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Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums

Volume 1 8 June 2000

Contents

Gerald Haagner, William R Branch and Anna Haagner

Notes on a collection of reptiles from Zambia and

adjacent areas of Zaire. 1

Tony Dold and Michelle Cocks

Indigenous plant use by amaXhosa people of the
eastern Border of the Great Fish River Reserve,

Eastern Cape. 26

William J de Klerk

South Africa’s first dinosaur revisited - history of the

discovery of the stegosaur Paranthodon africanus (Broom) 54

Published by the Directorate of Museums and Heritage Resources of the
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ISSN 1562-5273

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NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF REPTILES FROM ZAMBIA
AND ADJACENT AREAS OF THE
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

G V Haagner1, W R Branch2 and A J F Haagner 1

'P O Box 702, Hoedspruit, 1 380
2 Department of Herpetology, Port Elizabeth Museum (Bayworld)
P.O. Box 13147, Humewood, 6013 South Africa

ABSTRACT

The Port Elizabeth Museum collection holds nearly 500 reptile specimens from Zambia and adjacent
south-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These are reviewed, and biological and
distribution data on 5 chelonians, 27 lizards and 38 snake species from Zambia are presented.
These include information on 2 chelonians, 11 lizards and 19 snake species recorded from the
poorly-known northern Mwinilunga District, Northwestern Province. Among the important findings
are: the second largest specimen of and second Zambian locality for the dwarf terrapin, Pelusios
nanus, with details on the first documented data on reproduction and sperm retention; the close
proximity, without intergradation, of Lygodactylus heeneni and L. angularis supporting elevation of
the former to specific status; a range extension of about 345km and the most northerly record
(Chingola) for the gecko Lygodactylus chobiensis ; a north-westerly range extension of more than
300km (to Chingola) for the gecko Hemidactylus mabouia (both these records may be translocations);
the third and fourth records for Zambia, and the most southern to date, for the gecko Pachydactylus
tuberculosus ; the first detailed biological information on the rare skink, Mabuya wensii, which was
first collected from Zambia during these collections; asynchronous reproduction in Sakeji
populations of both Mabuya maculilabris and M. tuahlbergii ; a southern range extension to
Shimabala for the rare skink Eumecia anchietae ; a range extension for the skink Lygosoma aftrum
to Sampfya town; the first record of Ichnotropis capensis in the Copperbelt, and a north-westerly
range extension of more than 300km to Chingola; the absence of asynchronous reproductive
cycling between Ichnotropis capensis and I. bivittata in July at Sakeji; support for the specific status
of Limnophis bangewolicus based on differences in colouration of the supralabials and subcaudals;
new record sizes for both sexes of Dipsadoboa shrevei shrevev, a new record size for female
Psammophis brevirostris leopardinus\ and probable sympatry between Naja annulifera and its sister
species N. anchietae at Livingstone.

Keywords: Herpetofauna, Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo

INTRODUCTION

For the student of African herpetology, in many
ways, Zambia remains an enigma. Bordered by
the rich tropical rainforest of the Congo drain-
age in the west and by a series of rift valley
lakes and isolated escarpments in the east,
Zambia has a wealth of habitats and hosts a
diverse herpetofauna. It could thus be expected
to have attracted scientific attention, and yet it
remains one of the most poorly documented
herpetofaunas on the continent.

Among the first reports, Peracca (1896;
1910) listed material collected in the former
Barotseland (now the Western Province of

Zambia), including the description of Psam-
mophis jallae. He later documented material
collected by Duchess Elene d'Aosta (Peracca,
1912), while Boulenger (1907) reported on a
collection made in the Eastern Province. Angel
(1920, 1921, 1922) commented on further
Barotseland specimens and described a num-
ber of new species, including Tetradactylus
ellenbergeri. It was not until 1934 that the first
checklist of the herpetofauna of Zambia
appeared, tucked away in Pitman’s (1934)
Report on a faunal survey of Northern Rhodesia.
Subsequent reports included those of Loveridge
(1933) on a small collection from the Northern

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

1

Province, and of Mertens (1937) on the
herpetofauna of the Lake Bangweulo area.
Vesey-FitzGerald’s (1958) review of the Zam-
bian snakes was followed by Broadley and
Pitman (1960) on snakes collected in the
Northern Province, and Wilson’s (1965) account
of a large collection of snakes from the Eastern
Province. The herpetofauna of the Nyika
plateau was reviewed by Stewart and Wilson
(1966).

Broadley (1971a; 1973) was the first to
attempt a modern summary of the Zambian
herpetofauna, followed by reports on a large
collection from the Northwestern Province
(Broadley, 1991a, 1991b). Since then the re-
maining literature has consisted of anecdotes
on individual species (e.g. Haagner, 1994) and
additions to the Zambian herpetofauna (e.g.
Broadley, 1983a; Branch & Haagner, 1993).

The Mwinilunga region in northwestern
Zambia forms a pedicle wedged between An-
gola and Democratic Republic of the Congo
(DRC) and was until recently one of the most
poorly known regions in Zambia. A collection of
reptiles and amphibians collected by Broadley
(1991a,b) partly redressed this situation.
However, Broadley’s collections were made
during the wet summer months and did not
survey the herpetofauna present during the
dry winter season. Between 7-26 July 1991,
two of us (GH & AH) undertook a general
collecting trip to the same area. Specimens
were also obtained from areas of the adjacent
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Several
short trips were also made into the Central,
Copperbelt and Luapula Provinces, where
sporadic collecting was done. Additional
specimens, collected subsequently around
Chingola and from the Luiwa Plains are
included. Miscellaneous historical material
present in the Port Elizabeth Museum,
particularly early collections by E Knowles-
Jordan (1927-28, 39 specimens) and H Bredo
(1943-45, 84 specimens), supplement the
report (Additional material). Much of Knowles-
Jordan’s material consists of chelonians,
including types, previously housed in the
Albany Museum, Grahamstown.

METHODS

Most material, except for a small series donated
to the A J L Lambiris Herpetological Collection
(AJL) in Kwazulu-Natal, has been deposited
into the herpetological collection of the Port

Elizabeth Museum (PEM). Some comparative
material from the Natural History Museum,
Bulawayo (NZM), and the Transvaal Museum,
Pretoria (TM), was examined. Details regarding
the collecting localities are provided in the
gazetteer (Appendix 1 and Fig. 2). All localities
listed in “Material examined” and “Additional
material” are Zambian, unless otherwise noted.
Snake ventral counts employ the Dowling
(1951) system.

Biological data were mainly collected from
recent material. The number of eggs counted in
gravid snakes is presented as 12(7/5), repre-
senting total (right/ left oviduct). Prey was
identified to the lowest possible taxon, but in
the case of the lizards, of which the diet con-
sisted mainly of invertebrates, prey items were
only identified to higher taxonomic categories
(Alexander, 1968).

OBSERVATIONS

CHELONIA:

PELOMEDUSIDAE

Pelusios nanus Laurent 1956
Material examined: PEM R7248 (adult female),
R7223 (hatchling and egg) - Sakeji School,
Northwestern Province (1124AB). The female
was retained alive in captivity. She had a
carapace length of 1 19.4mm, plastron length of
104.5mm and weighed 259. 2gm at the time of
her death.

Reproduction: In April 1992, 10 months after
capture, the female laid five eggs. Biometrics
for the eggs are presented elsewhere (Haagner,
1994). It was the first report for reproduction in
the species and the first of sperm retention in
an African pelomedusid.

Notes: This is the second largest known speci-
men (Broadley, 1991a), and the second Zam-
bian locality (Broadley, 1971a, 1991b). The
species is more widespread in Angola and the
DRC (Iverson, 1992).

Pelusios rhodesianus Hewitt 1927
Additional material: PEM R9590-91, 12373-75
- Mpika, Eastern Province (1 131Cd), E Knowles-
Jordan.

Notes: Broadley (1971a) records it as wide-
spread throughout Zambia in swamps and
pans. Five specimens form the types series of
Pelusios nigricans rhodesianus Hewitt 1927.
Hewitt did not specify a holotype from Knowles-
Jordan’s Mpika series. Broadley (1981)

2

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

designated Hewitt’s figured specimen as the
lectotype (AM 5432; re-accessioned PEM
R12373); the remaining specimens become
paralectotypes. He noted (Broadley, 1981) that
the type material came from either south-east
of Lake Bangweulu or from the Chambeshi
River.

Pelusios sinuatus (A Smith 1838)

Additional material: PEM R9593, 12376 -
Isoka, Northern Province (1032Ba); PEM R9596

- Luangwa Valley; PEM R9598 - Mpika, Eastern
Province (1131Cd), E Knowles-Jordan.

Notes: Broadley (1971a) recorded it as wide-
spread through Zambia in rivers and lakes.
Four specimens form the types series of Pe-
lusios sinuatus leptus Hewitt 1933. Hewitt did
not specify a holotype from Knowles-Jordan ’s
series and Broadley (1981) designated Hewitt’s
figured specimen as the lectotype (AM no
number; re-accessioned PEM R12376); the
remaining specimens become paralectotypes.

Pelusios subniger (Bonnaterre 1879)
Additional material: PEM R9594 - Swamps
near Luangwa River, Mulilo, Eastern Province
(1033Da); PEM R9599 - Luangwa Valley,
Eastern Province; PEM R9600 - Chiwale,
Luangwa Valley, Eastern District; PEM R9601-3

- Mpika, Eastern Province (1131 Cd) ; PEM
R9605 - Zambia, E Knowles-Jordan.

Notes: Broadley (1971a) recorded it as wide-
spread throughout Zambia in swamps, pans
and small dams.

TESTUOINIDAE

Kinixys spekii Gray 1863

Material examined: PEM R6437 - 32km NE
Mufilira, south-eastern DRC (1228Ba); PEM
R6539 - Sakeji School, Northwestern Province
(1124Ab). PEM R6539 (adult male) - carapace
length 120.8mm, plastron length 110.4mm,
shell length/ height ratio of 2.07. A live male
from the same locality had a carapace length of
154.7mm, plastron length of 132.1mm and
shell length /height ratio of 2.24. PEM R6437
(sub-adult female) - carapace length of
112.4mm, plastron length of 89.7mm, shell
length/height ratio of 2.36; plastron with dark,
patterns radiating out towards the sutures;
prominent ridge mid-dorsally on the carapace.
Additional material: PEM R 14946- 14947 -
Isoka, Northern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-
Jordan (types of Kinixys jordani Hewitt 1931).

PEM R 15020-22, 15024-25 - Isoka, Northern
Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-Jordan; PEM
R 15023 - Isoka Plateau (1385m), E Knowles-
Jordan; PEM R15026, 15028-29, 15031 -95km
east of Isoka, Luangwa Valley, E Knowles-
Jordan; PEM R 15030 - Luangwa Valley, near
Isoka, E Knowles-Jordan; PEM R 15027 - pro-
bably Isoka, E Knowles-Jordan; PEM R 15032 -
Noengo, Mulilo, Isoka District, E Knowles-
Jordan.

Diet: The adult female had the skin and pips of
berries and remains of millipedes in her faeces.
Notes: Hewitt did not specify a holotype.
Broadley (unpublished) designated Hewitt’s
figured female specimen (Hewitt, 1931, xxxvii,
Figs.7&9) as the lectotype (AM 5794; reac-
cessioned PEM R 14946) and this is followed
here. The remaining specimen (AM 5794; re-
accessioned PEM R 14947) becomes the para-
lectotype. Hewitt (1931) mentions six other
specimens from the Isoko region in the type
description. These are probably included with
the other specimens listed, but it is not pos-
sible to distinguish which these specimens are.

SAURLA:

GEKKONIDAE

Lygodactylus angularis Gunther 1893
Material examined: PEM R6268, 6270-71,
6273, 6275, 12484-85, 12493 - Chingola, Cop-
perbelt Province (1227Bd); PEM R6269, 6272,
6276 - Chililabombwre, Copperbelt Province
(1227Bd), PEM R12504-507 - Kitwe, Copperbelt
Province (1228Cc), PEM R12508 - Ndola, Cop-
perbelt Province (1227Bd): 6 males, 8 females
and 3 sub-adults; snout/vent length of largest
female 38mm (PEM R6274, R6275), and of
largest male 81(37+44)mm. Nasals usually 3 (2
in PEM R6272), internasals 1, postmentals 2,
lamellae under fourth toe 5, mental without
clefts, rostral and first labial contacting the
nostril. Unfortunately only three specimens
had original tails giving a SV/tail ratio of 0.971
(range 0.857-1.058). Most specimens with yel-
low infusion on the throat with dark parallel
lines. Throat pattern of PEM R6274 is diffuse,
lower labials mottled with maroon and cream,
back reddish grey, belly cream with scattered
flecks, extending on ventral surface of tail, and
under the limbs.

Additional material: PEM R7895 - Luangwe
East, Eastern Province (1332Ad); PEM R1995 -
Mbala, Northern Province (0831 CD), H Bredo.
Diet: Only three of ten stomachs were empty.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

3

The largest number of prey items in a single
stomach was 8 (7 weevils and 1 pupae),
whereas one stomach (PEM R6269) contained
three prey species. The majority of prey items
were Coleoptera (5), Diptera (5) (including
maggots and pupae), Hemiptera (1), termites
(2), Hymenoptera (4), Isoptera (1). Some of the
stomachs also contained sand.

Reproduction: All females with 1 ova each per
oviduct, ranging from 2. 3-5. 5mm in July to
4. 6-4. 8mm in December. During July only one
male (PEM R6268) had mature testes; in two
other males the testes were small and inactive.
The smallest sexually mature male had a SVL
of 32 mm. Other adult males had inactive
testes during August (PEM R7895) and January
(PEM R12504). During January a communal
nest was found in an old car wreck with 18
fresh eggs and several hatched shells. Twelve
undamaged eggs were collected and measured:
length, mean 6.88mm, SD 0.13mm; width,
mean 5.73mm, SD 0.13mm; not weighed.
Although the eggs were retained and in-
cubated, they failed to hatch. An adult female
laid two eggs on 8 January, but these failed to
hatch and were accessioned (PEM R 12507).
Their measurements fell within the ranges
given above.

Notes: Although these arboreal geckos were
collected basking on buildings and suburban
trees during the day, they were often observed
at night catching insects around outdoor lights,
where they easily outnumbered Hemidactylus
mabouia.

Lygodactylus heeneni Witte 1933
Material examined: PEM R6266 - 32km north-
east of Mufilira, south-eastern DRC (1228Ba):
1 female measuring 70(38+32)mm with 3
nasals, rostral and first labial contacting the
nostril, internasals 1, mental without clefts,
postmentals 2, lamellae under fourth toe 6,
preanal pores 7. Dorsum and base of tail with
grey /brown vermiculations, throat pattern
diffuse.

Diet: The stomach contained a small beetle and
remains of a grasshopper.

Note: As the above population occurs in very
close proximity to L. angularis without signs of
intergradation, L. heeneni is best treated as a
full species (Broadley, pers. comm.). It extends
into adjacent Zambia at Sakeji (Broadley,
1991a).

Lygodactylus capensis capensis (A Smith 1849)
Material examined: PEM R 126 15 - Lealui
pontoon, Zambezi River, Western Province,
(1522Bb); PEM R12616-17 - Mongo, Western
Province (1523Ac); PEM R 126 18, 12620-

Situnda Pan, Luiwa Plains National Park,
Western Province (1422Da); PEM R12608 -
Mumbwa, Central Province (1527Ab): 3 males
and 3 females with 2 nasals, internasals 2,
mental with lateral cleft, postmentals 3, preanal
pores 6, lamellae under fourth toe 5, throat
with irregular grey stippling.

Additional material: PEM R1996, 2197-98 -
Lusaka, Central Province (1528Ad).

Diet: Only two stomachs were empty. The
majority of prey items were Diptera (2) (inclu-
ding 1 maggot), Hymenoptera (3), Coleoptera
(1), Orthoptera (2) and Isoptera (1). Simbotwe
and Garber (1979) reported that Hymenoptera
comprised 60% and Orthoptera 40% of the diet
in L. capensis from the Dambwa Forest Reserve
(1725Dd). The stomachs of two specimens
(PEM R12615-16) contained skin pieces
indicating keratophagy.

Reproduction: Only one female was gravid,
with a single egg measuring 3. 4x2. 4mm.

Lygodactylus chobiensis FitzSimons 1932
Material examined: PEM R6267 - Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Bd); PEM R8864,
9030-3 1-Shesheke, Western Province (1724Cb);
PEM 12607 - Chirundu border post, Southern
Province (1628Cc); PEM R 126 12- 14 - Kalabo
town, Western Province (1422Dc); PEM R12619
- Situnda Pan, Luiwa Plains National Park,
Western Province (1422Da); PEM R12626-
Kalala Lodge, Lake Itezhi-Tezhi, Southern Pro-
vince (1526Cc); PEM R12627 - Ngoma Camp,
Kafue National Park, Southern Province
(1525Dd); PEM R12628 - Musangwa lodge, Lake
Itezhi-Tezhi, Southern Province (1526Cc); PEM
R 138 10, 13838 - Gwabi Lodge, Kafue River,
Southern Province (1528Dd): 18 adult

specimens, largest male measuring 87(44+
43)mm and the largest female 72(40+32)mm,
and 2 hatchlings. Mental without clefts, rostral
excluded from nostril. Colour pattern: faintly
mottled background, with 2 series of 6-7 pale
cream spots along either side of midbody. Vague
dark brown stripe from nostril through the eye
to the fore limb. Throat with double dark lines
parallel to lower jaw.

Additional material: PEM R2 193-96 - Lusaka,
Central Province (1528Ad).

4

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

Diet: Only four stomachs contained food items.
The majority of prey items were Diptera (2),
Hymenoptera (2), Orthoptera (2), Isoptera (1).
Reproduction: Two females (PEM R2 193-94)
with small developing ova (<lmm); males with
small, inactive testes (largest 3.6x2. 1mm)
during June. One female (PEM R8864) laid two
eggs in the bag several days after collecting
during January 1994. These measured 6.94x
4.93mm, were incubated on damp tissue paper
and hatched during the first week of March
1994. The hatchlings (PEM R9030-31) on
average measured 26.56(14.8+1 1.7)mm. Haag-
ner (1992) recorded similar egg sizes from a
female collected at Kariba, Zimbabwe.
Parasites: None. Simbotwe (1983) reported ne-
matodes (Pharyngodon sp.) from the stomach of
a Lochinvar National Park specimen (1527Cd).
Notes: This species is largely restricted to the
upper and middle Zambezi valley, but Broadley
(1971a) also recorded it at Lusaka. The Chin-
gola specimen is a range extension of about
345km and appears to be the most northerly
record for the species. The possibility’ of
accidental human translocation for the Lusaka
and Chingola specimens cannot be ruled out
(Broadley, pers. comm.).

Hemidactylus mabouia (Jonnes 1818)

Material examined: PEM R6330, 12486-88 -
Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Bd); PEM
R12492 - Lufwanyama farm, District Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Da); PEM R13874 -
Gwabi Lodge, Kafue River, Southern Province,
Sambia (1528Dd); PEM R12624-25 - Lufupa
Camp, Kafue National Park, Northwestern Pro-
vince, (1426Ca); PEM R 12634 - Kalala Lodge,
Lake Itezhi-Tezhi, Central Province (1526Cc);
PEM R 12606 - Kabulonga, Lusaka, Central
Province (1528Ad); PEM R13874 - Gwabi Lodge,
Kafue River, Southern Province (1528Dd): 7
adult males, the largest measuring 114(54+
60)mm, and 2 adult females, the largest mea-
suring 99(55+44)mm. Collected on buildings at
night; several others seen but not collected.
PEM R7 153-54 is in a poor condition and partly
mummified. One female (PEM R 12606) has a
partly regenerated bifurcate tail (sections
measuring 16mm and 7mm respectively).
Additional material: PEM R7 153-54 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba); PEM R7152 - Lu-
angwe valley, Eastern Province Zambia
(1332 Ad); PEM R1998 - Lusaka, Central
Province (1528Ad).

Diet: Six specimens had identifiable prey items
including Isoptera (3), Diptera (2), Lepidoptera
(2), Coleoptera (2). PEM R7153 with a large
(22mm) flying ant (Hymenoptera); PEM R12624
with two small spiders. The stomachs of two
specimens (PEM R12625 and R12606) with
pieces of skin, indicating keratophagy.
Reproduction: The testes of a male collected in
July (PEM R6330) measured 6.73mm, whereas
those of R7153 measured only 3.27mm in
August, and of R12625 3.8mm in October. Two
females collected in October with two eggs each,
measuring 9. 7x6. 2mm.

Parasites: Stomach of female (PEM R12606)
contained a nematode (14mm).

Notes: Although Broadley (1971a, 1977c) re-
corded this species as widespread in the low-
lying areas of Zambia, no previous records
appear to exist for the Copperbelt Province. The
Chingola records indicate a north-westerly
range extension of more than 300km.

Pachydactylus punctatus Peters 1954
Material examined: PEM R8865 - 27km west of
Livingstone, Southern Province (1725Da); young
adult female measuring 57(31+26)mm. Colour:
above light brown with dark spots and confluent
blotches. Below white with light upper labials.

Pachydactylus tuberculosus (Boulenger 1894)
Material examined: PEM R6329 - Nchelenge
town, Luapula Province (0929Bc): adult female,
total length 140(70+70)mm with original tail,
collected while it was catching insects on a
building under a light at night.

Additional material: PEM R1994 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 ICd), H Bredo: adult
male with snout-vent length 52mm.

Diet: The female’s stomach held 18 mosquitoes
(Diptera) and 8 ants (Hymenoptera), whereas
the male’s stomach held a grasshopper.
Reproduction: The female had one egg in each
oviduct, of 11. 34x7. 03mm and 9.45x 7.43mm.
The male’s testes measured 4.6x 2.9mm.
Notes: Broadley (1971a) recorded this species
from the Northern Province at Nyamkolo
(083 ICa) and Chiengi (0829Ca). These are only
the third and fourth records for Zambia, and the
Nchelenge record is the most southern to date.

AGAMIDAE

Acanthocercus atricollis (A Smith 1849).
Material examined: PEM R6360-66, 6369-70,
6372-73 - Sakeji School, Northwestern Province

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1 : 1 -25 February 2000

5

( 1 1 24Ab) ; PEM R7125 - Musenga village,
Copperbelt Province (1227Db); PEM R6367-68,
637 1 - Sanolumbwa village, 46km north-east of
Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1124Ba): 6 males,
4 females and 5 juveniles. Largest male
measured 351(146+205)mm and weighed
137.8gm; the largest female measured
305(135+170)mm and weighed 87.6gm. Two
largest males (PEM R6371, 6368) with distinct
bulge with heavily keratinized scales at base of
tail, absent in juveniles and most females,
although the largest female (PEM R6365 -
snout-vent length 135mm) has enlarged scales
at the base of the tail, but lacks the swelling.
The reason for this sexual dimorphism is un-
known, but may be related to aggressive male
interaction. Juveniles with higher (0.823, SD.
0.036, range 0.776-0.864) SV/tail length ratio
than adult females (0.819, SD. 0.035, range
0.794-0.844) and adult males (0.762, SD.
0.047, range 0.733-0.833).

Additional material: PEM R12316-17 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba).

Diet: Only one adult specimen had an empty
stomach; the largest number of prey species in
any stomach was 5, and one stomach (PEM
R6371) contained numerous black ants (6gm
in total weight). The prey items included
Coleoptera (5), Diptera (1), Hymenoptera (6),
Orthoptera (3), Lepidoptera (3), Isoptera (1) and
a small spider. Most important prey items were
ants and caterpillars, which were present in all
stomachs.

Parasites: The stomach of one large male (PEM
R6371) contained numerous nematodes.
Reproduction: All adult males with mature
testes; three adult females with numerous ova
in July (mean 15, maximum 23) measuring
2-3mm in diameter.

Agama armata Peters 1854
Material examined: PEM R6263 - Sampfya
Mission, Luapula Province (1129Bc): young
male, length 1 1 1(50+6 l)mm; collected under
building rubble; gular pattern reticulated.
Additional material: PEM R442-4, 447 -

Mbala, Northern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo;
PEM R 12307- 15 - Isoka, Northern Province
(1032Ba), E Knowles-Jordan; PEM R2000-
2003, Lusaka, Central Province (1528AD).
Diet: The stomach contained the remains of a
cricket (Orthoptera).

Parasites: The stomach contained one small
(8mm) nematode.

Notes: Jacobsen (1992) revised the Agama
aculeata armata complex and elevated A. armata
to full specific status, distinguishing it from A.
aculeata on the basis of its dark reticulate gular
pattern. However, there seems to be intergra-
dation between the two patterns in Zimbabwe,
and distanti may be a subspecies of A. armata
(Broadley et al, 1998).

CHAMAELEONTIBAE

Chamaeleo dilepis dilepis Leach 1819
Material examined: PEM R6249-50, AJL 3608 -
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab):
1 adult male and 2 adult females. The male (AJL
3608) measured 158(86+72)mm; largest female
(PEM R6250) measured 225(120+ 105)mm.
Other specimens were observed but not
retained.

Additional material: PEM R551, 1285, 9000-2 -
Lusaka, Central Province (1528AD); PEM
R1287, 1289, 1302-4 - Mpokoroso, Northern
Province (0930Ac); PEM R 1307- 13 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 lCd); H Bredo.

Diet: All stomachs contained food. Prey items
included Coleoptera (1), Orthoptera (3), Hemip-
tera (1), and a small spider; grasshoppers were
recorded in all stomachs.

Reproduction: The male's testes were 5.2mm in
length and inactive; no female with mature ova.

SCINCIDAE; LYGOSOMINAE

Mabuya ivensii (Bocage 1879)

Material examined: PEM R6342, 6344-50,
NMZB 11826-27, AJL 3602, 3606 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab), PEM
R6343 - Salolumba village, 46km north-east of
Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1124Ba); 8 males,
12 females, 7 juveniles. The SV/tail ratio of
juveniles 1.93-2.08 (mean 2.03). Adults are
sexually dimorphic: males with an average
snout-vent length of 93.5mm, the largest male
(PEM R6348) having a total length of 385(120+
265)mm, giving a SV / tail ratio of 1:2.21; females
with an average SVL of 115.6mm, the largest
having a SVL of 148mm (PEM R6344; Fig. 1).
This specimen had a partly-regenerated tail of
125mm and weighed 52.4gm. The largest female
with an original tail would have measured
approximately 444mm in total length. The
previous maximum size for the species was a
female of 407(138+ 269)mm from Alto Cuilo,
Angola (Laurent, 1964). A full description on
scutellation and colour is given in Branch and
Haagner (1993).

6

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

Figure 1. Adult male Mabuya ivensii (left -
PEM R6348) and female (PEM R6344),
showing sexual dimorphism and elongate
habitus.

nematodes in their stomachs.

Reproduction: Not one of 1 1 females contained
obviously enlarged eggs or developing ova.
Manacas (1963) noted that a female collected in
October contained 4 well-developed embryos,
suggesting that the species is viviparous.
Notes: The species appears to be partially
aquatic. Laurent (1964) records that local
people often found the lizard in their fish traps,
and Manacas (1963) noted that the species lived
in muddy terrain along river banks. Zambian
specimens were regularly observed along the
Sakeji stream, either foraging or basking on
bankside vegetation. When disturbed they
readily leaped into water and swam underwater
with lateral undulations of the body and tail,
escaping down-stream into submerged marginal
vegetation. However, with the obvious exception
of a frog, most prey items are terrestrial,
indicating that the species does not forage in
water despite its apparent aquatic habits.
Smaller specimens entered water less readily,
and scattered into the leaf litter when
approached. Previously restricted to Angola,
these are the first records of the species in
Zambia and DRC. Branch and Haagner (1993)
presented a morphological analysis of the M.
ivensii group, rejecting the subspecies
septemlineata Laurent 1964 and the monotypic
genus Lubuya Horton 1972.

Diet: Only one of the 21 specimens had an
empty stomach (two specimens were too
damaged for their gut contents to be analysed).
The maximum number of prey items in any
stomach was five (in three stomachs). The
commonest prey items were beetles, although
grasshoppers were present in 61.11% of sto-
machs containing food. Prey items included:
Coleoptera (13), Curculionidae (1), Orthoptera
(11), Hemiptera (3), Lepidoptera larvae (3),
Diptera (3), Odonata (2), Isoptera (2) and
Araneae (7). A newly-metamorphosed, un-
identified striped hyperoliid (9mm snout-
urostyle length) was found in the stomach of
one female (PEM R6352). Two large females
(PEM R6354, 6346) contained extensive skin
pieces (belly, flanks and limbs). It appeared to
be conspecific, indicating keratophagy.
Manacas (1963) noted spiders, hemipterans
and beetles in the stomachs of two adults from
Luso (= Luena).

Parasites: Gut nematode loads were very low,
and only three specimens had single

Mabuya maculilabris (Gray 1845)

Material examined: PEM R6307-08, R6310-17,
R63 19-28 - Sakeji School, Northwestern Pro-
vince (1 124Ab); PEM R6309, R6318 - Sano-
lumba village, 46km north-east of Sakeji, south-
eastern DRC (1 124Ba); PEM R6374 - 32km
north-west of Mafulira border post, south-
eastern DRC (1228Ba): 7 males, 14 females and
2 subadults; the largest male measuring 228
(84+144)mm and the largest female 229(88+
141)mm. No apparent sexual size dimorphism
was noticed. Supraciliaries 5, midbody scale
rows 29-34, 14-16 lamellae under fourth toe,
supralabials 7, supralabials anterior to sub-
ocular 4, dorsals with 4-6 keels. Specimens
uniform brown above, speckled with dark brown
and white, speckling extending onto dorsum.
Ventrum cream to yellow with some brown
speckling on throat.

Diet: Five of the stomachs examined were emp-
ty, one was badly damaged, but the remainder
contained a variety of food items. Prey items
included: Orthoptera (7), Hymenoptera (5),

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

7

Coleoptera (2), Lepidoptera (1), Blattariae (2),
Isoptera (2), Mantodea (1), Odonata (1), Diptera
(1), Hemiptera (1), Araneae (1), and a snail.
Reproduction: All the mature males examined
had mature testes with an average length of
8.93mm (SD. 0.72mm, range 8. 0-10. 0mm).
Most of the females had developing ova of
various sizes. Two females (PEM R6308 and
AJL 3609) contained 5 and 6 enlarged ova
(10-1 lx 6-7mm), respectively, in each oviduct.
The mean number of ova per female was 8.6
(SD. 2.3, range 5-12). The presence of ova of
varying sizes in females suggests that breeding
is not synchronised or seasonal.

Notes: Commonly seen basking beside water
and foraging in vegetable gardens and on
school buildings. Loveridge (1933) collected
specimens among thatching grass in Tanzania,
whereas Robertson et al. (1963) found them
mainly on or close to buildings. Broadley
(1974) reviewed the Mabuya maculilabris com-
plex, validating M. boulengeri as a full species,
and considered typical M. m. maculilabris to be
restricted to continental Africa. He recognised
four insular races: (M. m. infralineata, Europa
Island; M. m. albotaeniata, Pemba Island; M.
m. comorensis, Comoro Islands; and M. m.
casuarinae, Casuarina Island). Brygoo (1982,
1983) elevated both comorensis and infralineata
to full species. Specimens from Fogo Island,
Primeras Group, northern Mozambique are
referable to casuarinae. Typical M. maculilabris
occurs on the adjacent mainland (Branch,
unpub. obs.). Both M. casuarinae and M. albo-
taeniata are here treated as full species, and M.
maculilabris thus reverts to binomials.

Mabuya varia (Peters 1867)

Material examined: PEM R6304-06 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R8849 - 15km north-west of Shesheke,

Western Province (1724Ad); PEM R 12503 -
Farm 4304, District Chingola, Copperbelt
Province (1227Db); PEM R12629, R12631 -
Kalala Lodge, Lake Itezhi-Tezhi, Central
Province (1526Cc): 13 specimens, of which the
largest measured 137(65+72)mm. Supra-
ciliaries 5, midbody scale rows 34-37, supra-
labials 8, supralabials anterior to subocular 5,
lamellae under fourth toe 18-20, dorsals with
three keels. A common terrestrial species.
Additional material: PEM R7 14 1-46 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-
Jordan; PEM R471-79, 481 - Mbala, Northern

Province (083 ICd); PEM R480 - Mpulungu,
Northern Province (083 lCc), H Bredo; PEM
R8849, 15km north-west of Shesheke, Southern
Province (1724Ad).

Diet: Main prey items included: Orthoptera (6),
Isoptera (4), Hymenoptera (1), a small grub and
a black spider. The stomach of PEM R6304
contained 32 immature termites; PEM R 12629
had 2 1 worker termites in its stomach.
Reproduction: All three females contained ova
measuring 9- 10mm in diameter. Two of the
females each had 7(4/3) ova; the others had 5
each. A female collected during January
contained minute ova (<lmm); the testes of a
male collected in October measured 4. 7x2. 9mm.
Notes: Lambiris (1994) also reported the species
from Chombe village, Luna valley, Central
Province (1429Db).

Mabuya megalura Peters 1878
Additional material: PEM R1991-93 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 ICd), H Bredo: 1 adult
male measuring 158(50+108) and 2 females, the
largest measuring 208(62+ 146)mm. Supra-
labials anterior to subocular 4, midbody scale
rows 26-28, dorsal scales with 3-4 keels,
lamellae under fourth toe 17-18.

Diet: Two skinks contained a grasshopper in
the stomach.

Reproduction: The largest female (PEM R1993)
had 7(3/4) developed ova (9. 2x7. 2mm) and the
male had large active testes measuring
5. 6x3. 8mm in April. The smaller female (PEM
R1992), SVL 42mm, was not sexually mature.
Notes: These remain the only specimens
collected in Zambia (Broadley 1966a).

Mabuya wahlbergii (Peters 1869)

Material examined: PEM R6285, 6288 - Samp-
fya Mission, Luapula Province (1129Bc); PEM
R6286, 6298, 12491 - Chingola, Copperbelt
Province (1227Bd); PEM R6287, 6289-94,
6296-97, 6299, AJL 3607 - Sakeji School,
Northwestern Province (11 24Ab) ; PEM R6295 -
Chistenga River, 209km west of Solwezi, North-
western Province ( 1 1 24Dd) ; PEM R6300 -
Mbendele River, 42km north of Kariba,
Southern Province (1628Bc); PEM R12609 -
13km west of Mumbwa town, Central Province
Zambia (1526Bb); PEM R12610-11 Kalabo,
Western Province (1422Dc); PEM R6302 - 32km
north-east of Mufilura border post, south-
eastern DRC (1228Ba); PEM R6303 -

Sanolumba village, 46km north-east of Sakeji,

8

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

south-eastern DRC (1124Ba), a total of 23
specimens. Three size classes are apparent:
juveniles, average SVL 44.8mm (SD. 1.47,
range 44-47mm); subadults, average SVL
55.3mm (SD. 4.16, range 52-60mm), and
adults, average SVL 77.7mm (SD. 3.55, range
72-85mm). The largest male measured 192(76+
1 16)mm and the largest female measured 153
(85+68 - tail broken)mm. Dorsum grey-brown
above, pale dorsolateral stripes broad and ill-
defined; midbody scale rows 35-39, dorsals 5-6
keels, supraciliaries 5, lamellae under fourth
toe 19-24, supraciliaries anterior to subocular
5 (6 in PEM R1997), subocular not reaching the
lip in two specimens (PEM R1997, R 126 10).
Additional material: PEM R7140 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032BA), E Knowles-
Jordan; PEM R1997 - Lusaka, Central Province
(1528Ad); PEM R452-3, 456-64, 466-7 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo.

Diet: Juveniles were not examined. Only three
of 13 stomachs were empty. The main prey
items were: Hemiptera (5), Hymenoptera (3),
Orthoptera (3), Coleoptera (2), Isoptera (1),
Mantodea (1). An adult male (PEM R6289)
contained a large piece of skin, indicating
keratophagy. One stomach contained about
200 termite workers, but, in terms of mass or
frequency in stomachs, the termites were
relatively insignificant in the diet. Simbotwe
and Garber (1979) reported that Isoptera
comprised 91.4% of the diet in M. striata from
the Dambwa Forest Reserve (1725Dd). How-
ever, such prey may be seasonally important.
Reproduction: During July all four adult males
had mature testes (7-8mm long). Among
mature females in July 2 contained no ova,
possibly indicating they had recently given
birth; 1 (PEM R6295) was not gravid, but
contained 14 small (2mm) ova (6 in left and 8 in
right oviduct); and 4 females had developing
embryos - PEM R6296 had 3 ova (10. 5x8. 5mm)
with small embryos; PEM R6297 had 2 full-
term embryos (25+29mm) in each oviduct;
PEM R6294 had 6 advanced embryos (21 +
23mm), 4 in the right oviduct and 2 in the left;
and PEM R6287 had 7(4/3) ova (12x6mm), all,
except 2 in right oviduct (which were infertile),
contained small embryos. An additional female
(PEM R 126 10) collected in October had several
small ova (<2mm). The wide variation in
reproductive state and embryonic development
indicates that reproduction is asynchronous.
Parasites: Two females contained 2 and 6 ne-

matodes respectively. Simbotwe (1979, 1983)
reported nematodes (Thelandros sp., Abbreviata
sp., Spirura sp. and Pharyngodon morgaru) from
this species.

Notes: This terrestrial species was common on
buildings, logs and trees and in and around
houses. A young Lamprophis fuligmosus (SVL
380mm) collected in Chingola, regurgitated an
adult Mabuya wahlbergii (SVL 78mm) which
had been ingested head first. Broadley (1977a)
recognized a number of races of M. stnata and
reported intergrades between M. s. wahlbergii
and M. s. striata in the Northern Province near
Lake Mweru. All races may now best be treated
as separate species (Broadley, pers. comm.). The
specific status of M. wahlbergii is also supported
by molecular data (Mausfeld & Vences, pers.
comm.).

Mabuya margaritifer (Peters 1854)

Additional material: PEM R9544-45 - Luangwa
Valley, Eastern Province.

Notes: Broadley and Bauer (1998) have recent-
ly separated M. margaritifer from M. quinque-
taeniata.

Eumecia anchietae anchietae Bocage 1870
Material examined: PEM R6337-6340 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab),
R 12089 - Shimabala, 30km south of Lusaka,
Central Province (1528Ca): 1 male measuring
169(131 +38 - tail broken)mm, and 4 females, of
which the largest measured 589(227+ 342)mm.
The SV/ tail length ratio for two females with
intact tails averaged 0.64. Supraciliaries 5,
supralabials 7, midbody scale rows 22-24, 3
toes on the hind limb, dorsals with 1 faint keel.
Diet: All stomachs contained prey items. These
included Orthoptera (3), Mantodea (1), Coleo-
ptera (1) and Homoptera (1).

Reproduction: A male (PEM R6337), SVL
131mm, had mature testes. One female (PEM
R6339; SVL 164mm) had 6(2/4) small (< 3mm)
developing ova. The largest female (PEM R6340)
contained 9(4/5) ova (5mm in diameter). The
remaining female (PEM R6338; SVL 141mm)
contained 7(4/3) ova with obvious embryonic
development. The species is viviparous with
unique matrotrophic placentation (Flemming &
Branch, 1998). Another female (PEM R12089;
SVL 176mm), collected in December, had very
small (< 1mm) developing ova.

Notes: The Shimabala (1528Ca) specimen
appears to be the most southern distribution for

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

9

the species, extending the known range slightly
from Broadley’s (1971a) Lusaka record. This
poorly-known species appears to be one of the
largest skinks (at least in terms of total length)
in the world. Laurent (1964) recorded a massive
female of SVL 300mm, indicating a possible
total length of approximately 750mm.
Lygosoma afrum (Peters 1854)

Material examined: PEM R6426 - Sampfya
town, Luapula Province (1129Bc): 1 sub-adult
measuring 142(89+53)mm, mass 10.4gm.
Notes: The only other Zambian records are to
the north on the Tanzanian border with one
isolated specimen from the Luangwe Valley
(Broadley, 1966b).

Lygosoma sundevallii (A. Smith 1849)
Additional material: PEM R485 - Mweru
Wantipa, Northern Province (0829Db), H Bredo.
Notes: Widespread in Zambia (Broadley,

1971a).

Panaspis wahlbergii (A. Smith 1849)

Material examined: PEM R6331-33 - Sampfya
Mission, Luapula Province (1129Bc); PEM
R 12630, 12632 - Kalala lodge, Lake Itezhi-
Tezhi, Central Province (1526Cc): 2 adult males
measuring 77(41+36)mm and 3 adult females,
the largest measuring 89(42+47)mm. Supra-
ciliaries 4-5, supralabials 7-8, supralabials an-
terior to subocular 4-5, lamellae under 4th toe
17-19, midbody scale rows 28-29. A male (PEM
R 12630) collected in October had a bright
orange throat. A juvenile (PEM R 12632)
appeared newly born and measured 33.5
(14.2+ 19.3)mm.

Additional material: R1872 - Mbala, Northern
Province (083 lCd), H Bredo.

Diet: All stomachs contained food items,
including Isoptera (in three stomachs, one
containing 27 worker ants), and 1 small
jumping spider. An adult female (PEM R6333)
contained the shed skin of a foot. The pattern
matched that of the specimen, which appeared
to have freshly shed. This would seem to be
conspecific and would indicate keratophagy.
Reproduction: The male had mature testes
and the females contained 4(2/2) and 5(3/2)
ova, measuring 2-3mm in diameter, but no
obvious embryos.

Notes: Very common amongst dry leaf litter,
active mostly during mid-morning and late
afternoon. The taxonomy is confused, and the
‘species’ includes a number of cryptic species

(Jacobsen & Broadley, in press). The Zambian
material has been treated conservatively as P.
wahlbergii.

LACERTIDAE

Latastia johnstoni Boulenger 1907
Additional material: PEM R7 148-50 - Isoka,
Nothern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-Jordan.
Specimens in poor condition and partly dehy-
drated; 2 adult males and 1 female, the largest
measuring 1 1 1(54+57 - tail broken)mm. Nasals
usually 2 (3 in PEM R7149), supraciliaries 5,
supralabials anterior to sub-ocular usually four
(5 in PEM R7149), 47-51 dorsal scale rows,
lamellae under fourth toe 22-26.
Reproduction: The female had two well-
developed ova (4. 8x3. 6mm), but the males’
testes appeared inactive (3.2x2. 1mm).

Nucras boulengeri Neumann 1900
Additional material: PEM R7147 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-Jordan.
Specimen in poor condition and partly dehy-
drated: 56+82mm. Supralabials anterior to sub-
ocular 4, supraciliaries 4, nasals 5, internasals
1, postmentals 2, lamellae under fourth toe 20,
midbody scale rows 40.

Notes: This remains the only specimen known
from Zambia (Broadley, 1971a) and the most
southern record for the species.

Ichnotropis bivittata bivittata (Bocage 1866)
Material examined: PEM R6280, R6284 -
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab):
1 adult male measuring 126(42+84)mm and 1
adult female, SVL 40mm. Supralabials 8, mid-
body scale rows 38-39, lamellae under 4th toe
17-18.

Diet: The female contained a large grasshopper
and 16 ant mandibles; the male contained 5
ant mandibles.

Reproduction: The male’s testes measured
4. 2x2. 7mm; the female contained no develo-
ping ova.

Notes: PEM R6280 was removed from the
stomach of a Thelotomis oatesi (PEM R6195).
This species was known from only one specimen
from Mbala, Northern Province (083 lCd), until
1957, when Frank Ansell collected another
(NMZB 151 1) in the Northwestern Province. The
above are only the third and fourth specimens
for Zambia. Adults of both I. bivittata and 1.
capensis were collected from Sakeji during July,
and it may be significant that I. bivittata had

10

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

only eaten ants and I. capensis contained only
termites (Broadley, pers. comm.).

Ichnotropis capensis (A. Smith 1838)

Material examined: PEM R6277-80, 6282-83 -
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab);
PEM R 12489-90 - Chingola, Copperbelt

Province (1227Db); PEM R 12621 -SitundaPan,
Luiwa Plains National Park, Western Province
(1422Da); PEM R12622-23 - Siyenge Pans,
Luiwa Plains National Park, Western Province
(1422Dd): 12 adult males, the largest mea-
suring 189(64+ 125)mm; 6 adult females, the
largest intact specimen measuring 164(61 +
103)mm. Another female (PEM R1999) had a
SVL of 68 mm. Light brown dorsum with well
developed lateral lines, absent in one female
(PEM R6277). Supralabials 8, supralabials
anterior to subocular 4, midbody scale rows
38-40, lamellae under fourth toe 19-22, pre-
frontal not in contact with anterior supra-
ocular.

Additional material: PEM R6394-97 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles-
Jordan; PEM R1999 - Lusaka, Central Province
(1528Ad); PEM R2817-18 - Mbala, Northern
Province (083 lCd), H Bredo; PEM R 123 18-21 -
Balovale, Northwestern Province (1323Ca).
Diet: Only two stomachs were empty. Prey
items included: Isoptera (6), Orthoptera (7),
Coleoptera (3) and Araneae (3). Four specimens
from Sakeji all contained numbers of worker
termites: PEM R6278 with 48, R6283 - 32,
R6281 - 29 and R6279 with 27. The last also
contained a small cricket and one Chingola
specimen (PEM R 12489) contained 22 worker
termites, 6 termite heads and one soldier.
Simbotwe and Garber (1979) reported that
Isoptera comprised 99.6% of the diet of I.
capensis from the Dambwa Forest Reserve
(1725Dd).

Reproduction: An adult Sakeji female (PEM
R6277) contained no developing ova during
July; a female from Lusaka (PEM R1999) had
6(3/3) ova (6. 8x4. 2mm) in December; and 2
females (PEM R2817-18) from Mbala had
7(4/3) and 6(3/3) ova, respectively, (4.3-4.6x
2. 9-3. 8mm) in December. Males collected
during January had a rich bronze-brown colour
and their testes appeared inactive (flaccid,
3. 2-4. 6x2. 6-3. 2mm). Three males collected
during October (PEM R 1262 1-23) were in
breeding colouration (bright orange flanks,
dorsolateral white line, dorsum rusty brown,

ventrum cream) with large testes (6.0-6.8x 2.8-
3. 1mm).

Parasites: None found. Simbotwe (1979)

reported nematodes ( Parathelandros sp.) from
the stomach of a specimen from Dambwa Forest
Reserve (1725Dd).

Notes: Although Broadley (1971a) recorded this
species as widespread in western Zambia, no
previous records appear to exist for the Cop-
perbelt Province. The Chingola records indicate
a north-westerly range extension of more than
300km. Broadley (1979) recorded asynchronous
reproductive cycling between the ‘annual’
lizards I. capensis and I. squamulosa. The
presence of adults of both I. capensis and I.
bivittata in July at Sakeji mitigates against the
same phenomenon occurring between the
latter two species.

GERRHOSAURIDAE

Gerrhosaurus bulsi Laurent 1954
Material examined: PEM R6251-54, 6256,
6258, 6260-62, AJL 3744 - Sakeji School,
North-western Province (1124Ab); PEM R6255,
6257, 6259, AJL 3610 - Sandolumba village,
46km north-east of Sakeji, south-eastern DRC
(1124Ba): 14 specimens; largest male 441(181 +
260)mm, largest female 505(184+32 l)mm.
Eight adults with 24 dorsal scale rows and 4
with 26; supralabials anterior to subocular 3;
femoral pores 14-18; lamellae beneath fourth
toe 15 (16 in PEM R6252). Proximal supra-
caudal scales mucronate and spiny with the
exception of PEM R6258 which lacks strongly
spinose scales. Grey to golden brown above,
some with bluish colouring on the sides of the
neck and head, ventrum cream-white. The first
development of the bluish colour was noticed on
a subadult male (SVL 130mm).

Diet: Only three stomachs were empty. The
main food items included Hemiptera (5), Ortho-
ptera (4), Coleoptera (2), Isoptera (2), as well as
vegetable material, including small red berries,
fruit pips and plant stems. One female (PEM
R6254) had large yellow fat bodies.
Reproduction: In July 3 males had mature
testes (7. 5-9. 0mm), whereas 3 females had
small clusters (5-8) of developing ova (2-3mm)
in their ovaries.

Parasites: Four stomachs contained up to 8
nematodes.

Notes: These large plated lizards were very
common in the woodland and were often found
basking near their burrows. The largest female

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

11

(PEM R6262) exceeds the previous maximum
size of 495mm reported for the species,
although not the maximum SVL of 200mm
(Broadley 1991a). Broadley (1999) notes that
the taxon G. multilineatus Bocage is based on a
hybrid specimen. The name is therefore
unavailable.

Tetradactylus ellenbergeri (Angel 1922)
Additional material: PEM R 1982-86 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 lCd); H Bredo: 1 adult
male (PEM R1983), measuring 259(69+190 -
tail regenerating)mm, and 4 adult females, the
longest (PEM R1984) measuring 260(57+
203)mm. Another female (PEM R1986) has a
larger SVLof 72mm. Broadley (1971a) recorded
a specimen from Mambwe (093 lBb) with a SVL
of 74mm. All specimens had 12 longitudinal
rows of dorsals, ventrals in 6 longitudinal rows,
a single nasal, and monodactyle and minute
hindlimbs.

Diet: All stomachs contained food, including
Orthoptera (4), Hymenoptera (1), Homoptera
(1), Coleoptera (1) Lepidoptera (1), Anaeae (6),
and a snail (1). PEM R1983 contained all 5
different insect prey items from the above list.
Reproduction: All females, collected in April,
had ova in various stages of development: PEM
R1985 had three small ova < 1.0mm in
diameter; those in PEM R1987 measured
2.17xl.84mm, and in PEM R1982 3.69x
3.07mm. The largest female (PEM R1986)
contained 2 eggs, 1 per oviduct, measuring
1 1.62x5. 71mm. The only male had well
developed testes, measuring 4.65mm.

Notes: The Zambian distribution of this
species is only known from Mambwe (093 lBb),
Luangwe Game Reserve (1332Ad), Lusaka
(1528Ad) and Ikelenge (1124Ab) (Broadley,
1971a). The Mbala specimens represent a
north-western range extension within Zambia.

CORDYLIDAE

Chamaesaura miopropus Boulenger 1894
Material examined: PEM R6335-36 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R6334 - Sandolumba village, 46km north-east
of Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1 124Ba): 1 adult
male (PEM R6336) measuring 489(89+400)mm,
and 2 adult females, largest measuring
573(120+453)mm. All possess minute fore-
limbs, 4. 4-4. 5% of SVL, and monodactyle hind-
limbs, 6. 8-7. 5% SVL; supralabials anterior to
subocular usually 3 (2 in PEM R6335), midbody

scale rows 23-24.

Diet: One stomach (PEM R6336) contained a
small grasshopper and the remains of a wasp.
Reproduction: The male had elongate testes
(3.9x2. 1mm) and only the largest female (PEM
R6335) had small developing ova (< 2mm) in the
ovaries.

Notes: Although C. miopropus has usually been
treated as a northern race of C. macrolepis
(Broadley, 1966a; 1971a) it is geographically
well-isolated and best treated as a separate
species, distinguished by the presence of vesti-
gial forelimbs.

SERPENTES:

TYPHLOPIDAE

Rhinotyphlops mucruso (Peters 1854)
Additional material: PEM R714-19, 1319-20,
1323, 12091 - Mbala, Northern Province

(083 lCd), H Bredo: 10 specimens of which the
largest measured 334(326+8)mm. Seven speci-
mens had a uniform brown dorsal colour with a
cream vent (illustrated in Broadley, 1971a),
whereas the remaining 3 (PEM R716, 1323,
12091) had a more typical blotched pattern
with a cream vent.

Notes: Wilson (1965) noted that only 24.3% of
74 specimens had the typical blotched coloura-
tion, with the remainder being uniform brown.
Previously treated as a northern race of R.
schlegelii, this form is best treated as a full
species (Broadley, pers. comm.). The genus
Rhinotyphlops was revived by Roux-Esteve
(1974) and recently validated by Wallach (1994).

Rhinotyphlops gracilis (Sternfield 1910)
Additional material: PEM R713 - Mbala, North-
ern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo: 1 adult speci-
men, 501(495+6)mm, uniform brown in colour.
Notes: Referable to the genus Rhinotyphlops
(Wallach, 1994; Wallach, in. litt.) . Restricted to
the northern provinces (Broadley, 1971a).

LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE

Leptotyphlops kafubi (Boulenger, 1919)
Material examined: PEM R 12483 - Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Bd): 1 specimen (66+
7mm) of undetermined sex. Rostrum separated
from supraocular by nasal, supraocular larger
than prefrontal, tail length 9.6% of total length.
Colour: uniform brown above with light brown
ventrum.

Notes: Found during August in damp soil under
large stone in domestic garden. Previously

12

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

treated as L. emini (Broadley 1971a), this
species, which is widespread in the North-
western and Copperbelt Provinces, has recently
been revived (Broadley and Broadley 1999) .

COLUBRIDAE

Lamprophis fuliginosus (Boie 1827)

Material examined: PEM R6 184-85 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province, (1 124Ab); PEM
R7047, R 12502 - Chingola, Copperbelt Pro-
vince (1227Bd); PEM R7134-35, 8049, 9533,
9534 - Musenga town, 12km east of Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Db); sight record
(captured and measured); Situnda Pan, Luiwa
Plains National Park, Western Province
(1422Da): 2 adult males, largest 590(482+
108)mm; 2 adult females, largest 1122(988+
134)mm; 3 sub-adult females and 4 juveniles.
Adults and sub-adult olive green dorsallv,
juveniles grey-green with cream bellies. The
juveniles appeared to have been the previous
season’s (November-December 1990) hatch-
lings, as the largest measured 228(196+
32)mm. Midbody scale rows 26-29; ventrals
191-196 in males, 201-220 in females; sub-
caudals 56-61 in males, 48-49 in females.
Additional material: R754 - Mbala, Northern
Province (083 lCd); H Bredo.

Diet: A young snake (SVL 380 mm) collected in
Chingola, regurgitated an adult Mabuya
wahlbergii (SVL 78mm) which was ingested
head first and well-digested. Except for PEM
R9534, which had a well digested rodent in the
stomach and rodent hair in the hind gut, all
other stomachs were empty. The adult female
had large fat deposits.

Reproduction: The adult males had mature
testes and the single female was gravid with 1 1
(6/5) ova (24x14mm). A large female (PEM
R12502) collected during January contained
numerous small ova (<2mm).

Parasites: One nematode was present in the
stomach of the sub-adult female.

Notes: The Chingola female (PEM R 12502) may
be the largest house snake yet collected in
Zambia. It is considerably bigger than the
average specimen encountered.

Lycophidion multimaculatum Boettger 1888
Material examined: PEM R1 1663 - Kafulafuta,
Copperbelt Province (1328Bd). One juvenile
and one subadult male, the latter measuring
273 (236+37)mm. Colouration: dark ventrals
and dense white stippling along the back.

Ventrals 162-165, paired subcaudals 35-36,
midbody scale rows 17, anal entire, supra-
labials 8 (3rd, 4th and 5th entering orbit),
infralabials 8 (first 5 in contact with the anterior
sublinguals).

Additional material: PEM R1976 - Mweru

Wantipa, Northern Province (0829Db), H Bredo.
Reproduction: The testes of the largest male
were inactive and flaccid and measured 7.2mm
Notes: Broadley (1996) revived L. multimacu-
latum as a full species from L. capense. It is
known only from western and northern areas of
Zambia. The Kafulafula records fills a gap
between Lusaka and Chingola records
(Broadley, 1996).

Natriciteres bipostocularis Broadley 1962
Additional material: PEM R1973 - Mpokoroso,
Northern Province (0930Ac), H Bredo: 1 young
snake measuring 232(1 57+75)mm. Midbody
scale rows 17, ventrals 136, subcaudals 72,
supralabials 8 (4th and 5th entering orbit),
infralabials 8 (first four in contact with anterior
sublinguals); postoculars 2, temporals 1+2. The
specimen had dark vertebral and lateral stripes
and dark brown dorsolateral stripes.

Notes: The isolated populations of the N.
variegata complex are best treated as separate
species (Broadley, pers. comm.)

Natriciteres olivacea (Peters 1854)

Additional material: PEM R879 - Lake Cheshi,
Northern Province (0829Dd); PEM R1975 -
Mweru Wantipa, Northern Province (0830 Cc),
both H Bredo: 1 adult male, 329(273+56)mm
and 1 adult female, 377(371+6 - tail truncated
and healedjmm. Ventrals 140 in male, 142 in
female; subcaudals 31 in male; supralabials 8
(4th and 5th entering orbit); infralabials 10 (first
5 in contact with anterior sublinguals).
Reproduction: The female (PEM R1975) con-
tained 7(4/3) eggs (2 1.2x10. 6mm) and the
male’s testes measured 10. 2x6. 9mm.

Limnophis bicolor Gunther 1865
Material examined: PEM R6 172-82, 6554 -
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab):
8 males, largest 460(355+ 109)mm; 4 females,
largest 501(407+94)mm. Ventrals 132-137 in
males, 132-137 in females; subcaudals 51-54 in
males, 40-46 in females; supralabials 8 (9 in
PEM R6181, 6172), 3rd and 4th entering orbit;
infralabials 10 (first 4-5 in contact with anterior
sublingual); preocular 1 (rarely 2); postoculars

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

13

2 (3 on one side of PEM R6554); temporals 1+2
(1+3 in R6178); anal divided; midbody scale
rows 19; parietals narrowly separated from the
6th supralabial in all specimens by anterior
temporals; supralabials creamy in colour with
dark anterior borders.

Diet: PEM R6179 had a partly digested tadpole
in the stomach.

Reproduction: All females with small develo-
ping ova, ranging from <2mm to the largest at
5. 3x2. 8 mm (in PEM R6174, which had
18(11/7) ova). The male’s testes were inactive
and flaccid. The hemipenis (based on the well-
everted organs of PEM R6178, 6176, 6177)
measured from 10- 13. 5mm in length, reaching
the 9th subcaudal when reflected along the
tail; it is undivided, with the distal third to a
quarter of the organ forming a thin terminal
awn; ornamentation undifferentiated, without
enlarged basal spines, the body of the organ
covered in 16-18 longitudinal rows of ossified,
non-webbed spines, that reduce in size
gradually towards the awn and base, and
largest approximately a third along the organ
from the base; sulcus undivided with slightly
raised lips, running to the tip of the awn.

Note: Broadley (1971a) initially considered the
race L. b. bangweolicus to inhabit the Upper
Zambezi flood plain. However, he later recor-
ded (Broadley 1991a) a single specimen of L.
bicolor from Ikelenge in the Mwinilunga
District, noting that it was typical of bicolor in
all respects, except that the parietal was
narrowly separated from the 6th supralabial by
the anterior temporal. As the two races in
north-western Zambia were in close proximity,
with populations of bangweolicus occurring to
the north and south of Ikelenge locality, he
provisionally treated L. bangweolicus as a full
species (Broadley, 1991a & b), returning the
typical race to binomials. The large series (12
specimens) from Sakeji in the Mwinilunga
District confirms and amplifies Broadley’s
findings. Subtle differences in coloration occur
between the species. The supralabials of L.
bicolor are barred with dirty cream centres and
black borders; in L. bangweolicus the supra-
labials are diffusely striped, with a pale cream
central stripe bordered above and below with
olive. The subcaudals in L. bicolor are also
uniform yellow-cream, whereas those in L.
bangweolicus have fine, dark margins.

Limnophis bangweolicus (Mertens 1936)
Additional material: PEM R22, Merwu

Wantipa, Northern Province (0830 Cc), H Bredo;
PEM R7249-50 (previously UM 10090-91) -
Kalobo, Western Province (1422Dc): 2 adult
females, largest 495(40 l+94)mm; 1 adult male,
435(333+ 102)mm. Ventrals 133 and 138 in
females, and 150 in the male; subcaudals 43 in
both females, and 60 in the male.

Diet: Both Kalobo snakes had well-digested fish
remains in the stomach.

Reproduction: The large Merwu female, collec-
ted in January, contained 5(2/3) large ova
(28x15mm); the Kalobo female, collected in
December, was sexually mature, but the ovaries
contained only small follicles (<3mm); the
Kalobo male, collected in December, was also
sexually mature, with large testes (12x5mm)
and convoluted, milky efferent ducts.

Note: Broadley (1991a) questioned whether the
marked difference in head shape between the
two species (see Laurent, 1964) reflected dif-
ferences in feeding habits. The gut contents
presently support this, but further information
is required.

Grayia tholloni Mocquard 1897
Additional material: PEM R23, Lake Chesi,
Merwu Wantipa, Northern Province (0830 Cc),
H Bredo: 1 male; scutellation details have been
presented elsewhere (Broadley, 1983a).
Recorded from only one other Zambia locality
(Isombo; Broadley, 1991a).

Scaphiophis albopuntatus Peters 1870
Additional material: PEM R24, ‘Chansa Ma-
sanka’ (probably Mansanka Flats, just east of
Mweru Wantipa), Northern Province (0830Cc),
H Bredo: juvenile female, ventrals 189; sub-
caudals 53.

Notes: Broadley (1994) revised the genus, revi-
ving S. raffreyi for Ethiopian populations;
Northern Zambia is the southern limit of the
species.

Prosymna ambigua ambigua Bocage 1897
Material examined: PEM R855 - Mbala, North-
ern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo: 1 large male
measuring 25 1 (206+4 l)mm. Uniform dark grey-
brown above and dark vent. Ventrals 137, sub-
caudals 32, supralabials 7 (3rd and 4th entering
orbit) infralabials 7 (first 3 in contact with
anterior sublinguals).

14

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

Reproduction: The testes were turgid and large
(17. 2x4. 6mm).

Notes: The Mbala population has been known
for sometime (Vesey-FitzGerald, 1958; Broadley
86 Pitman, 1960; Broadley, 1971a, 1980).
Despite his initial reservation (Broadley,
1971a), Broadley (1980) first recognized
stuhlmanni as an eastern race of ambigua, and
then elevated it to a full species (Broadley,
1992). Trinomials are retained because of the
western race, P. a. bocagii. The Mbala popula-
tion represents the only locality for P. ambigua
in Zambia.

Dromophis lineatus (Dumeril 86 Bibron 1854)
Additional material: PEM R025 - Mweru Wan-
tipa, Northern Province (0829Db), H Bredo: 1
adult female, 404(288+ 1 16)mm. Ventrals 152,
subcaudals 84, supralabials 8 (4th and 5th
entering orbit), infralabials 9 (first three in con-
tact with anterior sublinguals), postoculars 2,
temporals 1+2.

Diet: There were lizard scales and insect re-
mains (possibly secondary prey) in the hind gut.

Psammophis angolensis (Bocage 1872)
Material examined: PEM R6207 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (11 24Ab) ; PEM
R7 1 32 - Musenga town, 1 2km east of Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Db): 2 adult males,
largest 422(312+1 10)mm. Midbody scale rows
11, ventrals 133-137, subcaudals 58-67.

Diet: One specimen contained an adult

Panaspis wahlbergii.

Reproduction: Both males had mature testes,
measuring 14- 16mm.

Psammophis mossambicus Peters 1882
Material examined: PEM R6225-29, 6231-36,
6238-43, 6245-48 - Sakeji School, North-
western Province (1124Ab); PEM R7 123-24,
8048, 8065-67, 12096 - Musenga town, 12km
east of Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Db);
PEM R 12494 - Lufwanyama farm, District
Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Da);
R6230, R6244 - Sanolumba village, south-
eastern DRC (1 124Ba); PEM R12095 - Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Bd), PEM R6555 -
Kitwe, Copperbelt Province (1228Cc): 34

specimens; 23 males, largest 1741(1280+
461)mm; 8 females, largest 1391(1020+

37 l)mm, and 3 juveniles. All specimens with 17
midbody scale rows; ventrals 169-176 in males,
175-177 in females; subcaudals 89-103 in

males, 92-96 in females; supralabials 8 (4th and
5th entering orbit); infralabials 9 (first four in
contact with anterior sublinguals); anal divided,
postoculars 2, postnasals 2, temporals 2+2.
Coloration of nearly all specimens a uni-form
olive green /grey with 3 males showing a change
to yellow on the posterior third of the body;
ventrals black bordered. One gravid female (PEM
R6230) from DRC with yellow coloration to the
ventrum, from the area above vent to the tail tip.

Additional material: PEM R988 - Mbala,

Northern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo.

Diet: Many of the Musenga specimens had
eaten; one male (PEM R8067) had a well-
digested frog in the stomach, possibly a ranid;
another male (PEM R12095) a half-digested
rodent in the stomach and rodent hair in the
hindgut; PEM R7 124 and 12096 also had rodent
hair in the hindgut; a juvenile had the hind foot
of a small rodent in the stomach and rodent hair
and lizard scales in the hindgut; a large female
(PEM R7123) had the tail of a large tree agama
(Acanthocercus atricollis) in the stomach.
Reproduction: Three females were gravid: PEM
R6230 contained 18(12/6) well-developed ova
(27. 2x16. 2mm). The other two females had
11(6/5) ova (25. 1x12. 5mm) and 13(7/6) ova
(12. 6x8. 4mm), respectively. An adult female
(PEM R6555), collected alive in Kitwe (1228Cc)
laid 14 eggs on 8 October; length - mean
25.72mm, SD. 1.21mm, range 24. 6-28. 8mm;
width - mean 15.77mm, SD. 1.55mm, range
13.2- 19.2mm; mass - mean3.42gm, SD. 0.73gm,
range 3.1-5.0gm. These were incu-bated on
moist vermiculite but failed to hatch.

Parasites: Nine snakes had nematodes (1-15) in
their guts, one with 3 in the body cavity.

Notes: These snakes were common in the
woodland and 24 of the specimens were
collected in just 3 days. Males did not have
active testes and it is not obvious why there
should be such a large difference in the sex ratio
of the specimens collected (23 males : 8 females).
Brandstatter (1996) demonstrated that P.
phillipsii is restricted to West Africa, and used
Psammophis cf. brevirostris tettensis Peters
(1882) as a replacement name for the olive grass
snake. This was not a suitable combination as
Broadley (1977) had demonstrated that the olive
grass snake occurred in sympatry with
brevirostris. Moreover, Psammophis sibilans
var. mossambica Peters (1882) has page pre-
ference over tettensis. The correct available

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

15

name is thus Psammophis mossambicus
(Branch 1998).

Psammophis brevirostris leopardinus
Bocage 1887

Material examined: PEM R6220-21, 6223-24,
6237, 6239 - Sakeji School, Northwestern Pro-
vince (1124Ab); PEM R6222 - Sanolumba
village, 46km northeast of Sakeji, south-eastern
DRC ( 1 1 24Ba) : 2 males, largest 978(711 +
267)mm, 5 females, largest 1001(767+234 - tail
tip truncatedjmm. All with 17 midbody scale
rows, ventrals 155 and 161 in males and
151-165 in females, subcaudals 81 (one spe-
cimen with a truncated tail) in males and 76 in
2 females. Olive green/brown dorsum with a
distinct double yellow chain pattern, bordered
with black. Ventrum light yellow, cream or even
light green.

Additional material: PEM R967, 1979 -

Mporokoso, Northern Province (0930Ac).

Diet: One male (PEM R6222) contained the
remains of a ranid.

Reproduction: The males had mature testes
and both females were gravid. PEM R6224
contained 14(8/6) ova (18.6x1 1.4mm) and
R6220 with 1 1(6/5) ova (15. 8x10. 2mm).

Note: Two specimens (PEM R6237, 6239) were
unusual, lacking the obvious chain pattern on
the back and superficially resembling P. mos-
sambicus; however, they had low ventral counts
(152-154). The largest female (PEM R6224) ex-
ceeds the previous maximum SVL reported by
Broadley (1977b). Brandstatter (1996) demon-
strated that P. sibilans is restricted to north-east
Africa. P. brevirostris thus becomes a full
species, with P. b. leopardinus as a northern
race. Brandstatter’s (1996) distribution map of
P. b. leopardinus shows an isolated population
in northern Zambia, but overlooked Broadley’s
(1991a) description of material from the Mwini-
lunga District that bridges this gap.

Rhamphiophis acutus acutus (Gunther 1888)
Material examined: PEM R6 154-67 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab): 9
males, largest 1006(83 l + 175)mm, and 5 fe-
males, largest 703(567+ 136)mm. Ventrals 177-
185 in males; 166-176 in females; subcaudals
59-66 in males, 53-62 in females; midbody scale
rows: 17 (rarely 19) at neck, 17 (midbody) 13
(vent); pre-oculars 2, postoculars 2, temporals
2+3 (1+2 in PEM R6156); supralabials 8 (9 in
PEM R6160) with 4th and 5th entering orbit;

infralabials 9 (10 in PEM R6158) with first 4 in
contact with anterior sublinguals; anal divided.

Diet: One female (PEM R6154) had rodent hair
in the stomach and hind gut; PEM R6167
contained grass. The remaining guts were
empty.

Reproduction: All the males had mature testes
and all 5 females were gravid. PEM R6167 was
damaged when killed and the number or size
and the ova could not be determined. The four
remaining females had the following ova: 10(4/6)
measuring 19. 3x 14.2mm; 13(7/6) measuring
12. 3x10. 7mm; 13(7/6) measuring 8. 3x7. 2mm;
and 15(7/8) measuring 12. 5x8. 6mm.

Parasites: One male (PEM R6158) had a nema-
tode in its gut.

Note: The Sakeji population clearly represents
the typical race and not the subspecies jappi
which was described from the Zambezi flood-
plains in western Zambia (Broadley, 1971b).

Psammophylax tritaeniatus (Gunther 1868)
Material examined: PEM R6 149-51 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R6152 - Sanolumba village, 46km north-east of
Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1124Ba): PEM
R7133 - Musenga town, 12km east of Chingola,
Copper-belt Province (1227Db): 4 males, largest
661 (539+122)mm; 2 females, largest 61 1(492+
1 19)mm. Ventrals 147-151 in males, 159 in both
females; subcaudals 53-58 in males, 54-60 in
females; supralabials 8 (4th and 5th entering
orbit); infralabials 9 (first 4 in contact with
anterior sublinguals).

Additional material: R1980 - Mbala, Northern
Province (083 lCd).

Reproduction: The largest female (PEM R6149)
contained 11(8/3) large ova (12. 2x7. 3mm) and
the smaller female (252+46=298mm ) contained
9(6/3) ova (2-3mm).

Parasites: One male (PEM R6152) had 5 nema-
todes in its stomach.

Philothamnus hoplogaster (Gunther 1863)
Material examined: PEM R6 1 86 - Sakeji School,
Northwestern Province (1 124Ab); PEM R 12633 -
Situnda Pan, Luiwa Plains National Park, Wes-
tern Province (1422Da): 1 female, 441(309+
132)mm; 1 male 671(480+191)mm. Ventrals
148-156, subcaudals 76-90; midbody scale rows
15, supralabials 7-8 (4th and 5th entering orbit);
infralabials 9 (first 4 in contact with the anterior

16

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

sublinguals), cloacal divided, preocular 1;
postoculars 2; temporals 1 + 1.

Philothamnus heterolepidotus (Gunther 1863)
Material examined: PEM R6187 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab): 1
male, 500 (372+ 1 28)mm, with 1 5 midbody scale
rows, 174 ventrals and 98 subcaudals.
Supralabials 9 (3th, 4th and 5th entering orbit);
infralabials 9 (first 5 in contact with anterior
sublinguals); preocular 1, postoculars 2, tem-
porals 1 + 1.

Philothamnus angolensis Bocage 1 882
Material examined: PEM R6 190-92 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R7132, 8047, 8050, 10881-87 - Musenga town,
12km east of Chingola, Copperbelt Province
(1227Db); PEM R6193-94 - Sanolumba village,
46km north-east of Sakeji, south-eastern DRC
(1124Ba): 8 males, largest 992(658+334)mm;
5 females, largest 1034(728+306)mm; 2 juve-
niles, 1 measuring 508(356+ 152)mm. Midbody
scale rows 15; ventrals 145-147 in males, 154-
159 in female; subcaudals 101-108 in males,
93-99 in females; supralabials 9 (4th, 5th and
6th entering orbit); infralabials 10 (first 4-5 in
contact with anterior sublinguals); preocular 1 ,
post-ocular 2, temporals 1 + 1 (n=4) or 1+2 (n=l).
Diet: The stomach of a female (PEM R8047)
contained a small (43mm TL) amphibian (Bufo
sp. with tarsal fold); that of a young male (PEM
R 10884) contained a ranid; an adult male (PEM
R 10885) contained a large Rana (33.4gm),
which comprised 26.1% of the snake’s body
weight.

Reproduction: Adult males had mature testes,
measuring 23-28mm. All but one female were
gravid; PEM R6194 had 9(5/4) eggs (21x8mm);
PEM R10882 had 9(5/4) eggs (27.2x14. 1mm);
PEM R10883 had 17(9/8) eggs (28.2x15. 1mm);
whereas PEM R10887 had 12(7/5) eggs (26.4
xl4.8mm).

Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia (Laurenti 1768)
Material examined: PEM R6168 - Sonalumba
village, 46km north-east of Sakeji, south-
eastern DRC (1 124Ba); PEM R7136, 8061- 62 -
Musenga town, 12km east of Chingola, Cop-
perbelt Province (1227Db): 4 adult females,
largest 546 (477+69)mm. Midbody scale rows
19, ventrals 156-163, subcaudals 34-39;
supralabials 8 (3rd, 4th and 5th entering orbit),
infralabials 9-11, preocular 1, postocular 2,

temporals 1+2. The supralabials in PEM R8061
were white in colour.

Diet: PEM R8061 contained the lower limbs of a
large Bufo sp. (1.8gm); R8062 had the remains
of a ranid in the stomach.

Dipsadoboa shrevei shrevei (Loveridge 1932)
Material examined: PEM R6 1 53 - Sakeji School,
Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM R7131,
R8059-60 - Musenga town, 12km east of
Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Db): 2 adult
males, largest 1241(825+216)mm; 2 adult
females, largest 1076(857+2 19)mm. Ventrals
206-207 in males, 211-212 in females,
subcaudals 83-86 in males and 71-82 in fe-
males. Midbody scale rows 19, supralabials 8-9,
(3rd, 4th and 5th entering orbit), infralabials
10-11 (first 5 in contact with the anterior
sublinguals), preocular 1, postocular 2, tem-
porals 1+2, anal entire. All specimens were a
uniform black colour with a pale infusion to the
throat.

Diet: One male (PEM R7131) contained a
partially digested Chamaeleo dilepis; a male
and female from Musenga both contained bird
remains in their stomach and hind gut. PEM
R8059 had a complete pied mannikin (Sper-
mestes fringilloides) in the stomach.
Reproduction: The male had mature testes but
the female had no enlarged ova.

Notes: Rasmussen (1985) recently elevated
shrevei to a full species with D. s. kageleri as an
East African endemic subspecies, known only
from the Kilimanjaro Mountain rainforest. Both
the largest male and female reported here exceed
the maximum recorded sizes for the species
(Rasmussen, 1985).

Telescopus semiannulatus semiannulatus
A Smith 1849

Material examined: PEM R1 1659 - Kafulafuta,
Copperbelt Province (1328Bd): 1 young male
measuring 402(33 1+71 )mm, and 1 female mea-
suring 7 14(592+ 122)mm. Overall yellow-brown
colour with 35 dark transverse marking along
the back. Scutellation: ventrals male 20 1 , female
227; subcaudals male 69, female 62; anal
divided.

Additional material: PEM R11649 - Isoka,
Northern Province (103 2 Ba), E Knowles- Jordan.
Reproduction: The male’s testes were flaccid
and measured 12.9mm. The female contained
several small ova measuring 2-3mm in diameter.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1 : 1 -25 February 2000

17

Dispholidus typus (A Smith 1829)

Material examined: PEMR6204-05, 6208-09-
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab);
PEM R7126 - Musenga town, 12km east of
Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Db); PEM
R6203, 6206 - Sanolumba village, 46km north-
east of Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1124Ba): 3
adult males, 2 adult females and 1 juvenile.
Largest male 1255(955+300)mm; largest fe-
male 1410(1070+340)mm. Midbody scale rows
19, ventrals 171-181 in males, 176-183 in
females, 199 in a juvenile (PEM R6203);
subcaudals 101-109 in males, 103-104 in
females. The juvenile has typical Thelotomis
type coloration on the body with white upper
labials. Adult males are black with yellows spots
on each dorsal and head shield, ventrum cream.
One female (PEM R6206) had a pink/ brown
above, with a white throat and pinkish ventrum.
The other female was a dull olive grey colour
above and below.

Diet: The juvenile had the remains of a lizard
Chamaeleo cf. dilepis in its stomach.
Reproduction: Males had mature testes; one
female had no ova; another female (PEM R6206)
contained 15 well-developed ova (32x1 7mm),
and a large female (PEM R6208; 1070+ 355mm)
had 18 (6/ 12) ova (31x18mm).

Thelotomis oatesii (Gunther 1881)

Material examined: PEM R6 195-98 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab): 2
adult males, largest 1015(635+370)mm; 2 adult
females, largest 1304(842+462)mm. Midbody
scale rows 19; ventrals 158-164 in males, 144-
168 in females; subcaudals 139-143 in males,
145-147 in females; cloacal divided; supra-
labials 8-9 (4th and 5th entering orbit);
infralabials 11-12 (first 4 in contact with
anterior sublinguals); preocular 1; postoculars
2-3; temporals 1+2. Top of head greenish with
speckled pink and distinct Y-marking, labials
white with black lining.

Diet: One gravid female (PEM R6197) contained
a partially digested Chamaeleo cf. dilepis and a
large grasshopper in the stomach, and enlarged
ventrals from an unidentified snake in the hind
gut. Another large female (PEM R6198) had
scales from an unidentified skink in the hind
gut. One adult male (PEM R6 196) also contained
the remains of a chameleon (Chamaeleo cf.
dilepis ) in the stomach, and scales and toes from
a Gerrhosaurus bulsi (approx. SVL 90mm) in the
hind gut. The other male (PEM R6195)

contained an adult male Ichnotropis b. bivittata
(PEM R6280).

Reproduction: The males were mature, with
large, though non-turgid testes, with thick
coiled efferent ducts. All 3 females were gravid,
containing 7-8 developing ova. The larger
female (PEM R6198) had 8(5/3) ova (26. 7x
17.3mm); another large female (PEM R6196;
704+430mm) had 7(2/5) ova (16x5mm); PEM
R6197 (760+440mm) also had 7(3/4) ova
(17. 3x6. 8mm).

Parasites: A male (PEM R6 196) had a nematode
in the stomach. Simbotwe (1983) reported
nematodes (Abbreviata sp.) from the stomach of
a Lochinvar National Park (1527Cd) specimen.
Notes: One female (PEM R6198) is unusual in
having a very low ventral count (144; usually
>158), yet the rest of the scutellation is typical
for the race (Broadley, 1966; 1983b). Broadley
(1979) discussed the problems relating to the
geographical variation within the genus, and
recognized a number of races within T. capensis.
He has recently proposed treating all races as
full species (Broadley, pers. comm.). Shine et
al. (1996) have discussed the unusually varied
diet of this highly arboreal species. Foley (1998)
gives further details of reproduction.

ATRACTASPIDIDAE: ATRACTASPIDINAE

Atractaspis bibroniiA Smith 1849
Material examined: PEM R 12494 - Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Bd): ladult female,
373(349+24)mm. Ventrals 241, subcaudals 21.
Additional material: PEM R1093, 1097 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo; 2
juveniles.

Notes: The Chingola snake was killed after
biting a child on the hand. The victim showed
local swelling, intense pain with black-blue dis-
colouration at bite site; pain killer (50mg
Phethadine) and Phenergan were adminis-
tered. The hand remained swollen and sensitive
to touch, but this subsided after a week with
small local necrosis at the bite site.

APARALLACTINAE

Chilorhinophis gerardi (Boulenger 1913)
Additional material: PEM R7244 - Lusaka,
Central Province (1528Ad); PEM R7245 - Ndola,
Central Province (1228Dc); PEM R7246 - Isoka,
Northern Province (1032Ba), E Knowles col-
lection: 3 adult specimens, the largest measu-
ring 241(283+18)mm. Ventrals 279-285, sub-
caudals 24-26, supralabials 4 (followed by a

18

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

pseudo-supralabial which does not border the
lip); infralabials 5 (first three in contact with
anterior sublinguals).

ELAPIDAE

Elapsoidea guentheri Bocage 1866
Additional material: PEM R1977 - Mbala,

Northern Province (083 lCd), H Bredo: 1 adult
female measuring 484(45 l+33)mm. Ventrals
141, subcaudals 18, supralabials 7 (3rd and 4th
entering orbit); infralabials 7 (first three in
contact with anterior sublinguals).

Diet: The stomach and hind gut held the
remains of a large scorpion.

Reproduction: The female contained 10(7/3)
ova, measuring 4.2x2. 1mm.

Notes: Pitman (1934) reported a large female
from Kabwe (1428Ad) with 10 eggs during
January. The distribution of this species
appears to be sporadic and it is currently known
from only one locality in each of the Central,
Northwestern, Copperbelt and Southern Provin-
ces (Broadley, 1971a; 1971c). Mertens (1937)
reported two hymenopteran larvae in a juvenile
snake from Katanda (1625Dd).

Naja annulifera Peters 1854
Additional material: PEM R2367 - Livingstone,
Southern Province (1725Dd): 1 adult male
measuring 1579(1408+171)mm, tail truncated.
Ventrals 182; dorsal scale rows 19,19 and 15;
supralabials 7 (3rd entering orbit); infralabials
8 (first 4 in contact with anterior sublinguals),
postoculars 2, anal entire. Colour: uniform
brown above and cream-grey ventrum.

Diet: The stomach was empty but there was
rodent hair in the lower gut.

Reproduction: The testes were flaccid, measu-
ring 39. 6x6. 9mm.

Notes: Broadley (1995) recently revived annu-
lifera as a full species with anchietae as a
western race. The specimen has neck and mid-
body scale counts typical of N. annulifera.
However, two additional Livingstone speci-
mens in the collections of the National
Museums of Zimbabwe (Bulawayo) and Zambia
(Livingstone) have 17 and 15 midbody scale
rows, respectively, and are probably referable
to N. anchietae (Broadley, pers. comm.). To-
gether these specimens indicate sympatry
between the sister species.

Naja nigncollis Reinhardt 1843

Material examined: PEM R6148 - Kwambali

school, Lake Mweru, 5 km S Nchelenge town,
Luapula Province (0928Bc); PEM R7137, 8063 -
64 - Musenga town, 12km east of Chingola,
Copperbelt Province (1227Db); PEM R9837 -
Kafulafuta, Copperbelt Province (1328Bd): 4
males, largest 1479(12 15+264)mm and 1 juve-
nile. Midbody scale rows 19, ventrals 179-184,
subcaudals 61-65; supralabials 6 (3rd entering
orbit); infralabials 8-9.

Diet: One male (PEM R8064) had a well-
digested ranid in the stomach and mammal hair
in the lower gut.

Notes: The southern and western races
nigricincta and woodi are unlikely to be con-
specific with N. nigricollis (Broadley, pers.
comm.), which reverts to binomials.

Naja melanoleuca Hallowed 1857
Additional material: PEM R1151 - Mbala,
Northern Province (083 lCd), H. Bredo. An adult
male, 1559 (1291+268)mm. Midbody scale rows
19, ventrals 207, subcaudals 64, supralabials
7 (3rd and 4th entering orbit), infralabials 7
(first four in contact with anterior sublinguals).
Two distinct dark bands on the neck (on ventral
count 13-18 and 24-29), colouration typical for
subfulva.

Reproduction: The testes were flaccid, measu-
ring 48. 2x9. 6mm.

Note: Broadley (1968) found large variation in
both colour and ventral counts in the species,
and rejected the retention of subfulva as a race.

Dendroaspis polylepis Gunther 1 864
Material examined: PEM R6188 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R6189 - Sanolumba village, 46km north-east of
Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1 124Ba): 1 juvenile
male, 936(734+202)mm, and 1 sub-adult fe-
male, 1396 (1042+354)mm. Midbody scale rows
21; ventrals 266 in male, 277 in female;
subcaudals 129 in male and 125 in female. Both
a dull lead-grey colour dorsally with pale grey
ventrum.

VTPERIDAE; CAUSINAE

Causus bilineatus Boulenger 1905
Material examined: PEM R6 170-71 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab); PEM
R6169 - Sanolumba village, 46km north-east of
Sakeji, south-eastern DRC (1124Ba): 2 males,
largest (PEM R6169) 354(3 18+46)mm; 1 adult
female, 348(309+39)mm. Midbody scale rows
17 (with one exception of 18 in PEM R6171);

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1 : 1 -25 February 2000

19

ventrals 136-138 in the males and 138 in the
female; subcaudals 25-27 in the males and 26
in the female. Pale dorsolateral lines were
distinct in all the specimens with clear dorsal
black blotches (37-40 in males and 39 in the
female). Ventral scales pale grey colour with
black stippled anterior, usually more extensive
at midbody.

Parasites: Stomach of male (PEM R6169)
contained large numbers of nematodes.
Reproduction: The female was gravid and con-
tained 8 eggs (5/3), measuring 14x8mm.

Causus rhombeatus (Lichtenstein 1823)
Material examined: PEM R6199, R6202 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1124Ab): PEM
R7 127-29, R9535-36 - Musenga town, 12km
east of Chingola, Copperbelt Province (1227Db);
PEM R6200-01 - Sanolumba village, 46km
north-east of Sakeji, south-eastern DRC
(1124Ba): 5 males, largest 623(563+60)mm; 4
females, largest 701 (624+77)mm; 2 juveniles.
Midbody scale rows 17-19; ventrals 136-145 in
the males, 138-139 in the females; subcaudals
25-34 in the males and 26-27 in the female;
supralabials 6; infralabials 9 (first 1 in contact
with anterior sublinguals). Dorsal colours are
pale grey with grey-black markings. Two of the
snakes (PEM R7127 and R9535) had a pale grey
ventrum, the other 2 had dark central ventra
similar to C. bilineatus.

Diet: A female contained a slightly digested toad
( Bufo cf. gutturalis ) in the stomach.
Reproduction: A female (PEM R7127) con-
tained 19(9/10) ova (9-1 lx5-6mm).

VIPERINAE

Bitis arietans arietans (Merrem 1820)

Material examined: PEM R62 10-13,6216-19-
Sakeji School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab);
PEM R6214 - 64km east of Mansa on Sampfya
road, Luapula District (1129 Ad); PEM R6215 -
Sanolumba village, 46km north-east of Sakeji,
south-eastern DRC (1124Ba): 8 males, largest
862(756+ 106)mm and 2 females, largest 491
(463+26)mm were examined. Ventrals 122-128
in the males and 128-129 in the females; sub-
caudals 23-28 in males and 13-15 in females.
Four specimens had a black and golden yellow
dorsal pattern, normally 6 chevrons and 6
blotches with 4 bars on the tail. PEM R7 1 27 was
a uniform grey colour with black chevrons;
PEM R62 14 a very light brown with dark brown
chevrons. Two sub-adult snakes (PEM R6210-

11) were light brown with yellow borders on
dark brown chevrons whereas the juveniles
were all light brown with dark brown chevrons.
Diet: Only three guts were completely empty
(one other snake was gutted). In three snakes
the stomach was empty but the lower gut
contained mammal hair. PEM R62 19 had a total
of 44gm (wet mass) of unidentified mammalian
remains in stomach; PEM R6210 contained a
small rodent in the gut (weight 4gm, swallowed
tail first) and a large lump of mammal hair in the
lower gut. Two other snakes had unidentified
rodent remains in the stomach.

Parasites: Nematodes were collected in the
stomach of male PEM R6218.

Bitis gabonica

gabonica (Dumeril & Bibron 1854)
Material examined: PEM R6183 - Sakeji
School, Northwestern Province (1 124Ab); sight
record (dry skin) - Lufwanyama farm, 28km east
of Chingola, District Chingola, Copperbelt
Province. The Sakeji specimen was an adult
female, brought in after being killed in a forest
fire. It was badly damaged, partly decomposed
with posterior part of body missing. The
specimen was skinned with midbody scale rows
at 4 1 . No ventral or subcaudal counts available
because of damage to the body. Adult male
measuring 1298(1 151+ 147)mm, ventrals 129,
subcaudals 28, midbody scale rows 41,
supralabials 12; infralabials 17 (first four in
contact with anterior sublinguals).

Additional material: PEM R2361 - Mbala,

Northern Province (083 ICd).

Diet: The Mbala male had mammal hair in the
hind gut.

Notes: A well-known snake in the Sakeji area.
An adult was observed crossing the road on 15
July 199 1 on the Hillwood farm near the school.
A large adult was observed near the school
swimming pool over several months (Brubacker,
pers. comm.). As a result of extensive annual
bush fires, these snakes are found mainly along
the patches of evergreen forests along the
streams, but are getting increasingly rare
(Hey gate, pers. comm.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Harry and Rosemary Konstantinou for their
wonderful Zambian hospitality; Clive Cornelius
and Phillip Groves, Musenga Mission, for
assistance in collecting the series of specimens
from Musenga; Matt and Anne Cowell for most

20

Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

pleasant field assistance; Dr D G Broadley,
Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe for
assistance with the identification of pro-
blematic taxa and valuable comment on the
text; and the staff at Sekaji School, especially

Dennis and Marian Brubaker for their
hospitality and field assistance. The financial
sponsorship of Matt Cowell Safaris into Africa is
gratefully acknowledged.

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Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1 : 1 -25 February 2000

23

APPENDIX 1: GAZATTEER OF LOCALITIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT

LOCALITY

PROVINCE

GRID SQUARE

COORDINATES

Zambia

1. Chansa (Masankwa Flats)

Northern

0830Ca

08°40'S, 30° 12'E

2. Chiengi

Northern

0829Ca

08°38'S, 29°1 l'E

3. Chingola

Copperbelt

1227Bd

12°29'S, 27°47'E

4. Chililabombwe

Copperbelt

1227Bd

12°28'S, 27°51'E

5. Chirundu border post

Southern

1628Cc

16°02'S, 28°50'E

6. Chistenga River

Northwestern

1 124Dd

1 1°45'S, 24°59'E

7. Chombe

Central

1429Db

14°36'S, 29°47'E

8. Dambwa Forest Reserve

Southern

1725Dd

17°46'S, 25°51'E

9. Farm 4304, District Chingola

Copperbelt

1227Db

12°37’S, 27°56'E

10. Gwabi Lodge, Kafue River

Southern

1528Dd

15°57'S, 28°49'E

1 1 . Ikelenge

Northwestern

1 124Ab

H014’S, 24°15'E

12. Isoka

Northern

1032Ba

10°07'S, 32°41'E

13. Kabulonga, Lusaka

Central

1528Ad

15°22'S, 28°23'E

14. Kafulafuta

Copperbelt

1328Bd

13°48'S, 28°46'E

15. Kalala Lodge, Lake Itezhi-Tezhi

Central

1526Cc

15°46'S, 26°00'E

16. Kit we

Copperbelt

1228Cc

12°52'S, 28°14'E

17. Lake Cheshi

Northern

0829Dd

08°56'S, 29°48'E

18. Lake Mweru

Luapula

0928Bc

09°26'S, 28°34'E

19. Lealui pontoon, Zambezi River

Western

1522Bb

15°12'S, 22°55'E

20. Livingstone

Southern

1725Dd

17°48'S, 25°5 l'E

21. Livingstone, 27km west

Western

17250a

17°44'S, 25°36'E

22. Lochinvar National Park

Southern

1527Cd

15°56'S, 27°15'E

23. Luangwe East

Eastern

1332Ad

13°17'S, 32°27'E

24. Luanginga River, Kalabo town

Western

1422Dc

14°59'S, 22°40'E

25. Lufupa Camp, Kafue NP

Northwestern

1426Ca

14°36'S, 26°1 l'E

26. Lufwanyama Farm

Copperbelt

1227Da

12°37'S, 27°42'E

27. Lusaka

Central

1528Ad

15°10'S, 28°07'E

28. Mambwe

Northern

093 lBb

09°09'S, 31°52'E

29. Mansa, 64km east

Luapula

1 129Ad

11°18'S, 29°24’E

30. Mbala

Northern

083 lCd

08°50'S, 31°24'E

3 1 . Mbendele River

Southern

1628Bc

16°20'S, 28°41'E

32. Mongo

Western

1523Ac

15°15'S, 23°08'E

33. Mpika

Eastern

1131 Cd

1 1°50'S, 31°31'E

34. Mpokoroso

Northern

09 30 Ac

09°22'S, 30°07'E

35. Mumbwa

Central

1527Ab

15°07'S, 27°21'E

36. Mumbwa, 13km west of town

Central

1526Bb

15°07'S, 26°56'E

37. Musenga

Copperbelt

1227Db

12°34'S, 27°53'E

38. Musungwa Lodge,

Lake Itezhi-Tezhi

Central

1526Cc

15°46'S, 26°00'E

39. Mweru Wantipa

Northern

0829Db

08°37'S, 29°52'E

40. Mwinilunga

Northwestern

1 124Cb

1 1°44'S, 24°25'E

41. Nchelenge

Luapula

0928Bc

09°25'S, 28°33'E

42. Ndola

Copperbelt

1228Cc

12°56'S, 28°10'E

43. Ngoma Camp, Kafue NP

Central

1525Dd

15°54'S, 25°57'E

44. Nyamkolo

Northern

083 ICa

08°40'S, 3 1°07'E

45. Sakeyi School

Northwestern

1 124Ab

1 1°14'S, 24°19'E

46. Sampfya

Luapula

1129BC

1 1°19'S, 29°31'E

47. Shesheke

Western

1724Cb

17°35'S, 24°25'E

48. Shesheke, 15km northwest

Western

1724 Ad

17°26'S, 24°22'E

49. Shimbala

Central

1528Ca

15°41'S, 28°16’E

50. Situnda Pan, Luiwa Plains NP

Western

1422Da

14°40'S, 22°39'E

51. Siyenge pan, Luiwa Plains NP

Western

1422Dd

14°48'S, 22°55'E

52. Zambezi rapids

Northwestern

1 124Aa

1 1°07'S, 24°08'E

24 Haagner, Branch & Haagner: Herpetofauna of Zambia

Democratic Republic of the Congo

53. 32km NE Mufilira Shaba 1228Ba 12°13'S, 28°42'E

54. Sanolumba village Shaba 1124Ba 1 1°12'S, 24°30'E

25’ 30° 35"

Figure 2. Map of Zambia with localities listed above.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:1-25 February 2000

25

INDIGENOUS PLANT USE OF THE AMAXHOSA PEOPLE ON THE
EASTERN BORDER OF THE GREAT FISH RIVER RESERVE,

EASTERN CAPE

Tony Dold1 & Michelle Cocks2

'Selmar Schonland Herbarium, Albany Museum,
P O Box 101, Graham stown, 6140
institute for Social and Economic Research,
Rhodes University, P O Box 94, Grahamstown, 6140

ABSTRACT

The use of indigenous and some naturalised exotic plant species by Xhosa-speaking people in nine
villages in the former Ciskei is documented and summarised in a table of 83 plant species. Plant use
and indigenous knowledge was recorded over a two year period culminating in an intensive four week
study to confirm and clarify data. Eight case studies based on the principles of Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) were undertaken with 87 informants. Sixty-one percent of the total number of plant
species recorded were used for medicinal purposes, 7% for customs and cultural purposes, 18%
for food and the remaining 14% for fuel, construction and veterinary purposes. Species are ranked
according to degree of importance and perceived abundance by user groups.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, amaXhosa, Eastern Cape

INTRODUCTION

Much is known about the floristic and faunistic
composition of the Great Fish River Reserve
Complex (Dyer, 1937; Palmer, 1981; Everard,
1987; Hoffman & Everard, 1987; Palmer, 1988;
Palmer, Crook & Lubke, 1988; Palmer & Avis,
1994; Evans, Avis & Palmer, 1997) and its
surroundings, although very little published
information exists on the use of plants by the
amaXhosa people of the area (Cocks, 1996; Dold
& Cocks, 1997). It is evident from the many
successful amaYeza stores (Xhosa pharmacies)
in the Peddie and King William’s Town districts
(Cocks, 1996) that there is a substantial trade in
wild harvested plant material. Many people in
these areas collect and use plant material for
their own use. A rich and diverse cultural
knowledge has been passed down orally since
the 18th century and in areas of abject poverty
is still relied on to sustain a certain quality of
life. The diverse and restricted flora of the area is
unique thus exhibiting unique plant use by the
local communities.

A study of the trade in plant material and
products in the Peddie and King William’s Town
Districts revealed that a substantial quantity of
wild harvested plants are sourced in the current
study area (Cocks, 1996) resulting in a need to

assess these resources. A report on ethno-
botanical resources was undertaken (Cocks &
Dold, 1997) confirming this to be an area of high
harvesting intensity both locally and by com-
mercial gatherers from as far afield as Gauteng.
The aim of this paper is to document species
specific plant use at a household level in the
same study area and to assess the degree of
importance of these to users. Perceived abun-
dance and accessibility of species is recorded
with regard to both communal land and
restricted reserve land.

THE STUDY AREA

The Great Fish River Reserve complex (Double
Drift, Sam Knott and Andries Vosloo reserves) is
situated 40km North-East of Grahamstown in
the Eastern Cape (Fig. 1). The study area lies
between 33°00’ and 33°09' S and 26°37’ and
26°55' E. The vegetation type is the Fish River
Scrub category of Acock's (1988) Valley Bush-
veld. In its undamaged state it is an extremely
dense, semi-succulent thorny scrub, about 2m
high, however, due to overgrazing it has been
opened up and invaded by the prickly pear
[Opuntia ficus-indica) and colonised by Pteronia
incana. Palmer (1981) recognises 13 plant
communities ranging from dwarf shrubland

26

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

Figure 1. The Great Fish River Reserve Complex

characterised by the Felicia fascicularis -
Walafrida geniculata association, through the
succulent bushclump savanna of the Portu-
lacaria afra - Ruellia cordata association to the
woodland of the southern slopes characterised
by the Hippobromus pauciflorus - Schotia latifolia
association. The vegetation comprises a mosaic
of bushclumps and grasslands, with as many as
18 woody species occurring in one bushclump.
This succulent thicket type is restricted to the
immediate Fish River Valley area. The intro-
duction of large numbers of goats and cattle has
resulted in overgrazing and degradation of the
vegetation, which is characterised by a
reduction in total plant cover and a loss of
endemic species, particularly succulents and
bulbous plants (Kerley, 1996). It has been found
that 16.3% of plants recorded for medicinal
purposes in the study area fall into these life
form categories. According to the publication
Nakor (1981) only 1.2% of the total extent of
Valley Bushveld is currently conserved.

Geologically the area comprises the
Middleton formation which consists predo-
minantly of grey and red mudstone and
sandstone. The climate may be described as
warm temperate and the mean annual rainfall is
434mm, with peaks in October and March
(Palmer, 1988).

There are nine villages adjoining the reserve
on its eastern boundary (former Ciskei), and of
these six were included in the study: Nomtayi,
Ripplemead, Tweni, Ndwayana, Glenmore and
Gwabeni. (Fig. 1). Double Drift Reserve was also
visited and data collected from eight game
guards employed by East Cape Nature Con-
servation. A culturally important site at Fort
Montgomery was visited. The villages represent
the entire eastern boundary of the reserve. Most
of this area consists of communal land where
little control exists over grazing and other forms
of resource use. The human population density
is approximately 70 people per square kilo-
metre, with an unemployment rate of more
than 70%, resulting in a local economy based
on state pensions and subsistence farming.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

27

Stocking rates are estimated to be three to five
times the recommended rate (Ainslie, et al,
1994). A large number of inhabitants rely on
natural resources for fuel, building material,
medicines and to a lesser extent food and
income through resale.

An historical and socio-political overview of
the Great Fish River Reserve Complex can be
found in Webley’s (1997) Eastern Cape Cultural
Resources Management Pilot Project on the
Great Fish River Reserve. However, it is impor-
tant to note here that the amaXhosa people
inhabiting the area are the descendants of
amaXhosa, and to some extent Khoekhoen and
San, that have been in the area since the late
18th century (Webley, 1997) and thus have an
inherent knowledge of the natural environment,
i.e. the Valley Bushveld (Acocks, 1988).

METHODOLOGY

A participatory approach to data gathering was
selected based on Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) principles. PRA can best be defined as an
approach and method for learning about rural
life and conditions from, with, and by rural
people (Chambers, 1994), and a way of inter-
acting with villagers, understanding them and
learning from them (Mukherjee, 1993). These
methods enable us to unravel the complex
interactions between people and plants. PRA
methods also assist in overcoming obvious flaws
that arise as a result of inappropriate methods
and ignorance. For example, traditional extrac-
tive methods frequently treat resource users in
communities as homogenous groups with the
same levels of knowledge despite the fact that
specific groups and individuals use available
resources in different and various ways that
depend on experience, gender, age or specialist
knowledge. Such differences are often over-
looked and not recorded (Cunningham, 1994).
PRA methods provide the means to capture this
valuable information by means of recognizing
the various perceptions.

Six village communities in the study area
were visited and informants included men and
women of different social standing, as well as
children, in order to involve custodians of
different cultural information (Fig. 4). The pro-
cess included informal group discussions with
various interest groups as well as interviews
with individuals with more specialized know-
ledge. In most cases an interpreter was em-

ployed (an individual from the group) who acted
as a co-facilitator. Information gathered through
PRA exercises is summarized in Table 2.

PRA METHODS

1. Transect walks

Transect walks, also known as “walk-in-the-
woods interviews” (Alexiades, 1996) involve
systematically walking through an area with
key informants discussing and recording
various aspects of resource use with them. The
value of such an exercise to the study was to
collect information about local plant use and to
collect specimens referred to at the same time.
From a botanical perspective it is essential that
all information gathered is linked to voucher
specimens (Groom, 1983).

Four transect walks were undertaken
(Table 2) in three villages. Specimens were
collected with detailed information about the
uses and preparation of each. Informants for the
transect walks were selected from various
groups such as men, women, youths and
specialists such as traditional healers. On each
walk no more than three informants were
selected because of the difficulties of recording
the information. The transect walks were
undertaken through the main collecting and
harvesting areas identified by the informants.
Informants were encouraged to point out plant
species that they recognized and to provide the
vernacular names, use and preparation of each,
as well as any other information they may have.

A duplicate set of specimens was collected,
one set for the PRA exercises performed in the
discussion groups and the other set to be
pressed and as voucher specimens to be
housed in the Selmar Schonland Herbarium at
the Albany Museum.

2. Mapping exercise

Two mapping exercises with five participants
(Table 2) were undertaken to access informa-
tion relevant to the source and accessibility of
plant resources. Mapping involves the drawing
of simple schematic maps by local informants.
The groups where provided with large pieces of
strong blank paper and felt tipped marker pens
in a range of colours. The participants were
asked to draw their village in relation to the
resource collection points and landmarks such
as rivers and mountains. Once the maps were
completed discussion amongst the group was

28

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

• • Ix*' ™ ’ 'T**! ' TJp,v —*—

2 N^Ututu Tw ^ Vr“'T MW tsh(

3 THuV.V^ (ly,^

y (*, y^ fff* s't «-

* /%-»«.* ia2r "'•w

■»' >C *■'

Figure 2. Map drawn by Tweni villagers

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

29

encouraged to determine which plants should
be drawn on the map and therefore to provide an
indication of priority and importance of the
plants selected. The positioning of the plant
species in relation to the village indicated the
distribution and estimated distances covered to
collect them, thereby attaching value to each
plant.

Mapping exercises were undertaken in two
villages, providing information regarding re-
source localities and abundance. Both exer-
cises revealed that fuel wood and construction
material are in great demand and difficult to
access. From the example (Fig. 2) it was shown
that these, and other resources, are perceived to
be abundant, but inaccessible, in the reserve
(fence indicated by heavy cross hatching on the
maps).

3. Informal discussion groups

Three informal discussion groups were under-
taken (Table 2) in three villages with 31 infor-
mants, resulting in detailed information of 52
plant species. Information gathered in transect
walks was verified and added to. During the
discussion the duplicate set of plant specimens
collected in the transect walks was displayed to
prompt the discussion. One specimen was
shown at a time and discussed. Participants
were encouraged to respond to the following
questions:

► Do they recognise/ know the plant, if so by
what name do they know it?

► What do they use it for?

► How is it used?

► Who uses it (adults, children, men, women)?

► How is it prepared?

► Is it bought or sold?

► Where is it collected?

► How plentiful is it?

► Can something else be used as a substi-
tute? (indicating importance/ value)

This technique provided the means to verify
previously collected information and to collect
further uses of the plants from a large number of
people at one time. The results indicated the
level of knowledge and the extent and intensity
of plant use within the communities.

4. Ranking exercises

Two ranking exercises (Table 2) were under-
taken with 10 informants each in two villages.
Ranking and scoring exercises reveal priorities

and preferences by allowing informants to
physically rank and re-rank specimens and
give reasons for doing so (Mukherjee, 1993).
Plant species were attributed a status or value
by means of ranking representative specimens
according to importance, abundance and
quantity used.

To conduct the exercise three squares of
obviously varying sizes were drawn and each
designated a value relative to its size, i.e. most
important, less important and least important.
The participants were asked to place each
specimen (collected previously in the transect
walk exercise) into a square, thereby assigning
it to that particular category. Reasons for the
decision were discussed and recorded for each
specimen. Each group was presented with the
same plant specimens, to standardize the data
source and allow for the accurate interpreta-
tion of the results.

Plant species previously identified as im-
portant in transect walks and discussion groups
were ranked so as to ascertain the most
important and most commonly used. The
results are summarized in Table 1.

5. Semi-structured interviews

Two semi-structured interviews were under-
taken in two villages (Table 2) with seven
informants. The advantage of such an interview
is that it is based on a partly structured guide
but at the same time has the flexibility of an
unstructured interview (Alexiades, 1996). This
makes it possible to collect comparable, quan-
titative data while at the same time probing into
new areas of interest which might arise in the
interview. The interviews were conducted in an
informal manner and in a relaxed setting
whereby queries emerge from the responses
received. The predetermined topics discussed in
the interviews related to demand and acces-
sibility of fuel wood, culturally useful plants and
medicinal plants.

The results of the interviews revealed very
definite cultural use of individual species.
Regarding the reserve complex it is clear that
access to natural resources is desired by all
neighbouring communities.

6. Interviews with key informants

Four key informant interviews were undertaken
(Table 2) with nine informants to further clarify
two issues: Culturally useful plants and de-
mand and accessibility of fuel wood. The key

30

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

Table 1. Plant species most commonly used and designated most important.

Plant species ranked

Most commonly used (in order)

Most important (in order)

Aloeferox

Asparagus africanus
Asparagus suaveolens
Boscia oleoides
Cadaba aphylla
Capparis sepiaria
Capparis fascicularis
Cissampelos capensis
Clausena anisata
Cotyledon orbiculata
Dianthus thunbergii
Dioscorea sylvatica
Gasteria bicolor
Haemanthus albiflos
Haworthia attenuata
Leucas capensis
Olea europaea subsp africana
Plumbago auriculata
Polygala myrtifolia
Polystachya pubescens
Ptaeroxylon obliquum
Pteronia incana
Sansevieria hyacinthoides
Solanum nigrum

1 . Olea europaea subsp africana
(cultural)

2. Ptaeroxylon obliquum (cultural)

3. Gasteria bicolor (cultural &
medicinal)

4. Haworthia attenuata (cultural &
medicinal)

5 . Cissampelos capensis (medicinal)

1 .Olea europaea subsp africana
(cultural)

2 . Ptaeroxylon obliquum (cultural)

3. Plumbago auriculata (cultural)

4. Clausena anisata (medicinal)

informants were interviewed with the explicit
aim of recording their particular knowledge and
requirements. The key informants were recog-
nized during the group discussions and
requested to participate in more detailed
individual interviews.

RESULTS

A total number of 83 plants was collected and
the plants are listed in Appendix 1. Many of
these have multiple uses and the uses, pre-
paration and administration for each have been
recorded. Only a single species, Encephalartos
altensteinii (vulnerable), has a documented
conservation status (Hilton-Taylor 1996).

Sixty-one percent of plant species recorded
represented medicinal plants (Fig. 3) and these
are listed in Appendix 1 . A host of medicines for
minor complaints (22 complaints) were recor-
ded and these, unlike those for more serious
problems, often varied from person to person.
In discussion groups these were sometimes only
known by a single person while another knew a
different plant remedy for the same ailment. For
more serious problems it was found that
according to Xhosa custom the first recourse

to remedy would be to counteract evil, because
misfortune is often caused by witchcraft or sor-
cery. Thirty percent of the medicinal plants
recorded are for washing (iYezalokuhlamba),
spraying (ukuTshiza), fumigating ( ukuXhotha )
and steaming ( ukuFutha ) as counteractive and
protective medicines. These medicines are used
mainly for their psychoactive virtues and are
generically known as iNtelezi medicines. Current
literature often categorises these as magical
(Pujol, 1993) or as charms (Soga, 1931; Broster,
1981). In the study site these include Bulbine
latifolia (iRooiwater), Dianthus thunbergii
(uBulawu), Dioscorea sylvatica (iSkorpathi),
Haworthia attenuata (iNtelezi), Ledebouria
revoluta (iKreketsane) , Plumbago aunculata
(iChinchini) , Schotia latifolia ( uMaphipha ) and
Gasteria bicolor (iNtelezi).

Various preparation methods and methods
of application of medicines were recorded.
Forty-five percent of the total number of prepa-
rations were infusions in hot or cold water taken
orally, 14% used as an enema, 14% as a body
wash, 12% as an emetic and the remaining 15%
snuffs, ear drops, poultices, douches, gargles
and lozenges. Medicine to purge or clean the

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

31

Table 2: Summary of information collected from the PRA exercises

Village

Transect

walk

Mapping

exercise

Informal

discussion

group

Ranking

exercise

Semi-structured

interview

Key

informant

interview

Nomtayi

1 inform-
ant:

21 spp.
collected

15 informants:
medicinal & food
plants commonly
collected around
village; fuel and
construction
materials uncom-
mon, collected at
great distances
from within
reserve.

17

informants
: 20 spp.
recorded
for

personal

use.

5 informants:
fuel wood scarce,
collected oppor-
tunistically with-
out sp. selection;
thatching grass
not favoured;
commercial
building poles
purchased

1 informant:
Harvests fuel
wood and food
spp. for family
in Peddie.

Ripple-

mead

2 informants: 1
cultural sp; 1
medicinal sp.

6 informants: 3
spp. of cultural
(spiritual)
importance.

1 informant:
harvesting and
trading at
national level.

Double

Drift

7 inform-
ants; 21
spp. har-
vested for
personal
use &
trade.

Tweni

1 inform-
ant: 38
spp.

collected.

2 inform-
ants: 18
spp.

collected

15 informants:
fuel wood rare,
supplemented
with cow dung.

7 inform-
ants: 12
spp. for
personal
use.

Ndwaya-

na

5 inform-
ants: 22
spp., 2 spp.
critical, 9
spp. very
important.

Gwabeni

2

informan
ts: 27
spp.

collected

Fort

Mont-

gomery

1 informant:
cultural
artifact
(raintree)

Glen-

more

5 inform-
ants: 22
spp.; 2
critical, 12
important.

32

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

body is a common health practice among
Africans and it has been well recorded in the
literature (Pujol, 1993, Leclerc-Madlala, 1994).
They are either used routinely as a type of
preventive health measure or with the onset of
any symptoms of illness. The African world view
is that illness is commonly attributed to either
natural or supernatural causes with the idea of
"contamination" entering from both the phy-
sical and the spiritual plane. It is believed that
a cure or relief is only to be found through
purging and cleansing the body. Therefore
purging in all its forms is usually the first course
of action in the quest for a cure for any and all

Food (18 00%)

, . 1 H

Fuel (3.00%)

gCL j— Vet (8.00%)

Iplpll

Med /fil nn°/^"y ihn' 1 1

Const (3 00%)

Custom (7.00%)

Figure 3. Plant use categories

illness (Leclerc-Madlala, 1994). Plant species
recorded more than once for purging are Aloe
ferox(iKhala ) , Bulbine frutescens (iYakayakana) ,
Cissampelos capensis (uMayisake), Dianthus
thunbergii (uBulawu), Dioscorea sylvatica
(iSkorpathi) , Haemanthus albiflos (uMaweni),
Haworthia attenuata (iNtelezi), Kedrostis
foetidissima (iThuvish), Polygala myrtifolia (uMa-
balabala), Sansevieria thyrsiflora (isKolokoto) ,
Solarium incanum (uMathuma) and Urginea
altissima ( uZabokwe ).

Seven percent of plant species recorded
were used for Xhosa customs and rituals (Fig. 3).
The two most important and commonly used
plants in the study area are Olea europaea
subsp. africana (uMnquma) and Ptaeroxylon
obliquum (uMthathi). Both are used in cere-
monies where animals are ritually slaughtered,
the meat is then laid out using a bed of leaves
and branches as a large plate (Dold & Cocks,
1999). Dianthus thunbergii (uBulawu) is used to
produce foam in water (saponin) for ritual
purposes. Both Plumbago auriculata ( iChinchin )
and Carissa bispinosa (iNcumncum) are used to
make ritual staffs by diviners. Cadaba aphylla
(iStorom) is planted around the home to ward off
lightning and evil spirits. A pair of Euphorbia

triangularis ( uMhlontlo ) seedlings are custom-
arily planted near the entrance to a homestead
when twins are born. Clausena amsata ( iPe -
repes) and Boscia oleoides ( iVetrhathi ) are burnt
and the smoke is blown around a new born
baby as an incense to ward off evil spirits at this
vulnerable time. Haworthia attenuata ( iNtelezi )
is planted around the home to intercept evil
spirits and protect it from lightning.

A site specific cultural tree, Sideroxylon
inerme (uMqwashu), was visited and its use
documented. As far as we have been able to
ascertain this “Rain Tree” that is called upon to
evoke rain in times of drought, has not been
previously documented. Appendix 2 provides
details in the form of a case study.

Food plants accounted for 18% of plants
recorded (Fig. 3). Fruits are only occasionally
eaten and not collected as a staple food. The
following fruits are eaten: Cappans fasciculans
(iNtshila), Carissa bispinosa (iNcumncum), Ehretia
rigida ( uMhleli ), Grewia occidentalis ( iNqabaza ),
Harpephyllum caffrum (iNgwenye), Pappea
capensis ( iLitye ) and Scutia myrtina (iSipingo).
The leaves of Portulacaria afra (iGwanishe) and
the tap root of Gazania krebsiana ( iNongwe ) are
occasionally eaten as a thirst quencher or snack.
Wild vegetables, indigenous and exotic ruderals,
are collected regularly as a supplement to the
staple diet of maize and are known generically
as iMifino plants. Woman and young girls collect
the leaves of Solarium nigrum (iSobosobo),
Sonchus asper (iHlaba), Marrubium vulgare
( iMbuya ), Arctotis arctotoides (iSkwamba) and
Taraxacum officinale ( iHlaba ) daily. The dietary
value of iMifino plants are documented by Rose
& Jacot Guillarmod (1974) and Mbangata et al.
(1984). Plants seldom eaten but known to be
used in drought periods as a source of water are
Cussonia spicata (uMsenge) and Cotyledon orbi-
culata (iSundu). The fruit of the invader plant
Opuntia ficus-indica ( iTolofiya ) is collected in
season both as a food supplement and to be
sold to passing travellers. This activity is well
documented by Brutsch & Zimmermann (1993).

In a traditionally pastoral culture it is not
surprising that 8% of plant use records are for
veterinary medicines. Haemanthus albiflos
(uMathunga), Asparagus sp. ( uMathunga ) and
Acacia karroo (uMnga) are used in poultice form
to heal broken limbs of goats and cattle. An
infusion of Azima tetracantha in cold water
(iGcegceleya) is given to animals experiencing
delivery problems and Sarcostemma viminale

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

33

( uMbelebele ) is dried, powdered and given to
animals to encourage lactation. Secamone
filiformis (uMbijela) and Arctotis arctotoides
(uBhushwa) are given to animals suffering from
a disease that causes weakness and grogginess.
Aloe ferox (iKhala) leaves are boiled in water and
the liquid added to cattle drinking water to
prevent redwater disease, the same is added to
poultry drinking water to prevent poultry
disease.

Poles used for the construction of dwellings
and cattle kraals are scarce and the main
criteria for their selection are size and
straightness. In the study site species used
include Combretum caffrum (iDube) for huts and
Acacia karroo (uMnga) for kraals. Commercially
grown poles are bought in Alice and King
William’s Town. The construction of a tradi-
tional Xhosa hut is documented by Johnson
(1982). Live kraal fences are often cultivated
from cuttings of Portulacaria afra (iGwanishe).
Rhoicissus digitata (uMqceba) is used for rope.

It has been documented by Briers and
Powell (1996) that Euclea undulata is selected by
commercial collectors in the Valley Bushveld
but that wood selected for private use is col-
lected less selectively. Villages in the study site
are not supplied with electricity and are reliant
on fuel wood although this is often scarce and
supplemented with dried cow dung collected by
children. Fuel wood is collected opportu-
nistically by woman and young girls where
available without regard to specific species
selection, however, Acacia karroo (uMnga) and
Putterlickia pyracantha (uMqha-qoba) are
reported to be good fuel woods. Ptaeroxylon
obliquum ( uMthathi ) is used as a firelighter.
Fuel wood accounts for the largest mass of plant
material taken from the study site.

Exotic plants that have been introduced
and naturalised are very often used not only as
amaYeza but also as iMifino, a generic term for
wild vegetables. Eleven useful exotic plant
species were recorded. Food plants include
Opuntiaficus-indica (iTolofiya), Solarium nigrum
(iSobosobo), Sonchus asper (iHlaba) and Tarax-
acum officinale (iHlaba). The use and value of
these in the former Transkei is discussed by
Mbangata et al. (1984). The fruit of Solanum
incanum (uMathuma) is pulped and applied to
ringworm and an infusion of the root is used to
treat kidney pain. An infusion of the leaves of
Schinus mode (iPepile) is taken for influenza and
fever Nicotiana glauca (iCubamfene) leaves are

heated and applied as a poultice to boils. A cold
infusion of the bark of Catharanthus roseus
(iFlawa) is taken to treat diabetes (iSwekile). Sap
of Ruta graveolens (iVentrit) is added to milk and
given to infants with wind. An infusion of the
leaves of Malva parviflora ( Uongilanga ) is used as
a gargle to treat toothache. Small pieces of fresh
bark of Withania somnifera (uBuvimba) are
chewed raw to treat chronic coughing.

All of the major contributors except one, a
trained diviner, had learnt amaYeza 1 use from
an elder in the family. This information is not
written down but passed on from one gene-
ration to the next by way of experience. The
diviner had accessed her knowledge from her
ancestors by way of dreams. It is encouraging to
have seen that many young people, particularly
girls, have in turn learnt amaYeza esiXhosa
(Xhosa medicine) from their elders. Xhosa
customs (amaSiko esiXhosa) are still strongly
adhered to in the study site by young people
although these have been adapted and
changed with the times and are often very
different from iQobo lesiko lesiXhosa (strongly
traditional).

Methods of plant identification proved to be
unconventional and innovative. In contrast to
using comparative methods collectors used a
combination of the senses. The process involves
sight, touch, smell, and taste. Cassine papil-
losa (uMbomvana) was identified by slashing
the bark to reveal a deep yellow under surface,
iThuvish (Kedrostis foetidum) was smelt and as
the name implies has a repulsive smell, and
uMqeba (Brachylaena illicifolia) was recognised
by its bitter, astringent taste. Names of plants
veiy often stem from usage (Dold & Cocks, in
press). For example, iYezalamasi (Senecio
coronatus) means “medicine of milk” and is
used in weaning a child from its mother’s milk,
and iYeza-lokuhlamba, means “medicine for
wash-ing” (many species) and is used as a body
wash to ensure good fortune and eliminate evil.
Haemanthus albiflos is known as uMathunga,
meaning “to sew”, and is used to speed up the
healing of broken bones. Names also originate
from the appearance of the plant such as
iSibindi, (Pycnoporus cinnabarinus) , meaning

1 It should be noted that the word iyeza not
only encompasses curative and preventative medi-
cine for bodily ailments but includes substances
used in amasiko, meaning culturally related customs
and rituals .

34

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

“liver”. This is a dull red bracket fungus that
looks remarkably like liver. Another example is
iSkolpati, from the Afrikaans skilpad meaning
tortoise, Dioscorea sylvatica, which has a tuber
that closely resembles a tortoise on the ground.
The name Uongilanga, meaning “looking at the
sun”, applies to Malva parviflora owing to its
perceived habit of the leaves following the path
of the sun.

Figure 4. Informant categories

Several plants have some resemblance to
some ‘portion’ of the body and through asso-
ciation are used as healing agents for those
affected parts. This is referred to as the
“Doctrine of Signatures” (Pujol, 1993) and is
well documented in Europe. In the study area
examples include: Acacia karroo - the red inner
bark is used to treat bloody stools; Catharanthus
roseus - the red inner bark is used to treat
diabetes; Pelargonium reniforme - the bright red
fleshy root is used to treat bloody stools.
Sarcostemma viminale - the stems with copious
milky latex are used to encourage lactation in
cows.

Mapping exercises showed that villagers
perceived the reserve complex to be a large
untapped although inaccessible source of
natural resources. Female informants prio-
ritised fuel wood and construction materials
whereas male informants prioritised grazing
and browsing for their stock as the most sought
after resources from within the reserve com-
plex. The recently established (1995) Inxuba
Conservation and Economic Forum (1CEF),

representing all villages neighbouring the
reserve complex, is negotiating with reserve
authorities regarding possible controlled access
to reserve resources (Cocks & Timmermans,
1999).

CONCLUSION

It is clear from this study that medicinal plants,
food plants and plants used for culturally rela-
ted purposes are widely known and regularly
used by communities in the study area (Fig. 4).
These are collected by the users themselves and
the level of botanical knowledge at the
household level is far greater than has been
previously attributed in relevant literature
(Cocks, 1997). Eighty percent of plants recorded
had their names and uses confirmed two or
three times by different informants. Contrary
to expectations it is not only amaQhaba,
(traditionalists) who use these plants but people
from all age groups, religious affiliations, and
levels of education. Users ranged from
teenagers to old-age pensioners, from rural
subsistence farmers to wealthy urban
businessmen.

Eighty-three plant species with uses, pre-
parations and vernacular names are listed
together with their perceived abundance and
accessibility. Olea europaea subsp. africana is
ranked as the most important plant, followed by
Ptaeroxylon obliquum. Both species are used
regularly for cultural practices at a household
level in the study site. The most commonly used
plants are Olea europaea subsp. africana, Ptaero-
xylon obliquum, Gastena bicolor, Haiuorthia
attenuata and Cissampelos capensis. Regarding
restricted reserve land, it is clear from this study
that neighbouring communities desire access
to resources, particularly stock range-land and
fuel wood.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Ben-Eric van Wyk and Hilde van
Vlaenderen for advice and to Robert de Jongh,
National Cultural History Museum, for funding
part of the fieldwork.

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Palmer, A.R. 1981. A Study of the vegetation of the Andries Vosloo Kudu Reserve, Cape Province.

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APPENDIX 1: TABLE OF AMAYEZA PLANTS AND USES

No.

Informant

Botanical and

Use and preparation

Location and

category

vernacular name,

perceived

voucher specimen

abundance

1

Group

Polygala myrtifolia

Soft bark scraped from branches,

Collected in the

discussion

L. -uMabalabala

boiled and taken for headaches. Used

Valley Bushveld;

Nomtayi

Dold 1673

as an emetic (ukugabha), to cleanse
body of evil spirits (Some women felt
that it was too strong for children).

common.

Key informant

P. myrtifolia L.

as above

as above

Nomtayi

uMabalabala

Women’s

vP. myrtifolia L.

as above

as above

group

uMabalabala

Nomtayi

P. myrtifolia L.

as above

Collected in

Specialist

uMabalabala

nearby veld.

Tweni

P. myrtifolia L.

Used to cleanse the kidneys. The bark

Common;

Key informant

uMabalabala

is scraped off and boiled in water. It is

collected in

Tweni

P. myrtifolia L.

taken as an enema and is suitable for
all ages and both men and women.

as above

nearby veld.

Collected from

Specialist

uMabalabala

the outskirts of

Gwabeni

the village;

common.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

37

2

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Cissampelos
capensis L.f.
uMayisake
Dold 1678, 1712

For stomach ache, bark mixed with
water and two teaspoons taken at a
time, all ages. Taken for poison in the
stomach, 3 spoonfuls a day.

Collected on the i
outskirts of the
village; common.

Specialist

Tweni

C. capensis L.f.
uMayisake

Taken as an emetic or an enema for
high temperature, (igazi elishushu)
The root is also used for stomach
aches. Mixed with Pteronia incana and
Clausena anisata.

as above

Key informant
Tweni

C. capensis L.f.
uMayisake

Taken for stomach aches. The roots
are infused in cold water and taken as
an enema. The roots can also be used
to prevent wind.

as above

Child (scholar)
Ndwayana

C. capensis L.f.
uMayisake

Taken for stomach ache.

Collected by
parents.

3

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Artemisia afra Jacq.
ex Willd.
uMhlonyana.

For fever, boiled in water, taken as a
tea.

Not found at
Nomtayi; from
near Alice; rare.

Game guards

A. afra Jacq. ex
Willd.- uMhlonyana

As above: infusion for ear-ache (ind-
lebe eqaqambayo) applied as drops.

Cultivated in
garden.

4

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Brachyleana
ilicifolia (Lam.) Phill.
& Schweick.
uMqheba.

Dold 1504

For sore throats and coughs. Can be
chewed, boiled in water and drunk, or
dry leaves can be crushed and
snuffed.

Common in
Valley Bushveld.

Key informant
Nomtayi

B. ilicifolia (Lam.)
Phill. & Schweick
uMqheba.

as above

Common in
Valley Bushveld.

Key informant
Tweni

B. ilicifolia (Lam.)
Phill. & Schweick
uMqheba.

Taken for coughs. The leaves are
boiled in water and 1 tsp. taken when
needed. Bitter taste.

as above

5

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Cissampelos
capensis L.f.
iDabulitye.

Dold 1678

For stomach pains, root mixed with
cold water and drunk.

Collected from
distant forests.

6

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Becium
burchellianum
(Benth.) N.E. Br.
uBhubhusi
Cocks 16

For fever, bark boiled in water and
drunk, all ages.

Common around
the village.

7

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Haemanthus
albiflos Jacq. -
uMathunga.

For healing broken bones, the bulb is
soaked in cold water and then drunk.

Scarce but
found around
the village.

Game guards.

H. albiflos J acq.
uMathunga.

Root is used as a poultice and drunk to
heal broken bones.

Occasional in
vallev bushveld.

38

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

8

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Bulbine frutescens
(L.) Willd.
iYakayakana.

Dold 1510

Used for pain in lower abdomen by
women, mothers only. Related to
childbirth, is boiled in water and
drunk.

Collected from
the forest far
away; common.

Key informant
Nomtayi

B. frutescens (L.)
Willd.

iYakayakana

as above

as above

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

B. frutescens (L.)
Willd.

iYakayakana

Taken for period pain & especially to
cleanse the body. It is mixed with rooi-
water (53) and boiled in water and
drunk.

Common in
village.

Specialist

Tweni

B. frutescens (L.)
Willd. -
iYakayakana

Used as an enema for stomach poison
(witchcraft implied) all ages.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

9

Group

discussion f

Nomtayi

Haworthia attenuata
Haw. - iNtelezi.

For "bad stomach“(upset stomach),
used as a purgative, boiled in water
and drunk.

Common in
Valley Bushveld,
far away.

Women’s

Group

Nomtayi

Key informant
Nomtayi

Key informant
Tweni

H. attenuata Haw.
iNtelezi

H. attenuata Haw.
iNtelezi

H. attenuata Haw.
iNtelezi

Used as a wash for itchy body and
rashes, (iqhakuva). It is pulped and
steeped in cold water.

Used as a wash against bad luck or
evil spirits.

Used as a wash to ward off evil spirits.
The skin burns when applied so the
pulp is diluted in water. Also used as a
wash, it can also be used to ward off
lightning from the home by planting it
in the garden. Also for protection
against misfortune such as car
accidents.

Collected from

surrounding

veld;

uncommon.

Cultivated in
garden.

as above

Child (scholar)
Ndwayana

H. attenuata Haw.
iNtelezi

Used as a wash for protection and
good luck in exams.

Collected by
parents.

10

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Opuntia ficus-indica
(L.) Mill. - iTolofiya.
Dold 3959

Eaten as a fruit. Collected for sale on
the roadside. Fresh leaves used as a
poultice to sooth fungal infection.

Scarce around
the village,
common in
reserve.

Game guards
Reserve

O. ficus-indica (L.)
Mill. - iTolofiya

as above

Collected from
the reserve and
taken home to
the villages.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

39

11

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Game

guards

Specialist

Gwabem

Solanum nigrum L.
uMsobosobo
Cocks 1 1

S. nigrum L.
uMsobosobo

S. nigrum L.
uMsobosobo

S. nigrum L.
iMfino

Vegetable collected in the rainy season
by women. Cooked with mealie-meal
and mealie rice.

Eaten to relieve dryness/ thirst. The
bark is peeled off and eaten.

The fruit is eaten and the leaves are
cooked as a vegetable supplement.

The leaves are cooked and eaten with
mealie rice, onions and fat.

Common during
summer.

Village weed.

Roadside weed.
Village weed.

12

Group

Cussonia spicata

The root is dug up and eaten to get

In the forest and

discussion

Nomtayi

Thunb. - uMsenge
Dold 1709

liquid in drought. Reported to be used
by traditional healers as an ingredient
in cancer treatment.

veld.

13

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Harpephyllum
caff rum Bernh. ex
Krauss - iNgwenye

Fruit eaten while walking in the veld as
a snack.

Common

14

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Grewia occidentalis
L. - iNqabaza
Dold 1917

Can be eaten as a fruit, but veiy bitter.

Common

15

Group

discussion

Nomtayi.

Pappea capensis
Eckl. & Zeyh.
iLitye

Dold 2265a

Fruit is eaten, locally referred to as
“chappies” (snack food).

Common

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

P. capensis Eckl. &
Zeyh. - iLitye

as above

Common

16

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Carissa bispinosa
(L.) Desf. ex Brenan
iNcumncum
Dold 1757

Berry eaten as a fruit. Forked stick
from branch used as a whisk by
diviners.

Common

17

Group

discussion

Nomtayi.

Azima tetracantha
Lam. - iGcegceleya
Cocks 6

Wood is avoided as fuel because the
smoke is poisonous.

Common

Key informant
Nomtayi

A. tetracantha Lam.
iGcegceleya

Roots bottled in cold water and given
orally to goats experiencing delivery
problems.

Common

Women’s

group

A. tetracantha Lam.
iGcegceleya

The juice of the berries is used for ear
ache, applied fresh, 2 drops directly
into the ear.

Common

40

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

18

Group

discussion i

Nomtayi

Acacia karroo Hayne
- uMnga
Cocks 4

Good firewood & coals.

Very common

Key informant
Nomtayi

A. karroo Hayne
uMnga

Good firewood & coals

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

A. karroo Hayne
uMnga

Taken for cleansing the blood: the bark
is peeled off and steeped in hot water
like a tea and drunk. Suitable for both
adults and children. Is also good fuel.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Specialist

Tweni

A. karroo Hayne
uMnga

Softened bark is used as a bandage to
heal broken bones in livestock.

as above

Specialist

Gwabeni

A. karroo Hayne
uMnga

Pieces of the fresh bark are chewed to
relieve stomach ache and bloody stools.

as above

19

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Olea europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P S Grc-en
uMnquma

Xhosa customs. The branches are
used as a platter to serve meat from
ceremonially slaughtered animals .

Common around
village.

20

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Dianthus thunbergii
Hooper - uBulawu
Dold 1719

Used to make foam that is drunk or
rubbed onto the face for ritual
customs. The root and leaves are
soaked in a tin of water then a forked
stick (16, 29 ) is rubbed between the
palms to make foam (igwebu).

Uncommon on
high ridges
(eThafeni).

Game guards

D. thunbergii Hooper

Emetic for good fortune (ukuhlamaba
amashwa).

Collected in the
reserve.

21

Key informant
Nomtayi

Sanseuieria
hyacinthoid.es (L.)
Druce - isKolokoto

Boiled mixture drunk as an emetic to
expel phlegm (uxakaxa).

Commonly
found in the
forest.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

S. hyacinthoides (L.)

Druce

isKolokoto

Used for ear-ache in both adults and
children. The leaves are heated in the
fire and the juice is squeezed into a
teaspoon and poured into the ear.

Collected in the
veld.

Key informant
Tweni

S. hyacinthoides (L.)

Druce

isKolokoto

Leaves are warmed in the fire, the juice
is then squeezed directly into the ear
for ear-ache.

as above

22

Key informant
Nomtayi

Cussonia spicata
Thunb.
uMsenge
Dold 1741

Liquid from tuber taken orally to
cleanse the blood.

Common near
village.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Specialist

Tweni

C. spicata Thunb.
uMsenge

C. spicata Thunb. -
uMsenge

as above

Root eaten, the flesh is chewed and
spat out for moisture only.

as above
as above

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

41

23

Key informant
Nomtayi

Clausena anisata
(Willd.) Hook. f. ex
Benth. - iPerepes
Dold 1689

Boiled and taken as a tea for coughing
(ukukhohlela).

Common

24

Key informant
Nomtayi

Olea europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P S Green
uMnquma

Used as a plate/platter, for
ceremonially slaughtered meat.

Very common

25

Key Informant
Nomtayi

Ptaeroxylon
obliquum (Thunb.)
Radik. - uMthathi
Dold 1820

Mixed with Olea (24) and used to serve
ceremonially slaughtered meat.

Common in
Valley Bushveld.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

P. obliquum
(Thunb.) Radik. -
uMthathi

Fresh branches good firelighters, as
good as paraffin.

as above

Specialist

Tweni

P. obliquum
(Thunb.) Radik. -
uMthathi

The leafy branches are used as a
platter for the meat of sacrificed
animals.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Specialist

Gwabeni

P. obliquum
(Thunb.) Radik. -
uMthathi

The fresh bark is steeped in cold water
and 2 spoons of the infusion taken 3
times a day for iswekile (diabetes). This
can be mixed with an infusion of
umgqeba bark, Brachyleana ilicifolia,
for the same remedy.

26

Key informant
Nomtayi

Scutia myrtina
(Burm.f.) Kurz
iSipingo.

Berries eaten as a snack in the veld.

Common

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Game guards

S. myrtina (Burm.f.)
Kurz - iSipingo.

S. myrtina (Burm.f.)
Kurz - iSipingo

Eaten as a snack in the bush. Not
collected as a staple.

The fruit is eaten as a snack.

Common

Common

27

Key informant
Nomtayi

Aloeferox Mill.
iKhala
Dold 1696

Dry leaves are powdered and boiled for
an enema for kidney problems.

Common

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

A. ferox Mill.
iKhala

Sap is mixed in hot water & taken
orally or as an enema to cleanse the
body. Suitable for both adults and
children. Also said to be used to
protect infants from evil spirits: fresh
sap is mixed with vaseline and
smeared over the newborn infant daily
for 6 months.

Common

42

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

27

Game guards

A. ferox Mill.
iKhala

Dry leaves are boiled and used as an
emetic to cleanse the stomach and for
kidney ailments. Green leaves are put
into chicken’s drinking water to
prevent them contracting poultry
disease. The leaves are boiled and
mixed in the cattle drinking water to
prevent Redwater disease.

Common

28

Key informant
Nomtayi

Gazania krebsiana
Less. - iNongwe

Root eaten raw by children as a snack.

Occasional in
open grass-land.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

G. krebsiana Less.
iNongwe

Root eaten as a snack by children. Not
collected by households as a food
supplement.

29

Key informant
Nomtayi

Carissa. bispinosa
(L.) Desf. ex Brenan
iNcumncum
Dold 1757

Fruit eaten as a snack.

Occasional in
grassland.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

C. bispinosa (L.)
Desf. ex Brenan
iNcumncum

Fruit eaten as a snack.

Game guards.

C. bispinosa (L.)
Desf. ex Brenan
iNcumncum

Used to cut “ixhayi” the forked stick
used as a whisk to make foam (80).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Specialist

Tweni

C. bispinosa (L.)
Desf. ex Brenan
iNcumncum

Fruit eaten as a snack.

30

Key informant
Nomtayi

Solanum incanum
L. - uMathuma

Berries crushed and applied to ring-
worm. Root is boiled and used as an
enema for kidney problems.

Common weed
in village.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

S. incanum L.
uMathuma

as above

as above

31

Key informant
Nomtayi

Taraxacum
officinale Weber
sensu lato
iHlaba

Eaten as a vegetable, boiled or fried in
fat.

Common in

disturbed

places.

32

Key informant
Nomtayi

Haemanthus
albiflos Jacq. -
uMathunga

The bulb is chopped up and boiled, 2
teaspoons are taken before meals to
speed up the healing of broken bones.

Commonly
found and found
in the reserve

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

H. albiflos Jacq.
uMathunga

Used to heal broken bones in both
humans and livestock. The bulb is
chopped and bandaged onto the limb
or it can be steeped in water and
drunk as a tea.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

43

33

Key informant
Nomtayi

Cissampelos
capensis L.f.
iDabulitye
Dold 1678

Root is boiled and drunk as a tonic, all
sexes and ages.

Collected from
the forest;
plentiful.

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

C. capensis L.f.
iDabulitye

Root infusion taken for stomach aches.

Also found in the
reserve, but
scarce.

34

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Olea europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P S Green
uMnquma

One women said that it was good for
treating stomach aches. Also used for
ritual purposes, as serving platter for
sacrificed meat.

Common and
easily found.

Game guards

O. europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) PS Green
uMnquma

Together with uMthathi, Ptaeroxylon
obliquum (25) the branches are used
as a platter for ceremonial meat.

Collected from ■
the reserve, also
collected to take
home.

35

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Clausena anisata
(Willd.) Hook. f. ex
Benth. - iPerepesi
Dold 1742

Taken for fevers. The leaves are
crushed and soaked in warm water
and drunk. Mixed with Pappea
capensis and boiled as a tea for
children when they have coughs.

Very common

Game guards

C. anisata (Willd.)
Hook. f. ex Benth.
iPerepesi

The leaves are boiled and a tea drunk
for coughing.

Collected from
the reserve.

Women’s

group

Glenmore

C. anisata (Willd.)
Hook. f. ex Benth.
iPerepesi

Used to ward off the evil spirits from
new born babies. It is burnt (ukushiza)
in the house.

36

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Brachyleana
ilicifolia (Lam.) Phill.
& Schweick.
uMqheba
Dold 1504

Taken for coughs. Suitable for both
adults and children. The leaves are
soaked in boiling water or the leaves
can be chewed.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Game guards

B. ilicifolia (Lam.)
Phill. & Schweick.
uMqheba

Leaf infusion to cure coughs and
stomach ache.

as above

Specialist

Tweni

B. ilicifolia (Lam.)
Phill. & Schweick.
uMqheba

Used for coughs, leaves eaten raw or
boiled as a tea.

as above

37

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Leucas capensis
(Benth.) Engl.
iPhiphiyo

Taken for head aches. The leaves are
crushed and taken as a snuff.

Game guards

L. capensis (Benth.)
Engl. - iPhiphiyo

The leaves are made damp and drops
are squeezed into the nose for fever.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

44

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

37

Specialist

Tweni

L. capensis (Benth.)
Engl. - iPhiphiyo

The juice of the leaves squeezed into
nostrils to relieve headaches.

Collected from
the veld.

Key

informant

Tweni

L. capensis (Benth.)
Engl. - iPhiphiyo

The leaves are squeezed and the sap is
dropped into the nose and ears as a
cure for fever.

38

Women’s

group

Nomtayi :

Exomis microphylla
(Thunb.) Aell.
uMvenyathi
Cocks 7

Taken to clear infant’s phlem. The
roots are cleaned, boiled in water and
poured into a baby bottle for infants to
drink.

39

Women’s

group

Nomtayi

Sonchus asper (L.)
Hill - iHlaba

Eaten as imifino (wild vegetable).

Common weed
found around
the village.

Women’s

group

Ndwayana

S. asper (L.) Hill
iHlaba

Eaten as imifino. To prepare it, it is
firstly washed, the stems are then cut
off and the leaves are boiled and added
to mealie meal or mealie rice.

40

Game guards

Senecio deltoideus
Less. - lTyolo

Used for pimples and skin complaints.

Common in the
village.

41

Game guards.

Capparis sepiaria L.
iNtshilo

Dold 1721, 1695

The wood is burnt and the smoke
inhaled to chase away evil spirits
(ukugxota into imdaka).

Common

42

Game guards

Cussonia spicata
Thunb. - uMsenge
Dold 1741

Roots are used as a food supplement
in drought times.

Common

43

Game guards

Schinus molle L.

iPepile

Dold 3942

The leafy branches are used to keep
flies away. Leaves boiled and taken for
flu and fever.

Uncommon;

cultivated.

44

Game guards

Specialist

Tweni

Grewia occidentalis
L. - uMnqabaza

G. occidentalis L.
uMnqabaza

The fruit is eaten as a snack.
Fruits eaten occasionally.

Common

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

45

Game guards

Pappea capensis
Eckl. 8s Zeyh.
iLitye

Fruit eaten as a snack.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Specialist

Tweni

P. capensis Eckl. 8s
Zeyh. - iLitye

Fruits eaten.

46

Individuals

Ripplemead

Euphorbia
triangularis Desf.
uMhlontlo
Cocks 28

The sap is mixed weakly with water
and used as a wash for newly born
twins to ensure their strength. Two
seedlings customarily planted near
homestead when twins are born.
Stolen cow can be washed with sap to
change the colour of its coat so as to
avoid detection in stock theft.

Common

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

45

47

Individual

Ripplemead

Aloe ferox Mill.
iKhala.

Dold 1696

The sap is put on a mother’s nipple to
stop a child from breastfeeding during
weaning.

In village.

Specialist

Tweni

A. ferox Mill.
iKhala.

Dried leaves boiled and liquid used for
enema to cleanse the stomach.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Key informant
Tweni

A. ferox Mill.
iKhala.

Taken to cleanse the stomach and
kidneys. The sap from the leaves is
boiled in water and used as an enema.

Collected in the
veld.

48

Specialist

Tweni

Schotia latifolia
Jacq. - uMaphipha
Dold 1754

Leaf & bark infusion used as a wash
and taken as a tea to cleanse the
blood. Strong infusion drunk to expel
afterbirth in troubled delivery.

Common

49

Specialist

Tweni

Dioscorea sylvatica
(Kunth.) Eckl.
iSkorpathi
Cocks 5

Tuber infusion taken to induce
vomiting and used as a wash for body
rashes.

Rare

50

Specialist

Tweni

Ziziphus mucronata
Willd. - uMphafa
Dold 17111

A concoction is drunk and used as a
douche for thrush (fungal infection).

Common

51

Specialist

Tweni

Encephalartos
altensteinii Lehm.
uMphanga

Stem/root infusion mixed with
uMphafa (50) to treat thrush. The
mixture is also taken to treat infertility
in woman.

Uncommon

52

Specialist

Tweni

Boscia oleoides
(Burch, ex DC.)
Toelken - iVetrhathi
Dold 1669

Burnt wood smoke is used to drive
away evil spirits.

Common

53

Specialist

Tweni

Bulbine latifolia
(L.f.) Roem. &
Schult.
iRooiwater.
Dold 1509

Leaf pulp used either as a wash or an
infusion drunk for body rashes
(amaqhakuva).

Common

54

Specialist

Tweni

Dianthus thunbergii
Hooper

iNkomoyentaba
Dold 1719

It is drunk for the custom, uXhela
Inkomo, the ritual slaughtering of an
ox, as an emetic to cleanse the body.

Rare

55

Specialist

Tweni

Dianthus thunbergii
Hooper

iNdlelazimhlope
Dold 1719

It is either drunk or used as a wash to
cleanse the blood.

Rare; open
grassland.

56

Specialist

Tweni

Gunnera perpensa
L. - iPhuzi
Dold 1808

Infusion of roots taken orally to
cleanse the blood.

Rare; collected
towards Alice.

46

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

57

Specialist
Tweni i

Pteroma incana
(Burm.) DC.
iBhossies.

Dold 1500

Used to relieve coughing. Mixed with
Brachylaena and Clausena, boiled and
drunk for coughs.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Key informant
Tweni

Specialist

Gwabeni

P. incana (Burm.)
DC. iBhossies.

P. incana (Burm.) DC.
iBhossies

Taken for fever and to expel phlem. It
is mixed with Brachylaena and boiled
in water, 1 teaspoon is taken as
needed.

The leaves are boiled in water and
drunk as a tea 2-3 times a day for
coughs (ukukhohlela). Not used for
small children.

Collected from
the veld.

Collected from
veld.

58

Specialist

Tweni

Cotyledon orbiculata
L. - iSundu

The pulp is used for body wash to treat
rashes; only suitable for adults.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Group

Glenmore

C. orbiculata L.
iPhewule

Food plant in drought.

59

Specialist

Tweni

Hermannia sp.
iNceba

The roots are boiled in milk and drunk
as a tonic for men only (virility).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

60

Specialist

Tweni

Sansevieria
hyacinthoides (L.)
Druce - isKolokoto

The leaf is heated over the fire and the
juice squeezed into the ear for earache.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

61

Specialist

Tweni

Haemanthus sp. c.f.
albiflos Jacq.
uMaweni

The pulped root is boiled in water and
used as an enema for pain in the body
and painful joints, also to cleanse the
blood, all ages but diluted for children.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

62

Specialist

Tweni

Putterlickia
pyracantha (L.)
Szyszyl.
uMqhaqoba

Wood good for fire.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

63

Specialist

Tweni

Eriospermum sp.
uNonyada

Roots pulped and mixed with cold
water, taken half a cup a day, very
good for stomach, equivalent to
Chamberlains Colic.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

64

Specialist

Tweni

Boscia oleoides
(Burch, ex DC.)
Toelken - iVetrhathi
Dold 1669

Wood is burned for Ukuqhumisa,
smoking out evil from the house.

Common in
bush clumps.

Key informant
Tweni

B. oleoides (Burch,
ex DC.) Toelken
iVetrhati

The roots are burned ritually inside
the house, the smoke wards off evil
spirits.

65

Specialist

Tweni

Indigofera
sessilifolia DC.
iMpingele
Dold 1706

Whole plant boiled with Cissampelos
(25 & 33) and Asparagus (115) and
infusion taken 3 times a day for poison
in the stomach.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

47

66

Specialist

Twem

Kedrostis

foetidissima (Jacq.)
Cogn. - iThuvish

Dold 1681

Root is used as an enema for fever, all
ages, diluted for children.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

67

Specialist

Twem

Ehretia ngida
(Thunb.) Druce
uMhleli.

Fruits eaten.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

68

Specialist

Tweni

Capparis
fasciculans DC.
iNtshila
Dold 1714

Fruits eaten.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

69

Specialist

Tweni

Urginea sp.
iNqweneba
Dold 1704

Used as a body wash and a spray
(ukushiza) for rituals.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

70

Specialist

Tweni

Plumbago aunculata
Lam. - iChinchin

Dold 1676

Ritual staff for amaGqhira. Used as a
cosmetic for the face, roots are boiled
and taken to cleanse the blood, the
flowers are eaten for the same. A
forked stick is cut from the branch to
stir foam (see no. 79) in rituals.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Specialist

Tweni

Solatium incanum L.
uMthuma

Roots cooked and bottled, drunk and
also used as an enema for men with
"drops" (STD).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

7-

Specialist

Tweni

Portulacana afra
Jacq. - lGwanishe

Grown as a kraal fence, leaves are
eaten.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

73

Specialist

Tweni

Rhoicissus digitata
(L. f.) Gilg & Brandt
uMqceba
Dold 1717

Climbing stem is beaten until soft and
used as a rope to fasten thatch onto
roofs.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

74

Key informant
Twem

Women’s

group

Ndwayana

Olea europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P.S. Green
uMnquma

O. europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P.S. Green
uMnquma

Used as a plate for slaughtered meat at
rituals. Also used to make Xhosa
sticks (iNduku: a carved straight stick
used for protection, walking, digging
etc).

Used symbolically for all customs and
rituals.

Common

Common

Child (scholar)
Ndwayana

O. europaea L.
subsp. africana
(Mill.) P.S. Green
uMnquma

Used symbolically for all customs and
rituals.

Common

75

Key informant
Tweni

Capparis
fascicularis DC.
iQhagula
Dold 1714

Taken to cure nose bleeds. The roots
are added to water and a cupful is
drunk. Frequently used in summer,
because people often get noise bleeds
when it is very hot.

Collected in the
veld.

48

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

76

Key informant
Tweni

Urginea sp.
uMqweneba
Dold 1704

Used to ward off evil spirits, in and
around the home. The bulb is boiled in
water and then sprayed around the
house.

Collected in the
veld.

77

Key informant
Tweni

Sporobolus sp.
iNgca.

Used as thatching grass.

Banks of

Keiskamma

River.

78

Key informant
Tweni

Plumbago
auriculata Lam.
iChinchin
Dold 1676

Used to ensure good luck in court
cases. The roots are boiled in water
and used as a body wash (iyeza
lokuhlamba).

Collected in the
veld.

79

Key informant
Tweni

Dianthus thunbergii
Hooper

iNdlelazimhlope
Dold 1810

Used in Xhosa customs. The roots are
mixed with water and a foam,
igwebhu, is made from the mixture by
whisking it with a forked stick: ixhayi.
The foam is sprayed over the cow that
is to be slaughtered.

Collected from
veld;

uncommon.

Women’s

group

Ndwayana.

D. thunbergii
Hooper

iNdlelazimhlope
Dold 1719

Used for washing to rid the person of
evil, bad luck or misfortune, it is also
used for "spraying"(ukushiza), this is
literally the splashing of liquid onto
whatever is being treated, often an
animal to be slaughtered or the inner
walls of a home.

Uncommon

80

Child (scholar)
Ndwayana

Haplocarpha sp.
iZicwe

Used for bandaging circumcision
wounds (ukwaluka).

Grassland

81

Child (scholar)
Ndwayana

Gerbera uiridifolia
(DC.) Sch. Bip.
subsp. natalensis
(Sch. Bip.) H V
Hansen

uPhantsikomga
Dold 1718

Leaves used for bandaging circum-
cision wounds.

Grassland

82

Women’s

group

Glenmore

Specialist

Gwabeni

Bulbine latifolia
(L.f.) Roem. &
Schult.
iRooiwater
Dold 1509

B. latifolia (LA.)
Roem. & Schult.
iRooiwater

Infusion taken to treat bladder
infections, also good for back-ache in
both men and women.

Crushed leaves are boiled in water and
drunk as a tea to relieve burning urine
(bladder infections). This can be mixed
with Dioscorea syluatica for same
purpose.

Collected from
around the
settlement.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

83

Women’s

group

Glenmore

Pycnoporus
cinnabarinus (Jacq.
ex Fr.) Karst.
iSibindi (Note: this
is a fungus)

Powder used to treat & prevent
pimples and also acts as a sun
protector.

Uncommon; in
forest.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

49

84

Women’s

group

Glenmore

Specialist

Gwabeni

Marrubium uulgare

L. - uMhlonyana
Cocks 13

M. uulgare L.
uMhlonyana

Infusion taken for coughs and sore
throats.

The leaves are boiled in water and
drunk to sooth coughing
(ukukhohlela).

Collected from
the neigh-
bouring village -
kwaPickoli.

Collected in the
veld.

85

Specialist

Gwabeni

Nicotiana glauca
R.C. Grah.
iCubamfene

Dold 1501

A leaf is warmed on a fire and strapped
on a boil/ abscess (ithumba) as a
poultice /compress to draw out the
infection. It is replaced as soon as the
leaf dries and becomes brittle.

Collected in the
veld.

86

Specialist

Gwabeni

Brachylaena
ilicifolia (Lam.) PhilL
& Schweick.
uMgqebqa
Dold 1504

Scraped bark is mixed with the bark of
uMthathi { Ptaeroxylon obliquurn )
steeped in cold water and 2 spoonfuls
taken 3 times a day for iswekile,
diabetes.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

87

Specialist

Gwabeni

Lippia javanica
(Burm. f.) Spreng.
iNzinziniba
Dold 1505

The leaves are boiled in water and
added to milk and one cupful taken 3
times a day for coughs/ coughing.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

88

Specialist

Gwabeni

Aloe tenuior Haw.
uMjinqa

Dold 1507

The leaves are chewed to relieve
heart-burn. An infusion of the sap is
used as an enema for constipation
(uqhinile) for children.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

89

Specialist

Gwabeni

Teucrium trifidum
Retz. - uBuhlungu
Dold 1508

It is mixed with Hermannia sp. (60)
and boiled in water. This is given to
goats with stomach cramps/ bile from
a baby bottle two times a day.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

90

Specialist

Gwabeni

Catharanthus
roseus (L.) G.Don. -
iFlawa
Dold 1511

The bark is scraped off and soaked in
cold water and drunk for diabetes
(iswekile).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

91

Specialist

Gwabeni

Arctotis arctotoides
(L. f.) O. Hoffm.
uBhushwa
Dold 1512.

A infusion is made by boiling a plant in
water. This is used as an enema (uku-
cima) for children with sore stomach
but must be used sparingly as an over
strong infusion can be dangerous. Also
used for goats that appear “drunk”
and cannot stand, a small amount is
poured onto a cloth and bound onto
the animal’s nose daily.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

92

Specialist

Gwabeni

Ruta graveolens L.

iVentrit

Dold 1513

Mixed with brandy in a teaspoon full of
a mother’s milk and given to a baby
with wind (onomoya).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

93

Specialist

Gwabeni

Malva parviflora L.
iJongilanga
Dold 1514

An infusion is made by boiling the
leaves in water, this is used as a gargle
for toothache (izinyo).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

50

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

94

Specialist

Gwabeni

Exomis microphylla
(Thunb.) Aell.
uMvenyathi
Cocks 7

An infusion in cold water is made. This
is taken for rash /pimples (irawuzela)
caused by eating freshly killed meat.
Also a rash (scabies), (iratshalala) on
children who swim in dams that pigs
wallow in.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

95

Specialist

Gwabeni

Withania somnifera
(L.) Dun.
uBuvimba
Dold 1516

The large woody rootstock is peeled
and pieces of the raw flesh are chewed
to relieve coughing (ukukhohlela).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

96

Specialist

Gwabeni

Ledebouria reuoluta
(L.f.) Jessop
lKreketsane
Dold 1518

The bulb is pulped and used as a body
wash at night (lyeza lokuhlamba) to
expel bad dreams/ bad luck and fear.
Also boiled in water and given to
children to alleviate wind (onomoya),
one spoon a day.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

97

Specialist

Gwabeni

Rumex steudelii
Hochst. ex A. Rich.
lDololenkonyane
Dold 1519

The rootstock is pulped and infused in
cold water and drunk for relieving
kidney pains, ie. sore waist (isinqe).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

98

Specialist

Gwabeni

Sarcostemma
viminale (L.) R. Br.
uMbelebele
Dold 1666

The stems are dried, powdered and
mixed with water, this is given to cattle
to encourage lactation (isaqakha).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

99

Specialist

Gwabeni

Pelargonium
reniforme Curtis
uMkumiso
Dold 1667

The roots are boiled in water and the
infusion is taken for bloody stools
(isiso se gaza).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

100

Specialist

Gwabeni

Boscia oleoides
(Burch, ex DC.)
Toelken - iVetrhathi
Dold 1669

Roots are dried and burnt, the smoke
drives away evil spirits (ukuxhotha
into semdhaka).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

101

Specialist

Gwabeni

Rhus incisa L. f.
var. effusa (Presl) R.
Fernandes
uNonqutyu
Dold 1670

The bark from the roots is scraped off,
dried and powdered, this is mixed with
cold water and taken for internal
bleeding (isiso se gaza) and to heal
fractured bones.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

102

Specialist

Gwabeni

Urginea altissima
(L.f.) Baker
uZabokwe
Dold 1671

The base of the bulb with roots intact
is boiled in water and drunk (half a
cup) as a purgative (ukugaba) to
cleanse the body.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

103

Specialist

Gwabeni

Cadaba aphylla
(Thunb.) Willd.
iStorom
Dold 1672

The root is burnt and smoke inhaled
to relieve headaches. It is com-monly
used to ward off lightning (izulu) sent
by evil or jealous people. A seedling is
planted on either side of the door.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

104

Specialist

Gwabeni

Marrubium vulgare
L. - iMbuya
Cocks 13

Eaten as an imfino - wild spinach.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

51

105

Specialist

Gwabeni

Brachylaena
elliptica (Thunb.)
DC.

isaGqheba.
Cocks 15

The leaves are chewed and swallowed
two or three times a day to relieve dry-
coughs and asthma.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

106

Specialist

Gwabeni

Becium
burchellianum
(Benth.)N.E. Br.
uBhubhusi
Cocks 16

The leaves are boiled and taken as a
tea for coughs. The leaves can be
boiled and used as a steam for fever.
This induces profuse sweating.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

107

Specialist

Gwabeni

Secamone filiformis
(L. f.) J.H. Ross
uMbijela
Cocks 2

Used for livestock suffering from weak
back legs known as umkhondo
(staggers). The stem is ground and
mixed with water, the infusion is given
to the animals to drink.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

108

Specialist

Gwabeni

Ledebouria sp. c.f.
revoluta (L.f.)
Jessop
isiThithibala
Cocks 22

The tunic of the bulb is ground and
boiled and left to soak for a day, then
used as an enema to relieve
back-ache.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

109

Specialist

Gwabeni

Arctotis arctotoides
(L. f.) O. Hoffm.
isKwamba
Dold 1512

The leaves are cooked and eaten with
mealie-meal, wild spinach plants are
commonly known as imfino.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

110

Specialist

Gwabeni

Azima tetracantha
Lam. - iGcegceleya
Cocks 6

The root is ground and bottled in cold
water. This is given to livestock expe-
riencing birthing problems
(ukumelwa).

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

111

Specialist

Gwabeni.

Bulbine frutescens
(L.) Willd.
iYakayakana.

Dold 1510

Rootstock is sliced up and boiled to
make an infusion for burning urine -
bladder infections. Also used as an
enema to relieve wind (onomoya) in
weaning babies.

Collected on the
outskirts of the
village.

112

Specialist

Gwabeni

Gastena bicolor
Haw. - iNtelezi

Dold 1517, 1697

The leaves are pulped and used as a
body wash (iyeza lokuhlamba) to
prevent bad dreams and fear of the
unknown, the same pulp is infused in
water and sprinkled all over the floor
and walls of the bed-room to chase
away bad spirits, (ukutshiza). A small
amount can be mixed with water and
drunk as a tea to induce vomiting
(ukugaba) for cleaning the stomach.

Collected in the
veld.

113

Key informant
Nomtayi

Grewia robusta

Burch.

umNqabaza

Can be eaten as a fruit, but very bitter.

Common

52

Dold & Cocks: Eastern Cape amaXhosa plant use

114

Specialist

Gwabeni

Silene sp.
Ubulawu
Dold 1502

Thick fleshy roots are crushed and
steeped in cold water, the infusion is
warmed and drunk. Up to a gallon is
taken until vomiting (ukugaba) occurs.
A well known purgative to clean the
stomach.

Uncommon;
collected in the
surroun-ding
veld.

1 15

Specialist

Tweni

Asparagus sp.
uMathunga

The roots are mixed with water and
taken to heal broken bones, all ages.
The roots are dug up and mixed with
cold water to heal broken bones. Two
teaspoons are taken. Also used to heal
broken bones in livestock.

Collected in the
village.

Specialist

Gwabeni.

Asparagus sp.
uMathunga

The root is cut up and bottled in water
with a certain amount of Dioscorea
tuber. ( Dioscorea sylvatica known as
iskorpaati) One teaspoon of the
infusion is taken three times a day for
healing broken bones.

Collected in the
veld.

116

Group

discussion

Nomtayi

Ptaeroxylon
obliquum (Thunb.)
Radik. - uMthathi
Dold 1820

Xhosa customs (isiko) . The branches
are used as a platter to serve meat
from ceremonially slaughtered
animals (goats).

Common

APPENDIX 2: FORT MONTGOMERY: SITE SPECIFIC CULTURAL ARTIFACTS

Dr Webley of the Albany Museum’s Archaeology Department has ascertained that a sacred tree where
the amaXhosa have prayed for rain in the past is located in the Double Drift Reserve.

The site was visited with a single, unemployed, male informant, about 60 years of age, from
Ripplemead village. The tree is located inside the Reserve complex on the farm previously known as
Fort Montgomery (33°02'55"S; 26°57'35"E), next to a small dam. The tree was identified as
Sideroxylon inerme, a milkwood, known as uMqwashu in Xhosa. The informant told us that when he
was a child “he had seen all the people in the whole district gather here, they had worn lots of
beautiful beads and had drunk lots of beer, they had asked the ancestors to please send rain, here
they had slaughtered two goats and worn the skins”. This process had reportedly taken an entire
morning and after lunch the people returned to their homes whereupon it began to rain. He told us
that nowadays people went to church to ask the Bible for rain but that this had never had positive
results.

Approximately 1.5km away is another site (33°01'50"S; 26°57'40"E) on an open hillside with two
large Pappea capensis trees, called iLitye in Xhosa. Here we were told that people would gather to ask
the ancestors to bring rain and that they were “real” Xhosas (amaQaba- traditionalist), most of whom
are now dead. After the ceremony the people would gather in the shade of the two trees and slaughter
goats and drink beer, when they returned home in the afternoon it would begin to rain.

We asked if people still prayed for rain, and were told that “nowadays people have thrown all that
away, since the white people had come”. We asked why these specific trees were chosen, and were
told that it was because they were tall and caught the wind. It is interesting to note that the tree
species appears not to be crucial but that the symbolic association with water is important.

As far as the authors have been able to ascertain, this practice has not been previously recorded
in literature.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:26-53 February 2000

53

SOUTH AFRICA’S FIRST DINOSAUR REVISITED - HISTORY OF
THE DISCOVERY OF THE STEGOSAUR PARANTHODON

AFRICANUS (BROOM)

William J de Klerk

Albany Museum, Somerset Street,
6139 Grahamstown

ABSTRACT

The earliest dinosaur fossil recognized in South Africa was reported by William G Atherstone and
Andrew G Bain in 1845, only four years after Sir Richard Owen had erected the order Dinosauria in
1841. The science of dinosaur palaeontology was still much in its infancy at the time. This fossil was
initially incorrectly identified and catalogued, and it took 136 years before its affinities were correctly
interpreted and it was finally given the name Paranthodon africanus (Broom) by Galton and Coombs
(1981).

Keywords: Paranthodon africanus ; history

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE DISCOVERY

Discoveries of fossil vertebrates, including dinosaurs, were being
made in the British colonies like South Africa and Australia in the
early part of the 19th century, but, because of a lack of expertise,
the material was usually sent back to England to be studied and
described by palaeontologists like Richard Owen at the British
Museum of Natural History (now the Natural History Museum) in
London.

It is not widely known that the earliest report of the discovery
of dinosaur bones in South Africa was made early in 1845 by two
eminent pioneers of science in the Eastern Cape, William Guybon
Atherstone and Andrew Geddes Bain (Fig. 1).

At the close of the Sixth Frontier War in the Eastern Cape
(1834-35), Bain, a settler of Scottish descent, was appointed to
the post of Assistant Engineer in the Royal Engineers to supervise
the construction of military roads on the frontier, in the country
around Grahamstown. His first assignment in 1837 was the
construction of the “Queen’s Road”, between Grahamstown and
Fort Beaufort through the Ecca Pass. As his daily work brought
him into close contact with landforms, rocks, minerals and fossils,

Bain developed a keen interest in the then relatively new science
of geology. He was the first person to attempt to place the rock
types he encountered over the vast tracts of the Cape Colony into
a geological framework (Bain, 1857) and he can legitimately be
regarded as the “father of South African geology”.

Through this interest he soon made the acquaintance of a
local medical practitioner, William Guybon Atherstone, a man
whose many interests included geology and who could aptly be
described as a “Victorian gentleman of science”.

Early in 1845 Atherstone, Bain and three of his children, took
“a holiday excursion for the purpose of geological exploration” in
the Eastern Cape (Atherstone, 1857:528). Atherstone did not Figure 1 . W G Atherstone
initially set out with the main party from Grahamstown as he had (above) and A G Bain

54

de Klerk: First South African dinosaur

Figure 2. Map of portion of the Bushmans River

Valley, showing locality of “Dassiekhp

been called away to a country patient and was
only able to join them late the following day.
Bain and his children had travelled from
Grahamstown towards Port Elizabeth and had
set up camp in the vicinity of the farm
Dassieklip on the Bushmans River, about
half-way between Grahamstown and Port
Elizabeth (Fig. 2). When Atherstone arrived at
the camp he was greeted by Miss Jeanie Bain
who was “slowly staggering up the hill under
some heavy load” of stones (Atherstone,
1857:529). He immediately went to help her and
saw that they were not stones but fossilised
“bones bigger than those of an ox!”. The
discovery of these large bone fragments caused
some excitement and the question of their
identity and origin generated considerable
discussion late into the night.

From the textures of the bone Atherstone
and Bain concluded that they were those of a
very large reptile. What was lacking at that
stage, though, was a diagnostic bone to give
some clue as to the identity of the animal. The
following day Atherstone found an upper jaw
bone which included a “row of black serrated
and fluted teeth” (Atherstone, 1957:530) (Fig. 3).

At the time, based largely on the fluted
nature of the teeth, Atherstone and Bain were

convinced that the animal was in some way
related to Iguanodon, a dinosaur that had been
discovered in 1822 by Mary Mantell in Sussex,
(southern) England, and described by her hus-
band, Gideon Mantell, in 1825.

Atherstone coined the name “Cape
Iguanodon” for the fossil and named the
discovery site “Iguanodon Hoek”, a name which
was unfortunately never formally adopted. This
discovery is now accepted as the first record of a
dinosaur find in South Africa, made only 23
years after the original discovery of Iguanodon in
England - the second dinosaur ever to be
formally described and named.

Figure 3. Left mesial view of the lower jaw of
Paranthodon africanus. Now in the natural
History Museum, London.

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:54-60 February 2000

55

EVENTS LEADING TO IDENTIFICATION

The science of palaeontology was still in its
infancy at the time of this discovery and
Atherstone and Bain were only making edu-
cated guesses about the nature of the animal.
They therefore resolved to send the fossil to
Richard Owen, who was at that time regarded as
the most eminent palaeontologist in England,
based at the British Museum in London. It was
Owen who, at a meeting in Plymouth of the
British Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1841, coined the term “Dinosauria”
(Owen, 1842) to describe the unusual group of
large extinct reptiles that he was studying
(Dinosauria - Greek meaning “terrible lizards”).
Unfortunately only the upper jawbone and two
additional skull fragments are all that remain of
this find and are now housed in the Natural
History Museum in London (BMNH 47338). No
record of Atherstone’s “bones bigger than those
of an ox” have survived and it is not known if
they were ever dispatched to London by
Atherstone or Bain.

It took Owen 3 1 years before he published
the first description of the Bushmans River
fossil (Owen, 1876). Atherstone, frustrated at
this delay, commented on this lengthy interval
in 1871 in an account of a trip which he made
between Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth:

“Then over the Komga [River] .... Now we
pass Dassieklip, where the rocks change
entirely. There, to the left, lies ‘Iguano-
don-Hoek’, where Bain and 1 years ago
exhumed huge bones of some extinct
Saurians - one, from the jaw and serrated
teeth, I fancy some huge Iguanodon. They
lie still in the vaults of the British Museum,
unknown, unnamed, unexamined. All that
is known of them you will find in the
Eastern Cape Monthly Magazine for 1857.”
(Atherstone, 1871:81).

The process of establishing the exact nature of
the animal took a long time and a number of
milestone events took place from 1845, finally
culminating in the identification of the animal
as Paranthodon africanus (Broom), a plant-
eating dinosaur belonging to the Stegosauridae.
Members of this group of dinosaurs are distinct
in having plates on their backs and spikes on
their tails - the plates were probably used for
sexual display and perhaps as radiators for
regulating body temperature (Galton, 1990) and
the spikes were used for defence.

56

Figure 4. Owen’s drawings of the jaw fragment
(from Owen, 1876).

Dinosaur fossil discoveries and related
events prior to the 19th century discovery of the
Bushmans River fossil, have been presented by
Weishampel etal. (1990), and by Sarjeant (1997a
& 1997b). Some of these events are neverthe-
less worth repeating and are presented chrono-
logically below:

Some palaeontological events that took
place in England prior to 1845.

1809 -

A lower limb-bone of a large unknown
animal is collected at Cuckfield by William
Smith (the “father of English geology”). The
fossil is deposited at the British Museum in
London and years later is identified as that
of Iguanodon.

1818 -

Bones of what is called Megalosaurus by
James Parkinson (but not formally des-
cribed by him) are discovered at Stonesfield,
Oxfordshire in England; they are not
described until years later.

1822 -

Mary Ann Mantell finds the teeth of an
unknown animal near Lewes, Sussex
(described in 1825 by her husband as those
of Iguanodon) (Mantell, 1825).

1824-

Buckland publishes the first formal
description of a dinosaur, using the name
Megalosaurus which Parkinson had cited
several years earlier in connection with the
Stonesfield fossil (Buckland, 1824).

1825 -

Gideon Mantell (1825) publishes a descrip-
tion of Iguanodon, based on the material

de Klerk: First South African dinosaur

found by his wife in 1822.

1841 -

Richard Owen, of the Natural History Mu-
seum, London, proposes the ordinal taxon
Dinosauria for these reptiles (Owen, 1842).

Events relating to the discovery and
ultimate identification of the Bushmans
River dinosaur.

1845 -

W G Atherstone and A G Bain discover the
fossil of the “Cape Iguanodon” in the
Bushmans River Valley near Dassieklip
(Atherstone, 1857).

1849 & 1853 -

Bain sends collections of South African
fossils to Sir Richard Owen at the British
Museum in London for identification.
Included in this general collection are the
lower jaw and some skull fragments of the
“Cape Iguanodon” from the Bushmans River
(Bain, 1857; Lydekker, 1890).

1857 -

Atherstone publishes the account of their
trip to the Bushmans River Valley and the
discovery of this fossil (Atherstone, 1857).

1871 -

Atherstone (1871) notes that the “Cape
Iguanodon” has still not been identified and
that it is still housed in the Natural History
Museum in London.

1876 -

Sir Richard Owen publishes an illustrated
catalogue of the fossil reptiles of South
Africa which includes a description and
partial sketch of the fossil of “Cape
Iguanodon”, naming it Anthodon serrarius
(Owen, 1876). It is at this time that Owen
made a fundamental error which intro-
duced confusion about this fossil into the
literature. He unwittingly includes this
fossil with the skull of a pareiasaur,
Anthodon serrarius, and records the loca-
lity of both specimens as being from
Bushmans River. (The Anthodon serrarius
material was in fact collected by Bain “near
Styl-Kranz, Sneewberg range” in the Karoo
and would therefore have been some 100
million years older than the Bushmans
River material. At this time Owen also
includes several groups of animals now
known not to be dinosaurs, such as the
pareiasaurs, in his newly created taxon
Dinosauria.)

1890 -

Richard Lydekker, a curator in palaeon-
tology at the British Museum of Natural
History in London, corrects Owen’s mistake
regarding the locality yet fails to distinguish
the fossils as two unrelated species
(Lydekker, 1890).

1909 -

Robert Broom of South Africa visits the
British Museum (Natural History) and
examines the Bushmans River material. He
concludes that the fossil was in fact from a

herbivorous dinosaur and notes that “

when we compare the teeth with those of
Cretaceous reptiles of other parts we find
that they are strikingly similar to those of
some herbivorous Dinosaurs.” (Broom,
1910:25). Broom also notes a striking
similarity between the Bushmans River
teeth and a tooth of Palaeoscincus costatus,
an ankylosaur; ankylosaurs are now re-
garded as closely related to stegosaurs. He
suggests that as the Bushmans River teeth
are so similar to those of the Palaeoscincus
costatus it is probable that they belong to the
same genus and proposes that the
Bushmans River specimen be provisionally
named Palaeoscincus africanus, empha-
sizing that it is definitely not the pareiasaur
Anthodon serrarius and pretty certainly
dinosaurian.

1913 -

E H L Schwarz, head of the Department of
Geology at Rhodes University and students
revisit the discovery site and find more fossil
bone, including a heavy femoral head, the
head of a tibia, some vertebrae and
numerous smaller fragments (Schwarz,
1913). These specimens (a total of 22 frag-
ments) are housed in the Albany Museum
(AM. 3755). In describing this material
Schwarz, however, does not adopt the name
proposed by Broom and persists with the
incorrect Anthodon serrarius. (Recent
examination of this material suggests that
the Schwarz material may not be from a
stegosaur but rather from some large
sauropod. The material was, however, col-
lected in the general area where Atherstone
found the stegosaur.)

1929 -

Frans Baron Nopsca (1929), apparently un-
aware of the name proposed by Broom, has
a fresh look at the Bushmans River fossil at

Annals of the Eastern Cape Museums Vol. 1:54-60 February 2000

57

the British Museum (Natural History) and
recognises that it is in fact a stegosaur, and
names it Paranthodon oweni.

1972 -

Walter P Coombs re-examines the fossil and
requests that it be prepared for detailed
study.

1981 -

Peter M Galton and Walter P Coombs tie up
the loose ends of this saga in their paper
“ Paranthodon africanus (Broom) - A stego-
saurian dinosaur from the lower Creta-
ceous of South Africa” (Galton & Coombs,
1981).

DISCUSSION

As can be seen from the sequence of events,
confusion surrounded this dinosaur fossil for
136 years. A project was initiated in 1991 to
relocate the original discovery site in the
Bushmans River Valley. Efforts to find more
fossil bone were focused on exposures of early
Cretaceous fluvial siltstones and mudstones of
the Kirkwood Formation (McLachlan &
McMillan, 1976), the colour of the exposed
sediments corresponding to the fossil bone.

These sediments are regarded as Valanginian in
age (McMillan, 1999).

Initial excavations in 1992 were carried out
at two fossil sites in erosion gullies in the area.
They produced an abundance of fragmentary
bone which, where possible, have been pieced
together. It is likely that one of these sites is in
fact Atherstone and Bain’s original discovery
site. Ad hoc monitoring of the site is ongoing as
new fossil bone fragments are constantly being
exposed by erosion of the soft mudstone (de
Klerk etal, 1992).

While making this investigation it was
realized that the 1845 discovery was the first
dinosaur fossil to have been reported from
South Africa and possibly from Africa. No earlier
references to dinosaur fossil discoveries in Africa
have been found. It was also the first stegosaur
to be found, the first of the 14 species now
recognised (Galton, 1990); the first stegosaur in
the literature was Stegosaurus armatus,
described by the renowned American
palaeontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877.
At the time the Bushmans River stegosaur had
not been recognised for what it was.

The year 1995 marked the 150th anni-
versary of the discovery of Paranthodon and, to

Figure 5. The Albany Museum reconstruction
of Paranthodon africanus.

58

de Klerk: First South African dinosaur

commemorate this event, a five-metre long
life-sized reconstruction of the animal was
constructed at the Albany Museum in
Grahamstown, South Africa (Fig. 5). The post-
cranial morphology of the reconstruction is
loosely based on Kentrosaurus from the late
Jurassic Tendaguru Basin in Tanzania (Hennig,
1915) and to a lesser extent on Tuojiangosaurus
from the late Jurassic of Sichuan in China
(Dong, 1992). The reason for basing the
reconstruction on these two stegosaurs is that
the form of the teeth of Paranthodon bears closer
similarity to these species than to Stegosaurus
from the late Jurassic Morrison Formation in
the USA. In addition, there is a close similarity
in body shape between Kentrosaurus and
Tuojiangosaurus, both of which have back plates
which are narrower and more pointed than
those of Stegosaurus (Dong, 1988). The
similarities between the teeth of Paranthodon
and Kentrosaurus suggest they are more closely
related than either is to Stegosaurus, as is
perhaps to be expected because of their
geographic proximity. It has also been suggested
that the apparent relationship between
Kentrosaurus, Paranthodon and the Indian
stegosaur Dravidosaurus may be an indication
that Gondwana stegosaurs evolved in the late

Jurassic and Cretaceous in isolation from the
northern hemisphere Laurasian stegosaurs
(Bonaparte, 1986).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The unravelling of this fascinating chapter in
South African palaeontology was stimulated
by Jack Skead of Port Elizabeth, a ‘naturalist’
in the best tradition, who in 1990 had come
across a reference to “ Iguanodon Hoek” in his
research into place names in the Eastern Cape.
His inquiry about this locality from Mike Raath
(then Director of the Port Elizabeth Museum),
and later the author, led to the site being
reinvestigated from 1991 onward. I would like
to pay special tribute to Mike Raath for his
encouragement in our attempts to accurately
identify the locality of this important fossil find.
I also thank the many interested palaeon-
tologists and colleagues who, over the years,
accompanied the author to the general field area
and for their invaluable input and discussions -
Gideon Rossouw, Norton Hiller, James Kitching
and Wouter Holleman. In conclusion I would
thank Wouter Holleman and Mike Raath for
their critical review of this paper and Gerhard
Marx for the accompanying artwork.

REFERENCES

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60

de Klerk: First South African dinosaur

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