis dependent on it, ceased; and the diatoms
seemed to be merely surrounded by a layer of coarsely granular
but otherwise homogeneous sarcode, the outline of which was
preserved by a distinct capsular wall, whilst its shape was
dependent on the disposition and number of the enclosed
frustules.

It may be remembered that (in the ‘ Annals’ for June, p. 435)
it was stated that the bodies to which | had given the name of
sarcoblasts, and described as being “ distinctly granular, nearly
homogeneous throughout, and devoid of cell-wall,” in all proba-
bility “perform some important part in the process of repro-
duction, and are identical in all save colour with those of the
Foraminifera, Polycystina, Thalassicollidz, and some other pelagic
families ;”” whilst in a still more recent paper (‘ Annals,’ August,

. 125) I mentioned that “ in the earliest recognizable condition in
which I had found the Polycystina and Acanthometrina occurring
as independent free-floating organisms, their rudimentary shell
or framework had invariably been enveloped in bodies precisely
resembling the sarcoblasts of the mature forms,” and that to
this extent their share in the reproductive process had been
traced out.

The views then expressed receive the most complete verifica-
tion from what takes place in these Amebe. The movements both

* It is worthy of record that no organisms but Diatoms have been found
by me in these Ameba-cysts, notwithstanding the circumstance that, when
decomposition was commencing in the pools, many of the lower vegetable
forms, such as Closterium, Volvox, Gonium, and the host of minute phyto-
spores that have so erroneously been regarded as mature Desmidiacee
were in profusion.

462 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

within and without their bodies, although energetic when the
encystation commenced, are succeeded by a state of complete
quiescence afterwards. But, even at this stage, clear proof of
vitality is afforded by the gradual segregation of the granular
particles into masses, which ultimately become spherical and
apparently identical with the sarcoblasts (Pl. VIII. fig. 14). Of
course, if identical, my view as to these bodies being formed from
the granular particles of the endosarc generally, rather than from
the repetitive subdivision of the nucleus and its capsule, receives
confirmation*, But, under any circumstances, it is now manifest
that the sarcoblasts are true reproductive bodies, inasmuch as,
although I have not hitherto detected the passage of a sarco-
blast into a young Ameba whilst yet within the Ameba-cyst
above referred to, or within the frustule of the diatom (where
the sarcoblasts also occur under certain conditions to be detailed
immediately), I have traced the development of the young
Ameba from bodies identical with them in appearance, and
occurring in a free state in the same medium and at the same
time.

But to return to the history of the sarcoblasts whilst yet
within the Ameba-cyst. When fairly formed, only a few
isolated granules are to be seen associated with them—the
endochrome of the diatom having become shrivelled and
discoloured, and nothing remaining to indicate the true origin
or office of the capsule.

The most remarkable feature, however, has yet to be noticed.
The Ameba occasionally seems to obtain an entrance into the
interior of the diatom-frustule, either during or after the ap-
propriation of its contents—but probably after, for reasons which
will presently appear. As already stated, sarcoblasts are occa-
sionally to be met with within the frustular cavity. When this
happens, ingress has not been effected through any normal
apertures that exist in the structure, but through the partial de-
hiscence of the two valves at one extremity; whilst the de-
hiscence is, in all probability, connected with the presence of the
Ameba to this extent only, that on the protoplasmic substance
being abstracted which serves as a support for the valves and
connecting zones, these fall asunder, and an opening is thus
established (Pl. VIII. fig. 15).

The greatest number of sarcoblasts seen by me within an
Ameba-cyst was eight ; but generally it did not exceed half that

* It is possible that the granules entering into the formation of the
nucleus, and which are undistinguishable, when isolated, from those of the
sarcoblasts, under any circumstances may have become diffused through the
endosare generally. Hence my view as to the mode of formation of the
sarcoblasts and their non-investiture by a capsule receives corroboration.

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 463

number ; whilst within the frustule I have not seen more than
four.

In directing attention to these facts, I would lay great stress
on their bearmg upon the question as to whether true Amebe
are ever developed within the cells of the confervoid Algz.
For, although I have hitherto failed to trace the passage of the
sarcoblasts into a young Ameba whilst yet within the interior
of the diatom-frustule, it is evident that if the granular bodies,
within and without the frustule, are identical in origin (and
I see no reason for questioning it), the actual witnessing
of the process is a mere matter of time and patience ; and it
must be obvious that, in the absence of a previous knowledge of
the origin of the intrafrustular Amebe, the great error would
in all likelihood be perpetrated of regarding them as having
been generated from the gonidia of the Protophyte, instead of
from the sarcoblast of the Rhizopod.

It is necessary to mention that the mere occurrence of a few
more or less colourless granular corpuscles within a capsular
cavity affords no evidence either as to their origin or their nature.
Such bodies are produced both in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, and may constantly be detected within the effete
tests or skins of Infusoria, Rotifera, Entomostraca, and confer-
void Algz. In most cases, their presence is purely accidental, or
at all events unconnected with the reproduction of the organism
within whose test or cell-wall they are found. So that the
establishment of the fact I have just recorded teaches us how
great a degree of caution is requisite before we pronounce vege-
table products, found within the bodies of the lower forms of
animal life, to have been evolved there; whilst, on the other
hand, it exemplifies how subtle are the means whereby animal
germs may find their way into, and hence simulate, vegetable
products. :

Here then we have presented one phase, at least, of the en-
cystation of Ameba, from its commencement to its completion.
The supplementary phenomena—namely, those dating from the
partial desiccation of the granular bodies now formed, to the
period at which they become developed into young Ameba,
have been traced in my last paper on the subject (Annals,
Nov. 1863). In interpreting the appearances, I have only to
add that the abundance of the specimens, and the successive
stages of the process observed, render it tolerably certain, on
the one hand, that the protoplasm of the diatom furnishes nu-
tritive material to the Rhizopod during the period of quiescence
attendant on its encystation ; on the other hand, that the occa-
sional enclosure of frustules belonging to distinct genera—as,
for example, a Pinnularia with a Stauroneis or a Navicula—

464 Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

renders it certain that the presence of the diatoms is in no
manner connected with their encystation or reproductive pro-
cesses.

Assuming then, as I believe there is every reason for doing,
that the Amceban Rhizopods are hermaphrodite, but leaving
for future and much more extended research the determi-
nation of the male and female elements, with the precise method
in which the impregnation of the latter is effected, I think we
are fully warranted in recognizing the operation of no less
than three apparently distinct modes in which a new brood
may be developed, and in regarding this singular feature in
their history as a provision for the perpetuation of the species,
without reference to the stage of development at which the
parent may have arrived when it happens to be destroyed.

The following are the three modes of reproduction in ques-
tion :—

I. By extrusion from the body of the parent of a minute indi-
vidual already perfect as regards the essential characters of the
species.

II. By development, singly, from one of the sarcoblasts, or
acapsular nuclear masses, which are formed within the body of
the parent either prior to or during the process of encysta-
tion.

III. By development, singly, from each of the granules of
the acapsular nuclear masses, on the disruption of the latter.

Whilst the multiplication of the individual, or, to speak more
correctly, the vegetative repetition of the species, may be brought
about,

I. By the disruption of the parent body into two or more
parts, each capable of maintaining an independent existence.

II. By gemmation, or the evolution, from some portion of the
surface of the parent, of a “ gemmule,” destined ultimately to
assume the characters of the species. This last process I am
unable to vouch for on my own authority, except as regards
Actinophrys.

Assuming, then, that the evidence adduced throughout the
previous and present communication establishes the fact that the
differentiation into ectosare and endosare is of the kind indi-
cated—that is to say, a process involving the increased consolida-
tion of the external layer by the operation of physical agencies
on living sarcode, whilst the reconversion of this external layer,
and the constant interchange taking place between it and the
more fluid mass within, coupled with its mherent contractility
and extensibility, are the essential attributes of this substance—
is it possible to account for the appearances attending the incep-
tion and extrusion of foreign matter, the formation of vacuolar

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 465

cavities, the multiplication of the contractile vesicles, their divi-
sion, reunion, circulation through the body, and invariable
discharge in the midst of a definite and very limited area,
under these circumstances? The answer of those best able to
Judge will, I hope and believe, be in the affirmative. At the
same time I am fully prepared to encounter the opposition to
my views regarding the nature and properties of sarcode which
is inseparable from preconceived notions handed down from
writer to writer, as it were traditionally, and by many persons
accepted without question, in defiance of their inexplicable cha-
racter * ; for it is but requisite to look attentively into the state-
ments that have been put forward on the subject, to discern that
they involve agencies and effects not only exceptional as regards
the lower forms of animal life, but exceptional as regards the
known laws of matter, whether organic or inorganic+. On the
other hand, I again submit that the explanation here offered is
not a bare hypothesis, the accuracy or fallacy of which there are
no means of testing, but one following legitimately on the re-
cognition of causes that contravene no established laws, and are
reconcilable with the phenomena observed in the particular
class of structures it has been my endeavour to describe.

Note.—It is necessary to state that, whilst the figures ap-
pended to the present and previous papers are copies of sketches
taken, by the side of the microscope, during actual observations
(and I guarantee them to be as accurate as it is possible to make
figures that represent living and moving microscopic structures),
the facts recorded are the result of examinations occupying
from four to seven hours daily, and continued for a period of
eight months. I mention this solely for the information of
those who are not well versed in tracing out the physiological
phenomena of organisms that reveal their workings so capri-
ciously as the Rhizopods. But although the first detection of
such phenomena: could hardly accrue without this labour, their
re-detection may be secured much more readily. No expenditure
of time, however, devoted to the exploration of a field so rich,
and so fitted to assist us in arriving at a better knowledge of
the higher forms of life, can be too great.

Kensington, November 20, 1863.

* One of the most distinguished of the Continental writers on micro-
scopical anatomy (Kdlliker) does not hesitate to declare that the method
in which Actinophrys incepts and rejects food is “ almost a miracle.”

+ The most singular feature in the discussion on the properties of
sarcode is, that those observers who insist most strongly on a definite and
permanent membranous ectosarc in Amebe fmd no difficulty in reconciling
its existence with the constant lesions it must of necessity be subject to
through the above-mentioned inceptions and rejections

466 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Distinctive Characters, Habits,

Postscript.

The experiment about to be recorded was brought to a close
after the preceding pages were sent to press.

On the 27th of last month, a small quantity of the confervoid
material, which had previously been kept in water for several
weeks, and contained living Amebe in abundance, was placed on
a plate of glass, covered by a bell-glass, and permitted to dry
within doors by evaporation. On the 29th ult. all trace of
moisture had vanished, the mass forming a dark-coloured har-
dened film, which it was difficult to remove. On the 18th of
the present month—that is to say, after having been subject to
complete desiccation for twenty-one days—the plate of glass
was placed in a saucer and covered to the depth of half an inch
with distilled water. It remained in this till last evening, when,
on examination under the microscope, the confervoid substance
was found to contain numerous minute Amebe just evolved from
sarcoblasts and becoming polymorphous. All the mature forms
were killed, not only of Ameba, but of the Nitzschia associated
with them. On the other hand, the sarcoblasts were nume-
rous. Hence the fact, that the latter are able to undergo
perfect and long-continued desiccation without destruction of
their vitality, is conclusively established.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

The letters ¢ and m respectively denote the contractile vesicle and nucleus in
all the figures in which these organs are present.

Figs. 1 to 5 represent successive stages in the development of the young
Ameba from a free sarcoblast.

Fig. |. First stage, which dates from the evolution of the contractile vesi-
cle c. The nucleus, if present at this period, is wholly obscured
within the granular sarcoblast.

Fig. 2. Second stage, in which the sarcoblast has become considerably en-
larged, chiefly through the dilation of the contractile vesicle, c.
The nucleus, 7, is now distinctly visible. Diameter of sarcoblast
about 755th of an inch; of nuclear mass about 5,),;th of an
inch.

Fig. 3. Sarcoblast further enlarged, a second contractile vesicle, ce’, add-
ing greatly to its distention.

Fig. 4. Third stage. This marks the transition from the sarcoblast to the
Amceban form. The spherical outline is now lost, owing to in-
ordinate distention ; and the primary contractile vesicle, c, per-
forms its discharge for the first time.

Fig. 5. Fourth stage. Polymorphism has now commenced, and the villous
appendage becomes rapidly formed by the repeated discharges of
the contractile vesicles. Longest diameter of specimen about
zisth of an inch.

Fig. 6. The first stage in the development of the young Ame@ba from a free
acapsular nucleus ; contractile vesicle, c, just showing itself as
in fig.1. Diameter of mass z>455th of an inch. No nuclear body

and Reproductive Phenomena of the Ameban Rhizopods. 467

visible within the body. Average diameter of component gra-
nules 4s2scth of an inch.

Fig. 7. The same specimen as seen after the completion of the fourth stage

of its development. The character of the acapsular nucleus is now
entirely lost, through the diffusion of its component granules
and the increase of the more hyaline protoplasm. Contractile
vesicles (c) now in constant action. A nucleus, similar in all
respects to that seen in the former specimens, is also present.
Size now variable, and dependent on form assumed for the time
being. When globular, about ;3;th of an inch.

Fig. 8. An occasional variety of the kind shown in the last figure, in which

the original acapsular nuclear mass (n) remains nearly entire, the
ordinary minute encapsuled nucleus not being hitherto observ-
able. h,a number of the large hexahedral crystalloids, vary-
ing from =;,th to z;45th of an inch in length. These ery-
stalloids, however, are not confined to the specimens exhibit-
ing the peculiar condition of the primary acapsular nucleus, but
are occasionally to be met with in the ordinary young Amebe.
Length of specimen about .3,;th of an inch.

Fig. 9. A frequent form, in which the normal condition of the nucleus is

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

shown, but the pseudopodia have temporarily assumed the taper-
ing and pointed shape.

Ameba-cyst from damp confervoid growths liable to desiccation,
shown as it appears after immersion in water. Contractile ve-
sicle (c) dilated, but unable to discharge in the usual manner.
ss, sarcoblasts ; d, an effete frustule of a diatom (Nitzschia am-
phioxys). Diameter of cyst about 535th of an inch.

Remarkable quiescent state of Ameba villosa, im which the surface
is covered with more or less rigid, short, tapermg pseudopodia of
an Actinophryan character. Length, as seen in figure, about ~1,th
of aninch. Diameter of nuclear capsule ;,';;th of an inch; of
nucleus 555th.

Figs. 12 to 15 represent successive stages in the encystation of Ameba.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.

A specimen becoming quiescent, after having incepted a large
Pinnularia and thrown off all other extraneous substances,—
the nucleus and its capsule being either absorbed, rendered
invisible amongst the granules, or entering partly mto the com-
position of the granular mass, of which the entire body now
seems to consist. Some large oil-globules are shown within the
diatom-frustule; c, minute contractile vesicles, the action of
which is almost wholly suspended.

The same form, showing the Actinophryan pseudopodia retracted,
and the margin of the body rapidly becoming smooth and
oblong.

The membranous Ameba-cyst now complete, the granular par-
ticles of which the substance of the body was composed having
become segregated into masses which take the form of sarco-
blasts.

The contents of the Ameba-cyst have now almost entirely disap-
peared, but within the dehiscent valves of the diatoms are to be
seen the sarcoblasts. This last condition is, comparatively, of
rare occurrence. The average length of the four specimens here
delineated was about ;};th of an inch.

Test of Difflugia pyriformis, var. symmetrica (Wall.), showing
symmetrical arrangement of the crystalline plates.

Group of minute Ameba, each developed from a single granule

468 Zoological Society :—

of a disrupted acapsular nucleus, and under no circumstances
ciliated. In each is to be seen a villous appendage, contractile
vesicle, and nuclear spot. Length from 3;'s5th to z7';oth of an
inch.

Fig. 18. Ameba engaged in tearing pieces out of an Actinophrys by means
of its pseudopodia. f, v, food-vacuole containing a mass so torn off.

N.B.—These figures, although originally drawn to one uniform scale, are
only uniform here as regards the relative proportions of the structure in
each example, since it became necessary to modify the size of the various
figures in order to accommodate them in a single plate. I would ayail
myself of the opportunity, however, to express my conviction that varia-
tion in the dimensions of the Rhizopods generally is so great, and so de-
pendent on purely accidental conditions—that is to say, on conditions
involving no physiological difference in the animal—that they ought to be
allowed no greater weight in an attempt at classification than the variation
in the length of a blade of grass or the height of a thistle.

Erratum in Dr. Wallich’s paper contained in the November Number
of ‘ The Annals.’

Page 335, fifteenth line from bottom, for ‘ Chilodontes”’ read
“ Chilodons.”

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Feb. 24, 1863.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., in the Chair.

On a New GENUS AND SPECIES OF LEAF-NOSED Bats IN THE
Musevuo at Fort Pitt. By Rosert F. Tomes.

In a collection of Bats preserved in spirit, and forming part of
the Museum at Fort Pitt, Chatham, which has been submitted to my
examination by Dr. Sclater, is one which constitutes a new and well-
marked genus of the Phyllostomide, or Leaf-nosed Bats of the New
World. It is more nearly allied to the genus Macrotis than to any
other; but differs from it, among other respects, in having its lance-
shaped nose-leaf developed to an enormous extent. I characterize
and name it as follows :—

LoNCHORHINA, gen. noy.

Top of the head somewhat elevated ; face depressed ; facial crests
complicated, consisting of a very long and pointed posterior leaf, in
front of which are two pits, more or less surrounded by prominent
fleshy excrescences ; lower lip with a smooth triangular space in
Jront ; ears long and broad; longest finger with four phalanges ;
wing-membrane extending to the distal extremity of the tibia, and
attached to the os calcis ; tail extending to the whole length of the
interfemoral membrane, as in the genera Macrotis and Vespertilio.

The posterior lanceolate facial leaf is in this Bat of great length,
being fully as long as the head of the animal; it is pomted, and has

Mr. R. F. Tomes on a new Bat. 469

a very distinct midrib. In front of this leaf is a deep pit, which is
divided into two by a ridge which is continuous with the central rib of
the leaf; in the bottom of the pits thus formed are the nostrils,
which are small and ovoid. The septum between them is produced
anteriorly, and developed into a prominent and trifoliate fleshy ex-
crescence, which almost conceals the pits behind; it has a central or
upright lobe, exhibiting outwardly a rounded footstalk surmounted
by a flattened top, the edge of the flattened summit being directed
upwards and having five very slightly prominent, but very distinct,
denticulations. Besides this central lobe there are two lateral ones,
which present a thin edge externally, and are continuous with each
other across the bottom of the central one. Where this horizontal
ridge runs across the central lobe, it is produced into a distinct point
or tubercle. On each side of the pits, behind the trifoliate leaf, is a
prominent, acutely conical, vertical projection about a line in length.
Below the trifoliate leaf is a transverse hollow, divided vertically by
a faintly marked septum, and below this is another transverse leaf,
forming the lower boundary of the hollow ; this leaf is but slightly
prominent, and has its ends curved upwards and terminating in two
warty excrescences contiguous to the two acute projections near the
nostrils. Below this is a flat space, constituting the upper lip.

The lower lip has a large central space of a triangular form, which
is naked, and bounded laterally by a broad, smooth, and somewhat
elevated margin ; at its inferior point is a single small wart, and in
the middle, forming the front of the lip, is an enclosed granulated
space.

P the ears are as long as the head, broad and pointed, with the
lobular parts much developed, and extending forward almost to the
corner of the mouth. Tragus more than half the length of the ear,
tapering evenly to a subacute point ; near the base, externally, is a
prominent though somewhat obtuse angle, and above this a notch,
forming another angle, more acute, but less prominent, than the
other ; above the notch there is no angle, but a rounded and slightly
prominent part, and from this to the tip the tragus tapers pretty
evenly. The auditory opening is partly surrounded (posteriorly) by
a prominent fleshy ridge of a lobular form, which will fold forward
and completely close the opening.

The longest finger is composed, as in all the Phyllostomide, of
four phalanges ; the thumb has the two phalanges of nearly equal
length. The wing-membrane extends barely to the distal extremity
of the tibia, which it crosses over, in front, and is attached to the
base of the os calcis, somewhat as in the genus Natalus.

The tail is long, but composed of only nine joints, and extends
the whole length of the interfemoral membrane, as in the genus
Vespertilio. ‘The feet are large, with the toes of equal length, and
the claws long and hooked.

The skull in its general outline bears considerable resemblance to
that of Macrotis; but the cerebral region is more elevated, and the
facial part more depressed. It is so much depressed just at the
posterior boundary of the nasal bones as to occasion a deep hollow

470 Zoological Society :—

or longitudinal pit. The nasal bones are very differently formed to
those of Macrotis, being very much arched from the fore to the
hinder part. The maxillary bones are considerably inflated between
the nasal opening and the orbits. All the facial part of the skull is
much less a than in Pp Heiki

Dentition:—Inc. +; Can. <1; Premol. ==; Mol. —=-=4=32.

The middle ee incisors are fe labok flat, 0r somewhat pointed ;
the lateral ones minute and pointed, and with a posterior lobe near
the base; the canines are rather small and acute ; the first premolar
is very small, roundish, and with two cusps, the anterior one being
the most prominent ; the second premolar is very prominent, and
has the same carnassial form which is so common in the Chiroptera.

The lower incisors are symmetrically arranged, rather small, and
flat, with their edges somewhat lobated ; the canines are slender,
straight, and with a distinct cingulum ; the first premolar is smaller
than the second, conical, acute, and with a slightly projecting poste-
rior lobe near the root ; the second premolar is rather long, angular,
and acute, with a well-marked cingulum.

The tongue is thick and short, with six well-marked, transverse,
curved ridges, which are most distinct on the front part ; and behind
these are indications of others. All the upper surface of the tongue
is clothed with fine points, which are directed backward, like those
on the tongue of the Felide.

LoncCHORHINA AURITA, 0, 8.

Nearly the whole of the face is hairy, the hair having the same
quality and colour as that of the back; the nose-leaf and fleshy ex-
crescences are naked, but a few hairs spring from the edges of the
former near the base; ears hairy behind for three-fourths of their
length ; inside they have a distinct band of hairs on the inner mar-
gin, which does not extend further than three-fourths of their length
from the base; and there is another, but smaller, band of hairs in-
side the lobular parts.

The fur of the upper parts is nearly confined to the body ; but
there is a little scattered on the humerus and the contiguous end of
the forearm. Beneath, there is a little whitish hair powdered on
the membrane near the flanks and forearms.

All the upper parts are light reddish brown, the fur nearly uni-
color; beneath similar, but duller in colour, and paler on the pubes.
Cutaneous system dark reddish brown.

“ “a

Length of the head and i ee) ROR SL) A 3
of the, tail 2.2... REL a ve\ a's, ois hieeet at eae
pithe head (01 | States us). Leaning 92
OP PHe* Garey e150 Ares ba cont clita ete 0 83%
@f the travas * . 2 <0 Be op ie RE

Breadth ofqtne eare i. oh 6) eek alse pat Olas
of the tragus, at its widest ae bale suai, 0 3

Length of the forearm........... Feat a aS

of the longest finger ............0... 3 10

Mr. R. F. Tomes on a new Bat. 471

Length of the fourth finger................0. 3 62
Gitine thumabyee nia. ce teva Sipe. te 0 4
pe Reo, ot ae ee a 0: 95
ofthe toot/and claws). .65 30.44.33 O07
Of the os calecis, about: 2. iis Ys e's. 0116
Pix pane mies... '5/c ein apt aati la lee» 13 4
Length of the nose-leaf, taken behind ........ 0 95
Total length of the skull, from front of nasal bones 0 8}
Breadth agross the orbits.:..7574 0.0, Seed 0 5
Length from the point of the middle upper incisor
to the posterior edge of the last molar ...... 0 4
Teeneth: ofthe lower jaw -.)..6 065 Ge oa eos 0 6

Hab. The bottle from which this specimen was taken contained
several West Indian species, in which the Mormops Blainvillit and
the Chilonycteris gymnonota of Wagner were conspicuous. The
latter is distinguished from other species of the genus by having the
wing-membranes springing from the middle of the back, instead of the
sides of the body; and there can be but little doubt that it is the
Pteronotus Davyi of Dr. Gray. Of course Dr. Gray’s specific name
will take precedence of that given much later by M. Wagner, and
the name of Pteronotus may be conveniently used to distinguish the
species as a subgenus of Chilonycteris. It is probable that the spe-
cimen from which I have taken the foregoing description may have
been received from the same locality as the Mormops and Pteronotus.

Obs.—Since the above was written, I have made a careful compa-
rison of the skull of this smgular Bat with that of several other
species hitherto doubtfully placed with the Phyllostomide. The.
following are the results: —The genus Schizostoma, which is rather
intimately allied to Vampyrus, bears also considerable resemblance
to the genus Macrotis in the general conformation of the cranium
and the lower jaw, and also in the very great similarity in the den-
tition. The form and size of the ears, too, in these genera are very
similar. Macrotis, again, bears in several particulars an intimate
relationship to the present genus Lonchorhina. More especially
may be mentioned the length of the tail, which extends in both ge-
nera to the whole length of the interfemoral membrane, as in the
genus Vespertilio, the considerable development of the ears, the size
and freedom of the feet, and, perhaps more than all, the general
contour of the cranium.

Pursuing the comparison, we find that Lonchorhina bears very
considerable resemblance to Chilonycteris in the form of the anterior
part of the cranium, in the number and relative size of the teeth of
both jaws, and in the form of the lower jaw. Passing on from Chi-
lonycteris to Mormops, the skull of the latter is seen to be an exag-
geration of the former, having the facial part still more depressed,
and the cerebral part still more elevated. The upper teeth in both
these genera are very similar; and those of the lower jaw do not
present any essential differences, the chief one being that in Chilo-
nycteris the middle premolar is very much smaller than the corre-
sponding one in Mormops, which, although smaller than those on

472 - Miscellaneous.

either side of it, is not minute. All the above-mentioned genera agree
with each other in the presence of a fourth joint to the longest digit
of the wing, and in fact must be said to bear considerable resemblance
to each other in most particulars, saving in the degree of development
of the tail and the existence or absence of a hastate nose-leaf. How-
ever, it may be said that those species which have not a nose-leaf re-
sembling that of the ordinary Phyllostomide have nevertheless some
cutaneous development about the face, nose, or mouth, and cannot
be properly called simple-nosed species.

There is another very singular genus, of which I have before spoken
in communications to the Society, and which I have regarded as
allied to Molossus, but I have mentioned that it possesses four pha-
langes in the longest finger. I allude to the genus Mystacina, which
has hitherto been found only in New Zealand. When preparing my
paper on the Bats of that country, I had not examined either Mor-
mops or Chilonycteris, but, on afterwards working out some West
Indian Bats, was at once struck with certain resemblances between
the latter and Mystacina. Without at present alluding to the de-
tails of structure which have induced me to arrive at this conclusion,
I take this opportunity of stating that I now regard Mystacina as
‘an aberrant form of Phyllostomide, coming after the several genera
which have been compared above, but differing more from them
than they do from each other.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Pith-Cells of Juncacee.
By Greorce Guuirver, F.R.S.

[Plate VII. figs. 13, 14.]

Tere are at least two kinds of pith-cells in Rushes. The pith
may be either an actinenchyma or an ovenchyma; and these two
forms are alone sufficient to distinguish some species, if not sections,
of the order from others.

The pith-cells are branched, like the spokes of a wheel, in Juncus
effusus, J. conglomeratus, and J. glaucus; while in J. acutifiorus,
J. squarrosus, and J. bufonius the pith-cells are more or less
rounded, commonly oval, and without any approach to the stellate
form.

These observations are from my notes of 1860, which I hoped to
have extended to more species; but, as an opportunity of doing so
has not occurred, I have lately verified the observations anew on the
plants above-named, and now give a sketch of the outlines of the cells,
in the hope of directing attention to the difference in question, which
is so remarkable, regular, and constant, that it may afford a good
and easily recognized character.

Puate VII. fig. 13. Pith-cells of Juncus effusus.
£ » fig. 14. Pith-cells of J. bufonius.

Edenbridge, Oct. 19, 1363.

Miscellaneous. 473

On the Development of the Bothriocephalus latus.
By M. Berrtouvs.

The egg of the Bothriocephalus requires for its complete develop-
ment a residence of from six to eight months in running water or
water frequently renewed. At the moment of the rupture of the
ovisac, the egg is composed of a dark brown, resistant, ovoid shell,
exactly filled with an amorphous granular mass. Within a month
this vitellus divides into cells of 0-015 millim. in diameter ; soon after-
wards a transparent spot (embryonal spot) makes,its appearance in
the centre, and is slowly developed at the expense of the vitellus, the
latter at the same time contracting, so as to leave a space between it
and the capsule.

In six months the embryonal spot has invaded the whole vitelline
mass; at this time the embryonic hooklets make their appearance,
and the embryo already manifests some movements of contraction.
Lastly, at the end of seven or eight months a sort of operculum
separates from the small extremity of the capsule, and furnishes a
passage for the embryo.

The embryo consists of two spherical bodies, one within the other.
The external body has the form of a hollow sphere 0°045-0°05 mil-
lim. in diameter ; its wall is about 0°01 millim. in thickness, formed
of large prismatic cells pressed against each other, and clothed ex-
ternally with a quantity of large vibratile flagella of extreme tenuity,
very flexible, and 0°010—0:015 millim. in length. By the impulsion
of this vibratile apparatus the whole embryonal mass swims rapidly at
the moment of its exclusion, turning upon itself; but in a few hours
the movement slackens, ceases soon afterwards, and the ciliary coat
seems to disappear.

Within this hollow sphere is another body, likewise of a spheroidal
form, moving freely in its envelope, and armed towards one of its
poles with three pairs of hooklets perfectly analogous to the six
hooklets characteristic of the embryos of Tenia. This inner body,
formed of very pale nucleated cells (0-005 by 0:003 millim. ) measures
from 0°035-0°04 millim. in diameter.

The hooklets, which are apparently similar in the three pairs, at-
tain a total length of 0°013 millim.; the blade, which is but slightly
curved, is about one-third of the total length; the haft, which is
straight and very slender, is 0-009 millim. in length; the dental
process projects considerably (0:0028 millim.).

The analogy presented by this embryo on the one hand with
the embryos of the digenetic Trematoda, and on the other with
those of the Tenia, seems to indicate clearly that this young parasite
is destined to become encysted in the parenchyma of some aquatic
animal for its further development.

In connexion with the latter, the author calls the attention of
zoologists to a parasitic worm which he considers will prove to be
the scolex of the Bothriocephalus latus. This is the Ligula nodosa
of Rudolphi, which lives encysted in the conjunctive tissue of various
species of the genus Salmo, with regard to which he states that he
has ascertained it to be a scolex, of which the so-called cephalic

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xu. 81

474: Miscellaneous.

portion, which is deeply invaginated in a very narrow caudal portion,
presents a complete analogy of form and dimensions with the appa-
ratus of fixation of the Bothriocephalus.—Comptes Rendus, Sept.
21, 1863, p. 569.

On the Structure of the Nervous System in the Gasteropodous
Mollusca. By SaAtvaTrore TRINCHESE.

The types investigated by the author are Helix pomatia, Arion
rufus, and Lymneus stagnalis.

In all the nervous centres of these animals there are—

1. Round or pyriform cells, of variable dimensions, enveloped by
a thick sheath of conjunctive tissue.

2. Small cells, of irregularly triangular form, round which no
envelope is perceived.

3. Free nuclei like those met with in the grey substance of the
cephalorachidian system in the Vertebrata.

In these animals there are no apolar or unipolar cells, and bipolar
cells are rare. The cells usually present four prolongations. Each
cell emits a prolongation to each of the cells surrounding it, whilst
other processes pass between the latter to other cells at a greater or
less distance.

The nervous cells generally occupy the periphery of the ganglia.
The central portion of the latter is occupied only by nervous fibres
and conjunctive tissue. The nervous cells of one ganglion are never
ail of the same dimensions or of the same form. The largest cells
generally form the stratum nearest the periphery, and the cells
diminish in size towards the centre of the ganglion. The deepest
stratum is formed of very small cells and free nuclei. This arrange-
ment shows that these elements are in a state of continual develop-
ment.

The two cerebroid ganglia are formed, in their upper part, of large
round cells and of pyriform cells. These elements, which are ar-
ranged in groups, all emit processes which go to form nerves. The
large round cells are placed at nearly equal distances from each
other. In the intervals between the round cells there are constantly
pyriform cells, of which the processes cross. In the lower region of
the two cerebroid masses, very small triangular cells are observed.

At the anterior part of these masses there are, in Helix and Arion,
four small ganglia, of the nature of those which have been described
under the name of accessory cerebroid ganglia. These are concealed
beneath the envelopes of the cerebrum, and can only be seen when
the latter are rendered transparent by reagents and the organ is
slightly magnified. Of these ganglia the two outer ones must be
called optic ganglia, as they give origin to the optic nerves. They
consist of free nuclei and of nervous fibres proceeding from the ante-
rior part of the cerebroid masses. The free nuclei alone occupy the
outer portion of the ganglion, and the nervous fibres the inner part ;
the line of separation is very distinct. The two inner ganglia are
composed of voluminous cells pressed against each other.

On the course of the nerves connecting the cerebroid masses with
the pedal ganglion there is a smal! ganglion composed of cells united

Miscellaneous. 475

in groups, the arrangement of which recalls that of the compartments
of an orange.

In the pedal or abdominal ganglion, which is composed of several
medullary nuclei, there are likewise very marked differences of
structure. In a longitudinal section of one of the sides of the gan-
glion (in the Helix) four groups of pyriform cells are seen occupying
all the upper and posterior region. In the lower region there is a
group of small round cells. If a transverse section be made in the
upper region, these groups of cells are seen separated by thick par-
titions of conjunctive tissue. Of these groups, the two lateral con-
sist of small round cells, all communicating by numerous cylindraxes.
The median groups are composed of cells three or four times as large
as the preceding, and form a very regular circle. At the centre of
this circle there is a cell, the diameter of which is three or four times
that of those forming the circumference; to the latter it sends off
numerous processes.

The peripheral nerves are formed of very delicate tubes, having in
their walls nuclei similar to those which are observed in the higher
animals in the embryonal state. The mode of their termination in
the muscles is remarkable. The nervous element, on arriving at the
muscular fibre, loses its proper wall, and the cylindraxis alone pene-
trates the muscle, dividing into two very slender filaments. These
take opposite directions, each traversing one-half of the muscular
fibre, on arriving at the extremities of which they terminate in very
fine points.

To show the cylindraxis in the interior of the muscular fibre, and
prove that it does not creep along its surface, the author made trans-
verse sections of muscular bundles, and ascertained that the cylin-
draxis occupies the centre of each fibre. In some, two cylindraxes
are observed, one of which is finer than the other.— Comptes Rendus,
Oct. 12, 1863, p. 629.

On the Chanco or Golden Wolf (Canis Chanco).
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., &e.

Lady Augustus Hervey has kindly presented to the British Mu-
seum a fine specimen of the skin of a Wolf, which was shot by her
brother, Lieut. W. P. Hodnell, of H.M.’s 54th Regiment, in Chinese
Tartary. It is a very showy animal, rather larger than the common
European Wolf.

Fur fulvous, on the back longer, rigid, with intermixed black
and grey hairs; the throat, chest, belly, and inside of the legs pure
white; head pale grey-brown; forehead grizzled with short black
and grey hairs.

Hab. Chinese Tartary. Called Chanco.

The skull is very like, and has the same teeth as, the European
Wolf (C. Lupus). ‘The animal is very ike a Common Wolf, but
iather shorter in the legs; and the ears, the sides of the body, and
outside of the limbs are covered with short pale fulvous hairs.

The length of its head and body is 42 inches; tail 15 inches.—
Proc. Zool..Soc. March 24, 1863.

ail *

4

INDEX To

6

VOL. XI.

Aca.epua, on the systematic rela-
tions and morphology of the, 19.

Acanthocephali, on the, 326.

Acanthocystis, description of the new
genus, 263.

Acara, new species of, 441.

Achlya, on the development of, 48.

Adams, A., on a new genus of terres-
trial mollusks, 424.

Adamsia palliata, on the habits of,
388.

AEthalium, observations on, 46.

Agassiz, Prof. A., on the mode of
development of the marginal tenta-
cles in the free medusoids of some
Hydroida, 79.

Alcidion, new species of, 105.

Alcippe, new species of, 160.

Amuniscus, new species of, 105.

Ameeba princeps, observations on the
development of, 30.

Ameeban Rhizopods, on the distine-
tive characters and reproductive
phenomena of the, 111, 198, 329,
448.

Ancistrodon, new species of, 364.

Androdon, description of the new ge-
nus, 246.

Animals, notes on acclimatized, 76.

Anisopodus, new species of, 284.

Ants, on the habits of some South
American species of, 392.

Arion rufus, on the nervous system
in, 474.

Atheris, new species of, 239.

Atractaspis, new species of, 363.

Auchenipterus, new species of, 442.

Aurelia flavidula, on the structure of,
21s

Aye-Aye, on the habits of the, 72.

Baikie, Dr. W. B., on the distribution
of Bos Taurus and Bos Dante in
Africa, 328,

Balsaminacexe, on the raphides of,
446.

Bambusicola, description of the ge-
nus, 165.

Bartlett, A. D., on the habits of the
Aye-Aye, 72; on a new species of

Lemur, 247; on a new species of
Galago, 408.

Batagur, new species of, 75.

Bates, H. W., on the Longicorn Co-
leoptera of the Amazon Valley, 100,
Qjbe G72

Bats, on a new genus and species of
leaf-nosed, 468.

Bee’s cell, on the, 303.

Benson, W. H., on new operculate
land-shells from the Andamans,
425.

Bertolus, M., on the development of
Bothriocephalus latus, 473.

Blackwall, J., on new species of Spi-
ders, 264.

Blanford, W. T., on the animals of
Raphaulus, Spiraculum, and other
tube-bearing Cyclostomacea, 55 ;
on two new generic forms of Indian
Mollusea, 184; on the animal of
Lithotis rupicola, 327.

Blanfordia, description of the new
genus, 424.

Blood-corpuscles, on the influence of
magenta and tannin on, 60.

Books, new :—Blasius’s List of Birds
of Europe, 58; Balfour’s Flora of
Edinburgh, 60; Preston’s Flora of
Marlborough, 60; English Botany
(3rd edit.), 155; Pennell’s Angler-
Naturalist, 310; Patterson’s Intro-
duction to Zoology, 312; Bates’s
Naturalist on the River Amazons,
391; Baring-Gould’s Iceland, its
Scenes and Sagas, 396.

Bos Taurus and Bos Dante, on the
distribution of, in Africa, 328.

Bothriechis, new species of, 364.

Bothriocephalus latus, on the deve-
lopment of, 473.

Bothrophthalmus, new species of,
356.

Brama, new species of, 313.

Brandt, J. F., on the osteography of
the Sirenia, 406.

Cacophis, new species of, 361.

Caddis-worm, on the habits of the,
399,

INDEX. 47

Calamoherpe, new species of, 168.

Canis Chanco, description of, 475.

Carter, H. J., on Amoeba princeps
and its reproductive cells, 30; on
the structure of the Ameebe, 198 ;
on the presence of chlorophyll-cells
and starch-granules as normal parts
of the organism, and on the repro-
ductive process in Difflugia pyri-
formis, 249; on a freshwater spe-
cies of Echinocystidia, 263.

Causus, new species of, 363.

Cell, on some phenomena of the de-
velopment of the organic, 1.

Cephalization, observations on, 187.

Chameleon, new species of, 248.

Charrs, on the British, 229.

Chelymys, new species of, 98.

oe dentata, observations on,
246.

Chiromys madagascariensis, on the
habits of, 72.

Cistoclemmys, new species of, 220.

Clark, Prof. H. J., on Lucernaria, 19.

Clausilia, new species of, 339, 429.

Coluber, new species of, 398.

Craspedocephalus, on the
species of, 242.

Cremnobates, description of the new
genus, 184.

Crenuchus, description of the new
genus, 443.

Crisp, Dr. E., on some points relating
to the anatomy of the Humming-
bird, 70.

Crustacea, on the, which live in spe-
cies of Ascidians, 167.

Cuculus, new species of, 74.

Cyathopoma, new species of, 426.

Cyclodus, new species of, 398.

Dana, J. D., on two oceanic species of
Protozoa, 54; on cephalization,
187.

DeCandolle, on the variation of spe-
cies, 81.

Deer, Red, on the fossil, of Ireland,
444,

Delphinus crassidens, on the occur-
rence of, in the North Sea, 328.
Diatoms, on the existence of, in 2
living state on the sea-bottom at

great depths, 79, 166.

Diemennia superciliosa, note on, 239.

Difflugia pyriformis, on the repro-
ductive process in, 249.

Dipsas, new species of, 359.

Bahian

™sI

Dogania, new species of, 158.
Drassus, new species of, 264.
Dromicia, new species of, 241.
Dromicus, new species of, 325, 357.
Duck, on the cranium of a, from the
Pliocene beds, Fifeshire, 382.

Echinocystidia, on a freshwater spe-
cies of, 263.

Eciton, on the habits of the species
of, 394.

Emydide, notes on American, 176.

Enygrus, new species of, 360.

Euplocamus, new species of, 164.

Ficoidez, on the raphides of, 447,

Fishes, new species of, 229, 313, 441.

Foraminifera, on the nomenclature of
the, 200, 429.

Galago, new species of, 408.

Garrulax, new species of, 160.

Garrulus, new species of, 162.

Gecinus, new species of, 163.

Gecko, new species of, 222.

Gould, J., on new species of birds
from Formosa, 160; on a new ge-
nus of Humming-birds, 246.

Gray, Prof. A., on species considered
as to variation, geographical dis-
tribution, and succession, 81.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on two new species of
Batagur, 74; on acclimatized ani-
mals, 76; on the Australian species
of Chelymys, 98; on a new species
of Pelomedusa, 99 ; on a new spe-
cies of Dogania, 158; on the Ame-
rican Emydidez, 176; on Chelymys
dentata, 246; on a new species of
Chameleon, 248; on the habits of
the King-crab, 327 ; on a new spe-
cies of Kinixys, 381; on a Sterno-
therus from Central Africa, 405;
on the Chanco, or Golden Wolf,
475.

Gris, M., on the functions of the ves-
sels of plants, 78.

Grube, E., on a new Coral, 166.

Ginther, Dr., on the European spe-
cies of Labrax, 174; on the British
Charrs, 229; on Atheris Burton,
239; on Diemennia superciliosa,
239; ona new species of Dromicus,
325; on new species of Snakes,
348; on the herpetology of Ceram,
397 ; on a species of Molva from
the Gulf of Genoa, 406; on new
species of Fishes from the Esse-
quibo, 441,

478

Gulliver, Prof. G., on raphides and
spheraphides of Phanerogamia, 52,
226, 288, 365, 446; on the leaf-
cells of the British species of Hy-
menophyllum, 109, 309; on the
pith-cells of Juncacez, 472.

Guyon, M., on the emigrations of the
Lemmings, 407.

Haloragacee, on the sphzraphides
of, 447.

Hartlaub, Dr. G., on a new species of
Cuculus, 74; on a new species of
Calamoherpe, 168.

Haughton, Rev. S., on the fossil Red
Deer of Ireland, 444.

Helicina, new species of, 425.

Helix, new species of, 338; on the
nervous system in, 475.

Helogenes, description of the new
genus, 443.

Heterodon, new species of, 356.

Hildebrand, Dr. F., on the impregna-
tion in Orchids, 169.

Homalocranium, new species of, 352.

Hoplocephalus, new species of, 362,
403.

Humwing-birds, ov a new genus of,
246.

Hydroida, on the mode of develop-
ment of the marginal tentacles in
the free medusoids of some, 79.

Hymenophylium, on the leaf-cells of
the British species of, 109, 309.

Hypherpes, characters of the genus,
402.

Hypsipetes, new species of, 161.

Hyracodon, description of the new
genus, 242.

Ividaceze, on the crystal prisms of,
226.

Johnson, J. Y., on a new species of
Lycosa, 152; on new species of
Fishes, 313.

Jones, Prof.T.R., on the nomenclature
of the Foraminifera, 200, 429.

Juncaceze, on the pith-cells of, 472.

Karsten, Prof. H., on the develop-
ment of the organic cell, 1.

Kinixys, new species of, 381.

Krefft, G., on a new species of Dro-
micia, 241; on a new species of
Hoplocephalus, 403.

ee on the European species of,
174.

pra on the emigrations of the,

INDEX.

Lemur, new species of, 247.

Leporinus, new species of, 443.

Leptostylus, new species of, 102.

Lepturges, description of the new
genus, 367.

Lestiboudois, T., on the laticiferous
vessels of plants, 267, 340.

pee! R., on the Acanthocephali,

Linyphia, new species of, 265.

Lithoprimnoa, new species of, 166.

Lithotis, description of the new ge-
nus, 186.

ee rupicola, on the animal of,

Lonchorhina, description of the new
genus, 468.

Longicorns of the Amazon Valley, on
the, 100, 275, 367.

Lophopceum, description of the new
genus, 270.

Lophotes, new species of, 315.

Lowe, Rev. R.T., on two new Ma-
deiran land-shells, 338.

Lucernaria, observations on, 19.

Lycosa, new species of, 152.

meee Blackwallii, on the habits of,
404.

Lymneeus stagnalis, on the nervous
system in, 474.

Se on the classification of,
18

Megalema, new species of, 163.

Mizodon, new species of, 352.

Mollusca, on the structure of the
nervous system in the gasteropo-
dous, 474.

Molva, on a species of, from the Gulf
of Genoa, 406.

Mucor stolonifera, on the structure
of, 49.

Miller, Dr. F., on the development
of the Stomapoda, 13.

Mycetozoa, observations on the, 35.

Myriophoneus, new species of, 160.

Myrmica szevissima, on the habits of,
394.

Neoscopelus, description of the new
genus, 320.

Neriene, new British species of, 266.

Newton, A., on the breeding of the
Nuteracker, 68; on a new bird
from Madagascar, 402.

Nucifraga caryocatactes, on the breed-
ing of, 68.

Numenius, new species of, 165.

INDEX.

(Ecodoma cephalotes, on the habits
of, 393.

Omphalotropis, new species of, 425.

Onagracez, on the raphides of the,
288.

Ophidians of Bahia, on the, 323.

ee on the impregnation in,
169.

Orthagoriscus, notes on a Chinese
species of, 225.

racer description of the new genus,

8.

Pagurus Prideauxii, on the habits of,
388.

Parker, W.K., on the nomenclature
of the Foraminifera, 200, 429.

Parcecus, description of the new ge-
nus, 379.

Parus, new species of, 160.

Pelomedusa, new species of, 99.

Pericrocotus, new species of, 162.

Picus, new species of, 163.

Pimelodus, new species of, 442.

Plants, on the functions of the vessels
of, 78; on the laticiferous vessels
of, 267, 340; deciduous, on the
part played by,-im the Tertiary
floras previous to the Miocene,
290.

Pollock, F., on the habits of Lycosa
Blackwallii, 404.

Polyphemus, on the habits of, 327.

Polythalamia, observations on, 409.

Polytrema miniaceum, observations
on, 409.

Pomatorhinus, new species of, 161.

Protozoa, on two oceanic species of,
54.

Pseudechis, new species of, 362.

Pupa, new species of, 426.

Pythium, on the development of, 48.

Raphaulus, on the animal of, 55.

Raphides, observations on, 52, 226,
288, 365, 446.

Rhinoclemys, on the species of, 182.

Rhizopods, observations on the deve-
lopment of Ameeban, 111, 198, 329,
448,

Roberts, Dr. W., on the influence of
magenta and tannin on blood-cor-
puscles, 60.

Royal Society, proceedings of the,
60

Rubiacex, on the raphides of, 52.
Salmo, new species of, 235.
Saporta, Count Gaston de, on the

479

part played by deciduous plants in
the tertiary floras, 290.

Saurus, new species of, 317.

Schultze, Prof. M., on Polytrema
miniaceum, 409,

Sclater, Dr. P. L., on the Wombats
in the gardens of the Zoological
Society, 78.

Scopelus, new species of, 319.

Seal, on the skeleton of a, from the
Pliocene beds, Fifeshire, 382.

Simocephalus, new species of, 360.

Sirenia, on the osteology of the,
406.

Smee, Miss E. M., on the habits of
the Caddis-worm, 399.

Snakes, new, 239, 325, 348, 398.

Species considered as to variation,
geographical distribution, and suc-
cession, observations on, 81; on
the origin of, 303.

Spheraphides of Phanerogamia, ob-
servations on the, 226, 446.

Spherozoum, on some species of, 54.

Spiders, descriptions of new, 264.

Spiraculum, on the animal of, 55.

Spirogyra, on the development of, 8.

Sponges, on some species of Proto-
zoans related to the, 54.

Sternotherus, note on a species of,
405.

Stimpson, Dr. W., on the existence
of living Diatoms on the sea-bottom
at great depths, 79.

Stomapoda, on the development of
the, 13.

Swinhoe, R., on the Formosan Rep-
tiles, 219.

Thorell, T., on the Crustacea which
live in species of Ascidians, 167.
Tomes, R. F., on the genus Hyraco-
don, 242; on a new genus and

species of leaf-nosed Bats, 468.

Trinchese, 8., on the structure of the
nervous system in the gasteropo-
dous Mollusca, 474.

Trochilus colubris, on the anatomy
of, 70.

Tropidonotus, new species of, 355.

Urocissa, new species of, 162. °

Urticaceze, on the sphzraphides of,
447.

Vitacez, on the raphides of, 447.

Walker, R., on the skeleton of a seal
and the cranium of a duck from the
Pliocene beds, Fifeshire, 382.

480

Wallace, A. R., on the Bee’s cell, and
on the origin of species, 303.

Wallich, Dr. G. C., on the distinctive
characters, habits, and reproductive
phenomena in Amceban Rhizopods,
111, 448; on the existence of liv-
ing Diatoms on the sea-bottom at
great depths, 166.

Williams, W., on the breeding of a
West-Indian Tortoise in Great
Britain, 159.

INDEX.

Wortley, Lieut.-Col. Stuart, on the
habits of Pagurus Prideauxii and
Adamsia palliata, 388.

Wucherer, Dr. O., on the Craspedo-
cephali of Bahia, 242; on the Ophi-
dians of Bahia, 323.

Xenodon, new species of, 353,

Xenurophis, new species of, 357.

Xiphorhamphus, new species of, 443.

Zoological Society, proceedings of
the, 68, 158, 229, 313, 397, 468.

END OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

/ l, / :

S3 Vol 1%,

t.

Hie

Ann.

a

Eee es

=

cas —
Sea.
Se ree wr!

Ann Seat, Hist, 8,3. Nol12.PUI

SJ, Basire sev.
ad in <<.

Ann &Mag Nat Hist. 5.3.VolXW.PLLT .

|

ae eee

ST Basire se.

Ann & Mag. Nat Hist. §.3. VoL 12. PULV-

p 3 7 ;
é ’
. 4
>. :

L2

VTi

s Ul
”

’ bil

wr by

a,
\
*
‘

“iN. | \5

! aN

Wa "i hn yi" ‘y] NN A \) ,
Lai a i Aa) Whit!

stag \ era ni NH
ly MARY
Nee!

‘il Be uh i Dt i\y
ae Sa Ais ‘ee Hy Daily

‘ui Ly
Mi) V7 vil

hae sl

1 Zz

Spheraphid tissue .

Ae ae . - J Basire se.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.3 Vol.12 PU.

W West. zma

Ann. & Mag. Nat.Hist. Ser.3. Vol 12 PUVI.

ad

Ann k& Mag. Nat. Hist. §.3.Vol.12. PU. Vi.

W , ¢ on A.
et FoR) nN, rs ey, if
| 7 Me
Mey cn St ale
‘aere Dp
by UP
a mae ;
17 i. cc j 7
ure
oe.
et

4.
“|
+

vir.

és i *
Ann. k Mag. Nat. Hist. 8.3 Vol.12. Pb.

Fig. 3.

ANC eta/ Aisne

+: 5

Fig.

5
:
q

. Scale JOO the of an Inch 7s =
J
‘ J Basire s¢

- s
" - * ae ay

VIL.

Ann. Mag. Nat Hist $.3. Vol.12. Pl.

‘
x ‘

Nei ae

ell artes
co

ae

i seeens

f
1 ye

Vig ba al ; Var AB
nit 0) Mh aA

i ¥ ny mh i
Pehl

ny Bt

;
i an

i
Tm,

wh’

ek a

Ay Fh
Nl

‘ ik Has, Hy cd

Tea
ei

Me

oe es Saree ta oe aa oer et eee ae ae

ee ane

Deere eee

eee ver ae Oe ee Rt AEE gO ne at
A En a

I ee te ene
yt ee EA

— 7 —— . Steintnabaneneand woe he me
ame Pee yee ee en ead :
~ Fae Sw Ree ea RE tt re a aoe BT Doan aoe

op ee Guags FEIPN EROE I E e EOS

‘
‘
"
4,
i
\
*
¥
’
t
(
}
an
city i
wine 4 :
1 '
Lb
i,
al
4 ;
4 aye i
ae a |
an ay d P h
wy q i *| y! i i
4 f fan
AM a h AA.
l s me
a iy
es,
if
'
‘ ‘
Ma gal

yy ry hited y he Ay Ten

, :
«
1 Luly
vei
iA /\

: “hi im
VJ ly ‘
an | a) ‘

» wm é
; A‘ f
ai ‘
Na ’
\ ry i
4 ‘
y
"
? es)
' i ri ¥ ! ; i
?

\) d Wan ¢ ey ( \ (eh Vos Ny ’ i : A a We ait : A .

iy { } fi SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

i i
id
ie
:
i
f '
f is
wi
hy
1
ne,
e:
¢ ‘
i