ANNALS OF THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM VoL. XVII. 1926-1927 W. J. HOLLAND, Editor Published by the Authority of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institute June 1926-JuNE 1927 CARNEGIE INSTITUTE PRESS PITTSBURGH FOREWORD The Seventeenth Volume of the Annals of the Carnegie Museum contains fifteen articles. The fourth article, which is the longest, is a paper by Professor Henry Leighton of the University of Pittsburgh, upon the geology of Pittsburgh and its environs. The article is more or less popular in character and may serve as a guide to the student of local geology in determining the various horizons which are exposed to view in the region of which Pittsburgh is the metropolis. It contains in addi- tion to the purely geological portions an account of the mineral resources which occur in the strata underlying the region. It briefly outlines the story of the development of the industries of western Pennsylvania which are founded upon coal, gas, and oil. A special edition of this article has been prepared by the Trustees as a manual for use in high schools and colleges and has met with favor. The booklet has been placed upon sale at Jones’ Book Shop, 437 Wood Street, and may also be purchased at the Museum. The fifth article by Dr. Arnold E. Ortmann is the last prepared by him for publication. It is cause for the greatest grief that the labors of this most learned and industrious student have been brought to an untimely end by his sudden death. While not as many species new to science appear in this volume as in its immediate predecessor, it, nevertheless, contains a great deal of material which is important in fixing disputed questions of nomenclature. As a whole, we confidently believe that the volume will be accepted by students of science as adding materially to our knowledge of the different branches of zoology, which are represented in its pages. May 10, 1927. W. J. Holland, Editor. Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i Foreword iii Table of Contents v List of Plates vii List of Figures in Text ix List of Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science, and corrections in the Names or Figures of Hitherto De- scribed Species . xi Dates of Issue of Parts as Separates. .' xvi Errata and Corrigenda xvii Editorial Notes 1-3: 189-194; 365-369 Obituaries: Douglas Stewart. By W. J. Holland 4 Ezra T. Cresson. By W. J. Holland 195 Dr. Henry T. Skinner. By W. J. Holland 197 Dr. Jacob L. Wortman. By W. J. Holland 199 Hon. John Douglas Shafer. By VV. J. Holland ,. 203 Dr. Arnold Edward Ortmann. By W. J. Holland. . . . 207 Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann. By Arthur W. Henn 409-414 L A Study of the Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus, By W. E. C. Todd 11-82 H. The South American Species of the Genus Tingis Fabricius (Hemiptera). By Carl J. Drake.. 83-85 HI. Three New Species of Rutelinse ( Coleoptera lamel- licornia) in the Carnegie Museum. By Dr. F. Ohaus 87-89 VI Table of Contents IV. The Geology of Pittsburgh and its Environs. A Popular Account of the General Geologic Fea- tures of the Region. By Henry Leighton . . . 91-166 V. The Naiades of the Green River Drainage in Kentucky. By Arnold L. Ortmann. ........ 167-188 VI. The Coprolite Limestone Horizon of the Cone- maugh Series in and around Morgantown, West Virginia. By Paul Holland Price ..... 2 11-254 VH. The Inferior Dentition of a Young Mastodon. By O. A. Peterson 255-257 VHL The Fresh Water Fishes of the Riukiu Islands, Japan. By D. S. Jordan and Shigeho Tanaka 259-282 IX. A North American Oligocene Edentate. By George Gaylord Simpson 283-298 X. The Lepidoptera named by George A. Ehrmann. By W. J. Holland; (The Parnassiid^ by A. Avinoff) 299-364 XL A Study of the Male Genitalia of Certain Anthi- diine Bees. By Ruth Isensee. ............. 371-384 XIL Notes on New and Rare Fishes of the Fauna of Japan. By David Starr Jordan and Shigeho Tanaka. 385-394 XIII. The Rediscovery of Inopsetta ischyra, a Rare Species of Flounder. By Deogracias V. Villadolid. 395-397 XIV. Observations on Tadpoles of a Megalophrys. By Lawrence E. Griffin. ...................... 399-401 XV. Muhlenberg’s Turtle in Western Pennsylvania. By M. Graham Netting. .................. 403-408 INDEX. 415-432 LIST OF PLATES I. II. III. IV. c V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVL XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXL XXII. Geological Map of Pennsylvania. Fossil Invertebrates found around Pittsburgh. Fig. I, Ames limestone at Second Avenue and loth Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. Fig. 2, Brilliant Cut-Off from Highland Park, showing Ames Limestone. Fig. I, Top of Birmingham shale, Bigelow Boulevard. Fig. 2, Birmingham shale, Mt. Washington Tunnel, Pittsburgh. Fig. I, Morgantown sandstone, Forbes and Braddock Avenues. Fig. 2, Sankey Brickyard, i8th Street, Southside, Pitts- burgh. Fig. I, Pittsburgh limestone, Ardmore Boulevard. Fig. 2, Pittsburgh coal, Squirrel Hill near Wightman Street, Pittsburgh. Remains of fossil plants found about Pittsburgh. Map of Green River Drainage in Kentucky. Hon. John Douglas Shafer, from the portrait by Mrs. James. D. Hailman. Morgantown Quadrangle, U. S. Geological Survey. Coprolites of Fishes. Coprolites of Fishes, continuation of PL XL Coprolites of Fishes (small and minute). Coprolites of Fishes. Coprolites of Fishes. Coprolites showing burrows or borings. Transverse Sections of Coprolites. Coprolites and Spine. Fossil teeth attributed to Paleoniscus. Inferior view of teeth attributed to Diplodus. Teeth attributed to Diplodus. Ophiocara and Chonophorus. vii List of Plates XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXIL XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. Tridentiger and Apogon. Epoicotherium {Xenotherium) iinicum (Douglass). Types in Ehrmann Collection. Types in Ehrmann Collection. Types in Ehrmann Collection. Types in Ehrmann Collection, etc. Types in Ehrmann’s Collection. Types in Ehrmann’s Collection. Male genitalia of Anthidiinae. Male genitalia of Anthidiinae. Male genitalia of Anthidiinae. Rare Fishes from Japan. Fig. I. Inopsetta ischyra (Jordan and Gilbert). Fig. 2. Lepidopsetta bilineata (Ayres). Map showing records of the Distribution of Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schoepff). Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann from photograph taken about 1915- FIGURES IN TEXT Art. IV. Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3- Fig. 4- Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Art. VI. Fig. Fig. 2. Fig. 3- Fig. 4- Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9- Art. VIE Fig. I- Fig. 2. Art. X. E Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3- Art. XIV. Fig. I. By Henry Leighton. Site of Pittsburgh at time of Parker Strath. The Rocks under Pittsburgh. a. Section of western Pennsylvania before the Appala- chian Folding. h. Section across Pennsylvania after the Appalachian Folding. Geologic map of Allegheny County. A Cross-section of Pittsburgh looking east, showing old and new river-valleys. Section of Conemaugh Rocks at Pittsburgh. Sketch map, showing preglacial drainage of western Pennsylvania. Restored skeleton of Naosaurus, By Paul Holland Price. Columnar Section, showing position of Coprolite Lime- stone Horizon. Digestive tracts of fishes. Diagrammatic cross-section of coprolite of a fish. The Short-nosed Gar-pike. Paleoniscus peltigerus Newberry. Restoration of Paleoniscus macropomiis. Rhomboid scales of Ganoid fishes. Ganoid scales. Restored skeleton of Pleuracanthns decheni. By O. A. Peterson. Skiagraph of anterior milk-teeth in lower jaw of young mastodon. Inner face of section of mandible of young mastodon. Genitalia of Eudamidas ozema (Butl.) and Eudamidas jason (Ehrmann). Ceryx hilda Ehrmann. Tascia abdominalis Ehrmann. By Lawrence E. Griffin. Outlines of oral apparatus of tadpole of Megalophrys. IX LIST OF GENERA, SPECIES, AND VARIETIES NEW TO SCIENCE AND CORRECTIONS IN THE NAMES AND FIGURES OF HITHERTO DESCRIBED SPECIES, ETC.* Class MAMMALIA (Fossil). Order EDENTATA. Epoicotherium gen. nov., Simpson, ior Xenotherium unicum Douglass, transferred by Simpson from Zalamhdodonta to the Edentata, and referred to Epoicotheriidse fam. nov. of Xenarthra, p. 285. Class AVES (Viventes). Order PASSERES Family FRINGILLID^ Genus Spinus Koch. Spinus santcEcrucis Todd, sp. nov., p. 47; S. peruanus paulus Todd, subsp. nov., p. 51; S. magellaniciis tucumanus Todd, subsp. nov., p. 62: S. magellanicus urubambensis Todd, subsp. nov. p. 65. Class REPTILIA Laurenti Order TESTUDINATA Oppel Family TESTUDINIDT: Genus Clemmys Ritgen. Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schoepff). Distribution in the eastern United States given on PI. xxxvi. Order OPHIDIA Family CROTALIDT: Genus Bothrops Spix Botkrops neuwiedii holiviana, subsp. nov. Amaral, p. 368. Class AMPHIBIA Linnaeus Order SALIENTIA Laurenti Family PELOBATIDT: Genus Megalophrys Kuhl. The oral parts in the tadpoles of Megalophrys sp. (?) described by L. E. Griffin, pp. 399-401. * Names of new genera and families are printed in full-faced type. XI xii Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science Class PISCES (Fossiles) Genus Diplodus Agassiz = Dittodiis Owen, p. 228. Class PISCES (Viventes). Family SERRANID^. Subfamily Anthiin^ Entonanthias Jordan and Tanaka, gen. nov. Type, Entonanthias pascalus Jordan and Tanaka, sp. nov., p. 385, PI. XXXV, fig. 2. Family POMOCENTRIDT: Genus Chromis Cuvier C. villadolidi Jordan and Tanaka, sp. nov., Riukiu Archipelago, Japan, p. 387, pi. XXXIV, fig. i. Family HEXAGRAMMIDT: Stellistius Jordan and Tanaka, gen. nov. Type, Stellistius katsukii Jordan and Tanaka, sp. nov., p. 389, pi. XXXIV, fig. 3, Hokkaido. Family PLEURONECTIDT: Genus Lepidopsetta Gill Lepidopsetta bilineata (Ayres) p. 396, pi. XXXV, fig. 3, Unalaska. Genus Inopsetta Jordan and Goss. Inopsetta ischyra (Jordan and Gilbert) p. 395, pi. XXXV, fig. i, Puget Sound. Family GOBIID.T: Tridentiger KuroiwcB fordan and Tanaka, sp. nov., Okinawa, p. 276, pi. XXIII, figs. 1-3. Class INSECTA Order HEMIPTERA Family TINGITID.T Genus Tingis Fabricius. T. silvacata Drake, sp. nov., p. 83; T. corumbiana Drake, sp. nov. p. 84. Order COLEOPTERA. Suborder LAM ELLl COR N EA Genus Popillia Serville. Popillia oxypygia Ohaus, sp. nov., p. 87. Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science xiii Genus Leucothyreus MacLay. Leucothyreus phytaloides Ohaus, sp. nov., p. 88; L. pygmceus Ohaus, sp. nov., p. 88. Order LEPIDOPTERA. Family PAPILIONID^. Genus Papilio Linnaeus. Papilio ampliata Menetries, p. 308, = dimorph. 9 of P. polyxenes Fabr. ; P. asterioides Reakirt, p. 310, = P. polyxenes Fabr. ; P. asterioides 9 Strecker, (non asterioides Reak.) p. 310, = P. poly- xenes ab. 9 streckeri Holland; P. troilus texanus Ehrmann, p. 313, = P. troilus ilioneus A. & S.; P. embodinus Ehrmann, Uganda, p. 313, = slight variety of P. hesperus Westwood, figured as P. hesperus in Seitz. Gr. Schmett., XIII, 1908, pi. 4b; P. mantitheus Ehrm. p. 314, = slight variety of P. nireus or P. lyceus; P. poto- monianus Ehrm., p. 314, = P. latreillanus Godt. ; P. triptolemus Ehrm., p. 314, = slight variety of P. cynorta Fabr.; P. adloni Ehrm., p. 315, = P. philetas Hew.; P. arnapes Ehrm., p. 315, = agesilaus var. conon. Hew.; P. multesilaus Ehrm., p. 315, = P. agesilaus Guer. and Perch.; P. chromealus Ehrm., p. 315, valid sp. or marked variety of P. copancB Reak.; P. cleostratus Ehrm., p. 316, slight variety of P. osyris Feld., which latter is a variety of P. anchises L. ; P. critobulus Ehrm., p. 317, = very slight variety of P. lycimenes Boisd.; P. diotimus Ehrm., p. 317, = P. protesilaus dariensis R. & J.; P. euryptolemus Ehrm., p. 317, = very slight variety of P. lycimenes paralius R. & J.; P. eversmanni Ehrm., p. 318, = P. anchises alyattes Feld.; P. hozaus Ehrm., p. 318, = variety of P. lycophron Hiibn.; P. lindeni Ehrm., p. 318, = P. archidamas Boisd.; P. klagesi 9 Ehrm., p. 318, is possibly a valid species, the male as yet unknown; the male attributed to the species by Ehrmann (Lep. II, 1919, p. 82) being a dwarfed male of P. neophilus ecbolius R. & J. ; P. melsheimeri Ehrm., p. 319, = P. erlaces Gray; P. metrobates Ehrm., p. 319, = variety of P. nymphius R. & J., which latter should probably be raised to specific rank, and not treated as a mere variety of P. rhodostictus Butler & Druce; P. morrisi Ehrm., p. 320, near P. xeniades Hew., and androna R. & J., latter a variety of P. xeniades Hew.; P. pharna- bazus Ehrm., p. 320, = P. metaphaon Butl.; P, phormisius Ehrm., p. 321, = P. sadyattes Druce; P. pyrolochus Ehrm., p. 321, = P. therodamas Felder; P. theogenus Ehrm., p. 321, = valid variety of P. anchises L. ; P. thylodilus Ehrm., p. 322, = P.photinus Doubleday; P. ziegleri Ehrm., p. 322, = P. harmodius halex R. & J.; P. zim- mermanni Ehrm., p. 322, = P. zagreus Doubleday; P. praxenus Ehrm., p. 323, = P. phaon Boisd., variety; P. echo Ehrm., p. 323, = P. bootes Westwood; P. ikusa Ehrm., p. 323, = dark summer xiv Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science form of P. alcinous Klug; P. nepenthes Ehrm., p. 323, = P, phil- oxenus Gray; P. tahmourath Ehrm., p. 323, = P. agestor var. restrictus Leech; P. weinbergi Ehrm., p. 324, = slight variety of P. parinda Moore, latter a local race of P. polymnestor. Genus Ornithoptera. 0. canihyses Ehrm., p. 324, = variety of 0. darsins Gray; 0. isis Ehrm., p. 324, = 0. darsins Gray; 0. magnifica Ehrm., p. 325, = var. of 0. amphrysus (Cram.); 0. osiris Ehrm., p. 325, = 0. papiien- sis Wallace; 0. resplendens Ehrm., p. 325, identical with or very near to 0. victorice var. Isabella R. & J.; 0. nomis Ehrm., p. 325, = O. minos Cramer; 0. ritsemce var. tantalus Ehrm., p. 325, = 0. amphry- sus ab. cuneifera Oberthtir. Family PARNASSIID^. Parnassius montanus Ehrm., p. 326, = P. smmtheiis var. sayi Edwards; P. xanthus Ehrm., p. 327, = P. smintheus var. sayi Edw.; P. polus Ehrm., p. 327, = P. smintheus var. sayi Edwards, alpine form; P. verity (verityi) Ehrm., p. 328, = nom. nov. ior P . minor V erity , but neither names should be conserved, as they merely stand for inconstant dwarfed forms; P. smintheus var, baldus Ehrm,, p. 329, = P. clodius var. kallias Ehrm., p. 329, = P. clodius Men.; P. walhberghi Ehrm., p. 329, = P. discobulus Staudinger, var. insignis, Stgr. ; Parnassius wahlbergi var. thiseus Ehrm., p. 331, = P. discobolus insignis Stgr., slightly melanic; P. imhovi Ehrm., p, 332, = P. discobulus var. insignis Stgr.; P. g07iiscus Ehrm., p. 332, = P. discobidus var. romanovi; P. ehrma7i7ii Ehrm., p. 332, = P. thibet- anus Leech. Note — Cf. p. 330; substitution by Bryk of specific name tiaiishanica Oberth. for discobulus Stgr., is uncalled for and indefensible, tianshanica being in fact name from trade-list, and Oberthtir’s description wholly inadequate. Genus Sericinus. S. ehrma7i7ii Ehrm., p. 333, = 5. telamoit var. moiitela Gray. Family PIERID^. Eurema biederma^ini Ehrm., p. 333, = Terias mexicana Boisd. ab. 9 ; Euterpia lorenza Ehrm., p. 333, = Itatallia pisonis (Hewitson); Pseudopo7itia cepheiis Ehrm., p. 334, = Leptosia alcesta (Cram.). Family NYMPHALID.E. Argyn7iis 77ikias Ehrm., p. 334, = A. atla7itis, slight variety with dark basal area on lower side of hind wings; Va7iessa antiopa var. Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science xv grandis Ehrm., p. 334, = 9 ab. lacking blue spots on outer margin; Limenitis Ursula var. cerulea Ehrm., p. 335, = Basilarchia arthemis var. Proserpina Edwards. Family SATYRID^. Mycalesis erysichthon Ehrm., p. 335, probably = M. anisops Karsch. Family LYC^NID^. Liptena pseudo soy auxi Ehrm., p. 336, = var. vestalis Auriv. of Cupido ornatus Mabille and has priority over vestalis Auriv.; Argiolus hollandi Ehrm., p. 336, = Deudorix ccerulea H. H. Druce. Family HESPERIID^. Tagiades dannatti Ehrm., p. 337, valid species, not = T. lacteus Ala- bille; Achlyodes heros Ehrm., p. 337, = Eantis husiris (Cram.); Eudamus boisduvallii Ehrm., p. 337, = Lycas godarti (Latr.) = Hesperia ceraca (Hew.); Eiimesia potomoni Ehrm., p. 338, = Echelatus potomoni Ehrm.; Goniurus cleopatra Ehrm., p. 338, = Eudamus doryssus Goniurus triptolemus Ehrm., = Euda- mus alhimargo Mabille; Leucochitonea eiiphemie Ehrm., p. 339, =Xen- ophanes tryxus (Cram.) ; Leucochitonea janice Ehrm., p. 339, = Helio- petes petrus (Hiibner) ; Leucochitonea jason Ehrm., p. 339, = Eudami- das jason (Ehrm.), valid species, hitherto confounded with E. ozema (Butl.) from which latter it is genitalically distinct; Pamphila antenora Ehrm., p. 344, = Paracarystus hypargyra (Herr.-Schaff.) ; Pamphila elenora Ehrm., p. 344, = Coeliades duhius (Cramer) = virgo Butler; Pamphila theodora Ehrm., p. 345, = Phemiades Propertius (Fabr.); Spathilipia agathocles Ehrm., p. 345, = Cecrop- terus neis (Geyer) ; Spathilipia isocrates Ehrm., p. 345, = Cecrop- terus aunus (Fabr.); Tele gonus fabr id Ehrm., p. 345, = T. alardus Sto\\\ Thymele borja Ehrm., p. 345, = Eudamus simplicius Stoll; Thymele guatemalaina Ehrm., p. 346, = Eudamus cholus (Ploetz) ; Thymele terracina Ehrm., p. 346, = Eudamus harpagus ¥ elder] Thy- mele thiemei Ehrm., p. 346, = Eudamus simplicius Stoll; Thymele viterboana Ehrm., p. 346, = ab. cf of Eudamus proteus. HETEROCERA. Family SYNTOMID^. Syntomis hilda Ehrm., p. 347, = Ceryx hilda Ehrm., cf’; Syntomis hilda Ehrm., 9 = Ceryx seminigra Holland; Syntomis abdominalis Ehrm., p. 348, = Tascia abdominalis (Ehrm.). Family ARCTIIDiE. Leucarctia acrcea var. klagesii Ehrm., p. 349, = Estigmene acrcea klagesii ab. cT; Crocota belmaria Ehrm., cT, p. 350, = C. rtibricosta Ehrm., 9 , doubtfully var. form of C. opella. XVI Genera, Species, and Varieties New to Science Family NOCTUID^. Catocala denussa Ehrm., p. 350, possibly ab. of C. muliercula Guenee, or may be hybrid between C. muliercula and C. kahilis. Family CERATOCAMPID^. Sphingicampa smithii Ehrm., p. 351, = Adelocephala dimidiata Herr.-Schaff. Family PINARID^. P achy pas nasmithii Ehrm., p. 351, = Gonometa subfascia (Walker). Family COSSIDiF^. Prionoxystus rohinice var. quercus 9 , Ehrm. p. 352, = gynandro- morphic ab. of P. rohinice. DATES OF ISSUES OF PARTS OF VOLUME AS SEPARATES. Art. I, June 9, 1926. Art. II-III, October 16, 1926. Art. IV, October 20, 1926. Art. V, November 6, 1926. Art. VI-IX, April 20, 1927. Art. X, April 29, 1927. Art. XI-XV, June 27, 1927 ERRATA AND CORRIGENDA. p. i8i, 13th line from bottom, for “Lampsiis,” read Lampsilis. p. 186, lOth line from top, for Carunculiana" read Carunculina. p. 191, 8th line from top, for “Petrograd,” read Russia, p. 203, 9th line from top, for ‘'Dec. 6,” read Dec. 5. p. 205, 9th line from top, for “June 20,” read June 25. p. 228, loth line from bottom, for ^^divirgens," read diver gens. p. 261, nth line from bottom, for “ Menoptere,'' read Monoptere. p. 302, 2nd line from top, for Mycalsis," read Mycalesis. p. 302, last line, for “P. asterias," read P. asterius. P- 303> 13th line from top, for Tahmourath,” read tahmourath. p. 303, 3rd line from bottom, for guatemalana, read guatemalaina. p. 305, 13th line from bottom, for “throgenus,"' read theogeniis. p. 308, 19th and 17th lines from bottom for “ P. philoxenes Fabricus = Asterius Fabricius” read P. polyxenes Fabricius = asterius Stoll. p. 308, 3rd line from bottom, for ''asterius Fabricius,” read asterius Cramer. p. 309, top line, for “gymandromorph,” read gynandromorph. p. 314, loth line from bottom, for “Aurio,” read Auriv. p. 316, 15th line from top, for “nervule,” read nervules. p. 322, 13th line from top, for “synonymy,” read synonym, p. 328, 6th line from top. for "dimuntive' read diminutive. P- 337> 3rd line from top, for “Triman” read Trimen. P- 337» 7th line from bottom, for " Achylodes," read Achlyodes. p. 341, 7th line from bottom, for " Budamidas jason," read Eudamidas jason. xvii Serial No. 130 Publications of the Cariiegie Museum ANNALS OF THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM VoL. XVII. No. 1. June-November, 1926 For sale by Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd., 2-4, Arthur St., New Oxford St., London, W. C. 2, England: Messrs. R. Friedlander u. Sohn, II Carlstrasse, Berlin, N. W. 6, Germany: Maruzen Company, Ltd., 1 1-16, Nihonbashi, Tori-Sanchome, Tokyo, Japan: and at the Carnegie Museum, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Penna., U. S. A. \ "t?' The dates at which the parts of this number were dis- tributed as separates are the following: Obituary of Douglas Stewart . . . . . , .June 8, 1926. I . A Study of the Neotropical Finches, &c. By W. E. Clyde Todd June 9, 1926. 2 . The South American Species of the genus Tingis, &c. By Carl J. Drake. Oct. 10, 1926. 3. Three New Species of Rutelinae, &c. By Dr. F. Ohaus Oct. 10, 1926. 4. The Geology of Pittsburgh and its Environs, &c. By Henry Leighton . . .Oct. 20, 1926. 5. The Naiades of the Green River Drainage in Ken- tucky. By Arnold E. Ortmann Nov. 6, 1926. -V. ANNALS OF THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM VOLUME XVII, PART 1. Editorial Notes. This part of the Annals is prepared and sent forth under the shadow of a great sorrow, which has deeply touched not only the entire force of the Museum, but a great multitude of persons in the city of Pittsburgh. On April 21st at half-past six, Dr. Douglas Stewart, the Director of the Museum, was suddenly taken from us. Elsewhere there will appear in these pages a record of his life. The Thirtieth Celebration of Founder’s Day was celebrated at the Carnegie Institute on Thursday, April the 29th. The principal addresses on this occasion were made by Sir Arthur William Currie, who during the World War was the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armies and is at present the Principal of McGill University in Montreal. His theme was “Our Inheritance from Scottish Education.” He was followed by the Honorable William Green, President of the American Federation of Labor. The title of his address was “The Dream of Labor.” The festivities, which usually mark such an occasion, in view of the recent death of Dr. Stewart were abandoned. The President and Secretary and a few of the officers of the Board of Trustees and of the staffs of the Museum and Department of Fine Arts met the speakers of the day informally at dinner before their departure from the city on late trains. The sympathies of his innumerable friends go out to Dr. David Starr Jordan in view of the tragic death of his son, Eric Knight Jordan, who was killed in an automobile accident on March loth, 1926. 1 2 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. He was born on September 27, 1903, and was therefore in the twenty-fourth year of his age. He leaves a widow, Elizabeth Roper Jordan, a bride of only a month. The first part of Vol. X, of the Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, published in December, 1922, was A List of the Fishes of Hawaii, with Notes and Descriptions of New Species, in the preparation of which Eric Knight Jordan collaborated with his distinguished father. His death suddenly terminates a career of brilliant promise. To Dr. David Starr Jordan, his household, and to Mrs. Eric Knight Jordan, their friends in the Carnegie Museum express their deepest and most sincere sympathy. It is a pleasure to note that at the Forty-third Stated Meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union the Brewster medal ‘for the most meritorious work on American birds published during the last six years’ was awarded to W. E. Clyde Todd of Pittsburgh, Pa., and M. A. Carriker of Santa Marta, Colombia, for their joint work on The Birds of the Santa Marta Region, Colombia, published in 1922 as Vol. XIV of the Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Mr. Ernest G. Holt on the first of March went to British Honduras to collect birds for the Carnegie Museum. He returned on May i8th, and reports that he was very successful in securing material for a group of Red-footed Boobies, nests, and eggs, the acquisition of which was the principal object of the trip. Mr. John B. Semple, that most generous friend of the Museum, has arranged to finance and lead an expedition to the region of Hudson Bay for the purpose of continuing the explorations, which, begun in 1901, have been since intermittently continued with most excellent results. Mr. Semple will be accompanied by Mr. Todd, our Curator of Ornithology, and Mr. George Miksch Sutton, formerly a member of the staff of the museum, and for some time past State Ornithologist of Pennsylvania. Mr. LeRoy Kay, who spent the winter in the Paleontological Laboratory of the Museum, has returned to Utah and will be engaged during the coming summer in making collections particularly in the Editorial Notes. 3 field of paleontology. He will endeavor to continue the work, which last year was successfully begun by him in the region of Brown’s Park. Mr. Bernard Krautwurm, who spent a couple of months in Florida this spring, returned to the Museum with a very large collection of insects, including about nine thousand coleoptera. He also brought with him a large number of the lepidoptera of Florida, among them a number of rarities, some of them hitherto not represented in the Museum. His collection is being prepared for systematic study. The Director Emeritus, assisted by Mr. Hugo Kahl, has been engaged at odd moments in rearranging the species representing the genera Argynnis and Brenthis contained in the various collections which are the property of the Director Emeritus, and the Museum. The preliminary arrangement reveals the fact that almost all of the species and sub-species belonging to these two genera are represented in the Carnegie Museum, in many cases by long series of specimens, includ- ing of course types of all the species named and described by the late William H. Edwards and some other authors. A monographic paper upon this group is being prepared, in which an endeavor will be made to resolve some of the tangled synonymy which prevails, as is revealed in a number of recent publications. Dr. and Mrs. William B. Wood have loaned some portions of their very extensive collection of Japanese works of art including paintings, porcelains, and articles of inlaid ware, and they are now on exhibition. The collection of insects and the entomological library of the late George A. Ehrman bequeathed by him to the Carnegie Museum has been turned over to the institution by the executors of his estate. At the moment they are being packed and prepared for transportation to the Laboratory of Entomology. The collection is contained in over two hundred and fifty glass-topped drawers and numerous boxes. There are in the neighborhood of five hundred titles in the library, which is that of a working lepidopterist. Among the books are a few sets of journals and periodicals, which are difficult to obtain today in complete condition. 4 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. OBITUARY. Douglas Stewart. As the sun was setting, on April 21, 1926, Douglas Stewart, Director of the Carnegie Museum, died at his home, 5816 Solway Street, Pitts- burgh, in the fifty-third year of his age. He left the Museum at five o’clock on the evening of Thursday, April 15th, apparently in good health and spirits. On the following morning a message was received from his home that he was suffering from a slight illness and would not be at his office, but would probably return to his desk on the following day. No particular apprehension was felt by his family or friends, until the night of the 20th, when alarming symptoms suddenly developed. The best medical talent in the city was quickly summoned in consultation, but, in spite of all that scientific knowledge and skill could do, he passed away, his heart refusing to respond to all the means employed to stimulate and maintain its action. His sudden death was a shock to his family and to the great company of his friends and associates to whom he had greatly endeared himself. Douglas Stewart was born in the city of Pittsburgh on July 15, 1873. His father was the late David Alexander Stewart, who died on December 13, 1888. His mother was Nancy Scott. His father was a nephew of the late Col. Thomas A. Scott, who was early identi- fied with the affairs of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and for many years was its President. Mr. Stewart’s father was one of the earliest partners? of Mr. Andrew Carnegie and at the time of his death was Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Carnegie Steel Company. A close intimacy between the families of the Scotts, Stewarts, and the two brothers, Andrew and Thomas Carnegie, existed from early days. Douglas Stewart was prepared for college at the Shadyside Academy, Pittsburgh, and under private tutors, one of whom was Samuel Black McCormick, then a student in the Western Theological Semi- nary and at present Chancellor Emeritus of the University of Pitts- burgh. Mr. McCormick drilled his pupil in Greek and mathematics. Young Stewart entered Yale College and graduated in the year 1896 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts. While in college he enjoyed great popularity with his fellow-students, took an active part in athletic sports, and was the leader of the Yale Mandolin Club, touring the country with them in his Junior year. Obituary: Douglas Stewart. 5 After graduation he went abroad with his widowed mother. Together they traveled leisurely for two years, visiting most of the countries of western Europe and going as far as Egypt, where they made a somewhat lengthy stay. At this time young Stewart became deeply interested in archeology. The impressions he received and the impulse to study the memorials of the ancient civilization of Egypt never were lost. Upon his return from abroad he approached his friend, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, with the suggestion that possibly he might find a field of useful effort in the great industrial establishments of which his father had been one of the founders. Mr. Carnegie laughingly told him that a young gentleman of his tastes and education would not find a rolling- mill or a blast-furnace a congenial spot in which to develop himself, but added: “You have the training and the tastes which will fit you to find employment in a museum, and I will give you a note of intro- duction to my friend. Dr. Holland, who will kindly receive you.” Accordingly one morning, late in September, 1898, young Stewart accompanied by his dear mother, presented himself, bearing a jocular note of introduction from Mr. Carnegie. Parenthetically it may be said that an “introduction” was scarcely necessary, as I had known my visitor from his childhood. I told him, that although he was a graduate of Yale, he had everything to learn in regard to the adminis- tration of museums. I informed him that his services would at first be of but little value to the institution, but that, if he would keep regular hours, diligently apply himself, and prove his capacity, I had no doubt he might ultimately rise to be the ranking officer of the institution. I told him I needed a young man at my elbow to aid me in my work and that he should be that man. He good-naturedly accepted the position I offered him, and on October i, 1898, his long term of apprenticeship began. He grew steadily in knowledge and usefulness. His wide acquaintance was steadily enlarged and he proved himself an eminently tactful and satisfactory agent in establishing relations between a man who was overwhelmed with work and the great army of those who discover real or imaginary reasons for consulting him. The Carnegie Museum from its inception has been undermanned. While it has achieved for itself an enviable reputation as a center of scientific research and educational work, as was the purpose of its founder, it has done so, not because of the means at its command, but because of the persistent and untiring 6 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. efforts of the few, who in the face of great odds and perpetual dis- couragement have “carried on.” To this success Mr. Stewart con- tributed by his cooperation with his Chief. But I am anticipating. On April 22, 1902, Mr. Stewart was happily married to Miss Agnes Dickson, a gentle lady, whom he had known from his child- hood, and to whom in fact he had become engaged while still a student at Yale. She belonged, as did her husband, to one of the oldest and most excellent families in western Pennsylvania. He was granted leave of absence from the Museum for as long a time as he might choose, and the summer of that year was spent by the young couple in European travel. Returning in the fall, he resumed his place at the Museum in the same room with the writer of these lines. It was a period of develop- ment and transition. Mr. Carnegie had announced his intention to enlarge the Department of the Museum and the Department of Fine Arts, as well as the Library. He had given $5,000,000 for new build- ings. Innumerable questions of detail had to be decided by the heads of the three major departments and the architects in charge of planning and construction. When at last the new quarters were ready for occupancy, the task of transferring the collections from the old to the new quarters had to be accomplished. In all this work, which finally was happily consummated in 1907, Douglas Stewart stood by his chief loyally and efficiently, aiding him in the under- takings which every day created, and which at times sorely taxed the energies of the small and willing staff of the institution. Mr. Carnegie had at the outset determined that attention should be given by the museum to paleontological inquiries in the western country. The work had been commenced in 1898, and necessitated a number of journeys by the writer to the fossil-fields of the western states. During many of these absences Mr. Stewart was left in charge of the routine of the office and attended with fidelity to the various duties devolving upon him. There never was a time when his chief was not kept fully informed as to what was going on “at home,” and was not in a position to intelligently direct the labors which were being performed in the various laboratories of the institution. There came a later time, from 1905 onward, when Mr. Carnegie found pleasure in presenting to the national museums of Europe replicas of the huge reptile which had been discovered in Wyoming, the Diplodocus, a monster which it has been said “made paleontology popular.” During the journeys, which Obituary: Douglas Stewart. 7 the installation of these replicas compelled the writer to make, Mr. Stewart took charge of the main office and all went well. While a student at Yale, Stewart had taken a special course in mineralogy under Professor Edward S. Dana. It was natural for him to feel an interest in this subject and he was accordingly placed in charge of the collections of minerals in the Museum. In the year 1905 Mr. Carnegie was led to purchase for the Museum the famous mineralogical collection of the late Dr. W. W. Jefferis. It was located at Westchester, Pennsylvania, and thither the writer went with Stewart to pack it and bring it to the Museum. We made our home most of the time in Philadelphia and daily repaired at an early hour to Westchester, where in our overalls we worked until late in the evening for many days. The specimens, many thousands of them, were each wrapped in soft paper with the accompanying label and placed in boxes, which gradually piled up about us. Compelled to return to Pittsburgh, I left Mr. Stewart to complete the work, after having arranged with Mr. A. J. Cassatt, the President of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad Company to have two freight cars sent to Westchester to carry the plunder to Pittsburgh. Mr. Cassatt generously granted us free transportation. Many specimens had been loaned by Dr. Jefferis to Professor Dana for representation in his Manual of Mineralogy, and it was a delight to Stewart to handle these things, with which he was familiar through the pictures of them, which he had often seen in his well-thumbed copy of Dana’s text-book. When the consignment reached the museum and the cabinets in which to display them had been built, Stewart was in his element and took the greatest pride and exercised the greatest care in their arrangement. I think his work in this connection afforded him one of the greatest pleasures of his life. His archeological tastes found congenial expression in aiding in the arrangement and display of the very large archeological and ethno- logical collections which we succeeded in gradually amassing. Here, as in the section of mineralogy, he was given a free hand, and provod himself an interested, willing, and efficient collaborator. And so the years rolled on. His position in the confidence and affection of all those about him advanced as time slipped by. In 1917, when the clouds of war were dark over the earth, he asked and received leave of absence from his employment, that he might serve his country. He went to Washington with his family 8 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. and became Associate Director (later Director) of the American Red Cross, "in charge of prisoners’ relief.” His success as an adminis- trator was most highly appreciated. At the close of the war he was asked to take charge of the work of the American Red Cross in Europe, and wind up across seas the unfinished business which required attention. After mature deliberation he declined this offer and returned to the Museum, his title being changed from Assistant to the Director to that of Assistant Director. At this time he con- sented to aid his chief in the management of the affairs of the Belgian Consulate for Western Pennsylvania, which had been undertaken for the period of the war as a free-will service to "suffering Belgium.” He was accordingly appointed Chancellor of the Consulate, and helped to bear some of the burden of this work, until the resignation of the then Consul was finally accepted in the fall of the year 1921, though tendered eighteen months before. The writer of these lines having been made Director Emeritus of the Museum in June, 1922, Air. Stewart became his successor as Director. Almost his entire active life up to that time had been spent in the Aluseum, and he was familiar with every detail of the work which had been done and which had been proposed. He slipped without any friction whatever into the place to which he had been chosen by the Trustees of the Institute, and it was anticipated that long years of eminent usefulness were before him. He addressed himself with enthusiasm to the work in hand, but felt at the outset and continuously thereafter, as all connected with the institution had felt, the strain which arose from the inadequacy of the means available for carrying on the ever-growing enterprise. He was instant in season and out of season, and performed tasks which called in reality for the services of two men rather than one. The burden of petty details grew with time. He endeavored to be "all things to all men,” and often, though apparently strong and vigorous, labored far beyond his strength. His successful administration was an open book to all who cared to see, and he never complained, although during the last two years of his life he frequently expressed himself as being "exceed- ingly tired.” In June, 1924, he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science from the University of Pittsburgh in recognition of his attainments and achievements. In the summer of 1925 he resolved to seek rest and refreshment. Obituary: Douglas Stewart. 9 Accompanied by his good wife and his two charming daughters, he went abroad, spending three months in travel. He visited the leading museums of western Europe, where he was everywhere most cordially received. He returned apparently invigorated, and resumed the round of his many cares and duties with the sunny cheerfulness, which always characterized him, but the burden resting upon him soon again began to tell. In later months, when returning to his home, he often remarked that he was ‘‘completely exhausted,” ‘‘too tired for expression.” His family and friends, however, did not realize to what extent the burdens, which he was quietly bearing, were sapping his strength. The end came suddenly, when, after a long and exhausting day, he left his office and went to his home, and the good heart which had served him throughout life began to weaken, and then stopped. He died suddenly, as have so many other American men of force, who “drive the engine” to the limit, and pass away prematurely, as the victims of stress, combined with worry. Dr. Stewart was a member of many learned societies. He was an Active Member of the American Association of Museums from its inception and at the time of his death was serving on its Executive Council. He was a Fellow of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, and on the two occasions, when that great body met in Pittsburgh, he rendered yeoman’s service in arranging for the reception and entertainment of these large and important gatherings. He took a deep interest in the work of the Archeological Institute of America and in that of the Academy of Science and Art of Pittsburgh, membership in which he prized. He was for a long time the President of the Stage and Play Society of Pittsburgh. To his other accomplishments he added a good knowledge of music and was a proficient violinist, having in his youth spent a great deal of time under the tutelage of Max Bendix, the famous concert- master and composer. When in the evening friends gathered in his lovely home he was frequently asked to render on his favorite instru- ment some of the works of the masters, and though extremely modest in complying with the request, now and then yielded to entreaty, greatly to the delight of all who listened. Opportunities to engage in financial and industrial enterprises came to him not infrequently, but he steadfastly declined them all. He was invited to become the director of one of the great museums of the land, but to have accepted the position would have involved the 10 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. sundering of the ties which bound him to the place of his birth and his removal to a distant city. He declined the proposal. Both he and his wife loved Pittsburgh, and the institution which he served, and even at the sacrifice of honor and increased emoluments they chose to abide among the scenes and friends of their youth. Personally Dr. Stewart was a man of lovable character. Kind- ness and consideration for others radiated in all his actions. He was a true gentleman. As an executive he possessed the ability to quickly reach sound conclusions, without lengthy processes of discussion and argument. His decision in a given case was rarely at fault. He was an excellent judge of human nature and rarely was deceived in inter- preting motives. He loved his work, and gave to it unstintingly the best powers he possessed. His eye was not always upon the clock, and the arrival of “quitting time” did not force him from his labor when labor was thought to be necessary. Being a “good and faithful servant,” he naturally rose to be a master of men. A familiarity and friendship with him, covering his life from his young boyhood to the day of his death, fits the writer of these lines to bear unqualified testimony to the strength and nobility of his character. His departure creates a void in the circle of friendship which cannot be filled. The funeral services took place on April 23, at 3:00 p. m., in Calvary Church, Rt. Rev. Alexander Mann, Bishop of the P. E. Diocese of Pittsburgh, officiating. A band of the friends of his youth and early days, tall, clear-eyed, and upstanding men, followed his remains as they were gently borne to their last resting-place on a sunny slope, carpeted with flowers, where also repose the ashes of his father and mother. “Nor blame I Death, because he bare The use of virtue out of earth; I know transplanted human worth Will bloom to profit, otherwhere.” Manihus date lilia plenisV^ W. J. Holland. 1. A STUDY OF THE NEOTROPICAL FINCHES OF THE GENUS SPINUS. By W. E. Clyde Todd. Introduction. As all ornithologists who have had occasion to work with them are aware, the South American Goldfinches as a group have long been in need of further elucidation. Thus it was that in attempting to identify the series of these birds in the collection of the Carnegie Museum the writer became involved in a research which eventually led to a critical study of the entire group, the results of which it may be well to place on record for the benefit of other workers, together with some theoretical considerations suggested by the distributional problems presented. The present revision is put forth, however, more as a contribution towards a better understanding of the birds of this exceptionally difficult group, and as an aid in their identifi- cation, than as the final word on the subject. Since Sharpe’s review of the genus Spinus in Volume XH of the Catalogue of the Birds, in the British Museum appeared in 1888 no less than seven new forms (all but one valid) have been described from South America, while four more are added in the present paper. What makes the satis- factory definition of the several forms and the proper allocation of specimens so hard is the unusual range in individual, seasonal, and age variation which obtains, unduly complicating the study of geo- graphic variation. Even with the aid of large series, it is not always possible to be sure where certain odd specimens should be placed. With more than one form occurring in a given place, the wonder is how the birds know themselves apart! The writer has had the advantage of a magnificent series of skins, more than one thousand in all, for the purposes of this study. Of these one hundred and thirty-six are in the collection of the Carnegie Museum; the remainder were loaned by the following institutions: the American Museum of Natural History; the Museum of Com- parative Zoology; the United States National Museum; the Field Museum of Natural History; the Bureau of Biological Survey; 11 12 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; the Museum of Princeton University; the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural of Buenos Aires, Argentina; the Senckenbergische Naturfor- schende Gesellschaft of Frankfort-on-Main, Germany; the Musee Polonais d’Histoire Naturelle of Warsaw, Poland; and the Zoolo- gisches Museum of Berlin, Germany. To the authorities of these several institutions he takes this opportunity of again returning thanks for their uniform courtesy, and especially for the loan of several type-specimens, which have proven invaluable in settling certain doubtful points. ^ The material received from the American Museum of Natural History (through the courtesy of Dr. Frank M. Chapman) was especially helpful, including as it did good series from sundry localities in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, which were otherwise unrepresented. Acknowledgments are due also to Dr. Charles W. Richmond, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, and Dr. Harry C. Oberholser for their kindness in looking up certain references in the literature, and to Dr. Roberto Dabbene, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Mr. Samuel N. Rhoads, and Dr. C. E. Hellmayr for information concerning certain localities, and to the last named for making some needed comparisons of material in the British Museum. The references in the synonymy have all been verified, but their allocation is not be- yond question in some cases, where the specimens on which they are based have not actually been examined. Mr. Ernest G. Holt is responsible for the measurements, which are in millimeters, and the length of the bill is that of the exposed culmen. Unless otherwise specified, averages are based on a series of ten specimens. The names of colors are mostly taken from Mr. Ridgway’s Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. Characters and Distribution. The writer has long felt that the so-called “Family” Fringillid^ has been made to include at least two groups worthy of family rank, as families go in the Passeres. It was accordingly of interest to find ^The types of the following published names have been examined in this connec- tion: Carduelis stanleyi Audubon, Carduelis atratus D’Orbigny and Lafresnaye, Chrysomitris bryantii Cassin, Spinus olivaceus von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Spinus ictericus peruanus von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Spinus alleni Ridgway, Chrysomitris siemiradzkii von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, Chrysomitris capitalis Cabanis, Spinus ictericus magnirostris Dabbene, Spinus nigricauda Chapman, Spinus spinescens capiianeus Bangs, and Carduelis yarrellii Audubon. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 13 Prof. Peter P. Sushkin, the eminent Russian ornithologist, after an extended survey of the field, expressing similar views. The outline of classification of the genera which this authority has published {Auk, XLII, 1925, 260) is certainly suggestive and merits careful attention. While it is a far cry from the slight and slender bill of Acanthis to the massive bill of Hesperiphona, they both fall in the same Subfamily, the Carduelinae. Prof. Sushkin remarks upon the present geographical distribution of this group, which is clearly of Old World origin. The genera entering North America do not go much south of the Boreal Zone, at least in the breeding season; they are eminently northern in their distribution. But to this rule there is one conspicuous exception, the genus Spinus, which ranges right through to South America, where it is well represented, especially in the Andean region, and even reaches the southern tip of the continent. When we consider that it is the only Palsearctic genus of the Finches which has found its way into the southern continent, we can see how a study of its development there might be of peculiar interest. Certain features of the color-pattern in Spinus, persisting through a considerable variation otherwise, appear to indicate the genetic relationship of its component members. Considering now the Neo- tropical forms alone, we find that in one small group of three species the throat is uniform with the rest of the under surface, only the cap being black. 5“. yarrellii, the best known species of this group, has a remarkable distribution, being found in the extreme eastern part of Brazil, and reappearing unchanged in northern Venezuela, with no records for the intervening region. An interval of two thousand miles and the valleys of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers separate the present areas inhabited by this species, yet its range must once have been continuous, and much more extensive. The group is represented in the Temperate Zone of the Eastern Andes of Colombia by a distinct but closely allied species, S. spinescens, the darker coloration of which is precisely what we should expect of an Arid Tropical form upon entering a humid environment. In the Central and Western Andes of Colombia S. spinescens has itself become modified into a third species, S. nigricauda, characterized by the loss of the yellow area at the base of the tail, which is wholly black, and by the approximation in color of the sexes. In the ju venal stage all three species are much alike. One of the interesting developments of the present study has been 14 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the discovery that the females of some species exhibit two phases of plumage, apparently not at all dependent upon season or age. In what I call “imperfect plumage” they are decidedly grayish below, this being true in the cases of S. yarrellii and A. spinescens, which we have been considering. We come now to a group of species in which the females are invariably of the latter type of coloration, while the males, although black-hooded, show a tendency to restriction of the black on the sides of the head. The group includes two species, 5. capitalis and S. crassirostris. The former is known from the Temperate Zone in Ecuador, and reappears unmodified at several isolated points in Peru and northern Chile, its exact range in these latter countries remaining to be worked out. A. crassirostris is a remarkable form, peculiar to the higher elevations of the Andes in northern Argentina and Chile. Its bill is enormous for a Spinus, and would suffice to take it out of this genus were it not that it agrees otherwise. The characters of the adult females of these two species serve to set them off sharply from other known forms. The smallest and brightest colored South American species of the genus is S. siemiradzkii, which is confined to the Arid Tropical Zone of western Ecuador and the adjacent part of Peru. No form of the group is known from western or northern Colombia, and to find the nearest relative of S. siemiradzkii we have to go all the way to the north coast of Venezuela, where, again in the Arid Tropical Zone, we meet with a species {S. cucullatus) which in size, proportions, and color-pattern is a close replica of the bird from Ecuador, but which has the yellow of the latter replaced by red. Such a replacement is understandable on the basis of Keeler’s theory of the sequence of colors {Occasional Papers California Academy of Sciences, Ill, 1893, 154), but in any event these two species, although widely separated geographically, are beyond question closely related. Their probable trans-Andean representative is S. longirostris, known only from the highlands of British Guiana. In its coloration this form is much like S. magellanicus ictericus; in size and proportions it resembles S. cucullatus, but it has a larger and slenderer bill than either. This combination of characters, taken in connection with its isolated habitat, suggests its specific distinctness. The peculiar brownish tone of its plumage is repeated in S, olivaceus, a species of the Sub- tropical Zone, which ranges over the eastern or Amazonian slope of the Andes all the way from southeastern Ecuador to the Yungas of Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 15 Cochabamba in Bolivia. S. olivaceus agrees in general with the other members of this restricted group, but differs in that the light terminal edgings of the tertiaries, which are so prominent a feature in the other species, are scarcely apparent. Coming now to the S. magellanicus group, we find that it has a wide distribution, ranging from eastern Brazil to the Andes of Bolivia, and south to Argentina. The typical race is confined almost entirely to the Province of Buenos Aires in the latter country, and to the adjacent parts of Uruguay. Farther north, in the Chaco of Argentina and in the campos region oj Paraguay and Matto Grosso west to the foothills of the Andes, it gives way to a smaller and paler race, alleni. The eastern States of Brazil, north to southern Bahia, are occupied by a third race, ictericus, characterized by its rather deeper and richer general coloration. Beginning again with true magellanicus, but advancing in a different direction, this time northward along the Andes, we find another and unbroken series of three races. Between the region occupied by typical magellanicus and the area where we first meet with tucumanus, in western and northern Argentina, there is a wide stretch of country for which there are no records. If this gap in distribution is real and not merely apparent it is a significant circumstance. In tucumanus the bright colors of magellanicus are appreciably toned down, and in bolivianus this is carried a step further, while the upper parts tend to become streaked. Still farther north, in Peru, we find a form, urubambensis, in which the coloration is again brighter in the male and apparently duller in the female. It appears that Spinus magellanicus has been able to adapt itself to a considerable range in latitude and altitude. While the typical race is found only in the low country, ictericus occurs from sea-level well up into the coastal mountains in the States of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The Andean races, on the other hand, occupy successively higher ground, generally speaking, as we proceed from south to north, suggesting their development in this direction. In Peru the representative of the magellanicus group is found associated with an allied, but apparently specifically distinct form, peruanus, smaller and more brightly colored. The remarkable thing about peruanus is that it ranges absolutely unchanged from sea-level up to an elevation of 12,400 feet in the Andes, running thus through three life-zones. This extraordinary altitudinal range is hard to explain for one not on the ground. It may be due to the effect of the cold 16 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Humboldt Current on the climatic conditions of these parts, or to causes inherent in the economy of the birds themselves. In northern Peru and Ecuador peruanus is represented by a smaller race, paulus, which similarly has an extensive altitudinal distribution, although not known to range so high up as the other. Still another species, S. santcecrucis, perfectly distinct from the magellanicus and peruanus types, has been discovered in and appears to be restricted to the foothills of the Andes in the Province of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, where it occurs associated with S. magellanicus alleni. It is close to alleni in size, but has acquired much black on the upper parts. To find any more representatives of Spinus of the black-hooded type we shall have to go a long distance, to the highlands of Mexico, where we meet with an outlying species of the group, S. notatus, which ranges south as far as Nicaragua. In S. notatus the sexes are similar, the bill is long and slender, and the wings show little or no lighter edgings, char- acters indicating a considerable advance upon those of the black-hooded group as expressed in South America. The black of the head, too, is more extended below, and taken altogether the form seems to be well specialized, and clearly an offshoot from Neotropical stock. In western Mexico it has developed into a fairly well marked subspecies, forreri. North of Ecuador no form of Spinus is known from the Tropical Zone, but in the Subtropical we find a very distinct species, S. xantho- gaster, which has the upper parts as well as the throat and breast wholly black. Its northward range, like that of so many others of this zone, is interrupted by the Panama “fault,” but it reappears beyond this break and is found virtually unchanged when the proper altitude is attained in western Panama and in Costa Rica. South of Ecuador there is another break (however, possibly only apparent and not real) in its range, until the Yungas of Bolivia are reached, where it reappears in a slightly modified form, S. stejnegeri. There remain to be considered the species of Spinus from the more southern Andes, S. barbatus, S. uropygialis, and S. atratus, these three appearing to constitute a natural group. All are large, vigorous birds, fitted to withstand the cold of these parts. They have in comparison longer wing-tips, indicating a more migratory, rather than sedentary, habit. The male of S. atratus in its black upper parts resembles the same sex of A. xanthogaster, but the females of the two forms are very different, and they can have no close relationship. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 17 Besides, 5. atratus, according to Dr. Chapman, is a species of the Puna or Paramo Zone, at least in the breeding season, and advances northward into Peru only with the extension of that zone. S. uropyg- ialis. is little known, but appears to have a comparatively restricted range in the Chilean cordillera; it is a step on the way to atratus, the black areas being more interrupted and restricted. S. barbatus, which enjoys an extensive range in Chile from Atacama to Cape Horn, is the most generalized form of all, the black on the head being restricted to the crown and a spot on the throat, the latter spot sometimes obsolete. Its characters are nearer those of S. spinus of the Palsearctic Region than any other of the South American forms, so far as the adults are concerned. But the young, like all the rest of the Neotropical forms of Spinus, are very different indeed, being unstreaked, save for a trace on the crissum. Phylogeny and Origin of the Group. From the above outline of the facts it will be seen how very compli- cated is the problem of the relationships of the forms under considera- tion. I am perforce obliged to approach this problem without that background of first-hand familiarity with the country which some may deem essential for its proper understanding, but in spite of this handicap I venture to offer some tentative conclusions suggested by my closet studies. In the first place, the most striking thing we notice about the Middle and South American Goldfinches is their frequent discontinuous distribution. This of- itself is supposed to indicate antiquity of origin and dispersal. The second thing we notice is that over a considerable area in the Andean region the several types do not represent each other geographically, but meet on common ground, retaining their respective characters. We infer from this that such groups of forms have no immediate relationships, but have differentiated before their ranges began to overlap. In the third place, we notice that while the Goldfinch group at large avoids the forests of the Amazon and Orinoco Valleys, it has otherwise an exceptionally wide range, both latitudinally and altitudinally, and behaves precisely as do other groups, the tropical origin of which is undoubted, responding to the influence of environment in a similar way. This indicates unusual plasticity and adaptability to varying conditions, and suggests why it is that Spinus, alone of all the Palae- arctic Finches, has succeeded in reaching South America and thriving 18 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. there, while still retaining its generic identity. Before we can discuss the question of how the genus may have entered South America we shall have to consider its development there. My studies lead me to believe that the forms with the least black in the male plumage, and particularly on the head, are the more primitive and more generalized types. S. yarrellii, with its black cap, would seem to be less advanced than the members of the black- hooded group. Now, we have seen that the range of yarrellii is not only much restricted, but also discontinuous. We are therefore justified in assuming a former extensive range for what seems to be now a disappearing species, surviving in two isolated regions. Such a range must have taken in an enormous stretch of territory off the northeastern coast of Brazil, Guiana, and Venezuela, at the time when the continent extended far beyond its present limits in this direction. It must have antedated, too, the formation of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers. With the gradual recession of the shore-line, and the intervention of the valleys of these great rivers, with their unsuitable ecological conditions, the range of yarrellii must have been cut in two, until now we find it inhabiting distinct areas two thousand miles apart. In both of these areas, too, it looks very much as if it were being forced off the map, so to speak, by the advance of certain other species of this group, later immigrants, better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence. Opposed to this view is the fact that the Goldfinches, as we know them here in the north, are sociable, tolerant birds, not objecting to the company of other kinds of similar haunts and habits. But it is significant that no other species of Spinus is known to occur in the range of yarrellii. Assuming such an extended range for yarrellii, it is not difficult to understand how it may have given rise to a Subtropical Zone form where its range impinged upon the Andes as they were being elevated. As the mountains continued to rise the birds kept pace with them, eventually entering the Temperate Zone, still retaining the black cap as evidence of their ancestry, but with their bright colors appreciably toned down, thus evolving into a different species, spinescens. It is true that yarrellii is not known to have a distinct representative in the Subtropical Zone; such a form is purely hypothetical. I might suggest that a form of this type may have once existed in the Sub- tropical, but was eliminated through competition with a later invader, possibly S. xanthogaster. Or it is conceivable that under certain Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 19 conditions yarrellii may have entered the Temperate Zone directly from the Tropical, at some point where the intervening zone had been omitted. The fact that the species, as we know it today, avoids the regions of humid subtropical forest would argue in favor of this view. These explanations are admittedly weak, but they are the only ones which come to mind at present; perhaps those familiar with the ground may have something better to offer. At any rate, whatever may have been the steps in the process, it seems clear that Spinus spinescens of the Temperate Zone of the Eastern Andes of Colombia is closely related to, and was probably derived from, S. yarrellii of northern Venezuela and eastern Brazil. (The form of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, capitaneus, is merely a slightly modified race of spinescens). Moreover, since S. nigricauda of the Central and Western Andes of Colombia, with its wholly black tail and highly colored female, is a further step in advance, we have a right to infer that development began in the east and proceeded westward. The three species in question are links in a chain which reaches its farthest point in one direction in nigricauda. Upon entering the Temperate Zone in Ecuador we meet with a bird of this group, S. capitalis, which is of peculiar interest. The male usually has the black of the crown extended over the sides of the head to the throat, but this color is much restricted posteriorly on these parts, and sometimes virtually wanting, when the bird looks not unlike spinescens. The female is invariably dull grayish below, exactly as in the large proportion of females of the latter form which are in what I call “imperfect plumage.” These facts in my judgment imply that capitalis is a derivative of spinescens, evolved through isolation, but just what geographical factors are involved I am not prepared to say. S. crassirostris, of the higher elevations in Chile and northwestern Argentina, I regard as a highly specialized descendant of the capitalis type, standing at the farthest end of the series from an evolutionary as well as a geographical standpoint, having been derived from the north. Taking up now the black-hooded group of the genus, which im- presses one as being somewhat more advanced than the black-capped group, I conceive that S. longirostris is nearest the primitive type. This form is at present known only from the highlands of Guiana, but its prototype was almost certainly a bird of much wider distribution. 20 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. It is a small species, with a particularly short tail and a short wing-tip, characters which are repeated and emphasized in S. cucullatus of the northern coast of Venezuela and S. siemiradzkii of western Ecuador. Since their respective ranges both lie on the farther side of the Andes, but are otherwise widely separated from each other, it may be that these two species are related only through derivation from an ancestral form {longirostris or its prototype?) which was able to cross the mountains at two isolated points and establish itself on the farther side, eventually becoming modified into two perfectly distinct species, both of restricted distribution. Or it is even possible that a strip of Arid Tropical may at one time have served to connect the respective range of the two species west of the Andean chain. At this point we naturally look for a Subtropical Zone representative of this group, and we find it, I am inclined to think, in S. olivaceus. This species is little known, but the fact that it appears to be confined to the Subtropical Zone of the eastern or Amazonian slope of the Andes signifies that it was derived from the east. Probably it originated in eastern Ecuador, and subsequently spread southward into Peru and Bolivia, following its appropriate zone. Why it did not happen to spread northward through Colombia at the same time I ara not prepared to explain. Goldfinches of the black-hooded group are found south of the Amazon Valley also, but are of a somewhat different type, having longer tails in proportion, and being in general rather larger. The three forms alleni, ictericus, and magellanicus intergrade with one another so completely that they must be regarded as conspecies; their respective ranges are contiguous. But between magellanicus and its nearest relative to the westward, tucumanus, there appears to be a gap of considerable extent, where no form of the genus is known to occur. Nevertheless, tucumanus is so close in its characters to magellanicus that it can scarcely be regarded as otherwise than conspecific. As we go northward along the Andes tucumanus passes into holivianus, and this in turn into urubambensis of Peru, all inter- grading forms. The exact relationships of Spinus santcecrucis, on the other hand, are by no means clear as yet, but may be with S. magel- lanicus alleni, which may have undergone modification after reaching the eastern foothills of the Andes. The indications are, therefore, that S. magellanicus as a species was developed in eastern Brazil as a form of the Tropical Zone, that it Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 21 spread thence to the southward into Argentina, and thence, after an interval, northward along the Andes as a form of the Temperate Zone. This will account for the dissimilarity in characters and range between holivianus and alleni, both of which occur in Bolivia within a short distance of each other. It remains to consider the relationship between the magellanicus group of conspecies on the one hand and the forms of peruanus on the other. While they are amazingly alike, they meet in Peru as distinct species, their ranges actually overlapping in the higher elevations. The bright coloration of peruanus tends to support the idea that it is primarily a form of the Tropical Zone, but it must have been developed independently of the magellanicus group, and it is scarcely likely to have been derived from the northern short-tailed forms. The characters and distribution of the three species barbatus, uropygialis, and atratus suggest that they stand in the same geo- graphical relation to each other as the three Andean races of the magellanicus group; that is, they have proceeded from south to north, independently of any other forms of the genus. But unlike the forms of the magellanicus group, their differentiation is complete, and they have attained the dignity of species. The most southern member of the group, barbatus, is also the most primitive in its characters. In S. atratus, on the contrary, we have a bird in which the tendency to melanism reaches its fullest development, even the female being black. S. uropygialis stands midway between the other two. The only other species with wholly black upper parts is a Sub- tropical Zone form, S. xanthogaster. It stands in a class by itself, with no near relatives in the genus. Its small size, very short wing-tip, and differently colored female show clearly that it has nothing what- ever to do with S. atratus. In casting about for its possible antecedent, supposing such to be still extant, I soon became convinced that no known form of Spinus (as at present understood) could possibly be considered in this connection, and that it would be necessary to look elsewhere. After a careful survey of the field I have become convinced that in Astragalinus psaltria we have the object of our search, a species which satisfies all the biological and geographical conditions of the problem. In the northern part of its range A. psaltria has a black cap, greenish upper parts, and large white spots on the rectrices. As we go south we find all these characters gradually changing, the upper parts becoming mixed with black and finally entirely of this color. 22 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Towards the southern part of its range the white spots on the tail also tend to disappear. Now, Spinus xanthogaster has all the ear- marks of having been derived from such a bird as an Astragalinus psaltria in the black-backed stage; it is in fact the transformation we should expect were the latter carried into the Subtropical Zone. The two birds are of the same size, and have the same characteristically short wing-tip; the upper parts are black in both; and both have the rump-feathers with indications of light-colored bases. The white at the base of the remiges and rectrices in psaltria is yellow in xantho- gaster, diVid the latter has assumed a black breast, characters which are merely a further step in what appears to be the natural course of color development in the group. Females and young of the two forms are certainly very much alike. Moreover, the range of the black-backed form of psaltria, occupying as it does the Tropical Zone immediately below the Subtropical range of xanthogaster (to the exclusion of any other form of the group), is an additional argument for such a view of their relationship. In short, the evidence goes to show that Astragalinus psaltria had its origin in North America; that it has extended its range into northern South America, with increasing melanism as it passed southward into the Tropical Zone; that after it had attained black upper parts, but before it had lost the white spots on the rectrices, it gave rise to a Subtropical Zone offshoot, which is now Spinus xanthogaster-, and that this latter form has followed the Subtropical Zone as far as Bolivia, where it has become slightly paler. If I have correctly interpreted the facts in this case, I regard this conclusion as one of the most interesting and suggestive the present study has brought to light. Reserving the case of the Mexican species, S. notatus, for later treatment, I proceed at once to the question of the status and relationships of the supposed genus Astragalinus. It has been kept distinct from Spinus not because of any difference in structural characters, but only by reason of different features in its coloration. Mr. Ridgway {Bulletin U. S. National Museum, No. 50, I, 1901, 108) remarks that ‘The difference between the two groups in style of coloration seems all the more important when it is taken into consideration that in other respects as to coloration there is a very great range of variation in both groups.” But if my conception of the relationship between Spinus xanthogaster and Astragalinus psaltria is correct, then this difference in the style of coloration must Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 23 be of much less importance than has been supposed, so far at least as these two species are concerned. I hope to show that by analogy the other species referred to Astragalinus are similarly involved. In the case of the American Goldfinch, Astragalinus tristis, a certain propor- tion of the adult male specimens examined show a white area at the base of the primaries, more or less concealed by the primary-coverts. This corresponds of course to the yellow area shown by the species of Spinus. The white on the tail is at the ends of the feathers, instead of at their bases, but when we recall that in at least one species of Spinus, S. nigricauda, the yellow at the bases of the tail-feathers has been lost, this character rather loses its value. In the Lawrence Goldfinch, A. lawrencei, the outer rectrices have a large white spot near their ends, and the primaries are yellow basally on the outer webs, producing almost the same effect as in Spinus. Again, to maintain Astragalinus on the basis proposed by Mr. Ridgway may necessitate the reference of several African species to the group, a fact doubtless overlooked by him, since these are uniformly without any yellow at the base of the remiges and rectrices. After going over the whole ground, both from the taxonomic and the zoogeo- graphical point of view, I am convinced that we gain nothing by recognizing a distinction without a difference, and I therefore formally propose to merge Astragalinus with Spinus. As for Loximitris, the monotypic Cardueline genus of the island of Haiti, I am not so sure, although Prof. Sushkin tells me that he favors merging it with Spinus. Loximitris has a rather large, swollen bill, but is not' more abnormal in this respect than Spinus crassirostris. While its wings are plain black, the rectrices are largely yellow, with black tips; the black hood is restricted. Moreover, the female is distinctly streaked, which is decidedly not true of any of the Neo- tropical forms of Spinus. It is significant that the latter, taken as a whole, do not show a streaked plumage, even in the juvenal stage, in which respect they differ widely from the type of the genus, S. spinus, and from its American representative, S. pinus. Not even in S. harbatus, which otherwise approximates spinus in its characters, is this feature present, as I have been at some pains to point out. (Several species besides harbatus show traces of such a color-pattern, it is true, in the shape of dark streaks on the crissum in some individuals). We conclude, therefore, that the Neotropical forms of the group could not have been derived directly from the boreal forms. Further- 24 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. more, consideration of the geographical distribution of the forms in question tends to bear out this conclusion. S. pinus is clearly a more primitive type than the Eurasian S. spinus, since the streaked style of plumage of the young of the former is retained in the adults of both sexes, while in the latter it gives way to a yellow and green dress in the adult male, although retained in the female. The logical inference in this case would be that the Eurasian form has been derived from the American form, instead of the reverse, as has generally been assumed. It is more likely, however, that the streaked type was once circumboreal, and has since developed further in Eurasia than in America, for reasons not now apparent. The geo- graphical history of S. pinus in North America is easy to trace. In common with other boreal forms of life, it seems to have been driven far southward by the advance of the ice during the Pleistocene Period, and remained there long enough to undergo modification. Thus it happens that in the highlands of southern Mejtico we find a race, macropterus, with slightly longer wings and tail and a tendency to fewer streaks beneath, and in the mountains of Guatemala a distinct species, S. atriceps, which has developed a black crown, but betrays its close affinity to pinus in the streaked young, which are scarcely or not distinguishable from the same stage of pinus. Guate- mala, I take it, marks the farthest advance of the pinus group into the Neotropical Region, the limit of its attempted southern invasion. On the other hand one of the purely Neotropical species of the genus, S. notatus, a form with unstreaked young, has succeeded in pushing its way well to the northward of this limit, occupying most of Mexico. The two groups, advancing from opposite directions, here meet and overlap. This in itself is a strong argument for their different descent. But while the Neotropical species have thus developed independently, as it were, from the boreal forms, they are suspiciously similar to certain Eurasian members of the same generic group, S. spinoides and S. ambiguuSf for example. It is generally recognized that during at least a part of the Tertiary Period North America must have been connected with Asia by way of Behring Strait, and possibly also with Europe by way of Greenland and Iceland. The evidence for this is abundant and convincing, and need not be discussed here. It has been assumed that such a former connection is ample to account for certain resemblances between the respective faunas of South America and the Old World. It has been Todd: Neotropical Finches of the "Genus Spinus. 25 supposed that the groups in question originated in Eurasia, crossed the land-bridge into Alaska, and then extended their range to the southward, eventually reaching South America. It is quite true that in the case of certain forms, Cinclus for example, the evidence certainly points to such a course {cf. Stejneger, Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections, Quarterly Issue, XLVII, 1905, 421-432). But where this was the case we should expect to find some indications that these forms had come that way, in the shape of relict colonies scattered Rlong the route, left behind as the main body advanced. Such relict forms actually occur, as -we know, not only in the case of Cinclus, but also in numerous others. But it seems to me that such a hypothesis is entirely too weak when applied to the great bulk of the cases which can be cited, that it assumes far too much, and disregards too many facts of distribution. I do not see how it can be twisted to fit the facts in the case of Spinus, and I feel that we must look elsewhere for the needed explanation. In offering such I am fully aware that such noted authorities as Prof. Henry F. Osborn and Dr. W. D. Matthew discount the idea of any former land-bridge involving North and South America with any other continent, except the one at Behring Strait. While I am not competent to discuss the palaeontological evidence on this point, I cannot help but feel that some of the explanations of avian distribution compelled by this position are forced and unnatural. In lieu of this unsatisfactory conception I am inclined to favor the theory, advanced by Scharff and others, of a hypothetical Tertiary land-bridge across the Atlantic, from the West Indies to the Medi- terranean countries of Europe. The idea of such a connection is not so fanciful as it appears at first glance. In a previous paper {Annals Carnegie Museum, XIV, 1922, 106) I have given reasons for believing that there has been a depression of 11,000 or 12,000 feet along the northern coast of the South American continent. If this subsidence extended to the eastward, as it probably did, the land also must have stretched far in that direction before the sinking took place. Indeed, the idea has even been advanced that the Atlas Mountains of North Africa are merely the continuation of the coast range of northern South America. It is true that Scharff does not admit a direct connection of this supposed land-bridge with northern South America, but I think in view of the foregoing considerations such a 26 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. connection is indicated. We should then have a satisfactory ex- planation for the entrance of the Palaearctic genus Spinus into South America without involving North America. For the characters of the South American forms clearly indicate that they were derived not from the boreal American form of the same genus, but from some form or forms which had already differentiated considerably from the primitive stock. The characteristic wing- and tail-pattern of Spinus, on the persistence of which so much stress has been laid, I find repeated with variations not only in the Eurasian forms of that group, but also in other Old World genera, such as Carduelis and Chloris. The objections to this theory may be briefly stated. They are, first, that if such a land-bridge ever existed, it ceased to exist in the early Eocene, and consequently before the time when it is believed birds of the Passerine type came into being. To this I would reply, first, that the evidence indicates that a Spinus of the black-capped type had already entered South America, presumably by such a land-bridge, while the basins of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers were yet closed on the east. Either the evolution of Passerine birds was further advanced than has been supposed, or the formation of these rivers was later. In the second place, the birds could have used such a land-bridge long after it had been partially submerged, and left in the form of a chain of islands. One species of the group, S. barbatus, has been found as an accidental visitor on the Falkland Islands, two hundred and fifty miles off the mainland of Patagonia, showing that it can traverse a considerable expanse of sea. The second objection is that inevitably other Eurasian birds besides Spinus must have found their way across such a land-bridge, and there is no evidence for such an emigration. We are of course not justified in building up a hypothetical land-bridge merely to satisfy the requirements of one particular case. But I insist that this case is not unique, and that there is plenty of other evidence in favor of the theory, which evidence I hope to bring out in another connection. The third objection is a corollary of the second, and is that such a land-bridge would have served to carry some of the Neotropical fauna into Eurasia, for which there is no evidence. This objection I propose to discuss in the same connection as the last. Assuming such a land-bridge as I have indicated, we can conceive how the prototypes of the New World forms of the group may have Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 27 crossed on it. Those that turned to the north and entered North America developed along lines that eventually resulted in producing forms with white on the tail, which we have been calling Astragaliniis. One has only to compare A. tristis in the young or winter dress with Carduelis cardiielis of the Old World to be convinced of their affinity. The branch that entered South America developed bright colors, as so many other birds have in the tropics, and retained the yellow- colored areas at the base of the wings and tail. One form of this group, pushing past the West Indies, seems to have entered Mexico independently, to become what is now Spinus notatus, while Loxi- mitris dominicensis is the only known survivor in these islands. It is quite likely, in view of what we know, that the Goldfinches had already become differentiated into distinct species, before they reached their present homes, or at least on the way across during the numerous changes of level that affected the West Indies. We may suppose that the black- capped group was the first to arrive, spreading over northern and eastern South America, and eventually working southward along the Andes, after undergoing considerable modification. It was probably followed by the black-hooded type, which crowded out the other in places, and eventually spread over a much larger area, splitting up into several forms under changing environment. North of the Amazonian sea it developed into smaller forms, with relatively shorter tails, but once across that barrier it increased in size and developed a longer tail as it entered the Temperate Zone and turned north along the Andes, meeting here the representatives of the other groups. A third invasion resulted in bringing in a still different type of Goldfinch, with a long wing-tip and stouter build, directly to the southern part of the continent, from which it has spread northward in high altitudes. This invasion probably took place at the same time as the entrance of so many other forms of northern affinities into temperate South America, the cause of which is not yet under- stood. And lastly, there is the case of the single species which was developed north of Panama and reached South America on a Sub- tropical Zone bridge, long since disappeared. The fifth invasion, or attempted invasion, carried the group no farther than Guatemala. Such, in brief, is my explanation, or perhaps I should say attempt at explanation, of the facts brought out by my study of Spinus and related groups. In their distribution and characters, as we find them today, we may read a chapter of the geological history of the South 28 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. American continent. Undoubtedly, the complexity of the factors entering into this question is such that every scrap- of available evidence becomes of value, and if in following out the ramifications of the problem far beyond the limits originally set I have been able to make some slight contribution towards its solution, and to provoke further discussion, the present thesis will well have served its purpose, for science seeks not to bolster up preconceived ideas, but to ascertain the truth. Species and Subspecies. The following key to the forms treated in the systematic portion of this paper has been prepared with a view to placing them in their proper position, as nearly as can be done in a linear sequence. It is based on general average characters, as shown by a series of speci- mens,,and cannot be made to answer for every example. The forms ordinarily placed in Astragaliniis are not included. In this connection attention should be called to the indicated existence of at least two new and undescribed species of Spinus in South America. One of these is represented by a female example in the collection of the Carnegie Museum (No. 90,099), from the Paramo Frias, Andes of Venezuela, collected July 17, 1922. It is a most peculiar bird, very dark in general coloration, with little yellow on the tail, and with a large and heavy bill. It is markedly distinct from S. spinescens, specimens of which were collected at this same locality, showing that two species occur there. The second form is represented by four females, three from Las Ventanas, Santander, Colombia, September 19, 1916 (Nos. 57,620-2, Collection Carnegie Museum), and one from La Herrera (2,650 meters), Cundinamarca, Colombia (No. 126,690, Collection American Museum of Natural History). These appear to represent a form allied to S. peruanus paiiliis, but they differ in being darker, with the under parts grayish on the throat and breast, and a yellowish wash on the upper abdomen. In paulus it is the throat that has a yellowish wash. The discovery of the males of these two forms will be awaited with interest, pending which discovery it will be best to forego naming them. Key to the Neotropical Forms of Spinus. (Based on adult males, except where otherwise noted.) A. Throat without black, uniform with breast. a. Below bright yellow Spinus yarrellii. a . Below yellowish green. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 29 b= Tail yellow basally. c. Brighter. .Spinus spinescens spinescens. c . Paler and duller . .Spinus spinescens capilaneus. b’. Tail wholly black. .Spinus nigricauda. Throat (more or less) black. Sides of head at least partly black, b. Sides of neck and of breast red or yellow, c. Female (in perfect plumage) grayish below. d. Smaller; wing of male averaging 68.5 mm. ...... .Spinus capitalis. d^ Larger; wing of male averaging 79.5 mm.. . . . .Spinus crassirosiris. c . Female (in perfect plumage) more or less yellowish or greenish below, d. Lesser wing-coverts black, with paler tips, e. Smaller; wing of male averaging under 62 mm. f . General color red Spinus cucullatus. i' . General color yellow. g. Brighter; back aniline-yellow Spinus siemiradzkii. g\ Duller; back warbler-green Spinus longirostris. e' . Larger; wing of male averaging over 62 mm. f. Rump scarcely or not different from the back. g. Back lightly mottled with dusky brownish; light edgings of tertiaries narrow and inconspicuous. .... .Spinus olivaceus. g . Back heavily mottled with black; light edgings of tertiaries broad and conspicuous. . .Spinus sanimcrucis. f . Rump yellow, in decided contrast with the back. g. Smaller; wing of male averaging under 70 mm.; tail under 45 mm. h. Edgings of tertiaries more whitish. i. Larger; wing of male averaging 69 mm. Spinus peruanus peruanus^. i^ Smaller; wing of male averaging 64.5 mm. Spinus peruanus paulus. h^ Edgings of tertiaries more yellowish. i. Below paler, purer yellow. ..... Spinus magellanicus alleni. Below deeper, darker yellow Spinus magellanicus ictericus. g . Larger; wing of male averaging over 70 mm.; tail over 45 mm. h. Above with little or no dark mottling, i. General coloration brighter Spinus magellanicus magellanicus. i^ General coloration duller . magellanicus tucumanus. h . Above with more or less dark mottling. i. Above darker, more olive-green, with more dark mottling; female more yellowish below. Spinus magellanicus bolivianus. i^ Above brighter, more yellowish green, with less dark mottling; female more greenish below Spinus magellanicus urubamhensis . 30 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. d^ Lesser wing-coverts wholly black. e. Below richer, deeper yellow Spinus notatus notatus. e^ Below duller, less golden yellow Spinus notatus for reri. b^ Sides of neck and of breast black, c. Back and rump black. d. Black below more restricted, leaving the lower breast yellow, e. Yellow below deeper (lemon-chrome) Spinus xanthogaster xanthogaster. e^ Yellow below lighter (lemon-yellow) Spinus xanthogaster stejnegeri. d' . Black below more extended, leaving only the middle of the abdomen yellow Spinus atratus. c^ Back black, mottled with greenish; rump yellow . uropygialis. a^ Sides of head dull greenish yellow Spinus barbatus. Spinus yarrellii (Audubon). Fringilla mexicana (not Carduelis mexicanus Swainson) Audubon, Birds Am., V, 1839, 282, pi. 433, fig. of male (“Upper California”; descr. male). Carduelis yarrellii Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Am., 1839, 117 (“Upper California” [error]; orig. descr.; type now in U. S. Nat. Mus.). — Audubon, Birds Am., 8vo ed.. Ill, 1841, 136, pi. 184, part (“California”; /fife Swainson; descr. male). Fringilla yarrellii Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. orig. descr.). Chrysomitris yarrelli Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 517 (diag.; ref. orig. descr.). — Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1857, 7 (Orinoco [River, Vene- zuela]; crit.). — Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R, Surveys, IX, 1858, 418 (diag.), 421 (descr.; references; crit.). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 675 (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Brazil, in range). — Cooper, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, II, 1877, 92 (crit.). — Allen, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, V, 1880, 88 (crit.; range). — Forbes, Ibis, 1881, 338 (Parahyba, Garanhuns, and Quipapa, Brazil). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 198 (Bahia and Pernambuco, Brazil; descr.; references). — Butler, Foreign Finches in Captivity, 1894, 44> text (Bahia and Pernambuco, Brazil). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 591 (ref. descr.; range). — Nicoll, Ibis, 1906, 669 (Bahia, Brazil). — Snethlage, Journ. f. Orn., LV, 1907, 297 (in captivity). Astragalinus yarrelli Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 159, note (in list of species) . Chrysomitris yarrellii Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 93 (“Orenoque,” Venezuela; crit.). — Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Hist. N. Am. Birds, I, 1874, 471, in text (crit.). — Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Ill, 1880, 213, and Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 21, 1881, 59 (crit. on range). Chrysomitris hypoxantha Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., XIV, 1866, 160 (Bahia [type- locality] and Leopoldina, Brazil; orig. descr.; type in coll. Berlin Mus.). — von Pelzeln, Orn. Brasiliens, iii, 1870, 231, note, 440 (Cabanis’ reference). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 674 (ret. orig. descr.). Fringilla hypoxantha Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; range) . Todd: Neotropical Finches op the Genus Spinus. 31 Fringilla yarrelli Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; Audubon’s reference) , Spinus yarelli [sic] von Ihering, Aves Brazil, 1907, 380 (Bahia, Brazil), Spinus yarrelli Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 229 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 372 (ref, orig, descr.; range). Description. Adult male: above bright golden yellow (between sulphine-yellow and aniline-yellow) to warbler-green, often slightly mottled with darker centers on the feathers, brightening on the rump and upper tail-coverts into empire-yellow; tail black, with concealed base yellow; lesser and median wing-coverts externally like the back, black at the base; greater series black, tipped with lemon-chrome; wings black, with a broad basal band of lemon-chrome, wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary; inner secondaries margined externally with yellow toward their tips, tending to white on the longer feathers; primary-coverts black; pileum glossy black; sides of head and entire under surface bright lemon-chrome; tibi^ ecru-olive; under wing-coverts and inner webs of the remiges below mostly pale yellow. (Colors of soft parts unknown.) Female: above, including the pileum, warbler-green, mottled with brownish centers on the feathers, brightening into sulphine-yellow on the rump; pattern of wings and tail as in the male, the yellow duller and more restricted; sides of head and under parts in general dull yellow (near wax-yellow), a little paler and purer posteriorly. A female in Juvenal dress (No. 53,366, Collection Field Museum of Natural History) is similar to the adult female, but the general coloration is paler and duller: above yellowish citrine, a little brighter on the head and rump; below citron-yellow, nearly uniform; wing- coverts tipped with the same color;. outer margins of the inner second- aries broadly pale yellowish green toward their tips; yellow pattern on the wings pO’orly defined. Measurements. Male: wing, 59-66 (average, 63); tail, 35-41 (38.5); bill, 10-10.5 (10.3); tarsus, 12-13 (12.5), Female: wing, 59-62 (60.5) ; tail, 35-38 (36.5) ; bill, 9-5-IO-5 (10) ; tarsus, 13-13. 5 (i3)* Range. Eastern Brazil, from Bahia north to Ceara; reappearing in northern Venezuela. Remarks. Audubon supposed that the species he described under this name came from California, and this error was perpetuated by Other authors who quoted him. Specimens in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, said to have come from the Orinoco, led Sclater to suspect that the species was really a native of South America instead of North America. In 1866 Cabanis handled authentic specimens from Bahia and Leopoldina in Brazil, which he described under the name hypoxantha, which was formally placed under the synonymy of yarrellii by Sharpe in 1888. On the strength of this 32 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. record I would therefore propose to substitute Bahia, Brazil, as the type-locality of yarrellii. The chances are that “Bahia” skins come from the arid region lying back of the coast, and that the species properly belongs to the Arid Tropical Zone. At any rate, it avoids the Amazon Valley, to reappear in northern Venezuela, in the neighbor- hood of the Lake of Valencia, whence the Carnegie Museum has a full suite of specimens. I have compared this fine series carefully with Brazilian skins, and can find no substantial or constant differ- ences, despite the gap existing in the range. Such a discontinuous distribution is comparable to that shown by certain other birds, although I do not now recall an exactly parallel case. The extent of its range in Venezuela remains to be determined. Some of the Venezuelan series have the tail-coverts decidedly darker and greener than the rump, but others fit Sharpe’s diagnosis in this respect. Two females in imperfect plumage are dull white below, with a faint tinge of yellow, and above are like the usual type of female, but darker and grayer. Specimens examined. Brazil: Bahia, 15; Pernambuco, 2; Jua, near Iguatu, Ceara, i ; unspecified, 4. Venezuela: El Trompillo, Carabobo, 28. Total, 50. Spinus spinescens spinescens (Bonaparte). Chrysomitris spinescens Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 517 (“Bogota,” Colombia; crig. descr.; type in coll. Berlin Mus.). — Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 160 (Colombia; ref. orig. descr.). — Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool. Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Colombia). — Sclater, Proc. ZooL Soc. London, 1855, 159 (“Bogota,” Colombia; references). — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 90 (South America; crit.). — Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., XIV, 1866, 160, in text (crit.). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 675 (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Colombia, in range). — Heine and Reichenow, Nom. Mus. Heineani Orn., 1882, 93 (“Bogota,” Colombia). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 199, part (“Bogota,” Colombia; descr.; references). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 591 (ref. descr.; range). Fringilla spinescens Gray, Hand-List Birds, 11, 1870, 81 (in list of species; range). Spinus spinescens Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 229 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 372 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Spinus spinescens spinescens Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXI, 1912, 161, in text (“Bogota,” Colombia; meas.; crit.); XXXVI, 1917, 563 (Bogota, La Holanda, La Porquera, La Mar, Chipaque, and El Roble, Colombia). Description. Adult male: above warbler-green, with faint brownish centers to the feathers, brightening on the rump into pyrite-yellow Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 33 or lemon-yellow; lesser and median wing-coverts externally like the back, with black bases; greater coverts black with lemon-yellow tips; remiges black, their bases externally (except outermost primary) lemon-yellow, forming a large patch on the closed wing; primary- coverts black; inner secondaries with broad external margins of pyrite-yellow toward their tips, inclining to gray on the longer ones; tail black, with the basal half or more pale yellow; pileum black; sides of head and neck warbler-green, like the back, brightening on the under parts into lemon-chrome, shaded anteriorly and laterally with pyrite-yellow, the lower abdomen grayish or whitish medially; tibiae the same; under wing-coverts and inner webs of remiges below pale yellow; “iris brown; feet blackish; bill blackish, horn-blue below.” Immature male: above darker than the adult male (nearer olive- green than warbler-green), with the brownish feather-centers more prominent; yellow areas of the wings paler and more restricted; under parts pyrite-yellow to strontian yellow, with grayish feather-tipping, the abdomen largely grayish white; crissum pale lemon-yellow, or whitish with a tinge of yellow. Adult female: similar to the immature male, but pileum like the back, and under parts averaging duller. The female in imperfect plumage has the upper parts in general, and the pileum in particular, shaded with gray, and the lower parts almost uniform pale smoke- gray, irregularly mottled and shaded with olivaceous and yellowish. An unbroken series connecting the two extremes is represented in the material before me. Juvenal plumage: above dull dark citrine, with obscure darker centers to the feathers; below pale yellow (primrose-yellow), shaded with olive lake, and with indications of faint brownish streaks. Measurements. Adult male: wing, 67-70 (average, 68..5); tail, 42-46 (44); bill, lO-ii (10.5); tarsus, 14-15 (14.3). Female: wing, 64-68 (66); tail, 40-44 (42); bill, 9-5-10 (9.9); tarsus, 13-15 (14.5). Range. Temperate Zone of the Eastern Andes of Colombia and of the Andes of Merida, Venezuela. Remarks. The description of the adult male is based on birds in fresh plumage (May-July). In worn breeding dress (October and March) the color of the upper parts is darker and duller; the terminal margins of the inner secondaries disappear; and the wings are more brownish. Aside from these seasonal changes, the males are fairly uniform inter se, so far as color is concerned. Females, however, vary through wide limits, from gray birds up to greenish ones almost as brightly colored as the males. This is probably due to age. The measurements above quoted are of specimens from the Bogota region of Colombia (the type-locality) and the Andes of Venezuela. 34 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Birds from these two regions closely resemble each other, but oddly enough a series from the intermediate region, the northern part of the Eastern Andes, differ in their longer, slenderer bills, this member ranging in adult males from 10.5 to 13 mm. in length. Since this is the only difference, and it is not great, and is wholly bridged over by individual variation, I prefer not to recognize it by name, inasmuch as by doing so the range of spinescens would thereby be made dis- continuous. The close resemblance between the present bird and S. yarrellii suggests their relationship. Indeed, the “toning down” in the colora- tion of spinescens is just what we might expect to happen to a bird like yarrellii were it transferred to a higher zone. But A. spinescens is properly a species of the Temperate Zone, and while it is known upon occasion to range into the upper part of the Subtropical, it has no special representative in the Subtropics. Since S. yarrellii belongs to the Arid Tropical Zone, the two species are separated faunally by the width of the Subtropical Zone (at least), although doubtless approximating each other geographically. So if we accept such a hypothesis there remains considerable to explain. Little is known of this species. It was described by Bonaparte from a “Bogota” skin in the Berlin Museum, which had already received a manuscript name from Lichtenstein. It continued to be known only from such specimens until Dr. Chapman collected his series from this region. He says that it is “an abundant bird in the Temperate Zone of the Eastern Andes, occurring in great flocks on the Bogota Savanna and descending less commonly to the upper portion of the Subtropical Zone.” Mr. M. A. Carriker has met with it farther north in the same range, and more recently in the Andes of Merida, Venezuela. Specimens examined. Colombia: Ramirez, 4; Paramo Guerrero, 10; Paramo San Pedro, 6; La Pica, i ; Pena Blanca, 2; Lagunillas, 7; “Bogota,” 21; El Roble, above Fusugasuga, 8000 ft., i; Chipaque, i; Bogota Savanna, 8750 ft., 5; La Porquera, above La Pradena, 2800 m., Cundinamarca, i; La Holanda, 2650 m., 42 kilometers S. E. of Bogota, Cundinamarca, i ; Cundinamarca, i ; La Mar, near Subachoque, 2680 m., Cundinamarca, i; Anolaima, i; Aguadita, l; unspecified, 3. Venezuela: Guamito, 5; Teta de Niquitao, 10; La Cuchilla, i ; Paramo Frias, 4. Total, 86. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 35 Spinus spinescens capitaneus Bangs, Chrysomitris spinescens (not of Bonaparte) Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 199, part (San Sebastian and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia). Spinus spinescens capitaneus Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, XII, 1898, 178 (San Miguel, Colombia; orig. descr.; type now in coll. Mus. Comp. ZooL; meas.; crit.). — Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, I, 1899, 79 (San Sebastian, Colombia). — Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XIII, 1900, 121, 165 (Sharpe’s and Bangs’ references). — Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXI, 1912, 160, in text (San Miguel, Colombia; meas.; crit.). — Todd and Carriker, Ann. Carnegie Mus., XIV, 1922, 534 (Macotama and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia; Santa Marta localities and references; crit.). Chrysomitris spinescens var. capitanea Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 591 (“Santa Marta,” Colombia, in range). Spinus capitaneus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 229 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 372 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Subspecific characters. Similar to Spinus spinescens spinescens, but averaging paler and duller, sex for sex. Measurements. Male (seven specimens) : wing, 66-69 (average, 67.5); tail, 43-46 (44.5); bill, lO-ii (10.5); tarsus, 13. 5-14.5 (14). Female (seven specimens): wing, 65-70 (67); tail, 42-47 (44.5); bill, 10-10.5 (10.3); tarsus, 14-15 (14.5). Range. Temperate Zone, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Remarks. This is not a very satisfactory form. It was discriminated by Mr. Bangs solely on the basis of its supposed larger size, but this character breaks down completely when tested by a series. Dr. Chapman thought it could be maintained on the ground of the more dusky or olivaceous cast of the lower parts in the male, and, so far as I can see, this is the only character of any value. All the females in the type-series are decidedly grayish below, which would be a good subspecific character were it constant. But a female in the von Berlepsch Collection, taken by Simons, is fully as greenish below as some specimens of true spinescens, indicating that the others are in imperfect plumage. The series of males, however, are obviously duller, more greenish, less yellowish below than males of spinescens in comparable plumage. The type of capitaneus is in fine fresh plumage; below it is precisely of the same shade of color as worn specimens of spinescens from the Paramo Guerrero (Eastern Andes) shot in October, but other males in the type-series are duller. The name capitaneus may be allowed to stand, although the race is by no means a well marked one. Specimens examined. Colombia: Macotama, i; San Miguel, 5; San Sebastian, 8; Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, 9200 ft., 2. Total, 16. 36 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Spinus nigricauda^ Chapman. Spinus nigricauda Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXI, 1912, 160 (Paramo of Santa Isabel, 12,700 ft., Central Andes, Colombia; orig. descr.; type in collection Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.); XXXVI, 1917, 564 (Paramillo and [Paramo of] Santa Isabel, Colombia; diag.; ref. orig. descr.). Description. Adult male: above Roman green, mottled with dark centers to the feathers, the rump paler (warbler-green), immaculate; pileum black; wings dusky black, the upper coverts tipped with green, like the back; the inner secondaries with narrow external margins of grayish, and all the remiges (except the two outer primaries) with lemon-yellow bases, forming a conspicuous patch on the closed wing; primaries narrowly margined externally with pale dull yellow; tail black, with narrow outer margins of warbler-green; under parts olive-yellow, paler (citron-yellow) on the abdomen medially and under tail-coverts, the latter with faint dusky stripes; “iris brown; feet blackish horn; bill black, bluish flesh-color below” (Carriker). Female: similar, the pileum more brownish. Juvenal plumage (No. 70,734, Collection Carnegie Museum; Frailejonal, Colombia, Sept. 24): similar to the adult, but much duller, the pileum like the back, the greater and median wing-coverts with broad buffy tips, the secondaries conspicuously margined and tipped externally with pale dull yellow (near primrose-yellow); under parts (near) deep colonial buff, paler posteriorly, faintly flammulated with darker color; yellow wing-patch smaller. Measurements. Male (six specimens) : wing, 70-73 (average, 72) ; tail, 44-47 (46); bill, 10-11.5 (ii); tarsus, 14-15 (14.5). Female (three specimens): wing, 69-70 (69); tail, 42-44 (43); bill, 11-11.5 (11.3); tarsus, 14.5-15 (15). Range. Temperate Zone of the Central and Western Andes of Colombia. Remarks. The affinities of this recently described species are clearly with S. spinescens, of which it appears to be a derivative. In Juvenal dress the two species closely resemble each other, pointing to a common origin, but nigricauda has advanced further on its evolutionary road than spinescens, as shown by the fact that its female approximates the male in color when it reaches the adult stage. The loss of the yellow at the base of the tail is a good character in nigricauda, although I find a trace of this color in one specimen (the type). The species is known at present only from certain isolated localities in the Central and Western Andes of Colombia.' Specimens examined. Colombia: Frailejonal,^ Central Andes, 5; ^Written thus because proposed as a substantive, and not as an adjective. ^This locality is practically equivalent to the next. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 37 Paramo of Santa Isabel, Central Andes, 3; Paramillo, Western Andes, 3. Total, II. Spinus capitalis (Cabanis). Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1858, 552 (Riobamba, Ecuador; descr.). — Sclater, Cat. Am, Birds, 1861, 125, part (Riobamba, Ecuador). Chrysomitris capitalis Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., XIV, 1866, 160 (Ecuador; orig. descr.; type in coll. Berlin Museum). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 673 (ref. orig. descr.). — von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1885, 85 (Mapoto, Ecuador; crit.). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 219, part (localities in Ecuador, part, not descr.). — Salvadori and Festa, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, XV, No. 357, 1899, 27, part (Nanegal, Tumbaco, Puna, and Govinda, Ecuador; crit.). Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbata Molina) Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34, part (range). Chrysomitris sclateri Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 200, part (Rio- bamba, Ecuador; orig. descr. [male]; type in coll. Brit. Mus.). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 591 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Spinus sclateri von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1896, 353, part (Mapoto, Ecuador; crit.). — von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Ornis, XIII, 1905, 68 (Pauza and Coracora, Peru). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 229 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 372 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Chrysomitris icterica capitalis Hartert, Nov. Zool., V, 1898, 484 (Ibarra, Ecuador). — Goodfellow, Ibis, 1901, 475 (Quito and Chillo Valley, Ecuador). {1) Chrysomitris sp. Salvadori and Festa, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, XV, No. 357, 1899, 28 (La Concepcion, Valle del Chota, Ecuador; crit.). Chrysomitris icterica var. capitalis Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range) . Chrysomitris magellanica capitalis Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166 (range). Spinus capitalis Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Lonnberg and Rendahl, Ark. f. Zool., XIV, No. 25, 1922, 79 (Quito, Tumbaco, Chaupicruz, and Cumbaya, Ecuador). Spinus ictericus capitalis Menegaux, Mission Service Geog. Mes. Arc Meridien Equat. Amer. du Sud, IX, i, 1911, B78 (Tumbaco and Santa Rosa, Ecuador; Ecuador localities and references, part). — Menegaux, Rev. Franc. d’Orn., II, 1912, 390 (Banos sur le haut Pastaza, Ecuador). Description. Adult male: above warbler-green, more or less mottled with darker centers to the feathers, the rump more uniform, but little if any brighter; tail black, with concealed yellow base, the middle rectrices nearly or quite all black; wings black, the remiges with a broad basal band of lemon-yellow, the inner secondaries broadly margined externally with grayish toward their tips, and the 38 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. wing-coverts tipped with warbler-green, like the back; crown black; sides of head black, usually leaving the hinder part of the ear-coverts colored like the under surface; upper part of throat black; sides of neck, and under parts in general, plain dull yellow with a strong greenish shade (between lemon-yellow and pyrite-yellow), paler posteriorly, the tibiae and lower abdomen medially usually grayish; under wing-coverts mixed grayish and yellowish; bill and feet dark (in skin). Adult female: different from the male: above (including the crown) grayish with a greenish shade, more conspicuous on the rump, mottled with slight darker centers to the feathers; wings and tail brownish black, marked as in the male; sides of head and under parts dull grayish white, sometimes more or less washed with greenish. Juvenal male (and female?): above brownish with a strong buffy shade, flammulated with darker color; below amber-yellow, flam- mulated with buffy; wings blackish, with broad and conspicuous outer terminal margins on the inner secondaries of deep olive-buff; otherwise as in the adult. Measurements. Male: wing, 65-71 (68.5); tail, 42-47 (45); bill, lo-ii (10.5); tarsus, 14-16 (15). Female (six specimens): wing, 67-75 (70) ; tail, 45-47 (45.5) ; bill, 9-10.5 (10) ; tarsus, 14.5-15.5 (15.2). Range. Temperate Zone, Andes of Ecuador, thence ranging to the upper part of the Subtropical Zone; also found in Central Peru and extreme northern Chile. Remarks. The present species is readily distinguished by its generally deep coloration, more restricted yellow area of the tail, scarcely brighter rump-patch, and in particular by the restriction of the black hood on the sides of the head, and by the differently colored female. In all these respects, and also in its larger size, it differs from the form of S. peruanus which occurs in Ecuador. While the latter is recorded from certain points from which S. capitalis is also known, it does not go so high up. Nothing is on record regarding the local habitat of either form. S. capitalis is subject to much variation. Two males in the series examined (Nos. 168,133 and 176,274, Collec- tion American Museum of Natural History) have the dark streaking above carried to an extreme, very much as in S. santcecrticis. Some males are uniform yellow below, with no trace of grayish posteriorly. In some the black throat is merely indicated, and one of those in this category (No. 236,588, Collection U. S. National Museum) has the crown merely brownish, obscurely streaked with greenish, scarcely contrasting with the back. Cabanis described this species from a specimen without any more Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 39 definite locality than ‘"Ecuador,” comparing it with ictericiis of Brazil. Through the courtesy of Dr. Erwin Stresemann this type- specimen is now before me. It is a mounted example in rather worn condition, clearly referable to the form above characterized. The name has been loosely and indiscriminately applied by subsequent authors, not only to the Ecuador bird, but to that of Peru as well, so that without actual examination of the specimens involved it is impossible to place some of the published records with any certainty. It would appear that Sharpe, when he worked up this group for the Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, misapplied the name capitalis to the Peruvian bird, which later (1894) came to be known as peruanus, and then described the present species as new, calling it sclateri. He was unquestionably misled by having in hand an individual without a defined black throat-patch (like the one referred to above), since his description of the male fits well otherwise, and the type-locality, Riobamba, is one from which we have several specimens. This observation has recently been confirmed by actual examination of Sharpe’s type, for which I am indebted to Dr. C. E. Hellmayr. His description of the female, however, applies better to S. peruanus paulus, as indicated by the measurements, although Cuenca, the assigned locality, is represented in the series before me by a male of capitalis, collected by Fraser. S. capitalis is best known as a bird of the Andes of Ecuador, but it reappears unchanged in central Peru, as shown by a number of specimens before me, some of which have served as the basis of pub- lished records. The most southern locality known is Putre, in extreme northern Chile, whence the Field Museum has two perfectly typical examples. Whether its range is actually, or only apparently, discon- tinuous we are not in a position to say. Specimens examined. Ecuador: Quito, 6; Cuenca, i; Mocha, 3; Mt. Chimborazo, i ; Valle de Cumbaza, Mt. Chimborazo, i ; Gualea, i; Mt. Pichincha, 4; El Paso, Rio Charcay, near Nabon, Azuay, i; Nono, 5; Papallacta, i; Govinda, i; “Guayaquil” (error), i; Cumbaya (7500 ft.), 2; Riobamba to Cajabamba (10,000 ft.), i; Riobamba to Luisa (9-10,000 ft.), i; Riobamba, i; Cechce, i; unspecified, 2. Peru: Chinchao (5700 ft.), i; Huanta, i ; Coracora, 2, Pauza, i; Vitoc, La Garita del Sol, i. Chile: Putre, Tacna, (11,600 ft.), 2. Total, 42. 40 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Spinus crassirostris Landbeck. Chrysomitris crassirostris Landbeck, An. Univ. Chile, XLI, 1872, 102 (Mendoza, Argentina; nomen nudum). — Landbeck, Zool. Garten, XVIII, 1877, 254 (“Hohen Cordillera, in der Nahe der Passe von Uspallata und Portillo,” Chile; orig. descr. ; type in coll. — ?). Spinus ictericus magnirostris Dabbene, El Hornero, I, 1918, 121 (range), 181 (Sierra del Cajon [type-locality], Salta, and Laguna Blanca, Catamarca, Argen- tina; orig. descr.; type in coll. Mus. Buenos Aires). Description. Adult male: above buffy olive, with obscure darker centers to the feathers, the nape a little brighter, more yellowish olive, the rump strontian yellow; head all around black; wings dusky black, the remiges with a broad basal band of lemon-yellow, wanting on the outer webs of the outermost two primaries; wing-coverts and inner secondaries with paler external margins; tail black, all the rectrices, except the middle pair, with the basal half or more yellow; sides of neck and under parts (except black throat) dull strontian yellow, more or less shaded with buffy, passing into grayish white posteriorly and into amber-yellow on the under tail- and wing- coverts; “iris brown”; bill and feet dark brown (in skin). Adult female: above hair-brown, with faint darker centers to the feathers, passing into amber-yellow on the rump; upper tail-coverts like the back; tail dusky brown, all the rectrices, except the middle pair, with the basal half pale lemon-yellow; wings dusky brown, the remiges with a broad basal band of pale lemon-yellow, wanting on the outer webs of the outermost three primaries, which are narrowly margined externally with pale yellow; lesser and middle wing-coverts washed with pyrite-yellow, and greater coverts tipped with buffy white ; under parts dark smoke-gray, fading into almost white on the under tail-coverts; lower abdomen sometimes with a touch of yellowish green; under wing-coverts and axillaries tinged with the same color; “iris brown; bill horn-color; feet black.” Measurements. Male (two specimens): wing, 79-80; tail, 50; bill, 13-13. 5; depth of bill at base, 10.5-11; tarsus, 16-17. Female (four specimens): wing, 76-79 (average, 78); tail, 48-50 (49); bill, 13-13. 5 (13.3); depth of bill at base, lO-ii (10.5); tarsus, 15. 5-17 (16). Range. Higher parts of northern Argentina, south along the Andes to central Chile (latitude 34°). Remarks. Through the courtesy of Dr. Dabbene I have before me six specimens of this remarkable form, including the type of his magnirostris. He described it as a subspecies of ''ictericus" {i. e., magellanicus) , but it impresses me as a perfectly distinct and strongly marked species. Its large size, enormous bill, reduced amount of yellow (this color being entirely wanting on the wing-coverts), and differently colored female are all good specific characters, setting it Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 41 off from all the other forms in this generic group. The heavy bill, broad and deep at the base, is twice as bulky as that of magellanicus, and suggests how a bill like that of Coccothraustes, Hesperiphona, and Eophona may have been developed from some slender-billed type. The relationships of the species appear to lie with 5. capitalis, as is shown by the color of the female, and which it probably replaces at the higher elevations in the Andean region of northern Argentina and adjacent parts of Chile. A specimen from Las Leones, Aconcagua, Chile, is marked as having been taken at an elevation of 1900 meters, but the others all come from higher up, 2800 to 3700 meters. Four specimens lately received by the American Museum of Natural History come from a locality lying at an elevation of 10,000 feet. One of these is a young male, much duller than the adults, soiled olive- yellow below, and without any black on the head. Unfortunately Dr. Dabbene’s name will have to give way to the earlier one applied by Landbeck in 1877, which has been completely overlooked by other authors. Landbeck’s description is clearly ap- plicable to this form and to no other, and the localities he gives are confirmed by the specimen from Chile referred to above. I am indebted to Dr. Charles W. Richmond for calling my attention to Landbeck’s name and for a transcript of his description. Specimens examined. Argentina: Sierra del Cajon (2800 m.), Salta, 2; Corral Quemado (3500 m.), Catamarca, 2; Lago Helada (3700 m.), Catamarca, i; Puente del Inca (10,000 ft.), Argentina, 4. Chile: Las Leones (1900 m.), Aconcagua, i. Total, 10. Spinus cucullatus (Swainson). Carduelis cucullata Swainson, Zool. 111., I, 1820-21, pi, 7 and text (“Spanish Main,” i. e., N. coast of Venezuela; orig. descr. ; type in coll. — ?). Fringilla cubes Gervais, Mag. Zool., 1835, Cl. II, pi. 44 and text (“environs de Santiago,” Cuba; orig. descr.; type in coll. — ?) — Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref, orig. descr.). — Lembeye, Aves Isl. Cuba, 1850, 130 (in list of species). — Gundlach, Journ. f. Orn., IV, 1856, 10 (Santiago de Cuba). — Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., V, 1857, 241 (Cuba; Caracas, Venezuela; crit.). — Gund- lach, Journ. f. Orn,, VII, 1859, 295 (Bayamo, Cuba); IX, 1861, 412 (Cuba; crit. ;= Pyrrhomitris cuchllata Swainson) ; XIX, 1871, 282 (Cuba; crit.). Fringilla cucullata Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. orig. descr.). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; range [“Trinidad”]). Pyrrhomitris cucullata Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 517 (Cumana, Vene- zuela; diag.; references). — Gundlach, Orn. Cubana, 1876,21 (Cuba, escaped from 42 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. captivity). — Gundlach, Journ. f. Orn., XXII, 1874, 312, and XXVI, 1878, 160 (Porto Rico). — Cory, Auk, III, 1886, 207 (Cuba and Porto Rico, introduced; descr,; West Indian references). — Cory, Birds West Indies, 1889, 94 (Cuba and Porto Rico, introduced; descr.; references). — Cory, Cat. Birds West Indies, 1892, in (Cuba and Porto Rico, introduced). Chrysomitris cucullala Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool. Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Venezuela). — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 123 (“Trinidad”; references). — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 91 (“Trinidad,” “Cayenne,” and Venezuela; references; plum.). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1868, 167 (Carupano and Caracas, Venezuela). — Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1870, 553 (“Trinidad,” ex Sclater). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 674 (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Venezuela, in range). — Cory, List Birds W. Indies, rev. ed., 1886, 12 (Cuba, introduced). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 225 (Carupano and Caracas, Venezuela; “Trinidad”; Cuba; descr.; references). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 593 (references; range). Pyrrhomitris cucullatus Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., VII, i860, 269 (Cuba; references; crit.). — Gundlach, Repert. Fisico-Nat. Cuba, I, 1866, 397 (Cuba, introduced from Caracas, Venezuela). Spinns cucullata Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., VI, 1894, 33 (Monos Island, Trinidad). Spinus cucullatus Phelps, Auk, XIV, 1897, 364 (San Antonio, Venezuela). — Ridgway, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 50, I, 1901, 104 (descr.; range; references). — Hellmayr, Nov. Zool., XHI, 1906, 56 (Monos Island, Trinidad; Cumana, Venezuela). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Description. Adult male: above deep scarlet or light Brazil-red, with a brown wash, brightening on the rump and upper tail-coverts into grenadine-red; tail black, with conceale;d base salmon-orange; wings black, with a basal band of orange-chrome (wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary); lesser and median wing-coverts black basally, Brazil-red terminally; greater series black with scarlet tips; primary-coverts black; head all arouild and upper throat black; sides of neck and under surface grenadine-red, the abdomen white medially, the under tail- and wing-coverts paler (orange-chrome to salmon-orange) ; inner webs of remiges below light salmon-orange basally. Female: above hair-brown, grayer (mouse-gray) on the pileum, the rump flame-scarlet, the longer upper tail-coverts like the back; tail dusky brown, with concealed base reddish; wings as in the male, but the red areas paler (salmon orange) and more restricted; under parts dull grayish white, palest posteriorly, with a band of flame-scarlet across the breast. An example in juvenal plumage (No. 10,763, Collection Academy Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) is snuff-brown above, almost uniform, the wings and tail darker brown, the red areas of the adult indicated on the wings in cinnamon-buff; the under parts dull buffy. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 43 Measurements. Male (four specimens): wing, 58-62 (60); tail, 35-37 (36); bill, 9-9.5 (9.3); tarsus, 11.5-12.5 (12). Female (one specimen): wing, 57; tail, 34; bill, 9; tarsus, 12. Range. Arid Tropical Zone of the north coast of Venezuela, from Caracas east to Monos Island, Trinidad. Introduced into Cuba and Porto Rico. Remarks. It is by no means sure that the female bird described above is in fully adult plumage; probably it is not, judging by com- parison with Sharpe’s description. This is a very distinct species, in which red replaces the yellow of the other forms in this group. In size, proportions, and general color-pattern it is so similar to S. siemiradzkii that I have no doubt of their close relationship. (It will be noted, too, that siemiradzkii likewise comes from an arid region, the Guayaquil district of western Ecuador). Its known range is very restricted, being confined to the arid coast-region of northern Venezuela, not even reaching Trinidad (but only to Monos Island), the supposed records from that country all proving to be based on skins of “Orinoco” make. Swainson’s figure and description were based on an example which must have come from some part of this region, and I therefore propose to take Cumana, Venezuela, as the type-locality. Fringilla cubce Gervais is the only synonym; it was based on a specimen taken in Cuba, where according to Gundlach the species was introduced years ago as a cage bird, escaping from captivity. (Not all the West Indian references appear in the above list). Specimens examined. Monos Island, i ; “Trinidad,” 4; San Antonio, Venezuela, i; “Orinoco,” i; unspecified, 2. Total, 9. Spinus siemiradzkii (von Berlepsch and Taczanowski). Chrysomitris siemiradzkii von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883, 536, 551, pi. 50 (Guayaquil, Ecuador; orig. descr,; type in coll. Warsaw Mus.); 1884, 282 (Guayaquil, Ecuador); 1885, 121 (range). — Reichenow and ScHALOW, Journ. f. Orn., XXXIV, 1886, 106 (reprint orig. descr.). — Tacza- nowski, Orn. Perou, III, 1886, 50, Tables, 86 (Tumbez, Peru, and Guayaquil, Ecuador; descr.; crit.). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 221 (Balzar Mountains, Ecuador; descr.; references). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (ref. orig. descr.; ranged. Chrysomitris magellanica siemiradzkii Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166 (range). Spinus siemeradzkii Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 232 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 374 (ref. orig. descr.; range) . 44 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Description, Adult male: above aniline-yellow, brightening into light cadmium on the nape and rump; head black all around; tail black, with yellow base (concealed) ; wings black, with a broad basal band of lemon-chrome (wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary), the inner secondaries margined externally with grayish white or yellowish toward their tsps; wing-coverts tipped with aniline- yellow, the greater series with light cadmium; under parts (except black throat) uniform light cadmium; under wing-coverts yellow, with a patch of grayish; iris “brun fonce”; bill and feet (in skin) brownish. Adult female not seen, but described as ‘'yellowish olive above, the rump more yellowish; beneath soiled greenish yellow, the middle of- the abdomen whitish; wings and tail similar to those of the male, but the colors duller” (translation). Measurements. Adult male (four specimens) : wing, 55-59 (average, 56.5); tail, 32-33 (33); bill, 9-5-10 (9-6); tarsus, 12. 5-13. 5 (13). Range. Arid Tropical Zone of western Ecuador (including Puna Island) and extreme northwestern Peru. Remarks. The plate accompanying the original description shows the bird a little too dark on the back, the color being of a more golden hue. The species is a very distinct one, readily distinguished by its bright coloration and relatively much shorter tail, which is scarcely more than one-half the length of the wing. This latter feature it shares with S. cucullatus and S. longirostris. M. Stolzmann found it abundant in the neighborhood of Tumbez, Peru, but confused it with “ Ch. capitalis' (i. e., S. peruanus peruanus), and so did not trouble to secure specimens. It remained for a geolo- gist, Dr. Joseph Siemiradzki, to collect a small series near Guayaquil, in Ecuador, which fell into the hands of von Berlepsch and Tac- zanowski, who described it as a new species, naming it after its discoverer. It is a form peculiar to the Arid Tropical belt which occupies this part of Ecuador, extending southward into Peru. The specimen from Cuenca, Ecuador, referred to this form on the authority of Sclater, belongs to some other species. Specimens examined. Ecuador: Guayaquil, 3 (including the type); Puna Island, i. Total, 4. Spinus longirostris (Sharpe). Chrysomilris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Salvin, Ibis, 1885, 217, excl. extralimital localities and references (Mount Roraima, 3500 ft., British Guiana). — Penard, Vog. Guyana, II, 1910, 400 (Guiana; descr. ; habits). [Chrysomilris icterica] Subsp. y, Chrysomilris longirostris Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 220, excl. syn. part (Mount Roraima, British Guiana; orig. descr.; types in coll. Brit. Mus.). Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 45 Chrysomitris icterica var. longirosiris Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592, excl. syn. part (ref. orig. descr.; range). Chrysomitris magellanica typica Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166 (Guianas; crit.). Spinus longirosiris Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 232 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 374 (ref. orig. descr.; range) . Description. Adult male: above warbler-green, passing into lemon- chrome on the rump and into sulphine-yellow on the upper tail- coverts; tail black, with concealed base lemon-yellow; wings black, with a basal band of lemon-yellow (wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary) ; secondaries with rather narrow external terminal margins of warbler-green, inclining to whitish terminally; greater wing-coverts with a broad subterminal black band and lemon-chrome tips; lesser-coverts tipped with warbler-green; primary-coverts black; head black all around, this color not extended over the lower throat; below, from the throat down, bright wax-yellow, paler (strontian yellow) posteriorly; inner margins of remiges pale yellow; bill and feet horn-color (in skin). Adult female similar in general to the male, but duller, and lacking the black head, this being colored to correspond with the upper and under parts respectively. Juvenal dress: resembles the adult female, but duller and more buffy; wings brownish. Measurements. Male (four specimens) : wing, 59-62 (average, 60) ; tail, 36-40 (37.5); bill, 11-11.5 (ii.i); tarsus, 12-12. 5 (12.2). Female (one specimen): wing, 62; tail, 39; bill, 11.5; tarsus, 12.5. Range. Highlands of British Guiana. Remarks. An example in juvenal dress is dated November 17, and another in postjuvenal moult December 6. Males still showing remains of the juvenal plumage are dated November 30, January 7 and 18. The entire series examined, although now distributed among several different institutions, were all collected by Whitely on or near Mount Roraima in British Guiana, and were referred to the Brazilian ictericus by Salvin when he worked up Whitely’s collections from that region. Sharpe pointed out their distinctive characters in 1888, undertaking to show that they were intermediate between ictericus and siemiradzkiij a geographical impossibility. While the present form somewhat resembles ictericus in the general tone of its colora- tion, its characters, as well as its isolated and restricted range, suggest that it should be treated as a distinct species, rather than as a race of S. magellanicus . Specimens examined. British Guiana; Mount Roraima, 10; Quonga, i. Total, ii. 46 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Spinus olivaceus (von Berlepsch and Stolzmann). Spinus olivaceus von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Ibis, 1894, 387 (Vitoc [type- locality], Garita del Sol, and Huayabamba, Peru; orig. descr. ; type in coll. Warsaw Mus.). — von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1896, 323, 353 (Garita del Sol, Peru). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 232 (ref. orig, descr.; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am,, I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr,; range). Chrysomitris olivacea Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Description. Adult male: above deep warbler-green, obscurely mottled with darker centers to the feathers, becoming rather brighter and more yellowish on the rump; head all around black; tail black, with concealed base yellow (lemon-yellow or lemon-chrome) ; wings black, the remiges with a basal band of lemon-chrome (wanting on the outermost primary), the tertiaries with narrow and inconspicuous grayish green terminal outer margins; primary-coverts and wing- coverts black, the latter with yellowish green tips like the back, those of the greater series forming a conspicuous band across the wing; under parts in general (except black throat) dull yellow, strongly shaded with saffron or brownish, the under tail-coverts rather brighter and purer yellow; “iris brown; bill black, basally blue-gray below; feet slate-color.” Female similar, but duller colored, and without the black hood, these parts being colored to correspond with the upper and under surfaces respectively; the yellow areas of the wings and tail on the average more restricted; the under parts are bright warbler-green, the abdomen medially and the under tail-coverts brighter and more yellowish; colors of the soft parts like those of the male. A supposed young bird of this species closely resembles the adult female, but is duller still. Measurements. Male: wing, 62-67 (average, 64); tail, 35-38 (37); bill, 9-10 (9.5); tarsus, 12. 5-13 (13). Female (three specimens): wing, 60-64 (62); tail, 35-37 (36); bill, 8-9 (8.7); tarsus, 12-13 (12.3). Range. Subtropical Zone, on the eastern or Amazonian slope of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Remarks. The present form is obviously specifically distinct, and may readily be distinguished by the decidedly brownish tone of its general coloration as compared with that of its congeners, and further- more by the restriction of the paler margins of the tertiaries to a narrow fringe, inconspicuous even in fresh plumage. This is a marked and constant feature, and is not dependent upon stage of wear. Another apparently good character is the lessened emargination of the tail, and the relative shortness of this member (little more than half the wing). Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 47 In describing this form von Berlepsch and Stolzmann compared it primarily with S, capitalis, but its relationships are hardly with that form. In the brownish tone of its general coloration it suggests S. notatus notatus; in its form and proportions it resembles S. siemiradzkii; and its color-pattern is that of the black-hooded group. I have already suggested that it may be the Subtropical Zone repre- sentative of the short-tailed section of the latter group. All the localities from which it has thus far been reported lie on the eastern or Amazonian side of the Andes, although none of them appear to be over 6500 feet in elevation. At some of these localities it occurs together with forms of S. magellanicus. Specimens examined. Ecuador: Zamora, 3250 ft., i. Peru: Vista Alegre, 2; Marcapata, Cuzco, i ; Huayabamba, 2; Vitoc, La Garita del Sol, 2. Bolivia: Songo, 4; San Antonio, 2; Yungas de Cocha- bamba, 2. Total, 16. Spinus santgecrucis, sp. nov. Type, No. 80,733, Collection Carnegie Museum, adult male; Samaipata, Bolivia, November 13, 1919; Jose Steinbach. Description. Similar in general to Spinus magellanicus bolivianus, but decidedly smaller, and much darker in coloration above. Adult male: above light olive-green, heavily mottled with black centers to the feathers, the rump rather lighter, more yellowish, and more uniform, the upper tail-coverts like the back; the wing-coverts mostly black, tipped with pyrite-yellow; otherwise mainly as in bolivianus, i. e., head all around and throat black; rest of under parts lemon- chrome, the tibice and sometimes the lower abdomen medially grayish or whitish; wings and tail black, crossed with a broad basal band of yellow, omitted on the middle pair of rectrices and on the outer web of the outermost primary; tertials broadly margined externally with yellowish or whitish toward their tips; “iris brown; bill black, base plumbeous; feet black or plumbeous.” Two apparently adult females are not certainly distinguishable from those of bolivianus except by their markedly smaller size. A younger bird (No. 78,993, Collection Carnegie Museum) is very dark green above and dull grayish white below, with scarcely any greenish or yellowish shade. Measurements. Male (seven specimens): wing, 66-71 (average, 69); tail, 42-45 (43.5); bill, 9.5-10 (9.7); tarsus, 13-14 (13.5). Female (two specimens): wing, 65-70; tail, 39-42; bill, 9.5; tarsus, 13. 5-14. Range. Tropical Zone, eastern foothills of the Andes, Province of Santa Cruz; Bolivia. 48 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Remarks. The specimen selected as the type is a bird in fresh plumage, the outermost primaries not quite fully grown. The de- scription of the male applies to those in perfect plumage, but certain examples of this sex, which I refer to this form, are no more suffused with blackish above than the average specimen of holivianus, from which they differ, however, in smaller size. The smaller size and conspicuously darker coloration of the upper parts serve to distinguish this form from S. magellanicus holivianus, at least when specimens in the same stage are compared. The differences stand out so well in series that I prefer to rank sant(Ecrucis as a distinct species. In fact, it suggests S. uropygialis in the amount and intensity of the black of the upper parts, which merges directly into that of the pileum, without contrast. From S. magellanicus alleni, which is found in the same region, and with which it agrees in size, it may at once be told by its conspicuously darker coloration. On geographical grounds it therefore cannot be considered as sub- specifically related to either holivianus or alleni, and although it is quite possibly a variant of the latter, its characters are such that it seems best to regard it as a full species, as already said. So far as known its range is restricted to the country along the eastern foothills of the Andes in the Province of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, from 400 up to 1400 meters above sea-level. Specimens examined. Bolivia: Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2; Rio Surutu (near Buenavista); 6; Rio Yapacani (near Buenavista), i; Buenavista, 2; Cerro Hosane, i; Samaipata, i; Holguin, i; Valle- grande, I. Total, 15. Spinus peruanus peruanus von Berlepsch and Stolzmann. Fringilla magellanica (not of Vieillot) Wied, Beitrage Naturg. Brasilien, III, i, 1830, 620, part (Lima, Peru, ex Lesson). Chrysomitris magellanica Tschudi and Cabanis, Fauna Peruana, Orn., 1845-6, 220 (Peru; descr.). Chrysomitris capitalis (not of Cabanis) Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1867, 985 (Islay and Arequipa, Peru); 1868, 569 (W. Peru); 1869, 597 (Cosnipata, Peru). — Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1874, 522 (Lima, Huanta, and Ropaybamba, Peru). — Taczanowski, Orn. Perou, III, 1886, 49, part, Tables, 86, part (Chirimoto, Lima, Huanta, Ropaybamba, Amable Maria, Pumamarca, and Palca, Peru; descr.; Peruvian references; habits). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 219, part (Arequipa, Islay, Ropaybamba, and Callao, Peru; descr.; Peruvian references). — von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1892, 377 (Lima and Ica, Peru; crit.). Fringilla capitalis Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 81 (Peru; in list of species). Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 49 Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbata Molina) Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883, 422 (Callao, Peru). Spinus ictericus peruanus von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Ibis, 1894, 388, in text (Garita del Sol, Peru). — von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1896, 352 (La Merced [type-locality], Garita del Sol, Lima, and Ica, Peru; orig. descr. ; type in coll. Warsaw Mus.). — von Berlepsch and Tacza- NOWSKi, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1902, 60 (Chanchamayo, Peru). — von Ber- lepsch and Stolzmann, Ornis, XIII, 1905, iii (Huaynapata, Peru). — Chap- man, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 117, 1921, no, part (Lima, San Fernando, Matchi Picchu, and Pisac, Peru; crit.), Spinus sclateri (not Chrysomitris sclateri Sharpe) von Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1896, 353, part (Garita del Sol, Peru; crit.). Chrysomitris icterica var. peruana Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Spinus peruanus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Description. Adult male: above warbler-green, more or less mottled with dark centers to the feathers, inclining to yellowish on the rump (sometimes lemon-yellow); head all around and throat black; tail black, with basal band lemon-yellow, wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary; secondaries narrowly tipped with white, and tertiaries widely margined externally with grayish white, more or less tinged with greenish yellow; lesser and middle wing-coverts black, tipped with warbler-green; greater series black, tipped with empire- yellow or olive-ocher; sides of neck and rest of under parts bright lemon-chrome, the abdomen and tibiae sometimes showing a little whitish; under wing-coverts similar but paler; the outermost partly gray; bill horn-color; feet dusky (in skin). Female, perfect plumage: similar to the male, but duller, darker warbler-green above, the head and usually the rump concolor with the back; the yellow of the wings and tail duller and more restricted; margins of the tertiaries grayish white, without any greenish yellow tinge; under parts dull yellow (between strontian yellow and olive- yellow), paler posteriorly, the chin sometimes grayish. Female, imperfect plumage: much duller and darker above (olive- citrine or yellowish olive), and paler, dull grayish white, below. In juvenal plumage the species resembles its allies in being brownish above and dull yellowish below, strongly suffused with buffy, with prominent wing-edgings of buffy. Measurements. Male: wing, 67-71 (average, 69); tail, 41-45 (43); bill, 9.5-1 1 (10.5); tarsus, 14.5-15.5 (15). Female: wing, 64-70 (67.5); tail, 40-45 (42.5); bill, 9-5-IO-5 (10); tarsus, 13.5-15 (i4-5). Range. From northern Peru (Department of Catamarca) south- eastward to northern Chile (Province of Tacna). Remarks. The excellent series of this form examined in this connec- tion show that it is subject to considerable variation. It is a bright- 50 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. colored form, with conspicuous light outer edgings to the' tertiaries in the male, while the female in perfect plumage is as richly yellow below as the same sex of alleni, from which it may readily be distin- guished by the whiter and wider outer margins of the tertiaries. Males vary with regard to the amount of dark mottling on the back and of yellow on the rump, the extent of basal yellow on the middle rectrices, and the extent of the black on the throat, this being ir- regularly developed in several individuals. So far as I can discover, specimens from the northern and southern extremities of the range are precisely like those from the type-locality. But the extraordinary thing about this form is that it ranges from sea-level to an altitude of at least 12,400 feet in the Department of Junin (Chipa), specimens from these extremes being absolutely the same. There is nothing in the dates of collection to indicate that this is due to an altitudinal migratory movement, unless on the supposition that the breeding season is most irregular. We have here, then, a case of a Passerine bird which ranges through three life-zones in the tropics, and is apparently at home in each. La Merced, in the Department of Junin, is the type-locality for periianus, which was described as somewhat intermediate between ictericus and capitalis, most of the Peruvian records having been put under the latter name down to 1896. Specimens from the type- locality agree closely with the description, but five birds from Oroya, on the Rio Mantaro, although considerably worn, are larger and darker, and seem clearly referable to the form of magellanicus which has been described from the Urubamba Valley. But specimens from near San Miguel Bridge in the latter region are certainly peruanus, as also is one example from Pisac, higher up, while three others from this latter place are just as certainly the Urubamba form. Since the two occur together, they cannot well be considered races of the same species, and after carefully going over the difficult situation thus exposed I have decided to recognize peruanus as a full species, while at the same time admitting its close relationship to S. magellanicus alleni, of which it may indeed be the Andean representative. Specimens examined. Peru: Macate, 3; Trujillo, i ; Vista Alegre, 2; Matucana, i; Santa Eulalia, 2; Vitarte, 4; Lima, 8; Chanchamayo, i; Pisac, i; Cosnipata, i; Islay, i; Yea, 2; La Merced, 7; Marcapata, Cuzco, 2; Pacasmayo, i; Huaracondo Canon (10,000 ft.), i; Limbani, 3; Huaral, 10; Huacho, 4; San Fernando (4500 ft.), Rio San Miguel, Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 51 i; Matchi Picchu (6000 ft.), San Miguel Bridge, i ; Acobamba, Junin, 2; Perene, Junin, 2; Utcuyacu, Junin, 3; Pisco, Ica, i; Cocachacr,a, Arequipa, 5; Chipa (12,400-14,000 ft.), Junin, 5; Tambo Valley, i; Ropaybamba, i; Huaynapata, Marcapata, 2; Vitoc, La Garita del Sol, 2; unspecified, 2. Total, 83. ' Spinus peruanus paulus, subsp. nov. Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, i860, 66 (Pallatanga, Ecuador). — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125, part (Cuenca, Ecuador). Chrysomitris capitalis (not of Cabanis) (?)Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, 230 (Tambillo, Peru); 1880, 199 (Cutervo, Peru); 1882, 17 (Chirimoto, Peru; descr. egg). — (?)von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883, 551 (Sarayacu, Ecuador; crit.) ; 1884, 294 (Cayandeled and Cechce, Ecuador; crit.), 313, in text (Pallatanga, Ecuador). — (?) Taczanowski, Orn. Perou, III, 1886, 49, part; Tables, 86, part (Tambillo and Cutervo, Peru). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 219, part (Jima and Sical, Ecuador), Salvadori and Festa, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, XV, No. 357, 1899, 27, part (Cuenca, Ecuador; crit.). Chrysomitris siemiradzkii (not of von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, 1883) von Berlepsch and Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1884, 313 (Cuenca, Ecuador) . (?) Chrysomitris sclateri Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 200, part (Cuenca, Ecuador; descr. female). Spinus ictericus peruanus (not of von Berlepsch and Stolzmann) Bangs and Noble, Auk, XXXV, 1918, 461 (Bellavista and Huancabamba, Peru; crit.). Type, No. 168,124, Collection American Museum of Natural History, adult male; Zamora (3250 ft.), Loja, Ecuador, November 29, 1920; George K. Cherrie. Subspecific characters. Similar to S. peruanus peruanus, but de- cidedly smaller, and female averaging duller, less yellowish, below. Measurements. Male: wing, 62-67 (average, 64..5) ; tail, 38-42 (40) ; bill, 10-10.5 (10.2); tarsus, 13-15 (14). Female (six specimens): wing, 59-66 (62.5); tail, 35-42 (39.5); bill, 10-10.5 (10.2); tarsus, 13-14 (13.5)- Range. Andean region of southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Remarks. This is merely a small edition of S. peruanus peruanus, with which it doubtless intergrades to the southward. It runs through the same variations as that form, and adult males are fully as brightly colored, while females seem to average a little duller. Several ex- amples in buffy yellow juvenal dress are dated July 5, 10, 13, and September 3. Without access to the specimens upon which the above references 52 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. are based it is impossible to allocate all of them satisfactorily, as more than one form may be involved. Such of the specimens now before me as authorities have ventured to name have likewise been referred to several different forms. The present bird, however, need not be confused with S. siemiradzkii, which is smaller and still more brightly colored, and moreover occupies a different faunal area, being confined to the Arid Tropical Zone in Ecuador. From S. capitalis it differs in its smaller size, brighter coloration, more ex- tensive black (normally) on the sides of the head, yellow bases of the middle rectrices (normally), and differently colored female. x'\lthough there, are certain places in Ecuador represented by speci- mens of both capitalis and paiilus, there are none for the latter above 9200 feet, while capitalis ranges much higher up. Even where both species are found, there is as yet nothing to show that they actually occur side by side. Since capitalis is known to range southward through Peru, there is a possibility that some of the records above cited may really belong to that form, and not to paulus. But all the specimens I have seen from northern Peru, from localities on the Amazonian slope of the Andes, appear to be paulus. Specimens examined. Ecuador: Calasnique, i; Cayandeled, i; Alamor (4350 ft.), Loja, 4; Portovelo (2000-2700 ft.), Oro, i; Zamora (3250 ft.), Loja, 4; Punta Santa Ana (3650-4500 ft.), Portovelo-Loja trail, Oro, i; El Paso (9200 ft.), Rio Charcay, near Nabon, Azuay, 9; Bucay (1000 ft.), Chimbo, i; Mapoto, 2; Pallatanga, i; Chunchi (5500 ft.), i; Junction Chanchan and Chiguancay Rivers (2500 ft.), 2; Huigra (4000 ft.), 4; “Quito,” i. Peru: Milagros (2200 ft.), 2; Huancabamba (6500 ft.), Piura, 10; Palambla, Piura, 4; Bellavista, i; Tambillo, i. Total, 51. Spinus magellanicus alleni Ridgway. “Gafarron” Azara, Apunt., I, 1802, 483, part, and Voy. Am. Mer., Ill, 1809, 292, part (Paraguay). Chrysomitris magellanicus (not Fringilla magellanica Vieillot) Lafresnaye and D’Orbigny, Mag. de Zool., 1837, Syn. Avium, 83, excl. syn. (Chiquitos, Bolivia). Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Reinhardt, Vidensk. Med. Nat. For, Kjobenhavn, 1870, 403, part (Catalao, Goyaz, Brazil). — Salvin, Ibis, 1885, 217, part (Bahia, Brazil). — von Berlepsch, Journ. f. Orn., XXXV, 1887, 116 (Paraguay, ex Azara). — Kerr, Ibis, 1892, 126 (Fortin Page, lower Pilcomayo, Paraguay). — Salvadori, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, X, No. 208, 1895, 7, part (Luque and Colonia Risso, Paraguay). — Bertoni, Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 53 An. Cien. Paraguayos, I, 1901, 197 (Azara’s reference). — von Ihering, Rev. Mus. Paulista, VI, 1904, 322 (Paraguay). Chrysomitris magellanica Burmeister, Th. Brasilien, III, 1856, 255, part (Campos region of Brazil). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, 607 (Prov. Chiquitos, Bolivia, ex Lafresnaye and D’Orbigny). Spinus yarrelli (not Carduelis yarrellii Audubon) Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Ill, 1891, 375 (Chapada, Matto Grosso, Brazil). Spinus alleni Ridgway, Auk, XVI, 1899, 37 (Chapada, Matto Grosso, Brazil; orig. descr. ; type in coll. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Chrysomitris icterica var. alleni Dubois, Syn. Aviutn, I, 1901, 592 (ref. orig. descr.; range) . Spinus ictericus alleni Hellmayr, Abhand, K. Bayerischen Akad. Wiss., II Kl., XXII, 1906, 681, in text, 718, in text (Bahia, Goiaz, and Chapada, Brazil; Chiquitos, Bolivia; crit.). — von Ihering, Aves Brazil, 1907, 380 (references; range). — Hellmayr, Nov. Zool., XV, 1908, 33 (Rio Thesouras, Rio Araguaya, Bahia, and Chapada, Brazil; Chiquitos, Bolivia; crit.). Chrysomitris icterica alleni Reiser, Denks. K. Akad. Wiss., Math.-Nat. KL, LXXVI, 1910, 81 (Facenda da Serra von Rio Grande and Paranagua, Brazil). Carduelis icterica Bertoni, Fauna Paraguaya, 1914, 63 (Rio Parana, Paraguay). Spinus ictericus Lynch-Arribalzaga, El Hornero, II, 1920, 97 ([Resistencia], Chaco, Argentina). Suh Specific characters. Similar to S. magellanicus magellanicus, but smaller, male brighter, purer yellow beneath, and black of throat more restricted. Female also differs in a corresponding manner. Measurements. Male: wing, 64-69 (average, 67); tail, 40-43 (41.5); bill, 9.5-10.5 (9.7); tarsus, 13-13-5 (i3-2). Female: wing, 64-69 (66); tail, 37-43 (40.5); bill, 9.5-10 (9.7); tarsus, 13-14 (13.5)- Range. Campos region of central Brazil (States of Bahia, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso) and eastern Bolivia, southward through Paraguay (except eastern part) to the Argentine Chaco. Remarks. The Spinus of the campos region of Brazil has an ex- tensive range, roughly triangular in outline, from the foothills of the Andes in Bolivia to within a few miles of the coast at Bahia, and thence southward to northeastern Argentina, but omitting the States in southeastern and southern Brazil. It is readily separable from true magellanicus by its smaller size and generally brighter, purer coloration, and from ictericus, which it resembles in size, by its paler colors throughout. The yellow of the under parts is lemon-yellow in the adult male, or near that shade, and duller yellow (between lemon- yellow and oil-yellow) in the adult female, shaded on the throat with pyrite-yellow, and paler posteriorly, the color being lighter and purer than in the same sex of magellanicus and ictericus. They vary 54 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. greatly, however, those in imperfect plumage being grayish white below, shaded with pyrite-yellow anteriorly and laterally. There is a possibility that the earliest name for this form is Fringilla campestris of Spix, 1825, based on the bird from the region around Diamantina, in the State of Minas Geraes. Dr. Hellmayr, who examined the type-specimen some years ago, remarked on its brighter and purer coloration as compared with other specimens from the same State, and suggested that the latter (representing ictericus) must have come from the forest region. He was unwilling to make a formal change in the names without seeing a larger series from Diamantina, and I find myself in the same position. A small series from Lagoa Santa, about one hundred miles to the southward, are clearly referable to ictericus, and on the principle that a certainty is better than an uncertainty I prefer to retain alleni as the name to be used, until more evidence is forthcoming on the status of campestris. Specimens examined. Bolivia: Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 5; Portrero de Basilio, 2; Buenavista, i; Rio Surutu, i; Rio Quisera, 2. Brazil: Chapada, Matto Grosso, 5. Paraguay: Fort Wheeler, Paraguayan Chaco, i; Puerto Pinasco, Rio Paraguay, 3; Bernalcue, i. Argentina: Avia Terai, Chaco, 7. Total, 28. Spinus magellanicus ictericus (Lichtenstein). Fringilla magellanica (not of Vieillot) Wied, Reise nach Brasilien, II, 1821, 179 (southern Bahia, Brazil). — Wied, Beitrage Naturg. Brasilien, III, i, 1830, 620, part (Bahia and Minas Geraes, Brazil; descr. ; references; crit.). — Audubon, Birds Am., 1839, pi. 394, fig. 2; Orn. Biog., V, 1839, 46 (Henderson, Kentucky; descr.). Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl., 1823, 26 (Sao Paulo, Brazil; orig. descr,; type in coll. Berlin Mus.). (J) Fringilla campestris Spix, Aves Brasiliae, II, 1825, 48, pi. 61, fig. 3 (“Habitat in campis districti adamantini”; orig. descr.; type in coll. Mus. Munich). — Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. orig. descr.). Carduelis magellanicus Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Am., 1839, 116 (Henderson, Kentucky; descr.). — Audubon, Birds Am., 8vo. ed.. Ill, 1841, 133, pi. 182 (Henderson, Kentucky; descr.). Chrysomitris magellanica Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List Birds Europe and N. Am., “1838,” 33 (Audubon’s reference). — Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 516, excl. syn. part (Sao Paulo, Brazil; diag.). — Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 160, excl. syn. part (Brazil; references). — Burmeister, Th. Brasilien, III, 1856, 255, part (Lagoa Santa and Congonhas, Brazil; descr.; references; habits). — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 92, part (South Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 55 America; crit.; references), — Salvin, Cat. Strickland Coll., 1882, 213, part (Brazil; references; crit.). — Heine and Reichenow, Nom. Mus. Heineani Orn., 1882, 93 (Brazil). Chrysomitris icterica Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool. Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Brazil). — SclAter, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125, part (Brazil). — von Pelzeln, Orn. Brasiliens, iii, 1870, 231 (Mattodentro, Ypanema, Jaguaraiba, and Ytarare, Brazil), 440 (Brazilian localities). — Reinhardt, Vidensk. Med. Nat. For. Kjobenhavn, 1870, 403, part (Lagoa Santa and Olaria [near Mariana], Brazil; habits). — VON Berlepsch and von Ihering, Zeits. Ges. Orn., II, 1885, 102, 124 (Taquara do Mundo Novo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 217, part (Pelotas and Sao Paulo, Brazil). — GceLDi, Aves Brazil, 1894, 306 (Organ Mountains, Brazil; range; habits). — ^Butler, Foreign Finches in Captivity, 1894, 44, part (Brazil; habits, etc.). — Salvadori, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, X, No. 208, 1895, 7, part (Villa Rica, Para- guay).— Kcenigswald, Journ. f. Orn., XLIV, 1896, 353 (Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil; references, part). — von Ihering, Rev. Mus. Paulista, III, 1898, 163, excl. extralimital localities and references (Iguape, Sao Paulo, Brazil). — von Ihering, Ibis, 1901, 12 (Therezopolis, Brazil, ex Goeldi). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, 1, 1901, 592, part (references; range). — Hagmann, Bol. Mus. Goeldi, IV, 1904, 14 (Spix’s reference), 21 (Wied’s reference), 58 (Burmeister’s reference), 98 (von Pelzeln’s reference). — Chubb, Ibis, 1910, 635 (Sapucay, Paraguay; references). Chrysomitris magellanicus Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Surveys, IX, 1858, 418 (diag.), 419 (descr.; references; crit.). — Allen, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, V, 1880, 88 (crit. on range). Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbate Molina) Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (range). — White, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1882, 600, part (Concepcion, Misiones, and Santo Tome, Corrientes, Argentina). Chrysomitris notata (not Carduelis notata DuBus) Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Hist. N. Am. Birds, I, 1874, 471, in text (Audubon’s record; crit.). — Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., HI, 1880, 177, and Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 21, 1881, 22 (in list of N. Am. birds). Spinus notatus Stejneger, Auk, I, 1884, 362 (in list of N. Am. birds). — American Ornithologists’ Union Committee, Check-List N. Am. Birds, 1886, 262; ed- 2, 1895, 219; ed. 3, 1910, 250 (Audubon’s record). Astragalinus notatus CouES, Key N. Am. Birds, ed. 2, 1884, 356 (Audubon’s record) . Spinus ictericus von Ihering, Rev. Mus. Paulista, IV, 1900, 213 (Brazil; descr. eggs) ; V, 1902, 304 (faunal range), 31 1 (Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil). — Miranda Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, XIH, 1905, 186 (Retiro do Ramos, Itatiaya, Brazil). — von Ihering, Aves Brazil, 1907, 380, excl. range, part (Brazilian localities and range). — Luderwaldt, Zool. Jahrb., XXVII, 1909, 357 (Campo Itatiaya; habits).. — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231, part (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds, S. Am., I, 1912, 373, part (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Miranda Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, XXIV, 1923, 255 (Retiro do Ramos, Itatiaya, Brazil). — Velho, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, XXIV, 1923, 263 (Monte Serrat, Itatiaya, Brazil). 56 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Chrysomitris magellanica icterica Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166, part (range). Spinus ictericus campestris Hellmayr, Abhand. K. Bayerischen Akad. Wiss., II Kl., XXII, 1906, 680, 718 (crit. on Spix’s type). Spinus ictericus ictericus Hellmayr, Abhand. K. Bayerischen Akad. Wiss., II KL, XXII, 1906, 681 (Ypanema, Taquara, and Rio Janeiro, Brazil; meas.; crit.), 718, in text (Estado do Minas Geraes, Brazil; crit.). — Hellmayr, Nov. ZooL, XV, 190S, 33, in text (Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; crit.). Suhspecific characters. Similar to S. magellanicus alleni, but general coloration obviously deeper and richer, with less whitish color on the posterior under surface. Measurements. Male: wing, 67-71 (average, 69.5); tail, 41-45 (43.5); bill, 10-11.5 (10.5); tarsus, 13-14*5 (i3*7)* Female (four specimens): wing, 65-68 (67); tail, 39-43 (41); bill, 10-10.5 (10.2); tarsus, 13-14*5 (14)* Range. Forest region of southern Brazil, from southern Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul, and west to eastern Paraguay and Misiones, Argentina. Remarks. The available material is scanty and unsatisfactory, but, such as it is, indicates that the Spinus of the region extending from extreme southern Brazil to the State of Minas Geraes belongs to a form which is distinct from both magellanicus and alleni, and is characterized mainly by its deep, rich coloration. The yellow of the under parts in the male approaches a saffron or primuline-yellow, while that of the back is browner in tone. This is very characteristic, at least of the series from Minas Geraes, but some of the specimens from other parts are more greenish, and may be in imperfect plumage. Fresh specimens are badly needed, but even on the basis of present material I think we can recognize the present race, for which ictericus of Lichtenstein is the oldest name, calling it a subspecies of magel- lanicus. The size is about the same as in alleni) the tibiae and lower abdomen, however, usually have less white than in that form, generally being uniform with the rest of the under surface. A female from Sapucay, Paraguay (although having some grayish white on the posterior under parts), a male from an unknown locality in the same country, and a male from Santa Ana, Province of Misiones, Argentina, agree better with Brazilian skins than with those from the Argentine and Bolivian Chaco. This would indicate that the range of ictericus extends to the west in this region to meet that of alleni on the Paraguay River. Records from these parts are ac- cordingly referred to the present form, but a series of specimens are Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 57 urgently required. Probably alleni occupies the low country in the immediate valley of the Rio Paraguay, while ictericus replaces it after passing into the higher country to the eastward. The reasons for provisionally including Fringilla campestris Spix under the synonymy of ictericus have already been given. If Spix’s plate is at all accurate, it would be another reason, since the color shown is precisely that of the “general run” of the specimens of this form. The North American references appearing under this head call for some remark. They are all based on a single occurrence, thus recorded by Audubon: “While residing at Henderson, on the Ohio, I, one cold morning in December, observed five males of this species on the heads of some sunflowers in my garden, and, after watching them for a little time, shot two of them. The rest rose high in the air, and were soon out of sight. Considering the birds nearly allied to our Common American Goldfinch, I was surprised to find the head black at that season. Their notes resembled that of the Pine Finch, Fringilla Finns, but in their manner of feeding, as well as in their flight, they precisely resembled the American Goldfinch, Fringilla tristis. All my sub- sequent endeavours to meet with this species failed, and I am un- acquainted with the female.” Audubon’s description and figure, as well as the later one by Baird, leave no doubt that his identification of this bird as magel- lanicus was correct, so far as it went. Baird even went to some pains to point out the differences between magellanicus and the Mexican species, notatus. In spite of this positive identification, we find Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway in 1874 asserting that “three species of Chrysomitris, given by Mr. Audubon, are to be erased from the list: C. stanleyi, C. yarrelli, and C. magellanica. If, as he states, he killed specimens of the latter in Kentucky, they must have belonged to the C. notata of Dubus, a Mexican species, not since met with in our limits.” On the strength of this off-hand “identification,” made without a re-examination of Audubon’s specimen, and solely on the law of probabilities, authors ever since have been including Spinus notatus as a member of the North American fauna, and it has thus appeared in the three editions of the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-List. No attention has ever been paid to Sharpe’s protest {Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, XII, 1888, 217, note) 58 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. against this inclusion. Unfortunately the Audubon specimen which Baird handled seems to have disappeared from the collection of the U. S. National Museum, but the description and figure put its identi- fication beyond reasonable doubt, and indicate that it is referable to the Brazilian race of A. magellaniciis now under discussion. There remains the question of how five individuals of this species could have wandered in company so far as Kentucky in winter time. It is unthinkable that they could have found their way thus far through natural causes, however extraordinary, or in any way except through human agency. We know that then as now the Brazilian Goldfinch was a favorite cage-bird, and was undoubtedly brought in as such to North American ports. The five birds that Audubon saw must have escaped from captivity, and, following the social and wandering instincts of the species, must have eventually drifted to the inland locality where they were discovered. It seems to me that in view of what we now know Spinus "‘notatus'^ had best be dropped from the list as a North American bird, but even if con- sidered worthy of inclusion on the “Hypothetical List” it will have to appear as S. magellaniciis ictericiis. Specimens examined. Brazil: “Rio de Janeiro,” i; Rio das Velhas, near Lagoa Santa, Minas Geraes, 4; Monte Serrat, Serra do Itatiaya, i; Taquara do Mundo Novo, 2; Jundiahy, Sao Paulo, i; Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, i; Sao Paulo, 2; Porto Alegre, 2; Rio Grande do Sul, i; unspecified, 6. Paraguay: Sapucay, i; unspeci- fied, 2. Argentina: Santa Ana, Misiones, i. Total, 25. Spinus magellanicus magellanicus (Vieillot). “L’Olivarez” Montbeillard, Hist. Nat. Ois., IV, 1778, 232 (“environs de Buenos- ayres & du detroit de Magellan”; descr.). “Siskin, Var. C;” Latham, Gen. Syn. Birds, II, 1782, 291 (Buenos Aires and Straits of Magellan; descr., etc., ex Montbeillard), Spinus spinus, var. 8, Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, ii, 1789, 914 (ex Montbeillard), Fringilla spinus, var. 7, Latham, Ind. Orn., I, 1790, 453 (“Habitat in Bonari^ et freti Magellanici sylvis”; diag., etc., ex Montbeillard). “Gafarron” Azara, Apunt., I, 1802, 483, part, and Voy. Am. Mer., Ill, 1809, 292, part (Buenos Aires, Argentina; descr.; habits). Fringilla magellanica Vieillot, Ois. Chanteurs, 1805, pi. 30 and text (southern part of America — “environs du detroit de Magellan”; orig. descr.; ex Mont- beillard and Latham). — Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d’Hist. Nat., XII, 1817, 168 (Straits of Magellan; Buenos Aires, Argentina; descr., etc., ex Azara). — Vieillot, Enc. Meth., Ill, 1823, 983 (Straits of Magellan; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 59 descr., etc., ex Azara). — Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; excl. syn. part). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82, excl. syn. (in list of species; range, part). Chrysomitris magellanica Darwin, Zool. Voy. Beagle, Birds, III, v, 1841, 97, excl. syn. part (Maldonado, Uruguay; and Rio Negro, Argentina). — Hartlaub, Ind. Azara, 1847, 9 (references, part). — Burmeister, Journ. f. Orn., VIII, i860, 257 (Argentina). — Burmeister, Reise La Plata-Staaten, II, 1861, 489 (Argentina; references). — Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., XIV, 1866, 161 (Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Montevideo, Uruguay; crit.). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 674, part (references)- — Durnford, Ibis, 1876, 159 (Ranchos, Argentina). — Gibson, Ibis, 1880, 30 (Cape San Antonio, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina; habits; descr. nest and eggs). — Hesse, Journ. f. Orn., LV, 1907, 234 (shape of bill). Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbata Molina) Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1868, 140 (Conchitas, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina). — Hudson, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1870, 549 (Buenos Aires, Argentina; victim of Cowbird). — Durnford, Ibis, 1877, 172 (Baradero, Prov. Buenos Aires, Argentina). — Doering, Exped. al Rio Negro, I, Zool., 1881, 40 (Rio Sauce, Rio Colorado, and Rio Negro, Argentina). — Barrows, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, VIII, 1883, 132 (Buenos Aires and Concepcion del Uruguay, Argentina; habits). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 216, part (Maldonado, “Chile” [ = Uruguay]). Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 217, part (Buenos Aires, Conchitas, and Campana, Argentina; descr. male; references; crit.). — Sclater and Hudson, Argentine Orn., I, 1888, 64, excl. syn. part (Argentina; descr.; references; habits). — Kerr, Ibis, 1890, 361 (Estancia Mata Grande, near Nueva de Julio, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina). — Holland, Ibis, 1891, 16, and 1892, 197 (Estancia Espar- tillar, near Ranchos, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina). — Butler, Foreign Finches in Captivi y, 1894, 44> part (Argentina, ex Hudson). — Aplin, Ibis, 1894, 170 (Santa Elena, Uruguay; habits). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1902, 592, part (Argentina, in range). — Grant, Ibis, 1911, loi (Los Yngleses and Luiconia, Aj6, Province Buenos Aifes, Argentina; descr. nest and eggs). — Gibson, Ibis, 1918, 388 (Cape San Antonio, Province Buenos Aires; nesting). Chrysomitris magellanica icterica Lynch-Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166, part (range). Spinus ictericus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231, part (Argentina, in range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373, part (Argentina, in range). — Ogilvie-Grant, Cat. Birds Eggs Brit. Mus., V, 1912, 182 (Argen- tina; descr. eggs). — Serie, El Hornero, I, 1917, 36 (Argentina, in captivity); 1918, 73 (Argentina; common name). — Tremoleras, El Hornero, II, 1920, 23 (Montevideo, Canelones, Colonia, San Jose, and Florida, Uruguay). — Fer- nandez, El Hornero, II,'i920, 35, in text (Monte Veloz, Argentina). — Renard, El Hornero, II, 1920, 60 (Canuelas, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina). — Daguerre, El Hornero, II, 1922, 271 (Rosas, Argentina). — Pereyra, El Hornero, III, 1923, 171 (Escobar and Marianas, Province Buenos Aires, Argen- tina). Spinus ictericus ictericus Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), XI, 1910, 60 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. 387, part (Argentine localities, references, and range). — Hussey, Auk, XXXIII, 1916, 397 (La Plata, Argentina). — Dabbene, El Hornero, I, 1918, 181, in text (crit.). — Marelli, Mem. Minist. Obras Publicas, 1922-23, 1924, 658 (Barracas al Sud, Province Buenos Aires, Argentina). Description. Adult male: above bright warbler-green, almost uniform, the rump lemon-chrome; head (all around) glossy black, followed by a narrow and ill defined yellowish nuchal band; wings black, with a broad basal band of lemon-yellow (wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary), and broad outer terminal margins of yellow (citron-yellow to olive-yellow), inclining to whitish at the tips, on the inner secondaries; primary-coverts black; lesser and middle coverts black, broadly tipped with the color of the back; greater coverts also black, tipped with yellow (lemon-yellow to strontian yellow); upper tail-coverts like the back; tail black, the basal half or more yellow (lemon-yellow to lemon-chrome) ; throat black, with more or less irregular posterior margin, not sharply defined as a rule from the lemon-chrome of the sides of the neck and the rest of the under surface; tibiae and lower abdomen usually more or less white; under tail-coverts sometimes showing faint dark streaks; under wing-coverts pale yellow, the greater series with grayish tips; ‘hris brown; bill and feet blackish.” Adult female similar in general to the male, but decidedly duller throughout (dull warbler-green above, below strontian yellow, the breast and sides shaded with pyrite-yellow), the head uniform with the back, the wings and tail dusky brown, etc. In fresh plumage (May) females are more or less washed with grayish feather-tipping above and below. Some females are very much duller than others, with the under surface extensively whitish; they seem to be in im- perfect plumage. Adult males seem to vary little according to season, although wear serves to make the colors more vivid if, anything. Young males are variously intermediate between a plumage like that of the adult female and that of the fully mature male. Females vary much more than do males, as already said. The juvenal plumage of this race has not been seen by me. Measurements. Male: wing, 70-77 (average, 74); tail, 46-49 (47.5); bill, lo-ii (10.5); tarsus, 14.5-16 (15). Female (eight speci- mens): wing, 68-72 (70); tail, 44-47 (45); bill, lo-ii (10.3); tarsus, 13-15. 5 (14.5). Range. Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and southern Uru- guay, south to the Rio Negro. Remarks. After this species had been successively noted by Mont- beillard, Latham, and Azara (1778-1802), it was finally given a binomial name by Vieillot in 1805, and duly figured. Montbeillard, who was associated with Buffon in preparing the “Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux,” gave Buenos Aires and the Straits of Magellan as the Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 61 habitat of his “L’Olivarez.” Latham merely copied Montbeillard’s account. Azara’s names are supposed to refer mainly to the species found in Paraguay, but in describing his ‘"Gafarron” the only locality mentioned is Buenos Aires. Vieillot, although he quoted both '‘Buffon” {i. e., Montbeillard) and Latham, mentioned only the Straits of Magellan, possibly by inadvertence, and named the species magellanicus. But we now know that the only species of Spinus occurring at the Straits of Magellan is S. harhatus. Sharpe has there- fore proposed to drop the name megallanicus altogether as conveying a wrong impression, and furthermore because he is “convinced that the bird figured by Vieillot in his ‘Oiseaux Chanteurs’ is the long- billed Guiana form.” In this action he has been followed by almost all other authors, but I am satisfied that Cabanis was quite right when in 1866 he claimed that the name magellanicus would have to be reserved for the Argentine race, if distinguishable, and for the species at large in any event. Vieillot’s description and references are pertinent to the form under consideration, and the fact that he gave an erroneous locality and based his name upon it has no bearing on the case under our present rules. As for Sharpe’s claim that Vieillot’s figure represents the long-billed Guiana form, it is only necessary to remark that the figure is no more inaccurate than many others in the same work, and to point out that at this early date the highlands of Guiana were not supplying any ornithological novelties. There remains no valid reason, therefore, for refusing to accept the name magellanicus for this, the earliest known form of the group, after designating Buenos Aires as the proper type-locality. The range of the present form appears to be comparatively re- stricted, all the records falling within the Province of Buenos Aires and the southern part of Uruguay, with one outlying record from the Province of Entre Rios. Some doubt attaches to Darwin’s record for the Rio Negro, which may refer to S. harhatus, since this latter is known from the Rio Colorado, a little farther north, on the strength of a specimen misidentified by Mr. Peters. A specimen from Mal- donado, “Chile” ( = Uruguay), in the collection of the British Museum is listed under A. harhatus, almost certainly by inadvertence, if the locality is correct. There is nothing to show that A. magellanicus magellanicus approximates the range of tucumanus at any point; in fact, there appears to be a wide gap separating the two forms. Considerable has been written on the habits of the present form by 62 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. various authors. Except when breeding, it goes around in wandering flocks, and is very fond of the seeds of certain Compositce. There seems to be some migratory movement, as it is much commoner at some times than at others. It is a fine singer, and is often kept in cages on this account. The nest is a neat, cup-shaped structure, placed in the fork of a tree or bush, and the eggs are very pale blue, and vary from three to five in number. Specimens examined. Argentina: Buenos Aires, 8; Chacabuco, 3; Tandil, 2; Ajo, 2; La Plata, 2; Conchitas, 6; Mar del Plata, 3; Con- cepcion del Uruguay, i; Sauce Chico, 2; General Lavalle, i ; Estancia “Los Yngleses,” 10 miles S. W. General Lavalle, 7; Dolores, 2; San Vicente, i. Uruguay: San Vicente, Roche, 2. Total, 41. Spinus magellanicus tucumanus, subsp. nov. Chrysomitris magellanicus (not Fringilla magellanica Vieillot) Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1843, 113 (“Valleys of the Andes,” Chile[?]). — Desmurs, in Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool., I, 1847, 352 (Chile[?]; descr.). Chrysomitris magellanica Burmeister, Journ. f. Orn., VI, 1858, 160, in text (Mendoza, Argentina). — Salvin, Ibis, 1880, 355 (Salta, Argentina). Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbata Molina) White, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1882, 600, part (Sierra de Totoral, Catamarea, Argentina). Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 217, part (Salta and Cosquin, Argentina; descr. female). — Frenzel, Journ. f. Orn., XXXIX, 1891, 120 (Province of Cordoba, Argentina). — Salvadori, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. Torino, X, No. 208, 1895, 7, part (San Pablo, Tucuman, and Chilchas, Salta, Argentina); XII, No. 292, 1897, 10 (Campo Santo, Salta, Argentina). — Albert, Contr. Est. Aves Chilenas, xi, 1901, 460 (Chile!?]; descr.; meas.; habits). — Bruch, Rev. Mus. La Plata, XI, 1904, 255 (Rosario de Lerma, Salta, Argentina). — Baer, Ornis, XII, 1904, 216 (Santa Ana, Tucuman, Argentina). — Lillo, Rev. Letras y Ciencias Sociales, 1905, p. 10 of reprint (Estado Tucuman, Argentina). Carduelis icterica icterica Hartert and Venturi, Nov. Zool., XVI, 1909, 176 (Barracas al Sud and Mocovi, Tucuman, Argentina; descr. eggs). Spinus ictericus ictericus Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), XI, 1910, 387, part (Argentine localities, references, and range). Spinus ictericus Sanzin, El Hornero, I, 1918, 152 (Mendoza, Argentina). — Gia- COMELLI, El Hornero, HI, 1923, 69 (Province La Rioja, Argentina). Type, No. 142,201, Collection American Museum of Natural History, adult male; Lavalle (1800 ft.), Santiago del Estero, Argen- tina, June 17, 1916; Leo E. Miller and H. S. Boyle. Subspecific characters. Similar to S. magellanicus magellanicus, but general coloration darker and duller, and black of throat in the Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 63 male averaging more restricted, and more sharply defined from the yellow of the breast. Measurements. Male: wing, 70-76 (average, 72); tail, 44-49 (46.5); bill, 9.5-10.5 (10); tarsus, 13. 5-14. 5 (14). Female (six speci- mens): wing, 66-71 (69); tail, 43-46 (44); bill, 9.5-10.5 (10); tarsus, I3-5-I4-5 (14)- Range. Mountainous region of northern and western Argentina. Remarks. This new form has heretofore been confused with true magellanicus, but is readily distinguishable by its darker, duller coloration throughout. Above the -male is dull warbler-green; the yellow of the rump is duller and more restricted; the yellow of the under parts and sides of the neck is perceptibly duller, and the black of the throat is more restricted, and usually is more sharply defined posteriorly. The yellow at the base of the middle pair of rectrices averages more restricted, and sometimes is entirely absent. The pale outer edgings of the secondaries are duller greenish, and the tips are more tinged with gray. Females, too, average duller than females of the typical race. These differences are not seasonal, judging by the dates of the specimens. In juvenal dress (three specimens, March 19 and 21) the bird is dull citrine and buffy yellow below, with the wing- and tail-pattern as in the adults, but all the colors duller. This is the form of magellanicus which occupies most of northern and western Argentina, but where it meets the range of the typical form, if at all, does not appear, there being a considerable stretch of country from which there are no records. Nor are there any circum- stantial records from Chile, and the chances are that the form does not pass the crest of the Andes, nor go much south of the latitude of Mendoza. (The record from Lago General Paz by Sr. Lynch-Arri- balzaga proves to belong to S. barbatus). It runs up to at least 9000 feet on the western slope of the Andes. Two examples from the Province of Buenos Aires, April 5 and 16, indicate that it may migrate towards the coast for the winter, at least sometimes. To the north- ward it doubtless grades into bolivianus, specimens in worn plumage from Rosario de Lerma, Salta, and Tilcara, Jujuy, showing much brown on the back, as in that form. Specimens examined. Argentina: Tilcara, (8000 ft.), Jujuy, 3; Salta, 2; Rosario de Lerma, Salta, 2; Tafi Viejo, Tucuman, 2; Sierra de Aconquija (3000 m.), Tucuman, i; Concepcion, Tucuman, 8; Santa Ana, Tucuman, i; Tucuman, i; Tafi del Valle (7000 ft.), Tucuman, i; above San Pablo (4000 ft.), Tucuman, i; Sarmiento 64 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. (1700 ft.), Tiicuman, i; Tapia (2300 ft.), Tucuman, 2; Lavalle (1800 ft.), Santiago del Estero, 4; Angaco Sud, San Juan, 2; Valle de los Reartes, Sierra de Cordoba, i; Mendoza, 2; El Salto (6000 ft.), Potrerillos, Mendoza, 4; Potrerillos (5000 ft.), Mendoza, 5; Quilmes, Buenos Aires, i; Province Buenos Aires, i. Total, 45. Spinus magellanicus bolivianus (Sharpe). Chrysomitris barbata (not Fringilla barbata Molina) Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125, part, excl. syn. (Bolivia). [Chrysomitris icterica] Subsp. (3 Chrysomitris boliviana Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 220, excl. syn, part (Bolivia; orig. descr,; type [not designated] in coll. Brit. Mus.). Chrysomitris icterica var. boliviana Dubois, Syn, Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range) . Chrysomitris magellanica boliviana Lynch-Arribalzaga, An, Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166 (range). Spinus bolivianus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 232 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Subspecific characters. Similar to Spinus magellanicus tucumanus, but adult males with the feathers of the upper parts more or less prominently centered with dusky or blackish; this is particularly the case with the upper wing- and tail-coverts, which are conspicuously blacker, and less '‘solid” warbler-green than in the other form; adult females averaging more brightly colored below. Measurements. Adult male: wing, 73-77 (average, 75); tail, 45-51 (48.5); bill, 9.5-10.5 (10); tarsus, 14.5-15 (14.5). Female: wing, 71-75 (72); tail, 44-48 (46.5); bill, 10-10.5 Co); tarsus, 14-15 (14.5). Range. Highlands of Bolivia, from Cochabamba south at least to the Potosi region. Remarks. The characters assigned to this form by its describer do not hold good at all, as already pointed out by Dr. Chapman {Bulletin U. S. National Museum, No. 117, 1921, no), but the name must be used for the large Bolivian race, in which the characters of tucumanus are carried a step further. Individual variation in both sexes is excessive. Males vary in the amount of dark marking above, some individuals being almost as uniform above as tucumanus , at least in fresh plumage, while others are conspicuously streaked or mottled. Wear naturally tends to bring out this streaking. The extent of black on the throat is also a variable quantity: in one example (No. 139,659, Collection American Museum of Natural History) the whole throat and upper breast are black, while in another individual Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 65 (No. 139,652) the yellow invades the black area in asymmetrical pattern almost to the chin. The brightest females are decidedly greenish (near yellowish olive) above and yellowish below (pale lemon-yellow, the throat and breast shaded with olive-yellow). From examples fitting this description there is a perfect gradation all the way to individuals which are deep grayish olive above, tinged with olive, and ashy whitish below, washed irregularly with olive. These latter are in imperfect plumage. In juvenal dress both sexes resemble the adult female, but are still duller, and washed with buffy yellow, the lower parts being of this color (amber-yellow to straw-yellow) almost wholly; the wing-coverts and inner secondaries are tipped with broad buffy ends. In worn plumage both sexes lose the marginal tipping on the inner secondaries. Specimens examined. Bolivia: Cochabamba, 2; Duraznillo, i; Vacas, 2; Arque, i; Parotani (8800 ft.), 6; Chaco, Yungas, i; Vinto (8600 ft.), Cochabamba, 7; Cuchacancha (11,000 ft.), Cochabamba, i; Rio Cachimayo (8700 ft.), Sucre, 6; Pulque (9400 ft.), Sucre, 5; Rio Pilcomayo (8000 ft.), Sucre, 3; California (6600 ft.), i. Total, 36. Spinus magellanicus urubambensis, subsp. nov. Spinus ictericus peruanus (not of von Berlepsch and Stolzmann) Chapman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 117, 1921, no, part (Chospiyoc, Ttica-Ttica, Cuzco, Pisac, and La Raya, Peru;- crit.). Type, No. 129,181, Collection American Museum of Natural History, adult male; Cuzco (11,000 ft.), Peru, October 16, 1914; H. and C. Watkins. Subspecific characters. Male similar to the same sex of Spinus magellanicus bolivianus, but averaging brighter, more yellowish green above. Adult female apparently not so brightly colored below (normally?). Measurements. Male: wing, 73-79 (average, 74.5); tail, 46-52 (48.5); bill, 10-11.5 (10.5); tarsus, 15-16 (15.5). Female (three speci- mens): wing, 70-76 (74); tail, 45-48 (47); bill, 10-10.5 (10.2); tarsus, 15-15. 5 (15-2). Range. Andes of south-central Peru, in the Urubamba Valley, northward to the Rio Mantaro, and southward to northern Chile (Tacna). Remarks. Birds of the S. magellanicus type from the upper part of the Urubamba Valley differ from those hailing from the coast region of Peru in their larger size and duller coloration, the females in particular being much duller colored, more greenish below, less 66 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. yellowish. Since the two forms occur together at one point at least (Pisac), they must represent two specific types. Five birds from Oroya, on the Rio Mantaro, northeast of Lima, mentioned by Dr. Chapman, I would refer to the present form, their smaller size being attributable to their more worn condition. This record extends the range of urubambensis considerably, and goes to show that it covers some of the same area as peruanus. The new race is close to boliviamis, but more brightly colored in the male, when birds in the same condi- tion of plumage are compared. With only five females one cannot of course be too sure, but all are duller, less yellowish below than females of bolivia^ius in perfect plumage, although not so different from those in imperfect plumage, which they of course may be. There are eight birds in the von Berlepsch collection from the vicinity of Cuzco, collected by Gustav Garlepp, all in juvenal dress; they are rich buffy beneath and buffy brownish above, the males with a trace of the black throat. They were shot in June and July. No. 145,594, Collection American Museum of Natural History, July 2, is also in this dress, with a restricted black throat-patch. So far as I know this is the only neotropical Spiniis showing this character at this early stage. Specimens examined. Peru: Cuzco (11,000 ft.), 3; Ttica-Ttica (i 1,500 ft.), Cuzco, 3 ; Lauramarca (4000 m.), Cuzco, 5; Lucre (3500 m.), Cuzco, 4; Anta (3500 m.), Cuzco, 3; Sicuani, i; Chospiyoc, i; 01- lantaytambo, i; La Raya, 2; Pisac, 3; Oroya, 5; unspecified, i. Chile: Palca, Tacna (3000 m.), i. Total, 33. Spinus notatus notatus (DuBus). Carduelis notata DuBus, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, XIV, ii, 1847, 106 (Mexico; orig. descr.; type in coll. Brussels Mus.). — DuBus, Esquiss. Orn., 1848, pi. 37 (Mexico). — Lafresnaye, Rev. Zool., 1848, 247 (reprint orig. descr.). Fringilla notata Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. orig. descr.). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; range). Chrysomitris notata Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 516 (diag.; ref. orig. descr.). — Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 160, excl. syn. part (Mexico; references). — Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool, Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Mexico). — ScLATER, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1856, 304 (Orizaba, Mexico); 1858, 303 (La Parada, Oaxaca, Mexico); 1859, 365 (Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico), 380 (Totontepec, Oaxaca, Mexico). — Sclater and Salvin, Ibis, i860, 275 (Volcan de Fuego, Coban, and San Juan Sacatipequez to Antigua, Guatemala). — Sclater, Cat. Am, Birds, 1861, 124 (Orizaba, Vera Cruz, Mexico; references). — Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1864, 174 (City of Mexico, Mexico). — Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 67 Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 92 (Mirador and Orizaba, Mexico; Guatemala; crit.). — Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn., XIV, 1866, 162, in text (crit.) — SuMiCHRAST, Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 1869, 550, 561 (Temperate Region, Vera Cruz, Mexico). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 674, excl. syn. part (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Mexico and Guatemala, in range). — Lawrence, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 4, 1876, 22 (Gineta Mountains, Chiapas, Mexico). — Salvin, Cat. Strickland Coll., 1882, 214 (Guatemala; references). — Heine and Reichenow, Nom. Mus. Heineani Orn., 1882, 93 (Mexico). — Salvin and Godman, Biol. Centr.-Am., Aves, I, 1886, 428 (Mexican and Guatemalan localities and references; descr.). — Ferrari-Perez, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., IX, 1886, 149 (Teziutlan, Puebla, Mexico). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XH, 1888, 221 (Mexican and Guatemalan localities and references; descr.). — :(?)Nehrkorn, Kat. Eiersammlung, 1899, 107 (Mexico; descr. eggs). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 593 (references; range). Chrysomitris melanoxantha Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool. Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Mexico; nomen nudum). Chrysomitris notatus Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Surveys, IX, 1858, 418 (diag.), 419 (meas.), 420, in text (crit.). Spinus notatus Ridgway, Man. N. Am. Birds, 1887, 400, part (descr.; range). — Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 1891, 470 (Santa Ana, Honduras). — Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., X, 1898, 30 (Jalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 232 (in list of species; range). — Ogilvie- Grant, Cat. Birds Eggs Brit. Mus. V, 1912, 182 (descr. eggs). Spinus notatus notatus Ridgway, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 50, I, 1901, 102 (Mexican and Central American localities and references; descr.; crit.). Description. Adult- male: above bright warbler-green with a golden sheen, more or less mottled with black centers to the feathers, brightening on the rump into wax-yellow or sulphine-yellow; upper tail-coverts and tail black, the basal half of the rectrices (except the middle pair) lemon-yellow; wings black, with a broad basal band of lemon-chrome, wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary and on the innermost tertiaries; upper wing-coverts black, the greater series tipped with sulphine-yellow; head all around-^ throat, and upper breast black; sides of neck empire-yellow; rest of under parts deep lemon-chrome, paler posteriorly, the flanks shaded with pyrite- yellow; under wing-coverts and inner margins of remiges below amber- yellow; “iris brown; upper mandible blackish-brown, lower dull ashy; feet brownish” (Sumichrast). Female similar to the male, but duller in color, the upper parts more greenish, the under parts paler yellow (nearest strontian yellow), and the yellow wing-patch smaller and paler. Juvenal plumage’: above, including pileum, dull citrine or buffy olive with a greenish wash, slightly brighter on the rump; wings dusky brown with paler edgings and tips to the secondaries, the yellow basal band paler and more restricted, the wing-coverts tipped with olive-lake; tail dusky brown with yellow base and narrow greenish 3t11ow margins to the feathers; sides of head and under parts dull 68 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. wax-yellow to olive-ocher. A series from Santa Ana, Honduras, December 23, shows the transition from this stage into the next, the moult including the wings and tail. Measurements. Male: wing, 64-68 (average, 66.5); tail, 40-44 (42); bill, 1 1. 5-12 (11.9); tarsus, 13-14 (i3.5)' Female (three speci- mens): wing, 64-69 (66); tail, 40-45 (42); bill, I-I.5-12.5 (12); tarsus, 13-13-5 (13-2). Range. Highlands of southern Mexico, from Michoacan to Vera Cruz, and southward through Guatemala and western Honduras to north-central Nicaragua. Remarks. This species was described by DuBus from a specimen in the Brussels Museum without any more definite locality than “Mexico,” and I therefore would designate Jalapa, in the State of Vera Cruz, as the type-locality. It has been traced west to Mount Tancitaro, Michoacan, by Messrs. Nelson and Goldman, and is common in the highlands of Guatemala. The Nicaragua record is of a young bird taken by Mr. W. B. Richardson at Matagalpa, clearly belonging to this form. Spinus notatus differs decidedly from all the other neotropical species of this genus in certain important reT spects. Its bill is slenderer and more pointed even than that of 5. longirostris, the culmen being nearly straight; the wings (except for the yellow basal band) are plain black, with very little or no trace of paler edgings on the tertiaries or on the lesser and middle coverts, and only the greater coverts are slightly thus tipped; and most significant of all, the sexes are similar, the female being duller than the male, but with the same color-pattern. The black of the throat is extended over the upper breast, but does not invade the sides of the breast. These characters suggest that Spinus notatus is a form lying at the end of an evolutionary chain in time, just as it is in a geographical sense. It was probably derived independently from the same original stock as the forms of the South American black-hooded group, but is now completely isolated from all of them. It does not yet appear whether its range approximates that of S. xanthogaster. Specimens examined. Mexico: Jalapa, Vera Cruz, 7; Texola, Vera Cruz, i; Orizaba, Vera Cruz, 4; Mirador, Vera Cruz, 2; Jico, Vera Cruz, I ; La Cumbre, Mascota, Vera Cruz, i ; Gineta Mountains, Chiapas, i ; Mountains near Santo Domingo, Oaxaca, i ; Huanchi- nango, Puebla, i; Mount Tancitaro, Michoacan, 2; unspecified, 3. Guatemala: Vhlla Nueva, i ; unspecified, 10. Honduras: Santa Ana, 6. Nicaragua: Matagalpa, i. Unspecified, 3. Total, 45. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 69 Spinus notatus forreri (Salvin and Godman). Chrysomitris forreri Salvin and Godman, Biol. Centr.-Am., Aves, I, 1886, 429 (Ciudad Durango, Mexico; orig. descr. ; type now in coll. Brit. Mus.). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XI, 1888, 222 (Ciudad Durango, Mexico; descr.). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 593 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Spinus forreri Ridgway, Man. N. Am. Birds, 1887, 400 (descr.; range). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1901, 232 (in list of species; range). Spinus notatus forreri Ridgway, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 50, I, 1901, 103 (Mexican localities and references; descr.; crit.). Subspecific characters. Similar to Spinus notatus notatus, but general coloration of upper parts more greenish, and under parts duller, less golden yellow. Measurements. Male: wing, 66-70 (average, 68.5); tail, 41-45 (44); bill, 1 1. 5-12. 5 (12); tarsus, 13-13. 5 (i3-2). Female: wing, 63-67 (65-5); tail, 40-44 (42); bill, 11-12 (11.5); tarsus, 13-13*5 (i3-2). Range. Highlands of western Mexico, from central Chihuahua south to southern Jalisco. Remarks. With a much larger series than were available to Mr. Ridgway the differences ascribed to this race by him are obvious. It differs from true notatus in its more greenish, less golden coloration above, and duller coloration of the under parts. As Mr. Ridgway remarks, the male of forreri resembles closely the female of notatus, being dull lemon-chrome below, washed with pyrite-yellow on the flanks in the brightest specimens, and with wax-yellow in the dullest. Females vary from strontian yellow to citron-yellow below, brightest anteriorly; above they are rather bright yellowish olive. In the extent of black on the under parts the two races are about the same. The records from Chihuahua extend the range oi forreri considerably farther north than heretofore known, and bring it within a compara- tively short distance of the United States border. Specimens examined. Mexico: Bravo, Chihuahua, 26; Mina Abundancia, Chihuahua, 7; Chihuahua, Chihuahua, i; (State of) Chihuahua, i; El Salto, Durango, 7; Chacala, Durango, i; Santa Teresa, Tepic, i; San Sebastian, Jalisco, 3; Volcan de Fuego, Jalisco, 4; Tonila, Jalisco, i ; Las Masos (5800 ft.), Jalisco, i ; La Laja, Jalisco, I ; Las Canoas, 7000 ft., near Volcano Colima, Jalisco, 4; Volcano Colima, Jalisco, i ; La Pisagua, near Volcano Colima, Jalisco, 5. Total, 64. 70 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Spinus xanthogaster xanthogaster (Du Bus). Chrysomitris xanthogastra DuBus, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, XXII, 1855, i, 152 (Ocana, Colombia; orig. descr. ; type in coll. Brussels Mus.). — DuBus, Compt. Rend., XL, 1855, 356 (ref. orig, descr.; crit.). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1870, ,781, 785, part (Merida, Venezuela; “Bogota,” Colombia; Costa Rica; crit.). — Wyatt, Ibis, 1871, 328 (Canuto and Cocuta Valley, 5000- 6000 ft., Colombia). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34, part (range). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, 508 (Santa Elena, Antioquia, Colombia; descr. eggs). — Zeledon, Cat. Aves Costa Rica, 1882, 9 (Costa Rica). — Salvin, Cat. Strickland Coll., 1882,214 (references). — VON Berlepsch, Journ. f. Orn., XXXII, 1884, 275 (Ocana, Colombia, ex DuBus), 318 (Canuto and Cocuta [Valley], Colombia, ex Wyatt). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range). Chrysomitris bryantii Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 91 (Dota, Costa Rica; orig. descr.; type in coll. U. S. National Museum). — Stimpson, Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., I, 1868, 128, pi. 17 (descr., ex Cassin). — Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., IX, 1868, 104 (Dota, Costa Rica). — von Frantzius, Journ. f. Orn., XVII, 1869, 302 (Costa Rica). — Boucard, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1878, 56 (Volcano Irazu, Costa Rica). Chrysomitris bryanti Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 673 (references). Fringilla bryanti Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 81 (in list of species; range). Chrysomitris xanthogaster Salvin and Godman, Biol. Centr.-Am., Aves, I, 1886, 430, part, pi. 31, fig. 3 (Costa Rican and S. Am. localities and references; descr.; range; crit.). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 209 (Costa Rican and S. Am. references and localities; descr.). — Nehrkorn, Kat. Eiersammlung, 1899, 107 (Colombia; descr. eggs). Spinus xanthogastra Zeledon, An. Mus. Nac. Costa Rica, I, 1887, 112 (Cartago, Sarchi, and Dota, Costa Rica). Spinus xanthogaster Ridgway, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 50, I, 1901, 105 (descr.; range; references). — Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, IV, 1908, 34 (“Bogota,” Colombia; crit.). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 230 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 372 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Ogilvie-Grant, Cat-Birds Eggs Brit. Mus., V, 1912, 179 (Santa Elena, Antioquia, Colombia; descr. eggs). — Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVI, 1917, 564 (San Antonio and Santa Elena, Colombia). Spinus xanthogaster bryanti Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, IV, 1908, 34 (Costa Rica; crit.). — Carriker, Ann. Carnegie Mus., VI, 1910, 914 (Costa Rican localities and references; range; crit.). Description. Adult male; glossy black, except the under parts from the breast down, and the bases of the remiges, which are rich yellow (lemon-chrome), also the concealed bases of the rectrices (usually excepting the middle pair), which are lemon-yellow; sides and flanks more or less mottled with black, and lower abdomen whitish medially; under wing-coverts and inner margins of remiges pale yellow; outer web of outermost primary entirely black; “iris brown; feet brownish horn-color; bill black, paler at base below/’ Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 71 Female: above dark warbler-green, mottled with dusky centers to the feathers; wings dusky black, the coverts edged and tipped with warbler-green, like the back, the remiges with a basal band of lemon- yellow, omitted on the outer webs of the two outer primaries; under parts bright warbler-green, becoming brighter and more yellowish (strontian yellow) posteriorly and medially; under tail-coverts and concealed bases of rectrices lemon-yellow; under wing-coverts dull yellow; soft parts colored as in the male. There is a series connecting the bright-colored females, above de- scribed, with those in imperfect plumage, the extreme of which (illustrated by No. 210,146, Collection U. S. National Museum) is duller green (olive-green) above, and very much paler and duller below, dull grayish in fact, the breast and sides shaded with greenish, the abdomen medially and crissum grayish white. In juvenal dress (No. 25,309, Collection Carnegie Museum) the bird resembles the adult female, but is still duller, with a buffy tinge above and below, the under parts being almost uniform dull yellow (between deep colonial-buff and olive-ocher) ; the yellow wing-patch is present as in the adult, but the secondaries are conspicuously margined and tipped with grayish, shaded with green. Several specimens from the Eastern Andes of Colombia show the transition by moult from this plumage into that of the adult bird (August 30- September 9). Measurements. Male: wing, 64-67 (average, 65.5); tail, 37-42 (39); bill, 9-10 (9.5); tarsus, 13-14 (i3-3)- Female: wing, 63-66 (64); tail, 37-40 (38.5);.bill, 9-10 (9.5); tarsus, 13-14 (13.5). Range. Subtropical Zone, mountains of Costa Rica and western Panama, and Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. Remarks. In describing his Chrysomitris hryantii in 1865 Cassin was evidently unaware of an earlier and pertinent name for the species, bestowed by DuBus ten years before. Sclater and Salvin, in calling attention to the matter in 1870, claimed that examples from Costa Rica and Colombia, the respective type-localities of the two names, were identical. Mr. Bangs, writing in 1908, considered that the Costa Rican bird was separable as a geographical race, and I was at one time inclined to favor this view. But after comparing all the material now available I have reached the conclusion that the recognition of the Costa Rican bird under the name hryantii is inad- visable. There is a slight average difference in color, but it is very inconstant, while all the other alleged characters to which Mr. Bangs calls attention fail in the light of the larger series. As in several other allied forms, the size of the yellow spot on the wings varies greatly. All the adult females examined are from Costa Rica and Panama 72 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. with the exception of No. 172,409, Collection American Museum of Natural History, which comes from La Chonta, Province del Oro, Ecuador, a locality at the southern limit of the known range of this form. This example may represent a different subspecies; it agrees well with Costa Rican females in general coloration, but has a shorter wing-tip and shorter wing (60 mm.). In the original description of this species it was compared with Spinus atratiis, but its real relationship appears to lie with Astra- galinus'' psaltria croceus, of which it is probably the Subtropical Zone representative, as already pointed out. It is strictly a form of the Subtropical Zone, and, like many other birds characteristic of that zone, has a discontinuous distribution, the low country in Panama interrupting its range. It is apt to be met with in small flocks, and has a call resembling that of the American Goldfinch. The eggs are described as “pale greenish white, thickly but faintly freckled with lilac and brownish spots.” Specimens examined. Costa Rica: Vulcano Irazu, 9; Ujuras de Terraba, 2; Dota Mountains, 9; Coliblanco, i; Volcano Turrialba, i; Copey, 4; Azahar de Cartago, 2; La Estrella de Cartago, i; Carrillo, 2; Juan Vihas, i; unspecified, 2. Panama: Boquete, i. Colombia: La Palmita, 2; Pueblo Nuevo, i; Ocaha, 2; Cachiri, i; San Antonio (6600 ft.), 5; (Province) Antioquia, i; Santa Elena (9000 ft.), An- tioquia, 2; “Bogota,” 7. Venezuela: Merida, 6; Valle, Merida, i; Escorial, i; Culata, i. Ecuador: La Chonta (2000 ft.), Oro, i. Total, 67. Spinus xanthogaster stejnegeri (Sharpe). Chrysomitris xanthogastra (not of DuBus) Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1870, 785, part (Bolivia). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34, part (Bolivia). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, 607 (Sorata and Nairapi, Yungas, Bolivia). Chrysomitris xanthogaster Salvin and Godman, Biol. Centr.-Am., Aves, I, 1886, 430, part (Nairapi and Sorata, Bolivia). Chrysomitris stejnegeri Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 210 (Sorata and Nairapi, Bolivia [no type designated]; orig. descr. ; type in coll. Brit. Mus.). Chrysomitris xanthogastra var. stejnegeri Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Spinus stejnegeri Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 230 (in list of species; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descu; range). Subspecific characters. Similar to Spinus xanthogaster xanthogaster, but slightly larger, and yellow of under parts in adult male averaging Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 73 purer; female with the throat underlaid by black, presenting a clouded appearance. Measurements. Male (five specimens): wing, 66-69 (average, 68); tail, 44-45 (44-5); bill, 9-5-IO-5 (10); tarsus, 13-14 (i3-5)-^ Female (three specimens): wing, 66-67 (66.5); tail, 41-44 (42.5); bill, 9.5-10 (9.8); tarsus, 13-14 (13.5). Range. Subtropical Zone, Andes of Bolivia. Remarks. Instead of being specifically distinct, as given by Sharpe, the present form in only a subspecies of xanthogaster, and not a strongly marked one at that, so far at least as the characters of the males are concerned. The three adult females, however, are readily separable from northern birds of the same sex by the rather purer yellow color of the under parts, combined with a blackish under shading on the throat, suggesting the immature dress of the male in some other species. These three birds do not at all confirm Sharpe’s description of this sex, but do confirm his suspicions about Buckley’s sexing of specimens. This form appears to be known only from the Yungas of Bolivia, but should be looked for in Peru. Specimens examined. Bolivia: Iquico (3500 m.), 4; Chaco, Yungas, 2 ; Songo, I : Apolobamba, i ; Y ungas, near La Paz, i ; Cerro Hosane, i . Total, 10. Spinus atratus (Lafresnaye and D’Orbigny). Carduelis atratus Lafresnaye and D’Orbigny, Mag. de ZooL, 1837, Syn. Avium, 83 (La Paz; Bolivia; orig. descr.; cotype now in coll. Mus. Comp. ZooL). — D’Orbigny, Voy. Am. Mer., 1835-44, 364, pi. 48, fig.’z (La Paz, Bolivia; descr.; habits). — Hartert and Venturi, Nov. ZooL XVI, 1909, 176 (Lara and Cerro Munos, Tucuman, and Angosta Pardieta, Juiuy, Argentina). Fringilla atrata Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. descr.). Chrysomitris atrata Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 515 (diag.; ref. descr.). — Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. ZooL Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Chile). — (?)Bur- MEISTER, Journ. f. Orn., VIII, i860, 257 (Sierra de Mendoza, Argentina; descr. female?). — Burmeister, Reise La Plata-Staaten, II, 1861, 490 (Sierra de Uspallata, Argentina; descr.; references). — Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125 (Bolivia; references). — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 91 (references; crit.). — von Pelzeln, Reise Novara, ZooL, I, 1865, 92 (Chile). — Sclater, Proc. ZooL Soc. London, 1867, 322 (crit.). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. ZooL Soc. London, 1869, 152 (Pitumarca, Peru). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 81 (in list of species; range). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 673 (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Bolivia and Peru, in range). — Taczanowski, Proc. ZooL Soc. London, 1874, 523 (Junin, Peru; descr. nest and eggs). — Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. ZooL, III, 1876, 353 74 Annals of the Carnegie Museum, (Lake Titicaca, Peru; habits). — Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, 607 (La Paz, Bolivia). — Heine and Reichenow, Nom. Mus. Heineani Orn., 1882, 93 (Cordillera of Chile[?]). — Taczanowski, Orn. Perou, III, 1886, 53; Tables, 86 (Junin, Tarma, Huanta, Puno, Acancocha, and Queropuguio, Peru; descr.; habits; descr. nest and eggs; references). — von Berlepsch, Journ. f. Orn., XXXV, 1887, 130 (range). — Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1886, 396, 397 (Huasco and Sacaya, Tarapaca, Chile). — Bartlett, Mon. Weaver- Birds, etc., i, 1888, pi. I and text (La Paz, Bolivia; Mendoza, Argentina; descr,; references; habits; meas.). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 212 (Pitumarca, Peru; Mendoza, Argentina; Bolivia; descr.; references). — Sclater and Hudson, Argentine Orn., I, 1888, 65 (Sierra of Uspallata, Mendoza, Argen- tina, ex Burmeister; descr.; references). — Philippi, Ornis, IV, 1888, 159 (Colarados II, Chile). — Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1891, 134 (Sacaya and Lake of Huasco, Tarapaca, Chile). — James, New List of Chilian Birds, 1892, 2 (Tarapaca, Chile). — Lane, Ibis, 1897, 22 (Huasco and Sacaya, Chile; habits). — Albert, Contr. Est. Aves Chilenas, xi, 1901, 456 (Chile; descr.; meas.; habits). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range). — Lillo, An. Mas. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 178 (Province Tucuman, Argentina). — Baer, Ornis, XH, 1904, 216 (Lara, Tucuman, Argentina). — Lillo, Rev. Letras y Ciencias Sociales, 1905, p. 10 of reprint (Mountains of Tucuman, Argentina). — Reed, Hist. Nat. Aves Chilenas, 1907, 60, in text (Tarapaca, Chile). — Fontana, Enum. sist. aves Region Andina, 1908, 8 (Argen- tina) . Fringilla atratus Eyton, Cat. Birds, 1856, 257 (interior of Bolivia). Chrysomitris anthracina Philippi, An. Univ. Chile, XCI, 1895, 675 (Prov. San Fernando, Chile[?]; orig. descr.; type in Nat. Mus. Chile). — Philippi, An. Mus. Nac. Chile, XV, ZooL, 1902, 56, pi. 17, fig. i (San Fernando, Chile; descr.; crit.). Spinus atratus VON Berlepsch and Stolzmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1896, 353 (Ingapirca, Maraynioc, Jauja, and Tarma, Peru; La Paz, Bolivia). — Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 230 (in list of species; range). — Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3)? XI, 1910, 387 (Argentine references and range). — (?)Ogilvie-Grant, Cat. Birds’ Eggs Brit. Mus., V, 1912, 179 (Tumbez, Peru [error!]; descr, egg). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Chapman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 117, 1921, 39 (faunal range), no (Ollantaytambo and La Raya, Peru). Spinus anthracinus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 230 (ref, orig, descr.; range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). Description. Adult male: black, except the lower abdomen, tibiae, and crissum, which are lemon-chrome, and the basal half of the remiges and rectrices, which are of the same color, except that the outermost primary is entirely black on the outer web, and the middle pair of rectrices are wholly black; primary-coverts black; greater coverts with yellow terminal spots; under wing-coverts mottled black and yellow. In fresh, unworn plumage there is a narrow white or yellowish margin to the outer webs and tips of the inner second- aries. “Iris brown; bill black above, brownish yellow below; feet brownish plumbeous.” Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 75 Adult female: similar to the male, but the black duller, more brownish, and more or less overlaid with dull greenish yellow, especially below, this color tending to extend upwards along the median line from the lower abdomen, in irregular pattern. Juvenal plumage: similar to that of the adult female, but still duller and browner, the yellow of the under parts paler, more buffy yellow, and the greater and middle wing-coverts tipped with buffy, forming two bands across the wing. Measurements. Male: wing, 81-86 (average, 82); tail, 50-56 (52.5); bill, 9-1 1 (10); tarsus, 15-17 (16). Female: wing, 76-81 (78); tail, 45-54 (50); bill, 9-5-10 (9.7); tarsus, 15.5-17 (16). Range. Andes of Peru (Province of Junin), Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina (Province of Tucuman), breeding in the Puna Zone. Remarks. Females in imperfect plumage (illustrated by Nos. 174,367-8, Collection American Museum of Natural History, Chipa, Junin, Peru) are duller and paler than those in perfect plumage, being flammulated below with dusky and greenish yellow, and tinged with grayish. The original description of this species is unmistakable, as also is the later plate by D’Orbigny. The description given by D’Orbigny, however, is confused, but, such as it is, applies better to these examples; moreover, there is a cotype in the Lafresnaye Collec- tion (now in the Museum of Comparative Zoology) that has been examined in this connection. Birds from Peru appear to have the yellow of the underpants running up on the median line of the abdomen more often than those from Argentina, but the difference is incon- stant. The yellow pattern of the tail varies considerably; in some specimens it is cut squarely off, and in others it is obliquely separated from the black. Philippi has described and figured a black Goldfinch from San Fernando, Chile, under the specific name anthracinus, on the ground of its supposed less yellow. The fact is that the amount of yellow on the underparts, tail, and wings in this species is subject to co'usiderable variation, and while it is hazardous to express an opinion without having seen either the type or topotypical material, I suspect that anthracinus will prove to be based on an individual variant of atratus, and am provisionally throwing it into synonymy. No one has recog- nized it since, except on Philippi’s authority. There is a possibility, however, that birds from the southern extremity of the range of the species may show the peculiarities he claims. On the other hand, Bartlett figures an example said to have been collected by Weishaupt at Mendoza, Argentina (a locality not far distant from San Fernando, 76 Annals of the Carnegie Museum.- Chile), which is not different from northern specimens. But con- siderable doubt attaches to all these southern records. Burmeister’s records for this part may refer to some other species, and Weishaupt may have had only cage-birds. It is significant that no recent col- lector has met with the species here. Dr. Hellmayr writes me that the type-locality of anthracinus, San Fernando, is almost certainly erroneous, since he is assured by Mr. Colin Sanborn that the black Spinus is not found anywhere in central Chile except as a cage-bird. According to Dr. Chapman Spinus atratus is a bird of the Puna Zone in Peru, but as it is recorded by other authors from lower alti- tudes it probably ranges lower down at times. Jelski found it nesting under thatched roofs at Junin, Peru, a very peculiar situation, one would, think, and Taczanowski describes eggs collected by him as greenish white, spotted or streaked with reddish or blackish brown. The locality “Tumbez, Peru” quoted by Ogilvie-Grant as a nesting record must be an error. (It may be that the Peninsula of Tumbes, Chile, is meant instead.) In its appropriate zone it is said to be a common bird, with the general habits of the rest of the group. Specimens examined. Peru: Ollantaytambo, i; La Raya, 6; Lake Titicaca, 3; Anta, Cuzco, i; Chipa (12,400-14,000 ft.), Junin, 8; Puno, Lake Titicaca (12,500 ft.), 2; Oroya, Rio Mantaro, 2. Bolivia: Colomi, i; Poopo, i; La Paz, 6; Guaqui, 18; Desaguadero, i; Es- peranza, i; unspecified, 2. Chile: Ojo de San Pedro (12,400 ft.), Antofogasta, 2. Argentina: Lara (3200 m.), Tucuman, 3; Sierra del Cajon (3800 m.), Salta, 3; Tilcara (2470 m.), Jujuy, 6; El Alisal, Sierra del Cajon (2800 m.), Salta, i; Antofagasta (3100-3200 m.), “Catamarca,” [Los Andes?], 4; Angosta Perchela, Jujuy, i; Volcan (7000 ft.), Jujuy, i; unspecified, i. Total, 75. • Spinus uropygialis (Sclater). Chrysomitris xanthomelaena Reichenbach, in Bibra, Denies. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-nat. CL, V, 1853, 130 (Cordillera of Chile; nomen nudum). — ZuCHOLD, Journ. f, Orn., Ill, 1855, 55 (reprint orig, account). Chrysomitris atratus (not Carduelis atratus Lafresnaye and D’Orbigny) Cassin, in Gilliss’ U. S. Astr. Exped., 1855, 181 (Chile). Chrysomitris uropygialis Sclater, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125 (Chile; orig. descr. ; type now in coll. Brit. Mus.). — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 91 (Chile; crit.). — von Pelzeln, Reise Novara, ZooL, I, 1865, 92 (Chile). — Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1867, 322 (Chile; crit.), 338 (in list of species). — Philippi, An. Univ. Chile, XXXI, 1868, 263, 295, 303, 316, 325 (Chile), 329 Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus SpInus. 77 (Santiago, Chile). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 675 (references). — Sclater and Salvin, Nom. Avium Neotrop., 1873, 34 (Chile, in range). — Taczanowski, Orn. Perou, III, 1886, 54, Tables, 86 (Lima and San Mateo, Peru [??]; descr. ; refer- ences).— Bartlett, Mon. Weaver-Birds, etc., ii, 1888, pi. 2 and text (Chile; descr.; references; habits, fide Weishaupt; measurements). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 211 (Chile; descr.; references). — James, New List of Chilian Birds, 1892, 2 (Chile, resident). — Reed, Ibis, 1893, 596 (Chile; seasonal occurrence). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range). — Lonn- BERG, Ibis, 1903, 451 (Moreno, Jujuy, Argentina). — Reed, Hist. Nat. Aves Chilenas, 1907, 60, in text (mountains of Chile). Chrysomitris xanthomelana Philippi, An. Univ. Chile, XXXI, 1868, 325 (syn.). Fringilla xanthomelcena Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 81 (in list of species; range) . Fringilla uropygialis Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 81 (in list of species; range). Melanomitris uropygialis Gosse, in FitzGerald, The Highest Andes, 1899, 347 (Punta de las Vacas, Chile; habits). Chrysomitris uropigialis Albert, Contr. Est. Aves Chilenas, xi, 1901, 454 (Chile; descr.; meas.; habits). Spinus uropygialis Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 230 (in list of species; range). — Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), XI, 1910, 387 (Argentine references and range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Dabbene, Bob Soc. Physis, I, 1914, 356 (Argentine records and references). Description. Adult male: head all around, throat, and upper breast black; back black, the feathers with prominent margins of yellowish oil-green, giving a mottled squamate effect; rump yellow, the feathers with dark bases, sometimes showing through; longer upper tail-coverts and tail black, the basal two-thirds of the rectrices (except the central pair) lemon-yellow; wings brownish black, with a broad lemon-yellow basal band, wanting on the outer web of the outermost primary (sometimes on the next also) ; primary-coverts black; under wing-coverts lemon-yellow; secondaries margined ex- ternally with yellowish white toward their tips; under parts, from the middle of the breast down, lemon-yellow to lemon-chrome, the flanks with more or less black mottling, and the under tail-coverts sometimes showing traces of black streaks; ‘hris dark brown;” bill plumbeous; feet brown. Female similar, but duller than the male, the black of the head and throat more or less mottled with yellowish oil-green, like the back; the yellow of the under parts, rump, etc., duller and with more indica- tion of dark streaks. “The very young birds are almost green above, the forehead and chin blackish” (Bartlett). Measurements. Male: wing, 79-86 (82); tail, 50-57 (52.5); bill, 9-10 (9.5); tarsus, 15. 5-17 (16). Female (four specimens): wing, 80-83 (82); tail, 50-54 (52); bill, 9-10 (9.5); tarsus, 16-16.5 (16. i). 78 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Range. Andes of central Chile and northern Argentina, south at least to the Province of Santiago. Remarks. The affinities of this very distinct species appear to lie with S. atratus, which it resembles in general proportions and to some extent in coloration. It is difficult to make out its exact range from the few specimens and records to which precise localities are attached, but from what little information is available it appears to be a species of the high cordillera of the Andes, dropping down to lower levels when not breeding. While according to Taczanowski it has been taken by Raimondi at Lima and San Mateo in Peru, this is surely a mistake, since none of the recent workers in this region have en- countered it there, and there are no records for Bolivia whatever. But the exact limits of its range remain in doubt, as well as its exact faunal relationships to A. barbatus and S. atratus. Specimens examined. Chile: Tofo (6o mi. N. of Coquimbo), 6; El Pehon (bajon del Rio Aconcagua), 3; Santiago, 3; San Jose de Maipo (3000 ft.), Santiago, i; unspecified, 6. Total, 20.^ Spinus barbatus (Molina). Fringilla barbata Molina, Saggio Hist. Nat. Chile, 1782, 247, 345 (Chile; orig. descr.; no type or type-locality specified; habits, etc.); ed. 2, 1810, 209 (descr., etc.). — Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, ii, 1789, 915 (descr,, etc., ex Molina). — Latham, Ind. Orn., I, 1790, 456 (descr., etc., ex Molina). — Stephens, in Shaw’s Gen. ZooL, IX, ii, 1816, 484 (references; descr., etc., ex Latham). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; range). “Bearded Finch’’ Latham, Sup. Gen. Syn. Birds, 1802, 208 (descr., etc., ex Molina). Fringilla magellanica (not of Vieillot) Lesson, Traite d’Orn,, 1831, 443 (“lies Malouines’’ [Falkland Islands]). Carduelis stanleyi Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Am., 1839, 118 (“Upper California’’ [ = Valparaiso, Chile]; orig. descr.; type now in U. S. Nat. Mus.). — Audubon, Birds Am., oct. ed.. Ill, 1841, 137, pi. 185, female (“California’’; descr.). — Stone, Auk, XXIII, 1906, 308 (Audubon’s reference). Chrysomitris campestris (not Fringilla campestris Spix) Darwin, Zool. Voy. Beagle, Birds, III, iv, 1839, 89 (Tierra del Fuego and Valparaiso, Chile; descr.). — Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1843, 112 (Valparaiso, Chile). Chrysomitris campestris DesMurs, in Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool., I, 1847, 352 (Chile; descr.; habits). — von Pelzeln, Reise Novara, Zool., I, 1865, 92 (Chile). Fringilla stanleyi Gray, Gen. Birds, II, 1849, 371 (in list of species; ref. orig. descr,). — Gray, Hand-List Birds, II, 1870, 82 (in list of species; range). Chrysomitris stanleyi Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 515 (diag.; ref. orig, ^Dr. Hellmayr writes me that the Field Museum has lately received a specimen from Caldera, Atacama, Chile. Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 79 descr.). — ^Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Surveys, IX, 1858, 418 (diag.), 419 (meas.), 420 (descr.; references; crit.). — Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Hist. N. Am. Birds, I, 1874, 471, in text (crit.). — Allen, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, V, 1880, 88 (crit. on range). Chrysomitris marginalis Bonaparte, Consp. Avium, I, 1850, 517 (Chile; orig. descr.; types in coll. Berlin Mus. and Paris Mus.). — Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 160 (Chile; ref. orig. descr.). — Cassin, in Gilliss’ U. S. Astr. Exped., 1855, 181, pi. 17 (Chile; descr.). — Burmeister, Reise La Plata-Staaten, II, 1861, 490 (Mendoza, Argentina; references). Hypacanthis stanleyi Cabanis, Mus. Heineanum, I, 1851, 161, note (ref. orig. descr.). Crithagra flavospecularis Hartlaub, Naumannia, 1853, 213 (Valdivia, Chile; orig. descr.; type?). Chrysomitris novehor acensis Lichtenstein, Nom. Avium Mus. Zool. Berolinensis, 1854, 46 (Chile; nomen nudum). Fringilla sp. Eyton, Cat. Birds, 1856, 256 (Chile). Chrysomitris barbata Philippi, Arch. f. Naturg., XXVI, i860, 28 (Chile; syn.; crit.). — ScLATER, Cat. Am. Birds, 1861, 125, part (Falkland Islands; references). ■ — Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1865, 90 (Valparaiso, Chile; syn.; crit.). — ScLATER, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1867, 322 (Chile; syn.; crit.), 338 (in list of species). — Sclater and Salvin, Ibis, 1868, 185 (range), 186 (Gregory Bay, Straits of Magellan); 1870, 499 (Ancud and Sandy Point, Straits of Magellan). — Giebel, Thes. Orn., I, 1872, 673 (references). — Heine and Reiche- Now, Nom. Mus. Heineani Orn., 1882, 93 (Valdivia, Chile). — Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., XII, 1888, 216, excl. Maldonado ref. (Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, and Tierra del Fuego; descr.; references). — Oustalet, Miss. Sci. Cap-Horn, VI, 1891, B99 (localities in Straits of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego; plumage; references). — Lane, Ibis, 1897, 21 (Corral, Coronel, Calle- calle, Maquegua, Arauco, Valdivia, Rio Bueno, and Ancud, Chiloe Island, Chile; range; habits). — Schalow, Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. IV, iii, 1898, 722 (range). — Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. di Stor. Nat., (2), XX, 1900, 622 (Punta Arenas, Chile, and Penguin Rookery, Staten L). — Albert, Contr. Est. Aves Chilenas, xi, 1901, 458 (Chile; descr.; meas.; habits). — Dubois, Syn. Avium, I, 1901, 592 (references; range). — Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 361 (Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego; references; range [part]). — Reed, Aves Province Concepcion, 1904, 36, 55 (Province Concepcion, Chile). — Crawshay, Birds of Tierra del Fuego, 1907, 49, excl. Durnford ref. (Rio McClelland Settlement, Tierra del Fuego; references; habits). — Reed, Hist. Nat. Aves Chilenas, 1907, 60 (Chile; habits, etc.). Chrysomitris magellanica Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1861, 46 (Falkland Is., fide Abbott). — Lynch- Arribalzaga, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), I, 1902, 166 (Lago General Paz, Argentina). Chrysomitris magellanicus Abbott, Ibis, 1861, 154 (Stanley and Keppel Islands, Falkland Islands). Hypocanthis stanleyi Cooper, Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, II, 1877, 92 (crit.). Astragalinus stanleyi Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Ill, 1880, 213, and Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 21, 1881, 59 (crit. on range). 80 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Spinus barbata Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., II, 1889, 83 (Valparaiso, Chile). Chrysomitris icterica (not Fringilla icterica Lichtenstein) Nehrkorn, Kat. Eier- sammlung, 1899, 107 (Chile; descr. eggs). Spinus barbatus Sharpe, Hand-List Birds, V, 1909, 231 (in list of species; range). — Dabbene, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, (3), XI, 1910, 387 (Argentine references and range). — Brabourne and Chubb, Birds S. Am., I, 1912, 373 (ref. orig. descr.; range). — Ogilvie-Grant, Cat. Birds’ Eggs Brit. Mus., V, 1912, 181 (descr. eggs). — Pafsler, Journ, f. Orn., LXX, 1922, 475 (Coronel, Chile; habits). — Peters, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., LXV, 1923, 330 (Bariloche, Argentina). Spinus ictericus ictericus Peters, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., LXV, 1923, 331 (Rio Colorado, Argentina). Description. Adult male: above warbler-green, obscurely streaked with darker centers to the feathers, the rump brighter, oil-yellow, un- streaked, the upper tail-coverts dusky brownish, with greenish and grayish margins and tips; tail dull black, the rectrices with narrow grayish white margins and pale lemon-yellow bases, concealed except on the lateral feathers; wings dull black with a broad basal band of pale lemon-yellow (omitted on the outer three primaries), the remiges with narrow outer margins of warbler-green, becoming wider and tinged with grayish on the secondaries; wing-coverts dull black, with warbler-green tips; primary-coverts and median portion of secondaries plain black; under wing-coverts dull white, tinged with yellow; pileum black; sides of head and neck pyrite-yellow, the auriculars darker (warbler-green) ; throat-patch dull black, more or less veiled with greenish feather-edgings, the pattern not sharply defined; under parts in general dull yellow (between lemon-yellow and pyrite-yellow), becoming pale smoke-gray on the abdomen medially and warbler- green on the flanks; under tail-coverts yellow-tinged, and with indications of dusky streaks; “iris brown; bill brown above, blackish horn below; feet brownish.” Female similar in general, but duller, the pileum like the rest of the upper parts, the black throat-patch wanting, the under parts paler yellow, the grayish white of the posterior under parts more extended and the under tail-coverts with little or no yellowish tinge. Juvenal plumage: similar to that of the adult female, but duller, more or less tinged with brownish above, the median and greater wing-coverts with buffy yellowish tips. A female in juvenal dress (Quellon, Chiloe Island, Chile, January 3) has the throat alone of all the lower parts, yellow-tinged. Young males appear to pass from this dress into a stage, wherein they closely resemble the adult female, but with an indication of the black throat-patch, although this may be acquired at the next moult. Three females are in what I have designated as imperfect plumage. Above they are deep olive-gray, tinged with warbler-green, and below almost uniform pale smoke-gray; the wing- and tail-pattern, .however, is virtually the same as in the perfect plumage, and the pattern of the sides of the head is also indicated. At this stage the Todd: Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus. 81 bird suggests the American Goldfinch Astragalinus" tristis) in winter dress. Measurements. Male: wing, (average, 74.5); tail, 50-53 (51); bill, lo-ii (10.5); tarsus, 15-5-17 (16.3)- Female; wing, 68-75 (72); tail, 49-52 (50); bill, 10-10.5 (10.3); tarsus, 16-17 (16.5)- Range. Andean region of Chile and western Argentina, north to the Province of Atacama, south to Cape Horn and the Falkland Islands. Remarks. Molina’s description of this species is most inaccurate, and must have been drawn up from memory alone. Indeed, it is recognizable mainly because he refers to the bird as the “Gilghero” (or “Jilguero”) of the natives, under which name it still passes, and because he gives such a good account of its habits. In 1839 Audubon gave a good description of his Carduelis stanleyi, based on a specimen supposed to have come from '‘Upper California,” but which was almost certainly collected by Townsend at Valparaiso, Chile. On this account I propose to designate Valparaiso as the type-locality for the species. Three additional synonyms, by Bonaparte, Hart- laub, and Lichtenstein respectively, followed in rapid succession in 1850-53, while some other authors confused it with the. Fringilla campestris of Spix. In i860, however, Philippi pointed out the perti- nence and priority of Molina’s name harbatus, which has been in common use since, although certain other forms have been confused with this species at one time or another. Spinus harbatus appears to more closely resemble Spinus spinus of the Palsearctic Region than do any of the other South American forms. In general coloration the two are nearly alike in adult male plumage, except that spinus has the flanks more or less streaked, while in harbatus they are plain, the under tail-coverts alone retaining traces of streaks. The yellow of the tail is more restricted, too, in harbatus, and the bill is stouter. In juvenal dress, however, the two species are unlike, the heavy streaking of spinus not being in evidence in harbatus, which is thus a step in advance of the other. I can detect no geographical differences between birds coming from extremes of the range of the species, but there is considerable seasonal and individual variation, also some due to age, as already indicated. In worn plumage the pale outer edgings of the secondaries disappear, and the yellowish green of the upper parts tends to grow brighter. Sometimes the middle pair of rectrices in males are yellow at the 82 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. base, like the rest, but more often they are wholly black. Females always have this yellow area much restricted, and sometimes virtually wanting, while that on the wing is also smaller than in the males. These characters will serve to distinguish the species from A. magel- lanicus in the same stage, since this latter always has more yellow, sex for sex, on -the wings and tail. The available records would indicate that 5. harhatiis is a charac- teristic species in the Andes of Chile, ranging as far north as the Province of Atacama, and thence southward to the extremity of the South American continent. North of the latitude of Concepcion it appears to be confined to the western slope of the mountains, but here crosses the divide, and occurs on the eastern side, in Argentina, in the neighborhood of Lakes Nahuel Huapi and General Paz. Speci- mens from General Roca, on the Rio Negro, and from Rio Colorado, on the river of the same name, indicate that it ranges well to the eastward in this section. I can find no records from 44° south latitude until the Straits of Magellan are reached, but it undoubtedly occurs in the intervening region, avoiding here, as it does farther north, the open treeless plains of Patagonia. On the Falkland Islands it is scarcely more than accidental. Several authors refer to its being found on the coast of Chile only during the winter, retiring to the mountains to breed, but just how far north this statement applies is not entirely clear, although its breeding range would be expected to run northward along the Andes, all else being equal. In its habits the Chilean Goldfinch is said to closely resemble the Siskin of the Old World, and to have a beautiful song, for which reason it is often kept in captivity. Specimens examined. Chile: Valparaiso, 2; Maquehuc, Temuco, Cautin, 3; Apoquimbo, i; Los Andes, 4; Corral, 4; Taleahuano, i; Rio Colorado, Malleco, i ; Curacautin, i ; Ramadilla, Copiapo Valley, Atacama, 3; Romero, Coquimbo, 2; San Jose de Maipo (3000 ft.), Santiago, 4; Melinka, Ascension Island, Guaiteca Islands, 4; Quellon, Chiloe Island, 4; Concon, Valparaiso, i; Valdivia, 3; Frutillar cerca de Puerto Moutt, 3; [Peninsula of] Tumbes, i; Punta Arenas, 27; unspecified, 5. Argentina: Lago General Paz, Chubut, i; Valle del Rio Chubut, 2; Nahuel Huapi, Neuquen, 9; Bariloche, 8; Rio Colorado, i; Fujuy Veldt, Rio Chico, i; General Roca, Rio Negro, I. Tierra del Fuego: Bahia Parvenir, 2; off Staten Island, i; Cape Horn, 2; Laredo Bay, i. Unspecified, i. Total, 104. II. THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS TINGIS FABRICIUS (HEMIPTERA). By Carl J. Drake This paper contains the descriptions of two new species of the Genus Tingis Fabricius, family TingitidcE. Heretofore the genus has been represented in South America by a single species, Tingis ameri- cana Drake. Only one species, Tingis {Monanthia) necopina Drake, has been recorded from North America. The genus is represented by a large number of species in the old world. Genus Tingis Fabricius (1803). Tingis Fabricius, Systema Rhyngotorum, 1803, p. 124. Logotype: Tingis {Cimex) cardui (Linnaeus). Key to the South American Species. 1. Form ovate, moderately clothed with fine, short pile; antennae rather stout, moderately long, segment III not more than twice as long as IV 2 Moderately elongate, oblong, without vestiture; antennae long, slender; seg- ment III more than three times as long as IV; margins of paranota and elytra serrate T. silvacata Drake. 2. Areolae of paranota and costal area of elytra rather large; paranota biseriate in front; costal area triseriate; elytra with a prominent adventitious nervure. T. americana Drake. Areolae smaller; paranota triseriate in front; costal area quadriseriate; ad- ventitious nervure wanting T. corumbiana Drake. I. Tingis silvacata, sp. nov. Moderately elongate, oblong, testaceous, with a few brownish spots. Head short, testaceous, with five moderately long, semierect spines. Antennae slender, long; segments I and II brown, II nearly three times as long as I ; segment III very long and slender, testaceous, almost three and one-half times as long as IV ; segment IV considerably swollen towards tip, shorter than I and II conjoined, black, except a small basal portion. Pronotum considerably swollen through disk, not coarsely punctured, tricarinate, the carinae parallel and without distinct areolae; median carina strongly and roundly raised on the collum. Paranota narrow, moderately reflexed, mostly biseriate (in 83 84 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. some places only iiniseriate), the cells small and nearly round. Ros- trum reaching to the middle of the mesosternum. Rostral laminae low, widely separated on the metasternum, the channel closed behind. Lateral margins of paranota and elytra finely serrate. Elytra con- siderably longer than the abdomen, rounded behind, testaceous, with six brown spots; costal area moderately wide, almost entirely biseriate, the areolae moderately large; subcostal area broader than costal area, with five rows of areolae at its widest part; discoidal area bounded by a prominent costate nervure, moderately impressed, reaching to the middle of the elytra, with four rows of areolae at its widest part, the outer margin nearly straight. Wings almost as long as the elytra. Abdomen beneath black, the tip brownish. Length, 2.9 mm.; width, 1. 1 mm. Holotype, female, Chapada, Brazil, H. H. Smith Collector, in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This species is much more elongate, than T. americana. Drake or T. corumhiana Drake. The antennae, paranota, elytra, general aspect, and form are also very different from these species. 2. Tingis corumbiana, sp. nov. Moderately large, ovate, moderately clothed with short, fine pile. Head short, brown; median spine wanting; anterior spines not very long, sharp, decumbent, the tips touching; posterior spines atrophied. Antennae moderately long, moderately stout, brownish, the first, second, basal portion of third and apex of fourth segments darker; segment I a little longer and stouter than II; segment III twice the length of IV. Pronotum formed as in T. americana, but with the median raised portion of the collum a little broader; paranota moder- ately broad, triseriate in front, the cells distinctly smaller than in americana. Elytra a little longer, the adventitious nervure wanting, and the cells of costal area much smaller than in americana', costal area broad, quadriseriate, the areolse moderately large, the subcostal area biseriate. Rostrum reaching slightly beyond the prosternum. Length, 2.8 mm.; width, 1.5 mm. Holotype, male. Corumba, Matto Grosso, Brazil, in writer’s collection. This species is very similar to T. americana Drake in pattern, general aspect, and color, but it is slightly longer and more closely reticulated; the costal area of the elytra has four rows of areolae. 3. Tingis americana Drake. Tingis americana Drake, Mem. Cam. Mus., Vol. IX, No. 2, p. 366, PI. xxxix, fig. II, 1922. In addition to the types (Chapada, Brazil), one specimen is at hand I* Drake: South American Species of Tingis. 85 from Corumba, Matto Grosso, Brazil. The larger areolae of paranota and costal area, the triseriate costal area and the adventitious nervure of the elytra readily separate americana from corumbiana Drake. T. silvacata, sp. nov., is very distinct from both of these species. III. THREE NEW SPECIES OE RUTELIN.E: (COLEOPTERA LAMELLICORNIA) IN THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM. By Dr. E. Ohaus.* Genus Popillia Serville. I. Popillia oxypyga, sp. nov. 9. Oblong-ovate; the hind part more pointed than the front part, flattened. Body brilliant metallic green; elytra leaf-green, in- clining to yellowish; legs reddish, with coppery lustre. Head and prothorax deeply and densely punctured, imparting a silky gloss to these parts, when viewed laterally; but the hind part of the prothorax and the scutellum are polished and only bear a few scattered punc- tures. Elytra with strongly projecting shoulders, bearing on their sides oblique impressions; apical callus somewhat projecting; primary lines of punctures finely impressed; primary costae not at all raised; subsutural interstice irregularly and finely punctured near the hind border; lateral border densely aciculate on side of the apical callus. Pygidium flat, with a conical apex, surpassing the hind border of the ultimate tergite to a distance of 1.25 mm.; base with a small dimple in the anterior angles and a small patch of yellowish hairs; upper side along the disk covered with punctures having the outline of a horse- shoe, which join coarse transverse ridges at the sides. Abdomen and metasternum smooth along the middle, coarsely punctured at the sides, with a few scattered hairs on the penultimate sternite and small patches of yellowish hairs at the sides. Mesosternal process long and stout, like that in P. kolhei Ohaus, Legs stout; inner condyle of the coxae and femora near the trochanters clothed with long yellowish hairs; anterior tibiae with a long apical tooth; middle and hind tibia with two oblique edges, beset with stiff brown bristles. Antenna reddish brown. Length 16 mm.; breadth 9 to 9.5 mm. Type, a female in the C. M. (Acc. No. 4655) from Efulen, Came- roon, taken Jan. 6, 1912; paratype, a female from the same locality, *Dr. F. Ohaus of Mainz, Germany, is today recognized as one of the foremost living authorities upon the coleopterous family Rutelida. A number of species, representing this group, having been submitted to him for determination, he has kindly communicated this paper when returning to the Carnegie Museum the specimens he had received for study. W. J. Holland. 87 88 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. taken Nov. 28, 1911, in the collection of F. Ohaus. Both specimens were collected by Dr. H. L. Weber. The Carnegie Museum possessed one male and three female paratypes of the same provenance and locality. In color the species somewhat resembles P. meinhardti Kolbe from East Africa, but its flat dorsal surface and its conical pygidium reveals a closer relationship to P. kolbei Ohaus from Cameroon. Genus Leucothyreus MacLay. 2. Leucothyreus phytaloides, sp. nov. Oblong-ovate in outline, somewhat broadened behind. Body and legs brilliant chestnut-brown; femora and antennae somewhat reddish; elytra dull reddish brown, as in many species of Phytalus and Lach- nosterna, with a whitish silky gloss at the hind margin when viewed from above. Clypeus very short, more than three times broader than long, anterior margin rounded, and somewhat raised; like the head, scutellum, and prothorax, it is coarsely, but not densely, punctate. The punctations on the prothorax bear whitish setiform hairs, very short on the disk, longer and coarser on the sides. Elytra with ir- regular rows of fine punctures, without striae on costal ridges. Pygidium coarsely arcuate-striate, with white hairs, very short on the disk, longer and more densely set on the sides. Abdominal sternites with the ordinary transverse series of yellow, bristles, the sides densely covered with white hairs. Coxae and sternum densely clothed with white hairs. Anterior tibiae with three stout teeth, the posterior strongly dilated at the apex; the claws of all the tarsi bifid; antennae with ten joints, the club much shorter than the stem. Length 18 mm.; breadth 9 mm. Type, a female, in the C. M. (Acc. No. 2966) from Chapada, Matto Grosso, Brazil, H. H. Smith coll. October. Paratype in coll. Ohaus. This species belongs to the kirhyanus-groxi^. 3. Leucothyreus pygmaeus, sp. nov. Ovate in outline, the female broader behind than the male, convex dorsally; brilliant chestnut-brown on the upper side, abdomen and legs more reddish brown. Clypeus short, nearly three times broader than long, anterior margin rounded and slightly raised, surface coarsely, but not densely, punctate. Head, scutellum, and prothorax covered with coarse single punctures; the basal furrow of the thorax broadly interrupted before the scutellum. Elytra, as in L. campestris, regularly punctate-striate, the punctures in the rows mostly duplicate. Ohaus: Three New Species of Rutelin^. 89 here and there interrupted by short little folds. Pygidium covered with very coarse, short, transverse furrows; at the sides near the apex with a few short white hairs; sides of abdomen, coxae, and sternum with round punctures, each bearing a short white hair. Anterior tibiae bidentate, the basal lateral tooth being absent in both sexes. Antennae with ten joints, the club shorter than the stem in both sexes. Length 7 to 8 mm.; breadth 4 to 4.5 mm. Type, a male; allotype, a female, in the C. M. (Acc. No. 2966, H. H. Smith coll.) from Chapada, Matto Grosso, Brazil, November. A paratype from the same lot is in the collection of F. Ohaus. There are two additional paratypes in the Carnegie Museum. The species belongs to the campestris-gr and is one of the smallest in the genus. IV. THE GEOLOGY OF PITTSBURGH AND ITS ENVIRONS: A POPULAR ACCOUNT OFTHE GENERAL GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF THE REGION. By Henry Leighton, Professor of Geology in the University of Pittsburgh. (Plates I-VII) Introductory. The interest in outdoor pursuits seems to be increasing. The hiking clubs, the Audubon Societies, the Boy Scout movement are all indications that we city people feel the need of health conservation and link with it outdoor hobbies or pleasures, which stimulate our imagination and develop in us greater love for the things of nature. It may be an interest in botanical specimens, shells, or insects, in birds, in reptiles, or in mammals, which calls us out; or it may be that some of us desire a better acquaintance with the rocks and their most interesting history. It is for the latter group that this paper has been written. Its purpose is to give in a simple way the story of the rocks of our district; a geological history, which may draw some into the open and arouse their curiosity sufficiently to take up the subject in greater detail and by their own observation add to our as yet meager knowledge of the geology of western Pennsylvania. The literature concerning our local geology is at the best not voluminous, and is mainly scattered through government publica- tions, some of recent date and some written at such an early date that the information they contain is not of great value. The present State Geological Survey at Harrisburg, under the able direction of Dr. George Ashley, is slowly and with scanty appropriations trying to study and publish upon the geology and the mineral resources of the State, and we hope that the geologic folio describing the Pittsburgh quadrangle may soon appear. In the meanwhile it seems advisable to summarize and simplify such information as is at hand, adding to it many local details worked out by the geological department at the University of Pittsburgh, and 91 92 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. publish it. This will then furnish a field manual for teacher, student, or nature-lover to use as a basis for study. Plate I and fig. 7 are taken from the report of the Pennsylvania Geologic and Topographic Commission for 1906. The fossil animal remains shown on Plate II are copied from Bulletin 544 of the United States Geological Survey and Bulletin 17 of the Ohio State Geological Survey. The fossil plant remains shown on Plate VII, have been redrawn by Mr. Sydney Prentice from specimens figured by Lesquereux in the “Coal Flora Atlas” of the Second Geological Survey of Penn- sylvania. Text figure No. 8 is a reproduction of a photograph of Naosaurus kindly given by the American Museum of Natural History. Grateful acknowledgment is made for permission to use all of these. The other figures and plates were drawn for or made from photo- graphs by the author. To Mr. Sydney Prentice I wish to express my thanks for redrawing the sketches on which text-figures 1-6 are based. I cannot in concluding this paragraph fail to mention my sense of gratitude to Dr. W. J. Holland, the Editor, for nu- merous suggestions made by him which are embodied in the text and for the care given to the passage of the paper through the press. CHAPTER I Physiography of Pittsburgh Standing upon any of the higher hills in Pittsburgh, such as Herron Hill, and looking out at the hilltops in all directions, one can not fail to be impressed with the uniform skyline or equal elevation of the high hilltops. It is evident that the whole region represents an ancient plateau, through which the large rivers and even their smaller tributaries have cut deep gashes. The hills are flat-topped and the stream-valleys are steep-sided. Such a region is called a dissected plateau, representing an elevated plain, over which streams have passed and through the long centuries have carved out their channels and formed tributaries in every direction, until now large or small streams penetrate almost the whole of the area, leaving only an occasional small flat-topped remnant of the plateau unattacked. These flat-topped hills lie at a uniform elevation of from twelve hun-’ dred to twelve hundred and sixty feet above sea-level, or a little more than five hundred feet above the level of the larger rivers. Occasionally an isolated hill rises above the general level to heights of thirteen Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 93 hundred to fourteen hundred feet. During Cretaceous times the greater part of the Eastern United States is believed to have been reduced by the erosion of the rivers and the general process of erosion to a plain near sea-level, known as a peneplain, a base-levelled plain with a few remaining hills rising, above the general level, which are called ‘‘monadnocks.” This plain was later upraised, and the process repeated at different elevations, the result being that the Appalachian or Allegheny plateau is in reality a series of plateaus or peneplains. One of these, known as the Harrisburg plateau, or upland, lies now at about twelve hundred to thirteen hundred feet above sea-level in western Pennsylvania, rising to twenty-one hundred feet in southern New York. The accordant hill-tops already mentioned are believed to be remnants of this Harrisburg peneplain, and the occasional hills rising above the thirteen hundred foot level are to be classed as monadnocks. An example of such a hill would be the hill thirteen hundred and twenty feet high near the junction of the William Penn Highway and the Greensburg Pike. Below the levels of the Harrisburg stage we find at about eleven hundred and twenty to eleven hundred and sixty feet above sea-level another series of "'flats” which must represent another stage of erosion, or a period when the general plateau remained at a constant level and erosion and weathering reduced portions of its surface to this second level. A glance at your map will bring to light many remnants of this stage. This is known as the Worthington peneplain. The next well defined series of levels lies at from nine hundred to nine hundred and forty feet above the sea. These flat areas lie along or near the larger rivers, and represent valleys cut by the rivers flowing over the region at elevations about two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet above the present river-levels. These levels are hardly extensive enough to be regarded as representing peneplains, but rather as wide valleys cut to the nine hundred foot level by the rivers with their rock-cut bottoms covered with a deposit of sand, gravel, or clay deposited by the rivers. Such terraces are very conspicuous along the Ohio, Alle- gheny, Monongahela, and Youghiogheny rivers, as well as along some of their larger tributaries. On the Monongahela they are plainly seen at Clairton, forming the site of the city; at Kennywood Park; and in Upper Homestead. On the Allegheny River they can be seen at Verona back of Claremont, and on top of Monument Hill, North Side. On the Ohio the gravel-capped remnants of this terrace are Oakland Flooded Valleys in Pittsburgh DURING TIME OF PARKER STRATH AND DEPOSITION OF CARMICHAELS CLAY. Shaded areas were' Land Areas, 94 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. numerous and can be seen at Avalon, Ben Avon, Emsworth, and fur- ther down the river as far as Freedom and beyond. This level has been called the Parker Strath, from its occurrence near Parkers Landing, and from an old Scottish word ^‘strath” meaning a wide flat valley. The wide rivers flowed in valleys which in general followed the same courses as do the present rivers. The old elevated channels, when traced by means of the rock-terraces, are seen to cross and recross the present valleys, and at times to deviate from them in wide loops. These wide “straths,” now no longer occupied by the major stream are extremely interesting traces of the older valleys. Their rock bottoms, as well as terraces, lie at about the nine hundred foot level and are covered with a blanket of from a few up to twenty-five feet of river silt, clay, and boulders. In Pittsburgh we have one of the best examples of such an abandoned river channel or loop (Fig. i). Fig. I. Site of Pittsburgh at time of Parker Strath. (The white spaces were areas covered by water) . This valley leaves the Monongahela valley on terraces in Rankin, passes across lower Edgewood, Wilkinsburg, East Liberty, swinging to the southwest past Herron Hill, and out to the edge of the Monon- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 95 gahela valley in Oakland. The Pennsylvania Railroad uses this wide flat valley from Rankin through East Liberty, and a glance at any topographic map will indicate by the number of streets in this valley how important a part it has had in the settlement of eastern Pitts- burgh. Excavations made anywhere in this valley bring to light the layers of sand, clay, or boulders deposited by the river. The relation of this valley to low lying areas through Allegheny Cemetery, through the Morningside district, and through the Washington Boulevard area has not been established. Whether the Monongahela had outlets toward the Allegheny, whether it merely formed loops in those direc- tions, or whether the elevated Allegheny entered these low ‘‘straths” and connected with the Monongahela, are problems to be solved. The many excavations recently made in the East End for the larger buildings in the Schenley Farms district have furnished us with excellent cross sections of these old river deposits. The excavation for the Schenley apartments brought to light many feet of beautifully layered sands and clays evidently deposited in rather quiet ponded water. Similar deposits could be seen during the construction of the foundation for the Syria Mosque, the Young Mens Hebrew Associa- tion, as well as many excavations in Oakland, East Liberty, or Wilkins- burg. Often there are brought to light rounded boulders in abun- dance and throughout this old valley these are sometimes effectively used in building boulder walls or even boulder houses, as on Fifth Avenue near the corner of Wilkins. In many cases for the larger buildings it is necessary to penetrate from fifteen to fifty feet of such sands before striking the old rock bottom of the river on which the foundations can be safely placed. So far as has been noted, the sands and boulders of this old loop show no evidence of having been laid down by the Allegheny River; they are not glacial material, but are similar to the terrace-sands of the Monongahela River to the south. A similar well developed river loop can be seen east of Belle Vernon, and a less well defined example back of McKeesport, the exact course of which has not been worked out. The sediments found in the aban- doned valleys and on the rock terraces at this nine hundred foot level are of two distinct types. Those associated with the Monongahela River and its tributaries are generally fine yellowish sand and clay with some large water-worn boulders, all material evidently derived from the erosion of the sedimentary rocks in the drainage area. This material has been called the Carmichael formation. The sediments 1 96 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. on the Allegheny River terraces consist of glacial sand and pebbles, gravels carried down from the ice-front of the Kansas epoch, which stood across the head-waters of the Allegheny valley, and which in melting discharged enormous amounts of such material brought down from New York State or Canada, and entirely distinct from the rocks native to our own region. These deposits will be discussed later in connection with the Glacial Period. At intervals from the Parker levels down to present river-level, small and irregular rock-terraces are found covered with glacial gravels of Wisconsin age. About fifty to eighty feet above river-levels these gravels form well defined terraces representing the surface of a gravel-filled channel, which extends thirty to fifty feet beneath present river-level. In other words, the Ohio and Allegheny rivers, after carving their way through the Parker “strath” became again choked with gravel during the Wisconsin ice advance, this gravel building up on bed-rock a series of beds from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet thick. The surface of this is still to be seen in the lower gravel-terraces along the rivers, and the present rivers have not yet succeeded in cutting through to old rock bottom. These later gravels appear in Neville Island to a depth of eighty feet, and extend forty or fifty feet below water-level. Many of the river cities are built on the gravel-terrace or upon a rock-cut gravel-covered terrace at about the same elevation. Summing up, we may say that the relief features of our city represent: (i) remnants of the Harrisburg pene- plain twelve hundred and forty feet above sea-level; (2) remnants of the Worthington peneplain eleven hundred to eleven hundred and forty feet above sea-level; (3) terraces and abandoned channels of earlier rivers (“Parker strath”) at nine hundred to nine hundred and forty feet above sea-level; (4) remnants of cut and built gravel- covered terraces at about seven hundred to eight hundred feet above sea-level; and (5) present streams with their flood-plains flowing over gravel-choked channels with low adjusted gradients and meandering channels. CHAPTER H Historical Geology The rocks underlying the Greater Pittsburgh district have a wonder- ful history; a history, which, when interpreted by those trained to such work, is as real as is our own history. Is it not right that we Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 97 always should have a reasonable curiosity concerning the forces which built up the land upon which we live? If we were able to dig a well to almost unlimited depths anywhere in the city, we would find that we would be passing through layer upon layer of rock, laid down one upon the other in regular horizontal position. We would find that some layers were made up of grains of sand hardened into rocks which we call sandstone; some were made up of cemented pebbles or gravel (called conglomerate) ; some were soft and in very thin layers, often almost clay-like (called shale), and still others were hard and dense and with no apparent grain, the limestones. It is not likely that any other type of rock would be encountered throughout thousands of feet of digging, except an occa- sional thin layer of coal. How, then, can we account for thousands of feet of such layers laid down in regular beds, first a sand-layer, then a clay or shale, then possibly a limestone? Certainly nothing but the sorting action of a large 'body of water could have separated them into such easily separable layers. Examination of some of the slabs of stone blasted out might even disclose ripple marks, mud cracks, impressions of rain-drops, and other evidences of the fact that the rocks were originally sand-beaches or mud-flats. • Careful search in the excavated material would also bring to light many curious forms of animal and plant life, which had once lived, and dying, had been entombed and are now preserved to us as fossils. Laying these remains out for study, we would find that, although the remains from one layer are very similar to those of the neigh- boring layers, there had been a gradual or progressive change in the character of the organisms as we pass through, say one thousand feet of strata. We would find many new forms at depths of ten thousand feet, forms entirely different from those near the surface. This means that the life in the past had changed as time went on, and animals, which existed when the older rocks were laid down, may not appear in the strata lying above. To the experienced paleontologist, or student of these ancient forms of life, they tell a wonderful story, giving insight into the conditions which existed millions of years ago. They indicate to him the evolution of animals and plants from lower to higher and more complex forms. He sees types develop through a certain period and then decline. Any 98 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. z cn o D m o cc cc < u Conematifh. PIffeWenVir-V UP-Qt tsy Monon^ahela 1^00' ^CaUKiil^ z < z o > Ld Q •Chemung-- Porla^e gfiei^ssjel r-MafcelltJ&lr:- :.0ri.sk3n^ - : GJ inIoa'^^^^-3 300O‘ Medina- g ° O pis b°nP.yK? z < o > o Q CC o 2500' Z < DC CD 2 < U 5000 Coal-tearing slrala, Oulcrop in Ihe city. Pocono otjlcrops near Lalrobe as a bard, satidslone. Oil -tearing sandstones under tyestern Pennsylvania. Oulcrop over western NetoYork and near Tllloona, Pennsylvania. Carr^ sail and gypsum beds in western New York. Medina sandstone forms crest of man^ Pennsylvania Tnounlain ridges. Chiefly thick Limestones such as Trenton Limestone. Underlie the fertile Limestone valleys of the Appalachians. Limestones -much like those above. Sandstones at base include the Potsdam Sandstone. Thickness a rou^ estimate. < • S UJ $ £3 ? Outcrops in South Mountains, southeastern Pennsylvania; in Adirondack Mountains.NewYork, Its depth unknou)n Fig. 2. The rocks under Pittsburgh. Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 99 particular group of animals and plants at a certain stage of develop- ment denotes to him a certain period, and these periods he has, for convenience, named. We study human history by a division into periods; we study geologic history in the same manner. Fossils are only illustrations on the pages of a marvelously planned book, the first pages of which lie at great depths in our region. To reach the earliest illustrated pages (with recognizable fossils) known as the Cambrian Period, our well would have to be sunk possibly ten thousand feet or more. Beneath the Cambrian, we would find a floor of rock of an entirely different character, rock which has under- gone great heat, pressure, and re-crystallization, until its fossil re- mains, if it ever had any, have been obliterated. That portion of our history would correspond to our early human history, for we can do little better than speculate as to its life and its duration. Our finished well, if it were possible to sink such a shaft, would no doubt look something like the hypothetical sketch in Fig. 2. Ah! but you say: “How does anyone know what lies ten thousand feet beneath his feet?” If our knowledge depended upon the sinking of wells or the drilling of holes to such depths, we would not know. But fortunately, nature has provided a more economical means of studying the older strata, and that is by tilting them up, so as to bring them to the surface at various points, so that they “outcrop,” and these outcrops can then be studied. The cutting action of streams also exposes underlying layers even without tilting, as, for instance, the wonderful exposures in our own cliffs along the Monongahela River. Every deep stratum in our shaft, though seemingly horizontal, has some inclination or “dip,” and at some point it reaches the surface and can be studied. We thus must take a brief glance at the geology and structure of the state as a whole before we can understand what has taken place in our own district. We find that in the beginning of the Cambrian period the hard rock material, the history of which is so vague and which we call the pre-Cambrian complex, extended as a land mass over the most of northeastern Canada and in a narrow strip through New York, across southeastern Pennsylvania (in Adams, Berks, Chester, and neighboring counties) and on into Alabama. Westward hemmed in by land, north, east, and far to the west, was a wide inland sea, which, among other states, covered nearly all of Pennsylvania. Into this sea, from the highlands on the north and east, poured the drainage of 100 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. streams laden with mud and sand. In it lived low forms of animal life, many of which, like the corals, had the power to secrete lime from the water of the ocean and, on dying, added their contribution to the sediments. In the same slow manner in which coast-lines are now built up through thousands of years, the beds of limestone, shale, and sandstone accumulated; first the Cambrian with its characteristic life-forms; then, overlapping and overlying it toward the center of the sea, the Ordovician; then in succession the Silurian; the Devonian; and -the Carboniferous; made up of the Lower, or Mississippian, and the Upper, or Pennsylvanian systems. The building up of each con- sumed millions of years, giving ample time for great evolutionary changes in living things, and also for many oscillations in the level of the floor of the ocean, which probably was generally sinking, thus allowing for thick accumulations of sediment. Near the end of the long time required to form the Pennsylvanian the basin had been almost filled, and we find the inland sea shrunken to a small shallow estuary opening toward the Gulf of Mexico; or, at times, a broad fluviatile flood-plain traversed by streams flowing toward the outlet in the direction of the Gulf. The conditions of these shallow flood-plains are clearly indicated in the rocks by the absence of limestone with a marine fauna, the presence of irregular “cross-bedding” in many of the sandstones, and the presence of widely spread coal-beds, which were originally peat-swamps of enormous extent, more or less covered by forests. The Pennsyl- vanian period ends the sedimentation of the basin. Readjustments in the earth’s crust, earth-movements formerly ascribed to shrinkage of a cooling body, but more likely due to instability brought about by unequal loading, brought about a lateral pressure or thrust from the east. This caused the hitherto nearly horizontal sediments to buckle, and this buckling took place mainly in the eastern and central part of the state (Fig. 3b). On the Pennsylvania-Ohio border, we find the strata practically horizontal. As we pass east of Pittsburgh on the Pennsylvania, the Western Maryland, or the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads we begin to notice that certain layers rise and fall in long low swells. These swells become more and more pronounced, until the strata dip at a high angle and at times rise almost vertically along the cliffs, and railway cuttings. This folding and the truncation or planing away of the crests of many folds by subsequent erosion has brought to the surface many strata which ordinarily we would only Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 101 see toward the old margin of the inland sea. Thus an upfold or anticline and subsequent erosion have exposed Mississippian and Devonian rocks on Chestnut Ridge. ' Devonian _ ' Silurian V V^V'V^Vv'V Cambrian -Ordovician ''^'>\PjrQ~Qamhrian^ Fig. 3a. Section of Western Pennsylvania before the Appalachian Folding. Fig. 3b. Section across Pennsylvania after the Appalachian Folding. In Plate I is shown a geologic map of the State, in which, as is customary in most such maps, the rocks are represented as they would appear when all loose soil had been removed. The area of pre-Cambrian rocks is included in '‘metamorphic rocks” on the map. The reader will note the broad area or basin covered by the Pennsyl- vanian or “coal measure” strata, and will also see how around the margin of this area like the edges of a pile of saucers are shown the “Lower Carboniferous,” or Mississippian formations, and beyond them the Devonian. The variation in this regularity due to the sharper folding and deeper erosion seen in the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Fayette and Somerset counties is also apparent in the two long narrow strips of “Lower Carboniferous,” which represent out- crops along the eroded top of the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges. Since the drilling of a gas-well in Pittsburgh by Mr. George Westinghouse in 1884, many wells have been drilled in or near the city and from their records we may glean much information con- cerning the strata beneath us. The early wells were sunk to depths of fifteen hundred to sixteen hundred feet, going through the Penn- sylvanian and Mississippian divisions of the Carboniferous, and getting the gas from the sandstones of the upper Devonian. Within recent years, however, the search for deeper oil- or gas-sands has led 102 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the larger companies to drill much deeper wells, and we now have records of the strata as shown in a deep well near McDonald (7248 feet deep), a well near Bridgeport, W. Va. (7396 feet) one near Fair- mount, W. Va. (7579 feet) and within the past few years a group of wells near Latrobe in the Loyalhanna Gorge (ranging from 6822 to 7750 feet in depth). There is a possibility that one of these may yet be deepened to 8000 feet. The McDonald well passed through 950 feet of Pennsylvanian strata, 672 feet of Mississippian, 4423 feet of Devonian, and 1203 feet of Silurian. In the Silurian the drill encountered about seventy-five feet of rock-salt, a continuation of the great salt-beds of Northern Ohio and Western New York. The Latrobe wells reached the base of the Devonian and obtained gas from the Oriskany sandstone. No doubt a well drilled in Pitts- burgh would encounter about the same series of beds as in the McDonald well, with the Devonian probably somewhat thicker. No well in our district has yet reached the lower Silurian, Ordovician, or Cambrian strata, but, if drilling can ever be carried five thousand feet farther, these might yet be penetrated and the drill might reach through the whole series to the old crystalline gneisses and schists of the pre-Cambrian age. CHAPTER III Carboniferous Strata The reader now understands how our foundation for thousands of feet beneath us came to be. We may now take up the closer study of the Carboniferous rocks, which we are apt to encounter in the city, or during a short excursion into neighboring districts. Careful measurement of exposures and of the strata encountered in oil- and gas-well drilling has given us a fairly accurate estimate as to the thick- ness of the various subdivisions of the Pennsylvanian in Western Pennsylvania. Tabulated, with the oldest series at the bottom, they are as follows: Thickness in feet. Monongahela Formation 350-375 Conemaugh Formation 500-700 Allegheny Formation 300 Pottsville Formation 1 00-150 Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 103 Above these, and exposed principally in Greene and Washington Counties lie one thousand feet of rocks classified as Permian and representing the youngest of the sedimentary rocks laid down in the inland sea. Below the Pottsville lie the Mississippian rocks, which outcrop on some of the steeper anticlines, and which we may note in some of our longer excursions. Fig. 4. Geologic Map of Allegheny County. These four formations, however, cover the larger part of Allegheny County and their extent may be understood from Fig. 4, which represents the surface of the county and surrounding region as it would appear, if we could remove all the loose soil and decomposed rock, exposing only the hard rock. If the surface were a level plain and the rocks lay perfectly horizontally, but one formation would 104 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. appear on the map. However, as we have learned, the rocks are slightly inclined, rising from Pittsburgh toward the north and toward the east, so that as we travel in either of those directions we reach the outcrop of older formations. Conditions are further complicated by the irregularities in the surface, hilltops and highlands naturally carrying younger rocks than the valleys or lowlands. These relationships may be explained by a sketch given in Fig. 5, a cross-section showing a rock-layer which tilts in one direction, and is also dissected by numerous valleys. Passing westward into Ohio, we also find that we reach the edge of the basin and cross the rim-rocks until at Cincinnati we are in rocks as low as the Silurian. Northward, we reach the Silurian outcrop in the gorge at Niagara Falls, while under our feet in Pittsburgh it lies possibly seven thousand feet below. Eastward, we reach the older series more rapidly on account of the more intense folding. The Pottsville formation. The Pottsville formation seems to have been deposited under rapid stream action, a large part of it consisting Fig. 5. A cross-section of Pittsburgh looking east, showing old and new river- valleys. of conglomerate or coarse sandstone. It frequently lies in two thick benches: the upper known as the Homewood sandstone; the lower as the Connoquennessing sandstone. The two are separated by a zone, which carries black shale, sometimes a thin coal-bed, and often a valuable flinty fire-clay known as the “Mt. Savage fire-clay.” The Pottsville crops out prominently between Beaver and New Castle on the Connoquennessing, between Latrobe and Ligonier, above Connellsville on the Youghiogheny River, and in other outlying districts. In all of these its huge blocks of white pebbly sandstone make striking and picturesque scenery, and to the Pottsville we may give credit for some of the finest scenery in Western Pennsylvania. Its name “Pottsville” is derived from its enormous development in the anthracite districts. Here, as also in West Virginia and Kentucky, it reaches a much greater thickness, in Kentucky attaining a thickness Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs, 105 of five thousand feet. It often carries excellent fossils of plants, even in the coarse sandstone, and these will be referred to in a later chapter. The Allegheny formation. During the greater part of Allegheny time, the inland sea, or Appalachian Gulf, as it is sometimes called, must have existed as a low plain almost at sea-level and covered by enormous swampy tracts; for it is during this period that the greater part of our coal-beds were being formed, the coal-beds sometimes occupying as much as one-fourteenth of the entire series of strata. - The irregular lenticular character of the sandstones and shales makes us believe that the inundations of these swampy tracts and the conse- quent burial of the peat under these sediments was brought about by streams traversing the plain and not by deposition in the open sea. This is further emphasized by the lack of marine fossils in the greater part of these rocks, the only fossil remains being fragments of plants and trees. That there were times, during which a slight sinking of the plain allowed the sea to cover the plain, or at least to ascend some of the lower reaches, is proven by the presence of an occasional layer of limestone or shale, which carries a collection of fossils, which we know to be marine forms, such as corals, various sea-shells, etc. The whole formation is thus a series of inter-bedded sandstones, shale, coal-beds, and limestones, with coal-beds as the prominent feature. In fact, its old name was the Lower Productive Measures on account of this abundance of coal. One of the most accessible places, where we can get good exposures of the whole Allegheny formation is in the district of Beaver Falls. Here the Pottsville sandstone outcrops in the river-bed and, rising in the cliffs and hills of the river-bank, the Allegheny series is well exhibited with the following sections: Feet Inches Coal (Upper Freeport) • 3-4 Clay 2 6 Limestone (Upper Freeport) 3 Shale, sandy 35 Sandstone (Butler) 30 Coal (Lower Freeport) i 4 Clay and hidden 3 Shale and Sandstone (Freeport) 75 Coal (Darlington) i Shale with iron ore 35 Coal (Lower .Kittanning) 2 Clay. 12 106 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Sandstone and shale. Limestone (Vanport) Shale, fossiliferous. . . Sandstone and shale. Coal (Clarion) Shale Hidden to river Feet Inches 70 I 5 20 I 40 30 This section gives a general idea of the formation; but from one locality to another we find a great variation. It does not, however, contain all the members of the series which are known. Among the coals, for instance, there is generally an upper and lower Freeport; an upper, a middle, and a Lower Kittanning; and toward the base of the series, the Clarion and the Brookville, the latter the lowest. In few sections, however, do we find all of these beds present. The Vanport limestone among the limestones is of the most interest, for it carries a wealth of marine forms. It covers a large area in western Pennsylvania and ranges from one to fifteen or even twenty feet in thickness. It is also known as the Ferriferous limestone, on account of the presence of nodular iron-ore above it, this name being especially used toward the east, as at Johnstown. Tracing the limestone-areas for some distance, we often find that they grade into shale upon the borders, such a gradation indicating that the ocean covered only certain portions of the plain in the form of long narrow shallow estuaries, and that the limestone with its faunas developed in these. To see outcrops of this interesting rock it is necessary to go as far as Vanport on the Ohio, or as far as Kit- tanning on the Allegheny. The upper portion of the formation, terminated by the Upper Freeport coal, lies somewhat nearer; and in passing down the Ohio can first be seen near Woodlawn-and Legionville, where the Freeport coal dips to the south and passes below river-level. The first appear- ance up the Allegheny River is at Valley Camp and Creighton, where the Freeport coal is extensively mined. Beyond these points we enter a region, where the Kittanning coals and their associated fire-clays are utilized extensively. Under the lower portions of Pittsburgh, the upper part of the Allegheny formation, that is the Freeport coal, must lie at a depth of about three hundred and fifty feet. The Conemaugh Formation. This formation, which crops out throughout the whole city and covers a large area in the outlying Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 107 districts, especially toward the north, is the most important of all in a study of the geology of the city. From the standpoint of economic value it is of little use, being formerly called the Lower Barren Measures on account of its lack of important coal-beds. It is underlain by the Freeport coal of the Allegheny formation, and extends upwards about six hundred feet to the floor of the Pittsburgh coal-bed, the coal which is so extensively worked throughout the Pittsburgh district. A generalized section of the Pittsburgh district would appear about as in Fig. 6, drawn to represent a cross-section of one of the hills of Pittsburgh down to river-level, and then, below that, a section of what might be expected in a shaft sunk to the Freeport coal. From the section it will be seen that the Ames limestone divides 108 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the series into an upper and a lower half; that in the lower half are several other fossiliferous beds; and that coal-beds are thin and incon- spicuous. The lower half must be studied by excursions northward into the northern suburbs, the Northside and beyond, down through Avalon and Ben Avon, or through McKees Rocks and Stoop’s Ferry, or up the Allegheny on either side. The Fort Wayne division of the Pennsylvania Railroad affords excellent cliff exposures of this lower series as far down as Haysville, after which point the railroad runs mainly across a terrace, although the main macadam road affords numerous exposures through Leetsdale and Ambridge. Excellent ex- posures are also available in the deep side valleys such as Spruce Run, Lowrie’s Run, and Killbuck Run, at the head-waters of which lies the Ames limestone. Along the southern or western side of the Ohio, fine cliff exposures are to be seen from the railroad or the road- way, especially from Coraopolis to Shousetown and up Flaugherty and Montour Runs. Along the Allegheny Valley the West Penn Trolley line passes excellent cliffs from Montrose to Harmarville and again from Spring- dale through Bouquet to Creighton, while Power’s, Hite’s, and other runs cut back into Conemaugh strata. On the opposite side of the river the lower half of the Conemaugh begins to be seen along the railroad below Highland Park, past the Brilliant Cut-off, and onward, in fine exposures, through Nadine and Sandy Creek, and, after passing through Verona and Hulton, to Parnassus. Frequent ex- posures of the series also can be found along the Pittsburgh and'Butler trolley-line, beyond (north of) the Butler county line. South of that line the greater part of the area traversed by these lines lies in the rocks above the Ames limestone. Let us then begin our study of this lower Conemaugh in an excur- sion along the banks of the Ohio on either side and come in towards Pittsburgh from the region where the Allegheny series disappears. We find immediately above the Freeport coal an interval of sixty to one hundred feet occupied largely by thickly bedded sandstones, known as the Mahoning sandstones. They are generally found to be divided into an upper and lower series by a fire-clay and thin coal-bed, known as the Mahoning clay and coal. The sandstones show great irregularity in deposition and it is seldom that both the upper and lower beds are prominent and of value. If the lower Mahoning is thick the upper will usually be thin and shaly and vice versa. Fre- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 109 quently the lower beds carry rounded quartz pebbles, such a rock being a conglomerate, or a conglomeratic sandstone. Beginning near Dam No. 4, we find the lower Mahoning beds out- cropping near the road in Logstown Run, where it is quarried for rough building stone. It is here twenty-five feet in thickness, and shows the overlying clay with the unusual thickness of thirty-five feet. In the clay near the middle lies an important ore-bed, two feet in thickness, but no Mahoning coal is apparent. Extensive quarries in the Lower Mahoning are also found at the Park Quarries back of Freedom. Here the layers are particularly thick and solid, some of them five to eight feet thick. Here also is seen the overlying fire-clay with a thickness of eight to ten feet, a reddish flint-clay rather high in iron, while above lie thin-bedded sandstones and shales representing the upper Mahoning. Coming east to Shousetown we find the lower Mahoning well ex- posed in Flaugherty Run, and going up the valley as far as the bridge, Mahoning sandstones are exposed. Opposite the bridge the top of the Mahoning group is reached and a good exposure of the Brush Creek coal is seen. Continuing east along the railroad from Shousetown, with the greater part of the lower Mahoning sandstone below us, we may see excellent outcrops of the Mahoning clay and coal, especially at a point midway between Shousetown and Stoop’s Ferry. Here are seen a four-inch and a six-inch coal-bed, separated by twenty-five feet of shaly rock, and overlain by forty feet of sandstone belonging to the upper Mahoning. Passing still farther east to an old shale- quarry we find the upper Mahoning sandstone exposed and resting upon it the Brush Creek coal and Brush Creek or Lower Cambridge limestone. The Mahoning clays and upper Mahoning sandstone are also prominently displayed east of Sewickley along the railroad and macadam road. At the mouth of Toms Run ten feet of fire-clay are exposed, overlain by sixty-five feet of massive sandstones. The same sandstone forms the banks of Lowrie’s Run through Ben Avon and the prominent railroad cuts and bluffs at Groveton, Dixmont, Ems- worth, and Avalon. Overlying the Mahoning sandstone and often separated from it by a little shale lies the Brush Creek coal, a thin and generally valueless coal, averaging about one foot in thickness. This coal occupies the same position with reference to the upper no Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Freeport coal as does the Gallitzin coal farther east and some prefer to term it the Gallitzin coal. It is well exposed on the Shousetown- Stoop’s Ferry pike, where the road bends and crosses Flaugherty Run. Just above the coal-bed, or separated by a few feet of shale, lies the Brush Creek, better named, the Lower Cambridge limestone. This bed, though a limestone, is unusually black and is frequently shaly. It is highly fossiliferous, especially in the shaly portions and furnishes fine collecting ground for marine fossils, the first opportunity since we left the Vanport limestone. This stratum is very persistent, and can be traced or identified from the Allegheny front to north- eastern Kentucky and into Maryland and West Virginia. Careful study of the fossils collected from this bed at different points shows us that important changes have taken place in the character of the fauna since the Vanport was laid down, and we find certain shells which are not present in the Vanport and miss certain others common in the Vanport. If we dare to introduce a few hard names, we may say that the great abundance of four types of coiled shells, known as Bellerophon, Astartella vera, Euomphalus cattilloides, and Worthenia tabulata, is characteristic of the Lower Cambridge. As already noted, the Lower Cambridge generally outcrops wherever the Brush Creek coal outcrops, resting upon it, and, though rather inconspicuous on account of its dark color, any one who discovers it will be well rewarded by the fossils it contains. The old shale quarry below Stoop’s Ferry affords one good exposure. Even better collecting in the Brush Creek limestone may be had at Wittmer Station near Etna, in the quarry of an old brick yard. Buffalo sandstone and shale. Above the Brush Creek limestone for a distance of about seventy-five feet extends a variable series of shales often with a sandstone layer and generally some red shale. This series extends up to the next coal-bed, the Bakerstown coal. Since in some parts of Western Pennsylvania this interval carries a fairly well pronounced sandstone it has been termed the Buffalo sandstone. Owing to its variability it is of no great interest. The Pine Creek, or Upper Cambridge limestone. Within the Buffalo series, however, and generally not far below the Bakerstown coal we find another interesting limestone imbedded in red shales, the Pine Creek Limestone, probably the equivalent of the Cambridge limestone in Ohio. In the vicinity of Pittsburgh this limestone has been studied Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. Ill by Raymond who finds it to lie sixty to ninety feet above the Brush Creek beds, and one hundred and twenty-five feet below the Ames limestone. It has been noted in many places near Pittsburgh, such as Wittmer, along the railroad three-quarters of a mile north of Wood’s Run, Allegheny, and in Power’s Run, Montrose. This last locality affords excellent collecting ground. Power’s Run crosses the trolley line above Montrose and large blocks of the Pine Creek lime- stone lie in a quarry just above the bridge. From this locality Ray- mond has collected twenty-one species of marine fossils, of which ten are common. He found that the fauna more nearly resembles the Brush Creek than the Ames limestone, but is somewhat different from either. The Bakerstown Coal. Above the Buffalo shales lies an irregular non-persistent coal-bed, the Bakerstown. This bed is usually very thin and non-important, but at times it attains a thickness of three feet, as at Bakerstown, in northern Allegheny County. It is generally underlain by a small amount of white clay which in turn is underlain by red clays and shales. This coal is mined at Bakerstown and is well exposed in many places in Cranberry township, Butler County. Also in the quarry of the brick-yard in Legionville Hollow at the end of the switch, where it is eighteen inches thick, while below in the run can be found the Brush Creek Limestone. Accompanying the coal, or a few feet above it, we frequently find a thin nodular limestone, which is black, or gray, and scantily fossiliferous. When dark-colored it resembles the Brush Creek limestone. The limestone and coal together may easily be mistaken for the Brush Creek Coal and lime- stone. This limestone, owing to its irregularity, has received no name, but may possibly represent the Portersville fossiliferous horizon of Ohio, which overlies the Anderson coal. Saltsburg Sandstone. Some confusion has arisen regarding the Saltsburg sandstone. In some localities the name applies to sand- stones beneath the Bakerstown coal, as well as to those above. The sandstones below the Bakerstown we have, however, termed the Buffalo, so that we will use the term Saltsburg as referring only to a sandstone above the Bakerstown coal. The term is thus used in the Sewickley folio. In the Sewickley district the Saltsburg sand- stone varies from thirty to sixty feet in thickness, and is almost invariably thin-bedded or even shaly in character. It is exposed at many points along the Ohio valley and up the runs on either side. 112 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Lying on the average only seventy-five feet below the Ames Lime- stone, we find it outcropping along the Allegheny valley on the north side, and up the river toward Nadine, Verona, etc. Especially along the Allegheny Valley Railroad, we can find good exposures, showing the thin bedding and irregularities. It is also well exposed in the cliffs on the west side of the river from the Hulton bridge towards Montrose. Pittsburgh Red Beds. Above the shaly Saltsburg sandstones lie the Pittsburgh Red Beds, so called because of their prominent out- crop in the lower levels in Pittsburgh. From there on up through the Conemaugh formation we are able to carry on our studies in our own city streets. The topography of the city is peculiarly favorable to the geologist, for the three rivers and their tributaries have cut deep channels in the rocky layers, and from river-level to the high points, such as Herron Hill, we may see outcroppings of strata from three to four hundred feet thick. The city authorities have aided us by building numerous steps up the steeper cliffs, so that we can study the layers of rock in comfort. We will then begin at river-level and examine the layers as we ascend. The Red Beds consist of about twenty feet of soft red clays, the bright color of which is in striking contrast to the general neutral tones of the Conemaugh. They “encircle the hills with a broad belt of blood-red soil,” very sticky and troublesome and wet. They are very persistent and generally accompany the overlying Ames lime- stone throughout Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, being known in the latter state as the Round Knob Beds. To these beds and the series overlying them we may properly give more attention since they outcrop within the city limits. They outcrop along the river-banks in our city and along the principal railroads. They are well exposed along the Pennsylvania Railroad going east from the Union Station and can also be seen along the Monongahela on Second Avenue and along the Allegheny River on Butler Street. Wherever seen they consist of red and purple beds, with no pronounced shaly or bedded structure, but an irregular crumbly appearance. They represent the beginning of a series of red beds which we find through- out the upper Conemaugh. There had been a long period of time represented by eight hundred feet of strata, in which practically no red beds were deposited, and to see similar but older beds it is necessary Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 113 to find the Mauch Chunk red shales, which can be seen to the east near Altoona. Their color is due to a small percentage of disseminated iron oxide. Why the Mauch Chunk and the Conemaugh series are favored by these red beds and the intervening layers are free from them is not known. Geologists generally have held that the Mauch Chunk and certain other red beds were deposited under arid desert conditions, and have offered as partial evidence the presence of sun cracks and the absence of animal , or vegetable life. The Mauch Chunk shales in these and other respects are very similar to the Pittsburgh Red Beds and it is quite probable that our red beds had a similar origin. They have a uniform red color, frequently show sun cracks, and are prac- tically free from fossil impressions. They were probably laid down under arid conditions in shallow brackish water. A few small reptile bones were found by Dr. Raymond in our red beds near Pitcairn a few years ago, while occasionally a few nodules of fossiliferous lime- stone occurs in them, but generally they are barren. They are of no economic value, since they are too low in iron for ore, and too high in iron for brick-making. Indeed to the farmers north of us on the outcrop they are a distinct detriment, for, when wet, they are sticky, forming plastic red muds very hard to successfully work. Above the red beds and usually immediately below th^ Ames limestone we find a few inches of coal known as the Harlem coal. In most of the localities, where the Ames limestone occurs near the city, no such coal is present, but on the Northside it can be seen immediately below the Ames in the cliff behind the hotel at the corner of Rialto and Butler Streets and from there east to Walker’s Station, where the Ames is well exposed. This coal is of little impor- tance and is interesting to us chiefly in that it indicates a rather sudden change in conditions from a fresh-water swamp to a clear salty sea, in which the overlying Ames limestone was deposited. Commercially the coal is of no value, except in the Berlin Basin of Somerset County, where it is of workable thickness. The Ames Limestone. (PI. Ill, figs, i and 2.) In every locality, where we can see the red beds, we find capping them a layer of harder rock about two feet in thickness, standing out prominently from the surrounding softer shales and clays. This is the Ames limestone, so named from an Ohio town, where it is prominently displayed. In the older Pennsylvania Geological Reports it is often known as the 114 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. “crinoidal limestone” on account of the abundance of crinoid frag- ments present in it. Close examination proves it to be a most inter- esting rock. It is seen to be a coarse grained rock of a gray or greenish color, breaking with a rough surface, and, more interesting, teeming with fossil remains. The exposed weathered surfaces are rough with jutting fossil fragments, while inside the rock seems literally made up of them. Viewing the strata as pages in the earth’s history this layer, like the Brush Creek, stands out prominently as an illustrated page among many pages, the reading of which may seem to the be- ginner dull and hard to understand. The Ames limestone has been traced and identified over south- western Pennsylvania, parts of West Virginia, northeastern Kentucky, and eastern Ohio, an almost unbroken layer of rock over the entire area. In our own district it stretches in a horizontal plane at an elevation of about seven hundred and fifty to eight hundred and fifty feet above sea-level, or fifty to one hundred and fifty feet above the river-level, outcropping along all the rivers and underlying all the hills. Accessible outcrops can be found along Second Avenue especially at the Tenth Street bridge; along Butler Street on the north side; at Sharpsburg and Aspinwall; Brilliant Cut-off; Pitcairn; Homestead Bridge; and many other places. It has always the same general appearance and about the same thickness. Its constancy both in thickness and in general appearance and its position, almost exactly one-half way between the Freeport, coal below and the Pittsburgh coal above, have given it a great value to geologists engaged in studying the oil- and coal-fields. By these men it is termed an important ”key-rock” and is used as a datum plane for many of their problems of structure. In drilling for the foundations of the proposed Cathedral of Learning opposite the Carnegie Museum, the Ames Limestone was encountered at one hundred and fifteen feet which at that point would make it lie seven hundred and ninety feet above sea-level. Since it is so easily accessible to dwellers in the city we may well devote a moment to the typical fossils which are found in it. (PI. 11.) In the collection of these it is well to select blocks of the stone which are shaly or crumbly, or upon which the frost and rain have acted, for in the firmer masses the fossils are tightly embedded and cannot be easily dislodged. One of the forms of life most easily recognized will be the segments of crinoid stems. (PI. II, figs. 2, 2a.) These appear 115 Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. in end view as circular disks often with a dark center which may be star-shaped. Viewed from the side they are seen to be cylindrical and jointed and have often been falsely termed petrified roots or plant stems. Their color is generally lighter than the rock around them, since their original substance has been transformed into the mineral known as calcite or calcium carbonate. These stems represent the root-like attachment by which a marine animal, a crinoid, attached itself to the sea-bottorh. The crinoid was a flower-like animal con- sisting of this stem, or peduncle, surmounted by a cup-shaped body or calyx, which enclosed the vital organs, and from which branched out a number of arms, or tentacles. The resemblance to a flower has caused the common name of "sea-lily” to be applied to this animal. The calyx and arms are rather fragile, and are seldom well preserved, but the fragments of the stems are preserved in abundance and frequently serve to make up almost the entire rock. The crinoids, for there are many types of them, flourished most profusely in the Paleo- zoic seas, and their remains are common in the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks. At the present time they are not common in the sea, but are found in some parts of the ocean, generally in rather deep water. The second fossil, which the searcher will probably discover, is the Amhoccelia, a small, smooth shell, about the size of a little finger-nail, and almost free from markings, except a gentle furrow from the hinge line down to the lower edge. Like the crinoid stems this shell some- times makes up almost the entire rock. This shell is found only in the Devonian and Carboniferous. (PI. II, fig. 9.) The third form, though not so abundant as the two preceding, is larger and of more striking appearance. This is the Lophophyllum, a form of coral. It resembles a cornucopia, or horn, in shape, and varies from one-half to one inch in length. The horn-shaped corals .are now extinct and were confined entirely to Paleozoic Seas. Within ithe large end of the Lophophyllum can be seen radiating septa or divisions. The Lophophyllum frequently can be seen standing out prominently on the weathered edge of the Ames limestone. (PI. II, fig- I.) There are many other fossils present in the Ames limestone, the predominating group being Brachiopods, of which the Amboccelia is one, and other common ones are Chonetes granulifer and Derbya crassa, while occasionally a large shell of Spirifer cameratus may be 116 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. found. In the Brush Creek limestone the predominating shells were the Gasteropods, (Coil-shells) and such shells as Chonetes granulifer and Amhocoelia were only just appearing. The teeth of fishes, often black and shining, occasionally may be found in the Ames limestone, but, aside from these, the remains are all of crinoids, corals, and shells. For the sake of any, who may care to further study the fossil remains of this zone, the following list of fossils collected in the Brilliant Cut-off and identified by Dr. Raymond, is given. The letter “c” stands for common, and “r” for rare. Lophophyllum profundum c, Pseudomonotis hawni r, Hydreinocrinus sp., Macrodon obsoletus r, Ceriocrinus sp., Euomphalus catilloides c, Crania modesta r. Loxonema plicatum r, Orbiculoidea convexa r, Pleurotomaria carbonaria r, Rhipidomella pecosi c, Patellostium montfortanum c, Derbya crassa c, Euphemus carbonarius c, D. robusta r, Bellerophon percarinatus c, Chonetes granulifer c, B. stevensanus r, Productus cora c, Soleniscus ventricosus c. P. semireticulatus c. S. paludinaeformis c, P. nebraskensis r, Sphaerodoma texana c, P. pertenuis r. Glaphurochiton carbonarius c, Marginifera wabashensis c, Orthoceras rushense c, Spirifer cameratus c, Tainoceras occidentale c, Spiriferina kentuckiensis r, Temnocheilus crassus r, Ambocoelia planoconvexa c. T. winslowi r, Pugnax Utah c, Fissodus inaequalis r. Hustedia mormoni c, Deltodus angularis r, Composita subtilita c, Cladodus occidentalis r. Astartella vera r. Agassizodus variabilis r, Edmondia aspinwallensis r, Petalodus ohioensis c. Above the Ames limestone, as can be seen at most of the localities, lie about five to thirty feet of variegated red-green or black shales, or clays, to which no definite name has been given. In or upon them and at some thirty feet above the Ames we may see in some localities, as at Rialto Street and near the entrance to Mt. Washington Tunnel, a one- or two-foot layer of dense limestone, free from fossils, save a minute coiled worm-like animal, Spirorbis, which is believed to be a freshwater animal and the rock itself is termed a freshwater limestone. It has received no name, since it is not at all persistent, Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 117 though it is correlated in position with the Skelly limestone of Ohio, which is somewhat fossiliferous. The manner in which a limestone may "pinch out” is well shown by this limestone along the cliff road south of the portal of the Mt. Washington Tunnel. (PI. IV, fig. 2.) The Duquesne, or Berlin Coal. At the top of these shales and just below the thin black shales (the Birmingham) lies a thin non-persistent coal, which Dr. Raymond has termed the "Duquesne coal” from its outcrop in the railroad cliffs near Duquesne and below Kennywood Park. It is also well exposed as a two-foot seam of poor coal on the Lincoln Road near its junction with the main Verona Road near Sandy Creek. This coal is often erroneously identified as the Elk Lick coal, which, as we shall see, lies thirty or forty feet above. The shale overlying the coal is said to contain plant remains and occa- sionally the teeth of fishes, and a minute shell Estheria, an inhabitant of brackish water. In our vicinity this coal is unimportant, but at Murdockville in the extreme western corner of the county it attains a thickness of four feet. The Birmingham Shale. (PL IV, figs, i and 2.) Overlying the Duquesne coal and forming prominent cliff exposures throughout lower Pittsburgh is a series of thin-bedded well jointed black shales, to which the name of Birmingham has been given on account of the fine exposure near Birmingham Station at Smithfield and Carson Streets. Here they can be seen as vertically jointed dark shales at about the level of the tunnel. They are also well exposed along all the rivers, their jointed structure and curious cavernous surface being easily noticeable. It was formerly thought that the Ames limestone was the last stratum with marine fossils to be deposited and that it represented the last encroachment of the salt water over our region. Studies during the past few years have brought out the fact that this series of black shales also at times carries marine fossils, even in its upper layers, and thus it must have been deposited in salt water. As far as we now know, however, the hundreds of feet of succeeding rock carry no marine fossils, and are believed to have been deposited under fresh water in swamps, or along river flood-plains. Elk Lick Horizon. Above the Birmingham shales, and occupying a narrow interval between them and an overlying thick-bedded sand- stone are several colored bands of blue and red clay. At times this clay carries a thin nodular limestone, which corresponds to the Elk 118 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Lick limestone of other localities, and in places also a thin black carbonaceous layer which represents the Elk Lick coal. In our district, however, the Elk Lick clay is fairly prominent, but the coal and limestone are not. The prominence of the colored clays is ac- centuated by the sudden change to overlying sandstone. This change can be seen on Bigelow Boulevard just above the Union Station, where we see the top of the Birmingham, the Elk Lick clays, and the bottom of the Morgantown sandstone. The clays can also be seen over the portal of the Mt. Washington Tunnel. The Morgantown Sandstone. (PI. V, fig. i.) The Elk Lick clays are abruptly succeeded by a series of hard, thick-bedded sandstones, known as the Morgantown sandstone. Being hard and in thick layers it usually stands out prominently, and in our district its bold exposures are well shown along the river bluffs and cliffs. It is a most uncertain stratum, varying much in character and in thickness from point to point. At its best it is a gray or bluish-gray sandstone, full of little glistening scales of white mica, which appear especially upon the flat surfaces between individual layers. Ground down to a very thin slice and examined with a microscope, the rock is seen to be composed of sharp angular grains of quartz cemented together with finer grains of quartz and grains of feldspar, the latter partially weathered or beginning to turn to clay. Flakes of mica and a few scattered grains of hornblende and zircon may also be seen. The unusual characters of the stone are the presence therein of so many minerals besides quartz and the sharpness of the quartz grains. Sand- stones as a general rule are made up of rounded water-worn grains of quartz, held together with a little carbonate of lime, yellow or red oxide of iron, or silica. The peculiar characters of this stone lead us to infer that its materials have been derived from the disintegration of granite or gneiss, two rocks containing similar minerals, and that the grains have been deposited directly with little re-sorting or abrasive action. Granite and gneiss are two of the rocks comprising the original pre-Cambrian land area to the east and we believe that the Morgantown sandstone was derived from their decay. In structure it shows many features which suggest its deposition under shallow water conditions. Frequently the layers do not lie parallel to each other but are inclined in an intricate criss-crossed arrangement. To this peculiarity we apply the term, cross-bedding. It implies the presence of cross currents in the water during deposition. The Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 119 variation in the direction and velocity of the currents tends to bring the sand into irregular ridges and patches, as can be seen by a study of recent sandbanks. The bedding frequently produces a series of lenticular or long lozenge-shaped bodies of stone. Following horizontally along an outcropping bed of Morgantown sandstone we encounter great variations in its character. From a bed of typical sandstone forty-five feet thick it may gradually change to a bed of thin-layered shale, all variations appearing, from a pure shale through a sandy shale, shaly sandstone, to the thick, hard, heavy-bedded stone. This horizontal variation is very pronounced in the Pittsburgh district, making the Morgantown an uncertain stratum in our studies. Such variation is another proof of shallow water conditions with irregular currents and irregular deposition. A third structural feature very frequently noticed in this stratum are the “valleys of contemporaneous erosion.” This feature, though awe-inspiring in name, is one that is very clearly seen and easily explained. Frequently, we find the sandstone abruptly cut off by a mass of shale. This is seen not only in the Morgantown sandstone, but in coal-beds, limestone, and other rocks. You will notice in PL V, fig. 2, that the sandstone tapers downward to the left and disappears and in its stead a mass of thinly bedded shale appears. At the close of the sandstone deposition a stream cut its way across the rock, cutting out a valley. The subsequently deposited strata filled this valley with a different material, giving us this peculiar structure. All of these structures, cross-bedding, horizontal varia- tions, and erosional valleys, indicate a shallow water condition during the formation of the Morgantown. The formation is devoid of animal remains, but occasionally a plant fragment is found in it. It derives its name from its prominence at Morgantown, W. Va. It is found over most of western Pennsylvania and parts of Ohio and West Virginia, and is of commercial importance as an oil reservoir and as 3L‘ building stone. In the Pittsburgh district it is well exposed in many quarries, on Bigelow Boulevard above the Union Station; near Braddock Avenue and Forbes Street; Wilkinsburg; and other places. As a building stone it is much quarried in and around the city, and although it breaks out in irregular blocks, it makes a fairly durable rough stone. Frequently it and its overlying shales are both taken from the same quarry, the shale being used in brick manufacture. Such a quarry is that of John H. Ward & Sons, near Frankstown and 120 Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Oakwood Avenues, As an oil-sand it becomes known as the Murphy Sand, and is of value where under deeper cover. Overlying the Morgantown sandstone there are generally about twenty feet of variegated red and green clay-shales. They are fre- quently jointed in a peculiar manner, producing an appearance as if folded or tilted. They also often carry irregular dove-colored lime- stone nodules which become a source of much trouble to the brick manufacturer. These beds can be seen in many of the city brickyards, such as Sankey’s on the South Side, Ward’s in the East End, or the Iron City Brick Company on Stanton Avenue, The limy nodules must be carefully screened or separated from the clay used for making brick, otherwise the finished bricks would contain lumps of quick- lime, This on exposure to moisture would slack and swell, breaking the brick into a useless mass. Above these colored beds are ten or fifteen feet of black and gray shales, among which lies an easily recognized limestone layer, the Clarksburg limestone. It rarely is over one foot in thickness and has the general appearance of the other fresh water limestones. It can be seen in the brickyards mentioned above, and on the Murray Avenue car-line. It often carries small ostracods and fish remains. Above it in some parts of western Pennsylvania there 'lies a thin seam of coal, the Little Clarksburg Coal, but in the city this seems to be represented by a streak of carbonaceous shale about ten inches in thickness. At Bavington, near Burgettstown, the coal attains a thickness of seven feet and is workable. The Connellsville Sandstones. Above the Clarksburg coal and lime- stone horizon lies an irregular and ill defined series of thick to shaly sandstone-beds very closely resembling the Morgantown beds, but less massive. The thickness of these beds is about twenty feet, in- cluding gradational beds of shaly sandstone on top and at bottom. This is followed by fifteen feet or so of red and green shale very pronounced in color, and this in turn by the Summerfield or Lower Pittsburgh Limestone. This bed is a typical fresh water limestone, slightly thicker than the most of the limestone beds, being usually two and one-half feet thick, parted in the middle by a thin shale. As usual it carries remains of Spirorbis. It can be seen on the cliffs along the Bigelow Boulevard, on the Mt. Washington cliffs, and elsewhere. The interval between the Summerfield limestone and the Pittsburgh Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 121 coal, some sixty feet, is made up of various shales, greenish, grayish, sandy, etc., in the upper thirty feet of which are imbedded seven or eight limestone beds of the fresh-water type. These are known as the Pittsburgh limestones, or the Upper Pittsburgh Limestones. (PL VI, fig. I.) They generally lie in two series: first, a single or double bed two feet below the Pittsburgh coal, separated from it by the under clay; and a second, a series of four or five beds from fourteen to thirty feet lower down below the coal-bed. These various Pittsburgh limestones can be seen wherever exposures beneath the coal are prominent, such as in the Squirrel Hill District, along the Ardmore line just out of Wilkinsburg, and even on the campus of the University of Pittsburgh along the steps leading to the Medical 'School. Being without fossils, save Spirorbis, we con- sider them to be fresh-water limestones. At the floor of the Pitts- burgh Coal the Conemaugh Series ends and the Monongahela begins. We have seen that almost the entire city is made up of Conemaugh rocks, but that there are still some of the higher hill-tops above the Conemaugh representing the Monongahela beds. We have also seen that the Ames limestone, outcropping down near our river-levels, marks the middle of the Conemaugh; that practically all the rocks above it are of fresh-water origin, and those below show many in- cursions of marine conditions; that shale, especially red shales, are very common; and that coal-seams are thin and unimportant. We will now continue our study, of the Pittsburgh Coal and the rocks which lie above it and cap our higher hills. The Pittsburgh Underclay. As is the case with most coal-beds, the Pittsburgh coal is usually underlain by from two to twelve inches of soft bluish clay called a “fire-clay.” This, as we have already said, represents the floor, or basement, upon which the vegetation began its growth. Unlike the Kittanning and other of the lower clays, the Pittsburgh clay rarely shows the rhizomes of Stigmaria, and it is probable that the Sigillaria did not flourish at that period. Unlike the lower clays, the Pittsburgh clay is of little importance as a fire-clay and it is doubtful whether it has the right to the name “fire-clay.” Little has been done in the development of the Pittsburgh clay and little is known concerning it. It is probably not as refractory or as valuable a clay as the lower clays. The purity of underclays in general has been the subject of some study, and it is often thought that the detrimental impurities, iron 122 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. and alkalies, have been extracted by the action of vegetable matter and organic acids, purifying and bleaching the clay. The Pittsburgh Coal. (PI. VI, fig. 2.) Immediately above the underclay we find the most important bed in the Pittsburgh section, the Pittsburgh Coal. In passing up from the Ames limestone we find each succeeding- layer more restricted in its area, until on reaching the Pittsburgh coal we find it outcropping on the higher (almost the highest) points in the city, such as Herron Hill, the higher points in Schenley Park, Squirrel Hill, etc. To the south, southeast, or south- west, however, the bed becomes more continuous and lies as an almost continuous bed throughout Washington and Greene Counties. Good outcrops of this coal can be seen near Murray Avenue and Phillips Avenue; opposite the entrance of Smithfield Cemetery on Beacon Street; various points in the Hill district and South Side; and on the University campus where it outcrops part-way up the hill- side. This coal is an exceedingly persistent stratum, and retains its thickness and its division into ^Tenches’’ over large areas. Its character and structure are best described in the Report of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, for 1906-1908, pp. 231-232, which follows: “The coal bed itself is readily divisible into two parts, the upper of which is known as the roof coal or division, and the lower as the main coal or division. Between them is the overlay or main day. In parts of the area the two divisions, which are usually separated by only a foot or less, become separated by 15 or 20 feet. Then sand- stone or shale as well as clay are found between the two divisions. “The roof division has its best development at the north and in general thins to the south. In northern Washington county it attains dimensions allowing its working independently of the lower division, while in northern West Virginia it is usually lacking or thin. At the north it will measure from 5 to 6 feet- in thickness. It is everywhere characterized by its clay partings. These are often extremely irregular so that detailed measurements made a few yards apart will sometimes give entirely dissimilar sections. In places the clay beds become more regular. In some sections the division is less than one-half coal, in others the clay forms one small parting. In the main, the roof division has been considered worthless and left in the mine. It now seems possible that in the not distant future it may be removed in mining and utilized in the manufacture of producer gas. The Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 123 partings in the roof division are sometimes clay, sometimes shale, and frequently bone. ‘'The main clay or ‘over-clay’ is usually an impure clay, often with coal streaks, especially near the base. It will average a little under a foot. The lower division contains four benches as is shown in the following general section of the Pittsburg coal: Feet Inches Roof division 2-8 Main or “over-clay,” about ' i “Breast” or “main” bench, often with parting in the middle. 2-10 Parting i “Bearing in” 4-6 Parting.. i “Brick” bench, about. i Parting, often absent or thin “Bottom” bench 12-20 “The breast or main coal bench is the most valuable and important part of the bed. It varies in thickness from 2 feet in Ohio to 3 feet at Pittsburg, 6 feet at Brownsville, to as high as 10 feet in the Georges creek region of Maryland. The top of the breast coal for a few inches is harder than the rest, often cannelly and frequently bony. There is occasionally a thin parting near the middle of this bench, especially toward the northwest. “The ‘bearing-in’ bench which in pick mining is mined in under- cutting the breast coal is a remarkably regular feature of the bed, especially with its two bounding thin shale partings above and below. The partings are usually gray mottled from inch to i inch thick. To the south they become bony and less conspicuous. The coal bench is a bright, pure coal from 3 to 6 inches thick. The brick coal, named from the brick-like shape of the blocks into which it mines, runs from o to i foot thick. The parting between this and the bottom bench is often inconspicuous and sometimes lacking. “The ‘bottom’ bench is 12 to 25 inches thick and usually impure. The writer hopes the present season to examine this coal in the erosion channels south of Pittsburg and expects in those channels to find that this bottom bench has greatly thickened up. This is often left on account of its impurities. It could be utilized with the roof coal if that ever should be used. “Considering the coal as a whole, the lower or working division has a thickness near Pittsburg of about 5 feet. Going southward 124 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. this increases so that over the southwestern part of the State it will probably average 7 feet, ranging from 6 to 8 feet over much of Greene and Fayette counties.” It is not necessary to tell those who read these pages of the important place which the Pittsburgh Coal has held in the development and growth of our city. Our wealth in oil and gas and coal, coupled with the topographic features of the region, have been by far the most important factors in our industrial development. The earliest settlers found coal cropping out in the hills, and along the high river- banks as a continuous narrow ribbon ready for immediate mining. This accessibility along the Monongahela gives the mining of the coal a great advantage over other districts and has brought about the great system of river transportation followed by railroad trans- portation at river-level. In addition to accessibility the coal is of unusually high quality, a high grade steam-coal, in some districts a gas-coal, and in the Connells- ville district a valuable coking-coal. Pittsburgh Coal through these factors, has become favorably known over a large eastern territory and is shipped as coal or coke even into rival coal-bearing territories. The higher points within the city, between the rivers, are generally capped by fifty feet or thereabout of strata lying above the Pittsburgh Coal, and included within the Monongahela series. Such outcrops can be seen at many points in the Hill District. The only rocks to be seen, however, are sandstones and shales, usually thin-bedded and of no particular interest. The hill-tops within the city limits are not quite high enough to carry exposures of the coal which next succeeds the Pittsburgh, known as the Redstone Coal. For this coal and the succeeding strata of the series we must again go to the outlying suburbs, this time going south or southwest (preferably southwest) across the South Hills into Greentree, Union, West Liberty, and Scott Townships. The Charleroi and the Washington trolley lines and the shorter lines to Castle Shannon and West Liberty afford good exposures of the Monongahela series and on some of the higher hills even the higher series are to be seen. Above the Pittsburgh Coal in this section we generally find a portion of the roof division separated from the main coal by a few feet of shale. This has been termed the “rooster” vein, or Pittsburgh Rider. Occasionally, as at Florence, a small village north of Burgetts- town, the rider is separated from the main seam by a greater thickness Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 125 of strata, in this case twenty-four feet, the rider attaining a thickness of seven feet. As we have seen in the exposures in the city the re- maining fifty feet of strata between the Pittsburgh coal and the Redstone coal are generally thin bedded sandstones and shales, though occasionally the sandstone becomes thick-bedded and coarse, or sugary in texture, and is known as the Pittsburgh sandstone. In some localities this interval also contains beds of fresh-water, dense, flint-like limestones, which at times, as at Bulger, make up one-half of the entire section. The Redstone coal is not a persistent thin bed, often but a carbonaceous streak, and is of no value. Like all such coals it occasionally thickens and becomes workable, but no such instances are known in this district. The interval between the Redstone and the next, or Sewickley coal, is also one of fifty or sixty feet, and consists of shale with some sandstone layers and a few irregular limestone beds, among which is the Fishpot limestone, sometimes twenty feet in thickness in the Brownsville district. The Sewickley Coal. This coal is usually but a thin seam or car- bonaceous streak about one hundred and forty feet above the Pitts- burgh coal. It is generally considered to be the equivalent of the Meig’s Creek Coal of Ohio. In southeastern Greene County it reaches a thickness of five feet, but it is generally split by numerous partings and is too impure to be of much value. The Benwood Limestone. Passing upward above the Sewickley Coal, we begin to see exposure after exposure of thick limestone beds, there being more limestone within one hundred feet of strata than seen anywhere in our study. The interval of one hundred and fifty feet or so between the Sewickley coal and the next coal-bed is frequently nearly all made up of limestone beds separated by thin beds of shale. In the older reports the entire section was considered as a unit and termed the “Great Limestone,” but more careful study has brought about a subdivision of the limestone into two divisions; the upper being the Uniontown, and the lower the Benwood, separated by fifteen to twenty feet of shale. In the Benwood limestone itself geologists find beds of such strong characteristics that it has seemed well to give them names. Southwest of Pittsburgh we find a lower creamy white bed, four feet thick, called the Dinsmore; and an upper brown bed, one to two feet thick, called the Bulger. These, with less 126 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. characteristic beds, make up the Benwood limestone. All are dense fresh-water limestone, carrying no fossil remains save small ostracods. The Uniontown Limestone. This is separated from the Benwood limestone by limy shale and attains an average thickness of ten feet in several benches, each one foot in thickness. These various layers on exposure weather in our district in a peculiar way, the lowest becoming covered with small projecting spots like pimples; the second showing light and dark spots; the third becoming covered with a white clay, and the upper layer becoming soft and yellow. When natural cement was more popular than it is today, this limestone was burned to make cement and is said to have yielded an excellent product. The Uniontown Coal. A few feet above the Uniontown Limestone a coal blossom is frequently seen. It is not of workable thickness, its maximum thickness being but twenty inches. Above this coal there lie twenty to forty feet of uninteresting sandstones and shales, followed by another bed or- series of beds of fresh-water limestone, the Waynes- burg Limestone. This is in turn overlain by a thin streak of coal or black shale, the Little Waynesburg coal. Then, following an interval of twenty-five to forty feet of shales and sandstone, we reach the Waynesburg coal, the uppermost layer in the Monongahela series. This coal ranges from a few inches to ten feet in thickness, but the thicker portions are usually hampered by clay-partings. It is locally mined, wherever it yields five or six feet of coal, but, so long as the Pittsburgh bed is easily accessible, the Waynesburg coal must generally remain unworked. The rocks deposited after and upon the Monongahela series lie mostly southwest in Washington and Greene Counties and are not properly to be considered in this discussion. These rocks, which in Greene County attain a thickness of over a thousand feet, from a careful study of the fossil plants contained therein are believed to be of Permian age, and are termed the Dunkard Group. The lower portion resting upon the Waynesburg coal is the Washington Forma- tion, and the upper the Greene Formation. In nature they are much like the Monongahela series, consisting of shales, sandstones, lime- stones, and occasional unimportant coal-beds. Among the interesting fossil beds in the Dunkard Group is the Cassville shale overlying the Waynesburg coal. This is famous as a source of well preserved fossil plants and insects, especially cockroaches. A second fossiliferous Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 127 layer is found in the lower Greene formation, two hundred and seventy- five feet above the Cassville Shale. This layer is called the Fish Bed or Beds, since it carries many fish scales, as well as bivalves and impressions of leaves. With the deposition of these higher strata in the southwestern corner of the state, the land surface rose, and the carboniferous sea or land-locked estuary, or river valley was obliterated. The long period of construction was at an end. Destruction was soon to begin. Forces were at work to the eastward crumpling the rocks of the central region into great waves, or folds, while the thousands of feet of sediment in western Pennsylvania were elevated with but slight warping. Throughout the succeeding ages, the Cretaceous and Tertiary, we shall see that the history is simply one of a struggle between the forces striving to tear down and plane off the topographic irregularities and the forces of re-elevation, and that the surface topog- raphy tells us of the alternate successes of these two forces. CHAPTER rv. After the Carboniferous. When the final layers of sandstone, shale, and coal had been de- posited in the Greene and Washington county "^lowlands and the great Carboniferous Period -came to a close, the great thickness of sediments, which had been accumulating in the inland sea or Appa- lachian trough, gave rise to movements of the crust of the earth. The weight of sediments had no doubt overloaded the crust and a crowding, thrusting movement took place, which slowly buckled the layers in central Pennsylvania into a series of upfolded and downfolded (anti- clinal and synclinal) ridges, the structure of which is today well displayed in the central counties. In western Pennsylvania the movement uplifted a large area as a plateau the foundation rocks of which were but slightly folded. During the succeeding Mesozoic and the early Cenozoic era, our section was a land area subject to the usual forces of destruction, erosion, and weathering, which were tending to reduce the elevated land to the level surface of a peneplain, while occasional , renewed uplifts tended to counteraet-denudation, as has been shown -in the chapter on Physiography. The Cretaceous and Tertiary seas were in existence elsewhere, and our knowledge of the life and conditions prevailing during these 128 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. periods must depend on the study of deposits and their fossils made in our western states, or elsewhere. The close of the Tertiary period finds the rivers of western Pennsyl- vania flowing in broad flat valleys, so near to their base-level, or sea-level that they were widening rathef'than deepening their valleys. This is the period of the Parker Strath, mentioned in Chapter I. These rivers were not entirely in the same channels, which they now occupy. Fig. 7. Sketch map, showing the probable pre-glacial drainage of western Pennsylvania. The terminal moraine is shown by a broken crossed line. (After Frank Leverett, with addition of terminal moraine.) Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 129 It may here be noted that it is very probable that the divide be- tween the water-sheds of the St. Lawrence drainage and the Gulf of Mexico in the region of the Allegheny valley stood at Emlenton, and that the Allegheny, known to geologists as the ‘‘Old Lower Alle- gheny,” was made up mainly by the union of the Clarion and Red Bank Rivers. The system of rivers north of the old divide then flowed into a stream which had its bed somewhere in what now is Lake Erie. From Pittsburgh the Ohio, carrying the waters of the Monon- gahela, flowed north past Beaver and continued north along the course of the present Beaver River and through the Grand River into the St. Lawrence drainage. That portion of the Ohio from Wheeling to Beaver also flowed north as a tributary of this system. All the streams of western Pennsylvania and West Virginia discharged their waters at that time through the Gulf of St. Lawrence into the Atlantic and did not flow to the Gulf of Mexico (See fig. 7). At the close of the Tertiary the whole of the northern United States came under the grip of a rigorously cold climate. Ice and snow were formed in such amounts that the warm summer sun could not melt them, and an immense continental ice-sheet crept down from centers of accumulation in Labrador, the region of Hudson’s Bay, and Western Canada. This sheet, often several thousand feet in thickness, overrode the highlands, scoured off the surfaces, scratched and scored the underlying rocks like an immense plane. The earliest advance of the ice, the Kansas stage, reached down into Western Pennsylvania till its front extended from a point a few miles north of Beaver, northeast to and beyond a point north of Warren (Fig. 7). To this line the advancing glacier brought enormous quantities of sand, gravel, and clay, torn from any or all rock exposures to the north or northwest. Although the ice-front did not reach as far south as Pittsburgh, its effects upon the district were nevertheless of great importance. The principal effect was upon the drainage systems. The thick mass of ice and its attendant tons of debris impounded the streams flowing northward, as above described, and finally caused them to break over barriers and flow southward, thereby uniting the streams of the upper Allegheny district with the lower stream, giving us a great waterway which rises but a short distance from Lake Erie, yet flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The Beaver River was reversed. Its waters with those of the Ohio were backed up from a point near 130 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Wheeling, and finally found in that direction a surmountable divide perhaps near Moundsville. This accounts for the peculiar course of the Ohio and its sharp bend at Beaver. These changes in the drainage had a profound influence upon the history and economic development of Pittsburgh. The new Allegheny soon became overloaded with glacial material and gravel torn away during the cutting of the new divides. This load was strewn along the bottom of the valley forming a wide strath to the depth of about one hundred feet of sand and gravel, over which the river wound its way at this much higher level. The tributaries also, although not carrying an excessive amount of debris, were obliged to accommodate their gradient to that of the main stream and with a lessened velocity they also built up a thick bed of sediment near their mouths, the sediment thinning out up stream. The rising of the rivers made it possible in many cases for them to flow in new channels, and at different stages they probably had several channel- ways, with islands of higher land between. These channel-ways also gradually became somewhat filled with sediment, or “silted up.” Following this stage came an interglacial epoch. A warmer climate prevailed and less and less ice formed, until the whole Kansan ice- sheet had practically disappeared from our state. This interglacial epoch lasted a long time, during which the surface of the land slowly rose three hundred and fifty feet, thus increasing the velocity and cutting power of the streams. They cut a narrow channel through the loose sediments and finally ate their way down to, and even through, the hard rock-floor of their old channels. In making this new course, they abandoned some of the winding loops and side- channels occupied during their flow at higher levels, generally, but not always, choosing the shorter channel. Now! What were the results of this renewed cutting? The rem- nants of the old wider channel were left on either side of the new and narrower gorge as terraces, with flat rock-bottoms and a covering of gravel. The abandoned channels also were left high and dry above the new stream-levels. This is exactly what we find along all of our streams. At an elevation of approximately two hundred feet above the present river-level, we find the rock-shelves, and upon them we sometimes find the original sand, clay, and gravel lying as deposits one hundred feet higher (Fig. 5). Often, however, erosion, or human activities have removed the loose cover from the terraces. These Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 131 terraces extend along the Allegheny and the Ohio, where they are covered with glacial gravels; and also along the other rivers and streams, where they are covered by local gravels and silts, materials which have not the heterogeneous character of the glacial drift. The tops of Monument Hill, Troy Hill, and Boyd’s Hill, Pittsburgh, the flat terrace forming Kennywood Park, parts of Sheraden and Elliot, parts of the Allegheny Cemetery, and many other places in the district carry remnants of the rriaterial laid down at the time of this old river-level. Forbes Street from the city out through Oakland runs on a rock-shelf of this character. With the help of topographic maps one may trace many of these terraces, lying between the nine hundred- and the one thousand-foot contour-lines, i. e., nine hundred to one thousand feet above sea-level. Broad abandoned valley loops and elevated terraces also are prominent along the Monongahela River. Among them are the site of Kennywood Park, the loops back of McKeesport, and a loop near Belle Vernon. On the Monongahela River terraces the materials consist of fine silts and clays with occasional deposits of gravel or boulders. The deposit is usually known as the “Carmichaels forma- tion.” In many cases it has the appearance of having been formed in sluggish water, or in a lake; and some years ago the prevailing theory was that during the glacial period a large lake occupied the Monongahela Valley, and that the Carmichaels deposits were lake- beds. The noted geologist, G. F. Wright, believed that an ice-dam for a time choked the Ohio River near Cincinnati and that a body of water was impounded in the upper Ohio, the Allegheny, and the Monongahela Rivers. Geologists have generally abandoned Dr. Wright’s view. Later Dr. 1. C. White came forward with the theory that while the Ohio River was still flowing north past Beaver Falls, the ice-sheet blocked its flow and impounded “Lake Monongahela” in the valleys to the South. He maintained that this lake had an outlet or outlets, in the vicinity of Salem, West Virginia, and dis- charged westward into the Ohio. He contended that the lake was drained and the present river-channels were established, when the water in the upper Ohio Valley succeeded in breaking over and through the divide near Moundsville, and allowed the flow from our rivers to become a part of the Mississippi drainage. The theory of a lake and lake-deposits has latterly been questioned and arguments have been advanced in favor of the ideas outlined in 132 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. this chapter; namely, that these deposits in the old rock channel are flood-plain deposits, made at a time when the volume of the rivers was augmented and much silt was available. Some ponding of the north- ward flowing streams when the ice-sheet crept down from the north is unquestioned, and there is no doubt that their northward flow was stopped at the time, when they began to flow southward. However, the upper surfaces of the gravel and silt deposits slope, as do the streams, and this fact leads the writer to think that they could hardly be lake deposits. Nevertheless it is proper to observe that the coin- cidence of the slope of the rivers and the terraces we are discussing is by some attributed to an upheaval of the whole region at the height of the glacial period. The writings of Wright, White, Chamberlain, Leverett, and others furnish very interesting discussions of this topic. The next event of importance in the glacial history of the rivers was the advance of the Wisconsin ice. This second glaciation loaded the Allegheny with glacial drift to a depth of possibly one hundred and fifty feet, and fifty feet of this load still lies in the bottom of the rivers, while in various terraces as high as one hundred feet above river-level we find these Wisconsin gravels. These lower gravel-terraces furnish the sites for many of the river towns, Coraopolis, lower Allegheny, Sewickley, Verona, Springdale, Sharpsburg, etc. They also are much used as sources of building gravel and can be seen in many excavations made in lower Pittsburgh. The glacial gravel dredged from the Allegheny, or stripped from these terraces, makes an interesting study, and a half-hour spent on almost any gravel-pile, where building operations are in progress, will yield a wealth of specimens of rock. Being glacial material, we find in it pebbles from localities far to the north, even from Canada. We find red Medina Sandstone from the Medina region of New York State between Buffalo and Rochester; we find corals, many of them changed to silica and similar to those found in the solid rock in western New York; conglomerate from Clean, N. Y. ; beautiful granites, darker gabbros, and banded gneisses from the rocky pre-Cambrian districts of Ontario. The writer has even seen in the gravels copper ores which can only have had their origin in northern Michigan near Houghton. Before leaving the subject of glacial deposits, the writer feels that Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 133 special attention should be called to a most interesting little book to be found in the Carnegie Library, entitled '‘River terraces in and around Pittsburgh,” written some twenty years ago by Prof. B. C. Jillson. He describes in a most entertaining manner many of the terraces of early Pittsburgh, terraces which are now almost obliterated by the growth of the city, and those who recall the early days will find it very instructive. Ask for it some day when in the library. From the deposition of the Wisconsin drift to the present time (a comparatively short time, speaking geologically) no great changes have taken place. The topography has been somewhat lowered by further dissection and the streams in places have formed alluvial flood-plains, but time has not been sufficient to work great altefations. The deepening of the main rivers during the glacial period has given to all the small side streams a very steep grade and many of them therefore have flowed very swiftly and have cut their way downward very rapidly until they now flow in narrow ravines. Examples are to be seen in Fern Hollow near the Frick Woods and Squaw Run in Aspinwall and in practically all the smaller tributaries. These small streams are gradually eating their way back into the higher plateau and carving, or dissecting it into a network of hills and valleys. The human race probably developed during, or immediately after the Glacial Period, and with the advent of man human history begins. Of this human side of the story we have in the region the scanty records left by the aborigines in their burial mounds and rock-carvings. We must continually keep in mind, however, that the elevations of the land, the deposition of sediments, the formation of strata, the coming of the ice-sheets, and all these startling phenomena were not, as we used to believe, unusual and sudden catastrophies, but were events which consumed thousands of years. Our land-surfaces are even now either rising or falling, although we can barely measure the change from century to century; our streams and oceans are forming rock-strata as in the past., We may be living in a long inter- glacial epoch, and even now a new glacial period may be on its way, so slowly do such events progress. The past was not so very different from the present, except that we must accustom ourselves to thinking in terms of hundreds of thousands of years in place of centuries. 134 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. CHAPTER V. Fossil Hunting. Animal Remains. Many nature-lovers, who may have examined our cliffs for fossils and found none, may by this time realize that the mode of deposition of most of our rocks in rapid, sandy, or muddy streams, or flood- plains, was not favorable to animal life and rather destructive to plant-life. In the sandstones we may find a few fragments of trees or broken and torn leaves, little else; in the red shales we need look for no life; in the black shales we may expect to find fairly well pre- served fronds of ferns and other delicate plants; in the calcareous (limy) shales we are apt to find an abundance of marine shells, easily extracted; while in the limestones we really find the best field for collecting marine life. Many of our limestones, especially just above and just below the Pittsburgh coal are dense and practically barren, having been formed, it is thought, in fresh water. For plant remains the black shale overlying a coal-bed furnishes the best source; while for marine forms in our district the three marine limestones lying in the lower Conemaugh formation must be located. The shaly portions of the limestones are usually more easily broken up than the harder parts and the fossils can be more safely and perfectly extracted. Blocks which have been exposed to the rain and frost are also much more amenable to the hammer than fresh exposures. Old quarries, old brick-yards, railroad or road embankments are ideal collecting spots. The collector should be armed with a prospector’s pick or bricklayer’s hammer, a haversack, paper for wrapping specimens, and a few pill boxes or ‘‘Bull Durham” tobacco bags for delicate specimens. He (or she) should wear rough shoes for climbing cliffs, and clothes, suitable for sitting in the dirt, for he who tries to find much material while in a standing or stooping position will be seldom rewarded. The highest stratum carrying marine life is a sandy layer at the top of the Birmingham shale. It contains a few sparsely scattered species. Down through the Birmingham and the intervening strata there is small chance of finding any forms until the Ames limestone is reached. As described in a preceding chapter, it is our most im- portant collecting zone. There is always a certain zest given to the collector in finding his Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 135 own localities, but as a beginning it might be well to list a few localities where we have found good collecting, but bear in mind that there are plenty of spots in the district, which may afford even better material, which we have not as yet detected. Among the best, most easily accessible spots is the Brilliant Cut-off of the Pennsylvania Railroad (PL III, fig. 2). Walk north on Wash- ington Boulevard from Fifth and Hamilton Avenues, East End, past Silver Lake, and on until you are almost at the turn near the river; climb the steep bank to the right and between the bank and the tracks you will find an abundance of well weathered blocks of Ames limestone. This spot may also be reached by paths, which lead down the steep hill from Highland Park. A second spot is a small outcrop near the Homestead Bridge. Take a Homestead car by way of Murray Avenue, and get off at the north or nearest end of the bridge. Walk back along the track to the first sharp bend and there you will find a small outcrop of the Ames limestone. A third locality lies between Wilmerding and Pitcairn. Take any trolley going to Pitcairn, such as the Trafford City Express, and get off at almost any stop between the Wilmerding bridge and Pit- cairn. The Ames outcrops along the track for a long distance and many blocks of it lie in the fields south of the trolley track, also in the quarry of the brick-yard at Pitcairn. Now, what will you find in the Ames limestone? The fossil which will first strike your eye will be, no doubt, the Lophophyllum pro- fundum (PI. II, fig. i). It resembles an ice-cream cone in shape, is between one-quarter and one inch in length, and its cross-section shows radiating septa like a cut orange. It is a coral and is the most abundant coral in the Ames limestone, in fact, the only one you will be likely to see. You next would probably notice a small smooth white shell like a very small finger-nail, but with a groove down through the center. This is Amhocoelia convexa (PI. H, fig. 9). It belongs to the family of shells called brachiopods, and is so abundant as to make granular masses, of which it is the main constituent. A small cylindrical stem like form may possibly attract the eye. This is the stem of some crinoid (PI. H, figs. 2, 2a). It is a marine animal, often called a “sea-lily” on account of the flower-like head with tentacles branching from it like petals. The stem which we may discover was that portion of the animal by which it was attached 136 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. to the rocks. It varies from one-eighth to one-half of an inch in diameter, and portions sometimes can be found several inches in length. It easily breaks into segments and often carries a core which may be star-shaped. The crinoid stems are so prominent that in older reports the Ames is often called the “Crinoidal Limestone.” The head of the crinoid (or in reality the body and the branching arms) is unfortunately made up of plates and segments easily separated, and no good specimens have been found in the Ames limestone, although an experienced collector occasionally finds small segments and plates. You may be so fortunate as to find a fairly well preserved Spirifer cameratus (PI. II, fig. 8), but more often they are broken or crushed. It, like the Ambocwlia, is a brachiopod, but one of the larger species, often measuring one or one and one-half inches in width. Among the typical and extremely abundant brachiopods of the Ames limestone is Chonetes granulifer (PI. IJ, fig. 5), a thin, delicate shell, about the size of a finger-nail. It often breaks out so as to show both the inside and outside surfaces of one valve, in which case it is thin and must be handled with care. Another brachiopod, which in some localities is quite abundant, is Marginifera wabashensis (PI. II, fig. 7), a shell about the size of a thumb-nail, but with one valve very much distended, a fat-looking shell. Its surface bears a number of spines and, though it is seldom that the spines are preserved intact, their stumpy bases show upon the surface of the shell. In the Ames limestone this shell is usually very lustrous, since the original mother-of-pearl seems to be preserved, and, if one carrying good spines is found, it makes a handsome specimen. A shell somewhat resembling the foregoing, but of larger size and usually with less prominent “wings,” is the Productus (PI. II, fig. 6), of which in the Ames limestone there are several species very much alike. The shell is seldom as lustrous, but is often roughened by the traces of spines, as in Marginifera. Derbya crassa (PI. II, fig. 4), is a very flat shell often flattened in the Ames limestone to almost a plate-like form, very pronouncedly ribbed, and often black in color through impregnation with phosphatic solutions. Two small shells, which may take some patience to discover, but which are well worth the effort, are Piignax Utah (PL II, fig. 12) and Hustedia mormoni (PI. II, fig. ii). They are about the size of a little finger-nail and are strongly corrugated, Pugnax being less symmetric- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 137 ally grooved and showing less perfect corrugations than Hustedia. From the illustrations one will have no trouble in distinguishing them. Composita or Seminula suhtilata, is a shell, the hinge of which is rather pointed, while the surface shows no vertical grooving, save one slight medial wave, but the surface of which is marked by slight concentric lines paralleling the edge of the shell. The shell is about the size of a thumb-nail, or slightly larger. You are quite likely while collecting to run across one of the coil-shells or snail- shells, and the form will probably be a SphcBrodoma, although other genera of this class, the Gasteropods, are known to occur. The SphcBTodoma (PI. II, fig. 15) is a coil-shell, which carries about four turns or whorls, and comes to a very sharp point. In the Ames limestone these shells are often so flattened as to be at first hardly recognizable as cylindrical in form. They are generally black and partially phosphatized. Still another unusual form of life is the Orthoceras rushense. The Orthoceras is a pencil-like cylindrical shell somewhat tapering and cross-jointed in segments. It, too, is often flattened and crushed by pressure (PL II, fig. 16). Occasionally, in the Ames limestone, there are found fragments of large flat coil-shells. The fragments may be two or three inches long and are usually blackened with phosphate, and may usually be recognized by the fact that they carry several projecting humps, or points, which are in one or two rows around the shell. The fragments are seldom large enough for accurate identification, but they often belong to shells of the genus Tainoceras, or Metaceras. About the only other forms noticeable in the Ames limestone, are small black irregular lumps, or nodules, which are not fossils, but nodules of phosphate of lime, which are often found in limestone, or upon the present ocean floor. In the year 1907 Professor P. E. Raymond, at that time Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology in the Carnegie Museum, found some bones representing reptiles and amphibians in the red clay under- lying the Ames limestone at Pitcairn, east of the city. The clay at the point where the discovery was made is thirty-seven feet thick. Some of the bones were found lying upon a layer of nodular limestone about three feet above the base of the clay and the rest imbedded in the clay about a foot higher up. A preliminary report of the discovery was published by Raymond in Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, 1907, 138 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. p. 835. The specimens were sent to Professor E. L. Case of the Uni- versity of Michigan, whose report upon them appears in the Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. IV, 1908, pp. 234-241, pi. LIX. Some of the remains represent animals of considerable size for the orders to which they belong. The fossils were referred to genera which are well represented in the Permian beds of Texas, and are interesting because they show the existence of such forms at a point in the geo- logical scale many hundreds of feet below the point where they occur in Texas. One of the fragments obtained by Prof. Raymond was assigned by Professor Case to the genus Naosaurus, belonging to a curious order of carnivorous reptiles known as the Pelycosauria, all long ago extinct. In fig. 8 we give a picture of the skeleton of Fig. 8. Photograph of the restored skeleton of Naosaurus in the American Museum of Natural History. Reproduced by the courtesy of that museum. One- tenth natural size. a Naosaurus which has been restored and placed on exhibition in the American Museum of Natural History in New York, to the authorities of which we tender thanks for being permitted to use it. This old Pittsburgher, whose bones were found in the suburbs at Pitcairn, was a '‘prickly fellow,” and any creature, which tried to bite him, no doubt found that he had “a mouthful.” Naosaurus was from three to four feet long. The amphibian remains belonged chiefly to the gen usEryp/)^, much larger than any amphibiansof the present day. In an epitome of his researches upon the fauna of the Allegheny and Conemaugh series of rocks by Raymond, published by the Topo- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 139 graphic and Geologic Survey Commission of Pennsylvania, 1909- 1910, pp. 83-96, Raymond lists the species. In the last mentioned paper, Raymond also notes the discovery of a fossiliferous limestone on Woods Run, California Avenue and Brighton Road, Northside, and lists fossils collected there. The next fossiliferous zone of any great importance is the Pine Creek limestone which lies one hundred and twenty feet below the Ames limestone. Two good collecting places for this layer are found at Wittmer and at Powers Run. Other exposures lie in the ravines back of Emsworth and Avalon. To reach Wittmer, take a B. & O. train, which stops at Wittmer, a station between Etna and Glenshaw, or take an Etna trolley-car and either walk or take the bus to Wittmer. There you will find, west of the road, a high bluff, from which shale has been quarried in several benches for brick-making. The top of the first bench carries the Brush Creek limestone. Sixty feet higher, on the second bench lies the Pine Creek limestone, and numerous blocks of it lie scattered around. In that locality it can be recognized by the fact that its upper and lower surfaces seem more resistant to weathering agencies than the middle and its exposed edge is therefore concave. This characteristic holds good for most of the outcrops seen in northern Allegheny County. The Powers Run locality is reached by taking the Allegheny Valley trolley to Powers Run, a stop above Montrose. To the west, up Powers Run, there runs a cliff, from which some sandstone is quarried. The Pine Creek lime- stone can be seen outcropping half-way up the cliff, and there are many shaly decomposed lumps scattered at the base which furnish excellent material. The life in the Pine Creek limestone varies but little from that of the Ames limestone. Chonetes granulifer seems to be lacking, and some other forms are more prominent. Forms rarely seen in the Ames limestone, but especially abundant at Wittmer in the Pine Creek formation, are the Bryozoa (PL II, fig. 3). These are found on the upper surface of many of the blocks, as branching moss- like growths, like sea-weeds, made up of colonies of very small animals. They lie on the rock surface as a mat of branching material. Another type of fossils which the writer has found in well preserved specimens are certain of the lamellibranch shells, resembling our fresh water clam, or mussel, the commonest being Allorisma suhcuneatum (PI. II, fig. 13). Enormous Producti as large as walnuts, are very common but hard to extract. Composita subtilata is common, Lophophyllum 140 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. very abundant, in fact, most species of the Ames list are repeated in the Pine Creek. Sixty feet below the Pine Creek lies the Brush Creek limestone and there is no better locality for it than the Wittmer cliff. The lower bench has for its floor about a foot of hard black limestone, while (for some feet above and below this) the shales are black and fossiliferous. Many other localities of Brush Creek should be found in the beautiful ravines north of the Allegheny River. The striking feature of the Brush Creek, aside from its abnormally black color, is the presence of so many and such perfect Gasteropods (snail-like shells) especially Worthenia tahiilata (PI. II, fig. 14), which differs from Sphcerodoma by the angular nature of its whorls. Most of the fossils described from the Ames limestone may be found also in this stratum, the principal exception being Pugnax Utah, which does not appear in the Brush Creek bed. The following is a tabulated list of the species found in the Pitts- burgh district with the strata in which they were found and a refer- ence to their illustration. This was arranged from Raymond’s paper {loc. cit.) by Prof. R. H. Johnson of the University of Pittsburgh. It is inserted for the benefit of those who may wish to identify the fossils they may find: Fossils of the Conemaugh Formation near Pittsburgh. Class Species Illustration Horizon Coral Lophophyllum profundum Girty 2, 1 BPWA Crinoids ^ ^ Ceriocrinus craigi Raymond 4, 2 BP Hydreionocrinus sp. Girty 3, 3 A Columns & plates of crinoids Girty 3, 1 BPWABi Bryozoa Septopora (Synocladia) biserialis Raymond 4, 1 P ^ Rhombopora nicklesi Ulrich BP Lingula umbonata Grabau 229k Br. Orbiculoidea missouriensis Grabau 236e P “ convexa Grabau 236d A “ planodisca Raymond-Annals 28, 12 Bi. Crania modesta Girty 6, 12 A Rhipidomella pecosi Grabau 321a A Derbya crassa Girty 7, 1 BPWA Chonetes verneuilanus Schuchert 23, 4 BP “ granulifer Girty 7, 12 BP Productus semireticulatus Schuchert 23, 10 BPA Brachiopods “ Cora Girty 8, 4 BPABi “ nebraskensis Girty 10, 6 BPWBi “ punctatus Schuchert 23, 9 BR “ pertenuis Girty 8, 3 BA Marginifera wabashensis Norwood & Pratten 1, 6 BPA Spirifer comeratus Girty 11, 4 BPA Spiriferina kentuckiensis Girty 11, 8 PWA Ambocoelia planoconvexa Girty 11, 6 BPA Composita (Seminula) subtilita Girty 12, 4 BPA Cleiothyridina orbicularis Girty 12, 1 PA Hustedia mormoni Girty 12, 5 A Pugnax osagensis (utah) Grabau 656 BA Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 141 Class Species Illustration Horizon r Deltopecten occidentalis Grabau 656 BA Acanthopecten carboniferous Girty 27, 10 BPBi Psendomonotis hawni Schuchert 23, 17 A Yoldia carbonaria Meek Br Leda (Nuculana) bellistriata Girty 14, 1 BP Nuculopsis (Nucula) ventricosa Girty IS, 1 BPA Edmondia aspenwallensis Grabau 494 PABi Pelecypods ^ Allorisma subcuneatum Raymond 6, 5 BPABi “ costatum Grabau 706 Bi Schizodus cuneatus Grabau 644 Bi Macrodon (Parallodon) “ “ tenuistriatus Condit 15, 2 P “ “ obsoletus Grabau 518 A Astartella vara Raymond 5, 8 BA Cardiomorpha missouriensis Grabau 490 Bi r Platyceras parvum Grabau 970 BPA “ spinigerum Worthen 28, 4 Br Schizostona (Euomphalus) “ catilloides Girty 21, 4 BPA Bulimorpha (Meekospira) nitidula Grabau 1003c • BP Trepospira illinosensis (depressa) Girty 21, 6 BP Worthenia tabulata Girty 22, 1 B Phanerotrena grayvillensis Girty 23, 2 B Pleurotomaria carbonaria Raymond 5, 1 BA “ perhumerosa Meek 4-13 B Gastropods Euphemus carbonarius Girty 21, 1 BA Potellostium montfortanum Girty 20, 1 BPA Pharkidonotus (Bellerophon) “ percarinatus Girty 19, 4 BPA Bellerophon stevansanus McChesney A Bucanopsis marcouana Grabau 840 Br Plagioglypta (Dentalium) meekiana Girty 25, 14 Br Sphaerodoma (Soleniscus) “ ventricosus Girty 24, 4 A “ “ paludiniformis Girty 24, 5 A “ primogenia Girty 24, 13 Br “ “ texana Shumard A ^ Loxonema plicatum Whitfield 11, 14 A Chitons Glaphurochiton carboniferus Raymond 5, 4 PA ^ Orthoceras rushense Grabau 1254b BPA “ lasellense Worthen P Cyrtoceras curtum Raymond 4, 3 Br Cephalopoda Temnocheilus crassus Hyatt BPA T. winslowi Grabau 1320a PA Solenocheilus collectus Grabau 1328 Br Tainoceras occidentale Raymond 6, 7 ABi ^ Goniotites lunatus Smith 6, 2 PB Trilobites Griffithides scitula Grabau 1616c PB Petalodus ohioensis Raymond 5, 9 BPA Deltodus angularis Newberry & Worthen BPA Fishes ^ “ compressus Newberry W Fissodus inaequalis St. John & Worthen , A Cladodus occidentalis Leidy A ^ Agassizodus variabilis Newberry & Worthen A Amphibian Eryops sp? Case R ( Desmatodon hollandi Case R Reptiles ■< Naosaurus raymondi Case R 1 ^ Diadectid gen.? sp.? Case R LEGEND. B or Br = Brush Creek limestone. P = Pine Creek limestone. W = Woods Run limestone. A =Ames limestone. Bi = Upper limy bed of Birmingham 'shale. R = Red beds near Pitcairn, Pa. 142 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Bibliography upon which the foregoing list is based. Girty, G. H. Fauna of the Wewoka formation. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 544. Schuchert, C. Text Book of Geology. (Historical.) Grabau and Shimer. North American Index Fossils. Figs. 1-20 10, in Vol, I; others in Vol. II. Case, E. C. Annals Carnegie Museum, Vol. IV. Condit, D. D. The Conemaugh Formation. Geol. Survey of Ohio, Fourth Series, Bull. 17. Raymond, Percy E. Annals Carnegie Museum, Vol. VII. Norwood and Pratten. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Ser. 2, Vol. 3. Meek. U. S. Geol. Survey, Nebraska, Final Report. Worthen. Geol. Survey of 111., Vol. 5. Whitfield. Geol. Survey of Ohio, Vol. 7. Smith, J. P. Carboniferous Ammonoids. U. S. Geol. Survey, Mono- graph 42. Plant Remains. The fossil plants to be found in the Pittsburgh region are not so definitely limited to certain layers of rocks or “horizons,” as the fossil animals. We usually find the most perfect specimens in black shales often underlying a coal-bed, but we may encounter some of the harder trees and branches as fossils in sandstone, or even in con- glomerate. This kind of material within the limits of the city is generally poor in quality and specimens are not nearly as abundant as they are in association with the Allegheny coals to the north or to the east; nor can it be compared with the material to be found in the anthracite regions in northeastern Pennsylvania. Occasionally, how- ever, one finds a good specimen, or a specially good locality, and it is well to be familiar with a few of the more common types of plants, which flourished in Conemaugh times. We may expect to find ^specimens of various types of fern-like plants. These we can all recognize, even if we may not be able to place them in their proper genus or species. Most of them, it is now believed, were not true ferns, but belonged to a group of tree-like plants, which represented a transition between the true ferns and the Cycads. This transitional group differed from the true ferns in bearing seeds in place of the sporangia which are seen on the under Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 143 side of the leaves of ferns. Both ferns and seed-ferns grew to immense size^ often rising to over forty feet in height. Fragments of the trunk or branches of two of the larger trees of the Carboniferous are occasionally encountered and are not hard to distinguish. They are Lepidodendron (PL VII, fig. 2) and Sigillaria (PL VII, figs. 4-6) both belonging to the family of Club-mosses or Lycapods, the living members of which are now lowly moss-like plants, the best known being the Ground-pine. The trunk of Lepidodendron is easily recognized on account of the diamond-shaped leaf-scars left upon it as the leaves fell. These are not arranged in vertical rows, but alternately, so as to show an almost spiral arrangement. This tree reached a height of over one hundred feet with a diameter of two or three feet, the tall slender trunk branch- ing toward the top, the branches covered with closely spaced needle- like leaves. The branches were terminated by cones. The petri- fied trunks have often been reported by coal-miners as "fossil snakes.” Sigillaria (PL VII, figs. 4-6) differs irom Lepidodendron in the markings upon the trunk. The surface is vertically grooved, or fluted, and each ridge carries a vertical row of leaf-scars. The tree was tall and un- branched, terminated by a head or cluster of long needle-like leaves, often three feet long, and also bearing cones. Specimens of these two trunks are almost invariably flattened on account of the fact that their interior was soft and cellular, easily decaying, thus allowing pressure to cause the stems to‘ collapse. These are the two trees which enter most frequently into the make-up of coal-beds and their flattened trunks are often found in the "roof-slates,” while micro- scopic investigation proves that the brighter layers in bituminous coal are. flattened stems and trunks, and that spores from the cones, although flattened, make up a considerable portion of most coals. The roots of the Lycopods frequently are found in the under clays of a coal-seam and are termed Stigmaria (PL VII, fig. i). Another type of stem, or trunk, which is likely to be found is that of Calamites, which is vertically ribbed and jointed, somewhat like bamboo. Calamites (PL VII, fig. 7) was the giant ancestor of the roadside Horsetail- or Scouring Rush, and those who know this plant can see a close resemblance. The ancestral variety differed in size, being often sixty feet in height. It bore cones which carried spores. The stems, when found in sandstones, may be very little crushed. Another large tree of the period was Cordaites (PL VII, fig. 8). This 144 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. tree was most advanced along the lines of evolution of any of the trees of the period, and was related to the conifers of the present day, and possibly to the Japanese Gingko tree, so popular as a shade-tree in many of our parks. Cordaites bore both male and female catkins and developed winged seeds Rhabdocarpos (PI. VII, fig. 3). The leaves borne on the upper branches were long and vertically ribbed resembling those of the lily, or Indian corn, and the leaves are the portions most frequently found. Summarizing, the fossil plants most commonly found in our district are the fronds of ferns and seed-ferns, the trunk and stem of Lepido- dendron, Sigillaria, and Calamites, and the leaves and sometimes the fruit of Cordaites. Other parts of these plants, especially the fruit, cones, spores, needles, as well as some less common plants, cannot be identified except by the paleobotanist, who devotes his time exclu- sively to the study of fossil plants. There has been but little detailed work upon the fossil flora of the Conemaugh, or, in fact, but little upon any of the rocks of our region. The life in the roof-shales of the Pittsburgh coal was made the subject of a special investigation by Grier (Annals Carnegie Museum, Vol. IX, 1914, pp. 125-128). He gives a list of twenty-six species which have been identified, the material coming from the first cut on the Wilkins- burg-Ardmore Boulevard near the trolley stop at Bryn Mawr. His list includes: Hysterites Cordaitis . . . . Catamites Annular ia Sphenophyllum Sigillaria camptotcenia Pecopteris Callipteridium N europteris Cordaites Rhabdocarpos mansfeildi Radicites or Pinnularia . a fungus 4 species ) 2 species > 3 species J 2 species I species 5 species 5 species trees ( ferns ) (a fruit) (a root) There are no doubt many localities, where even better material could be obtained, but no one has taken up the work. The shales accompanying the Allegheny coals yield much better material. For example, the shales under the upper Kittanning coal at Darlington, yield one hundred and one species within a few yards. An extremely interesting phase of the study of Carboniferous Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 145 plant-life has been brought out by the painstaking research of Dr. Thiessen of the United States Bureau of Mines in his laboratory on Forbes Street. Dr. Thiessen for some years has been grinding ex- tremely thin sections (one five-thousandth of an inch in thickness) of various coals, and has been examining their structure under high power microscopes. He finds that the lustrous layers show a woody texture and were once the branches or trunks of trees, now much flattened. The duller layers in the coal he finds to consist of the debris of plants, composed of fragments of leaf (Tuticle, pollen grains, spores, resinous particles, etc. Of this material the spores have proved the most interesting, for although less than one-thousandth of an inch in diameter and flattened, the spores have definite charac- teristic features, which make it possible to classify them. He finds that certain characteristic spores are found in the Pittsburgh coal- beds, and that through them he may identify this particular coal and differentiate it from the Freeport coal, or the Sewickley coal, or any other coal. In other words, the fine dust-like spores floating down from the trees, although so minute and seemingly fragile, have been preserved in the peat and in the coal for many millions of years, and that they are still so perfect that by their shapes and markings they become of actual value in the correlation and identification of coal- beds. Dr. Thiessen’s important papers are cited in the Bibliography. CHAPTER VI. Useful Minerals of the Pittsburgh Region. To the mineralogist, hunting for beautiful specimens, or to the prospector, searching for gold or silver, western Pennsylvania is a barren district; for such minerals are not likely to occur among undisturbed sandstones and shales. Nevertheless, we have extremely valuable mineral deposits, though not of the spectacular type. The value of the bituminous coal produced in Pennsylvania in 1922 was $351,777,000, of which Allegheny County furnished $35,726,000, while the entire production of gold in the United States was only $47,696,900. Pennsylvania ranks first among the states in the production of coal, clay-products, natural gas, and cement. In the production of the first three Allegheny County is of great importance. In the vicinity of Pittsburgh there are produced important quantities of coal, natural gas, petroleum, limestone, sand- 146 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. stone, gravel, sand, brick- and fire-clays, and portland cement, while until recently salt was also produced. The coal mined in the Pittsburgh region is mainly from the Pitts- burgh seam and it is considered to be one of the very best bituminous coals on the market. In emphasizing its importance H. A. Kuhn (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Engineers, Oct., 1914, p. 2587) says: “The Pittsburgh Coal Field in western Pennsylvania is conceded to be the most important in the world. To measure its importance it is necessary to understand the extent of its service in the various industries of the country. Probably 90 per cent, of the pig-iron manufactured in the United States up to the present time has been made by using coke manufactured from the Pittsburgh coal-seam in western Pennsyl- vania. This coal-field is the foundation on which the city of Pitts- burgh rests and is the reason for the great growth of the iron industry in the Pittsburgh district. Iron ore is brought to this district, not because Pittsburgh is a natural location over other locations for the iron and steel industry, but the ore is brought eleven hundred miles to meet the fuel. It can be said that the illuminating-gas industry in the United States has used this coal exclusively to the same extent that the pig-iron maker has used it. It may be also said that 20 to 25 per cent, of the fuel used on railroads in the United States comes from this coal-field. The Pittsburgh Coal-field is unquestionably the center of the industrial population of the United States, for in addition to the industries of the district and those closely adjoining, it has tributary to it all the cities and industries along the Great Lakes and practically all of Canada, with the exception of the extreme western and eastern ends. It supplies the industries and population west of Duluth and Superior many hundreds of miles. This coal is floated down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, supplying the towns en route, and is delivered in New Orleans, a distance of twenty-two hundred miles, for approximately eighty to ninety cents per ton transportation cost. It is delivered on the docks of Superior and Duluth at a cost of transportation fifty cents a ton less than the cost of transporting the same coal from Pittsburgh to a local consumer in Philadelphia. With other Appalachian coals it has large markets east and along the sea-board, especially for byproduct-coke making and the illuminating gas industry. It is considered the premier railroad fuel of the world on account of the fact that this coal in a given-size locomotive will probably haul more cars than any other Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 147 coal in the world. Tests made at Altoona by the Motive-power Dept, of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. show that Pittsburgh gas- coal evaporates as high as 18.9 lb. of water per square foot of heating surface. It is stated that the lower volatile coals, with a theoretically higher heat value per pound of fuel, do not evaporate more than 12 to 13 lb. of water per square foot of heating surface. For this reason this important railroad has adopted this coal as its standard fuel. By its use with the same crew and engine a maximum number of cars may be hauled.” It retains a uniform thickness over large areas and outcrops in our region in such a position along the river banks that it can be easily loaded into barges or railroad cars. It lies, as do all of our strata, practically horizontally, so that from the hillside it can be mined by direct drifts or tunnels. In Pittsburgh itself the coal lies at an ap- proximate elevation of one thousand and fifty feet above sea-level with some slight variations, and therefore is found only near the tops of the higher hills, its outcrop circling around the hill. It outcrops in Schenley Park, in Squirrel Hill, around Herron Hill, and in the early days was mined in some of these city districts. To the south, south- east, and southwest its downward dip carries it to much deeper levels and in the Connellsville district it reaches river-level. On account of the lesser amount carried away by erosion, the coal at the lower levels is a more continuous body; under Greene and Washington County the bed is one continuous sheet although lying deep beneath the surface. The rise to the north carries the Pittsburgh bed so high in northern Allegheny County that it is found only on a few high knobs, the most northern exposures being certain very small hills in Pine Township. Although seemingly horizontal, the bed, like all of our strata, shows evidence of the Appalachian folding and careful measurements with the aneroid barometer or a surveyor’s level show that the coal lies in low waves, the crests of which are called the axes of anticlines. These axes of the folds run in a northeast southwesterly direction, and the coal dips from them in a southeast or northwesterly direction. The axes are not straight, nor are the dips regular, so that it is necessary in detailed mapping of a coal district to make many measurements of the altitude of the coal-bed and then to construct a map along the lines of a topographic map only drawing the contours or lines of equal elevation with reference to the coal-bed. Such a map is termed a 148 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. structural contour map and indicates to the trained eye just how the entire coal-bed lies. The Carnegie quadrangle has been worked out in this way and its anticlinal axes and synclinal axes (the axes of the troughs of the folds) are indicated on the structural map. In connec- tion with this work there has been discovered a most curious irregu- larity in the bed between Beadling and Hickman. There the coal occupies a steep, narrow trough or 'Trench,” running from east to west, known as the "Panhandle trench.” The coal throughout the region has a very slight dip, dips of two degrees or one hundred and eighty-four feet to a mile being rare. In this small area, however, the bed plunges into a trough depressed forty feet, with its sides sloping at eleven degrees. The coal in the trench is thicker than that at the sides and it is believed that the trench is an original depression in the swamp, or bog, in which the coal was formed. To the north of Pittsburgh, the Freeport coal is mined at Creighton, Valley Camp, and other localities on the Allegheny River; while farther north on the Allegheny the Kittanning coals play an important part. On the Ohio River in the Beaver region the lower Kittanning and Upper Freeport coals are of the greatest importance. Building Stone. The only stone of any value for building pur- poses is the coarse sandstone. It is quarried mostly from the Morgan- town stratum, which is often massive in character. This stone is a bluish or light gray stone carrying considerable mica in shining scales and also some decomposed grains of feldspar which under a lens appear as soft white specks. The main disadvantage of our local stone is its very irregular jointing and bedding. This makes it im- possible to attempt to use it in dressed rectangular blocks and it is quarried and used generally in rough, irregular pieces. These, how- ever, when laid by an experienced mason, may be made very attrac- tive, and have been used to good effect in many churches and like buildings. The chief use of the local stone, however, is for founda- tions, retaining walls, and similar structures. Throughout the city and its suburbs quarries have been opened in many places, the attempt usually being made to quarry into a hill-side. Many of the quarries are planned so as to utilize the overlying clay, or shale, in the manufacture of brick, so that the firm-name is often that of a "Brick and Stone Company.” The Mahoning sandstones in northern Allegheny county and beyond are much more massive and furnish a better grade of stone Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 149 under the name of ‘^Beaver” or “Beaver Valley” stone. It is yellowish in color, has almost a sugary texture, and generally carries less mica and clayey impurities than our strictly local stone. Many smaller buildings, especially churches, are constructed of this stone. As with the local stone, its irregular jointing makes it necessary to use it in the form of rough blocks. Buildings such as the Masonic Temple, the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, the Carnegie Library and the Armory of the Eighteenth Regiment are built of stone imported from outside the state, the two former being faced with Indiana Limestone, and the two latter with Ohio Sandstone. Many of our more expensive build- ings are faced with granite which is mainly brought from the New England States. Clay and Shale. Clay and shale-beds of the Conemaugh and the Lower Monongahela formations are extensively quarried within the city limits for the manufacture of clay-products, and there are many large plants which turn out brick, fire-proofing material, and other minor products. The beds used range in position from such as at Sharpsburg, which lie just above and below the Ames limestone, to others on Herron Hill, which lie above the Pittsburgh coal. They vary from almost pure clay shales to sandy shales or to shales carrying many limestone nodules. A proper product can only be obtained in most yards by a careful mixture of material from several beds or benches. At times even some of the overlying yellowish sandy soil or stripping is em- ployed. Each brick-yard is thus a problem in itself. The shale is dug by hand, or by steam-shovel, and usually conveyed to the plant in some type of small car on a track. In the plant it is crushed to a fine state with the use of a dry-pan, a horizontal wheel like a mill- stone, around which travel two large wide vertical wheels on an axle crushing the shale as it is fed under them. If the clay carries nodules of limestone they are sorted out by hand during quarrying, or screened out before crushing, for lime pebbles in the burned brick are one of the worst things a Pittsburgh brick-maker must face. The limestone during the burning changes to quick-lime and after the brick are burned a little moisture swells these lumps and the brick disintegrates. After grinding, the clay is carried into a pug-mill, a horizontal chamber where water is added and the mass thoroughly kneaded by revolving paddles. The plastic mass is then pushed on by a screw-like propeller and soon issues from a rectangular steel die in a plastic stream like 150 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the tooth paste which “lies flat on the brush.” This bar of soft clay is then automatically cut into proper sizes by a series of wires revolving on a frame work. The “green” bricks are placed on cars and sent into steam-heated drying rooms, whence, when dry, they are taken to the kilns where they are loosely stacked. The fires of the kiln are lighted; the moisture of the clay passes off; and, as the heat is raised, the bricks shrink, harden, and take on a bright red color. With some variation this process is taking place in most of the brick-yards of the city. With the use of a different die hollow brick, fireproofing, or drain-tiles may be made in place of common brick. A trip to one of the larger yards is interesting. Although many fire-bricks are made in the city, the clays used are all brought in from without the county, mainly from Clarion and Clearfield Counties. In a trip to the Beaver Valley or to the Kit- tanning district one may also witness the mining of fire-clays. These clays generally lie in thin beds under a coal-bed (in the Beaver region under the Lower Kittanning coal) and are mined as coal is mined. Fire-clay differs from our brick-clays in containing less fusible ele- ments, such as oxide of iron or calcium (lime), and therefore with- stands much higher temperature. On account of its lack of iron it generally burns white or yellowish, and many of our buildings are built of light-colored brick made from the fire-clays of the Kittanning district. The high grade fire-clays of Western Pennsylvania and the shales suitable for brick, tile, paving brick, and terracotta are of great importance and the production in the region is enormous. A little further west at East Liverpool, Ohio, the presence of fine clays has resulted in the establishment of great potteries. Sand and Gravel. The production of sand and gravel in Allegheny county is surprising. We produce more than any other county in the United States and more than most of the other states. Most of this is obtained from the lower terraces of the Ohio and Allegheny rivers, by dredging in the rivers, or from similar deposits on the banks of the Monongahela River. As explained in Chapter IV, the sand and gravel of the Allegheny and Ohio is of glacial origin and carries harder pebbles and sharper grains of sand than that of the Monongahela, the sands of which are derived from the breaking down of shales and sandstones of local origin. The Allegheny sands are therefore much more abundant and considered to be superior in quality. Both the lower and the higher Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 151 glacial terraces are worked, the lower being generally better preserved and more accessible. The higher terrace is extensively worked on Woodlawn Avenue, Allegheny, where fifteen feet of good sand and gravel underlie ten feet of poorer material, which is stripped away. Dredging is the method which furnishes the larger part of our gravels. Of this method E. W. Shaw says: ‘Tn dredging, a favorable spot is chosen, where the gravel is loose and of desirable quality. The material is brought up by bucket endless chains and is screened and washed with one handling. Gravel is usually loaded on barges on one side of the dredge, while sand is loaded on the other. Several different sizes of gravel are produced. A 3-inch-mesh screen is used for general heavy concrete gravel; i}/2 inch for material for sidewalks and small reinforced concrete. Frequently ^ inch gravel also is screened out. The average amount of gravel and sand obtained in the material worked is variously estimated at 15 to 30 per cent. It is often said that the boulders and fine waste occupy as much space as the original deposit. In ordinary stages of the river, dredging operations are carried on more extensively on the Allegheny, but in times of low water the gravel is taken from pool No. i on the Ohio. A small amount is taken every year from the Monongahela, but the sand and gravel of this stream are of so much lower value that the deposits are not worked extensively.” (U. S. G. S., Bull. 430, p. 395, 1910.) Mr. Shaw goes on to say that the river is constantly replenishing the depleted supply or uncovering new beds and the supply is thus maintained although dredging for local markets is constantly pushing farther and farther away from the city. The sand in addition to its use in building is used in smaller amounts for molding, glass grinding, filtration beds, furnace bottoms, paving, etc. Limestone. The limestones of the city proper are practically valueless. Occasionally in a shale quarry the thin layers and blocks of limestone are gathered and used as flux in small iron foundries, but the layers are too thin to be worth quarrying. In the country districts a thin layer of such limestone is sometimes quarried by the farmer and crudely burned to furnish him with lime for improving his soil. Farther from the city, as in Washington County, some of the fresh-water limestones above the Pittsburgh coal attain a greater thickness, and not only are utilized in burning lime, but themselves directly enrich the soil giving Washington County a reputation as a 152 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. farming district. They are generally too high in magnesia to be of value in the manufacture of Portland cement. North of the city in Lawrence County the thicker Vanport lime- stone comes in and is used in making lime. At Newcastle and Wam- pum it is mixed with shale and burned at high temperature to form Portland cement. Portland cement is also made east of Pittsburgh at Universal on the Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, but no local rock is used, the limestone coming from central Pennsylvania and blast-furnace slag being used in place of shale. The enormous amounts of limestone used as a “flux” to assist in the smelting of the iron ores in Pittsburgh’s furnaces comes from the mountains of central Pennsylvania and from the Vanport lime- stone north of us. Our paving blocks are also made of a hard siliceous limestone which is quarried from what is known as the Loyalhanna limestone of Mississippian age, the quarries being situated at the Loyalhanna Gap near Latrobe, on the Conemaugh river near Blairsville and elsewhere. This stone is known as “Ligonier Block.” Oil and Gas. Surrounded, as we are, with oil- and gas-wells and supplied so abundantly with gas for fuel and light, yet there are many who have but a faint conception of, or often erroneous ideas concerning, the mode of occurrence of these valuable hydrocarbons. One erroneous idea held by many is that the oil or gas lies in huge open reservoirs or underground lakes, this same idea being held in some regions in regard to underground water-supplies. In the case of oil or gas the term “pool” is indeed used, but it refers simply to an area from which oil or gas may be extracted. The “pools” are simply porous strata, or parts of a stratum, which are saturated with oil or gas under pressure. Any porous rock might serve as container, but in most 'regions sandstone serves as the best. In our own district the hydrocarbons are invariably found in the porous sandstones. These oil- or gas-bearing sandstones are known among drillers as “sands,” another term which might mislead, for the rock is not an unconsolidated sand, but a hard sandstone, very much the same as the sandstones outcropping in our city. In fact, the Morgantown sandstone farther south, where it lies at a distance from the surface, is Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 153 often oil-bearing and becomes known as the “Murphy sand.” The driller has a name for each important sand and knows the approximate intervals between them, and also recognizes certain other important marking horizons such as the Pittsburgh coal, certain red shales, etc. These, with the aid of the records of nearby wells, make it possible for him to know at what depths he may expect the various “sands”. The following table largely taken from Clapp (Economic Geo- logy, Vol. VIII, 1913, p. 520) gives the names of the various sands, the equivalent sandstones for some of them, their geologic formation, and their approximate depth below the Pittsburgh coal, although this naturally shows considerable variation. Name of “sand” Name of sandstone Formation Depth below Pittsburgh coal in feet Murphy- Morgantown Conemaugh 200 Little Dunkard Saltsburg 350 Hurry Up Mahoning 400 Second Cow Run Freeport Allegheny 650 Gas 750 Johnson Run Homewood Pottsville 900 Upper Salt Upper Connoquenessing 950 Middle Salt Lower Connoquenessing “ 1050 Lower Salt Sharon Conglomerate “ 1130 Big Injun Sub Glean Pocono 1350 Upper Gas Catskill 1550 Butler Gas Berea 1750 Murraysville 1800 First, Gantz, or Hundred Foot 1850 Fifty foot 1900 Second, or Nineveh 2000 Boulder, or Gordon Stray 2070 Third, or Gordon 2130 Fourth 2200 Fifth 2250 Bayard 2400 Sixth Chemung , 2600 Warren first 2700 Warren second 2800 Tiona 2900 Speechley 3000 Balltown 3120 Sheffield 3220 Bradford 3430 Second Bradford 3480 Elk » 3650 Kane ; 3770 In the territory immediately surrounding Pittsburgh the wells generally range from 1200 to 2800 feet in depth and pass through the sands down to the Fifth, which lies near the bottom of the Catskill formation of the Upper Devonian. The largest amount of oil has been taken from the lower sands from the Gantz to the Fifth. Farther to the north, on account of the general rise in the strata, the sands of the Chemung formation are drilled. Unfortunately for those who seek supplies of oil or gas, the entire sand is not impregnated with the hydrocarbons. Some portions are 154 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. “dry,” others filled with salt water, and only irregular areas contain the oil or gas. It is today agreed almost without question among geologists that the crude petroleum and natural gas have originated through some peculiar form of decomposition or distillation from animal or plant remains entombed in the mud and sand during the formation of the sedimentary rocks. That which originally was formed in the muds (now shales) has subsequently migrated into the more porous sand- stones. The causes of this migration, subsequent movements through the sandstones, and the final collection into “pools” of oil or gas under pressure, must be understood before real scientific exploration of oil- or gas-fields can be undertaken. These problems of accumula- tion have been and still are the source of much discussion, and the science of oil geology is as yet in its infancy. ,The theory held by most geologists is what is known as the anti- clinal or the structural theory. As originally propounded, this theory was, that the hydrocarbons were collected under anticlines in a porous stratum overlain or capped by impervious layers. By reason of their difference in specific gravity, oil, gas, and salt water present in the pores of the sandstone tended to separate; the gas, being lightest, rising to the summit of the anticline or dome; the oil being below on either flank, and the salt water resting still lower on the flanks or in the neighboring syncline. The varying amounts of each constituent determined the extent of each zone. If no salt water was present, the oil would lie in the syncline. This simple method of accumulation is seldom encountered in nature, for we find, that, although the oil- and gas-pools are seemingly related to anticlinal structure, this structure is irregular and complex; that the accumulation may be hampered by the density of certain portions of the strata and by its lenticular character; or that the presence or absence of water has played a part in the accumulation greater than is assumed in the original theory. We also find that the oil may occur in beds of monoclinal dip, i. e., beds tilted in one direc- tion, if certain lenses are more porous than the rest, or that it may occur on terraces or areas of arrested dip or change in dip, all of which are but modifications of the original theory. The individual pools present many unsolved problems, exceptions to the general rule being so common, as to almost seem to demand an altogether different theory. Nevertheless, as a working hy- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 155 pothesis the relation of oil and gas to structure still stands, and the oil geologist must search out the anticlines and domes before drilling can be intelligently carried on. One drawback to the solution of the problems was eliminated when it was realized that the strata at depths were not necessarily parallel to surface structures, and that, for instance, the Fifth Sand from which oil was being extracted might show anticlines not indi- cated in the Pittsburgh Coal at the surface. The careful compilation of numerous records of wells makes it possible to work out the real structural irregularities of a deep sand and map the same by the use of the contour method. The underground contours of the more im- portant oil-sands are now generally shown on- maps of oil and gas regions. The oil- and gas-belt crosses the western part of the state in a northeast to southwest direction, paralleling the axes of folding. The oil-pools lie in the less folded western portion west of Pittsburgh, while the gas-fields extend into more highly folded strata beyond Greensburg. Pittsburgh thus lies just east of the main oil-belt, im- portant oil-fields lying west, northwest, and north. To the west lie the important oil-fields of the Carnegie and Burgetts- town quadrangle. In these two quadrangles there are sixty-four square miles of territory underlain by proven oil-pools. Of these the McDonald field is one of the largest in the State, being twelve miles long and from one to three miles wide. Active drilling began in 1890--1891, and oil was first found in the Gordon Sand, later in the Fifth Sand. Wells produced as high as 10,000 barrels of oil per day and excitement ran high. By 1892, eight millions of barrels of oil were flowing yearly, but this was the year of highest production. After the manner of all oil-pools the flow steadily decreased from then on, until today, though still an important field, it yields only about half a million barrels. , Nearer the city lie the Chartiers-field, back of McKees Rocks, and the Bellevue-field practically abandoned. The Sewickley quadrangle to the northwest of Pittsburgh is another large oil and gas region. Within its borders are some ninety pools varying from a few acres to several square miles in extent. Although they have long since passed the maximum of their production, many of the pools are still good producers, and oil and gas are the principal mineral products obtained in the quadrangle. Some of the pools nearer the city, such as Cora- opolis, Neville Island, Mt. Nebo, and Wildwood derive oil from the 156 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Gordon Sand, but the larger pools to the north pump from the Hun- dred Foot Sand. With the oil-pools in both these oil regions are many gas-pools. In addition much gas is obtained in large pools east of Pittsburgh. Within the city quite a number of isolated wells have been drilled and are now flowing, but the enormous supply needed for such a large city is drawn through pipe-lines from long distances, some even from West Virginia. Like the oil, gas-production is diminishing yearly, and supplies must be drawn from more distant sources every year. The great excitement over the McKeesport gas-field in 1920 and 1921 was the result of the drilling of a gas- well in the Speechley Sand, which well af first produced 55,000,000 cubic feet of gas per day, making it the largest and best paying gas-well ever drilled. Un- fortunately, the speculative fever which followed resulted in the drilling of over six hundred wells within an area of not much over a square mile, a very sudden drop in gas pressure, and in the rapid draining of the field. Out of six hundred, or more, wells drilled, four hundred and twenty-nine were “dry holes” and the production in many others was slight. Between the honest but unintelligent projects and the unscrupulous promoter some $20,000,000 were expended, and the return in gas amounted to $2,000,000. A few wells, intelligently placed, could have drained the field with a slow gradual production, given it a longer life, and yielded a good return for the money expended. An interesting oil-pool has recently been discovered near Corliss Station and Sheridan, which is within the city limits. This field was opened in the summer of 1922 and on September 21, four wells were producing from ten to one hundred barrels each per day, and more wells were being drilled. This oil comes from the “Hundred-foot Sand”, which lies at a depth of about seventeen hundred feet. Some of the old reports of the Second Geological Survey, such as the Annual Report for 1886, Part II, give fascinating information about the early search for oil and gas in or near Pittsburgh. In 1845 Mr. Lewis Peterson of Tarentum brought petroleum to Pittsburgh, the oil having come up in his salt wells and given him considerable trouble. The managers of the Hope Cotton Factory mixed it with sperm oil and used it for the first time as a lubricant. A few years later, Samuel M. Kier obtained similar oil from his salt-wells at Tarentum and sold it at 50 cents a bottle as “Kier’s Petroleum or Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 157 Rock Oil, Celebrated for its wonderful curative powers.” From Kier’s circulars and from knowledge of oil-springs both in New York and Pennsylvania, men conceived the idea of drilling for oil at Titus- ville, Pa., and in 1859 the first oil well was drilled, the famous ‘‘Drake Well.” Natural gas was first used for lighting houses in Fredonia, New York, in 1821. The first company to pipe it and extensively use it to supply a large body of customers was organized in Titusville, Penn- sylvania, in 1872. Mr. J. N. Pew was a leader in this enterprise. It is said to have been first used for iron-making at Leechburg in 1874. In 1875 Messrs. Spang, Chalfant, and Company began to employ it in their puddling furnaces at Etna in the suburbs of Pittsburgh. They drew their supplies from wells located in the Butler field. Their suc- cess led the owners of the Black Diamond Steel Works, Mr. James M. Park and his partners, and of the Kensington Iron Works, Messrs. Henry Lloyd and Sons to drill at their works, but they only obtained a flow of salt water and desisted. On January 19, 1882, the Fuel Gas Company was incorporated by Mr. Sellers’' McKee and associ- ates, and shortly afterwards the Penn Fuel Company controlled by the Pew interests was also incorporated. These two companies, drawing their supplies of gas mainly from the Murraysville field, undertook to provide natural gas in Pittsburgh under the general law provided for artificial gas companies, and each of the companies claimed a monopoly in the city. The Supreme Court ruled that neither company was entitled to operate under the general law control- ling the distribution of artificial gas. This subsequently resulted in the year 1885 in the passage by the legislature of Pennsylvania of a general “Natural Gas Act.” The first successful effort to sink a gas-well in the immediate vicinity of Pittsburgh was made by Messrs. Brace Brothers in Wilkinsburg, to supply fuel for their laundry. It was quickly followed in Pittsburgh by the Westinghouse well drilled in 1884 by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., for the original purpose of obtaining fuel for his hot-houses and conservatory. This well proved to be a “roarer.” The noise of its discharge could be heard for more than a mile, and when it accidentally took fire the huge flame lit up the whole East Liberty valley. The discovery of such a supply of gas near at hand led Mr. Westinghouse to obtain an ordinance enacted by the Councils of Pittsburgh on July 21, 1884, giving him the right to sell gas within the city limits. This ordinance Mr. Westinghouse 158 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. soon transferred to the Philadelphia Company. Shortly thereafter various other companies were formed and were ultimately con- solidated until today the great municipality at the headwaters of the Ohio derives the chief portion of its supply through the Philadelphia Company which perpetuates the memory of Mr. Westinghouse and his friends, and the Peoples Gas Company representing the consolida- tion of the interests of Mr. Pew and others. By 1885 thirty wells had been drilled in Pittsburgh, forty in the outlying districts of Allegheny County, and seventeen in the Murraysville district. Iron Ores. At the present time no iron ore is being mined in western Penn- sylvania, and the industry may probably never be revived. Ore of better quality and in enormous quantity occurs in the Lake Superior region, and all of the ore used in Pittsburgh comes from that region. From an historical standpoint, however, the iron-ores of western Pennsylvania are interesting, for, from the building of a furnace at Fairchance in 1792 the iron industry expanded until furnaces were scattered all over the western counties and the mining of iron-ore was a serious industry. Taking up any of the old reports and reading of the number of charcoal furnaces using these ores and the ' Anormous” deposits, the comparison with today makes one almost smile. The charcoal furnaces were built near the ore, often in inaccessible places, but gave way in time to coke-furnaces along the railroads, and these in time began mixing ore from the lakes and native ore, until finally the use of native ore was abandoned. Our native ores are thus responsible for the growth and development of this great iron-working center. The ore occurs as nodules in the shales, the nodules consisting of siderite, or limonite, with occasionally some hematite. Under the Pittsburgh Coal in the city we may often find round heavy nodules like cannon balls, sometimes with rusty surfaces, sometimes bluish- gray. These are nodules of siderite, or carbonate of iron, or clayey- iron-stone. They are tough and hard to break, and within are grayish brown, and very dense, resembling a limestone, but much heavier. On exposure in a cliff they often become oxidized to yellowish brown limonite, or hydroxide of iron. They are supposed to have been deposited from swampy stagnant iron-bearing waters, carrying Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 159 organic matter in sufficient quantity to prevent the precipitation of the iron in the commoner form, hydroxide of iron, or “bog ore.” These layers lie at various positions in the strata of western Penn- sylvania, and, where thick enough, were formerly mined. The most important source of the native ore, however, was a layer of irregular nodular limonite and hematite which lies directly upon the Vanport or ferriferous limestone. It is generally less than one foot in thick- ness, but locally thickens to several feet. Many furnaces using this ore were established in Lawrence County, Cambria County, and else- where. The ore is generally believed to represent a concentration of iron oxides brought about by the solution of iron-bearing limestone layers upon which it lies. In its original form it was probably a carbonate mixed with the carbonate of lime of the limestone. All of these carbonate ores are low in iron, so much lower than the ore from the lakes, that there seems no possibility of their use, especially when one considers the cost of mining such thin deposits. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Information concerning the geology of the Pittsburgh region must be obtained chiefly from two sources. First, from the publications of the various geological surveys, which have been organized under state control and second from the publications of the United States Geological Survey. Under State control there have been four organized geological surveys. The First Geological Survey was organized in 1836 with Professor H. D. Rogers as State Geologist. Annual reports were issued from 1836 to 1842 and two quarto volumes issued as a final report in 1858. The Second Geological Survey was organized in 1874 and continued until 1887. An enormous amount of work was done by an enthusiastic group of men and as a result seventy-seven volumes, thirty-five atlases, and a Grand Atlas were published. After the lapse of a few years a final Summary appeared in 1893 to 1895 in three octavo volumes. The reports of this Second Survey are no longer available for distribution, but can often be obtained in second-hand book- stores, or can be found in most public libraries. The Third Survey was organized in 1899 as the “Topographic and Geological Survey,” under a commission with -the late "R: R. Hice 160 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. of Beaver as State Geologist. This survey co-operated with the Federal Survey in the preparation of many topographic maps and folios and also issued many valuable reports and bulletins, of which the Report for 1906-1908 probably is the most valuable for general information. The Fourth Survey organized was that of 1919 when a geological survey was established at Harrisburg under the Department of Internal affairs. Dr. George H. Ashley was appointed State Geologist. The Survey now has a competent staff of workers and is issuing important bulletins on the geology of the State. The United States Geological Survey has issued many publica- tions, which can be obtained either free or for a small charge, and these contain important data concerning the geology of the state. Especially important are the topographic sheets which have been completed for the greater part of the State and the geologic folios some of which are listed below. Lists of these maps, folios, and bulletins pertaining to the geology of Pennsylvania can be obtained from the Director in Washington, D. C. A list of the more important references to the geology of Pittsburgh and western Pennsylvania follows: Ashley, G. H. (and others) Pennsylvania Topographic and Geologic Survey Report for 1906-1910. “ (and J. F. Robinson) Oil and Gas Fields of Pa. Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 1922. Boileau, J. W. Coal-Fields of Southwestern Pennsylvania, 1907. Chamberlain, R. C. (and Leverett) Drainage Features of the upper Ohio Basin. Am. Jour. Sci., 1894, p. 147; p. 247. Campbell, M. R. Geographic Development in Northern Pennsylvania and Southern New York. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XIV, 1903, p. 277. “ Masontown-Uniontown Folio. U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 82, 1902. “ Brownsville-Connellsville Folio. U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 94, 1903. Case, E. C. Description of Vertebrate Fossils from the Vicinity of Pittsburgh. Annals Carnegie Museum, IV, 1908, p. 234. Clapp, F. G. Limestones of Southwestern Pennsylvania. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, No. 249. Cummins, A. Geology of the Natural Gas Fields about Pittsburgh. Eng. and Min. Journal, LIV, 1892, p. 106. Condit, D. D. Conemaugh Formation in Ohio. Geol. Surv. of Ohio. Bull. 17, 1912. DTnvilliers, E. V. The Pittsburgh Coal Region. Second Pa. Geol. Survey, Annual Reports for 1885 and 1886. Foshay, P. M. Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania. Am. Journal Sci., XL., 1890, p. 397- Leighton: Geology of Pittsburgh and Environs. 161 Grant, U. S. A Geological Excursion in the Pittsburgh Region. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XIV, 1903, p. 3. * Grier, N. M. A Preliminary List of the Fossil Plants Occurring in the Roof of the Pittsburgh coal. Annals Carnegie Museum, IX, 1914, pp. 125-128. Griswold, W. T. Pittsburgh Coal in the Burgettstown Quadrangle. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 260, 1905, p. 402. Jillson, B. C. River Terraces in and near Pittsburgh. Trans. Acad, of Science and Aft of Pittsburgh, 1893. “ Home Geology, 1890. Lesley, J. P. Dictionary of Fossils, 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, 1889, p. 4. “ Geological Hand-Atlas of the Sixty-seven Counties of Pennsylvania. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol. X, 1885. Lesquereux, L. Coal Flora of Pennsylvania and the United States. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol. P., 3 Volumes and Atlas, 1879-1884. Leverett, F. Glacial Formations and Drainage Features of the Erie and the Ohio Basins. U. S. Geol. Survey, Monograph 41, 1902. Lewis, H. C. The Terminal Moraine Across Pennsylvania. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol. Z, 1884. Munn, M. J. Oil and Gas-fields of the Carnegie Quadrangle. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 456, 1911. “ Sewickley Folio. U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 176, 1911, “ (and E. W. Shaw) Burgettstown- Carnegie Folio. U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 177, 1911. Raymond, P. E. A Preliminary List of the Fauna of the Allegheny and Conemaugh Series in Western Pennsylvania. Annals Carnegie Museum, VII, , 1910, pp. 144 et seq. Also in Pa. Top. and Geol. Survey for 1908- 1910, 1911, p. 81. “ Some Sections of the Conemaugh Series between Pittsburgh and Latrobe. Annals Carnegie Museum, V, 1909, p. 166. “ Notice of Two New Horizons for Marine Fossils in Western Pennsyl- vania. Science, N. S., Vol. XXIX, 1909, p. 940. On the Discovery of Reptile Remains in the Pennsylvanian near Pittsburgh. Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, 1907, p. 835. Shaw, E. W. Sand and Gravel in the Pittsburgh District. U.' S. Geol. Survey. Bull. 430, 1910, p. 388. Sketch of Local (Pittsburgh) Geology. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XXII, 1911, p. 271. High Terraces and Abandoned Valleys in Western Pennsylvania. Jour. Geol. XIX, 1911, p. 140. Stevenson, J. J. First Report on Fayette, Westmoreland, and Southeastern Alle- gheny Counties. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol. K2, 1877. Thiessen, R, (and J. N. Stand) Correlation of Coal Beds of the Monongahela Formation, Bull. 9, Coal-mining investigation. Carnegie Institute of Tech., 1923. (and Wilson, F. E.) Correlation of Coal-Beds of the Allegheny For- Formation, Bull. 9, Coal Mining Investigation. Carnegie Institute of Tech., 1924. 162 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Wall, J. S. Monongahela River Coal Mines. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol.'K4, 1884. White, .D. Description of the McDonald Well. Bull, Geol. Soc. Am., XXIX, 1918, p. 96. White, I. C. The Geology of the Pittsburgh District. Abstract in Science, N. S., XVI, 1902, p. 258. “ Origin of the High Terrace Deposits of the Monongahela River. Am. Geologist, XVIII, 1896, p. 360. “ Beaver, Northwest Allegheny, and Southern Butler Counties. 2nd Pa. Geol. Survey, Vol. Q, 1878. “ Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal-fields in Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull, 65, 1891, p. 212. White, D. (and M. R. Campbell) The Bituminous Coal-field of Pennsylvania, U. S. Geol. Survey, 22nd Ann. Report, Pt. 3, 1902, pp. 127-200. Williams, E. H. The Alleged Parker Channel. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., XII, 1901, p. 463- “ Allegheny Valley Erosion. Science, N. S,, XXXVII, 1913, p. 447. Woolsey, L, H. The Beaver Folio, U. S. Geol, Survey, Folio 134, 1905. “ Economic Geology of the Beaver Quadrangle. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 286, 1906. Wright, G. F. The Glacial Boundary in Western Pennsylvania. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 58, 1890. Also papers concerning the question of the Cincinnati Ice dam and the River Terraces in Volumes XI, XIII, and XVII of the American Geologist. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVIL Plate I. 164 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. , EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL (Characteristic animal fossils in the Pittsburgh region.) Fig. I, Lobophyllum. Fig. 2, Crinoid stem. Fig. 2a, Cross-section and lateral view of segment of do. Fig. 3, Bryozoa. Fig. 4, Derbya. Fig. 5, Chonetes. Fig. 6, Productus. Fig. 7, Marginifera. Fig. 8, Spirifer. Fig. 9, Ambocoelia. Fig. 10, Composita. Fig. II, Hustedia. Fig. 12, Pugnax. Fig. 13, Allorisma. Fig. 14, Worthenia Fig. 15, Spharodoma. Fig. 16, Orthoceras. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVIL Plate IL Fossil Invertebrates found around Pittsburgh. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVIL Plate III. Fig, I. Ames limestone at Second Avenue and Tenth Street, Pittsburgh, Pa, Fig. 2. Brilliant Cut-off from Highland Park, showing Ames limestone. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII, Plate IV. Fig. I. Top of Birmingham Shale, Bigelow Boulevard, Pittsburgh. H'y.’" ‘smm ,' -^ir. ■' 'i: f ■Si' 'U ': ?^-' • . • r •XM 'f' ( >1 A ..y- } . i / '1 ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII. Plate V. Fig. 2. Sankey brick-yard, Eighteenth Street, Southside, Pittsburgh ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII, Plate VI, Fig. I. Pittsburgh limestone, Ardmore Boulevard. Fig. 2. Pittsburgh Coal, Squirrel Hill near Wightman Street, Pittsburgh 166 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL (The figures have been reproduced by Mr. Sydney Prentice from the “Coal Flora Atlas” of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Vol. P. These drawings are about one-half the size of the originals and therefore about one-half natural size.) Fig. I. Stigmaria verrucosa (Martin) S. A. 'NiiWer — Stigmaria ficoides Sternberg. Second Geol. Survey of Pennsylvania, Vol. P, PI. LXXIV, fig. i. Species found in Pittsburgh District. Fig. 2. Lepidodendron aculeatum Sternberg. Second Geol. Survey of Pennsyl- vania, Vol. P, PI. LXIV, fig. I. Species found in Allegheny County. A section of the outer bark of the stem, or trunk. Fig. 3. Rhabdocarpos Mansfieldi Lesquereux. Second Geol. Survey of Pennsyl- vania, Vol. P, PL LXXXV, fig. 21. Not uncommon about Pittsburgh. A fossil fruit. Fig. 4. Sigillaria tesselata (Steinhaur) Brongniart. Second Geol. Survey of Penn- sylvania, Vol. P, PI. LXXII, fig. 2. Species found about Pittsburgh. This figure shows the markings on the outer bark of the stem. Fig. 5. Sigillaria tesselata (Steinhaur) Brongniart. Second Geol. Survey of Penn- sylvania, Vol. P, PI. LXXII, fig. 3. This figure shows the markings on the inner bark, when the outer layer has been peeled off. Fig. 6. Sigillaria tesselata (Steinhaur) Brongniart. Second Geol. Survey of Penn- sylvania, Vol. P, PI. LXXII, fig. 4. This figure shows the markings on the stem when the outer and inner bark have both been removed. Fig. 7. Catamites approximatus Schlotheim. Second Geol. Survey of Pennsyl- vania, Vol. P, PI. I, fig. 5. On PI. I (1. c.) it is named C. cannceformis, but this name is a synonym for approximatus. Not uncommon in the Pitts- burgh coal. Fig. 8. Cordaites borassifolius Unger. Second Geol. Survey of Pennsylvania, Vol. P, PI. LXXVI, fig. 3. This figure at a, shows the outer end of the long strap-like leaf, and at b the inner end where it is attached to the stem. The long middle section of the leaf is omitted in the drawing. This species occurs in the coal-measures about Pittsburgh. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVII. Plate VII, Remains of Fossil Plants found about Pittsburgh V. THE NAIADES OF THE GREEN RIVER DRAINAGE IN KENTUCKY. By Arnold E. Ortmann. (Plate VIII, Map.) A number of years ago I pointed out (Ortmann, 1913,^ pp. 305, 308-310, 382), that the southern tributaries of the Ohio from West Virginia as far as the Licking River in Kentucky possess a Naiad- fauna, containing only such types as are found in other parts of the Ohio-drainage, and that forms, which show exclusive affinities to the Cumberlandian fauna (Ortmann, 1924, p. 40 et seq. ; 1925, p. 364 et seq.) are absent, although there are many species of wide distribution, which belong to both regions. Farther westward, the rivers of the state of Kentucky were poorly known at the time I first wrote, but in view of the fact, that the Cumberland River, containing many true Cumberlandian types ( Cf. Wilson and Clark, 1914) belongs to this group of rivers, is also a tributary of the Ohio, it became desirable to ascertain the character of the faunae of the intervening rivers, and discover whether they are intermediate or transitional between the Ohioan and the Cumberlandian type, or whether there is here, somewhere, a sharp line separating these two faunce. As for the Kentucky River, the question of the general character of the fauna has been solved by Danglade (1922). He enumerates forty forms ^ (/. c. p. 5). All of the forty are well known as belonging to the Ohio system (many of them also to the Cumberland and Tennessee), with the possible exception of one species: Alasmidonta minor (Lea). I have previously pointed this out (Ortmann, 1925, p. 344), regarding this as a Cumberlandian species, which had invaded the upper Kentucky drainage. I now have changed my opinion, and believe that A. minor is an absolute synonym of A. calceolus (Lea), a ^ The references in parentheses refer to the titles given in the Bibliography at the end of this paper. ^'The list given by Danglade evidently is not quite complete, since the lower reaches of the Kentucky are still poorly known. 167 168 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. species belonging to the Ohio drainage (see below). Thus the fauna of the Kentucky River distinctly is an Ohioan fauna, and in this respect resembles the more eastern tributaries of the system (Licking, Big Sandy, etc.). Between the Kentucky and the Cumberland is Green River. We possess a list of shells chiefly of Barren River, a tributary to Green River, published by Price (1900), in which some “doubtful Unios’' have been named by Simpson. This list is of little value, since it does not give exact localities, and since some identifications obviously are incorrect. In addition, a number of synonyms are quoted as distinct species. Besides this list, there are some older (Rafinesque, 1820 and 1831; and Call, 1885), and some more recent (Simpson, 1914), generally rather vague records from Green River, sometimes containing geographical mistakes. During the last few years, however, the fauna of Green River has been studied more intensively. I myself stopped off three times in this region, and was favored by fortune in being able to obtain a good representation of the Green River Naiad fauna. Further, Mr. W. J. Clench collected in this drainage during two seasons, 1924 and 1925, for the Museum of the University of Michigan, and I was granted the privilege of examining his material collected in 1925, for which I wish to express my best thanks. In addition, Mr. B. Walker of Detroit had the kindness to send me a list of Kentucky Naiades represented in his collection, in which I found a number of records from the Green River drainage. This contained also an enumeration of the Naiades collected by Clench in 1924. I am under great obliga- tions to Mr. Walker for this. The localities, at which the recent collections were made are the following. (They are referred to in the text as indicated by the capital letters.) Mm — Green River, Mammoth Cave, Edmonson Co., Ky., Sept. 6, 1921. (A. E. O.) In riffles at the lower end of an island, about three-quarters of a mile above the steamboat-landing at Mammoth Cave (head of navigation). Condition of river fair, water low, but not very clear. I found living shells by feeling for them in water from one to three feet deep, but also secured a great number of dead shells, recently taken out by muskrats. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 169 O — Greeyi River, Great Onyx Cave, Edmonson Co., Ky., Sept, g, 1922. (A. E. O.) About half a mile North of Great Onyx Cave, in riffles around a small island. Conditions splendid, water low and clear, shells extremely abundant, all found alive, in gravel and strongly flowing water, one to twelve inches deep. Mf — Green River, Munfordville, Hart Co., Ky., Sept. 24, 1925. (W. J. C.;Sta. 223). ‘'South side of River, on gravel-riffle, from three hundred to five hundred feet below bridge, a few taken in mud. River quite broad at this point, one to two feet of water.” R — Green River, Rio, Hart Co., Ky., 1924 and Sept. 22, 1925. (W. J. C.; Sta. 220). “On gravel-riffle, one half mile below bridge. Water two to twelve inches deep, fairly clear, rather swift current, not cold. Many shells had just died; as the water receded it left hundreds of them in small holes or depressions in the gravel-riffle...” ‘‘hundreds were located in two to twelve inches of water so thick that they touched one another.” (Sept. 22, 1925.) G — Green River, Greenshurg, Green Co., Ky., Sept. 19, 1925. (W. J. C.; Sta. 217.) ‘‘Six miles West of Greensburg. Collected on pebble-bar. Unionidae rare. One to two feet of water, clear, cool.” “I believe that most of the Unionidae have been killed here by pearl-hunters.” C — Green River, eight miles South of Camphellsville, Taylor Co., Ky., Sept. 19, 1925. (W. J. C.; Sta. 213). ‘‘Riffle, five hundred feet below bridge, gravel and small stones. Water clear, moderate current, two to eighteen inches deep.” D — Green River, Dunnville, Casey Co., Ky., Sept. 15, 1925. (W. J. C.;Sta. 203). ‘‘Mouth of South Fork Creek, two miles northeast of Dunn- ville. Water clear, gravel and slate bottom; rather swift, cool, one to three feet deep. Unionidae not common.” B — Barren River, Bowling Green, Warren Co., Ky., Aug. ii, 1924. (A. E. O.) ‘‘Ewings Ford,” about three miles west of and above Bowling 170 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Green. A ford and an island, surrounded by riffles, with conditions of great variety. Water low and clear, collecting fine. Shells very abundant, in shallow water not more than one foot deep, all found alive, with the exception of two forms. S — Barren River, seven miles east of Scottsville, Allen Co., Ky., Sept. 25, 1925. (W. J. C.; Sta. 226). “Unionidse on small gravel-riffle, in two to fourteen inches of water, water clear, swift, and rather warm. The undulate form very common, other species not so abundant.” A few other localities, chiefly furnished by Walker, which will have to be referred to only once or twice, will be given in full at the proper places. ANNOTATED LIST OF GREEN RIVER NAIADES. Material from the Green River has been examined by myself in the case of those forms which have an asterisk prefixed. I. Fusconaia ebenus (Lea) : R. , Reported by Walker. This is the only place given for this species, and there is. some doubt connected with it. I have seen no specimens belonging here. It is a species of the lower parts of the Ohio, Cumber- land, and Tennessee, and it might be present also in the lower parts of Green River. *2. Fusconaia subrotunda (Lea): Mm; O; R. This probably is the Quadrula globata of Price. The real globata (Lea) is a synonym of F. pilaris (Lea), which is given for Green River by Simpson (1914, p. 894), and mentioned by Walker in the list of his collection. However, F. pilaris is only a dwarfed form of F. subrotunda from the upper Tennessee. I have four specimens from Mammoth Cave, with the diameter 54-58 pr. ct. of the length, and one specimen, a male from Great Onyx Cave, with the diameter 56 pr. ct. From Rio I have seen seven specimens, with diameter 50-59 pr. ct. The maximum length (Rio) is 89 mm., distinctly greater than in typical pilaris. I am absolutely unable to distinguish these shells from the species subrotunda of the Ohio. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 171 *3. Fusconaia subrotunda kirtlandiana (Lea) : R. Walker has reported to me that one specimen from Rio had the following dimensions: L. 92.5; H. 66; D. 35.5 mm., which would make the diameter 38.3 pr. ct. Four additionaLspecimens from Rio, examined by myself, have the diameter 45-49 pr. ct. This makes these specimens of kirtlandiana to agree with the headwaters-form of subrotunda in the Ohio drainage. This form turns up at, or near, the upper limit of the range of subrotunda, and at Rio the two forms pass into each other. *4. Fusconaia flava (Rafinesque) : R. Rafinesque (1820, p. 305) cites this from small tributaries of Green River; and Price lists it as Quadrula rubiginosa Lea. Walker reports it from Rio, and I have seen from the same place a single individual with the diameter 45 pr. ct., thus being a typical F. flava, which is the form peculiar to smaller rivers and creeks. *5. Fusconaia flava trigona (Lea): B; S. Also cited by Price (as Quadrula trigona Lea, “common”). My specimens from Bowling Green, three males, have the diameter of 56-61 pr. ct., with the beaks not elevated, and thus are typical trigona (not undata Barnes, in which the beaks are elevated). A single specimen from Scottsville has the diameter of 55 pr. ct., and thus stands just at the lower limit of trigona, and close to typical //am. *6. Megalonaias gigantea (Barnes) : Mm; R. Given by Price (as Quadrula heros Say) from “Barren Co.,” that is to say, well up in Barren River. I found a young dead shell at Mammoth Cave, and Clench collected two good specimens of fair size at Rio. Generally it is a large-river-form. *7. Amblema costata Rafinesque: Mm; O; R; C; D; B; S. Walker reports it from the Sulphur Fork of Russell Creek, Adair Co. Given by Price (as Quadrula undulata Barnes) as “common in all streams.” Very abundant at Scottsville. 172 Annals of the Carne'gie Museum. 8. Amblema peruviana (Lamarck). Given by Price (as Quadrula plicata Say). This is a large-river- form, which very well might exist in lower Green River. Walker has it (as plicata?) from Green River. Its presence, however, should be confirmed. *9. Quadrula pustulosa (Lea): Mm; O; R; B. Also given by Price as “very common.” It seems to disappear, however, toward the headwaters, as is the rule elsewhere. 10. Quadrula quadrula (Rafinesque). Mentioned by Price (as Q. lachrymosa Lea). This should be ex- pected in the lower part of Green River. Walker has it from “Barren River, Green Co.,” but Barren River is not in this county! *11. Quadrula verrucosa (Rafinesque) : Mm ; O ; Mf ; R; C ; D ; B ; S. Given by Price (as Tritigonia (sic!) verrucosa Raf. ; U. tuherculatus Barnes). Rather abundant. In the lower parts of Green River it is represented by a peculiar dwarf race; farther up it is more normal in size. 12. Quadrula metanevra (Rafinesque). Given by Price. I have never seen a true metanevra, but only the next form. Yet the main species very likely exists in the lower parts of Green River. *13. Quadrula metanevra wardi (Lea) : Mm; O; R. Walker has reported metanevra from Rio, but he states that his specimens rather are wardi. What I have seen from Mammoth Cave and Great Onyx Cave (two specimens) and from Rio (two specimens) all unquestionably are wardi, a form turning up toward the headwaters wherever found. *14. Quadrula cylindrica (Say): B. Also listed by Price. This seems to be rare in the Green River drainage. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 173 *15. Cyclonaias tuberculata (Rafinesque) : Mm; O; R; C; B; S. Given by Price (as Quadrula verrucosa Barnes). Rather abundant in Green River. At Bowling Green I only saw a dead specimen. Specimens from Mammoth Cave have also been received from Mr. B. S. Sanford of Hudson, O., collected in September, 1925. In those examined, the obesity varies from 51 to 57 pr. ct. *16. Cyclonaias tuberculata granif era (Lea) : O. It is doubtful, whether “ Unio grandiferus Lea” of Price, given as “rather common,” refers to this species, since it has been placed with “ Unio” and not with ''Quadrula.” Simpson (1914, p. 906) gives ''Quadrula granif era pusilla from Green River. My only speci- men, a female, would agree with this, but it is exactly like a normal granif era (diameter 65 pr. ct.), but smaller: the other characters given by Simpson do not hold good. 17. Plethobasus cooperianus (Lea). This species mentioned by Price (as Quadrula cooperiana) might be expected here, but recent investigations have not brought it to light. 18. Plethobasus cyphyus (Rafinesque). This species is also listed by Price (as Quadrula cesopus Green) : it should certainly be expected to occur here, but it has not been found in recent times. *19. Pleurobema cordatum (Rafinesque): Mm; O; R; B. Given by Price (as Quadrula ohliqua Lamarck). It is rather abundant, but disappears upstream. *20. Pleurobema cordatum plenum (Lea) : O. Rare, and not very typical. *21. Pleurobema cordatum catillus (Conrad): Mm; O; R; B; S Also in Walker collection from Mammoth Cave, and mentioned by Price (as Quadrula solida Lea). Rather abundant. The diameter of. 174 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the specimens examined is over 50 pr. ct. of the length, and the nacre frequently is salmon-color or pink. *22. Pleurobema cordatum coccineum (Conrad): R; G. Given by Price (as Quadrula coccinea), ^and represented in the Walker collection from Greensburg, but not among the shells collected by Clench at this place. I have seen two specimens from Rio, with the diameter 47 and 49 pr. ct., thus standing close to catillus. Prob- ably more abundant in smaller streams and headwaters. *23. Pleurobema cordatum pyramidatum (Lea) : Mm; O. In the Walker collection from Green River, Woodbury, Butler Co. Also listed by Price (as Quadrula pyramidata). It is not rare where I found it, with red or white nacre, and very typical in shape. *24. Pleurobema clava (Lamarck): O; B. Also reported by Price. I found only a few specimens, but they were very typical. *25. Elliptio crassidens (Lamarck): Mm; R. In Price’s list, “ Unio grandiferus Lea” stands where this species should be expected, but it is hardly possible that it was intended (see above, under Cyclonaias tuherculata granifera). This species is rare at Mammoth Cave, as well as at Rio, and has not been found else- where. *26. Elliptio dilatatus (Rafinesque) : Mm; O; Mf; R; C; D; B; S. Also recorded by Price (as Unio gihhosus Barnes). Simpson (1914, p. 600) gives Unio gihhosus armathwaitensis Wright from “Mammoth Cave, Green Co., Ky.,” but Mammoth Cave is not in Green Co. U. armathwaite?isis is an entirely superfluous name, and an absolute synonym of dilatatus. ^ This species is common in Green and Barren ^ The Carnegie Museum has topotypes of armathwaitensis from “Branch of South Fork Cumberland, Armathwait, Fentress Co., Tenn.” (probably Clear Fork, above Rugby), and many specimens from another stream in this vicinity. New River, Scott Co., Tenn. (collected by myself Aug. 30, 1924). All these are normal dilatatus, and the diagnostic characters given for armathwaitensis (“shell narrower in front, widest behind, subcompressed, subsolid’’) are not at all evident. In fact, these are individual characters, which may be found anywhere among typical specimens of dilatatus. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 175 Rivers, and represents a rather small race, but normal in all other respects. However, the color of the nacre varies a good deal. It may be purplish, lighter, or darker, and is very often salmon-pink or whitish. *27. Lastena lata (Rafinesque) : R. t Three specimens of this rare species have been collected by W. J. Clench. 28. Arcidens confragosus (Say). In the Walker collection from Pond River, a tributary of the lower part of Green River. This is a species found in sluggish and muddy waters, and is to be expected in the lower drainage of Green River. *29. Lasmigona costata (Rafinesq.ue) : Mm; 0; R;,C; D; B; S. Common, given by Price as Alasmodonta rugosa Barnes. 30. Anodonta imbecillis Say. Reported by Price as from “rivers and ponds near rivers,” It is to be expected here, and is in the Walker collection from Bowling Green. 31. Anodonta grandis Say. Listed by Price as A. grandis and A. grandis gigantea Lea. The latter is only the pond-form of the former. This species seems to exist in this region, since Walker has both forms in his collection from Bowling Green. *32. Anodonta suborbiculata Say: Pond near Bowling Green. The Carnegie Museum possesses four fine specimens from this locality, donated by Walker (from the Daniels collection, collected in August, 1899). 33. Anodontoides femssaclanus (Lea). Given in Price’s list. This species might occur here, although it has not been found recently. Its re-discovery is very desirable. *34. Alasmidonta calceolus (Lea) : S. Three specimens collected by W. J. Clench. Price gives this as Alasmodonta deltoidea Lea, and in addition there is Alasmodonta 176 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. minor Lea in his list, from Gasper Creek, Warren Co. I consider these forms absolutely identical, and the specimens from Scottsville, which I have seen, do not differ at all from specimens from the upper Kentucky drainage; and furthermore there are no essential differences from the true calceolus as found in the northern tributaries of the Ohio, nor from A. minor belonging to the Cumberland and Tennessee drainages. Simpson (1914, p. 499) suggests that A. minor may be only a local race of calceolus. In the color of the epidermis there are slight differences; typical calceolus has an ashy green epidermis and green rays, while the form of the Cumberland region is greenish yellow in ground-color, with dark green rays. Yet I have specimens from this latter region, which are exactly like calceolus in color, while darker specimens occasionally are found also in the North. The specimens from Green River and Kentucky River stand nearer to the wfwor-type, but otherwise there are no differences whatever to be observed. It goes without saying that it is not likely that two “species” of this type should exist in the Green River drainage. *35. Alasmidonta marginata (Say) : Mf ; R. Listed by Price as Alasmodonta truncata Wright. Rafinesque (1831, p. 4) nearly a century ago, cited this species from Green River as Alasmodon (Decuramhis) scriptum. It seems to be rare. *36. Strophitus rugosus (Swainson) : O; Mf; R; D; B; S. Reported from Rio by Walker. Given also by Price as'A/r. edentulus Say. It seems to be rather rare, for I collected only a few specimens, and so did W. J. Clench. Young specimens have a light brownish olive epidermis, older ones are blackish. *37. Ptychobranchus fasciolare ( Rafinesque) : M m ; O ; Mf ; R ; C ; D ; B ; S. Also reported by Price as Pt. phaseohis Hildreth. Specimens collected by myself at the lower stations (Mm; O; B) are all rather small, yet they often have the “humped” shape, which originated the name camelus Lea. At the upper stations, the species is quite abundant, and attains almost gigantic proportions. *38. Obliquaria reflexa Rafinesque : B. “Common” according to Price. I found only a single dead shell. Ortmann; Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 177 *39- Cyprogenia irrorata (Lea): Mm; O; Mf; R; B. Mentioned by Price as “common,” and, where found, mostly present in good numbers. Simpson (1914, p. 328) gives C. irrorata pusilla Sps. from Green River, and, indeed, the specimens seen by me are rather below the average size. But I should hardly think that this justifies the creation of a new variety. *40. Obovaria retusa (Lamarck) : O. Not rare at Great Onyx Cave, and typically developed, but not as large as in the Ohio River. 41. Obovaria subrotunda (Rafinesque) : R. Given by Price (as Oh. cir cuius Lea). Walker reports this from Rio, and has kindly furnished measurements of four of his specimens, three of which have the diameter 60 (cf ), 61 ( 9 ), and 73 (cT) pr. ct. of the length, and they thus belong here. 42. Obovaria subrotunda lens (Lea) : R. Price lists this as Oh. lens. One of the specimens, of which Walker has given the measurements, a female, belongs here with the diameter 56 pr. ct. *43. Actinonaias carinata (Barnes): Mm; O; Mf; R; G; C; D; B; S. Walker reports this from Bowling Green as var. gihha Simpson, and Price gives it as Lampsilis ligamentina Lamarck, “very common,” and L. ligamentina var. It is an abundant species, generally the prevailing one, and somewhat variable in shape. At the lower stations it usually is rather small, but farther upstream it reaches a fair size. The majority of the specimens have the typical shape of the “northern Muckett,” that is to say, that of the Ohio-form. Yet there are individuals, which approach the Cumberlandian variety called gihha. But the same may be occasionally observed in the Ohio River, and the “southern Muckett” (var. gihha) cannot be credited to Green River. *44. Truncilla tripcata Rafinesque: O; R. Also given by Price as Plagiola elegans Lea. 178 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. 45. Truncilla donaciformis (Lea). Given by Price as Plagiola donaciformis. It probably exists here, since it is generally found associated with the preceding species. 46. Plagiola lineolata (Rafinesque). Given by Price (as PI. securis Lea). It probably is found here, in the larger rivers, but has not been discovered in recent times. *47. Leptodea fragilis (Rafinesque): Mm; O; R; B. Given by Price, as Lampsilis gracilis Barnes. It appears to be common, at least at the lower stations. *48. Proptera alata (Say): Mm; O; R; B. In the Carnegie Museum, also from a pond near Bowling Green, donated by B. Walker. Reported by Price as Lampsilis alatns, “common”; and it may be so in the lower parts of Green River. However, it does not go far in the upstream direction. 49. Carunculina parva (Barnes). Given by Price as Lampsilis parvus. It probably exists in this drainage. 50. Carunculina glans (Lea). Reported by Call (1885, p. 31) from Green River. It may occur here, but its presence should be confirmed. 51. Micromya fabalis (Lea). Reported by Price as M. lapillus Lea. This species may belong to this drainage, since it is found elsewhere in small streams of the upper Ohio-system, but confirmation of the fact is desirable. *52. Micromya nebulosa (Conrad) : D. Of forms belonging to the nebulosa-iris-group the following have been listed by Price: Lampsilis cumberlandicus Lea, L. obscurus Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 179 Lea L. regularis Lea, L. iris Lea, L. planico status Lea, L. fatuus Lea. To these Simpson, (1914, p. 119), adds: L. nebulosa (Conr.) from “Green River,” and {1. c. p. 123): L. tenera (Lea) from Bowling Green. All these, with the exception of iris, have been recognized as synonyms, for which the oldest name is Micromya nebulosa (Conrad). Yet it seems to me, that iris is also merely a form of this species. It is distinguished from nebulosa by the character of the rays, which are fine, not interrupted, and not very distinct. But M. nebulosa of the Tennessee and Cumberland drainages is extremely variable in the color-pattern. It mostly has broad, distinct, and often inter- rupted rays, which, however, frequently may be missing. Specimens with the im-pattern do exist in the upper Tennessee, and especially in the Cumberland. On the other hand, the typical iris of the upper Ohio drainage never shows the nebulosa-pattern. But then again in the Lake-region, the supposed variety of iris, called novi-eboraci Lea, distinctly has it (interrupted, distinct rays), and it is impossible for me, to distinguish novi-eboraci from nebulosa, when I do not know the locality. The Cumberlandian nebulosa is also variable in the color of the nacre (whitish, salmon, or purplish), while iris and novi-eboraci are always white inside. From Green River at Dunnville I have examined two specimens collected by W. J. Clench. One of these is fairly a nebulosa, with yellow-brown epidermis, and rather broad, distant, blackish green rays, practically uninterrupted, stronger on the posterior part of the shell, but present and distinct also on the anterior. The other speci- men is more like iris, with yellowish green epidermis, and fine, dark green rays, not very strongly marked, rather crowded on the posterior part, more distant on the anterior part. The nacre in both specimens is white. This tends to show, that nebulosa and iris are conspecific (the anatomy of the two forms is practically identical), but, of course, the material at hand is too meagre to finally settle the question. Addi- tional material is to be looked for in small tributaries of Green River. The present specimens come from the uppermost station, and it is a general rule elsewhere that the nebulosa-iris forms prefer the small streams and headwaters. ^ Given on the same line with L. ov'atus, but probably without the intention of making them synonyms, which would be ridiculous. 180 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. I call my specimens nehulosa with the distinct understanding, that one of them should rather be called iris. If it should prove to be correct, that nehulosa and iris are the same, nehulosa should be stricken off the list of the Cumberlandian types (Ortmann, 1924, p. 42). It is a species of very wide distribution, going northward as far as the Lake-basin, and exclusively represented in the upper Ohio drainage by the color-phase of iris. *53. Micromya lienosa (Conrad): R; D. Shells reported by Price as Lampsilis lienosus^, L. caliginosus Conrad, and L. nigerrimus Lea probably belong here. Walker gives lienosa from Mammoth Cave and Bowling Green. At both these places I only collected the next species {ortmanni). In addition. Walker has M. vanuxemensis (Lea) from Gasper Creek and from Rio. Sketches of the latter specimens (Rio), submitted to me, show, however, that they resemble lienosa^ since according to Walker they have purplish or white nacre, and not the peculiar salmon-tint of ortmanni. I did not see specimens of lienosa among the material from Rio collected by Clench in 1925. But there are seven specimens from Dunnville, three males, four females according to shape. These distinctly differ from ortmanni. The shell is not so thick, the epidermis is blackish brown, rays are hardly present (only barely indicated in some). The nacre is whitish, with no salmon-color whatever, but in some specimens with purplish tints posteriorly. The constriction of the female shell is absent, or there is only a faint trace of it. These specimens corre- spond to the white-nacred phase of lienosa, often called nigerrima Lea, as found in the western and northern extension of the range from Louisiana and Arkansas into Illinois and Indiana. *54. Micromya ortmanni Walker: Mm; O; Mf; R; B. Also in Sulphur Fork of Russell Creek, Adair Co., Walker. The type-locality is Mammoth Cave (Walker, 1925, p. i), and I have a dead female from this place. Very likely this new species has also been collected by Price, and the form mentioned as L. vanuxe- mensis Lea is this; but some of the names quoted above under lienosa may also belong here. ^ L. lienosus stands in Price’s list on the same line with L. luteolus: in analogy to Tritigonia -verrucosa Rafinesque and U. tuber culatus Barnes, this might be taken for an indication of their synonymy. But this would be preposterous. Ortmann; Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 181 This apparently is a local type of Green River,, developed out of the lienosa-stocVi, corresponding to a degree to the vanuxeme^isis- type of the Cumberlandian fauna, without being directly connected with it. 55. Ligumia subrostrata (Say). Given by Price as Lampsilis siihro stratus. This may be present in the lower part of Green River. *56. Ligumia recta latissima (Rafinescpie) : Mm ; R; C; B. Given also by Price as Lampsilis rectus Lamarck. It is present, but is not abundant. 57. Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea). Given by Price from Green and Barren Rivers, but I have not seen the true ano do ?it aides, while I found the var. fallaciosa. The form of sand- and gravel-bottom in flowing water should, however, be ex- pected here. *58. Lampsilis anodontoides fallaciosa (Smith): R; B. Walker reports this from Rio, and I have found a single individual, a male, at Bowling Green, in mud close to the bank in quiet water above the riffles. *59. Lampsiis siliquoidea (Barnes): Mm; R; C; D. Also from Bowling Green. ® Price cites this species as L. luteolus Lamarck. It generally prefers smaller streams. *60. Lampsilis ovata (Say): Mm; O; R; B. Also given by Price. It is not rare at the stations mentioned, but disappears in the upstream direction. *61. Lampsilis ovata ventricosa (Barnes): Mm; O; R; C; D; B; S. Also reported by Price as L. ventricosus from “Barren River,” and it is in the Walker collection from the lower Green River, Livermore, fine specimen donated by Walker originally was labeled: “Cumberland River, Bowling Green, Ky.,” but Bowling Green is not on the Cumberland, and this species is not found in the Cumberland drainage. Walker lists it from Bowling Green. 182 Annals OF the Carnegie Museum. McLean Co., Ky. At the lower stations it is found associated and intergrading with typical ovata, but at the upper stations it is not accompanied by the latter. *62. Lampsilis fasciola Rafinesque: O; C; B. Recorded by Price as L. multiradiatus Lea. Present in the Walker collection from Bowling Green. Not rare at the two places where I found'it. *63. Dysnomia triquetra (Rafinesque) r O; R; G; C; D; B. Listed by Price as Truncilla triquetra. . Not abundant, but ap- parently well distributed over the system. 64. Dysnomia torulosa (Rafinesque). Given by Price as Truncilla perplexa Lea. It would be quite im- portant to have this record verified, for exact localities for this species are very few. They belong to the lower Ohio, Tennessee, and Cumber- land. The presence of the var. gubernaculum in the Green River drainage also points to the probability that the typical form of torulosa exists 'here. *65. Dysnomia torulosa gubernaculum (Reeve) : Mm;C;B. In the Walker collection it is represented from Green River, Greens- burg. Green Co. This apparently is the Truncilia perplexa rangiana Lea of Price. The best set (6 cTcT, 4 9 9 ) is that collected by Clench at Camp- bellsville. I found only a dead female at Mammoth Cave and a living male at Bowling Green. The females have the marsupial ex- pansion tinted dark green, and thus this is gubernaculum. This is the headwaters-form of torulosa, known hitherto only from the upper Tennessee, but it is not astonishing that the typical torulosa (an Ohio-type) has developed this form in Green River. ^ I have not been able to find any published record for this species from the Cumberland, and have commented upon this (Ortmann, 1924, p. 45 and 1925, p. 363). Yet Walker has informed me that he has specimens of torulosa from the Cumberland. According to the labels they have gone through the hands of Wetherby and Marsh, and probably were collected at Nashville by Dr. Lindsey in 1877. This seems to establish the presence of torulosa in the Cumberland River, although the information is subject to doubt, and it is remarkable that this species never again has been found in the Cumberland. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 183 66. Dysnomia flexuosa (Rafinesque). Green River is one of the original localities given by Rafinesque (1914, p. 306) for Obliquaria flexuosa. It is a very rare shell, for which few exact localities in the lower Ohio are known, and the re-discovery of this species in Green River would be very valuable. Doubtful and spurious Species. Fusconaia edgariana (Lea). Cited by Price as Pleurobema ed- gariana. This probably is a misidentification, since this species belongs exclusively to the Tennessee River, and is missing in the Cumberland as well as the whole Ohio drainage. Probably young specimens of Pleurobema cordatum have been taken for it. “ Unio grandiferus Lea.” See above under Cyclonaias tuber culata granifera and Elliptio crassidens. We do not know what this stands for. Ptychobranchus subtentum (Say). Unio subtentus has been reported by Call (1885, p. 51) for “Green and Salt Rivers, Ky.” This species belongs to the Tennessee and Cumberland, and is unknown in the Ohio system. Since Price does not indicate its presence. Call’s record probably is a mistake. Actinojtaias pectorosa (Conrad). Cited by Price as Lampsilis perdix Lea on the same line with L. iris. Whether it is thus indicated that the two are synonyms is not clear; but, if so, it is wrong. This species {perdix = pectorosa) is a Cumberlandian shell, and has never been found anywhere else. Carunculina texasensis (Lea). Given by Price as Lampsilis texa- sensis. This is a southern species, probably not found in the Green River system, and recorded by mistake. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE GREEN RIVER NAIAD FAUNA. Among the sixty-six forms, more or less positively recognized as members of the Green River Naiad Fauna, there are no Cumberlandian types. Some, indeed, have been recorded which have been hitherto regarded as such; but, as has been indicated above, our views with regard to these should be modified. This refers to the following three cases. Alasmidonta calceolus (Lea). I have taken the form found in 184 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Kentucky River for A. minor (Lea) (Ortman, 1924, pp. 24, 42, and 1925, p. 345) a Cumberlandian type. The Green River form is absolutely identical with it, but it is also identical with A. calceolus of the Ohio drainage. This removes this species from the list of the purely Cumberlandian shells. Micromya nebulosa (Conrad). I have considered this a Cumber- landian shell (/. c. 1924, pp. 30, 42, and 1925, p. 355). I now think, that this does not essentially differ from M. iris (Lea) of the upper Ohio, and it is even found in a form, impossible to distinguish, in the Lake-drainage {novi-eboraci). On the other hand the iris-type is also found in the Cumberland, and occasionally in the Tennessee, and all this forces us to remove this whole association of forms from the Cumberlandian types. Dysnomia torulosa gnbernacnliim (Reeve). This hitherto has been known only from the upper Tennessee. But since it is only a form derived from D. torulosa, which is an Ohioan shell, it is not strange that it turns up again in Green River, having here the same relation to the main species. This cancels gubernaciilum in the list of the Cumberlandian types. In this connection it is well to point out that a case similar to the last one has come to light in 'Micromya ortmannh , This has a certain similarity to the Cumberlandian M. vanitxemensis. It seems to me, however, that both vanuxemensis and ortmanni are derived from the lienosa-stoc\i of the Gulf Coastal Plain, Mississippi Embayment, and lower Ohio region. They are parallel forms, originated independently of each other under similar conditions. The only difference from the case of Dysnomia torulosa gubernaciilum is that in the latter the two forms cannot be distinguished, while M. vanuxemensis and ortmanni are easily told apart. The above considerations substantiate the conclusion, that there are no characteristic Cumberlandian types in Green River. There are no shells hitherto known to occur only in the Tennessee and Cumber- land^, which have extended their range into this system, without having reached other parts of the Ohio drainage. This seems to prove that there must have been at some time in the past a disconnection of the waters of Green River and of that system in which the Cumberland fauna originated. The present connection of ^ Of course, we here disregard the fact that some of the Cumberlandian types turn up again in the Ozarks; and that others are found in the Alabama drainage. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 185 Green River and Cumberland River, by way of the Ohio, was non- existent. In more recent times, when the present drainage features had been established, the situation became different, and an interchange of forms could take place; yet a number of them never took advantage of this opportunity. It seems that chiefly forms of smaller streams belong to this latter class, as is entirely natural. In order to bring out more clearly the fact, that there is a great contrast between the Cumberland and Green River faunas, it is well to give here a list of true Cumberlandian elements, present in the Cumberland drainage, and absent in Green River (see: Wilsbn and Clark, 1914; Ortmann, 1924 and 1925). I. Fusconaia barnesiana (Lea) *12. Micromya vanuxemensis (Lea) 2. Quadrula intermedia (Conrad) 13. Dysnomia arcaeformis (Lea) *3. Pleurobema oviforme (Conrad) 14. Dysnomia brevidens (Lea) 4. Pegias fabula (Lea) 15- Dysnomia lenior (Lea) 5- Ptychobr anchus subtentum (Say) *16. Dysnomia haysiana (Lea) 6. Dromus dromas (Lea) *17. Dysnomia lewisi (Walker) 7- Actinonaias pectorosa (Conrad) 18. Dysnomia biemarginata (Lea) *8. Carunculina m-oesta (Lea) 19. Dysnomia turgidula (Lea) 9. Medionidus conradicus (Lea) 20. Dysnomia florentina (Lea) 10. Micromya trabalis (Conrad) 21. Dysnomia capsaeformis (Lea) II. Micromya taeniata (Conrad) The species marked with an asterisk (*) have representative forms in the Ohio drainage. The place of Pleurobema oviforme is taken by PI. clava^; that of Carmiculina mcesta by C. glans\ that of Micromya vanuxemensis by M. ortmanni; that of Dysnomia haysiana by D. sfdcata (Lea) ; that of Dysnomia lewisi by D. flexuosa. All these representatives have been found in Green River, with the exception of Dysnomia sulcata. An explanation of this condition requires special study, and may be similar to that indicated above in the case of Micromya vanuxemensis and ortmanni; yet these forms might in part indicate other possibilities in the development of these two faunas, since the distributional facts in these cases are not all of the same character. But there remain enough others, where, the contrast is very striking, and this concerns chiefly nos. 4, 6, and 9, since here also the genera {Pegias, Dromus, Medionidus) are absolutely missing in the interior drainage. And with regard to No. i {Fusconaia barnesiana) and the ^ This case requires further study, see: Ortmann, 1925, p. 340. 186 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. species of Dysnomia under nos. 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, and 21, we observe that they represent types of shells also without representation in the Ohio drainage. On the other hand, we have in Green River certain Naiades, which belong to the Ohio drainage, but are missing in the systems of the Cumberland and Tennessee. They are the following: I. Pleurobema clava (doubtful) 5- Micromya lienosa 2. Aroidens confragosus 6. Ligumia subrostrata 3. Anodonta suborbiculata 7- Lampsilis siliquoidea 4. Carunculiana glans (see above) 8. Dysnomia flexuosa (see above) Moreover, there are Ohio-species in Green River, of which we know, that their center undoubtedly was in the interior Basin, but that they subsequently invaded the lower parts of the Cumberland or Tennessee (or both), coming evidently from the lower Ohio (compare Ortmann, 1925, p. 365). The most striking cases are the following: 1. Fusconaia ebenus (lower Cumberland and lower Tennessee) 2. Fusconaia flava and flava Irigona (in Cumberland, but not in Tennessee) 3. Megalonaias gigantea (lower Cumberland and lower Tennessee) 4. Amblema peruviana (lower Cumberland only) 5. Quadrula quadrula and var. fragosa (lower Cumberland and lower Tennessee) 6. Actinonaias carinata (lower Tennessee only) 7. Carunculina parva (Cumberland only) 8. Lampsilis anodontoides and var. fdllaciosa (lower Cumberland and lower Tennessee) {Pleurobema clava might also belong here) All this tends to show, that Green River has a Naiad-fauna closely resembling that of the Kentucky, Licking, Big Sandy Rivers, and that of the Ohio and the interior Basin in general, without any par- ticular relationship to that of the Cumberland and Tennessee. A good number of peculiar forms existing still in the Cumberland are not found to the north of it; and there are others in Green River, which find here their southern limit. Thus it is clear, that there is a sharp line between the Cumberland andGreen River sin southern Kentucky, separating two apparently old faunas, the Ohioan and the Cumberlandian. There is no gradual transition between these faunas in the sense, that their elements gradually disappear, when we go over the several river-systems of this region (Cumberland, Green, Kentucky, Licking, etc.). This, however, should be the case, if the two faunas had been all the time connected in one major drainage-system, as they are now. Ortmann: Naiades of the Green River Drainage. 187 The two systems, at some time in the past, were separated, the Ohioan (or whatever was its master-stream) having no connection with the Cumberlandian River (Cumberland + Tennessee). Later on, how- ever, the present conditions were established, very probably by the deflection of the Tennessee and Cumberland toward the North and toward the Ohio, and there is no question, that the northward flowing parts of these rivers are of rather modern origin. This union with the Ohio must have brought about a partial mingling of the old faunas, and we have introduced above evidence for the invasion of Ohioan types into the lower Cumberland and Tennessee (Ortmann, 1925, p. 365). But, of course, an exchange should have gone on also in the opposite direction, Cumberlandian elements invading the lower Ohio. I have alluded to this previously (Ortmann, 1925, p. 364, footnote; p. 370), and instances of this will be found among those forms, which are uniformly distributed over the Interior Basin and the Cumberland- Tennessee drainage. But the distribution of these forms in the Interior Basin must be studied more closely, before we can point them out. These forms indicate the present unity of these river systems, and have largely obliterated the past condition of faunal separation, prevailing at an earlier period; yet distinct evidence of the latter still remains, as we have seen above. There is yet in Kentucky the Salt River system, between the Green and Kentucky Rivers. A few scattered records from it are at hand, but no intensive collecting has ever been done there. However, it is to be expected, that this drainage also has a fauna similar to those of the Kentucky and Green Rivers, that is to say, an Ohioan fauna, without typical Cumberlandian elements. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Call, R. E. A Geographical Catalogue of the Unionidae of the Mississippi Valley (Bull. Des Moines Acad. Sci., I, 1885, pp. 5-57). Danglade, E. The Kentucky River and its Mussel Resources (Bur. Fisher.; Doc. No. 934. 1922, pp. 1-8). Ortmann, A. E. The Alleghenian Divide and its Influence upon the Freshwater Fauna (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., LH, 1913, pp. 289-^ 390)- 188 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Ortmann, a. E. The Naiad-fauna of Duck River in Tennessee (Amer. Midland Naturalist, IX, 1924, pp. 3-47). Ortmann, A. E. The Naiad-fauna of the Tennessee River System below Walden Gorge (Amer. Midland Naturalist, IX, 1925, pp. 321-372). Price, S. F. Mollusca of southern Kentucky (Nautilus XIV, 1900, pp. 75-79). Rafinesque, C. S. Monographic des Coquilles Bivalves et Fluvia- tiles de la Riviere Ohio (Ann. Sci. Phys., Bruxelles. 1820, pp. 287- 322). Rafinesque, C. S. Continuation of a Monograph of the Bivalve shells of the River Ohio. 1831, pp. 1-5-. Simpson, C. T. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naiades, or Pearly Fresh-water Mussels. Detroit, 1914. Walker, B. A new Species of Micromya {Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., No. 163. 1925, pp. 1-6). Wilson, C. B. & Clark, H. W. The Mussels of the Cumberland River and its Tributaries (Bur. Fisher., Doc., No. 781, 1914. pp. 1-63). ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII. Plate VIII. Editorial Notes . . . . ■ ■.-■■■■-■ft- f''":-.' Obituary, Douglas Stewart. By W. J. Holland 1-3 4-10 I. A Study of the Neotropical Finches of the Genus ^ Spinus. By W. E. Clyde Todd . f-'. . ■. ^. . "Ti-82 - II. The South American Species of the Genus Tingis Fab« ricius (Hemiptera). By Carl J.^Drake III. Three New Species of ,Rutelin8e (Coleoptera Lameili-" ■■' cornia) in the Carnegie Museum. By Dr. F. Ohaus . 87“8-9 I¥. The Geology of Pittsburgh and its Environs : A Popular Account of the General Geologic Features of the Region. By Henry Leighton ............ 91-166 V. The Nmades of the Green River Drainage in Kentucky. By Arnold E. Ortmann . . .... . . . . i67-i8'8 Publications of the Carnegie Museum Serial No. 132 ANNALS „ ■ ' ■ - - - ' ^ K - ' OF THE I CARNEGIE MUSEUM,, ' .-‘"a . ' ' ' ■ ''' VoL. XVII. No. 2. , , ; May, 1927 ■> V may ‘>, 8 1927 yT-JONAL X -iLriONfAL _ For sale by Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd., 2-4, Arthur St., New Oxford St., London, W. G. 2, England: Messrs. R. Friedlander u. Sohn, II Carlstrasse, Berlin, N. W. 6, Germany: Maruzen Company, Ltd., 11-16, Nihonbashi, Tori-Sanchome, Tokyo, Japan: and at the Carnegie Miiseum, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Penna., U. S. A. ANNALS OF THE CARNEGIE MUSEUM VOLUME XVII, PART IL Editorial Notes. On July 23, 1926, the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institute chose Mr. Andrey Avinoff as Director of the Carnegie Museum to fill the vacancy created by the lamented death of Dr. Douglas Stewart, which took place on April 21, 1926. On August ist Mr. Avinoff assumed charge. Mr. Avinoff was born February 14, 1884, at Tultchin in Volynia. He belongs to one of the old families of the Russian nobility, his ancestors having played a distinguished part in Russian affairs as far back as the Fourteenth Century. Mr. Avinoff’s paternal grandfather was Admiral Alexander Avinoff whose name is borne by Cape Avinoff on the coast of Alaska. His father Nicholas Avinoff, was a Lieutenant-General in the Imperial Russian Army, and commanded a division of infantry. General Avinoff during the early boyhood of his son was for a time stationed at Tashkent, the capital of Russian Turkestan. Here Andrey Avinoff as a child began to collect butterflies and moths. His summer vaca- tions were passed amidst the mountains of Tian-Shan. He was matriculated in the College of Law of the University of Moscow in the year 1905. While pursuing his legal studies, he also devoted himself to the study of natural history, and took the full course in botany and biology in the University. After graduation Mr. Avinoff was appointed a member of the Tribunal of the District of Poltawa, his duties corresponding to those of an Assistant District Attorney in the United States. In 1907 he was transferred to the Staff of the Chancellory of the Senate in St. 189 190 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Petersburg, and in 1909 was made Assistant-Secretary-General of the Senate in the Department of Administrative Control. In 1911 Mr. Avinoff was appointed a Gentleman-in-Waiting to the Czar, his duties relating to the ceremonious presentation of distinguished personages at the Court. He was elected Marshall of Nobility in the District of Poltawa where the ancestral estates of his mother were located. In this capacity he was the President of all local judicial, educational, and charitable institutions. In 1914 at the outbreak of the world war Mr. Avinoff was at the front with the Red Cross. In March, 1915, he was sent to the United States as representative of the Zemstvo and Municipal Unions to purchase supplies partly for the army and partly for the relief of the sick and wounded. When the Revolution occurred in 1917, Prince Lvoff was made the First Premier of the provisional government, he having been before this President of the Zemstvo Union. Knowing Mr. Avinoff from previous inter- course, Prince Lvoff again sent Mr. Avinoff to the United States to purchase supplies. Shortly after Mr. Avinoff’s arrival in the United States the Bolshevist coup-d' etat took place. Mr. Avinoff remained in America and in his official capacity as a member of the Russian Supply Committee assisted in the settlement of the contracts which had already been made with various American firms. In this work he acted under the sanction of the War Industries Board, which had been created in Washington. He was highly successful in his work, receiving the commendation of all parties who were concerned. Realizing the hopelessness of returning to his native country under existing conditions, Mr. Avinoff took steps to become an American citizen. During the years that have passed since his settlement in America he has been engaged in work of a scientific and artistic nature and has added on this side of the Atlantic to his already well established European reputation as a man of science. From his early youth and in his young manhood he devoted himself with the greatest diligence to the study of natural history, not allowing his various official duties to interfere with his beloved pursuits. Beginning with the year 1906 and continuously thereafter until the outbreak of the world war Mr. Avinoff sent expeditions to various parts of Asia for the purpose of collecting natural history specimens. He financed nearly forty collecting parties to all parts of Arctic and Temperate Asia. He himself in the year 1908 explored the Pamir as a naturalist Editorial Notes 191 accompanied by a noted young hymenopterist. In 1912 he went to India and explored Kashmir, Little Thibet, traversed the Kara- korum, entered Chinese Turkestan, and by way of Yarkand, Kashgar, and the Tian-Shan Mountains returned to Russia. The whole expedition was made in company with two companions, one a dis- tinguished entomologist, the other an ornithologist and mammalogist. Upon his return from the last mentioned journey Mr. Avinoff received the Gold Medal of the Imperial Geographic Society of Petrograd in recognition of his zoogeographic researches in Asia. At the time of the Bolshevist revolution Mr. Avinoff’s collections were seized and “nationalized” by the government. They still remain, it is reported, in the possession of the Academy of Sciences in Leningrad. His great library and his country home filled with art treasures was looted and burned to the ground. Mr. Avinoff in the year 1924 became connected with the Carnegie Museum as Associate Curator "of Entomology. In Europe he had already published a great deal upon his favorite branch of science and since coming to America he has published a number of papers. He has a wide general knowledge of zoology. His executive ability, his firmly established friendships with the Staff of the Carnegie Museum, his broad knowledge of science, his fine attainments as a linguist, and his personal acquaint- ance with scientific men and institutions, both in Europe and America, all conspired to point him out to the Trustees of the Institute as the most available man to take charge of the difficult tasks upon which he has entered with enthusiasm and success. The John B. Semple-Hudson Bay Expedition, which Mr. Semple kindly financed and which he accompanied, carried out with a great measure of success the undertaking which was proposed. The party left Mattice, Ontario, on May 25th, thence proceeded to Moose Factory, where they arrived June 3rd. They remained there until June 14th, waiting for the breaking up of the ice in James Bay. On June 14th they were able to proceed and, although greatly hampered by the lateness of the season and the unusual conditions of the ice, were able to reach Richmond Gulf on July 29th. Here un- fortunately an accident to the motor, which could not be repaired with the means at their command, compelled the expedition to wait until a steamer of Messrs. Revillons Freres arrived, and on this the expedition was able to reach its objective. Cape Wolstenholme. Here 192 ANNALS OF THE CaRNEGIE MuSEUM. Mr. Todd collected for about three weeks. The other members of the party, Mr. Semple and Mr. G. M. Sutton, proceeded with the Revillons’ steamer. Mr. Todd at the end of his stay went forward on the Hudson Bay S. S. “Bayrupert.” Mr. Semple and Mr. Sutton reached Quebec at the end of September. Mr. Todd arrived at Montreal on October 9. The results of the expedition were very satisfactory, a large collec- tion of birds and an unusually fine collection of birds’ eggs and nests was made. Material for a habitat-group of the Arctic Tern was secured. A mass of interesting data as to bird habits and localities was secured. Interesting collections of insects and also of plants were obtained. The results of the expedition will ultimately be given to the world in proper form. During the months of August and September Dr. A. E. Ortmann spent considerable time in southern Virginia and North Carolina, continuing the work in which he has so long been engaged of ascer- taining the faunal contents of rivers and streams, thus extending the observations which he has already so thoroughly made in Pennsyl- vania, northern Virginia, West Virginia, and the regions westward. As the result of his labors he has detected certain features in the distribution of various species, which shed light upon the physio- geographical features of the region during the Tertiary period. Dr. Ortmann has reached the conclusion that the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers were originally tributaries to an ancient, now drowned river, which is the antecedent of Chesapeake Bay, the waters of which were discharged over the continental shelf at a point about one hundred miles east of the present mouth of Chesapeake Bay. South of this old system of rivers there were two independent systems now represented by Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. The fauna contained in the two last mentioned rivers is somewhat different from that of the northern rivers already alluded to. Dr. Ortmann is working industriously in the laboratory in identifying and classifying the material which he has obtained upon which he relies to confirm his views. Mr. J. LeRoy Kay, while engaged in his paleontological work in Colorado incidentally collected and sent to the Museum a good series Editorial Notes 193 of that destructive insect, Anahrus purpurescens Uhler, and has turned over a series of highly interesting photographs showing in what prodigious numbers this insect occurs and how its ravages lead to the complete destruction of vegetation in the country in which it lives. So great has been the damage during the past year, that the farmers in the parts of Colorado which he visited were completely discouraged, and were selling their farms for whatever they could obtain and removing elsewhere. The endeavors of naturalist explorers are not always accomplished without untoward experiences. Dr. Ortmann in his investigation of the rivers and streams of eastern Kentucky and Tennessee frequently found himself to be the object of suspicion on the part of the natives and on numerous occasions he had difficulty in explaining that he was not a revenue officer in disguise looking out for “moonshiners.” Some of his experiences would make a very readable tale of adventure, were he to record what happened. Recently within the limits of the city of Pittsburgh itself. Dr. I. P. Tolmachoff, who was engaged in making observations upon the rocks at the entrance of the new Armstrong Tunnel, was arrested by a policeman as a suspicious person, but finally succeeded in convincing the zealous representative of the law that he was wholly innocent, engaged in geological research, and not bent upon blowing up the new tunnel. All of which reminds the writer of the experience which his friend of the past, the late Herman Strecker of Reading records. A farmer, who saw him collect- ing butterflies in his meadow, made up his mind that he was an escaped lunatic, and had to be persuaded not to place him under arrest and have him taken back to the nearby asylum, from which the farmer supposed he had escaped. Professor O. E. Jennings during the summer months had charge of the courses in botany offered by the University of Pittsburgh. Ac- companied by his classes he devoted much time to work in the field on the Peninsula of Presque Isle. The State Fish Hatchery was used for lectures and laboratory. Twenty years ago Dr. Jennings made a detailed survey of the botanical features of Presque Isle. The results of this survey were published in the Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. V, 1909, pp. 289-421, Pis. XXII-LI. At that time it was decided that the Peninsula had been migrating eastward along the shore of 194 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Lake Erie at the general rate of about one-half mile per century, and that the plant associations were keeping pace with this advance in a very interesting manner. In the twenty years which have elapsed since Dr. Jennings’ first survey, the Peninsula has grown eastward nearly half a mile and the re-survey made during the past summer has revealed very many interesting facts as to changes which have taken place in the older part of the Peninsula as well as in the newer land upon which vegetation has grown up. The results of the re- survey are being worked up and will be presented at the next meeting of the Ecological Society at Washington. The re-survey confirms most of the conclusions reached as the result of the first survey, so far as the methods and time involved in the migrations and successions of the plant associations are concerned. Plants representing the western flora are more in evidence now than twenty years ago. The conclusion reached twenty years ago that the White Pine Association follows along about forty years behind the growing tip of the Peninsula seems to be substantiated. A thorough re-survey of the Peninsula at this time is quite desirable because Presque Isle has been converted into a State Park. At the end of August Dr. Jennings attended the meetings of the International Botanical Congress which was held at Cornell University and had the opportunity to meet a number of men from foreign lands as well as other botanists known as correspondents or friends. W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 195 OBITUARY Ezra T. Cresson Ezra Townsend Cresson was born on June i8, 1838, at Byberry, Bucks County, Pa., and died on April 19, 1926, in his eighty-eighth year at the residence of his son, E. T. Cresson, Jr., Swarthmore, Pa. He was for many years the Secretary of the Franklin Fire Insurance Company of Philadelphia, and was well known as a successful and most upright man of affairs. It is, however, upon his work as an entomologist that his name will be handed down to future genera- tions. He was one of the founders of The Entomological Society of Philadelphia in the year 1859. The name of the Society was subse- quently in 1867 changed to The American Entomological Society. In this body he served as Recording Secretary in 1859, as Corresponding Secretary from 1859 to 1874; as Curator from 1866 to 1874, as Editor of the Transactions for forty-two years from 1871 to 1912, and as Treasurer for fifty years from 1874 to 1924. From August, 1865, to October 1866 he edited The Practical Entomologist, which was gratui- tously distributed among farmers and agriculturists, being the first journal devoted to economic entomology published in the United States. He was one of the founders of The Entomological News, and for thirty-seven years took an active part in the management of that journal. Mr. Cresson was a hymenopterist and confined himself almost exclusively to the study of that order. The papers which he published appeared mainly in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, the Transactions of the American Entomological Society, and in The Entomological News. During his long and active life he published many articles, which are of prime importance to students of the Hymenoptera. In these papers he named and described not far from three thousand species as new to science. In the Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Voh XXVIII, 1902, pp. 1-91, he published a paper upon the Mutillid(z of Brazil, in which he described ninety-five species, and in addition listed fifty-one other species belonging to the family, which had been named by earlier authors, all being contained in the collection, which the writer of these lines had secured for the Carnegie Museum from 196 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the late H. H. Smith. On page 14 of the article referred to Cresson says; “The types of all the new species described in this paper are in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa.” Within a few hours before sitting down to pen these lines I took time to consult our collections, and am glad to know that the specimens are in perfect condition, and in as fine state as they were, when returned to us by Cresson twenty-five years ago. It is a pleasure to have in safe keeping at least some of the fruits of the labor of this famous student. The writer recalls with pleasure his occasional meetings with Mr. Cresson and has in his possession a few letters received from him in the course of the years during which our acquaintance subsisted. He was a truly learned man, but exceedingly modest and somewhat reticent. As a writer upon the Hymenoptera (Ants, bees, wasps, &c.) he held the same rank as was held by his cotemporaries and fellow-workers, Dr. LeConte and Dr. Horn, who wrote upon the Coleoptera (Beetles). These three men, all active at the same time, were members of the American Entomological Society, and shed lustre upon that association, which they helped to form, widened human knowledge, and laid firm foundations for those who have come after them. Cresson was the last of this great triumvirate to “fall on sleep.” W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 197 OBITUARY Dr. Henry Skinner Dr. Henry Skinner was born in Philadelphia on March 27, 1861. He died on May 29, 1926, in the Polyclinic Hospital, Philadelphia, after a brief illness. Dr. Skinner graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in the year 1881 with the degree of B. S. ; and again in 1884 with the degree of M.D. In 1911 he received the honorary degree of Sc.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in recognition of his learning and achieve- ments as an entomologist. After graduating in medicine he practiced his profession with success for a number of years. Gradually he withdrew from practice, and began to devote himself more and more to his favorite scientific studies. He specialized in the Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths). Beginning in 1884 he held various entomological curatorships and custodianships in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, these activities only terminating with his death. He was one of the founders and the Editor of The Entomological News from 1890 to 1910, when against the protest of his associates he resigned, but continued to the end to serve in an advisory and emeritus capacity. To him more than to any other is due the establishment of this valuable and indispensable entomological journal. As one of the members of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia he served on various standing committees, as a member of the Council, and as Vice-President from the year 1918 onward. He ran the whole gamut of official positions in the American Entomological Society. He was one of the founders of the Entomological Society of America, being chosen Vice-President at the initial meeting in New York, 1906; presiding at the meeting at Boston in the following year; being elected President at the meeting in Baltimore in 1908, and presiding again at the meeting in Boston in 1909. He attended the First Entomological Congress held in Brussels in 1910, where he was chosen President of the Section on Nomenclature. With his family he attended the Second International Entomological Congress at Oxford in 1912, where he was President of the Section on Evolution, Bionomics, &c. From March, 1913 to the end of his days he was a Member of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, called into 198 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. being and perpetuated by successive International Zoological Con- gresses. He was a member of many learned societies in America and foreign lands. The writings of Dr. Skinner, as editor and as author of papers relating to entomology compose a formidable array. He published continuously from 1882 until the time of his death. Thirteen pages of the October number of The Entomological News are devoted to setting forth in the most compact form the titles, the dates, and the places of the appearance of his papers. He was the author of but one generic name; he originated one hundred and sixteen specific or sub- specific names, all applied to forms found in the Western Hemisphere. Dr. Skinner collected widely and his trips covered the continent of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Alberta to Texas and Florida. He also visited the Antilles. Dr. Skinner in 1886 married Miss Celia Angela Beck of Philadelphia. The young couple made their home with his parents at 716 North 20th Street, Philadelphia, until his father and mother died. It was here shortly after his marriage that I first formed his acquaintance, and a friendship was begun which lasted until death severed it for a while. We often met; he was my guest in Pittsburgh, and I his guest at his beautiful home at Narberth, or when I dropped into the Academy of Natural Sciences, where I sometimes go to consult the Library. We foregathered at Brussels at the First International Entomological Congress, where we resided at the same hotel, and both presided at meetings. My correspondence with him covers a period of forty years. The last letter I received from him was written on April 19th. Toward the close of the letter he says ‘T notice that you say that ‘you are too much occupied with other and more important things to devote much time to the lepidoptera.’ I might say that there are no more important things-, but of course I might be mistaken. Perhaps keeping busy keeps you well and happy, and I hope such is the case. Just at present I am interested in the coming spring flowers and will be extremely glad when the roses bloom. The magnolias are about to burst into blossom. With warm regards, I am cordially. Yours,” And when the roses bloomed he passed onward to ‘the land of pure delight Where everlasting spring abides. And never-withering flowers!’ W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 199 OBITUARY Dr. Jacob L. Wortman On June 26, 1926, Dr. Jacob L. Wortman died in the sixty-ninth year of his age at Brownsville, Texas. Dr. Wortman was born August 25, 1856, on a farm near Oregon City, Oregon. His parents were of Dutch extraction, and were among the pioneers in the settlement and development of what is now the State of Oregon, having crossed the plains in a covered wagon from Iowa in the year 1852. In 1873 he entered Willamette University at Salem, Oregon, where he remained for two years. He then entered the Oregon State University at Eugene, where he studied for a year. It was at the latter institution that he met Professor Thomas Condon, through whose influence he became deeply interested in geology and kindred subjects. In 1877 he left the University in order to join the expedition which had been sent under C. H. Sternberg by Professor E. D. Cope to explore the John Day beds in eastern Oregon and subsequently made explorations in the lower Eocene of Wyoming. He faithfully assisted Sternberg for two years and when Sternberg re- turned to Washington Wortman accompanied him. He found em- ployment in a curatorial capacity in the Army and Navy Medical Museum in Washington, and at the same time pursued a course in medicine at the Georgetown Medical College where he was duly graduated. He then was engaged by Professor Cope to assist him in the work which he was carrying on in his laboratory in the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. His task was that of a pre- parator, employed in the work of extracting from the matrix and cleaning for study the fossils which he in company with Sternberg had collected upon the expedition to which reference has been made, as well as other specimens. No opportunity was afforded him to describe or write upon the material which he had collected and prepared. Nevertheless so high were his attainments in comparative anatomy that Professor Joseph Leidy often requested him to, take charge of his classes in comparative anatomy when Leidy for various reasons was unable to meet them. After serving for a time with Cope Dr. Wortman returned to the Medical Museum in Washington, where he acted as Assistant Curator for a time. Then in 1890 he was 200 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. induced to accept a position at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In 1891 he went into the Wasatch beds in Wyoming, where he had already made explorations, and began that long series of expeditions which were sent out by the American Museum for nine successive years. The discoveries made by him and his junior associates form the basis of a number of papers written by him, partly in conjunction with Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn and partly independently. He attained a well recognized position as a vertebrate paleontologist through his researches in the field and his various writings. The younger men, who were associated with him at that time, derived great benefit from the instruction which he voluntarily gave them in the science of comparative anatomy. In a recent conversa- tion with Mr. Peterson he has spoken with great appreciation of the lessons which he received by the camp-fire, when Dr. Wortman in the evenings gathered “the boys” about him, and, using the skull of a coyote, a bison, or a horse, which had been picked up upon the prairie, imparted to them a thorough knowledge of mammalian craniology. When these parties returned to the Museum in the winter months. Dr. Wortman, as a labor of love, formed a class, composed of the young men associated with him, and regularly gave them instruction in mammalian anatomy. In the spring of the year 1899 he resigned his position at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History to accept the Curatorship of Verte- brate Paleontology in the Carnegie Museum and was sent to eastern Wyoming to collect the fossils of the Jurassic beds in the region of the Freeze-out Mountains, where the writer of these lines had already preceded him. The exploring party consisted of Dr. Wortman, Mr. Arthur S. Coggeshall, and the late Mr. W. H. Reed of Laramie, Wyoming. After failure to secure satisfactory results at the locality, to which the party had first been guided, they were so fortunate as to discover not far from Sheep Creek in Laramie County the fossil remains of an almost complete skeleton of a Diplodocus subsequently described and named Diplodocus carnegiei by the late John Bell Hatcher, replicas of which have been installed in many of the national museums of the world. This beast has often been referred to as “the animal which made paleontology popular.” On the return of Dr. Wortman to the Carnegie Museum in the late fall of 1899 he devoted himself with his assistants to the removal of the specimen from the W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 201 matrix, and its preparation for study. In the spring of the year 1900 he impulsively resigned his curatorship because of a minor difficulty with a member of his force, whose dismissal he demanded, but whom the Director refused to discharge. He spent a short time in New Haven in special work, and then for climatic reasons took up his residence at Brownsville, Texas, where he continued thereafter to reside. In 1912 he married Miss Eugenie Brulay. Mrs. Wortman and two daughters, Marie and Jeannine, survive him. Dr. Wortman was indefatigable in the field. In the laboratory he was most painstaking. His name is firmly imbedded in the literature of mammalian paleontology. He was pre-eminent as a teacher. It is to be regretted that his impulsive temperament led him to abandon his paleontological studies in the year 1900. He literally “shook the dust” of paleontology from his feet at that time and absolutely refused even to read anything relating to the science in which he had already achieved for himself an enduring reputation. It was a curious act of renunciation, the psychology of which is hard to explain. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII, Plate IX. Hon. John Douglas Shafer. From the Portrait by Mrs. James D. Hailman. W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 203 OBITUARY. Hon. John Douglas Shafer With deepest sorrow we record the death on October 12, 1926, of the Honorable John Douglas Shafer. Judge Shafer became a member of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institute in 1898. He con- tinuously served as a member of the Committee upon the Museum from the year 1902; and from March 4, 1910, was the Vice-President of the Board of Trustees. Judge Shafer was born December 6, 1848. His father was the pastor of the Associate Reformed (later United Presbyterian) Church .at Deer Creek, Allegheny County. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria D. Harper, was a woman of great intelligence and strong character. He received his early education in the district schools of the neighborhood, supplemented by the teaching of his father and mother. His father supervised his preparation for college, teaching him Latin and Greek and the elements of higher mathematics. His mother inspired him with a love for the best in English literature and encouraged his taste for the study of nature. He was, like many other men who have risen to eminence, a son of the parsonage. In his fourteenth year, he successfully passed his examinations for admission to Jefferson College, graduating in the class of 1866 in his eighteenth year. Although he was the youngest man in the class, composed of forty men, he took the highest honors. For a year after graduation he pursued the study of Greek and Hebrew in the United Presbyterian Seminary in Allegheny. He then left the Seminary and for three years successfully taught school in Westmoreland, Washington, and Allegheny Counties. On September 7, 1870, he registered as a student of law with the firm of James I. Kuhn and James Evans in Pittsburgh. While reading law he gave instruction in Latin, and from 1873 to 1874 served as professor of the Greek language and literature in Westminster College, New Wilmington, Pa. He was formally admitted to the bar on January 17, 1874. He soon acquired an extensive practice; and, as the years passed by, came to be known as one of the leading attorneys in the city of Pittsburgh. In 1894 he was chosen as the first Dean of the Faculty of Law in 204 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the Western University of Pennsylvania (now the University of Pittsburgh). The Law School of the University of Pittsburgh owes its success and high standing to his labors and the labors of the men whom he wisely associated with himself in the Faculty. In the year 1920 he retired from the more active duties of the Deanship, and was made Dean Emeritus, in which capacity he continued to give valuable service and advice until his death. On May 9, 1897, he was appointed by Governor Daniel H. Hastings to fill the vacancy on the bench of Allegheny County created by the death of Judge Thomas Ewing. In the following November he was elected to the judgeship for a full term of ten years, beginning Jan- uary I, 1898; and thereafter in 1907 and in 1917, was twice re-elected without opposition. The four courts of Common Pleas of Allegheny County were consolidated on January i, 1912. When on January 4, 1915, Judge R. S. Frazer took his seat as a Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, Judge Shafer succeeded him as President Judge of the Courts of Common Pleas of Allegheny County and continued in this position until his death. As a lawyer Judge Shafer enjoyed a most enviable reputation for learning, probity, and kindness among those with whom he was brought into contact. He was literally adored by the younger members of the legal profession, who in later years came to speak of him familiarly among themselves as “Father Shafer.” From his childhood Judge Shafer was deeply interested in nature and especially in botany, the study of which he pursued with ardor. He was one of the founders of the Western Pennsylvania Botanical Society. He was familiarly acquainted with the flora of western Pennsylvania and the collections of the Carnegie Museum contain much material gathered by his hands. He had a broad general knowledge of natural history, and, though botany was his specialty, he was able to enter with understanding into the discussion of questions relating to the natural sciences in general. Judge Shafer was an accomplished linguist, familiar with the ancient classics and with many of the modern languages, which he read with ease, and some of which he spoke. As a Trustee of the Carnegie Institute and particularly as a member of the Committee upon the Museum he rendered distinguished services. His intelligent comprehension of the varied matters, which from time to time came up for discussion, made his counsel most valuable. His W. J. Holland; Obituaries. 205 death removed from their midst one of their wisest counsellors and they will sorely miss his genial presence. Though burdened with cares and duties beyond the ordinary lot of men, he never failed to maintain that air of good humor and that friendly interest in those about him, which endeared him to all who knew him. Judge Shafer was twice married. His first wife was Miss Rosa Strauss of Washington County, whom he married on September 27, 1877. She died in the fall of 1897, shortly after his elevation to the bench. On June 20, 1901, he married Mrs. Maud B. Gifford of Lincoln, Nebraska, whose acquaintance he had formed at Cambridge, Massachusetts, while attending a convention of botanists. Mrs. Shafer survives him. To Mrs. Shafer, her friends in the Carnegie Museum extend their kindest and deepest sympathy in this hour of affliction and loneliness. W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 207 OBITUARY.* Arnold Edward Ortmann. On the afternoon of January 3, 1927, Dr. Arnold E. Ortmann, Curator of Invertebrate Zoology in the Carnegie Museum and Pro- fessor of Zoology in the University of Pittsburgh, died in the West Penn Hospital, Pittsburgh, in the sixty-fourth year of his age. He was born in Magdeburg, Prussia, April 8, 1863. He studied at the Universities of Kiel, Strassburg, and Jena, receiving the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the latter institution in 1885. During 1883 he served in the German Army Reserve and at the end of his term of service retired with the rank of Lieutenant of Infantry. He was a favorite pupil of Dr. Karl Haeckel of Jena, and was with him as an assistant on the expedition which Haeckel made to Zanzibar. He subsequently served for a time as instructor in the University of Strassburg. He came to the United States in 1894 and served as Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology in Princeton University from that date until 1903. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States while living at Princeton. Prom 1909 to 1910 while retaining his position in the Carnegie Museum he served as instructor in Zoogeography, and from 1910 until 1925 as Professor of Physical Geography, and from 1925 until his death as Professor of Zoology in the University of Pittsburgh. While at Princeton in 1899 he was a member of the Princeton Arctic (Peary Relief) Expedition. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, of the German Zoologische Gesellschaft, of the Leopoldinische-Carolinische Akademie der Naturforscher, of the American Society of Naturalists, and the Ecological Society of America. He was a Fellow of the A. A. A. S., and held membership in many other learned societies. He was the author of numerous monographs and papers upon botany and aquatic invertebrates. He contributed to Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreiches, writing the portion of that great work, which relates to the Decapoda. His Report upon the Tertiary Invertebrates of the Princeton Expedi- tion to Patagonia was published in 1902. He made many contribu- tions to the literature of zoogeography and conchology in German *In part reprinted from Science, Vol. LXV, Jan. 14, 1927. 208 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. and American periodicals. He was the author of a number of important monographs and scientific papers which have been published in the Annals and Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum. During the last twenty years of his life he devoted himself with intense interest to the investigation of the molluscan fauna of the Ohio River and its tributaries, extending his investigations to all the rivers of the eastern United States from New England to the Carolinas and partially exploring the rivers of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. His researches have thrown a great deal of light upon the geology and transformations of the rivers of the eastern half of the United States. His latest research, carried on in the summer of 1926, led him to be- lieve that some of the streams, now discharging their waters into the Atlantic Ocean south of the Chesapeake, originally were tributaries of the great tertiary river represented today by Chesapeake Bay, which is a submerged river, and which in Tertiary times drained not only a large portion of eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, but also the northern part of North Carolina. The list of papers which Dr. Ortmann has published is long, and his place as a writer upon his favorite themes is firmly fixed in the literature of science. As a field investigator he was scrupulously exact and untiring. As a student in the laboratory he was pains- takingly industrious and most scrupulous in keeping his records above reproach. He made extensive collections of the freshwater mussel- shells of North America and other mollusca, which are contained in the Carnegie Museum. He also classified and arranged the mollusca and other invertebrates belonging to the great collections which have been amassed from various sources by the Museum as the result of purchase, exchange, and collection by expeditions in various parts of the world. As a teacher he aroused enthusiasm and many post- graduate students in the University of Pittsburgh pursued courses in zoology and physical geography under his care, his classes being for the most part instructed in his laboratory in the Museum. In recognition of his attainments and of his contributions to science the degree of Sc.D. was conferred upon him by the .University of Pitts- burgh, in June, 1911. Dr. Ortmann made his home during the latter years of his life at No. 6310 Monitor Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. He is survived by his widow, Anna Zaiss, whom he married at Achern in Baden, December 5, 1894; one son, A. E. Ortmann, Jr., W. J. Holland: Obituaries. 209 who lives with his mother; and two married daughters, Mrs. Hilda Borgman of Pittsburgh, and Mrs. Bertha Raeber of Gloucester, N. J. His sister, Mrs. Hildegarde Ernst of Pittsburgh, his brother. Dr. Konrad Ortmann of Torgau, Germany, and four grand-children, also survive. The sudden death of Dr. Arnold E. Ortmann has inflicted an ir- reparable loss not only upon the Carnegie Museum and the University of Pittsburgh, which he so faithfully served during the later years of his life, but upon the cause of science in America. He was known as one of the most learned and competent students of invertebrate zoology in the world. He had come to be recognized as one of the leading conchologists in America. He was also a most distinguished zoogeographer. We scan the horizon in vain to find a younger man who combines in the same way his special qualifications. Of course there are on this side of the Atlantic a few men who have been regarded as his peers, but every one of these has reached the evening of his life. The writer of these lines has corresponded with a number of his friends, who are recognized as high authorities in conchology and the zoology of the invertebrates in general and the reply invariably has been: ‘‘there is no one who can replace Ortmann.” Strange as it may appear, conchology, which we used to think was a popular science, pursued by many devotees, appears to be more or less neglected. The names of those who are actively devoted to this branch of zoology in America does not exceed a score. A renaissance in this important field of zoological inquiry is certainly demanded. VI. THE COPROLITE LIMESTONE HORIZON OF THE CONEMAUGH SERIES IN AND AROUND MORGAN- TOWN, WEST VIRGINIA.* By Paul Holland Price. (PLATES X-XXI.) “Man measures his life by a few score of years, but the years of the earth are measured by many millions, an abyss of time, so vast in comparison, that the mind cannot fathom it save by analogy.” — Barrell. INTRODUCTORY. Science has proved that mountains are transitory forms and are ever changing, but the individual through a lifetime sees little or no change. This is as true at Morgantown as elsewhere. Close obser- vation, however, shows that changes have continuously been going on in the past and are still taking place. If the layman will take the trouble to observe the excavations for sewers which go on in the streets of Morgantown, he will see uncovered beautifully rounded stones and boulders from a few inches to a foot or more in diameter. They are just like those which may be seen at the bottom of running streams. This old buried gravel is accepted as having been deposited where it now lies at a much earlier date than the gravels in recent streams. It was laid down when the Monongahela River and Deckers Creek united in forming a flood-plain, or, in other words, when the present streams flowed at a higher level than they now do. This terrace, upon which most of the Third Ward of Morgantown is located, has an elevation of from 885 ft. to 890 ft. above sea-level, while the present elevation of the Monongahela River at the mouth of Deckers Creek is 800 ft. above sea-level. During the lifetime of “the oldest inhabitant” there has been no noticeable change in the level of the river above the sea. How long then has it taken these streams to cut down through these 90 feet of solid material, more than half of which consists of the hard and resisting Buffalo Sandstone, ^Published by permission of West Virginia Geological Survey. 211 212 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. which can be seen exposed to view at the southern end of the High Street Bridge! This is only one example of what the streams have been doing in the vicinity; there are many others. The deposits of clay and sand on the “Flats” along the Star City road, with an elevation of 1035 ft. above sea-level, represent the bed of another ancient river. Below this level there are terraces which reveal the levels on which the river flowed at later periods. A good illustration of these river terraces is shown in Morgantown, where the University of West Virginia is located upon an upper terrace; the United States Postoffice upon a lower terrace; and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad upon a still lower terrace. The formation of these terraces and even the life of the Monongahela River itself are recent, compared with the date when the strata were formed from which the fossils described in the following pages were taken. As a matter of fact there was no such river as the Monongahela in existence then, but the area was covered by a shallow inland sea, or lake. The age of the Pittsburgh Coal seam has been roughly estimated at one hundred millions of years. This, of course, is not an absolutely accurate estimate, as some lines of evidence suggest an even greater age. The fossils, with which this paper deals, come from a level approximately four hundred feet lower than the Pittsburgh Coal, and therefore from a stratum as much older as the time which would be required for the deposition of the four hundred feet of shale, sand- stone, limestone, and coal which intervene. A geologic time-table arranged by George H. Ashley, the time-scale from Joseph Barrell with slight modifications is here given. ^ ERAS AGES Age of Ice and Man QUATERNARY I million years Age of Mammals Evolution of Primates Maximum thickness of strata, UPPER AND LOWER TERTIARY 60 million yrs. 40,000 ft. ^Cf. Josiah Edward Spurr, “The Ore Magmas” (McGraw-Hill, publishers) 1923, Vol. I, p. 396. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 213 MESOZOIC (Middle Life) Era of Reptiles UPPER AND LOWER Culmination of Reptiles. CRETACEOUS^ Maximum thickness of strata, 50,000 ft. 75 million yrs. Thickness in Montana, 24,000 ft. (Lower Cretaceous only) ; Thickness in California, 26,000 ft. (Upper Cretaceous only). Age of Reptiles JURASSIC Evolution of Birds 40 million yrs. Maximum thickness of strata, 18,000 in California. Increase in Reptiles TRIASSIC Evolution of Mammals Maximum thickness of strata, 40 million yrs. apparently 20,000 to 30,000 ft. in Pennsylvania. UPPER PALEOZOIC (Upper Ancient Life) Era of Fishes and Amphibians Age of Coal CARBONIFEROUS Age of Amphibians (Permian, Pennsylvanian,^ Evolution of Reptiles Mississippian) . Maximum thickness of strata, 24,000 ft. in Arkansas; average IIS million yrs. 4,500 ft. plus. Age of Fishes DEVONIAN Evolution of Amphibians Maximum thickness of strata, SO million years 13,000 ft, in Pennsylvania; Average 3,000 ft. Development of Fishes SILURIAN Invertebrates Maximum thickness of strata, 40 million yrs. 7, 300 ft. in Massachusetts; Average 2,000 ft. ^Approximate age of the present Monongahela River, as it flowed northeast through the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Atlantic before the advance of the last great Ice-sheet, but the river had its origin upon the Cretaceous or Jura- Cretaceous peneplain. ^Age of Fossils described in this paper. 214 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. LOWER PALEOZOIC (Lower Ancient Life) Era of Invertebrates ORDOVICIAN no million yrs. Age of Invertebrates Evolution of Vertebrates Maximum thickness of strata, 15,500 ft. in Mass.; Average 3,000 ft. CAMBRIAN 90 million yrs. Reign of Invertebrates Maximum thickness of strata, 40,000 ft. in British Columbia; Average 4,000 ft. ALGONKIAN Evolution of Invertebrates Time probably as Maximum thickness of strata. U long as all of the 74,000 ft. in Canada; in Rockies, S S' Paleozoic. 37,000 ft. 0 j ^ - S £ ARCHEAN 0 s Time not estimated but Maximum thickness of strata. very long. No known 74,000 ft. in Canada. beginning to this division. GENERAL. A search begun in the year 1923 and since continued has revealed an abundance of vertebrate remains, particularly coprolites of fishes, and a few coprolites containing fish-scales, which may be of amphibian or reptilian origin. In addition there have been found teeth, scales, spines, and other remains of fishes. It has been thought advisable to describe and illustrate these, since there has been no previous collection of coprolites from the formations of West Virginia. The writer has at hand in the office of the West Virginia Geological Survey more than a thousand specimens of the excrement of fishes some of which are much better preserved than others. Many of these have inclusions of teeth and scales which retain their original character. Nearly all the specimens in the collection are of the spiral form, since much of the material, which plainly was excrement, but without special shape, was not saved. ^ Scales of the rhombic type are abundant, both plain and striated. ^The writer has taken pleasure in communicating to the Carnegie Museum a number of specimens from this collection (C. M. Acc. No. 8,003) (Cat. Vert. Foss. No. 5418) in recognition of the kindness of that institution in publishing the results of the studies made by the author. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 215 Teeth are scattered throughout the limited horizon. There are thirty-five to forty small conical teeth of the Paleoniscus and ten to twelve specimens of the Diplodus-type. As yet no complete skeleton has been found, but with such an abundance of material, along with fragments of spines, it is expected that further search may be rewarded by the discovery of such fossils, although the very friable nature of the matrix does not encourage this hope. It is believed that the publication of this paper may increase general interest in the Vertebrate Paleontology of our region and it is requested that such discoveries as are made, may be brought to the attention of the members of the Geological Survey of West Virginia, or of the Staff of the Carnegie Museum. Geographic Location. The extent of the “Coprolite Limestone Horizon” has not yet been definitely determined, as its known occur- rence is limited to six localities, all within one and one-half miles from Morgantown. Some attempts have been made to correlate with more distant areas, but without success. Further search may prove it to be of greater extent than now observed. These fossil localities are shown on the Topographic Map, Plate X. The localities are numbered in the order of their discovery: i, W. V. U. Stadium; 2, Keck’s Quarry, Westover, W. Va. ; 3, Athletic Field of the New High School; 4, Morgantown Brick Plant; 5, Red Bridge near Fairmor; 6, Ravine below East Morgantown fill. Geologic Horizon. The “Coprolite Limestone Horizon” was first dis- covered by the writer in 1923, and in the following year a brief descrip- tion of it was given in an Academic Report to Professor E. R. Scheffel. The horizon was first detected in Falling Run Hollow, when excavation was begun for the Stadium of the West Virginia University. At the suggestion of David B. Reger a detailed section was made at this locality, where the new fossiliferous horizon was found. Its horizon having been thus determined, it was traced to the other localities above mentioned. The “Coprolite Limestone Horizon” lies in the Pittsburgh Red Shales (Round Knob), between the Pine Creek (Cambridge) and the Ewing Limestones, or in the lower half of the Conemaugh Series of the Pennsylvanian System. Description. The limestone for which the horizon was named is merely a marker for the fossiliferous shale. It contains no coprolites, but does have an abundance of fresh-water Serpulce. It may be 216 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. described as a dark, gray-blue, fine-grained, crystalline limestone, from one to two feet thick. It contains considerable iron in the form of marcasite, which gives it a ferruginous stain upon weathering; where it crops out at the Athletic Field of the New High School it is somewhat nodular. From its general appearance it could easily be mistaken for the Pine Creek (Cambridge) or the Ewing Limestone, unless carefully examined for fossils. The coprolite horizon proper comes directly over this limestone, and can be described as being a carbonaceous and slightly calcareous shale, from three to six inches thick, which contains an abundance of fish remains, such as coprolites, teeth, and scales. Occasionally the remains of plants also are discovered. At the Stadium locality (No. i) a well preserved Pecopteris was found. Petrography. As previously stated, the limestone is referred to only as a marker for the coprolite horizon proper. It is a dark siliceous limestone from one to two feet thick, containing numerous fresh-water fossils {Serpula). The overlying horizon, which contains the verte- brate fauna, is a fine-grained, calcareous and carbonaceous, gray-blue shale. When wet it is plastic, but upon weathering readily disin- • . tegrates. The microscope reveals the following constituents in the order of their importance: kaolin; marcasite; fragments of contem- poraneous sandstones; limonite, (partly as a cement); quartz (as sand-grains); carbon (particles of coal); calcite; and muscovite. The kaolin constitutes the greater part of the formation (at least half of which passed through a two hundred mesh screen), and is decomposed feldspar, which came from an old crystalline ground-mass to the east and southeast. The marcasite is not evenly distributed, but is concentrated in patches and often centers around, or entirely covers, a coprolite. The grains of sand are fairly well rounded, indi- cating that they had been carried some distance from their source. Carbonaceous particles are scattered throughout, giving the formation its dark color. Fragments of coal and sandstone indicate some con- temporaneous erosion. Limonite is most common as a cement, and is also present in small particles. The mica (muscovite) flakes are scarce. Correlation of Horizon. It was at first supposed that this horizon was the same as the Ewing Limestone of Ohio. There the Ewing is Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 217 described as follows:® ^'Beneath the Barton coal is clay and more or less limestone in the form of nodular or continuous layers. The limestone is much more persistent than the coal and is found nearly everywhere, except in places where it has been eroded and its horizon occupied by sandstone. Ordinarily there is only a nodular layer a foot or so thick, or a single course of limestone less than two feet thick, but here and there in the eastern part of the state are areas where the limestone attains a thickness of five to ten feet and consists of a number of layers interlaid with clay. Fossils of types generally regarded as fresh-water are abundant in the Ewing limestone. Spirorbis is the most numerous of these and ostracod carapaces are next in abundance. Fish teeth are not uncommon, and reptilian bones are also present.” This description along with the fossils is suggestive of the same horizon, which is found here with coprolites, the teeth of fishes, etc. However, a limestone, which outcrops in the basement of what is now the Masonic Temple and is believed by Dr. L C. White to correspond to the Ewing, did have a number of Spirorbis present, but the over- lying dark shale, which would contain the coprolites, was absent. There have been discovered a number of amphibian and reptilian bones from the lower part of the Pittsburgh Red Shales near Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania. ® It can therefore be seen that the lower Conemaugh Series has re- vealed and will continue to reveal many vertebrate remains, but the changing conditions, the lensing, and entire disappearance of certain horizons, make the correlation at least for any great distance rather uncertain. It seems to be a duplication of conditions at numerous localities, rather than a continuous deposit. However,' with ’“more detailed work, it may later be possible to definitely correlate the “Coprolite Limestone Horizon” with some of the horizons, which have previously been recognized as containing vertebrate remains. ®“Conemaugh Formation” by Condit. Fourth Series, Bull. 17, Ohio Geological Survey, 1912, pp. 37-39. ^“Description of Vertebrate Fossils from the Vicinity of Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania,” by E. C. Case. Annals of Carnegie Museum, Vol. IV, 1908, pp. 234, et seq. 218 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Fig, I. • Columnar section showing position of Coprolite Limestone Horizon, (Scale: i inch =125 feet.) By Paul H. Price. Thickness in feet. 10-20 8-12 5-25 10-18 5-10 15-40 10-15 20-40 10-15 1-5 1.5-2. 5-15 . Upper Pittsburgh Sandstone Pittsburgh Coal Lower Pittsburgh Sandstone Upper Pittsburgh Limestone Little Pittsburgh Coal Lower Pittsburgh Limestone Connellsville Sandstone Little Clarksburg Coal Lower Connellsville Sandstone Clarksburg Limestone Morgantown Sandstone Elk Lick Coal Grafton Sandstone Ames Limestone and Shales Harlem Coal Ewing Limestone ] Pittsburgh S-Red Coprolite Beds J Beds. Saltsburg Sandstone Pine Creek Limestone Buffalo Sandstone Intervals of Coprolite Limestone Horizon . above and below other well known strata: Pittsburgh Coal 375-400 ft. Ames Limestone and Shales 75-90 ft. Ewing Limestone 25-40 ft. Coprolite Limestone Horizon 0-0 ft. Saltsburg Sandstone 15-15 ft. Pine Creek Limestone 45-50 ft. Top of Buffalo Sandstone 50-55 ft. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 219 COPROLITES OF FISHES. It has long been known that many fishes possess a spiral intestinal valve, which imparts to the extruded feces a form, which is somewhat Fig. 2. Digestive tracts of fishes: i, Cyclostome (Petromyzon) ; 2, Shark; 3, Chimaeroid { C alloy hy n chus) \ 4, Lung-fish {Protopterus) after W. N. Parker; 5, Ganoid {Acipenser sturio) ; 6, Perch, after Wiedersheim. A, anus; BC, branchial chamber; BE, Bursa entiana (duodenum); CL, cloaca; GC, gill-openings; I, intestine; M, mouth; MI, mid-gut; N, nares, anterior and posterior; OE, oesophagus, or gullet; PC, pyloric coeca (pancreas) ; PY, pyloric end of stomach; R, rectum; RG, rectal gland; S, stomach; SP, spiracle; SPY, spiral intestinal valve. 220 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. variable according to the arrangement of the valve. Under favorable conditions the form of the feces retains outlines which are charac- teristic. Fig. 2, which is here reproduced from Dr. Bashford Dean’s “Fishes Living and Fossil,” in the five upper illustrations shows the outline of the spiral valve of the intestine as it exists in five well known families of fishes. A little reflection makes plain that the passage of the material, which is not digestible, but is destined to be voided as feces, through such a spiral valve must impart to such material a spiral or coiled form, before it is ejected through the rectum and anus. It also is plain, that, the greater the number of the chambers in the intestinal valve, the greater the number of coils in the feces, provided always that the food-supply is abundant. Almost all of the coprolites shown in the plates accompanying this paper show a more or less spiral or coiled structure. (See Plates XI-XVI). The spiral structure of the coprolites is also revealed by cross-section (See Plate XVII). This spirality may be perhaps better shown by the accompanying text-figure (Fig. 3) which is based upon several cross- sections made by the writer. Fig. 3. Diagrammatic cross-section of coprolite of a fish. Neumayer’^ in his paper, “Die Koprolithen des Perms von Texas,” has divided his specimens into two general groups, called by him “Heteropolaren” and “Amphipolaren,” the divisions being based upon the position of the rings formed by the successive layers. Those on which the rings are limited to the anterior half of the coprolite are heteropolar, while those on which the rings extend farther along and even to the posterior end of the coprolite are amphipolar. The question may at this point be raised whether or not fecal matter, which at the time of its passage belongs to the heteropolar type, upon being exposed for a short time to the action of water, may not unfold itself enough to be later embedded as of the amphipolar type. It is the opinion of the writer that this might happen, and some of the specimens at hand seem to favor this idea (See Plates XI-XIV). ^L. Neumayer: Die Koprolithen des Perms von Texas. Paleontografica, Vol. LI, 1904-5, pp. 121-127, I plate. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 221 Whether or not the number of spirals in the digestive tract of fishes absolutely determines the number of spirals in the excrement is problematical. Whether it is possible to determine the genus of a fish from the number of spirals in the excrement is still more problem- atical. There appears, however, to be a measure of regularity in the number of spirals in the coprolites composing the present collection. The scales and particularly the teeth of fishes, which have been found with the coprolites represent at least two distinct types of fishes. The teeth may be referred to the ganoid Paleoniscus and to the genus Diplodus Agassiz. Associated with the scales and teeth of these are at least two distinct types of excrement: one generally showing five coils, some distance apart; the other having many more, lying close together. Since the intestinal valves in the, digestive tract of ganoids are few in number (four to seven), while in the sharks, to which Diplodus is allied, have many, it may not be illogical to infer that the coprolites which have few turns in the excrement represent fishes of the type of Paleoniscus, and that those which have many represent fishes of the type of Diplodus. (See text-figure 2.) COPROLITES OTHER THAN THOSE OF FISHES (?). The two large coprolites shown on Plate XVI 1 1, figs, i and 2, were found associated with the other material described in this paper. Both specimens contain small rhombic fish-scales of the ganoid type, which the writer has referred to the genus Paleoniscus (See infra). The specimen shown on Plate XVHI, fig. i, although not entire, is divided by a median impression into two lobes, the constriction being at right angles to the direction of passage. The coprolite represented on Plate XVHI, fig. 2, is marked by a median groove on two sides, parallel to the direction of passage. It is shown on the plate of natural size. So little is known of the voided excrement of the extinct amphibia and reptilia, and for that matter of the amphibia and reptilia of the present, that it seems hazardous to predicate amphibian or, reptilian origin to these specimens. Nevertheless, in view of their great dis- similarity to the coprolites of fishes depicted on the plates, and the fact that both amphibian and reptilian remains have been discovered at approximately the same geological horizon near Pittsburgh, ^ it seems not to be a wholly illogical surmise to say that these objects may be See foot-note 6. 222 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. of amphibian or reptilian origin, or both. This suggestion is set forth by the writer with diffidence, especially in view of the very scanty information which thus far has been obtained as to the life-history and habits of the amphibia and reptilia of the Carboniferous and Permian ages. THE DIMENSIONS OE THE COPROLITES OF FISHES. The coprolites shown upon the plates accompanying this article are all displayed, with but one exception, as more or less magnified. It has therefore seemed proper to give in tabular form a statement of the exact length and thickness of a representative series of specimens. Table Showing Relation Between Length and Thickness of a Number of Representative Coprolites from the Conemaugh Formation. PI. XL Fig. 1 L. 14.7 2 16.7 3 15.4 4 “ 15.4 5 14.0 6 “ 16.0 7 15.4 8 “ 14.0 9 “ 16.0 10 “ 16.7 11 “ 14.7 12 18.7 13 “ 14.0 14 16.7 15 “ 16.7 16 “ 15.4 17 “ 15.4 18 “ 13.4 19 12.7 20 “ 10.4 21 13.0 22 “ 15.4 23 17.4 24 “ 12.7 25 “ 15.4 26 “ 14.7 27 “ 14.0 28 “ 12.4 “ 29 “ 13.4 T. 6.7 Fig. “ 7.4 “ 7.4 “ 6.7 “ 6.7 “ 6.0 “ 6.7 “ 6.7 “ 7.4 “ 6.7- “ 5.4 “ 6.7 “ 5.7 “ 6.0 “ 6.0 D?- “ 5.7 “ 6.7 “ 6.0 “ 7.4 “ 5.4 “ 6.0 “ 6.0 “ 4.7 . .. “ 6.7 “ 4.7 “ 7.4 “ 6.0 “ 6.0 “ 5.4 30 PI. XL L. 14.4 T. 31 “ 15.0 32 “ 14.7 33 “ 14.7 34 “ 14.7 35 “ 12.7 36 “ 15.4 37 “ 14.0 38 “ 15.7 39 “ 17.4 40 “ 17.4 1 PI. XII L. 12. T. 2 “ 14.7 3 “ 13.4 4 “ 14.7 5 “ 11.7 6 “ 15.0 7 “ 16.4 8 “ 16.0 9 “ 15.7 10 “ 10.0 11 “ 20.4 12 “ 24.0 13 “ 21.4 14 “ 21.4 15 “ 22.0 16 “ 16.6 6.0 Fig. 17 6.0 18 5.4 19 5.4 20 5.4 21 6.4 22 5.7 23 6.7 24 6.4 25 6.4 26 6.0 27 Fig. 1 6.0 2 7.4 3 6.7 4 5.4 5 5.7 6 5.4 7 4.7 8 5.4 9 6.4 10 7.4 11 7.4 12 5.7 13 6.0 14 7.0 15 10.0 16 6.7 17 PI. XII. L. 18.7 T. 7.4 “ 16.6 6.0 “ 14.0 6.0 “ 12.7 5.4 “ 19.0 6.0 “ 19.0 6.0 “ 16.0 8.0 “ 18.4 7.4 “ 19.7 9.4 “ 15.7 6.0 “ 15.7 5.7 PI. XIV. L. 16.7 T. 6.0 “ 15.4 6.0 “ 17.0 8.0 “ 16.0 6.0 “ 16.6 6.7 “ 16.0 6.0 “ 18.7 8.0 “ 18.4 7.7 19.0 8.7 “ 18.0 6.0 “ 16.0 8.0 “ 19.0 9.4 “ 20.0 6.7 “ 20.0 10.7 “ 26.7 9.4 “ 23.2 9.4 “ 20.7 14.7 These figures represent more nearly the average than they do the extremes. It can be seen that some are short and thick, while others are long and slender. COPROLITES SHOWING BURROWS OR BORINGS. When a worm burrows and eats its way into compact earth or excrement, the hole remains for some time, and finer material will later fill it. That this has taken place in at least twenty-four of the Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 223 coprolites at hand is highly probable. (See Plate XVI.) The first assumption that the holes are concretionary, or openings left by some displaced particle, such as a grain of sand or other foreign material, is dismissed in favor of worm-borings. These holes vary somewhat in depth and in width, but are generally very regular in their appearance. They vary in width from one to two millimeters, and in depth from two to three millimeters. The holes or borings have all been refilled with fine soft mud, which is entirely different from the content of the excrement, but similar to the matrix of the coprolitic horizon. . MINERALOGY AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF COPROLITES. A microscopic examination of thin sections and polished specimens of coprolites reveal many interesting features. They are composed of partially digested food, which has since carbonized; fragments of bone, represented by brownish white inclusions; while teeth and scales are scattered throughout the sections. That these coprolites are silicified to any great extent, as is the case with many which have been obtained elsewhere, is not borne out by chemical analysis (See below). It is true that silica is present, but it averages only about one-tenth of the whole. The principal con- stituent, however, as might be expected from the food of fishes, is calcium phosphate, averaging about one-half of the entire content. It is possible that some of the calcium phosphate may be secondary, derived from circulating waters; but it is the belief of the writer that the most of it was present in the undigested particles of bone, teeth, and scales. Six examples of coprolites have been subjected to chemical analysis. They are: Sample No. i. Sample No. 2. Sample No. 3. Sample No. 4. Sample No. 5. Sample No. 6. Fish Coprolite. Fish Coprolite encrusted with Iron Sulphide. Coprolite (Amphibian?). Amorphous excrement, fish or amphibian. Several fragments of fish coprolites. (Locality, Morgantown Brick Plant.) Fish Coprolites. (Locality, Athletic Field of New High School.) The analyses here follow: 224 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF COPROLITES. (Made by B. B. Kaplan, Chemist.) Material of Contents Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample No. I No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Silica (Si02) 9 85 4.00 II . 00 8.80 17.20 9.40 Iron Sulphide (FeSg) . . 5-83 17 . 12^ 2.69 3.83 9.02 1-47 Alumina (AI2O3) 2.96 2 . 10 3-70 3-30 4.70 2.96 Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) Calcium Phosphate 24.76 25.80 35-58 35-i6 27.14 0 M 0 (Ca3 (P04)2) 50.21 44.18 40.8s 43.87 35-73 40.43 Organic Matter 4-95 Moisture 0 . 96 1.05 0.88 1 . 20 0.70 I . 12 LovSS on Ignition 5- 12 5.22 3-85 5.05 4-65 Total. 99 52 99.37 99.92 100.01 99-54 100. 12 The Phosphoric Acid included in the Calcium Phosphate is: Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) ... . 22.99 20.27 18.70 20.40 16.62 18.80 It is interesting to note the comparison of the analyses of the coprolites we are studying with the composition of Collophane. In a paper on “The Mineralogy and Petrography of Fossil Bone” Rogers has shown that fossil bones are made up almost entirely of the mineral collophane, (3Ca3 (P04)2 n Ca (CO3, F2, O, SO4), H20)x n = i to 2.), a hydrous calcium carbonate phosphate. It is interesting to note the apparent presence of considerable collophane. There are also other similarities between the two: Collophane Amorphous. Color: variable. Specific gravity 2.6-2.92 Fuses on edges and turns white. Soluble in HNO3 with effervescence. Chemical Compo., sCa^ (P04)2 .n Ca (CO3, F2, O, SO4) (H20)x n = I to 2 Small amounts of Ah, Fe., and Mg. may replace Ca. ^The excess of iron sulphide in sample No. 2 is due to an external coating of iron pyrites. P. H. Price. ^^Mineralogy and Petrography of Fossil Bone, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. XXXV, 1924, pp. 535-556, pis. 26-29. Coprolites (Fish) Amorphous. Color: variable. Sp. Gr. (of those weighed) 2.65-2.78) Fuses slightly and turns light in color. Soluble in HNO3 with effervescence. Chemical Compo., varied amounts of Si02, FeS2, AI2O3, CaC03, Ca3 (P04)2, with small amounts of carbonaceous matter and H2O. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 225 The associated elements are therefore, calcium, silica, iron, alumina, and a small amount of carbonaceous material. Tests were not made for the other elements, fluorine, and magnesium, but it is highly probable that traces would have been found. TEETH, SCALES, AND OTHER REMAINS FOUND ASSO- CIATED WITH THE COPROLITES. Teeth of the Paleoniscus-type. Numerous teeth and scales of fishes were found in the same bed as the coprolites, which have been described in the preceding pages and illustrated upon Plates XI-XVHI, As has been already stated (See page 221) it has been thought to be likely that many of the coprolites should be referred to the genus Paleoniscus. The teeth which are by the writer attributed to the same genus are common in the dark shale overlying the ‘'Coprolite Limestone Horizon.” They are found dissociated from any other part of the skeleton, indicating that they may have been often dropped out long before the death of the fish itself. They also occur in the coprolites themselves (See Plate XV, fig. 3). Most of these teeth are smooth, slightly curved, acute at the tip, and expanded toward the base. In some of the teeth the apex is more acute than in others being almost as sharp as the point of a needle, while a few are rounded at the apex. Those which are especially sharp have a transparent enamel-like apex, while those which are rounded do not. It seems that in the latter the sharp point has been either broken or worn off, so that the apex is nowiilunt or rounded. (See Plate XIX, figs. 6, II, 30-32, 35-37. and 42.) These teeth plainly show the pulp-cavity at the base, conformed to the general outline of the teeth, and extending inwardly about one- third of the length of the tooth. The leVgth of these teeth varies from .94 mm. to 3.25 mm. Paleo- niscus is one of the most widely known of the ganoid fishes, which Fig. 4. The Short-nosed Gar-pike Lepidosteus platystomus Rafinesque. 1/6 nat. size. Mississippi Basin. (After Goode). 226 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. existed from the later Paleozoic into the Mesozoic Age. Its remains are abundant in certain formations. It belongs to the ganoid fishes. Living representatives of this group are the Gar-pike, the Sturgeon, and Amia, the Bow-fin. Newberry in speaking of the genus to which the writer ascribes much of the material collected says: “ Paleoniscus includes twenty or more species, ranging from the Sub-Carboniferous to the Trias. They have fusiform bodies, rhomboidal scales, heterocercal tails, a single dorsal fin, fulcral spines on the anterior margin of all the fins. Their teeth are numerous, conical, and acute. In some species the scales are highly ornamented, in others plain and polished. It was formerly supposed that Carboniferous species generally had plain scales, while those of the Permian were striated. This is now known to be incorrect, as most of the Carboniferous have ornamented scales and head- plates.” We give here illustrations of two species of Paleoniscus, the first (Text fig. 5) being that of a species found in Ohio. Fig. 5. Paleoniscus peltigerus Newberry. la, ib, scales of the same. (Repro- duced from Vol. I, Paleontology of Ohio.) The second species (Text fig. 6) represents a restoration of a species found in Europe. Ganoid Scales. Associated with the teeth which the writer has re- ferred to the genus Paleoniscus are occasionally found scales of the rhomboid type which are characteristic of the ganoid fishes. These are either smooth or striated. In text-figure 7 is given at A a drawing Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 227 Fig. 6. Restoration of Paleoniscus macropomus from the Upper Permian of Germany. (After R. H. Traquair.) of a smooth scale and photographic magnifications of three scales of this description contained in the collection upon which this paper is based. Fig. 7. A. drawing of smooth rhomboid scale of ganoid type; B. C. D, photo- graphs of scales of same type. Magnified about 5 diam. The rhombic scales which have a more or less striated surface are represented in text-figure 8. The first illustration in this cut (a) is a drawing of a cluster of scales, showing their arrangement in life, and figure (b) is a drawing showing the usual arrangement of thestri^on an individual scale. The other figures on the cut (c-j) show various scales from the collection all magnified about five diameters. a « ® * F G H msmw I J Fig. 8. A, cluster of ganoid scales; B, enlarged drawing showing location of striae; C-J, various striated scales in the collection, Magnified about 5 diameters. ■ The scales figured in the foregoing text-figures may represent differences due to location on various parts of the body of the fish, or they may represent two or more species of Paleoniscus. 228 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Teeth of the Diplodus-type. In the same deposits and intermingled with the teeth attributed to Paleoniscus, but far less numerous, are teeth which the writer attributes to the genus Diplodus* (See Plates XX and XXL) The fishes which possessed these teeth were related to Pleuracanthus^^ and are classified as belonging to the Selachii, or sharks. We give in text-figure 9 a restoration of a species of Pleura- canthus from the Lower Permain of Bohemia. Fig. 9. Restored skeleton of Pleur acanthus decheni from the lower Permian of Bohemia, about one-seventh natural size. (After A. Fritsch, except that the paired fins have been reversed in direction) . From “A Guide to the British Museum, 1905, p. 66. In the teeth of this type there is considerable variation in size, but all retain in general the same characteristics, so that they may be grouped under the same genus. The variance in size is probably due to differences in the age and size of the fishes of which they were originally a part. (See Plates XX and XXL) The teeth of these shark-like fishes consist of a rounded or some- what oval bony plate, from the anterior edges of which project two lateral denticles, and a small median denticle (See Plate XX). In the case of many of the specimens the denticles have been broken off, but from those which are present the edges of the denticles are shown to be serrate. Often the denticles are slightly curved, while *NOTE. It is but proper to call attention to the fact that the genus Diplodus Ag. is preoccupied and does not stand. O. P. Hay (Cat. Foss. Vert, of N. A., p. 265) accepts Dittodus Owen, for Diplodus, designating Dittodus divirgens Owen — Diplodus gibbosus Ag., as the type. Jordan (Genera of Fishes, Part II, p. 213) seems to reach no positive decision as to what name should replace Diplodus. It seems, however, that O. P. Hay has solved the difficulty in the most logical manner, if there has been no error in his identifications, and the name Dittodus throughout this paper should probably replace the name Diplodus. W. J. Holland. Pleur acanthus is preoccupied in the Coleoptera, Gray, 1832. It has been re- placed {fide D. S. Jordan) by Diacranodus Garman. Jordan suggests that Ortha- canthus Ag, may be equivalent to Pleur acanthus Ag., which latter name is excluded from the nomenclature of ichthyology. W, J. H. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 229 the angles formed by the union of the denticles to the bony base are sometimes unequal. On the lower side of the base and immediately opposite the median denticle there is a rounded horn-like, bony projection (See fig. lo, A, and Plate XX, fig. 4). On the upper side, or the same side as the denticles, but at the opposite or posterior end is a bony projection that is flattened on the top, which served as a crushing surface (Fig. 10, B; and Plate XXI, figs. 13-16 at D). There are four dental tubuli present, arranged in pairs, one pair entering the bony plate from the under side near the center, and the remaining pair entering at the posterior end, just beneath the crushing surface. (See Plate XX, fig. 3.) Fig. 10. Diagrammatic outlines of inferior and superior faces of tooth referred to Diplodus. A, inferior view; B, superior view. Both views are drawn looking at the teeth from in front, with the denticles, which in the jaw of the fish pointed forward, pointing downward on the cut. a, a, paired tubuli or foramina; h, small median denticle; c, serrated edges of denticles; d, bony crushing tubercle on upper surface of dental plate; e, rounded horn-like projection on under surface of dental plate. CONCLUSIONS. The collection of material for this paper has brought together the largest assemblage of fish coprolites of which the writer has knowledge. Along with the coprolites are found well preserved fish scales of the smooth and striated rhombic types, and also two distinct classes of fish teeth, those which are small and conical, being of the Paleoniscus- type; and those with plates and denticles, being of the Diplodus-type. Along with these were a few spines (See Plate XX, fig. 3.) Several of the coprolites show evidence of having been bored into by some dung-eating animal, while the excrement was still in a soft state. It is the belief of the writer that there is a relation between the number of turns in the digestive tracts of fishes to the number of turns in the excrement, because of the association of the two general types of excrement with the two types of the teeth of fishes. 230 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. The two large coprolites on Plate XVIII, figs, i and 2 found asso- ciated with the other material described in this paper, and containing rhombic fish scales of the ganoid type, because of their great dissim- ilarity to the coprolites of fishes depicted on t-he plates, and the fact that both amphibian and reptilian remains have been discovered at approximalely the same horizon near Pittsburgh, are supposed to be of amphibian or reptilian origin, or both. Fig. i, may be reptilian; fig. 2, amphibian. From the chemical analyses it would seem that between the mineralogy and petrography of coprolites and of fossil bone there is a similarity. It is hoped that further search may reveal more perfect remains, or even entire skeletons, or show cause for their absence. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Before concluding this paper I desire to make acknowledgment of those who have aided me. The study was made possible by the encouragement of Dr. I. C. White, State Geologist of West Virginia. I owe much to the helpful suggestions of Dr. John L. Tilton; the chemical analyses were made by Dr. B. B. Kaplan; the photographic work was done by Professor J. V. Ankeny. Einally I wish to express my thanks to Dr. W. J. Holland, the Editor of the publications of the Carnegie Museum, who carefully went over the manuscript with me and arranged the plates. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dean, Bashford. Fishes Living and Fossil. MacMillan and Com- pany, publishers, 1895. Moodie, Roy L. Paleopathology. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1923. Neumayer, L. Die Koprolithen des Perms von Texas. Paleonto- grafica, 1904, LI, 121-127, I pi. Newberry, J. S. Paleontology, Vol. 1. Geological Survey of Ohio, 1873- ScHROYER, C. R.; Stauffer, C. R.* The Dunkard Series of Ohio. Geol. Surv. Ohio. Fourth Series, Bull. 221, 1920. Rogers, Austin F. Mineralogy and Petrography of Fossil Bone. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. XXXV, Sept. 1924, pp. 535-556, pi. 26-29. Price: Coprolite Horizon of Conemaugh Beds. 231 CoNDiT, D. Dale. Conemaugh Formation. Ohio Geological Survey. Fourth Series, Bull. 17, 1912. British Museum (Natural History). A Guide to the Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fishes. Ninth Edition, 1910. Case, E. C. Description of Vertebrate Fossils from the Vicinity of Pittsburgh, Pa. Annals of Carnegie Museum, Vol. IV, 1908, pp. 234-241, I pi. Newberry, J. S. U. S. Geol. Surv., Monograph XVI. The Paleozoic Fishes of North America, 1889. 232 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. Reproduction of Morgantown Quadrangle, U. S. Geological Survey. Scale: i inch=i mile. Localities indicated by heavy-faced numbers. 1. Excavation for the foundation of the Stadium of the West Virginia University (now covered by the Stadium). 880 B. 2. Keck’s Quarry, Westover. 890 B. 3. Athletic Field of New High School. 900 B. 4. Morgantown Brick Plant. 850 B. 5. Red Bridge near Fairmor. 885 B. 6. Ravine below fill, East Morgantown. 885 B. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII. Plate X. Morgantown Quadrangle, U. S. Geological Survey. Scale : one inch = one mile. 234 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL COPROLITES OF FiSHES. (Magnified one and one-third diam.) These coprolites clearly show the bands of material, which are laid one on another, and thus form the mass. The excrement was dropped on the bottom (in this case composed of fine mud) and buried therein; for, if they had been exposed for considerable time to the action of water, their outlines showing arrangement would have been destroyed, and their content would have been scattered. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL.XVII. Plate XI. Coprolites of Fishes. Magnified 1.33 diam. 236 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. CoPROLiTES OF FiSHES (Magnified one and one-third diam). This plate is a continuation of Plate XI, and the explanation of Plate XI applies equally well to Plate XII. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XYII. Plate XII. Coprolites of Fishes. Magnified 1.33 diam. 238 Annals of the Caknegie Msueum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIIL Figs. 1-29. Small Coprolites. Magnified 1-1/6 diam. Figs. 30-38. Minute coprolites. Magnified 6 diam ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVIL Plate XIIL Coprolites of Fishes, ■i*'W**M^*< ^ '.'*. ■■ ,'. ' . .i- ,'V' ' '■ ■•■'''■■ - y ,v ‘ ' ^\y ,Vi •'■ .' V ■ • '. ' ' V ■ v .'‘s«‘i?' V ‘. ■’ ■ . ' ■ 8S - ■'>' 'i r,,. ,' I .•• 10 y ,' < :.v V , ,t< ' wvv’a, , •! .■ 'i»4. ■■’ 'i’ ' '■ . ; „■ .\ U' 1 .= ■ ■ ,-. ■ •' N.- f ’■■ ■'. ■•' ‘ ■’ i. ■ i'W ■'■ . '? vv‘ • ■r , :. ^ . V .' ' '... l" .■ i ■ • ,#■' " 1,- ,:iT' fSIfegsP^.' 2^'i:''’ ■' ■'*’ * .^.V: ■■ •■ ■' • ' ■'^': ' ■'). m -i ’s> ■ j;!';-'/.*' n:';,,’-', 'iV 4 ’ ' '‘'y::)'’ '"'. * 'V , V' ''.’"'"tr''^i, ' ’. \ '' . ■• ’ .» ■ '.4: ■ • ■ ■ > "J. ' '■«. K .^..? '• " 11 ^ f-- 4.;,vo, / ' ■ -1 /■ . ■'•' *< W 240 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. Figs. 1-17. Coprolites of fishes. Magnified 3 diam. Figs. 18-19. Coprolites of fishes, probably of the Diplodus-tyx^Q- Magnified 3 diam. annals CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVIL Plate XIV. Coprolites of Fishes, Magnified 3 diam. 242 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. Fig. I. Coprolite somewhat flattened, showing undigested material, particularly scales at A. Magnified 6 diam. Fig. 2. Coprolite of fish. Magnified 6 diam. The writer believes that this type of coprolite should be attributed to the genus Paleoniscus. Fig. 3. Coprolite with included tooth at B. Paleoniscus. Magnified 5I diam. ANNALS CARNl LI li -.EUM, VoL XVII. Plate XV. Coprolites of Fishes (greatly magnified). ’I ’ '■it' t r‘l„> '■?i' > T-r -'-}, ; i 244 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVL Burrows or worm borings. These coprolites, with several others in the collection present evidence that they have been bored after deposition. Fig. I. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 2. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 3. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 4. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 5. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 6. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 7. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 8. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig. 9. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Fig, 10. Coprolite of fish showing boring. Magnified 7 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2,5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Magnified 2.5 diam. Coprolites showing burrows or borings, (Magnified.) Plate XVL Vol. XVII. f \ S ■; -.; i m •<' ■' 'H^y- f' • ' '^' ' '„ •■ ) •■1 ; •is i «'v i ■ c- '>> U-'- ’f: -Jl- ■ n -[' .'-K ''.S!^*j''. , ’. ■; 'V ’•■'• , '■ i • ;V •'■. '■V 246 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI 1. Transverse Sections of Coprolites. Figs. 1-2. Transverse sections of Coprolites. Magnified 5.5 diam. Note the spiral structure shown in the sections, and the undigested particles of food. Fig. 3. Transverse section of Coprolite. Magnified 15 diam. Note the spicules of bone. * ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVIL Plate XVII. Transverse Sections of Coprolites. (greatly magnified). 248 Annals of the Caknegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIIL COPROLITES CONTAINING GANOID SCALES. Fig. I. The specimen has the appearance of being spiral, but in reality the copro- lite is divided into two lobes by a constriction above its middle. It may be of reptilian origin. Magnified 1.5 diam. Fig. 2. This coprolite is without spiral structure, but has a groove running lengthwise on either side. Natural size. It may be amphibian in its origin. Fig. 3. Fragment of a broken spine. Magnified 17 diam. annals CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVII. Plate XVIII. Coprolltes and Spine. (See opposite page.) 250 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX. Fossil Teeth of Fishes Attributed to Paleoniscus. Figs. 1-28. Paleoniscus. Magnified 4 diam. Note the transparent tips of some of them, e, g. Nos. i, 5, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, and 26. Fig. 29. Fragment of tooth. Magnified 3 diam. Fig. 30. Note pulp cavity at upper end. Magnified 3 diam. Figs. 31-37. Magnified 4 diam. Note the rounded and blunt ends of Nos. 30, 31, 32, and 35-37- Figs. 38-43. Magnified 10 diam. Note the sharp transparent points of these teeth. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVIL Plate XIX. Fossil teeth attributed to Palaoniscus, 252 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX. Inferior view of Teeth attributed to genus Diplodus. Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Tooth of Diplodus. Tooth of Diplodus. Tooth of Diplodus. Tooth of Diplodus. Magnified 3.5 diam. Magnified 3.5 diam. Magnified 3.5 diam. Magnified 8 diam. The specimen represented in fig. 4 is the same specimen represented in fig. 3, the higher magnification serving to better reveal the details. A, dental tubuli; B, bony dental plate; C, denticles; D, bony horn-like projection. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVII. Plate XX. Inferior view of teeth attributed to Diplodus. i / -I /■ r , \ ; Jp- \iScJhr '- : sr- ’ '* V: ■ ^ ■■ I 254 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXL Teeth attributed to Diplodus. Figs. 1-12. Magnified 3 diam. In most cases the denticles have been broken from the dental plate. All of these twelve specimens show a scar for the median denticle, when it is not present. Figs. 13-16. Magnified 3.5 diam. The bony tubercle, which was used as a crushing surface is shown in all these specimens, and is indicated by the letter “D.” Figs. 17-18. Magnified 7 diam. The enlargement serves to bring out some of the details of structure in the denticles, one of which in each case is present. Plate XXL annals CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVII. Teeth attributed to Diplodus. VII. THE INFERIOR DENTITION OF A YOUNG MASTODON. By O. a. Peterson. Since describing the Pleistocene remains from the Frankstown Cave, which are preserved in the Carnegie Museum, it was decided to further investigate the lower jaws of the young Mastodon, No. 2332. ^ Fig. I. Skiagraph of anterior milk-teeth in lower jaw of a young specimen of Mastodon americanus Kerr, from the Frankstown Cave. (C. M. Cat. Vert. Foss. No. 2332). I, Anterior milk-tooth, fully erupted; 2. Second milk-tooth, also fully erupted; 3. Third milk-tooth, partly erupted. D. C. Dentary canal; L. B. Lower border of mandible; X. Point where the dentary canal bifurcates, sending forth branches to the exits of the anterior and posterior mental foramina. (Slightly reduced from the original.) ^Annals Cam. Mus., XVI, 1926, pp. 274-275. 255 256 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. The investigation was undertaken in order to determine whether or not there might be found any evidence of the existence of teeth in the process of development in the jaw below’ the erupted milk molars. Accordingly an X-ray photograph of the left side of the mandible was taken, and a section of the inner w^all of t‘he jaw, opposite the anterior cheek-teeth was carefully removed, thus laying bare the wTole region of the roots and dental canal on the inner side. In making the X-ray photograph it w^as of course necessary to put the plate between the jaw^s, \vhich are firmly united at the symphysis, and wTich it w^ould have been sheer vandalism to have separated in order to obtain an outer view’. There is not space enough between the jaw^s to introduce an X-ray machine, w’hile there was space enough to introduce the plate. The record given upon the X-ray photograph (Fig. i) is therefore a view’ of the teeth in the left low’er jaw, seen from the inner side of that jawx The tooth shown at the right of the photograph is the anterior milk-molar, the next to it is the second milk-molar, and only a part of the third tooth is shown. The skiagraph show^s that the roots of the tw’o anterior teeth extend w’ell dowm tow'^ard the dentary canal and are seen to be normally developed. While the crow’n of the third tooth is complete in form and nearly erupted, the tooth as a w’hole is a mere shell, surrounding a large cavity. The fourth tooth is completely lodged in the ascending ramus. Its crown is completely formed, but its roots at the time of ' Fig. 2. Drawing of the inner face of the section of the lower mandible, which was removed from the inner side of the left lower jaw in order to expose to view the roots of the first and second milk-molars. One-half natural size. i. Cavity occupied by the posterior root of first milk-molar; 2-3, cavities occupied by the roots of the second milk-molar. D.C. Dentary canal; X. Cavity for the accom- modation of the internal branch of the bifurcated anterior root of the second milk-molar. L.B. Lower border; a. front; p. rear. Peterson: Inferior Dentition of Young Mastodon. 257 the death of the animal were not thoroughly calcified, but evidently were more or less pulpy, and still in the nascent or formative state. The dental canal is large and has two anterior exits. (See Ann. C. M., Vol. XVI, pi. XXII.) Directly inside and below the anterior root of the second cheek- tooth there is a small cavity just above the roof of the dental canal, which at first was thought might be a cavity, containing the budding germ of a tooth (See fig. 2, at X). However, more intensive investi- gation has revealed the fact that the extreme end of the anterior root of the second molar is divided, and that this cavity accommodates the tip of this bifurcated root. It is therefore plain that this specimen, which has been minutely and critically studied furnishes no evidence whatever of a vertical succession of cheek-teeth in Mastodon americaniis. VIII. THE FRESH WATER FISHES OF THE RIUKIU ISLANDS, JAPAN. By David Starr Jordan and Shigeho Tanaka. (Plates XXII-XXIII.) The Riukiu {Liukiu, Loochoo) Archipelago consists of a large number of small rocky islands beset by coral reefs, extending from Tanega-shima {shima meaning island, jima for euphony in composi- tion) and Yaku-shima off the southern coast of Kiusiu { Kyushyit) in Japan. These form a curve in a south-southwesterly direction for about four hundred miles, approaching the island of Formosa {Taiwan). The archipelago is divided into three groups. In the northernmost the chief island is Amami-Oshima, about thirty miles in length. In the middle group the chief island is called Okinawa {Okinawa- jima) about fifty miles long, on which at its southern end is the chief town of the Archipelago, Naha. Near Okinawa is the small island of Kume. The third, or southern group, approaches Formosa and its chief island is Ishigaki-jima. Besides this island, which is about fifteen miles long, are the smaller islands of Iriomoto, about seven miles, and Yonakuni and Mihako each about five miles in length. In addition to these main islands there are a multitude of smaller islets, and many isolated rocks. On the larger islands are a few short rivers, the Kawa (or Kawagawa in composition), in which are many small fishes not hitherto studied by anyone. These for the most part are identical with those inhabiting similar streams in southern Japan, while most of the species are now restricted to small streams. The entire fauna so far as known was originally derived from marine types. The collection of thirty-four species here recorded was obtained by Mr. H. Kuroiwa for, the Imperial University of Tokyo. Specimens were brought by the junior author to Stanford University, where the present paper was written. A series of specimens is in the Imperial University, Tokyo, at Stanford University, and in the Carnegie Museum, the latter institution being made the depository of the type of the single new species, Tridentiger kuroiwcE. The tWo species of domesticated CyprinidcB, and the species representing the Ana- hantidcB apparently have been brought over from the mainland of 259 260 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. China or Japan. The streams examined are the Kominato River in Amami-Oshima; the Yabu and the Hizya in Okinawa; the Ara, Nakura, Todoroki, and Miyara in Ishigaki; the Kominato, Yakkachi, Kawauchi, and Futatai in Amami-Oshima; besides streams in Yonakuni. Family MEGALOPID^. Megalops Lacepede. I. Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet). Clupea cyprinoides Broussonet, Ichthyol., 1782, pi. IX, Island of Tanna, South Pacific. Native name: Ashichin (Ishigaki). Eight specimens 115 to 200 mm. long were obtained; of these one on Amami-Oshima, in July, 1919; and all the rest in Ishigaki. Of the Ishigaki specimens, one was taken in purely fresh water, four in an inlet into which the Nakura River empties itself, and two in the Ara River. Head 3.3 to 3.69 in length without caudal; depth 3.3 to 3.63; eye 3 to 3.46 in head; interorbital 4.47 to 5.23; snout 3.84 to 4.27; depth of caudal peduncle 2.65 to 3.17; maxillary 1.76 to 1.9. D. IV, 14 to 16; A. II or III, 22 to 24; scales in lateral line 36 to 38. The species abounds in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Pacific, extending its range to southern Japan and China. It lives in brackish water, not infrequently entering rivers. One specimen. Cam. Mus. Cat. of Fishes, No. 8291, 170 mm., from the Ara River, Ishigaki. Family CHANID^. Chanos Lacepede. 2. Chanos chanos (Forskal). Mugil chanos Forskal, Descript. Animal., 1775, p. 76, Red Sea at Djidda, Arabia. Mugil salmoneus (Forster) Bloch and Schneider, Syst, Ichth., 1801, p. 121, Pacific Ocean. Native name: Hanematsu (Yonakuni). Five, specimens 90 to 170 mm. long were secured; of these three were caught in the ditches of the rice-fields in the village of Kateparu, Iniyako; one in the lower course of the Miyara River, Ishigaki; and one (Carnegie Museum Cat. Fishes, No. 8292) in Yonakuni in Feb- ruary, 1923. Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 261 The species is very common along the shores of islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans in tropical and subtropical regions. It also occurs, though much more rarely, in southern Japan in swamps and ponds, which are more or less influenced by tides. The species of Hawaii and the west coast of Mexico, Chanos cyprinella, has been regarded as different, having smaller scales (91), a distinction we now fail to verify. Chanos lubina seems different. Family PLECOGLOSSID^. Plecoglossus Temminck and Schlegel. 3. Plecoglossus altivelis Temminck and Schlegel. Plecoglossus altivelis Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Poiss., 1866, p. 229, pi. CV, fig. I, Nagasaki. Native name: Yazi (Amami-Oshima). Of eight specimens before us, ratiging in length from 1 10 to 155 mm., five were from Amami-Oshima; and three from Kunchan, Okinawa. The species ranges southward in clear streams from the southern part of the Hokkaido throughout Japan and the Riukiu Islands, to Korea, China, and Formosa. One specimen. Cam. Mus. Cat. Fishes, No. 8293, 95 mm., from Amami-Oshima. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8294, 140 mm., from Okinawa. Family FLUTID^. Fluta Bloch and Schneider. {Les Monopteres Lacepede). 4. Fluta alba (Zuieuw). Murcena alba Zuieuw, Nov. Act. Ac. Sci. PetropoL, 1793, p. 299, PI. VII, fig. 2. Le Menoptere javanois Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss., II, 1798, p. 139, Java. (Name in French only.) Monopterus javanensis Bloch and Schneider, Syst. Ichth., 1801, p. 565, after Lacepede. Native name: Taho (Amami-Oshima); Too-unajaa (Okinawa). Four specimens, 250 to 300 mm. long, were secured in Okinawa in 1912. The species is widespread in the fresh waters and rice-ditches of China, Korea, Formosa, and southward to Siam, India, Java, and Borneo, and northward to southern Japan. It occurs very rarely about Tokyo and Kyoto. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8295, 250 mm., from Okinawa. 262 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Family ANGUILLID^. Anguilla (Thunberg) Shaw. 5. Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel. Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Poiss., 1846, p. 258, pi. CXIII, fig. 2, Nagasaki. Native names: Taa-unajaa, Unajaa, or Nohounajaa (Okinawa). {Noha means mud.) The relative proportions of the several parts of the body are very variable, so that definite distinctions among the species of Anguilla cannot very clearly be made out. The length of the pectoral com- pared with the length of snout and eye, is not constant. The species is found very abundantly in Japan, Korea, China, the Riukiu Islands, and Formosa. In Japan it is very common from the southern part of the Hokkaido southward, running up very scantily, however, in the rivers emptying into the sea of Japan. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8296, 320 mm., from Ishigaki. 6. Anguilla marmorata Quoy and Gaimard. Anguilla marmorata Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Uranie, 1824, p. 241, pi. LI, fig. 2, Waigiu. Native name: Kawara-unai (Ishigaki) for Kawaunagi, or river-eel. Five specimens 195 to 375 mm. long ; one from Hizya River, Okinawa ; three from Ishigaki; and one from Miyako. Preanal length in postanal 1.22 to 1.66. Length of head in the distance between verticals through the origins of dorsal and anal 1.04 to 1.2 1. The species is very variable in the relative proportions of the several parts of the body, as in Anguilla japonica', the head is in most cases a little shorter than the distance between verticals through the origins of dorsal and anal, but the contrary not infrequently occurs. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8297, 290 mm., from Ishigaki. Family CYPRINIDT:. Cyprinus Linnaeus. 7. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. Cyprinus carpio Linna;us, Syst. Nat., Ed. X, 1758, p. 320, and of all authors. Four specimens from a pond in Okinawa. They were taken from the rivers when young and reared in the pond. D. Ill, 16 to 18; A. II, or III, 5. Scales in lateral line 31 to 35. This species and the next have apparently been introduced from China or Japan. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8298, 180 mm., from Okinawa. Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 263 Carassius Nilsson. 8. Carassius auratus (Linnaeus). Cyprinus auratus Linn^us, Syst. Nat., Ed. X, 1758, p. 322, China, Japan (do- mesticated variety). Native names: Taa-zu or Tatuthu (Miyako), taa means rice-field and zu means fish. Here the species is locally indiscriminately called by the same name with Kuhlia rupestris. Thirty-seven specimens were secured from various streams: twenty- three in Amami-Oshima; four in Yabu river, Okinawa; two in Ishigaki; five in Miyako; and three in Yonakuni in 1923. D. Ill, 16 to 18; A. II or III, 5; scales 6-26 to 29-4 or 5. The species is widely distributed throughout eastern Asia. Twenty-two specimens, Cam. Mus., No. 8299; the largest 175 mm., from the Riukiu Islands. Family COBITID.^. Misgurnus Lacepede. 9. Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor). Cobitis anguillicaudatus Cantor, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (i) IX, 1842, p. 485, Chusan, China. Cobitis rubripinnis Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Jap., Poiss., 1846, p. 220, pi. cm,, fig. I, Nagasaki. Cobitis maculata Temminck and Schlegel, 1. c., p. 221, fig. 2, Nagasaki. Misgurnus punctatus Oshima, Ann. Z06I. Jap., II, 1926, No. i, p. 5, Hainan, China. Native names: Jojo (Amami-Oshima); Dongee (Ishigaki); Dojo (Japan). The specimens before us agree well with those from Japan, except that there is no spot at the upper base of caudal fin in the adults, but four small specimens, ranging in length from 35 to 50 mm., have that spot very distinct. The specimens from Japan also lack the spot at caudal base in very many cases. Dr. Oshima is right in recognizing that two species of Misgurnus occur in Formosa, while we believe that Japan has but a single species, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Misgurnus decemcirrhosus of Basilewsky from Peking is probably identical with Misgurnus anguillicaudatus from Japan. Dr. Cantor’s originals, being the types from Chusan, China, were re-examined by Mr. Regan, at the request of Dr. Jordan (Jordan and Snyder, 1906) and seem to belong to the same species as the Japanese form. Mis- gurnus decemcirrhosus of Oshima is in all probability identical with Cobitis hifurcata or Cobitis pectoralis of McClelland from India, and is apparently not the same as the M. decemcirrhosus of Basilewsky. 264 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Head 4.85 to 5.17 in length without caudal; depth 5.83 to 7.33; eye 5.6 to 7.5 in head; interorbital 5.6 to 7; snout 2.5 to 3.25; depth of caudal peduncle 1.56 to 1.87; D. 7 or 8; A. 7; p. 9 or 10; V. 6; C. (counting branched rays only) 19 or 15; scales in longitudinal rows, 138 to 145. Our collection includes seven specimens from Amami-Oshima; two from Kume, near Okinawa; and sixteen from Ishigaki, the longest no mm. One specimen, Cam. Mus., No. 8300, 80 mm., from Amami-Oshima. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8301, 80 mm., from Kume. One specimen. Cam. Mus., No. 8302, 90 mm,, from Ishigaki. Family CYPRINODONTID^. Oryzias Jordan and Snyder. 10. Oryzias latipes (Temminck and Schlegel). Poecilia latipes Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Japohica, Poiss., 1866, p. 226, pi. CII, fig. 5, Nagasaki. Native names: Tayu (Amami-Oshima); Takami or Takamigua (Okinawa). The specimens in hand came from Amami-Oshima and Okinawa and range up to 34 mm. in length. D. 6; A. 17 or 18; scales, 30. The species ranges from southern and middle Japan southward through the Riukiu Islands and Korea to China and Formosa. Five specimens, Cam. Mus., No. 8303, 25 to 34 mm., from Okinawa. Family MUGILID^. Mugil Linnaeus. II. Mugil'cephalus Linn^us. Mugil cephalus Linn^us, Syst. Nat., Ed. X, 1758, p. 316, European Oceans (based on Artedi). Mugil albula Linn.®us, Syst. Nat., Ed, XII, 1766, p. 520, Charleston, S. C. Mugil japonicus Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Jap., Poiss., 1846, p. 134, pi. LXXII. Mugil borlandieri Girard, U. S. and Mex Bound. Surv., 20, 1859, PI. X, figs, i to 4, St. Josephs Island, Indianola, Brazos, Santiago, Galveston, and the coast of Texas. Three specimens, 105 to 150 mm. long, from Amami-Oshima. We still find no valid tangible differences between European and Oriental specimens identified as Mugil cephalus. In case differences are de- tected, the Japanese fish should stand as Mugil japonicus. Mugil Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 265 soiuy Basilewsky, Ichth. China, 1856, p. 226, pi. IV, fig. 3, (Tschili) seems to us to be identical with Liza menada Tanaka. One specimen, Cam. Mus., No. 8304, 145 mm., from Amami- Oshima. Liza Jordan and Swain. 12. Liza troscheli (Bleeker). Mugil troscheli Bleeker, Tijdsdis. Nederl. Ind., XVI, 1858-9, p. 277, East Indies. A single specimen 130 mm. long from the Ara River, Ishigaki, Cam. Mus., No. 8305. The species occurs in Samoa, New Guinea, the East Indies, the Philippines, Formosa, and the Riukiu Islands. Family CARANGID^E. Caranx Lacepede. 13. Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy and Gaimard. Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy and Gaimard,, Voy. Uranie., 1824, p. 358, pL LXV, fig. 4, “les isles des Papous.” (Young, two inches and three lines long.) Caranx forsteri Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 1833, IX, p. 107, (Isle of France; Coast of Malabar; Celebes; New Guinea; New Ireland; Vani- colo) . Caranx flavocaruleus Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Poiss., 1866, p. no, pi. I, fig. 2, Nagasaki. Carangus rhabdotus Jenkins, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., XXII, 1903, p. 466, fig. 16, Honolulu (5.5 inches long, half-grown). Five specimens, 59 to 80 mm. long from Amami-Oshima, near mouth of river. Head 2.93 to 3.02 in length without caudal; depth 2.42 to 2.52; eye 2.91 to 3.9; maxillary 2 to 2.40; pectoral 1.21 to 1.61; D. VIII—I, 19 to 21; A. II. I, 16 or 17; scutes 27 to 32. The specimens before us are all young, with faint crossbands, of which the anteriormost runs across the eye; the next from nape to opercle; the third and fourth beneath first dorsal; and the last, the faintest of all, through the axil of second dorsal. A diffuse faint spot present on opercle and a small but distinct spot above the upper end of gill-opening; these spots being obsolete in some specimens. The species is widely distributed through the South Seas, the East Indies, the coasts of India, Hawaii, Formosa, the Riukiu Islands and Japan, where it is found north along the coast to Tokyo. One specimen, Cam. Mus., No. 8306, 60 mm., from Amami- Oshima. 266 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. 14. Caranx ignobilis (Forskal). Scomber ignobilis ForskAl, Descript. Animal., 1775, p. 55, Red Sea. Carangus hippoides Jenkins, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., XXII, 1903, p. 663, fig. 15, Honolulu. Two young specimens, respectively 74 and 78 mm. long, from Ara River, Ishigaki. Head 2.73 to 3 in length without caudal; depth 2.4 to 2.63; eye 3.00 to 3.36 in head; snout 3.14 to 3.61; maxillary 2.35 to 2.57; pec- toral 1. 16 to 1. 18; D. I, 8-1, 19 to 22; A. II, I, 15 to 18; scutes 30 to 32. Of the five faint cross-bars as wide as diameter of the eye, the first is beneath anterior part of first dorsal; the second beneath posterior part of the dorsal and anterior part of second dorsal; the next two bands beneath the latter fin; and the last, the faintest of the bands, on the caudal peduncle; two very faint bars are present, one across the nape, and one across the eye; no spot on opercle or above gill-opening. The young of Caranx ignobilis has been confounded with that of Caranx sexfasciatus by many recent authors, as the two species closely resemble each other. The young of the two, however, are distin- guishable from each other by the subgeneric character of the scaly breast of Caranx sexfasciatus, which allies it to Caranx latus of America. The following key will separate the two at all ages: a . Breast entirely scaled ; very small but distinct blackish spot above gill-opening; eight distinct cross-bands across head and body; third and fourth bands beneath first dorsal, the third more or less invading the nape, .sexfasciatus aa. Breast naked, except a small patch of minute scales in front of ventrals; no spot above gill-opening; seven rather distinct cross-bands across the head and body; third band beneath anterior part of first dorsal not at all invading region of nape; fourth band beneath posterior part of first dorsal and anterior part of second dorsal latus The species is widely distributed in the South Seas, Panama, Hawaii, the East Indies, Red Sea, Formosa, the Riukiu Islands, and southern Japan. It runs a short distance up stream within tidal influence in Ishigaki. One specimen, 70 mm., from Amami-Oshima, Cam. Mus., No. 8307. Family APOGONIDT:. Apogon Lacepede. 15. Apogon amboinensis Bleeker. (PI. XXIH, fig. 4). Apogon amboinensis Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind., V, 1853, p. 329, Amboina. Native name: Santa' a (Ishigaki). Three specimens 70 to 80 mm. long, all full of ripe eggs, from the JoKDAN & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 267 lower portion of Miyara River, Ishigaki, agree very well with Bleeker’s figures, (Atlas Ichth., pi. CCCXLVI {Perc., pi. LXVIII) fig. i). The species is found in the East Indies where according to Bleeker it occurs both in the sea and in rivers. It runs up Miyara River in waters influenced by the tide. One specimen, Cam. Mus., No. 8308, 70 mm., from Miyara River, Ishigaki. Family KUHLIID^. Kuhlia Gill. 16. Kuhlia rupestris Lacepede. Centropomus rupestris Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss., IV, 1803, pp. 252, 273. Native names: Miko (Tanega) ; Nukyu or Mikyu (Amami-Oshima) ; Mikyu or Nchu (Okinawa); Kawara-miihikari (Ishigaki); Taazu (Miyako); where the species is locally called without discrimination by the same name as Carassius auratus] Misoda (Yonakuni). Thirty-four specimens of the species 60 to 250 mm. long were obtained; ten in Futatsu River, Amami-Oshima; sixteen at Kunchan, Okinawa; four in Nakura River, Ishigaki; three in the upper stream of Miyara River; and one in Yonakuni. Head 2.89 to 3.49 in length without caudal; depth 2.6 to 2.98; eye 2.91 to 4.18 in head; interorbital 3.18 to 3.68; snout 3.28 to 4.67; depth of caudal peduncle 2.31 to 3.58; maxillary 2.09 to 2.69. D. IX, I, II ; A. Ill, 10 or II ; scales in lateral line 39 to 42; g'ill-rakers below arch, 17. We find two species of Kuhlia in this collection, these evidently corresponding to Kuhlia rupestris and Kuhlia marginata of Boulenger’s Catalogue and of the Fishes of Samoa by Jordan and Seale. Whether additional species of this type exist, and if all of the assumed synonymy of either is correct, we are not certain. Kuhlia rupestris has the caudal fin not deeply forked, the lobes blunt. Compared with Kuhlia marginata the snout is longer, about as long as the moderate eye; the mouth is smaller; the maxillary not reaching middle of eye; the body is a little deeper and the coloration is darker. The soft dorsal has a rather broad black band within its margin; each lobe of caudal has a black band crossing obliquely from, the upper to the posterior margin; outer angles of the caudal pale; anal with a brownish band at base. Three specimens. Cam. Mus., No. 8309, 90-240 mm., from Okinawa. 17. Kuhlia marginata (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Dules marginatus Cuvier and Valenciennes, Nat. Hist. Poiss., Ill, 1829, p. 116, pi. 29, Java. This species is found with the preceding (but less abundant) in streams throughout the Riukiu Islands. The back is almost plain 268 Annals of the Carnegie Museum, silvery; in others the body is everywhere closely and irregularly spotted above, as in K. rupestris, but less sharply. None of our examples show the black median cross-bar on the caudal shown in Cuvier’s figure of Dules marginatus. Kuhlia marginata is slenderer than Kuhlia rupestris, and paler, with larger eye and smaller mouth, the snout not longer than eye, and the maxillary not reaching middle of eye. The soft dorsal, anal, and especially the caudal, are con- spicuously margined with black. The gill-rakers, i6 to i8, below on lower limb of the arch, are the same in the two species. Both species are found in Samoa, and probably in the streams of the smaller islands throughout the South Seas. They are subject to considerable variation, especially in color. Four specimens. Cam. Mus., No. 8310, 100-165 mm., from Okinawa. Family LUTIANID.T:. Lutianus Bloch. 18. Lutianus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard). Diacope vaigiensis Quoy and Gaimard, Voyage Uranie, 1824, p. 307, Waigiou. Mesoprion kagoshimce Doderlei^, MS. in Steindachner and Doderlein, Fische Japans, 1883, p, 28, Kagoshima in Japan. Native name: Yamatobea (Ishigaki). Two specimens, respectively 90 and 95 mm. long, were taken in the lower part of the Miyara River, Ishigaki. The species ranges widely from north Australia, the South Seas and Indian Coasts, through the East Indies and Philippine Islands to the Riukiu Islands and southern Japan. It ascends the mouths of rivers for a short distance. Cam. Mus., No. 8311, 95 mm., from Miyara River, Ishigaki. 19. Lutianus argentimaculatus (Forskal). Scicena ar gentimaculata Forskal, Descript. Anim., 1775, p. S3, Djidda, Arabia. Two specimens, respectively 160 and 165 mm. long, from the mouth of the Ara River. D. X, 13 or 14; A. Ill, 7; scales above lateral line 50 or 51; caudal fin slightly emarginate. Color in formalin brownish, each scale darker at base; dorsal and caudal dusky; posterior margin of the latter and free margin of spinous dorsal darker; soft portion of dorsal darker inter-radially, becoming fainter toward free margin; anal and ventral dark dusky for the most part; anterior and posterior parts of the former, and the outer and inner margin of the latter, whitish; pectoral whitish, without markings. The species is found abundantly from the South Seas and Red Sea through the Philippines and Formosa to the Riukiu Islands, where JoKDAN & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes^ Riukiu Islands. 269 it goes a short distance up the rivers. It also occurs very rarely in southern Japan, where it enters the lower portions of the rivers. It is well known under the name of “dokugyo” (meaning poison-fish), in Izu, Japan. Cam. Mus., No. 8312, 165 mm., from the Ara River. Family SPARID.F:. Spares Linnaeus. 20. Sparus macrocephalus (Basilewsky). Pagrus macrocephalus Basilewsky, Ichth. Chin. Bor., 1852, p. 222, pi. I, fig. 3, Peking. Chrysophrys swinhonis Gunther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (4) XIII, 1874, p. 155, Chifu, China. Six specimens up to 190 mm. long were secured, one from Amami- Oshima and the others in the Ara River, Ishigaki. A. Ill, 7 or 8; scales 6-49 or 50-13. The species ranges from northern China and Japan through the Riukiu Islands to Formosa, ascending streams far beyond tidal influence. One -specimen, Cam. Mus., No. 8313, 140 mm., from the Ara River, Ishigaki. Family OSPHORONEMID^. Macropodus Lacepede. {Polyacanthus Kuhl and Van Hasselt). 21. Macropodus opercularis (Linnaeus). Lahrus opercularis Linn^us, Syst. Nat., Ed. X, 1758, p. 283, (caudal forked). IChcetodon chinensis Bloch, Ausl, Fische, 1790, pi. CXVII, fig. i, China (caudal rounded) . Macropodus filamentosus Oshima, Ann. Carnegie Mus. XII, 1919, p. 278, pi. LII, fig. 2, (Kotosho, Formosa) median rays strongly produced. Native names: Toyu (Okinawa) meaning a -Chinese fish, not “fighting fish,” as stated by most authors. Several specimens, the longest 85 mm. in length, were taken at Motobo in Okinawa, where it abounds in the ditches of rice-fields. Snout 3.6 to 6; D. XIII or XIV— 6 or 7; A. XVIII or XIX— 15; P. II ; V. I, 5; C. (branched rays only), ii or 13, the fin forked; scales 32; no lateral line; first soft ray of ventral produced into a single filament. The species abounds in China, Cochin-China, Formosa, Korea, and 270 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the Riukiu Islands. Recently the species has been imported to Tosa (Skikoku), Tokyo, Kashiwazaki (Province of Echigo) etc., where it establishes itself very well in stagnant waters. As the species is very hardy in habit, thriving where imported, we conclude that the indi- viduals in the Riukiu Islands and perhaps in Formosa are descended from fishes brought from China. It is questionable whether Macro- podus, a semi-domesticated form, is not simply a cultivated variant of the native group later called Polyacanthus. Mr. George S. Myers regards the form with rounded caudal, known as chinensis, as being distinct from the forked-tailed M. opercularis. Cam. Mus., No. 8314, one specimen, 60 mm., from Motobo, Okinawa. Family POMACENTRIDT:. PoMACENTRUS Lacepede. 22. Pomacentrus chrysopoecilus Kuhl and Van Hasselt. Pomacentrus chrysopoecilus Kuhl and Van Hasselt, in Schlegel, Overz. Amphi- prion, 1839, p. 21, pi. V, fig. 3. Pomacentrus notostigmus Richardson, Voy. Sulph., Ichth., 1846, p. 89, pi. XLIV, figs. I, 2. Three specimens from 104 to 130 mm. long, from the lower course of Miyara River, Ishigaki, within tidal influence. Head 3.23 to 3.69 in length without caudal; depth 2.12 to 2.39; eye 3.57 to 3.8 in head; interorbital 2.8 to 3.64; snout 2.8 to 3.57. D. XIII, 16; A. II, 16; scales 28. Color dark, with yellow tints, the fins all black; a white spot below spinous dorsal. The species is found from the East Indies and the Philippines north to the Riukiu Islands, where it runs a short distance up the streams. Cam. Mus., No. 8315, one, 108 mm., from Miyara River, Ishigaki. Family ELEOTRIDT:. Eleotris (Gronow) Bloch and Schneider. 23. Eleotris fusca (Schneider). Poecilia fusca Schneider, Bloch, Syst., 1801, p. 653. (After Cobitis pacifica Foster MS., Insulce orientates.) Eleotris oxycephala Temminck and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Poiss., 1845, p. 150, pi. LXXVII, figs. 4, 5. Nagasaki (45 scales in typical specimens.) Native names: Uha (Amami-Oshima) ; lihu (Okinawa); Gokke (Ishigaki); Doro (Yonakuni). We have twenty-eight specimens of this species ranging in length from 55 to 170 mm. Five are from the Yamato River, Amami- Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 271 Oshima; eleven from the Yabu River, Okinawa; one from Miyako; sixteen from the Ara River in Ishigaki; and one from Yonakuni. On closely comparing these specimens with many others in Stanford University labelled Eleotris fusca, from the Philippines, Sumatra, New Caledonia, and Samoa, we are compelled to unite Eleotris oxycephala of Japan with Eleotris fusca. Four specimens from Okinawa and one from Miyako have 56 to 58 scales in a longitudinal series; the rest all having 50 to 66. In the specimens from the Philippines, Sumatra, and Samoa, the scales range from 60-66, the majority having 50-58. Otherwise no distinct characters can be used to divide the specimens in hand into two or more species. Head 2.67 to 3.33 in length, without caudal; depth 3.73 to 6.55; eye 5 to 8 in head; interorbital 3.55 to 4.67; snout 3.57 to 5.33; depth of the caudal peduncle 2.18 to 2.73; maxillary 2.67 to 3.25. D. VI — 8 to 9; A. 9; P. 16 to 19; C. (branched rays only) 13 to 15; scales 58 to 66; in transverse series 18 to 22. The species occurs abundantly in brackish waters and the lower reaches of the rivers from the South Seas through the Philippines, Guam, Ceylon, India, Burmah, Siam, Formosa, Southern China, the Riukiu Islands, and the southern part of Japan. Its northern limit is found in the Provinces of Sagami and Boshu. In the Tama River, north of Tokyo, the species never occurs, so far as we know. The representative species in Hawaii is Eleotris sandwichensis, which has 70 scales in a longitudinal series, and vertical fins with more or less distinct whitish margins, except the caudal, although the marking is very often obsolete. Eleven specimens. Cam. Mus., No. 8316, 75 to 170 mm., labeled as from Okinawa. Ophiocara Gill. 24. Ophiocara aporos (Bleeker). (PI. XXII, fig. i). Eleotris aporos Bleeker, Nat. Tydschr. Ned. Ind., VI, 1856, p. 59, Halmaheira (Gilolo); Sindangole and Ternate (in sea). Native names: Poo-iibu, large Goby (Okinawa); Gokke (Ishigaki). Our specimens agree fairly well with the descriptions of Bleeker and of Gunther. A broad lateral band, one or two scales wide, runs along the middle of the body, sometimes split into more or less con- nected spots. There are* also several very broad oblique faint bars on the back, directed forward and downward, which meet the band just mentioned. Very narrow lateral bands run parallel to the broad lateral band, two in number above the lateral band, and also two below, these all more or less fading out posteriorly. First dorsal with 272 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. two blackish cross-bars, leaving a broad whitish shade between, besides a narrow whitish margin. Second dorsal and anal, each with a sub- marginal brown bar, narrow or broad; in the latter case the basal part of the fins largely brownish, with a narrow whitish band between. Both second dorsal and. anal as well as ventral with whitish margin. D. VI — 9 to lo; A. 10 to II ; P. 15 to 16; V. I, 5; C. (branched rays only) 16; scales 28 to 32; in transverse series, 15 to 16. Our specimens range from 95 mm. to 225 mm. in length, six from the upper stream of Miyara River, Ishigaki, and three from the Yabu River at Naha, Okinawa, where the fishes were seen leaping from holes in the mud, when water was dipped out over them. The fish is very rare in the localities above mentioned. It lives in fresh water, growing to ten inches in length. The species is reported in the East Indies, the Philippine Islands, Fiji, Gilolo, and Oualan, sometimes occurring on the coast. Cam. Mus., No. 8317, two specimens, 125-210 mm., from Okinawa. Bostrychus Lacepede. 25, Bostrychus sinensis Lacepede. Bostrychus sinensis Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Poiss., Ill, 1802, p. 141, pi. XIV, fig. 2, China. The specimen before us agrees very well with the figure of Philypnus ocellicauda Richardson, and with the description of Eleotris sinensis by Gunther. Very characteristic is a round, black, white- edged ocellus on the upper part of the base of the caudal. D. VIII — ii; A. ii; P. 17; V. I, 5; C. (branched rays only) 15; scales 160; in transverse series 65. A single specimen, 161 mm. long, dark brown in color in life, was taken in a brackish pond connected with the river Miyara. It is rare on Ishigaki, where it lives in holes in the mud close to the river-bank, these holes apparently formed by crabs. It is recorded from both fresh and brackish waters about Canton and Manila, and also in the East Indies and South Seas, whence it ranges northward to the Riukiu Islands. Cam. Mus., No. 8318, 161 mm., from the Miyara River. Family GOBIIDT:. Rhinogobius Gill. 26. Rhinogobius similis Gill. Rhinogobius similis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, p. 165. Near Shimoda, province Sagami, Japan. Rhinogobius nagoyce Jordan and Seale, Proc. U, S. Nat. Mus., XXX, 1906, p. 167, Nagoya, Japan. Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 273 Ctenogobius bedfordi Regan, Proc. Zdol. Soc. London, 1908, p. 62, pi. Ill, fig. i, Chong- ju, Korea. Ctenogobius candidius Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) I, 1908, p. 153, Lake Candidius, Formosa. Ctenogobius kurodai Tanaka, Ann. Z06L Jap., VII, 1908, Pt. i, p. 32, in a fresh water pond in the garden of Marquis Kuroda, Tokyo. Ctenogobius katonis Tanaka, Ann. Z06I. Jap., VII, 1908, Pt. i, p. 35, Kanazawa, Province Kaga, Japan. Rhinogobius taiwanus Oshima, Ann. Cam, Mus., XII, 1919, p. 295, Shinchiku, Formosa. Rhinogobius fluviatilis Tanaka, Fish Japan, p. 641, pi. CLI, figs. 417, 418, Himeji, Japan. The specimens before us, fifty-seven in number, are in length about 1 15 mm. Seventeen were collected in the river Kawauchi, Amami- Oshima; six in the River Hija, Okinawa; and thirty-four on Ishigaki. The species shows variations according to age, sex, and localities, in relative proportions of the parts of the body, the ground-color and markings, these having been the basis of several nominal species. In the adult the species has the proportion of the eye in snout ranging from 1.75 to 2.17, while in the young the range is from 1.16 to 1.29. Second dorsal, anal, and caudal dusky, with a distinct whitish margin in some specimens; while in others these fins are rather closely spotted, without distinctly pale edgings. In the adult male the dorsals and anal are filamentous, while, not so in the female and the young. The scaling on the nape is not constant, some specimens having numerous scales on that region. On comparing many specimens from many places in Japan, the junior writer is led to unite the nominal species cited above under one and the same name. The species occurs very abundantly in the fresh waters of entire Japan, extending its range to the Riukiu Islands, Formosa, Korea, and perhaps also to China. Cam. Mus., No. 8319, thirteen specimens, 50 to 65 mm., from Amami-Oshima. 27. Rhinogobius giurinus (Rutter). Gobius giurinus Rutter, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1897, P- 89, Swatow, China. Gobius giuris Abbott, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXIII, 1901, p. 491, Tien-Tsin, China. (Not of Buchanan-Hamilton.) Ctenogobius hadropterus Jordan and Snyder, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXIV, 1901, p. 60, fig. 7, Nagasaki. Native names: Uhu (Amami-Oshima); Gokke (Ishigaki). The specimens at hand coincide well with the original description of Ctenogobius hadropterus by Jordan and Snyder, and also with the type specimen of giurinus in the Stanford Museum. They represent 274 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. two forms, distinguished only by the intensity of the markings, as Jordan and Snyder have noted. The one with distinct markings is probably the adult male and the other the female, some of these being very lean and thin. Ctenogohius nadropteriis is not distinct from Gohius giiirinus Rutter, from Swatow. Their identity was suggested by Jordan and Richardson in 1909, and by Jordan and Hubbs in 1925. Head 2.5 to 2.7 in length, without caudal; depth 6.6 to 6.8; D. VI — 9; A. 9; scales 26 to 28. The spot at base of the caudal assumes more or less a Y-shape, the two forks directed obliquely backward. The collection contains seventy-eight specimens, sixteen from Yaku, thirty-four from Amami-Oshima, the rest from Ishigaki and the Yayeyama Islands. The largest measures 105 mm. in length. The species is a common fresh water fish found typically in southern Japan, south of Tokyo and north to Tsuruga and Boshu. Its range extends through Yaku and Amami-Oshima and Yayeyama to Formosa and southern China. It is very abundant in and about the Riukiu Islands. Cam. Mus., No. 8320, ten specimens, 70 to 105 mm,, from Amami- Oshima. 28. Rhinogobius caninus Cuvier and Valenciennes. Rhinogobius caninus Cuvier and Valenciennes, Gobius caninus. Hist. Nat. Poiss., XII, 1837, p. 86. (Glossogobius parvus Oshima, Ann. Cam. Mus., XIT, 1919, p. 305). Glossogobius Gill. 29. Glossogobius abacopus Jordan and Richardson. Glossogobius abacopus Jordan and Richardson, Mem. Cam. Mus., IV, Aug.. 1909, p. 200, pi. LXXIV, Takao, Formosa. This species and the preceding, both from Udonshiki, are taken from streams to be reared in ponds in the Riukiu Islands. Chonophorus Poey. {Awaous Steindachner.) 30. Chonophorus personatus Bleeker. (PI. XXII, fig. 2.) ?Gobius guamensis CuviER and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 1837, XH, p. 103, Streams of Guam. Gobius personatus Bleeker, Verb. Batav. Genootsch., XXII, 1849, Blenn. en Gob., p. 34, Banjumas, in flumine Seraiju. Gobius gramme pomus Bleeker, Verb. Batav. Genootscb, XXII, 1849, Blenn. en Gob., p. 34, Purworedji, in tbe river Bogowonto. Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 275 Gobius crassilabris Gunther, Cat. Fish., Ill, i86i, p. 63. Fresh waters of Oualan and Aneiteum. — Gunther, Fische der Sudsee, 1877, p. 178, pi. CVIII, fig. B. (same specimens) . Glossogobius grammepomus Oshima, Ann. Cam. Mus., XII, 1919, p. 304. Izampo, Giran, Formosa (two specimens). Native names: Ubu (Amami-Oshima) ; libu (Okinawa). The specimens in hand agree very well with those from the Philip- pines, where it occurs with Chonophorus ocellaris, which species sometimes lacks the characteristic spot on the first dorsal. Head 2.95 to 3.19 in length, without caudal; depth 6.25 to 5.68; eye 5.5 to 6.0 in head ; interorbital 6.6 to 8 ; snout 2.2 to 2.66 ; depth of caudal peduncle 2.66 to 3.25; maxillary 2.5 to 2.75; scales 50 to 56; in trans- verse series 16 to 20. D. VI~ii; A. ii; P. 15 to 17; C. (branched rays only) 13 or 16. We have four specimens, ranging from 125 to 150 mm. in length. Three were collected in the River Yabu at Motobu, Okinawa; the other one in the River Yakkachi, Amami-Oshima. The species is a rather rare river-fish in these islands. Besides these, we have examined specimens from the Philippines (Tuguegarao, Cagayan, and Abra, all in the northern part of Luzon) ; from Amoy, China {coll. Prof. Light) ; and from Giran, Formosa. Mr. Alvin Seale notes specimens from Shortland Island. Cam. Mus., No. 8321, one specimen, 148 mm., from the River Yabu, Okinawa. Gnatholepis Bleeker. 31. Gnatholepis sindonis Snyder. Gnatholepis sindonis Snyder, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXV, 1909, p. loi, Nafa Market, Okinawa. — Snyder, op. cit., XLII, 1912, pi. 68, fig. i, same specimen. The two specimens respectively 95 and 160 mm. long were taken from a pond discharging into the River Miyara, where slightly subject to tidal influence. It is inferred that the species lives chiefly in brackish water, extending its range for a short distance up the river. The specimens agree well with the description and figure by Snyder who had a single specimen no mm. long. D. VI — II ; A. 10; P. 15 to 17; C. (branched rays only) 13; scales 28 or 29. A small specimen 45 mm. long from Miyako, differs from the others in the following respects: Six rather large and five smaller brownish spots arranged alternately, forming together a longitudinal series on the middle of the side of body; above the band the back of body is rather profusely scattered with brownish spots; similar spots on head and nape. Two brownish lines emerge from lower margin of eye, of which the anterior across the maxillary reaches the lower 276 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. jaw, while the posterior crosses the cheeks, opercles, and nape, these regions being scaleless. We cannot consider this specimen as distinct from G. sindonis, the filaments on the vertical fins being the same as in the original types. Cam. Mus., No. 8322, one, 95 mm., pond connected with Miyara River. Ch^nogobius Gill. 32. Chaenogobius macrognathus (Bleeker). Gobius macrognathos Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Indo-NeerL, VIII, i860, Japan, p. 83, pi. I, fig. I, Rivers near Tokyo. Gobius Icevis Steindachner, Ichth. Beitr,, VIII, 1879, p. 20, Hakodate. A single specimen, 85 mm. long, was collected on Amami-Oshima. Head 3.28 in length, without caudal; depth .6; eye 5.25 in head; interorbital 6.2 (between bones 5.25); snout 3; depth of caudal pe- duncle 2.33; maxillary 2.1; D. VII — ii; A. ii; P. 21; C. (counting branched rays only) 15; scales in longitudinal series 75; in transverse series 23. The dark spot on the posterior part of first dorsal is rather indis- tinct, much fainter than usual in specimens from Japan. The whitish margin of second dorsal, anal, and caudal, as well as the dark spot at base of caudal, are very distinct, as usual in Japanese specimens. The species occurs abundantly in the rivers of entire Japan, ex- tending its range south to Amami-Oshima, but it has not as yet been found in Formosa. Cam. Mus., No. 8313, 85 mm., from Amami-Oshima. Tridentiger Gill. 33. Tridentiger kuroiwae Jordan and Tanaka, sp. nov. (PI. XXIII, figs. 1-3). Native names: lihu (Okinawa); Ubu (Amami-Oshima). Head 6.08 to 6.09 in length, without caudal ; depth 3.48 to 4. 19 ; eye 6.5 to 6.4 in head; interorbital 6.83 to 4.2; snout 4.1 to 3.25; depth of caudal peduncle 3.62 to 2.33; maxillary 3.62 to 2.6; scales in longi- tudinal series 33 to 35; in transverse series 22; D. VI — 12; A. il, sometimes 10; P. 20, sometimes 21; C. (branched rays only) 15. Body oblong, compressed, the upper contour slightly more curved than the lower; caudal peduncle strongly compressed. Head moderate, rather heavy, depressed, with moderately curved profile and with cheeks a little bulging; eye smallish, entirely in front of middle of head, impinging upon profile; interorbital somewhat wide, slightly Jordan & Tanaka: Fresh Water Fishes, Riukiu Islands. 277 concave; snout short, with steep but evenly curved profile, its length 1.8 to 2 in postorbital part of head; nostrils 2, subequal in size, the anterior a little tubular, somewhat close to the lip; posterior nostril without elevated rim, midway between anterior nostril and eye; maxillary extending to beneath anterior rim of pupil. Mouth moder- ately wide, with slightly oblique cleft; upper jaw a little the longer; upper lip rather thick; no barbels around the mouth; teeth in jaws in two series, those of the outer series in two closely opposed rows, the teeth alternating in position, each one flat, trilobed; tongue smooth, with rounded free tip. Gill-openings large, lateral; isthmus broad, the width equal to the distance from tip of snout to anterior rim of pupil, and 2. 58 in head; pseudobranchise well developed; gill-rakers lanceolate in shape, very short; first gill-arch 3 + 7. Dorsals two, well separated; first dorsal inserted a little behind base of pectoral, the spines slender, most of them produced, scarcely reaching last base of second dorsal, when folded backward; second dorsal with evenly rounded outer margin, reaching a little beyond base of upper rays of caudal; anal inserted beneath second ray of second dorsal, with rays similar to second dorsal, scarcely reaching base of caudal when folded backward; pectoral without silky rays above, with broad base, not reaching vertical from vent; ventrals not adnate to belly, inserted beneath base of pectoral, the rays not very fleshy, extending to a little behind middle of pectoral; vent directly in front of anal; anal papilla distinct; caudal broadly rounded. Scales ctenoid, rather large; belly with much smaller scales; nape closely scaled; about fourteen scales in the middle of back in front of dorsal; head otherwise entirely naked. Color in formalin light reddish brown, paler below; a broad brown lateral band covering two scales in width runs back- ward from the upper end of gill-opening and axil of pectoral along the middle of the side of the body, posteriorly ending at caudal base. Parallel to this band there are several bands much narrower and fainter, the lower ones gradually fading; occipital region with irregular blotches, these fusing and forming vermiculations; a brown band passing the lower edge of eye anteriorly bending downward in a gentle curve, and ending at edge of preorbital; head otherwise nearly immaculate; all the fins brown, with narrow whitish margins ex- cepting first dorsal and caudal; base of pectoral with vertical whitish bar besides a dark brown spot at upper portion. Description based on the type of the species, the largest of our specimens, 115 mm. long, from Amami-Oshima. Of our forty-two specimens, two came from Yaku; twenty-eight from Amami-Oshima; nine from Okinawa, and the rest from Ishiga. The species is one of the commonest of these islands. The species is allied to Tridentiger hifasciatus Steindachner from Japan, differing from the latter in having much larger scales and also in having one broad lateral band instead of two. It is also allied 278 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. to Tridentiger obscurus (Temminck and Schlegel) from Japan, espe- cially in having large scales, but differing from the latter species in having a single distinct lateral band. Type, Cam. Mus., No. 8324, 115 mm., from Amami-Oshima. Nine paratypes, Cam. Mus., No. 8325, 55-90 mm., from Amami- Oshima. SiCYOPTERUS Gill. 34. Sicyopterus japonicus (Tanaka). Sicydium japonicum Tanaka, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, XXVII, 1909, p. 22, Tosa, Shikoku (Japan), Native names: Uhu (Amami-Oshima) ; (Okinawa). The specimens in our collection agree very well with others from Japan and Formosa. The salient characteristics are the snout, over- hanging the rather small mouth; the slender body; the cup-formed ventrals, very short and circular in shape, and adnate to belly at their basal part; and the fact that the first dorsal has the third and fourth spines produced, especially in the male. In the female the anal fin has a black submarginal bar, which is a little wider than the marginal bar on the second dorsal, while in the male there are no such bars on these fins. Head 3.93 to 4.4 in length; depth 6.58 to 6.1 ; eye 6.67 to 8 in head; interorbital 2.57 to 3.17; snout 2.18 to 2.72; depth of caudal peduncle 1.56 to 1.9; maxillary 2.22 to 3.17; D. VI — ii; A. ii; P. 18; C. (branched rays) 13 to 15; scales 52 or 53, in transverse series 16 or 17. Seventeen specimens were taken in the River Kominato, Amami- Oshima, and one in the River Yabu, Okinawa. The length ranges from 75 to 130 mm. The species is very common in Formosa and southern Japan south of Tokyo and including Boshu. It also seems to be fairly abundant in Okinawa and Amami-Oshima. Cam. Mus., No. 8326, two specimens, 87 to 100 mm., from Amami- Oshima. 280 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIL Fig. I. Ophiocara aporos (Bleeker). Miyara River at Kawarayama, Ishigaki. Natural size. Fig. 2. Chonophorus personatus (Bleeker). Streams of the Riukiu Islands, Natural size. AWWALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVII I I Ophiocara and Chonophorus. t 'u -V *' T'«t (^ ■" ''i>' ■• } r '. i:v > ': ' "’is 282 Annals of the Carnegie Museum, EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII. Fig. I. Tridentiger kuroiwa Jordan and Tanaka, sp. nov. Natural size. Fig. 2. Ventral view of head of Tridentiger kuroiwa. Fig. 3. Dorsal view of head of Tridentiger kuroiwa. Fig. 3. Apogon amhoinensis Bleeker. Natural size. From Miyara River, Ishigaki. annals CARNEGIE MUSEUM, VoL XVIL Plate XXIII. Tridentiger and Apogon, IX. A NORTH AMERICAN OLIGOCENE EDENTATE. By George Gaylord Simpson. (Plate XXIV). Introduction. In 1905^ Earl Douglass described a small skull from the lower Oligocene of Montana, under the appropriate name of Xenotherium unicum Although he expressed a certain proper hesitation, Douglass concluded that the animal was a Monotreme. “In fact,” he said, “with the exception of the presence of tympanic bullae and rooted teeth, it [the skull] differs in no essential particular from Ornitho- rhynchus or Echidna.” The only positive comparison drawn, however, was to point out that the pterygoids may have tended to arch over the choan^ and move them backward. He concluded, “If this is the skull of a Monotreme it certainly is of great interest. If not, it is perhaps even more so; as, so far as I can learn, there is nothing like it among the Eutheria.” In 1906 W. D. Matthew referred to ^Xenotherium” and expressed his belief that it was a chrysochlorid, perhaps identical with Apter- nodus, then known only from lower jaw fragments, and possibly also with an animal known from a humerus, later named Arctoryctes.* At least the first of these suggestions was shown to be incorrect by the same authority in 1910, when he described a nearly complete skull and jaws of Apternodus, and showed that the skull was very unlike that of Epoicotherium (although not specifically making this com- parison). He still regarded Epoicotherium as a zalambdodont, how- ever. W. K. Gregory (1910) accepted Dr. Matthew’s view, stating (p. 258) that the skull of ” Xenotherium” {Epoicotherium) resembles that of Chrysochloris aurea in general appearance, in the hemispherical form of the bullse, form of the snout, zygomatic arch, lateral occipital crest ^ All references are to be found in the appended bibliography. ^ Xenotherium proves to have been preoccupied and is here replaced by Epoico- therium. ^Science, N. S.. XXIV, 1906, p. 786; Bull. A. M. N. H. XXIII, p. 172. 283 284 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. on squamosal, etc. and essentially differs only in having the alveoli of the cheek-teeth circular rather than triangular. The view of Matthew and Gregory has been widely accepted, thus by Abel (1919, p. 728), by Schlosser (1923, p. 444) and by several others. Winge (1917, p. 193), however, has raised objections which, being brief and not readily accessible to students unfamiliar with Danish, may be translated in full: '' XenotJierium was defined by Douglass on the basis of a skull without lower jaws and almost without teeth, but with alveoli. The discovery was also referred to by Matthew and by Gregory. Douglass referred the form to the Monotremes, while Matthew and Gregory place it in the Chrysochloridae, or at least in the vicinity of Chryso- chloris, and they are followed by Schlosser. True enough, the skull has at a passing glance a striking likeness to Chrysochloris: the short, broad, compressed brain-case; the broad interspace between the orbits occupied by the mesethmoid; the shovel-like snout with lateral extensions; but the resemblances are merely an expression of the fact that Xenotherium, like Chrysochloris, was a fossorial animal. They are attributes which are also seen more or less clearly in widely different mammals, among marsupials, insectivores, edentates, rodents. ‘Tn other respects Xenotherium is as different from Chrysochloris as is well possible; incisors are entirely lacking; only vestiges of six small peg-like teeth are found on each side, with single styliform roots, all placed in a closed series, the anterior of them, perhaps the canine, somewhat stronger than the others; the palate is hollowed out and channel-like; the outer wall of the infra-orbital canal is broad; the zygoma is strong anteriorly and weak posteriorly, the opposite of the condition in Chrysochloris-, etc. — Where Xenotherium belongs is now undecided, but it is certain that it neither pertains to the Monotremata nor is a relative of Chrysochloris." In a very recent paper, Otto Zdansky (1926) has considered this question in more detail than anyone since Douglass’ original descrip- tion. He also dismisses the reference to the Monotremata, and he considers identity with Apternodus improbable^. Like Winge Zdansky believes the resemblance to Chrysochloris to be explicable on the basis of convergence due to similarity of habits, and he points ^ Apparently overlooking the fact that Matthew himself described the quite different skull of Apternodus in 1910. To whose paper he does not refer. Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 285 out that except for the form of the snout, the fossil genus resembles the marsupial Notoryctes about as closely as it does the placental Chrysochloris. Although, unfortunately, the original has not been studied by him, Zdansky reaches the very suggestive conclusion that '^Xenotherium" (Epoicotherium) was an edentate of some sort, basing himself on the character of the teeth and alveoli as described by Douglass. In connection with a research on the evolution of the zalambdodonts, especially with reference to the molar teeth, now in progress, it seemed important to the present writer to restudy this extraordinary fossil. The unique original was lent to the Peabody Museum for this purpose by the authorities of the Carnegie Museum in the most liberal fashion and their kindness is gratefully acknowledged. Order EDENTATA. Suborder XENARTHRA. Family EPOICOTHERIIDiE, nov. A family based on the single genus Epoicotherium. Small sub- terranean edentates, with depressed snout, domed occiput, slender but complete zygomata without sub- or post-orbital processes, large completely ossified tympanic bullse, with which are ankylosed the pterygoid plates, there being no hamular processes, and cylindrical, one-rooted cheek-teeth without enamel. Some of the characters of this provisional definition may not prove to be of true familial rank, when the group is better known, but for the present they will serve to distinguish Epoicotherium from all other known mammals and to show that this distinction is of more than generic significance. Epoicotherium, ^ Gen. nov. Genotype: Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) unicum (Douglass). Genoholotype: Carnegie Museum ioi8. Skull without lower jaws. Locality: “McCarty’s Mountain,” Madison County, western Mon- tana (Douglass). ^eTTOiKO^= a sojourner in a strange land, and OrjpLOv, beast. Unfor- tunately the term Xenutherium Douglass 1906, by which this mammal has hitherto been known, proves to be preoccupied by Xenotherium Ameghino, 1904, a genus of noto-ungulates (An. Soc. Argent., Buenos Aires, 1904). Epoicotherium has like meaning. 286 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. Horizon: “Titanotherium beds,” lower Oligocene. Distinctive Characters: Cheek-teeth six, the first larger than the rest and semiprocumbent. Many of the other known characters are no doubt of generic value, but the above are quite sufficient to validate the genus, since no other members of the family are yet known. Skull: The general features of the skull were carefully described by Douglass and the points emphasized by him need be only briefly mentioned. In general aspect the skull is, indeed, very much like that of Chrysochloris, as stressed by Matthew and Gregory; rather less, but still quite notably like that of Notoryctes, as pointed out by Zdansky; and also very much like that of Chlamyphorus,^ a fact which seems to have escaped notice. In size it is comparable to a small Chlamyphorus or a large Chrysochloris and is larger than Notoryctes. As in all of these genera the bones are all ankylosed; the zygomata are slender, but complete, not widely expanded; complete tympanic bullae are present; the occiput is very large, dome-like, and wider than the zygomata, the lambdoid crests pass directly into the zygomata. It superficially differs in form from Notoryctes, chiefly in having a more depressed snout; from Chlamyphorus chiefly in the absence of suborbital processes on the zygomata, of frontal projec- tions, and (so far as known) of the extraordinary peculiarity of the ear seen in that genus. From all three it differs, as will appear below, in many of the less adaptive, more deep-lying structural characters. Its convergence to Chrysochloris in general form is very striking, even extending to the development of lateral forward-jutting processes on the premaxillae. The detailed structure, however, much of which can now be revealed, does not bear out the suggestion of affinity conveyed by the general aspect. The various foramina, except those within the orbit or between the bullae, now appear to be clearly distinguishable. On the occiput, slightly below the middle and just back of the occipital or lambdoid crest, are at least one and perhaps two small postmastoid foramina. ® Chlamyphorus, the Pichiciego or Pichiciago, is a very rare, small, burrowing armadillo, found chiefly in the vicinity of Mendoza, Argentina. The skull has been figured several times, but never, so far as the writer is aware, more satis- factorily than in the classic monograph by Hyrtl (1855), although even here some of the more minute details are difficult to make out. It is generally, but incorrectly, called Chlamydophorus." \ S Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 287 These have served to weaken the skull and form loci for cracks during crushing, so that they are not perfectly clear; but the presence of at least one on each side is quite certain. They seem to indicate a significant occipital exposure of the mastoid and are absent in Chryso- chlorids and Notoryctids, but present in Xenarthra. There are also, as in many mammals, two very small and asymmetrically placed vascular foramina near the top of the supra-occipital. A small but well-pronounced pit occurs just above each condyle, but no true foramina are seen here. On the base of the skull and immediately anterior to the largest part of each condyle is a deep pit, into which the condylar foramen apparently opened posteriorly and the posterior lacerate foramen anteriorly. Just external to this pit and somewhat posterior to the bullae on each side is a very small foramen, which possibly corresponds to the venous condylar foramen. Anterior to the posterior lacerate foramina and at the posterior edge of each bulla is a very small pit or foramen. The region antero-external to this on the right side is crushed and uncertain, but on the left side immedi- ately antero-external to it is a larger rounded pit, with an entire bottom, and then a foramen of moderate size. The latter is the stylo-mastoid foramen, and the development of this region in general seems to be very closely similar to that of Dasypus. As in the latter genus, it is apparent that the hyoid attachment has been moved postero-internally from its primitive position near the stylo-mastoid foramen (c/. v. Kampen, 1905). There are no distinct paroccipital, post-tympanic, or post-glenoid processes, such of these as existed in the ancestry having merged with the expanding bulla. The basicranial portion of the skull is large in proportion to the basifacial portion, agreeing in a general way with Notoryctes and Chrysochloris, but contrasting more or less with the dasypods, including Chlamyphorus. Like a number of other characters of Epoicotherium this is unques- tionably due to the great areal extent of the bullae. Despite their quite extensive development, however, the latter are not greatly inflated. They are triangular, with the somewhat oblique base of the triangle anterior and the apex at the posterior lacerate foramen. They seem to have appropriated most of the basis cranii in their growth and to have crowded other structures to a marginal position. Their antero-internal angles almost meet, hiding most of the basisphenoid, posteriorly they extend almost to the condyles, and anteriorly they have usurped the function usually performed by the post-glenoid 288 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. process and underhang the glenoid foss«, essentially as in the dasypods with bull« and somewhat as in Chrysochloris, Notoryctes, and some other bullate mammals. The composition of the bull« cannot be made out, as the elements are fused; but there is little doubt in view of their spatial relationship that they involve to some extent the squamosal anteriorly and petrosal posteriorly, while the main part is formed from the tympanic. ^ There is a short, ossified external auditory meatus, opening just under the root of the zygoma, where it passes into the lambdoid crest, indeed the antero-inferior lip of the meatus extends out so as to be almost flush with the zygoma and to give the meatus the appearance of opening within the base of the latter {cf. some dasypods, as Peltephilus Scott, 1903) in a way quite distinct from the conditions in Chrysochloris or Notoryctes. The posterior lip, however, is less completely ossified. The glenoid surface is fairly large, nearly flat, but slightly concave antero- posteriorly, and underhung posteriorly, as already mentioned, by the bulla and external auditory meatus. The post-glenoid foramen is situated in a pocket above the latter and posterior to the middle of the glenoid surface, almost exactly as in Dasypus. At the anterior edge of the upper part of the bulla and on a level with the nearly horizontal alisphenoid plate, referred to below, is a small foramen, apparently for the eustachian tube. The median lacerate foramina are probably between the closely approximated anterior ends of the bullae where they cannot be exposed. If so, the condition is like that seen in Dasypus, making allowance for the relatively larger bulla of the fossil form. On a level with this foramen and almost directly internal to it is one which pierces the vertical pterygoid plate, and which apparently finds its homologue in the almost closed notch, which is found in the same situation in at least some specimens of Dasypus, and perhaps in the notch above the hamular process of Chrysochloris and other mammals. It is on the same level as the eustachian foramen, with which it is united by a faintly indicated groove on the alisphenoid, and no doubt it gave entry for the eustachian tube into the pharynx, necessity for a foramen here arising from the There is some indication of a separate origin for the inner portion of each bulla, which may suggest the presence of a separate entotympanic (as in Xenarthra generally and some other mammals) or the participation of the basi- + alisphenoid as in Chrysochloris, but this is too uncertain to be of any value. Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 289 completion of the vertical pterygoid plate between the palate and the bulla. It may be called the pterygoid foramen. Above the eustachian foramen, slightly below the glenoid fossa, and between them, is a large circular foramen, the foramen ovale, and slightly antero-internal to and below this is a smaller circular foramen, possibly the foramen rotundum, but more probably for a branch of the external carotid, these two being developed very much as in Dasypus, although somewhat more external and higher in position, corresponding in this respect with the one foramen here seen in Chrysochloris. The other foramina in this region cannot be made out with sufficient clarity to warrant description. The vertical pterygoid plates do not become less prominent pos- teriorly or pass internally to the true tympanic bullae, as in almost all other known mammals, but pass without diminution or interruption into the tympanic bullae, with which they are fused, a remarkable condition, which could apparently readily be derived from that seen in the bullate dasypods. These plates almost touch posteriorly but are a little wider apart anteriorly where they pass into the palate. External to each of these is developed a narrow almost horizontal flange, presumably from the alisphenoid, very similar in character to that seen in Chrysochloris. In at least some species of Dasypus there is an essentially similar but less developed ledge on the alisphenoid, which could readily give rise to this condition with the areal expansion of the bullae and extreme narrowing of the choanae. The palate is quite unlike that of Chrysochloris, but falls well within the dasypod morphological series. It is long and narrow, with nearly parallel sides, slightly arched longitudinally and ridged internal to each tooth row, but grooved in the median line. It extends consider- ably back of the last cheek-tooth and is not at all transversely ridged or elevated at the posterior end. It is a noteworthy fact that the bending of the basifacial on the basicranial axis, so prominent in Chrysochloris and Notoryctes, is considerably less so in Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) . The roof of the skull is smooth, although not more so than in Prio- dontes, for example, so that the possibility of the presence of armor is not to be denied, although, even if once present, it would probably tend to be lost in a strictly subterranean form. A few vascular foramina and pits (the latter perhaps due to corrosion) are seen, but they are less numerous than in modern armadillos, and especially 290 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the lateral parieto-squamosal groups, generally so prominent in the latter, are absent. There is, however, an irregular group of five or six small foramina between the widest part of the frontals, as in Dasypus. The lachrymal rim is markedly elevated and there is a distinct lachrymal prominence. The lachrymal foramen is on this rim just below the prominence, much as in Chrysochloris, dasypods, and many other mammals. There is an almost imperceptible postorbital protuberance on each frontal and here there is on each a very distinct round foramen. A foramen is found here in a number of mammals, but is peculiarly prominent and persistent in most Xenarthrans, while totally absent in Chrysochloris and its allies. As already noted by Douglass, the infraorbital foramen is double, the two openings being circular, of equal size, one above and a little in front of the other. Dentition: The specimen ends anteriorly with the coming together of the longitudinal palatal ridges, the part anterior to this being broken off. It is impossible to say definitely that no incisors were present, but there is no evidence of them and space for their roots was apparently small, or lacking, so that they probably did not occur. In any event the first tooth of which the alveolus is preserved was preceded by a long diastema. There were six cheek-teeth {Peltephilus has six and one incisor, but they are differently disposed, Tatusia has seven or eight, as has also Prozaedius; Stegotherium has five to seven; Chlamyphorus has eight). The first tooth is somewhat the largest, and it is semi-procumbent as, for example, in Tatusia. It appears to have been cylindrical and it had a single fang. The third tooth is somewhat larger than the second and the fourth and sixth are pro- gressively a little smaller. The second to fifth alveoli are empty, but plainly lodged roots which were nearly round, only slightly tapering, and quite undivided. The last, on sixth alveolus, on each side still contains at least the roots of a tooth. They are, as inferred for the others, simply cylindrical. It is impossible surely to affirm the original nature of the blunt ends of these teeth, for they are clearly worn and perhaps broken also. They are composed of a dense ma- terial now black and somewhat shiny. The closest microscopic scrutiny fails to reveal any lack of homogeneity even on the worn or broken faces, so that this material is plainly dentine, and enamel is lacking, at least on the parts preserved. Such teeth are known only Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 291 among edentates (and in Orycteropus) and they compare very closely with those typical of the dasypods. The last tooth is followed by a slightly elevated point of bone, as in Dasypus. Relationships. The possibility of monotreme relationships for Epoicotheriiim may readily be dismissed. There is a resemblance in the general habitus of the skull, but none in the more important anatomical details. Nor is there any especial indication of marsupial affinities. The resem- blance to Chrysochloris, on the contrary, is extraordinarily close and detailed. Epoicotherium exhibits hardly one habitus character (out- side the dentition) which is not also found in the recent genus. These resemblances have already been referred to in this paper, and they were stressed by Matthew and by Gregory. As already claimed by Winge and Zdansky, however, they are mostly such as might be ascribed to similarity of habitus. Examined in more detail the two genera reveal very deep-lying differences: in Epoicotherium the basicranial-basifacial flexure is less sharp; the zygomata are different, most markedly in their relationship to the external auditory meatus; the occipital condyles are of different character; the bullae are less inflated, of different shape, and occupy more of the basis cranii; there is no hamular process and the relation of the pterygoid plates and the bull« is different; the palate is quite distinct in character; the various foramina exhibit a number of important differences; and finally, but perhaps most impelling of all, the teeth are altogether dissimilar in arrangement, number, and, especially, form. The resemblance to Dasypus in structural detail is especially close. ^ The most striking superficial differences such as the greater depression of the snout and the expanded, dome-like occiput are seen also in the dasypod Chlamyphorus which has been abundantly shown to find its closest known ally in Dasypus.^ Chlamyphorus, although thus approaching Epoicotherium in habitus, ® Dasypus appears to be one of the most primitive of living edentates. The presence of a bulla is a specialization, but one which is carried even farther in the same direction in the fossil form so that it merely aids the comparison in a legitimate way. ® It was pointed out by Atkinson as long ago as 1871 that the skull of Chlamy- phorus is very like that of Chrysochloris, except for the frontal tuberosities of the former. 292 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. however, does not thereby seem to suggest especial phylogenetic affinity. It is a very peculiar and highly aberrant derivative of an essentially Dasypus-Xi^e form. In a broad way, the relationship of Epoicotherium and Chlamyphorus may be thought of as similar to that of Chrysochloris and Talpa- — they are ordinally related and convergent in habitus, but of distinct lineage. Outside of these superficial characters paralleled in Chlamyphorus, the chief differences of Epoicotherium from the dasypod stock are those due to the areal expansion of the bullae and the concomittant, or perhaps consequent, narrowing of the choanae. Almost all the anatomical details of the fossil form compare favorably with those seen in Dasypoda, and a majority of the most striking differences from Chrysochloris are resemblances to the dasypods. There seems to be adequate basis for the conclusion that Epoicotherium is a derivative of the primitive xenarthran or pre-xenarthran stock and finds its closest living relatives in the armadillos. The habitus of Epoicotherium is plainly fossorial, or indeed probably quite subterranean, like Notoryctes, Chrysochloris, and the true moles of today. Its close resemblance to these three types is quite inex- plicable on any other basis. Such an habitat for an armadilloid derivative is not surprising, for, as is well known, the armadillos are among the most efficient of fossorial mammals. None of them is strictly subterranean in habitat,^® but it would be quite in keeping with their evolutionary trend that a diminutive member of the group or of its ancestry should have become so. The armadilloid diet is adaptable to a subterranean life, as it includes roots, worms, grubs, insects, small animals, and carrion. The sea, a resistant medium, molds the animals which move through it to a common form, as witness the classic convergence of fish, ich- thyosaurs, and dolphins. The earth, by far the most resistant medium of all, is also strict in drawing its inhabitants to a common aspect, although the fact that it offers no incentive for speed gives a little latitude. Notoryctes and Chrysochloris are so much alike, that a gifted anatomist has urged their close relationship, but they are derived from quite different superterranean ancestors. Chrysochloris As would be expected, Chlamyphorus is most nearly so, being the most actively fossorial member of this generally fossorial group. It lives in a sandy terrain and spends a large percentage of its time underground, but emerges at night for food. (See White, 1880.) Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 293 and the true moles were long confused, but they, too, had distinct non-fossorial ancestors, although they are ordinally related. Epoico- therium and Chlamyphorus furnish a less striking, but nevertheless interesting, example of the same sort of convergence, while the mono- tremes, notoryctids, chrysochlorids, talpids, Epoicotherium and Chlamyphorus all show a uniformity in cranial topography truly re- markable in view of their very diverse affinities. The possibility that the resemblance of Epoicotherium and Chryso- chloris is not altogether due to convergence of unrelated stocks is to be borne in mind. The Xenarthra appear to have been derived from the Insectivora, and the retention in more or less degenerate and specialized humble creatures of devious mode of life of some exceed- ingly primitive characters is a common occurrence. To sum up, it seems that Epoicotherium shows evidence of remote common ancestry and of identical habitus with Chrysochloris and of immediate common ancestry with, however, a slightly different habitus from the Dasypoda as a whole. This is the only record of the presence of an edentate in North America between the middle Eocene and the Pliocene. It has been supposed (see especially Matthew, 1918) that the recorded history started with the introduction into North America of the primitive edentate stock, seen in the tseniodonts and palseanodonts, the latter very close to the common ancestry of modern edentates; that this was followed by the introduction of the primitive stem-group into South America, and that land connection between the continents was then broken, the distinctive northern groups soon becoming extinct and the southern stock evolving in isolation into the modern groups of the Xenarthra, some of these groups reaching North America for the first time when land connection was reestablished in the Pliocene. Epoicotherium necessitates some modification of this conception. The following possibilities suggest themselves: 1. A land connection with South America was in existence in late Eocene or early Oligocene time and over it came Epoicotherium as a representative of a group developed in the southern continent. 2. The differentiation of the typical modern neotropical edentates took place earlier than generally supposed and while the two continents were still united, but Epoicotherium represents the only known member of these groups in North America before the Pliocene. 3. Epoicotherium is not a true dasypod, but an independent, perhaps somewhat parallel, offshoot of the pre-dasypod stock (probably 294 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. the Palaeanodonta) and is the only known member of a distinct line which survived in North America after the other northern types of edentates had become extinct, so far as known. Of these the first merits little consideration. Epoicotherium is not sufficiently close to any known South American xenarthran to postu- late a special land bridge for it, in view of the fact that the existence of such a connection is opposed by a very strong body of detailed evidence. The second also seems improbable, for if the supposed South American groups were common to North and South America before these two were separated, it is very difficult to explain why the rich northern Paleocene and Eocene collections contain no members of these groups but include a considerable number of edentates of a different and more archaic stamp. The writer therefore very much prefers the third alternative, which agrees not only with the evidence derived from the temporal and spatial distribution of the edentates in general, but also with the morphological characters of Epoicotherium itself. If this conclusion is a just one, it follows that the form under dis- cussion is the representative of a new major division of the Edentata or of the Xenarthra, but until it is better known one prefers not to take such a step and for the present it is only referred to a distinctive family. Comparison with Metacheiromys is especially desirable, but has not been undertaken, the types of this genus being insufficient for comparison and subsequently discovered excellent skull material not having been adequately figured or described. Epoicotherium is not a palaeanodont, however, unless the conception of that group be signally altered. It is very improbable that the canines were enameled, and, if present, they were but slightly enlarged and not followed by a diastema; the posterior lacerate foramen is not of primitive character, etc. The structure in general seems considerably less primitive, nor is it in line with the evolutionary trend of the known palaeanodonts. The Oligocene and Miocene edentates of Europe might offer some interesting contrasts were comparable remains at hand, but there is no reason to suspect close relationship. The question which led to the present inquiry, that is, whether true chrysochlorids occur in America, is still unsettled. Epoicotherium is not a chrysochlorid, and the evidence is thus greatly weakened. Necrolestes resembles Chrysochloris chiefly in adaptive characters in the skull and fore-limb, but very significant differences are also seen Simpson: North American Oligocene Edentate. 295 (the detailed structure of the less plastic parts of the skull is moreover inadequately known) and the pelvis and hind-limb are quite unlike those of the African form. Without accepting the suggestion of Leche (1907) and the dictum of Winge (1917) that Necrolestes is a marsupial, it seems possible that it, too, is a convergent form and not really a member of the Chrysochloris group, although apparently an insec- tivore and perhaps even a zalambdodont. Apternodus has been shown by Matthew not to be a chrysochlorid. Arctoryctes, a humerus briefly, described but not figured by Matthew, and by him definitely referred to the Chrysochlorid ae, may belong there, but at present it seems at least possible that it pertains to some less exotic, small fossorial mammal, perhaps to Epoicotherium (Xenotherium). Without denying the possibility, it is clear that there is no unequivocal evidence of the existence of true chrysochlorids elsewhere than in Africa. The question proves, however, to be foreign to the subject of the present paper, and full discussion of it must be postponed. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1919. Abel, O., Die Stamme d. Wirbeltiere. Berlin and Leipzig. 1871. Atkinson, E., On Some Points of Osteology of the Pichiciego, etc. Jour. Anat. Phys., V, p. i. 1905. Douglass, E., The Tertiary of Montana. Mem. Carnegie Mus., II, p. 203. 1910. Gregory, W. K., The Orders of Mammals. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxvii. 1885. Hyrtl, J., Chlamydophori truncati cum Dasypode gymuro comparatum Examen Anatomicum. Denksch, d. K. K. Ak. d. Wiss., Wien, IX, p. 29. 1905. Kampen, P. N. van. Die Tympanalgegend des Saugetier- schadels. Morph. Jahrb., XXXIV, p. 321. 1907. Leche, W., Zur Entwick. d. Zahnsystems d. Saugetiere, usw. Teil 2: Phylogenie. Heft 2: Die Earn. d. Centetidse, Solen- odontidae, u. Chrysochlorid se. Bibliotheca Zoologica, xlix. 1906. Matthew, W. D., Fossil Chrysochlorid^ in North America. Science, n. s., XXIV, p. 786. 296 Annals of the Caenegie Museum. 1910. Matthew, W. D., On the Skull of Apternodus, etc. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxviii, p. 33. 1918. Matthew, W. D., A Revision of the Lower Eocene Wasatch and Wind River Faunas by W. D. Matthew and Walter Granger, Pt. V, Insectivora (continued), Glires, Edentata. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxxviii, p. 620. 1885. Parker, W. K., On the Structure and Development of the Mammalian Skull, H, Edentata, Phil. Trans., clxxvi, pi. 1923. ScHLOSSER, M., Mammalia, in Zittel, Broili, Schlosser, Grund- ziige d. Palaontologie, 1 1, Vertebrata. 4th edition, Munich and Berlin. 1903. Scott, W. B., Reports of the Princeton University Expedi- tions to Patagonia, 1896-99, Vol. V, Paleontology, etc. Part I, Edentata; I, Dasypoda. Princeton and Stuttgart. 1880. White, E. W., Notes on Chlamydophorus ■ truncatus. Proc. Zook Soc., London, 1880, p. 8. 1915. WiNGE, H., Jordfundne og nulevende Gumlere, etc. E. Museo Lundii, etc., iii, part 2, p. i. 1917. Wince, H., Udsigt over Insektaedernes indbyrdes Sl^gtskab. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturh. Foren. i Kjoben- havn, Ixviii, p. 83. 1926. Zdansky, O., Uber d. systematische Stellung von Xenotherium, Douglass. Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, XX, p. 231. 298 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV. Fig. I. Left lateral view of skull of Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) unicum Douglass. Type. Natural size. Fig. 2. Palatal view of Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) unicum Douglass. Fig. 3. Dorsal view of same specimen. The first three figures were drawn by Mr. Sydney Prentice from the type. Cam. Mus. Cat. Foss. Vert., No. 1018. Fig. 4. Epoicotherium unicum {T)ovLg\2LSs) . Skull, from below. Magn. about 2 diam. B, tympanic bulla. CF, condylar foramen. Con, Condyle. EAM, ex- ternal auditory meatus. EuF, arrow pointing to eustachian foramen. FM, foramen magnum. GS, glenoid surface. HA, articulation of hyoid arch with basicranium. lOF, infraorbital foramina. LC, inferior portion of lambdoid crest, PLF, posterior lacerate foramen. PGF, arrow pointing to postglenoid foramen. PMF, postmastoid foramen. PMP, premaxillary projection. PtF, bristle passing through pterygoid foramen. SMF, stylomastoid foramen. SOF, supraorbital foramen. Fig. 5. Epoicotherium unicum (Douglass). Skull, from below. Magn. about 2 diam., from a photograph. ANNALS CARNEGIE MUSEUM, Vol. XVII. Plate XXIV. Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) imicum (Douglass). ART. X. THE LEPIDOPTERA NAMED BY GEORGE A. EHRMANN. By W. J. Holland. ^ (Plates XXV-XXX.) By his last will and testament Mr. George A. Ehrmann bequeathed to the Carnegie Museum his entire collection of insects together with his library of books relating to entomology. Inasmuch as the collec- tion contains a number of species and varieties described by him as new to science, it seems desirable before incorporating it in the general collection of the Museum to publish a complete list of the papers of which Ehrmann was the author, as well as a critical evaluation of the species which he named, accompanied by figures of some of his types. Mr. Ehrmann, while displaying great industry and commendable zeal in the prosecution of his favorite studies, did not always seek recourse to the literature of the subject, which might have been made available to him. Though he possessed a considerable collection of books, some of them now quite rare and not easily obtainable, he lacked many of the more important works of reference, and accord- ingly at times reached conclusions, which it is to be regretted are not always correct. It therefore, becomes a duty in the interest of scien- tific nomenclature to ascertain, as nearly as may be possible, the validity or nonvalidity, as the case may be, of the various species and ^ Note: The portion of this paper, which deals with the species and varieties of the genus Parnassius, which were published by Ehrmann, has been kindly supplied by Mr. A, Avinoff, the Director of the Carnegie Museum, who has for a number of years been recognized in Europe as one of the leading specialists in this group, and who is undoubtedly the highest authority upon the Parnassiidae in America at the present time. His travels and collections in Siberia, Turkestan, the Pamir, Thibet, Mongolia, and elsewhere, were largely made for the purpose of elucidating the truth as to thcvse beautiful and novel butterflies, about many of the palaearctic species of which little was known until he studied them in their native haunts among the lofty mountain-ranges and upon the cold steppes of Central and Northern Asia. 299 W. J. Holland. 300 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. varieties which he described and published. I have taken up the task somewhat reluctantly, but with the feeling, that, unless now done, there is likely in future years to arise more or less confusion among lepi- dopterists as to the species which Mr. Ehrmann named. Ehrmann’s first article appeared in The Entomological News, Vol. I, 1890, p. 93. He continued at intervals thereafter to contribute to that journal, to The Canadian Entomologist, and to the Journal of the New York Entomological Society, In 1900 an article from his pen appeared in that short-lived little periodical, The Entomological Student, four numbers of which were issued in Philadelphia in that year. In 1917 ^‘The Lepidopterist, the Official Organ of the Boston Entomological Cluh" began to appear under the editorial control of S. E. Cassino. Three volumes were issued and in the first of these is a paper by Ehrmann. Differences arose between the Boston Ento- mological Club and their Editor and Publisher, leading to a formal repudiation by the Club of Mr. Cassino’s editorship. The Club con- tinued the journal under the name “ Lepidoptera, the Official Organ of the Boston Entomological Cluh," It appears to have chronologically overlapped some of the later issues of The Lepidopterist, and was carried forward under the new name until the fall of 1921, when it expired. Both The Lepidopterist, and its successor, Lepidoptera, had a limited circulation, and are now almost impossible to obtain. Of the twenty papers published by Ehrmann, subsequent to 1912, eighteen are to be found in these obscure and little known journals. 'I'wo papers were published by Ehrmann in the New Series of the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society. His last paper was published in the Encyclopedie Entomologique, Paris, Ser B. Ill, Lep. I, pp. 88-92. At the outset I give a complete list of Mr. Ehrmann’s writings. In the preparation of this I have been greatly aided by the discovery among Mr. Ehrmann’s papers of a small note-book, in which he had written a list of all the species described by him, with references to the places in which the descriptions or figures may be found. The first page of this manuscript list states that “all the types mentioned herein are in my cabinets, except Col, philodice var. alha cf.” The list enumerates many names which never were published. These names relate to specimens, which are figured in several volumes of plates, which he himself had carefully drawn, and which at one time he may have thought of giving to the world. Holland & Avinoff: Lepidoptera Named by Ehrmann. 301 These colored plates recall those of Cramer and Hiibner in the style of their execution. To some of the species on these plates he gave names, and the insects are in his collection designated by the names he gave them, and frequently the word “TYPE” is attached to the pins. These names are purely manuscript names, and, so far as I have been able to determine, it has been well that he did not publish them, as by so doing he only would have added to the already burdensome synonymy. Under each title in the following list I give the names of the species described in the given paper. These papers are, so far as possible, arranged in the chronological order of their appearance. 1890. (i) COLIAS PHILODICE, AB. ALBA, U’. Ent. News, I, June, 1890, p. 93; /. c., p. 130. 1892. (2) A LOCAL LIST OF THE GENUS CATOCALA. Ent. News, III, Sept. 1892, pp. 168-9. 1893. (3) SOME OLD 2 FORMS OF OUR COMMON DIUR- NALS, WITH A FEW REMARKS. Ent. News, IV, March, 1893, pp. 75-6. (4) VARIETY OF PRIONOXYSTUS ROBINI^. Canad. Entom. XXV, Oct. 1893, p. 257. P. robinice var. quercus, var. nov. (5) A NEW HESPERID FROM WEST AFRICA. Ent. News, IV, Nov. 1893, pp. 309-310. Tagiades dannatti, sp. nov., Liberia. - (6) A STRANGE FORM OF CATOCALA. Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., I, Dec. 1893. Catocala denussa, sp. nov., Allegheny Co., Pa. 1894. (7) THREE NEW WEST AFRICAN MOTHS. Can. Ent., XXVI, March, 1894, pp. 69-70. Syntomis hilda, sp. nov., d', 9 , Liberia. Syntomis ahdominalis, sp. nov., cT. Liberia. Pachypas {sic) [Pachypasa] nasmithii, sp. nov.,cf. Cape Palmas, Africa. (8) NEW WEST AFRICAN BUTTERFLIES. Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., H, June, 1894, pp. 77-78. ^The word “OLD” in the title is evidently a misprint for ODD. W. J. H. 302 Annals of the Carnegie Museum. (9) Pseudopontia cepheus, sp. nov., (p . Liberia. Mycalsis erysichthon, sp. nov., d'. Liberia. Argiolus hollandi, sp. nov., i cT, 3 9 9. Liberia. Liptena pseudo soy auxii, sp. nov., 9 . Liberia. ADDITION TO A LOCAL LIST OF THE GENUS CATOCALA AND A NOTE ON PAPILIO CRES- PHONTES. Ent. News, V, Sept. 1894, p. 212. (lO) A FEW REMARKABLE VARIATIONS IN LEPI- DOPTERA. Can. Ent. XXVI, Oct. 1894, pp. 292-3. Leucarctia acrcEa var. klagesii, var. nov.. Western Penn’a. 1895. (ii) DESCRIPTION OF THE FEMALE PAPILIO PELAUS FAB. WITH A FEW REMARKS. Ent. News, VI, 1895, pp. 303-4. (12) TWO NEW CROCOTAS FOUND IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Can. Ent., XXVII, 1895, p. 345. Crocota rubricosta, sp. nov., 9 • Jeannette, Pa. Crocota belmaria, sp. nov., cf. Pittsburgh, Pa. 1897. (13) COLEOPTEROLOGICAL NOTES FROM MY BROTHER’S DIARY (BY EMIL C. EHRMANN). Ent. News, VIII, 1897, pp. 168-170. 1899. (14) NOTES ON EASTERN N. A. CYCHRUS. Ent. News, X, 1899, pp. 174-5. 1900. (15) NOTES ON THE DISCOVERY OF PINODYTES HAMILTONI HORN. The Entomological Student, I, pt. 4, 1900, pp. 27-28. (16) THE CAPTURE OF PLATYNUS CAUDATUS LEC. AND PLATYNUS LARVALIS LEC. IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Ent. News, XI, June, 1900, pp. 499-500. (17) VARIATIONS IN SOME COMMON SPECIES OF BUTTERFLIES. Can. Ent., XXXII, 1900, p. 348. Papilio asterias, var. semialba, var. nov., c/’. S. W. Penna. Holland & A vinoff: Lepidoptera Named by Ehrmann. 303 1902. 1904- 1907. Papilio philenor, var. obsoleta, var. nov., c^. S. W. Penna. Papilio troilus, var. texanus, var. nov., cp. Houston, Texas. Limenitis Ursula, var. cerulea, var. nov., 9 • Charleroi, Pa. Vanessa antiopa (L.) var. grandis, var. nov., 9 • S. W. Penna. (18) NOTES ON COLEOPTERA. Ent. News, XI, Dec. 1900, pp. 619-622. (19) NOTES ON COLEOPTERA NO. 2. Ent. News, XIII, May, 1902, pp. 140-1. (20) A NEW PAPILIO FROM THE ORIENT. Ent. News, XIII, Nov. 1902, p. 291. Papilio Tahmourath, sp. nov., c^. Southern China. (21) NEW FORMS OF EXOTIC PAPILIONID.T:. Ent. News, XV, 1904, pp. 214-5. Ornithoptera ritsemm var. tantalus, var. nov., d' . N. Borneo. Ornithoptera cambyses, sp. nov., c^. Colombo, Ceylon. Papilio klagesi, sp. nov., 9 • Suapure, Venezuela. (22) NEW TROPICAL AMERICAN HESPERIID.E. Can. Ent., XXXIX, Sept. 1907, pp. 3i7”323. , LeucocMtonea jason, sp. nov., d, 9- Suapure, Vene- zuela. Leucochitonea janice, sp. nov., c^. Suapure, Venezuela. LeucocMtonea euphemie, sp. nov., (sex not given), Suapure, Venezuela. Pamphila antenora, sp. nov., d. Suapure, Venezuela. Pamphila elenora, sp. nov., (sex not given), Suapure, Venezuela. PampMla theodora, sp. nov., (sex not given), Suapure, Venezuela, ■ Thymele terracina, sp. nov., 9 • Remedies. U. S. Colombia, Thymele viterboana, sp. nov., (sex not given). Sacorro, U. S. Colombia. Thymele guatemalana, sp. nov., 6 Gas, natural, loi, 152-158 Gelechiidae, 365 Geological Surveys of Pennsylvania, 159 Geology of Pittsburgh and its Environs, by Henry Leighton, 91, 367 Index 421 gibbosus, Unio, 174 gigantea, Megalonaias, 171, 186 giurinus, Gobius, 273 Rhinogobius, 273 giuris, Gobius, 273 Glacial Period, 96, 129 glans, Carunculina, 178, 185, 186 glaucolaus, Papilio, 321 Glossogobius abacopus, 274 grammepomus, 275 Gnatholepis sindonis, 275 Gobiidae, 272 Gobius crassilabris, 275 giurinus, 273 giuris, 273 grammepomus, 274 guamensis, 274 laevis, 276 macrognathos, 276 personatus, 274 godart, Hesperia, 338 godarti, Lycas, 337, 338 goniscus, Parnassius, 306, 332 Goniurus cleopatra, 304, 338 triptolemus,. 304, 338 Gonometa subfascia, 351, 352 gracilis, Lampsilis, 178 grammepomus, Glossogobius, 275 ■ Gobius, 274 grandiferus, Unio, 183 grandis, Anodonta, 175 grandis gigantea, Anodonta, 175 Grant, U. S., 161 Green, Hon. William, i Green River Drainage, Naiades of, 167 Greensburg flat, 93 Greensburg pike, 93 Grier, N. M., 144, 161 Griffin, Lawrence E., 399 Griswold, W. T., 161 guamensis, Gobius, 274 guatemalaina, Thymele, 303, 346 Gulf of Mexico, 100 habilis, Catocala, 350 hadropterus, Ctenogobius, 273 hamiltoni, Pinodytes, 302 harmodius, Papilio, 320 harmodius halex, Papilio, 322 harpagus, Eudamus, 346 Harrisburg peneplain or plateau, 93, 96 haysiana, Dysnomia, 185 Heliopetes petrus, 339 Henn, A. W. : Obituary of Prof. Carl H. Eigenmann, 409 heros, Achlyodes, 304, 337 Quadrula, 171 Herron Hill, 92 Hesperia ceraca, 337, 338 godart, 338 Hesperiidae, 337 Heteranthidium occidentale, 377, 382 zebratum, 377, 382 Heterocera, 347 Hexagrammidae, 389 Hice, R. R., 159 hilda, Ceryx, 347, 348 Syntomis, 301, 347, 348 hippoides, Carangus, 266 Historical Geology, 96, 102 Holland, Dr. W. J., 92, 299, 412 hollandi, Argiolus, 336 Holt, Ernest G., 2 Homestead (upper), 93 Homewood sandstone, 104 hozaus, Papilio, 306, 318 Hypanthidium braunsi, 380 hypargyra, Paracarystus, 344 hypocrates, Parnassius, 306 Hypoptychus dybowskii, 391 hypoxantha, Chrysomitris, 30 Fringilla, 30 Ice, Kansas, 130, 132 Wisconsin, 132 icterica, Carduelis, 53 Chrysomitris, 37, 44, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 59, 62, 80 Fringilla, 54 icterica alleni, Chrysomitris, 53 capitalis, Chrysomitris, 37 icterica, Carduelis, 62 422 Index ictericus, Spinus, 53, 55, 59, 62 ictericus alleni, Spinus, 53 campestris, Spinus, 56 capitalis, Spinus, 37 icerticus, Spinus, 56, 59, 62, 80 magnirostris, Spinus, 40 peruanus, Spinus, 49, 51, 65 ignobilis, Caranx, 266 Scomber, 266 ikusa, Papilio, 304, 323 illustre, Anthidium, 376 Callanthidium, 376, 384 imbecillis, Anodonta, 175 imhovii, Parnassius, 306, 332 Inferior Dentition of a Young Masto- don, 255 Inland sea, 99 Inopsetta ischyra, 395, 396 Interglacial epoch, 130 intermedia, Quadrula, 185 interrupta. Megachile, 372 iris, Lampsilis, 179 Iron ores, 158-159 irrorata, Cy progenia, 177 ischyra, Inopsetta, 395, 396 ischyrus, Parophrys, 395 Pleuronichthys, 395 Isensee, Ruth, 371 isis, Ornithoptera, 307, 324 isocrates, Spathilipia, 305, 345 Itatallia pisonis, 333 janice, Leucochitonea, 303, 339 japonica, Anguilla, 262 japonicus, Mugil, 264 Sicyopterus, 280 jason, Eudamidas, 340, 343, 360 Leucochitonea, 344 javanensis, Monopterus, 261 javanois, Le monoptere, 261 Jennings, Prof. O. E,, 193 Jillson, B. C., 133, 161 Johnson, R. H., Prof., 140 Jordan, Dr. D. S., i Jordan, David Starr and Shigeho Tana- ka, 259, 385 Jordan, Eric Knight, i jucunda, Adelocephala, 351 Kahl, Hugo, 3 Kansan ice-sheet, 130 Kansas epoch, 96 kaolin, 216 kashiwae, Leptanthias, 387 katonis, Ctenogobius, 273 katsukii, Stellistius, 389, 391, 394 Kay, J. LeRoy, 2, 192 Kennywood Park, 93 Kier, S. M., 156 klagesi, Papilio, 303, 305 kolbei, Popillia, 87, 88 Krautwurm, Bernard, 3 Kuhlia marginata, 267 rupestris, 267 Kuhliidae, 267 kurodai, Ctenogobius, 273 kuroiwae, Tridentiger, 259, 276, 284 Labrus opercularis, 269 lachrymosa, Quadrula, 172 lacteus, Tagiades, 337 l«vis, Gobius, 276 Lampsilis alatus, 178 anodontoides, 181, 186 “ fallaciosa, 181 cumberlandica, 178 fasciola, 182 fragilis, 178 gracilis, 178 ligamentina, 177 multiradiata, 182 ovata, 1 81 “ ventricosa, 181 parvus, 178 perdix, 183 siliquoidea, 181, 186 subrostrata, 181 texasensis, 183 lapillus, Micromya, 178 Lasmigona costata, 175 Lastena lata, 175 lata, Lastena, 175 Index 423 latipes, Oryzias, 264 Poecilia, 264 Laurel Ridge, loi Leighton, Henry, Geology of Pittsburgh and its Environs, 91, 367 Le Monoptere javanois, 261 lenior, Dysnomia, 185 Lepidodendron, 143, 166 Lepidopsetta bilineata, 395, 396 Lepidoptera named by George A. Ehrmann, 299 Lepidosteus platystomus, 225 Leptanthias kashiwae, 387 Leptosia alcesta, 334 Lesley, J. P., 161 Lesquereux, L., 161 Leucarctia acraea, 302, 349 Leucochitonea.euphemie, 303, 339 janice, 303, 339 jason, 303, 339, 344 Leucothyreus campestris, 88 phytaloides, 88 pygmseus, 88 Leverett, Frank, 128, 132 Lewis, H, C., 161 lewisi, Dysnomia, 185 lienosa, Micromya, 180, 186 lienosus, Lampsilis, 180 ligamentina, Lampsilis, 177 Ligumia recta latissima, 181 su'brostrata, 181, 186 Limenitis arthemis, 335 Ursula, 303, 335 Limestone, 97-105 Ames, 107, 113-117, 134-137 Basswood, 125 Benwood, 125 Brush Creek, 107, no, in, 140 Bulger, 125 Clarksburg, 107, 120 Commercial, 15 1, 152 Dinsmore, 125 Elk Lick, 118 Great, 125 Lower Cambridge, no Limestone, Lower Pittsburgh, 107, 12 1 Pine Creek, 107, no, 139 Pittsburgh, 107, 121 Saltsburg, in Summerfield, 107, 120 Union town, 126 Upper Cambridge, no Upper Freeport, 105 Vanport, 106 Waynesburg, 126 limonite, 158 lindeni, Papilio, 307, 318 lineolata, Plagiola, 178 Link, Gustave, Jr., 368 Liptena pseudosoyauxi, 336 List of fossil plants, 144 animals, 116, 140 Liza troscheli, 265 Lloyd, Henry, and Sons, 157 Lobophyllum, 115, 116, 135, 139, 140, 164 longirostris, Spinus, 44 lorenza, Euterpia, 306, 333 Lower Barren Measures, 107 Lower Productive Measures, 105 Loyalhanna Gorge, well in, 102 Lutianidae, 268 Lutianus argentimaculatus, 268 vaigiensis, 268 Lycaenidae, 336 Lycas godarti, 337, 338 lycimenes, Papilio, 317 lycophron, Papilio, 318 Macfarlane, Judge James R., 368 macrocephalus, Chrysophrys, 269 Pagrus, 269 Sparus, 269 macrognathos, Gobius, 276 Macropodus filamentosus, 269 opercularis, 269 maculata, Cobitis, 263 maculatus, Bdellorhynchus, 391 Mastacembelus, 391 424 Index magellanica, Chrysomitris, 48, 54, 56, 59. 62, 79 Fringilla, 48, 54, 58, 78 boliviana, Chrysomitris, 64 capitalis, Chrysomitris, 37 ” icterica, Chrysomitris, 59 ” siemiradzkii, Chrysomitris, 43 ” typica, Chrysomitris, 45 magellanicus, Carduelis, 54 Chrysomitris, 52, 55, 79 ” alleni, Spinus, 52 ” bolivianus, Spinus, 47, 48, 64 ” ictericus, Spinus, 54 ” magellanicus, Spinus, 58, 61 ” tucumanus, Spinus, 62 ” urubambensis, Spinus, 65 magnifica, Ornithoptera, 307, 325, 356 manicata. Apis, 377 manicatum, Anthidium, 377, 382 mantitheus, Papilio, 306, 314, 354 Marloff, Fred, 365 marginalis, Chrysomitris, 79 marginata, Alasmidonta, 176 Kuhlia, 267 marginatus, Dules, 267 Marginifera wabashensis, 136 marmorata, Anguilla, 262, Mastacembelidae, 391 Mastacembelus alleppensis, 392 fasciatus, 392 ^ maculatus, 391 simack, 392 sinensis, 392 Mastodon arnericanus, 255, 257 McDonald well, 102 McKee, Sellers, organizes Fuel Gas Company, 157 McKeesport, 95 McKeesport Gas-field, 156 Medionidus conradicus, 185 Megachile interrupta, 372 Megalonaias gigantea, 171, 186 Megalopidae, 260 Megalophrys, Observations on Tadpoles of a, 399 Megalops, cyprinoides, 260 meinhardti, Popillia, 88 melanoxantha, Chrysomitris, 67 melsheimeri, Papilio, 307, 319 Mesoprion kagoshimae, 268 Mesozoic era, 127 metanevra, Quadrula, 172 wardi, Quadrula, 172 metrobates, Papilio, 305, 319, 358 mexicana, Fringilla, 30 Terias, 333 Microlepidoptera, 365 Micromya fabalis, 178 lapillus, 178 lienosa, 180, 186 nebulosa, 178, 184 ortmanni, 180, 184 taeniata, 185 trabalis, 185 vanuxemensis, 184, 185 Minerals of Pittsburgh region, 145-159 minor, Alasmidonta, 167 Alasmodonta, 175 minos, Ornithoptera, 325 Misgurnus anguillicaudatus, 263 punctatus, 263 Mississippian, too, 102, 103 mnemosyne, Parnassius, 328 mcesta, Carunculina, 185 “Monadnocks,” 93 Monongahela formation, 102 Monongahela River, 99 age, 213 Monopterus javanensis, 261 monopterygius, Pleurogrammus, 390 montanus, Parnassius, 326 Monument Hill, Northside, 93 Morningside district, 95 morrisi, Papilio, 307, 320, 358 mud cracks, 95 Mugil albula, 264 berlandieri, 264 cephalus, 264 chanos, 260 Index 425 Mugil japonicus, 264 salmoneus, 260 troscheli, 265 Mugilidae, 264 muhlenbergi, Clemmys, 403 Muhlenberg's Turtle in Western Penn- sylvania, 403 muliercula, Catocala, 350 multiradiatus, Lampsilis, 182 Munn, M. J., 161 Muraena alba, 261 Mutillidae, 195 Mycalesis anisops, 335 erysichthon, 335 mylotes, Papilio, 317 nagoyae, Rhinogobius, 272 Naiades of the Green River Drainage in Kentucky, 167 Naiades, List of Green River material, 170-183 Naiades, localities, 168-170 Naosaurus, 92, 138, 141 nasmithii, Pachypas, 301, 351, 352 Natural Gas, 157 nebulosa, Lampsilis, 179 Micromya, 178, 184 neis, Cecropterus, 345 neophilus ecbolius, Papilio, 319 nepenthes, Papilio, 323 nephalion, Papilio, 319 Netting, M. Graham, 403 neuwiedii, Bothrops, 368 Neville Island, 96 New York State, 96, 99 Niagara Falls, 104 nigricauda, Spinus, 36 nikias, Argynnis, 304, 334 Noctuidae, 350 nomis, Ornithoptera, 307, 325 North American Oligocene Edentate, By George Gaylord Simpson, 283-298 Locality, 285 Horizon, 286 Skull, 286 North American Oligocene Edentate, Dentition, 290 Notanthidium steloides, 373, 380 notata, Carduelis, 66 Chrysomitris, 55, 66 Fringilla, 66 notatus, Astragalinus, 55 Chrysomitris, 67 Spinus, 55, 67 forreri, Spinus, 69 notatus, 47, 66, 67 Notes on New and Rare Fishes of the fauna of Japan, By David Starr Jordan and Shigeho Tanaka, 385 notostigmus, Pomacentrus, 270 noveboracensis, Chrysomitris, 79 Nymphalidse, 334 nymphius, Papilio, 319 Oakland, 95 obliqua, Quadrula, 173 Obliquaria flexuosa, 183 reflexa, 176 Obovaria retusa, 177 subrotunda, 177 “ lens, 177 obscurata, Deudorix, 337 obscurus, Lampsilis, 178 obscurus, Tridentiger, 280 Observations on Tadpoles of a Megalo- phrys, 399 obsoleta, Papilio, 354 occidentale, Anthidium, 377 Heteranthidium, 377, 382 ocellaris, Chonophorus, 275 Ohaus, Dr. F., 87 Ohio State Geological Survey, 92 Oil and Gas, 152-158 Oil and Gas “Sands,” Names in use, 153 olivacea, Chrysomitris, 46 olivaceus, Spinus, 46 opercularis, Labrus, 269 Macropodus, 269 Ophiocara aporos, 271, 282 Ordovician, 100, loi, 102 Origin of Oil and Gas, 154 420 Index Oriskany Sandstone, 102 ornatus, Cupido, 336 Ornithoptera amphrisius, 325 amphrysus, 325, 326 cambyses, 303, 324, 356 darsius, 324 isis, 307, 324 magnifica, 307, 325, 356 minos, 325 nomis, 307, 325 osiris, 307, 325 resplendens, 307, 325, 364 ritsemae, 303, 306, 325, 326 Orthoceras, 137, 141, 164 Ortmann, Arnold E., 167, 192, 207 ortmanni, Micromya, 180, 184 Oryzias latipes, 264 Osborn, Dr. Henry Fairfield, 200 osiris, Ornithoptera, 307, 325 Osphoronemidse, 269 ovata, Lampsilis, 181 ventricosa, Lampsilis, 181 oviforme, Pleurobema, 185 oxycephala, Eleotris, 270 oxypyga, Popillia, 87 ozema, Achlyodes, 344 Eudamidas, 340, 341, 343, 344, 360 Pachypasa nasmithii, 301, 351, 352 Psubfascia, 352 Paget, Sir Richard A. S., 366 Pagrus macrocephalus, 269 Pamphila antenora, 344 elenora, 303, 344 theodora, 303, 344 Papilio adloni, 307, 315, 362 agesilaus, 315 agestor, 323 alcinous, 323 anchises, 321 “ alyattes, 318 antenora, 303, 344, 360 archidamas, 318 arnapes, 305, 315 asterioides, 309 asterias, 302. 307, 308 Papilio asterius, 308, 312 “ alunatus, 312 “ ab. streckeri, 9,310 autosilaus, 306, 315 chromealus, 304, 305 cleostratus, 305, 316, 358 copanae, 315 cresphontes, 302 critobulus, 305, 317 darsius, 324 . diotimus, 305, 317 echo,. 304, 323 ehrmanni, 307, 354 embodinus, 307, 313 erlaces, 319 euryptolemus, 305, 307, 317, 362 eversmanni, 307, 318 glaucolaus, 321 harmodius, 320 “ halex, 322 hozaus, 306, 318 ikusa, 304, 323 klagesi, 303, 305 lindeni, 307, 318 lycimenes, 317 lycophron, 318 mantitheus, 306, 314, 354 melsheimeri, 307, 319 metrobates, 305, 3i9, 358 morrisi, 307, 320, 358 mylotes, 317 nephalion, 319 neophilus ecbolius, 319 nepenthes, 306, 323 nymphius, 319 obsoleta, 354 parinda, 324 pelaus, 302, 320 phaon, 321 pharnabazus, 306, 320 philenor, 303, 312, 315 philetus, 315 philoxenus, 323 phormisius, 305, 321 photinus, 322 Index 427 Papilio polymnestor, 324 parinda, 324 polyxenes, 308 potomonianus, 304, 314 praxenus, 323 protesilaus, 317 pyrolochus, 321 rhodostictus, 319 semialba, 354 tahmourath, 303, 323 theogenus, 305, 321 thrasybulus, 305, 321, 358 thylodilus, 306, 322 triptolemus, 304, 314, 362 troilus, 303. 313 ulopus, 306, 323 vertumnus, 319 weinbergi, 307, 324 zagreus, 322 ziegleri, 307, 322 zimmermanni, 307, 322 Papilionidae, 313-323 Paracarystus hypargyra, 344 Paranthidium perpictum, 375, 380 parinda, Papilio, 324 Park, James M., 157 Parkers Landing, 94 Parker Strath, 94, 96, 128 Parnassiidae, 326-329 Parnassius corybas, 330 discobolus, 329, 330 “ insignis, 329, 331 ehrmanni, 307, 332 forbesi, 306 goniscus, 306, 332 hypocrates, 306 imhovi, 306, 332 minor, 328 mnemosyne, 326, 328 montanus, 326 polus, 304, 327 rhetenor, 306 sayi, 327 smintheus, 326, 329 thibetanus, 332 tianshanica, 330 Parnassius verityi, 328 wahlberghi, 306, 329, 331 xanthus, 327 Parophrys ischyrus, 395 parva, Carunculina, 178, 186 parvus, Lampsilis, 178 pascalus, Entonanthias, 385, 394 peat-swamps, 100 pectorosa, Actinonaias, 183, 185 Pegias fabula, 185 pelaus, Papilio, 302, 320 peneplain, Harrisburg, 93, 96 Worthington, 93, 95 Pennsylvania Geological and Topo- graphic Commission for 1906, 92 Pennsylvania Railroad, 100 Pennsylvanian, The, 100, 102 Peoples Gas Company, 158 perdix, Lampsilis, 183 Period, Cambrian, 99, 100 Permian, 103, 126 perpictum, Paranthidium, 375, 380 perplexa, Truncilla, 182 rangiana, Truncilla, 182 personatus, Chonophorus, 274, 282 peruanus, Spinus, 49 paulus, Spinus, 39, 51 peruanus, Spinus, 44, 48, 51 peruviana, Amblema, 172, 186 • Peterson, Lewis, 156 Peterson, O. A., 200, 255 petrus, Heliopetes, 339 Pew, J. N., 157 phaon, Papilio, 321 pharnabazus, Papilio, 306, 320 Phemiades propertius, 345 Philadelphia Company, 158 philenor, Papilio, 303, 312 philetus, Papilio, 315 philodice, Colias, 300, 301, 305, 333 philoxenus, Papilio, 323 phormisius, Papilio, 305, 321 photinus, Papilio, 322 Physiography of Pittsburgh, 92 phytaloides, Leucothyreus, 88 Pieridse, 334 428 Index pilaris, Fusconaia, 170 Pinodytes hamiltoni, 302 pisonis, Itatallia, 333 Pittsburgh Coal seam, 212 Red Beds, 112, 113 underclay, 121 Plagiola elegans, 177 lineolata, 178 securis, 178 planicostatus, Lampsilis, 179 Plant remains, 142-145 plateau, Allegheny, 93 Harrisburg, 93 Platichthys stellatus, 396 Plecoglossidae, 261 Plecoglossus altivelis, 261 Plethobasus cooperianus, 173 cyphyus, 173 Pleurobema catillus, 173 clava, 174, 186 coccineum, 174 cordatum, 173, 183 edgariana, 183 oviforme, 185 plenum, 173 pyramidatum, 174 Pleurogrammus azonus, 391 monopterygius, 390 Pleuronichthys ischyrus, 395 plicata, Quadrula, 172 Poecilia fusca, 270 latipes, 264 polus, Parnassius, 304, 327 polymnestor, Papilio, 324 parinda, Papilio, 324 polyxenes, Papilio, 308 Pomacentridae, 270, 387 Pomacentrus chrysopoecilus, 270 notostigmus, 270 pondreum, Anthidium, 377, 382 Popillia kolbei, 88 meinhardti, 88 oxypyga, 87 Portersville, horizon, in porterae, Anthidium, 382 potamoni, Echelatus (Eumesia), 360 Eumesia, 304, 338 potomonianus, Papilio, 304, 314 Pottsville, formation, 102, 104 praxenus, Papilio, 323 Precambrian, 99, 102 Preglacial drainage, 128 Prentice, Sydney, 92 Price, Paul Holland, 21 1 Prionoxystus robiniae, 301, 352 Productus, 136, 139, 140, 164 propertius, Phemiades, 345 Proptera alata, 178 proteus, Eudamus, 346 protesilaus, Papilio, 317 Pseudopontia cepheus, 334 pseudosoyauxi, Liptena, 336 Pterophoridae, 365 Ptychobranchus fasciolare, 176 subtentum, 183 pudicum, Anthidium, 373 Dianthidium, 373, 380 Pugnax Utah, 136, 140, 164 punctatus, Misgurnus, 263 purpurescens, Anabrus, 193 pustulosa, Quadrula, 172 pygmaeus, Leucothyreus, 88 Pyralidae, 365 pyramidata, Quadrula, 174 pyramidatum, Pleurobema, 174 pyrolochus, Papilio, 321 Quadrula aesopus, 173 coccinea, 174 cooperiana, 173 cylindrica, 172 heros, 171 intermedia, 185 lachrymosa, 172 metanevra, 172 “ wardi, 172 obliqua, 173 plicata. 172 pustulosa, 172 pyramidata, 174 quadrula, 172, 186 Index 429 Quadrula rubiginosa, 171 solida, 173 trigona, 171 undulata, 171 verrucosa, 172, 173 Railroad, Baltimore and Ohio, 100 Pennsylvania, 100 Western Maryland, 100 raindrops, 97 Rankin, 94, 95 Raymond, P. E., 137, 139, 140, 161 recta latissima, Ligumia, 181 Red Beds, Pittsburgh, 112-113 Rediscovery of Inopsetta ischyra, a Rare Species of Flounder, 395 reflexa, Obliquaria, 176 regularis, Lampsilis, 179 retusa, Obovaria, 177 rhabdotus, Carangus, 265 rhe tenor, Parnassius, 306 Rhinogobius caninus, 274 fluviatilis, 273 giurinus, 273 nagoyse, 272 similis, 272 taiwanus, 273 Rhodanthidium sibiricum, 380 siculum, 374, 378, 380 rhodostictus, Papilio, 319 Rhopalocera, 307 Rhynchobdella sinensis, 391 Rinkenbach, W. H., 368 ripple-marks, 97 Riukiu Islands, Japan, The Fresh Water Fishes of, 259 rivers, Allegheny, 93, 95, 96 ancient, 129 Grand, 129 Monongahela, 93, 95, 99 New Allegheny, 130 Ohio, 93, 96 Old Lower Allegheny, 129 reversed, 129 Youghiogheny, 93 River-terraces, 130 robiniae, Prionoxystus, 301, 352 rock-salt, 102 rocks under Pittsburgh, 98 Rogers, Prof. H. D., 69 rubiginosa, Quadrula, 171 rubricosta, Crocota, 302, 349, 354 rubripinnis, Cobitis, 263 rugosus, Strophitus, 176 rupestris, Centropomus, 267 Kuhlia, 267 salmoneus, Mugil, 260 Salvelinus timagamiensis, 368 Sand and Gravel, 1 50-1 51 “Sands,” Oil- and Gas-, Names given by drillers to, 153 Sandstone, 97, 105, 106, 150 Buffalo, no Butler, 105 Connellsville, 120 Connoquennessing, 104 Freeport, 105 Homewood, 104 Mahoning, 107, 108, 109, Morgantown, 107, 118, 119, 120 Oriskany, 102 Saltsburg, 107, in sandwichensis, Eleotris, 271 santaecrucis, Spinus, 47 Santens, R. H., 367 Satyridae, 335 sayi, Dianthidium, 371, 372, 380 Parnassius, 326, 327, 329 Schenley Farms, 95 Sciaena argentimaculata, 268 sclateri, Chrysomitris, 37, 51 Spinus, 37, 49 Scomber ignobilis, 266 Seas, cretaceous, 127 inland (precretaceous) , 99 Tertiary, 127 securis, Plagiola, 178 semialba, Papilio, 354 seminigra, Cerjoc, 347, 348 Syntomis, 347, 348 Semple, John B., 2 430 Index Semple, John B. — Hudson Bay Ex- pedition, 191 Sericinus ehrmanni, 307, 333, 362 telamon, 333 Serranidae, 385 Sewickley Coal, 125 sexfasciatus, Caranx, 265 Shafer, Hon. John D., 203 shale, 97, 105 Birmingham, 117, 134 Brush Creek, no Buffalo, no Cassville, 127 Shaw, E. W., 161 Sheep, Dali’s Mountain, 367 sibiricum, Rhodanthidium, 380 siculum, Anthidium, 374 Rhodanthidium, 374, 378, 380 Sicyopterus japonicus, 280 Siderite, 158 siemiradzkii, Chrysomitris, 43, 51 Sigillaria, 76, 121, 144, 166 siliquoidea, Lampsilis, 181, 186 Silurian, 102, 104 silvacata, Tmgis, 83 simack, Mastacembelus, 392 similis, Rhinogobius, 272 simulans, Anthidium, 382 simplicior, Echelatus, 338 Simplicius, Eudamus, 345, 346 sinapinum, Dianthidium, 373, 380 sindonis, Gnatholepis, 275 sinensis, Bostrychus, 272 Mastacembelus, 392 Rhynchobdella, 391 Skinner, Dr. Henry, 197 smintheus, Parnassius, 326, 329 smithii, Sphingicampa, 304, 351 solida, Quadrula, 173 South American Species of the Genus Tingis Fabricius (Hemiptera), The, 83 Spang, Chalfant and Co., early used natural gas, 157 Sparidae, 269 Spar us macrocephalus, 269 Spathilipia agathocles, 305, 345 Isocrates, 305, 345 Sphaerodoma, 137, 141, 164 Sphingicampa smithii, 304, 351 spinescens, Chrysomitris, 32, 35 Fringilla, 32 Spinus, 34 spinescens capitaneus, Spinus, 35 spinescens, Spinus, 32 spinus, Fringilla, 58 Spinus, 58 Spirifer cameratus, 115, 116, 136, 140, 164 Spirobis, 116 stanleyi, Astragalinus, 79 Carduelis, 78 Chrysomitris, 78 Fringilla, 78, 81 Hypacanthis, 79 Hypocanthis, 79 State Fish Hatchery, 193 State Geological Survey of Pennsyl- vania, 91 Staudinger, Dr. Otto, 366 stejnegeri, Chrysomitris, 72 stellatus, Platichthys, 396 Stellistius katsukii, 389, 391, 394 steloides, Anthidium, 373 Notanthidium, 373, 380 Stevenson, J. J., 161 Stewart, Dr. Douglas, 4 Stigmaria, 31, 76 Strata, Carboniferous, 102-12 7 Devonian, 102 Mississippian, 102 Pennsylvanian, 102 Silurian, 102, 104 “Strath,” 94 Strecker, Herman, 193 Streckeri, ab. of Papilio asterius, 310 Strophitus rugosus, 176 Study of the Neotropical Finches of the Genus Spinus, 11-82 subfascia, Gonometa, 351, 352 Pachypasa, 352 suborbiculata, Anodonta, 175, 186 Index 431 subrOvStrata, Ligumia, 181, 186 subrostratus, Lampsilis, 181 subrotunda, Fusconaia, 170 subrotunda kirtlandiana, Fusconaia, 171 subrotunda, Obovaria, 177 subrotunda lens, Obovaria, 177 subtentum, Ptychobranchus, 183, 185 subtentus, Unio, 183 sulcata, Dysnomia, 185 Sutton, George M., 2, 192 swinhonis, Chrysophrys, 269 Syntomis abdominalis, 301, 348 hilda, 301, 347, 348 seminigra, 347, 348 Syria Mosque, 95 systems, Cambrian, loi Carboniferous, 100 Devonian, 100, loi Mississippian, 100, loi Ordovician, loi Pennsylvanian, 100 Silurian, 100, loi taeniata, Micromya, 185 Tagiades dannatti, 301, 337, 360 lacteus, 337 tahmourath, Papilio, 303, 323 taiwanus, Rhinogobius, 273 Tanaka, Shigeho,and D.S. Jordan, 259, 38s Tascia abdominalis, 349 telamon, Sericinus, 333 Telegonus alardus, 345 fabric!, 304, 345 tenera, Lampsilis, 179 Terias mexicana, 333 Terraces, river, 130, 133 terracina, Thymele, 303, 346 Tertiary seas, 127 texasensis, Carunculina, 183 Lampsilis, 183 theodora, Pamphila, 303, 344 theogenus, Papilio, 305, 321 thibetanus, Parnassius, 332 thiemei, Thymele, 303, 346 Thiessen, R., 161 thrasybulus, Papilio, 305, 321, 358 Three new Species of Rutelinae (Cole- optera Lamellicornia) in the Carnegie Museum, 87 Thymele borja, 303, 345 guatemalaina, 303, 346 terracina, 303, 346 thiemei, 303 viterboana, 303, 346, 360 thyodilus, Papilio, 306, 322 timagamiensis, Salvelinus, 368 Tineidae, 365 Tingis americana, 84 corumbiana, 84 silvacata, 83 Tingis Fabricius (Hemiptera), South American species, 83 Todd, W. E. Clyde, 2, 192 Tolmachoff, Dr. 1. P., 193 Tortricidae, 365 torulosa, Dysnomia, 182 gubernaculum, Dysnomia, 182, 184 trabalis, Micromya, 185 Triassic, loi tridentiger bifasciatus, 277 kuroiwae, 259, 276, 284 obscurus, 280 trigona, Fusconaia, 171 Quadrula, 171 triptolemus, Goniurus, 304, 338 Papilio, 304, 314, 362 triquetra, Dysnomia, 182 Truncilla, 182 tristis, Fringilla, 57 troilus, Papilio, 303, 313 troscheli, Liza, 265 Mugil, 265 truncata, Truncilla, 177 Truncilla donaciformis, 178 perplexa, 182 “ rangiana, 182 triquetra, 182 truncata, 177 tryxus, Xenophanes, 339 tuberculata, Cyclonaias, 173, 183 432 Index tuberculata granifera, Cyclonaias, 173, 183 turgidula, Dysnomia, 185 ulopus, Papilio, 306, 323 Underclay, Pittsburgh, 121 undulata, Quadrula, 171 unicum, Epoicotherium (Xenotherium) , 28s Unio gibbosus, 174 United States Geological Surveys, 92, 160-163 uropygialis, Chrysomitris, 76, 77 Fringilla, 77 Spinus, 48, 76, 77 Ursula, Limenitis, 303, 335 urticae, Vanessa, 335 vaigiensis, Diacope, 268 Lutianus, 268 Vanessa ahtiopa, 303, 334, 354 urticae, 335 vanuxemensis, Micromya, 180, 184, 185 verity!, Parnassius, 328 Verona, 3 verrucosa, Quadrula, 172, 173 vertumnus, Papilio, 319 villadolidi, Chromis, 387, 394 viterboana, Thymele, 303, 346 Eudamus, 360 wabashensis, Marginifera, 136 wahlberghi, Parnassius, 306, 329, 331 Wall, J. S., 162 Washington Boulevard, 95 weinbergi, Papilio, 307, 324 Wells, deep, 102 Western Maryland Railroad, 100 Westinghouse, George, Jr., drills gas- wells, 1884, loi, 157 Wheeler, Dr. William Morton, 367 White, D., 162 White, I. C., 131, 132, 162 Wicklow, Earl of, 366 Wilkinsburg, 94, 95, 157 Wilkinson, Lady Beatrice, 366 William of Sweden, Prince, 366 William Penn Highway, 93 Williams, E. H., 162 Wisconsin ice, 96, 132 Wood, Dr. & Mrs. William B., 3 Woolsey, L. H., 162 Worthenia tabulata, no, 140, 141, 164 Wortman, Dr. Jacob L., 199 Wright, Dr. A. H., 403 Wright, G. F., 131, 132, 162 xanthogaster, Chrysomitris, 70, 72 Spinus, 70 bryanti, Spinus, 70 stejnegeri. Spinus, 72 xanthogaster, Spinus, 70, 72 xanthogastra, Chrysomicris, 70, 72 Spinus, 70 xanthomelaena, Chrysomitris, 76, 77 Fringilla, 77 xanthus, Parnassius, 327 Xenarthra, 285 Xenophanes tryxus, 339 Xenotherium unicum, 283 yarrelli, Spinus, 30, 53 yarrellii, Astragalinus, 30 Carduelis, 30 Chrysomitris, 30 Fringilla, 30, 31 Spinus, 30, 31, 34 Young Men’s Hebrew Association, 95 Yponomeutidse, 365 zagreus, Papilio, 322 zebratum, Anthidium, 377 Heteranthidium, 377, 382 ziegleri, Papilio, 307, 322 zimmermanni, Papilio, 307, 322 A \ -,'r‘ - 3' :\^A. y } '41 '•',%' ’■ ^'’ ' ' ,'A •■ ;■ L-., a:. . :■ ^ H . ... ' ^-’1 ^/ "''A //. r W . /. ' " ‘ Ay, vV-V.--':-4a; "'V, aA''' / A' 'I . r A' ^ ) / -1 A J Z'’ V / ' ' '^ t ) '' r j . ^ I'l '' "-A) ' K' >. A' ' I'v ^ ^ 1 "■ ' ' ' A / ^ a,a%^„A .<:>■ rA'-' /') , J(,4 ■, ^ S 4 V,' - .'rt|. A'''y‘',AA,\‘.*'A''. aAa-A ’, y. ,V.wA). - ■'>, , ^ vyj A,'. ^ /...'a,, -..a, >41 ; -A ''•' ‘ - --'y"' y j A> . 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OOsA' : >v. s’ ■ y .■y' 4i44'X4A4444i't4-4444;y^ ' '^'444:4,40 4.' 4 fA,44- :44r4:0 AV'0.r4X,X y.f ^ \ o^A o A 1) 4’" '' -yv A'^ \ ; Aa^A " J) :yj:m:J: - rJy/^j^y{y^^^ ■' " ' ' ' ' " - 'rJ>Jyy ■■ ■ iAy- ■■' yy- ,A.. '■( .shI' / '‘' ' -"c' vsyy ' 4x. -i" { . y 'I 4 y ':/■: yJ'-Ji yy /.- \ y/^/A4.•:AA A "si:| A'A A4o"44y A y Osvn>'-^44' 7; 4 ,0^7, 04'y^oO; 'O ;n V v/' ' CONTENTS-^ r Editorial Notes, . ... . . ■ . . Obituary, Carl H. Eigenmann, By A. W. Henn XL , r. Y ■ A Study of the Male Genitalia of Certain Anthidiine Bees. By Ruth IsENSEE . . . . . . . 371-384 \ XII. ■,! y. ’■A- XIII. Notes on New and Rare' Fishes of the Fauna of Japan. By David Starr Jordan and Shigeho Tanaka • • • ^ ' T ■ • • • - 385-394 The Rediscovery of Inopsetta ischyra, a rare species of Flounder. By Deogracias V. Villadolid '395-397 XIV. Observations on Tadpoles of a Megalophrys. ' By Lawrence E. Griffin . . . . L . . . 399-407 XV. Muhlenberg’s Turtle in Western Pennsylvania. By M. Graham Netting . . . . : : . 403-408 Index ' 1': . N- 4i3t432 .tv ;v h /. 3 365-369 ' 409-414/ ' 1 5 / 1 , r 1 k 1 • ^ In L > 1 \j \ ^ 1 m m g '■ ♦ > ' , i ’ j > » i