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Wael. COMSTOCK: Ll. O. HOWARD, TGEtACA, IN Ys: WASHINGTON, D. C, C.J. S. BETHUNE, W. M. WHEELER, GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA. Boston, MAss. C. W. JOHNSON, PY PriCAL VERT; Boston, Mass. PHILADELPHIA, PA, V. Ll. KELLOG, - J. W. FOLSOM, STANFORD UNIV., CAL. URBANA, ILLS. Be eeAr I; PASADENA, CALIF. PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE SOCIETY COLUMBUS, OHIO CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIII. PAGE Forses, 5S. A.—The Ecological Foundation of Applied Entomology... 1 PETERSON, ALVAH—Morphological Studies of the Head and Mouth- Paris aE the T hy Sam OP Lerater soe hn. vinta kets ate ee ee meee URE ME RD 0! 20 STAMMNORD-- i. Wi Soucies in oiaspine Pypidians 20. 108.0 see foe os. 67 CRAMPTON, G. C.—Suggestions for the Standardization of Technical Terms in ISTO AUOTO Sayed tine Weck eR ae tet ee oe eee Nt eae rt A RE ne ONS 74 AtpricH, J. M.—Results of Twenty-five Years Collecting in the Tachinidae, WithNotesion, Some) Common Species... anes Gn see ee 79 HOWNSEND: iC vEe i ——On, Proper Generic Conceptss.ce.) oid eee 85 Kwas, FREDERICK—Brauer on Generic Values in the Muscoidea.............. 91 Kwnas, FREDERICK—The Nemocera Not a Natural Group of Diptera.......... 93 HEE OUI EICH Sve cua eae sacchari Sots ta Aare RPA cee nt Abt er 2 At ia ai eta 99 Proceedingsiomtucs>iiladel phia Weetinse scenes «tec fe. ce alee Sones 102 NAKAHARA, WARO—A Synonymic List of Japanese Chrysopidae, with Descrip- tions of One New Genus and Three) New Species:/../..............¢. ALE BANKS, NATHAN—Geographic Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects, with an AnaAlVsistOmuneeAmMernicanmInseciMalunaly. aise a nie sie Mena eran 125 Banks, NATHAN—Suggestions for Tracing Relationship of Insects........... 136 FuNKHOUSER, W. D.—Life History of Thelia Bimaculata Fab, (Membracidae) 140 MARSHALL, WM. S.—The Development of the Hairs Upon the Wings of JPL ahi japanial tals os BD retest enmeel ac Goh") (en lkcr Mapiancearty (Soho iL pt Ae aed AON a IED Re 153 MarcovitcH, S.—The Biology of the Juniper Berry Insects with Descriptions ERIN Wa SDE CLES pa ER iay a eK cnt ee tice naam meee ee eee 163 Crump, S. B:—Some-New Species of Jassoidea. 2. 0... ec eevee we oe 189 MAarsHALL, WM. S.—The Formation of the Middle Membrance in the Wings of JPR olay WD Xesiteankanqukss NAEUUGS Scleshaers cleo c CS onal eno Boke be coarse 201 ZETEK, JAMES—Behavior of Anopheles Albimanus Wiede, and Tarsimaculata (GOEL C HL hte gen Re GLI Caltinaes. ce) RISMeole MEIN Sh on 8 Be Oe a AN Ra 221 GirRAuLt, A. A.—Some New Chalcidoid Hymenoptera from North and South ERICA iid. ates Re Aa ens ee lO | RN nee SU 272 GirAaurTyA. Ay — New: Chalcidoidshymenopteras sy’... eas. e ae eee. 279 VICKERY, Rospert K.—Evidence of a Protoplasmic Network in the Oenocytes Oh {EONS ‘ShUlll Vy HOrsAaNS Leeka| 2 5. Sas cea uN Senin a ilct hey Pe oy Se 9 IS ea Te 105 SHELFORD, VicTtoR E.—Abnormalities and Regeneration in Cicindela......... 291 KENNEDY, CLARENCE HAMILTON—Interesting Western Odonata............... 297 Mattocu, J. R.—A Revision of the North American Pachygasterinae with UncpinedeSeutellums (Dipteray)tas... cian aac eee ace tees c aire 305: WHEELER, WM. Morton—On the Presence and Absence of Cocoons Among Ants, the Nest-Spinning Habits of the Larvae and the Significance of the Black Cocoons Among Certain Australian Species............... 323 DE Wii) OnsthesPoisonsiol Plant-Licews- cee en sn ahaa e ake oe. 343: Witson, H: F—A Synopsis of the Aphid Tribe Pterocommini................ 347 BisHorp, F.C.—The Distribution and Abundance of the Ox Warbles, Hypo- Genmnanlinedtarand bl. wl ovals ulaes Una oe era aes eine en eves ce ae 359 BALL, E. D.—Adaptations to Arid Conditions in Cercopidae and Membracidae 365 QUAINTANCE, A. L., and BAKER, A. C.—A New Genus and Species of Aleyro- GhiGkAasinovam, Johesh eel oel Cabhiehatls capes. AcAla. Olas oo hk eee cle cel Lee ee 369 WoopworrH, ©. W:—Ouantitative Pntomology* 3.5. 0.25.-62.240.-.s1ee snes 373 PLOceeGinecnoumMimenr WICetinees . seal m Prac TERN ae eee hes Gedo SRL Ae ea 384 LISTERS. y's, Gh tase) AS RR ERODES lear S/o 10 Or a 389 een My ay : Cat ANNALS OF The Entomological Society of America “MARCH, 1915 Gog aed Pooh BOARD HERBERT OSBORN, Managing Editor, ‘ | CoLUMBUS, OHIO, J. H. COMSTOCK, | ‘L, QO. HOWARD, IrHaca, N. Y. : _ WASHINGTON, D.C. aC J. S. BETHUNE, W. M. WHEELER, _ GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA, Boston, MAss, ¢. W. JOHNSON, ~ P. P. CALVERT, Boston, Mass. PHILADELPHIA, PA. Vib KELZOGE,. .: J. W. FOLSOM, ; ; . STANFORD UNIV.,.CaL. «| URBANA, ILLS. ~ H.-C. FALL, i PASADENA, CALIF... + COLUMBUS, OHIO Entered as second se matter Apri 11, 1908, at the Post Office at ‘Colubas: Ohio, under the Act of Aa of March 3, 1879. The Entomological Society of America. FOUNDED 1906. OFFICERS 1915. President AE VERNON L. KELLOGG, . |... ..' Stanford Univ. California ‘ First Vice-President . , on. James S. HINE, . ; 7 ; Ki : Columbus, Ohio & | Second Vice-President Ps ee: J. M. ALDRICH, eye St aR oh : Lafayette, Indiana Managing Lditor Annals Bin tina HERBERT OSBORN, ”, : BPRS, SOM Colnmbus, Ohio Secretary- Treasurer A. D. MACGILLIVRAY, elon et Sit aie . Urbana, Illinois . Executive: Committee Tuer Orricers and C. T. Brugrs, W. A. Rinky, J. A. G. REEN, Ob Daas COCKERELL,. Ve lhe a MELANDER. Committee on Ween tare E. P. BEET, D. A. COCKERELL, NATHAN BANKS. Temporary Secretary Summer Meeting E, C. VANDYKE, 3 ; lia he .- Berkeley, Oatitgenis | \ Price List of Publications. ‘ ) Annals, Vols. I, II, 111, 1V, V, VI and VII complete, each........ AN EN aa uel $3.00 Annals, Separate Parts except as*below, each 2.0.0). oes ee 1.00 Annals, Vols. I and II, Part 3, each......2.... LB TE eed OC BNA se acta arate dreipas eas . 50 Annals; Vol. IV, Part IV, each....... cess. phen s% Raw « Kerew ea SHAG 1.50 4 BACK VOLUMES Of the ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL ‘SOCIETY OF AMERICA may be secured from the office of the Managing Editor and new members of the Society who may wish to complete a.set are advised to secure” the éarlier volumes while there is still a supply on hand and the price is kept at the origitial subscription rate. Address Hrrpert Osporn, Managing Editor, ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, _ State University, Columbus, Ohio, ANNALS | 20 OF gal Wee The Entomological Society of America Volume VIII MARCH. 195 Number | THE ECOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY.* STEPHEN A. FORBES, State Entomologist of Illinois. It is my pleasing duty first to acknowledge the obligations of the economic entomologists of the country to this general society of American entomologists for giving this prominent place on its annual program to a topic which must, in the nature of the case, interest economic entomologists more than any one else. This is not by any means wholly an economic topic, however. Ecology is a very broad subject, extending in all directions far beyond the foundation lines of applied entomology; and successful ecological inquiry in the economic field, carefully verified as to results, as it must always be for practical use, may often suggest and illustrate methods equally useful in the other divisions of entomology, and hence of serious interest to every entomological specialist who does any thinking about his entomology. It may well seem, indeed, that this general association of entomologists, inclusive of all specialists, is a higher court before which to bring our plea for a broadening and strengthen- ing of the foundations and a widening of the relations of eco- nomic entomology, than an association composed only of economic entomologists themselves. There is no real separa- tion in this country between economic and non-economic, between applied and unapplied, or even inapplicable, entomol- ogy. These interests are all so closely related and mutually *The Annual Address to the Entomological Society of America, delivered at Philadelphia, Pa., December 30, 1914. iw) Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, so helpful that our two associations representing them are more like the right and left hands of the same body than two independent individuals. In bringing our difficult and im- portant topic before what is virtually a union meeting of these two principal associations, we are simply bringing both hands to bear in the performance of a task which is too great for one hand alone. Applied entomology is peculiarly an American subject, and here if anywhere in the world it should have accomplished its ends or should at least be in sight of its goal; and yet we have to acknowledge that, after generations of work upon them, many of the great long-standing problems of our American entomology are still unsolved, and that the people of our country are still suffering enormous losses of various description be- cause of this fact. It is not because we do not know what we commonly call the entomology of the chinch-bug and the Hes- sian fly and the white-grubs and the cotton-moth that we are so nearly at our wit’s end in our efforts to devise means for their control; it is because the knowledge of their entomology merely is not sufficient for the purpose. This line of attack was, in fact, thoroughly tested by the earlier economic entomologists of America. Harris, Fitch, Walsh, and the young Riley were entomological observers whose applications of entomology were mere inferences from their observations. The older Riley, Howard, and Slingerland, were among the first to make serious use in economic inquiry of the experimental method of scien- tific induction; and now we havea small army of workers apply- ing their principles not only in precise, intensive work in the laboratory and the insectary, but on the broad scale of actual outdoor practice in varied environments, and on the long scale of season after season and year after year, postponing final conclusions until their premises stretch through a decade and extend over a continent. It is when we search for specific reasons for our successes here and our failures there that we are driven to a scrutiny and analysis of controlling conditions of every description, and so find ourselves involved in studies so far outside entomology, commonly so-called, that we are obliged to apply for assistance to the physiologist, and the chemist, and the physicist, and the meteorologist, arid the geographer, and the agriculturist, and 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 3 the animal husbandman, and the bacteriologist, and the phy- sician, and the sanitarian, or, in a word, to the ecologist, who, from the nature of his studies, must, if he is thoroughly to cover his field, be something of each and all of these, and still some- thing more. The last and most essential phase in the expansion and de- velopment of our subject is the actual, practical, thoroughgoing application of the products of all our work. It is an important part of the main thesis of this address that applied entomology is not, in any practical and sufficient sense, entomology which is merely applicable but of which no application has ever been made; but that it is entomology actually applied to the pro- tection, amelioration, or promotion of the welfare of man; and that, this being the scope of our topic, the means and methods of such application—the inducements, incitements, constraints, and compulsions necessary to a complete and effective application of the results of our entomological in- quiries—are as much a part of our subject as any other; that they are, indeed, the most important—the all-important part, since without their successful use all that precedes must fail of its purposed end. Entomology which is not applied is not really applied entomology, any more than an ocean voyage which ends at the bottom of the sea is a completed voyage. We must get our ship into port and unload her cargo or we never shall be known as successful navigators, competent for con- tinued command. We may find harbor pilots, and men at the docks, it is true, prepared and ready to take these terminal operations off our hands; but we must at least find the pilots and the dockmen, and in their absence we must discharge their functions ourselves. This is an especially important point to us just now, for before we can discuss intelligently the foundations of applied entomology we must know how far the structure is to extend whose foundations we are about to plan. It is my insistent argument that it must, in the very nature of the case, cover the whole field of publication, education, community organiza- tion, codperative effort, and legal compulsion necessary to give the fullest effect to the practical outcome of our ento- mological work; that our responsibilities, as official entomolo- gists at any rate, do not end until we have done our best to see that all this is done or at least provided for. Just what 4 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, this signifies with respect to the ecological foundations of ap- plied entomology we shall be in better position to see when we have come to conclusions as to the meaning of ecology itself, and as to the general relations of that subject to entomology as actually applied. At this point I shall have to appeal to your courteous patience for permission to present a few elementary definitions, a rehearsal of which seems to me necessary to avoid possible ambiguity, uncertainty, or misunderstanding; especially so as the animal ecologists themselves are not by any means in exact accord as to the scope, description, subdivision, and nomenclature of their subject. Let us agree, then, that, for the purposes of this discussion at any rate, the subject matter of ecology may be defined as the relation of organisms to their environment, and that this means the whole environment, organic and in- organic, and any and all organisms, man included—man, in- deed, as by far the most important living factor, from whatever point of view. And let us also understand that the relations meant are, first, relations of interaction—dynamic relations, of efficient cause, and effect produced upon the organism by its environment and upon the environment by the organism; second, space relations, of distribution, position, juxtaposition, and association—static relations, we may call these, since they show the status of an individual or a group at a given time with reference to the various objects of its environment; and third, successional relations, time relations, sometimes called genetic because, in showing the static relations of a group in successive periods, they trace the genesis of the present status. It is evident at once that dynamic interaction with the environment is a cause of which static relation and successional relation are the effects. An organism comes to be established where it is, and associated as it is, by reason of the nature of the interactions between itself and its environment. If we imagine all exchange of action between the organism or the group and its environment to be suddenly stopped, we must see that the group would collapse, that the organism would prompt- ly perish. If the system of interactions changes, the status changes to correspond, and not otherwise; and if these dy- namic changes, however slow, are continuous over a long period and in the same direction, the changes of status result- ing have the character of a succession. 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 5 Certainly, also, it is dynamic action and reaction between organisms and their environment which give ecology its main interest and importance. Status, genesis, and succession, organisms share with stones and soils and geological strata; but there is no ecology of such inanimate objects because they lack the intensity, variety, complexity, and quickness, of response to dynamic impression which organic ecology connotes. Water-spouts, clouds, flowing streams, winds, windmills, flames of fire and gasoline engines, are seats and centers of rapid action and reaction, but simple and uniform as compared with that of the living animal or plant. We may discuss their dynamic, static, and successional relations to their environment, if we choose, but we are agreed not to call these ecological. This is a term which we confine to living organisms; and it is indeed the special character of their reactions which enables us to dis- tinguish organisms as alive. Furthermore, there can be no doubt that it is primarily the dynamic factor only in ecology which interests the eco- nomic entomologist. It is only what insects do which gives them any importance to the economist, and it is only what can be done to them or about them in turn which gives applicable value to our knowledge of them and of their economy. We wish to know where they are or may be, how they are asso- ciated, and from whence they have come and by what they are likely to be succeeded, simply because their activities make them important to us. If they were inert we should not care. I must further distinguish briefly between the ecology of a species or larger taxonomic group on the one hand and that of a local miscellaneous assemblage of organisms on the other. We may have an ecology of Aphis maidiradicis, for example, or of the family Aphidide in general wherever they occur; and we may also have an ecology of all the inhabitants of the corn- field considered as a group of plants and animals associated in a natural habitat. From this point of view, we see applied entomology especially interested, sometimes in associational or habitat ecology, such as that of the household insects or the insects of the forest or the truck-farm or the orchard, and sometimes in species ecology or taxonomic ecology—that of a single economic insect species, for example, or that of the insect associates of a single crop plant, or the several mosquito species serving as carriers for a single disease-producing parasite. 6 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, And now what shall we say of that view of ecology by which man, with his unrivalled powers of action and influence—the center and source of the most amazing interactions ever known between an animal species and its environment—is left prac- tically outside the natural system, or is looked upon at best as a merely monstrous overgrowth of it—a pathological influence, a destructive enemy of nature, all whose works are artificial as compared with the natural effects and products of the vital activities of ants and caterpillars and crawfishes. There are ecologists to whom primitive nature is the earthly paradise, and civilized man isa kind of fiend, a Satan bent upon its destruc- tion—a triumphant Satan who seems bound to reduce the whole earth, except, perhaps, the national parks, zoological gardens, bird preserves, and the like, to conditions as unnatural, as abnormal, as those of a prison or a hospital. Their ecology is a system not of this present time but of the world before Adam, before the fall of man had introduced into the world the germs of that fatal and frightfully contagious disease known as civilization. And there are entomologists whom any trace of humanistic values in their entomology seemingly repels almost like a taint of disease or decay. They remind one of the famous English mathematician who is reported to have said that he thanked his God every day on his bended knees that he had never discovered anything useful. This attitude is of course their privilege, as a matter of personal choice, just as it is the privilege of the ecologist to specialize in the field of uncivilized nature, or of the paleontologist to study a vanished system of life by means of its fossilized remains; but to represent these divisions of the subject as any more normal or natural or im- portant than that phase or stage of the natural system which embraces civilized man, is not only misleading but, in my judgment, injurious. The ecological system of the existing twentieth century world must include the twentieth century man as its dominant species—dominant not in the sense of the plant ecologist, as simply the most abundant—for which idea prevalent would, I think, be a better term—but dominant in the sense of dynamic ecology, as the most influential, the controlling or dominant member of his associate group. 1915} Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 7 In applied entomology this is all of course very obvious, and needs no elaboration; for the economic entomologist is an ecologist pure and simple, whether he calls himself so or not—a student primarily of the interactions of insects and men, of that part of the actions and ecology of insects by which the welfare of man is affected, of that part of the ecology of insects which overlaps upon the ecology of man and that part of the ecology of man which overlaps, or can be profitably made to overlap, upon the ecology of insects. And it is the human interest which predominates and controls; the motive to ap- plied entomology is primarily humanitarian. If there were no human interest to which entomology is applicable, there would be no applied entomology. Now, since the field of applied entomology is precisely and solely that part of ecology in general over which the ecology of man and that of insects is coincident; since it is simply the ecological area common to two classes which differ almost immeasurably in their endowments, general interests, and natural relations, it must be evident, a priori, that a knowledge of the broad field of ecology as a whole, and of its general aims, principles, processes, and products, is fundamental to the special studies of the economic entomologist. It is only in some such sense as this that we can properly speak of the ‘“‘ecological foundations of applied entomology” at all. The very sub- stance of applied entomology being ecological through and through, it can have a foundation in ecology only as a part is founded upon the whole, as an apex is founded upon a base, as special aspects and applications of a subject are based upon its general principles and its most comprehensive characters. It is my special task, therefore, to point out and illustrate some of the ways in which general ecology may be made helpful to applied entomological ecology, and, vice versa, ways in which applied entomology may be made useful—is already useful, indeed—to the student of general ecology. A distinguished dean and professor of agriculture in one of our leading universities told me quite lately that the great need of practical agriculture at the present time is nothing less than a scientific study of vegetable physiology—the physiology of the common crop plants—concerning which we know so little that is exact and exhaustive that even the so-called scientific 8 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, farmer is still practicing his art in great measure as did his remote predecessors, by rule of thumb. He paid us the com- pliment of saying that the economic entomologists of the country are much farther advanced in this respect than the agronomists—that we know more of the corn insects than the corn breeder knows of the corn plant. I did not tell him, as I might have done, that this opinion simply signified that he knew less of entomologists and the state of their knowledge than he did of corn and the corn farmer; for this is also our case. How many of our measures of protection and defense against insect depredations depend upon any precise knowledge of general fact or scientific principle, or are traceable to anything better than a purely empirical warrant? If we attempt to analyze what we know and what we still need to know concerning any one of the great insect pests before we shall be in a position to do all that can be done and ought to be done to restrain its ravages and injuries either by measures of avoidance, pre- vention, mitigation, or arrest, we may perhaps get a clearer, concrete idea of what is involved in economic entomology, and what are the foundations of fact and principle upon which it rests. The chinch-bug of our western grain fields has been a subject of close, though inexpert, observation for nearly a century, and of much expert study and experiment for more than a generation; but during this present year, in my own state, where we have used against it every method and device which we could induce those most immediately concerned to apply, millions of dollars worth of farm crops have been destroyed by it, and a large part of the rural population of whole counties has been brought close to economic distress and in some cases to financial ruin. We know the facts concerning the geographical distribution of this insect species, without which, of course, we should not know where to expect its ravages and to provide against them, but this is for us a matter of observation merely, and not of scientific inference or rational interpretation; we do not defi- nitely know what are the limiting conditions of its distribution in any direction. Over parts of its occupied area it is present only in numbers economically insignificant, and we have little actual knowledge why it is destructive in a part of its territory 1915] © Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 9 and not elsewhere. Still less do we know just why the bound- aries of its area of destruction fluctuate in its various outbreaks, or why the foci of its injuries shift from place to place in suc- cessive years. We know that such an outbreak or uprising is commonly preceded by widespread drouth for two or more years, and that as a rule its disappearance follows upon a season or more of comparatively wet weather, especially at its hatching time; but we do not know enough of other agencies contributing to either movement to give us means of either explanation or prevision; and of the climatic or meteorological agencies which seem to produce these effects, we do not know how or why they produce them, whether by some direct action upon the physio- logical or reproductive processes of the insects themselves, or indirectly through effects produced upon the food plants of the species, or upon its disease germs, or upon its newly discovered egg parasite, or upon several or all of these at once, -, together with other agencies as yet unknown. Concerning its single known effective insect parasite, discovered only last year, a species which seems to have special- ized upon the chinch-bug’s egg, we know that its rate of mul- tiplication so far surpasses that of its host that under favorable conditions it may rapidly overtake the latter and reduce an outbreak to insignificance—an apparently available weapon of first-class importance which has been made ready to our hands; but just what are the conditions favorable to its appearance, spread, and rapid increase, and whether these processes can be hastened artificially or not, of this we know nothing. We do not even know concerning this or any other parasitic insect how the parasite and the host are brought together in the field, whether because they have been so similarly tuned and timed to their environment that they find themselves brought into each other’s neighborhood automatically, because of like reactions to their surroundings, or by some more occult and less certain process. We know that at the beginning of a chinch-bug outbreak fungous disease seems to have little or no effect upon the rapidly multiplying hordes, but that when it is declining they sometimes burst forth like a flame in dry fuel. We have strongly suspected that this is due to a diminished average 10 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII,. vitality in the victims, but we can only guess at possible causes. of decrease in their powers of resistance; and of these disease- producing fungi we know too little, either of their effects, of the comparative virulence of the various species, of variations. in the virulence of different strains of the same species, or of the possibility of increasing their effect by selective cultures. of the most virulent varieties. We know that the chinch-bug is strictly.limited for food to: plants belonging to the grass and sedge families, but we do not know why it can not feed—refuses even to try to feed—upon other plants, although prompt starvation is the alternative;. nor do we know why it plainly prefers some of its natural food- plants to others, and why it thrives best and multiplies most rapidly upon those which it prefers. We do not even know by what tests or senses it distinguishes its favorite foods or avoids. those upon which it can not live. We have noticed, where this insect sweeps in hordes across a field, infesting all plants substantially alike, that here and there one may stand alive and erect while all its companions have perished; but we do not know why this should be so or whether by a selection of such escaping victims we might breed repellant or resistant lines, increasingly capable of with- standing attacks destructive to the average of their kind. We know the ordinary life history of the chinch-bug fairly well, although our knowledge is still lacking in the details of variation of life history in different regions, seasons, and cli- mates; while of its so-called physiological life history we know almost nothing exact. We know that an invaluable opportunity is afforded us at harvest time to destroy the pest as it attempts to escape on foot from the dry wheat stubble. We know that a line of crude creosote poured upon the ground is practically impassible by it, and that this simple fact of ordinary observation may be utilized to arrest its dispersal and, by the addition of post-hole traps along the line, to capture and destroy it by bushels and barrels and even by wagon-loads; but we do not know what it is in the creosote line which makes it seemingly impassible, since occasionally, or under extraordinary compulsion, the insects cross it without the slightest injury. Consequently, in our search for more desirable substances for this use we have: 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 11 to pick and choose at random, being quite without the guidance of any general knowledge of the physiological sensibilities of the species. We know that certain insecticide substances in solution or emulsion are effective against it in a way to make them prac- tically available, but we do not know how or by what proper- ties they produce their fatal effects and we are consequently without definite guidance in our search for other such insec- ticides. We know that any and all measures against this insect are of comparatively little avail if undertaken sporadically, by an individual only here and there; that for their fair and full effect they must be made the fixed policy and practice of whole communities, actuated by the community motive as well as the personal one. We know indeed that a large part of our applied entomology fails of its application because communities are not brought to the point of codperative action in the gen- eral interest; but we do not know—we have scarcely discussed among ourselves—the best means of appeal and the best methods of organization and management to effect these results, without which much of our economic entomology must fall practically short of the economic end. We realize that the actual utility of all our work depends upon a general knowledge of its practical product, and of pos- sible methods of its utilization in every case arising, and on an exercise of a sound judgment in the adaptation of such methods to the conditions of the time and place; but we are far from any kind of satisfying success in making such knowledge the com- mon property of the people most concerned and in training and assisting the common judgment to make the best use of the knowledge they possess. We well know that no people can be brought to do spon- taneously all that they ought to do in our field in the common interest, and that education, persuasion, encouragement, in- citement, and organization even, must be supplemented by legal requirement and by law enforcement if the people are not to suffer clearly avoidable losses of property, comfort, health, and life itself, due directly to insect infestation, and we have made considerable progress of recent years in securing legis- lation, state and national, in some parts of this field; but it still 12 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, remains true that the land owner who may be sued for damages if he permits his horse to break into his neighbor’s garden is not even liable to reproof if he raises caterpillars in armies, Hessian flies in swarms, and hordes of chinch-bugs, to destroy his own crops and then to spread throughout his neighborhood as a general menace and calamity. And so I might go on to enlarge my list of things done and things remaining to be done in various other lines of effort and activity if we are to do all that is needed to make our ento- mology applicable, and to secure the application of it. But I have gone far enough to illustrate the fact that the useful things we know and those we still need to learn are practically all items in the physiology and ecology of our injurious species, and that the physiological items are of practical interest to us solely because of their ecological significance. Even the human factors of our economic problem are really ecological, for they have to do with the relations and interactions of men among themselves, as affected by the relations and interactions be- tween themselves and their insect enemies. If you ask me now whether we should be any nearer the practical control of our most dangerous and destructive insect pests 1f we had the details of their ecology well worked out, I shall have to answer that I do not know, any more than the entomologists who studied the habits and general ecology of mosquitoes foresaw the use of their observations as an indis- pensable link in the study and control of malarial disease—any more than Laveran knew when he found a blood parasite associated with malarial disease in man that the remaining links in the chain would presently be traced. We can have, in fact, no better illustration of the economic value of ecology than this subject of insect-borne disease, the one of its kind which by the joint labors of entomologists, parasitologists, physicians, legislators, and administrators has been brought to the point of a scientific and practical success, perhaps the most remarkable and the most nearly complete of any achievement of applied entomology. Let us make of this a sample and test of successful research, distinguishing the successive stages in the discovery of the nature of malarial disease and the modes and means of its propagation—the joint conquest, as Sir Ronald Ross remarks, of medicine and zoology fighting side by side. 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 13 There was, to begin with, a general background of knowl- edge, variously acquired, of the parasitic relationship—the relation of internal parasite and animal host—a purely ecolog- ical subject. Next in logical succession came the question of the paths and modes of transmission by which a parasite - passes from host to host—again an ecological inquiry, in the course of which it was found that some parasites require two kinds of hosts in alternation for the completion of their life histories, and that these two hosts are usually—almost neces- sarily, indeed—animals ecologically associated. In rational but not chronological order, then follow (2) the discovery of protozoan parasites, eventually including a blood parasite in man invariably associated with malarial disease, and a special study of the habits and development of this parasite in man; (3) prolonged but vain search for it outside the human body in situations where malarial disease was prevalent; (4) the sug- gestion of mosquitoes as possible carriers of the malarial poison, a hypothesis based on the coincident distribution of mosquitoes and malaria; (5) experimental tests of this hypothesis by the feeding of mosquitoes with blood from malarial patients, and search for the human-blood parasite in their bodies—experi- ments which were successful when the right species of mosquito were chosen; (6) studies of the life history of the parasite in the mosquito’s body; (7) successful experiments in the inoculation of man with malarial disease by means of mosquitoes containing the malarial.parasite; (8) field studies of the precise distribution and reproductive habits of Anopheles; (9) experiments with practical measures for the local control of malarial disease by an elimination of the breeding places of malarial mosquitoes; (10) the construction of a program of practical operation and requirement for the local abolition of malaria; (11) the passing of ordinances and the issuing of orders for the execution of this program; and finally (12) the organization and management of a competent executive force, with authority sufficient to carry such a program out effectively. Thus was accomplished the virtually perfect result in Panama; and by a duplication of these methods, so far as they were applicable to a disease whose germ has never yet been seen, yellow fever was also mastered. In all this series it is the /ast step which costs; the malarial parasite and the mosquito are less refractory to the control of man than man himself; it is less difficult to perfect methods for 14 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, preserving life and health than it is to induce the threatened vic- tims to make use of them effectively. So true is this, even with respect to malaria, that Sir Ronald Ross has said, in an address delivered in London a month ago, that although fifteen years have elapsed since the essential discoveries were made, not more than atenth part of the possible benefit to human life has been effected, and that this is only because mankind has not put its heart effectively into the business. In the purely economic field also this is equally true, and in my own state further prog- ress in the control of the chinch-bug and the corn root-aphis seems to be blocked, as by an impassible stone wall, by the disinclination of the people most immediately concerned either to do voluntarily or to permit themselves to be coerced into doing the necessary right thing in their emergency. They would rather do as they like to their ruin than to be commanded, and perhaps compelled, to do as they ought for the salvation of themselves and their communities. Both of my foregoing illustrations, one of a complete and the other of an incomplete investigation, show us how thoroughly ecological applied entomology is in its distinguishing characters; but they do not sufficiently distinguish specific ecological detail from general method and principle, or give us any convincing evidence of the advantages which applied entomology may hope for in the work of the general ecologist who seeks only to develop his subject in the broad way, with no special thought of useful applications. For this we need only to recall what it is that the general ecologist undertakes to do. For us as students of applicable entomology and of the means and methods of its application, the question is, in general terms, whether it would help us in our special work if we knew in advance, or could readily learn, the essential facts concerning the environment of the animals or plants in which-we are especially interested; if we knew the topography of the environment, its hydrography, and its climate, as these are now and as they were before civilized occupancy; if we knew about the water supply, the drainage, the past and the present levels of the water table, the soils and their distribution, and the effects upon these of occupancy and use, present, past, and prospective; if we knew the details of the ecological structure of the region, and the probability of changes in such structure under gradually intensified human use; and 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology a if, among many other particulars the mere enumeration of which would quite exhaust your patience, we knew the facts concerning the temperature, light, and moisture of the air in different situations at different levels and during all seasons of the year. None of this matter is entomology, but it, and very much more of the kind, is entomological ecology, because it is an indispensable part of a description of the ecological environment of insects—of that part of the physical environment which enters into relations of cause and effect with the insect species which it environs. Would it not further help us greatly if we knew, or could readily learn in advance, even the more general facts concerning the reactions of insects and groups of insects, especially the economic species, to these various factors of their environment, as worked out under precise experiments verified by observa- tions in the field—their reactions in their several generations and in the various stages of their life history—and the effects upon their welfare of natural variations in these several environ- mental factors; if we knew also much more than now of the general relations of insects to the other organisms of their neighborhood, especially to those upon which they feed, and of the relations of these organisms and their products to the several factors of the physical environment? To me it seems so evident that such a knowledge would be of the greatest value to the investigating economic entomologist, that I am quite prepared to paraphrase the statement of Dean Davenport concerning the agricultural need of vegetable physiology by saying that the greatest need of applied entomol- ogy at the present time is just this kind of scientific ecology, and that it is among our first and most important duties to acquaint ourselves with this field and to encourage, provide for if possible, and assist as we can, serious, exact, and thoroughgoing work in scientific entomological ecology. It is now time, indeed, for me to say that entomologists in general are not lacking in an appreciation of these facts or in a cultivation of these interests; that, without waiting for the ecologists to bring grists to their mill, they have gone out into the fields and have harvested and threshed much grain for themselves; that they have of recent years done considerably more, I think, in entomological ecology than has been done by 16 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, the professed ecologists, and that they are quite disposed to meet the latter gentlemen a very liberal halfway in the explora- tion and exploiting of their common territory. It is something of an obstacle, to be sure, to a codperative understanding of these two groups that they look in opposite directions, and thus approach each other backwards, the economic entomologists being interested primarily in conditions as they are and may be made to become, referring to the past only for clues useful in the solution of problems of the present and the future, while the pure ecologists are looking rather to the reconstruction of a vanished or vanishing past, and tracing ecological history as far back as their data will permit. Each of these two groups is performing, indeed, its most essential function; but it will cer- tainly be to the advantage of both that they should understand each other and should make the cross-connections necessary to enable each to apply the other’s products and to avail itself of the other’s services. It will help us perhaps to a clearer idea of just what kind of ecology is most needed in applied entomology if we see what, in general, the economic entomologists have lately been doing in the ecological field. A survey of reports and papers which have appeared in quite recent years will show us that, in ad- dition to the kinds of ecological data which have now become standard in discussions of economic species, there is a consider- able quantity of most interesting new work being done by en- tomologists on the effect of variations in temperature and mois- ture upon the metabolism, reproduction, and life history of insects—virtually an attempt to isolate the elements of weather and climate and to experiment with them separately as pre- liminary to experiment with the various combinations of them present in nature. These are the first steps in a very long road, with branches running in many directions. Pursuing one of these branches a few years ago I found myself on the boundary line of vegetable physiology, where I was fortunate enough to meet a botanical ecologist willing to go my way, and to him I was permitted to turn over the inquiry I was making, with a result, lately published in a doctor's dissertation at the University of Illinois, that the reason why I was sometimes driving injurious insects away from corn hills, with no injury to the seed or plants, by 4*preliminary treatment of the seed with repellant oils, but sometimes, on the other 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 17 hand, was injuring or killing the corn, was because the per- meability of the coats of the embryo of the corn plant to oils varies with the amount of moisture in the kernel, the wet corn kernel absorbing these oils quickly to the injury of the plant, while the relatively dry kernel absorbs them slowly, with no injurious consequences. My discrepant results were thus due to mere differences of weather at planting time in the several cases. The kind of ecology which entomologists, intent on the solu- tion of their special problems, are not now undertaking—are scarcely in a position to undertake—is the formulation and elaboration of general principles—the laying of foundations broad and deep. For their emergency structures, they are dig- ging down a little way as well as they can, or are merely build- ing, perhaps, on the bare ground. But this is because the eco- logists have not yet built—are only beginning to try to build— foundation structures up to their level. When the ecological foundations are well and truly laid, then our entomological superstructures will rest upon them, as a matter of course. Associational ecology, a favorite subject with the pure ecolog- ists, is another division to which entomologists have thus far given little attention—too little, I think, for their own good. Even where we treat in a comprehensive way of all the insects infesting a single crop plant—deal, that is, with a mixed asso- ciation in which the crop plant is the prevailing, central species —we pay little attention, as a rule, to the ways in which the different insect members of the group interact with each other, unless, indeed, they are parasitic or predaceous. Pardon me if I draw once more upon my own experience for a simple illustration of the relations which may be made out by a comparison of the data of associated species. It was ina study, made more than thirty years ago, of the insect population of a strawberry plantation that I noticed the curious way in which three species of coleopterous larvee succeed one another in their injuries to the roots of the strawberry plant, the life his- tories of the three being so adjusted, as by a kind of dove- tailing process, that simultaneous competition is completely avoided, each species appropriating its share of the growing rootage of the plant in its turn, and all thus drawing from it a much larger food supply than if their drafts had been coinci- dent. This fact was the more striking when it was seen that 18 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, one of these so-called root-worms differs so widely in its life history from another species of the same genus, living in the same territory but upon another food plant, as to suggest an actual fitting of it in, by a process of natural selection, to the period left vacant for it by its two companion root-worms of the strawberry field. Ecological succession has also its points of contact with economic entomology, as is being shown at this very meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists, in a paper by one of our leading zoological ecologists. If, now, I may apply my own description of ecology, as inclusive not only of all kinds and grades of interaction between men and insects but also of all interactions among men which have insect activities as their cause, I may conclude this out- line of my subject by brief reference to the things which our countrymen ought to be induced to do in each other’s interest as well as in their own. The great obstacle to a reasonable success is, as I have already intimated, a deficiency of the com- munity spirit in the American community. If our people had, as a mass, a fair equivalent for the disposition to social co- operation, to social service, to social sacrifice when sacrifice is needed, that is exhibited by some of their insect competitors, our conquest of the insect world would be relatively easy. In that case, whenever a community was threatened with a de- structive insect outbreak, it would react unanimously, effec- tively, and at once to the warnings of its posted sentinels— its official economic entomologists. Knowing itself to be without the inherited automatic machinery of co6dperative action which makes a hive of bees or a colony of ants a unit when its welfare is threatened, it would provide itself in advance with artificial substitutes for this constitutional system. It would equip itself and its progeny with the necessary practical knowl- edge, 1t would cultivate by all possible means the necessary public spirit, and then it would surround itself with laws and ordinances and provide itself with officers, to the end that it might be constrained to do, even against the will of many of its individuals, what under like circumstances a family of social wasps would do because it could not help itself. Taking a lesson, in other words, from insect ecology, it would contrive to do by the aid of rational intelligence, forethought, and will 1915] Ecological Foundations of Applied Entomology 19 at least as much for the common welfare as the insect does in the interest of its kind under the impulse of a wholly ignorant instinct. I venture now to hope that I may have made by this time a sufficient showing of the fundamental nature of the connection between ecology and applied entomology to justify a few closing sentences upon the educational bearings of my conclusions. If applied entomology is essentially a mixture of human and insect ecology, then it seems clear that courses in general ecology should form a part of the education of the economic entomologist. Indeed, I have much tangible evidence of the value of this combination in the results shown in my own university department of entomology, whose more capable students all tell me of the unique advantage which they find in ecological courses because of the broader outlook and the new point of view which these give them, and especially be- cause of the greater theoretical interest of their technical studies when related to the foundation principles of ecology. The ecological environment is a complex of causal agencies, without an analysis and interpretation of which an adequate knowledge of causes in biology is impossible. I believe that students of ecology itself would be equally, although somewhat differently, profited if they were to take one or more economic courses in entomology; that they too would find a new outlook thrown open to them and a new and larger meaning given to their work. I hope that the time may soon come when ecology shall be taught in at least every state university and every agricultural college, and when something of applied biology shall be included among the regular courses of every university student specializing in ecology. Then for the first time we may be in a position to estimate fairly the value of the contributions which entomological ecology, fully and thoroughly applied, may be competent to make to the progress of biology and to the welfare of civilized man. Urbana, Illinois, December, 1914. MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE HEAD AND MOUTH-PARTS OF THE THYSANOPTERA.* By ALVAH PETERSON. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Te | Introdtuc tion wks 0 te1 citar erates ald pei eae ese eee 20 LE. Methods cas acierts cosink cate sc oak oe Oat eC eee eee 23 IIs Acknowledgements 5. site ccc seticier ee erate saree ometas ae ener er eereene 24 IV. Pixed ‘Parts of the’ Heads. ..8 aaa seitacieeinae Cane tere Re eee 24 Head-capsulle ois \.cracsxd mecewic ies Somme ttn ore sikelele Siekteeie eee eae 24 Clypeusiand Labriaim. Jy: ar aie etna = cos alee ote eo ee eee 27 Compounds Byess snared horas ne ee Ree nee ne eee ae 28 Ocelli ss shore A OC eee EE REGO EEE Le eee Ree 29 ‘Tentorium: or Internal Head-Skeleton=-. nin. 22s05 soe oe oe dee 29 V.-Movable:partsiof the Head):a.22 thes, moti Sern ree ee eco ea 34 ANGENTAC Sc cic wae olove # tae oe Pee ch epee re a nae een TORE rene Cree 35 I eyheba Aeron ares rman MAREN RA Wii ng i er ainn Sabin cringed Gin Goo ot & 35 Maxi llaes 508 Find tc ae eed seems Coe Sek ermine a Gare eae amin ra ee eee 36 Mian dibless ss aciciate etivns Seater eae oes Sea eS NS ON ia cae te eon Ree ee 43 WI |< Phtaryaixens0 saeco aie he ad 2 ie cette CRE ore ECO ae oe a 48 Wil. Salivary Glandsisi eats) seein wee ett ot eee a eee eee 51 VITIES sblead=olands 2c: sia eo ie ces eka ete oes ore ee IE 54 DX Summary: ve sf Macs h Sis eee ea sue efor ene ee ae el feta a ated eae aoe 59 Mo Biblographyaaec cous temo re Cio ee rata oe oe mes SER eT Pree 57 INTRODUCTION. The small insects of the order Thysanoptera have four long, narrow, membranous, flat, fringed wings. Only a few veins are present in the wings and when at rest they are laid horizontally along the back. The sucking mouth-parts form a cone at the caudo-ventral margin of the head-capsule. The maxillae, in part, and the left mandible are modified into piercing organs and enclosed within the mouth-cone. The mandibles, clypeus and maxillary sclerites are asymmetrical. The tarsi are two-jointed, bladder-like at the distal end and without claws. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The order is divided into two suborders, Terebrantia and Tubulifera. The more important distinguishing characters of these are as follows: The female of the Terebrantia has a saw-like ovipositor. This is wanting in the female of the Tubulifera. In the Terebrantia the terminal segment of the abdomen of the female is conical, while that of the male is rounded. In the Tubulifera the distal segment of the abdomen is tubular in both sexes. One or more longitudinal veins * Contribution from the Entomological Laboratories of the University of Illinois, No. 42. 20 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 21 extend from the proximal to the distal end of the wings in the Terebrantia, while only one, partially developed, median vein occurs in the Tubulifera. The Terebrantia are divided into two families, Aeolothripidae and Thripidae, while only one family, Phloeothripidae, occurs in the Tubulifera. It is generally stated by investigators in this field that the Terebrantia are the more generalized and of the two families in this suborder the Aeolothripidae are the more primitive. The following brief summary of the evidence as discussed by Uzel in his ‘“‘Monographie der Ordnung Thy- sanoptera,’’ page 22, supports the above statement. The wing characters of the Terebrantia are more generalized than those of the Tubulifera. The wings of the Terebrantia possess one or more complete longitudinal veins and in some cases cross veins, while the Tubulifera have only one partially developed longitudinal vein and no cross veins. Cross veins among the Terebrantia are present only in the family Aeo- lothripidae. The antennae of most Aeolothripidae are nine- segmented while in all other thrips except the genus Heter- othrips there are six to eight segments found. The maxillary palpi of the Aeolothripidae are four-segmented, while those of the Thripidae are usually three-segmented and those of the Phloeothripidae are composed of two long segments. The labial palpi of the Aeolothripidae are always four-segmented while those of other thrips have but two segments. The above data permit the assumption that the Terebrantia are more primitive than the Tubulifera. This assumption is substantiated by the comparative studies of the suborders made in this paper. The primary purpose of this research is to reach as definite a conclusion as possible in respect to the interpretation of the asymmetrical mouth-parts of the Thysanoptera. The litera- ture of this subject shows a decided diversity of views as to their homology and function. Some investigators consider the mouth-parts as fitted for biting, and others as fitted for sucking. The more recent workers, while agreeing that they are of a sucking type, yet disagree as to the homology of the mouth-parts. Besides the study of the mouth-parts, many interesting head structures have been observed. Of these the pharynx, salivary glands and head-glands are discussed and figured. bo bo Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, In view of the limited nature of the morphological studies of former workers, specimens of as many species of thrips as possible were secured for this work in order that an extensive view of the conditions in the order might be observed. Twelve or more species were used and of these the following nine were identified: (1) Heliothrips femoralis Reuter, (2) Frankliniella tritici Fitch, (3) Thrips physapus Linne, (4) Cephalothrips yucce Hinds, (5) Haplothrips verbasci Osborn, (6) Thrips tabaci Lindeman, (7) Chirothrips manicatus Haliday, (8) Anaphothrips. striatus Osborn, (9) Limothrips cerealium Haliday. The first five species in the above list are very abundant in the vicinity of Urbana and as living material was necessary for certain methods of preparation used, the most of my obser- vations were made on these. Fortunately these have proven to be typical and also comparatively easy to dissect and section. Heliothrips femoralis was present thruout the year in its nymphal and adult stages in the city and university green- houses. Cephalothrips yucce was found thruout the year between the closely appressed leaves of the crown of the yucca plant, Yucca filamentosa. Its nymphal stages are abundant from April to December. Only the adult stages of the following were found: Frankliniella tritici occurs in great numbers’ in the flowers of peonies, roses, composites, etc. Thrips physapus was very abundant in the flowers of dandelions and Haplothrips verbasci can be secured the year around on mullein. Of the above five genera, Heliothrips, Frankliniella and Thrips belong to the suborder Terebrantia while Cephalothrips and Haplothrips belong to the suborder Tubulifera. The nymphs of Heliothrips and Cephalothrips and the adults of all five species mentioned have received similar treatment and observation. Thruout the following discussions the structures as they exist in the generalized Terebrantia are considered first and the Tubulifera are compared with them. The generic names have been used in the different discussions and on the figures since only a single species of each genus has been considered. The term nymph is used in the following pages to designate the feeding, active, immature stages. In most cases only the older nymphs were used, however, a few observations were made on the early instars, but these did not differ from the 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 23 later instars. The term semi-pupa is used in this paper for the semi-quiescent instar just before the adult stage and it is only referred to in the suborder Tubulifera. METHODS. For general purposes thrips should be killed in boiling water and preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. When only the chitinized parts are desired, living or preserved specimens should be boiled for ten or fifteen minutes in a 10 per cent. solution of potassium hydroxide, then reboiled in water to remove the alkali, and finally preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. Living material treated in the above manner is better than preserved material, for preservation in alcohol tends to make the specimens too brittle for careful dissection. The use of a Leitz binocular microscope made possible the dissection of the minute mouth-parts. A number of media were tried in which to make dissections; carbol-aniline oil proved to be the best. Its good qualities are that it evaporates slowly and will clear specimens from any grade of alcohol above 50 per cent. If it be desirable to stain with safranin or orange G the stain can be dissolved in 95 per cent. alcohol and will readily mix with the carbol-aniline oil. The staining of the material for dissection with safranin proved to be very useful in differentiating the almost colorless mouth-parts of some of the species. In using aniline oil in any form one precaution must be observed; as much as possible of the oil should be removed with a blotting paper or a dry rag or by replacing the carbol-aniline oil with carbol-xylene or xylene before mounting in balsam. If the oil be not removed the media in which the parts are immersed will eventually darken. Material for sections was fixed with hot (80° C.) corrosive sublimate (saturated corrosive sublimate in 35% alcohol plus 2% of glacial acetic acid) for 15 to 30 minutes, which was replaced by 70% alcohol containing a few drops of iodine for 24 or more hours. Paraffin having a melting point of 52-54 C. gave a suf- ficiently firm medium in which to cut sections as thin as five microns. Erhlich’s and Delafield’s haematoxylins were used for staining sections on slides and orange G. or safranin for counter-staining. The best results were obtained by staining punctured specimens in toto for 24 hours in Delafield’s haematoxylin or from 3 to 7 days in borax carmine. 24 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This investigation was carried on under the supervision of Dr. A. D. MacGillivray and Dr. J. W. Folsom, and to these men I am greatly indebted for the sincere interest shown and the many valuable suggestions received. For the use of the data on the tentorial structures and their relations in insects in general referred to in this paper, I wish to express my thanks to Dr. A. D. MacGillivray, who allowed me the free use of his unpublished manuscript; and to Miss Margaret Washington for the loan of drawings of the tentorium. I am indebted to Mr. J. D. Hood, of the U.S. Biological Survey, for the identification of the following five species: Heliothrips femoralis Reuter, Frankliniella tritici Fitch, Thrips physapus Linn., Cepha- lothrips yucce Hinds, and Haplothrips verbasci Osborn; to Dr. A. F. Shull, of the University of Michigan, who kindly furnished several species of named thrips; Euthrips (= Franklin- iella) tritici Fitch, Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Chirothrips man- icatus Haliday and Anaphothrips striatus Osborn; to Professor H. Garman, who supplied me with a few specimens of Limoth- rips cerealium, the species he used in making his observations; to Dr. W. E. Hinds for identifications and information, and to Professor S. A. Forbes and Dr. J. S. Kingsley for corrections and suggestions. FIXED PARTS OF THE HEAD. In the order Thysanoptera the gross arrangement of the head and mouth-parts (fig. 1, 2, 5, 8, and 11.) is homologous with the corresponding arrangement of the head and mouth- parts of a generalized homopteron. The cone-like mouth- parts are attached to the caudo-ventral portion of the head- capsule and project caudad between the prothoracic legs, and the antennae are located at the extreme cephalic margin of the head between the compound eyes (fig. 1 and 8). HEAD-CAPSULE (fig. 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 11).—Head structures in thrips differ in many respects from those of a generalized insect. In the head-capsule nearly all of the sclerites are com- pletely united and all traces of sutures have been lost. On account of this union the following areas of the head, front (fr.), vertex (vt.), genae (g.), and occiput (0.), are designated only in a general way on the figures. The labrum and the 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera - 25 asymmetrical clypeus are the mesal pieces on the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone. The compound eyes are located at the latero-cephalic corners of the head-capsule, and the ocelli when present are between the compound eyes on the dorsal aspect of the head. Heliothrips femoralis (fig. 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 13, and 19).—A line extending between the vertex and the mouth-cone on the head of a nymph of Heliothrips has a dorso-ventral position, while a similar line on the head of an adult has a cephalo-caudal direction. The position of this line or axis in the nymph suggests a similarity to the position of the head of an orthopteron (Acrididae), while the position of the head of the adult is similar to the position of the head of an homopteron (Cicada). _ The head-capsule of the nymph is non-reticulated and slightly chitinized, while that of the adult is highly reticulated and heavily chitinized. The mouth-cone of the nymph occupies more than one-half of the cephalic aspect of the head-capsule and extends ventro-cephalad, while in the adult it is com- paratively smaller and projects ventro-caudad. Two similar caudal projections (c. a.) arise from the ventro- caudal margin of the head-capsule of the nymph and extend for a short distance as narrow pieces between the maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) and the submentum (sm.). In the adult of Heliothrips the caudal projections (c. a.) differ from those of the nymph in that they are decidedly asymmetrical. The left projection is broadly joined to the head-capsule while the broad right projection has a narrow, neck-like attachment. This striking asymmetry is possibly due to the excessive lateral extension of the clypeus toward the right side. The asymmetry of the caudal projections of other adult Terebrantia such as Thrips physapus Linne (fig. 3 and 6) is not as prominent as that found in Heliothrips. The caudal projections articulate along their dorsal sides against certain sclerites of the prothorax. The asymmetry of the head-capsule of the nymph and adult is very evident in a frontal view (fig. 1 and 13). About half-way between the meson and the left side of the head-capsule on the ventral margin of the front there is a decided recurrent angle which is very distinct in the adult. The thickenings, depres- sions, and invaginations on the frontal area of the head will be discussed under the internal head-skeleton. rt en Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Cephalothrips yucce (fig. 8, 9, 11, 17, 18, and 20).—A line extending between the vertex and the mouth-cone on the head of a nymph or adult of Cephalothrips has a cephalo-caudal position and thus in all its stages the position of the head- capsule resembles the position of the head of an homopteron (Cicada.). The nymph of Cephalothrips is very different from the nymph of Heliothrips. The head-capsule of the nymph and adult is smooth and non-reticulated. The mouth-cone of the nymph occupies about one-half the ventral aspect of the head (fig. 17), while in the adult it is reduced to about one-third the ventral aspect of the head (fig. 8). This reduction is clearly shown in the semi-pupal stage (fig. 20). The dotted line across the head indicates approximately the point of attachment of the mouth- cone as it would be in an active nymph. This line is dis- tinguishable in the early stages of the semi-pupa by a difference in the staining quality of the two areas on the ventral aspect of the head. With the reduction of the mouth-cone of the Tubulifera, striking modifications have resulted in the form of the clypeus, the left maxillary sclerite, and the piercing organs. The modification and the reduction of these parts during metamorphosis are of great value in determining their homology. Symmetrical, caudal projections (c. a.) are present at the ventro-lateral margins of the head-capsule of the nymph and adult. The caudal projections of the adult are prominent and terminate in distinct acetabula which fit against certain sclerites of the prothorax (p.s.). This arrangement permits of a dorso- ventral movement of the head. The asymmetry of the caudal margin of the front of the adult is not prominent and in the nymph no asymmetry can be seen. The recurrent angle in the adult is located in a position similar to that in Heliothrips. An unidentified suture (s.) occurs on the lateral aspect of the head-capsule of the adult dorsad of the caudal projec- tions. There is also an indication of a suture along the dorso- caudal margin of the head. This suture along with the thickenings and invaginations on the frontal and genal areas of the head will be considered later with the discussion of the internal head-skeleton. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 27 CLYPEUS AND LABRUM.—The clypeus and labrum are the mesal pieces on the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone. Heliothrips femoralis (fig. 1 and 13).—The adult and nymph show no marked differences in the form of the clypeus and labrum. The clypeus (cl.) is the large asymmetrical piece, and the convex piece at its distal end is the labrum (Ir.). Garman and other workers have considered the area cephalad of the line f as the clypeus and the area ventrad of this line as the labrum. With this interpretation one meets with considerable difficulty 1n homologizing the parts in the two suborders. If the line f is a suture, it can not be the clypeo-labral suture, but must be the proximal margin of the clypeus. The area between this so-called suture and the front is a broad hyaline membrane (me.). In safranin-stained material, it is slightly colored while in sagittal sections stained in haematoxylin it shows a decided blue tinge. The above interpretation of the line f may be correct, but a better interpretation seems to be that it marks the point where the heavily chitinized, proximal end of the clypeus becomes more or less membranous, and thus permits the dorsal and lateral movements of the mouth-cone. The line f is located in a deep fold from which point the mouth- cone extends in a caudo-ventral direction in the adult and cephalo-ventrad in the nymph. A distinct line or suture (s.) can be seen extending from the recurrent angle on the front poOpeae lett alateral end: of the: dine if... Dhis/suture is’ the left lateral margin of the clypeus and shows distinctly in the nymph of Heliothrips (fig. 13) and in the adult of Thrips physapus (fig. 3). This evidence supports the interpretation that the entire area from the front to the small convex labrum is the clypeus. Garman’s drawing of Limothrips cerealium shows clearly the above clypeal and labral areas even tho he interprets the parts differently. The clypeus (cl.) is an asymmetrical triangle with its right latero-cephalic angle decidedly more cephalad than its left latero-cephalic angle. The left margin of the clypeus is a comparatively straight line from the front to the labrum and nearly parallel with the meson, while the right margin in the adult is a curved line and extends at a decided angle to the meson from the labrum to the point of attachment of the right caudal projection with the head-capsule. This unique asym- metry is characteristic of all the Terebrantia examined. 28 Annals Entomological Society of America (Vol. VIII, Cephalothrips yucce (fig. 8 and 17).—In the nymph of Cephalothrips the clypeus (cl.) is a long, V-shaped, nearly symmetrical piece attached to the caudal margin of the front (fr.). The fronto-clypeal suture between the clypeus and the head-capsule is wanting. The small, distinct, convex piece at the distal end of the clypeus is the labrum (Ir.). The clypeus of the semi-pupal stage is smaller than that of the nymph on account of the reduction of the mouth-cone. It is sym- metrical and shows a distinct fronto-clypeal suture, but the clypeo-labral suture is not present, however, it is indicated by indentations on the lateral margins of the clypeus near the distal end of the mouth-cone. The ventral margin of the labrum is bilobed indicating its future adult structure. Within the semi-pupal parts the developing adult structures can be seen. In the adult (fig. 8) the clypeus and labrum have been modified thru the reduction of the mouth-cone, but they are distinctly differentiated by sutures and color differences. The above interpretation of the clypeus and labrum, which is the one given by Muir and Kershaw, agrees with the nymph and adult condition found in all Tubulifera observed and it also explains the condition found in the Terebrantia. Garman’s interpretation of the clypeus and labrum in the Terebrantia presents difficulties when an attempt is made to apply it to the conditions found in the Tubulifera. _ CompouND EyvEs.—The compound eyes of Heliothrips (fig. 12, 13 and 19) are present in the nymph as small, oval areas on the lateral aspects of the head-capsule in the dorso-caudal region. There are five, round, indistinct bodies in each elevated area. In the nymph of Cephalothrips (fig. 17 and 18) two similar, elevated, small, oval areas are present on the cephalo- lateral aspects of the head, but these possess no facets or round bodies. In the adult stage of both species (fig. 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 11) there is a large, reniform area filled with facets, cover- ing the latero-cephalic areas of the head. In the adult of Heliothrips the eyes protrude beyond the general curvature of the head, the facets are scattered, few in number and variable in size. From a ventral view six large, opaque facets can be seen. These larger facets retain their muddy brown color, and do not become clear and transparent as do the remainder 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 29 of the facets when they have been treated with potassium hydroxide. In the adult of Cephalothrips the eyes do not protrude from the head-capsule, the facets are numerous, clear, and all approximately of the same size. OcELLI.—The ocelli as far as observed are three in number. They are situated on the dorsal aspect of the head between the compound eyes in the form of a triangle with the median ocellus on the cephalic side. In the two species figured the ocelli of Heliothrips (fig. 7) are clear oval bodies located on a small, elevated, triangular area, while the ocelli of Cephalothrips (fig. 9) are clear, circular bodies, larger than the facets of the compound eyes, more distant from each other than those of Heliothrips and not elevated above the general plane of the head-capsule. No traces of ocelli were found in the nymphs. TENTORIUM OR INTERNAL HEAD-SKELETON.—Under this heading only those internal structures found in the head that pertain to the tentorium will be considered. For other internal parts the discussions on the maxillae, pharynx and salivary glands should be consulted. One finds within the head of a generalized insect a definite arrangement of rod- and plate-like structures which go to ‘support the internal organs and furnish points of attachment for muscles. . These rods or plates extend from three pairs of openings on the head-capsule. These openings are known as the invaginations of the anterior arms, dorsal arms and posterior arms of the tentorium. The invaginations of the anterior arms are usually associated with the lateral margins of the clypeus and with one of the points of articulation of the mandibles. The invaginations of the dorsal arms are associated with the points of attachment of the antennae. The invagi- nations of the posterior arms are associated with the occipital foramen, and the point of attachment of the maxillae. These generalized relations become modified in the various orders and families of insects. The invaginations may disappear and the rods and plates undergo striking changes or become atrophied. The important point, however, is that in all orders of insects, so far as observed, the invaginations and the arms of the tent- orium are always associated with the appendages named. These associations exist in thrips and an attempt will be made to show that they have an important bearing on the homology of their mouth-parts. 30 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, On account of the close relation existing between the Homoptera and the Thysanoptera, a comparison will be made between the internal head-structures of Cicada and those of thrips. Figure 29 is a lateral view of the entire tentorium of Cicada showing the invaginations and the arms. The invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium (i. a.) occur at the ventro-lateral ends of the clypeus while the dorsal arms are invaginated (i. d.) just ventrad of the antennae. Between these two pairs of invaginations distinct, thin, broad, chitinized plates extend which are the anterior arms of the tentorium (a. a.). The invaginations of the posterior arms (i. p.) are found on the lateral margins of the occipital foramen adjacent to the maxillary plates described by Muir and Ker- shaw. These invaginations give rise to the broad, plate-like posterior arms (p. a.) which nearly surround the occipital foramen. A small chitinized rod extends across the occipital foramen between the dorsal ends of the posterior arms. This rod is the body of the tentorium (b. t.) and from its mesal portion two long, slender rods arise which extend cephalad (d. a.) and unite with the invaginations of the dorsal arms (i. d.). These two rods are the dorsal arms of the tentorium. In Cicada the ventral ends of the posterior and anterior arms unite on each side (xc.) and between these united arms there extends across the meson a distinct plate or bridge (zc.). The usual association between the appendages of the head and the tentorium among insects may be found in Cicada; that is, the invaginations of the posterior arms (i. p.) are near the point of attachment of the maxillary, piercing organs with the head- capsule; the mandibles are associated with the anterior arms but on account of their great length and the excessive develop- ment of the clypeus, they are not connected near the invagina- tions of the anterior arms (i. e.) but connect with the head- capsule slightly laterad of the anterior arms near the invagina- tions of the dorsal arms; and the invaginations of the dorsal ‘arms (i. d.) are adjacent to the antennae. As mentioned before, the internal head-skeleton of thrips undergoes considerable modification and this is well illustrated in the various heads figured. In the nymph of Heliothrips (fig 12, 18, 19 and 28) the tentorial structures are nearly all present, while in the adult of Cephalothrips (fig. 8 and 33) 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 31 extensive atrophy has taken place and those tentorial parts which still remain can only be interpreted by comparison with the more generalized conditions in the nymphs. On the cephalic aspect of the head of a nymph of Heliothrips (fig. 13) two sets of invaginations can be seen. One pair exists on the ventral margin of the front (i. a.) and the second pair (i. d.) a short-distance dorsad of these. Since the invagina- tions on the ventral margin of the front are close to the lateral edges of the wide clypeus, they actually occur on the lateral aspects of the head-capsule. This is especially true of the invaginations on the right side. Distinct chitinous arms extend between the invaginations on each side (a. a.). The invagi- nations, as described, are homologous with the two pairs of invaginations on the cephalic aspect of the head of Cicada. The two invaginations on the ventral margin of the front are believed to be the invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium (i. a.) while the invaginations dorsad of these are the invaginations of the dorsal arms of the tentorium (i. d.). The rods between the invaginations on each side are the anterior arms (a. a.). Chitinized thickenings (d. a.) extend dorso-caudad from each of the invaginations of the dorsal arms (i. d.) and these thickenings on reaching the caudal margin of the head-capsule turn caudad and run parallel with the caudal margin of the head (p. a.) to the distal ends of the caudal projections (c. a.). On comparison with Cicada the dorso-caudal extensions that project from the invaginations of the dorsal arms to the caudal margin of the head are homol- ogous with the dorsal arms of the tentorium (d. a.) while the chitinized thickenings along the lateral margins of the occipital forearm (p. a.) are considered as homologous with the posterior arms of the tentorium. In thrips the body of the tentorium is wanting, consequently the dorsal arms (d. a.) connect directly with the posterior arms (p. a.). The invaginations for the posterior arms (i. p.) were not identified in any of the thrips examined. Ina few cases it seemed as though the invaginations were present near the ventral end of the posterior arms (p. a.) where the thickenings (x.) on the ventral margin of the head- capsule came in contact with the posterior arms. Thus far the tentorium of a nymph of the Terebrantia can be homologized with the tentorium of Cicada. 32 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The differences which occur between the tentorium of a Cicada and a thrips can be largely accounted for in the dif- ferences between the head-structures. The head-capsule of a thrips is elongated cephalo-caudad while this extension of the head-capsule of a Cicada is short. Furthermore in a Cicada the clypeus is large and occupies the greater part of the cephalic aspect of the head but this is not so in thrips. The invaginations of the dorsal arms (i. d.) in thrips are apparently not associated with the antennae. This seemingly lost association is undoubt- edly due to the excessive cephalic or dorsal growth of the head- capsule. The location of the invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium (i. a.) in thrips resembles the location in a generalized insect since they are near the cephalo-lateral corners of the clypeus and not near the distal ends of the clypeus as in Cicada. The following tentorial structures are present in thrips which are difficult to account for on the basis of the homology with the structures in Cicada. A distinct thickening extends along the caudal or ventral margin of the head-capsule between the caudal projections (x. and z.). This thickening is present in all thrips. In the nymph of Heliothrips the portion of the thickening (x.) between the ventral end of the right anterior arm (a. a.) and the right posterior arm (p. a.) is wanting. The above thickening may be secondary or possibly may be homol- ogized with the union of the ventral ends of the anterior and posterior arms.of Cicada’ (xc, and’ ze))---In “all the “thrips examined, distinct, chitinous, ental projections arise from the invaginations of the dorsal arms. These projections are not present in Cicada. In considering the tentorium of thrips figured in this paper, a distinct atrophy of certain portions and parts can be seen. In the adult of Heliothrips (fig. 1 and 27) a thickening occurs (x. and z.) along the caudo-ventral margin of the head-capsule and from this thickening other thickenings (p. a.) arise which extend to the caudal projections (c. a.) of the head-capsule. Of the anterior arms (a. a.) only the left one is present. The left anterior arm is located in a depressed line extending between the invagination of the left dorsal arm and the recurrent angle on the caudal margin of the front. The dorsal arms (d. a.) are wanting and also the posterior arms (p. a.) except for a small portion on the caudal projections (c. a.) of the 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 30 head-capsule. The invaginations of the anterior arms are very indistinct in this species due to the thick, highly chitinized and reticulated nature of the head-capsule. This characteristic also makes it difficult to differentiate the tentorial thickenings. However in Thrips physapus (fig. 3 and 6) the invaginations of the anterior (i. a.) as well as the tentorial thickenings are readily made out in dissected heads that have been stained. The invaginations of the dorsal arms (i. d.) with their ental projections show very clearly in the adult of Heliothrips and likewise in all thrips. In the nymph of Cephalothrips (fig. 22) a still greater reduction of the tentorium apparently exists. This apparent loss, however, may be due to the fact that it is impossible to distinguish all the parts on account of the extremely thin and membranous nature of the head-capsule. Only the invagin- ations of the dorsal arms (i. d.) with their ental projections show very clearly. By careful staining one can distinguish a thickening (a. a.) occupying the position of the left anterior arm of the tentorium. This thickening extends from the invagination of the left dorsal arm (i. d.) to the point where the asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.) unites with the head- capsule. In this feature there is a remarkable similarity between the nymphal head of the Tubulifera and the adult head of the generalized Terebrantia. The tentorium of the adult of Cephalothrips resembles somewhat that of Heliothrips. In Cephalothrips the anterior arms of the tentorium are atrophied but the invaginations of the dorsal arms with their projections are very distinct and the invaginations of the anterior arms can be identified in dissected material that has been stained, if a careful examina- tion is made of the caudal boundary of the head-capsule (z.) at the point where the lateral margins of the clypeus are in contact with the front. Besides the thickenings that are similar to those of Heliothrips two thickenings extend cephalad (mx. p.) on the lateral areas of the head-capsule. These cephalic- extending thickenings clearly arise from the thickenings (z.) about the caudo-ventral margin of the head-capsule and terminate in enlarged, elevated ends which possess acetabula in which the proximal pieces of the paired, piercing organs (mx.) articulate. One can readily see that these mandibular pillars, as Muir and Kershaw call them, are of a tentorial origin. 34 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, A distinct strip (st.) is present on the caudal margin of the head-capsule of Cephalothrips and extends between the short sutures (s.) which arise from the latero-caudal margin. Stained material shows clearly that this area (st.) is structurally dif- ferent from the head-capsule cephalad of it. On the ends of this area (st.) two depressions are present which are similar in many respects to the invaginations of the tentorium. If these are invaginations of the posterior arms then this is a thickening composed of the union of the posterior arms about the dorsal margin of the occipital foramen. This interpretation — is rather questionable since no invaginations of the posterior arms have been seen in the more generalized thrips. As a conclusion to the above discussion on the internal head-skeleton, the following statements are of importance. The tentorium and the associated mouth-parts of an homopteron such as Cicada can be interpreted on comparison with the same parts in a generalized insect. The arms of the tentorium and their respective invaginations in the nymph of one of the Terebrantia can be homologized with the tentorial parts of a Cicada. On the basis of this homology the specialized and atrophied conditions existing in the adults of the Terebrantia and in the nymphs and adults of the Tubulifera can be inter- preted. Furthermore, on the basis of this homology between the tentorium of thrips and other insects an attempt will be made to demonstrate the association of the mandibles and the maxillae with their respective tentorial parts. This should give conclusive evidence as to the correct interpretation of the two sets of piercing organs. See discussion on mandibles and maxillae for this demonstration. MOVABLE PARTS OF THE HEAD. The movable parts of the head will be considered in the following order: antennae, labium, maxillae and mandibles. In the discussion of the movable appendages those of the generalized Terebrantia will be considered first and then the homologous structures of the Tubulifera will be compared with them. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 35 ANTENNAE (fig. 4).—The antennae of the adult of Helio- thrips are about twice the length of the head-capsule, eight- segmented and reticulated with chitinous elevations cor- responding to the reticulations (rt.) on the head-capsule. The shape, size, reticulated character and the setal arrangement are shown in the figure. Segments one, two, six, seven and eight are of a brownish color similar to the head-capsule while the remaining segments are but slightly pigmented. The distal end of segment four gives rise to a thin, hyaline, two- branched sense cone (s. c.). The sense cones are not present in the antennae of the nymph. Except for this the antennae of the nymph are structurally similar to those of the adult. The antennae of the nymph and adult of Cephalothrips resemble each other and are of the same number of segments, eight, providing the very small pieces at the distal ends of the nymphal antennae are considered as segments. In the first stages of the semi-pupa (fig. 20) the antennae appear as mere buds at the cephalic margin of the head-capsule. As the insect becomes older, the antennal cases increase in size and length until they extend around the lateral margins of the head- capsule. A late stage of. the semi-pupal instar shows seg- mentation on the distal portions of the antennal cases. The eight-segmented antennae of the adult are about one and one- third times longer than the dorsal aspect of the head-capsule and have a yellow color thruout, except the two basal segments, which are of a brown tinge. The general shape, size and setal arrangement of the segments is shown in figure 10. Segments three, four, five and six each possess at their distal end a pair of simple, hyaline, spine-like sense cones (s. c.). The sense cones are wanting in the nymph. LABIUM.—The mouth-parts of Hemiptera are fitted for sucking. In this adaptation the labium is modified into a long, trough-like beak, enclosing the bristle-like mandibles and maxillae. The mouth-parts of Thysanoptera are also fitted for sucking. The adaptation in thrips, however, is not confined to the specialization of one part of the mouth, but the clypeus, labrum, maxillary sclerites and labium together form a broad and blunt mouth-cone, enclosing the needle-like mandibles and maxillae. Of these two types of sucking mouth-parts, those of the Thysanoptera more closely resemble a generalized 36 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, biting type of mouth. The arrangement of the parts of the mouth-cone, the presence of maxillary and labial palpi and other characteristics in Thysanoptera show this close similarity. The labium of the nymph and adult of thrips is similar (fig. 60 and 61). The entire convex, caudal area of the mouth- cone is the labium. From a caudal view it is distinctly tri- angular in outline, with the apex at its distal end and from a ventral or lateral view it is convex. The labium is attached along its lateral margins to the triangular, palpus-bearing sclerites (mx. s.) while its dorsal margin is united with the ventral membranous portion of the prothorax. It is composed of two distinct sclerites separated by a transverse suture (s.). The proximal piece is the submentum (sm.) and the distal piece is the mentum (m.). The mentum has at its distal end a membranous area which gives rise to a pair of small, two-segmented palpi (lb. pl.). The distal margin of the mentum possesses two small, chitinous projections considered by Hinds as paraglossae (pr.). Heliothrips femoralis.—The labium of Heliothrips (fig. 60) corresponds to the general description. The dorso-ventral length of the labium is about the width of the submentum. The ectal surface of the labium is slightly reticulated. Cephalothrips yucce.—The labium of Cephalothrips (fig. 61) corresponds to the general description. The mouth-cone of Cephalothrips is short, consequently the dorso-ventral length of the labium is less than one-half the width of its submentum (s. m.). The submentum is heavily chitinized along its proxi- mal margin as indicated in the figure.. The mesal portion of the suture (s.) between the submentum and the mentum is obsolete, but its lateral ends show distinctly. The two pro- jections or paraglossae at the distal end of the labium are united and form a lip-like structure over which the movable, paired, piercing organs pass. This lip is indicated by shading in figure 8. MAXILLAE.—A pair of asymmetrical, triangular, palpus- bearing sclerites (mx. s.) are situated on the lateral sides of the clypeus and labrum in the mouth-cone of the Thysanoptera (fig. 1 and 8). The palpi (mx. pl.) of these pieces are usually two- or three-segmented. A comparison of these palpus- bearing sclerites with similar sclerites in Cicada shows that 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 37 they are homologous with the so-called maxillary plates described by Muir and Kershaw. The segmented palpi however are wanting on the maxillary plates of the Hemiptera. Their presence in Thysanoptera indicates a more primitive condition and also is conclusive evidence that these sclerites are maxillary in origin. The lateral margins of the maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) are turned into the mouth-cone, thus giving rise to ento-mesal extensions (et.) or plates. These extensions, toward the distal end of the mouth-cone, unite with the lateral edges of the pharynx and form sheaths or troughs over which the needle- like portions of the paired piercing organs (mx.) pass. This is clearly shown in cross-sections of the pharynx (fig. 38-44 and 51-57). Two sets of ps, eres are found in the mouth-cone of all Thysanoptera (fig. 22, 27, 28 and 33). The paired, sym- metrical set will be considered first because of their relation to the maxillary sclerites. Each one of the paired piercing organs is composed of three parts (mx.). Its distal portion is long, grooved, needle-like, and swollen at the proximal end. The middle portion is short and thick and separated from the distal portion by a distinct suture while its proximal end is connected to the proximal portion by a movable joint. The proximal portion is a heavy piece and in some cases three or four times as long as the middle portion. Also its proximal end articulates against. the cephalic edge of the maxillary sclerite (mx. s.) or in an acetabulum on an elevated pillar (mx. p.) arising from the head-capsule. This articulation in all cases is either directly or indirectly associated with the maxillary sclerite. The presence of two movable joints in this piercing organ makes its extension into a straight line pos- sible. This extension occurs when the organ functions. When the paired piercing organs are extended beyond the mouth-cone the grooved, needle-like piercing portions interlock and such a union naturally makes an effective tool. This interlocking is readily seen in sectioned material (fig. 25). The muscles which bring about the extension of the paired piercing organs (mx.) are attached to the proximal pieces. Each extensor muscle is connected with the ental surface of the maxillary sclerite and the mesal edge of the proximal piece when the piercing organs (mx.) are within the head-capsule. 38 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The above characteristics concerning the maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) and the paired piercing organs (mx.) may be found in all thrips as far as observed and one can safely infer that the similar parts in all thrips are homologous and should have the same interpretation thruout the order. In a lke manner it will be found that a similar homology exists between the asymmetrical piercing organs of all thrips. This homology eliminates the suggestion offered by Muir and Kershaw that in the two suborders of the Thysanoptera a distinct difference of interpretation of the piercing organs might be possible. Heliothrips femoralis (fig. 1, 2, 5, 12, 18, 19, 27, and 28).— The maxillae of Heliothrips are in general typical of the sub- order Terebrantia and accord with the general description of the maxillae just given. The maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) of the nymph and adult resemble each other except that the palpi of the nymph are four-segmented while those of the adult consist of only two long segments. The palpi of some of the more generalized adult Aeolothripidae are four-segmented and thus the four-segmented palpi of the nymph indicate a generalized condition. The maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) are decidedly asymmetrical. This asymmetry is more pronounced in the adult (fig. 1). The proximal ends of the maxillary sclerites of the adult are not in direct contact with the head-capsule. There are distinct membranous areas (me.) between them. In this particular species the membranous areas (me.) continue from .the cephalic margin of the maxillary sclerites to the bases of the palpi where the membranes broaden and surround the proximal segments. The membranous strip on the left maxil- lary sclerite is more extensive than the one on the right. The ento-mesal extensions (et.) arising from the lateral margins of the maxillary sclerites resemble closely the general descrip- tion of these parts and they can be readily made out in figures 28 and 39 to 44. The paired piercing organs of Heliothrips (fig. 27 and 28, mx.) are but slightly longer than the maxillary sclerites and this is true of the Terebrantia in general. The structure of their paired piercing organs resembles the general description of these parts. The proximal piece in the nymph is L-shaped and the base of the L articulates along the dorsal margin of the maxillary sclerite (mx. s.). The proximal piece in the adult, 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 39 likewise articulates against the cephalic margin of the maxillary sclerite and has an L-shape, but the base of the L is greatly reduced and the erect portion is longer, heavier and of the same thickness thruout. The above relation between the paired piercing organs and the maxillary sclerites is true of all Terebrantia as far as observed (fig. 14, 21 and 32). Since the paired piercing organs in the Terebrantia are directly connected with the cephalic margin or the latero-cephalic corners of the maxillary sclerite, one may conclude, as Garman has already done in his work on Limothrips cerealium, that these piercing organs are parts of the maxillae. If such is the case the paired piercing organs may be modified lacinia as Garman has suggested. According to Garman and other workers these organs consist of only two pieces, but in all species observed three distinct pieces can be found. The suture between the needle-like distal portion and the middle piece is wanting in the figures of other workers. Karl Jordan and other workers have interpreted the paired piercing organs (mx.) as mandibles. Jordan worked with Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, a form closely related to Helio- thrips femoralis. His proof is largely founded on the state- ment that the embryonic development shows that these pieces are mandibles. The evidence in support of this statement is wanting in both figures and discussion. He has but one figure of the embryonic condition and in this the relation of the so-called mandibles to the head-capsule and other parts is not clear. The real difficulty with Jordan’s interpretation rests in the fact that he has wrongly identified the asym- metrical piercing organ (l. md.) and consequently in his search for mandibles he has from necessity tried to show that the paired piercing organs are mandibles. The conclusion in regard to the paired piercing organs of the Terebrantia is that they are portions of the maxillae, and the following additional evidence will be presented to sub- stantiate the same. In the first place, if these paired piercing organs are mandi- bles, how can one explain their three piece structure? Mandibles usually have only one solid piece, but maxillae on the other hand are composed of several sclerites and upon modification they might assume the conditions found in thrips. As to the exact 40 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, homology of these pieces it is difficult to determine. However, on the basis of the maxillae of other insects, one finds that the galea is usually segmented while the lacinia is not. In most sucking insects the galea is present and the lacinia may be wanting. It would seem that the paired piercing organs were galea rather than lacinia as Garman has suggested. For convenience of description the paired piercing organs will be designated as the maxillary setz (mx.). Strong evidence is likewise found in the relation existing between the paired piercing organs and the tentorium of the head. The maxillae in generalized insects are associated with the invaginations of the posterior arms of the tentorium and this relation was shown to be true with Cicada. On the basis of the homology between the tentorium of Cicada and thrips it was shown that the thickening about the occipital foramen in the nymph of Heliothrips (p. a.) are homologous with~ the posterior arms of.Cicada. In the nymph and adult of Heliothrips the paired piercing organs are closely associ-° ated with the ventral or caudal ends of these thickenings or so-called posterior arms. As mentioned before, no invagina- tion of the posterior arms of the tentorium could be found in this genus of thrips; however, from the close association of the paired piercing organs with the posterior arms of the tentorium we may conclude that the generalized relation between the posterior arms of the tentorium and the maxillae holds for thrips as well as for more primitive insects. Further evidence is found in the fact that in generalized insects the maxillae are always attached to the head-capsule caudad of the mandibles. As was pointed out in the dis- cussion of the head-capsule of thrips, the mouth-cone has been carried around the head until it is now found at the caudo- ventral portion of the head. As a result the mouth-parts have a cephalo-caudal extension rather than the generalized dorso-ventral direction. This rotation of the mouth-parts means that the maxillae should connect with the head-capsule dorsad of the mandibles. The paired piercing organs of the Terebrantia (mx.) are decidedly dorsad to the asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.), and it will be shown later that the asymmetrical piercing organ is a mandible. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 41 _ Cephalothrips yucce.—The maxillae of Cephalothrips (fig. 8, 11, 17, 18, 20, 22, and 33) are typical of the suborder Tubu- lifera. The maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) of the nymph (fig. 17) and the adult (fig. 8) are dissimilar in comparative size and symmetry, but both possess a two-segmented palpus (mx. pl.). The long maxillary sclerites of the nymph are nearly symmetrical while those in the reduced mouth-cone of the adult are asym- metrical. This asymmetry in the adult is characterized by a distinct knob (n.) at the cephalic end of the mesal margin of the maxillary sclerite. This knob fits into a notch on the left margin of the clypeus and appears to be a portion of the maxillary sclerite, but a close examination shows that it is only connected with the maxillary sclerite by a narrow strip at its latero-cephalic corner; and a distinct fissure, which extends cephalad and laterad from the point where the clypeo-maxil- lary suture turns mesad, separates it from the maxillary sclerite. The asymmetrical piercing organ of the adult is associated with the above asymmetry. On comparison with the asymmetry found in the Terebrantia the asymmetry of the Tubulifera is of a decidedly different nature. The mesal extensions (et.) of the lateral edges of the maxil- lary sclerites resemble the general description of these parts (fig. 22, 33 and 35). However, a unique modification of these extensions is found in the development of two long, trough- like, cephalic extending arms (mx. g.). These parts serve to guide the long maxillary sete and have been designated as the maxillary guides. These guides are only present in the Tubulifera, and undoubtedly they have been developed in this suborder on account of the necessity of some kind of a guiding structure for the exceedingly long maxillary seta. The max- illary guides arise from the mesal part of the sheath (et.) that extends between the lateral edges of the maxillary sclerites at the distal end of the mouth-cone, and project forward into the dorsal portion of the head-cavity to the region of the compound eyes. Cross-sections of the pharynx (fig. 53 and 54) show that in this forward projection they unite with the pharynx. In the nymph they are narrow at their proximal ends but broadly rounded and separate at their distal ends, while in the adult they are trough-like and their distal ends are united in a transverse plate. The long maxillary sete pass around the 42 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, cephalic ends of the maxillary guides and at first are dorsad of the guides. In their caudo-ventral extension they pass along the lateral sides of the trough-like guides and laterad of the pharynx toward the tip of the mouth-cone beyond which the two distal, grooved, needle-like portions interlock and pro- ject as a single piercing organ (fig. 25). The maxillary guides show no relation to the tentorial structures of the head. The paired piercing organs (mx.) of Cephalothrips, except for size, and point of attachment in the adult, resemble the maxillary setze of Heliothrips. The linear extension of the maxillary sete in Cephalothrips is due largely to the increased length of the distal and proximal pieces. The large proximal piece in the adult possesses a distinct knob on its mesal margin which serves as a point of attachment for muscles. The resemblance between the maxillary sete in the nymph or adult of Heliothrips (fig. 27 or 28) and the paired piercing organs in the nymph of Cephalothrips is very striking and important. The feature of significance in the nymph of Cephalothrips is the point of attachment of the paired piercing organs with the cephalic margin of the maxillary sclerites. This shows clearly that the paired piercing organs of Cephalothrips are not only homologous in structure but in point of articulation with the maxillary sete of the Terebrantia. The paired piercing organs of the Tubulifera are therefore maxillary sete. -The evidence used to prove that the paired piercing organs of the Tere- brantia are maxillary in origin will likewise hold for the Tu- bulifera with the exception of the evidence based on the ten- torium, since some of the tentorial structures are wanting in the nymph of Cephalothrips. The relation of the maxillary sete to the mouth-parts in the adults of the Tubulifera (fig. 33) is apparently very different from the conditions found in the Terebrantia. The reduction of the mouth-cone explains to a large extent the characteristic modifications of this suborder. In the reduction of the mouth- cone the proximal pieces of the long maxillary sete (mx.) do not retain their point of articulation with the maxillary scler- ites but articulate in acetabula located in special elevated maxillary pillars (mx. p.) on the ental surface of the head- capsule cephalad of the maxillary sclerites. This modification is a result of a mechanical necessity. It would be impossible 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 43 for the long maxillary sete to function if they retained their connection with the reduced maxillary sclerites. However, their connection with the maxillary sclerites is not entirely lost since the thickenings from which the maxillary pillars (mx. p.) arise, extend to the tentorium (x. and z.), which is adjacent to the maxillary sclerites. These thickenings are undoubtedly derived from the tentorium, and since the maxille are associated with them they are possibly modifications of the posterior arms (p. a.). Muir and Kershaw in their work on a species of Tubulifera interpret the paired, piercing organs as mandibles. They give two lines of evidence. In the first place, they show that the asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.) is a part of the maxilla, consequently the paired piercing organs must be man- dibles. Also they have proved to their own satisfaction by comparison with Rhynchota that the paired piercing organs are mandibles. ‘‘The paired sete we consider as mandibles, homologous to those of Rhynchota.” The first part of their evidence will be considered later. In regard to their own statement here quoted there is considerable doubt. They present no satisfactory evidence on this point, and as far as observed, the relations existing in Cicada permit of no such interpretation, as has already been shown. Jordan also studied individuals of the Tubulifera and came to the same conclusions as in his studies on the Terebrantia. The different inter- pretations of the paired piercing organs in the Thysanoptera of the authors mentioned above has been largely due to an incomplete comparative study of the nymphal and adult stages of both the suborders. MANDIBLES.—A large, heavy, unpaired piercing organ (1. md.) is present on the left side of the mouth-cone of all thrips (fig. 2, 3, 11, 12, 18, 22, 27, 28, and 33) while on the right side no such organ isfound. Berlese figures the asymmetrical piercing organ as occurring on the right side. Undoubtedly this is a mistake for in no case has such an occurrence been recorded by other workers. This asymmetry of mouth-parts is unique among insects. The asymmetrical, piercing organ connects with the head-capsule at the point where the left margin of the clypeus or the right margin of the maxillary sclerite comes in contact with the front. It is composed of 44 Annals Entomological Society of America (Vol. VIII, two parts, which are of about the same length. The distal half is a long, heavily chitinized, hollow spine, while the proximal half is broader, hollow and not as heavily chitinized. Cross and longitudinal sections show a distinct lumen extending thruout its length (fig. 26). At the very tip of the spine it is impossible however to be sure that an opening is present. If such an opening is present then it may serve as an exit for the secretions from the glandular tissue within the basal half of the piercing organ. If the lumen is not a duct for the secretions but a blind tube, then one can explain its presence on the basis that it is the place formerly occupied by the hypodermal cells. which formed the cuticle of the spine. Cross-sections of the pharynx show how the asymetrical piercing organ passes along the cephalic side of a left lateral extension of the pharynx (fig. 40 and 41). This left lateral extension is cephalad of the paired extensions over which the maxillary sete pass, and only occurs on the left side. In the Tubulifera the left maxillary guide helps to form this extension (fig. 53). There are large muscles attached to the proximal end of the asymmetrical piercing organ. These muscles connect with the dorsal aspect of the head-capsule and on contraction pull the asymmetrical piercing organ (J. md.) into the mouth-cone. The majority of the specimens examined showed the piercing organ protruding from the concave side of the labrum (lr.). Apparently this is its normal position and it is evidently used in making the first puncture thru the outer cells of the plant tissue. After this puncture is made it is probably withdrawn into the mouth-cone, and the long maxillary sete are then used to puncture the inner and deeper cell-layers. The withdrawal of the asymmetrical piercing organ from the tip of the mouth-cone also permits the plant juices to pass into the pharynx. On the right side of the mouth-cone a piece (r. md.) is found which is homologous in position to that of the left, asymmetrical piercing organ (fig. 27). In all cases this piece arises adjacent to the front, between the clypeus and the right maxillary sclerite, and extends to the right cephalo-lateral margin of the pharynx and unites with the same (fig. 40). This union is. indicated by a distinct suture in cross-sections of the pharynx. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 45 The invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium (i. a.) in thrips are always located on the caudal margin of the front and adjacent to the asymmetrical piercing organ and the above- described piece. This evidence undoubtedly shows that this rudimentary piece on the right side is homologous with the asymmetrical piercing organ on the left. Helhiothrips femoralis (fig. 2, 5, 12, 19, 27 and 28.).—The left asymmetrical piercing organ and its right homologous rudiment are typical of the suborder Terebrantia and correspond to the general description given above. These parts in the nymph and adult closely resemble each other. In the nymph (fig. 28) the left, piercing organ is smaller, straighter, and its two halves less differentiated than in the adult (fig. 27). The basal half of the left, piercing organ is connected with the front by a narrow, chitinized neck. This connection is readily seen in frontal sections of the adult and nymph. The right, rudimentary piece in the nymph and adult extends as a distinct piece between the right cephalo-lateral margin of the pharynx and the front. This piece is homologous with the asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.) and resembles somewhat its basal half. The distinguishing differences in these two are their size and the union of the right piece with the pharynx. Jordan represents a prominent projection on the right margin of the pharynx of Heliothrips hamorrhoidalis. This probably represents the asymmetrical piece above de- scribed. Garman found in his work on Limothrips a small, right, asymmetrical structure which he considered to be a rudimentary piece homologous with the left, piercing organ. These two pieces Garman designated as mandibles. This interpretation agrees with my own observations. Garman’s own words are, “The organ has every appearance of being a mandible. Its form and its relation to the other mouth- parts and to the epicranium all indicate this. Nothing cor- responding to this conspicuous organ is apparent on the right side of the head unless a very small, chitinous structure under the edge of the clypeus is a rudiment of the organ for this side.”’ Garman records the structure of the left mandible as con- sisting of one solid piece. The writer however, considers the left mandible as composed of two parts. At least in all thrips examined a distinct constriction occurs between the distal spine and the large proximal portion, and to all appearances a 46 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, suture is located here. Without any question the mandible is hollow, as heretofore explained. The following evidence goes to show that the asymmetrical piercing organs of the Tere- brantia are mandibular in origin. In the first place, as Garman has already mentioned, the structure, position, and point of connection of the asym- metrical piercing organ with the head-capsule are strong mandibular characteristics. It has already been pointed out that the invaginations for the tentorial arms on the front of thrips are homologous with the invaginations of the tentorial arms on the cephalic aspect of the head of Cicada. The in- vaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium on the caudal margin of the front (i. a.) are adjacent to the point of connection of the left and right asymmetrical organs (1. md. and r. md.). This relation shows that the asymmetrical piercing organs of the Terebrantia are undoubtedly mandibles since in generalized insects mandibles are usually associated with the invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium. ; Furthermore, mandibles in generalized insects are always connected with the head-capsule cephalad of the maxilla. In the nymph of Helothrips the asymmetrical piercing organs are connected cephalad of the maxillary sete but in the adult on account of the change of position of the mouth-cone these connections are ventrad of the maxillary sete. This relation in the Terebrantia shows clearly that the asymmetrical pierc- ing organs are mandibular in origin. Karl Jordan interprets the left, asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.) as a modified epipharynx. He bases his conclusion upon embryological studies. The one embryo figured shows the asymmetrical organ as the upper portion of the anterior end of the alimentary canal. The base of the so-called epi- pharynx is also connected with the head-capsule. He con- cludes from this figure that when the adult stage is reached the epipharynx loses all connection with the alimentary canal and becomes more firmly attached to the head-capsule. The above hypothesis in regard to the behavior of the epipharynx is contrary to the relations of these parts in other insects. Jordan likewise failed to account for the right, rudimentary piece (r. md.). On the whole Jordan’s interpretation is very unsatisfactory, for it does not explain numerous relations here pointed out. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 47 Cephalothrips yucce (fig. 11, 18, 22, 26, 33, 34, 35 and 36).—A striking similarity exists between the ental view of the mouth- parts of anymph of Cephalothrips (fig. 22) and the adult stage of Heliothrips (fig. 27). This similarity is particularly notice- able in respect to the structure and position of the asymmetrical piercing parts. On the basis of this similarity it is possible to derive the correct interpretation of the asymmetrical, piercing organs. The left mandible (1. md.) in the nymph is a long, nearly straight, stout, two-segmented structure and con- nects with the caudal margin of the front (f.) at the point where the maxillary sclerite and clypeus unite with the head-capsule. Between this point of connection and the invagination of the left dorsal arm of the tentorium a thickening occurs (a. a.). This thickening is the anterior arm of the tentorium and can be seen in carefully stained and dissected material. The right, rudimentary mandible in the nymph of Cephal- othrips is represented by a distinct chitinized thickening be- tween the clypeus and the right maxillary sclerite. The distal end of this thickening (r. md.) unites with the right lateral margin of the pharynx as seen in cross-sections of the adult pharynx (fig. 55 and 56). Figures 33 and 35 do not show this connection because of the spreading of the heads. The above nymphal evidence clearly demonstrates the homology between the asymmetrical mandibular parts of a species of Tubulifera and those of a species of Terebrantia. The evidence used in proving that the asymmetrical piercing organs of the Terebrantia are mandibles is equally applicable in demonstrating that the asymmetrical parts in the Tubulifera are also mandibles. One exception however occurs in the fact that in the nymph of Cephalothrips the invaginations for the anterior arms have not been identified along with other ten- torial structures. The mandibular parts of the adult (fig. 33) undergo a distinct modification due to the reduction in the size of the mouth-cone. In this change the left mandible (1. md.) retains its position between the clypeus and the left maxillary sclerite, but in so doing the heavy, proximal portion turns and forms a half circle. This modification has resulted in the forniation of a distinct notch (n.) in the clypeus and the left maxillary sclerite. It has also resulted in the uniting of the meso-cephalic 48 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, corner of the maxillary sclerite and the base of the left man- dible. The right mandible in the reduction of the mouth-cone has given rise to a distinct, crook-like, ental projection. The above modifications are typical for the suborder Tubulifera as far as observed. Muir and Kershaw interpreted the left, asymmetrical piercing organ as a part of the maxille in their work on one species of Tubulifera. ‘‘The unpaired setz arises from the left maxille and is a part thereof.’ It is readily understood how such an error came about, since only the adult stage of a single species of Tubulifera was studied. The connection of the left asymmetrical piercing organ in the adult with the left maxil- lary sclerite is secondary. This connection does not show in the nymph. PHARYNX. If one examines the mouth-cone of various species of thrips, a short, heavily chitinized, ham-shaped piece is always found just beneath the clypeus. Stained and sectioned material shows clearly that this piece is a structural modification of the ali- mentary canal, fitted for sucking and homologous with the pharynx of sucking insects (fig. 5, 6, 19, 27, 35, 38-46, 48, 49 and 52-59). Jordan figures this particular piece and calls it the hypopharynx of the pharynx, while his epipharynx is what we have interpreted to be the left mandible. Structurally the pharynx consists of one piece except for a small, chitinized, transverse area (t. a.) at the caudo-dorsal end (fig. 46 and 48). However, in respect to size and shape the pharynx is divided into two regions. The ventral half is a small, chitinized tube which opens within the ental groove of the labrum, while the dorsal half widens out into a broad, thick region. The entire pharynx resembles a gourd dipper which has had removed from one side almost one-half of its enlarged portion, and across this cavity there has been placed a concave, elastic membrane (e.) to which muscles (d. m.) are attached. On the caudal side of the enlarged portion there are two small openings. Glandular ducts (d.) pass thru these openings and pour their secretions into the sucking chamber. When the pharynx is sectioned in one of three planes, frontal, sagittal and transverse, it shows a centrally located canal extending thru its entire length. This lumen starts with 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 49 the mouth and continues dorsad of the pharynx as the oesopha- gus (oe.). Transverse sections of the pharynx show that it is firmly connected on its caudo-lateral aspects with the maxillary guides (mx. g.) and the mesal extensions (et. and 1. et.) from the lateral margins of the maxillary sclerites and the labium. Over the lateral extensions (et.) the maxillary sete (mx.) pass. The left mandible (1. md.) passes over an extension on the left lateral margin of the pharynx cephalad of the above extensions and the right, rudimentary mandible (r. md.) unites with the right margin of the pharynx. The above extensions and supports that connect with the pharynx serve to hold it in position while the large muscles are dilating its elastic membrane (e.). The above facts in regard to the pharynx hold for all thrips as far as observed. Heliothrips femoralis——Figures 38-46 and 58 give a much better idea of the general structure of the pharynx of Helio- thrips than a lengthy discussion, consequently only the im- portant and exceptional facts will be pointed out. The trans- verse sections (fig. 37-44) begin with a section thru the com- missures between the supraoesophageal and suboesophageal ganglia and end at the tip of the mouth-cone. Every second or third section, ten microns in thickness, has been figured. In this series the lumen (1.), lateral extensions (et. and 1. et.), piercing organs (mx., 1. md. and r. md.), elastic membrane (e.), and muscles (d. m.) are shown. The connection of the muscles along the meson of the elastic membrane is character- istic of the Terebrantia. The large nucleated and cross- striated muscles, the dilators of the pharynx (fig. 58, d. m.), extend cephalad into the cavity of the head-capsule and unite with the ventral and cephalic areas. Two or more of these large muscle bands unite with a more or less chitinous tendon (c. t.) which arises from the elastic membrane. Besides these long muscles a number of short muscles extend between the small ventral portion of the pharynx and the clypeus. The food of thrips is of a liquid nature and is sucked into the oesophagus in the following manner, judging from the structure of the parts. The muscles along the meson of the elastic membrane contract and dilate the lumen of the pharynx so that a partial vacuum is formed, and into this cavity is sucked the juice in which the tip of the mouth-cone is tmmersed. On 50 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, the relaxation of the dilating muscles the elastic membrane forces the food dorsad thru the open valve (v.) into the oesophagus. A more detailed account will be given of this process in the discussion of the pharynx of Cephalothrips. Cephalothrips yucce.—In a similar manner, as with Helio- thrips, figures 48-57 and 59 show the chief characteristics of the pharynx of the Tubulifera. In its main features it cor- responds with the general description of the pharynx but in a few details it shows a greater degree of specialization than the pharynx of Heliothrips. In the first place it is strikingly ham- shaped and comparatively smaller. This difference in size is probably due to the reduction of the mouth-cone. Trans- verse sections show that the maxillary guides (mx. g.) unite with the pharynx for a short distance, and the extension over which the left mandible passes is the cephalic margin of the left, maxillary guide. The right, rudimentary mandible (r. md.) is not as large asin Heliothrips, however, it still retains its con- nection with the right side of the pharynx. The lumen (1.) of the pharynx is straight. The most striking difference between the pharynx of Heliothrips and Cephalothrips is in the arrange- ment of the dilating muscles. A lateral view and transverse sections of the pharynx show a distinct chitinized plate (pt.) standing on edge along the meson of the elastic membrane (e.).. The muscles are confined to the ventral and dorsal ends of this plate and the majority of them are connected to the chitinous tendon (c. t.) at the ventralend. These muscles, so-called ventral dilators (v. d. m.), extend into the head and unite with the vertex. There is a small band of muscles, the so-called dorsal dilators (d. d. m.), which extend between the dorsal end of the plate and the caudo- ventral area of the front. This arrangement of muscles is easily derived from the more generalized type found in Helio- thrips. On the whole the form and arrangement of the parts in the pharynx of Cephalothrips would suggest that it is a more efficient organ than that of Heliothrips. The lumen (1.) of the alimentary canal is cut off by a valve- hike structure at the dorsal end of the pharynx (fig. 58a.). A prominent projection (p.) extends from the caudo-dorsal end of the pharynx into the lumen. This projection fits into a pocket (po.) on the opposite side. Under normal conditions 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 51 this valve is closed, consequently the lumen of the oesophagus is cut off from the pharynx while the elastic membrane is dilated. In suction the ventral dilating muscles (v. d. m.) contract and pull out the ventral portion of the elastic membrane. This results in the formation of a partial vacuum, and into this space the liquid food is drawn. The dorsal dilators (d. d. m.) now contract and dilate the dorsal end of the elastic membrane (e.). This dilation opens the valve separating the lumen of the pharynx and the oesophagus. While the dorsal dilators are contracting the ventral dilators relax and the ventral portion of the elastic membrane presses upon the enclosed food. This pressure forces the food dorsad in the lumen and then on the relaxation of the dorsal dilators the elastic membrane falls back into its normal position and the food is.forced on and into the oesophagus. This completes one stroke or dilation of the pharynx of Cephalothrips. The dilating muscles of the pharynx (d. m.) of Heliothrips, as before noted, are arranged along the meson of the elastic mem- brane (e.). This fact, along with the large size of the pharynx and its peculiar bent condition, would indicate that the elastic membrane does not have as distinct a ventro-dorsal dilation as that of Cephalothrips. Possibly the entire central portion of the membrane is dilated at one time and then as the large muscles relax the few strands of muscles uniting with the pharynx in the region of the valve contract and open the lumen. With the valve open and the elastic membrane pressing upon the enclosed food, the plant juice is forced into the oesophagus. SALIVARY GLANDS. Two or three kinds of salivary glands (fig. 15, 16, 23, 24, 30, 31, 38-44, 45, 49 and 51-55) are present in thrips and these are all located in the thorax and abdomen. Uczel has figured the glandular portion of the salivary glands located in the thorax and abdomen but does not figure the course of the ducts. In Uzel’s figures two kinds of salivary glands are present in the thorax of Aeolothrips fasciatus, a form belonging to the suborder Terebrantia, and three kinds of salivary glands are found in the thorax of Trichothrips copiosa, a form belonging to the suborder Tubulifera. The species figured in this paper have only two kinds of salivary glands, which extend into the thorax and abdomen. These two kinds are paired and distinct. 52 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Considerable variation occurs in regard to the exact location of these glands and the position and points of union of their ducts. One of the two pairs of salivary glands (fig. 15 and 24, 31) in the thorax and abdomen of the two species here considered is long, tubular and more or less homogenous thruout its length 1. s.g.). This pair is located laterad or dorsad of the alimentary canal and continues caudad into the abdomen. Longitudinal sections thru these glands show that they are homogenous, nucleated and apparently syncitial. The second pair of salivary glands (fig. 16 and 30) are short, thick and more or less irregular in outline and usually confined to the thorax (s. s. g.). The cells of these glands are large and the cell walls are distinct. The nuclei are prominent and stain deeply. The protoplasm of the tissue stains un- evenly and is more or less filled with vacuoles. A distinct centrally located lumen extends thruout the entire length of the gland. The above two pairs of salivary glands give rise to ducts (1. d..and s. d.) at their cephalic ends. The four ducts extend into the head laterad and dorsad of the oesophagus. In the region between the supraoesophageal and suboesophageal ganglia the ducts turn ventrad and continue to the y-shaped chitinous structure (y.) caudad of the pharynx (fig. 28, 45, 49, 58 and 59.). Within this structure or before entering it the four ducts unite into a common duct and this common duct (c. d.) continues ventrad to the apex of the mouth-cone. The secretions from the salivary glands are thus poured into the punctures in the host plant which are made by the mouth-parts. When thrips puncture green leaves or colored flowers the area about the puncture becomes light in color. This discoloration is undoubtedly due to the action of the salivary secretion on the plant tissue. The y-shaped piece (y.) caudad of the pharynx in all thrips is a characteristic structure. In both suborders this piece is somewhat different in shape (fig. 35 and 47) but it has the same relation to the mouth-parts. There is a distinct muscle band or there may be several bands (mu.) extending between the base of the arms of the y and the dorsal part of the caudal aspect of the pharynx (ph.). Possibly, on contraction, these muscles move the y-shaped piece in such a manner as to control the flow from the salivary glands. The exact homology of the y-shaped 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 53 structure is not clear but its general position and structure, its opening into the mouth-cavity and its relation to the sali- vary ducts would indicate that it is homologous with the salivary syringe of the Hemiptera. Heliothrips femoralis—The long, narrow, tube-like glands (fig. 31 and 24) are located laterad of the alimentary canal (1. s. g.) and extend from the metathorax caudad to about the fourth abdominal segment. Figure 24 shows that the gland is narrow and has a straight lumen extending thruout its length. The ducts from these glands (fig. 31, 1. d.) are enlarged and located dorsad of the oesophagus in the region of the pro- thorax and mesothorax. The enlarged portions of the ducts serve as reservoirs for the secretion. The ducts from these similar right and left glands unite with each other before entering the y-shaped structure caudad of the pharynx. The short, thick, oval glands (fig. 30, s. s. g.) in the thorax are about the length of two segments and located laterad of the oesophagus. The right gland is usually confined to the meta- thorax and the first abdominal segment. The cells of these glands are exceedingly large and distinctly differentiated. One or two deeply staining, irregular nuclei can be seen in each cell, and the protoplasm of the cells stains more or less unevenly. The ducts from these glands (s. d.) have about the same thick- ness thruout. In the region of the head they are somewhat larger than the ducts from the above glands in the same region. The duct from the left gland unites with the duct from the right similar gland before entering the y-shaped piece (fig. 40, 45 and 58). Within the y-shaped piece the united ducts from the two kinds of glands join and form a common duct which continues to nearly the apex of the mouth-cone. Cephalothrips yucce.—The long, tube-like glands of Cephalo- thrips (fig. 15, 1. s. g.) are located laterad of the alimentary canal and extend from the prothorax into the first or second abdominal segment. These glands are homologous with the long, tube-like glands in Heliothrips, but they are thicker and have a sinuous lumen thruout their length. The cell consistency is about the same as in Heliothrips. The ducts extending from these glands into the head are very small and not dilated in the thorax. 54 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The short, thick glands (fig. 16, s. s. g.) in the thorax of Cephalothrips are usually confined to the mesothorax and metathorax and located laterad of the alimentary canal. These glands are homologous with the short, thick glands of Helio- thrips. In Cephalothrips these glands are longer and made up of smaller cells filled with vacuoles and granulated areas. The ducts from these glands (fig. 23) are of the same consistency thruout and only slightly larger than the ducts from the long tubular glands. The union of the salivary ducts in the head is somewhat different from that of Heliothrips. The ducts (fig. 23, 49, 52-55 and 59) of one side (1. d. and s. d.) unite and these united ducts meet in the center of the mouth-cone and form a common duct (c. d.) before entering the y-shaped piece. HEAD-GLANDS. A distinct, multinucleated and deeply staining tissue (h. g.) is present in definite parts of the head and mouth-cone of thrips and so far as known is described here for the first time (fig. 26, 38-48, 45, 49, 51-55, 58 and 59). This tissue, as far as can be determined, is of a glandular nature and it will be here designated as the head-gland. Its histological struc- ture is different from that of the thoracic glands. Num- erous and coarsely granulated nuclei are present; the cell walls cannot be differentiated; the protoplasm stains unevenly and no lumen could be identified. This tissue is most abundant in the members of the suborder Terebrantia. In Heliothrips (fig. 26, 38-48, 45 and 58) it occurs in three distinct regions. The most prominent massing occurs cephalad of the pharynx (h. g.) on the two sides of the dilating muscles. The extent and shape of these two masses varies considerably but the figures of the transverse sections and the lateral views of the pharynx show the usual distribution in this area. Distinct ducts (d.) arise from the dorsal ends of these masses and ex- tend around the lateral sides of the oesophagus and turn ven- trad and enter the two small openings on the caudal aspect of the pharynx (fig. 27, 45,46 and 58). If the above masses are glandular then one can readily see how their secretions may be poured into the pharynx and aid in digestion. Besides the above glandular masses cephalad of the pharynx, similar tissue is present at the proximal end of the left and right mandibles. 1915} The Head and Mouth-Parts of T. hysanoptera 55 The small mass on the left side (fig. 26) projects for a short distance into the hollow cavity of the left mandible. This is not the case with the mass adjacent to the right, rudimentary mandible. These two small masses are connected with the masses above described by means of fine ducts (dus). The exact extent of these ducts has not been definitely determined. It is possible that they unite with the ducts entering the pharynx. It is also possible that the secretions from the small mass within the left mandible passes out thru the minute lumen of the mandible. In the concave portion of the labrum small masses of tissue are present which resemble the above so-called gland- ular tissue. The extent of these masses varies and as yet no ducts have been observed in connection with them. In Cephalothrips (fig. 48, 49-51, 55 and 59) the above sup- posed glandular tissue of the head is present but it is not so exten- sive. Two distinct masses can be identified cephalad of the pharynx and these give rise to ducts (d.) that empty into the pharynx as in Heliothrips. Also a small mass of similar tissue is located at the base of the left mandible but no such mass is found on the right side near the right mandible. No glandu- lar tissue was found in the concave portion of the labium as in Heliothrips. SUMMARY. 1. The general arrangement of the head and mouth-parts of the Thysanoptera and the Hemiptera is similar. 2. The resemblance between the mouth-parts of Thysan- optera and Orthoptera is apparently closer than the resemblance between the mouth-parts of Hemiptera and Orthoptera. 3. A comparison of the different structures of the two suborders shows clearly that the suborder Terebrantia is more generalized than the suborder Tubulifera. 4. The mouth-parts of thrips are fitted for sucking. 0. The parts of the mouth are in the form of a cone which encloses the piercing organs. The cone is composed of the clypeus (cl.) labrum (Ir.), maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) and labium (is.). 6. The mouth-parts of thrips are asymmetrical. 7. The asymmetry of the clypeus (cl.) and the maxillary sclerites (mx. s.) in the two suborders is of an entirely different nature. Or (en) Annals Entomological Society of America (Vol. VIII, 8. The left asymmetrical piercing organ (1. md.) is the left mandible and the right, rudimentary piece (r. md.) extending between the pharynx (ph.) and the front (fr.) is the right, rudimentary mandible. These mandibular parts are present in all thrips as far as observed. 9. A pair of maxillae are present in all. thrips. Each maxilla is divided into two parts; the asymmetrical or sym- metrical, palpus-bearing, maxillary sclerite (mx. s.) and the symmetrical maxillary seta (mx.). 10. The tentorial structures in the nymph of Heliothrips can be homologized with the tentorium of Cicada. On the basis of this homology the greatly reduced tentorium of adult thrips can be interpreted. 11. The usual association between the tentorium and the mouth-parts in generalized insects is present in thrips and aids in interpreting the piercing organs. The maxillary sete are closely associated with the posterior arms, while the left and right mandibles are associated with the invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium. 12. A comparison of the head of the nymph of Cephalo- thrips and the head of the adult of Heliothrips shows clearly the homology existing between the two suborders in respect to the piercing organs. 13. The semi-pupal stage of Cephalothrips shows a distinct reduction in the mouth-cone. The peculiar shape of the left mandible and the point of attachment of the maxillary sete in the adult is in part due to this reduction. 14. The pharynx at the anterior end of the alimentary canal is modified into a distinct and characteristic sucking apparatus. 15. Two kinds of paired salivary glands are found in the thorax and abdomen of the two species here figured. The ducts from these glands unite and pass into a y-shaped structure caudad of the pharynx. 16. The tissue in the head, here called head-glands, has a similar structure and a definite arrangement. Ducts can be traced from the majority of these glands to the two small open- ings on the caudal aspect of the pharynx. 1915] The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Berlese, Antonio.—Gli Insetti, loro organizzazione, sviluppo, abitudini e rapporti coll’uomo. Vol. I., Milan, 1909, 153. Bugnion, E.—L’Appareil Salivaire des Hemipteres. Arch. D’Anat. Mic. Vol. 10, 1908, 227-268; Vol. 11, 1910, 435-456. Faure-Fremiet, E.—Contribution a L’Etude des Glandes Labiales des Hydrocor- ises. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Zool., N. S. 9, Vol. 12, 1910, 217-239. Garman, H.—The Mouth-parts of the Thysanoptera. Bul. of the Essex Inst. Vol. 22, 1890, 24-27. Hinds, W. E.—Contribution to a Monograph of the Insects of the Order Thy- sanoptera Inhabiting North America. Proc. of the U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. 26, 1903, 79-242. Jordan, Karl.—Anatomie und Biologie der Physapoda. Zeit. fur Wiss. Zool. Vol. 47, 1888, 541-620. Muir, F. and Kershaw, J. C.—On the Homologies and Mechanism of the Mouth- parts of Hemiptera. Psyche. Vol. 18, 1911, 9-10. Uzel, Heinrich.—Monographie der Ordnung Thysanoptera. 1895. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PrATE. i: Fig. 1. Ventral aspect of the head of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 2. Left later:l aspect of the head of Leliothrips femoralis. Fir. 3. Left lateral aspect of the mouth-cone of Thrips physapus. Fig. 4. Antenna of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 5. Right lateral aspect of the head of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 6. Right lateral aspect of the mouth-cone of Thrips physapus. Fig. 7. Dorsal aspect of the head-capsule of Heliothrips femoralis. PLATE II. Fig. 8. Ventral aspect of the head of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 9. Dorsal aspect of the head-capsule of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 10. Antenna of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 11. Left lateral aspect of the head of Cephalothrips yucce. PEAnEe Une Fig. 12. Left lateral aspect of the head of the nymph of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 13. Ventral aspect of the head of the nymph of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 14. Ental view of a maxillary sclerite of Thrips physapus. Fig. 15. Longitudinal section, of the proximal and distal portions of a long, salivary gland of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 16. Longitudinal section of a short, salivary gland of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 17. . Ventral aspect of the head of the nymph of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 18. Left lateral aspect of the head of the nymph of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 19. Right lateral aspect of the head of the nymph of Heliothrips femoralis. Fig. 20. Ventral aspect of the head of the semi-pupa of Cephalothrips yucce. Fig. 21. Ectal aspect of a maxillary sclerite of Frankliniella tritici. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig Fig. Fig. 37. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, PLATE IV. Ental view of the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone and a portion of the head-capsule of the nymph of Cephalothrips yucce. The parts have been spread and the pharynx omitted. The union of the salivary ducts in Cephalothrips yucce. The solid lines indicate the structures in a sagittal section, ten microns thick. Distal portion of a longitudinal section of the long salivary glands of Heliothrips femoralis. Manner of interlocking of the grooved maxillary setae of Cephalothrips yucce when projectéd from the mouth-cone. Sagittal section of the left, asymmetrical mandible of Heliothrips femoralis. Ental view of the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone and a portion of the head-capsule of Heliothrips femoralis. The parts have been spread and the maxillary extensions (et.) omitted. Ental view of the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone and a portion of the head-capsule of the nymph of Heliothrips femoralis. The parts have been spread and the pharynx omitted. The tentorium of Cicada septendecim. Longitudinal section of the short salivary gland of Heliothrips femoralis. Longitudinal section thru a dilated duct of a long salivary gland of Heliothrips femoralis. The distal portion of the gland shown in figure 24. Ental view of the right maxillary sclerite of Heliothrips femoralis. PLATE V. Ental view of the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone and a portion of the head-capsule of Cephalothrips yucca. The parts have been spread and the pharynx omitted. Ental aspect of the left maxillary sclerite of Cephalothrips yucce. Ental view of the ventral aspect of the mouth-cone of Cephalothrips yuccee. The parts have been spread. Ental aspect of the right maxillary sclerite of Cephalothrips yucce. Piate VI. Frontal section thru the commissures connecting the supraoesophageal and suboesophageal ganglia of Heliothrips femoralis. 38-44. Cross-sections of the pharynx from the dorsal end to the tip of the 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. . 50. 51. mouth-cone of Heliothrips femoralis. Each second or third section figured. Lateral view of the pharynx of Heliothrips femoralis. Caudal aspect of the pharynx of Heliothrips femoralis. The extensions over which the maxillary setae pass, have been omitted. Caudal aspect of the Y-shaped piece located caudad of the pharynx. Caudal aspect of the pharynx and labrum of Cephalothrips yucce. The extensions, over which the maxillary setae and left mandible pass, have been omitted. Lateral view of the pharynx of Cephalothrips yucce. Frontal section thru the commissures connecting the supraoesophageal and suboesophageal ganglia of Cephalothrips yucce. Cross-section of the oesophagus of Cephalothrips yucce at the point where ducts from the head-glands (d.) pass laterad of the oesophagus in their extension from the head-glands to the two openings on the caudal aspect of the pharynx. 52-57. Cross-sections of the pharynx from the dorsal end to the tip of the mouth-cone of Cephalothrips yucce. Each second or third section figured. 1915] Fig. 58. Fig. 58a. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. A BPA. ls ory) 3 aad Page oo ct reste bho 7 ~ & Poe The Head and Mouth-Parts of Thysanoptera PLATE VII. Sagittal section thru the head and prothorax of Heliothrips femoralis. The salivary glands have been omitted. 59 The valve at the dorsal end of the pharynx of figure 58 more enlarged. Sagittal section thru the head and a portion of the prothorax of Cephalo- thrips yucce. The salivary glands have been omitted. Caudal aspect of the labium of Heliothrips femoralis. Caudal aspect of the labium of Cephalothrips yucce. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. Anterior arms of the tentorium. Alimentary canal, Antennae. Caudal projections or arms. Common duct of the salivary glands. Clypeus. Commissure. Chitinous tendon. Duct of the head-glands. Dorsal arms of the tentorium. . Dorsal dilating muscles of the pharynx. Dilated lumen. Dilating muscles of the pharynx. Duct from glandular tissue near mandible. Elastic membrane. Ental extensions of the maxil- lary sclerites. Fold in the clypeus. Front. Gena. Head-glands. Invaginations of the anterior arms of the tentorium. Invaginations of the dorsal arms. of the tentorium. Invaginations of the posterior arms of the tentorium. Lumen. Labium. Labial palpus. Duct of the long, salivary gland. Ental extensions of the labium. Left mandible. Labrum. Long salivary gland. Mentum. Membranous area. Muscle. Maxillary seta. mx. g. mx. p. mx. pl. mx. Ss. NX ZC. . Ventral, Maxillary guide. Maxillary pillar. Maxillary palpus. Maxillary sclerite. Notch. Nerve. Occiput. Ocellus. Oesophagus. Oenocyte. Pharyngeal projection. Posterior arms of the tentorium. Pharynx. Prothoracic leg. Pharyngeal pocket. Paraglossa. Prothoracic sclerite. Chitinous plate. Right rudimentary mandible. Reticulation. Suture. Sense cone. Duct of the short salivary gland Submentum. Short salivary gland. Caudal head-strip. Suboesophageal ganglion. Supraoesophageal ganglion. Thorax. Transverse area of the pharynx. dilating muscles of pharynx. Vertex. Ental thickening on margin of head-capsule. Union of the anterior and pos- terior arms. Y-shaped pharyngeal piece. Ental thickening on margin of head-capsule. Piece connecting the united arms. Vor. VIII, PLATE I. ANNALS E. S. A. Heliothrips. 4 He y Oya XD) Lex) Ab UES (ne A, MEN Ly Sa xX ADs ——, oe =f i) Aire OTK we YS ; rt ww In- 1. md Heliothrips. Alvah Peterson. ANNALS E.S. A. VoL. VIII, PLATE II. Cephalothrips 9. Cephalothrips. 10 Cephalothrips. 11. Alvah Peterson. ANNALS E.S. A. VoL. VIII, PLATE III. Heliothrips. -{ eee Heliothrips. 19. stb. pl. Heliothrips. 1 S$}; Cephalothrips. 17, 20. Cephalothrips. Cephalothrips Thrips. \ 18. 14, \ Frankliniella. Alvah Peterson. ANNALS E. S.A. VOL. VIII, PLATE IV. y] Heliothrips. a Heliothrips. Heliothrips. 24. Y Heliothrips. “mx. Cephalothrips, Alvah Peterson, ANNALS E. S. A. Cephalothrips. 34, Alvah Peterson. Cephalothrips. ~ 35, VoL. VIII, PLATE V. Cephalothrips. © 36 ANNALS E. S. A. VOL. VIII, PLATE VI. Heliothrips. \ 47, Cephalothrips. 48. s. L +S. Cephalothrips Heliothrips. 10)0 - ec.d Heliothrips. Heliothrips, Cephalothrips. Cephalot rips! 42, 4 4. 57. 5S. ® Alvah Peterson. ANNALS E. S. A. VOL. VIII, PLATE VII. Heliothrips. 58. sub, Cephalothrips. 59. Heliothrips. Cephalothrips. 60. 61. Alvah Peterson. STUDIES IN DIASPININE PYGIDIA. By E. W. STaFForD. Up to the present time the practice of staining Coccide in toto as an aid to taxonomic work has not been much adopted on this continent. Newstead and Green in their great Mono- graphs, recommend the use of stains, and in their preparation of specimens, stains are used. The Diaspine are classified for the most part on characters of the pygidia of the adult females. In my work with scale insects I found that one’s first tentatives toward the practice of staining are apt to be crowned with little positive success, but that after a little experimentation and practice, these artificial colors may be made to enhance the value of the mounts to such an extent as well to compensate for the extra labor involved in their application. Fic. 1—Types of Tubular Glands The chitinous paraphyses and the true marginal spines are not shown to better advantage in stained specimens than in those unstained. The marginal plates, the dorsal pores and the circum- gential pores are much more clearly defined in properly stained specimens than in those which have not been stained. 67 68 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The delicate tubular glands, which are practically invisible in unstained specimens, may be rendered clearly visible by proper staining. These tubules are in general different in different species and constant in the same species. Though they have been ignored by us, they nevertheless present a potentially valuable addition to our list of classificatory characters for the group. TECHNIQUE. Females were removed from under their waxy coverings and placed in strong cold aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide and allowed to remain until perfectly clear. This may require from two to five days. The specimens were then placed in a copious quantity of water for a couple of hours to remove all of the potassium therefrom. From the water they were trans- ferred to ninety-five per cent alcohol. From the alcohol, after plenty of time for dehydration, they were transferred to an alcoholic solution of Magentarot, (magenta-red), and allowed to remain about one hundred hours, or until they showed a purple color, but still remained translucent. They then were placed for a few seconds in absolute alcohol to wash off super- flous stain and transferred to xylol therefrom. After a couple of hours they were mounted in balsam or glycerine jelly. The above process entails little labor but extends over considerable time. The specimens may be boiled in strong potassium hydroxide for from fifteen minutes to half an hour, to procure the same degree of clarity and may be stained in Hamatoxylin solution von Delafield for ten or fifteen minutes. Thus the time of preparation may be much shortened. The former process has, however, given more desirable results. DORSAL-PORES. The pygidial pores in the Diaspine fall into two classes :— Larger, usually elliptic, grouped ‘“‘macropores,’’ and smaller or minute, circular, single, paired or grouped ‘‘micropores.”’ 1915] Studies in Diaspinine Pygidia 69 SPECIES. Chrysomphalus obscurus: Micropores, about seven on each lateral margin. CHRYSOMPHALUS OBSCURUS Comst Macropores in six groups, giving rise to slender capitate, bi-pistonate tubules. Tubules uniform and in six compact sheaves corresponding to the six groups of macropores from which they arise. Chrysomphalus aonidum: Micropores, ten; two between median lobes, two in median lobe, one in second lobe, one on margin beyond third. CHRYSOMPHLUS AONIDUM Ling Macropores, numerous and in rows. ‘Tubules of two types; one long, sub cyllindric, gradually expanding toward its truncate apex arises from between median lobes. Three similar to above, longer, arise from three macropores between median and second 70 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, lobe. About twenty, long, filiform, capitate, tripistonate in compact sheaf, arise from double row of macropores between second and third lobe. A group in all ways similar to above, arises from double row of macropores arising from beyond third lobe. Four, apparently non-tubulate pores close to each lateral margin. Aspidiotus ancylus. Micropores three—one between median lobes giving rise tosslender funnel form tubule uni-pistonate at truncate apex, one in median lobe. ASPIDIOTUS ANCYLUS Pautn Macropores numerous, scattered, giving rise to short sub cyllindric truncate tubules, which are non-pistonate. Three arising from between median and second lobes are longer than the” others. 1915] Studies in Diaspinine Pygidia 71 Aspidiotus brittanicus. Micropores fourteen—one in median lobe and one between second and third, give rise to minute, filiform, capitate, and sometimes stylate tubules, two in second lobe, one in third lobe, one cephalad of lateral margin of vaginal opening. ASPIDIOTUS BRITTANICUS Macropores scattered. Tubules from same, not uniform. Funnel form with and without terminal pistons, and capitate, armed terminally with fusiform stylets. Aspidiotus forbesi. Micropores four—one in median lobe, one in second lobe, ASPIDIOTUS FORBES! Jahns Macropores scattered. Tubules mostly slender, expanded toward their truncate apexes and non-pistonate. Filiform, capitate, pistonate tubules sometimes visible. 72 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Aspidiotus hedere. Micropores six—one between second and third lobes, two at side of anal aperture. AspipiotuS HEDERAE Vall. Macropores about thirty-six, at caudal margin and in a rough diagonal row. Tubules short, sub cyllindric, truncate at apexes, which are not armed with pistons. Aspidiotus perniciosus. Micropores nine—one between median lobes and one in median lobe, give rise to filiform capitate tubules, two in second lobe, and one in third lobe are non-tubulate. ASPIDIOTUS PERNICIOSUS Comst. Macropores scattered, give rise to slender tapering tubules, ending capitate. All tubules armed terminally with fusiform stylet. 1915} Studies in Diaspinine Pygidia 73 Aulocaspis rose. Micropores four—two between second lobe and anal aper- ture. These give rise to minute, short tubules terminating in two capita, the terminal one being armed with a minute piston. AULACASPIS ROSAE Bouche. Macropores numerous—situated in transverse rows at vestigial junctures of segments, and giving rise to very short sub cyllindric tubules, which are truncate at tips and armed terminally with short pistons. NotE—These studies were made for the most part with Bauch and Lomb ocular number two and one-quarter inch objective. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STANDARDIZATION OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN ENTOMOLOGY.* By G. C. Crampton, Ph. D. The ever increasing confusion in the application of anatom- ical terminology in entomology, is rapidly producing an ab- solutely intolerable state of affairs, and unless steps toward reform are soon taken, it will eventually become practically impossible to make use of the present system of terminology, in comparative morphological work. Such chaotic and ab- solutely needless confusion, would not for a moment be toler- ated in any other branch of research, and it is difficult to under- stand why entomologists are supinely indifferent to a state of affairs which can hardly be said to reflect credit upon their scien- tific spirit or intelligence. If students of mammalian anatomy, for example, were to apply the term ‘‘mentum”’ to the back of the head in lemurs, to the top of the head in monkeys to the forehead in baboons, to the nose in higher apes, and to the chin in man, the storm of protest which such a course of procedure would arouse, can be easily imagined; yet entomologists may with impunity perpetrate a far more astoundingly flagrant manipulation of anatomical terminology than that cited in the foregoing hypothetical case, and no one is moved to even mildly protest! Lest the preceding statement should seem slightly over- drawn, one of several similar instances of remarkable entomol- ogical usage which suggest themselves, may be cited as an illustration. The term “squama,’’ for example, is applied to the sclerites of the labium and maxilla of Odonata, to the term- inal sclerite of the male’s genital claspers in Bombide, to the lens-shaped ‘‘first’’ abdominal segment of Formicide, to one or both calyptra of Diptera, to the tegule of Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, to various squamiform structures of certain insects, to the clothing scales of others, etc. etc., ‘“‘ad infinitum!’’ We thus have structures located at opposite ends of the body, together with a generous intersprinkling of intermediate points, to which the term “‘squama’”’ is applied. If the object of en- *Contribution from the Entomological Laboratory of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. 74 1915] Technical Terms in Entomology 19 tomologists, in this and similar instances, has been to bring about a confusion ‘‘thrice confounded,” they are certainly to be congratulated upon the signal success which has crowned their efforts! Among the systematists, an awakening of the modern spirit of scientific exactness is apprent in the attempted standardiza- tion of entomological nomenclature, and it is to be hoped that the same spirit of scientific exactness may eventually impel them to adopt some standardization of entomological termin- ology as well. Since no rules or suggestions whatsoever (so far as I am aware) have been formulated for governing the application of entomological terminology, and since it is ap- parent that some one must take the initiative in this matter, I would venture to offer the following purely tentative sug- gestions, in the hope that other workers who have been con- fronted with the same disconcerting confusion in the application of anatomical terminology, may be moved to contribute to the discussion, or to offer better solutions of the difficulties than those here proposed. (1). Long established or general usage should be one of the most important factors in determining the application of a term. When, however, established usage is wholly at variance with logical consistency, it should always yield to the latter. For example, according to general and established usage, the term metatarsus is applied to the basal tarsal segment, no matter whether it be that of the metathorax, mesothorax, or prothorax. According to logical consistency*, however, the term meta- tarsus should always refer to the entire tarsus of the meta- thorax, and of the metathorax alone, since the prefix ‘‘meta”’ delimits all metathoracic structures: e. g. metanotum, meta- coxa, metafemur, etc. (2). The original usage of a term should always be retained. In other words, if the author of a term applied it to a well defined structure, this term should never be applied to any structures other than those homologous with the one to which this designation was originally applied. It is through the dis- regarding of this principle that much of the present confusion *The expression ‘‘logical consistency’’ is used advisedly, since it would be consistent to argue that the designation ‘‘pro-podeum’’ should refer to a pro- thoracic structure, but this blind carrying of consistency to the extreme, would hardly be logical. 76 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, of terminology has arisen, and it is extremely unfortunate that a few necessary exceptions prevent the rigid enforcement of this rule. For example, the designation ‘‘thorax’’ was prob- ably introduced by Linne (Fundamenta Entomologiz#:—Ameen. Acad., Tome 7, p. 143) who applied it to the pronotum of Coleoptera, Hemiptera, etc., and designated the true thorax as the “‘truncus.’”’ It would be wholly impracticable, at present, however, to attempt to restrict the term “‘thorax’’ to the pro- notum, and to substitute ‘‘truncus’”’ for the accepted and well established use of the term thorax. (3). If terms have been proposed, without clearly indicat- ing to what structures they should be applied, such terms should be regarded as ‘‘nomina nuda,”’ and the first definite application of these terms to insectan structures, should be considered as the original one. For example, the terms pre- sternum, sternum (in the restricted sense), sternellum and poststernum, were originally proposed by MacLeay (Zool. Journ. London, Vol. 5, No. 18, 1830) for four hypothetical sternal subdivisions which he neither figured nor described, but merely stated that since they were to be found in Sguzlla and Julus (neither of which are insects), they might occur in other ‘‘insects.’’ The first application of these terms to insects, was by M’Murtrie (The Animal Kingdom, New York, 1831— a translation of Cuvier’s work) who applied the terms pre- sternum, sternum and poststernum to the prosternum, meso- sternum and metasternum. (The term sternum, however, had been previously used as a general term applied to the sternal region of all segments.) (4). A term cannot be used at the same time in a broad and in a restricted sense (i. e. the same term cannot be applied to both the whole, and to one of its parts) without creating con- fusion. For example, the use of the term sternum in the broad sense, to indicate the entire sternal portion of a segment, and in the restricted sense to indicate one of the several stern- ites, or sternal subdivisions, creates unnecessary confusion, and only the original use of the term should be retained. (5). Although the law of priority cannot be strictly en- forced in anatomical terminology, it is evidently undesirable to apply any more new terms to structures already supplied with suitable designations, unless it can be demonstrated that the older terms are inappropriate, or are incorrectly applied. 1915] Technical Terms in Entomology 77 (6). It should be permissible to supercede older terms with new ones, if there is no apparent unanimity of opinion among entomologists as to the application of terms concerning which the author himself was in doubt, or if it is impossible to deter- mine to what structures he intended that his terms should refer. In such cases it is far less confusing to apply entirely new terms, than to risk complicating further, an already suffi- ciently disconcerting state of confusion. (7). It should be permissible to make slight changes in older terms, to bring them into harmony with modern usage. For example, the designation “‘sternopleura’’ might be modified to “‘sternopleurite,’’ since the designation ‘‘pleura’’ refers to both flanks, while the term “‘pleurite’’ refers to a pleural sub- division (as is the case with the so called “‘sternopleura.’’) (8). If the author of a term applied it to wholly different (i. e. non-homologous) structures in the same or different insects, it should be permissible to designate the particular structure to which the term should be restricted. (9). It is advisable to avoid using a designation composed of two or more terms, for such designations are usually too cumbersome to be of practical application (e. g. “processus pteralis ale primus,” etc.) and when possible, should be super- ceded by a single concise designation, which may be compound or not. (10). Hybrid terms (i. e. those compounded from different languages) while permissible, are undesirable, and the number of those already in existence should not be further increased. (11). Designations expressed in a modern language should have no standing (e. g. ‘‘antecoxal piece’) and should be super- ceded by terms of Latin or Greek origin, in accordance with general zoological nomenclature. (12). In attempting to fix the application of anatomical terminology, the usage employed in some one standard work, such as that of Audouin (Recherches Anatomiques sur le Thorax des Animaux Articules:—Ann. Sci. Naturelles, Tome 1. Ser. 1) might be taken as a basis, just as the tenth edition of Linne’s “Systema Nature’’ is taken by the systematists as the basis for establishing entomological nomenclature. An ob- jection to this suggestion is that Audouin was not at all certain as to the application of some of his terms (for example, he applied the term parapteron to wholly different sclerites in 78 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, different insects, as pointed out by Crampton, 1914, “On the Misuse of the Terms Parapteron, etc.’’-—Journal N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 22) and in certain instances he applied his terms to wholly unnatural subdivisions of the integument (as is the case with the region which Audouin designates as the “postscutel- lum,’’ to which attention has been called by Snodgrass, 1909, “The Thoracic Tergum of Insects’’:—Ent. News, Mar. 1909). The same fault is present to a greater degree in all the earlier works upon this subject, which prevents taking any of them as the standard. (13). Consideration should be given to the usages employed in standard works of reference (text-books, glossaries, etc.) though unfortunately these authorities do not always agree among themselves, nor are they always logical. (14). Consideration should be also given to the conclusions of any investigator who has made a thorough study of the liter- ature, and of the homologies of the parts in various orders of insects, and has also presented an impartial resumé of all of the available evidence bearing upon the subject, provided that his conclusions are in accord with common sense and logical con- sistency—which, in the last analysis, must be the governing principles in the application of anatomical terminology. The opinion of any individual worker has but little weight, and if effective steps are to be taken toward bringing order out of the present chaos, it must be accomplished through the action of some committee vested with the proper authority to carry out whatever plans may be decided upon. I would therefore propose, as a final suggestion, that the Entomological Society of America appoint a committee of considerable permanence, which would take up this matter in detail, and which would be prepared to decide upon whatever points in anatomical termin- ology might be presented for its consideration. The con- clusions of such a committee, being authoritative, would doubt- less be readily accepted by entomologists in general. RESULTS OF TWENTY-FIVE YEARS’ COLLECTING IN THE TACHINIDA, WITH NOTES ON SOME COMMON SPECIES. By J. M. ALpricH, Assistant in Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. A recent rather careful inventory of my collection in this family was made the basis of further studies. which seemed of general interest and are presented in this paper. First a few personal words about my collecting. I began to collect insects in 1888. In my first two seasons I collected everything without discrimination; but in the spring of 1890 I definitely selected the Diptera as my specialty and began a private collection in them, still for many years continu- ing to make a general collection for my institution. In the fall of 1890 my attention was directed especially to the Tachinidze through meeting in Washington Mr. C. H. T. Townsend, who was already specializing in them. For several years I sent him material. The appearance of Coquillett’s Revision of the Tachinide in 1897 gave a new impetus to my collecting in the family; within a few years he had named a large number of species for me, by the aid of which I gradually acquired suffi- cient knowledge of the characters to determine for myself within narrow limits. I mention these beginnings merely to show that I have since possibly the first year of the twenty-five paid much more than casual attention to this family. I should preface my statistics with the remark that I have about the same general conception of species and genera as that of Coquillett in his Revision, and that I use mainly the nomen- clature of that work. The total number of North American Tachinide in the collection is about 260 species, but I leave out of account in the following figures some 25 species not deter- mined. Total number ok namediN Aj species;. 62..55. 5002-4. deenesa ces 232 SUPHOSedenewa GMeGlestaAllOMont MCGe saw ame class ceva sisal tests ons 31 DitterencenassieneditG mamediSpeCieSss: . 2.222. .c0.c sche escs sce 201 Generatnepresenhe cee werk a pert. lao seine vctta ho ore ae eine ote 103 epecies;collectadubyeman Selig rete Bene ocinry ts lnkocricia rele iale «ors 185 Total number of species in collection from Rocky Mountain andPPaciiCySlOMeercolOnsver sees micinatcaiistr foes come gs os 143 80 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Following are the species collected by myself in the different regions in which I have lived: Collectedtini Souths Dakotas 74:seasonssser serene eee ees 35 At Lawrence, Kans., first half of 1 eeean GUC Daa enka an a Oe ee 19 In ‘Idaho, 20'seasonss)o vecache sae: 8.65 Mele prams sceak 6 ob wee eee tacoma ht eane het lee thts Cn ae 2.21 a a ES ‘Checks returned and refused payment, money order not negotiable, and SUbSeripeiOrns: 3% >a skhcr ete fe ae ea eae OP on $ 12.00 Life Membership Fees deposited with Cleveland Trust Company, Cleve- land,Ohio; December, 19IA vata Qi wer oe eee e eee eee 150.00 Interest on Fees of Life Members deposited with Cleveland Trust Com- pany; December 11914, at 4,0. =. sere eee ee eee 10.07 Cash on Deposit in the First National Bank of Champaign, Illinois, December Vay Oa ec cree ey cI bite tants nce at Eo re ee 136.46 $ 1,784:50 The names of the following Fellows were recommended to the Executive Committee at the Atlanta meeting for election as Honorary Fellows :— Charles James Stewart Bethune John Henry Comstock Charles Henry Fernald Eugene Amandus Schwarz. This recommendation was adopted by the Executive Committee and in accordance with the Constitution was referred to the Fellows for a mail ballot. This ballot was taken during the past year and the Executive Committee now declares them duly elected. The Managing Editor of the Annals of the Entomological Society of America submitted to the Executive Committee the following report for the year ending December Ist., 1914:— 1915] Proceedings of the Philadelphia Meeting 107 REPORT OF THE MANAGING EDITOR OF THE ANNALS. The 1914 volume of the Annals has been issued with some delays which have been due in part to the absence of the Editor from Columbus during several weeks of the summer and in part from the uncertainty of the amount available for publication. The volume as completed will contain nearly 400 pages and 45 plates, two of them in color. The numbers have been larger and more profusely illustrated than would have been possible without the contributions of some of the authors. The paper by Professor Triggerson was printed with assistance of a contribution from the author, Professor Gillette of the Colorado Agri- cultural Experiment Station provided the colored plates accompanying the paper of Miss Palmer, and Messrs. Childs, Severin and McGregor have assisted in the cost of plates for their articles. The collections for the year have amounted to $593.69. $29.68 has been spent on office account and $564.01 has been turned over to the Treasurer. The income may be classified as follows :-— DHUSeKipHonUACCOUMt:., ilack. sso. oss. eed..., $233.06 pale onBaek Numbers... .. 6.6L. oo ocecc ... 133.61 1213 CAP 0E SSS ce ec eg ee 129.02 petal MC omprpuUtOnss. 4 jocks ace tf oce. oc... 98.00 $593.69 While the Editor would have preferred a somewhat larger volume it did not seem practicable with the income at hand and with a con- siderable deficit from preceding years to involve the Society in any large amount. With the income of the year it has been possible to bring up payments on the back numbers §0 that the Society is now in fairly good shape and it seems probable that we can maintain a volume of approximately 400 pages per year. It is very possible that some of our foreign subscriptions may lapse and that there will be few additional sales on the foreign account during the next year. This may reduce our income slightly. On the other hand a considerable addition to the membership list is reported by the Secretary. Respectfully submitted, HERBERT OSBORN. In accordance with Article VII of the Constitution, adopted at the Atlanta meeting, that the Editorial Board of the Annals shall consist of ten members, one of whom shall be the Managing Editor and the other members of the Board shall serve for three years, three members retiring annually, the Executive Committee took the following action. Professor H. C. Fall was elected as the additional member of the Board and the following dates fixed as the time for the retirement of the different members: J. H. Comstock, C. J.S. Bethune and C. W. Johnson to retire in 1915: V. L. Kellogg, L. O. Howard and W. M. Wheeler to retire in 1916; P. P. Calvert, J. W. Folsom and H. C. Fall to retire in 1917. 108 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The following members were elected as Fellows:— Nathan Banks A. P. Morse J. Chester Bradley Pe ].-Parrott W. E. Britton Edith M. Patch C. T. Brues A. L. Quaintance H. T. Fernald J. AcG, Reha Glenn W. Herrick W. A. Riley J. S. Hine Annie Trumbull Slosson O. A. Johannsen E. M. Walker A. L. Melander H. F. Wickham E. B. Williamson. The membership of the Society as reported at the Atlanta meeting consisted of one Honorary Fellow, 36 Fellows, and 402 Members. There is reported at this meeting the election of 12 Members on June Ist, the death of one Fellow and two members during the year, the resignation of one Fellow and six Members at this meeting, the dropping from the rolls of the names of fourteen Members for the non-payment of dues, and the election of 120 Members at this Meeting. The present enrollment of the Society consists of 5 Honorary Fellows, 48 Fellows, and 498 Members, or a total of 551. The Committee consisting of Mr. Nathan Banks and Mr. Morgan Hebard, of which the late Mr. H. H. Lyman was also a member, appointed at the Atlanta meeting to report at this meeting on the feasibility of establishing a Thomas Say Society, presented the fol- lowing report to the Executive Committee: THOMAS SAY FOUNDATION. The Committee on the Thomas Say Society report as follows: They find there is an increasing demand for the means of publication of larger works on American systematic entomology, and they therefore recommend to the Entomological Society of America the following plan for the issuance of such works under the title of ‘The Thomas Say Foundation.”’ To accomplish this purpose the Society shall appoint a temporary committee of five members who shall have charge of all matters con- cerning the Foundation until more definite plans are adopted by the Society. This Committee shall consist of an Editor, a Treasurer, and three other members, all of whom shall be appointed by the Executive Committee of the Society. They shall be authorized to solicit, hold, and spend subscriptions and funds for the purpose of obtaining a permanent fund for this Foundation and for the issuance of such works on American Systematic entomology as the Committee shall deem worthy of publication. They shall also be empowered to determine the form, character, price and other details of the publication. The Treasurer of the Ento- mological Society of America be authorized to pay bills not to exceed fifty dollars for the preliminary expenses of presenting this matter to the entomological public. 1915] Proceedings of the Philadelphia Meeting 109 This Committee is charged with making a report of their operations and expenditures to the Executive Committee of the Society at its next Annual Meeting. To put this plan into definite shape the Committee would suggest the following amendment to the Constitution of the Entomological Society of America, which shall be known as Article VIII of said Constitution: ARTICLE VIII. SECTION 1. NameE—This fund, the publication, and the com- mittee shall be known as ‘‘The Thomas Say Foundation.”’ SECTION 2. PurposE—The purpose of this Foundation is for the publication of works of a monographic or bibliographic character on the insects of North America. SECTION 3. PuBLicaTioN—Each publication shall be a volume complete in itself, and numbered consecutively. SEcTION 4. CoMMITTEE—This Committee shall consist of six mem- ‘bers, four of them to be elected by the Executive Committee of the Society, two retiring annually, and an Editor and a Treasurer to be designated by the Executive Committee. SECTION 5. PowErs—This Committee is empowered to determine all matters concerning the publication. SECTION 6. Funps—They are also empowered to solicit, hold, invest, and expend funds committed to their care; only the interest from any endowment fund to be available. SECTION 7. RESPONSIBILITY—The Society shall be in no way responsible for debts contracted by this Foundation, unless previously authorized by the Executive Committee. SECTION 8. ReEports—The Editor and Treasurer shall present a report of their operations and expenditures to the Executive Com- mittee at each Annual Meeting, and the accounts of the Treasurer shall be audited by the Auditing Committee of the Society. These reports shall be published as a part of the proceedings of the Executive Com- mittee of each Annual Meeting. MorGan HEBARD, NATHAN BANKS. The report was adopted by the Executive Committee and the following persons were named as the temporary committee for the Thomas Say Foundation: J. M. Aldrich, Nathan Banks, Morgan Hebard, Alex. D. MacGillivray and E. P. Van Duzee. The Executive Committee empowered this temporary committee to select its own officers. [The four members of the temporary committee in attendance at the Convocation Week meetings held a meeting at the Academy of Natural Sciences and discussed ways and means of publication and elected Morgan Hebard as Treasurer and Alex. D. MacGillivray as Editor.] 110 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The Executive Committee directed the Secretary to prepare for publication with the proceedings of the Philadelphia meeting, the Constitution, a list of officers, and a list of members. There have come to the Secretary some reports of the non-receipt of the Certificates of Membership furnished by the Society. The Secretary has mailed a certificate to all those entitled to receive them for each year except the present. He still has some certificates for each year except 1910 and would be glad to supply those who have not received one, as long as the supply lasts. In order that the Summer Meeting to be held on the Pacific Coast in 1915, may be properly looked after, the Executive Committee recommends the election of Dr. E. C. Van Dyke of the University of California, as Local Secretary. It shall be his duty to arrange the program, act as Secretary for the meetings, and prepare the report of the proceedings of the meetings for publication in the Annals. Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt moved the adoption of the Report of the Secretary—Treasurer and that the motion should include an expression of the Society’s deep appreciation of the efforts of the Secretary-Treas- urer during the last year in the direction of increasing the membership and scope of the Society, which efforts had been so eminently successful. Motion adopted. | COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS. Yours committee on resolutions beg to submit the fol- lowing :-— Resolved, that the thanks of this Society are due, and are hereby tendered to the University of Pennsylvania, the Academy of Natural Sciences, and the local Committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in providing for the comforts and pleasures of our members which have added so much to the success and profit of the Society while in this city. Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be further tendered to the American Entomological Society, the Feldman Collecting Social and other entomologists for their courtesies and entertainment; also to the local press for exceptional courteous treatment, to the local officers for their extremely successful efforts in providing for the expeditious dispatch of the business of the Society, all of which have contributed to make the Philadelphia meeting one of the most successful in the history of the Society. (Signed) F. M. WEBSTER, HENRY Brrp, J.-S: Houser: 1915] Proceedings of the Philadelphia Meeting ude REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS. Your committee begs leave to report the following names as nominees for the various offices for 1915:— OFFICERS. President: Vernon Lyman Kellogg, Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity, Stanford University, California. First Vice-President: J.5. Hine, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Second Vice-President: J. M. Aldrich, U.S. Bureau of Entomology, Lafayette, Indiana. Secretary-Treasurer: Alex. D. MacGillivray, University of Illinois, Urbana, Il. ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. C. T. Brues, Harvard University, Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. W. A. Riley, Cornell, University, Ithaca, N. Y. E. C. Van Dyke, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. T. D. A. Cockerell, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. J. A. G. Rehn, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. MEMBER OF COMMITTEE ON NOMENCLATURE. Nathan Banks, U. S. Bureau of Entomology, East Falls Church, Virginia. (Signed) J. CHESTER BRADLEY, CoP -GiitEraie: J. A. NELSON. On motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast a ballot for the officers named and they were declared elected. It was later pointed out by a member of the Committee on Nominations that Dr. E. C. Van Dyke, not being a Fellow, was not eligible to election to the Executive Committee. On motion, the Society declared his place vacant and instructed the Execu- tive Committee to fill the vacancy. (The Secretary has taken a mail ballot of the Executive Committee and Professor A. L. Melander, Washington Agri- cultural College, Pullman, Washington was elected to the vacant place.) 112 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE. December 31st, 1914. We, the undersigned, have this day examined the accounts of Alexander D. MacGillivray, Treasurer and Secretary of the Ento- mological Society of America, for the year ending December 14th, 1914, and the accounts of Herbert Osborn, Managing Editor of the Annals of the Entomological Society of America for the year ending December Ist, 1914, compared the vouchers therewith and found them correct and properly cast. (Signed) Wa. T. Davis, J. H. EMERTON, FraNK Morton JONES. REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON THE SUMMER MEETING OF 1915. The committee reports in favor of holding a meeting on the Pacific coast in conjunction with the zoological section of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, the precise dates to be selected by a local committee, the latter to be appointed by the President and author- ized to complete the arrangements respecting the program, meeting places, hotel headquarters and other matters essential to a successful gathering. We recommend that this meeting be as much in the nature of a congress as possible, in order that certain outside entomologists, includ- ing a number of foreigners who are expected to be present, may present papers and take part in the discussions. The desirability of pre- senting papers of general interest or of emphasizing the wider applica- tions of special investigations is mentioned in this connection. A number of smaller entomological societies expect to meet at the same time, and this arrangement will therefore admit of a larger and more enthusiastic gathering. The transaction of any business would naturally be restricted to members of the Entomological Society of America. It is also felt that in making up the program, cognizance should be taken of the dates when certain general sessions of the zoological section of the A. A. A. S. are held. The committee considers it very desirable to have a hotel head- quarters designated, since this greatly facilitates intercourse between visiting entomologists. Several of the committee favor a banquet of some nature and it is presumable that such a feature would appeal strongly to all in attendance. The committee would also call attention to the summer zoological camp conducted under the auspices of the University of California and located in the Sierras close to Lake Tahoe. This will be open from the middle of June until the end of July, not only to undergrad- uates and postgraduates who wish to take up field work, but also to 1915] — Proceedings of the Philadelphia Meeting uy 3 general entomologists who would care to stop off for a: week or so and do a little collecting in the high mountains. The site is ideal, being accessible to the main transcontinental railroad and in one of the most beautiful parts of the Sierras. The location was selected with a view to its accessibility to Eastern entomologists. ' Attention of entomologists should also be called to the California Fruit Growers’ Convention at Stanford, to be held the week immediately preceding the session of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. This gathering should be of much interest to economic entomologists. ; We are informed that a special committee of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science expects to issue a scientific hand- book* for sale at a low price to members of the American Association and affiliated societies. This publication will give a great deal of information concerning the geography, topography, fauna and flora of California, together with data respecting railways, hotels, etc. All of which is respectively submitted. (Signed) E. P. Fett, W. M. WHEELER, V:. L. KELLocG, T. D. &. CocKkERELL, A Coors E: C; Van DYKE. On motion, the report of the Committee was adopted and the Committee discharged. The following amendment to the Constitution submitted at the Atlanta meeting was read :— ARTICLE IV, Section 2.—The business of the Society not otherwise provided for shall be in the hands of an Executive Committee, con- sisting of the officers named in Section 1, and of six additional members, five of whom shall be elected from the Fellows of the Society, and the sixth shall be ex-officio the Managing Editor. Four members of the Committee shall constitute a quorum. - To be amended to read: ARTICLE IV, Section 2.—Executive Committee. The business of the Society not otherwise provided for shall be in the hands of an Executive Committee, consisting of the officers named in Section 1, and six addi- tional members, five of whom shall be elected from the Fellows of the Society, and the sixth shall be ex-officio the Managing Editor. There shall be a meeting of the Executive Committee at each Annual Meeting. Four members shall constitute a quorum and in the case of the non- attendance of this number at any Annual Meeting, the Society shall elect a sufficient number from among the Fellows in attendance to complete the quorum. On motion, the amendment was adopted. cisco, Cal., under the title ‘‘Nature and Science on the Pacific Coast’’ at $1.50 net. 114 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The following resolution was moved by Dr. J. Chester Bradley: That the Committee on Nomenclature be requested to formulate rules for the preservation and fixation of family names, with a view after approval by the Society to ultimately presenting them to the Nomenclatorial Committee of the International Congress _ of Entomology. That the Committee on Nomenclature be requested to prepare a list of a few of the more important names in each order which are in danger of being lost or changed in sense by strict application of the rules of nomenclature, which it is desirable should be preserved, and present this list, after approval by the Society to the International Commission on Nomenclature with the request that the rules be suspended in the case of these names, and their use permanently authorized. On motion, the resolution was adopted and referred to the Committee on Nomenclature. The following papers were then presented :— FREDERICK Knas, U. S. National Museum.—The Nemocera not a Natural Group of Diptera. ALVAH PETERSON, University of Illinois.—Studies on the Morphology of the Head and Mouth-parts of Diptera. Read by title. C. P. Gittette, Colorado Agricultural College.— Interpretation of the Codling Moth Data from Colorado. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois—Modification of the Color Paterns of Cicindela by Temperature and Moisture. Read by title. NATHAN Banks, U. S. Bureau of Entomology.—Suggestions for Discovering Affinity and Phylogeny. C. P. Gittette, Colorado Agricultural College.—Insect Notes from Colorado. A. D. MacGituivray, University of Illinois ——The Modification of the Sub- costal Vein in the Wings of Insects. Read by title. N. E. McInpoo, U. S. Bureau of Entomology.—The Olfactory Sense of Cole- optera. : James ZeEtrEK, Entomologist Republic Panama.—The Ecology of Plague. Read by title. F. M. Wesster, U. S. Bureau of Entomology.—Importance of Observations apparently Unimportant. Read by title. HERBERT OsBorNn, Ohio State University.—Life-history Studies on the Cer- copide and Jasside. C. R. Crossy, Cornell University.—An Insect Enemy of the Four-lined Leaf- bug. Read by title. The exhibition was held in Room 112, Zoological Laboratory under the direction of Dr. Philip P. Calvert. The following exhibits were shown :— J. H. EmMerton.—Circulating Collection of Spiders. HERMAN H. BrREHME.—Life Histories of Economic and other Insects. Harry B. Weiss.—An Improved method of Mounting Insects. 1915] Proceedings of the Philadelphia Meeting 115 On motion, the Society adjourned to meet in one year with ‘the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Columbus, Ohio. ALEX, D. MAcGILLivray, Secretary. NOTICE TO MEMBERS AND. CONTRIBUTORS. iene Annals of the Entomological Society of America, pub- \ lished by the Society quarterly, includes the Proceedings of the Annual meetings and such papers as may be selected by, the Editorial Board. Papers may be submitted to any member of the Editorial — Board and should be as nearly as possible in the form desired as final, preferably typewritten, and illustrations must be finished complete ready for reproduction. Plates must not exceed 5x7 -inches unless intended to fold. 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Communications relating to the Annats, and all orders for separate copies or reprints should be addressed to 4 HERBERT OsBorRN, Managing Editor, ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, Aira State Peet Columbus, Ohio. CONTENTS OF THIS NUMBER. ForBES, 5. A—The Hoalopical Foundations of Applied , Entomology REINER oe OSA FE, Care I PeTERson, ALvAH—Morphological Stadies of the Head and Mouth-Parts of the Thysanoptera...- - Lia el aA 3 STAFFORD, E. W.—Studies in Diaspine Pygidia.-.--- 67 CRAMPTON, G.C. —Suggestions for the Standardization of Technical Terms in Entomology... ..-.. bay ey 74. | -Axpricu, J. M.—Results of Twenty-five Years Collect-: ing in the Tachinidz, with Notes on some Common Speeiesee coh Noe a, Pu ae ee 79° TOWNSEND, C. H. T.—On Proper Cote Gunccpes AOS Knap, FREDERICK—Brauer on Generic Values in the Mirstoidea oy Ro so. ole eS se ee a gi Knab, FREDERICK— The Nemocera not a Natural Group of CU es ae 3.73 RESOLMHONS 1) is eae ae eas WPS eee Heh Wide 9 i sche a 99 MacGIiLiivray, A.D. — Proceedings of the Philadelphia | Mieetin ce ch i iG SSAC Neth Seo Ree 2 USS nea 102 Officers, Constitution and Members .. 2.0) 2205-255: Vv The regular annual subscription price for the ANNALS is in the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii and Mexico, $3.00: Canada, $3.50; other countries, $4.00. Checks, drafts or money orders should be drawn payable to ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL. SOCIETY OF AMERICA, and addressed to HERBERT OSBORN, State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. ‘ oe Se 7 2 : “ay 5 i My y € a. a 0. HOWARD, _ Sisal i Oyen Lie D. APs ‘CALVERT, ee fa tie ae rs PHILADELPHIA, Pal LON fe w. -FOLSOM,. in) _ _ F A flee Marie sas URBANA, tEhe ‘eek Vr ples ee rae ates FW, Ne Re hoa <¢ yY ? 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I and 11, Part 3, ee A Sine a dees Mee iuasate 60 Annals, Vol. IV,"Part TVS each... 3... s. Pts eae SEES CONFI NG SARA) RD oR A Sn ESE ABO. BACK VOLUMES of ‘the ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL Soctery oF AMERICA Hy be secured from the office of the Managing Editor and new members of the Society who may wish to complete a set are advised to secure the earlier volumes while there is still a supply on hand and the price is kept at the original subscription rate. Address Herpert Osporn, Managing Editor, ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, “1 State inden stcte ana ate Ohio. PY ANNALS OF The Entomological Society of America Volume VIII JUNE, 1915 Nitiber 2 A SYNONYMIC LIST OF JAPANESE CHRYSOPIDA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF ONE NEW GENUS AND THREE NEW SPECIES. By Waro NAKAHARA. In the Journal of the College of Agriculture, Tohoku Im- perial University, Vol. VI, for August, 1914, Mr. H. Okamoto has published a paper entitled “‘Uber die Chrysopiden-Fauna Japans,’’ enumerating 31 species of Lace-winged flies as oc- curring in Japan and Formosa. I regret to say, however, that I have found that his view cannot be accepted in some cases, and at the same time I was able to discover some new forms. This paper will include a synonymic list of Japanese Chryso- pidae (excluding those that are confined to Formosa, Loo-Choo, or Bonin Island), to be followed with descriptions of new forms. To show the points of more or less difference between the opinions of Okamoto and of .myself, I present the following comparative table of the forms described or mentioned by him (left column) and those listed by me in the present paper (right column): Nakaura matsumare (Okamoto)=A pochrysa matsumare Okam. Nothochrysa olivacea Gerstaeker = Parachrysa (n. g.) olivacea (Gerst.) Chrysopa intima M’Lach.= ely sobs perla intima M’Lach. Ch. nigriceps Okam.=Ch. perla L. Ch. sapporensis Okam.=Ch. formosa Brauer. Ch. inornata Matsumura= Ch. vittata Wesm. Ch. nikkoensis Okam.=Ch. sachalinensis Mats. The species newly added to our fauna are as follows: 1. Apochrysa minomoana n. sp. 2. Chrysocerca japonica n. sp. 3. Chrysopa yamamure n. sp. 4. Ch. alba Linne. 117 118 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Apochrysa matsumure Okamoto. Apochrysa matsumure Okamoto, Trans. Sappero Nat. Hist. Soc., iv, p. 18, fig. I (1912). Nacaura! matsumure Navas, Rev. Russ. d’ Entom., xiii, p. 280 (1913). Nakaura matsumure Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 53 (1914). Kagoshima (Okamoto). Apochrysa minomoana n. sp. Minomo near Osaka. Nothochrysa japonica MacLachlan. Nothochrysa japonica M’Lach., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., t, p. 182 (1875). Hondo (west of Gifu); Shikoku (Okamoto); Kinshiu; Formosa (Petersen and Okamoto). Parachrysa (n. g.) olivacea (Gerstaecker). Nothochrysa olivacea Gersteecker, Mitt. Neu.-Verp. u. Rug., p. 74 (1893). Yokohama (Gerstzecker) ; Nikko. Chrysocerca japonica n. sp. Hakone. Chrysopa perla (Linne). Hemerobius perla Linne, Syst. Nat., Ed. 12, p. 911 (1768). Chrysopa perla Shneider, Monog. Chrysop., p. 136, pl. 49 (1815). Chrysopa nigriceps Okomoto, Journ. Coll. Agri., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 58- 59 (1914). Hondo (mountainous regions) ; Siberia; Europe. Chrysopa perla intima MacLachlan. Chrysopa intima M’Lach., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., p. 230 (1893). Chrysopa perla var. fracta Navas, Broteria, Ser. Zool. ix,, p. 39 (1910). Saghalien; Hokkaido; Hondo (mountainous regions) ; Siberia. Chrysopa lezeyi Navas. Chrysopa lezeyi Navas, Broteria, Ser. Zool., ix, p. 42 (1910). Sapporo, Hokkaido (Okamoto); Kofu, Hondo (Navas). Chrysopa formosa Brauer. Chrysopa formosa Brauer, Z. b. G., Wien, Sp. 10 (1856). Chrysopa sapporensis Okomoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 60 (1914). Hokkaido; Hondo; Europe. (1) The genus Nacaura formed by Navas for A pochrysa matsumure, is scarcely more than a sub-genus; it has nearly all of the radial cross veins connected with one another by short cross veinlets, but they are of no generic value, since they have no stability. In A. minomoana n. sp., some of the cross veins in radial area of fore wing are often connected with one another, as stated in its description. 1915] Japanese Chrysopide 119 Chrysopa furcifera Okamoto. ae ee Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 61 1914). Hondo; Kiushiu; Loo-Choo; Formosa. Chrysopa vulgaris microcephala Brauer. Chrysopa microcephala Brauer, Z. b. G., Wien, Sp. 4 (1856). Tokyo, Kyoto, Gifu; Europe. Chrysopa vittata Wesm. Chrysopa vittata Wesm., Bull. Acad. Brux., viii, p. 211 (1841). Chrysopa inornata Matsumura, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., iv, p. 14 (1911). Saghalien; Hokkaido; Hondo: Europe. Chrysopa nipponensis Okamoto. Chrysopa nipponensis Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 65-66 (1914). Hondo; Kiushiu. Chrysopa bipunctata Burmeister. Chrysopa bipunctata Burm., Hand b. d. Entom., ii, p. 982 (1839). Hondo. Chrysopa cognata MacLachlan. Chrysopa cognata M’Lach., Linn. Soc., ix, p. 249 (1867). Nothochrysa robusta Gerstaecker, Mitt. Ver. Neu-Vorp. u. Rug., p. 73 (1893). Chrysopa ricciana Navas, Rey. Russ. d’ Entom., x, p. 193 (1910). Hokkaido; Hondo; Shikoku; Kiushiu; Formosa; Siberia; China; Cambodia. Chrysopa sauteri Petersen. Chrysopa sauteri Petersen, Ent. Mitt., ii, p. 258 (1913). Hondo; Formosa. Chrysopa decorata Petersen. Chrysopa decorata Petersen, Ent. Mitt., ii, p. 260 (1913). Hondo; Formosa. Chrysopa matsumurae Okamoto. Chrysopa matsumure Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agri., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 68 (1914). Hondo. Chrysopa sachalinensis Matsumura. Chrysopa sachalinensis Matsumura, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., iv, p. 14 (1911). Chrysopa nikkoénsis Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 69-70 (1914). Saghalien; Hondo. 120 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII,; Chrysopa cognatella Okamoto. Chrysopa cognatella Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agri., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 70-71 (1914). Hokkaido; Hondo;. Shikoku. Chrysopa yamamure n. sp. Gifu. : Chrysopa alba (Linne). Hemerobius albus L., Syst. Nat., Ed. 12, p. 911 (1766). Chrysopa alba Steph., Ill. Brit. Ent. Mand., vi, p. 204 (1836). Gifu (Mr. S. Yamamura Coll.); Europe. ; Chrysopa kurisakiana Okamoto. Chrysopa kurisakiana Okamoto, Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vi, p. 71-72 (1914). Hondo; Kiushiu. DESCRIPTION OF ONE NEW GENUS AND THREE NEW SPECIES. Apochrysa minomoana n. sp. Head greenish, paler on face; cheek with a small black spot; anterior margin of clypeus narrowly variegated with fuscous; palpi pale. Antennae much longer than fore wing, reddish brown; basal joint rather yellowish, striped with red-brown on outer side; the second joint with blackish outer side. Prothorax much longer than broad, with a faint whitish median line; lateral sides narrowly marked with red-brown. The rest of thorax and abdomen greenish above, with a yellowish dorsal line; the third and fourth abdominal segments varied with black on lateral sides, next four segments suffused with blackish posteriorly; underside much paler. Legs greenish, suffused with darkish on tarsi; hind femur with a distinct black ring near its end. Fore wing very broadly hyaline, with two blackish spots as shown in figure 1, pl. VIII; venation mostly greenish, some veins in discal and outer marginal areas black; costal cross veins mostly simple, but one or two of them furcate; radial sector with about 25 branches; inner series of graduate veinlets very irregular in arrangement; several or often one or two of the cross veins between radius and its sector are connected by short cross veinlets. Hind wing witha very small, blackish spot in stigmatic region; veins greenish except those in outer marginal area; two series of gradate veinlets present. Length of body, 14 mm.; of antennae, 35 mm.; of fore wing, 24 mm.; of hind wing, 22 mm.; width of fore wing, 10 mm. Two female specimens, captured by Messrs. A. Nohira and M. Shibakawa at Minomo, Prov. Settsu (near Osako) in August and November, 1914, are in mv collection. 1015] ©). Japanese Chrysopide& © ~- 121 _ Parachrysa n. gen. © Anterior margin of labrum entire. Antenna about as long as the “body,.shorter than the wings; the basal joint much dilated. Fore wing elongate, subacute at apex, basal part of the costal space narrow, gradually widened towards the middle of the wing; two gradate series of cross veins; the third cubital cell transversely and apparently about equally divided by a vein, which is not parallel to cubitus. Hind ‘wing with two gradate series. Abdomen of the male with a large, peculiar-shaped subgenital plate, but without paired lateral appendages. Type: Nothochrysa olivacea Gerst. So far as the wing venation is concerned, this genus closely resembles Banks’ Allochrysa, but I think the distinction be- ‘tween these two genera may be looked upon as of sufficient generic value in view of the fact that, while Parachrysa has a large subgenital plate, Allochrysa is altogether devoid of it—a sort of difference analagous to that which separates Chrysocerca from Chrysopa. “ Parachrysa olwacea is a very rare insect in Japan. I have only a single male specimen which I succeeded in obtaining at Nikko, on July 19, 1914. Chrysocerca japonica n. sp. Head pale yellow, with no marking; maxillary palpus fuscous black, few terminal joints yellowish ; labial palpus yellowish. Antennae about as long as fore wings, pale yellow; terminal joints more or less suffused with fuscous. Prothorax somewhat longer than broad; pale yellow with greenish suffusion; meso- and meta-thorax greenish yellow with a whitish longi- tudinal band above. Legs pale yellow; anterior tibia somewhat brown- ish; claws piceous or fuscous black. Fore wing rather broad with its apex nearly rounded. Costa, subcosta and radius pale yellow; cubitus and anal veins also pale yellow, but terminally blackish; radial sector and media pale yellow, but blackish basally and terminally; cross veins exclusively blackish; branches of radial sector also blackish; pterostigma pale yellow. About twenty cross veins in costal area; inner gradate series somewhat irregular in arrangement, containing six or seven veinlets; outer series runs almost parallel to the outer. mor of the wing, and is made up of some nine or ten cross veins. Hind wing narrow; veins mostly eeecas but radius, media, cubits and anal veins pale yellow: cross veins mostly blackish, but those in anal area of the wing pale yellow. Inner and outer sradate series each consists of about seven cross veins. Abdomen yellowish, somewhat fuscous on ventral side; the male with a long subgenital plate, which is covered with fine pale yellow hairs, and is rather triangular in shape when seen from below; dorsal appendage short, furnished with numerous long hairs. 122 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Length of body, 10 mm.; of antenna, 13 mm.; of fore wing, 13 mm.; of hind wing, 11 mm. The type is a single male specimen captured by the author at Hakone, on July 29, 1914. Chrysopa yamamure n. sp. Head yellowish, somewhat raised on vertex; a distinct black spot on each cheek; palpi yellowish; antennae yellow, more or less suffused with fuscous beyond middle. Prothorax pale yellow above, suffused with fuscous or darkish on each side, with a minute blackish spot on anterior end of each lateral margin. The rest of thorax and abdomen yellowish, with a pale white median stripe above. Legs yellowish, with pale hairs; claws piceous black. Wings hyaline. Longitudinal veins in fore wing entirely greenish yellow; costal, radial, cubital and anal cross veins and all of gradate veinlets blackish; radial sector and its branches greenish yellow, but each is blackish at base; number of gradate veinlets in the inner series 5-7, in the outer series 6-8. Hind wing with venations mostly greenish yellow; costal cross veins black, one or two radial cross veins and greater part of gradate veinlets blackish. Length of body, 8-10 mm.; of fore wing, 12-14 mm.; of hind wing, 10-12 mm. Three male and two female specimens captured by Mr. S. Yamamura at Gifu are in my collection. At first sight one may take the species for Chrysopa alba, but yamamure is easily recognized by the black spot on each cheek. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. Fig. 1. Wings of A pochrysa minomoana n. sp. Fig. 2. Fore wing of Parachrysa olivacea (Gerst.). Fig. 3. Apex of abdomen of same o& (from side). Fig. 4. Same (from below). Fig. 5. Fore wing of Chrysocerca japonica n. sp. Fig. 6. Apex of abdomen of same o (from side). Fig. 7. Same (from below). Fig. 8. Fore wing of Chrysopa yamamure n. sp. Fig. 9. Face of Chrysopa yamamure. Vou. VIII, PLATE VIII. ANNALS E. S. A. PTT RRS Wes SSN NY ES : ae DERE Waro Nakahara. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF NEUROPTEROID INSECTS, WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE AMERICAN : INSECT FAUNA. By NATHAN BANKs. It is usual in general works on distribution to consider insects as widely dispersed by winds, and sea-currents, and therefore of little use in geographic studies. But every ento- mologist knows that the great majority of insects are more circumscribed in distribution than many of the higher animals. There are many insects of as wide distribution as the human species, but for each of these there are thousands that are con- fined to a very restricted range. Of our 15,000 known species of beetles only 500 or 600 are also known from Europe. Many of these belong to a few families of particularly northern dis- tribution, many are accidental captures, and many have been introduced by commerce. Insects, when properly investigated, are just as useful in studying distribution as any other animals. It has been remarked that there are two principal view- points from which to study geographic distribution. One is to consider what animals inhabit each country, and from these facts divide the world into a series of regions, subregions, etc. This, the static method, is, to my mind, extremely useful, and has been utilized by many, and may be followed to much advantage. It presents the facts that are to be accounted for by our theories. The other viewpoint is how the fauna of a country came to be what it is; an attempted explanation of its various elements. This, the dynamic study of distribution, depends largely upon geology, paleontology, and upon phil- osophic considerations regarding the origin, habits, and means of dispersal of the various groups of animals. In reality these two viewpoints are the beginning and end of the same thing. From this dynamic viewpoint one sees that the insect fauna of a country, as the United States for example, is partly due to what it has inherited from previous land-masses in this vicinity, partly to what has migrated to it in ancient times, and partly to what has reached it since the continents have existed in their present form. 125 126 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, An insect that belongs to a country through inheritance, and one that it obtains through migration or dispersal, each may spread over that country and exist side by side; or each may be restricted to a very narrow range. The many cases of insect introduction in historic times show that great numbers of insects not now occurring here, could live and thrive with us. The various orders, families, and genera of insects did not originate at the same time and place. The place of origin, and the changes that have elapsed since their origin have a definite bearing on their distribution today. Most divergent views of the relationship of certain faunas are often expressed by stu- dents who consider different groups. For example the Panorpid fauna of the United States would show that the Eastern United States is closely related to Europe, while the Raphidiide would show that it is the Western United States that is related to Europe. Again the large and rather recent family of butter- flies, Heliconide, are only neotropic; while the ancient, small, family Sialide are of world-wide occurrence. The explanation must be in the different time and place of origin of these groups, and the continental changes that have aided or barred their dispersal. From a study of mammals and birds zoologists divide up the world into several zoological realms, whose outlines agree fairly well with those of the continents; thus we have an African, Australian, South American, Malayan, Indian, and Holarctic realms; the latter for Europe and North America. With insects this is not so. Several, probably all, of the continents possess elements showing relationship to other regions, deriv- atives of a fauna more fully developed elsewhere, and indicating that insect distribution is much older than the present form of the continents. Thus the Nearctic part of the Holarctic realm is not a unit, but a commingling of natives and immigrants from times long before there were any mammals. New Zealand has been included in the Australian realm, yet the insect fauna of New Zealand is more foreign to Australia than to America. Moreover, Australia presents at least two very different series of insects, one similar to that of Europe or at least to the fossil insects of Europe, and the other a series of peculiar, often primitive forms entirely unlike the European insects. 1915] Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects 27 Since the main orders of insects have existed on this earth the gross outlines of continents have changed several times, and between these changes there were migrations and dispersals, just as there is today. So that today each continent has insects which by their structure and origin are isolated from the other insects around them and find their relations only to insects of distant countries. The striking cases of discontinuous distribution have to me a most significant importance; I hardly think that their value has ever been sufficiently appreciated by the student of geographic distribution. A few years ago I stood in an isolated valley in Western North Carolina. About me were flying several species of Panorpa and a Bittacus, Panorpids which are widely distributed in the Eastern United States, not one of which occurs in the Western States. Yet right with these Panorpids was another, a species of Panorpodes, a genus whose only other known habitat is Oregon and Japan. In that same valley are many spiders, nearly all of which are common over much of the Eastern United States, but yet there, and in several nearby places in the South- ern Appalachians, is a curious spider, Hypochilus. Where else does it occur? In Colorado, and a closely allied genus in North China, and one in New Zealand. Hypochilus, and its related genera are the only known members of what is structurally the most isolated family of spiders. Panorpodes is also a very dis- tinct genus and less specialized than the other Panorpid genera around it. These two cases are but samples of a long list of insects (and also plants) that show a relationship of our Alleghanies with the Northwest, and with Japan and North China. How did it happen? I doubt if-you can find a single genus of insects which is now known only from the Southern Appalachians and say from Eastern Brazil, or West Africa; regions no more distant than Japan. Why are there not such cases? Consider another series of cases. In Eastern South America, in Argentine, and parts of the Andean region there are several species of a genus of handsome antlion flies, Dimares. It is structurally very unlike anything else in South America. Yet in South Africa, in Arabia, in Ceylon are species of another genus Echihromyrmex, so similar to Dimares, that one is loathe 128 Annals Entoniological Society of America [Vol.: VIII, to separate them. Both‘have-a venational peculiarity unknown in all other Myrmeleonide:- Another genus, Creagris, common -in Africa and India, even to Australia, 1s represented in South America by Dimarella,- which possesses the same structural peculiarities, otherwise unknown in the family. One of the most distinct genera of the Chrysopide is Apochrysa. It occurs in Australia, Insulinde, Ceylon, Africa and Eastern South America up into Central America. A distinct genus of caddice flies, Leptonema, common in South America, occurs elsewhere only in Africa and Ceylon. The Oestropsychid caddice flies, of which there are five genera, have a similar distribution, one genus in Insulinde, three both Indian and African, and one Brazilian. The restricted genus Embia, abundant in Africa, has several species in Brazil. The peculiar Oligoneurine mayflies are known from Southern Europe, Africa, Northern South America, Cen- tral America and West. Indies. These instances from the Neuropteroid insects can be duplicated in other orders of insects. What does this relation between South America and parts of Africa and India mean? Consider a third series of cases. Again and again entomol- ogists have called attention to the fact that. many structurally isolated Australian and New Zealand insects find their nearest counterpart in certain Chilian forms. This is as noticeable in the Neuropterotd insects -as’ in:other=orders.; he curious -Australian Perlid genus, Eusthenia, is closely related (as far as existant forms are concerned) only to the Chilian genus, Diam- phipnoa. Stenosmylus occurs only in Australia, New: Zealand, and Chili; Pszlochorema only in Chili and New Zealand; the Chilian Mantispid, Drepanicus, is most-closely related to the Australian genus, Ditaxis. The termite, Porotermes, 1s from Chili, Australia, Tasmania, and South-Africa. siete surely must be a reason for this distribution. ~ There are still other series of cases:of widely - discontinuots distribution. One is the similarity between-certain insects of Patagonia, the Straits, Falkland Islands,- etc.,-and: insects of ‘Europe and North America. T he Limnephilid. caddice flies are almost. wholly Holarctic in distribution, and. constitute -a:large share of our Trichopterous fauna. - One .or two reach. North Africa and Mexico. .In the tropics ‘there are none, but,in this -Patagonian region they reappear in genera. the.sameor closely 1915} == Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects 129: similar to our own. The same can be said of other insects; in Carabide Pycnochila and Omalium are such examples. Mabille reporting on Lepidoptera from Terra del Fuego and Cape Horn, remarks on the likeness of that fauna to the European and North American. Elwes has noted the same thing in butterflies. Another series of cases represent the relationship of the insects of the Madeira and Canary Islands to those of the Med- iterranean region. This has been extensively studied by Wol- laston and Murray for the Coleoptera, and the Neuroptera, though not so fully known from the islands, tell the same story. A series of cases, familiar to us, of discontinuous distribution, are those due to the advance and subsequent retreat of the ice-cap. The cases of butterflies and other insects and spiders stranded on the tops of various mountains are well known; and it should be noted that living with these stranded insects are many others that occur all over the neighboring country. The Holarctic insect fauna includes hundreds of cases of discontin- uous distribution; species the same or closely allied in North America and Europe. These are usually cases of divergent evolution, since in nearly all cases a close comparison shows that they differ slightly in structure, or color, or habits. After one is familiar with the appearance of the insects of the United States and begins to examine exotic forms, he naturally compares them with those of this country, or of Europe, whose fauna is well-known. The Neuropteroid insects that I have seen from South America frequently fall into our genera or are closely related thereto. Certain Chilian forms, and a few others like A po- chrysa, Dimares, etc., look foreign. When I examine the Neu- roptera of Japan and India the same idea appeals to me—how many are closely similar to our own. Here and there, as Perissoneura of Japan, and Palpares in India, are foreign forms. When I consider the Australian Neuropteroids I see also a number that are strikingly like those of the United States. Even frail and isolated genera, as example Sisyra, occur in closely allied species right through from United States, Europe, India, Japan, Insulinde, and to Australia. But with these familiar insects are many that are widely different from our own. This foreign element that I notice in South America, in India, in Australia is the typical African Neuropteroid fauna. 130 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, When I examine the Neuropteroid insects from tropical and South Africa and Madagascar, I see that a large part are strange to me. That where genera are the same, they are usually worldwide, and that many of our typical forms are wholly unrepresented in Africa. The points wherein Australia differs from the United States are in many cases just the points wherein Australia agrees with Africa and Ceylon. For example, Psychopsis, a remarkable Hemerobid that forms a tribe. or subfamily by itself occurs in several species in Australia, East Africa and India. Ankylopterus, Protoplectron, Lysmus, Creagris, Nesoleon, Atalophlebia, Notanitolica, Dipseu- dopsis Periclystus, Suhpalasca, etc., all show the relation of Africa, India, Malasia, and Australia. Various other genera connect Africa and India as Palpares, and Tomatares. Similar striking insects in other orders indicate the same relationship. There is, therefore, broadly speaking but three types of insect fauna, as already noted by Murray. One, the Microtypal, includes many of the insects of Europe and North America, and Northern Asia, a considerable element in Andean America, many in India and Insulinde, and New Zealand, a district rep- resentation in Australia, but very poorly developed in Africa. Another fauna is the African or Gondwandan; it embraces many of the forms most peculiar to us. Its present home is Africa, but strong in Australia and almost as strong in Insulinde and Ceylon, plainly present in India, and noticeable in South America through various isolated genera. We may mention some of the peculiarities of this Gondwandan fauna in Neurop- teroids. There are no Limnephilid, nor Rhyacophilid caddice- flies, no Raphidia, no Panorpa, no Sialis, in fact many of our common genera are there represented by different genera. And third, is the Brazilian fauna, a more recent develop- ment; this does not appear so distinct in the Neuroptera as in the Lepidoptera, but we may cite Allochrysa Callibetis, Hap- loglentus, Ululodes (and allied genera), Trichoscelis, Campsurus, Euthyplocia, Thrysophorus, Blepharopus, Phylloicus, Marilia. It is so customary to consider New Zealand as part of the Australian realm that I desire to express as strongly as possible that as far as their insect fauna is concerned Australia and New Zealand are much more related to other parts of the world than 1915} Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects 131 to each other. Sharp says ‘“‘The Coleopterous fauna of New Zealand seems to have most affinity with that of Chili and Patagonia, and but little with that of the Australian fauna.”’ Meyrick holds that for the Lepidoptera ‘“‘ New Zealand is utterly different from Australia.” The Neuroptera show the same differences. New Zealand lacks all the peculiar, primitive or synthetic Neuroptera such as Ithone, Eusthenia, Nymphes, Stilbopteryx, Mastotermes, Plectrotarsus, etc., that occur in Australia. There are no Ascalaphide in New Zealand, many in Australia, no Mantispide in New Zealand, many in Australia, only one (an separate genus) of Myrmeleons in New Zealand, many in Australia. Among the true Neuroptera Stenosmylus occurs in Australia and New Zealand, but also in Chili. New Zealand is remarkable for its Trichopterous fauna. At least 15 genera are now known from there, some so peculiar they have not been placed in the known subfamilies. Six are not known elsewhere in the world. One (the famous marine caddice fly) occurs else- where only in Australia. Three others occur also in Australia, but also in other parts of the world, two of them in South America. Five occur in various parts of the world, not in Australia, all in South America. In the Mayflies New Zealand has at least 6 genera, three peculiar to the islands, two in Australia, one of which is also elsewhere, and one also in North America. In fact, there are no two regions of the world that are geographically so close and entomologically so remote as Australia and New Zealand. From the above considerations I consider it certain that since the origin of the various orders of insects the continental land-masses have changed entirely. That for a very long period there were two principal continents of very different shape from any that we have at present, and that on one was developed the microtypal fauna, and on the other the Gonwandan; the Bra- zilian fauna being a more recent development. That the con- tinental changes have favored or prevented dispersal, and these continental changes are the real causes of the peculiarities of faunas, and that proximity has little to do with distribution. These series of cases of discontinuous distribution are pos- itive evidence of land connections, now broken, of avenues of dispersal, now closed. The surprises of distribution are due not 132 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, only to these land connections, but to the varying places of origin of the various families and genera. Of the insects in any country, some are endemic, some ancient migrants, some more recent migrants. Our western Raphidiid fauna, and absence of Panorpid fauna could be explained in two ways. The Raphidiudze may have arisen there and migrated to Asia during a land connection, or else if it came from Asia the genus Panorpa was not as abundant in Asia as at the present time. It will be seen from the foregoing that I consider the insect fauna of the United States to be composed of several elements. I believe there are at least five that can easily be distinguished. 1. Genera which are relicts of a very ancient fauna when land masses were of a different conformation from now. These genera are isolated in our fauna and mostly examples of discon- tinuous distribution. One of these series includes the Panorpodes, the Hypochilus, Lachnocrepis, Pristodactyla, Tachopteryx, Hagenius, Tmestphorus, Midea (section of Anthocharis), Cryptocercus, of the Alleghanian fauna, and doubtlessmany other forms showing relation of Cali- fornian and northwest with Europe or Siberia and Japan. Such are Raphidia and Megalomus in Neuroptera. Paraplinthus and Necrophilus are apparently also in this series, and probably Amphizoa and Cephaloon, perhaps Rhinomacer. In Southern California there is a series of isolated genera which indicate relationship to a very ancient fauna, perhaps connected to the islands of the South Seas. Such are Dinapate, Distaxia, Schizopus (Coleopt.), Oliarces (Neur.), Hubbardia (Arachn.), Timena (Orth.), probably Apioceride (Dipt.), and the true Thynnide (Hym.), also belong to this group, which stands widely apart from the other insects around it. In this section we might include any descendants from our Paleozoic insects; I doubt if it is possible to trace any such genera, but our curious Merope tuber may be such a form. The Sialidae may have arisen within our territory as descendants from Paleozoic forms, but from their present distribution one would suspect Southeastern Asia as their starting place. Our mayflies are probably later migrations; Pteronarcys in Perlide may be a derivative of that ancient fauna, but I doubt it; our cockroach fauna is also probably due to later migrations. 1915] __ Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects 133 2. Genera representing relicts of probably an ancient invasion from South America, possibly through the West Indies, and after South America had been connected to Africa or to a Pacific continent. These genera are isolated systematically in our fauna, forms that look out of place in our insects, and usually unrepresented in Europe either recent or fossil, at least northern Europe. Such in the Neuroptera are Dilar, Amphien- tomum, Neoperla, Leptocella, Ganonema. In Coleoptera, Cupes, Ischaha, our Lymexylon, Othnius, Passalus, Pseudomorphus, Brenthus. In Hemiptera Hentcocephalus, Cylapus, Fulvius, Isometopus, probably Belostoma, Oncerotrachelus, Ceratocombide, Rhagovelia. In Hymenoptera, Rhinopsis, Pelecinus, Leucospis, Stizus, Pristocera. In Diptera, Phlebotomus, Nemistrinide, Mydas, Calobata, Sphyracephala, Euxesta, Pyrgota, Blepharoceride, Stylogaster, Systropus. In Lepidoptera Feneseca, Thyris, Stenomma, Hemerophilide, Halesidota. In Orthoptera, Camptonotus. It will at once be noted that this element is almost wholly Eastern, and is the element that distinguishes our Eastern States both from the Western States and from Middle and Northern Europe, in fact a tropical element still present with us, and most noticeable in mid-summer. 3. Genera originating in this country from an insect fauna of which 1 and 2 are the relicts. These are genera confined to the United States but whose affinities are rather with South American or Asian insects than with European. I consider that this fauna had a long period of quiet development and became very extensive. The Miocene fossils perhaps represent this fauna. In Neuroptera, Meleoma, Betisca, Polypsocus, Paraperla, Neophylax, Heteroplectron, Nannothemts, etc. In Coleoptera, Sandalus, and many other genera. In Hemiptera—Siznea, Corythuca, Araphe, Corynocoris, Tel- amona, Cyrtolobus. In Hymenoptera, Lyroda, Grotea, Labena, Ceratogastra. In Diptera, Eclimus, Pelastoneurus, Bittacomorpha, Eutreta, Acrotoxa, Pseudotephritis, Idana. 134 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, In Lepidoptera, Psychomorpha, Acoloithus, our Blasto- baside. In Orthoptera, Stenopelmatus, Ceuthophilus, Hippiscus. In this fauna there was apparently no Cicadide, no Mantide, nor Mantispide, no Mutillidea, no Ascalaphide, no Myr- meleonidz, no Emeside, and few forms of a number of families, now fairly well represented here. These came in later from the South. 4. Genera (and derivative genera) representing the hol- arctic fauna shoved down by the advance of the ice-sheet, and left well scattered by the retreat of the ice-cap. These are the forms that show the relationship of our insect fauna particularly that of the Eastern States (and British America) with the insects of Northern and Middle Europe. The bulk of many large fam- ilies belongs to this section, which is most prominent in the spring. In the Neuroptera, nearly all the Trichoptera, probably Panorpa, Hemerobius, Chrysopa in part, several genera of Odonata as Sympetrum, Aeschna, Cordulia. In Coleoptera, much of the Carabide, Staphylinide, etc. In Hemiptera, many Capsids, Lygezids, and Corixa, Jasside, Aradide, Corizus, Salda. In Hymenoptera, many Tenthredinide, Ichneumonide, Osmia, Bombus, Andrena, Crabro. In Diptera, many Muscide, Anthomyiide, Syrphide, and genera in nearly all families, as Bombylius, Pipunculus, Syrphus. In Lepidoptera, many Noctuide, Geometride, and genera all through the order. In Orthoptera, Tettix, Gryllus, Decticus, Podisma. This element is recognized by all entomologists; possibly the lower borders of this Holarctic fauna was contiguous to the previous element, and represented by the Florissant fossils; but I am inclined to believe that these fossils show more relation to a Western fauna rather than to a northern one. 5. Genera representing a comparatively recent influx from the American Tropics, a migration still in progress. To this belong our Mantispide, much of Myrmeleonide, Ascalaphide, Mantide, Cicadide, Mutillide, Brenthide, much of the Reduviide and other Heteroptera, many genera as Acordulecera, Pepsis, Allochrysa, Resthenia, Heterinia, Callibetis, the Ana- 1915] Distribution of Neuropteroid Insects 3%) phoride, Megacilissa, Exomalopsis, Entechuia, A piomerus, Con- orhinus, Anasa, Zelus, Polybia, Schistocerca, Volucella, Schinia. I doubt not but there are other elements also in our fauna, but I think that these are the most noticeable, and sufficient to show that the Nearctic insect fauna is not a realm, but a con- glomeration of several such realms. The history of each insect is written in its structure. It is therefore possible to discover where each form arose and how it accomplished its distribution. This involves a study of the phylogeny of the genus or family, an investigation of its orig- inal home, and the causes that have aided or barred its dispersal; but the essential basis of all is the systematic study of the group SUGGESTIONS FOR TRACING RELATIONSHIPS OF INSECTS. By NATHAN BANKS. In studying any group, especially when one is trying to make a synoptic table, we become interested in the relationships or affinities and try to arrange the species or genera according to our ideas of their phylogeny. Yet, I fear in many cases we proceed without any clear idea of a basis for decision. It is evident that in different groups different methods may be nec- essary, but there are a few considerations which I think may apply to many cases. Some authors try to put first those forms that possess prim- itive characters, or the greatest number of such characters. Others take certain synthetic forms which seem to show rela- tionships in several directions as a starting point for the group. Everyone has observed that in any large group, as an order, there is contradictory evidence as to what is the most primitive family or genus. In Coleoptera for example, certain genera have more free ventral segments than usual, other genera have ocelli, or traces of a median suture on the head, yet some of these will not have the five-jointed tarsi. A case familiar to me is the Hydropsychid caddice-flies. Their ancestors were near the Rhyacophilidz and had 3, 4, 4, spurs, ocelli present, and the female with two little appendages at tip of the body. We find in the Hydropsychids that some have ocelli, but do not have the 3, 4, 4 spurs, while others have the 3, 4, 4 spurs, but not the ocelli, and various genera have the primitive abdominal appendages. In other words primitive characters are inherent in the descendants and may be developed in various parts of the descendant series, or, more properly, retained by varying lines of descendant series, so that taking any family of existent forms several arrangements are possible according to what primitive character is chosen as the criterion. Genera differ from other genera by at least two sets of char- acters. One is the positive characters, the presence or absence of a structure, the other is in accrescent characters, or developing 136 1915} Tracing Relationships of Insects 137 tendencies. The positive characters are most useful in delimiting genera (and other groups) but because of their constancy of little value in tracing relationship. It is to these accrescent characters that we should look for phylogeny. _ If several species of a genus A have spines on the vertex, and an allied genus also has spinose vertex, it is not likely that these spines in genus A will indicate relationship; but if in a series of genera with bare vertex, there is a genus in which spines are present, then the arrangement and size of these spines may indicate phylogeny. Take for example the spider genus Tetrag- natha; it has a peculiar character in the enlarged, much-toothed mandibles; a study of the increased modification and armature of these mandibles will afford clues to relationship of the species. Formerly I and others have used variations in eye-position as group characters, but these same variations in eyes occur in allied genera and so may occur in various parts of Tetragnatha irrespective of phylogeny. Therefore, to my mind the best way to get at the relation- ships of the species of a genus, or the genera of a family, is by tracing the development of some character peculiar to the series; an accrescent character, found in varying stages of development in the group, but not found in allied groups, particularly groups that may be considered ancestral to the group in question. There are many prominent cases where, I believe, primitive characters have deceived systematists. For example, in spiders the cribellum and calamistrum are primitive characters, and , occur in groups otherwise widely separated. Several arachnol- ogists have insisted on grouping these forms together, thus producing a most heterogeneous assemblage, whereas if they would ignore these primitive characters, and study the accres- cent development of some peculiar character of spiders they would reach a better knowledge of their phylogeny; the male palpi are just such a character. Another case is the pronotum in Hymenoptera extending to the tegulza; Ashmead put the social and fossorial wasps together on this account; the character occurs elsewhere in the Hymenop- tera, and therefore cannot be depended upon to indicate affinity. In the Lepidoptera various systems have been based on the possession of some primitive character, thus the case-forming habit of larve, the jugum, mandibles, number of anal veins, etc., 138 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, have served to unite groups otherwise discordant. A careful study of the proboscis, or the scales might serve to give clues to phylogeny. In the Coleoptera, tarsal and antennal characters have been used yet mostly in vain, the elytra, a character peculiar to the group, should be investigated. If we consider groups as large or larger than families we notice that specialization has not proceeded along one definite line, but the line of specialization is continually changing, and often accompanied by other mod- ifications. Each change in the line of specialization marks the limits of a group of greater or less extent; one structure having reached a certain stage marks time while other structures are modified. The Mantispide have peculiar front legs, having reached a certain development this structure remains fairly stable, while other structures develop. The Limnephilide in the Trichoptera are an example of stability in venation; generic characters are largely to be found elsewhere, while in the Sericostomatide venation continues to vary and aid in defining genera. In the Diptera the Muscide, Tachinide, Dexide and Sar- cophagide were defined by bare or pilose antennz, yet genera with pilose antennz occur in various related families. An accrescent character of these groups appears to be the chaeto- taxy, and this has been used to indicate a new classification of these families. Structural and other characters may be roughly grouped into two sections, adaptive, that is those which have been influenced by environment and habits, and atavic, or those which are of no use to the insect, and persist because they are not in the way, and have a long history back of them. The adaptive characters are of use in small groups to indicate affinity, but soon break down when applied on a larger scale. Thus two eyeless species occurring in the same caves may be closely related when belonging to one genus, but most such eye- less cave insects are not related. Asa whole adaptive characters are of little use in tracing relationships. It is the atavic, or accompanying characters, not related to a life-habit, that are the best for indicating affinity. All insects have many points of structure or color that are of no use to them. Many of these 1915] Tracing Relationships of Insects 139 characters are variable, and one must endeavor to find by an examination of a long series of at least a few species what characters are constant. Atavic characters usually exist unchanged through a long series, so they are of no use (or little use) in tracing affinity within a genus. They are of most use in indicating the relation- ships of genera and families, and especially where insects have acquired a number of striking adaptive characters, some of which may be those of convergence and tend to conceal the true affinities. Other points might be brought out, but at present I desire to impress upon systematists that atavic characters should be sought in the broader fields of classification, while in many studies, particularly in genera, accrescent characters should be considered, while the use of primitive and of adaptive characters should be avoided, or used only in connection with the others. LIFE HISTORY OF THELIA BIMACULATA FAB. (MEMBRACID£). W. D. FUNKHOUSER. (Contribution from the Entomological Laboratory of Cornell University.) Thelia bimaculata Fab., is one of the most common and widely distributed of the species of Membracide in eastern United States and is abundant on locust (Robinia pseudacacia L.) in the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y., where the following study has been made. The life history of this insect has not hitherto been described and the only reference in literature to the imma- ture form seems to be the short description and the excellent figure of the last nymphal stage by Matausch* in 1912. Although both adults and nymphs may be collected in large numbers throughout the summer, the efforts of several years of rather extensive field work on the local forms of the family failed to show any records of oviposition or traces of the eggs until it was noticed that early in the spring the nymphs appeared most abundant near the bases of the trees and seemed to be migrating upward on the trunk, which led to the natural conclusion that the eggs were laid near the ground. This surmise proved to be correct and upon removing the dead leaves and humus from around the bases of the trees, great numbers of nymphs with their attendants were exposed, and the bark, a few inches under the forest litter and just above the roots, was found to be punc- tured with egg-slits and full of eggs and emerging nymphs. This location for the egg-punctures is rather peculiar, since most of the species of Membracide common to this locality lay their eggs in the buds or in the younger twigs near the end of the branches.t After the eggs were discovered and the egg-laying habits observed, no difficulty was experienced in rearing the insects and in securing the rest of the life-history data. 3 aes Ignaz Bull. American Museum Natural Hist. 1912. Vol. XXXI; 26, 333. Pl. 29, Fig. 7. + Cf. Hodgkiss, H. E. The pple and Pear Membracids. Geneva Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 17. 1910. Riley, C. V.. Proc: Ent. Soc. Wash. 1893. Vol. Ils 88-92" p: Marlatt, Co. Insect Lites 1894- Viole Vil: 8-14" p. Matausch, I. Observations on the Life History of Enchenopa binotata Say. Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc. March, 1912. Vol. XX: No. 1. 58-67 p. 140 1915] Life History Thelia Bimaculata 141 GENERAL DESCRIPTION. This species of Membracide is one of the largest represen- tatives of the family found in New York state. The male was originally described by Fabricius in 1794 and no doubt received its specific name from the gaudy yellow fascia on the thorax. The female is quite different in color from the male, being of a sober uniform gray with occasional irregular brownish markings. Thelia bimaculata is the type of Amyot and Serville’s old genus Thelia (1843) and is one of the few remaining species now left in that genus. The species may be at once recognized by the porrect pro- notal horn, the longitudinal ridges of the prothorax, the sharp posterior process and the yellow stripes of the male. HABITS. Of all the insects which inhabit the locust none are more interesting or more easily observed than this large and handsome species of membracid. Locally they may be found in remark- able numbers from early spring until late autumn, and with their nymphs and constantly attending ants provide a most profitable source of study. They seem to prefer the smaller trees and are most abundant in rather open growths where the trees are young and not over twenty feet in height, and here they choose the lower branches and the trunk for their resting places. They are seldom found more than fifteen feet above the ground. Like most membracids they enjoy the sun and the most favorable collecting places are the trees in the open fields, along the roadsides, and at the edges of timber. They are seldom, if ever, seen in shady woods. The adults have the interesting habit of resting on the larger branches and on the trunk in rows of from twenty to forty individuals, ranged so close together that their bodies are almost touching, and almost invariably with the heads pointing towards the base of the branch, or pointing downward if they are on the trunk. Whether this characteristic attitude is assumed in order to increase their resemblance to the thorns and irregularities of growth of their host, would be a matter of conjecture. An idea of the number of individuals which may thus be found may be given by the fact that one field note (July 22, 1911) records the taking of 280 adults and over 200 nymphs at one time from one small tree. 142 Annals Entomological Society of America (Vol. VIII, The species is not active, although the insects fly well for short distances with a distinct buzzing flight, and they may usually be picked up with the fingers without difficulty. The males are more active than the females and more easily disturbed. Migra- tion is evidently slow, as it often happens that one tree may be covered with individuals while another in close proximity is unmolested. In this locality, under ordinary conditions, both sexes appear in nearly equal numbers until about the middle of August, after which time the males become scarcer and by the first of October have practically disappeared, although the females remain abundant until late in November. Females have been collected, in fact, some time after the first few snows have fallen, but there is no evidence to show that any of the adults winter over. The nymphs are usually found on the trunk near the ground, tightly flattened against the tree in the crevices of the bark, a position which makes their protective resemblance truly remark- able, and where the gray color and spiny dorsum is conducive to a most effective concealment. The larger individuals migrate upward and when seen on the branches are found pressed closely to the bark in the crotch of a twig or the axil of a leaf, where they tend to escape any but the most careful search. They are, however, attended by ants in large numbers, and these vigilant attendants betray to the collector of the nymphs the object of his search. The anal tubes of the immature insects are capable of great evagination and from these tubes issues in bub- bles the liquid which the ants seek. This liquid appears to be secreted more abundantly when the ant strokes the nymph with its antenne. When picked up in the fingers the nymphs at once eject some of this fluid, sometimes in considerable quan- tities. The ants attend the adults as well as the nymphs but only the nymphal forms have been observed to give off liquid in the manner described. The ants do not hesitate to protect their charges, and bite viciously the fingers of the collector who seeks to remove the nymphs from the tree. MATING AND OVIPOSITION. Under natural seasonal conditions mating begins in the field about the first week in July. The position assumed in this process is the one not unusual in Hemiptera, with the caudal extremities together and the heads in opposite directions. The 1915} Life History Thelia Bimaculata 143 individuals are very sluggish at this time and seldom move unless disturbed. The time taken in the field for the process is generally about twenty minutes, but one pair in the laboratory remained in cop for almost an hour. Mating continues through- out the summer, the largest number of cases being noted during the last week in August. The last date on which this process has been observed in the field was November 6th. In oviposition the female descends to the base of the tree, with the head pointing downward, and makes a narrow longi- tudinal slit about seven millimeters long in which the eggs are deposited. In very young stems the egg-slit sometimes pierces the wood but in most cases the ovipositor is deflected on striking the wood and slips to one side, the eggs being laid in the cam- bium between the bark and xylem. The slit is very narrow and hardly noticeable but the tips of the eggs may be seen protruding very slightly out of the bark when the process is completed (Fig. 3.) The eggs are about 2144 mm. long, white and club- shaped (Fig. 1). They are laid in a palmate formation (Fig. 2) recalling the egg-mass of Stictocephala inermis Fab.,* but much larger. The bases of the eggs are about 5 mm. apart and the apices compressed closely together. The number of eggs varies from three to six in a slit, the latter number being most common. The process occupies about forty minutes, after which the insect usually moves upward and slightly around the stem and repeats the process. One female has been known to make three such slits in succession, but as egg-laying is usually observed in the late afternoon it is difficult to keep field records on this score and the average number of egg-masses laid by one female at one time may be larger. Dissection shows the average number of eggs in the abdomen of the female to be twenty-eight. EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF NYMPHS. The first numphs begin to appear in late May and early June. Field records made on May 30, 1911, June 1, 1912, June 2, 1913, and June 1, 1914, show that the early stages were collected on these dates. About two days before hatching, the tips of the eggs begin to crack and just before the nymphs emerge, break open at the top and usually split some distance down the side. *Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 17. Geneva, 1910. Pl. 2, Fig. 5. 144 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, There are five instars and each may be easily recognized. © In the first (Fig. 4) the insect is almost white and the dorsum is armed with branched spines as in the case of the nymphs of the subfamily Ceresint. The beak is very long, reaching almost to the tip of the abdomen. In the second instar (Fig. 5) the nymph is dark colored, the thoracic spines have almost disappeared, the abdominal spines are much shorter and three-branched and the beak still very long. The third instar (Fig. 6) shows no thoracic spines but a swelling which precedes the pronotal horn, the meso- and metathoracic segments are slightly lengthened at their lateral margins and the abdominal spines are simple and not branched. In the fourth instar (Fig. 7) the pronotal swell- ing has become lengthened and porrect and the wing-pads are apparent, while the abdomen is marked with dark spots and the beak is shorter. The fifth and last instar (Fig. 8) presents a greatly developed pronotum which now covers the mesonotum, the wing-pads are fully developed and the legs are characteristic- ally mottled with brown. The time occupied in this process appears to be subject to some variation but whether this is due to seasonal or weather conditions it has not been possible to determine. It has been noticed that the nymphs which appear in the early summer require a slightly shorter time between the periods of molting than those which emerge in the fall. It has also been observed that in some cases the males appear to require a longer time in each nymphal stage than do the females. The first molt usually occurs about a week after hatching; the second five days later; the third instar lasts six days; the fourth instar six days, and the last, which is subject to the most variation, from eight to fifteen days. Thus the total period from egg to adult is approximately one month. ECDYSIS. The splitting of the integument first appears on the dorsal part of the head. It then continues down the median dorsal line but seldom extends farther than the sixth abdominal segment. The head is released slowly but the thorax quickly follows and the integument sometimes breaks around the coxe and femora leaving parts of the old skin attached to the legs for some time after the ecdysis is completed. In fact, this insect often leaves an imperfect exuvia, and forms are commonly found with rem- 1915] Life History Thelia Bimaculata 145 nants of the old integument still clinging to the legs and abdo- men. The abdomen is removed slowly, here again, especially in the case of the female, small pieces of old skin sometimes remaining attached to the caudal extremity to be sluffed off later. The process is a comparatively rapid one, usually occu- pying about twelve minutes, while in one case observed in the laboratory (in the last molt) the time from the first splitting of the skin over the head to the complete emergence of the insect lasted only five minutes. The recently emerged adults are almost white, the abdomen gray or greenish, and the whole body very soft. The thorax hardens rapidly and the normal color is completely apparent at the end of six hours. At first the colors are quite brilliant but become duller in a few days. The newly molted adults are very active and fly in a surprisingly short time but during the first few hours of their adult life the pronotal horn is likely to be injured on account of its soft condition, and if crushed or twisted will harden permanently in that position. The old nymphal skins do not remain attached to the host but drop to the ground as soon as the ecdysis is complete. Consequently the cast skins are not seen on the trees as they are in the case of most of our other forms of Membracide. FEEDING. © Although careful field notes have been kept on this species for several years, and a very large number of individuals have been observed under natural conditions, surprisingly few actual instances of feeding have been noted. When recorded, it has always been in the early morning, and the insects have been, not on the more succulent twigs as might be expected, but on the second or third year’s growth, with their beaks in the crev- ices of the bark. In the laboratory the nymphs fed on the young stems but the feeding periods were very short and they seldom moved about on the plant. No records were made of the nymphs feeding in the field. It may be noted that both while feeding and while molting the nymphs are constantly attended by swarms of ants which seem in no way to disturb the membracids and it has even been suggested by Miss Branch* _ that the ants are necessary factors in the life of an individual * Branch, Hazel E. The Kansas University Bulletin. July, 1913. Vol. VIII: No. 3., p. 84. 146 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, membracid. The experience of that author, however, in rearing the nymphs of Entylia sinuata, in which species the molting was not successfully accomplished in the laboratory without the presence of ants, has not been experienced in the rearing of Thelia bimaculata, since this latter insect has molted repeatedly while in the cages in the insectary without the attendance of ants. The feeding of this membracid, likewise, has not seemed to be affected in the least by the absence or presence of these usual attendants. Hosts. Robinia pseudacacia L. seems to be the only host supporting Thelia bimaculata in this locality. Specimens have never been taken on any other tree although in general collecting for Mem- bracide practically all of the local flora has been examined. Likewise, no evidences of eggs or nymphs have ever been found except on this one host. Neither have specimens of this species been collected in the grass or weeds or by sweeping and it seems evident that the entire life cycle of the insect is spent on the locust. As has been stated, the migration of this form seems to be limited and the insects appear year after year in a given group of trees while others nearby are not infested. ENEMIES. Parasitism is common in the eggs but none of the parasites have been identified in the course of this study. Many eggs fail to mature and are found to be punctured and blackened. The bodies of both nymphs and adults, also, often contain larva— apparently hymenopterous—but none of these have thus far been successfully reared although several attempts have been made to work out this phase of the subject. Matausch has recorded parasitism in this speciest which destroyed the sexual organs but was not able to rear the parasites. The larger Asilids occasionally carry off a membracid and in one instance a toad was found at the foot of a tree busily engaged in trying to secure the nymphs. In this case the operation seemed to be fraught with some difficulties on account of the tenacity with which the membracids held to their host and on account of their sheltered position in the cracks of the bark, + Matausch, Ignaz. The effects of parasitic castration in Membracide. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Sept., 1911. Vol. XIX: No. 8. 194-196 p. 1915} Life History Thelia Bimaculata 147 and they would doubtless have escaped unnoticed had it not been for the movements of the large ants running briskly about them. Birds apparently avoid the insect. No case of their being eaten by birds has been observed in the field, and several handfuls thrown to birds in captivity were refused, although one or two individuals were picked up, only to be dropped again. Evidently the strong pronotal horn and the sharp posterior process (the latter being sharp and hard enough to pierce the skin if the adult insect is suddenly seized) and the hard prothorax are sufficient protection from bird enemies. The bodies of these insects are occasionally infested by a small red mite, and not infrequently a membracid is found in a spider’s web. ATTENDANCE By ANTS. The attendance by ants on various species of Membracidez has often been recorded. Interesting notes have been pub- lished on this subject by Mrs. Rice!, Miss Branch?, Belt*, Green!, and Lamborn’, and attention called to the fact by other authors. In the case of Thelia bimaculata this is a most noticeable and interesting feature of their life-history. The species of ants which have been found attending both nymphs and adults have been very kindly determined by Professor W. M. Wheeler as follows: Formica obscuriventris Mayr, Formica exsectoides Forel, Camponotus pennsylvanicus DeGeer, Crematogaster lineolata Say and Prenolepis imparis Say. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Thelia bimaculata can hardly be considered as an insect of economic importance in so far as any damage to the tree caused by its presence is concerned. The amount of sap consumed is apparently very small and the method of egg-laying has prac- tically no injurious effect on the host. The fact that the egg- slits are very narrow and placed longitudinally, makes it possible for the bark to quickly heal over the wound and the scars have 1Rice, Mrs. M. E. Insect Life. 1898. Vol. V: No. 4. 243-245 p. Branch, Hazel E. Morphology and Biology of the Membracide of Kansas. Kans. Univ. Bull. 1913. ae VIII: No. 3. p. 84. 3Belt, T. Honey exuding Membracide attended by ants. Naturalist in Nic- aragua. 1874. 4Green, E. E. Note on the attractive properties of certain larval Hemiptera. Ent. Month. Mag. Aug. 1900. Vol. XX XVII: p. 185. 5Lamborn, W. A. Ants and Membracide. Trans. Lond. Ent. Soc. 1918. 494- 498. p. 148 Annals Entomological Society of America (Vol. VIII, usually disappeared after the second season. No trace has been found of other insects or of fungus in the openings thus made, and since the ovipositor of the insect seldom penetrates the wood there is no trace of the incision below the bark. A careful com- parison of trees in the field has led to the conclusion that those on which the membracids were numerous were in no way less sturdy than those on which no membracids were found. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS. Egg: Measurements: Average length 2.6 mm.; average greatest width .6 mm. Club-shaped. Smooth, without sculpturing. Translucent white with pointed end opaque white. Neck gradually acute. Chorion vit- reous. Cap comparatively large, somewhat wrinkled. Micropylar apparatus opaque and white. First instar: Measurements: Length 1.8 mm.; maximum width .2 mm. White, with brown head and brown dorsal spots; dorsal surface decorated with prominent bristles. : Head broad, flat, brown, covered with long bristles; constriction between head and thorax deep; eyes prominent, centers blood-red; antennz colorless, well developed; clypeus white; beak white and extending almost to tip of abdomen; ferruginous maxillary and man- dibular sete visible. Prothorax prominent, brown, tuft of three paired bristles on median dorsal line, one pair of very fine bristles anterior to this tuft and a single bristle on each side below it. Mesothorax white with brown lateral patch on each side near dorsum, one heavy branched bristle on each side median dorsal line with fine lateral bristle below it. Metathorax white, four fine unbranched dorsal bristles. Abdomen with eight visible segments, brown above, white below, fifth and sixth seg- ments white throughout, seventh and eighth segments brown above and white below, each of first six abdominal segments bearing above a pair of heavy branched spines suddenly acuminate in a fine bristle and two rows of fine lateral hairs, seventh and eighth segments with a pair of fine unbranched bristles on each side dorsal line, underside of abdomen white and sparsely pilose, anal tube protruding. Legs and feet entirely white, femora and tibiz hairy. The above description from a specimen killed and described immediately on its emergence from the egg. Second instar: Measurements: Length 2—2.8 mm.; maximum width 1 mm. Entirely light chocolate brown except undersurface of abdomen which is white; body very finely punctate with white. Head finely pilose; dorso-cephalic part produced into two tuberos- ities; beak heavy and extending almost to extremity of abdomen. 1915] Life History Thelia Bimaculata 149 Prothorax brown with two pairs of short blunt bristles. Meso-and metathorax each uniform brown with one pair of obsolete bristles on median dorsal line. Abdomen brown, posterior margins of segments darker; eight segments distinct, first six pairs bearing double row of blunt spines at dorsal line, each spine with short lateral bristles and ending in a fine hair, last two segments faintly bristled; anal tube prominent. Legs brown, somewhat lighter at joints. Third instar: Measurements: Length 3-5 mm.; maximum width 2—2.5 mm. Gray-brown mottled with dark brown; undersurface of abdomen lighter. Body wider and flatter in proportion than in preceding instars; widest in abdominal region. Pronotal horn beginning to appear on pro- thorax and lateral margins of meso-and metathorax beginning to lengthen to form wing-pads. Head wide, frontal tubercles prominent, front of head dark in color; eyes brown, facets distinct; ocelli visible; clypeus set off by distinct suture; beak extending to a point half-way between hind coxe and apex of abdomen. Prothorax with prominent tuberosity on median dorsal line; entire dorsal surface of prothorax swollen. Mesothorax and meta- thorax almost smooth above; lateral margins of each of these segments extended in blunt points. Each abdominal segment bearing double row of short, sharp spines above; two parallel rows of dark spots on each side of abdomen in about the position in which the lateral hairs appeared in the first instar; anal tube prominent and black. Legs mot- tled brown; femora almost black; tibie lighter at extremities; tarsi flavous. Fourth instar: Measurements: Length 5-7.5 mm.; maximum width 2.5-3 mm. Body robust; abdomen heavy; color light mottled gray. Pronotal process becoming porrect; prothorax overlapping mesothorax. Wing- pads well developed. Head decidedly prone; frontal tuberosities pointing directly for- ward; eyes light brown; ocelli prominent; clypeus well defined; beak reaching just beyond posterior coxeze. Prothorax well developed; anterior process becoming porrect; posterior margin of pronotum beginning to overlap mesonotum. Mesothorax and metathorax almost smooth above; wing-pads well formed and prominent, covering one-third of second abdominal segment at lateral margin. Abdomen very light in color with longitudinal brown fascia above, almost white below; spir- acles very distinct; anal tube darker than the rest of the abdomen and often much distended; first two abdominal segments almost smooth above, next five bearing short, thickened spines. Legs and feet mottled brown, sparingly spined and pilose; femora hairy and club-shaped; tibiz somewhat flattened; tarsi comparatively large; claws heavy and strong. 150 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, Fifth instar: Measurements: Length 8-10 mm.; maximum width 3.5—5 mm. Body robust; mottled gray; anterior pronotal process porrect; pronotum entirely covering mesonotum dorsally; wing-pads fully devel- oped, first and second pads extending about equidistant posteriorly; legs mottled. Head much deflexed; frontal tuberosities small; eyes brown; ocelli white; clypeus distinct. Prothorax well developed and_ strongly chitenized; anterior process projecting far forward, cylindrical; meso- thorax and metathorax distinct; wing-pads long, wings sometimes faintly visible through the pads. Abdomen greatly swollen; double row of blunt spines down dorsal line, smaller anteriorly and increasing in size toward the posterior end; nine segments distinctly visible; undersurface of abdomen greenish-white, in female sometimes showing impression of ovipositor. Legs strongly marked with patches of gray-brown; femora and tibize pilose; tarsi hghter in color; claws ferruginous. Adult—Female: Measurements: Length 11 mm.; length including horn 14 mm.; width between humeral angles 5.5 mm. Gray with indistinct darker irregular markings; porrect cylindrical horn, slightly flattened and somewhat darker in color at the tip; tegmina hyaline, apex fuscous, almost reaching extremity of dorsal process. Head including eyes twice as broad as long, grayish-yellow mottled with ferruginous and brown; margins of lore strongly sinuate; clypeus pilose; eyes dark brown; ocelli white, nearer to each other than to the eyes and situated on a line drawn through center of eyes; beak extending to posterior coxze; head very sparingly punctate and sparsely pilose. Thorax gray, deeply and densely punctate; median percurrent brown line sharpened into a ridge on extremity of horn and at apex of posterior process; sides of prothorax roughly and irregularly carinate; horn porrect and greatly variable in length, cylindrical except at extreme tip where it is flattened laterally; posterior process heavy, tectiform, grad- ually acute, almost straight, very slightly decurved and extending just beyond apex of tegmina. Tegmina hyaline, apex fuscous, base and costal region lightly punctate; under-wings hyaline, two-thirds as long as tegmina. Under surface of body gray-brown, pubescent. Legs uniform yellow brown; femora thick and smooth; tibiae and tarsi densely pilose. Male: Differs from female in size and markings. Smaller, body somewhat less robust; porrect horn usually shorter and tending to curve; tegmina equalling apex of posterior process. Color deep chocolate brown; porrect horn almost black; apex of posterior process becoming cinnamon brown; a wide, brilliant, lemon-yellow longitudinal stripe on each side of prothorax, extending from margin half-way to median dorsal line, also small patches of yellow on metopidium; head yellow with brown patches. Undersurface of abdomen darker than in female. 1915] Life History Thelia Bimaculata , BE BIBLIOGRAPHY. Amyot and Serville. Hemipt. 1843. 541. 1. Belt, T. Naturalist in Nicaragua. 1874. Branch, Hazel E. Kans. Univ. Bull. 1913. III: 3. Buckton, G.B. Monograph Membracide 1903. 218. 9. Coquebert, de M. Illus. Icon. Ins. 1799. I: 2.31. Pl. 8, Fig.1 Emmons, E. Agr. N. Y. 1854. V: 156. Pl. 3, Fig. 15. Fabricius, J. Ent. Syst. 1794. IV: 10, 11. Syst. Rhyng. 1803. 14. 37. Fairmaire, L. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1846. IV: 312. 21. Fitch, A. 4th Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist. 1851. 52. 694. Funkhouser, W. D. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 1918. VI: 1. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 21, 24, 25. Glover, T. Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1876. 29.17. MS. Journ. Hom. 1878. Pl. 1, Fig. 24. Goding, F. W. Cat. Memb. North Amer. 1894. 411.52. Insect Life. 1892. V: 93. Green, E. E. Ent. Month. Mag. 1900. XX XVII: 185. Harris, T. W. Treatise. 1862. 221-222. Hodgkiss, H. E. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 17. Geneva 1910. Lamborn, W. A. Trans. Lond. Ent. Soc. 1913. 494-498 p. Marlatt, C. L. Insect Life, 1894. VII: 8-14 p. Matausch, I. Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 1911. XIX:3.195. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1912. XXXII: 26. 388. Pl. 29) Fig. 7. Provancher, L. Faune Can. 1886. III: 242. Pl. 5, Fig. 9. Rathvon. Momb. Hist. Lanc. Co. Pa. 1869. 551. Rice, Mrs. M. E. Insect Life. 1893. V: 4. 243-245 p. Riley, C. V. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 1898. III: 88-92 p. Saouith; J. B. Cat. Ins. N. J. 1890. 441. Cat. Ins. N. J. 1909. 91. Stal; GC) Hem. Fabr. 1869. Il: 115. 37. Uhler, P. R. In Harris Treat. 1862. 221. VanDuzee, E. P. Psyche 1890. V: 391. Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sc. 1908. IX: 57. 1. Walker, F. List Hom. B. M. Cat. 1851. 566. 36. Idem 1142. 30. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. Big. I. Ege. Fig. 2. Egg-mass showing arrangement (Inside of bark). Fig. 3. Egg-slit showing tips of eggs (Outside of bark). Fig. 4. First instar. Fig. 5. Second instar. Fig. 6. Third instar. Fig. 7. Fourth instar. Fig. 8. Fifth instar. Fig. 9. Adult female. Fig. 10. Adult male. VoL. VIII, PLATE IX. W. D. Funkhouser. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HAIRS UPON THE WINGS OF PLATYPHYLAX DESIGNATUS WALK. By WM. S. MARSHALL, University of Wisconsin. While it has been assumed that the hairs on the wings of the Trichoptera develop in exactly the same way as those upon the wings of the Lepidoptera there is, so far as we know, no definite work to show that this assumption is correct. The following study was therefore undertaken to definitely ascertain, in some one species of Trichoptera, in what manner these hairs did develop upon the surface of the wings and Platyphylax designatus was selected for the work. It has been impossible to find any works which could be given as an historical review of the subject and those papers having to do with the development of the wing of the caddis- flies have been given in a former paper (5). Dewitz (3), from whose work comes most of our previous knowledge of the devel- opment of the wings in this group of insects, does not take up the formation of the wing hairs. Spuler (9) distinguishes between hair scales and those hairs without a circular ring-like base for articulation and he shows a surface view of a portion of the wing of a Trichopteran, Philopotamus scopulorum, with a few of the latter hairs and four of the ring-like bases into which the hair scales are inserted. Regarding these structures he says: “Die gleichen Gebilde (hairs) finden wir auch bei den Trichop- teren, gerade die Micropteryginen und Hepialiden, in der Fligelbidlung so nahe den allgemeinen Modus der Haarbildung vor sich. Dieselben werden von der Hypodermis gebildet. Jeder Stachel ist seiner Bildung nach unicellular.’’ Tower (11) reaches a similar conclusion, saying: ‘“‘In development the scales of Coleoptera follow exactly the same course as was found by Mayer (6) in the Lepidoptera.” The wings of Platyphylax designatus are more or less covered with hairs; these are present upon all the wings and on both surfaces although the anterior wings show a greater degree of pubescence than the posterior and the upper surface bears a much larger number of hairs than the lower. These hairs can be roughly divided into four groups: 1, vein and marginal hairs; 2, large surface hairs; 3, small surface hairs; 4, special long hairs. 153 154 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, 1, vein and marginal hairs. The vein hairs are in most cases in a single row on nearly all of the longitudinal veins and are apt to be equidistant from each other; this is not true for the entire course of each vein as the hairs generally come closer and closer together in passing from the distal to the proximal part of the vein. Besides what one might call the ordinary vein hairs there are a number of very much smaller ones which, upon many of the veins, alternate with the larger hairs; on account of the prominence of the regular vein hairs these smaller ones are not at first likely to be seen. The vein hairs are mostly restricted to the upper surface and are more numerous and larger on the anterior than upon the posterior wings. The longest and thick- est vein hairs are found near the base of the anterior wing, these are fluted, with many small ridges running lengthwise along the hair giving it the appearance of a cog wheel in transverse section (Fig. 1). The marginal hairs, similar in size and structure to the vein hairs, are found not only upon the extreme margin of the wing but they extend for a short distance on to both the upper and the lower surfaces. In the anterior wing these hairs are longest, all lie close down against the margin and are directed toward the apex of the wing. Along the anterior margin of the posterior wing these hairs are similar in position to those upon the anterior wing but along its posterior and outer margins they are arranged perpendicular to it; these hairs as well as some upon the surface are plumose, the plumules are very small and not visible until the hairs are examined with a high power of the microscope. All vein and marginal hairs are widest at the base and grad- ually taper to a point; they are hollow, nearly all are slightly curved and each fits into a raised ring-like cuticular opening on the surface of the wing. 2. Large surface hairs. Nearly all of these hairs are smaller than those just described, they are also heavier and darker and a little more curved. On the anterior wing these hairs are more numerous than on the posterior one and in both wings they are much more abundant upon the upper surface. On the posterior wing most of these hairs are on its outer third, except a narrow strip running along near the costal margin, and there are several large hairless areas, these are probably due to 1915] Wing Hairs of Platyphylax Designatus tao the folding of the wing. The circular raised ring into which the hairs fit is smaller and less noticeable than the similar part for vein and marginal hairs. These surface hairs have a pointed distal end, with this exception their diameter changes but little and they do not become widened at the base. 3. small surface hairs. These are very numerous and are scattered regularly on the surface, vein and margin. They are all nearly equal in size and are bent or hooked near the tip. A surface view of any part of either wing shows that these hairs come from nearly all of the hypodermal cells which have not taken part in the formation of one of the larger hairs. 4. The longest hairs are near the base of the posterior wings, they are much longer than the others and are present upon the surface and on the veins. These long narrow hairs are of equal diameter throughout except the pointed distal end. The ring- like cuticular thickening into which each hair fits is not directly upon the surface but situated upon a rounded papilla. In transverse section these hairs are seen to be fluted, much more deeply so than the large ridged vein hairs; the number of raised ridges varies from five to eight although. six is by far the most constant number (Fig. 2). When the pupa of Platyphylax designatus emerges from the last larval skin the wings are found at the sides of the thorax extending down against the legs and by these held from further extension in a ventral direction. In a surface view the wings are seen to have several longitudinal folds, Marshall (Fig. 23), and in section to have a fluted appearance along both surfaces. The wings soon begin to unfold and straighten until they are extended backward along the sides of the abdomen, Marshall (Fig. 25). The thickness of the wing does not at first decrease and in section the cells of the hypodermis are seen to be arranged in a fairly regular, single layer over the entire surface and just inside of the cuticula. The wings in their continued growth back over the body begin to decrease in thickness and at about this time there first appear those enlarged hypodermal cells from which the vein and marginal hairs develop; these are soon fol- lowed by the other enlarged cells between the veins from which the large surface hairs are formed. Vein hairs. Just before the appearance of these above men- tioned cells the hypodermis occupies a fairly even layer just 156 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, under the cuticula, cell boundaries are very hard to differentiate but the elongated, irregular, ovoid nuclei are fairly regular in their arrangement (Fig. 3). From the inner surface of the hypodermis come off a number of strands of protoplasm many of which, at this stage of the wing’s development, pass across from surface to surface and connect the two layers of hypodermis with each other; these strands have nothing to do with the develop- ment of the wing hairs. The first indication of the trichogens, cells from which the hairs develop, is noticed in that certain of the nuclei of the hypodermis increase in size and then, with some of the surrounding protoplasm, push in from their original position towards the median part of the wing and away from the cuticula. These trichogens which first appear are situated adjacent to a vein and between it and the cuticula (Fig. 4). Nearly all of these trichogens lie along one side of the section; this is the upper surface of the wing upon which surface most of the hairs develop. The trichogen nuclei differ in position and size from the normal ones of the hypodermis, they also become more circular in outline but do not as yet differ in structure. At the same time that the trichogen nuclei wander away from the surface of the wing it is noticed that other nuclei go with them, these latter retain their normal size; they can be found in younger stages of the trichogen’s growth (Figs. 5, 6, 7) and also after the hair has been developed (Fig. 8). What function these nuclei may perform is not known. This differs a little from the account of Mayer (6) who found that in Lepidoptera the trichogens first grow outward, towards the cuticula, while in Platyphylax we find that the movement is at first opposite to this and that the trichogens wander inward, away from the cuticula. In the regular hypodermal cells each nucleus has one, some- times two, rather small nucleoles which did not stain with hematoxylin or alum carmine. The trichogen nucleole, also non-staining, is at first similar to that of the other nuclei but enlarges with the growth of the nucleus until it becomes very noticeable (Fig. 6). At a later stage cell boundaries are more easily seen and the trichogens differentiate themselves from the other cells not only in this respect but also by the darker appearance of the cytoplasm; this fact, that the trichogens stain more deeply than the regular hypodermal cells was 1915] Wing Hairs of Platyphylax Designatus Lov noticed by Mayer (6). This is due to the secretary activity of these cells and shows that hair formation has already started (Fig. 7). At this stage it was difficult to find places where the young hairs could be followed for any distance because, during the wing’s development, the hairs lie close against the surface and are shown in section as little circular or oval masses near the surface of the wing. With the further growth of the trichogen its nucleus, also enlarging, begins to flatten out against the vein adjacent to which it lies; it becomes elongated and occupies a position with its longitudinal axis parallel to the surface of the wing. With the growth of the nucleus its nucleole, which has for some time been a single large one, changes and by some process, fragmen- tation or otherwise, becomes divided into numerous smaller pieces which are scattered irregularly around within the nucleus (Fig. 7). The flattening of the trichogen nucleus becomes especially noticeable after the decrease in thickness of the wing and it is always found to be pressed against an outer surface of the vein adjacent to which it hes. With this narrowing of the wing the nucleus not only becomes more flattened but may be bent and curved and, in studying sections, trichogens are found which contain apparently two nuclei but these are in reality sections through two parts of the same one. It might be well in this connection to mention that the vacuole, Mayer (6) or vacuoles, Schaffer (7), present in the trichogens of the Lepidop- tera were not seen in Platyphylax. After emergence of the imago sections show that the parts already enumerated are still present except the large trichogens which, as such, could not be found. The hypodermis is still present on both surfaces of the wing but the nuclei have become irregular in outline and many of them flattened against the cuticula. The functions of the trichogens ended they have undoubtedly decreased very much in size and lost their identity amongst the general hypodermal cells. (Fig. 8). This last figure does not show the final condition as the hypodermal layers become more reduced and in places almost entirely rep- resented by the small irregular nuclei. Large surface hairs. The special enlarged cells from which later develop the large surface hairs do not become differentiated until the trichogens of the vein and marginal hairs are plainly 158 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, visible, when they do first appear the wings have started to decrease in thickness. As already mentioned there is a stage in the development of the wing at which all cells of the hypo- dermis are similar and occupy an even layer just under the cuticula (Fig. 3); then some of these cells adjacent to the developing veins and at the margin of the wing increase in size and move away from the surface. With the exception of the trichogens at the two last mentioned places there is an even layer of hypodermal cells, all similar and equidistant from the cuticula, covering the areas between the veins and it is from some of these that the surface hairs develop. Here and there in this even layer of hypodermis certain of the nuclei increase in size and move inward and away from the cuticula; these are similar to the enlarged nuclei which form the trichogens of the vein and marginal hairs except that the nuclei are different in their position on the wing and have no relation to the veins or margin. This is the first indication of the trichogens of the large surface hairs and when one (Fig. 10) is compared with the trichogen of a vein hair (Fig. 5) their sim- ilarity is apparent. Strands are seen coming from the free margin of the former and appearing very similar to part of the wall of a developing vein; they are, however, only some of the protoplasmic strands which extend from the hypodermis to the middle membrane (‘‘Grundmembran”’). As in the trichogens of the vein hairs the cytoplasm of these cells is often darker colored than that of adjacent cells and can be seen as dark streaks through the hypodermis (Fig.11). From a surface view (Fig. 12) this same darker cytoplasm may be seen surrounding the nucleus of each trichogen but it is not notice- able in the other hypodermal cells. The same increase in sur- face of the nucleole that was noticed in the vein trichogens is seen, but to a less extent, in these nuclei (Fig. 13) and, when the secretion of the hair becomes active, several nucleoles are noticeable in each trichogen nucleus. Small surface hairs. These hairs are so numerous upon both surfaces of the wing that there are very few hypodermal cells, excepting those taking part in the formation of the other kinds of hairs, from which one is not formed. In looking at the surface of a wing in which these small hairs have been developed one can examine many cells without finding one from which a small sur- 1915] Wing Hairs of Platyphylax Designatus 159 face hair has not been formed. The amount of secretion neces- sary for the formation of one of these hairs is comparatively small and no change is noticeable in the nuclei of the cells from which they come. Upon the emergence of the imago these cells, as well as the trichogens of the larger hairs, decrease in size, loose their regular form and become small, irregular nuclei lying, as a rule, flat against the cuticula (Fig. 14). BIBLIOGRAPHY. Berlese, A. Gli Insetti. Vol. I, p. 48. Deegener, P. Haut und Hautorgane. From Handbuch der Entomologie herausgegeben von C. Schroder. Vol. I. 1st. Lief. p. 5. Dewitz, H. Ueber die Flugelbildung bei Phryganiden und Lepidopteren. Berl. Entom. Zeit. Vol. XXV, 1881. Kruger, E. Ueber die Entwicklung der Fligel der Insekten mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Deckfligel der Kafer. Inaug. Diss. Gottingen, 1898. Marshall, W. S._ The development of the wings of a caddis-fly, Platyphylax designatus. Zeit. wiss. Zool. Vol. CV, 1918. Mayer, A.G. The development of the wing scales and their pigment in butter- flies and moths. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard. Vol. XXIX, 1896. Schaffer, C. Beitrage zur Histologie der Insekten. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. Vol. III, 1889. Semper, C. Ueber die Bildung der Fligel, Schuppen und Haare bei den Lepidopteren. Zeit. wiss. Zool. Vol. VIII, 1857. Spuler, A. Zur. Kenntnis der Schmetterlingsschuppen. Sitz. Ber. Physik. med. Soc. Erlangen, 1895. 10. Spuler, A. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der feineren Baues und der Phylogenie der Flugelbedeckung der Schmetterlinge. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. Vol. VIII, 1895. 11. Tower, W. L. The origin and development of the wings of Coleoptera. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. Vol. XVII, 1903. SS COUR aa) MEP Sass ee OREN eS 160 Fig. Fig. Fig Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, EXPLANATION OF PLATES X AND XI. All figures drawn with a camera lucida. In all drawings the upper surface of the wing is to the left. Cu., cuticula. Tr. S., trichogen of surface hair. Tr. V., trichogen of vein hair. V., vein. 1 2. Transverse section of a large vein hair. X 1700. Transverse section of one of the very long hairs found on the posterior wings. X 1700. .3. Section through one wall of the wing from a pupa after the last larval skin ood. ig. 12. ig. 13. ig. 14. ig. 15. 10. has been cast and the body has started to contract. The cells of the hypodermis are as yet all similar and at no place in the section can any enlarged nuclei be found. X 1700. Section of a little older stage showing part of a vein, V, adjacent to which is an enlarged cell and nucleus, the beginning of a vein-hair trichogen, Tr. V. X 1700. A slightly older stage, after the wing has started to fold, showing three normal hypodermal cells and a vein-hair trichogen, Tr. V., near which is one of the other nuclei which move out with the trichogen. X 1700. A still older stage showing the enlarged nucleus of the vein trichogen. The greatest change over the preceding figure is in the much enlarged nucleole of the trichogen nucleus. X 1700. Section of a wing which does not as yet show the final folding. The nucleole shows the change from the single large one of the preceding stage. The cytoplasm of the trichogen is seen to be much darker than of the normal hypodermal cells and is extended out for some distance in the beginning of its development. Cuticula not drawn. X 1100. Section of a wing which has decreased very much in thickness. One vein-hair trichogen and two of surface hairs on upper surface. Middle membrane, M..m., through center of wing and connected by pro-- toplasm to both surfaces. Cuticula not drawn. X 875. From transverse section of a wing of an imago soon after its emergence. Shows one vein hair and how the vein as well as other surface is covered by the small surface hairs. X 600. Four normal and one enlarged hypodermal cell, the latter has wandered a short distance towards the center of the wing and away from the surface; this enlarged nucleus, Tr. S., will later become that of a tri- chogen from which will develop one of the large surface hairs. X 1700. Two trichogens, Tr. S., of enlarged surface hairs showing the beginning of hair development. Cuticula not drawn. X 1100. Surface view of wing of about same stage as preceding. Four trichogens, Tr. S., and several normal hypodermal nuclei are shown. X 1100. Section of wing of pupa, wing folded within cuticular covering. One large and two small surface hairs. X 1700. : Section showing one large and two small surface hairs. From an imago just after its emergence. X 1700. | Three small surface hairs, from folded wing shortly before emergence of imago. X 1700. ANNALS E. S.A. VOL. VIII, PLATE X. Wm. S. Marshall, ANNALS #.S. A. VoL. VIII, PLATE XI. Fig.15: Wm. S. Marshall, THE BIOLOGY OF THE JUNIPER BERRY INSECTS, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.* By S. MARcovitcH, Division of Entomology, University of Minnesota. In the spring of 1913, Professor Crosby, of Cornell Univer- sity, suggested that I work out the life history of two chalcids bred by him from deformed berries of Juniperus virginiana L. There was also an Eryophyid mite present within the berries, so that at first it was difficult to tell which one deformed the berries and what were the relations between them. In the fall, I discovered a Tineid larva eating the seeds, while a little later, a Dipterous larva was found eating the fleshy portion of the berry. The latter has proved to be a new species of the family Trypetidz. Since then, I have found a Cecido- myid larva, and have reared six species of chalcids from the berry, at least two of which are plant-feeding in habit. It seems rather remarkable, at first, to think that so many insects are able to find food in such a small fruit; yet when it is known what a role the mite plays, and how completely the berry is utilized, it does not seem so strange. The Mite—Character of the Injury. From the observa- tions of others and from my own examinations, the berry was found to be deformed by the mite, it being classed as a mite gall. Massalongo, 1889, in describing this gall, thought that the mite penetrates the young ovule through the micropyle before the ovule scales become fleshy. Fertilization is thus hindered, and as the scales become fleshy as usual, it is probable that the physiological stimulus of fertilization necessary for growth is substituted by the pathological stimulus of the parasite. Whether or not fertilization is hindered would be difficult to say, as the stigmas of the ovules were open during the beginning of the work of the mites, and once a mite entered the ovule, the berry was found deformed. The normal berry is more or less cone-shaped while the one- seeded, deformed berries assume a chestnut shape. In the two or more seeded berries, however, the deformation assumes * Begun at Cornell University; completed at the University of Minnesota. 163 164 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, somewhat the shape of a dumb-bell (Fig. 6, Pl. XII). The mites go in and out through two openings, located at the ends of the berry. These openings are in many cases elevated, and shaped like a miniature volcano, measuring about one-sixth of a mil- limeter wide at the top. The areas surrounding the openings are yellowish, circular in outline, and very much hardened, thus probably preventing the tissue from growing around the opening by which the mites go back and forth. Just how this area became hardened, and the various stages leading up to the deformed berry were unknown. At flowering time, however, on May 27, the mites were found in the begin- ning stages of their work, and the various steps leading up to the deformed berry were traced. Some remarkable changes were found and the interesting feature learned was that the outer hardened area was ovule tissue, and the opening in the center, the stigmal opening of the ovule. In the flower stage, two or three upright ovules are visible (Fig. 1, Pl. XII) sur- rounded by somewhat thickened scales. A little later, the scales become fleshy and grow over the ovules (Fig. 3, Pl. XII) which seem to sink into the berry after fertilization takes place. If attacked by a mite at this time, the ovules do not sink into the berry, but broaden out and remain on top, the scales growing around them (Fig. 4, Pl. XII, a). The opening of the ovule, then, becomes the opening by which the mites pass back and forth, while the body of the ovule becomes the hardened portion surrounding the opening. A cross-section of a young, deformed berry about a week old already shows the openings by which the mites pass back and forth to be formed from the old micropyle (Fig. 5, Pl. XII). From this opening, a narrow path leads down into the berry, where it enlarges into a circular burrow. Here one or two reddish mites and from two to ten greenish-white eggs are to befound. After a mite has entered a berry, it becomes deformed and fleshy, the seeds failing to develop. It is probable that the fleshy portion of the deformed berries is made up of more ovule tissue than the normal berries. In this spongy portion, the two phytophagus chalcids are found feeding (Fig. 5, a and b, PI. XVIII), as well as the mites. The chalcids may, therefore, be considered to be inquilines, since they live in the abode of the mite. 1915] Biology of Juniper Berry Insects 165 Eriophyes quadrisetus typicus (F. Thom.)*. The body is cylindrical, annulated, gradually tapering to posterior segments. It is very similar to P. pint. The body is shorter than in P. pint, being about 3 or 4 times as long as broad. The dorsal scutum possesses striations that are not very distinct, one of which is found on the median line and one on each side, both diverging at the posterior end. lLaterad of these are two arcs of circles, one on each side, with the concave surfaces facing outward. Near the margin are others that are also curved and incomplete. Seta dorsalis is borne on the sides of the cephalo- thorax, at a noticeable distance in front of its posterior curva- ture. It extends forward and upward and beyond the base of S. L., if bent backwards. 5S. L. are very long, being the longest of the ventral setz of the abdomen. Caudad of S. L., S. V. 1 are found to be shorter than 5. L. 5%. V. 2 are short, while S. V. 3 attain the posterior extremity of the body. Besides the above-named 5S. D., there is, further behind, another pair of ©». D., which are very short. At the anterior extremity of the scutum, there exists a minute frontal seta. The sete C. P. are well developed. The S. C. A. are longer than in any other species and very stout, (.025 mm.). S. G. are well developed. The rings are of the same character on both sides. The fifth joint of the legs is somewhat longer than the fourth, having at the end a small, distinct comb with seven pairs of small hairs. The tarsal claw is just a little longer than the comb. The valves of the epigynum are smooth, the posterior one being square. Meng thvottemalemcna.m:smice momieeemie lech cee o .25 mm. Watdthieotehernailecmrre ss sta ce te caries ori ceiele sts .0O7 mm. Shel) abeta Ole recone ae iaee ocho ethos ate .07 mm. LAG Ra e BN SRN PEE Coe, STEREO LTE ap Se ea .04 mm. SR Rail ierces ee clue eitcy et sor hear poke erent Ua, wn .03 mm Sn ea eA SeIG TAS, 0 Hic DS OL SS PES ECR ac ee .02 mm Eriophyes quadrisetus juniperus. On January 23, some ber- ries received from Professor C. O. Houghton, of Newark, Del., were found to be deformed in a different manner. Upon exam- ination Mr. Hodgkiss reported the mites to be Eriophyes quadrisetus juniperus. In this case, the berry was not fleshy throughout, and seeds were present, the tips of which stuck out of the berry in a conspicuous manner. ‘The normal berries are * Translated from Canestrini and identified by Mr. Hodgkiss of the Geneva Experiment Station. 166 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, blue while the ones infested with this latter variety are green and smaller, the mites being present within the seed. In Europe, E. quadrisetus typicus is said to deform the berries of Juniperus communis in a somewhat similar manner while Eriophyes quadrisetus juniperus works at the bases of the leaves, causing them to swell (Laggerheim 1899). Egg. The egg is translucent and whitish. It is oval in shape, with bluntly rounded ends. The longer axis measures about 50 w, and the shorter axis about 35 uw. They occur in great numbers in the berry during the growing season. Life History. The winter is spent by the mites within the berries, principally in the greener ones and those not eaten out by the chalcids. With the approach of spring, the mites become active, leave the berries, many of which are still on the tree, and begin entering the young ovules. These soon become deformed and eggs are laid in them. Here the young find sustenance and make channels radiating out from the original, central burrow. Through the tiny openings at the ends of the berry, the adults pass to and fro and seek other ber- ries, just past the flower stage, to start new colonies. The pro- duction of the young is continuous throughout the growing season. During October, the mites begin to collect in certain berries where they pass the winter, losing most of their greenish color and becoming brownish. The berries of mature trees are, practically without excep- tion, deformed by the mites, while those of young trees are usually normal. It seems probable that the berries develop quicker in the latter case before the mites have a chance to enter the ovules; while on the old trees, the berries develop slowly enough to enable the mites to get out of their hibernating quarters, and find the ovules before they have become sunken. THE JUNIPER BERRY CHALCID. Eurytoma juniperinus, n. sp. Life History. This species is plant-feeding in habit and found in the fleshy portion of the deformed berries, but never in the seed tissue of Juniperus virginiana. ‘There is but one generation a year and the winter is passed in the larval stage. On May 26 the insect was already found in the pupal stage, while on May 29 adults were observed emerging. On June 26 1915} Biology of Juniper Berry Insects 167 an egg was found in the central burrow of the mites, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 6, b, Pl. XVII). The egg was removed to note the length of the egg stage, and after two days of warm weather, the embryo could be seen to be already formed. The head was located on that end where the long pedicel arises from the egg (Fig. 7, Pl. XII), thus agreeing with Triggerson’s observations with respect to the orientation of the embryo in the egg (Triggerson, 1914). The mandibles could be seen to be working back and forth in a lively manner, while in the caudal half of the egg could be seen in motion, some oil globules. The neck of the egg was shrunken while the pedicel was curled back over the body of the egg. These larve are quite abundant in the mite-infested berries, two or three being often found. They are comparatively active, move about, and devour large portions of the berry (Fig. 5, a, Pl. XVIII). Female.—Length 2 to 2.3 mm.; thorax 0.7 to 0.8 mm.; abdomen 1 to 1.3mm. General color black (Fig. 1, Pl. XIII); scape and part of pedicel brownish, rest of antennz black. Color of legs variable; hind coxee, femora except knees, and tips of tarsi, black; rest of legs suffused with brownish. Head seen from above transverse, concave behind and convex in front. From the base of the antenne to clypeus there is a low smooth elevation. Antennal furrows with the sides straight or slightly convergent below. Head and thorax umbilicate-punctate; propodeum coarsely rugose on the sides, the longitudinal median depression broad and shallow, densely and distinctly reticulate-punctate throughout, except sometimes for the longitudinal furrow which is crossed with small transverse ridges. The anterior portion of the propodeum contains three longitudinal carinz enclosing a smooth quadrilateral area. On the cephalic face of the front coxe there is a deep diagonal furrow bounded in front by a distinct ridge, which makes a sharp turn near the upper angle. Wings hyaline. Abdomen conic-ovate, smooth, about three-fourths as wide as long, with a fine sculpture on the anterior half of the segments but fading out on the dorsal surface. Hind margins of segments 2, 3, and 4 nearly parallel (Fig. 3, Pl. XIII). Viewed from the side the dorsal surface of the abdomen presents a nearly straight line, except at the ends. Seg- ments 2, 3, and 4 subequal; the 5 longer than the 3 and 4 together; 7 a little longer than or subequal with the 6. The 6, 7, and tip of sheaths of ovipositor clothed with fine white pile. Many of the cotypes vary in having more brown on the face, the venter of the prothorax and part of the mesothorax, the abdomen beneath, and legs. 168 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, Male—Length 1.6 to 2.1mm.; abdomen 0.7 to 0.9mm. Similar to the female in coloration but much more variable, so that some specimens are nearly all red, all gradations being found. Pedicel and scape brown- ish, the latter markedly dilated above. In the darker forms, only the proximal portion of the scape is brownish; rest of antenna dusky. Wing veins brownish or yellowish. The first funicle joint slightly longer than the second, the rest subequal and arched above. Petiole and hind coxee finely reticulate, the latter about three-fourths the length of the former. Sometimes a brownish spot is present in the darker forms on the upper angle of the prothorax. Variety Crosbyi.— @ similar to the above in coloration and size. The dorsal surface of the abdomen is evenly curved, and not as straight as in E. juntperinus. The posterior margins of segments 2 and 3 are nearly parallel, while the posterior margin of the 4 segment meets that of the 3 on the ventral surface. The tip of the abdomen appears to be rather sharp-pointed. The anterior border of the segments of the abdomen with a fine sculpture, that does not fade out on the dorsal surface. Viewed from above all the segments are not visible due to the greater curvature. This form may be a distinct species, and as I intend to work on this genus, further consideration will be given it at a later date. Described from numerous specimens reared from the berries of Juniperus virginiana at Ithaca, New York. Cotypes deposited in the entomological collection of Cornell University, and in the author’s collection, University of Minnesota. Larva.—(Fig. 1, Pl. XIV). Length about 2.3mm. Color dull white, mandibles (Fig. 3, Pl. XIV), brownish with a large, sharp tooth in its inner edge. Head and antennal tubercles distinct (Fig. 2, Pl. XIV). Just back of the mandibles is a thick, fleshy labium, slightly lobed and extending beyond the mandibles. On the under side of the labium there is a minute spine, which is elevated on a small tubercle. The setz on the head and thorax are medium in size, spine-like, and arise from small tubercles, there being eight on the head, ten on each thoracic segment and four shorter ones on each of the abdominal segments. On the mid-dorsal line of each abdominal segment is a large, rounded tubercle, more distinct when the larva is killed in hot water. The spiracles are nine in number, as shown on the diagram, (Fig. 4, Pl. XIV), there being one on the meso- and metathorax;, and one on each of the first seven abdominal segments. On January 10 some of the Jarve were placed in vials on cotton, to check up the adult stage. Similarly, five different kinds of larvae were taken out of the berry and checked up with the adult forms. The larve of E. juniperinus, when taken indoors, will pupate in about ten days, gradually turn black, and emerge about four days later. 1915] Biology of Juniper Berry Insects 169 THE JUNIPER BERRY GENIOCERUS. Geniocerus juniperi Crawford This species has been proved to differ from all the other known members of this parasitic group in that it is plant-feeding in habit. They are, by far, the most abundant, there being often as many as eight or ten larve in a single berry. The young larve were observed from the time tley were visible until they were full-grown, and found to live in tight-fitting burrows (Fig. 5 b, Pl. XVIII), that gradually become larger as the insect feeds and grows: This fact alone is sufficient to establish its plant-feeding habits. It is very inactive and a moderate feeder, as compared with the Eurytoma larve. There is but one generation a year, and the winter is passed in the larval stage. “Female.*—Length about 1.5 mm. Lemon-yellow, with dark brown markings on the rear of the head, front of pronotum, and small brown spot on each lateral angle of pronotum, one on front of axille, suture between mesoscutum and scutellum; propodeum medially; spot on each side of abdominal segments and the apical margins of segments more or less suffused with brownish; scape yellow with a brown spot above, rest of antennz brownish; joints of funicle elongate; seen under high power the antenne show three ring joints; head and thorax finely sericeous; median furrow of mesoscutum rather indistinct, median pair of furrows on scutellum about half as far apart as length of scutellum; propodeum with median carina hardly as long as the metanotum; submarginal vein with about four bristles; legs yellow with the apical joint of tarsi brown; ventor along median line somewhat brownish; sheaths of ovipositor apically distinctly brown. Paratypes vary in having more brown, the mesoscutum medially with a large brown spot in front; vertex, parapsidal areas anteriorly, sides of propodeum with brown spots; the abdomen with the bands more pronounced.”’ As the males are very much fewer in number, I did not succeed in locating one in my rearings until January 2, 1915. Male——Length 1.2.mm.; abdomen 0.5 mm. Color lemon-yellow, but the whole dorsal surface much darker than in the female. These darkened areas are more pronounced on the rear of the head, propodeum, furrows of scutellum, and abdomen. The latter has the dorsum brown, excepting for the anterior and posterior extremities, while the apical margins of the segments are darker. The whole ventral aspect lemon- yellow, except for a small area on the prothorax. The antennz are * Female to be described by J. C. Crawford, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash. Male described by author. 170 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, similar to G. marcovitchi (Fig. 8, Pl. XV). The first joint of the funcile about as long as the pedicel, second joint slightly shorter than the third; third and fourth subequal; club as long as the two preceding joints. Under high power, two ring joints are visible. Egg—tThe egg as dissected out of the female is club-shaped, whitish, with one end wider than the other. Length 0.45 mm.; width of wider end 0.075 mm.; width of opposite end 0.033 mm. (Fig. 14, Pl. XV). Larva —Length 1.5 mm. by 0.9 mm. wide. Color dull white with brownish mouth parts. The larva is apparently smooth all over (Fig. 6, Pl. XIV). The head and thorax are not differentiated, the former being reduced to a conical projection, on the end of which are situated the mouth parts. Looking down upon the head, the mouth parts are seen to be situated in a ring (Fig. 7, Pl. XIV), which is heavily chitinized on the dorsal half and to which are attached three prominent lobes, the middle one being the largest. Viewed from the side, these lobes project backward so as to appear like teeth. Within the center of the ring are the two mandibles that project downward into the mouth cavity. Just above them are two slender processes in each side of the ring that might be termed the maxille. NATURAL ENEMIES. On October 30, 1914, I found a parasitic larva in contact (Fig. 9, Pl. XV) with one of the Geniocerus larva, the latter being discolored and dead. Later this species bred out to be Gentocerus marcovitcht, Crawf. (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1915). These parasites breed out in large numbers, and are among the first insects to emerge from the berries when taken indoors: There are apparently two generations and the winter is passed in the larval stage. As the berries remain greenish and pulpy, they would have no difficulty in ovipositing in the fall. Oviposition was observed in the usual way on August 13, lasting about two minutes. When the ovipositor was with- drawn it would apply its mouthparts to the exact spot where it had oviposited, apparently feeding. After a few minutes it would again oviposit in about the same spot, and then feed again. This operation was repeated several times. Geniocerus marcovitchi. “Female.—Length 2mm. Blue black or greenish black; joints of the funicle elongate, under high power the antennz show three ring joints; mesoscutum finely longitudinally sericeous, median furrow on mieso- scutum indistinct; metanotum with two yellow spots on disk; propo- deum with median carina short, hardly as long as the metanotum; sub- marginal vein with three or four bristles; legs blue black, the knees, extreme bases and apices of tibize and tarsi except apical joint whitish. 1915] Biology of Juniper Berry Insects A(el Male—Length 1.75 mm. Similar to the female, the first joint of the funicle about as long as the pedicel, much shorter than the second joint, joints 2 to 4 being subequal in length, club not enlarged, almost twice as long as last joint of funicle, tibize yellowish white with a brown stripe inwardly.” ; Larva.—Length 1.6 mm. and 0.7 mm. wide. Color dull white. The anterior end of larva wider than posterior end, with the head segment rounded. Mandibles very small and pointed. The larva is smooth all over, and composed of fourteen segments. Egg —tThe egg of this species is more or less club-shaped, one end being provided with a long process, while the other end is rounded and tapering (Fig. 13, Pl. XV). Another parasitic larva was found in the berries but as yet I have not been able to determine its host (Fig. 11, Pl. XV), although it might be parasitic on the Eurytoma larva or phyto- phagus. When a berry is cut in two, the larve are usually to be found in a vertical position and sometimes quite numerous. This larva is rather elongate, spindle-shaped, and pointed at both ends, the hind end being somewhat less acute. It is brownish in color, but lighter at both ends. In the middle of the larva can be seen a conspicuous uric acid concretion that is visible through the skin. There appear to be fourteen seg- ments, with the anal segment bearing two minute spines and slightly lobed. After boiling in caustic potash, the mouth parts are seen to consist of two tiny, pointed mandibles. The pupa is at first brownish in color but later turns black. The sheaths covering the mandibles and lateral edges are very prominent. Length of pupa 1.4 mm., width 0.7 mm. THE JUNIPER BERRY FRUIT FLY. Rhagoletis juniperinus, n. sp. In the latter part of September, 1913, a Dipterous larva was found feeding upon the fleshy portion of the Juniper berry, at six-Mile Creek, Ithaca, N. Y. Some were kept indoors, and on April 6 one adult emerged. After careful comparison with many descriptions of related forms, Professor Johannsen found it to be distinct, although closely related to R. ribicola Doane. Life History. It was not until the afternoon of August 12, that an adult male was observed on the tree. On August 21 females were found ovipositing, the process of which lasted about one minute, during which time the ovipositor was worked at an angle of 45 degrees. Just beneath the skin, at this angle, Lz2 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, an egg was later found and dissected out. The egg punctures, which can be found on all sides of the berry, appear as small brown spots, visible to the naked eye, and sometimes with a distinct opening. The fact that the flies appear so late, as compared with other members of the genus, is another example of the adaptation of the time of emergence to the proper stage of the development of the particular fruit. The larve mature about October 9, although a few were found in the berries October 27. They pupate about an inch below the surface of the ground. On October 8, however, some were found to have pupated within the berries, which had been picked about two weeks previous, and kept in a glass jar. Two or three pupa were often found within these berries, and once even five, although the berries when examined on the tree, were found to contain but one larva. No holes of any kind were visible on those berries which had been kept in the glass jar. The larve eat the fleshy portion of the normal berries and as the young trees have a greater proportion of normal berries, they are much more numerous there. Female.—Length 3.2 to 4.2 mm.; thorax 1.38 to 1.8 mm. General color, black; head yellowish or brownish; ocellar area dark with space between ocelli and compound eyes more or less suffused with brownish; occiput yellowish brown, except for a few darkened areas which are some- times arranged radially; antenne brownish, with the anterior corner of last joint rather sharp; arista black, except for proximal portion; bristles black, except for the post-verticles, which are yellowish. The three facial pairs of bristles convergent, the ocellar pair strongly proclinate, the two fronto-orbital, and vertical pair strictly reclinate (Fig. 6, Pl. XIII). Thorax shining black with four longitudinal, yellowish bands on dorsum—the inner pair projecting farther forward, and confluent in front. Scutellum black, except for a white rectangular spot on the hinder portion; halters yellow. A striking, bright, alabaster-colored band runs from the humeri to the base of each wing. The thoracic and . four scutellar bristles, black. Abdomen, shining black; posterior border of segments 2, 3, 4, and 5, with a rather broad band of white, the band of the 6th much narrower. Femora, except tips, black, front pair often lighter; tibiz, trochanters, and tarsi except tips, yellowish-brown; cox black, lighter at tip. Wings hyaline, marked with four brown cross bands, as in R. ribicola Doane. The first is somewhat oblique, and runs from the humeral vein to the sixth longitudinal vein, along which it gradually fades out beyond the posterior basal transverse vein. The second is much broader, nearly perpendicular, begins on the costa, between the tips of the axillary and 1915] Biology of Juniper Berry Insects 173 the first longitudinal vein, and extends across the middle of the fifth longitudinal vein, fading out before reaching the posterior margin of the wing. The third is nearly parallel with the second, not quite as broad, runs over the posterior cross-vein and reaches the posterior margin just behind the tip of the fifth longitudinal vein. The fourth band is oblique, completely united with the third on the costal border, and reaches the posterior border at the tip of the fourth longitudinal vein. First longitudinal vein with short, black, bristles. Anterior cross-vein a little oblique, and slightly curved. Anal cell drawn out to a distinct point (Fig. 4, Pl. XIII). Described from six females and three males, reared from berries of Juniperus virginiana at Six Mile Creek, Ithaca, N. Y. Types in the author’s collection, University of Minnesota. Paratypes deposited in Cornell University. According to Doane’s table of the North American species of Rhagoletis, the present species runs down to R. ribicola Doane. The two species may be separated by the following characters: Anal cell drawn out to a distinct point, spot on scutellum white and small... juniperinus Anal cell not drawn out to a distinct point, spot on scutellum light yellow and NBWASENE 1S toe ce Ge tre tee cecal IE Ie Sr ta ae a RO Re ed oe ribicola Doane. Larva—Length 6 mm.; width 1.4 mm. Generally dirty white, sometimes slightly greenish (Fig. 1, Pl. XVI). Body rather stout, tapering very little in back, but more in front. Two great hooks (Fig. 11, Pl. XVI). The anterior spiracles (Fig. 6, Pl. XVI) are funnel-shaped, ending in eleven or twelve lobes, each of which, in turn, seem to end in a number of minute pores. The base of the spiracle is made up of polygonal areas. A spinulose area on either side of the dividing line, between segments, from the third and onward, becoming more pro- nounced towards the venter, where they form the ventral fusiform areas from the fifth to the twelfth segments. A small transverse line is visible on the middle of each ventral segment. The anal tubercles are prom- inent, and slightly convex. The stigmal plates are about twice their diameter apart, slightly elevated (Fig. 3, Pl. XVI), and composed of three straight slits directed towards the base of the opposite plate (Fig. 10, Pl. XVI). Between the stigmal plates and the anal tubercles are two pairs of distinct fleshy tubercles (Fig. 2 and 3, Pl. XVI), the two nearer the anal tubercles being smaller and a little closer together. Egg—tLength 0.64 mm.; width about one-fourth of the length. Color whitish with the proximal end yellowish; tip or pedicel brownish. Egg is smooth all over (Fig. 8, Pl. XVI). 174 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, THE JUNIPER SEED CATERPILLAR. Argyresthia alternatella Kearf. On September 1, a small caterpillar was found within the seeds of the berries at Six-Mile Creek. On February 12 two moths emerged, and were identified by Mr. August Busck as Argy- resthia alternatella Kearf. He also informed me that the early stages and life history were unknown, the moths having been collected by. Kearfott in 1908. Life History. By May 24 the moths were found flying about the trees, and on June 6, eggs were found. These were laid on the stems just below the berries (Fig. 6, Pl. XVIII), while a few were also found lodged on the tips of the scales. By June 24 the berry in cross-section showed three concentric layers within the fused scales. It is probable that the outermost layer, being a part of the ovule, divides and fuses with the scales to form the fleshy portion of the berry. The second layer probably becomes the hard seed-coat, while the inner one becomes the endosperm. It was in the third layer that the earliest stage of the caterpillar was found (Fig. 6, a, Pl. XVII), working its way into the seed, while the seed-coat is still soft, and consuming many of the seeds. The mature larve feed on the fleshy portion of the mite- infested berries and, to some extent, on that of the normal ber- ries. The larve become full-grown about September 25 and emerge from the berry to build their white, silken cocoons. A few, however, were found in the berry October 30, together with a parasite in contact with one of them. While digging for the pup of the fruit flies, I came across the small, silken cocoons, which are formed on the ground, just beneath the grass and sometimes attached to small sticks. |The seeds infested by the caterpillar seem to be slightly larger and rounded in shape, while the mite-infested berries are dumbbell-shaped. “Adult.*—Head white, palpi golden, antennez golden fuscus, basal joint paler, thorax white, patagia and posterior end golden; abdomen and legs whitish-ochreous. - Expanse 10-12 mm. Fore-wing. Golden-ochreous, reticulated with brown oblique faciz. There are five brown spots on costa, about equally spaced between inner 6th and outer 5th. There are three similar spots on dorsal margin at inner 4th, middle and outer 4th; broken brown facia join the costal and dorsal spot, somewhat like a double or jointed letter WV. There is a * Description from Kearfott. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 16: 182. 1915] Biology of Juniper Berry Insects 1 ~I streak of brown on dorsum at base and the apex of the wing is lightly reticulated with this color. Cilia light brownish ochreous on costa and upper half of termen, becoming pale fuscus below middle. Hind-wing. Light fuscus, cilia with a faint ochreous tinge.”’ Pupa—About 4 mm. long by 1.3 mm. wide (Fig. 4, Pl. XVIII). General color greenish, becoming brownish toward maturity. Eyes reddish in mature pupe. Head, tip of wing pads, tip of abdomen, and 5th, 6th and 7th abdominal segments darker than the rest of the body. General shape cylindrical with abdomen pointed, ending in about seven or eight stout, black spines and reaching a little beyond wing pads. Head bears two conspicuous setz on each side of the top, two sete on the front, just laterad of the eyes, and one on each side of the back of the head. TE XV, VOL. VIII; PLA ANNALS E. S. A. ANNALS E. S. A. Vou. VIII, PLATE XVI. S. Marcovitch. ANNALS HE. S. A. VOL. VIII, PLATE XVII. S. Marcovitch. ANNALS E. S. A. VOL. VIII,*PLATE- XVIII: S. Marcovitch. SOME NEW SPECIES OF JASSOIDEA. S. E. CRUMB, U.S. Bureau of Entomology. This paper includes descriptions of twelve new species of Jassoidea mostly from Tennessee, and a description of the male of Deltocephalus mendosus Ball. Deltocephalus visendus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 3, 4). Pale cinereous, resembling reflexus in form and markings. Face not distinctly bicolored. 3.4 to 4.2 mm. long, 1. mm. broad. Vertex flat, as long as its width between the eyes, nearly two and one-half times as long on middle as next eye, nearly twice as long as the pronotum, clypeus short, tapering, broad, apex broadly truncate, one- third the length of the front, pronotum twice wider than long. Elytra in form and venation as in reflexus, but with two cross nervures, claval veins confluent through the middle fourth of the outer vein. Color: General color pale cinereous, vertex with the apex white, margined laterally with black, an orange line from apex toward the ocelli, ocelli red, a pair of median transverse bars on vertex, another pair of convergent submedian spots near the base and six longitudinal stripes on the pronotum, pale brownish fuscous, elytra with black spots outside the anterior juncture of the claval veins, behind the first cross vein and in the third apical cell. Face black above, becoming brownish fuscous below. 2 Ultimate ventral segment twice as long as the penultimate, twice as broad as long, side margin narrowed from before the middle, the lateral angles produced, short, roundingly lobate, the posterior margin gently emarginate, the median fourth subangularly produced and minutely notched at apex, surpassed by the lateral lobes. Segment pale with a dark, median apical area. o Valve triangular, twice as broad as long, three times as long as ultimate segment; plates twice as long as valve, nearly one-half longer than broad, side margin nearly straight, convergent, abruptly constricted about one-third from the apex, beyond which the tips are nearly parallel, blunt and minutely excavated on the inner margin. Pygofers about one-fourth longer than the plates, distinctly compressed from near the base. Described from two males and two females collected by the author, November 19, 1914, at Jacksonville, Florida. Deltocephalus funabulus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 17, 18). White, resembling albidus, with all the veins of the elytra margined with dark fuscous, face black above and abruptly pale yellow below. 3.7 to 4. mm. long, 1.1 to 1.5 mm. broad. 189 190 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Vertex flat, one-fourth longer than its width between the eyes, twice as long on middle as next eye, one-half longer than the pronotum, tip blunt; clypeus tapering, truncated at apex, cheeks broad, slightly emarginated beneath the eyes, the lateral angles obscure; pronotum twice broader than long, elytra narrow, appressed, as long as abdomen, with the claval veins usually separate or united only by a cross nervure, two cross nervures in the corium, central anteapical cell simple, venation as in albidus. Color: General color white, markings closely resembling albidus, vertex yellow with margin and apex white, apex margined antero-laterally by two small, black dots and posteriorly by a larger black dot; ocelli red; a narrow marginal line from apex toward ocellus, orange, a pair of slender median transverse bars and a pair of convergent curved submedian basal spots, continuing the submedian thoracic stripes, pale brownish fuscous. Thorax with four broad longitudinal pale fuscous stripes. Elytra with nervures white, narrowly margined with dark fuscous. Venter dark. Last ventral segment of the female concolorous with the remainder of the venter. Q Last ventral segment three times as long as the penultimate, three-fifths as long as broad, side margins distinctly narrowed from before the middle, between their angular posterior limits the posterior margin is gently, roundingly emarginate with a large rounded median lobe slightly exceeded by the lateral angles, and bearing a small apical notch and a pair of longitudinal black dashes. & Valve rounded, two and one-half times broader than long; plates one and one-half times longer than valve, three-fifths as long as broad, lateral margin convex, tips blunt, slightly divergent, pygofers very large, somewhat depressed, inflated, one and one-half times broader and three times as long as the plates, with a broad, dark fuscous area behind the plates, the inner margins pale. Described from thirty-three specimens, taken at Galena, Kansas, and Clarksville, Tennessee. The former taken during October on Aristida oligantha, the latter taken during September from Aristida gracilis. Collected by the author. Deltocephalus mendosus Ball. (Plate XIX, fig. 21). This species was described from the female only (Can. Ent., Vol. LXIII, p. 202) as a variety of fraternus. Recently I have collected a single male having the peculiar markings of the vertex and the venation of fraternus, but differing widely from the male fraternus in the genitalia. If, as it seems quite probable, this is the male of fraternus this variety 1s certainly worthy of specific rank. The male is described below: & Valve large, acutely triangular, somewhat upturned at tip, as long as broad; plates broader than valve at base, nearly as long as broad, exceeding valve by nearly half its length, the lateral margins irregularly convex, tips oblique, rounded; pygofers exceeding the plates by nearly their own length, without finger-like appendages found in 1915] New Species of Jassoidea 191 fraternus and excavated and inflated basally for the reception of plates, the apical third produced into a slender, cylindrical process. 3.6 mm. long, 1.2 mm. broad. Deltocephalus pyrops n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 15, 16). Vertex Platymetopius-like, elytra white, the venation outlined with dark fuscous, the costal area canary yellow. 3.6 to 4. mm. long, 1.3 mim. broad. Vertex flat, acutely angulate, slightly recurved from near the base, twice as long as width between the eyes, nearly three times as long on middle as next eye, two and one-half times as long as the pronotum, face and especially the front strongly convex, not quite one and one-half times longer than broad, front narrow, four times as long as the clypeus, clypeus tapering, exceeded by the tips of the gene, margin of gene strongly oblique and nearly uniformly convex from eye to clypeus, pro- notum nearly two and one-half times wider than long, elytra nearly as long as abdomen, narrowed slightly toward the tip, claval veins and central anteapical cell variable. Color: Vertex, pronotum and scutellum pale brownish yellow; ver- tex with oval apical area white, margined laterally with black and pos- teriorly with fuscous, two pairs of transverse, fuscous dashes on the disc, one anterior to and the other posterior to the ocellus; ocelli, eyes and often the ovipositor bright red; pronotum with a fuscous band back of each eye; elytra white, the nervures narrowly outlined with dark fuscous, the costal area pale canary yellow; venter pale; face pale yellow, broadly margined above, excepting the tip of front which is white, with dark fuscous, which on the front encroaches upon the yellow in the form of three or four well marked teeth. 2 Ultimate ventral segment nearly twice as long as the penultimate, one and one-half times as broad as long, narrowed posteriorly to the distinct lateral angles, between which the posterior margin is obliquely truncated, to near the middle where it is broadly incised nearly one-half way to the base, the apex of this incision bears a triangular tooth, the tooth and surrounding area deep black. o&' Valve subangulate, twice as broad as long; plates one and one- half times as long as the valve, and one and one-half times as broad as long, their common outline broadly oval, the sides rounding strongly to the blunt, slightly divergent tips, pygofers large, one and one-half times as broad and nearly two and one-half times as long as plates, with a pair of arcuated fuscous lines and more or less red behind the plates. Described from thirty-six specimens collected September, 1914, by the author at Clarksville, Tennessee, on Aristida gracilis. Deltocephalus arundineus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 11, 12). Near inimicus, but in shape and markings resembling a Scaphoideus of the sanctus group. 3.3 to 3.7 mm. long, 1.2 mm. broad. 192 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Vertex nearly flat, one and one-half times longer than width between eyes, three-fifths as. long at eye as on the middle, as long as pronotum, margin thick, frontal sutures convex, clypeal suture obsolete, clypeus parallel margined, pronotum twice as wide as long, venation of elytra much as in inimicus, claval veins united by a cross vein near the middle of the inner claval vein, outer vein united to claval suture by a few supernumerary veins near the apex, second cross nervure present, central anteapical cell constricted and divided by a cross vein, outer anteapical cell rectangular at apex, elytra longer than abdomen, appendix broad, more nearly truncate at apex than in inimicus. Color: Vertex white, four marginal dots and two smaller ones next the eye black, the apical pair triangular, a large irregular spot on the disc narrowly connected with the black dots next the eye and a pair of convergent dashes near the base, fuscous brown, ocelli white; prono- tum fuscous, the anterior margin and three longitudinal stripes pale, anterior margin with a dark fuscous spot behind each eye, and a paler fuscous area on the middle; elytral venation white, margined with fuscous, basal third of clavus white, an elliptical fuscous area at each angle, an oblong area next the claval suture, a spot on the costa, and the third apical cell, black, all these black markings being the accentu- ated portions of a common cruciate fuscous apica! figure and a fuscous more basal saddle. Q Ultimate ventral segment three times as long as penultimate, nearly twice as broad as long, roundingly narrowed posteriorly, the lateral angles produced, lobate, the posterior margin obliquely excavated one-fourth to base of segment, with the apex of excavation convexly sub- truncate, and one-third the width of the segment. o& Valve rounded posteriorly, twice longer than ultimate segment, nearly three times as broad as long, convex anteriorly; plates four times as long as valve, more than one-half longer than broad, concavely narrowing to the attenuate tips which equal the pygofers. Pygofers very densely clothed with bristles. Described from ten females and eight males taken on Arundinaria tecta, July and August, 1914, by the author at Clarksville, Tennessee. Deltocephalus vinnulus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 1, 2). Related to compactus with very similar genitalia in both sexes, but much paler. 2. to 2.6 mm. long, 1. mm. broad. Vertex convex, slightly longer than width between eyes, nearly one-half longer on middle than next eye, margin thick, tip blunt, as long as pronotum, clypeus parallel margined, suture obsolete, pronotum twice as wide as long, elytra hyaline obliquely subtruncate at tip, venation pale, claval veins separate, a few supernumerary cross veins along the sutural margin, central anteapical cell divided by a cross vein, outer anteapical cell rectangular at apex. Color: Vertex, including ocelli, white, the anterior half black, oak ing a white, squat, T-shaped figure, the base of which is formed by a 1915] New Species of Jassoidea 193 white dot on the apex, a fuscous cloud on the disc, remainder of insect dorsally and ventrally, excepting the black upper half of face, an uni- form, pale yellowish brown, the cells of elytra, the pronotum and venter sometimes faintly infuscated. The macropterous form is the more infuscated. 2 Last ventral segment of abdomen two and one-half times as long as penultimate, nearly twice as broad as long, distinctly angulate anteriorly with a second membrane excavated nearly to the base as in compactus, outer membrane strongly emarginate laterally from the base, exposing a rounded lobe of the inner membrane, the lateral angles obsolete, the posterior margin gently convex with a pair of median pale, fuscous triangles. co Valve convex, twice as broad as long, strongly convex on both anterior and posterior margins, the posterior margin subangulate; plates twice as long as valve, as broad as valve at base, as long as broad, strongly, concavely narrowing to the acute tips, which equal the apex of the pygofers. Pygofers distinctly broader than plates and set with coarse, infuscated bristles. Described from five males and two females taken September, 1914, by the author at Clarksville, Tennessee, on Andropogon virginicus. In the macropterous form the elytra are much longer than the abdomen, while in the brachypterous form the elytra are distinctly shorter than the abdomen. Deltocephalus vicilinus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 5, 6). Resembling sylvestris, but smaller, male plates broadly truncated. 2.4 to 2.6 mm. long, .7 mm. broad. Vertex flat, as long as width between eyes, one-half longer on middle than next eye, strongly angulate, long as pronotum, front very convex, clypeus tapering, rounded at apex, which exceeds the gene, pronotum twice as wide as long, venation as in sylvestris, elytra exceeding abdomen, narrowing posteriorly. Color: As in sylvestris, vertex pale greenish, with a median longi- tudinal pair of brownish stripes, apex, front margin, and the median stripe whitish, a curved fuscous line from apex toward the black ocelli, pronotum green, paler anteriorly with six pale, fuscous stripes, elytra pale olive green, infuscated apically, the venation pale, front infuscated gray with light arcs, clypeus and gene pale. 2 Ultimate ventral segment one and one-half times as long as the penultimate, twice as broad as long, strongly convex anteriorly, posterior margin gently emarginate, the median third slightly subtruncately excavated. A transverse black line at middle. o Valve rounded posteriorly, three times as broad as long; plates distinctly broader than the valve, about three and one-half times as long as valve, nearly as long as broad, as broad as pygofers at base, side margins nearly straight, tips roundingly truncated, one-half as broad as base, a common triangular basal area yellow, margined with fuscous, pygofers slightly exceeding plates and densely clothed with coarse bristles. 194 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, Described from nine females and three males collected by the author October 8, 1914, at Clarksville, Tennessee, from small grasses on dry upland. Athysanus (Stirellus) villicus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 24, 25). Near punctatus. With two large, round, black spots on anterior margin of vertex next eye. An orange or fuscous brown band on posterior half of pronotum. Female ovipositor rather strongly exserted. 2.6-3. mm. long and 1. mm. broad. Vertex convex, as long as width between the eyes, as long as pronotum, one-fifth longer on middle than at eye, bluntly angulate, margin blunt, front convex in both diameters, rapidly narrowing to the parallel margined clypeus. Pronotum two and one-third times as broad as long. The elytra subhyaline, narrowed toward the apex, venation weak, distinct, the central anteapical cell divided by a cross . yer Vertex, anterior half of pronotum and scutellum yellow, posterior half of the pronotum and the elytra pale orange or infuscated brown, two large, round, black spots on anterior margin of vertex next the eye, and two minute, fuscous points at apex; venation pale, face yellow, the front more or less infuscated with a median stripe and lateral arcs pale, a black point beneath each ocellus, venter mostly pale. Q Ultimate ventral segment of abdomen one and one-half times as long as penultimate, twice as broad as long, lateral angles rounded, posterior margin gently emarginate, but sometimes appearing angularly excavated, owing to the curvature, strongly curved over the ovipositor, with a small, rounded median tooth. Ovipositor rather strongly exserted. o& Valve convex, twice as long as preceding segment, strongly convex on anterior margin, subangulate posteriorly, over twice as broad as long; plates twice as long as valve, nearly as long as broad, side margin nearly straight, tips acute, slightly exceeded by the stout pygofers which are heavily clothed with bristles. A basal median fuscous line on each plate. Described from seven females and ten males, collected by the author at Clarksville, Tennessee, September and October, 1912, on Aristida gracilis, in company with Deltocephalus pyrops. Phlepsius optatus n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 13, 14). Very near fulvidorsum in shape, size and genital characters, but paler and differing in details. Length 5. to 6. mm., breadth 1.6 mm. Vertex convex, nearly three and one-half times as broad as middle length, about one-fifth longer on apex than next eye, one-third as long as pronotum, the margin blunt, front three times as broad between ocelli as at clypeus, slightly longer than broad, convex, the sutures convex, elytra long, appressed at tip. 1915] New Species of Jassoidea 195 Color: Vertex, pronotum and scutellum pale yellowish, inscribed with fuscous, the impressed line of vertex and two points on posterior margin, an indefinite mark behind each eye, a pair of spots near apex of scutellum and two points midway between these and the basal angles, black; elytra milky white with a narrow, creamy white sub- margin along costa, the basal three-eighths very sparsely, the remainder more densely, inscribed with fuscous, showing a tendency to form a transverse band across the tip of the outer claval vein, a spot at tip of outer claval vein, another beyond and outside tip of clavus, several small spots along costa toward the tip and at tip of elytra, black; face pale yellow, fuscous inscribed; legs white, two bands on femora and the insertion of the spines black; venter white. @ Last ventral segment twice as long as preceding, one-half wider than long, one-half broader at base than at apex, lateral lobes rounded subangulate, posterior margin roundingly emarginate one-fourth to base of segment, with a pair of minute submedian lobes between which the margin is notched, a transverse curved black mark each side of middle; pygofers with short, stout, white bristles set in black points; ovipositor slightly exceeding pygofers. co Valve nearly as long as preceding segment, three and one-third times as broad as long, convex anteriorly, subangulate posteriorly; plates nearly five times as long as valve, one-fifth longer than broad, concavely narrowing from near the base to the broad, subtruncate tips which are exceeded slightly by the pygofers. Described from three females and three males, collected by the author at Clarksville, Tennessee, May, June and July, 1914. Eutettix ziczac n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 19, 20). Vertex nearly as long as wide and distinctly angled with a zigzag, fuscous, longitudinal band on elytra. 5. mm. long, 1.6 mm. broad. Vertex, basal three-fifths shallowly transversely depressed, slightly wider than middle length, one-half longer on apex than next eye, dis- tinctly angulate, angle between vertex and front acute, elytra long, neither flaring nor appressed, one cross nervure. Color: Vertex pale yellow, washed with orange, four points on anterior margin, a reticulate area on disc and four marks along posterior margin, black, pronotum pale olive, irrorate with black, scutellum yellow, washed with orange with black markings, elytra white, mottled sparingly with orange, venation orange, overlaid with fuscous dots, the fuscous reticulation disposed in a zigzag stripe extending along the scutellar margin and basal three-fourths of clavus and the tip of the wing branching to meet the costa twice between the cross nervure and the base of the central anteapical cell, and once opposite the apex of the outer anteapical cell. Face yellow, irrorated with black. Beneath pale. 2 Last ventral segment one-half longer than the preceding, nearly two and one-half times as broad as long, gently angularly emarginate, subtruncate. 196 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Described from one female taken at Sabinal, Texas, April, 1910; -by thelate- Ce Pract: Chlorotettix nacreosa n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 9, 10). An uniform pearly white above and below in the female. Deep orange in the male. 5. to 5.5 mm. long, 1.6 mm. broad. Vertex flat, one-third broader between eyes than middle length, one-half longer on apex than at eye, three-fourths as long as pronotum, distinctly angulate, profile of face and vertex acute, lorae remote from margin of cheek. Color: @ pale, uniform grayish subiridescent white both dorsally and ventrally, the eyes green, spines on legs brownish, ovipositor dark, elytra faintly tinged apically with brownish, venation pale. co Uniform deep orange above and below, eyes green. 2 Ultimate ventral segment twice as long as the preceding, twice as broad as long, posterior margin triangularly emarginate nearly one- half way to base. The outline broken by a pair of rounded, submedian lobes narrower and shorter than the lateral lobes and with their outline continued across the lateral lobe by a suture. & Valve strongly convex anteriorly, rounded posteriorly, twice as long as preceding segment, nearly two and one-half times as broad as long; plates one-fifth longer than broad, nearly two and one-half times as long as valve, transversely convex, the margin upturned, tips bluntly rounding, sub-truncate, equalling all but the brown apical styles of the pygofers. Described from eighteen females and four males, collected by the author, July 29-30, 1914, from Arundinaria tecta, at Clarksville, Tennessee. Chlorotettix vacuna n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 22, 23). Size and general appearance of Balli, but with genitalia distinct. Length 6. to 6.5 mm., breadth 1.6 mm. Vertex convex, one and one-half times broader between eyes than middle length, one-third longer on middle than next eye, bluntly subangulate, margin thick. Color: Vertex, anterior margin of prothorax and the scutellum yellowish, tinged with green, prothorax brownish, elytra subhyaline, brownish, front tinged with orange, venter green. Q Ultimate ventral segment two and one-half times as long as penultimate, one and one-half times as broad as long, not te¢ctiform, but uniformly transversely convex from the lateral margins, closely applied to the pygofers, membranous, intricately rugose, lateral margins but little narrowed, the posterior angles distinct, the posterior margin occupied by a broad, sinuated, triangular excavation three-fourths to base of segment, the apical half of the excavation straight margined. 1915] New Species of Jassoidea 197 o Valve as long as last ventral segment, twice as broad as long, subangulate posteriorly; plates three times the length of valve, two- ‘thirds as broad as long, the outer margin convexly narrowing to the subacute tips, their common figure an elongate oval. Described from four males and two females collected by the author September 3-4, 1914, Clarksville, Tennessee. Chlorotettix vivida n. sp. (Pl. XIX, figs. 7, 8). Apparently related to minima Baker. 5.5 mm. to 6. mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Vertex convex, one and one-half times as broad between the eyes as long, five-eighths as long at eye as at middle, distinctly angulate, the margin thick excepting at the slightly conical apex, venation indistinct. Color: Head, thorax and scutellum pale brownish, usually with a greenish tinge, elytra subhyaline, pale green with a brownish tinge more distinct apically. Q Ultimate ventral segment of abdomen twice as long as penulti- mate, twice as broad as long, lateral angles rounded, posterior margin broadly, somewhat sinuately triangularly excavated to about one-half the length of the segment, with a small apical notch. o& Valve as long as preceding segment, four times as broad as long, convex posteriorly; plates nearly four times as long as valve, nearly as broad as long, slightly narrower than valve at base, convexly narrowing three-fourths their length, the apical fourth produced into two narrow, parallel margined processes, pygofers equalling plates, densely clothed with spines apically. Described from three males and nineteen females taken May, July, August and September, 1914, at Clarksville, Ten- nessee, by the author. 198 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX. Fig. 1. Deltocephalus vinnulus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 2. Deltocephalus vinnulus, male genitalia. Fig. 3. Deltocephalus visendus, male genitalia. Fig. 4. Deltocephalus visendus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 5. Deltocephalus vicilinus, male genitalia. Fig. 6. Deltocephalus vicilinus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 7. Chlorotettix vivida, male genitalia. Fig. 8. Chlorotettix vivida, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 9. Chlorotettix nacreosa, male genitalia. Fig. 10. Chlorotettix nacreosa, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 11. Deltocephalus arundineus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 12. Deltocephalus arundineus, male genitalia. Fig. 13. Phlepsius optatus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 14. Phlepsius optatus, male genitalia. Fig. 15. Deltocephalus pyrops, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 16. Deltocephalus pyrops, male genitalia. Fig. 17. Deltocephalus funabulus, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 18. Deltocephalus funabulus, male genitalia. Fig. 19. Eutettix ziczac, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 20. Eutettix ziczac, left elytron. Fig. 21. Deltocephalus mendosus Ball, male genitalia. Fig. 22. Chlorotettix vacuna, last ventral segment of female. Fig. 23. Chlorotettix vacuna, male genitalia. Fig. 24. Athysanus (Stirellus) villicus, male genitalia. Fig. 25. Athysanus (Stirellus) villicus, last ventral segment of female. ANNALS E. S. A. VOLUME VIII, PLATE XIX. 14 12 S. EB. Gaumb. ' (NOTICE TO MEMBERS AND CONTRIBUTORS. ‘The Annals of the Entomological Society of ‘Amenca, ite lished by: the Society quarterly, includes the Proceedings of the Annual meetings and such yepets as may be selected by ed Rs _ Editorial Board. Papers may be submitted to any Herbed of “the cttorial : : - Board and should be as nearly as possible i in the form desired as final, preferably typewritten, and illustrations must be finished complete ready for reproduction. Plates must not exceed 5x7 ’ inches unless intended to fold. 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S.--The Development of the Hairs Upon the Wings of Platyphylax Designatus Walk. 153 vba MarcovitcH, S.—The Biology of the Juniper Berry , Insects, with Descriptions of New Species... .--- “ar Bake CRUMB, S. E.—Some New Species of Jaseodes: ae 189 The regular annual subscription price for the ANNALS is in the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii and Mexico, $3.00; Canada, $3.50; other countries, $4.00. Checks, drafts or money orders should be drawn payable to ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL SocIETY OF AMERICA, and addressed to HERBERT SO aietecel State University, Columbus, Ohio, U. S.A. Number Di ADR NCATE Sia cher os OF | The Entomological Society of America SEPTEMBER, 1915 ‘ pace: ff ¥ f aye if f° aon * Ea: EDITORIAL BOARD» Ne 4 : rgenterateea OSBORN, , Managing Editor, Pius apt y CoLuMEuS, OHIO, \ ss J. H. COMSTOCK, | . L. 0. HOWARD, TSHACA, NY. WASHINGTON, D.C. x 8) JeS: BETHUNE, W. M. WHEELER, uss GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA. 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ANNALS OF The Entomological Society of America Volume VIII SEP TEMBER, (9.15 Number 3 THE FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE MEMBRANE IN THE WINGS OF PLATYPHYLAX DESIGNATUS WALK. WILLIAM S. MARSHALL, University of Wisconsin. There appears to be some difference of opinion regarding the terms middle membrane and ‘‘Grundmembran,”’ their first formation and ultimate fate, and, at what stages in the develop- ment of the insect’s wing they occur. Semper (10), from whose paper the word ‘‘Grundmembran’’ comes chose for his work the later stages of some Lepidoptera and found, between the two hypodermal layers of the developing wing, a membrane-like structure which he called the ‘Grundmembran’’—this name has been adopted by others. Semper’s view as to the origin of this membrane from “ Bildungszellen’’ has been followed by some; we believe, however, the more widely accepted view to be that of Schaffer (9) who, speaking of the development of the wing in the Lepidoptera says: ‘‘Sehr fruh, etwas sobald die Schuppen sich anlegen, beginnt in ganz eigenartiger Weise die Verschmelzung der Flugelblatter.’’ Again: ‘‘Est is eine von Plasmen gebildtee continuirliche Membran vorhanden die ich als ‘Grundmembran’ des Epithels bezeichnen will.’’ Later the same worker says: ‘‘die Grundmembranen bei der Fligelblatter sich bereits dicht auf einander verschmolzen sind. Der Fltgel erscheint so aus zwei Epithelien zusammensesetzt, von denen gegen eine in der Mitte gelengene Membran pfeilartige Fortsatze auslaufen.”’ What one might call the generally accepted view regarding the middle membrane is this: The basement membrane covering the hypodermis of the young developing wing is similar to that 201 202 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, on other parts of the body and, 1n the very young wing bud, the continuation of the one into that of the other can be easily seen. The young wing is formed by a fold of the hypodermis which at first remains unchanged and the two walls of the fold come to lie adjacent to each other, they finally come together and the two opposed basement membranes fuse to form the middle mem- brane. This happens early in the development of the wing and has been seen, clearly by some observers, indistinctly by others. Later in the development when the hypodermal cells have assumed their characteristic spindle shape this middle membrane persisting, or a new one forming, has been clearly seen as a well marked layer passing through the median portion of the wing and connected at either side to the hypodermal cells by long strands. This is the layer first described by Semper (10) and Schaffer (9) and it has been seen by nearly all those who have studied the development of an insect’s wing by means of sections. It might be well to give a few views of those who have studied the development of the wings of insects although not trying to make such a series of quotations complete. Comstock and Needham (1) working with beetles say: ‘‘It is also impor- tant to note that the basement membrane of the hypodermis of the wing differs in no respect from that of the hypodermis of the body wall, and is continuous with it. In the thinner parts of the wing the two basement membranes melt and fuse, this forming what has been termed the middle membrane of the wing.” Mercer (6) in speaking of the Lepidoptera says: ‘‘In sec- tions of the wing buds made at this time (fifth larval stage) the so-called middle membrane is seen only with difficulty. This has given rise to the belief that it disappears at this time. Later when the wings become more opaque, i. e., in the pupa stage, the two basement membranes are again easily seen.’’ Again the same author says: “Students of the subject have been confused by descriptions of three different structures, the base- ment membrane of the hypodermis, the middle membrane of the larval wing buds, and the ‘Grundmembran’ of the pupal wing; when in reality there is only a single structure, the basement membrane.”’ Mayer (5), who worked with Lepidoptera, says: ‘‘The middle membrane has disappeared as such, and in its place one 1915] Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 203 finds a delicate membrane lining the whole interior of the wing bags. This is the ‘Grundmembran’ of Semper.’’ The figure to which Mayer refers for illustration of the middle membrane is taken from what he labels a mature larva; it is very similar to what we have shown in figure eight which is of an early pupa, this does not show any thing so membrane-like as Mayer has drawn and called the ‘Grundmembran’ in several of his later figures. Again he says: ‘The inner ends of these spindle- shaped cells are often seen to be fused to a double membrane (middle membrane), occupying the space between the two walls of the wing pad. In very old larve, however, this membrane is usually absent, and the inner portion of the cells which constitute the wing tissue end free.” Tannreuther (11), working with Lepidoptera found that “‘the basement membrane of the larval hypodermis is contin- uous over the sides of the evaginated cavity, which in later stages of development becomes the middle membrane of the larval wing. The hypodermal cells with their long fibre-like threads remain attached to the basement membrane which is continuous with that of the hypodermis.’”’ Again, in speaking of the larva in the fourth instar, he says: ‘‘The basement membrane is not so distinct, as the larva (e) at this stage differ in the sharpness of this membrane. In some individuals it is scarcely visible, in others it can only be determined by the ends of the hypodermis cells or fibres.”” In speaking of the prepupal wing he says: ‘“‘The basement membranes of the evaginated cavity become united to form the middle membrane of the adult wing.”’ The following quotations are from Krtiger whose work was principally with Coleoptera. ‘‘Dort wo die beiden Fltigella- mellen aneinanderstossen, zeigt sich schon, wie bemerkt, die erste, schwache Bildung einer Grundmembran. Sie geht offen- bar aus den Zellen der Hypodermis hervor, was allerdings erst in spateren Entwicklungsstadien klar erkannt wurde. Die Grundmembran ternnt noch als deutliche Scheidewand bei die Flugellamellen.”’ Powell (7) in his work on the development of the wings of certain beetles, speaking of the larve shortly before pupation. “The basement membrane which throughout the development of the wing is very thin and not easily discernable, becomes 204 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, more or less degenerated during the prepupal period and in places the bases of the cells either end free or become fused and anastomosed with each other.”’ It might also be well to give a very brief account of the early development of the wings of Platyphylax taken from an earlier paper, Marshall (4), In the earliest, newly hatched, larve sections through the thorax fail to show any modifications of the hypodermis at those areas where the wing rudiments will later appear. Very soon, probably in the second instar, four small, disk-like thick- enings can be seen; they are formed by the elongation of a few cells of the hypodermis (Text-figure I, A) and are found on each side of the wing-bearing segments, dorsal to the legs. These disks, which remain continuous with the hypodermis, soon invaginate and each, sinking below the surface, forms a small pocket, the peripodial cavity, at the bottom of which the disk is situated (Text-figure I, B). The hypodermis consists of a single layer of cells with a basement membrane along its inner surface, this membrane is the same on the disk and on the sur- rounding hypodermis both of the peripodial cavity and that covering the thorax. The disks never recede far from the sur- face from which they invaginated and soon commence to evag- inate (Text-figure I, C). The peripodial ‘cavity remains in communication with the exterior through the peripodial pore, the opening formed by the original invagination. At first the invaginated disk was, from a surface view, circular, it gradually elongates and when evagination takes place the wing rudiment is like a flattened sack; each wall of this sack consists of a single layer of hypodermal cells and a basement membrane which forms the inner, adjacent, part of each wall. In this way the basement membrane of each wall comes to oppose and lie adjacent to that of the other wall, and, as the walls come closer and closer together, the two basement membranes lie against each other, touch, and apparently fuse. This is not true over the entire inner surface as here and there this fusion of the two layers has not occurred and certain elongated free spaces remain, these are the developing wing veins. The wing rudiment increases in size and a slight bending is necessary in order that it may remain within the peripodial cavity; the expulsion from this cavity takes place shortly after the larva has closed its case preparatory to pupation and the 1915} Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 205 young developing wings become external (Text-figure I, D). The wing veins become clearly discernable from a surface view and in section they appear as empty spaces alternating with those parts where the two layers of the wing remain connected. While still within the last larval skin the wings become so large that, confined as they are by this covering, a second folding becomes necessary; during this: period the wings attain their greatest thickness. When the last larval skin splits and the pupa is free the wings straighten and grow much thinner. The cuticular covering now formed by the wings soon becomes too small for their growth and another period of folding ensues, the wings remain thus folded until the emergence of the imago when they unfold and assume their definite form and shape. % Se Pika 9000 9090, 00 Veg $afoooo oey 0 Pup e A. B TEXT-FIGURE I. Four views of the young developing wing of Platyphylax designatus. A, thicken- ing of the hypodermis; B, after invagination of this same thickened portion; C, the wing rudiment has evaginated, but still lies within the peripodial cavity; D, soon after the wing rudiment has left the peripodial cavity and become external. In all figures the external surface of the larva is to the right; the hypodermis only is represented, the cuticula not drawn. Figs. A, B and C, X 220; D, X 105. After evagination of the imaginal disk each wing rudiment consists of two layers of hypodermal cells folded down into the peripodial cavity and each wall of the fold is a layer of cells similar, except in its greater thickness, to the continuous hypo- dermal layer forming the wall of this cavity. The two layers of the rudiment lie close to each other but in the early stages of development do not touch along any part of their opposing surfaces (Fig. 1, A). Each layer is seen in section to be com- 206 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, posed of a single row of cells with ovoid nuclei which are arranged in two or three apparent rows. The long narrow cells are so crowded together that the nuclei have lost their regular linear arrangement and have been pushed towards one end in the cell to which they belong. The nuclei are situated more in the basal half of each layer so that there is a thicker portion of protoplasm along the free surface of the hypodermis than between the nuclei and the basement membrane. In the spec- imens of Platyphylax examined the cell boundaries, which have been figured by other observers in different insects, could not be found with any great regularity and only here and there could traces of any boundaries separating the cells be seen. The hypodermis covering the thorax and that forming the peripodial membrane has a distinct basement membrane, this can also be seen on that part of the hypodermal layer forming the wing rudiment although in this last place it is not distinct (Fig.1,B.m). The two layers of the wing rudiment, as its development pro- ceeds, approach each other and pass through a stage in which there is but a narrow open space separating them from each other; here and there this open space is wider forming large openings, the developing wing veins. Narrow open spaces are also noticed between the cells of each layer, these do not as yet entirely separate the cells but appear only in the basal region; this is, however, the beginning of that separation of the cells which finally results, with the migration of the nucleus and protoplasm to one end, in the formation of the elongated, spin- dle-like cells which have been described in the developing wings of a number of insects. An endeavor to find a basement mem- brane in the wing rudiment shows that it is not distinct and continuous, it can sometimes be seen but cannot be traced for any considerable distance along the basal surface of either layer. Other workers have observed the basement membrane at this stage in different insects although, as quoted in the introductory remarks, all have not seen it with equal distinctness. - As the development of the wing goes on its two layers finally approach each other and their inner surfaces touch except where ‘ the developing wing veins are present. The two basement membranes should now lie adjacent to each other and fuse to form the middle membrane. An examination of sections at this stage shows however, that a continuous median membrane separating the two layers of the wing from each other cannot 1915] Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 207 with certainty be found. One does however find, running through the middle of each section, a continuous, narrow, lighter _ zone which is connected with and separates the two layers of hypodermis from each other (Fig. 3). This zone is without definite boundaries, and, from the darker protoplasm of the adjacent hypodermal layers, there are numerous small processes extending into it so that it is impossible to trace any definite line which might separate the parts from each other. Another change one notices at this stage is in the gradual moving of the nuclei of each layer towards the outer surfaces of the wing; most of these nuclei are no longer, as formerly, grouped in the basal half of each layer but are now fairly well scattered in all its parts. This is well shown by comparing figures one and three. It is apparent that this hght median zone remains for but a short time during the development of the wing. Slides through wings a little older than the last described fail to show any median zone which can be recognized as lighter in shade than the rest of the wing, but, in the same median position, one can still see the same zone but it is now darker than the rest; the sections showing this were prepared and stained in the same way as the slides showing the lighter median zone. The two layers of the hypodermis no longer lie close against this median zone but have moved slightly away from it, not leaving a clear entirely open space, but each layer of the hypodermis is con- nected with the median zone by numerous protoplasmic strands separated from each other by vacuoles which are irregular in outline. This makes each side of the median zone much lighter and this contract coupled with a probable increase in the density of the protoplasm of the middle zone, might account for its now appearing darker than the other parts of the slide (Fig. 4). | There are now, excepting the cuticular covering, five layers shown in each section of the wing: 1, two outer layers, the original hypodermis, which have decreased in width and now form but a part of the entire section; 2, along the inner surface of each of these is a lighter layer composed of numerous vacuoles separated from each other by protoplasmic strands which con- nect the two outer layers, 1, with 3, a median layer which appears slightly darker than the other parts of the section. None of these layers has a distinct boundary. This last median layer is present in the developing wing of Platyphylax and forms what is commonly known as the middle membrane; this, 208 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, as will be shown, disappears and is replaced by a second one which is Semper’s ‘‘Grundmembran.’”’ The accepted name, middle membrane, is so well established that the introduction of a new term, such as middle lamella or middle layer, would be futile; the old term will be adopted both for the earlier and the later layer although we cannot see in Platyphylax that there is a true membrane present in the median part of the developing wing. In many sections at this age, and later, there can be found running through this middle layer small darker dots and short lines which would correspond to the middle membrane of other observers (Fig. 5). These are more or less distinct in different sections but do not show continuously for any great distance 1n any section and we are unable to find any regular structure strictly homologous to a membrane. The strands of proto- plasm which connect this middle layer to the outer layers will be spoken of as the perpendicular strands. All the stages so far described can be found in the developing wing while it is still within the peripodial cavity, in fact many internal rudiments show stages more advanced than these. We also find in these stages as well as later ones a number of dividing nuclei, the mitotic figures were nearly all found near the outer surface of the developing wing and away from that portion where the nuclei are most crowded together. The middle membrane can be recognized when the perpen- dicular strands and the vacuoles between: them first become clearly differentiated as layers of the wing. With the growth of the wing changes take place in the relative thickness of the different layers, the two original hypodermal layers decrease in thickness and the layers just inside of them, composed of the perpendicular strands and vacuoles, increase in thickness to finally, as will be seen later, occupy by far the largest part of the wing. The perpendicular strands are not straight but branch and divide and are generally curved for part of their length, such irregularities are more noticeable in the older stages when the strands are longer. Each strand appears to pass from the mid- dle membrane to a nucleus in the hypodermal layer (Fig. 6). In sections such a connection is not always discernable but no doubt holds true for a great majority of the strands. Mayer (5) says: ‘‘Each of the hypodermis cells gives rise to one, and only 1915] Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 209 y one, of these processes’’; and later, ‘‘occasionally a hypodermis cell is seen without any such process.”’ At first the increase in width of the clearer layers, that is the elongation of the perpendicular strands and the clear spaces between them, causes no appreciable changes except in the relative width of the different layers. In certain slides one can see that, scattered rather irregularly in the middle membrane, there are a number of small ovoid bodies not well stained but clearly marked off from the surrounding protoplasm. At first it was difficult to understand just what these small bodies were but from a study of different stages of development it became apparent that they were nuclei of the hypodermal layers which had wandered into the middle membrane. In wings of about the age we are now considering, (Fig. 6), one can see that many of the nuclei of the hypodermis he along its inner margin, some are noticed protruding into the adjacent clear layer and a few are seen on the perpendicular strands. Those nuclei occupying the two first mentioned positions and some of those on the strands are similar in size and structure to the normal nuclei of the hypodermal layer, some of those on the strands however are seen to be much smaller and lighter stained than normal but are still easily distinguished by their rather distinct boundaries which mark them sharply off from the surrounding cytoplasm (Fig. 7). This enlarged view will show more clearly what hap- pens during this wandering and that many of the hypodermal nuclei pass from their original position to the middle membrane going from one layer to the other along the perpendicular strands. During this change in their position they lose their characteristic nuclear appearance and become much reduced in size. In this last figure (7) one sees, to the right, the inner ends of a few normal nuclei (entire nuclei not drawn) that are still within but at the inner edge of the hypodermal layer, adjacent to these are two entire nuclei that have started to move towards the middle membrane; the latter nuclei are as yet normal in appearance and size. Along some of the perpendicular strands can be seen other nuclei that have already decreased in size and lost their nuclear characteristics in a breaking up and disap- pearance of their reticulum and in their failure to stain. Finally, in the middle membrane, can be seen many of the nuclei which have wandered from the hypodermal layers, these have entirely lost their nuclear appearance but can be distinguished by the 210 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, rather definite boundary with which each is surrounded; they persist as small, fairly regular ovoid bodies within the middle membrane, remaining visible until a considerably later stage, continually decreasing in size to finally disappear. Comstock and Needham (1) give a different origin for the nuclei in the middle membrane. They say: ‘‘In later stages, when, after the expansion of the wing, it (basement membrane) contains distinct nuclei, there is evidence that some of these at least are derived from the hypoderm cells whose nuclei once crowded up to this level, have remained stranded here after the expansion of the wing.’’ Later in the same work they say: ‘““When through excessive crowding, some of the innermost nuclei have come into contact with the basement membrane at the subsequent expansion of the wing, these, seem instead to remain where they are, and to attract to themselves the slender prolongations of the neighboring cells.” In the stages which have already been described (Figs. 1 to 7), the wing, except in the earliest stage, (Fig. 1), remains of about the same thickness and any changes taking place during the formation of the middle membrane and of the perpendicular strands go on during a partial rearrangement of the contents of the wing and an increase of its area. Before the larva closes its case preparatory to pupation the wing has grown down against the base of the leg and subsequent growth in a ventral direction is checked; covered, externally, by the cuticular layer the wing is confined within a limited area which it finally fills, it then starts to fold and this is noticed in both small and large folds along the surface (Fig. 8), giving it a fluted appearance, Verson (13). During this period and also after the larval case has been closed a surface view will show another system of very much larger folds; these start at the anterior margin of the wing and finally extend entirely across it, at first there are but one or two but an increase in their number soon occurs and gives to the wing a complicated folded appearance Marshall (4, Fig. 23). This is now that stage in the development of the wing when it has reached its maximum width and the perpendicular strands their greatest length. Sections through the wing at this period of its greatest thickness show that there has been a considerable change in its internal structure. The outer layers which have been very distinct since the beginning of the formation of the clear layers 1915} Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax Dit have nearly disappeared and are now seen restricted to a narrow layer along the surface of the wing just under the cuticula. It is seen from this section (Fig. 8) that the earlier clear layers now form nearly all of the wing, the long clear spaces still sep- arating the perpendicular strands which extend nearly to the cuticula. The middle membrane is much narrower than in the last stage but occupies the same median position and still shows a number of the nuclei which have wandered into it. During the growth of the wing in the latter part of larval life and while the insect 1s in a period in which the wings would be of about the ages found in figures six and eight the middle mem- brane shows, in some specimens, traces of what might be taken for the remains of amembrane. Running through the center of the middle membrane there can often be seen small dark dots and rods which may in some specimens be so numerous as to show a more or less linear arrangement (Fig. 8), this is only continuous for a short distance. Most of the slides examined did not show this central linear arrangement of dark dots and rods and one could see only a few darkened dots in its place; in most of the sections examined nothing of the kind could be found. We do not believe that this corresponds to a membrane although it occupies exactly the position in which the basement membrane would be found if present. The meaning of the wandering of some of the nuclei from the hypodermal layers to the middle membrane is not clear. As will be shown later these nuclei finally disappear and there is no apparent reason why they should leave those parts of the wing where the other nuclei are found and wander to a portion of the wing in which it is impossible to see that they are of any use. The crowding of the nuclei due to the increase in width and folding of the wing might necessitate a decrease in their number but at this stage there still remains a thin outer layer along the surface of the wing which is nearly free from nuclei (Fig. 6) and into which other nuclei might be pushed. That an accretion to the mass of the middle membrane is needed and supplied in this way is not possible as the middle membrane soon after the nuclei have wandered into it, begins to decrease in thickness and to ultimately disappear. During the stages already described dividing nuclei can often be seen within the hypodermal layer so that nuclei are both being formed in this layer and also lost to it from this change in their position. 212 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The wings, after the last larval skin has finally been cast, remain for a short time in their folded condition; they then unfold, decrease in thickness with an increase in their area. As a result of this the old hypodermal layers, just under the cuti- cula, are spread as a continuous layer in this position and have apparently received a considerable amount of the cytoplasm which was formerly in the perpendicular strands when these became shorter and thinner (Fig. 9). The nuclei, which in the last stage were all in the perpendicular strands, have nearly all wandered into the layers under the cuticula; a few still remain in the strands from which they later disappear. The middle membrane has become much thinner and, instead of being a fairly continuous layer, 1t here and there now assumes a zigzag shape; along its course can be seen very small and somewhat ovoid bodies, these are all that remain of those nuclei which, at an earlier stage, wandered into this layer from the hypodermis. During that period in the life of the pupa in which its body contracts and shortens the changes, noted in the last paragraph, are continued and become more marked. The nuclei of the perpendicular strands have all passed from these into the old, outer, hypodermal layers in which they now are arranged in a fairly even layer. The protoplasm does not in these layers become even but in many places surrounds each nucleus in a triangular mass, these at the base are connected with each — other but the apex of each points towards what remains of the middle membrane and is, in most cases, extended out into one of the perpendicular strands (Fig. 10). The perpendicular strands have become thinner and most of the protoplasm that they contained has entered the outer layers of the wing. The middle membrane no longer extends as a continuous layer through the median part of the wing but its zigzag course becomes more marked until finally it separates into a number of strands and can no longer be followed continuously as in all the earlier stages. This disappearance of the middle membrane becomes more marked until all traces of it are lost, the perpen- dicular strands then either pass across the wing from one surface to the other or they end blindly at some place along such a course. The failure to see all of the strands connected with both layers of the hypodermis is undoubtedly in part due to a study of thin sections. Many of the nuclei which earlier wan- dered into the middle membrane from the hypodermal layers ° 1915] Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 213 are still present but now restricted to the perpendicular strands (Fig. 11). The wings reach their maximum thickness after the con- traction of the pupa and they then lie stretched over and at the sides of its body; this chitinous case which now encloses them while ample in extent for the wings in their present condition is not sufficient to allow of the next growth, that of an increase in surface area. When this occurs it is necessary for the wings to decrease in thickness and become very much folded which folding continues until the imago is ready to issue from the pupal skin. To the perpendicular strands that pass across the wing from one surface to the other Mayer (5) has assigned a probable contractile power and to this attributed the drawing together of the two surfaces of the wing. This would account for the decrease in thickness and the limited area of the cuticular sack which now encloses the wings would necessitate the folding which becomes so marked during the remainder of pupal life. The narrowing of the wing is noticeable before its folding has commenced. During the process described above certain changes take place in the different layers of the wing, of these the most noticeable is the reforming of the middle membrane which again occupies its old place in the median part of the wing (Fig. 12) and is now thinner and more membrane like than during the earlier stages before its disappearance. The per- pendicular strands again pass from the hypodermis to the mid- dle membrane and are irregular and branched. The degen- erated nuclei which earlier wandered from the hypodermal layers to the middle membrane and which, upon the disappear- ance of the latter, remained on the perpendicular strands (Fig. 11) are again found in the middle membrane. In the hypo- dermal layers many nuclei are seen which have wandered away from the outer surfaces of the wing and come to he between the hypodermis and the middle membrane. These are the nuclei of those cells, trichogens, from which later will develop the hairs upon the surface of the wings. It is at once noticed that these trichogens are more abundant upon one side of the sections than upon the other; this fact, knowing that there are many more hairs upon the dorsal than upon the ventral surface of the wing, enables one to distinguish these surfaces from each other rather early in pupal life. 214 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The wing, as this last folding continues, decreases more and more in thickness (Fig. 13) but structurally there is no notice- able change. Here and there places are seen in the sections where the hypodermis and middle membrane have increased in thickness (Fig. 14) but such places are apt to be near the margin of the wing. The cause of this is not known unless it can be due to the folding of the wing which may push the hypodermis and the middle membrane in such a way as to increase, at certain places, the thickness of each. After the folding of the wing has reached its maximum (Fig. 15) certain changes have taken place. Most noticeable of these is the final disappearance of the middle membrane and of the small degenerated nuclei which it contained. After this has occurred the perpendicular strands again pass entirely across the wing and directly connect the two hypodermal layers with each other. These layers are now thinner and their nuclei are so arranged that the longitudinal axis of each lies parallel to the surface of the wing. No marked change is noticeable in the wing after the adult insect has emerged (Figs. 16 and 17). The wing has become a little thinner and the hypodermal layers show a decrease in amount and their nuclei are smaller. The activities of the dif- ferent layers have ended and there is little left within the wing of what was present during the early stages of its development and growth. From the foregoing account it can be seen that in Platyphylax the term middle membrane cannot be used to designate a true membrane but rather as the name for the thin layer of proto- plasm occupying a median position within the wing. As has been noted by others this layer is not continuous during the entire development and growth of the wing but disappears and is reformed in the same place. Of these two structures the latter is the more membrane like. In the preparation of the material two or three of the com- moner sublimate, acetic acid fixitives were used and the slides stained with Delafield’s hamatoxylin or with alum carmine. 1915] Middle Membrane in Wings of Platyphylax 215 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham. The wings of insects. Amer. Natural. Vol. XXXII, 1899. 2. J. Gonin. Recherches sur les métamorphoses de Lépidopteres. Bull. Soc. vaud. sc. nat. Vol. XXX, 1894. 3. E. Kruger. Uber dir Entwicklung der Fligel der Insekten mit besonderer Bertcksichtigung der Deckflugel der Kafer. Inaug. Diss. Gottingen, 1898. 4. W.S. Marshall. The development of the wings of a caddis-fly Platyphylax designatus. Zeit. wiss. Zool. Vol. CV, 1913. 5. A. G. Mayer. The development of the wing scales and their pigment in butterflies and moths. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool, Harvard, Vol. XXIX, 1896. W. F. Mercer. The development of the wings in the Lepidoptera. Journ. N. Y. Entom. Soc. Vol. VIII, 1900. 7. P. B. Powell. The development of the wings of certain beetles, and some studies of the origin of the wings of insects. Journ. N. Y. Entom. Soc. Vol. XII, 1904 and Vol. XIII, 1905. 8. A. Rehberg. Ueber die Entwicklung des Insektenfligels. Jahresber. Gymnas. Marienwerder Programm, 1886. 9. C. Schaffer. Beitrage zur Histologie der Insekten. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. Vol. III, 1889. 10. C. Semper. Ueber die Bildung der Fligel, Schuppen und Haare bei den Lepidopteren. Zeit. wiss. Zool. Vol. VIII, 1897. il. G. W. Tannreuther. Origin and development of the wings of Coleoptera. Arch. Entwickmech. Vol. XXIX, 1910. 12. W.L. Tower. The origin and development of the wings of Coleoptera. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. Vol. XVII, 1903. 13. E. Verson. La Formanzione delle Ali nella larva del Bombyx mori. R. Stazione Bacol. Sperment. Padova, 1890. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XX-XXII. All figures drawn with a camera lucida. B. M., basement membrane. Cu., cuticula. Hyp., hypodermis. M. m., middle membrane. Per. cay., peripodial cavity. Per. mb., peripodial membrane. Pp. s., perpendicular strands. Tr., trichogens. Figures eight to seventeen inclusive have been drawn with the same magnifica- tion to allow an easy comparison of the relative thickness of the wing at these different stages of development. : PLATE XX. Fig. 1. Section through one of the two layers of hypodermis that form the internal wing rudiment. This figure shows the position of the crowded nuclei as more in the basal part of the layer. 875. Fig. 1A. Transverse section of the entire wing rudiment from which the pre- ceding figure was taken. X 105. Fig. 2. The middle part only of a section through an internal wing rudiment. The outer part of each layer of the hypodermis is not drawn. The two layers have nearly come together and only a slight open space can be seen between them. ‘The separation of the cells along their sides has started and a few of the narrow spaces between them can be seen. x 1100. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig, on sy 10. 16, Lf. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Section through a wing rudiment after the two layers have come together and a narrow, lighter zone has appeared between them. X 875. . Transverse section of entire wing rudiment from which preceding figure was drawn. X 105. Median part only of a section through a wing rudiment. This shows the early formation of the middle membrane and of the perpendicular strands. > 1100. Section through a young external wing, lateral stage than preceding figure. > 1100. PLATE X XI. Section of a wing at a later stage showing the wandering of many of the nuclei to the middle membrane in which a number of these nuclei, much reduced in size and clearness, can be seen; other nuclei are visible on the perpendicular strands. To the right a small outer portion of the hypodermis and the cuticula have not been drawn. X 1100. A small part of the same section more highly magnified to show the wandering of the nuclei from the hypodermis to the middle membrane. Only the inner edge of one layer of hypodermis is drawn and, in it, the ends of five nuclei. Opposite this is shown a part of the middle mem- brane and between these two the perpendicular strands on which are seen some of the wandering nuclei. The position of this view is shown by the space between the two lines at a, in the preceding figure. > 1700. Section of a wing at a later stage, shortly before the casting of the last larval skin. All the nuclei in the middle membrane are reduced in size and the perpendicular strands greatly elongated. X 740. Section of a wing at a still later stage of development. The middle membrane in which are seen a few of the nuclei that have wandered into it from the hypodermis is narrow and much more membrane like than in the preceding figures. X 740. PLATE XXII. Section of a wing from a pupa after the last larval skin has been cast, the body contracted and the wings straightened. The nuclei of the hypodermis are nearly all arranged in a single row along the surface and many of the perpendicular strands extend entirely across the wing. The middle membrane is no longer continuous. X 740. A little later stage showing that at this part of the section the middle membrane has entirely disappeared. Cuticula not drawn. X 740. Section from the wing of a pupa before its final folding has commenced. The middle membrane has again formed as a continuous layer. > 740. Section of a pupal wing after the last folding has started. Cuticula not drawn. 740. Section of another wing of about the same age. Cuticula not drawn. x 740. Section through the wing of an old pupa. The wing of this specimen is much folded and shows the entire and final disappearance of the middle membrane. The perpendicular strands again pass across the wing. Cuticula not drawn. X 740. Section of the wing of an imago shortly after its emergence. The old hypodermis is now represented by a thin layer of protoplasm con- taining a few shrunken nuclei. X 740. Section through the wing of an adult.. X 740. ANNALS E. S.A. VoL. VIII, PLATE XX, Percav.- at's Reece Ae 4st yw 6 “3 Z x ; ‘oe ‘aati ae teed S. =~ FIA ale Wig ee OE W. S. Marshall. ANNALS E. S. A. VoL. VIII, PLATE XXI. reset Lo FERS —< ae eS a S = ,. | POE eee Pg EE owen eg eS GE /: CoD ORLA Lf |. ‘ : { i d ee, amp ane 7, a3 ee Fig 0. HAN eee oe ae td ee f \ } } t \ aor x ANNALS E. S.A. W. S. Marshail. BEHAVIOR OF ANOPHELES ALBIMANUS WIEDE. AND TARSIMACULATA GOELDI.* JAMES ZETEK, Entomologist, Republic of Panama.. into A CET O ne rot te Wee A Pe PARR ak Raa ek sais ee. 52 OF ee 221 epdonalgOniemtatd OMe serene he ayo et te SOR e Nr cSt ea ee ee 223 ihe Environment... sce MS crtasst tt otet a itichh ace chs te aes ota Aeon eee Meee 226 Dynamic welations of the Moseuibosea: tote. foc seks eee aa esse eee 242 Rewiew orthe Saltmarsh BneedingeAmeay2)8. 25.45. .0. eee esse cae. 242 ERO PIS ROTA cya etree eee tN eee eRe ae feat ley environment of the mosquitos which they cannot withstand. Hence human hand may, by means of relatively simple meas- ures, reduce the population of disease-spreading species far below the critical point of danger, if not actually wipe them out. But to actually wipe out of existence in a given region all such malefactors would probably be prohibitive on account of its cost. Constant vigilance and effort are required to main- tain a humid, tropical area free from malaria or yellow-fever. The conversion of Colon and Panama cities from filth and disease-propagating centers into unusually healthy places, stands out boldly as a proof of what can be done. It means new birth to business opportunities and makes life worth something. The knowledge of the behavior of insects has, therefore, undis- puted practical value. METHODS OF STUDY. 1. Field Study. This is by far the most productive means of getting at the correct interpretation of the dynamic relations of the mosquitos in their normal environment. A. By Direct Observation: i. From a boat, at all times of the day and night. ii. Observations on land, at the breeding place and townsite, with and without lights, in tents, with domestic animals, etc. iii. Collection and examination of adult mosquitos. B. By Experimental Data: i. Adult mosquitos were attracted into large mosquito-bar nets, at the breeding place, by West Indian negroes. The mos- quitos thus caught were sprayed with an aqueous anilin dye (Zetek 1913-a) and liberated at dusk at the same place where sprayed. The mosquitos caught at the townsite and else- where were tested for the presence of color. ii. By means of intercepting planes, the sides of which were coated with transparent tanglefoot. 2. Laboratory Study. Due to the separaticn of the mosquito from its normal environment, but few laboratory experiments were attempted. These were simple and only to learn the responses to single factors, such as light intensity. 1915] Behavior of Anopheles 223 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author is particularly indebted to Surgeon-General, Wm. Crawford Gorgas, formerly Chief Health Officer of the Panama Canal Zone; it is due to his efforts that entomological study on the Isthmus at this time was at all possible. To Mr. Joseph A. Le Prince, formerly Chief Sanitary Inspector, acknowledgments are due for his support and constant encour- agements throughout the work. The author is indebted to the following gentlemen for assistance given: Mr. James B. Shropshire, detailed to assist him; Dr. A. J. Orenstein, former Assistant Chief Sanitary Inspector; Dr. Samuel T. Darling, former Chief of Laboratory, Ancon Hospital; Mr. J. A. Corrigan, Sanitary Inspector at Gatun; Dr. E. Garcon of Gatun Dispensary; Sanitary Inspec- tors Messrs. C. B. Chinn, Geo. Parker, E. F. Quinby, C. H. Bath Chas. bP. Cratts,2A nk. Proctor and:S.P.. Verner. The writer acknowledges with gratitude the helpful criticisms and encouragements of Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agric., and of Messrs. August Busck and Frederic Knab of the same bureau. Only those intimately acquainted with mosquitos of tropical America, and who have worked under the enervating strain of its moist, hot climate, can appreciate the services rendered by these gentlemen. REGIONAL ORIENTATION. The Panama Canal Zone is a typical sample of the humid, torrid zone, characterized by an uniformly even climate, with very little seasonal change, with a wet and a dry season, a fairly heavy rainfall, high humidity, prevailing north and north- west winds, and a prolific and luxuriant biota. Of mosquitos alone it yielded about 130 species. For a good account of the Zone and the problems of mosquito control, see Jennings 1912, pp. 131-141. The town of Gatun is located seven miles from the Atlantic entrance, and is the site of three flights of locks which, in less than a mile, raises the level of water from sea-level to 85 feet in Gatun lake. To sustain this level of 85 feet in the lake, a num- ber of dams had to be built, the largest of them being the famous Gatun Dam, nearly 1.5 miles long and 105 feet high. 224 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, About 0.75 mile west of Gatun, this dam is cut through by a large spillway. Here was located a small camp (Spillway Camp), consisting of several labor barracks, a dispensary and a hotel. A mile north of this place, and nearly a mile north- west of Gatun, is a low, flat land, the highest portion of which is a small dome 20 feet high. The major portion of this region is below the 10 foot contour, most of it a salt-marsh. This region marks the early workings of the old French Canal Com- pany, and is bordered to the east by a deep channel known as the Old French Canal. The excavations of this pre-American attempt were dumped along the banks of this flat land. Thus perfect drainage was made impossible; however, the region never gave serious trouble to the sanitary inspector, until the latter part of 1912 and the beginning of 19138. At this period countless, in fact unbelievable, numbers of Anopheles albima- nus Wiede., its racial variety tarstmaculata Goeldi and Aedes teniorhynchus Wiede., invaded the towns of Gatun and New Gatun, and it was soon evident that they were breeding in this salt-marsh. It is this area that gave such good opportunities to demonstrate mosquito flight. East of this marsh is a low island, partly covered with a dense vegetation, and the rest of it composed of barren hydrau- lic fill. No serious breeding occurred here, however, shade from the hot sun was present for the mosquitos traversing the island. This was the main site for the LePrince experiment recorded in this paper. South of the island is a small neck of land, mostly above the ten foot contour, which 1s covered with luxuriant vegetation. This tangle of growth was cut down and burned in February, 1913, and the measure greatly reduced the number of mos- quitos for the time being. From the breeding place to Gatun is a rise of about ninety feet, but east of the locks the land ranges in height from fifty to a hundred and fifty feet, with isolated knolls of 110 to 160 feet. It is unusually well-drained and oiled, and it can be said that no Anopheles breeds within this treated area—a great credit to the sanitary inspector in charge, J. A. Corrigan. The population numbered at the time about 4,500, dis- tributed as follows: 800 white Americans, 1000 West Indian negroes, 200 East Indians, 1500 Spaniards and 1000 all others. 1915] Behawior of Anopheles 225 The homes of the Americans are well built, well screened with 18-mesh copper screen, and are raised on concrete posts. Weekly inspections are made of screening and floors and defects, such as holes or cracks through which mosquitos can enter, are quickly repaired. A daily search for mosquitos is made in all barracks by expert negroes and thus many Anopheles are killed before they become dangerous. All doors have self-closing devices. The quarters of the negro, Spaniard and East Indian are likewise well screened and elevated from the ground. The difference between them and those of the Americans is that more people sleep in labor barracks, and due to the increased perspiration, as well as less body cleanliness, these barracks become veritable traps for mosquitos. Advantage was made of this fact and the “‘C. H. Bath’’ mosquito traps were attached to such buildings and through them large numbers of mos- quitos were caught. At New Gatun, a native village adjacent to Gatun proper, the conditions are much the reverse. The dominant figure here is the West Indian, and his home, devoid of screening, rivals in capacity our New York tenements. The population was about six thousand. The only effective anti-malarial measures are free medical aid, good ditches and the ceaseless dripping of larvacides. Orenstein (1912-b) reports three times as much malaria originating in New Gatun as in Gatun proper, and this increase is due to exposures to infection through lack of screening. In daily habits the people vary greatly. When the day’s work is ended, the American usually seeks his only place of amusement—the Y. M. C. A., or he remains in his room. In either case he is fairly well protected from Anophelenes. Sat- urday nights and Sundays, since the Canal Zone is ‘‘dry”’ territory, he procures his alcoholic preference in Colon or Panama cities, 1. e., unless he keeps it in stock in his trunk. The Spaniard delights to lounge outdoors, remaining so till late at night. Mosquitos find no difficulty in reaching them. The negro likewise prefers to roam about, and this unrest is probably but the natural reaction after a day of hard work. The practice, though, is dangerous. The negro cannot speak through a screen door; he must open it wide, and of course 226 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, must let mosquitos enter until he quits talking. The finding of a greater number of Anophelenes in negro camps is explained by this fact. At Mira Flores the writer found that a negro camp with two doors had almost twice as many mosquitos as did a similar camp with but one door, not-with-standing that the camp with two doors was farthest away from the breeding place. The time of activity of the men is largely during the day- time, though sometimes forces have worked at night time as well. Men begin to emerge from their barracks as the first rays of the sun greet the new day, and they remain active until the last ray has departed. Mosquito activity is most pro- nounced during day-break and dusk. This coincidence bears a direct relation to the malarial rate. THE ENVIRONMENT. A. ITS COMPOSITION. In nature the composition and dynamics of the environ- ment are inseparable, but for convenience in the presentation of the subject, this division is necessary. I. Physical Factors. A. The Wind. For much of the meteorlogical data the writer is indebted to Mr. Wilson and his staff of the Weather Bureau of the Isthmian Canal Commission. During the months of January, February and March, 1913, the prevailing winds at Gatun were from the north. A sum- mary of the wind movement for January and March is given in table ““A’”’. Of the 744 hourly periods in January, 495 showed north winds, and 164 showed northwest winds—a per- centage of 66.5 and 22.2 respectively of the total. Many winds reported as ‘‘west’’ or “‘northeast’’ were such by the mere addition of a dot or two on the record made by the auto- matic wind gauge. There were more westerly winds than northeasterly. In the month of March, northeast winds were wholly absent. In other words, the winds are predominantly from the north and northwest. This general prevalence in direction holds true for the entire year in the Atlantic section. 1915} Behavior of Anopheles PA A. MontTHLY WIND MOVEMENT, GATUN, C. Z. 1. Direction, Hourly Periods. North Northwest West | North- East | Calms | Total 1913 east No. | q No. oe Nose No. | q No. % \No. % | Waite sah 495 | 66.5 NOE PAB NAG TAG.) P44) Be) ont |] a) Ao 744 IMKeS. - DAO ME i22 Owl el Galeton oul On lester es. oi eretctaleee alee needles 744 2. Miles per Hourly Periods. ane see 63/9 SOS Os MI S0Ge hl G SOR olO noe On a ON e2eM ital: stele alee eeslene Sleep Mar olay 0 | BON aless3 Ab Bal PAD) |e le salle alleles Bile eel) woes: These first three months of the year are within the dry season. This period begins the latter part of December and extends well on into April, though some years it may appear sooner or be much delayed. It is not rainless as the name would imply, for at least every third day some rain falls. But as this dry season advances, the trade winds increase in velocity and become more confined to the north. In March, for instance, there are ten percent more north winds than there were in January; in mileage this was an increase of over eleven percent. During March, ’14, the writer had been in Boquete and David, Chiriqui Province, near Costa Rica. The north winds were so dominant here and of such high velocity that the trees on the plateau leading to Boquete are limbless on the wind- ward side, and their trunks are bent to leeward. Riding on horseback against this fierce wind, along the llanos of Santa Cruz and Dolega, was an experience which cannot be forgotten. Everywhere, everything told of its struggle to remain, even though so powerful a wind aimed at its destruction—present- ing a field of intense interest to the ecologist. A significant feature of these winds is their daily hourly range. The mean wind velocity of the months of January and March is plotted on.curve, chart ““B’’. Excepting for differ- ences in velocity, the two curves agree. The crest is at mid- day. The winds show a steady diminution in velocity from about midnight till about 7:00 a. m., and a like, but more decided decrease from about 2:00 p. m. till about 9:00 p. m. [Vol. VIII, f America Society o Annals Entomological OCLTY « MEAN WIND VE B. GATUN eleeles (eeleeteed airline Kelsie etait otetels Celtel ated Sete ttt te cor for ror» Ce ee es ee ee | ' ! I t ! ! ! j { { t 14,PEN ~ I U | ! 1 ! ! ! ! ! I ‘I ! I 4 ! I f I ! I - bod or wo fur are of oo oe een ome doe oe wh 0c ome eon wm ms hee on wh oes ame Ne ee ee ee ee { 1 ! I ! I celal dal es hola tava — a ‘ft I I i { Ee ee ee asa ol mesos “tae, Sees ll aac cae Ue asc fecm La ivan imss eb eces ak wes excrete Bf 1 J { 1 { 1 I fe 04 | I [Paces] 1 A ea dh ! I ar aa ao fea 1 Jom be gee i S Pee te Hh be eee { ! i I i er aia ea Same { [eral As a cab a a Se ie (rl Pa (eee | eo Saat are cin) | ae wee eerie oie be ee te Ee ieee l ee ee ee ee Oe ee ne ee ee | i l l yal i e wa bmw de Hh be te HEY dN Cops ES Sl aes ee Be | ee Set eaces a : iB = bP COTY ef Wey Sal 0 tea) ie ae hotest I Iie! } feshot) Sah S53; teil hte Th tal Gal Th tI Sl I ! t ! ! | ! I ihe legal eee len 22 teen ale ho eee T on oe 1915} Behavior of Anopheles 229 The winds at mid-day are hot, strong and steady. Those at day-break and dusk are much milder, cooler and often inclined to be puffy. Two charts, ‘““C’’ and ‘‘D”’ are presented to show the char- acteristic of the winds at the hours when the mosquitos are most active. These charts give the mileage and direction of winds at Gatun for the hours of four to seven a. m., and five to eight p. m., during the months of Jan., Feb., and March, 1913. CHART C. WINDS, 4-5, 5-6 AND 6-7 A. M. a Cc i North- Mo. | © North Northwest West east | East | sila | Aw n mi YP ES @|| 0 Al a b c 2 joy a ib ie Wvasbiec ab ¢|/Ole Days} 16 22) 21-10 (Bel MG PA Se SN PAL i cl 1237) 7.7 Jan. {31} Milesi150 | 200 |184 |72 |26 \29 19 {5 |10 | 6) 3} 2)..|..|..|. 1284] 7.5 Avr.|| 9 9 9 | 7.2) 4.5) 4. 7)4-5)/2-5)3:.3) 3) 3) 2). 2). .). 1. 9225) 7.3 Days} 14 13 | 15 |10 /|10 OF Le Ne 12 1 180) 7.0 Feb. |26| Miles/121 115 {120 |51 (58 |89 |2 |6 14 6 174) 6.7 Avr.|| 9 OneStat le ole 6 {163| 6.3 Days|| 23 DON BS | 6S! GP le8 Sahil hemterdta yer |e atest si(~ alpomo| el a MaraolieVinles|23cam | e2T08|2Opm|a/on|00. O20 leslie cleeeinciealbete de clecle leaalose DNS 255 |p Anta Pa 7 i SOE ah. aes Alicoe [eee allexclisrete sleet Ole 2 CHART D. WINDS, 5-6, 6-7 AND 7-8 P. M. a b c § | % North- Mo. | © North Northwest West east | East ||| @ | Ay. be "a|| © a a Boe a bo ¢'|’a BD tc |ab cla b e|O] o Days|| 20 19 18 19 WO | 3) 38 | 3) 1)..).2) None |'0|\390)| 12.6 Jan. /31) Miles/290 |232 /2038 67 |79 fC 28-25 120410). ce “1336 | 10.9 Avr. || 14.5} 12.2) 11.3) 9 | 9 Selle Suleer ed kO & “1310 | 10.0 Days] 19 | 19 | 18 6/6 |7 | 1]11}1)Njene | None | 0/826/ 12.7 Feb. |26) Miles|274 |238 /|198 43 |41 |44 |9)]4/]5 G “1/283 | 10.9 Avr. || 14.4} 12.5) 10 lade 6 |91415 : “11247| 9.5 Days) 20 19 18 9 }10 11 2 | 2 | 2 | Nionje | None |:0/496/ 16.0 Mar. |31| Miles857 (305 {282 |117 |107 |114 |22 /15 |13 y ¢ “11427 | 13.8 25 |6.5 zs . “1409 | 13.2 Avr. || 17.8) 16.6} 15.6) 13 | 10.7) 10.4)11 230 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, During the entire three months, of the 264 hourly periods in the morning, 196 were with north winds, 76 with northwest winds, and only 19 for all others. Of the same number of evening periods, 170 were with north winds, 72 with northwest and but 22 for all others. In mileage, the north winds were stronger than those of the northwest. B. Temperature. The’ Isthmus’ of Panama -les very near to the thermal equator. Its temperature is fairly even the whole year, ranging from about 95° F to 65° F, the general mean about 80° F. . The greatest daily range of the Gatun section is 10-15°, and this is about 50% of that of the Central and Pacific sections of the Zone. As the dry season approaches, the maximum and minimum (absolute) temperatures fall gradually, on the average.1.5° F within the three months.; A steady, though gradual, increase in the maximum and minimum temperature occurs as the dry season begins to merge into the wet season. In the shaded portions of the breeding area it often becomes cool enough at night to demand a blanket for cover, i. e., should one care to sleep there. During the day- time this same locality has a very moist heat, hard to endure. The great regulator of temperature is the aqueous vapor, (Abbot 1899) “‘as it is less permeable than dry air to the waves of energy from the sun and still less so to those that radiate from the earth. Its influence in this direction is very important on the Isthmus of Panama because there is only a narrow strip of land between two great oceans, and consequently the relative humidity is always very high. By combining high tempera- tures with this high humidity there results an excessive absolute amount of moisture in the atmosphere.”’ C. Rainfall. In humid sections of the torrid zone rainfall is such an important factor of the environment, that a table showing the annual rainfall for three years for the various stations of the Canal Zone is inserted. The average annual rainfall for Gatun for the past nine years has been 129.30 inches, and since the rainfall for 1913 was but 112.81 inches, and that of the two years previous still less, it follows that there were years when the rainfall exceeded 130 inches. In 1913 there were 248 rainy days at Gatun, leaving but 117 days - with no rain, i. e., less than four months of clear weather. 1915] Behavior of Anopheles © Det Rainfall of such character exerts great influence upon the environment and its biota. With heat and wind it regulates the environment. E. ANNUAL RAINFALL FOR THREE YEARS. é Station | Years of| Rainy Station 1911 1912 1913 | Average | Record | Days °13 AMCONM Ye Saws n sce eal, ROL Le 71.78 65.98 70.90 16 180 TEX Noloyie Aaah ater Ree 63.73 71.89 59.54 69.86 15 169 Mira ghilones 2.) o5 a. 61.97 88.49 AOIZ 87.33 5 183 Pedro Miguel.........] 64.12 (ay TAl 69.65 82.32 6 180 Rio Grande), wae. 82.11 75.14 64.51 86.13 9 199 Culebra. vee ites oe 74.84 78.99 69.09 88.78 23 195 Comachos sae tee ec 77.98 73.79 91.46 a 190 IMA PING a: Walsegtecnn reas 66.70 74.56 74.78 80.43 9 196 Gamboa neta 70.67 89.07 86.28 92.65 31 207 Nittany Wiinale. ne a4 oan hoz. 20 StS ie eg ar dT a 87.04 3 190 Ailnanielaveris aac a 90.05 83.73 77.41 102.438 14 196 IDI AVG one Seige jciemeeaa|n beter t0oes OF Gben a btalove |) lOa.22 5 197 Braj OWlesee ar eare tReet Oks A 104.66 | 109.34 | 107.01 2 243 tringdadsy. settee s 91.53 | 103.04 9727 |) L203 6 258 Montetiiriog s. as... 11S E27 100.74 | 107.58 | 129.75 6 177 Gatun aan se ane 99.28 | 111.838 | 112.81 129.30 9 248 Brazos BLOOK. ss. me 116.08 124.66 138.89 138.64 7 260 (Colona mcce es hea ILS 7. |) LS) IBA PAS) ais) 43 246 Bortorsellowemanrs ae 148.94 | 147.61 Ales | SLGOR 1S 6 272 The daily rainfall at Gatun from September, 1912 to Sep- ‘tember, 1913 is given in table “‘F’’. The dry season months of January, February and March show but 38 rainy days out of the 90 of this period. But the rainfall has been less than the average for the station. Only on three days had there been rainfall in excess of one inch. The rains nearly always fall during the afternoon, but it is not unusual to have a mean, drizzling rain all day long, augmented by a changing wind. Thunder storms or violent rains are rare. Values midnight to midnight. Bae Annals Entomological Society of America F. Datty RAINFALL, GATUN, 1912-1913. Automatic register; in inches. Date | Sep. || Oct: | Nov. | Dec. | Jan Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | | | 1 "O24 2.07. 1802 neil 20"), Ss06Ui 02 tae 0s 2 2.45 .38 | 1.58 .O1 -45 04 .09 .O1 3 96|..28| .08| .42| .22| 0210 OL 4 .18 .42 |} 1.56 .O1 .04 | 0 | 0 0 5 43 aul .99 | 0 .44 10 | 0 06 6 0 1402.) 2-187) 8: 0 0 ia Cs 0 7 S11 3)42,.04 cow ee 0 0 | 0 0 8 125 . 26 wok. |, .12 | 0 | 09:6 9 0 .02 44 .30 | 0 0 Wee Uys 8) 10 .03 .06 .96 SPA | 0 0 | 0 11 .08 44) 1232 .08 | 0 .O1 | 0 | 12 0 0 01 Fay] Lane 2) 0 geste AB Bm (aC 13 BOUT RO 0 01 | 0 0 0 | 0 1a est ke! 33 07 sie 02 .13 | 0 0 15 01 07 04 1 4.79 | 6 .02 | 0 2.06 16 Ol .56 0S" 2.52 21 .09 | 0 . 20 17 0 0 14 | 8 AAD Se AaN e035) 100 18 0 1.06 .95 A ORY Pee 1.07 | 0 .07 19 0 1.3 .30 | 1.34 .04 OL -O1 | 0 20 .07 | 1.60 .58 | 0 “Of 1-0 0 0 21 1.49 43 a5} .06 | 0 0 ave 0 22 0 .02 .06 SUC o 0 | .18 1 08 23 .07 wa mle: .06 .09 | O .03 | 0 24 .04 | 0 .67 .45 | 0 0 | O .86 25 .08 | 0 pally .16 | 0 AREAS we L7g 64 26 “OM nike .24 1 0 0 0 0 .58 27 .o9 | 1.05 | 1:63 .03 123 .05 | .18 .08 28 0 0 1.54 26) le TA ay Neve HOM .06 29 0 oe ly LSS: MPR POMS Noell ae te 3 .05 .09 30 .O1 2 | 4.65 SG S| SOMA ale Sh ee | 0 .58 a ey eee ee Ue al Rete 1.10 Fi (ea ad | oat | ere ie Total 1912) 7.84 | 14.52) 19.18} 9.82 | 4.63 | 2.92 101) 5338 Total 1913) 4.33) 16.92) 15.78) 2.25) -.91 |-2.38 55) 4.18 Stat’n Avr 9.70} 16.62) 22.40) 13.38] 3.92 | 2.46 | 2.70) 4.20 Excess ordefi.|—1 .86/—2. 10|—3 .22/3.56|+-.71 |+.46 |—1.69/+1.18 Rainy days 21 25 29 24 5 11 12 15 [Vol. VIII, ooo. Aug. 1915} Behavior of Anopheles 233 D. Humidity. This is the product of heat, wind and water. Humidity is always high on the Zone, though lowest during the dry season. The following table gives the Mean Relative Humidity for the three sections of the Zone, for a period of one year. Inthe region of Gatun the lowest point reached was 78%, from February to May, and the highest was 89%. Humidity is a powerful agent in the regulation of breeding periods, life duration, time of activity, etc. G. Mean RELATIVE Humipity (%) 1912-1913. Sep. | Oct.} Nov| Dec.| Jan.| Feb.} Mar| Apr.| May} June] July | Aug. Ancon (Pacific section)......| 91 | 93 | 92} 89} 87] 83] 78) 76 | 88] 89] 90 91 Culebra (Central section)......:| 93 | 93 | 93 | 91) 891] 86] 82) 80] 91) 91] 91 94 Colon (Atlantic section).......| 87 | 88] 89 | 84] 82] 78 | 78! 78] 87 | 88 | 87 89 EE. Fogs and Cloudiness. Fogs at Gatun are not numerous and such as do occur are nearly all dissipated by 6:30 a. m., and all by 8:30 a.m. As the dry season advances, night fogs are fewer in number. Observations at Culebra, Canal Zone, where fogs are of almost daily occurrence, tend to show that they impede the flight of mosquitos. But at Gatun the fogs are all light, not common, and in no way seemed to interfere with the flight of mosquitos. The dry season is marked by a general absence of clouds, and such as do exist, appear usually in the afternoon. Data is lacking as to what bearing clouds may have upon the environ- ment or organism, but it appears they cannot exert a big influence or else it would have been noted. 234 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, F. Seasonal Changes. The general weather conditions for 1913 are expressed in the following chart: H. WEATHER CONDITIONS, CANAL ZONE, 1913. Rainfall deficient (except Brazos Brook, Colon and Porto Bello). Dry season rainfall: Pacific section=4% total. Central section=6% total. Atlantic section=10% total. March least rain. May most rain. Air*temperature and wind movement slightly above normal. Atmospheric pressure and cloudiness generally deficient. ey ial B Temperature ie | Precipitation Wind Movement od se | | rs ] es ~ aD) > a2) a - Gs) | le B : o Palicon=ees pa = S | 29s || O-5 rs} 0 i153 0 M|.4.2/O e} ect eter) Shell ps BS lS cISeelesleal S a —_ a= fe} | CT ae] aot (S) \eeeisi/e| 2 || 2 88) 8 | Se lssleselasigel 2) 8 AS ry -_ I | a ol! ~— ~— _ ) ae Je a Wai Taak er ah ena co ayo) st tl = Wie) frie 7 i \| | | Colon...| 29.866 |80.1) 91 | Jun. 22 | 71 | Feb. 4/| 85 || 131.22 | 129.38 246, 1 N | 36 | N | Nov.14 =) So > © > o oo oo I oo — co o 0.7 Culebra, 29.846 |79.2) 95 | Apr.14 | 64 | Jan. 4 : i | 7.3 |NW| 40 |NE| Nov.19 Ancon..| 29.834 |80.3] 96 | Apr.27 | 66 | Feb.22 || 87 || 65.98 | 70.90 | 180)} 7.2 |NW| 32] S | Jun. 11 | At a given station, seasonal variation is not marked. But it is evident that at Ancon, where rainy days are one third less than at Colon, and rainfall less than one-half, that a different set of conditions are present there than at Colon. It is interesting to note that the rainfall for December ’12, was generally deficient throughout the Zone, but that at the Colon-Gatun section it was much heavier. Thus the swamp near Gatun which caused so much Anopheles breeding in the early part of 1913, was prepared for such wide-spread breeding by this increased rain. The influx of pure water meant that the salts in the swamp, which rapid evaporation was about to make stronger, were kept diluted and never became so strong as to inhibit mosquito breeding. It meant also that the density of the water was lowered. In January, 1913, temperature and relative humidity were above the average. February continued with deficient wind movement. March and April showed also a deficiency in relative humidity and atmospheric pressure. In May these conditions reached their normal. Cloudiness had been deficient throughout the dry season. 1915] . Behavior of Anopheles 235 G. Composition of Water. By order of the Chief Sanitary Inspector, daily samples of water from the salt-marsh were sent to the Ancon Hospital laboratory for determination of salt content. After eliminating such samples as appeared untrustworthy, the following table was prepared. All samples were from water where larve were numerous. J. CHLORINE CONTENT OF SALT-MARSH WATER. Sea-water—22'000 parts of Cl per million. 2.5.06 24) sere eS. ee Se nO RO227G Pocw linen water—i19: 000 parts per millon. vache. si 6 0) concen 0.019% MAXIMUM. Pantse Ol Clie — Oo tobe secant —« YpnOu lone per Million | water water PNT IE Seat ae reat ae eer es 23,500 107.0 123.7 PATTI lg 2s Pe AE OU A eee Na a Ns 21,000 95.0 110.0 IVT Tee eee ) 38 27 | 617,480 15,817 72. 83.0 It is seen that larve were breeding in water containing from 55% to 107% of ocean salinity, i. e., even in water more saline than’ the ocean: The density of sea-water is about 2.5% greater than that of fresh water, and this added buoyancy probably is to the advantage of such larve as can thrive in salt waters. Had the salt content been greater, the buoyancy would be too great for the larve, besides, the fact that the irritation due to the chemical content would inhibit any exten- sive breeding. 236 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Due to the absence of hills, rains could wash no silt into the breeding area, and what was present, settled to the bottom. Imperfect drainage prevented currents, though in time stagna- tion would follow and make unfit the environment. The latter part of January, 1913, a ditch was cut through the swamp, and shortly after a pipe-line dredge began to pump silt into the swamp. This violent disorder in the environment—current, silt and drainage—soon began to tell upon the numbers of mosquitos breeding in the swamp. Tl. -Burotic Factors. The microbiology of the waters of the marsh was not studied. Spzrogyra and Oscillaria were found within the digestive tract of larvae of A. tarsimaculata and Aedes taento- rhynchus, but these green alge can hardly be the only source of food since larvee of both species have been found in situations devoid entirely of algal growth. The decaying leaves and fallen twigs, excreta of animals and decaying animal matter favor the growth of micro-organisms, and these probably are eaten by the mosquito larve. Trees and shrubbery are important factors because they furnish the needed protection from intense light and heat, and lower the rate of evaporation. So important is this protection to the adult that one never sees these small flies active in the open during the daytime. However, hunger often changes existant physiological states, and so the presence of a man in an exposed place near which mosquitos are hidden, may often bring these toward him in great number; and the first act to be noted is an attempt to sink their proboscis into flesh. But if no human being is present, the mosquitos remain in seclusion. When so venturing forth to secure a blood meal, they show no negative reaction toward heat or light, and may even suffer body mutilations without evident consciousness of pain. No effort was made to survey the marsh for the animal life it contained, but birds were noted to be the most numerous next to insects, followed by snakes, lizards, iguanas, monkeys and armadillos, the last two rather uncommon. Cows occa- sionally strayed into the area and when examined on one occa- sion, were found to have their ears well lined with busy Anopheles and Aedes. 1915] Behavior of Anopheles 237 A species of night-jars (Fam. Caprimulgide) has been noted repeatedly at dusk, flying low over the old French Canal, and their actions were those of feeding. This lasted for about an hour, and coincided with the period of mosquito flight. These activities were also noted during dawn, again when mosquito flight was in progress. These night-jars often shifted their position along the Canal, and by row-boat observations it was found that they were where mosquitos were thickest. A shot gun brought down three of these birds and their gullets con- tained adults of Anophelenes. The stomachs contained in addition ants, hemiptera and a few coleoptera. That these birds were feeding upon the mosquitos is undoubted, but the effect of their ravages was not significant for there seemed to be an infinite source of supply for these mosquitos. Jennings (1908) records a similar case in the Bahamas, the species involved being Chordetles virginianus minor. The blood available to mosquitos at the marsh is only such as they can get out of cows, monkeys, birds, lizards, etc., and this is not enough. The fact that these mosquitos flew a mile or more each night to secure rich, human blood, places man among the most important of the biotic factors entering into the mosquito environment. Since the winds from the marsh have been almost wholly from the north or northwest, and not one hour from the southeast, it cannot be argued that the scent of man was born to these mosquitos by the wind and all they had to do was to follow the trail. These mosquitos flew as an air-man does, at a quarter to the wind, and they flew till they found food; it is not at all improbable that they would have flown five miles if Gatun were so distant. Their flight was in quest of food. Here is an example of an animal whose environ- ment is quite scattered. The question of whether a blood meal is required, or if the mosquitos can live on the juices of fruits, must be answered separately for. each species. Of the species treated in this paper, there is no doubt but that they prefer human blood if that is available, and will struggle against many odds in order to get it. Darling (1912) found he could keep adults of Aedes calopus Meigen alive 110 days in captivity by means of raisins and ripe bananas, and Anopheles albimanus alive 12.5 days. The author has noted on several occasions Aedes taeniorhyn- chus Wiede. feeding on ripe bananas, and once, while searching 238 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, for Thysanoptera, found a male of this species inside of a flower. But if the female mosquitos of these species do eat fruit juices under natural conditions, it appears only fair to believe some one of the able sanitary corp of the Isthmus would have made a few observations of the fact. The infrequency of such observa- tions is explainable on the presumption that human blood is preferred and so soon as a human being is anywhere near, his presence is quickly detected and sought long before he could have found out the whereabouts and doings of these pests. This at least is true of the half dozen common species on the Zone. Jennings (1912) in his survey of the upper Chagres River valley, did not encounter adults of A. albimanus Wiede. nor larvee, though habitats were seen which if present on the Zone would favor Anopheles breeding. He attributes this absence to the absence of habitations, a presumption fairly accurate. Buseck and Orenstein made a trip to the Upper Trinidad valley near Gatun, and but one albimanus was collected by them, though the sylvan Anopheles were abundant. (There is some doubt as to the authenticity of this single albimanus as it may be an accidental mix-up with mosquitos from the Zone.) The writer in his inspections of the Canal Zone, found albimanus to breed only near settlements. It therefore seems quite plausible to believe that the pathogenic species of Anopheles become more and more restricted to human settlements, an adaptation which no doubt will hold for all animals which play a role similar to that of albtmanus in the transmission of disease. This trend is probably due to repeated feedings upon human blood, and it may be that the development and establishment of the malarial parasite within the mosquito may have had a tendency toward such isolation. The restricted distribution of Aedes calopus tends to strengthen the idea that pathogenic species cling to inhabited regions. It also appears that a meal is necessary prior to oviposition. The studies of Darling (1912) indicate such to be the case. The author (1913-c) recorded a case of oviposition in Aedes calopus where prior meal was absent. The fact that the mosquitos concerned in the flight to Gatun returned daily to the marsh, would indicate that food and oviposition were closely linked together. It appears only natural that a mos- quito upon emergence from its, pupal prison, should seek, first POLS] Behavior of Anopheles 239 of all, food. While it is true it does not increase in size after emergence excepting as food or eggs swell the abdomen, it does seem that the reproductive organs need further growth, and for this food must be taken. But since the preservation of the species becomes a powerful factor at work within the animal, so starvation and captivity may cause a hurried development of ova. In his dissection of gravid typhoid flies, the writer found more ova in flies which had been fed after emergence from the puparium than in flies totally deprived of food. The drastic anti-malarial measures of man place him a powerful agent of destruction at work in the environment. Man as an agent hastens or retards natural processes. Thus by means of a ditch and a pipe-line dredge, he has driven the mosquito from its paradise and made its return thereto impossible. III. Historic Factors. The creation of the salt-marsh habitat can be traced to the work of the old French Canal Company, as already described. When Americans built the big Gatun dam and made the Spillway, they did more than impound the waters of the Chagres. They changed the drainage, tamed the river which often came down in flooding proportions, and by allowing it to peacefully flow past the new Spillway, did away with the annual floods. The floods eliminated, and the increased rainfall in December, 1912, were the prime factors which prepared the marsh for extensive breeding. B. DYNAMICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT. I. The Habitat of the Immature Stages. Larve and pupe were found most frequently associated with green alge, which plants afford them ample shelter, support and fair protection from fish and larve of carnivorous insects. The respiratory tubes of the larve were often noted in close proximity to the bubbles of oxygen given off by the alge. Experimentally, young larve (2d moult) were sealed hermet- ically in a glass jar containing filtered water from the marsh and a small quantity of living alge; the larve developed into adults. Out of the ten larve originally placed in the jar, three adults ensued. The time duration was almost twice that under: 240 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, normal conditions, but it is clear that growth was maintained because of the exchange of the voided products of respiration by both plant and animal. The balance was easily destroyed by having too many larve or too much alge. This sort of interrelation between organisms is very close in the forms studied, and therein are found the greatest number of points of contact with the environment than elsewhere. Any new factor, or one which is present but is exerting undue activity, stretches the relative balance which existed in the association, and the response caused thereby on the part of the members of the association will be in the direction of the establishment again of a new relative balance. It was quite evident from many observations made that in many ways the larval associa- tion was susceptible to quick destruction from such external causes as the presence of silt, wave action, etc. It was stated that as the dry season approached, the winds increased in velocity, the heat became more intense, and rainfall decreased. The resulting rapid evaporation concentrates the salts in the water of the marsh, changes thereby the density of the water, followed by a change in the microbiology of such a habitat. Such changes usually bring about less mosquito breeding, and on the Canal Zone for many years it has been observed that during the dry season Anopheles pseudopuncti- pennis Theob. is the dominant Anophelene—a non-transmitter of malaria. The dominant rainy season Anophelene is albima- nus. This change in the mosquito fauna is due to habitat changes brought about by the change in the climatic factors. During November and December, 1912, and January, 1913, there was an increase of 14.7 inches of rainfall over the same period the year previous. This increase of pure water at the swamp was sufficient to dilute the salty water to such a degree that subsequent evaporation did not increase the salt-content above a density inhibiting mosquito-breeding. This supposi- tion is strengthened by the fact that in previous years, condi- tions exactly alike excepting for this increased rainfall during the indicated months, this area caused no influx of mosquitos into Gatun. Reference was made to the fact that the larve from this swamp developed in water which equaled sea-water in chlorine content. The density of such water is 2.5 greater than that of fresh water—a difference sufficient to float chewing gum. Such 1915] Behavior of Anopheles 241 added buoyancy reduces the muscular effort needed to reach the surface, and probably reduces the mortality due to fatigue among the larve. At the laboratory, larve of A. tarsimaculata taken from fresh water were transferred into a pan containing saline water from the marsh. This produced intense stimulation and a large mortality resulted. Pupation was accelerated among mature larve. The adults that emerged were placed into a large cage containing a plate of fresh water and a plate of salt water, both from actual habitats. OFFICERS 191 5.) President » he VERNON LL? KRLLOGG; 8300) Stanford Univ. California | First Vice-President # Ue James S. HINE, . a aio We a Columbus, Ohio Second Vice-President | Hh Boag J. M.. ALDRICH, : ; Rc yet Hs OVW file Lafayette, Indiana Managing Editor Annals 7 . HERBERT OSBORN, Sent. i a } Columbus, Ohio — Secretary- Treasurer ; : A. D. MAC GIELIVRA MTL OF bese a cl a > ‘ Urbana, Hingis ay Executive Coobinbe. : ‘THE OrricErs and C. T. BRuES; W. A. RitEY, J. A.G, REEN, T. D.-A. CocKERELL, A. L. MELANDER, Committee on Nomenclature EH. P. Feit, T. D. A. COCKERELL, NATHAN BANKS. Temporary Seeretary Summer Meeting H. C. VANDYEE, , : sitet Berkeley, California Price List of Publications. Annals, Vols.:I, II, III, IV; V, Vi and VII complete, each. .....4. wy hiaatn eee Annals, Separate Parts except as below, each RM ehieisatinae UR REM inh GA ACD Alaa 1.00 Annals, Vols. I and II, Part 3, each...... 0.0 00...4. NORA Sea aN . 60 pAnnals, VeNIV, Part (Veach tse Cr a oh cle ste aN ye seal 1.50 BACK VOLUMES. Of the Annats oF THe EntomorocicaL Society oF AMERICA may be secured from the office of the Managing Editor ‘and new members of ‘the Society who may wish to complete a set are advised. to secure the eaflier volumes while there is still a supply on hand and the tre is kept at the original subscription rate. Address Herbert Osporn, Managing Editor. ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, State University, Columbus, Cine Hes ‘ ANNALS OF The Entomological Society of America Volume VIII DECEMBER, 19:15 Number 4 A REVISION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN PACHYGAS- TERINZ WITH UNSPINED SCUTELLUM (DIPTERA). By J. R. MALLocH, Urbana, II. It is not by any means unusual for taxonomic workers in entomology to discover, when classifying genera in families which consist of a large number of closely allied species that characters which they find of considerable value for their purpose, and which apparently are of real generic rank in these groups, are found not in a number of species, but 1n individual species in other portions of their series. Indeed, the systematist almost invariably finds that by a consistent application of the test of his separating characters throughout a family he has several large groups of species set apart from each other, collectively, by characters the use of which in classifying a certain residue of species—often more closely related biologically than are some of the individuals of the seemingly natural groups which his application of certain rules has defined— will result in a generic separation giving a single species to each genus. I have had this experience in almost every family of insects that I have studied, but have no remedy to suggest, since without a knowledge of the life history of the species we are often unable to decide upon the limits of genera except arbitrarily, or-—which amounts to the same thing—by a con- sideration of structural details of the adults. In every order, differences of opinion exist regarding the status of genera, and still more commonly in the case of species, and, apart from 305 306 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, those differences which arise between taxonomists because of their personal relations, 1t is often impossible to decide which is the correct attitude regarding certain disputed points. It has been my task lately to identify certain species of Stratiomyide contained in the collection of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, and in doing this I have been confronted with a situation such as I have briefly outlined above. It is not my intention to deal with species other than those included in that group of the subfamily Pachygasterinze which has the scutellum without distinct thorns, although mention is made of certain analogous cases in other genera. In addition to the taxonomic details given herein, I have summarized such biological data as I have been able to obtain. The genus Pachygaster Meigen has been subdivide by Austen (Neopachygaster), Coquillett (Zabrachia), and Kertesz (Eupachygaster), or at least species considered by other authors as belonging to Pachygaster sens. lat., have been removed to - other genera by the authors just mentioned. Austen erected the genus Neopachygaster* to receive Pachygaster meromelaena Perris, considered by Verrallt as synonymous with P. orbitalis. Austen distinguished this genus from Pachygaster by the separated eyes in the male and the fact that the posterior orbits are not produced in the form of a prominent ridge in either sex. It is, to my mind, a weakly defined genus, and it has been rejected by Verrall in the work already referred to. Whether it is expedient to retain it 1s a point upon which there is ground for diversity of opinion. Coquillett erected the genus Zabrachiat for the reception of a species which he described under the name polita. This genus he distinguished from Pachygaster and its allies by the simple third vein. Though uncertain as to whether the species is or is not synonymous with Pachygaster minutissimus Zetterstedt, I am inclined to the opinion that they are identical; but in the absence of European examples of the latter I refrain from expressing a decided opinion. It is, however, pertinent to point out that Kertesz has placed minutissimus in Zabrachia in a recent paper on the genera, and that English writers have suggested that the species *Ent. Monthly Mag., Vol. 37, 1901, p. 245. tBull. 47 N. Y. State Mus., 1901, p. 585. 1915} North American Pachygasterine 307 might be considered as generically distinct from both Pachygaster and Neopachygaster. Dr. Sharp’s suggestion to this effect is disposed of by Verrall in dealing with Neopachygaster, and in his notes under P. tarsalis he mentions a specimen of that species which has the fork of the third vein ‘“‘so indistinct as to be almost absent.’’ In this connection it seems reasonable to indicate that in several genera in this family the absence or presence of the fork of the third vein is not considered as of more than specific value. This is noticeably true in Nemotelus and Oxycera, where one finds that even in recent papers the presence or absence of the fork is not used even as a primary key character for the species. To be consistent, one who accepts this character as of generic value in Pachygasterinz would almost as certainly be required to accept it as such in the other subfamilies; or, conversely, since this character is considered as of specific value only in genera which contain a much larger number of species than does Pachygaster sens lat., it is inconsistent to accept it as of generic value in the latter. There is, however, a slight but fundamental difference between Zabrachia and such genera as Nemotelus and Oxycera, the two latter having the third vein differently formed. In this connection see notes on Zabrachia. The structure of the head of the male, in which the eyes are distinctly separated, is the only character of importance in the separation of Neopachygaster from Pachygaster, which latter has the eyes of the male contiguous, and it is practically impossible for any one but an expert to separate the females of the genera. The last subdivision of the old genus is that of Kertesz, referred to in a subsequent part of the present paper, by which the genus Eupachygaster was erected to receive Pachygaster tarsalis Zetterstedt. I have drawn up a key to the genera of North American Pachygasterine as limited in the heading to this paper, which should make the situation clear. 308 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, KEY TO PACHYGASTERINAE WITH UNARMED SCUTELLUM. Lo sTiird vein simple. Ay recc.ceh Goce eos ee ee ore ee ia ee ee 2 Third veinfurca ter, 05 52h Rep Reece seer sis ic ce a Tn a eee 3 2. hirds(complex)iantennalsoimiveloncatesn) ink emus or rierameee Berkshiria Third antennal joint short, disclike or slightly reniform......... Zabrachia 3. Arista subplumose, slender; third antennal joint round; eyes of male contiguous Lophoteles Arista densely or slightly pubescent, or bare, rarely slightly thickened; third antennal joint elongate or disclike; eyes of male contiguous or distinctly SOPAU ATE Cha tases cose Sears EN Ge et eae Ree AEE TOTO So 4 4. Scutellum directed upward, triangular, terminating in a short obtuse process.5 Scutelum regularly rounded apically, or with a distinct transverse suture or depression before the apex which gives to the scutellum the appearance of lnenigates eh inzHisiou ovo acatshacahats) Lambada hay eam as Wee cerainoncb ecco bmnS ned obese 6 5. Third antennal joint disclike, arista longer than entire antenna; eyes of male TATHOWWesePArALedie: a he Welw chin ae eee ee Eucynipimor pha Third antennal joint elongated, arista shorter than antenna; eyes of male COMUISTIOUIS cin. Meena cae RGR is eit oe eno eee nee Cyntpimor pha* 6. Third antennal joint elongate; eyes of male contiguous above antenna, the facets slightly decreasing in size as they near lower margin but without any sharp line of division; scutellum with distinct marginal rim or ridge... Johnsonomyia ‘Rhordvantennals joint Gischike s,s ce. cit 8. seo ae eee rene eine anne 7 7. Eyes of male contiguous; antenne in both sexes inserted distinctly below middie vos. profile yy. . tarsalis has been reared from larve found on Pinus in Scotland, and on Populus in England. Lundbeck has recorded the same species from apple and oak, while Verrall indicates that Dr. Sharp reared it from Fagus. The pupal case is figured by Verrall,j Figure 11 in present paper being a reproduction of that by Verrall. *Ann. Nat. Mus. Hung., Vol. 7, 1909, p. 395. {British Flies, Vol. V, Stratiomyide, Fig. 100, p. 75. 318 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Neopachygaster Austen. As indicated in the introductory remarks to this paper, Neopachygaster was erected for the reception of a single species, orbitalis Wahlberg (as meromelena Perris), a species which is very closely related to maculicornis Hine, considered con- generic with it by the present writer. It is not difficult to separate the genus from Pachygaster in the male sex, as the eyes in the latter are contiguous.above, but the females are very much alike, both having the eyes separated, and more obscure characters must be used to separate this sex. Austen has used the form of the posterior orbits as the character for the separation of the females, stating that in Pachygaster these are produced in the form of a ‘‘prominent ridge,’’ while in Neopachygaster they are not. It is apparent from the figures given by Verrall that what Austen referred to, unless he was using minutissimus for comparison, was the distinct production of the posterior orbits on their lower half, which is almost indistinguishable in Neopachygaster. A character which very probably holds good and is of considerable value also, though not mentioned by Austen, is the shape of the head, which in Pachygaster atra Meigen is elongate, the eye being longer than high, while in Neopachygaster orbitalis 1t is short, the eye being distinctly higher than long. Unfortunately, it is not possible to use this character here unless one is prepared to erect a new genus for pulcher Loew, as this species has the eyes of the male con- tiguous above and the head higher than long, i. e., intermediate between Pachygaster and Neopachygaster. For a discussion of this point see under Pachygaster. It is not clear whether in orbitalis the dark mark on the antenne is of the same nature as in maculicornis—glossy and possibly of a sensory nature— though Austen’s description leads me to infer that it is. If this supposition is correct the presence of this mark or organ on the antenne might be used as a character for the separation of the genera in both sexes. Neopachygaster maculicornis Hine.* Male—Glossy black. Head black, eyes in life with a purple tinge; antennze yellow, a conspicuous glossy dark brown spot on inner surface of third (complex) joint; depressions above antennz and the lateral *Ohio Naturalist, Vol. 2, 1902, p. 228 (Pachygaster). 1915] North American Pachygasterine 319 margins of face with distinct silvery pile; proboscis yellowish apically, brown basally. Mesonotum with silvery hairs which are very dense, backwardly directed, and decumbent; pleure with a vertical stripe of silvery hairs on center; scutellum with less conspicuous hairs than mesonotum. Abdomen with short whitish hairs, which are much more sparse than those on thorax. Legs yellow, cox, except at apices, and femora, except at bases and apices, blackish brown. Wings clear, veins yellowish. Halteres yellow, knobs white. Frons about a fifth the width of the head, parallel-sided from posterior ocelli to a short distance above antennz, where it widens gradually; ocelli situated on a slight prominence; antennez small, third joint disclike, the glossy area on inner side very noticeable; arista slender, bare, apical; eyes bare. Thorax with distinct suture on each side at middle, the portions immediately posterior to suture distinctly swollen; process in front of wing-base distinct; scutellum directed slightly upward, blunt apically, and unarmed. Abdomen broader than long, segments poorly defined; hypopygium small, generally protruded. Legs slender, tarsi not thickened. Apex of discal cell slightly proximate of apex of stigma, distance from fork of third vein to apex of latter about equal to preceding section of costa. Female.—Differs from the male in having the frons slightly wider, the antennze appreciably larger, profile (as in Fig. 16), the thoracic dorsal pilosity shorter and brassy in color, except anteriorly on the sides, and in being slightly larger. Length, male, 2-2.5 mm.; female, 2.5-3.5 mm. Originally described by Hine from Onaga, Kansas, and doubtfully referred to Pachygaster. I have examined one of the paratypes. I have seen examples from Havana, IIl., taken on the Illinois River bottoms June 19, 1909; from Plainview, IIL., in apple orchard, May 3, 1915 (J. R. Malloch); from Lafayette, Ind., June 6 and July 24 and 26 (J. M. Aldrich); from Ithaca, N. Y., July 15, 1907 (A. D. MacGillivray) ; from Lincoln, Neb., marked “bred from Pulvinaria innumerabilis;’’ and five speci- mens from the series of Pachygaster pulcher in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass., two females of which bear the label D. C., one labeled ‘‘ Loew coll.,’’ the other, “pulcher’’ and ‘‘O. Sacken,’’ and two males and one female without locality labels, one bearing the number 77, and all three with the label ‘‘ Loew coll.”’ As pointed out by Aldrich in his “Catalogue of North American Diptera’’ (p. 192), Loew had two species before him when he described Pachygaster pulcher—a fact which invalidates his description of the female. The description of the male was drawn from the specimen bearing the type label, and this 320 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, is accepted as Loew’s species. (An examination of Loew’s material disclosed the fact that he had 3 species—or at least there are now three—in his type series). The record on the Nebraska specimen, given above, is undoubtedly an error, the larve having fed in the bark of the tree on which the Pulvinaria were, and not on the insects. Neopachygaster orbitalis was reared from larve found in a decaying holly tree (/ex) at Lyndhurst, New Forest, England, by Dr. D. Sharp on several occasions. Wahlberg’s record “Hab. in ligno Populi caseo ad Gusum Ostrogothiz’’ has been supposed to indicate that he reared the species from poplar, but nothing definite is known on the point. Verrall suggests that the species may be found upon holly exclusively. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. Fig. 1. Pachygaster pulcher, head in profile, female. Fig. 2. Pachygaster pulcher, head in profile, male. Fig. 3. Zabrachia polita, head in profile, male. Fig. 4. Zabrachia polita, head in profile, female. Fig. 5. Johnsonomyia aldrichi, scutellum in profile, male. Fig. 6. Zabrachia polita, wing. Fig. 7. Eupachygaster punctifer, antenna of female. Fig. 8. Eupahygaster punctifer, scutellum in profile, female. Fig. 9. Zabrachia polita, pupal exuvia, dorsal view. Fig. 10. Zabrachia polita pupal exuvia, ventral view. Fig. 11. Eupachygaster tarsalis, pupal exuvia, dorsal view. Fig. 12. Neopahcygaster orbitalis, pupa, dorsal view. Fig. 13. Eupachygaster punctifer, head in profile, female. Fig. 14. Johnsonomyia aldrichi, head in profile, female. Fig. 15. Johnsonomyia aldrichi, head in profile, male. Fig. 16. Neopachygaster maculicornis, head in profiel, female. Figs. 11 and 12 are copied from Verrall’s British Flies, the others are original. ANNALS E.S. A. VOL. VIII, PLATE XXV- LS Z# La LE J. R. Malloch. ON THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF COCOONS AMONG ANTS, THE NEST-SPINNING HABITS OF THE LARVZ AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BLACK COCOONS AMONG CERTAIN AUSTRALIAN SPECIES.* By WrLtt1AM Morton WHEELER. It has long been known that in three of the five subfamilies of ants, the Doryline, Myrmicine and Dolichoderine, the larve Spin no cocoons before pupation, and therefore remain nude, or uncovered in this instar. There is apparently no exception to this rule in these three subfamilies. The cocoon is present, so far as known, in all members of the subfamily Ponerinae, with the single exception of a small African ant, Dzscothyrea oculata, and is lacking among the Camponotine only in a few whole genera and a few sporadic species of other genera. The pupe of the genera Prenolepis and Cicophylla are naked, and in some species of Formica (e. g. the circumpolar F. fusca L. and its vars. subsericea Say, neorufibarbis Emery, etc. in North America) one often finds only naked or both naked and cocooned pupze in the same nest. This is also the case, though much more rarely, in certain species of Lasius. A few species of the large paleotropical genus Polyrhachis also lack the cocoon in the pupal stage, as I shall show in the sequel. These facts naturally suggest the inference that the cocoon, inherited from the ancient wasp-like ancestors of the ants, has been retained in the most primitive subfamily, the Ponerinae, from which, by common agreement, the four other subfamilies are descended, and that it has been lost in three and is tending to disappear in the fourth of these. Certain authors, indeed, seem to believe that the disappearance has been comparatively recent in the phylogenetic history of the Formicide. In this sense I interpret the following remarks of Janet (1896): ‘‘We are no doubt witnessing in the ants the disappearance of this protective envelope, which is rendered unnecessary by the incessant care devoted to the progeny. From the point of view of the evolution of instinct, it is interesting to note that *Contributions from the Entomological Laboratory of the Bussey Institution, Harvard University, No. 95. 323 324 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, the disappearance is not accomplished gradually, by successive attenuation or evanescence of the cocoon, but suddenly, so to speak, since larve that are similar and give rise to similar adults, make an absolutely perfect cocoon, which shows no signs of reduction, or make none at all. This may be cited as an example of the sudden changes that may supervene in the habits of an animal. It illustrates the conclusions embodied in a communication made by my brother, M. Armand Janet, to' the Leyden Congress. These conclusions, deduced from considerations of rational mechanics applied to the problem of the species regarded as a position of equilibrium, tend to show that the differences obtaining between a form and its derivatives are more probably produced by rather sudden saltations than by insensible and continuous variations.”’ In other words, Janet regards the disappearance of the cocoon in ants as due to what we now call ‘‘mutation,’’ and intimates that in certain species the process is still going on. I am willing to grant the partial truth of this contention, but I have recently found evidence. to prove that, far from being a recent loss, the disappearance of the cocoon, in certain genera of ants at least, had already taken place not less than two million years ago. Among the Dolichoderine of the Baltic amber, which is of Lower Oligocene Tertiary age, I find the pupe of certain species already lacking the cocoon, and this structure is likewise absent in a species belonging to the Camponotine genus Prenolepis (P. henschet Mayr) in the same formation (1914). Facts like these are calculated to impress us with the immense antiquity of many apparantly trivial structures and to convince us that we cannot dispense, even in these days of experimental biology, with a certain amount of ‘‘ phylogenetic speculation.”’ What has led to the disappearance of the cocoon in the Myrmicine, Doryline and Dolichoderine and in a few genera and sporadic species of other genera among the Camponotine? This question no doubt admits of several answers. Janet, as we have seen, believes that the cocoon became superfluous and disappeared because it was replaced by the fostering care and protection of the workers of the colony. But if this is the case, why do the most formidable of all ants, the Australian ‘“‘bull-dogs’’ (Myrmecia), retain the cocoon and such feeble 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 325 species as many Dolichoderine (Leptomyrmex, Tapinoma, Bothriomyrmex, etc.) dispense with it? And why is it retained by the fierce Formica sanguinea and so often absent in F. fusca and its varieties, the gentle slaves of this ant? That the presence of the cocoon is primitive and its suppression a second- ary phenomenon must be granted, and it is evident.that the loss of the structure must be due primarily either to a loss of the spinning instincts on the part of the larve or to a change in the instinct of the adult worker ants in so far as these instincts are concerned with the treatment of the larve. The latter change might conceivably consist in a lapse of the habit of burying the mature larve in the earth or in covering them with particles of earth or refuse, since ant larve are known to be quite unable to spin their elliptical cocoons unless thus tempor- arily enveloped with foreign particles to which they can attach the thread from their sericteries. The frequent appearance of nude pupez in the typical Formica fusca and some of its varieties may be attributed to the fact that these forms are peculiar to high altitudes and latitudes, where the reproductive season of the colony is con- siderably abbreviated. The omission of the cocoon would seem, therefore, to be due to “‘tachygenesis,’’ or acceleration of ontogenetic development, since the spinning of this envelope not only requires a number of hours and an expenditure of energy and material, and therefore delays pupation, but the envelope itself is probably in some degree a nonconductor and would therefore tend to prolong development under circum- stances that demand a very rapid utilization of the sun’s heat by the pupa if it is to reach maturity at the proper time. The loss of the pupal covering in the Myrmicine, Dolichoderinz and Dorylinz in the remote past may have ‘been due to the same or similar causes. That the behavior of the workers of the ant-colony in some species does actually influence the spinning activities of the larve is indicated by the following facts. In the great majority of larve which use their spinning glands, these organs are called into activity only at the end of the larval stage and for the purpose of making the cocoon, but within recent years several observers have called attention to a series of tropical ants belong- ing to at least three very different genera of Camponotine, 326 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, namely, Gicophylla, Camponotus and Polyrhachis, which have the extraordinary habit of using their larvae for the purpose of spinning silken nests for the colony. This habit has been observed by Ridley (1890, 1894), Hammond (Green 1900), Green (1900, 1903), Doflein (1905, 1906) and Bugnion (1909) in the red tree-ant of India (Gicophylla smaragdina), by Saville- Kent (1891, 1897), Dodd (1902), O’Brien (1910) and myself in the green tree-ant of Northeastern Australia (CE. smaragdina var. virescens), and by Chun (1903) in C&. longinodis of the Kamerun. More recently Goeldi (Forel 1905) has observed this habit in a South American Camponotus (C. [Myrmobrachys| senex F. Smith) and Jacobson (Forel 1911, Wasmann 1905) and Karawaiew (1906) have observed the same behavior in several species of Polyrhachis. Green (1903) found that although the larval C2. smaragdina is employed as a shuttle in spinning the silken portions of the nest, it does not spin a cocoon for itself, but forms anaked pupa. Hesays: ‘‘ This seems to be explica- ble only on the theory that the silk that would normally be em- ployed in the construction of the cocoon is systematically con- verted to the purpose of nest building, and that the larve have consequently lost the habit of cocoon formation.”’ This was a natural view to take, especially as Green (1900) believed that only full grown larvee were used in spinning the nest. The conditions, however, are more complicated than they appeared to Green, since later observers have shown that Ccophylla uses only its very young larvee in nidification, and that cocoons are actually formed by the larve of many of the nest-spinning species of Polyrhachis. As I have lately had an opportunity to study the nest-spinning habits of G#. virescens in Australia and am able to record a few new facts concerning an Australian Polyrhachis and a Central American Camponotus not hitherto known to produce silken nests, I take this occasion to transcribe a few observations from my note-books. I find the earliest mention of the green tree ant in Capt. Cook’s narrative of his first voyage. He landed May 23, 1770, somewhere in the neighborhood of the present Townsville, on the coast of Northern Queensland, ‘‘ within the point of a bay, which led into a large lagoon, by the sides of which grows the true mangrove. There,’’ he says, ‘““were many nests OL sa singular kind of ant, as green as grass, in the branches of these 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 327 mangroves,’ etc. This passage came to my mind when I landed for an hour at Lucinda Point, north of Townsville, and found the nests of the green ants on the mangroves just as they had been observed by Capt. Cook. Later, while sojourning for a few weeks at Cairns on the Cape York Peninsula, I had an opportunity to become well acquainted with this ant. In the outskirts of this pretty town it may be found on all kinds of trees and bushes, building its nests in the leaves from a few feet above the ground to the inaccessible branches of the highest Melaleuca trees. The thorax and legs of the slender workers of C!. virescens are brownish straw yellow, the gaster bright green and the head tinged with the same color. Usually it prefers trees with rather thin, flexible, lanceolate leaves a few inches in length, which may be easily drawn together, but occasionally it makes its nests even on wattles with thick phyllodes. The nests are more or less elliptical and vary in size from a few inches to a foot or more in length and to eight inches in diameter. Smaller nests or tents, for the accomoda- tion of Homoptera, may consist of only a few leaves, but larger ones often take up nearly all the leaves on a small branch or on two neighboring branches. Some of the’ nests are very beauti- fully constructed, the leaves being drawn together and plaited in such a manner that the superficial layer forms a smooth, mosaic covering. The interior of the nest consists of the enclosed, more or less crowded or curled leaves. On several successive days I endeavored to observe the spinning habits of virescens by tearing small rents in the nests and waiting to see the ants repair them. Occasionally I saw some of the workers line up on the outside of the nest as de- scribed by previous observers, and draw the leaves on each side of the rent together, but I failed to see the spinning of the silken film across the gap. On October 16th, however, I came upon a remarkable nest in process of construction. It was 3 o'clock in the afternoon and the nest hung in the shade about 8 feet from the ground on a wattle branch, which I partially broke in order to bring the structure to a level with my eyes, where I could watch it without disturbing the ants. It was very large and somewhat flattened, about 14 inches long, 7 inches broad and 4 inches thick. The leaves (or rather phyllodes) had evidently just been brought together, as_the 328 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, whole outer surface was covered with hundreds of ants, all forming living sutures along the contiguous edges of the leaves. In most cases these sutures consisted of a single row of ants, side by side, with their mandibles grasping the edge of one leaf and the large claws of all their backwardly directed feet fixed into the edge of another adjacent leaf. Where the gap between the leaves of the outer layer was too wide to be spanned by single ants, there were parallel chains each consisting of two to seven ants, each ant holding the petiole of the ant in front in its mandibles and being grasped in the same place by the ant behind, exactly as described by Dodd for CE. virescens and figured by Bugnion for the true smaragdina of Ceylon.* The longer chains often ran diagonally across the shorter. The nest presented a startling appearance, with these hundreds of green ants immovably fixed on its outer surface and accentu- ating the more or less contiguous borders of the leaves. Then | I noticed that there was great activity on the branch leading to the nest. Files of workers were running along it to and from the nest and could be traced to two much smaller nests consisting of dead leaves on an adjacent tree about 30 feet away. The colony had evidently outgrown these nests and was in the act of building the more commodious domicile I had been observing. Closer inspection showed that about one in a dozen of the workers coming to the new nest was carrying in its mandibles a minute milk-white larva, and as the larve accumu- lated, I was able to observe all the stages in the spinning of the silken film. Many of the ants worked from the inside, but quite a number stationed themselves on the outside of the nest where I could see them very clearly under my pocket lens, while they moved their larve back and forth as living shuttles from the edge of one leaf to that of another, pausing only while the larve attached their extremely delicate threads to the surface of the leaf. A single ant would sometimes work in the same spot for 10 to 20 minutes, moving its larva so nearly through the same arc as to produce a stout silken band or cord from the *The question naturally suggests itself as to whether the greatly elongated petiole of Gtcophylla is not an adaptation to this peculiar use. I have recently (1914) called attention to the fact that the fossil species of Gicophylla (brevinodis Wheeler and brischkei Mayr of the Baltic amber and sicula Emery of the Sicilian amber) have a shorter petiole than the recent smaragdina. This indicates, per- haps, that the species of the Lower Oligocene and Miocene had not yet acquired or were merely in process of acquiring the habit of forming chain sutures. 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 329 individually invisible threads. In other cases the movements were more varied so that the threads crossed and recrossed one another till they gradually formed a delicate film or tissue. Only very young larve, about 2-3 mm. in length, were employed. The nest was watched till darkness came on. There was no movement on the part of the ants that were warping and holding the stiff leaves in place, and the weaving workers were still toiling when I was compelled to return to my hotel for the night. © At nine o’clock on the following morning, when I hastened to the nest, I found few ants on its outer surface and none holding the leaves in position, for during the night the ants had filled out all the narrow spaces with white silken tissue. This must have represented an enormous amount of labor on the part of the workers and a corresponding expenditure of material on the part of the larve. On gently opening a few of the sutures so that I could look into the nest, I found that the chains of ‘workers were now stationed on the inside warping the leaves while the larve were being employed in spinning them together to form chambers. The spaces between the leaves were full of ants and brood as the whole colony had now moved into the new quarters. The day was growing warm and the leaves of the nest were beginning to wilt as the result of my breaking the branch on the previous day. At three o'clock I again visited the nest and was startled by the great change which it had undergone. The heat of the sun had dried the thick phyllodes of the wattle branch till they had curled and ruptured the silken tissues, so that the whole nest was disintegrated, so to speak, and had been entirely deserted by the ants. Under natural conditions the leaves of the nests also die and dry up after the ants have been living in them for some time, but so gradually as not to break the silken sutures. When one realizes the great expenditure of labor and valuable material in constructing one of these nests, one is not surprised to find that the ants are exceedingly aggressive in defending their property. When a nest is broken open or even roughly shaken the ants rush out and gather in great numbers at one or a few points on its outer surface where they assume a peculiar threatening attitude. Doflein has given a figure of this attitude in Gt. smaragdina, but his figure is not altogether 330 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, accurate, at least for the var. virescens. This ant rises on its middle and hind legs, so that they are nearly straight, the fore pair are thrust out into the air and often waved about as if to grasp the intruder and the mandibles are opened as widely as possible. A slight shock to the nest when the workers are thus congregated will precipitate the whole mass of them over one’s clothes and head. Then one may notice a peculiar method of behavior which is evidently merely a modification of the posture assumed by the ants when they are holding the leaves together during the construction of the nest. After digging the claws. of their backwardly directed legs into one’s skin, they seize the skin in front of them with their mandibles and begin to pull slowly and steadily. This produces a peculiar sensation as if the skin were tightly bound with cords. It is especially marked when a row of ants seizes the skin of one’s neck with the mandibles and fastens the claws into the edge of one’s collar. I was unable to study the founding of the colonies of virescens as the ants had not yet produced their annual genera- tion of sexual individuals at the time of my visit to Queensland, but Mr. F. P. Dodd informs me that the huge, recently fecun- dated queen, after cutting off her wings, takes up her abode in a curled leaf. In the course of a few days she lays,a batch of eggs and when they hatch she employs the young larve in spinning enough silk to bind the edges of the leaf together. A figure (Fig. 135) and a few brief notes published by Maxwell- Lefroy and Howlett in their work on Indian insect-life (1909) suggest that the queen of the typical smaragdina founds her colony in the same manner. The large genus Polyrhachis has been recently divided into several subgenera. I have found that the numerous Australian species of three of these, Campomyrma, Hagiomyrma and Chariomyrma, all nest in the ground under stones or pieces of wood, except Hagiomyrma semiaurata, which nests in great logs. The small, shining black species, with peculiarly arched thorax, now referred to the subgenus Cyrtomyrma, however, inhabit silken nests attached to the leaves of trees. This is true, at least, of the Australian C. levior Roger and its var. yorkana Forel, which are merely forms of the Indomalayan rastellata Latreille. I found the nests of /evior to be of small size and usually built on thick, broadly lanceolate leaves such as those 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 301 of the mangrove and a species of Wurmia. Sometimes two leaves have their edges spun together with a silken tissue, or a silken bladder with a short tubular entrance is constructed on the lower surface of a single leaf. The outer surface of the silk is thickly covered with minute vegetable particles. There are only 25 to 50 ants in a colony and the pupe are always naked. This is interesting, because all the other nest-spinning species of Polyrhachis, of which at least 20 are mentioned in the literature, are described as having the pup enclosed in cocoons just as they are in the species that nest in the ground or in logs. It is evident, therefore, that the larve of the subgenus Cyrtomyrma, like those of Gicophylla, though actively sericiparous in the construction of the nest, no longer spin a pupal envelope. All the species of Gtcophylla and Polyrhachis are confined to the Old World tropics. The third genus, Camponotus, is cos- mopolitan and comprises several hundred species, nearly all of which nest in the ground or in dead wood. Only a small num- ber of species and these, so far as known, peculiar to tropical America, build silken nests. Several years ago Goeldi (Forel 1905) observed that the Brazilian C. senex employs its larvee in the construction of a somewhat globular silken nest on trees, and the var. fextor Forel of the same ant is known to make a similar nest in Central America. I am able to add a second species, a beautiful little, opaque, red ant, C. (IM yrmobrachys) formictformis Forel, to the list of forms with the same habit. Dec. 28 and 30, 1911, my wife discovered two nests of this ant while we were walking in the neighborhood of Escuintla, Guatemala. One was between two broad liana leaves, which had been con- verted into an elliptical nest about four inches long and three inches broad by having their edges bound together with a broad film of white silk (Fig. 1). In this nest the silk was quite clean, like that of Gicophylla, 2. e., without admixture of any foreign material. The other nest, of about the same size, was of a dif- ferent appearance. It consisted of silk spun around the radiating petioles of a cluster of pinnate leaves on the branch of a legu- minous tree. No leaves were included in the walls of the nest so that very large quantities of silk had to be produced, and this silk was of a gray color and covered with numerous particles of extraneous vegetable matter. Each of the nests contained a flourishing colony of several hundred very active ants, which 332 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, left the nest with their larve and pupze when it was violently shaken. Although I did not see the larve in the act of being used as shuttles in the construction of the nest, there can be no doubt that they are thus employed. The pupe were all enclosed in white cocoons like those of other small species of Camponotus. FIGURE 1 Fig. 1. Silken nests of Camponotus (Myrmobrachys) formiciformis from Guatemala, about one-half natural size. The workers, however, unlike those of nearly all the species of the genus, were monomorphic as in the various species of (Ecophylla and Polyrhachis. In C. senex the workers are also practically monomorphic, so that it would seem that the habit of employing the larve for spinning the nest tends to make them develop into adults of uniform stature and shape. It is not easy to understand why this should follow. 1915] Cocoons Among Ants ive) Se) oO Still another inference may be drawn from the presence or absence of cocoons among the various nest-spinning ants. As we have seen, the cocoons are always present, so far as known, in Camponotus, even in the nest-spinning species; in Polyrhachis the cocoon is rarely absent and then only in the species of the subgenus Cyrtomyrma, whereas in Cicophylla it is always absent. Very few species of Camponotus spin nests; a number of species of Polyrhachis have acquired this habit, and all the species of CGicophylla exhibit it in its highest manifestation. This is shown also by the hypertrophic development of the sericteries of young Cicophylla larvee, as observed Chun (1903) and Karawaiew (1906). Apparently, therefore, in this genus the spinning habit has been shifted back en bloc to an early larval stage and is no longer manifested for cocooning in late larval life; whereas in Camponotus and Polyrhachis (excepting the species of Cyrtomyrma) more mature larve are used as shuttles and the cocoon-spinning instincts have not been suppressed.* The employment of the larvae as instruments for spinning a silken nest in at least three very different genera is only one of several cases of convergent development among ants. While studying the Australian species during the autumn and winter of 1914, I detected another case of an equally adaptive convergence in the coloration of the cocoon. In the great majority of ants the cocoons are white, cream, or pale buff-colored. In some Ponerinze (Odontomachus, Stig- matomma, etc.) they are brown, but the cocoons of the species to which I refer are dark brown or black. Such cocoons I have found in three very different genera of Ponerine, namely, Diacamma, Rhytidoponera sens. str. and Leptogenys (subgenera Lobopelta and Odontopelta), and as nothing has been published on the habits of the species in question, I here subjoin a few of my field notes. *Wasmann (1905), in his rendering of Jacobson’s observations on Polyrhachis (Myrma) dives F. Sm., states that one of the larve used as a shuttle measured 5mm. It must, therefore, have been much more nearly full-grown than the larve employed by CGicophylla for the same purpose. In this connection reference may be made to Technomyrmex bicolor Emery subsp. textor Forel of Java, which, accord- ing to Jacobson (Forel, 1909) inhabits, on the bark of trees, little nests 2 cm. long by 1 cm. in diameter, consisting of silk mixed with vegetable detritus. These nests are described as resembling those of Polyrhachis psena in miniature. If, as Forel remarks, these nests are really the work of the Technomyrmex, we shall have to regard this as a fourth genus which has independently acquired the habit of employing its larve in nidification. This would be of considerable interest, because Technomyrmex is a Dolichoderine ant, whereas all the nest-spinning species. above mentioned are Componotine. 334 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The only species of Diacamma known to occur in Australia is the bronzy black and beautifully sculptured D. australe (Fig. 2). The remainder and great majority of the species of the genus are Indomalayan. I found australe rather common in several localities in Queensland (Cairns, Kuranda, Koah, Townsville) nesting in the ground in open, sunny and more or less grassy places. The nests are craters four inches to a foot in diameter and two to six inches high, with a very large central opening, often 1 to 114 inches in diameter. This opening leads almost directly into a few large chambers situated FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3 Fig. 2. Diacamma australe. Workers and cocoon x13. Fig. 3. Diacamma australe. Male x12. in the crater, and from them galleries descend into the ground, apparently to some depth. The outer surface of the crater is often covered with growing grass or other plants. The colony of ants numbers about 50-100 individuals. They. are rather timid and usually retreat into the nest at the slightest alarm. Their movements are exquisitely soft and graceful. Their sting is rather feeble, except when it comes in contact with the thin skin on one’s wrists or between the fingers. In the ‘‘Genera Insectorum’’ Emery enumerates 13 species of Diacamma and one of these, the Indian D. rugosum, is so well known that 22 varieties and subspecies of it have been described; 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 339 yet no one has ever seen a female Diacamma. In excavating the nests of australe, therefore, I scrutinized the ants very closely in the hope of finding the unknown female, but in vain. Though I searched dozens of nests, I saw nothing resembling a winged or dedlated queen or even a worker with conspicuously enlarged gaster. I found plenty of larve and pupz and in some of the nests during late October a number of males. These are bright, reddish yellow, with conspicuously long antenne, and quite unlike the bronzy black workers. (Fig. 3). As I failed to find any differentiated queen and as all the pupz were of the same size, I feel confident that in Diacamma the egg-laying function must be usurped by one or more fertile workers during the breeding season. What impressed me most, while I was excavating the nests of australe, was the very dark brown or black color and tough consistency of the cocoons. I then remembered that I had received very similar cocoons with specimens of D. scalpatrum from India and of D. cyaniventre from the Philippines. Further study of the nests of australe soon gave a clue to the meaning of this unusually deep pigmentation of the pupal envelope. On the outer surface of two of the craters, which happened to be in shade at the time, I found heaps of cocoons fully exposed to the light. At first I supposed that they were the cocoons of dead or hatched pup, but on approaching the nests the wary workers at once carried them into the nest. Then on examining nests exposed to the bright sunlight, I found the cocoons in the superficial chambers so near the large entrance that they could be distinctly seen through it from the outside. Thus while the ants are careful not to place their cocoons in the direct rays of the sun they nevertheless expose them to diffuse day- light. -The deeply pigmented cocoon evidently enables the pupa to utilize the heat rays while effectively protecting it from the light and ultra-violet rays. That ants are particu- larly sensitive to these latter rays has been proved by the experiments of Lubbock (1882), Forel (1886), Forel and Dufour (1902) and Miss Fielde (1904). It occurred to me that the australe larve might spin a white cocoon like other ants and subsequently smear or saturate it with the black meconium, or intestinal contents, which all ant larve void just before pupating. But an examination of the cocoons showed this supposition to be erroneous, for the silken 336 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, threads of the cocoon are themselves dark brown and the meconium is deposited in a compact meniscoidal mass within the anal end of the cocoon as in other Ponerine and in the Camponotine. This differs from the conditions in certain moths (Attacus atlas, Calosamia cynthia, Platysamia cecropia, Saturnia pyri, Eriogaster lanestris) which, according to Batensen, Schawraw, Peterson, Dewitz, Verson and others, are able to adapt the color of their cocoons to that of the objects to which they are attached. In these cases the silk is white or colorless, but is stained by a dark excretory pigment mechanically FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 Fig. 4. Rhytidoponera convexa. Workers and cocoon x13. z = wines y 9 b Fig. 5. Rhytidoponera sp. Worker and cocoon x1. applied to the threads as a result of the light stimulus acting directly on the spinning caterpillar. The larva of Diacamma, however, cannot thus be stimulated by the light to spin a dark- colored silk, because the cocoon is completed in the darkness, while the larva les buried in the earth. Negro or melanic cocoons, like those of Dzacamma, occur also in many if not all species of Rhytidoponera sens. str., (Figs. 4 and 5), a genus largely confined to Australa and New Guinea. The nests of Rh. cristata Mayr, scabra Mayr and convexa Mayr, with the var. rufiventris Forel, are very similar to those of Dia- camma australe. They are craters with very large openings, built 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 337 in dry, open, sunny places and containing roomy chambers in which the black cocoons are often visible from outside the nest. I saw many nests of these ants in Queensland, especially in the environs of Brisbane, Townsville and Kuranda. In Kuranda I also found several species of Leptogenys of the subgenera Lobopelta and Odontopelta (contgera Mayr, ebenina Forel, diminuta Forel and its var. yarrabahna Forel and turneri Forel), which had very dark brown cocoons. These ants nest under stones and logs, but they seem to be very restless and one occasionally comes upon colonies moving to new nesting sites. At such times they carry their cocoons concealed underneath their bodies and between their legs and not held out in front as in other ants. It would seem that this concealment of the cocoons under the body is another devise for protecting them from the too direct rays of the sun. In this connection I may say that our single North American species of Lobopelta (L. elongata Buckley of the Gulf States) has brown cocoons, darker than those of our other ants, but paler than those of the Australian species. Other Australian Lobopeltas, such as L. mutans, which has small eyes and lives in rotten logs in the dark jungle, have pale brown cocoons. It is also worthy of note that winged females do not exist in Rhytidoponera sens. str. and Leptogenys.. In the latter genus the female is wingless and almost exactly like the worker, and the egg-laying function in Rhytidoponera 1s very probably usurped by fertile workers as in Diacamma. Whether or not this correlation between the presence of black cocoons and the absence of differentiated females is more than a mere coincidence can be decided only by further investigations. The fact I wish to emphasize is that the larvee of Diacamma, Rhytidoponera and Leptogenys, while temporarily buried in the soil by their worker nurses, are able to spin cocoons preadapted in color to furthering their own development as pupz by utilizing the heat of the sun and simultaneously excluding the deleterious light and ultra-violet rays. This utilization, more- over, is possible only through the co-operative agency of other individuals, z. e., the worker nurses of the colony. The natural selectionist will probably insist that the origin of this melanism in an inert and extraneous pupal envelope can be explained only on the assumption of a survival of chance variations in the color of the silk spun by the larvae. The possible contention of Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, oo OO CO the mutationist that a sudden and pronounced deepening of color of the cocoon would be necessary to insure the survival of the pupa will have little force, because even slight differences in color in the direction of greater opacity would be conceivably useful. But no variations would be significant unless the workers developed concomitantly the instinct to expose the cocoons to the heat and hght on the surface of the nest. The neovitalist might claim, therefore, that the whole phenomenon is merely another instance of the prospective potency of the colonial psychoid. The modest naturalist who does not habitually abide in this tenuous atmosphere of supreme specula- tion will be satisfied to regard the melanism of the cocoons as a detail of the larger subject of the coloration of ants in general. As almost nothing has been published on this subject I may be permitted to consider it briefly in these concluding paragraphs. Adult ants range in color from pale yellow (the primitive color of chitin) through various tones of red and brown to black and, through interference colors superadded to pigmentation, from bronze or zneous, through metallic green, blue and violet to metallic crimson. As here enumerated the shades evidently represent the order of the phylogenetic development of insect coloration generally, as indicated both by the ontogenetic sequence and the comparative study of the various.species and genera. It is not so generally known that both the pigment and interference colors may be shown to depend intimately on the amount of light to which the ants are subjected and therefore on their mode of life. The primitive, ancestral colors of .the Formicide were probably red, brown or black, precisely those still prevalent in the majority of species inhabiting temperate regions or the forested portions of the tropics, where the workers, while foraging on the surface of the earth or of the vegetation, are exposed to a moderate insolation. From this condition we can trace three divergent lines of development, each terminating in a peculiar type of coloration, as follows: 1. A number of species have greatly exaggerated the neg- ative phototropism, which is characteristic of most ants, and have therefore taken to a nocturnal or hypogeeic mode of life. In all of these forms pigment has been lost, and the workers of the hypogeeic species, which never come to the surface of the ground, 1915} Cocoons Among Ants 339 have become pale yellow or pale red or brown. Their eyes have diminished greatly in size or have disappeared. The males and females of these hypogeic forms, however, retain their deep pigmentation and large eyes because they retain the instinct to mate in the sunlight. The principal groups of hypogeic ants which exhibit this retrogressive color-develop- ment, at least in the workers, are: Solenopsis, (most species), Machomyrma, Oligomyrmex, Carebara, Tranopelta, Aéromyrma, some species of Pheidole and Crematogaster, the whole tribe Dacetoniu, Brachymyrmex and the yellow species of Lasius, 7. e., those of the circumpolar subgenus Chthonolasius and of the North American subgenus Acanthomyops, many small Ponerine, Ainictus, Dorylus, some species of Eciton, Leptanilla, etc. 2. A number of species exhibit a progressive development from red, brown or black to the interference colors. This tendency to what may be called ‘‘metallescence”’ is observable in ants living in very hot, dry, sunny places, and is most pro- nounced in Australia, where it occurs in the following genera: Chalcoponera (nearly all species), Rhytidoponera (convexa var. violacea Forel), Myrmecia (tarsata F. Sm.), Diacamma, Lobo- pelta. (some varieties of conigera Mayr), Iridomyrmex (many species, notably detectus F. Sm., discors Forel, bicknelli Forel, cyanea Wheeler, etc.), Leptomyrmex, Camponotus (some species of the subgenus Myrmocamelus), Calomyrmex (splendidus Mayr, purpureus Mayr and an undescribed species from the Cape York Peninsula), Melophorus (eneovirens Lowne and others), and Polyrhachis (hookert Lowne, schencki Forel and turneri Forel). Some of the most conspicuous and widely distributed Australian ants, such as Iridomyrmex detectus, which is beautifully metallic purple, and other smaller species of the same genus, may be seen running about in the sunlight at a temperature of 115° to 120° F, when other ants are hiding in the soil, and in the deserts of Central Australia, where the temperature may rise even higher and the aridity is excessive, the tendency to metal- lescence is still greater. It is in this region that Calomyrmex splendidus and purpureus and their varieties occur and that I. detectus takes on the pronounced metallic green color of the var. viridieneus Viehmeyer. The prevalence of interference colors in Australian ants is in marked contrast with their rare and sporadic occurrence in other regions. They occur in 340 Annals Entomological Society of America {Vol. VIII, none of the ants of the temperate zones, with the exception of a species of Forelius (chalybeus Forel) in Argentina and a species of Pheidole (Ph. metallescens Emery) in the Gulf States. Nor does metallescence occur in the ants of the tropics outside of Australia, if we except a few species of Diacamma, Leptogenys and Polyrhachis in the Indomalayan region, a few species of Monomorium and Formica in Mexico and several species of the genus Macromischa which has its center of distribution in the Antilles. 3. A third progressive line of development has led to certain large-eyed tropical ants, in which there is a contrast of black, yellow or red in bands, spots or larger areas involving certain segments or regions of the body. This diversification of color is often secured or enhanced by the development of areas of dense white or golden pubescence or pile, especially on the gaster. The tints are more vivid than in the ants of the first and most primitive category, and seem to indicate that their large-eyed possessors have some slight appreciation of color for its own sake, Hke the butterflies and many flower- frequenting flies and beetles. These ants live in open forests and are often very-quick in their movements. They comprise such genera as Pseudomyrma in the New World tropics, Opis- thopsis and Podomyrma in Australia and New Guinea and the “bull-dog’’ ants (Myrmecia) of Australia, Tasmania and New Caledonia. We may also include in this category many tropical species of Camponotus, Polyrhachis and Dolichoderus. Not only is the coloration of ants thus influenced or deter- mined by light, Keat and aridity, but a peculiar adaptation in the investment, or pilosity and pubescence is observed in many species which are subjected to the extremes of these conditions in desert regions. Thus the species of Deromyrma (cockerelli André and albosetosus Mayr), of Pogonomyrmex, Messor and Myrmecocystus, the dominant forms in the deserts of our Southwestern States, are covered with silvery white hairs or pubescence or with both, and in the Sahara similar conditions prevail in Cataglyphis (formerly Myrmecocystus) and Messor. Cataglyphis bombycina, the most extreme of these forms in the development of pubescence, when running over the desert sands in the bright sun-light is said to resemble a drop of quicksilver. Obviously the brilliant white hairs serve to 1915] Cocoons Among Ants 341 reflect the light and heat and thus protect the ants’ body from the effects of excessive insolation. Even within the confines of some of our common North American species that have developed local races or varieties, we observe a lack of pubes- cence in the forms inhabiting moist, shady localities and a great increase in the density of the delicate hairs constituting the pubescence in the xerothermal forms. One example, the common circumpolar Formica fusca, must suffice. The typical form of this ant and its vars. gelida Wheeler, neorufibarbis Emery and subenescens Emery are found only in rather damp, shady places in the far north or at high elevations, and have very short, feebly developed pubescence, while the much more pubescent vars. neoclara Emery, marcida Wheeler and argentea Wheeler are peculiar to the xerothermal slopes of the Rocky and sierra Nevada Mountains. In even dryer and warmer localities these forms are replaced: by the still more pubescent vars. of F. cinerea culminating in the subsp. pilicornis Emery, in which even the eyes are pubescent. Formica fusca var. subsericea, which is intermediate between such forms as the typical fusca and the vars. of cinerea, is the form everywhere common in the Atlantic and Middle States, in open woods and pastures where there is a moderate amount of moisture and sunlight. In Eurasia a very similar series of varieties occurs in similar correspondence with moist, moderate and extremely xerothermal conditions. (F. fusca s. str. and the forms picea, gagates, glebaria and F. cinerea with several varieties). Many other examples of this peculiar increase of pubescence and pilosity in ants, with an increase in the aridity and insolation of their habitat might be cited, but a more exhaustive treat- ment of the subject would consume much time, and, I fear, prove to be rather wearisome to my readers. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1909. Bugnion, Ed—La Fourmi Rouge de Ceylan (Gicophylla smaragdina). Arch, Sei. Phys. et Nat. 1909, pp. 105-107, 3 Figs. 1903. Chun, Carl—Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres, Jena, 1903. 1773. Cook, Capt. James—Account of the voyages undertaken by Order of His Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, drawn up by John Hawkesworth. Vol. IIT. London, W. Strahan and ieCadelllii7 3: 1902. Dodd, F. P.—Notes on the Queensland Green Tree Ants (Cicophylla smaragdina?). Victor. Natural. 18, 1902, pp. 186-140. 1905. Doflein, F—Beobachtungen an den Weberameisen (Gicophylla smaragdina). Biol. Centraebl. 25, 1905, pp. 497-507, 5 figs. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Doflein, F.—Ostasienfahrt. Leipzig u. Berlin, Teubner. Forel, Auguste—Die Nester der Ameisen. Neujahrsblatt al. Zuricher Naturf. Gesell. auf. 1893, (1892),. pp. 479-505; 2 pls. Forel, Auguste—Ants’ Nests. Ann. Rep. Smithson. Inst. 1896, pp. 47-505. Forel, Auguste—Hinige biologische Beobachtungen des Herrn Prof. Dr. E. Se an brasilianischen Ameisen. Biol. Centralbl. 25, 1905, pp. 170-181, 7 Figs. Forel, Auguste—Ameisen aus Java und Krakatau beobachtet u. gesammelt von Edward Jacobson. 1. Theil. Notes from the Leyden Mus. 31, 1909, pp. 221-253 (ethological part by Jacobson, pp. 233-251). Forel, Auguste—Ameisen aus Java beobachtet und gesammelt bon Herrn Edward Jacobson. 2. Theil. Notes from the Leyden Mus. 33, 1911, pp. 193-218. Green, E. E.—On the Habits of the Indian Ant (Gicophylla smaragdina). Trans. Ent. Soc. London. Proc. pp. IX, X, 1896. . Green, E. E.—(On the Habits of the Indian Ant, Gicophylla smaragdina Fabr. ) Abstr. Zoologist, (8), 20, 1896, pp. 110; Ent. Month. Mag. (2) 7, 1896, p. 95. Green, E. E.—Note on the Web-spinning Habits of the ‘‘Red Ant,”’ CGicophylla smaragdina Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 18, 1900, p. 181. Green, E. E.—Pupae of the ‘“‘Red Ant,’’ (Zicophylla smaragdina). Spolia Zeylandica 1, 1903, pp. 73-74, 1 Fig. Jacobson, Edward—Notes on Web-spinning Ants. Victor. Natural. 24, 1907, pp. 36-38. Jacobson, Edward—Zur Verfertigung der Gespinnstnester von Polyrhachis bicolor Sm. auf Java. (Communicated by E. Wasmann). Notes of the Leyden Mus. 30, 1908, pp. 63-67, 7 pl. f Karawaiew, V.—Systematisch Biologisches tiber drie Ameisen aus Buiten- gorg. Zeitzschr. f. wiss. Insektenbiol. 2, 1906, pp. 369-376, 16 Figs. Kohl, H. J.—Zur Biologie der Spinnenden Ameisen. Natur u. Offenbarung. 52, 1906, pp. 166-169. Maxwell-Lefroy, H., and Howlett, F. M.—Indian Insect Life. Calcutta, Simla and London, 1909. O’Brien, R. AA—Remarks on the Habits of the Green Tree-Ant of Australia. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1910, pp. 669-670. Reinhardt, Hugo—Weben der Ameisen. Natur und Haus, 15, 1906, pp. 248-249. Ridley—(On Gicophylla smaragdina) Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. Singapore, 1890, p. 345. Ridley—(On Cicophylla smaragdina). Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1894, Pro- ceedings p. XX XIII. Saville-Kent, W.—The Weaving Properties of the Australian Green Ant. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1891. Saville-Kent, W.—The Naturalist in Australia. London, Chapman and Hall, 1897, 302 pp., 59 pls. 100 text Figs. Wasmann, E.—Beobachtungen uber Polyrhachis dives auf Java, die ihre Larven zum Spinnen der Nester benutzt. Notes of the Leyden Mus. 25, 1905, pp. 133-140. Wheeler, W. M.—Ants, Their Structure, Development and Behavior. New York, Columbia Univ. Press. 1910. Wheeler, W. M.—The Ants of the Baltic Amber. Schrift. phys. 6kon. Gesell. Koénigsberg i. Pr. 1914, pp. 1-142, 66 Figs. Wroughton, R. C.—Our Ants. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Part 1, 1892, 48 pp., 2 pls. ON THE POISONS OF PLANT-LICE.* By J. Dewirz, Metz, Germany. Although applied entomology has made enormous progress during recent years both in its scope and importance, we cannot deny that it has hitherto moved only in certain restricted paths and is therefore in danger of becoming one-sided, for the subject is taken up at present almost exclusively with a study of life- histories, with parasites and the empirically ascertained methods of combatting injurious species.; Thus it has come about that up to the present time we know very little concerning the secretion of poisons by the sucking plant-parasites and the effects of these poisons on the plants. Most attention has been paid to this question by those who have investigated the origin of plant galls. Hence it may be of interest to record some investigations which I have made on the poisons of plant-lice. In addition to the bacterial poisons we may distinguish those of certain animals (snakes, scorpions, bees, etc.) which are characterized only by certain pecularities such as the lack of an incubation period. These animal poisons have been best studied in snakes. But there are also some researches on the poisons of arthropods (spiders, myriopods, insects). The attempt, however, has hardly been made to investigate care- fully the poisons produced by the plant parasites, especially by the plant lice. The toxins of bacteria and fungi and the animal poisons have the property of hamolyzing, or dissolving the red pigment (hemoglobin) of the blood corpuscles of mammals, and we therefore speak of the haemolysis of the toxins and of animal poisons. Under their influence a dilution of red blood corpuscles in physiological salt solution takes on a clear, transparent, red color like that of lac. The poison of a particular species, however, will haemolyze only the red blood-corpuscles of par- ticular species of mammals, namely, those which are susceptible to the poison in question; the red blood-corpuscles of other *Translation by W. M. Wheeler. tJ. Dewitz, Die Physiologie in der Schadlingsforschung. Trans. Second Ent. Congress 1912 pp. 234-244; The Bearing of Physiology on Economic Entomology. Bull. Ent. Research, Vol. 3, 1912, pp. 343-354. 343 344 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, mammals being only shghtly or not at all affected. Thus the red blood corpuscles of the rabbit and rat are very sensitive to the poison of the house-spider (‘‘Kreuzspinne,’’ Araneus diadematus Clerck) and undergo complete haemolysis, those of the mouse, man and goose are less sensitive and in the case of the guinea pig, horse, sheep and dog even great quantities of the poison do not produce hemolysis.* It is this peculiar property of the poisons, known as hemolysis, that I have begun to investigate in plant lice. My work has been carried on with an unidentified species of plant-louse living on Pelargonium, the hemolytic experiments being performed in the traditional manner.j Among the animals investigated the red blood corpuscles of the ox were found to be sensitive to the poisons of the plant-louse. The plant dice were triturated 1m ‘a (certain: quantitymer physiological salt solution (0.8 per cent) or in a mixture of glycerine and physiological salt-solution and placed for 24 hours in the. ice-chest. Then, after filtration, the extract was used. On the other hand, I obtained a solution of defibri- nated ox blood, drawn off under aseptic conditions, of 5 per cent solution. This was centrifuged, the liquid being thrice replaced with physiological salt solution, which finally gave a 5 per cent dilution of red-blood corpuscles. This dilution was mixed in variable quantities with plant-louse extract in small tubes, such as are used for serum investigations. Then the tubes were warmed in the thermostat for two hours at 37°C. and placed over night in the ice-chest to obtain the sedimentation of such blood-corpuscles as were not dissolved. At the same time control experiments were carried on in such a manner that the control tubes were heated and placed in the ice-chest together with the tubes containing the extract. In these control experiments the plant louse extract was replaced by a cor- responding amount of the physiological salt-solution or of a mixture of physiological salt-solution and glycerine. It was found that the warm dilutions of the extract hamolyze the blood-corpuscles of the ox and that this ‘‘hemolysis’’ *Hans Sachs, Zur Kenntnis des Kreuzspinnengiftes. Beitr. Chem. Physiol. u. Pathol. (Hofmeister) Bd. 2, 1902, pp. 125-133. jUnfortunately, I am unable at the moment to give the scientific name of this plant-louse. 1915] Poisons of Plant-Lice 345 takes place even at ordinary temperatures with the undiluted extract, as shown in the following example: An extract was manufactured by triturating 0.5 gr. of plant-lice in 5 ccm. of a mixture of physiological salt-solution and glycerine in equal parts. In the dilutions of the extract used 1 cm. of physiological salt-solution contained the fol- lowing amounts of extract: 1. 1lccm. phys. salt-solution contained 1/12.5 ccm. Extr. eve tle ioe . - 2 25 ccm. Extr. 3. 1 “ “ “ “ 1/50 “ “ ah. 1 “ “ “ “ 1/100 “ “ 5. 1 “ “ “ “ 1/200 “ “ 1 ccm. of the diluted extract was mixed with 1 ccm. of the 5 per cent blood dilution. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 gave complete hemolysis. In No. 4 a small portion of the blood-corpuscles remained undissolved and in No. 5 the hemolysis was incom- plete. In the control tubes no hemolysis occurred. From this experiment and from another performed with the same sample of extract, which gave the same results,. it is possible to make the following computations concerning the hemolytic effect of plant-louse poison on the red blood corpuscles of the ox. In 5 ccm. of extract there were 0.5 gr. of plant-louse matter oF Usinst= tomlucem: (of extract. In, 1/200) cem-“on extract there was therefore 0.0005 gr. of plant-louse matter. This 0.0005 gr. brought about a partial solution of the red corpuscles in 1 ccm. of a 5 per cent dilution of blood or the solution of the red-corpuscles of 0.05 ccm. of the undiluted blood of the ox. A complete solution of the red-blood corpuscles of 0.05 ccm. of the undiluted blood of the ox did not, however, take place till 1/50 ccm. of the extract or 0.002 gr. of plant-louse matter was used. In other words, 1 gr. of plant-louse matter will completely dissolve the red-blood corpuscles of 25 ccm. of undiluted blood or 40 gr. will dissolve a litre of blood. The hemolytic power of ‘‘aphidolysin,’’ as we may call the substance, is therefore weaker than the poison of the house- spider (‘‘arachnolysin’’),* since 0.000028 gr. of this substance completely dissolves the red blood corpuscles of 0.05 ccm. of the undiluted blood of the rabbit (i. e. 1.4 gr. dissolves *Hans Sachs Joc. cit. 346 Annals Entomolgoical Society of America [Vol. VIII, 2.5 litres or 0.56 gr. will dissolve 1 litre). But we may say that perhaps by further search mammalian blood corpuscles. may be found, which are more sensitive to the poison of the plant-louse I have used than the blood of the ox. Another point also deserves emphasis. Although a hemoly- tic poison is found in the organism of the plant-louse, we are unable at present to name the part of the body in which it occurs. This is also true of the haemolytic experiments which have been performed on the house-spider, since in this case also the whole spider was triturated. The case of the hemolytic experiments on the poison of honey bees, however, is different, since the sting together with the poison sac was extracted, and operations were therefore carried out on the poison organ alone.* *Conf. J. Morgenroth u. U. Carpi, Ueber ein Toxolecithid des Bienengiftes~ Berl. Klinisch. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. 43, 1906, pp. 1424-1425. A SYNOPSIS OF THE APHID TRIBE PTEROCOMMINI. By H. F. Wirson, Entomologist, Oregon Agricultural College. As in all other groups of the Hemipterous family A phidide the species grouped under the tribe name Pterocommini have been greatly mixed by different writers and as a result much confusion exists. In this paper the writer hopes to eliminate at least a part of this. All the known species commonly feed on willows and poplars; one species is recorded as also being found on maple. Three species (P. salicis, populea and flocculosum) are recorded from Europe and five from America (P. populea, smithie, flocculosum, bicolor and salicis). The writer has never found the last nor has he seen specimens collected in this country. In all ten species have been described as follows: 1758 Pterocomma (A phis) salicts Linn. 1843 Pterocomma (A phis) populea Kaltenback. 1879 Pterocomma pilosa Buckton. 1842 Pterocomma (Aphis) salictt Harris. 1862 Pterocomma (Lachnus salicola) Uhler. New name for A phis salictt. 1879 Pterocomma (Chaitophorus) smithie Monell. 1887 Pterocomma (Melanoxanthus) flocculosus. Weed. 1891 Pteracomma (Cladobius) beuhahensis cockerell. 1909 Pterocomma (Cladobius rufulus Davidson. 1910 Cladobius lanthane Pass (Koch) Henrich. Generic Synonomy. Aphidologists in general have divided the species of this tribe into two groups based as a rule upon the structure of the nectaries, although Buckton erected the genus Pterocomma for his species P. pilosa on what he thought was a peculiar wing structure. (Pergande* believes this apparent character due to a fold in the wing.) Those species having swollen nectaries have been placed in one genus and those having cylindrical nectaries were placed in another. Such a distinction was also made by the writer in 1909, but after having further studied the group I am of the opinion that such a division is illogical and if a division is necessary each species should form a different genus. It, therefore, seems more practical to confine all the species to a single genus. The genus name Cladobius found by Koch, 1857, was pre- viously used in Coleoptera, 1837. Passerini, 1860, suggested a new name, Aphioides, but the writer believes that this 1s a 347 348 Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, contraction or misprint of A phidioides which was also previously used in the Hemiptera and must, therefore, give way to Ptero- comma, provided by Buckton for his species pilosa, and which the writer believes is the same as A phis populea Kalt. Previous to the establishment of this genus Buckton used Melanoxanthus to cover Aphis salicis of Linnaeus and this name would be valid if it had not already been used in the Coleoptera. Schouteden 1906 uses Melanoxantherium in place of Melanox- anthus, but the writer is of the opinion that Melanoxanthus falls before Pterocomma. Kirkaldy provides the name Aristaphis in place of Cladobius and A phioides, apparently considering these names to be preoccupied. The synonomy of the genus would then read: Pterocomma Buckton. A phioides Passerini. Cladobius Koch. Melanoxanthus Buckton. Melanoxantherium Schout. Aristaphis Kirkaldy. Characters of the tribe and genus. Antenne with six segments and reaching to near the base of the abdomen. Wings normally with venation as in Aphis. Nectaries short, but clavate. Cauda short and broadly rounded at the tip as in Lachninit. Entire body, antenne and legs, covered with long hairs as in the Lachnini. As has already been pointed out by Oestlund, this group appears intermediate between the Chaitophorini and the Lachnini. Their habits and actions being in different ways similar to both. A Key TO THE SPECIES.* 1. Nectaries with diameter of opening at tip not greater than the smallest part Of theme cranes. 27 5.05 tle he asada aes Re CR ae ne 3 2. Nectaries with diameter of opening at tip greater than the smallest part of thewmec tary hs Ao See a rah ee akc a ey eae REN + 3. Distal end of nectaries abruptly constricted to a small opening; flange wanting P. flocculosa Distal end of nectaries not abruptly constricted. Nectary swollen in the middle and tapering to a small opening at the tip. Light flange present... . P. salicis 4. Nectaries short and stout, length not more than twice the greatest diameter P. smithiz Nectaries more than twice as long as the greatest diameter. 5. Nectaries clavate and twice as long as the hind tarsi............ P. bicolor Nectaries appearing cylindrical or clavate and about equal in length to the Wana, BARST ATS yok a ua cotta Mocataal hobs con OO oko AL: ened Re ae P. populea *Prof. C. P. Gillette, of the Colorado Agricultural College, kindly assisted in the preparation of this key. 1915] The Aphid Tribe Pterocommini 349 Figure 1, Nectary of P. salicis; Figure 2, Nectary of form found in U. S. (bicolor? salicis?) possibly new. Figure 3, Nectary of P. bicolor; Figure 4, Nectary of P. flocculosa; Figures 5 and 6, Nectaries of P. smithie; Figures 7 and 8, Nec- taries of P. populea; Figure 9, antenne of P. smitihe; Figure 10, antenne of P. populea; Figure 11, antenne of P. flocculosa; Figure 12, antenne of P. bicolor; Figure 18, P. salicis. Pterocomma salicis Linn. Synonomy: Aphis salicis, Linn. Reaum., Fabr., Schrank, De Geer, Kalt. Melanoxanthus salicis Linn (Buckton). Melanoxanthus salicis Linn (Weed). Melanoxanthus salicis Linn (Packard). Melanoxanthus salicits Linn (Osborn). Melanoxanthus salicis Linn (Cowen). Melanoxantherium salicis Linn (Schouteden). Melanoxantherium salicis Linn (Gillette). Melanoxantherium salicis Linn (Wilson). be OT © om © “wv Since this species does not seem to occur in America it is not possible to secure a description from live material. A detailed description of what appears to be this species is given by Kaltenback and Buckton, figures accompanying the latter. Buckton’s description is included here with additional notes made by myself from material on slides and in alcohol. A pterous viviparous female. . Inch Millimeters SIE AOL © Gayen sey islets a oeaew en Reece 0.150 x 0.80 3.81 x 2.02 Length of Antennz...............0:080 2.02 ene thwoncOnaleles wre 0.015 0.38 350 Annals Entomological Society of America {Vol. VIII, “Very large, long oval, abdomen pointed. Dull sooty- black or greyish black, with a faint greyish medial stripe. Prothorax with a blunt tooth-like process on each side. Two broad pale grey patches on each side of the first abdominal ring—smaller patches on each side of the succeeding rings, those at and below the insertions of the cornicles being the largest. Antenne orange red. The seventh joint small, hardly equal to the sixth. The cornicles bright orange, skittle-shaped, with dilated mouths; very short. Legs orange, with dark tibial joints and tarsi. The whole insect pilose. The under- side is of obscure greyish-green. Rostrum long, reaching to the third coxe. The young insects are black and prettily streaked with grey. Their rostra are longer than those of the adultes Winged viviparous female. Inch Millimeters ‘EYXDANSe Of WINS Saasste oes cis sense 0.400 10.16 Sizevon bodyis. sit des neesee ee eae 0.120 x 0.050 3.04 x 1.27 Menethrohantennceies.. = essen 0.080 2.02 Length of cornicles.. Wi . 0.020 0.50 ‘Very large, ee black, ee Antenne short, having all joints black except the third and fourth, which are orange. Abdomen with two or more grey dorsal patches. Cornicles bright orange. Legs as in the larve. Eyes dark brown. Wings ample.’’ ‘‘All veins are black and strongly marked.”’ The writer finds that the antenne reach to the middle of the abdomen and that the third segment is the longest. From 14 to 20 round sensoria, irregularly placed on the inner side, occur on the third segment. The wings have dark veins as indicated, but hardly appear different from those of other species. The nectaries are the distinguishing characteristic as they are quite distinct in shape. See drawings. Pterocomma flocculosa (Weed) *. Synonomy: Melanoxantherium flocculosus (Weed) 8a, #4. Melanoxantherium flocculosum (Weed) Schouteden. Melanoxantherium flocculosum (Weed) Gillette. That this species commonly occurs in Europe is shown by the fact that the writer has received specimens both from Russia and France, and Schouteden has recorded it from Belgium. 1915] The Aphid Tribe Pterocommini bol This species has never been collected by myself and it apparently does not occur on the Pacific Coast. For this reason color notes are taken from the original descriptions and the additional notes were made from specimens collected in Colorado and Maryland and mounted on slides. “Oviparous Female-——Body 3-5 mm. long by 2 wide across middle of abdomen; antennz 2-3 mm. long. ‘General color dull, yellowish-brown, with a longitudinal row of indistinct black spots on each side of dorso meson; cornicles bright orange red, antennae dusky, except basal portion of third joint, which is yellowish brown; legs dusky, with basal portion of femora, and sometimes more or less of tibia, dark yellowish-brown. Body, legs, and antenne pilose; Joint III of antenne long, but shorter than IV plus V, which are subequal; VI and VII each rather long, the latter the longer of the two. Cornicles long for this genus; swollen in the middle. “The Egg—tLength, 1-2 mm.; oblong oval, coated with a thin gray substance like that on the egg of M. salicis; deposited on the bark, about the buds and axils, especially where the surface is roughened. Later he also describes what he believes to be the wingless male.”’ Apterous viviparous female: As a rule among the species of this group the apterous forms are almost exactly alike except in size and one would expect this form to resemble very closely in color markings, the oviparous female. Observations made from a slide containing several apparently apterous forms show the third antennal segment with about 14 round sensoria lying in a more or less regular line along the inside edge. In the alate form there are from 17 to 25 on the third segment. Along each side of the body may be found, one to each segment, a row of the thick short tubercles. Nectaries long and swollen, but sides tapering gradually and not suddenly bulged as in P. salicis. Opening at tip small and apparently without a flange. Entire body and legs covered with long hair. Measurements and Length of Body.—3.6 mm.; width 1.5 mm. Length of antennal segments, III, 0.75 mm.; IV, 0.51 mm:; V, 0.5 mm.; VI, 0.22 mm.; spur 0.28 mm. Total length 2.65 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.4 mm. 352 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Alate viviparous female: Body large, broadly ovate,antenne reaching the center of the abdomen. Antenne rather slender and with the third segment bearing from 17 to 25 round sensoria along the inner side. Wings normal, veins clear. Abdomen probably with dentate tubercles on sides, but not visable on specimens at hand. Nectaries of shape indicated in drawings. Measurements: Length of body, 3.28 mm.; width across abdomen, 1.5 mm. Length of antennal segments, III, 0.79 mm.:1V,0.51 mm::;V, 0.62 mm.; VI, 0.26 mm.; spur, 0:43 mm: Length of nectaries, 0.4 mm. Length of wing, 4.64 mm. Pterocomma bicolor (Oestlund). Synonomy: Melanoxanthus bicolor (Oestlund). Melanoxanthus bicolor (Oest.) Weed. Melanoxanthus saiicis (Linn.) Weed. Melanoxanthus salicis (Linn) Packard. Melanoxanthus salicis (Linn) Osborn. Melanoxanthus salicis (Linn) Weed. Melanoxanthus salicis (Linn) Cowen. Melanoxantherium salicis (Linn) Gillette. UU ew eu In America there are two types of nectaries among the ‘specimens designated as Melanoxantherium salicis Linn. One of these, as indicated in the accompanying drawings, the writer considers to be the one above indicated. For lack of proper evidence in rearing specimens the writer also considers the other type indicated as being a form of this species. However, later investigations may show the two to be from separate species. Certainly it is not Aphis salicis of Linn. for the writer has nineteen specimens of this group from France and Russia labeled Melanoxanthus salicis Linn. and the nectaries are quite distinct from any found on specimens collected in this country. It would seem then that the species Pterocomma salicis Linn. does not occur in America and the one or more species so determined are something else. Alate viviparous female: General color, brownish, tinged with yellow. Antenne with first two segments and the distal portions of 3 and 4, opaque, bases of third and fourth lighter with a yellowish tinge, fifth and sixth segments black. Head and thorax shining dark brown. Abdomen reddish brown with the dorsal lobes with dusky patches and a light brown median line on the dorsum. Legs yellow at the base of each part and dusky towards the ends, tarsi black. Nectaries 1915] The Aphid Tribe Pterocommini 353 yellow with tips slightly dusky. Cauda black, entire body quite hairy and lightly covered with white powdery wax. Antenne with from 20 to 25 round sensoria along the inner edge. The prothorax bears a single pair of dentate tubercles placed one on each side. Similar tubercles are also found on each segment of the abdomen. Wings with normal venation, nectaries about twice the length of the tarsi and swollen towards the ends. Just back of the flanged tip they are strongly con- stricted. Cauda broadly angular. Measurements: Length of body 4.1 mm.; width 2.3 mm. Length of Antennal segments, III, 0.6 mm.; IV, 0.36.mm.; V, 0.85 mm.; sixth and spur, 0.6 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.59 mm.; Cauda, 0.84 mm. Wing expanse, 9.89 mm. A pterous viviparous females: General color reddish brown, antenne colored as in the alate form. Head chocolate brown and thoracic lobes slightly lighter, but darker than the abdomen. Abdomen with a series of dark spots or splotches on the dorsum and separated in the middle by a lhght brown median line. Similar spots may be found on the sides of the abdominal segments. A row of dentate tubercles occurs along side of the body, each abdominal segment and the prothorax having one on a side. Antenne yellowish brown at the base and shading to black at the tip. Legs yellowish brown with the tips of the tibia and femora dusky. Tarsi black. Nectaries yellowish brown, slightly dusky at the tip. Cauda dusky brown and broadly angled. Measurements: Length of body 3-7; width across abdomen, Pomme, wensta “or seantennal.seements. LLM, 0:61. mm-; LVS 028 ormin.; Ve. 0:34 mn Vii 0.9 sm. ; spur,.0:28.. Total length, 1.88 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.428 mm. Pterocomma populea Kalt. Synonomy: Aphis populea Kaltenback. Cladobius populeus (Kalt) Koch. A phioides (Cladiobus) populeus Pass. Pterocomma pilosa Buckton. Cladobius populeus (Kalt.) Lichtenstein. Cladobius populeus (Kalt.) Mordwilke 1-2-3. Cladobius populeus (Kalt.) Del geurcio. Cladobius populeus (Kalt.) Pergande. Cladobius beulahensis Cockerell. Cladobius populeus Henrich. Cladobtus rufulus Davidson. Pterocomma pilosa (Buckton) Wilson. Melanoxantherium rufulus (Davidson) Essig. 354 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Alate viviparous female: General color brown, but appearing grayish brown because of a covering of white waxy powder. Head brownish black, antenne dusky to dark with the bases of the first to fourth segments opaque yellow or white. They extend to the base of the abdomen. Eyes red and rather prominent. Thorax shining amber to brownish black; wings normal; legs opaque brown. Prothorax with a single dentate tubercle on each side. Abdomen amber colored, grayish green below and dark brown above. Usually with a series of transverse bars on the dorsum broken down the center by a transverse white line. Also a series of black spots, one to each segment along the side and witha short stout tubercle in the center of each spot. Nectaries light opaque brown, dusky at the tip. Cauda yellowish-brown at base, dusky at tip. Body stout, abdomen broadly ovate. Antenne reaching to base of abdo- men, third segment along the outer edge. Wings normal with the median vein twice forked. Nectaries about as long as the tarsi and rather slender but swollen towards the tip. They are constricted just back of the tip, which is broadly flanged. Cauda short and angular. Entire body thickly set with black hairs. Measurements: Length of body 3.7 mm.; length of antennal segments ITI, 0.65 mm:; IV, 0.4 mm.; V,.0.4 mm.: Vicand spur, 0.6 mm. Total length 2.15 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.39 mm.; length of cauda, 0.4 mm. Wing expanse, 9. mm. A pterous viviparous female: General color reddish-brown, but appearing more or less gray on account of the white waxy powder which covers the entire body, body oval, tapering towards the ends. Entire body covered with hairs. Above, the abdomen has a narrow white median line along the dorsum and a series of narrow transverse white lines which separate the segments. Along each side of the abdomen may also be found a series of black spots, one to each segment and in the center of each a denate tubercle. Antenne with first two seg- ments dusky or black; third segment opaque with a tinge of light brown, remaining segments shading from dusky to black toward the tip. Third segment without sensoria, fifth with one large near the distal end and sixth with one large and a series of small sensbria at the base of the spur. Legs with coxe and base of femora light yellow, tibie and tarsi dark 1915] The Aphid Tribe Pterocommini 39D brown to black. Nectaries shorter than in the alate form and individuals taken at certain times of year with apparently cylindrical nectaries. The normal shape, however, is slightly swollen as seen in the illustration. Cauda short and broadly angular. Measurements: Length of body, 3.3 mm.; width of abdo- men, 1. mm. Length of antennal segments, III, 0.53 mm.; iVeiao tim. V. Oso - mma Wils owith-spur, J0.53 mm: otal length, 1.92 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.34 mm. The oviparous females resemble the Apterous viviparous forms so closely, except that they are larger that a separate description is not necessary. The males resemble the alate viviparous forms closely, but are much smaller. These two forms are quite common on the twigs and leaves of poplar along the streams of the Pacific Coast during October and November. The eggs which are deposited about the base of the buds are green at first, later turning to a shining black. They are elongate oval in shape and measure about 1 mm. in length. Aphis salicis Harris. Aphis salicis Harris (Walsh). Melanoxanthus salicis (Harris) Oestlund. Melanoxanthus salicts (Harris) Weed. Cladobius salicis (Harris) Davidson. Cladobius salicis (Harris) Essig. Lachnus salicicola Uhler, Thomas, Packard, Osborne. The writer believes that on account of the short description given by Harris that this species is not valid and that the notes and records in most cases refer to Pterocomma smithie Monell. In the third edition of Harris’ ‘‘Insects of Mass.”’ Uhler proposes to use Lachnus salicicola for Aphis salictt and from that date a number of writers have used that name. Pterocomma smithiz Monnell. Synonomy: ? Aphis salictt Harris. Chaithoporus smithie Monell. Chaitophorus smithie (Monell) Thomas. Melanoxanthus smithie (Monell) Weed. Melanoxantherium smitiie (Monell) Gillette. Melanoxantherium smithie (Monell) Davis. This is undoubtedly the same species as Aphis salicts Harris, but his description 1s too meager to determine the species 356 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, with any degree of certainty and notes and records made under this name and under that of Lachnus solicicola Uhler could not have been based upon definite knowledge of the species in question. On the other hand, smithie is a definitely determined and well known species, the validity of which is unquestionable. It is commonly found on willow and poplar in Canada, Mexico and the United States. It has also been recorded from Maple by Weed, and I have specimens in my collection from privet hedge, Santa Crux, Mexico, by F. C. Bishop. A pterous viviparous female: General color black and brown- ish-yellow, but all specimens have a bluish-black appearance because of the whitish powder found covering the body. Antenne dusky at base, third and lower half of fourth segments yellow; remaining proportions dusky to black. Legs with coxee femora and basal two-thirds of tibia brown, outer portion of tibiz and tarsi black. Nectaries yellow. Antennz shorter than in other species of the group and more nearly like those of the Lachnine. Apparently without sensoria on the third segment. Abdomen with a row of broad short tubercles along each side. Nectaries short, swollen in the middle and contracted at both ends. Opening widely flanged. Cauda short and broadly rounded. Measurements: Length of body, 2.8 mm.; width, 1-5 mm.; length of antennal segments, III, 0.5 mm.; IV, 0.28 mm; V, 0.26 mm.; VI, 0.14 mm.; spur, 0.18 mm. Total length, 1.5 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.26 mm. Alate viviparous female: General color black and brownish- yellow, but appearing bluish on account of the white waxy covering found over the entire body. Antennze with two basal segments dusky-black. Third segment yellowish at base and dusky toward tip, remaining segments dusky to black. Legs with coxe, femora and basal half of tibiae yellow; remaining portion or tibia and tarsi black. Wing venation normal, veins slightly darkened. Nectaries yellow, tinged with brown. Cauda black. Antenne extending slightly beyond the third pair of legs, and third segment bearing from 19 to 26 circular sensoria irregularly placed along the inner side. Thorax and abdomen with a row of thick short tubercles along each side. Nectaries short, swollen in the middle and strongly 1915] The Aphid Tribe Pterocommint SHDN constricted at both ends. Opening at tip large and widely flanged. Cauda short and broadly rounded. Measurements: Length of body, 3 mm.; width, 1.2 mm. Length of antennal segment, III, 0.44 mm.; IV, 0.26 mm.; W027 anm.; Vi, 0.14 mm:; spur, 0:14>mm..- Total length of antenne, 1.42 mm. Length of nectaries, 0.8 mm. Length of wing, 4.7 mm. Cladobius lanthanie (Pass) Koch (Henrich). Henrich lsts Aphis lantane Koch under the above name and refers it to Passerini. The writer has never seen this species, but from the description given by Koch and his figures I am of the opinion that 1t does not belong here. He also records a species under the name of Cladobius ? salicis (m) from trauerweide (Weeping Willow). BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1879—Buckton, G. B., Mon. Brit. Aphids, II pp. 21-23 and 142-144 Fig. 1904—Cockerell, T. D. A., Canadian Ent. XXXVI, p. 263. 1895—Cowen, J. H., Col. Agr. Col. Ex. Sta. Bull. 31, p. 117. 1909—Davidson, W. M., Jour. Econ. Ent. II, p. 414. 1910—Davidson, W. M., Jour. ibid III, p. 375. 1910—Davis, J. J., Jour. Econ. Ent. III, p. 414. 1911—Davis, J. J., Univ. of Nebraska Studies, XI, No. 3, p. 7 Figs. 1773—De Geer. 1900—Del. Guercio, G., Nouve Relaz. R. Staz. Ent. Agraria. Florence, Italyeiserade No prl20: 10. 1911—Essig, E. O., Pomona Jour. Ent. III. No. 2, p. 46. 11. 1912—Essig, E. O., ibid IV, No. 3, pp. 786 and 827. 12. 1794-1803—Fabricius, J. C., several citations but not sufficient description to designate the species. 13. 1909—Gillette, C. P., Jour. Econ. Ent. II, p. 385. 14. 1910—Henrich C., Die Blattlause Aphididae Emgebund von Hermannstadt, Seer a CDN a he p. 50. 15. 1843—Kaltenback, J. H., Monographic der Pflanzenlause. 16. 1905—Kirkaldy, G. W., Canadian Ent. Vol. XX XVII. p. 415. 17. 1857—Koch, C. L., Die Pflanzenlause Aphiden p. 252. 18. 1884—Lichtenstein, J., La Flore Aphidiens. Montpelier. 19. 1879—Monell, J. T., U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. V., p. 200. 20. 1894-95—Mordwilko, A., Rab. Lab. Zool. Kab. Warsaw. Vol.? 21. 1908—Mordwilko, A., Ann. Rept. Imperial Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg. 22. 1914—Mordwilko, A., Fauna Russia and Limitrophie Countries. Zool. Mus. Acad. Imp. Sci. Petrograd. 23. 1758-89—Linnzus, C., Systeme Nature. 10th edition (Notes of small value). 24. 1886—Oestlund, O. W., Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. p. 52. 25. 1887—Oestlund, O. W., Geol.-Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 4 pp. 35-36. 26. 1892—Osborn, H., Cat. Hem. Ia. p. 129. 27. 1890—Packard, A. S., U. S. Ent. Comm. 5th Rept. p. 592. 28. 1860—Passerini, G. Gliafidi, Pomona p. 28. 29. 1863—Passerini, G. Gliafidi, Aphidide Italice, p.? 358 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, 30. 1900—Pergande, Theo., Prac. Acad. Sci. Wash. II, p. 516. 31.2 17——Reaumur, II], pl. 22, Fig. 2. 32. 1898—Rubsaamen, Bibl. Zool. XX. p.? 33. 1801—Schrank, Fauna Boica II, p. 102. 33a. 1900—Schouteden, H., Ann. Soc. Ent. Gelg. XLIV, p. 128. 34. 1906—Schouteden, H., Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. I. 35. 1879—Thomas, C., Eight Rept. State Ent. III. p. 200. 36. 1889—Weed, C. M., Psyche V, 208-209. 37. 1890—Weed, C. M., Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. Tec. Ser. I. No. 2. Fig. 38. 1891—Weed, C. M., Insect Life III, 290-292. 39. 1893—Weed, C. M., Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. XX, p. 300. 40. 1861—Walsh, B. D., Prac. Ent. Soc. Phil. I. p. 298. 41. 1891—Williams, T. A., Dept. of Ent. Univ. of Nebraska sp. Bull. 1. 42. 1911—Williams, T. A., The Aphid Neb. Univ. Studies X, No. 2, p. 34. 43. 1910—Wilson, H. F., Canadian Ent. XLII, p. 384. 44. 1915—Wilson, H. F., Proceedings Ent. Soc. British Columbia, No. 5, N.S. p. 84. THE DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE OX WARBLES, HYPODERMA LINEATA AND H. BOVIS IN THE UNITED STATES. By F. C. BisHopp, Bureau of Entomology.} Considering the importance of the ox warbles as pests of cattle, it is odd that so little is known by entomologists regarding their distribution and relative abundance. It is well known that H. lineata is widely distributed in this country, but. the fact that there are areas where this species is GLEES or entirely absent has not been recognized. That the so-called European ox warble, H. bovis, is to be found over a considerable area in the northern portion of the United States has just been determined through investigations conducted by us during the past two years. In fact, this species has not been reported to occur in the United States except in a single instance. In this case, Prof. C. W. Johnson? reared this species from larve collected at Manchester, Ver- mont, in June, 1910. In the early work of Prof. C. V. Riley,’ in which a considerable number of larvee from various parts of the country were examined, not a single specimen of H. bovis was obtained. In 1905, Prof. Aldrich‘ states that H. bovis is not positively known from North America. In 1912, Dr. S. Hadwen® announced the common occurrences of H. bovis at Agassiz, B. C., and in 1914 Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt® reported that he had seen specimens of this species from Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, thus indicating a distribution from the Atlantic to the Pacific in Canada. 1Published by permission of the Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. 2Johnson, C. W., 1910, Psyche XVII, p. 231. December. SRiley, ©. Ve, 1892; Insect Lite, TVG pp: 302-317, 12 Pigs. 2Atdrich, |). M., 1905, A Catalogue of North American Diptera. Smithsonian Miscl. Coll. XLVI, No. 1444, p. 416. 5Hadwen, S., 1912, Bull. 16, Health of Animals Branch, Canada, Dept. Agr. 20, pp. 9 pls. ®Hewitt, C. Gordon, 1914, Can. Ent., XLVI, pp. 1-2. 359 360 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF FH ypoderma lineata. It appears that this species is to be found in every State in the Union, although, as has been indicated, there is consid- erable difference in its abundance in different sections. During our inquiry into the distribution of ox warbles during the last two years, we have obtained specimens from thirty-one of the States, but there is no reason to suppose that the species is not common in all of the others. A total of about 140 lots was obtained during this investigation as a result of personal collections and specimens sent in by numerous correspondents. In general, it appears that 7. lineata is more abundant in the Southern and Central Western States than elsewhere in the country. However, the presence of the two species combined in Vermont and New Hampshire probably gives a heavier infestation there than is to be found elsewhere in the country. We have found the species to occur commonly at all alti- tudes, from sea level to 9,000 feet. As is-indicated by its wide distribution, it is also to be found in the humid, semi-arid and arid regions. Our inquiry thus far does not indicate that annual rainfall has any material effect on the abundance of the species. It is possible, however, that by closer study we shall find that the rainfall during the spring and early summer has a material effect on the local and annual abundance of the species. The north-central part of the United States, including portions of the States of Minnesota, North and South Dakota, and Montana, seems to be freer from the pest than any other region. In fact, throughout considerable portions of this region ox warbles are entirely unknown. This is particularly true of those portions of North and South Dakota and western Minnesota included in the valley of the Red River of the North. An explanation for the absence of warbles from these areas is not apparent. It has been found that the species is absent from wooded regions as well as plains areas, and there is some difference in the rainfall within the non-infested region. In South Dakota it was observed that the warbles were to be found in the hilly region along the divides between rivers. Hence, it would appear that there is some relationship between the topography of the country and the occurrence of the species in that section. Prof. H. C. Severin states that he has observed this practical absence of warbles from eastern South Dakota, 1915] Ox Warbles in the United States 361 and that a greater number occurs in the western part of the State. Dr. W. L. Boyd states that while warbles are rather common in southern Minnesota, he has never known an animal to become infested at the Experiment Station at St. Anthony Park. Dr. Boyd found 39% of two herds of dairy cattle, totaling 82 head, to be infested in the vicinity of Duluth. All of the specimens obtained from these herds proved to be H. lineata. Although this species is present in a large percentage of the live stock in the central part of the Mississippi Valley, there is some indication that it is decreasing in numbers in this region, probably owing to the more extensive cultivation of the land and better care being given to the live stock. The heaviest infestation of this species which we have observed occurred in southwestern Texas, although it does not follow that this region is in general more heavily infested than others. Probably 75% of the cattle in the United States are more or less infested. The average number of warbles per animal ranges from one up to about one hundred. Many animals even in rather heavily infested herds, are entirely free. The localities from which we have obtained specimens of this species are indicated on the accompanying map. Records made by other investigators are not included. These would add a large number of localities, including some of the States from which we have not obtained specimens. DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF [Hypoderma bovis. As is shown on the accompanying map, this warble is rather widely distributed through the northern part of this country.! The north-eastern States have by far the greastet infestation, Vermont being the center of this heavily infested region. Although a considerable number of specimens of H. lineata were obtained from Vermont and New Hampshire, undoubtedly H. bovis occurs in greater numbers. This is also true of New York, and probably of Pennsylvania. St. Louis, Mo., was the 1 The counties from which we have obtained specimens of H. bovis are as fol- lows: Alabama, Lee; Illinois, Cook; Iowa, Scott; Maine, Oxford; Maryland, Garrett; Michigan, Ingham; Montana, Fergus; Missouri, St. Louis; New Hamp- shire, Grafton, Merrimac, Rockingham; New York, Oneida, Onondaga, Ontario; Pennsylvania, Erie, Washington; Vermont, Bennington, Franklin, Orange, Orleans, Rutland, Washington, Windham, Windsor; Washington, Jan Juan. 362 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, southernmost point from which we obtained specimens of the so-called European ox warble. However, but a single grub was collected in this locality, and on account of the fact that this is a concentration center of considerable importance it may be that the infestation was recently introduced on cattle shipped from elsewhere and will not persist. The specimen taken was found on a dairy cow in a herd on the edge of the city. A well established center of infestation occurs almost as far south as ir D a oar Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of the ox warbles in the United States. The dots indicate where Hypoderma lineata has been collected in this investigation; the crosses indicate Hypoderma bovts. St. Louis, at a point in western Maryland. This locality is in the Allegheny Mountains, and the infestation appears to extend continuously northward through Pennsylvania into New York. The correspondent who collected these specimens states that he does not know that any cattle have been brought into that locality from the north for a great many years. It was thought that possibly H. bovis might be best adapted to the conditions in the northern part of the country, especially along the mountain ranges. While this theory seemed to be fairly true for the eastern part of the country, it was not borne out by 1915] Ox Warbles in the United States 363 findings in the West. As has been stated, Dr. Hadwen reported this species to occur commonly in eastern British Columbia, and one would expect this infestation to extend southward along the Rockies in the United States. However, only two lots of this species were obtained from the West. One of these from Waldron, Washington, consisted of one larva of H. bovis and five of H. lineata. This place is situated on an island in Puget Sound not far from the Canadian line. The other point of infestation was located at Garneil, Montana. Our corre- spondent there sent in two lots of warbles; the first contained one specimen of H. bovis and one of H. lineata; the second, three specimens of H. bovis and one of H. lineata. No informa- tion was secured regarding the possible mode of introduction of this species into Montana, although it 1s wellknown that pure blooded stock, particularly of the dairy types is brought in from the East. In the North Central States, three points of infestation were discovered. A well established infestation was found to occur at Davenport, Iowa. A correspondent at that point sent in three fourth-stage larve of H. bovis on April 26, 1915, and twenty larve in the same stage on May 6, 1915. No information was gained as to the possible origin of this infesta- tion. On May 7, Mr. E. W. Laake and the writer obtained twelve fourth-stage larve in the back of a cow in the stock yards at Chicago, Ill. Four of these proved to be H. bovis. The origin of the infested animal could not be learned. The single occurrence of this species in Michigan was established through the collection of six larve by Dr. Shafer at East Lansing, on April 7, 1914. Two collections of larve from cattle at Cadillac, Michigan, by Mr. James F. Zimmer, prove to be composed entirely of H. lineata. It would seem, therefore, that in the western two-thirds of the United States, H. bovis is to be found in rather restricted and well separated areas, although no doubt a thorough search would reveal a more general distribution than is now supposed to exist. In the Northeastern States this species predominates over H. lineata, both in distribution and abundance. The writer is of the opinion that the European ox warble must have some well marked climatic barriers which have prevented its general dissemination throughout the country, as cattle, many of which are no doubt infested, are shipped annu- — 364 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, ally to the Central and Southern States from New York and other States where this species commonly occurs. One expla- nation of this possible barrier will be found in the fact that H. bovis is generally later in emerging from the backs of cattle than H. lineata, The grubs emerging from the backs of cattle shipped to the Southern States would, on account of this later date of emergence, encounter excessively hot weather and this may account in part at least for the failure of the species to establish itself in the warmer portions of the country. It may be of interest to note that on April 23, 1914, Dr. W. E. Hinds sent in three specimens of this species from the experiment station at Auburn, Alabama. These were obtained from the back of a young bull which had recently been shipped from New York. ADAPTATIONS TO ARID CONDITIONS IN CERCOPID2 AND MEMBRACID-. By E. D. Bar. The frog-hoppers are distinguished from other Homoptera by the fact that the larvae envelope themselves in a mass of froth, using this no doubt as a means of protection from their enemies. Only a few species occur in the arid regions, but these are distributed through all but one of the genera occurring in the United States. The representatives of one of these genera, the Clastoptera, appear to have the same froth making habits in the arid region that they have in the humid. The larve usually occur early in the season, however, before the air has become very dry or are restricted in distribution to the higher mountains or to: exceptionally humid situations in the lower valleys. The other representatives of this group in the more arid regions apparently do not attempt to maintain froth masses exposed to the air, as none have ever been found. In a former paper* the writer showed the unique method employed by Aphrophora permutata Uhl. a western relative of the pine inhabiting species of the Appalachain region. ‘This. species was found on the roots and crowns of a Composite and a Legume, where they were protected from the sun and dry air. Since that writing the larve of A. annulata Ball has been found around the crown of Artemisia ludoviciana in Utah and the larve of Philaronia abjecta Uhl. on the roots and crowns. of Lupine and Geranium in the mountains of Colorado. The larvee of the other species of Philaronia (P. bilineata) occurring. in the mountains of Colorado has never been found, although the adults are among the commonest of the family. During several seasons collecting in California another species of Aphrophora, A. angulata Ball has been taken quite commonly in certain restricted areas along the coast. This species is closely related to the common A. binotata, common on grass and low vegetation east of the Rocky Mountains and whose spittle masses are often so abundant in the meadows as to be a nuisance. The California species was collected on *Ohio Naturalist, I, p. 122, 1901. 365 366 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, willows and in low situations where grasses occur if at all in California, but no spittle masses were ever seen, although careful search was made. Last season while collecting another rare species of Homoptera occurring in grassy places, the writer accidentally broke a leaf off from the giant Umbellifera—Heracleum lanatum and discovered that the enlarged sheath was full of froth and that nearly a dozen A phrophora larvee were hidden in the mass. Fig. 1. An Amorpha stalk with membracids on roots and stalk below the ground line. An examination of other sheathes revealed other froth masses ranging from a single larve up to over twenty in one case. The larve were of various sizes from one-third to full grown when found and a few fresh males nearby completed the identification. The weed extends across the continent from coast to coast, but this species of Aphrophora has only been taken along the California coast from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Like the other frog-hoppers, it appears to be single brooded, the larve appearing in March and April and the adults trans- forming from late April through May and living until into July and August. 1915] Adaptions to Arid Conditions 367 The Membracide are few in number in the arid regions, especially of the more strictly tree and shrub inhabiting genera contrasted with the weed and miscellaneous feeders like the Stictocephaline. This may partly be accounted for by the scarcity of trees in these regions, but probably the climatic factor is also of importance. The fact that certain forms Fig. 2. A stalk of Heracleum showing the leaf sheath. Fig. 3. Section of leaf sheath with larve of A phrophora and their froth. do not follow their respective trees into the arid region and more especially the peculiar change in habit of two eastern species mentioned below, indicate that the aridity is a limiting factor. The larve and adults of Vanduzea vestita Godg live together in colonies on the lead plant Amorpha canescens Pursh in the Mississippi Valley and are often seen congregated on the 368 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, most exposed part of the plant, and are always found on the upper parts of the plantsin that region. This plant also extends into the arid region, but in less numbers. While collecting a wingless ground inhabiting Capsid on a sunny mountain slope in Colorado, the writer found a colony of Vanduzea vestita feeding upon the stem and roots of an Amorpha beneath a stone. They were as usual attended by ants, so the excavation beneath the stone and around the stem of the plant may have been made for them by the ants or may have existed previously. At any rate, there they were in numbers, larve and adults, in the hollow beneath the rock and in a circle around the stem beneath the ground, a very few being above the ground line. Since that time a number of colonies have been found extending down into the ground for an inch or two and occa- sionally having lateral galleries. Frequently they would be found gathered around the stem for an inch above and below the ground line under clumps of Psoralia or Amorpha, where the branching clump served as a protection in itself. Campylenchia curvata Fabr and Publila modesta Uhl have both been found occupying similar situations under clumps and in excavations around stems of their food plants. All these observations were made in very dry hot situations, desert or dry mountain slopes for the most part. In damper situations, such as river bottoms, thickets, mountain valleys and especially in irrigated alfalfa fields curvata will be found on all parts of the plants. A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF ALEYRODIDZ FROM BRITISH GUIANA. A. L. QUAINTANCE and A. C. BAKER, Bureau of Entomology. We have recently received from Mr. G. E. Bodkin, Govern- ment Biologist of the Science and Agricultural Department, British Guiana, specimens of an interesting white fly, found by him March 2, 1915, on leaves of Erythrina glauca Wild., at the Rose Hall plantation, Berbice. The insect is most closely related to species of Dialeurodicus (subfam. Aleurodicine) and differs in the pupa case from these principally in the presence of reduced -compound wax pores, and in the character of the vasiform orifice. The genus appears to fall between Dialeurodicus and Aleurodicus. Genus Eudialeurodicus, n. gen. Forewing similar to that of Dialeurodicus with radius, radial sector and media retained. Vertex rounded; frons produced beyond the vertex; antenneze of seven segments. Paronychium a stout spine. ' Pupa case flat, resembling Dialeurodicus, but with one or more pairs of reduced compound wax pores. Vasiform orifice small, the lingula included and broadly rounded. Type bodkini Quaintance and Baker. Eudialeurodicus bodkini n. sp. Egg—(Plate XXVI, Fig. 16), Elongate, yellowish in color, size 0.4 x 0.11 mm. Shell without markings; stalk short, attached at one side of basal end. Pupa case—(Plate XXVI, Figs 1 and 6), On the leaf the insects are located principally along the midrib and larger veins. The case is more or less hid by the copious secretion of glassy, whitish wax, occurring in two concentric rings or bands. From the margin of case all around is produced a fringe of closely placed threads of wax which basally has the form of a solid more or less vertical ring, and which persists on the leaf after removal of case. Just within this ring is usually a circle of polygonal areas which may also be present over the entire area which had been covered by the ventral surface of the case. Another secretion originates from the submarginal area of the dorsum in the form of a band or ring of amorphous white wax. This is variable in extent and in some individuals becomes a plate covering the body, the periphery being irregular, while the more central area is concave. Leaves fre- quented by the adults show powdery white wax. 369 Bird) Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. WEE The pupa case proper is flat, yellow in color with a large dark brown area on the thorax and also on the abdominal region. These brown areas vary in extent and may become coalescent, covering practically the entire dorsal disc. Size of case about 1.66 mm., by 1.5 mm., ovate in outline, widest caudad centre. Body segments quite distinct on dorsal disc. Margin of case, (Plate X XVI, Fig. 7), is seen under high magnification to be practically entire, though appearing incised under lower power, due to the presence just within margin of a series of small, fusiform glands, and from which delicate sutures extend mesad. On caudal segment of case is a pair of reduced compound pores, (Plate XXVI, Fig. 2), each giving rise to a long slender spine homolagous apparently to the so-called ‘central process.” A single reduced pore is usually present on the third abdominal segment well to one side of the median line, either to the right or left, more usually on the right side, (Plate XXVI, Fig. 3). We have seen no instance in which both pores were present in the same individual. The variability in position of this pore and the rudimentary condition of the pores on the anal segment indicate the intermediate status of the species between Dialeurodicus in which no pores are present, and Aleurodicus in which genus these are mostly well developed. Numerous minute pores, appearing as clear white dots, are scattered over the body, some of which occur in groups, especially on the abdomen. Vasiform orifice, (Plate XX VI, Fig. 13), small, transversely elliptical in general outline, the cephalic margin being straight. The operculum about half fills the orifice, is transversely elongate, the sides rounded and caudal margin concave. The lingula is much shortened, broadly rounded about one-third as long as the orifice. On ventral surface of case the antenne and legs are distinct, each of the latter terminating in a hooked spine. (Plate X XVI, Figs. 5 and 17). Adult 9 .—Length from head to tip of abdomen about 2.5 mm. Forewing ‘about 2.5 mm., long by 1.63 mm., wide, rounded, marked with small groups of dots as shown in the figure, (Plate XXVI, Fig. 8); hind wing unmarked. Hind tibia about 0.9 mm., long, hind tarsi together 0.5 mm., in length, the basal joint being about twice the length of distal; claw usual, with spine like paronychium, (Plate XXVI, Fig.15). The general color of body is yellow with brown coloration on legs, body sutures, parts of antennal joints, etc.; the tip of mentum is dark brown or blackish. Vertex rounded and armed with a row of stout spines. Frons armed with tubercles (Fig. 14). Head not showing the cone shaped extension of the vertex present in species of Dialewrodicus. Compound eyes ‘dumb bell’? shaped, dark red or brown. Ocelli prominent. Antenne (Plate XXVI, Fig. 18) of seven segments; segment I, short, cup-shaped; II, over twice as long as I, fusiform, dusky in color. Segment III, about 0.35 mm., in length, not quite as long as the four distal joints together, slender, dusky on distal fourth armed with about fifteen sensoria. Segments IV and V subequal in length as are joints VI and VII. Segments III-VII imbricated. 1915] New.Genus and Species of Aleyrodide 3/1 Adult o&.—Essentially like female, though smaller; genital segment 0.5 mm., long; claspers, (Plate X XVI, Fig. 12), sickle like, about as long as the genital segment. Penis about half as long as claspers. From the segment cephalad of the genital segment arises a pair of long curved processes, extending caudad well beyond the end of anal segment, structures which we have not previously observed in the family, (Plate X XVI, Fig: 10). Type, No. 19592, U. S. National Museum. Described from pupae on leaves, pupae, adults, and eggs in balsam mounts, prepared by Mr. G. E. Bodkin, to whom we have pleasure in dedicating the species. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI. Fig. 1.—Pupa case; dorsal view. - 2.—Compound wax pore. 3.—Reduced compound wax pore. 4.—Clustered simple pores. 5.—Foot of pupa case. 6.—Pupa case; ventral view. 7.—Margin of pupa case. 8.—Forewing of Adult. 9.—Costal margin of forewing. 10.—Caudal portion of abdomen of male, showing appendages. 11.—Head of adult. 12.—Claspers of male. 13.—Vasiform orifice of pupa case. 14.—Tubercles on frons of adult. 15.—Foot of adult. 16.— Egg. 17.—Tip of Antenna of pupa case. 18.—Distal segments of antenna of female. VoL. VIII, PLATE XXVI. ANNALS E. S.A. A. L. Quaintance and A. C. Baker. QUANTITATIVE ENTOMOLOGY. C. W. WoopwortH. The best answer to the question, ‘‘ What is it that we con- sider worth while in Entomology,’’ is given by the record of our activities. There are innumerable descriptions of rare new species of insects. Peculiar habits or structures receive detailed consideration. Unusual inter-relationships between insects and their environment compel our attention .and interest. An insect that is noticed for the first time to attack our crops or our persons is investigated with great thoroughness. When we make textbooks we endeavor to assemble and arrange in an orderly fashion this wonderful wealth of detail. Throughout the exceptional, the unique and the unexpected are given the emphasis. . All of this is right and proper. It is in this way that all sciences have been developed, but this does not constitute the final goal nor leading method of science. Finally, the predominating question becomes not what, but how much? Finally, it is a question of values. Thus in physics we have ceased to give much prominence to the mere operation of physical laws, but must measure the results with such accuracy that this science has almost become a branch of mathematics. Likewise in chemistry the wonderful advances of the subject in later years both in theoretical and technical lines depend upon the study of reactions quantitatively. The present paper is intended as suggestions and a plea for the development of a quantitative entomology. Qualitative work must not cease nor be abated, but to it should be added the higher development of the subject which will finally come to be considered the essential portion of the science. A beginning has already been made in nearly every depart- ment of entomology towards this quantitative method of study, enough to give us some idea of the simpler lines of procedure and of the results likely to be secured. Quantitative entomology is not therefore a wholly new idea, but is a great territory, the boundaries only of which have been explored and in the depths of which we may expect to find the chief justification for our endeavors. 373 + Annals Entomological Society of America |Vol. VIII, ee) “I Entomology is now confronted with the same condition which older sciences experienced and like them must become an exact science if it is to realize its highest development. Along with the improvement in accuracy and detail there must come at the same time a simplification through the elimination of the non-significant details of each department of entomology and a clearer recognition of the distinctness of these departments. DIAGNOSTIC ENTOMOLOGY. In no place is this need more clearly shown than in what we know as Systematic Entomology, a very utilitarian depart- ment concerned in the assigning of names to insects and in providing ‘the means whereby these insects may be identified. Such an entomologist is a Diagnostician. His problems are numerous and difficult enough, requiring the specialization into very restricted groups, and is rendered more difficult by the fact that many have confused their work with two very different departments — classification and descriptive entomology. Keys have been rendered unnecessarily difficult by attempts to make them conform in arrangement to supposed phyletic sequences and pages of descriptive matter in defining a new species seldom results in making its correct identification more certain and certainly makes it much more laborious. Keys should be arranged in a manner to best facilitate identification, every other consideration should be subordinated to this end. This principle appears to be beyond controversy. How it shall be applied, that is, what form tables will finally take, is a matter that time will decide. Two plans of arrangement are presented for your considera- tion, one based on dominance and the other on historic sequence. x The latter appears to be best for the species of a genus where the commoner forms are liable to be first described and the former method for larger groups which, because of the changing views as to what they include, can be best studied according to their present rather than their historic content. Keys constructed along these lines have proven remarkably simple and workable. They are particularly good for teaching * The paper was illustrated at this point by the keys given in the author’s ‘“Pamilies of Insects,’’ and ‘‘ Insects of California.’’ 1915] Quantitative Entomology ave purposes, since they emphasize the dominant groups and their most evident characteristics. Keys can be wisely restricted to single characters wherever possible and the use of ‘“‘usually”’ or ‘‘rarely’’ in connection with a character should be rigorously excluded. Key characters should be so selected that the differentiation is most certain and evident. All differentiating characters must be definite degrees of variation. The diagnosis of a species should be limited to differentiating characters. A great deal that finds its way into the description of a new species is descriptive and not diagnostic and is worse than useless for the purpose of identification. On the other hand, very few descriptions are exhaustive enough. Every character that rightfully belongs in the diagnosis of one species of .a genus should appear in the diagnosis of every other species of that genus and each genus will have its own set of differ- entiating characters. The contention is, first, that there exists in each genus a set of definite quantitatively measurable variants which con- stitute the diagnostic resources for that genus and that all of them should be included in each specific description, but that a distinction should be made between them for use in keys, only those most evident or tangible being employed and that the key should be arranged solely for convenience in identification. DESCRIPTIVE ENTOMOLOGY. What we know as the specific descriptions of insects even in their most elaborate form are too meagre to be looked upon as fairly representing what descriptive entomology should accomplish. For a few insects the accounts of the structure that have been published are perhaps sufficiently voluminous, but only the beginning has been made in the approach to the ideal which I wish to urge as the goal for future work. Descriptive Entomology is concerned with, Ist, a study of size and form; 2nd, surface differentiation; 3rd, color and pattern and 4th, internal structure. Size and Form should be so studied as to become expressible in terms of the dynamics of growth. We must discover and measure the intensity of the determining factors. A few 376 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, categories are already well known. We have, for instance, (a) cases where there appears to be a simple difference in the size of all parts simultaneously, (b) cases where in the ontogeny of an insect certain parts gain their growth at a different period than others and the conditions affecting general size may show most prominently in these organs and (c) cases where the tendency to abnormal growth seems limited to certain organs and the adjacent parts profit or suffer through this abnormality. This list of categories will have to be enlarged and sub- divided as investigations will show necessary until we can recognize the nature of the variation in the growth of organs or portions of the body that brings about all the differences: we observe in size and form. Surface differentiations result from variations in the secretion of cuticle by the individual epithelial cells and should be expressed in terms of these activities. Often a very definite relationship between the surface modifications and the form of the parts of the body may be recognized. The most evident categories are (a) where the cells over the whole sclerite or specialized organ produce a homogeneous cuticle, (b) where an equally definite relationship exists but with bordering or concentric specializations, (c) where the structural modification has relation to general body structure rather than to individual sclerites and (d) where the modification conforms to an internal structure, particularly muscle attachments. The qualities of the surface modifications we express by a large series of Latin adjectives describing the mass effect of these cuticular differentiations. These adjectives should be redefined in terms of their ultimate structure in the individual cells and subdivided as found necessary where the same super- ficial appearance is the result of essentially different modifications. The accurate quantitative statement of surface structure will become possible as soon as progress 1s made in the more logical study of the topographic and qualitative differentiation just suggested. Color and pattern, like surface structure must be studied as the resultant from the activities of individual cells, but is not wholly a question of pigment as has already been amply shown nor wholly of epithelial activity. Our classification 1915] Quantitative Entomology SN and nomenclature of colors require an entire reorganization. They should be primarily based on the nature of the color reflecting substance rather than on the physiological effect of the light rays that are most evident to the eye. This is neces- sary before we can make any progress in a quantitative state- ment of color values. The topographic differentiations or patterns are subject to the same classification that have been indicated for the surface modifications and doubtless are often responses to the same phylogenetic or ontogenetic causes. Internal structure may be divided into two chief divisions, the larger portion of the muscular and nervous systems whose ‘specialization is definitely associated with details of the external structure and the remaining tissues associated with vegetative functions. The former should be considered in connection with the skeletal parts with which they are associated and their differ- ences in histological structure and in shape and size studied in relation to their functional requirements. When the study is carried far enough to. differentiate the various types of structure there will remain the ultimate distinctions to be made by quantitative determinations. The vegetative functions, digestion, respiration, circulation, excretion and reproduction, involve a series of structures having a more remote connection with the external environ- ment, but nevertheless, find their best basis of classification in the effect of the external world on their individual activities, and, of course, involves a full comprehension of the details of their physiology and has relatively little to do with the external topography except in its general aspects. All structures according to the conception here promulgated are classifiable into groups comparable with genera and species, the former distinguishable by differences of kind, the latter by differences of quantity. That descriptive entomology has before it the task of perfecting its nomenclature so as to be able to describe all differences of kind explicitly and accurately and then, by quantitative determinations can give exact descrip- tions of insect structure, a description which expresses the nature and character of the parts rather than their superficial appearance. 378 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, CLASSIFICATION. The classification of organic beings has to do with questions of phylogeny exclusively. No small amount of confusion has arisen from attempts to combine classifications and keys. for identification to the detriment of both. The groups recog- nized by both the Diagnostician and the Systematist should be the same, but the characters and arrangement need have nothing in common. The best diagnostic characters may have little or no phyletic significance and the phylogenetic sequence of groups may introduce confusion and difficulties in identi- fication. The problems of phylogeny are two, the derivation of groups and the coordination of groups. Derivation of groups to determine by a comparative study of the structure, substantiated wherever possible by the historic: sequence of the first appearance of the groups as shown by the geological record, the underlying principle being that the complex structure was derived by the specialization of simple structures. Two groups are supposed to have a common ancestor if they resemble each other in most of their characters. The characters by which they differ are supposed to be those historically responsible for the separation of the groups. Asa matter of fact groups are usually distinguishable by numerous characters, many of which are accidental or only incidentally coordinated with the historic basis of the segregation. The Systematist therefore, must search for the differentiating character, which may be internal or difficult of observation and very unsatisfactory for diagnosis, but the only one perhaps that gives a clue to the causes which brought about the separa- tion of the groups. Differentiating characters are perhaps always differences of kind, representing alternative possibilities in growth and either a new structure in the place of an older one, or progress in the development of a structure of which there may be two possible lines of growth. Some differentiations. involve no appreciable change in other parts of the body, while others are revolutionary. The former we conceive may frequently recur, giving us examples of parallel development. Many generic differences are clearly of this character. The more involved modifications give so many opportunities for variation that strict parallelism appears to be impossible. 1915] Quantitative Entomology 379 Thus the production of wings is a specialization least liable to have occurred more than once in the history of insects, while the suppression of wings is an often recurrent phenomenon. Again characters which are of themselves of little moment may open the way to other reorganizations of structure of highest significance. This development of complex meta- morphosis may easily have occurred more than once. The male Coccide probably have such a mode of development following the most strict definition of the process and the hypermeta- morphosis of Meloids is a further extension of practically the same kind of specialization, but the development of this mode of growth opened the way to the origin of the four largest orders. To properly estimate the relative phylogenetic significance of characters all of these considerations must be comprehended in our classification. From this point of view no character is important in itself only in its relation to the whole organiza- tion of the members of the group. Coordination of groups consists of determining which are to be considered of equal rank. This is a subject upon which there has been, and still is, two very definite tendencies. Ento- mologists are in most complete accord for instance as to the orders into which perhaps 95% of the species of insects belong and “eévertheless, the current) text. boeks vary from. 7° to 37 © orders. The same tendency is seen among systematists in every group of plants and animals. Some naturalists may have the conception that every group sprang from a single mutant pair and from the time of their mutation the new group existed. The Lepidoptera are for instance derived by common consent, from the Trich- optera, because chiefly of the almost complete conformity of the venation of certain members of the two groups, but there are at least two very different types of wings in which this perfect conformity is seen which are most easily explained by the assumption of a tendency of development seen in a series of species in one order giving rise to a series of forms in the new group in the same manner as most conceive that geographic isolation may bring about two species with parallel varieties. The variations being parallel because residual. 380 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, If this principle is accepted, as most naturalists do, the necessity of making quantitative valuations to the amount of variation separating groups is necessary. The traditional primary classification of insects is represented by the common names and was adapted by Linnaeus for his orders. In these the quality of variation is represented by the differences between bees, flies, butterflies and beetles. The practical question to be settled is whether the difference between, say an ant lion and a sialid, is'of the same order of magnitude. It would seem that those who have gone to the extreme in increasing the number of orders have either ignored or rejected this principle. After wings were produced we must conceive that there was a single order, family, genus and species, that first there occurred a multiplication of species, some of which became more, and, finally, were generically different, and last of all the difference of the most remote forms represented different orders. The differences between the Orthoptera and Neuroptera most probably represents the progressive development of a whole family, rather than a great mutation of a single species and that historically there was a period where two families representing the two orders were families of the same order. A time is reached when the differences become great enough to be of ordinal value. We must strive toward the goal where we can assign a quantitative degree of differentiation as representing family rank and another for order rank, etc. to replace our present plan of making such groups on the basis of indefinite mental impressions. DISTRIBUTION. Most collectors of insects are very careful to have the locality and date with every specimen appreciating that the geographical and seasonal distribution of insects are questions of great importance. The data accumulated in this way is of very unequal value, because in some cases the absence of record indicates the absence of the species from a locality and in other cases may indicate the rarity of the insect. The biologic significance of an insect depends on its degree of abundance. The real importance of the subject will lie in accumulating data to show the part each species plays. 1915} Quantitative Entomology 381 There are over 10,000 species of insects recorded in Cali- fornia. Of these not over 1000 are found in many collections. or known from any large numbers of localities. In none of the 9000 is there sufficient data at hand or liable to be secured to: assist in solving any of the problems of geographical distri- bution. Nor do any of them play any important part in bio- logical problems, unless it be the problem connected with the maintenance of existence by rare species. If only in the neighborhood of 10% of the insects contributed much to our knowledge of distribution it is probable that 1% includes all those whose abundance causes them to play an important part in the ecological relationships or in economics. We must devise means of expressing the dominance of species perhaps in terms of their relative frequence of individuals or relative mass and for ecological purposes it might be better expressed in terms of food consumption as related to its dis- tribution in regions, in special habitats or in seasons. The idea is that we have only touched some of the exterior details on the surface of the subject and must develop means of studying the quantitative significance of distribution in order to arrive at the real meaning of the subject. But it will not be necessary to follow this idea through all the departments of entomology to the study of Physiology, Development or Life History, adaptations and the various other departments of ecological study. One will see at once that the same need of a definition of the elements of the subjects, their subdivision and classification until we can express differences. quantitatively with quite rigorous accuracy will open the way to a new and loftier conception of our subject and in con- clusion I wish to point out some of the changes this line of development is beginning to produce in economic entomology and particularly to the portion which might be called Horti- cultural Entomology. Economic Entomology has gone through remarkable changes of viewpoint. Half a century ago the subject would have been defined as the study of injurious insects. After the remarkable series of discoveries in the seventies and eighties of our whole series of efficient insecticides, the thought of entomologists so changed that the subject might have been defined as treating of the methods of killing injurious insects. Now the emphasis 382 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, is shifting to the truer conception that economic entomology is the science treating of the methods of making money by the control of insects. The older entomologist devoted a great deal of time to life histories, parasites and predaceous insects. After really effective insecticides were discovered these so-called natural remedies were chiefly relegated to those injurious species not satisfactorily handled by real remedies and finally we are beginning to appreciate that even the knowledge of an effective way to kill an insect pest is not enough to bring it within the domains of a truly economic entomology, it 1s only those things we can do at a profit with which economic entomol- ogists are, or should be, concerned. ECONOMIC INSECTS California Praclice Text Books This changing attitude does not yet find full expression in our books and, I am convinced,:in our teaching. We are giving too much emphasis to minor matters. On the accom- panying chart are given the relative economic importance of insects in California as based on the best means we have at hand of measuring this relationship, that of the money expended in control work. We spend about a million dollars a year in this work in California, divided approximately as shown in the chart. Some items may have only a temporary status in the rank shown, such as the Citricola scale and T hrips, but in the main features this chart will probably represent the situation for years to come. Our books on economic entomology give about 5% of their attention to the nine insects that constitute 95% of the control work. 1915] Quantitative Entomology 383 This emphasizes in a striking manner the prominence we gave to the occasional and exceptional matters which will come to take more nearly their proper place when this tendency towards quantitative work has progressed further. I trust while those present may not be ready to adopt all or any of the suggestions of this paper that the underlying idea will meet with your approbation and that perhaps some may be stimulated to take what is here urged as the future progressive work along the lines in which the trend of the science must proceed. 5 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. California Summer Meeting. The first session of the Entomological Society of America convened at the University of California, Berkeley, California, in room 113, Agricultural Hall, on August 9, at 10:30 A. M. The meeting was called to order by the Temporary Secretary, who, after a few preliminary remarks, suggested, that because of the absence of the President and the two Vice Presidents, a Temporary Chairman should be first elected. Professor C. W. Woodworth of the University of California, was accordingly nominated by Professor W. M. Wheeler, seconded by Professor A. L. Melander, and duly elected. Following this the’ Tempo- rary Secretary read a number of invitations and communica- tions, after which, there being no further business, the meeting adjourned until 2:00 P. M. The second session was called to order by the Temporary Chairman and after the reading of a few announcements, proceeded with the regular program. A. L. Melander, State College of Washington—The Pro- nunciation of Insect Names. The discussion of Professor’s Melander’s paper was opened by Professor Woodworth and participated in by Dr. L. O. Howard, Mr. O. H. Swezey, Professor Melander, Mr. Killeen and Professor H. F. Wilson. A. L. Melander, State College of Washington—The Review of the American Species of Scatopside. Read by title. W. M. Wheeler, Harvard University—On the Presence and Absence of Cocoons Among Ants, the Nest Spinning Habits of the Larve and the Significance of the Black Cocoons of Certain Australian Species. A few remarks were made with regard to the paper by Dr. Wheeler, by Dr. L. O. Howard, who, on behalf of the Society, wished to compliment the author, by Mr. H. G. Champion, and by Dr. E. C. Van Dyke. 384 1915] Proceedings California Summer Meeting 385 Professor A. J. Cook, State Horticultural Commissioner of California, extended an invitation to the members to visit the State Insectary, located at Sacramento and the Quarantine Station in San Francisco. The Society then adjourned, to meet on Tuesday at 10:00 A. M., at the same place. The third session was called to order by the Temporary Chairman and the regular program resumed. E. D. Ball, Utah Agricultural College—Some Special Adaptations to Arid Conditions Exhibited by Cercopide and Membracide. This paper was discussed by the Temporary Chairman, Processor: Hie -F.. Walson: Mir: Ea P. Van Duzee. Mr. He -G: Champion and Dr. E. C. Van Dyke. H. F. Wilson, Oregon Agricultural College—The Tribe Pterocomini, Family Aphidide. Read by title: with the addition of a few remarks. J. Dewitz, Metz, Germany—Ueber die Gifte Pflanzenlause. A translation of Dr. Dewitz’s paper was presented by Professor W. M. Wheeler of Harvard University, under the title: “‘On the Poisons of Plant-Lice.’’ The reading of this paper was followed by a general discussion of the paper and of plant-lice in general by Professor H. F. Wilson, Mr. Leroy Childs, Professor A. L. Melander, Mr. Swezey, Mr..E. H. Ehrhorn, and Mr. G. A. Coleman. M. A. Yothers, State College of Washington—The Physiolog- ical Effects of Endoparasitism upon the Host Insect. Read by title. M. A. Yothers, State College of Washington—Some New Insects of Importance in the Northwest. Read by title. The Society then adjourned to meet on Wednesday, August Ath, at 2:00 P. M., at the Leland Stanford Junior University. The fourth session, preceded by a cafeteria lunch, served on the Campus, was called to order by the Temporary Chair- man, at 2:00 P. M., at the Leland Stanford Junior University and the following paper was presented: Isabel McCracken, Leland Stanford Junior University— Notes on California Cynipide with Particular Reference to the Species Diplolepis ambrosa Full. 386 Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, The paper was followed by a demonstration of material and breeding methods by Miss McCracken and discussed by the following: Professor Woodworth, Mr. Champion, Mr. Childs, Professor Lawrence Bruner, and Dr. E. C. Van Dyke. An early adjournment was made in order to allow the members to attend the meetings of other scientific societies in session. A large number of the members attended a banquet given on Wednesday evening at the Hotel Sutler, in San Francisco, by the Biological Society of America. The fifth session was called to order by the Temporary Chairman, at the University of California, in room 212, of Agricultural Hall, on Thursday, August 5th, at 10:00 A. M. and the following papers were presented: W. B. Herms, University of California—The Anopheline Mosquitoes of California, Distribution and Ecological Con- siderations. This paper was discussed by Mr. Ehrhorn, Dr. McCracken, Dr. L. O. Howard, Professor C. P. Gillette, and Professor Wie sa. Raley: James Zetek, Panama Canal Zone—The Reduction of Malaria by Reducing the Number of Malarial Mosquitoes within a House. Read by the Temporary Secretary. Discussed by Professor Herms, Professor Bruner, Dr. Howard, Mr. Ehrhorn, Professor Woodworth, Dr. F. E. Blaisdell and Mr. Swezey. F. C. Bishop, United States Bureau of Entomology—The Distribution and Abundance of the Ox Warbles (Hypoderma lineata and H. bovis) in the United States. Read by title. The Society then adjourned until 2:00 P. M. The sixth session was called to order by the Temporary Chairman and the following papers were presented: E.. P.. Van, Duzee; University of -California—Prority an Family Names and Related Matters. Discussed by Mr. H. L. Viereck and Dr. L: O. Howard. E. C. Van Dyke, University of California—The Distribution of Insects in Western North America. Discussed by Dr. L. O. Howard. 1915] Proceedings California Summer Meeting 387 C. W. Woodworth, University of California—Quantitative Entomology. Discussed by Mr. F. A. Varrelman. Dr. L. O. Howard offered a resolution of thanks to the University of California and to Dr. E. C. Van Dyke for making arrangements for the meeting, which was seconded and carried, after which there being no further business, a permanent adjournment was taken. EDWIN C. VAN DYKE, Temporary Secretary. DATES OF ISSUE FOR 1915. The following are dates of mailing for the ANNALS at the Post-office, Columbus, Ohio: No. 1—April 20, 1915. Now) aly.2, noes No. 8—October 11, 1915. J INDEX OF VOLUME VIII. A Revision of the North American Pachygasterinae with Unspined Scutellum (Diptera), 305. A Synonymic List of Japanese Chrys- opidae, with Descriptions of One New Genus and Three New Spe- cies, 117. abjecta, Philaronia, 365. Abies, 311. Abnormalities and Regeneration in Cicindela, 291. Acanthomyops, 339. Acoloithus, 134. Acordulecera, 134: Acrotoxa, 133. Aedes calopus, 237, 238. taeniorhynchus, 236, 287, 247, 253, 264, 267. aenea, Myiophasia, 82. aeneovirens, Meophorus, 339. Aenictus, 339. Aeromyrma, 339. Aeschna, 134. Aeshna interrupta nevadensis, 300. alba, Chrysopa, 120. alba, Populus, 315. albimanus, Anopheles, 221, through 267 albistylum, Berkshiria, 308. albosetosus, Deromyrma, 340. aldrichi, Johnsonomyia, 309, 313. Aldrich, J. M., article by, 79. Aleurochiton, 278. Aleurodicus, 369. Aleyrodidae from British Guiana. New Genus and Species, 369. algens, Echinomyia, 83. Allochrysa, 180, 134. alternatella, Argyresthia, 174. americanus, Eunotus, 273. Amorpha canescens, 367. Amphientomum, 133. Amphizoa, 1382. Anagrus armatus, 276. flaveolus, 276. giraulti, 276. nigriceps, 276. analis, Archytas, 83, Anasa, 135. ancylus, Aspidiotus, 70. Andrena, 134. Andropogon virginicus, 193. angulata, Aphrophora, 365. Ankylopterus, 130. annulata, Aphrophora, 365. 389 Anopheles albimanus, 221, 224, 237, 238, 240, 244, 247, 267. ludlowii, 241. malefactor, 244, 247. pseudopunctipennis, 240, 241, 247. . rosii, 241. tarsimaculata, 221, 224, 236, 241, 244, 247, 262, 264, 267, 269. Anthocharis, 132. Ants, Presence and Absence of Co- coons, etc., 328. aonidum, Chrysomphalus, 69. Aphid Tribe of Pterocommini, 547. Aphidencyrtus aphidiphagus, 283. aspidioti, 284. avenae, 283. siphonophorae, 283. webster, 283. Aphioides, 347, 348. Aphis lantanae, 357. populea, 348. salicis, 348, 355. salicti, 355. Aphrophora angulata, 365. binotata, 365. permutata, 365. Apiomerus, 135. Apochrysa, 128, 129. matsumurae, 118. minomoana, 118, 120. Applied Entomology, Ecological Foun- dation, of , 1. Araneus diadematus, 344. Araphe, 133. Archilestes californica, 297. Archytas analis, 83. Argia emma, 298, 299. vivida, 298, 299. Argyresthia alternatella, 174. Aristaphis, 348. Aristida gracilis, 190. oligantha, 190. arizonensis, Chalcawpis, 280. armatus, Anagrus, 276. Artemisia ludoviciana, 365. Arundinaria tecta, 196. arundineus, Deltocephalus, 191. Aspidiotus ancylus, 70. brittanicus, 71. forbesi, 71. hederae, 72. juglans-regiae, 254. perniciosus, 72, 283. Atalophlebia, 130. 390 Athysanus villicus, 194. Athysanus villicus, correction, 303. atlas, Attacus, 336. atra, Pachygaster, 314, 318. Attacus atlas, 336. Aulocaspis rosae, 73. australe, Diacamma, 334. Baetisca, 133. Baker, A. C., article by, 369. Banks, Nathan, article by, 125, 136. Bathriomyrmex, 325. Behavior of Anopheles Albimanus Wiede, and Tarsimaculata Goeldi, 22 Belostoma, 133. Berkshiria albistylum, 308. bicknelli, Iridomyrmex, 339. bicolor, Pterocomma, 347, 352. bilimeki, Cynipimorpha, 312, 313. bilineata, Philaronia, 365. binotata, Aphrophora, 365. bipunctata, Chrysopa, 119. Bishopp, F. C., article by, 359. Bittacomorpha, 133. Bittacus, 127. Blastothrix longipennis, 274. sericeus, 274. Blepharoceridae, 133. Blepharapus, 130. bodkini, Eudialeurodicus, 369. bombycina, Cataglyphis, 340. Bombylius, 134. Bombus, 134. Bothriothorax flaviscapus, 276. peculiaris, 276. bovis, Hypoderma, 359. Brachymyrmex, 339. Brauer on Generic Values in the Mus- coidea, 91. ; . Brenthus, 133. brittanicus, Aspidiotus, 71. Callibaetis, 130, 134. Calobata, 133. Calomyrmex purpureus, 339. splendidus, 339. Calosamia cynthia, 336. calopus, Aedes, 237, 238. Campomyrma, 331, 333, 339, 340. Camponotus, 326. senex, 331. textor, 331. Campsurus, 130. Camptonotus, 133. pennsylvanicus, 147. Camptoptera gregi, 276. pulla, 276. saintpierri, 276. Campylenchia, curvata, 368. canescens, Amorpha, 367. capitata, Gonia, 82. Index of Volume VIII Carebara, 339. carolinae, Ocyptera, 82. Cataglyphis bombycina, 340. cecropia, Platysamia, 336. Cephaloon, 132. Ceraptrocerus, 276. Ceratocombidae, 133. Ceratogastra, 133. Ceratoneura petiolata, 275. Cercopidae, Adaptations to Arid Con-- ditions, 365. Ceresini, 144. Cephalothrips yuccae, 26, 28, 36, 41, , 03s Ceratopogon, 95. Ceuthophilus, 134. Chaitophorini, 348. Chalcoponera, 339. Chalcaspis, arizonensis, 280. Chalcidoid Hymenoptera from North. and South America, 272. Chalcidoid Hymenoptera, 279. chalybaeus, Forelius, 340. Chariomyrma, 330. Cheilomenes sexmaculatus, 274. Chlorotettix vacuna, 196. vivida, 197. minima, 197. nacreosa, 196. Chordeiles virginianus minor, 237. Chrysocerca japonica, 118, 121. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 69. obscurus, 69. Chrysopidae, Japanese, 117. Chrysopa alba, 120. bipunctata, 119. cognata, 119. cognatella, 120. decorata, 119. formosa, 118. furcifera, 119. kurisakiana, 120. lezeyi, 118. matsumurae, 119. nipponensis, 119. perla, 118. perla intima, 118. sachalinensis, 119. sauteri, 119. vittata, 119. vulgaris microcephala, yamamurae, 120, 122. Chthonolasius, 339. Cicindela, 291. cinerea, Formica, 341. Cistogaster immaculata, 81. Cladobius, 347, 348. lanthaniae, 357. salicis, 357. claripennis, Euphorocera, 83. Clastoptera, 365. Coccidencyrtus ensifer, 284. Index of Volume VIII -cockerelli, Deromyrma, 340. Cocoons Among Ants, etc., 323. cognata, Chrysopa, 119. cognatella, Chrysopa, 119. communis, Juniperus, 166, 177. comta, Linnaemyia, 83. conigera, Lobopelta, 339. conigera, Odontopelta, 337. Conorhinus, 135. Constitution of Entomological Society, wait de convexa, Rhytidoponera, 336, 339. Cordulegaster dorsalis, 301. Cordulia, 134. Corizus, 134. Corixa, 134. Corynocoris, 133. Corythuca, 133. Crabro, 134. Crampton, G. C., article by, 74. Creagris, 128, 130. Crematogaster, 147, 339. lineolata, 147. cristata, Rhytidoponera, 336. Crumb, S. E., article by, 189. Cryptomeigenia theutis, 83. Cluex, 244. Culicoides, 95. Cupes, 133. Curupira, 97. curvata, Campylenchia, 358. Cryptocercus, 132. ‘Cylapus, 133. Cynipimorpha bilimeki, 312, 313. minuta, 312. cynthia, Calosamia, 336. ‘Cyrtolobus, 183. Cyrtomyrma, 330. laevior, 330. rastellata, 330. senex, 323. yorkana, 330 cyaniventre, Diacamma, 335. Dacetonii, 339. decorata, Chrysopa, 119. Decticus, 134. Deltocephalus. albidus, 189. arundineus, 191. colonus, correction, 303. compactus, 192. fraternus, 190. funabulus, 189. mendosus, 189, 190. pyrops, 191, 194. reflexus, 189. sylvestris, 193. vicilinus, 193. vinnulus, 192. visendus, 189. 591 Deromyrma albosetosus, 340. cockerelli, 340. detectus, Iridomyrmex, 339. Dewitz, J., article by, 343. Diacamma, 3338, 334, 337, 339. australe, 334, 335. cyaniventre, 335. Ttugosum, 334. scalputrum, 335. Dialeurodicus, 369. Diamphipnoa, 128. Diaspinine Pygidia, Studies in, 67. diadematus, Araneus, 344. Dichocera lyrata, 80. Dilar, 133. Dimarella, 128. Dimares, 127, 129. diminuta, Odontopelta, 337. Dinapate, 132. Dipseudopsis, 130. Diptera, Nemocera not a Natural Group of, 93. discors, Iridomyrmex, 339. Discothyrea oculata, 323. disjuncta, Microphthalma, 82. Distaxis, 132. Ditaxis, 129. Dolichoderus, 340. Dorylus, 339. ebenina, Odontopelta, 337. Echinomyia algens, 83. Eciton, 339. Echthromyrmex, 127. Eclimus, 133. Ecological Foundation of Applied En- tomology, The, 1. Elasmus mexicanus, 281. marylandicus, 281. elongata, Lobopelta, 337. Embia, 128. Empoasca rosae, 276. Enallagma clausum, 299, 300. Encyrtus inquisitor, 283. énsifer, Coccidencyrtus, 284. Entechuia, 135. Entedononecremnus, 278. unicus, 278. Entomology, Applied, 1. Quantitative, 373. Technical Terms, Standardization,74. Entylia sinuata, 146. Eriogaster lanestris, 336. Eriopeltis festucae, 274. Eriophyes quadrisetus, 165, 166. Erythrina glauca, 369. Eucorethra, 95. Eucynipimorpha, 312. minuta, 313. Eudialeurodicus bodkini, 369. Eunotus acutus, 273. Eunotus americanus, 273. Eupachygaster, 306, 313, 315. punctifer, 313, 315, 316. tarsalis, 316. Euphorocera claripennis, 83. Eusthenia, 128, 131. Eutettix ziczac, 195. Eutrichosoma, 275, 277. Euthyplocia, 130. Eutreta, 133. Euxesta, 133. Exomalopsis, 135. Fagus, 317. femoralis, Heliothrips, 25, 27, 36, 38, 45, 47, 49, 53. Feneseca, 133. flaviventris, Merisus, 282. flocculosa, Pterocomma, 347, 350. Forbes, Stephen A., article by, 1. forbesi, Asipdiotus, 71. Forelius chalybaeus, 340. Formation of the Middle Membrane in the Wings of Platyphlax Designatus Walk., 201. formicaeformis, Lyprotemyia, 313. formiciformis, Myrmobrachys, 331. Formica, 323, 340. cinerea, 341. exsectoides, 147. fusca, 323, 325, 341. gagates, 341. gelida, 341. glebaria, 341. marcida, 341. neoclara, 341. neorufibarbis, 323, 341. obscuriventris, 147. picea, 341. pilicornis, 341. sanguinea, 325. subaenescens, 341. subsericea, 323. formosa, Chrysopa, 118. fraternus, Deltocephalus, 190. fuliginosa, Gymnosoma, 81. Fulvius, 183. funabulus, Deltocephalus, 189. furcifera, Chrysopa, 118. fusca, Formica, 328, 341. gagates, Formica, 341. Ganonema, 133. gelida, Formica, 341. Generic Concepts, On Proper Generic, 85. Geniocerus juniperi, 177. marcovitchi, 170. Geographic Distribution of Neurop- teroid Insects, with an Analysis of the American Insect Fauna, 125. Geranium, 365. Index of Volume VIII Girault, A. A., article by, 272, 279. glauca, Erythrina, 369. glebaria, Formica, 341. Gonia capitata, 82. gracilis, Aristida, 190. Grossbeck, John A., Resolution on Death of, 101. Grotea, 133. Gryllus, 134. Gymnosoma fuliginosa, 81. Habrocytus rosae, 278. Habrolepis, 276. zetterstedtii, 276. Haeterinia, 134. Hagenius, 1382. Hagiomyrma semiaurata, 330. Halesidota, 133. Haploglenius, 130. hederae, Aspidiotus, 72. Heliothrips femoralis, 25, 27, 36, 38, 45, 47, 49, 53. helymus, Metachaeta, 83. Hemerobius, 134. Hemerophilidae, 133. Henicocephalus, 133. henschei, Prenolepsis, 324. Heracleum lanatum, 366. hesperidarum, Spallanzania, 83. Heteroplectron, 133. Hippiscus, 134. Homalotylus obscurus californicus, 274. hookeri, Polyrhachis, 339. Hubbardia, 132. Hymenoptera, Chalcidoid, 279. Hymenoptera, New Chalcidoid from North and South America, 272. Hypochilus, 127, 132. Hypoderma bovis, 359, 361. lineata, 359, 360. Idana, 133. immaculata, Cistogaster, 81. innumerabilis, Pulvinaria, 319. Iridomyrmex bicknelli, 339. detectus, 339. discore, 339. viridiaeneus, 339. Insects, Relationship of, 137. Interesting Western Odonata, 297. Ischalia, 133. Isometopus, 133. Ithone, 131. japonica, Chrysocerca, 118, 121. japonica, Nothochrysa, 118. Jassoidea, New Species of, 189. Johnsonomyia aldrichi, 309, 313. Juniper Berry Insects, 153. juniperi, Geniocerus, 177. juniperinus, Rhagoletis, 171. Index of Volume VIII Juniperus communis, 166, 177. scopulorum, 178. utahensis, 178. virginiana, 163, 166, 168. Kennedy, Clarence Hamilton, article by, 297. . Knab, Frederick, article by, 91, 93. kurisakiana, Chrysopa, 120. Labena, 133. Lachnini, 348. Lachnocrepis, 132. Lachnus salicicola, 355, 356. laevior, Cyrtomyrma, 330. lanatum, Heracleum, 366. lanestris, Eriogaster, 336. lanthaniae, Cladobius, 357. leachii, Pinus, 316. Lepidosaphes ulmi, 276. Leptanilla, 339. Leptocella, 133. Leptogenys, 333, 337, 340. Leptomyrmex, 325, 339. Leptonema, 128. Leucania unipuncta, 83. leucocephala, Metopia, 83. Leucospis, 133. lezeyi, Chrysopa, 118. lineata, Hypoderma, 359. lineaticeps, Mirzagrammosoma, 279. Linnaemyia comta, 89. Lobopelta, 333, 337. conigera, 339. elongata, 337. mutans, 337. longinodis, @cophylia, 326. longipennis, Blastothrix, 274. Lophoteles pallidipennis, 311. Lupine, 365. Lyman, Henry H., Resolution on the Death of, 100. Lymexylon, 133. Lyprotemyia, 312. formicaeformis, 313. lyrata, Dichocera, 80. Lyroda, 133. Lysmus, 130. Machomyrma, 339. Macromischa, 340. maculicornis, Neopachygaster, 316, 318. Malloch, J. R., article by, 305. marcida, Formica, 341. Marcovitch, S., article by, 163. marcovitchi, Geniocerus, 170. Marilia, 130. maritimus, Pinus, 311. Marshall, Wm. S., article by, 153, 201. marylandicus, Elasmus, 281. Mastotermes, 131. 393 matsumurae, Apochrysa, 118. matsumurae, Chrysopa, 119. Megacilissa, 135. Megalomus, 132. Melaleuca, 327. Melanoxantherium, 348, 349. salicus, 352. Melanoxanthus, 348, 349. salicus, 352. Meleoma, 133. Members of the Society, xii, 1. Membracidae, Adaptations to Arid Conditions, 365. mendosus, Deltocephalus, 189, 190. Meophorus aeneovirens, 339. Merisus, 282. flaviventris, 282. semilongifasciata, 282. meromelaena, Neopachygaster, 318. meromelaena, Pachygaster, 316. Merope tuber, 132. Messor, 340. Metachaeta helymus, 83. metallescens, Pheidole, 340. Metopia leucocephala, 83. mexicanus, Elasmus, 281. Microphthalma disjuncta, 82. Midea, 182. minima, Chlorotettix, 197. minomoana, Apochrysa, 118, 120. minuta, Cynipimorpha, 312. minuta, Eucynipimorpha, 312. minutissima, Zabrachia, 306. minutissimus, Pachygaster, 306, 318. Mirzagrammosoma, lineaticeps, 279. modesta, Publilia, 368. Monomorium, 340. Morphological Studies on the Head and Mouth-parts of the Thysanoptera, 20. Muscoidea, Generic Values, 91. mutans, Lobopelta, 337. Mydas, 133. Myiophasia aenea, 82. Myrmecia, 324, 340. tarsata, 339. Myrmecocystus, 340. Myrmobrachys, 326, 331. formiciformis, 331. Myrmocametus, 339. nacreosa, Chlorotettix, 196. Nakahara, Waro, article by, 117. Nannothemis, 133. Necrophilus, 132. Nemocera, Literature cited, 98. Nemocera not a Natural Group of Diptera, 93. Nemistrinidae, 133. Nemotelus, 307. neoclara, Formica. 341. 394 Neopachygaster, 306, 307, 314, 318. maculicornis, 315, 318. meromelaena, 318. orbitalis, 318, 320. Neoperla, 1383. Neophylax, 133. Neorufibarbis, Formica, 328, 341. Nesoleon, 130. Neuropteroid Insects, 125. nigriiaxillae, Parataneostigma, 275. nigriceps, Anagrus, 276. nipponensis, Chrysopa, 119. North American Pachygasterinae, 305. Notanitolica, 130. Nothochrysa japonica, 118. Nymphes, 1381. obscurus, Chrysomphalus, 69. obscurus californicus, Homalotylus,274. occidentis, Phorantha, 81. ‘Octogomphus specularis, 301. oculata, Discothyrea, 323. Ocyptera carolinae, 82. Odonata, Western, 297. Odontomachus, 333. Odontopelta, conigera, 337. diminuta, 337. ebenina, 337. turneri, 337. yarrabahana, 337. Ccophylla, 323, 326, 331, 333. longinodis, 326. smaragdina, 326, 328, 329. virescens, 326, 327. Oenocytes, Protoplasmic Network in the, 285. Officers of Entomological Society, v. Oliarces, 132. oligantha, Aristida, 190. Oligomyrmex, 339. olivacea, Parachrysa, 118. Omalium, 129. Oncerotrachelus, 133. Opisthopsis, 340. optatus, Phlepsius, 194. orbitalis, Neopachygaster, 318. Osmia, 134. Othnus, 133. Ox Warbles of the U. S., 359. Oxycera, 307. ; Pachygaster, 306, 307. atra, 314, 318. meromelaena, 306. minutissimus, 306, 318. pini, 311. pulcher, 314, 315, 317, 319. tarsalis, 307. Pachygasterinae, 305. pallidipennis, Lophoteles, 311. Palpares, 129, 130. Index of Volume VIII Paltostoma, 96. Paltothemis lineatipes, 302. Panorpa, 127, 130, 133. Panorpodes, 127, 132. Panzeria radicum, 82. Parachrysa olivacea, 118. Paradejeania rutilioides, 80. Paradidyma singularis, 82. Paraperla, 133. Paraplinthus, 132. Parataneostigma nigriaxillae, 275. Paratetralophidea 274. Passalus, 133. Pelargonium, 344. Pelastoneurus, 133. Pelecinus, 133. Peleteria robusta, 83. tessellata, 83. pennipes, Trichopoda, 83. Pepsis, 134. Periclystus, 130. Perissoneura, 129. perla, Chrysopa, 118. perla intima, Chrysopa, 118. permutata, Aphrophora, 365. perniciosus. Aspidiotus, 72. Peterson, Alvah, article by, 20. petiolata, Ceratoneura, 275. Pheidole, 339. metallescens, 340. Pheidoloxenus wheeleri, 273. Philaronia abjecta, 365. bilineata, 365. Phlebotomus, 1338. Phlepsius fulvidorsum, 194. optatus, 194. Phorantha occidentis, 81. Phylloicus, 130. picea, Formica, 341. pilicornis, Formica, 341. pilosa, Pterocomma, 347. pini, Pachygaster, 311. Pinus leachii, 316. maritimus, 311. sylvestris, 310, 315. Pipunculus, 134. Plagiomerus,. 280. diaspidis, 280. Plant-Lice, Poisons of, 343. Platyphylax designatus, 153, 201. Platysamia cecropia, 336. Plectrotarsus, 131. Podisma, 134. Pogonomyrmex, 340. Poisons of Plant-Lice, 348. polita, Zabrachia, 306, 309. Polybia, 135. Polypsocus, 133. Polyrhachis, 323, 326, 330, 331, 333. hookeri, 339. schencki, 339. turneri, 339. Index of Volume VIII Populus alba, 315. populea, Aphis, 348. populea, Pterocomma, 347, 352. Porotermes, 128. Prenolepis imparis, 147. henschei, 324. Pristocera, 133. Pristodactyla, 132. Proceedings Philadelphia meeting, 102. California Summer Meeting, 384. Proper Generic Concepts, 85. Protapantales, 176. Protoplasmic Network, Silkworm, 285. Protoplectron, 130. Pseudleptomastix, 272. squammulatus, 272. Pseudomorphus, 133. Pseudomyrma, 340. pseudopunctipennis, Anopheles, 240, 241, 247. Pseudotephritis, 133. Psilochorema, 128. Psychomorpha, 134. Psychopsis, 180. Psylledontus secundus, 281. Pterocomma, bicolor, 347, 352. flocculosum, 347, 350. pilosa, 347. populea, 347, 353. salicis, 347, 349, 352. smithiae, 347, 355. Pterocommini, Synopsis of the Aphid Tribe of, 347. Pteronarcys, 132. Publilia modesta, 368. ulcher, Pachygaster, 314, 315, 317. ulvinaria innumerabilis, 319. punctifer, Eupachygaster, 306. pulla, Camptoptera, 276. purpureus, Calomyrmex, 339. Pyenochila, 129. Pygidia, Studies in Diaspinine, 67. Pyrgota, 133. puri, Saturnia, 336. pyrops, Deltocephalus, 190. quadripustulata, Winthemia, 82. quadrisetus, Eriophyes, 165, 166. Quaintance, A. L., article by, 369. Quantitative Entomology, 373. radicum, Panzeria, 82. Raphidia, 130, 132. rastellata, Cyrtomyrma, 330. Relationships of Insects, Tracing, 137. Resolution on the Death of John A. Grossbeck, 101. Henry H. Lyman, 100. Wm. Saunders, 99. Resthenia, 134. 395 Results of Twenty-five Years’ Collect- ing in the Tachinidae, with Notes on Some Common Species, 79. Retinodiplosis resinicoloides, 97. Rhagovelia, 133. Rhagoletis juniperinus, 171. ribicola, 171. Rhinomacer, 132. Rhinopsis, 133. ribicola, Rhagoletis, 171. Rhytidoponera convexa, 336. convexa, var violacea, 339. cristata, 336. scabra, 336. tufiventris, 336. Robinia pseudacacia, 140, 146. robusta, Peleteria, 83. robusta, Tachina, 82. rosae, Aulocaspis, 72. rosae, Habrocytus, 278. rubriventris, Senotainia, 82. rufiventris, Rhytidoponera, 336. tugosum, Diacamma, 334. tutilioides, Paradejeania, 80. sachalinensis, Chrysopa, 119. saintpierri, Camptoptera, 276. Salda, 134. salicis, Aphis, 348, 355. salicis, Cladobius, 357. salicis, Melanoxantherium, 352. salicis, Melanoxantherus, 352. salicis, Pterocomma, 347, 349. salicti, Aphis, 356. Sandalus, 133. sanguinea, Formica, 325. Saturnia pyri, 336. Saunders, Wm., death of, 99. sauteri, Chrysopa, 119. scabra, Rhytidoponera, 336. scalputrum, Diacamma, 335. Scaphoideus sanctus, 191. schencki, Polyrhachis, 339. Schinia, 135. Schistocerca, 135. Schizopus, 132. scopulorum, Juniperus, 178. Secodella, 176. secundus, Psylledontus, 281. semiaurata, Hagiomyrma, 330. semilongifasciata, Merisus, 282. senex, Camponotus, 331. senex, Cyrtomyrma, 323. Senotainia rubriventris, 82. trilineata, 82. Shelford, Victor E., article by, 291. Sialis, 130. Sinea, 133. singularis, Paradidyma, 82. Siphonophora liriodendri, 283. Resolution on the 396 Sisyra, 129. smaragdina, @cophylla, 326. smithiae, Pterocomma, 347, 355. Solenopsis, 339. Some New Species of Jassoidea, 189. Spallanzania hesperidarum, 83. splendidus, Calomyrmex, 339. Sphyracephala, 133. squammulatus, Pseudleptomastix, 272. Stafford, E. W., article by, 67. Standardization of Technical Terms in Entomology, Suggestions for the, 74 Stenomma, 133. Stenopelmatus, 134. Stenosmylus, 128, 131. Stictocephala inermis, 148. Stictocephalinae, 367. Stigmatomma, 333. Stilopteryx, 131. Stizus, 133. Studies in Diaspine Pygidia, 67. Stylogaster, 133. subaenescens, Formica, 341. subsericea, Formica, 323. Suhpalasca, 130. Suggestions for the Standardization of Technical Terms in Entomology,74. Suggestions for Tracing Relationships of Insects, 137. sylvestris, Pinus, 310, 315. Sympetrum, 134. corruptum, 300. Synonymic List of Japanese Chryso- pidae, 117. Syrphus, 134. Systropus, 133. Tachina robusta, 82. Tachinidae, Notes on Common Spe- cies, 79. Tachopteryx, 132. taeniorhynchus, Aedes, 236. through, 267. Taneostigmine, 277. Tapinoma, 325. tarsata, Myrmeciae, 339. tarsalis, Eupachygaster, 316. tarsalis, Pachygaster, 317. tarsimaculata, Anopheles, 221, 269. Telamona, 133. tessellata, Peleteria, 83. Tetragnatha, 137. Tettix, 134. textor, Camponotus, 331. Thelia, bimaculata, History of, 140, 146, 147. Index of Volume VIII theutis, Cryptomeigenia, 83. Thysanoptera, Morphological Studies on the Head and Mouth-parts of, 20. Thyris, 133. Thrysophorus, 130. Timena, 132. Tmesiphorus, 132. Tomatares, 130. Townsend, Chas. H., article by, 85. Tranopelia, 339. trilineata, Senotainia, 82. Trichopoda pennipes, 83. Trichoscelis, 130. turneri, Odontopelta, 337. turneri, Polyrhachis, 339. Ululodes, 130. unicus, Entedononecremnus, 278. utahensis, Juniperus, 178. vacuna, Chlorotettix, 196. Vanduzea vestita, 367, 368. vestita, Vanduzea, 367. vicilinus, Deltocephalus, 193. Vickery, Robert K., article by, 285. villicus, Athysanus, 194. vinnulus, Deltocephalus, 192. virescens, (Ecophylla, 326. virginiana, Juniperus, 163, 166, 168. virginianus minor, Chordeiles, 237. viridiaeneus, Iridomyrmex, 339. visendus, Deltocephalus, 189. vittata, Chrysopa, 119. Vittiger, 317. vivida, Chlorotettix, 197. Volucella, 135. vulgaris microcephala, Chrysopa, 119. Wheeler, Wm. M.., article by, 323. wheeleri, Pheidoloxenus, 273. Wilson, H. F., article by, 347. Wings of Platyphlax Designatus, 201. Winthemia quadripustulata, 82. Woodworth, C. W., article by, 373. Wurmia, 331. yamamurae, Chrysopa, 122. yarrabahna, Odontopelta, 337. yorkana, Cyrtomyrma, 330. yuccae, Cephalothrips, 26, 28, 36, 41, 50, 53. Zabrachia, polita, 306, 309. Zagrammosoma, 279. Zelus, 135. zizac, Eutettix, 195. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. ‘Organized 1906. OFFICERS FOR 1915. President. VERNON LyMAN Ketxoce, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cakineae First Vice-President. RR ORPLUENER PROUT LATA eae Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Second Vice-President. eet CA RDRICH. ial: 9% U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Lafayette, Ind. Managing Editor Annals. HERBERT: OSBORN. 5.0 Nei. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.- Secretary-Treasurer. AGexe IDS WUACGIEEIVARW yas. 8 07 University of Illinois, Urbana, Il. Temporary Secretary Summer Meeting. BCL VAN AO WEE on Pos. University of California, Berkeley, California. ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. C. T. Brurs, Harvard University, Boston, Mass. W. A. Ritey, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. T. D. A. CocKERELL, University of Colorado, Boulder, Col. J. A. G. Reun, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Penn. A. L. MELANDER, Washington Agricultural College, Pullman, Wash. COMMITTEE ON NOMENCLATURE. E. P. Fett, State Entomologist, Albany, New York, 1915. T. D. A. CocKERELL, University of Colorado, Boulder, Col., 1916. NaTtHAN Banks, U.S. Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C., 1917. COUNCILORS FOR THE AMERICAN: ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. VERNON LYMAN KELLOGG, Stanford University, California. Puiiip P. Catvert, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Penn. EDITORIAL BOARD OF ANNALS. HERBERT Osporn, Managing Editor, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, O. J. H.:Comstocx, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1915. C. J. S. BetHuNE, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, 1915. C. W. Jounson, Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass., 1915. V. L. Kettoce, Stanford University, Calif., 1916. L. O. Howarp, Chief, Bureau of Ent., Washington, D. C., 1916. W. M. WHEELER, Harvard University, Boston, Mass., 1916. Puitip P. CAtvert, University of Penn., Philadelphia, Penn., 1917. J. W. Fotsom, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., 1917. H. C. Fatt, Pasadena, California, 1917. Vv vi Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1907. President. ove joe CEP a oiale, Mie meni tee Pror. J. H. Comstock Furst: Vicesbresident:. Sax: stk sv epee ot eee Dr. JAMES FLETCHER Second” Vice-President ) eee aes tnt eee Mr. J. CHESTER BRADLEY ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Dr. W. M. WHEELER, Dr. J. B. Smita, Rev. C. J. S. BETHUNE, Pror. HERBERT OSBORN, Mr. F. M. WesstTER, Mr. C. W. JOHNSON. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1908. Presidents. 1.8 ee aac aera ee tae Dr. Wu. M. WHEELER Hirst Vice-President... Sy. titec toed a ge Dr. J. B. Smita Second). Vice-President... 7). Ags. ee eg Rev. C. J. S. BETHUNE Secretary-Treasurer......... SUN Sagar ae Mr. J. CHESTER BRADLEY ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Prov. J. H. Comstock,..~ Dr. J. G.- Neepaam,..=.DRr. PL PSCaryEras Pror. HERBERT Osporn, Mr. F. M. WesstTeErR, Pror. V. L. KELLOGG. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1909. Presta bic ek Ae a ee ae hires ene iat a ao re Dr. HENRY SKINNER Biss, Vace-Presidenty. . en cet ota wee eee ere oaceeme Pror. HERBERT OSBORN Second--Vice-P resident a.) oes ha ee tee eee Dr. A. D. Hopxins Decretaty-i TeASUTED a4 a. ois Ma tale halo Mr. J. CHESTER BRADLEY ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Pror. J. H. Comstock, Dr. Joun B. SmirH, Dr. W. M. WHEELER, Rev. C. J.5. BETHUNE, Mr. E. A. ScHwarz, Pror. LAWRENCE BRUNER. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1910. BREST eMt ati toe Gch UAT eye Tete ey Retlnce: an e Dr. Joun B. Smite Pirshs Vices residenth. aes, <5: Ab eaveee eRe ie Dr. S. A. FORBES Second sViee=President “2G Pate Sos went mee ree Pror. V. L. KELLoGG Secretatry= [Teasuren ap: Uo enews pao erent eee Pror. C. R. Crossy ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Prof. J. H. Comstock, Mr. E. A. ScHwarz, Rev. C. J. 5S. BETHUNE, Dr. W. M. WHEELER, Prof. J. M. ALpricu, Pror. LAWRENCEBRUNER OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1911. PRESIG CINE soe ee AS ae oie Se ei aa fies Pror. HERBERT OSBORN Burst. Viee-President.chs.. Ghee ee ee Pror. LAWRENCE BRUNER Second: Vice-Presidents.. (0 2c SS ane ek Pror. A. D. MAcGILLIvRAY ~ Secretary-Treastiter ...9: iinn 222s Aes ProF. A. D. MAcGILLIVRAY ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Pror. J. H. Comstock, Rev. C. J.S. BetHunE, Dr. H. SKINNER, Dr. J. B. Sirs, Dr. W. M. WHEELER, Dr. A. D. Hopkins. 1915] Officers of the Society vii OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1912. rect eimit rier: Vik s eos eae he ae ee PrRoFr. STEPHEN A. FoRBES Westen VICE TECIC eth ed eR eed jos ate een Dr. A. D. Hopxins pecond Vice-President iy etch en a te Pror. ©: PP? Grrrerre Mangano MditorAmnals ch cake lols nse Pror. HERBERT OSBORN PCCLe tal yew peastiren seed SoA he Neca Dr. ALEx. D. MacGILLivray ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Pror. J. H. Comstock, Dr. J. B. SuitH ‘ Dr. HENRY SKINNER, Dr ESD: Batt, Dr. Puirip P. CaLvEert. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1913. President nwa cea otal ays aoc Of Rey. CHARLES J. S. BETHUNE MigstV iee=P resident So hel Sts Dr. Putte’ P. CALVERT second Vice-President. .......000. 000.402. Dr. WILLIAM S. MARSHALL Managing Editor Anmaloii tnt mse oS oc, Pror. HERBERT OSBORN DECFEtAPY ad TEAGUE 2.) ita tn Me os - -DrR. ALEX. D. MAcGILLIVRAY ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Pror. C. P: GIrteTTEe, Pror. VERNON L. Kettoce Mr. C. T. Bruges, Dr. JAMES G. NEEDHAM, Mr. NATHAN BANKS. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1914. 1 P.ip( SCG (eva et oy el Le a Dr. Puitie P. CALVERT BarStevdce-bresident \) a8 Tee eles 3 Dr. JAMES G. NEEDHAM Second Vice-President. v7. Miley Boe ik oS Dr. C. Gorpon HEwITtT iManaciae citer Annals). sic. 7so.4 aie. eel Pror, HERBERT OSBORN DECK UREASUTEI. Sky ch. ois. es he Dr. ALEX. D. MacGILLivray ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Dr.Wm. M. WHEELER, PRor. VERNON L.KEeLtocc, Mr.NAaTHAN BANKS, Dri. Ps FEt, Pror. J. M. ALDRICH. Vili Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. NAME. SECTION 1. This organization shall be known as THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. ARTICLE II. OBJECT. SECTION 1. It shall be the purpose of this society to pro- mote the science of entomology in all its branches, to secure cooperation in all measures tending to that end, and to facilitate personal intercourse between entomologists. ARTICLE III. MEMBERSHIP. SECTION 1. Classes.—The membership of this society shall consist of three classes—members, fellows, and honorary fel- lows. SECTION 2. Eligibility.—AlIl persons interested in entomol- ogy shall be eligible to membership. SECTION 3. Fellows.—Members who have made important contributions to the science of entomology may be elected fellows or honorary fellows of the society. ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS. SECTION 1. The officers of this society shall be a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, and a Treasurer; but these two last offices may be held by the same person. SECTION 2. Executive Committee.—The business of the So- ciety not otherwise provided for shall be in the hands of an Executive Committee, consisting of the officers named in Sec- tion 1, and six additional members, five of whom shall be elected from the Fellows of the Society, and the sixth shall be ex officio the Managing Editor. There shall be a meeting of the Execu- tive Committee at each Annual Meeting. Four members shall constitute a quorum and in the case of the non-attendance 1915] Constitution ix of this number at any Annual Meeting, the Society shall elect a sufficient number from among the Fellows in attendance to complete the quorum. SECTION 3. Councillors to the American Association.—The President and the preceding Past-President shall represent the Society upon the Council of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In case of the death or resignation of either or both councillors, the vacancy shall be filled by the Executive Committee. ARTICLE V. ELECTIONS. SECTION 1. Election of Members.—Nominations for mem- bership may be made by any two members, and election shall be by the Executive Committee. SECTION 2. Election of Fellows.—All nominations for fellows shall be signed by three or more fellows and each nomination shall be accompanied by the following information concerning the nominee: Name, address, occupation, branches of ento- mology engaged in, positions held involving entomological experience, entomological work done, and list of more important publications. Election shall be by ballot by the Executive Committee, a majority vote of the committee being necessary for election. SECTION 3. Election of Officers.—All officers shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting for the term of one year and shall be eligible for re-election. SECTION 4. Election of Honorary Fellows.—All nominations for Honorary Fellows shall be made in the manner prescribed for the nomination of Fellows, the nominations being presented to the Executive Committee, who shall mail the ballots to the Fellows. Election shall be by mail ballot of the Fellows of the Society, a two-thirds vote of all the Fellows being required for election. ARTICLE VI. MEETINGS. SECTION 1. An Annual Meeting shall be held in conjunction with the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and at such time and place as the officers may elect. x Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, ARTICLE VII. SECTION 1. Publication.—The official publication of the Society shall be known as the Annals of the Entomological Society of America. Each volume shall consist of four fascicles and the first fascicle of each volume shall contain the proceed- ings of the Annual Meeting. SECTION 2. Editorial Board.—The publication shall be under the charge of an Editorial Board consisting of ten members, one of whom shall be the Managing Editor. The Managing Editor and his associates shall be responsible for the selection of the material to be published. SECTION 3.’ Election of Editorial Board.—The members of the Editorial Board shall be elected by the Executive Commit- tee. Each member of this board, excepting the Managing Editor, shall serve for thee years or yntil his successor has been elected, three members retiring annually. SECTION 4. Report Managing Editor—The Managing Editor shall present a report at each Annual Meeting to the Executive Committee and the accounts of his office shall be reported upon by the Auditing Committee. ARTICLE VII AMENDMENTS. SECTION 1. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present, a copy of each amendment proposed having been pre- sented at the previous annual meeting. 1915} By-Laws ait BY-LAWS. 1. The annual dues for members and fellows shall be two dollars. This includes a subscription to the Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2. A majority of the members present at any annual meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 3. Notice of all meetings of the society shall be sent to all members at least one month in advance. 4, The Executive Committee shall provide a program for all meetings, including at the annual meeting a popular lecture and a technical entomological exhibit of materials and methods. 5. The time of the business session shall be published prior to the opening session of the annual meeting. 6. .Any member may become a life member upon payment of $50 at one time, and shall be exempt from further assess- ments. He shall receive during his life one copy of each issue of the Annals. (7. Members two years in arrears shall be dropped from the rolls by the Secretary-Treasurer after twenty days notice. 8. A member-elect shall not be in good standing until he pays his first year’s dues. In case he shall not have made such payment at the expiration of one year from the date of his election, he shall be dropped from the roll by the Secretary- Treasurer after twenty days notice. 9. The Annals of the Entomological Society of America will not be mailed to any fellow or member whose dues are in arrears. All dues are payable December Ist, and should be received not later than March Ist. Xii 1914. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1908. 1914. 1918. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1907 1908. 1907. 1907. 1908. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 19k. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1914. Annals Entomological Society of America {|Vol. VIII, MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY. HONORARY FELLOWS. BETHUNE, CHARLES JAMES STEWART, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Comstock, JOHN Henry, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. CRESSON, Ezra TOWNSEND, Hedgleigh, Swarthmore, Penn. FERNALD, CHARLES HENry, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. SCHWARZ, EUGENE AMANDUS, U.S. National Museum, Washing- ton, WO."G:- FELLOWS, ApRIcH, Pror. J. M., 238 S. Grant St., Lafayette, Ind. Batt, Pror. E. D., Director, Agr. Exper. Sta., Logan, Utah. Banks, NATHAN, East Falls Church, Va. Barn_es, Dr. Wa., 152 E. Prairie St., Decatur, Ill. BEUTENMULLER, WmM., 879 Whitlock Ave., Bronx, New York, Ney BRADLEY, Dr. J. CHESTER, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Britton, Dr. W. E., Conn. Agr. Exper. Sta., New Haven, Conn. BrueEs, C. T., Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. BRUNER, ProF. LAWRENCE, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. CaLvERT, Dr. P. P., Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Penn. CocKERELL, Pror. T. D. A., Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. EmMeERTON, J. H., 194 Clarendon St., Boston, Mass. Fatt, Pror. H. C., 191.N. Raymond Ave., Pasadena, Calif. Fert, Dr. E. P., N. Y. State Entomologist, Albany, N. Y. FERNALD, ProF. H. T., Mass. Agr. College, Amherst, Mass. Fotsom, Dr. J. W., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, III. ForsBeEs, Pror. S. A., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, II1. ; GILLETTE, Pror. C. P., Colorado Agr. College, Fort Collins, Colorado. HENSHAW, SAMUEL, 8 Fayerweather St., Cambridge, Mass. Herrick, Pror. GLENN W., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Hewitt, Dr. C. Gorpon, Dominion Entomologist, Ottawa, Can. HIneE, Pror. J. S., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Ho.ianp, Dr. W. J., Dir. Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Penn. Hopkins, Dr. A. D., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C. Howarp, Dr. L. O., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. JOHANNSEN, Pror. O. A., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Jounson, C. W., Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Boston, Mass. KeEtLtocc, Pror. V. L., Stanford University, California. MacGItiivray, Dr. A. D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, II. Martatt, C. L., 1521 Sixteenth St.; N. W., Washington, D. C. MELANDER, Pror. A. L., Washington Agr. College, Pullman, Wash. 1915] 1914. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1912. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1908. / Membership of the Society Xill Morse, A. P., Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. NEEDHAM, J. G., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. OsBorn, Pror. H., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Parrott, P. J.,.N. Y. Agr. Exper. Sta., Geneva, N.: Y. Patcu, Epiru M., Maine Agr. Exper. Sta., Orono, Maine. QUAINTANCE, A. L., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Reun, J. A. G., Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Penn. Ritey, Dr. W. A., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. SKINNER, Dr. Henry, Academy Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, Penn. SLosson, Mrs. ANNIE TRuMBULL, 83 Irving Str., New York, Van Duzer, E. P., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. WaAtkeER, Dr. E. M., University of Toronto, Toronto, Can. Wesster, F. M., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. WHEELER, Dr. W. M., Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. WicxkuHam, Pror. H. F., Iowa State University, Iowa City, Ia. Wiiiamson, E. B., Bluffton, Ind. WILLISTON, Pror. S. W., University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. MEMBERS. 1907.* AssBott, DR. JAmMEs F., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. 1907. 1914. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1910. 1913. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1911. 1912. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1913. 1909. LOOT: 1907. LOT. 1907. Assott, W. S., Bureau of Entomology, Vienna, Va. AGAR, Epwarp A., La Haut, Dominica, B. W. I. AinsLiE, C. N., Bureau of Entomology, Elk Point, S. Dak. AINSLIE, GEORGE G., U. S. Ent. Lab., Nashville, Tenn. AKERLIND, G. A., 1018 Roscoe St., Chicago, II. ALEXANDER, C. P., College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. ALLEE, Dr. W. C., University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. Azam, JOSEPH, 25 Place du Marche, Draguignan, France. BACON, GERTRUDE A., 1103 W. Oregon St., Urbana, III. BAILEY, JOHN W., 512 High St., Jackson, Miss. BAKER, ARTHUR C., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. BAKER, A. W., Ontario Agr. College, Guelph, Ontario, Can. Baker, Pror. C. F.;.College of Agriculture, Los Banos, P. I. Batpwin, C. H., State Entomologist, Indianapolis, Ind. Banks, C. S., Chief, Ent. Div., Bureau of Science, Manilla, P. I. BARBER, GEORGE W., Bureau of Entomology, Hyattsville, Md. BARBER, H. G., 12 Clay St., Roselle Park, N. J. BARBER, H.5S., U.S. Nat. Museum, Washington, D. C. BarRBER, L. S., Tallahasse, Fla. BARBER, THos. C., Audubon Park Exper. Sta., New Orleans, La. Bartow, Pror. JouNn, College of Agriculture, Kingston, R. I. Barrows, Pror. W. B., Mich. Agr. College, East Lansing, Mich. Barrows, Pror. W. M., 385 E. Oakland Ave., Columbus, Ohio. BARTHOLOMEW, Prof. C. E., 711 Fifth St., Ames, Iowa. * Charter Member. X1V 1912. 1914. 1910. 1914. 1907. 1909. 1913. 1907. - TONS: 1907. 1907. 1912. 1913: 1907, S(O ve 1914. 1914. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1912. 1913. 1907. 1907. 1912. 1908. 1912. LOL0: 1914. 1913. 1907. 1914 INEM Bile 1912. 1914. 1912. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, BartTLett, Dr. O. C., Bureau of Entomology, Box 657, Phoenix, Arizona. BAUMBERGER, J. PrERcy, Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. BECKER, GEORGE G., Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. BENSEL, G. E., 113 North F St., Oxnard, Calif. BENTLEY, Pror. G. M., State Entomologist, Knoxville, Tenn. BERGER, Pror. E. W., Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla. BETHUNE-BAKER, G. T., 19 Clarendon Road, Edgbaston, Burmingham, England. BETTEN, Dr. C., Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, IIl. BILsInc, S. W., College Station, Texas. Brrp, Henry, Rye, N. Y. Bisuop, F. C., Bureau of Entomology, Dallas, Texas. BisHop, S. C., 405 Dryden Road, Ithaca, N. Y. BLACKMAN, Prof. M. W., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. BLAISDELL, Dr: Bs. Bs, 0520 Lake, St., san Pranciseor Cali Boptne, Dr. D., Wabash College, Crawsfordville, Ind. Bovine, A. G., U.S. Nat. Museum, Washington, D. C. BoypEN, B. L., Bureau of Entomology, Oxnard, Calif. BRAUCHER, Ratpu W., Davey Institute, Kent, Ohio. Braun, Miss A. F., 2702 May St., Cincinnati, Ohio. BREHME, H. H., 74 Thirteenth Ave., Newark, N. J. BROLEMANN, HENRY W., Pau, P. O. Box 22, Basses-Pyrenes, France. ; Brooks, F. E., French Creek, W. Va. BrumfFIzE.L, D. M., State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, Ia. BRUNNER, JOSEF, Bureau of Entomology, Missoula, Mont. BuENO, J. R., de la Torre, 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. Burcess, A. F., Bureau of Entomology, Melrose Highlands, Mass. Burritt, A. C., College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis. Butter, Miss Hortense, Peterson, Iowa. CaEsAr, LAwson, Ontario Agr. College, Guelph, Ontario, Can. Caun, A. R., Biological Bldg., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. CaMERON, ALFRED E., Victoria University, Manchester, England CAMPBELL, R. E., 2302 First Ave., W. C. O., Sacramento, Calif. Campos, Pror. Francisco R., Mus. Nat. Hist., Apartodo No. 484, Guyaquil, Ecuador, S. A. . *Capp, SETH BUNKER, P. O. Box 2054, Philadelphia, Penn. Carmopy, Mary, 3055 Q. St., N. W., Washington, D. C. CARTER, Pror. CHARLES, Parson’s College, Fairfield, Iowa. Carter, Pror. Henry F., School Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England. Casry, Cor. Tuomas L., Stanleigh Court, Washington, D. C. *Life Member. 1915] 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1907. 1908. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1910. 1912. EOI 1907. 1912. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1907. £907: 1914. 1914. 1912. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1914. - 1907. 1913. 1907. 1907. 1914. Membership of the Soctety XV CHAMBERLIN, Dr. R. V., Museum Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. CHAMPION, H. G., Heatherside Horsell, Woking, England. CHAPMAN, Royat N., 2316 Pierce Ave., St. Anthony Park, St. Paul, Minn. CuasE, H. D., 41 W. Franklin St., Columbus, Ohio. Cuitps, Leroy, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. CHITTENDEN, Dr. F. H., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, DC, CurysTat, R. N., Department of Agr., Ottawa, Can. CLAUSEN, C. P., Citrus Exper. Sta., Riverside, Calif. Cocan, E. S., Department of Entomology, Ohio State Uni- versity, Columbus, Ohio. CoE, C. J., Elkins Park, Penn. CotemaN, G. A., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. Comstock, W. P., 7514 Broad St., Newark, N. J. Conrapl, Pror. A. F., Clemson College, S. C. - Cook, Pror. A. J., Capitol Bldg., State Hort. Com., Sacramento, Calif. Coox, Pror. M. T., Agr. Exper. Sta., New Brunswick, N. J. Coo.LeEy, Pror. R. A., Mont. Agr. College, Bozeman, Mont. Cotton, E. C., Elyria, Ohio. Crampton, Dr. G. C., 9 Phillips St., Amherst, Mass. Crampton, Pror. H. E., Columbia University, New York, N. Y. CrawrorpD, D. L., Pomona College, Claremont, Calif. CRAWFORD, J. C., U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, D. C. CREEL, C. W., 418 Federal Bldg., Salt Lake City, Utah. Cresson, E. T., JR., Swarthmore, Delaware County, Penn. CripDLE, N., Treesbank, Manitoba, Canada. Crossy, Pror. C. R., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Crossy, Dr. Nicuoras E., 62 W. 56th St., New York, N. Y. CrossMAN, S. S., 12 Pearl St., Melrose Highlands, Mass. Cutver, J. J., Bureau of Entomology, Melrose Highlands, Mass. Currie, R. P., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Dapp, Epwarp M., Zehlendorf bei Berlin, Duppelstrasse 19, Germany. Darckg, V. A. E., 2008 N. Third St., Harrisburg, Pa. DaucuisH, ANDREW A., 7 Keir St., Pollokshields, Glasgow, Scotland. DavEnporT, Pror. C. B., Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, NRA: Davipson, W. M., Bureau of Entomology, Walnut Creek, Calif. Davis, J. J., Bureau of Entomology, Exper. Station Bldg., Lafayette, Ind. Davis, W. T., 146 Stuyvesant Place, New Brighton, Staten Island, N. Y. Dawson, C. A., Dept. of Entom., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. XV1 1914. 1913. 1914. 1914. 1914. elgO7: 1915. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1912. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1913. 1907. 1907. 1913. 1911. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1910. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1910. 1914. 1912. 1912. 1907. 1914. 1907. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Day, GrEorGE O., Duncan, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Dean, Pror. G. A., Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. Der GrysE, REv. JosEPpH J., West Falls Church, Va. De Lone, D. M., Dept. of Entom., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Dewitz, Dr. JOHANNES, Metz, Metzerstrasse 30, Alsace-Lorain, Germany. Dickerson, E. L., 106 Prospect Str., Nutley, N. J.. Dietz, Harry F., 408 W. 28th St., Indianapolis, Ind. Dietz, Dr.. Wm. G., 21 N. Vine St., Hazleton, Penn. Doane, Pror. R. W., Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Calif. -Docnin, Dr. Patt, La Beuvriere Par le Lion d’ Angers, Maine et Loire, France. DoteENn, Pror. S. B., Agr. Exper. Sta., Reno, Nev. Dove, WatterR E., Bureau of Entomology, Dallas, Texas. Dow, R. P., 15 Broad St., New York, N. Y. Drake, C. J., Wellington, Ohio. Duckett, A. B., Bureau of Entomology, Bladenburg, Md. Duptey, JouN E., Jr., Bureau of Entomology, Vienna, Va. Dusuaw, E. H., Allen St., Pastime Bldg., State College, Penn. Easton, N. S., 458 High St., Fall River, Mass. EcKERT, JOHN, 318 W. Eighth Ave., Columbus, Ohio. EpmonstTon, W. D., Room 237, Federal Bldg., Colorado Springs, Colorado. EDWARDS, F. H., 7317 Clinton Ave., N. W., Cleveland, Ohio. Exruorn, E. M., Bureau of Entomology, Exper. Sta., Honolulu, Pe FT: Extis, W. O., Washington Agricultural College, Pullman, Wash. Ety, Pror. C. R., 320 E. Capitol St., Washington, D. C. Ensure, J. M., 5481 Catharine St., Philadelphia, Penn. ENGLEHARDT, G. P., Museum, Eastern Parkway,Brooklyn, N. Y. Erp, H. J., 925 Napier Ave., Ozone Park, Long Island, N. Y. Essic, E. O., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. ETHERIDGE, RoBperT, Curator Australian Museum, College St., Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Evans, J. D., Trenton, Ontario, Canada. EvENDEN, J. C., Bureau of Entomology, Missoula, Mont. Ewers, E. V., 140 N. Goodman St., Rochester, N. Y. EwInc, Dr. H. E., Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Fasis, A. I., Monticello, Fla. Favre, J. €., Box 502, Bloemfontein, O. F. S., Union South Africa. FavILLE, ESTHER Dorotuy, N. Emporia, Va. Freynes, Dr. A., 170 N. Orange Grove Ave., Pasadena, Calif. Ferris, G. F., Stanford University, Calif. FIELD, Pror. W. L. W., Milton Academy, Milton, Mass. 1915] Membership of the Society XVii 1910. Fink, D. E., 313 Duke St., Norfolk, Va. 1907. FisHer, W.S., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 1908. Furrnt, W. P., 1231 W. Edwards St., Springfield, Ill. 1908. *Forses, Dr. W. T. M., 28 Trowbridge Road, Worcester, Mass. 1907. FostrErR, S. W., General Chemical Co. of Calif., San Francisco, Calif. 1912. Fox, Dr. HEenry, Agr. Exper. Sta., Lafayette, Ind. 1911. Fracker, Dr. S. B., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 1907. FRANcK, GEorGE, 1185 Decatur St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1914. Frison, THEODORE, 503 W. Springfield Ave., Champaign, III. 1907. Frost, C. A:, 26 Pond St., Framingham, Mass. 1914. Frost, S. W., 201 Bryant Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. 1907 Purraway, DT Box 762; U.S! (Agr Exper’ Stat, “Honolula Aa se 1911. FuNnKHovuseErR, W. D., 415 N. Tioga St., Ithaca, N. Y. 1914. Gace, J. H., 808 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, III. 1907. Ganan, A. B., Bureau of Entomology, College Park, Md. 1914. Garrarpo, Dr. ANGEL, San Martin 839, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 1914. Garp, Gerson, Dept. of Entomology, Ithaca, N. Y. 1914. Garman, Puirip, 505 W. Green St., Urbana, II1. 1907. GaRrReEtTT, J. B., Care of E, 5. Tucker, Baton Rogue, La. 1907. GERHARD, Wm. J., Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago, Il. 1907. Grsson, ARTHUR; Department of Agriculture; Ottawa, Can. 1912. Grsson, E. H., Box 207, Charlestown, Mo. 1913. Grpson, Dr. F. M., 1106 Madison Ave., Baltimore, Md. 1907. GiFrorD, W. M., Box 207, Honolulu, T. H. 1918. Git, J. B., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. 1914. Grison, Pror, Gustave, Director Musee royal d’Hist. Natur. Belgique, 31 rue Vautier, Brussels, Belgium. 1911. ‘ GuAscow, Dr, Hucu, Agr. Exper. Sta., Geneva, N. Y. igh SGrAscow, OR. R. D.; Natural istory Bldg:, Urbana, Ill. 1914. Grenn, Murray, O., Magnolia, IIl. 1914. GorLtpi, Dr. Emor Avucust, Zieglerstrasse 36, Berne, Switzer- land. 1908. Goopwin, Wm. H., 639 Spink St., Wooster, Ohio. 1907. GornHam, Pror. F. P., Brown University, Providence, R. I. 1907. Gossarp, H. A., Agr. Exper. Sta., Wooster, Ohio. 1907.) GRAEF, E. 1, 58 Court St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1913. Grar, J. E., Bureau of Entomology, Whittier, Calif. 1907. GRAENICHER, Dr. S., 116 Harmon St., Milwaukee, Wis. 1914. Granpi, Dr. Guipo, Asst. al Laboratoria di Zoologia Portici (Napoli), Italia. 1074" Green; CHARLES T., P. O; Box'51, East Falls Church, Va. 1907. Green, F. V., Nyack, N.Y. 1914. GrrusHaw, Percy H., Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, Scotland. 1914. Grist, CHARLES J., Elgin House, Knockholt, Kent, England. *Life Member. XVill1 1912. 1913. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914, 1914. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1912. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1912. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1913. 1913. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, GRIZZELL, R. A., Bermont, Fla. Gunn, Davin, Box 1013, Pretoria, South Africa. GuTBERLET, Dr. J. E., Dept. of Zool., University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon. GuTHRIE, Pror. J. E., lowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Haser, V. R., Dept. of Ent., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Hacker, Henry, Butterfield St., Bowen Bridge Road, Bris- bane, Queensland, Australia. Hacan, H. R., Utah Agr. Exper. Sta., Logan, Utah. HALLINEN, J. E., Rolling Prairie, Ind. HAMBLETON, J. C., Galloway, Ohio. , Hayitton, C. C., 902 W. Green St., Urbana, Il. HANSEN, REv. JAMES, St. John’s University, Collegeville, Minn. HARNED, Pror. R. W., Mississippi Agr. College, Agricultural College, Miss. Hauck, C. W., Department of Entomology, Ohio State Uni- versity, Columbus, Ohio. HARRINGTON, W. H., P. O. Dept., Ottawa, Canada. Hart, CHarteEs A., Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., Urbana, Ill. HartTMAN, FannirE T., 121 Lancaster St., Albany, N. Y. HARTZELL, F>.Z., 3821) W.. Main Sti. *Fredonia Ne HasEMAN, Dr. L., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. HEADLEE, Dr. T. J., Agr. Exper. Sta., New Brunswick, N. J. HEBARD, Morcan, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Penn. HeGNeER, Pror. R. W., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. HEIDEMANN, O., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. HENSHAW, SAMUEL, 8 Fayerweather St., Cambridge, Mass. HERBERT, FRANK B., Bureau of Entomology, Placerville, Calif. Hetscuko, Pror. ALFRED, Villenstrasse 13, Teschen, Silesia, Austria. Hicu, M. M., Bureau of Entomology, Box 416, Brownsville, Texas. Hitton, Dr. W. A., Pomona College, Clairmont, Calif. Hinps, Pror. W. E., Alabama A. & M. College, Auburn, Ala. Hine, Pror. J. S., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. HopceEkiss, H. E.; Agr. Exper. Sta., Geneva, N. Y. HorrMan, W. A., 108 Catharine St., Ithaca, N. Y. Ho.tuincer, A. H., Department of Entomology, Columbia, Mo. Hottoway, T. E., Sugar Exper. Sta., Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. Hoop, C. E., Bureau of Entomology, Melrose Highlands, Mass. Hoop, J. D., Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hooker, W. A., Office Exper. Station, Washington, D. C. Hornic, H., 426 South 60th St., Philadelphia, Penn. Horton, H. A., Box 233, Turner, Oregon. Horton, J. R., 6328 Constance St., New Orleans, La. 1915] 1907. 1907. . *Howarp, Cuas. W., Agr. Exper. Sta., St. Anthony’s Park, Minn. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1909. 1907 1907. 1907. 1914. LOL: 1914. 1914. 1907. 1910. LOLT: 1912. 1913. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1913. 1913. 1907. 1914. 1912. oie 1914. 1907. 1907. Oia. 1912. 1907. 1914. Membership of the Society Kix Houser, J. S., Agr. Exper. Sta., Wooster, Ohio. Howarp, Dr. C. T., 1735 East Ave., Rochester, N. Y. Howarp, NEALE F., College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis. Howes, W. GEorGE, 482 George St., Dunedin, New Zealand. Huarp,-ReEv. V. A., 2 Port Dauphin St., Quebec, Canada. HuncGaATE, Pror. J. W., State Normal School, Cheney, Wash- ington. Hunter, Pror. S. J., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Hunter, W. D., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM S., 1910 N. 21st St., Philadelphia, Penn. IttincswortTH, Dr. J. F., College of Hawaii, Honolulu, T. H. IseLy, Dwicut, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. JAcoBSON, GeEoRG, Custodian, Zool. Mus. Acad. Sci., St. Petersburg, Russia. Jackson, Pror. C. F., New Hampshire Agricultural College, Durham, N. HL. JENNINGS, H. R., 404 Boyer Ave., Walla Walla, Washington. Josspins-Pomeroy, A. W., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, SG Jounson, A. B., 1663 Harvard Ave., Columbus, Ohio. Jounson, H. L., Box 6, Meriden, Conn. Jounson, Pror. S. A., 612 Elizabeth St., Fort Collins, Colo. Jones, F. M., 802 Washington St., Wilmington, Del. Kayser, Wa., 26 E. Auglaize St., Wapakoneta, Ohio. Kearrott, W. D., Montclair, N. J. Keen, F. P., 478 Boulevard, Ashland, Oregon. Ketter, G. J., 191 Avon Ave., Newark, N. J. KELLEY, F. J., Agricultural Exp. Station, Madison, Wisconsin. Ketty, E. O. G., U. S. Ent. Laboratory, Wellington, Kansas. KENNEDY, C. H., 549 Couper St., Paio Alto, Calif. KrpwHart, Miss C. F., 111 Ferris Place, Ithaca, N. Y. Kewry, R. J., 905 W. Illinois St., Urbana, Til. Kinca, Pror. T., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash. Kine, Harotrp H., Khartoum, Angle-Egyptian Soudan, N. Africa. Kine, J. L., 3233 Carnegie Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. Kinc, VERNON, U. S. Ent. Laboratory, Wellington, Kansas. KLAPELEK, Pror. Francis, Palackeho 20, Prague-Karlin, Bohemia, Austria. Kwaps, F., U.S. Nat. Museum, Washington, D. C. Knaus, W., 512 S. Main St., McPherson, Kansas. Kwnicut, Harry H., 45 East Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. Kostir, W. J., 129 W. 10th Ave., Columbus, Ohio. Kotinsky, JAcos, R. F. D. 3, Silver Springs, Maryland. KraussE, Dr. ANTON, Oristano, Via San Sebastiano, Sardegna, Italia. *Life Member. XX 1908. 1908. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1912; 1914. LOLZ: 1910. 1909. 1907. LOU: 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1913. 1907. 1914. 1908. 1910. 1907. 1910. 1913. 1913. 1912. 1913. 1913. 1911. 1913. 1907. 1913. 1914. 1907. 1912. 1907. Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, Kriss, H. G., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Penn. Kuuns, D. B., Territorial Div. of Entomology, Honolitu, eel. LaAKE, E. W., Bureau of Entomology, Dallas, Texas. LACEY, EL:, Kerrville, Texas. Lacat, Dr. G., 440 Bedford Ave., Richmond Hill, Long, Island, MIN LaMKEY, E. M. R., Nat. Hist. Bldg., Urbana, II. Lane, Jos. N., 1433 Fifty-ninth Ave., Cicero, II. LARAMORE, H. K., 427 State St., W. Lafayette, Ind. LARRIMER, W. H., Bureau of Entomology, Wellington, Kansas. LARSEN, Davin T., 209 E. Green St., Champaign, Il. Laturop, F. H., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Latour, Cyrit E., Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, B. W. I. LAURENT, Puittp, 31 E. Mt. Airy Ave., Philadelphia, Penn. LAWFORD, J. M., 718 N. Howard St., Baltimore, Md. Leisy, R. W., Dept: of Entomology, Raleigh, N. C. LricuH, H, §., The University, Manchester, England. LENG, C: W., 338 Murray St., New York, N: Y. LEONARD, M. D., 313 Wait Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. Lewis, A. C., 333 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. LILJEBLAD, E., 1018 Roscoe St., Chicago, Ill. LitTLeR, Frank M., 65 High St., Launceston, Tasmania; Australia. Luiovp, J. T.,*College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y: LocHHEAD, Pror. Wm., MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada. LovE, Epwarp G., 80 E. Fifty-fifth St., New York, N. Y. Lucas, Dr. T. P., Vera Papaw Hospital, New Farm, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. LUGINBILL, Puitip, Bureau of Entomology, Columbia, S. C. Lutz, Dr. F. E., American Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, N. Y. McArTEE, W. L., Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. McCann, SUE D., 224 E. High St., Lexington, Ky. McConne tt, W. R., Bureau of Entomology, Hagerstown, Md. McCrackENn, IsaBEL, Box 44, Stanford University, Calif. McDanieEL, Eucrenta Inez, Michigan Agr. College, East Lansing, Mich. McDonoucu, F. L., Bureau of Entomology, Batesburg, S. C. Macpoucatl, Pror. R. S., University, Edinburg, Scotland. McDunnoueu, Dr. J. H., 500 W. Main St., Decatur, IIl. McGLasHAN, XIMENA, Truckee, Nevada County, Calif. McGrecor, Ernest A., Bureau of Entomology, Batesburg,S. C. McInpoo, Dr. N. M., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D.C. Mattocu, J. R., Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Urbana, II. Manv, B. Pickman, 1918 Sunderland Place, Washington, D. C. Mann, W. M., Bussey Institute, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. Marcovitcu, Stmon, Univ. Farm, Univ. of Minn., St. Paul, Minn. MarSHALL, Dr. W. S., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Mason, P. W., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. Matauscu, Icnaz, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, N. Y. 1915] 1907. 1914. 1912. 1908. 1914. 1907. 1915. 1907. 1914. 1908. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1912, 1914. 1908. 1907. 1912. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1910. 1907. 1913. 1912. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1908. 1908. 1907. Membership of the Society | XXi MartHEson, Dr. R., College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. MAUvt, SARAH ELIZABETH, 14 Channing St., Washington, D. C. Metcatr, Pror. Ceti L., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Metcatr, Z. P., College of Agriculture, Raliegh, N. C. MILER, Eva Grace, 914 W. California Ave., Urbana, III. Mittrer, Mrs. E. R., 1416 E. 86th Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. MitcHELL, J. D., Victoria, Texas. Moore, Dr. R. M., 74 Fitzhugh St., Rochester, N. Y. Monteiro, Dr. A. Aucusto DE CARVALHO, Rua do Alecrim, 70, Lisbonne, Portugal. Moore, Wo., College of Agr., St. Anthony Park, Minn. Morean, A. C., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Morean, Pror. Anna H., Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. Morcan, Pror. H. A., Univ. of Tenn., Knoxville, Tenn. Morriti, Dr. A. W., Bureau of Entomology, Phoenix, Ariz. Morrison, Haro_p, 2610 Ashland Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. Mosety, Martin E., 21 Alexandra Court, Queens Gate, London, England. Mosue_r, Epna, 4015 Wright St., Champaign, III. Mosue_er, F. H., 17 E. Highland Ave., Melrose, Mass. Mote, D. C., 702 N. Bever St., Wooster, Ohio. Movutton, JOHN CONEY, Sarawak Museum, Sarawak, Via Singapore, Borneo. Murr, Freperick, H. S. P. A., Exper. Sta., Keeanmokey, Honolulu, T. H. Mvers, P. R., U.S. Nat. Mus., Woartioston: DCs Nason, Dr. Wn. A, Algonquin, I. NEILLIE, Cake 4317 E. 116th St., Cleveland, Ohio. NeEtson, Dr. J. A., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Ness, H., Shennandoah, Iowa. Newcoms, H. H., Venice, California. NeEwcome, Dr. W. W., 48 Webb Ave., Detroit, Mich. Newcomer, E. J., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. NEWELL, ANNA GRACE, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. NEWELL, Pror. W., Texas Agr. College, College Station, Texas. Nickets, I. J., Division of Entomology, Davis, Calif. NiswonceEr, H. R., 550 E. Main St., Lexington, Ky. NIveER, Roe, 916 W. Green St., Urbana, III. Noyes, Atice Ayr, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. OBERTHUR, CHARLES, 36 Faubourg de Paris, Rennes, Depart- ment d’ Ile et Vilaine, France. OxLtverR, Mary H., 186 Sixteenth Ave., Columbus, Ohio. O’NEILL, Francis H., 313 V St., N. E., Washington, D. C. O’KAngE, W. C., New Hampshire Agr. Exper. Station, Durham, N. H. OssBorn, H. T., H. S. P. A.,-Exper. Sta., Honolulu, T. H. OsBuRN, Pror. R. C., Columbia University, New York, N. Y. XXil 1907. 1913. 1912. 1912. 1912. 1907. 1907. i 1907. 1907. 1910. 1912. 1907. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1907. 1913. 1914. 1908. 1908. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1907. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1914. 1912. 1907. 1907. OL: 1909. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1907: Annals Entomological Society of America [Vol. VIII, OsxaR, E. J., 45385 Raliegh St., Denver, Colo. Pappock, F. B., Texas Agr. College, College Station, Texas. » Paine, J. H., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. ParsHLEY, N. M., Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. PartripcE, N. L., 406 East Healy St., Champaign, IIl. Paxson, O. $., Devon, Chester Co., Penn. Pazos, Dr. L. J. H., Marti 46, San Antonio de los Banos, Cuba. PETERSON, ALVAH, Nat. Hist. Bldg., Urbana, III. PETRUNKEVITCH, Dr. ALEX., Yale University, New Haven,Conn. Pettit, Pror. R. H., Mich. Agr. College, East Lansing, Mich. Puitiips, E. E., Plainfield, N. Y. Puitiips, W. J., U. S. Ent. Lab., Charlottesville, Va. Pierce, W. D., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. PIERSON, CHARLES J., 1927 Haste St., Berkeley, Calif. Priissury, J. J., 17 E. Highland Ave., Melrose Highlands, Mass. PorTER, Pror. Cartos E., P. O. Box 2974, Laboratory Entomol- ogy et Agr., Santiago, Chile. PeweEtt, P; By Chnton; Noy: PRESTON, FL, A. 123 Ashland St., Melrose Highlands, Mass. QUAYLE, PROF. H. J., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. RAMSDEN, Coy Apartado 146 Guantanamo, Cuba. Rav, P., 4982 Botanical Ave., St. Louis, Mo. REESE, C. A., Wadsworth, Ohio. ReEGAN, W. 5S., Mass. Agr. College, Amherst, Mass. ReiFF, W., 67 Hemstead Road, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. REINHARD, H. J., R. F. D..1, Amherst, Ohio. Ricu, 8. G., 489 Manhattan Ave., New York, N. Y. RicHarpson, ‘C. H. Jr., 2382. Third Ave., Highland Park, New Brunswick, N. J. RiIcHMOND, E. A., 316 Fall Creek Drive, Ithaca, N. Y. REIcKEs, H., 1336 Bristow St., Bronx, New York, N. Y. Ritry, C. F. C., 616 Maryland Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. Ris, Dr. FrepERICcK, Rheinau, Zurich, Switzerland. Rocuwoop, L. P., Room 416, Vermont Bldg., Salt Lake City, Witahe Rosen, Kurt Baron von, Neuhauserstrasse 51, Zoologische - Staatssamlung, Bavaria, Germany. ROSENFELD,, Pror. ArtTHuR H., University of Toc Tucuman, Argentina. Ross, W. A., Hort. Exper. Sta., Vineland Station, Ont., Can. RUGGLES, Pror. A. G., 1465 Raymond Ave., St. Paul, Minn. Rumsey, Pror. W. 5 LS Park sot Morgantown, W.. Vaz RUTHERFORD, ANDREW, Botanic Garden, Paradenya, Ceylon. SAFRO, V. I., Kentucky Tobacco Product Co., Louisville, Ky. SALAKSHANA, Nat Nas, Dept. of Agr., Bangkok, Siam. SALVAZA, RENE VITALIS DE, Vientiane, Laos, Indochine. SANDERS, G. E., Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. SANDERS, Pror. J. G., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 1915] 1907. LL 1907. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1910. 1914. 1908. 1907. 1907. Oil 1909. 1907. 1913. 1912. 1908. 1908. 1914. 1907. 1914. 19L1: 1914. 1914. 1907. LOt2, OI: 1907. 1914. 1907. 1910. 1907. 1913. 1912. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1913. 1907. 1914. 1909. 1910. OEY: 1907. Membership of the Society XXiil SANDERSON, Pror. E. D., Morgantown, W. Va. SANFORD, H. L., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. SASSCER, E. R., 3475 Fourteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. SATTERTHWAIT, A. F., Bureau of Entomology, W. Lafayette, Ind. SCHOENE, Wm. J., Va. Agr. Exper. Station, Blacksburg, Va. SCHRADIECK, H. E., Dept of Entomology, Ithaca, N. Y. Scott, E. W., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Scott, P. W. A., Custom House, Antung, Manchuria, China. SEVERIN, Pror. H. C., State College Agr., Brooking, S. Dak. SHAFER, Dr. G. D., Mich. Agr. College, East Lansing, Mich. SHELFORD, Dr. V. E., University of Illinois, Urbana, II. SHERMAN, JOHN D. Jr., 403 Seneca Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y. SHIDELER, Dr. Wm. H., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. SHULL, Dr. A. F., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. SINCLAIR, JAMES, Box 244, Los Angeles, Calif. SLADEN, F. W. L., Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. SmiTH, Mrs. A. W., 15 East Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. SmiTH, C. P., College Park, Maryland. SmiTH, F. H., 129 W. Ninth Ave., Columbus, Ohio. OmiTH, Rev. J. A., 121 W. Ninety-first St., New York, N. Y. SMITH, LoREN B., Virginia Truck Exper. Station, Norfolk, Va. SmituH, Dr. Lucy Wricut, Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. SMITH, RocEer C., Department of Entomology, O.:S. U., Columbus, Ohio. SMULYAN, M. T., State Crop Pest Com., Blacksburg, Va. SMyTH, E. A., Va. Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. SNYDER, W. E., R. F. D. 6, Beaver Dam, Wis. SoMES, Pror. M. P., Mountain Groove, Mo. SOULE, CAROLINE GRaAy, 187 Walnut St., Brookline, Mass. SPENCER, G. J., Ontario Agr. College, Guelph, Ont., Can. SPOONER, C. S., Box 411, Thomasville, Ga. STAFFORD, E. W., Box 432, Agr. College, Miss. STEDMAN, Pror. J. M., 660 Maryland Ave., N. E., Washington, 1D age STONER, Dayton, 93 Market St., Iowa City, Iowa. STRICKLAND, E. H:, Dept. of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. SUMMERS, Pror. H. E., Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. SuMMERS, J. N., Melrose Highlands, Mass. SWAINE, J. M., Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. SWENK, Pror. M. H., 3028 Starr St., Lincoln, Neb. TALBERT, T. J., Kansas Agr. College, Manhattan, Kansas. Tanquary, Dr. M. C., Member Crocker Land Expedition. THEOBALD, FREDERIC V., Wye Court, Wye, Kent, England. Tuomas, Pror. W. A., Clemson College, S. Carolina. Tuompeson, Wm. R., Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge Uni- versity, Cambridge, England. TIMBERLAKE, P. H., 416 Vermont Bldg., Salt Lake City, Utah. Titus, Pror. E. S. G., University of Utah, Logan, Utah. XXIV 1914, 1913. 1907. 1908. 1914. 1914. 1907. Lone 1914. 1914. 1914. 1914. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1907. 1907. 191d. 1907. 1907: 1907. 1913. 1913. rOTH. 1907. 1914. 1907. 1912. 1907. 1915. 1907. 1907. 1907. 1915. 1912. 1907. 1907. Annals Entomological Society of America {|Vol. VIII, TORGANSEN, Pror. PEpRO, Florida 524 II, Buenos Aires, Argentina. ToTuILt, J. D., 101 Quary Street, Ithaca, N. Y. Townsenp, C. H. Tyter, U. S. Nat. Museum, Washington, ve TRIGGERSON, Pror. C. J., Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man., Canada. TRAGARDH, Dr. Ivar, Asst. Exper. Station, Experimentalfattet, Sweden. TREMOLERAS, JUAN, Reconquista 410, Montevideo, Uruguay, S. Troop, Pror. JAmEs, Indiana School Agr., Lafayette, Ind. Tsou, Yinc H., Hull Botanical Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Tuxtocu, Major J. B. G., care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Charing Cross, London, England. TURATI, Contr Emito, Milan, 4 Piazza S. Alessandro, Italy. TURNER, Dr. A. JEFFERIS, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queens- land, Australia. : TURNER, CHESTER F., Bureau of Entomology, Greenwood, Miss. TuRNER, Dr. C. H., Sumner High School, St. Louis, Mo. TurRNER, W. F., Bureau of Entomology, Vienna, Va. Ursauns, T. D., U. S. Entomological Lab., Glendale, Calif. Van Dine, D. L., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. VAN Dyke, Dr. E. C., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. VARRELMAN, F. A., 1858 B Sprig St., Berkeley, Calif. VickERY, R. A., U.S. Ent. Lab., Brownsville, Texas. VrerEcK, H. L., Office Com. of Hort., Capitol Bldg., Sacramento, Galif, Von GELDERN, CHARLES, Care Dr. Charles Von Geldern, Lane Hospital, Clay & Webster Sts., San Francisco, Calif. VoruieEs, Dr. C. T., University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Wape, Orts, 66 E. Norwich Ave., Columbus, Ohio. Watts, J. E., 316 Boyd Ave., Winnipeg, Man., Canada. Watton, Dr. L. B., Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio. WarRrEN, B.C. 5S., Villa Romain, Clarens, Vaud, Switzerland. Wasusurn, Pror. F. L., Agr. Exper. Sta., St. Anthony Park, Minn. WASHINGTON, MARGARET, 4445 Perry St., Chicago, Il. Watson, F. E., Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, N. Y. Watson, J. R., Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla. WesstTer, R. L., Agr. Exper. Sta., Ames, Iowa. WEED, Pror. C. M., State Normal School, Lowell, Mass. WeEeED, Howarp Evarts, Beaverton, Oregon. Weiss, H. B., 242 Rariton Ave., Highland Park, New Bruns- wick, N. i Wetcu, Dr. P. S., Kansas Agr. College, Manhattan, Kansas. WELD, L. H.., Evanston Academy, Evanston, Ill. WELDON, G. P., Chief Dept. Com. of Hort., Sacramento, Calif. 1915] ‘1912. 1913. 1914. 1914. 1908. 1914. 1913. 1907. 1914. mOLT 1907. LOOT 1912. 1915. 1914. Membership of the Society XXV Wetts, M. M., University of Illinois, Urbana, Il. WENDELKEN, G. M., College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. WHELAN, D. B., Dept. of Entomology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Waite, Wiiti1am Henry, College Park, Md. WILDERMUTH, V. L., Bureau of Entomology, Box 235, Tempe, Arizona. Witirams, C. B., John Innes Hort. Inst., Merton, Surrey, England. ; Witttrams, F. X., Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston, Mass. WituiAMms, J. B., Biol. Bldg., Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada. WILLIAMS, R. C., JR., 4537 Pine St., Philadelphia, Penn. WILLIAMSON, WARREN, Agr. Exper. Sta., St. Anthony Park, Minn. WILuinc, Pror. T. N., 417 Clearance Ave., Saskatoon, Sas- katchewan, Canada. Witson, Pror. H. F., Oregon Agr. College, Corvallis, Oregon. Witson, R. N., Bureau of Entomology, Box 235, Tempe, Ariz. Witson, T. S., U. S. Entom. Lab., Tempe, Ariz. WILTBERGER, P. B., 1831 N. Fourth St., Columbus, Ohio. 1907. *WirRTNER, REv. M., Nicktown, Cambria Co., Penna. 1907. 1908. ADT: 1913. 1914. 1907. 1913. 1907. 1913. 1907. 1907. 1914. 1907. WoctuM, R. S., Bureau of Entomology, Whittier, Calif. Wotcort, Pror. R. H., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. WotteEy-Dop, F. H., Midnapore, Alberta, Canada. Woop, H. P., Bureau of Entomology, Box 208, Dallas, Texas. Woop, Wi111AM B., Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Woop, W. C., 51 Fifth St., New York, N. Y. Woops, W. C., College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. WorsuaM, E. L., State Entomologist, Atlanta, Ga. Yoruers, M. A., Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. Yotuers, W. W., Bureau of Entomology, Orlando, Fla. Youne, D. B., Office State Entomologist, Albany, N. Y. ZAPPE, Max P., Agr. Exper. Sta., New Haven, Conn. ZETEK, JAMES, Entomologist, Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama. *Life Member. _ NOTICE TO MEMBERS AND CONTRIBUTORS. at The Annals of the Entomological ‘Society of Ametica, ‘pub-. ea : lished by the Society quarterly, includes the Proceedings of the — Annual meetings and such papers as may be selected by the i Editorial Board. : a Papers may be submitted to: any biesinas of the Editorial te ; Board and should be as nearly as possible in the form desired as final, preferably typewritten, and illustrations must be finished _ - complete ready for reproduction. Plates must not exceed 5x7. inches unless intended to fold. In general, papers to be accepted : must be original, complete and previously unpublished and, except in connection with the proceedings, it will not be the ~ policy to publish preliminary atnouncements or notes. Authors will be allowed fifty reprints gratis aiid additional copies at cost” to the Society. The Managing’ Editor i is S provided with the most recent address of all members on record in the Secretary’s office for mailing the numbers of the Annals and hereafter members complaining of the non-receipt of numbers must present their complaint to the Secretary . within four months from the date of the mailing of the issue. After that time the numbers will be miahmale only at the regular published K rate. | Requests for Hate en atioid 3 as to membership and the annual - dues of members may be sent to: the Secretary-Treasurer, _A. D. MacGillivray, 603 Michigan Ave., Urbana, Ill. Communications relating to the ANNALS, and all. orders for’ separate copies or reprints should be addressed to. \ HERBERT OSBORN, Managing Editor, ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, — State University, Columbus, Ohio. » rs CONTENTS OF THIS NUMBER. Tate Mattoca, J. R.—A Revision of the North American © Pachygasterinz with Unspined Scutellum (Diptera) BOS Mi tye WHEELER, WittIAM Morron—On the Presence and Peay ica Absence of Cocoons Among Ants, the Nest-Spinning BF eae Habits of the Larvee and the Significance of the Black Cocoons Anong Certain Australian Species. 323 Dewitz, J.—On the Poisons of ‘Plantdice"< 620550. 343 Witson, H. F—A Synopsis of the Aphid Tribe Ptero- Bi COUnIIE es 00 OA) eee a ed ag BrsHopp, F. C.—The Dideroation and ie datas: of the Ox Warbles, Hypoderma pineate and H. Bovis Pee iy in the. United Shales OO rae Sa rea Ae ceca 359° metal BALL, E. D.—Adaptations to Arid Conditions in. ce a ‘ei ‘copide and *Membracidas. 331 Se ee coos a aa be ea ay et BC ae QUAINTANCE, A, L., and Baker, A. C.—A New. Gengs” ee and Species of Aleyrodide From British Guiana. SRO Ge ney Woopwortu, C. W.—Quantitative Entomology. ese Oh ¥ Wt pets eS. OD a 7 eee a Proceedings of the Entomological Society of America— Se eitay. California Summer Meeting..-..-. oe Te cin cate a ae ‘The regular annual subscription price for the ANNALS igi aN the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii and Mexico, $3.00; ie ‘Canada, $3.50; other countries, $4.00. Checks, drafts or Money 374% orders should be drawn payable to ANNALS ENTOMOLOGICAL = Society oF AMERICA, and addressed to HERBERT OSBORN, _ Ca State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S. Be yr a i : 4 q f ‘f a 5 a 5 eg Mite es % 0 2 G ge aoe rein bral f } ee ’ pera si they Pp ee ¥ . ee Ra eno cet a osh ee Oey 2