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Ye ‘ a ee ee en ees ee oe 2 ‘ i 4 tae pt avast + a ’ rho Peery ‘ eobeeul * apenas Lad lag oe bewer , | fon Ate oe ew Oe eee ore tee , « ree ceca at heheh Tete ee oH ‘pw ' aie. ja ay , A bad EER A betes | Vite id ee Pe CLC e eo ee ie Patenepe Dsbebg we raeg eG bse Led ‘ mA iy bag Pew ed ew ee ee a ere ee eee Prine ee er Le Re ne oe Pe ee 208 1 @ aee, 0 ae eon me oe tan i” ’ 4 sous Pega 1 ra ‘ ee ee CUM Te ET LAU ee oe Be} setenesttee tag ere ” Pett owy pia ' 4 of t bweke ee, ee er ee ee ee te Cie Eee ee a mo er i Ti eo ots co ” ee ce ee 0 A dia a ai sh ey rare DPE EO IRI wre VG dew Oe Sed Ba ee § wet fe esrb me ge Ce ee ey avy Ff ‘ ‘ ‘ P7452 ary “ Wate ta wud hae 4 wba tecer View cent hwae po we are ee ee ee “* j aia f i on mi “8 ‘ ‘ yoo ' i ‘ fed iay CMe ee : . bedi men esg + SG r+ the oh Oa PO 1 oboe Ul ‘ fae nate Weel pa soe Oe Med hee ee eek Oo ‘ IR apa" orecaine iene ye) iva on we “ time airy co ees Rasheeh eters ore ' ' ‘ beh od ee? ‘ eet ne Ee Le ~ ’ SOE eae NO ow raheem in dagaet We 4 60k aoa a toenee ged fou ee ee ke ee ee oe eee 94 ee aaa ate se! —_— ave . * fran akt atea @ S t nh ie i) Wish ae ef os 4 igs bh eas hd yi ee. Nae a Mie, bi ht ¥ Ay Hy ike | . way OP eb | hh F ra t : i af) é ; ree vt on ee us " val Cary } } a i nr r) i va ‘i a 7 ie i ae) i: f : (? h y A : hee ee \ ; lee uae Ah td iF) \ sae ie ie, Ve sn “| NING / ANNALS NEW YORK SCcADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME XVI. 1905 Editor: CHARLES LANE POOR New York Published by the Academy The New Era Printing Company Lancaster, Pa. Peas 4 he al mat Hel 4 ‘7. e TABLE OF CONTENTS OF Vou. XVI. PAGE 1.—Dublin. Louis I. The History of the Germ Cells in Pedicellina Americana (Leidy) . . 1-64 2.—Wilson J. Howard. Recent Journeys Among Localities Noted for the Discovery of Remains Pee MisOriC DEAT. Vek yf ys Oe OGK7A 3.—Martin, Daniel 8. Henry Carrington Bolton 75-81 4.Stevenson, John J. The Jurassic Coal of Sree eee seer asd We i BB Oi 5.—Jochelson, Waldemar. Essay on the Grammar of the Yukaghir Language 97-154 6.—Fishberg, Maurice. Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews 155-297 7.—Bumpus, Hermon ©. Records of Meetings . 299-3806 8.—Julien, Alexis A. The Occlusion of Igneous Rock Within Metamorphic Schists, as Illus- trated on and near Manhattan Island, New od eg ay 07S Lek RC Cans MMT hdl i MN Woe oS 9.—Osburn, Raymond ©. Adaptive Modifications of the Limb Skeleton in Aquatic Reptiles and MgC se ae B8 iter ke BBB Te =f » _ ~ v, ~ i aii ZA bit a . VOL. XVI . PARTI ANNALS x z | OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: CHARLES LANE POOR New York Published by the Academy — The New Era Printing Company Lancaster, Pa. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICERS, 1905 _ President—JameEs F. Kemp, Columbia University. Recording Secretary—HERMoN C. Bumpus, American Museum. Corresponding Secretary—RICHARD E. DopcE, Teachers College. Treasurey—CHARLES F. Cox, Grand Central Depot. Librarian—RaALreH W. Tower, American Museum. FEditor—CHARLES LANE Poor, 4 East 48th Street. SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY Chairman—ERNEST R. VON NARDROFF, 360 Tompkins Ave., Brooklyn. C. C- TROWBRIDGE, Columbia University. Secretary SECTION: OF BIOLOGY Chairman—W. M. WHEELER, American Museum. M. A. Bicetow, Teachers College. Secretary SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY Chairman—EpDMUND O. Hovey, American Museum. Secretary—A. W. GRABAU, Columbia University. SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Chairman—F¥. J. E. WoopsribGE, Columbia University. _ Secretary—R. S. Woopworth, Columbia University. SESSION OF 1905 The Academy will meet on Monday evenings at 8.15 o’clock, from October to May, in the American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West. [ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Sci., VoL. XVI, No. 1, pp. 1-64, February 8, 1905. ] De. Ill. EN eee HISTORY OF -THe GERM CELLS IN PE DICELEIN: AaRICANA (LEIDY). bouis. tT. Dwain. CONTENTS. (With Pl. I, II, III, and 2 figs. in text. ) pene YY HMM AME COL OUWe crassa cccneye sete wwetiene cusses ascgess es osseee SE SiyGioe gt eg ERM SMU) tn a. The Character of Testis and Extrusion of Spermatozoa..... ...........00.. See ien sovierall Generations Of SpErMatOGONIa........ <.ceccccseceni ova coanseeronss e Dne Last Spermatogonial Division and Symapsis..............scc0cesescssess peaeiae Hongitudinal Split in Chromosomes. ::.......2.06+.0cveeseeseeceeseeee cane ues eeesrmmrtion ot Parallel Rods. i200 5. jon esis cccen sence cece vee vceeceececans I IIA ipa ick teers ez GA's weirs s'e Son asin sine c'c nines eoeeesaneess & h Pentre PME POI ON PGMUN ewan cee nace ra acetenre+cesea venntacanviodsccbaccnacess eR ig a Mee ore a. a easton hes eked n yaoi d oncdes Wasgeenies ces secesenss ee MOTT Ch WMG ink eee ine aban om osc hin aiennlanniasnensneeserecencuces 6,. The Generations of OGgomia................c.seseeceseeesceeeeececns serene eeeens SOE TAD SAS. 8 cra. at ts tee eee aerate Ee cided ater on'v aieeineae nities deserts eusiees seceas ces ad. Growth-period of Gio: and Longitudinal Splitting............... weeoumation of Parallel Rods and Concentration... 2.0 ccwsceesseccesesseceeees Oe IER Bug cot Ca a ere Se ee Weehermiization and Cleavage. .......2...c.scaecencesenves oe SRC cee ET REM oico cs 95 412200 isl ae See RRR nc eae pm o@ nae chs tweween nee recseeees Pmemarmiduality Of the “ChromosOMmies. 2 is c.cicesceciswswsenescsserscsseeses RSS c's ok. vira Se en tee R einem ee cee wna hes wa Kae cack se nesta scene ee ee ee E KOCOSSCS) Schultze; (04, eane GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 5 others, who have urged the probability that sex is not directly subject to the action of external stimuli, but is rather inherent in the germ-cells. The relations described in Pedicellina may best be interpreted in the light of the facts observed in other colonial forms. Throughout the Ccelenterata, with the exception of such hema- phrodites as Chrysaora and Hydra and such colonies as Cora/- lium rubrum and some of the Sertularia (cf. Cuénot), the individuals of a colony are all of the same sex. In the Ecto- proctous Bryozoa and the Tunicates, on the other hand, the conditions are still simpler, for among these the individuals are all hermaphroditic. In the Endoprocta all possible conditions as to sex exist, as the following resumé will show. In Loxosoma anneluticola, the individuals, according to Prouho, ‘ol, are all of one and the same sex. No permanent colony is formed. Loxrosoma davenporti, as described by Nickerson, ’o1, is hermaphrodite throughout, but there is distinct proterogyny. In like manner, Harmer, ’85, found in Z. pes and in other species of this same genus, hermaphroditism, with a decided proterandry. Finally, in Z. raja, as early described by Schmidt, 76, simple hermaphroditism prevails. In the genus Pedicellina proper, like variations occur. According to both Nitsche, ’69, and Hatschek, ’77, the individuals of P. echinata are herma- phrodite, while according to the late investigation of Harmer "85, and Foettinger, °87, they are of one sex. The weighty opinion of Ehlers, ’90, however, who himself investigated the problem, is on the side of the former. A like difference of opinion is found in connection with P. denedeni which, according to Foettinger, is dicecious, but by Ehlers is as positively regarded as monoecious. PP. delgica, on the former authority, is also dicecious, while on that of the latter, P. glabra, is moncecious. Finally, in P. americana, and in the nearly allied Ascopodaria macropus, the individuals are always either male or female, but both may occur in the same colony. The disagreement that exists among the different authorities mentioned, concerning the sex of a considerable number of forms, is a striking fact. It is difficult to suppose that good 6 DUBLIN observers could have erred regarding the true condition of a character so obvious in mature individuals of all of the Endo- procta. It is more probable that in the disputed cases there is true hermaphroditism disguised by proterandry or proterogyny. Thus Ehlers, 90, suggests the possibility that, ‘in verschiedenen Jahreszeiten, die Stocke etwa ungleich sexuirte Nahrthiere erzeugten, so dass, zu der einen Zeit, gonochoristische (dice- cious), zu einer anderen Zeit, hermaphroditische Kelche vorhan- den sind.’”’ In like manner, Nickerson, ’o1I, points out that “several periods of sexual activity, alternately male and female, may occur in the same animal.”’ These explanations, if accepted, would add to the already large number of cases of true hermaphroditism. For if an indi- vidual, at one time male, can at a later period become female, then it must be clear that the germ-cells of the two sexes really occur side by side in the same polypide, but the height of the developmental period of the two does not occur at the same time. This would make it very probable that hermaphroditism is the primitive condition among the Endoprocta from which, the several exceptions have to a greater or less extent diverged. It is this hypothesis which will be applied as an explanation of the peculiar conditions observed in Pedicellina americana. This species may be considered as hermaphrodite, but both sexes do not develop at the same time, nor in the same indi- vidual of the colony. There is in the very young primary poly- pide a mosaic condition of the germ-cells, z. ¢., there are both primary egg and sperm-cells present side by side. In the proc- ess of growth, only one portion of these develops into a mature ovary or testis, the other remaining indistinguishable as a few primary germ-cells among the other embryonic cells of the body. With the budding, which now ensues, these are carried into the newly formed individual with some of the primary cells of the other sex; but here, these may, in response to some change in the local conditions, become active and the others latent thus giving rise to a sex opposite to that of the preceding individual. This process may, however, occur for the first time, in the second or in some later budding in the life history of the colony or, in some cases, not at all. GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA i That this view is probably expressive of the truth is to be inferred from the existence, in the same and in allied genera, of all the necessary transitions between the primitive conditions observed in the majority of forms, on the one hand, and the specialized condition of P. americana and Ascopodaria macropus on the other. Beginning with P. glabra, where the individuals, as well as the colony, are all moncecious, the series leads di- rectly to those where, as in P. echimata proterandry or proter- _ ogyny sets in, and finally becomes distinctive of the species. In the genus Loxosoma, this is the all prevailing form in which the hermaphroditism is found. Thus Harmer writes of this genus: ‘I have invariably found that mature ovaries and testes are mutually exclusive. It is easily shown that individuals containing developing embryos in their vestibule are not pro- vided with testes in the species of Loxosoma and Pediccllina which I have examined. In some cases, a vesicula seminalis contain- ing spermatozoa is found, although the testes seem to be com- pletely absent. This fact, perhaps, indicates that the male gonads, which must have been originally present, have atro- phied in order to make room for the development of the ova- ries.’’ We have now only to suppose that this proterandry or proterogyny of the colony is distributed over several individuals instead of being localized in one, and the condition found in P. americana is obtained. The extension of the period between the development of the germ-cells of the two sexes is probably in response to some change in the relation of the zooids to the colony as a whole in which process the latter becomes more highly individualized. This condition can finally be traced one step further where, as in a form like P. delgica or Loxosoma annelidicola, one or the other of the sexes never develops, leaving both the polyps and the colony dicecious. This is the end of the series. It has therefore been shown that in the Endoproctous Bryozoa, all possible relations of the germ cells in single individuals and groups of individuals exist, and that from the primitive condi- tion of complete monceciousness, a full series of transitions can be traced to as complete diceciousness. There is, however, an 8 ; DUBLIN error into which it is easy to fall in considering the sex condi- tions of P. americana, viz., to suppose, in the light of the Men- delian principles expressed in Castle’s paper on the Heredity of Sex, that there is an alternation of dominance and recession of one sex or the other. This interpretation is made impossible from the conditions described in the allied forms and one is forced to the conclusion already adopted above, that there is a true mosaic of sex in which the elements are widely scattered in time and place. The colony as a whole, is now an hermaph- roditic individual. Ill. SPERMATOGENESIS. The testis of Fedtcellina americana is a paired bilaterally symmetrical organ situated in the space between the liver cells and the atrium. At the center, between the two component halves, lies the vas deferens, through which the ripe spermatozoa make their way directly into the atrium and thence to the out- side. The two halves are pear-shaped with the broader ends closely apposed to the body wall of the polyp, from which they are separated by a thin layer of epithelial cells surrounding the entire structure. It is interesting, in the study of the living individuals, to observe the mechanism by which the extrusion of the spermatozoa is accomplished. Upon slight provocation, such as touching the polyp with a needle point, the tentacles are immediately drawn in, and simultaneously the calyx is much contracted. This is followed by an extrusion of the ripe sper- matozoa in dense clouds, through the atrium. During this proc- ess of extrusion, also, the polyp is subjected to a change of position by the rapid movements of the stalk. In a longitudinal or transverse section of such a polyp, the internal relations of the testis can be very readily made out. There is nothing corresponding to a subdivision of this organ into compartments, as in so many forms; nor is there any arrangement of the germ cells with respect to age, the cells lying scattered irregularly throughout. The great number of developing cells is very striking. In a fairly large individual the testes filled with densely crowded cells take up by far the greatest portion of the calyx, and compress on all sides the other organs of the body. GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 9 Under such conditions it is rather difficult to determine the proper sequence of the divisions ; yet this difficulty can be, in a great measure, overcome by examining the different degrees of development within the different polypides. Thus, where there is no line or series of progressive development within the testis itself, an artificial series can be constructed from the youngest to the oldest testes. Accordingly, I shall first describe the condition to be found in a very young polyp— one shortly after the period of metamorphosis. Here, lying in their proper place, are the primary sperm cells from which all the later generations will arise. These cells are nearly all in the resting stage, and have not as yet sufficiently increased in numbers to fill up the space inclosed by the germinal epithe- lium. In a somewhat older individual, the majority of the germ cells (Fig. 1, Pl. I) are much larger and now completely fill up the halves of the small testis. They are, in size and general appearance, like a great number of cells always found within the testes of mature individuals, and are undcubtedly an early generation of spermatogonia. In similar female polyps, the corresponding germ-cells are always larger and are not so closely crowded together. Comparatively few cells are in division. The majority, as appears from the figure, remain for considerable periods in the resting stage, and may be every- where recognized by the large size of their nuclei in relation to the cytoplasm, the lightly staining chromatin reticulum, and finally by the presence of a pair of deeply staining plasmosomes or nucleoli. These arise very early near opposite points on the nuclear membrane as small bodies and increasing in size, make their way to the center of the cell where they fuse into one larger and more irregular mass. With the increase in the size of the testis, it is quite clear, from the several sizes of the cells, that there are several genera- tions of spermatogonia. The largest, which predominates, is in all respects like the first generation of spermatogonia observed in the above Fig. 1. It is therefore clear that in the transition between these two stages only a few of the early cells divide at one time to give rise to the later generations. This 10 DUBLIN fact is most strikingly brought out in connection with the older testes. Here mature spermatozoa are often found surrounding spermatogonia of this early generation. The latter evidently remain latent and develop only when room is made for them by the discharge of ripe spermatozoa. Leaving out the slight differences in size, these different gen- erations are all of the same type in both the resting and division stages with the important exception of the one, which from its smallest size, I take to be the last. In the prophases and meta- phases of all but the last of these, the chromosomes appear everywhere as V’s, with their apices directed toward the spindle, (Figs. 2-6) and cannot be distinguished by any structural dif- ferences from the figures in the somatic mitoses. The number is clearly unreduced, and by the study of many division figures is determined as twenty-two. They split longitudinally, and in the anaphase (Fig. 7), are seen with their angles turned toward the poles. In the telophase (Fig. 8), the twenty-two small bodies are concentrated very closely, and with the chance exception of some belated ones, cannot be made out individually. In the last generation, the character of the mitosis shows a marked contrast to the preceding ones. The chromosomes are, in the metaphase, in nearly every case, no longer V-shaped but thickened dumb-bell shaped bars (Figs. 9-12). It is im- portant to observe that these often show a constriction in the middle which, may correspond to the apex of the earlier V’s. These split longitudinally, and in the early anaphase (Fig. 13) the unreduced number of rods appears, presenting a striking difference from the other previous spermatogonial figures. It must be stated at this point, however, that in one or two instances I have found one or two chromosomes in the meta- phase of the last division not as yet converted into the bars. This, together with the fact that some straight rods are occasion- ally found in spindles, which, from consideration of size, I think are of the penultimate generation, would tend to show that this conversion of the type of the chromosome is not a sudden process, but is perhaps carried over a considerable period, being most pronounced and finding its completion in GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 1] the last division. The chromosomes now come closer together along the converging spindle-fibers (Figs. 14-16) and finally, in the early telophase (Figs. 17-18), appear at each pole, in the form of about eleven (the reduced number) of V’s. Owing to the increased size of the individual chromosomes, and the cor- responding halving of their number, the concentration in the telophase into one impenetrable mass, so characteristic of the earlier generations of spermatogonia, is not so marked. As the several figures show, the chromosomes are, in most cases, indi- vidually distinguishable, and (as in both cells of Fig. 18) can readily be studied. The evidence therefore, unmistakably indi- cates that the eleven V’s have arisen from the twenty-two rod- shaped bodies, which have united end to end during the latter part of the process of division; and that, as in Perzpatus and the other forms studied by Montgomery, the reduction takes place at this point. The true ‘‘synapsis’’ is therefore not to be sought in some stage in the early growth period of the sper- matocyte, but in the latter half of the last spermatogonial division, as Montgomery and Sutton have insisted. After the process of synapsis, the nuclear membrane reforms and the spermatogonia are now spermatocytes (Fig. 19). These are readily distinguished by a marked polarity, such as has been described by most workers on spermatogenesis. The nucleus, now takes up nearly the whole content of the cell and the chromosomes, localized at one end of the nucleus, have re- tained the same form in which they appeared in the preceding telophase, z. ¢., as V’s. A growth period now sets in which, judging from the great numbers of cells found in this stage and from the complicated processes through which the chromatin passes, must be one of considerable duration. The arm of the V’s have already much increased in length, and are no longer congested at one pole, the majority extending across the whole breadth of the nucleus. The apices now touch the membrane at many points (Fig. 20). It is interesting to observe also, that the rate of growth in the several chromosomes varies consider- ably. Thus Fig. 20 shows three bivalents of full size, while the remaining ones are very little larger than at the beginning of 12 DUBLIN the growth period. In cells of this small size, it is quite impos- sible to trace anything corresponding to constant size differences in the chromosomes. Yet it is clear both from the study of the various spermatogonia and the spermatocytes that many gradations actually exist. A longitudinal splitting of the arms of the V’s now makes itself apparent (Fig. 21). Appearing first at the lower end of one of these larger bivalents, the split makes its way upward to the apex, when the other arm becomes involved. Soon most of the chromosomes show the same condition, and it appears very much as though the V’s had each split longitudinally along its whole length, the two sister portions remaining united at the apices (Fig. 22). The process is, however, a very gradual one, and all degrees of variation in the time of its occurrence are present. The chromosomes at this point stain much less in- tensely and are granular. Indeed, the cells in this stage can be most readily distinguished without any closer study by their lightly staining nuclei. At the completion of the longitudinal splitting (Fig. 22) the chromosomes are at their maximum length. The nucleus is comparatively small and, as a consequence, the individual chromosomes are much crowded and cross and recross each other. This coupled with their granular appearance, and their slight staining capacity, makes it extremely difficult to follow the processes in which they are involved. I have succeeded, however, in finding a considerable number of nuclei in which this crowding is not so marked, and where, in consequence, the more careful study of the individuals was possible. From such cells (Fig. 23), it is quite clear that the chromosomes, now longitudinally split along their entire length, are passing through marked changes. The acute angle of the V’s gradually opens out, until at a later period of development, the chromosomes entirely lose their original form, and become pairs of sinuous or nearly straight parallel rods. Fig. 23 shows this process in all its stages (cf. Text-fig. I, p. 13). Tothe extreme left, a large chromosome shows but a slight opening of the angle, while in the center the very end of the process is already attained, z. ¢., ad GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 1 where the parallel bivalents have united at both their ends to form a much elongated ring. In Fig. 24 all the chromosomes have opened and the bivalent arms twine around each other several times. Finally Fig. 25 represents a somewhat later stage in which nearly all the chromosomes are in the form of elongated rings. In other cells, the elongated rings may be less frequent (Fig. 26), their place being taken by the bars. These represent the sister bivalents which have not opened out to form a ring after the increase of the angle of the primary -V’s, but have rather come into more intimate relations with N Sup \isyp Woy? To. p 2 fF Ve ali As CY mee Saeme 3 TEXT-FIG. I. Diagram of chromatic transformations from synapsis (@) to the first maturation division (¢'). each other. It is important to observe that these bars are, at this stage, about twice as thick as the elongated rings, show- ing that they are double. What is more convincing, however, is the fact that in some cases the longitudinal split may actually be traced throughout their length: At the same time, the chromosomes have considerably concentrated, so that the changes within the nucleus can now be more easily determined. From this point onward, the main changes consist in the further concentration of the elongated figures into more perfect rings and thickened double bars. Thus, as in Fig. 27, these two main types, now staining intensely, are found side by side, the double bars, present in the larger number, showing charac- teristic bendings into thick U-shaped figures. The spermatocytes are now at the end of the growth period, and the eleven chromosomes distributed around the periphery 14. DUBLIN are very nearly in the form in which they appear in the ensuing division (Figs. 28-31). The cells are perfectly spherical with the cytoplasm reduced to a very thin ring around the much enlarged nucleus. In the cytoplasm, I have often observed a deep staining granule, throughout the growth period, which very probably is the centrosome. This rapidly divides, the nucleus elongates and the prophase of the first maturation division is attained. The types of chromosomes, viz., the rings of various form and the double elongated bars are at this stage found lying irregularly over the whole spindle (Figs. 32-34). From these figures, two important conditions are clearly pre- sented. Inthe first place, the longitudinal split shows distinctly in many of the bars running throughout their length especially in Fig. 34 and second, the several chromosomes, both bars and rings, present remarkable size differences, some being as much as three or four times the bulk of others. The chromosomes now move uniformly into the equatorial plate, giving in the metaphase pictures of striking clearness (Figs. 35-40). There are at this point fewer rings in propor- tion to the bars and these that still pérsist are much more slender, showing that they are being converted, through elon- gation, into the chromosomes of the other type. Finally, in a considerable number of spindles, obviously of a later metaphase, the bars alone exist and the time for division is at hand (Fig. 41). It is hardly necessary, at this point, to discuss the nature of this division process. From the evidence presented, it has been fully demonstrated, first, that the bar and ring-figures are structurally tetrads, z. ¢., composed of four portions, a, 4, a, 0, each of which is a quadrant (Text-fig. I, f and ¢), and second, that the split running in the long axis of the figures is a longitudi- nal one separating the sister bivalents. The extremities of the figures are then the longitudinal ends, while those intermediate between these, are the points of synapsis. It is obvious that the long axis of the bars lies in the long axis of the spindle, and that the points of synapsis are in the plane of the division. This division is, therefore, transverse or reducing. On this point there can be no room for doubt. GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 15 The spindles elongate, and the bars are drawn out across the equator, a thin strand connecting the dyads. This soon disap- pears, leaving the halves as thicker, almost spherical bodies drawn out to an end in the direction of the division plane (Figs. 41-42). While this is the usual form, in some instances, other structures are presented in which the true double nature of the bodies is more distinctly brought out. Thus, as in Fig. 43, one of the dyads is a short U. This is evidently a case where the transverse division occurred before the ring had elon- gated sufficiently into a bar. The dyads move to the poles, and the first division is at an end (Figs. 44-46). Here the chromosomes are densely crowded together, and in the late telophase (Fig. 46) the study of the individual chromosomes is quite impossible. Judging from the rarity of its occurrence in the testis, this stage is one of short duration. The second maturation figures (Figs. 47-54) are about one half the size of those of the pre- ceding division and are at this early period of a spindle shape. The chromosomes appear as the reduced number of rods or bars, showing a distinct constriction in the middle, and have arisen by the further concentration of the dyads, very probably dur- ing the last telophase. Ina cross section of the spindle in the metaphase (Fig. 48) the eleven rods are even more distinctly seen. These lie in the spindles that the constrictions are in the plane of division. The chromosomes are therefore so directed that this division is longitudinal, separating the sister monads which had arisen by the splitting of the arms of the primary V’s in the early periods of spermatocytic growth. In the early anaphase, the two halves of the rods begin to move apart, leav- ing a thin strand of chromatic substance between (Fig. 49). At the same time, the monads still further condense, and with the complete division, in the middle anaphase, give the appearance of small spheres (Figs. 50—52),the chromosomes dividing quite synchronously. In the telophase (Fig. 53) the spherules have arrived at the poles, but do not as yet show any sign of fusing into one mass. ‘This does not occur until a somewhat later period (Fig. 54) when the cytoplasm shows the characteristic constriction separating the two resulting spermatids. 16 DUBLIN After the separation of the sister spermatids, a resting period of considerable length occurs. The chromatin aggregated into one spherical mass at the telophase, loses in staining capacity and breaks up into small granules which extend throughout the nucleus (Fig. 55). These granules may be of all sizes, and evidently represent the different stages in the successive breaking down of the large mass into its components. The nearly spher- ical cells now begin to elongate along one axis, and the chro- matin definitely localizes itself into two masses at two opposite points along the axis of elongation, leaving only a few scattered granules in the center (Fig. 56). In Fig. 57 the anterior end of the head is clearly to be distinguished from the posterior one. The former is drawn out to a point into which the chro- matin is very densely crowded ; the latter is much rounder and shows distinctly an end knob which, already existing in the preceding stage, is the beginning of the formation of the middle piece. Between the two ends the chromatin granules have come together more closely (Figs. 57-58) and now form a third deeply staining area (Fig. 59). With the further elon- gation, the chromatin masses, before and behind, are pushed out in the direction of the central strip with which they finally come into contact. The chromatin is thus made continuous throughout the head, although open spaces may still be made out (Fig. 60). In the meantime the tail is increased in length, and the whole structure takes on the appearance of the matured spermatozoén. The spaces soon fill up, and the head, now homogeneous, has reached the end of its development. The middle piece however, is still of considerable breadth, nor has the tail anything like its final form. These two structures stand in a reciprocal relation to each other. What the middle piece loses in size, shows in its increased length of the tail. This process continues until the former is reduced to a small deeply staining knob behind the head. In the final changes, not even this persists, for in the great majority of cases the middle piece and head fuse closely together, leaving not even a slight con- striction to indicate the former independence of the two. The mature sperm is thus a composite of two distinct portions, —a GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMBRICANA 17 head (which is itself compound), and a long whip-like tail. The latter is about three times as long as the head and becomes continually narrower as it runs to its end (Fig. 61). IV. OOGENESIS. A median longitudinal section of a fairly large female polyp often shows, in some one view, the completely developed ovary with all the stages of egg development, through the oogonia and the growing oécytes to the maturing ova (Text-fig. IJ). This structure, situated in the space between the so-called At tery oom @ Longitudinal section of ovary showing the various shapes in development of egg. od, oviduct; oog., odgonia, oocy., odcytes; /.c., liver-cells. ‘“‘liver-cells’’ below, and the floor of the atrium above, is like the testis, bilaterally symmetrical, each half being a pear-shaped organ, the narrow end of which is at the center of the polyp in connection with the oviduct, and widening as it extends outward to the side of the body. In view of Ehlers’, ’90, comprehensive description of this organ, it is unnecessary here to go into further details of structure, except to note that as the full grown eggs near the periphery become matured, they move back toward the 18 DUBLIN center of the ovary and finally pass through the oviduct into the brood-pouch formed in the lower portion of the atrium. As in the Cofepod ovary, a continuous line of development of the germ-cells can be traced from the center outward. We accordingly find nearest the oviduct the smallest primary germ- cells, which have persisted unchanged from the early stages of the polyp. In these, division figures are never observed, except in the youngest individuals. It may, therefore, be inferred that the cells do not develop simultaneously. The nuclei, which take up the greater part of the cell, are in the resting stage, the chromatin being widely distributed in the form of a reticulum. There are also at opposite ends of the nucleus two small nucleoli which often move toward the center and fuse into one larger and more irregular body. Altogether these cells are comparable to those described by Hacker, ’g5, in the ovary of Canthocamptus as the primitive egg cells (Uretzellen), and as this author states, “are to be considered as the direct descendants of the primary germ-cells of the embryo, and through active, apparently perio- dic, divisions, give rise to the elements of the Ovary.” Next in order come the odgonia (Text-fig. IT, Ong): = itere: as in other forms, pass through several generations and division- figures are common both in young and in older ovaries. Dis- regarding for the moment the last generation of oogonia (more fully described below), the other generations are in the main very much alike with but slight differences in size, the cells becom- ing smaller with the successive divisions, although there is a con- siderable growth period between these. The divisions of these oogonia are important for a comparison with the subsequent proc- esses. Fig. 62 shows a cross-section of a metaphase of an early generation. The chromosomes are as was observed in the early spermatogonia slender, distinctly V-shaped bodies, with the angle toward the spindle. Fig. 63 shows a longitudinal sec- tion through a similar spindle. The 22 chromosomes are here again V-shaped, and as such, they move toward their two re- Spective centers where they concentrate into a very compact deep staining mass (Fig. 64). The most important of the odgonial divisions is, however, GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 19 what I believe to be the final one, difficult as it is to prove it to be such by indirect evidence. Owing to the rapidity with which this division is passed through, I am able to describe only the metaphase and the late telophase. Yet these two stages are sufficient, I believe, to show that here again, it is in the process of the last division that the true reduction in the number of chromosomes takes place. In the cross-section of the metaphase, Fig. 65, the chromosomes are almost without exception no longer the characteristic V’s of the preceding odgonial generation but rods. Although I am unable to describe the nature of this transformation in the egg save by analogy of what was seen in the sperm, there can be no doubt that this marked transformation has actually occurred. The number of chromosomes is still unreduced, 22, and from the comparatively small size of the cell, the stage most probably represents the last generation. It is in the telophase of this generation, however, that the contrast with the like phase of the earlier generations is most striking (Fig. 66). The chro- mosomes, in this preparation, are very fortunately not crowded into one dense mass and may therefore be studied individually. Such a study shows that in both of the daughter cells the number of the V-shaped chromosomes is no longer that of the foregoing metaphase, but is reduced to about eleven. It is important to observe also, that these figures differ from those of the preceding generations, showing in some cases, deeply staining knobs at the apices. From both these latter consid- erations, it appears with much probability that these eleven V’s are each bivalvent and represent single chromosomes united end to end. This evidence in Pedicellina is strengthened by a comparison of the somatic divisions. The chromosomes are in all cell- generations V-shaped, sometimes appearing in the form of temporary rings in the prophases andmetaphase. Anticipating the fuller description of the somatic divisions, Figs. 107- 109, Pl. III, show clearly the presence of V’s, rings and double V’s in the metaphase, and single V’s in the anaphase of the first somatic division. This same type of cleavage has been 20 DUBLIN traced to a late stage in the development of the embryo, and in every case where the individual chromosomes could be studied they appeared in a form quite like that found in the earlier cleavages. The same condition prevails in the divisions of the tissue cells. An instructive comparison can here be made. Fig. 103, Pl. III, shows a cross section through a “liver cell’ in the metaphase. Both the cell and the chromo- somes are remarkably like what was found in corresponding division figure of the early odgonium (Figs. 62-63). The chromosomes are all distinct V’s, and are turned toward the spindle. These split longitudinally and are in the late anaphase, and finally in the telophase, still V’s (Fig. 104, Pl. III). Here they are of about the same size and form as those observed in the last odgonial telophase (synapsis) (Fig. 66) but in the former case the number is very clearly double that in the latter. Returning to the ovogenesis, it must be admitted that the evidence is not as complete in the egg as it was in the sperm ; yet there can be but little doubt that the reduction is here at- tained in a like manner, z. ¢., by an end to end conjugation of the individual chromosomes in the last odgonial telophase. There is then, at the very beginning of the odcytic period, a known constitution of the chromatin, making possible a proper interpretation of the processes which now ensue. The newly formed oécytes are now easily distinguished and, in every regard, but size, resemble the youngest spermatocytes. The chromosomes show the same polarity and the nucleus is situated in like manner in reference to the cytoplasm (Figs. 67-69). Occasionally one or even two of the chromosomes move away from the rest to the other end of the nucleus, but as a rule, the apices are all directed away from the plane of the last division, z. ¢., from the central end of the cell (Montgomery, '99). At this, the earliest period of edcytie growth, the angles of the V’s are large. One may however observe an oc- casional crossing of the distal arms to form loop-shaped figures (Figs. 70-71), but to this little significance can be attached. There is, at every point, confirmation of Montgomery’s conten- tion that the arms of the bivalent chromosomes are not sister- GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 21 chromosomes which have arisen through a longitudinal split, and have remained attached at one end, but rather that these represent the univalent chromosomes which united at the last odgonial telophase. As will appear from a closer examination of the figures there are at the apices of the V’s, in a great number of cases, the deep staining knobs (Figs. 67, 69, 70) which were described at the same point in the V’s of the late synaptic telophase (Fig. 66). Since that period the only new element that has appeared is the nuclear membrane of the reconstructed nucleus. The chro- mosomes have preserved not only their characteristic form, but their position as well. The presence of these synaptic knobs cannot by any possibility be interpreted as chance thickenings along the chromosomes; the constancy of their location and the frequency of their occurrence point very strongly to the conclusion that they represent the points of union of the uni- valent rods, and as such, they would correspond to the linin fibers connecting the two arms at the apices of the V’s, as de- scribed by Montgomery, first for Peripatus, ’99, and later for the Amphibian spermatocyte, ’03. As the growth period begins, the cytoplasm becomes easily distinguishable in contrast with the previous stage, and the chromosomes, moved away from the one end of the nucleus, now lie apposed on nearly all sides to the nuclear membrane (Figs. 71-72). There is as yet no sign of granulation of the chromosomes. It is usually, also, at about this time (although there is much variation in this regard) that a longitudinal split in the arms of the V’s makes its appearance (Figs. 73-74). The splitting often begins at one end of an arm and passes upward toward the point of synapsis, though in many cases the early splitting may occur in both arms at the same time (Fig. 75). Fig. 76 shows a little later stage where most of the chromosomes are already divided and have begun to show a distinctly granular appearance. This process, too, is extremely variable in the time of its occurrence, and is not necessarily connected with the longitudinal split, which, in most cases, takes place before the granulation has begun. This is impor- 29 DUBLIN tant, because from the works of several authors, it would ap- pear that there was such a connection, and that the granules first formed and divided each longitudinally to form the beaded sister-arms. The chromosomes have taken part in the growth so char- acteristic of both cytoplasm and nucleus. As in Canthocamptus and the Cofepods generally, there is no period of rest nor is there a true chromatin-reticulum formed. The individual chro- mosomes persist as such from the last odgonial telophase, through the growth period of the odcyte into the maturation- spindle, where they become the tetrads and rings to be described later. Nor is there at any stage during the ege growth, a con- tinuous spireme. In this regard Pedicellina is unlike such forms as the Copepods and some other Crustacea, and resembles the spermatocytes of Peripatus, Brachystola (Sutton); and Anasa (Paulmier, ’99). There is, therefore, no possibility of the for- mation of the bivalent chromosomes by the transverse division of a continuous chromatin thread, as has been described in the former of the above groups. The formation of a continuous spireme appears even in these forms to be but a secondary process, which may or may not occur, and as Hacker, Koy points out, there is even in the same species a great amount of variation in the time of its segmentation. The cytoplasm has by this time increased in amount, and the cells now have the characteristic appearance of oocytes (Fig. 77). The chromosomes show no order in their distribution, and cross and intertwine among themselves. They have also become extremely granular and ragged at this point, and in some cases show distinct breaks in their course, making it often difficult to follow the individual bivalents throughout. It is then that the linin-reticulum in which the chromosomes are sus- pended is most clearly visible. This new element has now become of considerable importance. In the early stages of growth there was next to nothing of the reticulum to be seen. As the nucleus grows, it comes more and more into view, until finally it appears much like a web, crossing the nucleus at all points and serving as a support for the chromosome. With GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 23 Heidenhain’s hamatoxylin it can be made to stain intensely, so that at times it becomes impossible to distinguish the chromo- somes with which it is connected. On continuous extraction, however, this difficulty can be readily overcome, and _ finally nothing but the deep staining granular chromosomes remain in view, with but the slightest trace of the linin, — sufficient only to show the true relation existing between the former and the latter. Up to this point the development of the egg and the sperma- tozodn has followed, very closely, along the same lines. In the several generations and nature of the odgonia and sperma- togonia; in the presence of the V’s in the last odgonial and spermatogonial telophase, with its consequent reduction of the chromosomal number ; in the further history of the bivalent V’s thus formed; their lengthening, their irregular distribution within the nucleus, and finally in the longitudinal splitting of their arms, the early male and female germ cells are quite alike. It is now necessary to trace those processes which from this point onward, transform the longitudinally split bivalents into the characteristic figures of the first maturation-division, and to compare them with the corresponding changes in the sperm. The chromosomes, now longitudilly split along their entire length, begin to show very characteristic changes. As in the sperm, the acute angle of the V’s gradually opens out, until, at a later period of development, it becomes equal to 180° and the chromosomes become nearly straight longitudinally split bodies (Figs. 78-79). In this movement the arms swing each around the apex of the V (the point of synapsis). This process does not occur at any fixed time, nor do all the chromosomes act together in this regard. In the end, however, the changes in all are quite alike. The chromosomes move toward the per- iphery of the nucleus, Fig. 79, where they lie below the nuclear membrane, in the form of almost straight longitudinally split threads. Weare here again reminded of the observations in the eggs of the Copepods, where Riickert, 94, and Hacker, ’92 and ’95, found the same conditions of the chromosomes (cf. Figs. 24 DUBLIN 7a and 7d, Pl. XXII) of Rickert’s memoir, “ Zur Eireifung bei Copepoden.”’ The sister threads of a bivalent chromosome, now fully ex- tended, may secondarily unite at one of these free ends and in this way give rise to a new long-armed V (Figs. 80-81). This figure must not, however, be confused with those observed be- fore the opening up of the angle of the synaptic structures. The arms of the early V’s are each longitudinally split, of which condition there is not a trace in the later ones; and secondly, while the arms of the former are univalent chromosomes which have united in synapsis, those of the latter are bivalent sister chromosomes which have become secondarily apposed at one end. The middle point of the long arms of the second V’s, therefore, corresponds to the apices of the V’s in the first (cf. Text-fig. I, p. 13). In the greater number of cases the sister bivalent chromosomes do not unite at one point alone, but often twine around each other, thus forming 8’s and loops of many types; in all, however, the same homologies pointed out above must hold (Figs. 82-84). The chromosomes, having lost somewhat in their staining capacity during the last period, again increase in this regard and lose at the same time their ragged appearance. ‘The linin, staining very lightly, forms a fine meshwork over which the chromosomes appear distributed, very different from the deep staining reticulum of the earlier stages. The chromosomes are in all stages of concentration and vary greatly in size (Fig. 84). In general, the ensuing process may be summarized as follows : The two sister threads unite at one of their ends, if they have not at some earlier stage already done so, and then the second or the free ends come into contact, forming a ring. Or the arms may first cross and then unite at the ends; in this way are ob- tained, I believe, the very common 8-shaped figures (Figs. 84— 85). In other cases the second pair of free ends may fail to unite, but come close together, thus forming two thick bars in the form of a V._ Finally (and this, as the figures show, is of very frequent occurrence) the bivalents may fuse along their whole length, forming long rods of considerable thickness. GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 25 The longitudinal split is in these most often completely ob- scured, but I have been able, in a considerable number of cases, to discern it at several points along the course of the fusion (Fig. 84). These rods rarely remain extended, but band into a variety of figures such as S’s and shallow U’s. In the meantime, the chromosomes as a whole have much concen- trated and are now not much longer than when they appear in the early prophase of the first maturation mitosis. Fig. 85 shows such a prophase. The single centrosome and aster have already made their appearance The chromosomes are all very much concentrated and are in just the form in which many appear in the metaphase of the following division. We observe here all the main types pointed out in the discussion of the earlier prophases. There are thus the rings of various forms and the much contracted bars. These are in most cases of dumb-bell shape, showing a constriction in the middle and in some cases a distinct longitudinal split. The chromosome to the extreme left is of particular significance, in that it points out that the rods are also formed by the secondary elongation of the rings along one axis. In this particular instance, the upper portion of the chromosome is already of bar form, while the lower has as yet the form of a ring with the space showing very distinctly. This accessory formation of thick rods from rings is, I believe, of constant occurrence at this period. Figs. 86-87 are early prophases and represent the two main types of chromosome form in the first maturation. Thus, lying side by side, irregularly distributed over the whole spindle, are on the one hand the rings, more or less contracted, and on the other, the bars, somewhat shorter and thicker than before, most of them bent at the middle to form the figure~. This bending in Pedicellina is comparable with the similar changes observed by Paulmier, ’99, in Azasa, Griffin, ’99, in Zhalassema, and more recently by Sutton, ’02, in Lrachystola. In these objects, this secondary bending is often complete, thus forming a ring which is split along its whole course. I have not, however, observed any such process in Pedicellina, where the bending is never much more advanced than to form a semi-circle. 26 DUBLIN The chromosomes are now drawn more uniformly into the equatorial plate, but there is a considerable amount of variation in the development of the spindles at this stage. Thus, while as in Fig. 88 the nuclear membrane still persists and the spindle has not yet reached its maximum length, in Fig. 89, in contrast, although the chromosomes are not as fully drawn into the equa- tor, yet the spindle is in its final form. It is such stages as these that make possibie a confusion with the later anaphases. The shortened and bent bars, distributed on both sides of the center, often give the appearance of dyads which might have arisen by the cross division of the rings. Careful count of the total number of chromosomes has, however, always given the reduced number, and this, together with the fact that the spin- dles have not as yet moved to the periphery, has convinced me that the bars are not dyads but the same structures observed in the immediately preceding prophases. It is at this point, too, that the cross-chromosomes make their appearance. These, in some instances, show an open space at the center. The arms are of unequal size, and the larger lies in the long axis of the spindles. These considerations would tend to show that these figures had arisen, like those described by Griffin,’99, in Z/a/as- sema and Zirphea, from double bars which had extended out from the middle or more probably as Conklin, ’02, suggests, in his work on Crepidula, by the flowing out of the substance of the rings. In any case, it is hardly possible that the arms rep- resent dyads which have prematurely separated and then ro- tated on each other. The spindle, as a whole, moves toward the periphery and the metaphase of the first maturation division is attained (Figs. go— 94). The chromosomes elongate at the same time, and the ring chromosomes of various form are now also observed as thick rods in which the longitudinal split is more or less dis- tinct. In spite of the former diversity, there is at this stage a remarkable uniformity in the appearance of the chromosomes. We may also, at this point, decide upon the nature of this di- vision. It will be necessary, for this purpose, to review briefly the history of the chromosomes (cf. Text-fig. I, p. 13). It was GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 27 pointed out in the discussion of the early prophases that the bivalents appeared, first, as elongated bars with a split running the length of the bar and, second, as rings of various forms. The latter, in their further development, are often converted into bars of the first type or into cross-shaped figures ; but in both of the two main types, whatever be the individual pecu- liarities, it is clearly seen, in the light of the earlier stages of odcytic growth, that the space running along the long axis of the figure is the longitudinal split separating sister bivalents. The ends of the bars would then be the longitudinal ends and the points intermediate at the middle on the sister bivalents would thus be the points of synapsis. A division, therefore, which passes through the former points would be longitudinal, while one passing through the latter would be transverse or reducing. In Pedicellina, it is quite evident that the second of these conditions is the actual one. In every instance of the consid- erable number of late prophases and metaphases examined, I have found the rods so placed that their long axis corresponded with that of the spindle. The points of synapsis are, therefore, in the equator and the division which now ensues passes through these points, and separates the univalent chromosomes which had remained united since the last odgonial telophase. In this regard, the conditions in Pedicellina agree with the early obser- vations of Henking, ’90, on Pyrrochoris, Paulmier, 99, on Anasa and those of Montgomery, who in Peripatus and a large number of other forms, always found the first the reducing division. On the other hand, these results are opposed to the conclusions of Rickert, ’94, and Hacker, ’95, and ’o2, on the Copepods, of VomRath, ’92, on Gryllotalpa, of Griffin, 99, on Thalassema, and the more recent ones of Sutton, ’o2, on Brachystola, according to whom the first division is longitudinal. - The dyads resulting from the first division are, in the main, of one form in the early anaphase as were the tetrads in the metaphase. As Fig. 95, a and 4, shows, there is often present a thin strand of chromosomal substance connecting the dyads across the center, but this soon disappears. In no case have I 28 DUBLIN been able to make out the longitudinal split in these dyads, which undoubtedly exists. In the excessive elongation of the structures during the division process the two sister portions have simply come into more intimate relation, thus giving to the products of the division the appearance of homogeneous knobs drawn out into a blunt end in the direction of the equator. Owing very probably to the rapidity with which the later stages of this division are passed through, I have not found among my many preparations any stages between these ana- phases and the late telophases. By this time the spindle has advanced even further toward the periphery, and the first polar body is extruded. This structure is a comparatively large sphere in which lie the eleven chromosomes, now much con- centrated. At this stage these may be quadrupartite, spherical, or even rod-like in structure, showing in this last instance a very distinct constriction at the middle. This, preserved plainly in the chromosomes of this form, represents the points of union of the sister univalents which had arisen through the longitu- dinal split in the early growth stages. As these chromosomes later move apart in preparation for the division of the first polar body, they show clearly bands of linin connecting them through- out. In striking contrast with the egg, also, the polar body is of pure cytoplasmic substance in which no yolk spheres are to be found. The first division completed, the chromosomes within the egg very probably persist individually in the telophase without forming a resting nucleus. The centrosome and aster also divide very rapidly, forming the beginnings of a new spindle, the long axis of which ist first go° to that of the preceding one (Fig. 96). The chromosomes are distributed irregularly over the whole of one side of the spindle, and are of the same form as just described for their sister chromosomes of the first polar body. In addition, however, there are also present a few of distinctly U shape, the arms of which are rather close together. The bend of the U would, in these, correspond to the constrictions at the middle points of the bar shaped chromo- GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 29 somes. Altogether, there can be little doubt that these bodies represent the knobs of the anaphase of the preceding division in which the longitudinal split has reappeared, separating the two sister univalent portions. It is also of interest to observe in one arm of the clearest of these U’s a constriction at the middle point. This corresponds to the secondary constrictions along the univalent arms, which give rise to the quadrupartite bodies, but here the processes are somewhat dissociated. The spindle now rotates into a radial position (Fig. 97) with the chromosomes more nearly in the equator. In this figure, the chromosomes are cubical and thick rod-like bodies, and in this regard agree in part with what was described by Conklin, 02, for Crepidula. It must not be inferred, however, that the quadrupartite appearance of some, is an expression of the real constitution of the bodies. The secondary pair of indentations never cut deeply into the chromosomes and may be entirely absent, leaving only the constrictions of the longitudinal split and from what is known of the past history of the dyads, they are probably of little significance in the interpretation of the division in which they occur. The spindle now elongates con- siderably and moves to the periphery (Fig. 98). The chromo- somes bear the same relations to the spindle that was observed in the slightly earlier stage of the preceding figure; for here, too, the longitudinal constrictions, wherever they clearly occur, are to be observed in the plane of division. The division process which now follows passes through these points and the second maturation is therefore longitudinal or equational. In the middle anaphase (Fig. 99) the monads appear as small, deeply staining spherules. As far as can be determined, they are smaller than the chromosomes of the late prophase and in the great number of instances are about one half as large as the latter. There is, however, a considerable amount of variation in the size of the individual chromosomes which makes such an estimate of size relations very difficult. In the telophase, the chromosomes (Fig. 100), show no change in form of any significance, and are now aggregated around their respective poles, the centers of which are almost entirely faded out. As ~ 30 DUBLIN in the first polar body formation, a cap of pure cytoplasm appears at the periphery (Fig. 101) and into this the peripheral chromosomes move to form the second polar body. In the meanwhile, the first polar body has divided. This, in Pedicellina, as in most other forms, Z7halassema (Griffin), Lamar (Mark), etc., is a very common occurrence and is accomplished by mitosis (Fig.,102). The chromosomes, of the same size and form as those observed in the second maturation division, are so placed in the spindle, that they are divided longitudinally like the other bivalents in the egg. In the metaphase, a deep con- striction occurs on both sides of the polar body which leads to complete division. From the many cases of second maturation spindles observed, it appears that the division of the first polar body is accomplished very early ; indeed, is completed by the time the second maturation division within the egg has reached its metaphase. A brief account of the cytoplasmic changes of the growing egg may be appended. In the very youngest oécytes, after the synaptic phase, the cytoplasm is but barely visible as a thin layer around the newly reconstructed nuclear membrane. This rapidly increases, especially at the pole opposite that of chromatin concentration. Thus arises a cytoplasmic polarity characteristic of the odcyte during the whole growth period. The structure of the cytoplasm of the sublimate fixed material appears as a mesh-work of fine microsomes or granules which are imbedded in a continuous substratum. Later, a new ele- ment makes its appearance in the form of large yolk granules which arise at first on the periphery of the cell as deeply stain- ing spheres of various sizes, and increase in numbers by the for- mation of successive layers inward toward the nucleus. I am unable to decide whether the yolk masses arise in situ or actually move inward from the periphery where they are formed. Of the considerable number of odcytes which begin their de- velopment, only a portion reach maturity ; the remainder are converted into nutritive cells. These may be distinguished very early. Within the nucleus constant and distinct differences may be observed. The chromatin is not in the form of distinct chro- GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA O1 mosomes and stains rather lightly in comparison with that of the true odcytes. V. FERTILIZATION AND CLEAVAGE. The ripe spermatozoa cast out into the water make their way into the atrium of a female polyp, thence into the ovary, where the eggs are fertilized. Spermatozoa are often founda considerable distance within eggs where the chromatin is still long before concentration (Fig. 80, Pl. II, sp.). In most cases, however, fertilization occurs when the first polar spindle is about to be formed. With the latter in the metaphase, the fertilized egg makes its way through the oviduct, into the atrium, where the brood pouch is formed. Here the remainder of embryonic development is passed through until the free swimming larva is attained. In the act of fertilization, the head alone enters the egg (Fig. 80). The head, however, as was shown in the preceding sec- tion, is a composite structure, containing at its posterior end the middle piece with which it had fused. From the compar- ison of many instances, it appears that the sperm may enter the egg at any point. Once within, it makes its way through a mass of yolk spheres, leaving behind it a track of pure cyto- plasmic substance. It is in this area that the sperm-aster with its centrosome and centriole lie. The head now concentrates to an even smaller size, losing at the same time, its lanceolate form and giving very much the appearance of one of the yolk spheres among which it lies. The astral system is no longer to be observed. In the meantime the maturation processes are being passed through. With these at an end, the sperm head swells up and soon becomes of equal size with the female pronucleus from which it can at this time be distinguished only by the proximity of the latter to the newly formed polar bodies (Fig. 106). Within both, the chromatin is often in the form of a finely di- vided reticulum supported and connected throughout by a con- tinuous linin system. As the nuclei approach each other they grow larger and the chromatin reticulum concentrates into 32 DUBLIN definite chromosomes. At first crowded together they soon move apart, and appear in the reduced number in each in the form of deeply staining 8- and V-shaped figures and even as more or less straight rods. With the pronuclei apposed, the membrane between them grows much fainter; the chromatin within both, however, remaining quite distinct throughout. I have not been able, in spite of the many cases studied, to dis- cover any achromatic structures in the vicinity of the pronuclei. At any rate, the first somatic spindle is very rapidly formed, and, in the late prophase, the normal number of chromosomes is clearly present. These are (Fig: 107) early all) V/s ayeie the metaphase Fig. 108, they are longitudinally split, the sister portions resulting, often remaining united at the ends, to give the appearance of the heterotypic ring. In the anaphase (Fig. 109) the same V-form of the chromosomes is preserved and the first somatic division is brought to a close. VI. COMMENT. At the present time, a very striking convergence of opinion regarding the nature of the maturation processes is replacing the wide differences which have until recently existed. The view first clearly pointed out by Boveri, ’91, that the true solu- tion of this problem is to be sought, not in the actual maturation divisions but long before these, in the processes occurring in the antepenultimate generation of cells (primary oocytes and sper- matocytes) has received remarkable confirmation in the recent works of Montgomery and Sutton among the zoologists, and in those of Rosenberg, Farmer and Moore, Gregoire and Berghs and finally Strasburger among the botanists. To Montgomery especially is due the credit for having shown that the key to the problem is to be sought in the so-called ‘«‘Synapsis-stage’’ and that the beginnings of synapsis lie even further back than the stage so designated by Moore (’95) —z. ¢., in the closing phases of the last odgonial and spermatogonial division. Even greater interest has been centered in this stage through the remarkable conclusions of the above-mentioned zodlogists, that at this period a pair-wise conjugation of corre- GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 33 sponding or homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes occurs; for, as Sutton has pointed out, this phenomenon, if it really occurs, gives the basis for a probable explanation of the Mendelian phenomena of heredity. In Pedicellina, the phenomena are such as to give no evidence as.to whether such conjugation of paternal and maternal ele- ments occurs, yet the facts give good ground for supporting the more general conclusion that a union of chromosomes, two by two, takes place at this period. In this way are produced the bivalents of the long growth period, giving almost decisive proof of the validity of Hacker’s early interpretation of the chromosomes in the post-synaptic stages. If this be granted there can be no escape from the conclusion, in the light of the succeeding processes, that one of the maturation divisions is transverse, separating pairs of identical (sister) chromosomes. It is now well to review in greater detail, the various phases of the development of both the egg and the sperm cells to see more clearly the grounds for this accordance with the results of the above. (A) “ The [Individuahty of the Chromosomes.” This hypothesis has recently received strong confirmation at the hands of students of insect spermatogenesis (McClung, Montgomery, Sutton, etc.). Not only have these authors ob- served constant size differences in the chromosomes, but in the case of certain peculiar elements, the so-called accessory chromosomes, the persistence of the structures as such has been traced throughout several generations of spermatogonia, the two spermatocyte divisions and finally into the spermatids. This is fully in harmony with the experimental results of Boveri, who, in his remarkable paper on “‘ Multi-polar Mitoses’’ (02) was able to conclude “dass nur eine bestimmte Kombina- tion von Chromosomen, wahrscheinlich nur die Gesamtheit der in jedem Vorkern enthaltenen, das ganze Wesen der Organismen- form, soweit dasselbe vom Kern aus bestimmt wird, reprasen- tiert.”” and ‘‘dass nicht eine bestimmte Zahl, sondern eine be- stimmte Kombination von Chromosomen zur norma- 34 DUBLIN len Entwickelung notwendig ist, und dieses bedeutet nichts anderes,. als dass die einzelnen Chromosomen wer schiedene- Qualitaten besitzen mussen. In Pedicellina throughout the long period of growth, from the prophases of the last generation of oogonia and spermatogonia through the maturation divisions, the chromosomes persist as definite and distinct structures, and this in spite of the great increase and subsequent condensation of the chromatin mass, in many regards as marked as Ruckert, ’92, found in Pristiurus. At no point is there any such marked disintegration of the chromatin thread or any crowding together into one deeply staining mass, as would make difficult the minute study of the individuals. Nor is there any relation to the nucleolus such as might throw uncertainty on the constitution of the chromo- somes. While the latter, in their condensation, may give off certain cleavage products to the substance of the egg nucleolus, at no point have I found any evidence for the possibility of the reversal of the process. In one more regard, the conditions are significant. The several chromosomes in the young oocytes and spermatocytes vary considerably in size, some being fully three times as large as others. Though I am unable to determine any constancy in this relation of certain definite chromosomes to each other, as Sutton could in Lrachystola, yet this proportionate diversity is obvious throughout the growth period and most clear in the metaphase of the first and second maturation divisions. (B) Reduction. As has been already remarked, it is in the matter of reduc- tion that the most significant results of this paper were obtained. Throughout the entire life cycle of somatic divisions the chro- mosomes appear always in the form of V’s and occur in exactly this form, in the several earlier generations of oogonia and spermatogonia. Inthe last generation, however, my evidence shows unmistakably both in the egg and sperm that a new type of chromosome makes its appearance in the form of dumb-bell shaped rods in which the angle of the previous V is almost completely undone, the constriction in the middle of the straight GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA S19) rods very probably corresponding to the apices of the V. These new structures divide, preserve their rod-like form in the ana- phases (my evidence is complete for the sperm only, on this point), and finally, in the telophases of both oédgonia and sper- matogonia give rise to the reduced number of bivalents. What can be the significance of this sudden change in the character of the chromosomes of the last division? In the light of the evi- dence here adduced, and of that from the other sources already referred to, it is almost impossible to avoid the conclusion that the change is a direct preparation for the process of reduction. Were the V’s present in this last division also, twenty-two V-shaped chromosomes would be found at the poles in the telo- phase, instead of the eleven actually found. Under such con- ditions, the appearance of the V’s in the post-synaptic phases of the early oGcytes and spermatocytes, even if reduced in num- ber, would throw no light on the character of the reduction process. For, in such a case, the reduction might have been attained in any one of a number of ways ; for example, by the superposition and fusion of the V’s two by two, as some authors actually conjecture to be the case. But in Pedicellina, the true conditions are distinctly otherwise. The V’s are not present in the latter half of the last division process and appear as such only later in the telophases as new formations and clearly re- duced in number. Without undertaking a review of the already enormous liter- ature on this period in the development of the germ cells, it is here necessary only to point out that the ‘‘ synapsis-stage ’’ has been observed in nearly every form in which the early proc- esses of development have been studied. Thus, in such diverse types of spermatogenesis and odgenesis as have been described for the Amphibia, on the one hand, and the Cofepods on the other, the close aggregation at one pole of the nucleus regularly occurs. First designated by the appropriate term ‘‘Synapsis’’ by Moore, ’95, this author laid the basis for all later progress in this subject by associating this stage with the process of reduction. To Montgomery, however, we owe the interpretation of synap- sis in the form here adopted. Commenting on the occasional 36 DUBLIN appearance of V’s in the anaphase of the last spermatogonial division of Peripatus, 99, he says, “‘ This V-shaped approxima- tion of the chromosomes into pairs is more than a mere coinci- dence due to the crowding together of the chromosomes ; it iS, I think, the first sign of the pairwise union of chromosomes by which the reduction of their number is effected and which re- sults in the formation of bivalent chromosomes.”’ But this V- formation is, as he himself states, unusual at this point. That, coupled with the fact that there intervenes between this and the next appearance of the V’s, a stage in which the chromatin is closely packed into one dark staining mass, and that the indi- vidual chromosomes cannot, with any distinctness, be made out, throws some uncertainty on the result. In Peadicelliina, on the contrary, it is no difficult matter to so stain the young odgonia and spermatogonia that at no stage do the chromosomes form a close undecipherable mass. Thus Figs. 17-18 and 66 show that while the chromosomes do group together, yet it is very appar- ent that the individual chromosomes are in the form of V’s, of which there are about eleven. The main difficulty observed in the evidence from Peripatus is thus overcome. j Strong support to Montgomery’s interpretation is given by Sutton’s observations on Srachystola,’o1,’o2 and ’03. This author observed constant size-differences in the spermatogonial chromosomes and that these, with the exception of the single accessory chromosome, were paired as regards size. This con- dition persists throughout the eight successive generations of spermatogonia, but is lost in the transition into spermatocytes, in which the reduced number of chromosomes appears, but with the same size-differences between the now bivalent chromosomes that were so characteristic of the pairs of chromosomes in the spermatogonia. ‘‘ These spiremes”’ (the reduced number), he writes, ‘‘are graded as to size, just as were the chromosome pairs of the spermatogonia.’”’ Further, “... .a division may be noted separating the spireme into two distinct limbs of ap- proximately equal size, which are frequently doubled on each other at the point of union.”’ It is on this evidence alone very difficult to disagree with Sutton that in the tetrads which later GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 3O7 form, “the transverse marking separates two spermatogonial chromosomes which have conjugated end to end in synapsis.”’ Of very considerable interest in this connection is the still more recent work of Miss Stevens, ’03, on the spermatogenesis of Sagitta. This author, on good evidence, also decides for synaptic-reduction. Thus: ‘“ Two types of spermatogonial divi- sions are found . . .; one in which the daughter chromosomes appear at the poles of the spindle as 18 rods . . .; and another type, where a much smaller number of loops, probably nine, are found at each pole... . These figures lead me to think that the so-called synapsis stage occurs in Sagzéfa at the close of the final spermatogonial division, the chromosomes uniting in pairs at the poles of the spindle. There is so much variation in the size of the spermatogonia, that it is impossible to be ab- solutely certain that a resting stage where the chromosomes are not visible does not intervene between this union of the chromosomes”’ and the young spermatocytes ‘where usually all the cells of a group contain nine distinct deeply staining loops with a somewhat crenate or beaded outline.”’ Evidence of a more general nature is that afforded, as Mont- gomery again points out, in his latest review of the subject, ’04, by Ascaris megalocephala univalens, where only one chromosome of large size occurs in the young spermatocyte in place of the two present in the last spermatogonial division. Also, in those cases where two chromatin nucleoli (accessory chromosomes, McClung) appear in the spermatogonia and odgonia (Anasa) only one of these bodies appears after the synapsis, and this is then of a double character. At no point during this period is there even a suggestion of the throwing out of chromatin from the nucleus. It then seems evident in these cases, that the re- duction is accomplished by the conjugation of the single indi- viduals. Still later is the preliminary report of A. & K. E. Schreiner, 04, on the Spermatogenesis in the Vertebrates, Myxine glutinosa and Spinax niger, where immediately following the last sper-- matogonial division the chromosomes, in the form of extended thin threads group at one pole of the reformed nucleus and 38 DUBLIN unite into pairs along their whole length, reducing the number to one half. This is in all regards similar to the description of the same stage given by Van Winiwarter, ’02, in his excellent work on the oogenesis of the rabbit and man and that of Schoenfeld, ’o1, in the spermatogenesis of the ox. The strongest corroboration of this main thesis, however, has lately come from the botanists. Very striking is the work of Ros- enberg, ’03 and’o04, on the chromosomes of the somatic and germ cells of a hybrid between Drosera longifolia and Drosera rotun- difolia. The former of these two species contains 40 chromo- somes in its tissue cells and 20 in its germ cells, while the latter contains but 20 and 10 in its soma and germ cells respectively. In the hybrid, however, while the tissue cells contain 30 chro- mosomes, the germ cells in both sexes contain not 15, as one would expect, but 20. These 20 chromosomes, already pres- ent in their definitive form in the earliest prophases of the first maturation mitosis, are of two types: first, 10 large double structures showing a constriction in the middle ; and second, 10 single ones. These are distributed irregularly over the spindle, only the double structures being properly placed in the equator, In the ensuing division, the latter 10 divide and pass to the poles to form the daughter nuclei, sometimes taking with them some of the irregularly placed ones which have not undergone any division. The majority of the single chromosomes, how- ever, are left out in the cytoplasm where, after forming dwarf nuclei they degenerate. In the second division, the chromo- somes split longitudinally and four daughter cells each contain- ing, with but few exceptions, 10 chromosomes is the result. From the above, there is but little doubt of the conclusion drawn by Rosenberg: ‘‘ Es wird also in den Pollen- und Em- bryo-sackmutterzellen etwa im Synapsisstadium ein von Dro- sera longifolia stammendes Chromosom mit einem Chromosom das von Drosera rotundifolia stammt vereinigt . . ., es konnen hier also nur 10 Chromosomen von Drosera longifolia von 10 Chromosomen von Drosera rotundifolia sozusagen gebunden werden. Die tbrigen 10 Drosera longifolia Chromosomen finden keinen entsprechenden von Drosera rotundifolia und GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 39 mussen demnach als einfache Chromosomen neben den anderen i0 Doppel Chromosomen vorhanden sein, was auch thatsachlich gefunden worden ist. Ich finde also in dieser Erscheinung eine Bestatigung der Ansicht, dass einerseits bei der Reducktion eine Vereinigung von Chromosomen zu zwei und zwei stattfindet, anderseits, dass hierbei Chromosomen sich paarweise von jedem der Elternindividuen vereinigen. In like manner, Cannon, ’03, in his study of the spermato- genesis of the hybrid peas pointed out that as in Peripatus, etc., in the anaphases of the last sporogonous division of both hy- brids and the pure form “ Fillbasket,’’ the chromosomes unite in pairs, thus reducing the number to one half. No such associa- tion into pairs is ever seen in the telophases of the normal somatic mitoses. Still further, Farmer and Moore, ’03, Lotsy, ’04, Gregory, ’04, Gregoire, ’04, and Berghs, ’o04, and finally Strasburger, 04, himself, have in a large number of forms with but slight variations, found the same character of reducing process and ascribe to the synaptic phase the same significance pointed out above. It is quite clear then, that in order to understand the reduction process we must turn to the early germ-cells (the oogonia and spermatogonial), and not to the oocytes and spermatocytes ; for, in the latter, the number has already been reduced. There is, therefore, at the very beginning of the growth period, a condi- tion of the chromatin which is known, making possible the study of the later processes. It is in this regard that the classic work of Hacker, Rickert and the other pioneers in the minute study of the chromatin of the germ-cells was weakest ; for cor- rect as their interpretation of the bivalents is now seen to be, the origin of these structures was based on a very broad as- sumption which later research has entirely failed to confirm. In the presence of the characteristic synaptic phases synchro- nous with, or immediately following the last oogonial telophases, in these several Copepods and the other Arthropods generally, and from the subsequent appearance of the reduced number of bivalents in the early growth period, it is quite evident that the 40 DUBLIN phenomena in these groups where the processes are most fully known fall in line with the conceptions of Montgomery and Sutton. C. Post-Synaptic Processes. The reduction once accomplished, the chromosomes in the form of V-shaped bivalents show again marked plasticity. The arms of the V’s split longitudinally, producing two sister struc- tures united at several points along their course, and then become continuous through the increase of the angle to 180°. In this way are produced the parallel bivalent threads, like those in the Copepods or when the ends unite, the elongated rings described in Gryllotalpa(Vom Rath, ’92). This extension of the angle is, in reality, no new process. Changes very similar were described by Vom Rath in Gvyllotalpa and later by Paulmier in Azasa — cases from which that of Pedicellina differs only in that the changes are somewhat more pronounced. The figures of Hacker, moreover, point strongly to the probability that the parallel bivalent threads of the Copepods are also so formed. By the final concentration, these two types finally become in Pedicellina the rings and the elongated bars of the prophases of the first maturation division. But in either case, the structures are equivalent to tetrads, the longitudinal split (most clearly identified in the double bars) separating sister bivalents. We are thus presented with a complicated series of changes, in proper sequence, all leading to the formation of such a struc- ture that its various parts may be distributed in the ensuing maturation divisions to different cells. In the formation of the longitudinally split bivalent chromo- somes, Pedicellina throws light on the whole problem of chro- mosome-development in the growing egg and sperm. Two types have been recognized to exist, as regards the origin of these bivalent chromosomes. In the first, a continuous spireme is said to arise in the earliest oocytes, often already longitudi- nally split, which later segments into one half the normal num- ber of double bars (Cofepod type, Hacker). In the second, a continuous spireme is never formed. The reduced number of bivalent chromosomes appears at the very beginning in the form GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 4] of V’s which later by the union of the free ends, form a ring. By further concentration, this figure may become a dumb-bell- shaped structure (Peripatus, Brachystola, etc.). In Pedicellina, as has already been pointed out, there is no continuous spireme and the early chromosomes are V’s, in all regards like those of the second type, but by the opening up of the angle and the subsequent continuity of the univalent rods, are converted into the parallel bivalent bars of the first type. FPedicellina thus presents conditions that bridge over the two classes and shows clearly that these are really variations of one main type of chro- matin formation. In view of the foregoing facts, it may be questioned whether a continuous spireme really ever occurs even in the Copepods, as described by Hacker, ’95. The work of Rickert, ’94, does not show a continuous spireme at any point in oocytic develop- ment. The parallel bivalents appear in the very early oocytes and arise not through any process of segmentation, but rather by the moving apart, as growth proceeds, of the separate ele- ments within the much crowded nuclei of the earliest period, met the “synapsis” stage (cf. Figs. 1-2, Pl. XXI, ’94, Anat. Hefte). Hacker’s own figures are far from proving his contention, and are much more favorably adapted to an inter- pretation in line with what is observed in the other forms, vzz., Peripatus, Brachystola and particularly Pedicellina. Thus neither hie=.5) nor 6, Pl. XIV, A, M. A.,’95, representing the first type, 7. ¢., where segmentation occurs before concentration, nor Figs. 16-17, Pl. XV, of the second type, show continuous spi- remes. They are more probably secondary appearances which have arisen by the apposition end to end of a considerable number of the parallel bivalents. This supposition is much strengthened by the conditions presented in his Figs. 7-11, Pl. XIV, where this apposition actually occurs to form not a con- tinuous spireme, but rather, what Hacker designates as an ophiuroid figure. The author looks upon these as secondary unions, in contrast to the continuous spiremes which are pri- mary structures; but he gives no evidence for this distinction. The eggs are of the same age and the nuclei are in the same 42 DUBLIN point of development. Altogether the evidence points to the conclusion that the continuous spiremes and ophiuroid figures are alike in nature and represent, in somewhat different detail, the same process, viz., the secondary union of the ends of the already formed bivalents. In the first case the apposition is continuous, one bivalent being attached to the free end of the preceding ; in the second, the ends of several bivalents are united at the same point. The difficulty has arisen, I believe, because Hacker has sought the process of reduction in the period of oocytic growth when, as a matter of fact, it occurs at a very much earlier period in the early telophase of the last oogonial and spermatogonial divisions, where, through a proc- ess of convergence and fusion of univalent elements into pairs, the number is halved. Once formed, the bivalents may persist individually as is so clearly shown in Pedicellina, both in the egg and in the sperm, or they may fuse into one deeply staining mass, emerging only later in their true form as in Perzpatus. The Copepods are ap- parently of the same type. The characteristic ‘‘ synapsis-stage”’ occurs, as Hacker himself asserts, and is clearly coincident with the last oogonial telophase. Following this synapsis stage, when the growth period sets in, the already formed bivalents apparently increase in size, lose in staining capacity, and cross and recross, giving rise to the confusing figure which Rickert describes (cf. his Fig. 3, Pl. X XI), and from which, with the growth of the nucleus, the parallel rods emerge. Before this clearing-up process, however, when the chromosomes are still much crowded, they may unite end to end in a long chain to form the continuous spireme of which Hacker speaks. The con- ditions in the spermatogenesis of the Amphibia present an inter- esting corollary to the above discussion. Flemming, ’87, and a number of others have described a continuous spireme in the spermatocytes which segments, as in the Copepods, into the re- duced number of bivalents. Montgomery has, however, in a very recent work, been unable to find the continuous spireme and describes a type of reduction quite similar to that he ob- served in Peripatus. To this conclusion we shall return pres- en GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 43 At the close of the growth period, the most striking elements in the oocyte and spermatocyte nuclei of Pedicellina are the several ring-and their equivalent double rod-figures. The former of these recall the heterotypic mitoses observed in the Amphibia, the Platodes and the flowering plants. In the first of these groups, first Flemming, ’87, and later Hermann, ’g1, Meves, '96, and others, interpreted the rings as having arisen, in the early spermatocytes, through the opening up of the space between the sister chromosomes which had separated in the early longitudi- nal splitting of the spireme. On this interpretation, the space within the ring is thus between like halves and from the relation of the ring to the spindle, the subsequent division is necessarily equational. According to Montgomery, on the other hand, who has lately investigated this subject, the above authors, as well as most others who have worked on Amphibian sperma- togenesis, have overlooked some very essential stages in the origin of these rings. Thus he maintains that what these authors have taken for sister chromosomes in the early spermatocytes, are really not such but different univalent chromosomes which have, as in Peripatus, united end to end in the previous synapsis, and that the true longitudinal split is of different origin. As has been already observed, this author finds no continuous spireme and consequently no segmentation of the latter into the reduced number of bivalent longitudinally split threads as Flemming and the rest have done. According to him, the young spermatocytes show a reduced number of V-shaped chromosomes. These pres- ent the same characteristic polarity, the connecting band of linin at the apices and the wide extension of the angle described for Peripatus. The true longitudinal split occurs very early along each of the arms of the V or the U, soon, however, disappears, only to reappear much later in the dyads of the anaphase of the first maturation mitoses. The free ends of the longitudinally split arms of the V’s now unite to form the rings of the meta- phase. The first division would, on this hypothesis, obviously be a reducing one. Whatever be the true interpretation of these rings in the Amphibia, they are in the maturation divisions of Pedicellina of +4 DUBLIN a very different nature, since they arise by the opening up of the angle of the primary V’s to form the straight, bivalent, longitu- dinally split, parallel rods which, by later uniting at both pairs of ends form a ring, as in 7halassema or the Copepod. Each quadrant is, therefore, in Pedicellina, a chromatid (McClung), and not one half of one as appears in the Amphibia from both Flemming’s and Montgomery’s interpretation. It may there- fore be said, that from the time of the straightening out of the rods in the early oocytes, up to the first maturation, Pedicellina parallels closely every essential process to be observed in the chromosome formation in the Copepods. | As has been previously observed, the rings are not limited in their presence to the maturation divisions. At variance with the assertion of Montgomery, ’04, that the heterotypic mitoses is always a reducing division, the rings in Pedicellima occur in addition not only in the divisions of the primordial germ cells, as Hacker found in the Copepods, but they occur in the soma- tic tissues as well. It is clear that in these cells the rings are of an entirely different constitution from those found in the maturation divisions. In the former, they are only transient structures which have arisen by the temporary connection of the ends of the daughter V’s, at the metaphase, while in the latter they represent structures which have had a long history in their formation and are essentially adaptations for the proper equipment of the germ cells. It is therefore not the form but the constitution of the rings that is of importance for the proper interpretation of the nature of a division. (D) The Maturation Divisions. The problem of the maturation divisions is not at the present time, in a very satisfactory state. On the one hand, in a con- siderable number of forms of which Crepzdula (Conklin, ’02) and E-hinus (Bryce) are typical, the chromosomes are not visible as such during the growth period of the egg, and appear in very nearly their final form only shortly before the first ma- turation division. In such cases it is obvious that the nature of the division is full of uncertainty, and such indeed, has been the GERM GELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 45 attitude of the majority of the workers on these forms. On the other hand, in those cases, where the early history of the chro- mosomes is more fully known, and where from the final consti- tution of these structures a reduction division almost certainly occurs, there opinion is much divided as to whether the first or the second division is the reducing one. The chromosomes, mainly in the form of tetrads, rings and crosses, are often so symmetrical that the two axes, z. ¢., the longitudinal and the transverse, cannot be distinguished. In Pedicellina, while these types of chromosomes occur, they are not the prevailing types. Fortunately, the peculiarly favorable bars which persist from the earlier growth period and whose history is very completely known, occur in the large marjority of instances and are so located in the spindle throughout the phases of division, as to leave no doubt that the first maturation division is, in both egg and sperm, the reducing one. In this regard, the condition in Pedicellina are in accordance with the results of a constantly increasing number of workers, botanists as well as zoologists, whose results are based on a particularly full history of the earlier stages of the chromosome formation. At this point the Platodes present very instructive conditions for comparison. At the end of the growth period both the rings and ellipses so characteristic of Pedicellina, and the bar- shaped figures are present. While on this point all the workers are, on the whole, agreed, a difficulty in the interpretation has of late been introduced in the last work of Schockaert, ’02, on the ovogenesis of 7hysanozoén. This author, in a most pains- taking work, confirming the presence of the figures of the various forms noted above, and agreed further with this work on Pedicellina in considering the first maturation division the reducing one, comes to this similar conclusion on grounds which are entirely at variance with the process described, not only in this work, but in nearly all of the other studies on the Platodes. This is all the more striking in the light of what I take to be a complete correspondence in the earlier changes in the germinal vesicle in the two forms. After a synapsis stage coincident with the telophase of the last oogonial division, the 46 DUBLIN chromosomes in the reduced number appear in 7hysanozo6n as nine distinct loops, showing the same polarity and other char- acteristic features described for Peripatus, Lrachystola, Sagitta and FPedicellina. The bivalents, further, split longitudinally, but at this point, according to Schockaert, the resemblance stops. These chromosomes do not give rise to the structures of the maturation division, but begin to disintegrate and a chro- matin reticulum is formed. After a considerable period of growth, the chromosomes again reform and present themselves as elongated rods, which are more or Jess clearly longitudinally split. The author is not sure of their number, but from the text and figures, it may safely be inferred that they are present not in the normal, but the reduced number. —‘“ En effet, lorsqu’on compte, dans toutes les coupes successives d'un meme ovocyte, les differents trongons persistants du filament nucleinien, on en trouve tantot plus de neuf, tantot moins ; meme en prenant en consideration la multiplication accidentelle de ces trongons par la section du rasoir on constate que leur nombre est tres inconstant.” It is at this point that the difficulty arises. The chromosomes now concentrate, removing all signs of the longi- tudinal split, and conjugate two by two along their length. The split between the homogeneous conjugants is therefore not a longitudinal split as nearly all the previous observers (Klinck- owstrom, ’97, Francotte, ’97, and Van der Stricht, ’97) have maintained, but represents, rather, a space between “ portions _transversales. . . en train de s’accoler.”’ After some slight modifications, these figures present themselves to the spindles in three somewhat different forms: ‘(des anneaux ou des ellipses, des batonnets recombés en crochet a leur extremites et des batonnets longs et droits. Ces trois formes sont dues a linsertion differente des fibres fusoriales sur les deux branches qui constituent les chromosomes lors de leur genese.”’ These lie with their long axes in the long axis of the spindle and the first division is therefore the reducing division. In the early anaphase, the dyads in the form of U’s and rods show again their longitudinal split, which had disappeared early during the concentration period and from this point onward the processes GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 47 are distinctly like those described by all authors for the Am- phibia. The second division is then longitudinal. After a careful examination of the evidence adduced in its favor, I am convinced, in the light of the processes described in Pedicellina, that the fundamental conception of Schockaert’s is full of difficulty. It is quite evident that the crux of the whole question lies in the origin of the figures of the maturation divi- sion. But as the author himself points out, there is no structural continuity between the bivalvents of the early oocytes and the longitudinally split rods which later conjugate. It is this hiatus that throws uncertainty on the constitution of these latter structures, and which makes positive interpretation of the later stages quite impossible. What is more damaging, however, is the fact that these structures are present in what appears to be the reduced number. Should this be the case, the supposed succeeding conjugation would still further reduce the chromo- somes to one quarter the normal number, and the probability of the process, for which very little evidence is given, would be destroyed. Altogether, it seems far more probable, on the evidence pre- sented, to consider the extended double rods of the late growth period (Fig. 50, Pl. IV) not as the result of a post-synaptic conjugation, as the author has done, but rather as persistent structures from the earliest oocytes. The single rods would then each correspond to one half of the loops of the synapsis period. As in Peripatus and Brachystola, the pair of free ends of the loops, I believe, come later into connection and thus produce the rings and ellipses, and by the still further lateral union the homogeneous “ batonnets”’ of the maturation figure. As in these Arthropod types, also, the early longitudinal split in the loops has disappeared to reappear later in the anaphase of the first maturation, division. The resulting structures are, to be sure, of such a constitution as to insure the same result in the first division as Schockaert concludes, but they are thus derived through a series of processes in accordance with what has been most clearly observed in other forms, but what is more significant, in a manner in far better agreement with the figures. 48 DUBLIN From among the botanists, however, has come very recently convincing evidence in favor of the reducing division as a con- stant factor in the formation of the germ cells. Gregoire and Berghs, Farmer and Moore, Gregory, Lotsy, and, most important of all, Strasburger, have, in a series of important works, all con- cluded in favor of this division — many of the above having, in the past, been the foremost advocates of the antagonistic view, viz., that the two maturation divisions are both longitudinal or equational. Typical of the rest is the work of Strasburger, After a careful reexamination of his old material, 7radescantia. etc., he has abandoned his old views and in a new form Ga/tonia in which the conditions for study are exceptionally favorable, describes processes from which the presence of a reducing di- vision is unavoidable. The twelve chromosomes of the early germ-cells unite into six double structures in the synapsis stage, and these bending upon themselves and uniting at their free ends become the rings of the first maturation. It is in this di- vision that the univalent components are separated, the division being thus transverse or reducing. The second maturation mitosis then ensues and the chromosomes, as in the ordinary somatic tissues, split longitudinally and pass to their respective cells. There is thus, on the authority of a constantly increasing number of investigators, a condition of the germ-cells which, as Sutton and Boveri have pointed out, alone can explain and give basis for the very common and now almost universally recog- nized Mendelian phenomena of heredity. £. Comparison of Obgenesis and Spermatogenesis. Finally, it is of considerable interest to find in Pedicellina the complete similarity between the long series of processes in the development of the germ-cells of both sexes. In the several generations and nature of the oogonia and spermatogonia ; in the presence of the V’s; in the last oogonial and spermato- gonial telophase, with the subsequent reduction of the chromo- somal number; in the further history of the bivalent V’s thus formed ; their lengthening, irregular distribution within the nu- cleus and the longitudinal splitting of their arms, the early male GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 49 and female germ-cells are quite alike. Further, the several complicated changes which finally lead to the formation of the figures of the maturation divisions, as well as these divisions themselves, are in both instances quite identical. Under such conditions as these it is clear that, whatever be the different roles which the egg and the sperm play in development, they are, at bottom, morphologically equivalent and diverge only secondarily in adaptation to their respective functions. We may at the present day appropriately conclude with the words of the classic study of Oskar Hertwig: ‘ Vergleich der Ei-und Samenbildung bei Nematoden”’: Eibildung und Samenbildung sind zwei einander nahe stehende Processe ; sie gehoren soeng zusammen, dass die Kenntniss des einen nothwendiger Weise auch das Verstandniss des anderen fordern muss, sofern man nur durch Vergleichung die gegenseitigen Beziehungen festzu- stellen sucht.” SUMMARY. 1. In Pedicellina americana, the polypides are of separate sexes, but both male and female individuals may occur on the same stolon. 2. The ovaries and testes are bilaterally symmetrical organs. Unlike the testes, where the germ cells are irregularly dis- tributed, in the ovary, a continuous line of development of the egg cells can be traced from the center outward. 3. The processes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis are, in general, quite identical. 4. In young male and female polypides, the primary egg and sperm cells lie nearest the oviduct and spermduct respectively, and give rise through mitosis to the several generations of oogonia and spermatogonia. 5. With the exception of the last generation of spermato- gonia, the chromosomes are V-shaped, as are those of the tissue cells. The normal number of chromosomes is very probably twenty-two. 6. In the last generation, they appear as dumb-bell shaped rods and have arisen by the opening-up of the angle of the former V’s. 50 DUBLIN 7. These divide, appear as rods in the anaphase, and in the telophase give rise to both egg and sperm to eleven or the re- duced number of larger V’s. This is the synapsis stage. 8. In the youngest oocytes and spermatocytes, the chromo- somes are localized at one pole, having retained both form and place in which they ‘appeared in the preceding oogonial and spermatogonial telophase. g. The loop-shaped chromosomes grow very rapidly and soon extend throughout the cells. 10. The arms of the loops become granular and are longi- tudinally split. 11. The split bivalents increase the angle between the arms to 180° and then appear as elongated parallel threads of the Copepod type. 12. There is no continuous spireme. 13. The parallel bivalent threads may unite at both pairs of ends to form elongated rings, twine around each other to form 8-shaped figures, or come into more intimate relations along the whole length, thus forming extended longitudinally split bars. 14. These concentrate into the rings and double bars of the first maturation division. 15. At the metaphase almost all the chromosomes are of the elongated longitudinally split rod type, the longitudinal split lying in the long axis of the spindle. 16. The first maturation division passes through the points of synapsis, and is the reducing division. 17. The longitudinal split does not generally appear in the early dyads, but again makes its appearance in the prophases of the second division as a new construction in the middle. 18. The second division is a longitudinal one. 19. The eggs are fertilized internally, pass through the ovi- duct into the atrial brood pouch where they develop. 20. The pronuclei do not unite intimately. The chromo- somes are very early reformed and give rise to twenty-two V’s of the first somatic mitosis. 21. They split longitudinally and preserve this form through- out all the later divisions up to the last spermatogonial, and very GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 51 probably odgonial generation, where they are converted into dumb-bell shaped rods. 22. The egg nucleolus appears early during the oocytic erowth period and increases in size at the expense of the cleavage products of the chromatin. 23. It later becomes much vacuolated, stains throughout as a plastin body, and with the approach of the first maturation division disintegrates, its remains being cast out as a meta- nucleolus (Hacker). COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY, October, 1904. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berghs, J. 04 La formation des chromosomes hétérotypique dans la sporogénése végétale. La Cellule, T. XXI, I Blackman, M. W. 03 The Spermatogenesis of the Myriapods. —II. On the Chromatin in the Spermatocytes of Scolopendra heros. Biot. Bull., V; 4 Boveri, Th. 88 Zellen-Studien, Heft 2: Jena "91 Zellen-Studien, Heft 3: Jena 95 Uber die Befruchtungs- und Entwickelungsfahigkeit Kern- loser Seeigel-Eier, etc. Arch. Entw'm., Il, 3 02 Uber Mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns. Verh. d. Phys. Med. Ges. 2u Wiirzburg, XX XV 04 Ergebnisse iiber die Konstitution der chromatischen Sub- stanz des Zellkerns. Fischer, Jena - Calkins, G. N. "97 Chromatin-reduction and ‘Tetrad-formation in Pterido- phytes. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, XXIV Cannon, W. A. 03 Studies in Plant Hybrids. The Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas. Contributions from N. Y. Bot. Garden, 45 Castle, W. E. 03 The Heredity of Sex. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoél., XL, 4 Conklin, E. G. 02 Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis in the Maturation, Fertiliza- tion and Cleavage of Crepidula, etc. Journ. Acad. Nat. eet. ftia., II, 1 52 DUBLIN Cuénot, L. 99 Sur la determination du sexe chez lesanimaux. Az//. Scz. France et Belg., XXXII Ehlers, E. 90 Zur Kenntniss der Pedicellineen. VOL? XVI. oO 7 Y ee ee Pe ’ = ; ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL. XVI. PLATE I, I3 y earnanags “fw 5 | NU oral = a 2) , oa | oe, @ Prars. I, ( Odgenesis. ) Fics. 62-66 were magnified with Zeiss, homog. apoch. immers. z's X 12 compens. oc.; the remaining figures, with exception of 1o1- 105, being drawn under Zeiss ;4; obj. xX 4 oc. Fic. 62. Cross section of metaphase of early generation of odgo- nium showing V-shaped chromosomes. Fic. 63. Early generation of odgonium in metaphase in longitu- dinal section. Fic. 64. Telophase of the same. Fic. 65. Last generation of odgonium in metaphase showing chromosomes as rods. Fic. 66. Last generation telophase showing synapsis ; also synap- tic knobs at apices of V’s in lower cell. Fics. 67-70. Early odcytes, showing polarity of chromosomes and synaptic knobs at apices. Fics. 71-72. Early odcytes with chromosomes increased in size. Fics. 73-74. First traces of longitudinal split in young odcytes. Fic. 75. Odcyte with nearly all the chromosomes longitudinally split. Fics. 76-78. Odcytes with chromosomes opening out into longi- tudinally split parallel threads. Fics. 79-81. Later odcytes showing the parallel threads separat- ing along their course but often remaining united at one of their ends. Fics. 82-83. Twosuccessive sections of the same nucleus. Show- ing the chromosomes at the height of the growth period. Fic. 84. Odcyte with chromosomes concentrating into the rings and double rods of the first maturation division. Fics. 85-87. Early prophases of 1° maturation division showing chromosomes much more concentrated. Fics. 88-90. Late prophase and early metaphase of 1° matura- tion division showing the rings, longitudinally split rods, crosses and true tetrads. ( 62 ) ANNALS N, Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL, XVI. PLATE II. ene - ami nn y | ee Sal oy . . — 4 - a L*> | 6 ae Eee : nike i. ae En ¥ a “a “et | i> - f ao Owes ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL. XVI. PLATE Il, 66 PLATE UI. ‘ ‘ 7 ee ON, o seed ’ ¥ PLATE Ti, ( Odgenests continued. ) Fics. 91-93. Metaphase of 1° maturation; the chromosomes nearly all converted into elongated rods. Fics. 94-95 (a and 4). Early anaphase of the same showing the elongation of the chromosomes and the chromosomal strand con- necting the dyads. Fic. 96. Prophase of second maturation showing the newly formed spindle inclined go° to the foregoing ; also, the first polar body. Fic. 97. Somewhat later prophase with spindle revolved into proper radial axis. Fic. 98. Metaphase of 2° maturation division showing longitudi- nal division of dyads. Fics. gg—1oo. Anaphase and telophase, respectively, of the same. Fic. tox. Later telophase of 2° maturation division ; formation of second polar body. Fic. to2. Division of 1° polar body in metaphase showing some character of chromosomes as in second maturation within egg. Fic. 103. Cross section of metaphase in division of a ‘‘liver- cell’’ ; V-shaped chromosomes as in the early generations of odgonia and spermatogonia. Fic. 104. Telophase of atrium cell showing the presence of the unreduced number of the V-shaped chromosomes in contrast with the reduced number of such structures in the telophases of the last gen- eration of spermatogonia and odgonia Figs. 18 and 66. Fic. 105. Prophase of division in atrium cell showing both the V and ring chromosomes. Fic. 106. Fusion of the male and female pro-nuclei, the latter being nearer the egg periphery. ‘The chromosomes are concentrat- ing from the earlier reticulum to the definite V-shaped chromosomes of the 1° somatic division. FIG. 107. 1° somatic mitosis, prophase showing twenty-two V- chromosomes. Fic. 108—1og. Metaphase and anaphase of the same. ( 64 ) ACAD. SCI. VOL: XVI; ug ANNALS N. om. e.g.09*@ -0-@ nerarae oe pas ips io wa re Se ‘>. Bera one, O- ay > Wy a \ s \\ A re Nod Bey é yy iS: f NS Ne 2 Nd (a? é 3 mt palate Lee ae er Gd eee er aS SRK see is _ [ ap ee oy y r oe) "ee: PLATE III. a@e @r@ce@- Slaw! Dean! A - PLATE Ill. XVI. ACAD. SCI. VOL. ANNALS N. Y. Ves a @:0°222:-e, BEES Ee ——> a, CUT | oO» aA fi \ SS ~ ——S= “te eae ™: we % ot a = pal Poel [Annats N. Y. Acap. Sci., Vor. XVI, No. 2, pp. 65-74, March 17, 1005] RECENT JOURNEYS AMONG LOCALITIES NOTED FOR THE DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN. J. Howarp WILsoN. (Read January 18, 1904.) There are some subjects which by their very nature enter so little into the lives of most men that they are almost unknown, and are rarely thought of or studied; another again, although of great interest to a small group of students and specialists, may not occupy the thoughts of the generality of mankind for the simple reason that the subject is so new, or as a science is still so in its infancy as not to attract public attention. Although anything which sheds light on the history and origin of man should not fail to awaken the greatest interest, it is probably on account of these two reasons, that prehistoric archeology is as yet so little known. But prehistoric archeology has taken its place among the other sciences. Little by little, the longing for knowledge of the human race, far back beyond the beginnings of history and the occasional finding of implements in stone or bronze, made and used by the people of those remote ages, have quickened the interest in the subject, until it has developed into the science it is to-day with its enthusiastic savants and great collections both public and private. For a long time, when stone implements were found or ploughed up in the fields, their true nature was not generally known. Often however they were recognized as differing from ordinary stones and came to be accredited with peculiar proper- ties, and made the subject of superstitious regard. In Europe generally, and in other parts of the world, the flint axes were called “thunder stones”’ by the peasants, who thought that 65 66 WILSON they descended from Heaven and that the presence of one ina dwelling would be certain protection against lightning. There is mention of a stone ax found in Egypt engraved with hiero- glyphics which showed that its unusual character was noted and that it had been kept perhaps as a kind of talisman. Later on the stone axes and other implements became recognized, especially by antiquarians as the works of a people who with their civilization had long since passed away. At the same time, the science of geology was developing and making head- way. The different kinds of rocks and their formation became better known, and the real nature of the sedimentary with their fossil contents, which had given rise to many wild and curious theories became thoroughly recognized and established. Cuvier, called the Father of Anatomy, gave the first powerful stimulus to the study of the fossil vertebrates, mostly species now extinct, and finally the question began to be asked, ‘Is there a fossil man?”’ Although used in its broadest extension, the term fossil is taken to signify any evidence of former life, it is gener- ally meant that the remains antedate the present epoch and belong as far back at least as the Quarternary or last geological period. The Quarternary opened with the development of the great continental ice sheets in Northern Europe and North America, to which the name Ice Age owes its origin, and closed with the ushering in of the climate and physical conditions approximating those we have to-day. It is in deposits formed during the Glacial Period that the earliest authentic traces of man have thus far been found. In glacial gravels, the diluvium of rivers, in caves, and deposits formed during the Glacial Period and later, the implements and works of man have been found. Human bones are preserved for so long a time only under exceptional circumstances and are very rare. In the river gravels of the Somme in France where the implements are comparatively abundant, great numbers having been found, no human bone has as yet come to light, but, as has been remarked by Sir John Lubbock, the bones of no animal as small as man are preserved in the river drift deposits. One of the first finds recorded was that of a worked flint, DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 67 discovered with an elephant tooth in the quaternary deposits of London, in 1713, but its significance was not appreciated at the time. The finding of other flints at Hoxnie in Suffolk in company with the fossil bones of some large animal and at the depth of twelve feet was communicated to the Society of Anti- quaries of London in 1797, but not brought to general notice for more than half a century. Human bones associated with the bones of extinct animals had already been noted by several investigators, but to Boucher de Perthes belongs the real honor of first presenting Quarternary Man to the scientific world and the Valley of the Somme near Abbeville was the scene of his discoveries. About 1836, living at Abbeville, some 25 miles below Amiens, he began to make a study of geology and to collect the worked flints which he occasionally found in the old flood deposits of the river. In 1846, he published the result of his discoveries under the title ‘‘ De l’Industrie primitive ou des Arts a leur Origine,’ but so revolutionary were these views towards the then generally accepted idea of the antiquity of the human race, that his publications and communications were treated with absolute indifference and unbelief by the most advanced scientific bodies. Boucher however, continued his investigations and publica- tions, and some years later was supported in his views by a former antagonist, Dr. Rigollot of Amiens, who in 1853 visited Abbeville and became convinced of the authenticity and signifi- cance of Boucher’s discoveries. Dr. Rigollot began the study of similar gravels at Amiens and was rewarded by the finding of worked flints of different types associated with the bones of Quarternary mammals such as the elephas antiquus, the elephas primegenius or mammoth, a species of rhinoceros, a species of horse, etc. Still, little attention was paid to these discoveries by the French savants, but so persistent were they, that finally, in 1859-60, a number of the most prominent English geologists and archzologists, Prestwich, Falconer, Sir John Evans, Sir John Lubbock and others, visited Amiens and the Valley of the Somme, proved the Quartenary age of the gravels beyond a doubt, and themselves found many worked flints in place. 68 WILSON They were followed by a number of French scientists, and the fact ‘of the Jexistence of man in Qwattemary timesmaves thoroughly established in the scientific world. A new impulse was thus given the subject, and new enthu- siasts came into the field, old finds were viewed with renewed interest, and given a new interpretation. Henry Christy, an Englishman, and Edward Lartet, a Frenchman, associated themselves and became very prominent for their discoveries, Lartet particularly for his explorations of the now famous caverns and rock shelters of Dordogne in southwestern France. The term “palzolithic’’ has been suggested by Sir John Lubbock to designate that period of man’s development which was contemporaneous with the great Quaternary mammals and it has been generally adopted, as well as his term ‘‘ neo- lithic’’ for the later stone age which followed. Paleolithic man has probably descended from an ancestor liv- ing in the Tertiary period, but thus far no positive evidence ot his existence has been discovered in any deposits or formations older than the second glacial period. It is perfectly reasonable to suppose that man existed as man before this time, and indeed, the variety of types represented by the few skeletons, especially the skulls, which have been found belonging to Quarternary man make it difficult to escape from this belief. It is the same way as with the oldest languages of which we have any knowledge. No matter how old we may know the language to be or how simple its forms, we recognize that it is still too complex and varied to be a primitive tongue ; that centuries and perhaps thousands of years of development have gone before in order to bring it to the comparatively com- plex form in which we find it. When in examining the skulls and other parts of the skeletons still preserved for us of glacial man, we find several distinct types, it can not be mere chance- these types signify distinct races, and different races of man in, dicate that a vast period of time has gone before, that ages have rolled away in order to make it possible for primitive man, the original Homo sapiens to have developed and evolved by envi- ronment and later by inheritance into the distinct races we find in glacial times. DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 69 If this is the case, if man existed in the preceding geological period, it is natural to suppose that some traces of him might be found; that if he aided himself by the use of stone imple- ments as he would be likely to do, these tools, however crude, would some day come to light to reward the efforts of the ar- cheologist and bear mute testimony of man’s existence at that almost unthinkable antiquity. And already quite a series of objects have been discovered which although not yet distinctly proved, seem to give this looked-for evidence. Certain flints, thought by some to be the work of man, have been found in Tertiary deposits, notably those discovered by M. l’abbe Bour- geois, in 1867, at Thenay, in the department of Loire-et-Cher, France, and those brought to notice in 1877, by M. Rames, from a formation of similar age at Puy-Courny, Cantal, in the plateau region of Central France. These flints are very rough, and it has not yet been determined whether the chippings which they show are the results of intelligent work or are sim- ply due to natural causes. Some of these flints show the action of fire as if they might have lain in old hearths as is often the case with worked flints of undoubted authenticity, but here again, there is no way of proving that the fire which has pro- duced the calcined effect on the flint was not caused by some natural agency. These tertiary flints which are sometimes known under the name of eoliths, have, on account of their uncertain character been the subject of considerable discussion and controversy. That they show human workmanship and are not simply natural forms is still undetermined. Flints showing undoubted traces of human agency in their shaping have been found in England, in Kent, in such positions or in such apparent relations to ancient deposits, as to make it possible that man may be cer- tainly proved to have existed in times far more remote than those which saw the formation of the river drifts and cave de- posits of western Europe. But the correlation of these flints with the more ancient deposits has not been certainly proved, and further investigation and detailed study of the question will be required. 70 WILSON Som2 of the other noted finds which seem -to~prove mans existence in Tertiary times may be briefly enumerated’ ihe Savona skeleton, found in a Pliocene marl; animal bones from the gravel pits of Saint Prest, from the Tertiary alluvium of the Arno Valley, and from the Pliocene of San Geovanni near Sienna. These bones, as well as those from other localities which it is not necessary to mention, show scratches, perforations, or fractures which have been claimed to be the work of man. These few facts will suffice to show the nature of the evidence, otherwise than logical reasoning, which tends to prove man’s existence in the Tertiary Period, and we will pass on to the succeeding age, when his presence, contemporaneous with the vast continental ice sheets and great extinct mammals is un- equivocal and not to be denied. At the present time, as has been before remarked, there is no positive evidence of the presence of man before the second glacial period, but the evidences of his existence from that time are numerous and unmistakable, and this great antiquity for the human race, however revolutionary and at variance to the beliefs still held by some, is as well proven and established as any of the common facts of science. From this time on, we can keep man almost constantly in sight, through the different periods of his advancing civilization and culture. We can follow him through the long years of the different periods of the old stone age, until he had learnt the art of polishing his stone tools and weapons at the beginning of the present epoch; through the Neolithic or late stone age, when the art of working stone reached its greatest and highest development, and was characterized by the fact they were often polished, an art unknown in the preceding stage of culture. Later, the use of metals became known, and we find man in the bronze age, with the ever increasing use of bronze instead of stone for his weapons, imolements, and ornaments, and finally, with the coming in of the age of iron, if not in the latter part of the age of bronze, we find man in the realms of history and consequently far outside of our present field of investigation. Let us look at the conditions which prevailed during Palzo- DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 71 lithic times and discover a little what was the life and civiliza- tion of these ancient people. While prehistoric archeology is giving us information of the civilization of these far distant ages, it is to geology that we must turn for our knowledge of the physical conditions which then prevailed. Itis beyond the scope of our present discussion to consider the cause of the Ice Age, but we know that it took the place, in the Northern Hemisphere at least, of the exceedingly mild and even subtropical conditions of the period which preceded it. It was not an unbroken period of ice and snow, but rather an epoch of oscillation between severe conditions and those distinctly temperate and of much equability. The periods of severe conditions, which were rather times of great precipitation with moderate cold, than of remark- ably low temperature, for the former seems more necessary to an ice age than the latter, reached their culmination in the so-called second glacial period, when all Northern Europe, including the British Isles, was covered with a vast, unbroken sheet of ice, and all the higher peaks and ranges sent their immense glaciers far down the valleys, and spread their morainic debris where are now fertile plains. Geikie and other glacialists recognize six periods of the severe conditions, when glacial conditions more or less prevailed, with their corresponding interglacial periods of considerable mild- ness and equability. The third glacial period was nearly as severe and the extent of its glaciers nearly as great as during the time of maximum glaciation which preceded it. During the fourth, the great Baltic glacier obtained vast dimensions, but the last two returns to glacial conditions were very feeble, and represented the dying out of the Ice Age and the commence- ment of those physical conditions which we know to-day. Of man’s presence as far back as the second-interglacial period, there is not the least doubt. His tools, weapons, and implements, found in deposits of that age, in the undisturbed cave earths, mingled with the bones of extinct Quarternary animals, and covered deep under slow-forming stalagmite, in the diluvium of river valleys, and in other deposits, furnish unmistakable evidence. 72 WILSON In the dim ages of that remote period, man lived; clad in rough skins, he hunted the mammoth and the reindeer, where now are the green fields of Southern England and the vine clad slopes of France ; and contended with the fierce cave bear, the hyena, and the cave lion for the protection and comfort afforded by the rock shelters and caves of Western Europe. Although rude and savage, he was capable of progress, as his implements of later and later date bear testimony. This has given a basis for the division by M. de Mortillet, of the Palz- olithic Age into different periods according to the type of imple- ment, each period having also its characteristic fauna. Thus four periods are now generally recognized which are not always exact in their application, as a type originating in one, may and often does continue to be employed in those fol- lowing, with the new types which there come into existence. These periods, which have come to be accepted for convenience in the study of the Paleolithic Age and as approaching as near to the truth as seems possible in any such classification, are as follows : The Acheulian, the age of the old river deposits with such associated animals as the elephas antiquus, the mammoth, and the cave bear; the Mousterian, represented in the upper river deposits and the older caves, with the flourishing of the mam- mouth ; the Solutrian, characterized by the highest development of stone implements, of the abundance of a species of horse, and of the reindeer; and finally, the Magdalenian, with its decline in the making and use of flint tools, and in its place, the great skill shown in the use of bone, with the remarkable development of art, which is shown by the engraved and painted rocks and engraved ivory and bones, which art seems to have entirely disappeared at the time of the ushering in of the Neo- lithic Age which followed. The fauna was characterized by the abundance of the reindeer and the European bison, the auroch, an animal nearly extinct but still preserved in some o the imperial forests of Russia. As the third glacial epoch reached its culmination, Palzo- lithic man seems to have retreated southward, occupying the DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 73 rock shelters and caves of Central and Southern France, of the Pyrenees, and along the shores of the Mediterranean, but when the severe conditions of that time came to an end and the climate improved, there seems to be no evidence that he moved back to his old haunts and hunting grounds, but passed eastward into Switzerland and the region about the headwaters of the Danube and the Rhine. From this time on, we lose sight of Paleolithic man, there is no trace of him to be found in any deposit which overlies or is more recent than the accumulations of the third glacial epoch. Beyond this, before man reappears at the beginning of the Neo- lithic age, there seems to be a gap, a. considerable interval of time in which he is entirely lost from sight. In almost every series of deposits containing the remains or implements of both Paleolithic and Neolithic man, there is a sterile layer of greater or less thickness which separates the two; sometimes it is a stalagmite floor of considerable thickness and representing a great period of time. Man must have been somewhere, evolving and developing, and acquiring the arts and culture with which we find him when he again appears at the beginning of the Neo- lithic, and some deposit in some region will one day reward the labors of archeologists by filling in this gap, if it has not already done so, in some of the more recent discoveries. Before closing our brief investigation into the subject of Paleolithic man, it will be well for us to realize his great an- tiquity, the immense period of time which has rolled away since we first find him, hunting the mammoth and the reindeer with his rude flint weapons, and seeking refuge inthe old caves and rock shelters of that remote period. The tourist looks with awe upon that megalithic monument or Salisbury Plain on account of its great antiquity and the un- known people who built it, but it is certainly not older than the Bronze Age and does not antedate the Roman Invasion ot England more than 1700 years. Even the oldest tombs and temples of Egypt are modern compared with the rude imple- ments from the river drifts of the Somme, the Seine and the Thames. There has been no considerable change in the physi- 74 WILSON cal features of the country since Stone Henge or Avebury Circle were built, or the aline1 stones of Carnac placed in posi- tion, but Paleolithic man saw great geological changes which must represent a vast extent of time. Valleys were eroded to great depths during the period in which he lived, while rivers which are now but a few hundred feet across, he then saw as swollen floods two miles or more in width. The slow movements of the earth’s crust by which whole continents are raised and lowered, enabled him with the animals he hunted, to pass dry shod between the continent of Europe and the British Isles, and this great but slow change in the physical outline of Europe took place more than once since that time when Palzolithic man first made his undoubted appearance. He lived through the vast period of time represented by the slow coming on of glacial conditions, the formation of a great continental ice sheet over all northern Europe, and the return once more to a milder climate with all the changes of fauna and flora these imply. We cannot tell the length of time in years, it may be fifty thousand, it may be more, but by the immense physical changes which have taken place, we know it must be very great, and not to be reckoned as history reckons her time. Such is a brief outline of Palzolithic man, of our ancestor in Quarternary times, and here we will leave him and close this paper. [Annats N. Y. Acapb. Sct., Vor. XVI, No. 3, pp. 75-81, March 17, 1905. | HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON. DANIEL S. MARTIN. Dr. Henry C. Bolton, our late associate and ex-President, was born in this city, January 28, 1843, and at his death in Washington, November 19, 1903, had therefore not completed his 61st year. After graduating at Columbia University in 1862, he went to Europe, and studied first in Paris, subse- quently at Heidelberg under the celebrated Bunsen, and later at Gottingen, where he received his doctorate of philosophy in 1866. During these years he also travelled extensively, adding to his favorite specialty of chemistry that store of varied culture that made him such an attractive companion and broad- minded scholar and gentleman. On returning to New York, he naturally associated himself as a member with the Academy (then the Lyceum of Natural History), and speedily became active in its meetings. In 1872 he was made assistant in analytical chemistry in the Columbia College School of Mines, and then head of the laboratory of quantitative analysis ; this position he held until 1877, when he was chosen Professor of Chemistry and Natural Sciences in Trinity College, at Hartford, Conn. These were years of constant activity in the Academy and in many scientific associations in and about New York. In 1874 he was one of the special committee who formulated the report on the change of name of the Society, from the Lyceum to the Academy. In 1876 he was elected Corresponding Secretary, a position for which he had peculiar fitness, from his elegant handwriting and his familiarity with the languages and the scien- tific men and institutions of Europe. In 1873 he was one of the most active in planning and arranging for the ‘‘ Centennial of Chemistry,’ held at North- 75 76 MARTIN umberland, Pa.; where all the chemists of the United States gathered at the home of Priestley and his descendants, to cele- brate the hundredth anniversary of the discovery of oxygen gas. After ten years at Hartford, where Dr. Bolton left his per- manent impress in the formation of a notable collection of min- erals for Trinity College, he resigned and returned to New York. It is characteristic of. his generous nature, that) die tet that position with the expression that, being possessed of inde- pendent means, he did not feel that he ought to retain the place of a salaried professor, so desirable for some other worker in science not favored with his resources. Let no one imagine from this that he sought for ease and leisure. No man was ever a more tireless worker ; his fertile brain and his all-around scholarship could brook no respite. He simply gave himself to other lines of scientific acivity, which he made peculiarly his own. He had become especially impressed with the difficulties pre- sented to the chemical investigator by the vast and ever-increas- ing body of literature in that and in allied departments, in many languages, and scattered through a multitude of journals, trans- actions and periodicals. This he sought to relieve by some form of systematic recording ; and after conducting a series of investigations of great care and beauty upon fluorescent bodies, and particularly the uranium compounds, for which he had - gathered and collected all that had appeared on these subjects, he published in the Annals of the Lyceum his “ Index to the Literature of Uranium,” in 1870. This was the first of a series of such indexes to the entire literature of single elements and of special topics in chemistry, which have now become very numerous and of indispensable utility. Dr. Bolton presented this subject to the Section of Chemistry of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, and in 1882 secured the appointment of a permanent committee of that body on the indexing of chemical literature. Of this committee he was the ever-active chairman ; and the annual reports of progress for over twenty years indicate the growth and the scope of the work that he had thus inaugurated and carried on. HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON a) In the meantime he had become engaged himself in a similar and even more comprehensive labor, — a general historical com- pendium of chemical literature, in all languages, and of every kind. This great undertaking he carried out in connection with the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. In 1892, he was appointed by Columbian University of that city to a non-resident professorship of the History of Chemistry ; and it was not long before he moved to the capital and made his residence there. He had recently married Miss Henrietta Irving, a grand-niece of Washington Irving; and many of his former friends from this vicinity are familiar with his refined and attractive home on K Street. Here,-with his remarkable library and rare works on alchemy and chemical history, and in close touch with all the scientific life of the Federal city, he labored with unfaltering zeal and enthusiasm until the recent end of his career. During the decade of his second residence in New York, be- fore he removed to Washington, he was again active in the Academy, and was chosen to several offices, culminating with that of President in 1893. He was one of the patrons of the Academy by the contribution of a hundred dollars. Be- sides his relations with this society, he was prominent in chemi- cal circles, both in this country and abroad, and a very frequent lecturer and contributor to scientific journals and reviews. At the time of his death, the statement was made that he belonged to more learned societies than any other American. Dr. Bolton was a man of very marked personality and of peculiar qualities of mind, which fitted him for a peculiar work. He was a thorough and accomplished chemist, but he was very much more than a specialist in any one department. He wasa man of letters and of culture in every field, and one who pos- sessed a fine zsthetic sense and in a remarkable degree the his- toric sense. It is easy for those of us who knew him and have followed his career, to see how all these elements were blended in his work. Favored also with the possession of private means, he was able to follow out the bent of his mind, and to add continually, by frequent and extensive travel and inter- course, to his rich and varied store of refined culture. Wher- 78 MARTIN ever he went he was the same, —the genial and warm-hearted friend, the gentleman, the scholar, the scientist, the litterateur ; his mind was ever on the alert to discern and to investigate novel and peculiar points of interest that others failed to ob- serve, or to hear the forgotten voices of early workers from the morning twilight of science, that are now lost to common ears 'in the noise of the modern “ gairish day.’”’ No ordinary man, no ordinary chemist, could ever have done his work. Some have indeed said that he failed to do what he might have ac- complished had he given himself more closely to original in- vestigation, and confined his activities within a more limited range of study. This may be true, in a sense, but only in a narrow sense. There are many men capable of original in- vestigation, who could never attain, either by natural qualities or by acquired experience, to the breadth and scope of Dr. Bolton, or to the work which he accomplished. He was imbued, as I have said, with the historic sense in an unusual degree; and this made him especially an_ historical chemist and a chemical historian. He loved to recall the labors of the pioneers in science, and to recognize their part — crude as it may seem to us now —in the development that has followed. -As early as 1876, in an article in the “‘ American Chemist,” he expressed the key-note of much of his subsequent work in the following words: ‘So rapid are the strides made by science in this progressive age, and so boundless is its range, that those who view its career from without find great difficulty in following its diverse and intricate pathways, while those who have secured a footing within the same road are often quite unable to keep pace with its fleet movements and would fain retire from the unequal contest. It is not surprising, then, that those actually contributing to the advancement of science, press- ing eagerly upward and onward, should neglect to look back upon the labors of those who precede them and should some- times lose sight of the obligations which science owes to for- gotten generations.”’ But it was not only either from, or for, the historic interest purely, or mainly, that Dr. Bolton began his great work of chemical indexing and bibliography. He felt a a HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON 19 the need of the modern worker for help and guidance in his researches, and sought thus to supply it. He inaugurated in this a monumental work, which should win for him the grati- tude of every special investigator in chemistry. He began this work himself, and the first indexes, by him and by others in- spired by him, appeared in the Annals of this Academy. It has subsequently grown to great expansion and variety, largely through his committee in the American Association; and now it will go on, though, alas! other hands must direct its prog- ress. His next step, also begun in the Annals of this society, was his “ Bibliography of Chemical Periodicals,” in all the lan- guages in which they are published. This led on to the hercu- lean task that occupied all his later years in Washington, and which he was fortunately able to complete. These great works are ‘‘A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492 to 1896,’ and “A Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1665 to 1895’ —together with extended supplements, bringing down both of them to very recent dates. They will long remain as his grand memorial. To a mind like Dr. Bolton’s, the subject of alchemy and the old traditions and superstitions connected with it, could not but appeal with great interest ; and he was noted for his familiarity with those topics and with many very curious related aspects, on which he published numerous articles. The strange sur- vivals, and even revivals, of alchemistic fancies tn the modern world, led him naturally to an interest in folk-lore ; and he was active as an officer in the organization of the American Folk- Lore Society. His restless and suggestive mind was ever lead- ing him to explore peculiar and unfamiliar paths, and to turn aside from the beaten tracks that most of us are either content or constrained to follow, into byways that lead off into near and yet unknown places where few or none have trod. An instance of this kind was his research upon sonorous or ‘singing ”’ sands, carried on through years, largely in connection with our honored member, Dr. A. A. Julien, and in which he traveled widely and gathered material from many lands and seashores, and showed that this phenomenon, still essentially unexplained, 80 MARTIN is somewhat frequent rather than very rare, and is not at alk dependent upon several of the causes to which it was formerly ascribed. In original investigation in chemistry, however, Dr. Bolton was capable of excellent work, although this was not his most important field. His early researches have already been in part alluded to, on fluorescent compounds of uranium, and also on the platino-cyanides. In both these groups he prepared a large number of rare and novel compounds, crystallized with great success and great elegance.' His subsequent studies upon the action of organic acids on minerals and “ The Behavior of Nat- ural Sulphides with Iodine and other Reagents,” were highly original in character and of much interest. They appeared in the Annals of this society, in several successive papers, while Dr. Bolton was professor in Trinity College ; and it is interest- ing to recall that the first of these was Article I in Volume I of the Annals of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences — after the change of name from the old Lyceum. I cannot in a brief article like this, begin to do justice to the memory of one whom I knew so well and esteemed so highly ; we came forward together in the Lyceum, and worked together as fellow-members, friends and officers, in close and constant association for many years in the Academy. It only remains for me to add that Dr. Bolton in his personal views and feel- ings was a reverent Christian believer—a scientist who knew too well the limitations of human experience and attainment, the mutability of human philosophies and conceptions, and the vastness of the field of the unexplored and unimagined that surrounds our science on every hand, to doubt or deny the reality of the spiritual and the unseen. Three years ago, on retiring from the office of President of the Chemical Society of 1This beautiful and remarkable series of uranium salts, which Dr. Bolton had given to the Columbian University, was loaned by that institution to form one of the exhibits in the radium display organized by the U. S. Geological Survey at the St. Louis Exposition. The writer called the attention of the Special Commissioner in charge of the radium display, Mr. George F. Kunz, to this collection, and it. was thus secured as an interesting contribution to that notable feature of the Fair. HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON 81 Washington, he delivered an address entitied ‘‘ Physics and Faith,” in which he pointed out most forcibly how the doctrines of physics and chemistry depend equally with revelation on belief in the invisible. I close with a few of his own words: “Faith, both in science and religion, is belief based on suitable evidence from sources outside of personal experience ; both are fruitful in different ways, the former affecting the intellect and the latter the heart of man; scientific faith bears fruit in the steamship and the telegraph, Christian faith in works of mercy and charity, and in a life of love shown toward mankind and God.”’ [ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. ScI., VoL. XVI, No. 4, pp. 82-95, March 17, 1905.] THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPMIZ Erie JoHN J. STEVENSON. (Read January 14, 1905.) The Spitzbergen archipelago, consisting of five large and many small islands, extends from N. Lat. 76° 30’ to 80° 30! and lies about midway between Nova Zembla and Greenland, while the southern point of the principal island, West Spitzbergen, is about three hundred miles north from the North Cape. The greater part of the archipelago is inaccessible for shipping except in rare seasons, as a cold current brings down the ice along the northern and eastern portions ; but the western coast of the main island is accessible ordinarily during about three months each year. Until less than a century ago, little was known respect- ing Spitzbergen beyond the information brought by whalers, of whom William Scoresby was easily chief. The first systematic exploration was by the Norwegian geologist, Keilhau, who, in 1827, studied West Spitzbergen as well as the lonely Bear island, one hundred and fifty miles southward, and made col- lections, described in part by von Buch in 1846. A French expedition of 1839 gave notes upon the islands, some of which are of interest. The most important contributions, however, are those of the Swedish geologists, whose studies began before 1860 and have continued at frequent intervals until within ten years, their results being published for the most part by the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. Prof. Franz Toula of Vienna visited West Spitzbergen in 1873 and made important observa- tions upon the Carboniferous. West Spitzbergen extends from iN» bat 76 40 to 79-15) and is indented deeply by bays, of which the most conspicuous are Kings and Cross, with common outlet at 79°, the long Ice- 82 THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 83 fiord, 78° 10’, extending inland to 78° 50’, with numerous bays, Dickson, Klass Billen, Sassen and Advent, and Bell’s sound, 77° 30’, with Lewis sound and Recherche bay as its principal divisions. All of these are more or less accessible from the middle of June until some time in September. This ready accessibility of the west coast has encouraged attempts to utilize the mineral resources. Many years ago a deposit of phosphates was discovered on Icefiord but the effort to work it proved to be unprofitable. Coal was discovered almost one hundred years ago in the northern portion on Kings bay, where it was mined by Dutch whalers. Keilhau found coal on Cross bay in 1827 and in 1861 Bloomstrand rediscov- ered the deposit on Kings bay, the glacier concealing it having retreated. He traced the bed for 7,000 feet but was unable to ascertain its thickness though he determined that the coal is brilliant, with conchoidal fracture, burning completely to ash and showing here and there some woody structure. The asso- ciated plant remains were long leaves and stems of deciduous plants.' Von Buch cites Robert as an authority for the statement that whale fishermen had taken sixty tons of coal from Icefiord to Hammerfest, evidently prior to 1839; and he says that Ca/a- mites, Sigidllaria and even Lepidodendron are not of rare occur- rence in these coals.*, The Swedish expedition under Nathorst and DeGeer in 1882 studied very carefully the deposits on Ice- fiord and Bell’s Sound. They succeeded in rediscovering a coal horizon on Advent Bay, but were unable to determine whether or not it is of workable thickness. An important col- lection of plants made in that year by Nathorst and described by himin 1897, enabled him to determine the age of the deposit as upper Jurassic.’ It is certain that the Carboniferous plants 1 Bloomstrand’s publication in the Zrans, of the Stockholm Academy is not acces- Sible to the writer and the reference is taken from F. Mohr, Geshichte der Erde, 1866, pp. 128-9. 2 Robert, Bull. Soc. Geol. du France, xiii,as cited by von Buch, Berlin Akad. des Wissenschaften, May, 1846, p. 73. 3A. G. Nathorst, ‘‘ Zur Mesozoischen Flora Spitzbergens,” Zrans. A. Svenska Vetenskaps Akad., Band 30, No. I, pp. 5, et seq. 84 STEVENSON mentioned by Robert, as cited by von Buch, must have been collected at some other locality and not in association with coal, as no coal occurs in the Carboniferous of Icefiord. Carboniferous rocks do exist in West Spitzbergen, and the map given by Nathorst shows extensive areas of these rocks on several branches of Icefiord as well as on Bell’s sound and fur- ther south. In 1827 Keilhau obtained Spirifer keithavit from the South cape and in 1839 the French expedition collected the same spirifer with Productus giganteus from Bell's Sound. Toula in 1873 found a Carboniferous faunain the northern por- tion of Icefiord, which shows a commingling of Permian and Coal Measures forms much like that existing in Nebraska and West Virginia. Nathorst has described recently the Carbonif- erous plants collected at several localities on Icefiord and Bell’s sound, referring them to the Lower Carboniferous. Thus far no workable coal bed has been found in this forma- tion on Spitzbergen. Coaly streaks are present at some of the northern points along Icefiord but they are not beds. Last year, Mr. G, A:.Fangen ‘found on’ Recherche bay ict Beme sound, about five miles below the anchorage, a bed of excellent coal, four to five inches thick and associated with a dark shale showing abundant impression of plants. The outcrop is cov- ered with debris and the stay at this locality was too brief to admit of uncovering the coal and its plant bed. It seems to be near the spot at which Professor DeGeer observed Lower Carboniferous plants. The absence of workable coal in south- ern Spitzbergen at the bottom of the Carboniferous is the more noteworthy because coal is present on Bear island, N. Lat. 74° 30’, which was discovered in 1684 by Bennet, who took some of this coal to England. In 1827, Keilhau found four coal beds in a vertical section of about 200 feet, the intervening rocks being fine grained sandstone. Higher beds, unquestion- ably of Coal Measures age, are here as shown by the mollusks, and von Buch was inclined to place the coals in the Lower Car- boniferous, which would make them equivalent to the plant beds of Spitzbergen." Professor Nathorst, however, made 1Von Buch, op: cit., pp. 67, 73; THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 85 collections on Bear island. in 1898 and still later additional col- lections were made by Doctor J. G. Anderson, all of which were described by Nathorst in 1902.' The study of these plants led him to refer the beds to the upper Devonian. The shallow water between Spitzbergen and Bear island suggests a land connection between the two areas until comparatively re- cent times. The Bear island coal field must have extended much further south and west, for even since the glacial period the island has lost much on those sides, the glacial trough now on the westerly side of the island having lost the greater part of its west wall and the cirque on the southerly side has been removed. , The coal beds on the east side of Advent bay are placed by Nathorst in the upper Jurassic. During the last decade spas- modic attempts at mining have been made, chiefly to supply the whalers who ply their trade by means of steam launches. The whole region was explored in 1903 by an English-Norwegian company and in 1904 that company began systematic develop- ment on the east side of Advent bay. At the time of the writer's visit, the work in charge of Mr. G. A. Fangen, M.E., of Bergen, was advanced sufficiently to exhibit the coal and the conditions of its occurrence. The opening is at perhaps a mile and a half from the mouth of the bay and at 330 feet above the water. Mining was begun early in June with the expectation that it could be continued until late in September, when a shipment of about 1,000 tons might be made to Tromsoe in order to make a thorough com- parative test with the English coal used there. The main head- ing had been driven sixty yards from the crop and a room had been opened, extending perhaps twenty yards northward to another heading, which has been abandoned. The section of the bed is Feet. Inches. MNO INAN 5g 406 ows v ai cartondeave caine fe) 4 714) 6g: 1 0 ee ee PEE 2 eR ps ave lvuy sc care taneous fe) 5 1A. G,. Nathorst, ‘‘ Zur Ober-Devonian Devonischen flora der Biren Insel,’ Trans. K. Sven. Vetens. Akad., Band 36, No. 3. 86 STEVENSON Feet. Inches. HO aE SEUNG ooo Stace gus team eens ate Bee Seal oe on Setar rat fav salsoen en ane fe) II Gi Clay: spor ates ad Sec hie hian ec eoroeeee fe) 2to4 yl, One 9 ene SP tn Se) I rs 85" Rock , Sandy ven a.sc.n secs oma fe) 3 to.5 Gg. Coal. oS. s2t tack tea eee tere I fe) The measurements are exact only for the place at which they were made and the portion, Nos. 1 to 5 inclusive, averages not more than 1 foot 3 inches. The whole of the coal is mined, but the character is not the same throughout. The “top,” that above No. 8, is hard, grayish black, with fracture more or less conchoidal and much like a splint coal ; the ‘bottom ” is black, lustrous, with layers of brilliant coal and a somewhat prismatic structure. It is tender and shows some mineral charcoal, but this is not abundant. The composition is shown by the follow- ing analysis, for which I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Andrew S. McCreath, so long the chemist of the Second Geo- logical Survey of Pennsylvania, who has added this to the series of similar favors for which I am under obligations to him. “The two samples of Spitzbergen coal yield on analysis respectively : Top. Bottom. Moisture:.:.cocscacneerneeceee = eeereeee 2.210 4.696 Volatile mattee cee eee ee 19.790 28.560 Fixed. carbon...-4 Nae samee Rota aaene 62.763 SAGE SUL PH UE ss ns oon ooeeeeen eee eee .467 .413 ASH. cidodveuneeoeeeee seen See se 13.670 (gray) 9.160 (light brown) 100.000 100.000 ‘‘ The ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter differs consider- ably in the two coals; but three determinations were made in each case. Such a difference has already been noted between the coal of the upper and lower benches, but it is unusual ; and generally the coals in a vertical section show approximately, at least, the same ratio of volatile matter to fixed carbon. (See Survey Report, MM, pages 94 to 97.) “The coals yield gases burning with a luminous but feebly smoky flame, and neither of them shows the slightest tendency to form a coherent coke. THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 87 ‘Both coals seemed to be quite dry, that is, free from hygro- scopic moisture and yet the percentage of moisture at 212° F. is quite high in both coals. This is suggestive that either the samples represent outcrop coal — where, owing to some peculiar physical change in structure, the ‘dry’ coal may yet hold an excessive amount of moisture and have its coking qualities (if it ever had any) entirely destroyed or to a different kind of vegetation forming the coal. In the present case the action of caustic potash solution has a marked effect on both coals, but more noted in the bottom coal, where the action is so marked as to suggest a lignite or a coal of such character or origin.” Mr. McCreath’s reference to the difference in volatile, shown by the two portions of the bed, is too important to be passed over. The relations are, ash and moisture being neglected, Top. Bottom. UES STEPS ea ey ae a Ee Om 23.9 33-3 Peete aT OM ore. 5k S. ai cur asintiens neck pb bacde ode 76.1 66.7 UNE eT eS ee ee a Ey Fey 1:2 giving a difference of somewhat more than g per cent. This is considerably more than the usual difference ; commonly one finds not more than 2 or 3 per cent. though in a few of Mr. McCreath’s analyses it reaches 5. The especial case to which he makes reference is that of a coal bed at a mile and a half east from Bernice in Sullivan county of Pennsylvania, whose two branches, according to his analyses, show Upper. Lower WiGHEI Ele IRGEUEE outta: a awh Gosia viinls te nizes tree 28. 36 12.61 Pike CAPO. £0. coe crane ee ee kee Paha ate 71.64 87.39 ie) FAROE Li... ai Ciseins cotlenee suse, keen tone cee i si2.52 1 :6.93 At Bernice, a bed at very nearly the same horizon, possibly the same, shows practically no variation in the benches and the average ratio of several analyses is almost 1:9, closely ap- proaching anthracite. In this connection note should be made of another fact shown by Mr. McCreath’s analyses. At sixty feet below the Bernice semi-anthracite bed, is coal which has the ratio of I : 4.63, while at six miles southwest, a still lower 88 STEVENSON bed yields coal with the ratio of 1: 2.52, the same with that from the upper bench of the bed east from Bernice.' More remarkable are the differences existing in the benches of the Mammoth coal bed within the anthracite region at the ‘Locust Spring and Indian Ridge colleries of the Philadelphia and Reading company, as shown by the analysis of Doctor C. M. Cresson, made for that company. At Indian Ridge the extremes are Volatile matter .2.c smear eae ero a2 10.42 Fixed carbon.,..23.2.5 asccseee eee nee ae eee ee 96.8 89.58 Fuel ratio: ..05, aos sateen ee et eer eee 12302 153.6 and at Locust Spring Volatile matter.<22, tees eee eee 1.89 15.3 Fixed’ carbons. eee eee eee OS..5i: Gf Fuel ratio, 322 5.4.25 tee omer eae 1552 1: 4.88 Other benches show ratios between those quoted. In four other colleries belonging to the same company, the differences between the several benches are insignificant.” The varying proportion of ash has no bearing upon the dif- ference in volatile. At Advent bay, the upper bench has the higher ash and lower volatile ; but near Bernice the high vola- tile of the upper bench is associated with nearly five times as much ash as is found in the lower bench; at Locust Spring, the bench richest in volatile is high in ash while another at seven feet lower has almost the same ash but less than one fourth of the volatile. Similar conditions exist at Indian Ridge. Nor has the relative position of the benches any influence. At Advent bay, the lower bench is the richer; near Bernice, the upper; at Locust Spring, the highest bench of the mammoth is the richest, while at Indian Ridge the highest volatile is found midway in the bed. The difference in physical features brings no explanation for coal in Virginia, analyzed by Mr. McCreath and very closely resembling the top coal of Advent 1A. S. McCreath, Reports of Second Geol. Surv. Penn., MM. pp. 94-97. Ann. Rep. for 1885, p. 318, GG, p. 214. 2 Ann. Rep. Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn. for 1885, p. 321. THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 89 bay, is very rich in volatile. The cause of the difference must be sought in conditions existing during the accumulation of the coaly matter, chief among which must be the length of ex- posure to the influences bringing about continued combination of carbon and hydrogen to pass off as marsh gas. The coal obtained for analysis is not ‘‘crop coal.’ On Ad- vent bay it has not been exposed to variations in temperature and moisture which are so efficient in causing deterioration of coals in our latitude. It was frozen long ago, before the pres- ent configuration of the valley was completed and it has re- mained frozen ever since. The temperature in early August, at no time rose above 39° F. The land surface is boggy in great part and is covered in many places by lowly flowering plants, but the summer thaw reaches to only a few inches below the surface. There is not the alternation of freezing and thawing so destructive to crop coal in our climate. The condition is well shown in the Fangen mine where at 180 feet from the crop and somewhat more below the top of the rock bench, ice was found covering the rock in the heading. Yet the tempera- ture outside had seldom fallen below freezing after the mine was opened. In the original heading, now abandoned, ice was reached along a fault line, fifty feet from the crop and it contin- ued to the end of the heading. The explanation of the mois- ture must be sought elsewhere. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that the moisture in the Advent bay coals, though three to four times as great as that usually found in the bitumi- nous coals of Pennsylvania, is not higher than that of many coals from Ohio, while it is much less than that in most of the Iowa coals. The great majority of analyses from the last- named State show upwards of six per cent. and not a few show ten per cent. and upward — all of these being carboniferous. The reaction of the coal with caustic potash suggested other comparisons. Mr. Norman A. Dubois, Instructor in Quanti- tative analysis at New York University, very kindly analyzed the coal from the lower bench with the following result : LTE RS Sa BS Seer hae A ae ae 4.14 Carbon... 90 STEVENSON ER VCYODENR oo diss dnicdenulieis ons ceeds cosas soe) weqnadeectenyaekeaseeeeee 4.05 Oxyoen and INitropeny x.2.6k5 <2 gece xt capes oe eee at eBeptore 11.90 PG, ooidocede .dias sepece ceeanin seb eanwediet ss dawes see te hee ase eee eee 120g The ash is higher than Mr. McCreath’s analysis because the latter was made from the lump coal while the coal for this was fine coal. The nitrogen is present in small proportion, consid- erably less than I per cent. and it was not determined separately. The Fangen coal from Spitzbergen, wholly non-caking, is attacked by caustic potash very energetically even in the cold. For comparison, several non-caking coals were tested. The lignitic coal of Carbon, Wyoming, Laramie in age, resembles in color the upper bench but in structure the lower bench of the Fangen bed; that from Rock Springs, Wyoming, also of Lar- amie age, has a fracture like cannel, and, unlike the Carbon coal, shows no mineral charcoal. These coals are attacked slowly in the cold but very rapidly at the boiling temperature. A non-caking coal from Des Moines, Iowa, of Coal Measures age, is attacked notably in the cold and almost as rapidly as the Fangen coal at boiling temperature. This coal is very like that from Carbon, but has more mineral charcoal and contains up- wards of 6 per cent. of water. A coal from Savanna, Indian territory, of Coal Measure age, and yielding an inferior coke, is attacked slowly in the cold and the solution becomes distinctly tinted after prolonged boiling. Several caking coals were tested; they are from Canon City, Colorado, and Madrid, New Mexico, of Fox Hills age; Stark- ville, Colorado, of Laramie; Vancouver’s island, of Upper Cretaceous; Leavenworth, Kansas, Wolf county, Kentucky, Fayette and Westmoreland counties, Pennsylvania, of Coal Measures. Not one of these caking coals caused the slightest discoloration of the solution after ten minutes of boiling. In both classes are coals of Carboniferous and Cretaceous age, coals made under similar conditions of cover and similar relations to disturbing agencies, so that one is led to suspect that the character of the coal was determined very soon after burial. THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 91 Ultimate analyses of the coals referred to are not available in most cases, but a few can be given. They may be tabulated as follows :' H,O Cc H O N Ash. REE one oo Sec cu casiNoceuy Sdtpor nents 4.14 67.88 4.05 11.90 12.03 ERIN cS cau isi nduaeysahveexuerdenss 7.35 | 63.65 | 4.60 | 19.44! 1.40, 2.80 REE AOIOG Sain ncid yg vucsnnscidanendace 6.59 | 70.64 | 5.13 | 10.79 | 0.97) 5.30 PP PURUUNIIC Since c sco vivecbiecedsasesssows’ 0.44 73.58 4.81 9.41 | 0.31 10.80 5 SENG LLSVPAG. V5. cc dentann er acacoseos 0.89 | 82.48 | 4.50 | 5.61 | 1.45 | 4.13 The roof at the Fangen mine isa black slate, but throughout it is frozen so that none of it has been taken down. No plant impressions were observed in any of the little fragments that had fallen nor had any been seen by the superintendent or the foremen. To secure a complete section of the rocks, to the top of the bluff, fully 1,600 feet, would be extremely difficult owing to the abruptness of the face. If one may determine from a some- what close examination of the loose fragments up to about 400 feet, the result of the effort would hardly repay the labor. The softer beds are concealed by debris except in some precipitous portions, while the exposed rocks are flaggy sandstones. Evi- dently, one has here a succession of brown, gray, reddish and yellow flaggy sandstones and sandy shales with apparently ‘some streaks of black shale. But from the palzontologist’s standpoint the detailed section might prove of great interest. Professor Nathorst collected from a ravine near the head of the bay the interesting series of plants, 7@mniopteris, Lycopodites, Batera, Feildenia and Elatides, which enabled him to determine the age of the beds as Upper Jurassic. These remains were found ina black shale, but they are not confined to that stratum, for Mr. D. H. Morris, accompanying the writer, obtained among other specimens a block of sandstone with 7enziopteris from a 1No. 2 is by C. E. Munsell, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., xiii, 4. Nos. 3 and 4 by R. C. Hills, Min. Res. U. S., 1892, p. 362. No. § by J. L. Lilienthal, un- published, communicated by Prof. J. F. Kemp. The writer will present the results of studies upon this matter and others bearing on the variations in coal at a later time. 92 STEVENSON ravine toward Sassen bay. A sandstone fragment, obtained by the writer on the bluff along the east side of Advent bay, shows an imperfect mould of an Astarte which Dr. R. P. Whitfield thinks related to a Cretaceous form found in the Rocky moun- tain region. Curious ferruginous concretions are abundant and the sandstones often bear markings similar to those long re- garded as fucoids. The beds are evidently conformable throughout, but they are not undisturbed. The general dip is N. 30° W. Mag. (error 15° W.) at the rate of three feet per hundred. Faulting is not in- frequent. The original heading at the Fangen mine reached at somewhat more than fifty feet a downthrow fault, which was followed for nearly thirty yards before the work was abandoned. The crushing along the fault is slight and the throw, as is seen in a hard sandstone above the crop, does not exceed six feet. Other faults were observed in the face of the cliff, but they are all insignificant. The coal bed opened by Mr. Fangen is not the only one. The outcrop of another is distinct at perhaps three hundred feet below the crest, which Mr. A. E. Stevenson found on the oppo- site side of Advent bay to be 1,600 feet (by barometer) above the water. This bed is of workable thickness, but at present it is practically inaccessible, being about 1,300 feet above the shore. Traces of an intermediate bed were seen, but nothing has been ascertained respecting it. The coal has been traced around the face of the cliff along Icefiord to and along Sassen bay, a distance of more than ten miles; and Mr. D. H. Morris, following a ravine between Ad- vent and Sassen to its head in the plateau, found fragments of coal along the whole distance. The outcrop of the lower bed is thoroughly distinct to the head of Advent bay on this easterly side. A coal cropping appears on the westerly side at a little way above the anchorage, whence croppings were followed to Icefiord and for some distance along the southerly shore. Coal is mined in a ravine coming down almost to the anchorage and an abandoned opening was seen at almost a mile further north- west, where a Holland company had marked out a claim. Pro- THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 93 fessor Nathorst is inclined to refer the coals on the westerly side to the Tertiary ; but there seem to be no differences between the rocks on the two sides of the bay; the sandstones bear the same markings and the curious ferruginous concretions are as characteristic on the westerly as on the easterly side. Col- lections made by D. H. Morris and A. E. Stevenson on the plateau between Advent and Coal bays, a distance of about ten miles, as well as along the southerly side of Icehlord between those bays, show the same features throughout; so that one appears to be justified in regarding all as of the same age and in referring all the coals of Advent bay as well as that on Coal bay to the Jurassic, in accordance with Professor Nathorst’s determination for the beds on the easterly side. While, along the line followed by Messrs. Stevenson and Morris, only Jurassic beds were seen, it is necessary to go east- ward but a short distance to reach Tertiary beds, of which some knobs remain well-marked at not more than seven miles from Advent bay. These flaggy, grayish standstones are loaded with leaves of dicotyledons, with which occur stems of horse- tails and apparently leaves of cycads. The succeesion through- out appears to be conformable and the passage from Jurassic to Tertiary seems to be very gradual. The effort to mine the Fangen coal in commercial quantities, if successful, will be of more than passing interest. The market -is ample in northern Norway, where the coal can be placed at less cost than that from England. The long wintry night and the closing of the harbor by ice during nine months each year seem almost prohibitory. But the company, in case the test be satisfactory, purposes to make new openings at a more favor- able point further up the bay, to erect comfortable dwellings and to instal a complete electric plant, so that the work may continue uninterruptedly throughout the year. The proposition is by no means chimerical, as some might suppose. The average January temperature is said to be not lower than 15° F. and evidently Advent bay is less cold than other places not more than a few miles away. On the northerly side of Icefiord, about eight miles from the Advent bay anchorage, a continuous 94 STEVENSON glacier extends for more than ten miles, from Cape Bohemian to Alk point; ice was present during August, 1904, in bays further up Icefiord, yet around Advent bay and in the long Advent dale, extending southward from that bay, there was no ice except in some sheltered ravines where petty glacierets remain.' The ill-success of attempts to winter on the island were not due to the severity of the climate for Russian tribes wintered there during many successive seasons. Scurvy, not the climate, made wintering impossible for Europeans. That terror no longer exists. One must not fail to note that the general conditions during accumulation of the Spitzbergen coal did not differ from those during the accumulation of coals in our land. Even the inter- mittent deposit is proved by the lamellar partings as well as by the thicker rock parting. The climatic conditions from Carbon- iferous to Tertiary were like those of lower latitudes. Nathorst says of the Carboniferous, ‘‘The plants already known in Europe are in Spitzbergen as great as here, Ferns, Lepidoden- dron and Sigillaria.”” Toula discovered a familiar fauna in por- tions of the Icefiord area, as did also Keilhau and the French explorers in the southern part of the island; the Jurassié flora is of a type familiar in Europe, while the later flora abounds in deciduous plants. Reference to the occurrence of seaweeds along the Spitzber- gen coast is not out of place here. It may be remembered that Mohr, forty years ago, asserted that coal beds are due to accu- mulation of seaweed material and found a strong support for his theory in the existence of coal on Spitzbergen. He quotes from some writer in the bulletin of the French Geological Society and also from Naumann the statement that ‘‘ Even now there flour- ishes on the Spitzbergen coast a so luxuriant Fucus vegetation that often the boat can scarcely work its way through.” * He regards the Gulf Stream as the great carrier of material and as responsible for the existence of the weed. There is no room 1 It may be stated in passing that the glaciers of southern Spitzbergen are clearly decreasing. *Moht, 0p: c2t., pp. 130: THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 95 for doubt that the great northward drift has some influence on the climate of West Spitzbergen, for the conditions along the westerly shore are much more tolerable than those on Bear island, 150 miles south, but exposed to a southward drift. At the same time the conditions are not such as Mohr supposed, for he seems to have imagined the surface densely covered as in the Saragasso sea. For 150 miles along the west coast, the water during August of 1904 showed few and small patches of seaweed and the amount stranded on the shore is utterly insig- nificant ; so that even had there been a Gulf Stream during the Jurassic, its seaweed would not have been an important factor in coal-making. tas > aS. 2 PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES [Lyceum or Natura History 1818-1876] The publications of the Academy consist of two series, viz :— (1) The Annals (octavo series), established in 1823, contain the scientific contributions and reports of researches, together with the records of meetings, annual exhibitions, etc. Publication of the Transactions of the Academy was discon- tinued with the issue of Volume XVI, 1898, and merged in the Annals. “a § a ‘Box Be ores "Bo o 9 a2 o 5 cae Ce | v = Sat oO i. e) at fas] Nn A res faa ad ae ame no re) 2 = on oO O eH one p| a a ae a) eae = ow Ay Min | aha'- | m_ || Met | ecv’e | — My father Besig? | aha-- \\ Gi 2\\ Nias ecl’e — | Our father Lin | aha'- | it Les eci'e — | Thy father estgt! Bha- \ PEE Tar. Warre — | Yourtather Kin! | aha- ta || Lu del | eer e= oe His father Kinile'r | aha- la'r || Titel | ect'e- | pegt | Their father and | | | their fathers $9. Instead of the possessive suffix = g7, another form may be used for the expression of the idea of the relation of ownership between objects. For instance : 1. Met eci'e numo'-gi my father house his, or 2. Met ect'e-nu'ma my father’s house. 1. Met e¢t'e-d-a' Ce-gt my father reindeer his, or 2. Met ect'e-d-ace my father’s reindeer. The second form is similar to the Saxon form of the genitive case in the English language (my father’s house, my father’s reindeer); but it is not the suffix of the genitive case that we meet with here. Only for the sake of euphony is d@ (or 7) put between the final vowel of the first word and that of the initial in the second word. § 10. The possessive suffix is used after the third person of a personal pronoun, ‘See §§ 54, 55. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 105 tu'del* numo'-gt he house his (see §8), = his house tt’ tel numo'-gt they house their = their house, but not after a possessive pronoun in the third person, Tu' de (see § 55) nu'mo his house. _ tte (see $55) nu'mo their house. § 11. In oblique cases the inflexion expressing the possessive element for the third person is introduced between the base and the case-suffix (see §12). § 12. The following table of case-suffixes may be thus com- piled : Suffixes. ; | ; With the Possessive Element Case. | Indefinite. | Definite. be Aerie) Parson. Nominative Base | k, x, lek, lox or | gt Boe, deRs dom" \ denn Dative hin — | Locative S€ OF go — dege or dogo Vialis gen Or gon oo | degen or dogon Ablative get or got — deget* or dogot' Accusative @. 16, 10 fi, 0, lek, (0x OL | 87 OF géle, golo, degele rice tek, 10x Instrumental | Ze or lo ~~: dele or dolo Comitative ne = dene Comparative I | gefe, goto — degete or dogoto Comparative II) “#7ze — — Temporal me — — § 13. The definite suffixes of the nominative and accusative, though performing the function of the definite article of European languages, do not exactly correspond to them in sense. They are used as a reply to the questions Who or what ? Whom or what ? if the question relates to the object, and not to the action, The abbreviated form £ and # is used when the noun has a modifier ; for instance : Ki'ntek* kelul*? Who came ? Coro'mo-lok* ke’ lul* The or a man came. Omo'ée coro'mo-x* ke’ lul* The or a good man came. 106 JOCHELSON §$ 14. It seems to me that the inflection /e or /ois nothing but the case of the verb to be (/e). Coro'mo-lok* ke' lul The or a man is (who) came. See §§ 82, 83 with regard to the form selul‘. $15. Suffix #22 of the dative indicates : 1. A movement in some direction, and is used in reply to the question Whither ? or To whom ? Lu'mo-nhin xonk* To the house or home go. Tu' del’ unu'-nin ko! beé He to the river went Met* ke'nme-nin xo'nge I to a friend went. 2. An aim, and is used after the question What for ? Met o'7e-nin kobe'iteye I for water shall go. 2.) Weimiit: Tul del hi'gemunin* o'moé mo! dot He until his old age well lived. § 16. Suffix ge or go of the locative is used after the ques- tions Where ? At whose house ? On whom? On what ? Met‘ numo'-ge modo'ye I at home sit. Met ett'e [va'n-ge mo' dot My father at Ivan’s lives. In some cases the locative answers also the question Whither ? and expresses motion zz¢o an object, while the dative mostly in- dicates motion foward an object. Met‘ nu'monin kie' Ce I to the house came. Met‘ numo'-ge co'uye 1 into the house went. $17. The vialis gex* or gon has apparently been formed from the locative ge. This case indicates motion. oz the surface, 1’ gemunin — li’gel (old age) + de (possessive element) + #2 (suf. of the dative case). Often /-de changes into mz. 2In the grammatical analysis of the text in my article in the Audletin del Acad- émie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (1898, September, T. IX, No. 2, p. 173), I considered this case suffix as an instrumental case ; but my further study of the language in the Jesup Expedition has convinced me that I was wrong in my former definition of this case. To avoid misunderstandings, I consider it necessary to point it out here. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 107 across, or through an object, and also ways and means of getting something. 1. Met d'zt-gen kie'ce Ion water came (on a boat or raft). 2. Tu'del* ti'bi-d-ani'l-gen yu'odei He through the smoke opening (chimney ) was looking. 3. Tuldel’ nu'mezigele yulo-gen He his axe under belt put. moru'cem. 4. Met‘ te'tul O'nmun-éo' bil-gen I you over the Kolyma tundra ka'udet* shall drive. 5. Met‘ cu'go-degen kobe'tteye I along his road shall go. 6. Met ir'kin dilex e'ime-gen min! me I one reindeer in exchange took. § 18. Suffix get or got of the ablative indicates motion from or out of an object, and has apparently been derived from the locative by the addition of ¢. Tu' del numo'get u' koé He out of the house went. Met ect'e-get kie' ce I from the father came. The ablative is also used for the purpose of expressing the degrees of comparison of adjectives (see § 41). § 19. The definite form of the accusative is the same as the definite nominative (see §§ 13, 14). This form remains un- changed after all the three persons. If used as a direct object, it is put between the subject and the transitive verb, in which case the latter is conjugated in the definite conjugation (see § 82). 1. Met ect'e coro'molok yu'omle My father a man saw. 2. Met eci'e omo'ce coro'mox yu' omle My father a good man saw. § 20. The indefinite form of the accusative, serving as a direct object when the subject is in the first or second person, is equal to the indefinite nominative ; that is, the base of the noun. It is only when the subject is in the third person that a special e, le, or Zo is joined to the direct object following it. Met‘ coro'mo yu'o I a man saw. Tet ace yu'omtik* Thou a reindeer sawest. Tu! del coro’mo-lo yulom He a man saw. Met ett'e a'te-le yulom My father a reindeer saw. 108 JOCHELSON $ 21. It is to be observed that the third person, as a rule, plays a peculiar part in this language. To point out one of these peculiarities: the transitive verb ¢o give is expressed by one word (kei, ‘“‘to give’’) when the indirect object is in the first or second person, and by an entirely different word (¢a’di, “to give’’) if the object is in the third person ; for instance : 1. Met‘ te'tin e'ye ket I thee a bow gave. 2. Tet‘ me'tin e'ye ke'imtk* Thou me a bow gavest. 3. Lét'e me'tin e'yele ke'im Father me a bow gave. 4. Lu'del‘ te'tin e'yele keim He you a bow gave. and 1. Met‘ tu'din eye ta'di I him a bow gave. 2. Tet‘ tu'din e'ye tadt'mtik* Thou him a bow gavest. 3. Ludel tu'din e'yele ta'dim He him a bow gave. 4. Mit ant'ze met ect'enin e'yele Our chief to my father a bow ta'dim gave. §$ 22. In the same manner, it is only to express ownership of a third person that the object has a possessive element, which is expressed by gz in the nominative ; ¢7, ge, or dege in the ac- cusative ; and de in all other oblique cases. The possessive element is placed between the base and the case-suffix (see S12): nu'mo-nin To the house ; nu'mo-denin ‘To his house. numo' -e In the house ; nu'mo-dege In his house. § 23. It is very likely that de is an abbreviation of the posses- sive pronoun /2'de (see § 55) ‘ his.” § 24. The element de indicates that an object in the oblique case belongs either to the subject if it is in the third person, to the direct object if it is in the third person, or to some third person ; for instance : 1. Met eci'e nu'mo-dée-get u' koe My father of his house came out. 2. Let’ mit ant'ze nu'mo-déege Thou our chief in his house me me'tul* nugte' mik* wilt find, z. e., thou wilt find me in our chief’s house. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 109 3. Lu'del* me'tkele ni'em, mets He called me, I into his house nu'modege co'uye went. § 25. The inflection ge of the accusative is used in a word constituting a direct object of the subject in the third person, if the direct object belongs to the first or second person, or to the subject proper. Examples without the element ge - 1. Met‘ tet‘ mo'go min: I thy cap took. 2. Tet‘ mets mo'go mi'n-mik* Thou my cap tookest. 3. Tu'del’ mo'go-lo mi'zum He a cap took. Examples with the element ge - 1. Zu'del met‘ mo'go-gele mt'zum He took my cap. 2. Lét'e tet mo'go-gele mt'jum | Father took thy cap. 3. Lit'e tu'de mo'go-gele mi'zum Father his cap took. § 26. The inflection dege, or deu in its abbreviated form, is introduced to indicate that the direct object belongs not to the subject, but to some third person. Met eci'e yo'ndodége, met caca My father when he slept (in his mo' sodegele (or mo'godetile) ma'zum sleep) my elder brother his (2. e., father’s) cap took. § 27. The suffix of the instrumental case, /e, signifies an instrument or a means. Though the indefinite accusative has the same suffix, /e, the two seem to be of a different origin. The instrumental suffix /e is used indifferently, no matter what person the subject may be. 1. Met‘ li'pe-le xa'rte I with a spade dig. a. Jet a'te-le”’ kie dek* Thou camest on reindeer. § 28. The suffix of the comitative case z’e, is used in place of the preposition zuzzh. Met eét'e-n-e kte' ce I with father came. Tu! del ect’ e-den:e mo! dot He with his father lives. 14 Y/e-le is, properly speaking, in the singular number ; but in such cases the singular is frequently used instead of the plural. 110 JOCHELSON § 29. The suffix of the comparative I case gefe, signifies ‘“as compared ”’ with ; for instance : With my father compared he is big (¢.¢., bigger): Met eét'e-gete tu'del* co'mot § 30. The suffix of the Comparative II Case, #’¢e, means like ; for example: Tu! del met ect'e-ti' te e'rée coro'mox’ We like my father is a poor man. § 31. Temporalis se or mo changes a noun into an adverb of time : Pojerxo' day ; poferxo'-mo in the daytime. Ogo'ye to-morrow ; o' goyel-me in the morning. Vu'ole evening ; yu ole-me in the evening. § 32. CoMPLETE TABLE OF DECLENSION OF A Noun. Tae : Case. aie | Definite Suffixes. TE er aaeh Nominative _Eme'i-mother FEmetk‘; Emetlek’ Eme'igt Dative Lime’ inin — | Eme'tdenin Locative Eime'ige — | Eme'idege Vialis Eeme'igen — | Lime'idegen Ablative Eme'iget’ — | Lme'ideget® Accusative LE me'ile LEimetk‘; Emeileks, Eme'igt ; Eme't- | | | gele; Eme'ideule | | (=£me'idegele) Instrumental | Eme'tle | — Lime'tdele Comitative | Eme'in-e | — Eme'tdene Comparative I | Eme'igete — | Eme'idegete Comparative II Temporalis | Eeme't-tt' te § 33. Plural Number.— The plural is formed by the addition It is very difficult to define by a general rule of pe or pul‘. when one of these forms should be used. Most nouns receive the addition, now of one, now of the other, of these two forms. For instance, coro/mo (man) may be coro’ mo-pe and coro! mo-pul‘ in the plural. Generally fe is preferred after a consonant and GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 111 a long vowel, — polu't-pe (old men),—and /uz/‘ after a short vowel, — e/77e-pul‘ (younger brothers or sisters, or both). § 34. The plain suffix fe, or the double one fepw/, is joined to the following words in plural: Singular. Plural. kot boy, fellow, voung man k'oipe and k' oipepul pat young woman pu'ipe and pa'ipepul ke'nme friend kenne' pe’ and kenne'pepul' u! 0 child uo'rpe* and uo'rpepul K’'oipe and pa'ipe are used as if they were in the singular. ' They say, for instance, z’rkin pai and w’rkin pa'ipe, one young woman. § 35. It is quite likely that fe is a suffix of the now extinct dual number. For example, 4cz’e-fe (fathers) means either father and mother together (7. ¢., parents) or the father and his elder brother ;* while Aéz’e-pul/‘ means many fathers. I have not found any more traces to confirm my supposition. With regard to the above-mentioned double suffixes for the expres- sion of plurality, I have noticed that, when these words are preceded by a numeral which does not exceed 5, one suffix is joined to them, and, if it exceeds 5, a double suffix is added ; for instance : yan pa't-pe three young women, and ma'letyan pa't-pepuls six young women. § 36. The element expressing plurality is placed in the nomi- native and all oblique cases, between the base and the other suffixes. A’ée-pul-iin, to the reindeer (plural), and ae-pul-de- jin, to his reindeer (plural). We have thus the following order: Base + element of plurality + possessive element + case-suffix. § 37. Very often the element fe, when preceding another suffix, drops the ¢; for instance, @’¢e-p-#7 (his reindeer), instead of a'ce-pe-gi, g changing into & when preceded by /. 1 m2 followed by / changes into 7. 27 is put between the diphthong and ¢/ for euphony. 3 The elder brother of the father is called Comd’77e, that is, the big father. 112 JOCHELSON § 38. The Yukaghir language has no grammatical distinc- tion of gender: With reference to people, "if there areuae special names to indicate sex —as, for instance, e¢’e (father) and emme’z (mother), po//ut+ (old man, husband), ¢ert’ke (old woman, wife) — the words for, koyo'ze, or a’dil‘ (fellow, man), or pai, payo'ze, or ma'rxil (woman, girl) are prefixed for that purpose. Royo! ze-a-e' mpe younger brother (eme = younger pay’ ofe-a-e' mize younger sister brother, or sister) A'duo (instead of A’di/-u'0) son (ie as Ma'rxt-d-uo daughter ovens To indicate the sex of animals, nouns are preceded by o'ncenojze ' for the male, and mo'z#oze” for the female. O'néenoze-caxa'le male fox; mo'tioze-caxa'le female fox The male of the wild reindeer is called simply 0’ xe, or o/ ne, and that of the elk, pze’7e. The female of the wild reindeer is. 2’vogoze, and that of the elk, #oyve. § 39. The suffix for the augmentative form of nouns is ¢e’ ge, and for the diminutive, @’e. Nu! mo-tege (large house), 2! mo- die (small house). THE ADJECTIVE. § 40. The adjective has no special form. Instead of it, par- ticiples and other verbal forms (see §§ 80, 84) are used. All forms taking the place of adjectives are used as modifiers, put: before the modified word, and do not undergo any changes. Omo' ce coro'mox good man. ¢t'tneye-a- ige'yé* long thong. § 41. Degrees of comparison. 1. The comparative degree is formed by means of the abla- tive of one of the nouns compared and a verbal form in the: third person ; for instance : 1 Generator or provider. 2 Keeper. 3d is inserted for euphony. oO Ur Io. & WwW N w GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR Met ect'e-get‘ tu'del li' get, LANGUAGE 113 my father from he is old; that is, he is older than my father. 2. The superlative is formed by means of the ablative of one of the nouns compared preceded by the pronoun ¢z!muf‘ (all). Cu'mut odu' peget** tu' del li' get, all the Yukaghir from he is old ; that is the oldest. NUMERALS. § 42. The following are the principal cardinal numbers : Independent. Me a ea A'taxlot Ya' lot Ya'loxloi (three and one) L'n-gan:bot Ma' lgiyalot* (two times three) . Purki'ot (one above, one more ) Ma' leiyéloxloi* (two times four) Kunt'rkilezeot (ten, one missing ) Ku'nels Used as Modifiers. L'rkin coro’'mox (one man). A'taxun Sb | AGI. Yan Hee viribees) of? Ye'lokun Sy Gijotr. 4 L'n- gan‘ boje i° 4a five a Ma' letyan ki) Pes te Purkt' yin ft, seven: 4 Ma lgiyelokun PC) eign. 6s ane Peilezcope” ho mine \*S Kunt' yin oo ten § 43. Judging from the above list of numerals, one draw the conclusion that the Yukaghir system of numeration is not quinary, as it is with the Chukchee, Eskimo, and most of the Indians, but tertiary. But it should be pointed out on the other hand, that z2-’gan-bo1 (five), as it seems to me, contains might . the word va'x‘do (palm, wrist, z. ¢., five fingers) since + pre- ceded by z: change into its corresponding consonant g, 7x 1 Instead of odu//peget‘, from odul‘, Yukaghir. 2 Ma/lgi or Malgi/‘ means joint. N-e/malgil‘ (all the joints together) means a year. Ma/lgivalot, malgiyeloxloi, mean joint-three, joint-four, 7. ¢., each one con- tains three or four. 114 JOCHELSON equals zz or ze (together). And if this be so, the Yukaghir system of numeration has two bases. Unfortunately, I have been unable so far to discover the meaning of the word ku' nel (10). $44. All the rest of the tens are composed by multiplying 10 (£u' nel’) by the number of tens which precede the ten. Thus, | twenty = a’ taxun-ku'nel* (two tens), sixty = ma’lgiyan-ku' nel (sixitens) etc: Units are put after the tens with the addition of the post- position dud’ (on top, over and above); for instance : 11. Kunt'rkibud' = ku'nel-irkin-budi (ten, one over). 34. Va'nkunelyélokunbudi (three tens, four over). 76. Purki'yinku' nelmalgiya'nbud’ (seven tens and six on top). $45. The independent cardinals are verbal forms in the third person, positive form, singular, present-preterite tense, indefinite conjugation of intransitive verbs (see § 75). They may be in- flected like verbs, but not like nouns. For instance, to the question, “‘ How many ?”’ you reply, “ Yadloz (“‘ three’’) ;. but to the question, ‘‘ How many men?”’ the answer is, ‘“‘ Yax coro’ - poe Cree men, -). The plural ' number, present-preterite tense, will be: Mit ya' loyetti we three are, or we three have been. tit ya' loyeme¢t* you three are, or you three have been. ti'tel ya' low they three are (three of them), or they three have been. The future tense, plural: Mit ya' loteili we three shall be. tit ya' loteyemet* you three will be. ti'tel ya' loiter they three will be. § 46. Cardinal modifiers used as adjectives remain unchanged, only the words modified by them undergo case-inflections. § 47. There are no Yukaghir words for numbers above a hun- dred. They used to say ku'nel‘-ku' nel‘ (ten tens) for hundred : 1 It is plain that there can be no singular. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 115 but now they say zéfo’x (the Russian so). The Russian word for thousand (¢/'syaéa) has also been adopted by them ; but they pronounce it “cece. § 48. ORDINAL NUMBERS. Independent. As Modifiers or Attributive. The 1st a’fanume? a’ ainume-le coro’mox‘ (man) “ed @'taxteckt a’ taxlecte Sf = “<< 3d) ya’ lmeckhi ya' lmecte 3 ee e) 4th, ya’ laxlecks yal laxlecte a - oth) = 2’n-ganbecki a'n- gan: becte ce “ 6th ma’ leiyalmecki ma’ letyalmecte B ce “nth purki'yecki purki'yecte i ae “ 8th ma'letyalexlecki ma’ lgtyalexlecte a ok fey eth kunt! rkilezeockt hunt' rkilejeocte fs ‘“ roth kune'lecki kune' lecte xy 2) “ rith kunt’ rkibudickt kunt rkibudicte ia v “ 20th a’taxun-kunélecki a’ taxunkunelecte 7 = ‘“* 22d) = ku'nel-ataxulbudiekt ku'nelataxulbudicte ** de ete. tc. § 49. Ordinal numbers are derived from the cardinals partly by means of verbal suffixes. Cis the suffix which changes a transitive verb into a causative (see § 97); £2 (instead of gz, since g preceded by ¢ changes into £) is the possessive suffix of the nominative case (see §g); and ¢e (in place of de, d changing into ¢ after c) is the suffix of the conditional mode (see § 87). § 50. Distributive numerals : a’ taxlonut* by two 2’n- gan‘ bonut by five, etc. Nu is the suffix of the iterative form of the verb (see § 103,) tis the suffix of the verbal adverb (see § 115). § 51. Iterative numerals: Irki' ze once ataxlt' je twice wah ge thrice: ete, § 52. Fractions. One-half = Azmunde. The rest are com- 1 afinume means ‘‘at first, in the beginning ’’ ; a#nume/e, <‘initial, first.’? This is the only ordinal number that is not formed from a cardinal. 116 JOCHELSON posed of the attributive ordinals with the addition of the pos- sessive suffix gz; for instance: Valmectegi = Y3. § 53. Collective numerals : atax/ot‘ two together ya/o¢‘ three together yal/ox/o¢ four together, etc. PRONOUNS. § 54. Personal pronouns: met‘, 1; tet‘, thou; tu’del‘, he ; mt‘, we; wi, you; #'zel, they. The gender isnot indicated tm tue third person. The compound personal pronouns are formed by annexing the post-position ¢72’e (self) to the personal pronouns : Met-cji'e (myself), tet-e7t’e tud-e7t'e, etc. § 55. Possessive modifying pronouns for the first and second persons are the same as the personal, for instance, J7Zet¢ ect’e (my father); while the third is zz’de in the singular and 7’¢e in the plural. The possessive modifying pronouns do not change. The following are the absolute possessive pronouns : me'tle mine te'tle thine Tu' dele his, hers mi’ tle ours ti’tle yours te'tele theirs Absolute possessive pronouns assume case-suffixes. § 56. Demonstrative pronouns: 77%, this; and fa#, that. These two pronouns are used only as modifiers before nouns, and remain unchanged in most cases. After verbal nouns end- ing in / (see § 84) Za is joined as a post-position, and the case- suffixes are joined to it, while the verbal noun remains un- changed. For instance, yz’ ol-/az, that one who saw ; /2’ gel-tan, that old one. 7Za# rather corresponds here to the relative pro- nouns which, who. Tu’ bon (this) and Za'dun (that) are mostly independent pro- nouns, like the German derjenige, and assume case-affixes. But in some cases they are used as modifiers, and are declined nev- ertheless (see the text). § 57. Interrogative pronouns : kin who, /e’me what, xa’mun how many (much) and zu'mun which. Kin and /e'me are declined. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 117 § 58. Indefinite pronouns : yen, ye'nlek*, ye'nbon another éu'mu, cu'muté all a’ lle some, certain o'nmun every Of these pronouns, ye’xdon and 7’//e (if not used as modifiers) are declined. o'umun is used as a post-position; coro’mo-onmun, man every. § 59. There are no relative pronouns. Verbal nouns ending in don (see § 112) are used instead of them (see also § 56). § 60. The table on following page illustrates the declension of personal and other pronouns. § 61. With the exception of a few phonetic peculiarities, the case-suffixes of pronouns are the same as those of nouns. Me' tin is used instead of me’ ttn, since 7 cannot follow 2 Me! tne, in place of me’ tne, since ¢ and x blend into one nasal sound, i. Tubo' dek’, instead of Tubo'nlek’, etc. Special attention should be called to the accusative indefinite of the personal pronouns, first and second persons, singular as well as plural number. The accusative indefinite of these pro- nouns has a special suffix for the direct object following a sub- ject in the first and second person. In nouns, this form is identi- cal with the nominative indefinite (see § 20). For example: Met‘ te'tuls kude' det‘ I thee shall kill. Tet‘ me'tul’ ka'udetmiks ? thou me wilt conduct ? but Tu' del me'tkele ka'udem he me conducted. § 62. The possessive absolute pronouns, Je’ te, etc., assume the suffix of plurality, pz/‘, which in oblique cases is put between the case-suffix and the base : Mi epul ours Mi’ tle-pul-nin to ours. $63. Lu'bon, Ta'bun, Tan, kin, le'me, ye'nbon, n'ilst, xo’ dimet’, assume the suffix fe or pul‘ for the plural : ‘(sty) 27 /2P2Z — 2. UD]J PU I7I5I)1 Ul 1O 9ff ult 98 9]] aul UIDI]p Pill ID9)] FU MIMD A Ué JOCHELSON 2/2 aut oulul 118 "09 NL IAI poulpoap ore ‘aarp ox (2.57 ru ‘ung ‘ULT If ,tf-Iut af MYISIU I) 9.UIU AY I aut A} ,fIpUue 9} IISA IY Iul af 498 ul] UW9.8 aulay IS auby UM IUD) DA LTS ut Af yey M IU-U 19 IJ I5U 10 2. UU 1 YU LY MH ISU of 1O W219 yf9.8U 12 UISU 22 ISU 12 WU {22f yf Pfu j2f ule If tJ-U0g Ng 212/2V eM ‘(saroy) 27,2727 pue “(samok) af,27 “(smo ) 277/47 ‘Counp) 727 ‘uogny oy moguex pure ung DL < JePRL OHM IRL 2D PMN GAL “2207 PAL PEUteP SI 577 1 Pf 14-792 74 2J95U OGN, Ia5Ip Nf 2.UU OGNy 2.U apny au guy — YIP 0Qng 2p 4 I ISU OGM, I IBID NY IO 0g NJ 1O ,Jap 2] ,f95U OQNY fI5OD NY UISU OGY UISIP NY ISU OGNY I89p NY UI OQny w1p Nf ee ed ae 0g ny p12P 4 ay sTq} 944-1 I 94941 AL, 9.Uf A) 197 Af IIA] IY LON/ 7 (20 420 24 UIY] Pf Def] 4 ‘(og § 0}) SNOONOYG AO NOISNAIOA( AO ATAV], IfUf-] aul I IY] Jul 2.Uf aul 9] PU I IY] PUL IO ,/Mj aut JIS f aul UIY J PUL Do f Jul Up ut ff Jul APU i ” I ‘zeduoy DATPLYIWIOD je}UusWUIN.AsUT Jop “SnooVy o}IUyopul JATFBSNOOY oANeIGV SITeLA, JATICOO'T sae JEP» ‘JOpUL “WON GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 119 Tabu'n-pe ke' lit Those came. Ki'n-pe-get’ kelmet’ ? From whom (you) came? Ke'lul-taii-pe ti le'iit Arrived those here are, or those that arrived are here. Tan is one of the forms that are used as substitutes for relative pronouns (see § 56). THE VERB. § 64. While almost all the noun-bases are derivatives of ver- bal forms, the bases of verbs are in most cases disyllabic or monosyllabic roots, frequently consisting of one vowel. For instance, @ expresses the conception of ‘doing’; #, that of being born; 9, to draw, to get from the bottom. But nouns can, in their turn, become verbs again by means of the suffixes. te (for transitive verbs) and de (for intransitive verbs). For ex- ample: 07 (from 0, to drawn, and d’7e, to drink), water ; 02’ fe, to supply some one with water ; xz’'smo, a house; xumo'-de, to be with a house. $65. While the nominative indefinite always constitutes the base of a noun, that of verbs does not always coincide with one andthe same form. The first person, singular, present-preterite, indefinite conjugation, is the base of transitive verbs, while that of the intransitive coincides with the third person, singular, of the negative form, present-preterite, indefinite conjugation (see § 75, table of conjugations). § 66. Verbs have only two tenses, the present-preterite or perfect and the future or imperfect. The action may be either completed or yet to be completed. The performance of an action consists of a continual succession of moments, every one of which appears in a given moment with reference to the act- ing person, either as past or future.’ Met kude' de I have killed, and I kill. Met kude' det‘ I shall kill. 1 The present-preterite is also to be found in the Gilyak language (L. J. Stern- berg, Material for the Study of the Gilyak Language and Folk-Lore [Bull. of the Imp. Academy of Sciences, Vol. VIII, No. 4, p. 422, November Igoo, St. Peters- burg]). 120 JOCHELSON MobpDE. $ 67. The following modes may be enumerated : imperative indicative, optative, conjunctive, conditional, supine, perfective, potential, evidential, inchoative. ° $68. The Yukaghir language has no infinitive mode. It is replaced by the supine. But when naming an action for illus- tration, I translate the English infinitive by giving the base of the Yukaghir verb (see § 65). §$ 69. Before proceeding to explain the formation of voices and other derivative forms, which are so numerous in the Yuka- ghir language, and which are called “aspects” in the Slav languages, or as the well-known Russian philologist, Nekrassoff, calls them ‘‘ degrees of action,” I shall point out how the ver- bal bases are being inflected according to modes, since all verb bases, no matter of what voice or degree of action, are inflected in the same manner with reference to mode. § 70. Every verb has two forms of conjugation, the definite and the indefinite. § 71. The indefinite has three forms in the indicative mode, a positive, a negative, and an interrogative. § 72. The imperative mode has two forms, a positive and a negative. § 73. The forms of the imperative mode are the same for transitive and for intransitive verbs. $74. The indicative mode has different forms for transitive and for intransitive verbs. § 75. The following tables illustrate the indefinite conjunction of transitive and intransitive verbs. 121 GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE a3-1 Nl »Y90-1,0 UwISIU-2 IN 7d »YI/U-1,N 7a Uds-2- N 7d »/2f-1,2 18 uwasiu-2/N item fy UIs-1 57-2 ‘(40M 07) 2,77 9.3-U OX »YIS-U OX wasIU-UOX 7d ,YAJIU-U OX 7d UGS jU OX JI »IJ-U OX 7a WISIU-U OX YlU-Ul OX UIO-U OX 5Y-UOX + (O19 MOULOS O03 01) wox IALPISUBIJUT wasiu-9) Jd i Sos aad ee uao- a7 [a »Y2]- |] 18 uwaslUu- 3] de saad UWI8- 9) 77] I0- Ip pny ,YI.5-Ip Apny ‘9sua T, VINNY “Uasiu-apapny 7a »Y2]1U-ap pny 1? uas-ap apny 7a »Y9]-2p pny 12 UaS1U-dp pny ,YlU-ap apny UId-ap apny »y-ap apny a5-.U MU 5.0-.U Ut UISIU-. UI -7d »YA/1U-.U 27d | UIs-U 1u-79 | »a]-. Ul 2ul-79 ‘asuay, wasaig ‘apory sauyvsagiuy ‘(aq 04) 27 “CP 01) ap,apny (aye, OF) .e2me | “QALPISUBAT, ‘SdUTA AO NOLLVOALNOD ALINIGAGNT ‘(aavy 01) 27 ee Lo) _ Wasi ,t]-79 yap tle 1-12 ua.s- 1]-]2 57 2]- -/? WISIU-.U 2Ut uwasiUu- 1 5/971] »f2U-.U tut ; 9 f2U- 1] A) fut uas-.U ue Us 1 apn y7-- UNUM »7-Y ff aut "ae[NsUlg ‘ean | ‘WIOT IANISOG | ‘WAOT SABSON ‘rensuls ‘[eanjg “AvpNsurs ‘jeanj{g ‘WAO,J SATISOgG aseq JOCHELSON 122 au-2n f9M9 2-1, »YONJ-2 2 m »YI2-2,N AO ,2%/-20 uit- 1-2 N-J3 f9ULII-2 N-]9 Yta2-1 N-J9 inN-] 3 992-1 N-]d 92-1,N-]2 1u-1,N | fPUMLI 2-111 ia2-1N 2-10 | 992-1, | 92-11 | Mu-U OX fIULdt-U OX ,YONJ-NU OX IO ,YON-U OX wOoXx Itt OX IO ,yuox mlO-U OX Wu-U OX-73 JIM It-U OX-72 Ut at-u0X-]9 UOX-] 2 J It-U OX-Ja at-U OX-] 0 Iu-U OX fIMIE-U OX U1 at-U0X Mu-U OX »YIt-U OX It-U OX “OATPISUBAJUT peel, faullat- 37 yonp- 2 | y ,yat- a7 IO Yaz ul-9) eee fe. faulah- 9]-1,0 HE aie 2]-1,0 »YIh-I7-2,0 al-I)-2,0 Om dl fIULIL- 97 ee! ded], »fad- 71 a= 97 UuLDU-dp apne »faul-ap apny sYON)-op apny Ul-Ip) ,APNYy ,Y/11U-Ip any Ul-dp apne IU-ap apna -]3 JIM Ih-Ip apny-]? Utad-ap apne -7a 1-ap apn -JI ,Yal-ap apNe-]a Id-ap APNey-]I WUDU-IP PP Ne »faul-ap apne 1-ap apne Ul-ID Apne /2U-Ip apne Ch hen, ‘O}LI9} 01g -JUSSIIG— ‘apoyy 221wI1pUuy MDU-.U tut mpu- 17 °€ ful .U 1 fIul- 1] *% sYON] -1t te ‘yonp- ty “% mn-t, 1 w-17 °€ yf 2l-. Ul yYlul- 17% wn-t ut m-17 *t Wu-. Ut tuu-79 Wu-jtj-79 © AIM IE .U 1-79 Ylde-.U Wut-79 2-.U Uut-]9 »YIt-.U WU-79 at-.U tu-72 UDU-.U tu JIU .U Ut a-t 1 wine tu 5 2Ull- Ut 01 U1UL “OATPISUBL], JIM t]-79 *z aiak= 1-79 “1 ye % sya t]-]? *7 ad= 1-72 “1 movu- ty °e ,fIut- 2] *Z 2- Yf I u-17 °€ yYllt- 1) *% I ee a. ‘IVINSUIS “[eIn[g | ‘repnSurs ‘Tenjg ‘re_NSurs -peanyq | aj x ‘WIOT dATESAN “WO *80119}U sod THI "WIOT OA 123 GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE yf1U-1 nN ,f9UL9J-2 IO ,jamatag-1,n 0 Ng-2n yf-2 »YIlIJ-1,N uJ-2 ,f1u-2 N-79 fIUMLINIJ-2 N-J9 AUS Ss oe yf-2 N-]2 »YINIJ-2,N-79 Il I]-1 N-7a »f1U-U0x fIMIJ-UOX | 10 ,pauadag-u ox YO NJ-U0X fM-U OX »YIMIJ-U OX UlIp-U OX flU-U OX-79 fIUMINAJ-U OX-JI Yt ,ap-uUOX-79 yfM-U OX-]9 »YINIJ-U OX-]9 INIJ-U OX-]9 1agiu-2 nN 1ajlu-U OX fIMINIJ-2 fIMINAJ-U OX Yt ,af-m Yt ,2p-u0x 19-1 1J-U OX »y¥ahag-2,N »YINIJ-U OX INI]-2,M INI] -U OX “IAIPISUBI}UT ALU - A] JI Ut] - 2) IO ,791t92-,a] 50 NJ-I/ 4-9 9792-9 un A) TEL Sa od Wy ed ,f9ULI2- 9] -]9 1,22-0]-]2 f-9[-7? 9f929] 10 IO ,¥92-a)-7a 929] 10 1O 92-a)-7a 20} (24 sJ9MI2- 2] D2 92-9] Mahe f | sax ~/A/ 92-9 ULIJIU-IY AVNY | | faulag-p apny 970 NJ-ap apny | IJ-ap apne YIU 9]-9p apne WIJ-ap apny Pele hPa 7? JII2-Ip APNY-]3 10 fIUMIKIJ-IP ,APNY-]9 Ula2-ap ,apny-ja IO 120)-ap apny-ja 1ajap apny-]3 IO 2f-ap apny-7a »YI2-ap apny-pa IO ,yadaj-ap apny-ja 9I-dp apNny-fI IO adaj-ap apny-7a ULI JIU-ap apne yfIUJ-Ip apny 1af-ap apny Ulaj-ap ,apny ,YIULJ-ap apne »f-9p apny WMJIu-.U uk yf PMI]-.U 11 YO NJ- UI | Udag-.U Ud ,Y2UL PJ-.U tu Ulag-.U rut 19J1U-.U 1-79 JaULdNIJ- Ul 1ul-79 Ylaj-.u u-79 1aj-.U 1-79 sYINIJ-U 2-79 adag-.U u-79 WL agIul-.U tue JIU J-.U UL 1ag-.U tu WdJ-.U Uk yY2ULAJ-.U 1 yfn-t lt uajiu- 7 ,f9ULJ- 50 Nj-1) uaJ- 2] Ut 9) -2] uJ 1] ron 01? |f9mlaha]- t)-79 AOR EL dal BF bat »YIAJ- 1)-72 I IJ- ,1) -79 Monte yf PMI] - 17 294- jt] uag- 2 294-1 94-7 ‘IeNSulsg ‘[emnjg "Ie[nsul ‘INSUIS “TeIN[d | ‘WIOJ IAT]VSOIIOUT ‘ULIOT JATIESIN “WIOT PATISOG ‘QATJISUBI T, i ‘oINyN J — "avoyy sazwripuy 134 JOCHELSON § 76. The following remarks should be added to the above tables. § 77. The Yukaghir language has the transitive verb / (to have), which is absent in the Ural-Altaic languages. § 78. Intransitive verbs whose base ends with a short vowel assume the suffixes 7e, 7ek‘, etc., in the present-preterite, and ée, ek’, etc., in the future tense; with a long vowel ora diphthong they assume the suffixes ¢e, éek‘, etc., in the present- preterite, and /eye, teyek‘, etc., in the future ; while those ending in a consonant have the suffixes 7e, 7ek‘, etc., or €e, ck‘, etc., for the former, and ¢eye, teyek‘, etc., for the latter tense. § 79. The negative conjugation of transitive verbs corre- sponds to the positive conjugation (with the exception of the negative prefix e/) of intransitive verbs. § 80. All forms of the indefinite conjugation are actual pred- icate forms. It is only the first person, singular number, present preterite, of intransitive verbs that may be used as a modifier when put before a noun. It thus takes the place of adjective forms, which are absent in the Yukaghir language (see § 40). For instance : te Det! le ye F am, or I live: 2. Le'ye coro'mox* Living, existing man. 1. Met ebi' beye I -am black. 2. Lbi'beye xar A black skin. § 81. The interrogative form is used only when it does not refer to the verb itself. For instance: Mit e'ye a’ tet ? Will we make a bow? atei is the positive form, but in the expressions, Mit’ xani'n e'ye atu'ok* 2 When will we make a bow ? Mit xa'mlol e'ye atu'ok* ?, How many bows will we make ! the verb is used in the interrogative form. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 125 § 82. DEFINITE CONJUGATION. Transitive. Intransitive. Present-Preterite. Present-Preterite. = | 1. kude'de-me = f 1. lo'do-l Bo 2 i. =e me ee & a M13. ‘* -meleorkude'de-mle &. ie ial £ ii ce ape 2 T ce =e Ss 3 a4 2 a meer See oe ee Ay ais ec am, -Rimele = 5 cali is Future. Future. = | 1. kude'de-tme x ( 1. lodo-tel c.\ .2 Pe =e Set iaee, SF Aree. S A Hw | 3 ch Pele ae Ws. 4" -fer* ee oP, tek BA ome 7 (: : -5~< 2 ‘¢ -femet Se ge Re oes 7 ae Ay Se ek 3 << -itutemle 3, *" =aitel" § 8 3. In the definite conjugation, the predicate is used when the subject is in the definite nominative case, or the direct object in the definite accusative. For instance: 1. Met‘ lodo'-ve and 2. Me'tek<‘ lo'dol I played. 1. Met‘ lodo'-teye and 2. Me'tek* lodo'tel I shall play. or 1. Tet‘ kude'demtk‘ and 2. Te'tek‘ kude'de-me ‘Thou hast killed. 1. Zet‘ kude'detmik* and 2. Te'tek‘ kude'det-me Thou wilt kill. 3. Met ace kude'de and 4. Met acelek‘ kude'- deme I killed a reindeer. The examples (1) may be used to answer the question, Who did, or will do, a certain thing? while (2) are used in reply to the question, Who did or will do a certain thing? (3) answers the question, What I ad? and (4) answers the question, What I killed ? $84. When the form of the first person, singular number, present-preterite, definite conjugation, precedes a noun, it as- sumes the meaning of a participle. 126 JOCHELSON kude' deme coro'mox' The man that has been killing. lodol adt' lek* The youth that has been playing. § 85. The optative mode expresses, by means of the suffixes u'ol or mt'chi, a desire to do a certain thing. Both transitive and intransitive verbs may have this mode. It is conjugated in all forms and in both tenses. The suffixes w’o/‘ and mz’ edi are put either between the base and the other verbal suffixes, or be- tween the latter and the first person, present-preterite, of the definite conjugation (see § 82). al-u'ol* (trans. v.) to desire to do (the base is @). mo'd-uwol* (imtrans. Vv. ) to desire to sit (the base is mo’do but o is dropped). met aluol lL desire todo: met* mo'duol pe I wish to sit. met el-a'luol fe I don’t wish to sit. met al'uoltt' I shall wish to do. met’ mo'duolteye I shall wish to sit. a’ ol expresses only the deszre, but not the posszbilty of doing ; while 7zz’ebz expresses both ideas. For instance: 1. met lend-uol#e I desire to eat, I am hungry. 2. met‘ lende-miebi-7e I wish to eat (having food). § 86. The conjunctive mood is expressed by means of the J P y prehise 7: Met a'nil at ot’ leu I (once) more fish would eat. Tet €a'éanin ot'-xo' nek thou to the elder brother shouldst go. § 87. The conditional mood has several forms. The follow- ing are all the forms of the verb @ (to do): I 2 3 4 5 6 met -a'-de a'-nide a'-lelde a'-leliide al-gene or a -lelgene tet =) Ge 6é 66 ce @ -gene tudel - <§ = et ae a@'-deune or a -leldeune i ee ea en es a @’-lukene or a'-lelukene Lit eh nb 6< ce 6c 6< (is HOLE» eh inee ai as ay Wiideune or a'-leliideune GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 127 Forms 1-4 are used when the principal and subordinate clauses have one and the same person as subject, while 5, 6, are used when different person are subjects of the two clauses. Besides, forms 3, 4, and 6 require that the verb in the prin- cipal clause shall also be in the conjunctive mood. For instance : 1. Met a'-de keit' I, if make, shall give. 2. Met a'-nide ket " 3. Met a'-lelde met o' thet I, if made, would give. 4. Met a'-lelnide met o' thet es 5. Met a'leene, tet mink‘ I, if make, thou take. 6. Mit a'-lelukene, o' mnt of - we, if made, people would take. mt'n nam Forms 5 and 6 are also used with the suffix /e/‘ of the future tense. For instance: ** Metul el-tle'-tel-géne, el-ko'ude-tel-geéne, met uo'rpe me not if wilt scold not if wilt beat my children met‘-ti'te yo'uletlelgene, te’ tin ke'lteye.’” ' me like if wilt love to thee will go. ‘‘If thou wilt not scold me, wilt not beat me, my children, like me, wilt love, to thee I will go.’’ It should be noted in this example that the verbs 2’/e “‘ scold” and o’ude ‘‘beat’”’ are in form 5, and yo! uletle “love,” in form 6, but without the element of the future tense. The verb e/teye (base, £e/*) (I will go) is in the future tense, indicative mode, and not in the conjunctive o’¢-kelfeye, thus corresponding to the first two forms. § 88. The supine is formed by means of the suffix a7. Met lo'do-din kiece I (in order to) play have come. This suffix is apparently the dative of nouns. Very often deiiin, the suffix of the dative case, together with the possessive element, are abbreviated into dz. For instance, eme’t-denin (to his mother) may be shortened into eme’t-din. On the other 1 Jochelson, Yukaghir Materials, etc., text No. 69, pp. 170, 171, lines 46, 47. Thus a widow replied to a man that was courting her. 128 JOCHELSON hand, the dative of verbal nouns is used. instead of the above form of supine. Instead of saying as in the above example, the following expression might be used, Met lo'dol-nin kie'ce. In this way, the form which corresponds to the Latin supine is rather a substantive than a verbal form. § 89. Perfective I called the mode which expresses an ab- solute certainty that the action will take place. It is formed by means of the suffix szoze’, which is put between the verbal suffix and the base. Transitive. Intransitive. Met a -mozi 3. Met* kobe't-mojzi-ve Titel @'-mopi-nam 4. Titel’ kobe't-moji-it I am able to do, or shall do, without fail. They are able to do, or will do, without fail. I can go away, I shall certainly go away. They can go away, they will certainly go away. Kh & DN HN 4 §$ go. The potential mood is formed by means of the prefix mo'li, and expresses hope or fear that a certain action will take place. For instance; Met‘ mo'li-co'u I may cut off, and lest I cut off. Met‘ mo! -el-co'uye I nearly cut off. § 91. The evidential mood is formed by means of the suffix /el‘, which is a verbal noun (see § 83) from the verb Ze (to be, exist, live). The evidential mode is used when something is told, not from the experience of the narrator, but (1) from hear- say, (2) as a supposition, (3) as a conclusion drawn from certain traces that the action had taken place, (4) as a dream, and (5) as reminiscences of events which had occurred in the early childhood of the narrator, and of which he had learned subse- Transitive. Intransitive. Met -a'-lel i’ -lel-ze Tet -a'-lel-mik§ it’ -lel-pek* Tudel-a' -lel-um ' it’ -lel-t 1 The third person, indicative mode is @-7z-, but in this case z is introduced after the consonant /. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 129 quently. Transitive, as well as intransitive, verbs have this mode. Let us take the verbs @ (do) and @ (be born). Mit -d'-lel-t Tit = -a'-lel-met‘ Ti' tel -@'-lel-iiam Met ect'e tin nu'mole am Met eci'e tin nu'mole a’ lelum Met ete tit nu'mole alelum, mo nit Met yendo'je, met ect'e tin numole a lelum Tolo'u medi'n pogi! -lel-t it! -lel-perlt it’ -lel-zéyemet' i’ -lel-fit My father this house made (the narrator saw ). My father this house made (it is apparent). My father this house made, they say. I dreamed that my father this house built. A wild reindeer just now ran by (would be said, should fresh traces of reindeer-hoofs be ex- amined on the ground). ‘““T was born”’ would be translated, set a’ /e/je (and not a’7e), since no one can be a witness of his own birth. § 92. The inchoative mood is formed by means of the aux- iliary verb @ (to do), which is put between the base and the suffix, dropped in this case. pa'nde to cook o’'7e to drink mo'do to sit o'rpo to hang po'gi to run (of animals) Of course the end vowel of the base is frequently @ changes into e¢ after z. panda’ to start cooking. aja’ to begin to drink. madd to sit down (begin to sit). a'rpa to begin to hang. folgia to start running. See pp. IOI, 102 with reference to o changing into a in the verbs mo'do and o'rpo. Tudel pa'nda-i (intrans.), he began cooking. Ludel o'zile -0'7a-m (trans.), he water started to drink. § 93. By adding the suffix yez to the stem of the verb, an action is expressed for the completion of which it is required to go somewhere. Yer, used separately, is a verb whose meaning is to ‘‘rush one’s self’’ “to throw one’s self.’’ 130 JOCHELSON /o'do-yet to go somewhere, to start off somewhere to play. kude' de-yet to go somewhere to kill. It follows the general rules of conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs. § 94. The supine, by means of the auxiliary verb /e (to be), expresses the readiness, or the intention to do something, and corresponds to the Latin conjugatio periphrastica. keldin-le to be getting ready to come, to be ready, to intend to come. Ti' tel ani'le leu'din-lemt they fish are getting ready to eat. VOICES. The following voices are formed from transitive and intransi- tive verbs. $95. The reflexive voice is formed from a transitive verb by means of the personal pronoun met, which is prefixed to the verb. In the Slav languages the reflexive voice is formed in the same manner; but the pronoun “self” is used by the latter asa suffix. For instance: Met‘ me't-kude' deye J myself kill. Tet‘ me't-kude!' deyek* Thou thyself killest. Tudel me't-kude' det He himself kills,’ or killed. These verbs are conjugated like intransitive verbs. § 96. The passive voice is formed from transitive verbs by means of the suffix 0, which is usually blended, together with the final vowel of the base, into a long 0. For instance: Kude' do instead of Aude'de-o. Verbs in the passive voice are conjugated like intransitive verbs. For instance: Tu' del kere'ken:e kude' do-t He is killed by a Koryak. 1 Tt is interesting to note that, in the Tundra dialect, the prefix-pronoun of the reflexive changes by persons, as in the Romano-Germanic languages : Met‘ met-bunje I kill myself. tet® tet-bun-jek* Thou killest thyself. tudel’ tur-bun-t He kills, or killed, himself. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 131 § 97. The causative voice is formed, by means of the suffix c, from transitive as well as intransitive verbs; but the latter are, in such cases, changed into transitive verbs: Rude! de-c to cause to kill. mo! do-c to make to sit. There is another suffix for the formation of the causative voice ; namely, cé/e ; but the difference between the two is not quite clear to me as yet. I hope that closer study of the texts will make the difference clear. § 98. The reciprocal voice is formed by means of the prefix me (in nouns, it constitutes the suffix of the comitative case). This voice follows the rules of conjugation of intransitive verbs. For instance : Ti'tel ne’ kudéedent They killed each other. § 99. The cooperative voice is formed by means of the suffix je or 72. For instance: Rude’ je To kill together. kudeze is equivalent to kudede7e. The second syllable de is blended together with 7e into one syllable. ASPECTS OR DEGREES OF ACTION. § 100. Derivative verbs indicating degrees of action are formed by means of suffixes, except those in § 107. § 101. The suffix z indicates singleness of action, that a cer- tain action was performed only once and within a short period of time : - pa'nde to cook pa'ndet to cook once. § 102. The suffix ¢ expresses an action in diminutive form, limits the volume of it: pa nde-ci to cook a little. § 103. The suffix ww expresses the iterative form of the action : panda’ -nu to cook several times. tee JOCHELSON In this case, the final vowel of the base turns into a long sound. § 104. The suffix zwnu (a reduplication of 2) expresses the iterative form in an intense degree : panda-nunu . to be always cooking (with interruptions). § 105. The suffix yz expresses the durative form, indicating continuity of action, or its reiteration within certain periods of fime : panda’ -yt to cook long. Met ae ku'dect 1 killed many reindeer one after another. ku'dect is equivalent to kude'de-yi. The e is dropped in de, and dy is 7 (see phonology), 7 changes into ¢(¢y). § 106. Any two of the enumerated suffixes for the expres- sion of degrees of action may be combined, thus forming the following: I. 2nu the repetition of a single action. 2. imunu - Bs as ah 3. cimu the repetition of a diminutive form, diminutive-iterative. 4. C1711 ce c¢ ce ce ce ce 5. yénu durative-iterative. 6. venunu gi oe ~ § 107. The prefix se expresses an action not quite completed but in the process of completion, or recently completed, or about to be completed: Met aie me'-kude'de I have just been killing, or I am killing a reindeer. Met‘ me'-lodo'teye I am going to play, I will play, right now (soon). § 108. The order in which the suffixes expressing the differ- ent derivative conceptions are arranged after the verb-base is as follows : base + voice + degree of action + mode +4 verbal suffix of person and tense: Tu' del ac-nu'-lel-um He apparently caused to do . . . several times. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 133 § 109. Before proceeding to describe the participial forms, I wish to draw attention to the ease with which nouns become verbs, outside of the cases mentioned above (see § 64). § 110. Every noun in the comitative forms, by dropping e¢ of its suffix z-e,a base of an intransitive verb expressing the ownership of something. For instance: ace-n'*e with reindeer. a cen: to have reindeer. Met adien:-7e I have reindeer, or a reindeer. met uo'rpen-fe I have children. Tu! del ect' ent he has a father. § 111. Every base of a noun may be turned into an intransi- tive verb by adding to the particle %o (be) as a suffix, which has no meaning when it stands alone. For instance: L001! e-fio be a father. Met ecte-ito-ze I am a father, I have been a father. Met ett'e-iio-teye I shall be a father. VERBAL NOUNS. § 112. The particle doz, being suffixed to various verbal forms, composes verbal nouns, which are used sometimes as the name of the subject (like our participles), or as a name of an action ; but if the verb is transitive, the verbal noun may also signify the object which receives the action expressed by the verb. From the base oe (to drink), we may derive the follow- ing verbal nouns: Present-Preterite. ol zeyebon o'zemebon a’ zemelebon O'zelbon Future. O'zeteyebon dzetmebon opetmelebon opetelbon. Bon combines also with the form /e/‘ of the evidential mode. Examples. 1. Zu'del t'bicile o'zemelebodek‘ He the milk who drank, or it isjust the one that drank the milk. 134 JOCHELSON o'7emelebodek is the definite nominative case of d7emelebon — One who drank. 2. Met d'zelbon pk: my (by me) drunk water, the water (that I am drinking) drunk by me. 3. Met ojelbon my beverage, or the beverage that Met o' zeyebon used to be mine. Met o'zemebon 4. Oj'e-nu-melebongele (accus.) That which is used to drink (he) nex’ anin el ma" 7t has never taken. 5. Metek d'jeteyebodek* I am the one that will drink. The suffix don is used as an independent word, fox (a word cannot begin with 4). In olden times this word used to indicate the name of a deity embracing all nature, the universe. Pon indicates something that is unknown. All household goods taken as a whole are spoken of as po! nfe. § 113. The suffix wo or wol‘ (from wo, ‘ child’’), when joined to verbal forms, expresses the result of an action. For instance: xo'n-uo or xo'n-uol’ (from xon, ‘‘walk’’), walking, a trace from walking, also a trail. d'7e-l-uol* (Z is introduced between the two the process of drinking, vowels; ge is the basis of the verb also the trace left from escrimk +7”) drinking,“ @. 92, tie water left in the glass after drinking. § 114. With regard to verbal forms serving as adjective modifiers, see §§ 80, 84, IIO. THE GERUND OR VERBAL ADVERB. § 115. The suffix ¢, together with the verbal base, forms the verbal adverb, which expresses an action taking place simul- taneously with that indicated by the predicate : Met‘ mo'do-t a yt I while sitting was shooting. Met anil legu-t‘ coril'e I while eating fish was writing. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 135 It seems to me that the suffix ¢ is that of the ablative without the local element ge (§ 12): Mo' do-t¢* sitting, or from sitting. § 116. The suffix //e with the verbal base expresses an ac- tion preceding the one expressed by the predicate. //e is ap- parently nothing but the instrumentative case /e (see § 12); but I always heard a sound of double / in verbal adverbs. This form is in most cases combined with the possessive element de or do (see § 12): Met eye a-delle nu'mo-yekli'n I, a bow having made, went hunt- xo! nge ing, Met‘ moda'-delle mo'go t'gda I, having sat down, a cap began to sew. § 117. If the verbal adverb expresses an action of another person (not of the subject), but taking place simultaneously with the action of the subject, it is then derived from the forms of the definite conjugation (see § 82) together with locative suf- fixes. The suffix ge is used for the first and second person, singular number ; dege, for the third person, both numbers; and luke, for the first and second person, plural number. For in- stance : Met yu' ol-ge while I looked. Tet yu' ol-ge while thou looked. Tu' del yu' o-dege while he looked. Mit yu' oluke while we looked. Tit yu' oluke while you looked. Ti'tel yu' oft-dege while they looked. Mit yu' oluke tu'del ani'le t'gdem while we looked (in our looking), he was fishing. Ti'tel at yo'ndonide'ge mit anil while they were still asleep we were a dget catching fish. THE ADVERB. § 118. The following are some of the adverbs of time: xani'n when. ti'ne lately. xant'nde sometimes. éugo'n soon. 136 JOCHELSON ajon' early. tuda'’ long ago. z¢ long. xo'nlume, xo'llume immediately. n‘e'xanin never. xa’ dié already. a wnume at first. ke'yot* at first. keye'n previously. druk* (suddenly, the Russian word vdrug). § 119. Adverbs of place: Za there, thither. Ye nere: xon where, whither. xot where from, whence. xo' dibonget’ whence. xo'nde eyerywhere, anywhere. zat’ thence. § 120. Adverbs of manner : o'moé well. Como'n very. na’ dude enough, only. ta'idaga enough. tat, ta’cile afterwards, later on. ne'gapiye yesterday. ogo'tye to-morrow. ta’'iinug? then. 2’ 72 NOW. ai again, once more, anew. Ta’ bun-nt' nin-giélgc meanwhile, in the mean time. ni’ Relize Many times. xa'mliyze several times. tmer elsewhere. mige'de hither. tinide this way. cal'rude sideways. pude outside. nacin against, opposite. tie“ hence, irom here: ki'zuon: easily, lightly. nige'yot heavily. e’rkin only. § 121. All adverbs directly precede the verb, and may be re- garded as prefixes. foots, for imstance, 77.7. Not all adverbs to be found in the lan- guage have been enumerated here. Some adverbs are simply Others are derived from these roots, for instance, 7a¢‘ fit‘ (“‘ thence,” “ hence ”’), which are the ablative of Za and 7. Others are formed from nouns and adverbs, as, for instance, 2*’aciz (‘opposite’), an abbreviation of 2’ acenin (dative of z:a’ce, “face’’); 2’rkin (“only”) is merely the numeral one ; Como'n: (‘‘very’’), from como, which is the basis of the in- transitive verb Zo de large. § 122. The temporal case of nouns, mentioned under nouns, is also to be added to the adverbs of time ($§ 12, 31). GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 137 Post-PosITIONS. § 123. All post-positions, which take the place of preposi- tions, might just as well be called ‘‘ case-post-positions,”’ like the suffixes enumerated in connection with the declension of nouns (see § 1). Post-positions differ from the latter in that they are not used in connection with a possessive element, and that most of them may take on case-suffixes. The latter circumstance is not so characteristic, however, since ze, comitative case, is used as a separate word, z‘a'ga (“‘together’’), and the case-suffixes get, gen, gete, are derivatives from the locative ge. As may be seen from examples, post-positions are sometimes put after oblique cases of nouns. § 124. The following are the post-positions. yola’, yola'n after, behind. Met-yola' after, behind me. budi'e on top, upon, on. budi'en on, over the surface. bud et‘ from under the surface. Tu' dels nu'me-budt' emo' doi he sits on the house. @/ under. met-al under me. at from under. lebte'-n-at u'koé came out from under the ground. ala’ near. nu'mo-ad-ala’ near the house. ca'tde across. unu' tige-ca'ide across the river. w' 77% (river) ge is in the locative case. yeklt'e behind. nu'mon-yekit'e behind the house. mekit'e in front. u'nun-mekii e at this side of the river. let for the sake, is a verbal adverb of the verb / (‘‘be’’), and is put after the dative. met ect’ enin-let‘ kole' ce I for the sake of father came. ele-cu'on without. £i'le (the adverb of the denial wo) is put before the noun. Ti'tel e'le-me' t-Cu'on xo! niet They without me went away. § 125. The Yukaghir language has no conjunctions; but some pronouns in oblique cases are used instead. For instance, 138 JOCHELSON Tabu'nget (ablative of ¢a’bun, that”) replaces the illative conjunction therefore. Ta’ tmedeu'ne (‘and for this reason’’) is the subjunctive mode of the intransitive verb ¢azmze (‘to be such’’). The adverb a (‘‘again’’) is sometimes used instead of our conjunction and: Ti'tel ya'xteni at londont They sang and danced. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The morphological peculiarities of the language may be summed up in the following main propositions. Word-formation is accomplished mainly by means of suffixes ; but prefixes are also used (almost exclusively in connection with verbal forms). In this respect the language differs from those of the Ural-Altaic group, which use suffixes only, and approaches the American languages. The possessive suffixes of nouns is but little developed (except in the third person) ; the language thus differing from the Ural- Altaic, as well as from the Eskimo dialects. Sound harmony of vowels (@ and o should not occur in the same word), is little developed, and in this respect the language resembles some of the Indian dialects, but differs absolutely from the Ural-Altaic languages with their intricate system of vowel- harmony. For instance, an important feature of the vowel- harmony of the latter group of languages consists of the adap- tation of the suffix vowels to the vowel of the root, which never changes. The vowel of the first syllable thus governs all the rest of the vowels, no matter what their number may be. In the harmony of the Yukaghir language, the root-vowel fre- quently adapts itself to the vowel of the suffix (see § 92). Besides, in the plural forms of personal pronouns (met‘, mut‘ ; tet‘, tit‘ ; tudel‘, tel‘) an attempt may be noticed in the language to derive new forms by means of changes of vowels within the root (the method of Semitic languages) without any additions from outside, a feature of which traces may be found in two other so-called ‘‘isolated”’ Siberian languages, —that of the Kott and the Ostyak from Yenisei. ~~ a GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 139 The difference in the conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs which we have in the Yukaghir language is a feature com- mon to almost all American languages. The same may be said of the capacity of bases of transitive verbs to change into intransitive by means of suffixes and vice versa. Suffixes of purely verbal forms are different from case-suf- fixes, and they cannot be brought in connection with personal pronouns. A necessary element of plurality is constituted by the sound ?; while that of futurity by 4 In the Chukchee and Eskimo languages ¢ constitutes the element of plurality, and in the Koryak language it forms the element of the dual number. Adjectives, being verbal forms, do not undergo any inflections. There is no difference between animate and inanimate objects, as is the case in some Indian dialects. The feature known as “ polysynthesis”’ in American dialects, and which consists of a combination of two or more uninflected bases in one word, in which one of the bases expresses the principal idea, and is put at the end of the word, while the other bases figure as secondary definitive ideas, is also to be met with in the Yukaghir language. For instance: ) Met tu'de-cz'e-mo'dol‘- kot -cu'olext = pundut* I he self sitting boy tale shall tell. That is, I. shall tell a tale of a boy who was sitting (living) all alone. In the expression : tu! de-c7' e-mo' dol-kot-cu' ole#t we have an actual synthesis. Without being inflected, all sec- ondary bases are combined into one conception with the prin- cipal base ¢2! ole7t-tale Or: Ve'lokun- no'ineye- bon -ku'deciye eoro'mo-not’ kude'ye’ Four with legs something killing man-being have become. 1 See Yukaghir Materials, etc., Tale 12, p. 25. 2Tbid., Tale 25, p. 169. 140 JOCHELSON That is, (1) have become a man that kills four-legged things (animals). Other examples may be cited in which the bases combining into one word drop one or more syllables. For instance: Co! mani (Coregonus leucichtys) is actually derived from Como'e- d-a'nil (“big fish’’) ; or Como! tie (elder brother of the father, uncle) is really Como! je-a-ect' e (big father). It is true that there is no actual incorporation to be found in the language; neither pronouns nor nouns, when direct or in- direct objects, are incorporated in the predicate ; but the nature of the syntactical construction of the Yukaghir language is akin to incorporation. The verb plays the main part in the sentence. It is always placed at the end of the sentence, being preceded, first by the subject with all its modifiers, then by the direct and indirect objects with their modifiers, then by the adverbs. If the subject is not accompanied by any modifiers, and it is known from the sense of the story who the acting person is, then it is usually dropped (see below, the text). The subject very often does not assume the element of plurality, though there are many acting persons, as long as the sense of plurality is ex- pressed by the verb (see the text). APPENDIX. A TALE OF WHAT THE ANCIENT YUKAGHIR DID WITH THEIR DEAD SHAMANS. I 2 ars 4 a'lmatle, a' mdegene, Cu! de when (he) died, flesh Cu! ole-ad-o' mnt, Ancient people the shaman’s, 6 7 8 5 lo'ndomtebide, ca’rxun-molo'zek mo'ronimele, n:a'ce-n-abu'tek to separate wishing gloves put on masks 9 IO II ne 13 mo'ronimele lu'dud-i'nik* mi'n-iimele. Tabu'de, Cu'deule put on iron hooks took, Therewith flesh his 14 15 16 17 18 nelcaxadaidelle, ti'te-lant = act'yimam. Tat Cl’ fiztt having caught to them drew. Thus having drawn 19 20 21 22 23 24 co'jinunam. Nugo'ne e'le-me'inunt. N-e'lbetiam, tat’ n-um'zit cut. With hands not took. Tore off thus whole 25 26 27 28 29 30 ke'nbunits londoiam. O'rponpirax a'inimedle, pulde Winam, entire width separated. Hangers made outside made 31 32 33 34 35 36 té orpu'renam,; pu'de, yelojenin ktie'lecnam. Kte'lectelle there hanged outside in the sun dried. Having dried 37 38 39 40 41 coro'mon'ulpegt le'iutet, ta'iide Cu'lgele xa'rtenitem. relatives his if will be _ that flesh will divide. 42 43 44 45 46 O'nmedie-nu'mok @Wiimele. Ti'te pa'ilgele o'nmedie-nu'mo Of thin larch a house made. ‘Their shares’ of thin larch house (141 ) JOCHELSON 142 47 48 49 50 51 mo'lzodo'go caxa'leciiam ni' jer. Coro'mon:ulpegt tobo' kolok* middle put (every one) separately. Relatives his dogs 52 53 54 55 56 57 tobo'kogele e'le-ku'decini, omo'ce tobo'kox' ku' decinimele, er'ce killed bad dogs not killed good dogs 58 59 60 61 62 ku! decinimele. Tabu'ngele ta be pa'lge pont’ yitiam. killed. Those (dogs) to their shares put. 63 64 65 66 67 poniiam. A'mundeule ta'bun-yola'n Tabu'de ke'nmetelle, Those having added left. Bones his thereafter 68 69 70 7a! xa'rta jiam. Tabu'dek amu’ ngt Rie’ lectelle to divide commenced. Those bones his having dried 13 fe 75 76 Tabu'de yo'd-amu'ngele xo! ident. Tabu'ngele That his skull worshipped. For that 81 82 72 tamil enam. clothed. 78 79 80 ajiam, coromodeule coromo-titelu'o anam. made ___ trunk his manlike made. 85 86 87 ma’ gsideule 77 calek‘ coro’ mo-tt te (of) wood manlike 83 34 Yd'-d-amu' ndeule ta His skull thence set on. nuce'lecham. TLabu'ngele For that jacket his 88 89 go 91 92 93 u'yanam, mo'gopedeule Anam. Taide ne'rgele ceu'renam, caps his made. That garb his embroidered, 96 97 98 TU tide na’ cedeule me'reR For this for his face _ clothes made 94 95 e'le-kie'-cu'on ceu'remam. all over embroidered. 102 103 104 aihimele, a'nadeule at made mouth his also 99 100 IOI u'yanimele, a’ iigeduol‘-pon-xobodek made for eyes openings GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 143 105 106 107 108 109 aiam. Ti'ne coril' en-uls ma’ gideule pu dedegen made. Former embroidered jacket his on it IIo III 112 . yero' ye-xar-magt le moru' cenam. Ta' bun of skins of one year old reindeer jacket put on. That 113 114 EES pu' dedegen no' rn" ere yodu' tainam. upon (of it) (with) blanket of soft reindeer-skin wrapped. 116 117 11S 119 Ta ile modo’ tonam, o' re modo tonam. Thereafter set (also placed) in the front corner placed. 120 121 122 123 124 Omo' éebon le'niiide, loci'lee pe'detenam, pu'dedegen Good something __ if eat in fire burn over it (fire) 125 £26 127 128 129 130 tabu'ngele ta mo'inununam: Tande me'-legitenam, ka'cnet that there keep : That” s0 ° fed at every a3 ets 233 134 +20 le'idelge tat = a@ham. Tabu' de x0! tn eit. meal thus did. That (one) worshipped. Told by the old Yukaghir Nicholas Samsonoff in the village on the Korkodon River, October, 1896. FREE TRANSLATION OF THE TEXT. Our ancient people, when a shaman died, used to separate the flesh of the corpse from the bones. For that purpose they put on gloves and masks. Then they took iron hooks, and, having caught the flesh of the corpse, drew it to them and cut it off. It was considered a sin to touch the corpse with bare hands, or to look at it with uncovered face. Thus they sepa- rated the flesh from the skeleton on its entire length. Then they made drying-frames and hung the flesh on them outside, in the sun to dry. After the flesh was dried, the relatives of the dead 144 JOCHELSON shaman divided it among themselves. Then they made a tent of thin larch-trees, and each of them put his share in the middle of the larch-tent separately. Then the relatives of the shaman killed dogs as offerings. They did not kill bad dogs; they killed only good ones. Then they added the killed dogs to their portions of dried flesh. After that they left the tent with the shaman’s flesh and the dog-offerings. | Then they divided the bones of the corpse, and, after having dried them, they clothed them. They worshipped the skull of the shaman. They made a trunk of wood, and set on it the skull. Then they made for it (for the idol) a jacket and caps (two caps,— a winter and a summer one). They embroidered the coat all over. For its face they made a mask, with open- ings for eyes and mouth. Over the embroidered coat they put a coat of fawn-skins; and over that, a blanket of soft reindeer- skin. Then they placed the figure in the front corner of the house. Whenever they were going to eat something good, they first threw a piece of it into the fire, and held the figure over the smoke. This they did at every meal; and thus they fed the figure, which they worshipped like a god. GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT. 1. Cu!ole-d-o'mni. Cu'o, adverb of time (long ago); éu’ole (old times ); 0/sn2, a collective conception (people, men). It was apparently formed from o7mo (tribe, clan, kin) and the suffix comitative ‘2 (instead of ze) (with the kin, with the entire clan). Cz'ole-d-o' mni (people of times ancient). See § 9. 2. Almale. The base is a/ma (shaman); /e is the suffix, accusative indefinite. See §§ 12, 20. 3. A’mde-gene. Amde, base of intransitive verb (de); gene is the suffix of the conditional mode. See § 87. 4. Cude is used instead of éugt. The base is ¢cu/ (meat, flesh) ; gz is the possessive suffix (see §§ 8, 9); / before gz is usually dropped. The use of de instead of g?z-is apparently an old form. It occurs in ancient tales and shaman’s songs, but not in ordinary conversation. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 145 5. Lo!ndo-miebi'-de. Lo'ndo, base of transitive verb (sepa- rate) ; mzebi, optative mode (see § 85); de, suffix of the condi- tional mode (see § 87). This verb has formally two direct ob- jects — a/ma-le and ¢u' gi — instead of a//ima-cu' gi (the shaman’s flesh). 6. Ca'rxun-molo'jek (gloves), from ca’rxun (fingers) and molo'7e (mittens, mittens with fingers), %, suffix of accusative definite case. See §§ 12, 20. 7. Mo ronimele. Mo'ro, base of transitive verb (put on); fimele, suffix of the third person, plural number, present pre- terite, definite conjugation (see § 82). Ca’rxun-molo'zek is in the singular number, since in the Yukaghir language it is suffi- cient if the idea of plurality is expressed in the predicate only. 8. N-a'ée-n-abu' tek‘ (mask), from n-a’ce (face), a’ but (cover) ; k, suffix of the accusative definite ($ 12); 2 is inserted between the two vowels. See § 9. BO Sce 7. 10. Lu! du-d-i'-nik‘ (iron hook). Ludut* (iron), / is dropped ; and #’nz (hook); &, suffix of the accusative definite ; d, see $9. 11. Mi'n-nimele (took). Muin-, base of transitive verb (take) ; nimele (see 7). 12. Zabu'de (therewith, with that; that is, with the hooks). The base is Za/dun (that). Zadbu'de (inst. of tabu'nle), instru- mental case (see § 60). 7. Cu! deu' le (flesh his ; that is, the shaman’s). The base is cul‘ (flesh), 7‘ is dropped before ad; deule = degele, accusative definite with the possessive element (see § 26). 14. WVa'cexadaidelle (having caught). Na'’cexada (catch), transitive verb; z, the element indicating singleness of action (see § 101); delle, suffix of the verbal adverb, past tense (see § 116). 15. 72’ te-lani, to them, 77’Ze, instead of tel‘ (they), /‘ being dropped ; and /avz, a post-position indicating direction toward something. 16. Adi'yinam, from a'é (to draw), base of transitive verb ; yt durative (see § 105) ; Zam, third person, plural number, pres- ent preterite, transitive verb, indefinite conjugation (see § 75). 146 JOCHELSON 17. Yaz‘ (thus, after, or thence) is formed from ¢d@ (there), See, S$ 110: 18. C2’ fnt (having drawn, pulled). Czz (pull, draw), base of transitive verb, it has apparently the same root as @’¢cz (16); 72, suffix co-operative (see § 99); 4, suffix of present participle (see S115). ; 19. Co’anunam = co!ununam, from éo'u, (cut) base of transi- tive verb ; 7, suffix of the iterative form (see § 103); Zam (see 16). 20. Nugo'ne. Nu'gon (hand), base; ¢, instead of /e, suffix of the instrumental case. /is dropped after the final z; in some cases, the final z is changed into d, f. c. nugo'de inst. of nugo' ne. 21. Lle-met'nuni = ele moinuni. Mor (to hold), base of tran- sitive verb ; ma, suffix of the iterative form (see § 103); ee (or el)... viz, prefix and suffix of the negative conjugation (see $§ 75,79). 22. Ne'lbetiam. Ne'lbet (to tear off, to skin, to pull off the skin), base of transitive verb ; iam (see 16). 23, Jai.) Seemye 24. N-u'mpit(whole, entirely), gerund (see § 115), from xu! mde or nu'mpe (be whole); mz smpeye n-e'molgil’, a whole year (see $ 80). 25. Ke'nbunit (entire width), gerund (see § 115), from ke! nbun. (be wide) ; £e’ xbuneye-d-u' nun, wide river. 26. Lo!ndonam. Lo'ndo (separate, untie), base of transitive verb ; #am (see 16). 27. Orpo'npirax (hangers). X, suffix of accusative definite (see §§ 12, 20). This word is formed from the base of the in- transitive verb, o’po (hang); 2 is inserted 72, suffix cooperative (see § 99) and ca/ (tree), / having been dropped, and ¢ changed into 7. 28. Animele. A (do), base of transitive verb; azmele (see 7) is in agreement with the definite case (see 27). See §§ 82, 83. 29. Pu'de (outside), adverb. 30. A-tam. A, see 28; iam, see 16. 31. 7a@(there); adverb (see\§ 119); 32. Orpu're-tiam. Orpu're (hang), base of transitive verb ; fiam, see 16. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 147 mera de. See 26. 34. Yelo'ze-nin. Yelo'je (sun), base ; fiz (to the sun), suffix dative (see § 15). 35. Kze'lec-tiam. Kze'le (be dry), base of intransitive verb ; c, suffix of the causative voice (see § 97), £zelec (make dry, force to be dry) ; #zam, see 16. 30. Kze'lec-telle. Kie'lec, see 35, telle = delle (d after c changes into /), see 14. 37. Coro'mon'ul-pe-gi. Coro'mon'ul‘ relative ; fe, element of plurality (see § 33); g7, possessive suffix (see §§ 7, 12). 38. Le’-niter. Le (be), base of intransitive verb; #z¢ez, suffix of the third person, plural number, future tense, indefinite con- jugation of intransitive verbs (see § 75). The future tense is sometimes used instead of the conditional mode. 39. Lan-de, instead of fav-le. Tar, demonstrative pro- noun ; de, suffix of accusative indefinite (see § 60). 40. Cu! /-gele. Cul is the base ; ge/e, suffix of the accusative with the possessive element (see §§ 12, 25). 41. Xa'rte-nitem. Xa'rte (divide), base of transitive verb ; witem suffix of the third person, plural number, future tense, indefinite conjugation of transitive verbs (see § 75). 42. O'nmedte-nu'mok (a house made of young larch-trees ; that is, a conical tent made of larch-tree rods). O/nmedve is formed from oz, a root expressing the conception of larch. Larch-tree is called o’xra or onda; that is, ov (larch) and cal (tree), see 27; de is the suffix of a diminutive noun (see §39) ; the meaning of the particle me is unknown to me. It is, at any rate, hardly possible that we should have to do here with the word o/xme (mind, memory, or opinion). MVz'mo (house); & suffix of the accusative definite (see § 12). 43. A’-nimele. A (to do); nzmele, see 7. 44. T7i'te, possessive pronoun (see § 55). 45. Pa’il-gele. Pail is from the Russian word paz (share) : / has apparently been added either to form a Yukaghir verbal noun out of the Russian base, or in order to distinguish it from the Yukaghir word pai (young woman) ; ge/e (see 40). 46. O'nmedie-nu'mo. See 42. 148 JOCHELSON 47. Mo'lgo-dogo (in its middle). Mo’/go, adverb of place, also used as a post-position ; dogo = dege, suffix of the locative with the possessive element (see § 12). 48. Caxa'lec-iam. Caxa'lec (assemble, gather, rally, collect), base of transitive verb; fam. See 16. 49. Niner (every, separately), from z’er (separately) and xe (together). See §§ 119, 123. 50. Coro! mon 'ulpegi. See 37. 51. Lobo'ko-lok’. Tobo'ko, from the Russian soba'ka (dog). Since there is no sound of s in the Yukaghir language, s is changed into Z, and both vowels a changed into 0, according to the rules of harmony (see Phonology). The ancient word for dog, pu'del‘ is not used any more. The Tundra dialect still retains two words for dog, —/amea (this word seems to be bor- rowed from the Tungus) and szapu-en ; lok‘ = lek‘, suffix of the accusative definite (see § 12). 52. Ku! de-ct-nimele is formed from the base kude' de (to kill) ; yt, suffix of the durative form; de + yz = ci (see § 105) ; azmele, Sec. 7. 53. #’rée (bad, poor), first person, singular number, present- preterite (base e’vw- be bad), used as an adjective before a noun (see §§ 37, 80). 54. Jobo’ ko.. See 5) “ecle see Ao: 55. E’le-ku' dect-it. Ku'deci, see 52; ele... #1, form of the third person, plural number, present preterite, negative conju- gation of transitive verbs (see § § 75, 79). 56. Omo'ce, from o’mo (be good), the base of the transitive yetb ; c2, see 53. 57. tobo'ko, see 51; x‘, suffix of the incomplete indefinite form of the accusative (see § 12). 58. Ku'decimimele. See 52. 59. Labu'ngele. Ta'bun (that), see §§ 56, 60; ge’le, see 40. GO." 1770 See AA 61. Pail. See 45; ge, suffix of the locative (see §§ 12, 16). 62. FPont'-yi-tiam. Po'nt (put), base of the transitive verb ; yt, see 16 and 52; sam (see 16). 63. Labu'de, instead of ta’bun (the base of the demonstrative a - GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 149 pronoun that), and /e, suffix of the accusative definite (see § 60). 64. Ke'nmete-lle. Ke'nme (friend) changes, by means of the suffix e, into a transitive verb,— ¢o provide someone with a friend, a companion, or fellow-traveler (see § 64); fe, suffix of the verbal adverb, past tense (see § 116, and compare with the element de in 14). 65. Po'ni-iam. See 62. 66. A’mun (the base, means bone); dewle. See 13. 67. Ta’bun. See 63; yola'n (after, behind), post-position see § 123). 68. Xa'rtaiam = xa'rte (see 41) + 4, inchoative mood (see § 92); fam. See 16. 69. Zabu'dek‘, instead of tabunlek’ (see 63, the accusative definite (see § 60). 70. A’mun. See 66; gt, possessive suffix of the accusative. ga. Khve'lectelle. See 36. 72. Tamu'te (to dress, dress up), base of transitive verb ; mam,» ee: 16, aa Ja0n' de. See.63. 74. Yo'-d-amu'ngele (the head-bone; that is, skull); yo (head); d@ is inserted for euphony (see oy a’mun. See 60; ee. See AO. 75. Xo'ide-iit. Xo'tde or xo'in'e is the base of the intransitive verb to have a god or to be with a god, from xoil‘ (god) and the suffix de (see § 64) or ze (see § 110); #2 is the suffix of the in- transitive verb (see § 75). It should be noted, that with the intransitive verb vo’zde a direct object in the accusative has been used. It might have been the instrumentalis, tabu! de yo-d-am- u'ngele ; that is, with this skull (see § 60) they were as with a god (see 134, 135). 76. Tabu'ngele. See 59, in the sense of ‘‘for that”’ ; that is, for the skull. | 77. Ca'l-ek’, Cal (tree); eR‘, instead of Zek‘ (7 naving been run into one with the / of the base), suffix of the accusative definite (see § 12). 78. Coro'mo (man); 7’ e, suffix of the comparative II (see § 12). 79. A’-tiam. See 30. It should be pointed out that the 150 JOCHELSON word @’-zam has two objects in the accusative. One (76) is in the definite ; the other (77), the indefinite form. 80. Coro'mo (man and trunk, body), in this case it means trunk ; deule = degele. See 13. 81. Coro'mo-titelu'o. See 78. Coro’ mo-tite-l-uo figures here as the suffix of the verbal noun, indicating the result of an ac- tion (see § 113). 82. A’-tam. See 79. 83. Yo'-d-amun-deule. See 66 and 74. o4: Ya. ESce et. 85. Nuce'lec-iam. Nuce'lec (set on); fam. See 16. 86. Labu'ngele. See 59. 87. Ma’ gi-deule, from ma’ gil‘ (coat, jacket), 7‘ being dropped, and deule = degele. See 13. 88. Uya'iam=u't (work); 4, inchoative mood (see 68) ; Naw. See vo: 89. Mo' go (cap); pe, element of plurality. Two caps used to be made, — one for the summer, made of soft reindeer leather and embroidered ; the other one, made of fur, was put on top. Nam: See i6: 90. A’-fiam. See 30. 91. TLa'ni-de = ta'ri-le, the accusative indefinite (see § 60). 92. Wer (garb, things); ele. See 74; 93. Ceu're (to embroider); #am. See 16. 94. E£'le-kie'-Cu'on=e'le . . . éu'on (without), see § 124, and ki’ cil’ (end). ¢2l* is dropped, and z is lengthened into a diph- thong. Without end; that is, entirely, all over, nothing was left unembroidered on the garment. 95. Ceu'reiam. See 93. 96. Tt'n-de = ti’ n-le (this), the accusative indefinite (see § 60). 97. N-a'ée (face), see 8; deule, see 13. 98. Ner-ck. Neer, see 92; ek, suffix of the accusative, in- stead of &, ¢ being inserted after the final consonant of the base. It seems to me that the accusative in 97, in its relation to z-er-ek, is used in the sense of the Saxon form of the genitive case in the English language. 99. Uya', see 88; nimele, see 7. GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 151 100. A’size-d-u' ol‘ = a’ fije (eye); ad, the connecting particle ; uol‘, the suffix of a verbal noun expressing the result or trace of an action (see § 113). A’ aze-d-w' ol‘ = place for eyes. 101. Po'n:xo-bodek, instead of po'n-xo-bonlek (see § 112), Po'n:xo (to be bright, transparent), the base of the verb; don. suffix of the verbal noun (see § 112); dcdek, the accusative definite (see § 112). o’n-xo-b0n (something bright, transparent), Afnje-d-uol-pon'xo-bon = eye-place, transparent = opening for the eyes. 102. A’nimele (see 28). 103. A’#a (mouth); deule (see 13). 104. AZ (also). See § 118. 105. A-tam. See 79. 106. Z2’nxe, adverb of time (see § 118). (07. Cori'len: (to be embroidered), base of the intransitive verb ; w/‘, suffix of the verbal noun, used as modifier (see §§ 82, 84). 108. Ma'gideule. See 87. 109. Pu' de (in the yard, outside, or above, over, upon); see 29; degen, the vialis with the possessive element (see § 17). 110. Yero'ye (one-year-old reindeer fawn) ; var (skin) ; ma’ git (jacket) ; e, suffix of the accusative. . 111. Moruc'e (dress, put on); #am (see 16). 112. Za’bun (see 12). 113. Puldedegen. See 109. 114. WVo'ji-n-er-e = no's (soft reindeer leather) ; cv (clothes) ; é, suffix of the accusative indefinite (see § 12). 115. Yodu' tai (wrap) ; viam (see 16). 116. Za’cile (afterwards), adverb of time (see § 118). 117. Modo'to-riam. Mo'do (to sit), intransitive verb ; to = ¢e, suffix turning intransitive verbs into transitive ; sodo'-to (to seat, to place); wam. See 16. 118. O’77e (in the middle), adverb of place (see § 119). They call thus the place of honor in their house; that is, the side facing the entrance. 119. Modo'tomam. See 117. 152 JOCHELSON 120. Omo!ée-bon (something good), verbal noun (see § 112, Omo'ce see 56). 121. Le'nnide, from /e’u (to eat), base of the transitive verb ; and nzde, conditional mode (see § 87). 122. Loci‘ (fire); ge, the locative (see § 12). 123. Pe'de-te-nam. Pe'de (to burn), base of the intransitive verb ; ¢e changes the verb into a transitive verb (to singe), see L173 Ham, -See-v0. 124. Puldedegen. See tog. It is equivalent to “over it” (the fire). 125. Zabu'ngele (it; that is, the idol). See 59. 1262 Ta.) Sears: 127. Mo't-nunu-riam. Moi(hold, keep), base of the transitive verb ; zn, suffx of the intensive-iterative (see § 104); tam. See 16. 128. La’ nde, See 40- 129. Me-legi'te-iam. Me, see § 107 ; legi'te (to feed ), from the transitive verb /e’x (to eat) ; am, see 16. 130. Ka’cnet (every), from the Russian ka’shd4y. To use the Yukaghir expression, it should be /e’#de-0'! nmun (see § 57), instead of ka’ cnet le'fidelge. 131. Le'aidel-ge. Le'iide (to eat, in general), intransitive verb, — formed from the transitive verb /e’a (eat) by means of the suf- fix de (see $7); fis the suffix of the verbal noun (see §§ 82, 83); ge, the locative (see § 12). r32. Jae -see a3 133. A’-nam. See 79. 134. Labulde. See'73-ana 75, 135. 0 wenn. “See 75, = ae — — 0.4 | PLATE. FV. Linguistic map of the former and present distribution of both dialects of the Yukaghir language. (154 ) e) eS) Verkhoyansk, Cigh ivka “yp Sredne-Kolymsk | Rive! ao “© waa isk 2. LINGUISTIC MAP 4 of the Former and Present Distribution of Both Dialects of the Yukaghir Language eveees Present Distribution of the Tundra Dialect of the Yukaghir Language ‘ _¥XXXX Present Distribution of the Kolyma Dialect : of the Yukaghir Language edvid Is, t) Nishne-Kolymsk 4} ea \ wy ES oe | Peps a Sa ie eae colym® pews % o* x x) x v \0 x ome BORMAY & CO., N.Y. 165° 165 — ke = yes ple > ipa ae = - eo » eS ae i ee eee ee ee =3 7 65 A Oy \ om See Vilut R. a i] & Ss Ly CIRCLE LINGUISTIC MAP of the Former and Present Distribution of Both Dialects of the Yukaghir Language eeeeee Present Distribution of the Tundra Dialect of the Yukaghir Language Distribution of the Kolyma Dialect’ of the Yukaghir “dighitka Z, Nishne-Kolymsk es from =: Greenwich —o5 BORMAY & CO., N.Y. 65° “_ &} = 39 r) oa ©} [ANNALS N. Y. AcAD, Sci,, VoL. XVI, No. 6, Part II, pp. 155-297. ] fee RIALS FOR THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS. By Maurice FISHBERG. CHAPTER’ I? INTRODUCTION. The study of the somatic characteristics of the Jews has re- ceived the attention of many anthropologists in Europe. It was suggested that because they have kept themselves socially isolated for nearly two-thousand years, and have refrained from intermarriage with other races, the Jews offer a promising field for the solution of many obscure problems in the study of man. Considering that they have been scattered over almost every part of the habitable globe ; by involuntary and mostly forced, migrations from city to city, country to country and from con- tinent to continent, have been subjected to frequent changes in their physical environment, it was expected that a thorough study of their racial characteristics, may contribute to our meager knowledge of the influence of environment upon race. If the Jews, have really maintained themselves for the last four thou- sand years in absolute purity, the effects of climate, altitude, nourishment, economic and social conditions, should be ascer- tainable by a study of their physical organization. If on the other hand, they have intermarried with the races among whom 1 The difficulties encountered while attempting to reach people willing to submit to anthropometric measurements are well known to every one who studied physical anthropology on the living. I therefore gratefully acknowledge the valuable assis- tance rendered me by Lee K. Frankel, Ph.D., Manager of the United Hebrew Charieties of New York City, by affording me the opportunity to obtain anthropomet- ric measurements in connection with my work as medical examiner to the Chari- ties. Without Dr. Frankel’s assistance this work could not have been done. I am also under obligations to Prof. Franz Boas for his valuable advice and suggestions during the preparation of the work. To Mr. Joseph Jacobs I am sincerely indebted for reading and revising the manuscript and proofs, 155 156 FISHBERG they have dwelt, or if extensive conversions to Judaism have taken place, and the modern Jews are thus a mixture of various racial elements, blended together in a more or less homogeneous group of people, they should offer excellent material for the study of the effects of racial intermixture on the physical organi- zation of man. There are very few anthropological data on the somatology of pure races. In fact we do not know of any adsolutely pure races in existence. Migration, war and conquest have always been at work amalgamating various racial elements. But there are also very few data upon the effects of racial intermixture. The present writer is only acquainted with the investigations of Professor Franz Boas of the American half-breeds ' and Mainoft’s work on the intermixture of Russians with Yakouts.* Both of these investigations have conclusively shown that the tape and calipers may be of great service in the search for the origin of certain physical traits. If conversions to Judaism, open or clandestine intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews have taken place, it is of scientific interest to ascertain if possible, the effects of such intermarriage on the physical characteristics of the modern Jews. THE RacraL Purity or THE Jews. Up to recent time two diametrically opposed views were held by anthropologists on the question of the purity of the Jewish race. Some have maintained that the Jews have preserved themselves in there original purity for the last four thousand years,” Richard Andree points out that the racial types repre- sented on the ancient Assyrian and Egyptian monuments prove beyond doubt the constancy of the Jewish type. A look at the Jews painted on these monuments makes one believe that he sees the typical Jew of to-day. <‘‘ No other race but the Jews,” says Andree, ‘‘can be traced with such certainty backward for 1<«Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer,’’ Verhandl. dex Ber- liner Anthropologischen Geselschaft, 1895, pp. 367-411. 21. I. Mainoff, ‘‘Pomes russkikh s yakutami,’”’ Resstan Anthropol. Journal, 1900, No. 4, pp. 37-57. 3 Milne Edwards, Prichard, Nott and Gliddon and others. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 157 thousands of years, and no other race displays such a constancy of form, none resisted to such an extent the effects of time, as the Jews. Even when he adapts the language, dress, habits and customs of the peoples among whom he lives, he still remains everywhere the same. All he adapts is but a cloak, under which the eternal Hebrew survives ; he is the same in his facial features, in the structure of his body, his temperament, his character.’"" Joseph Jacobs, who studied the question both from the anthropological and the historical standpoint is “ in- clined to support the long standing belief in the substantial purity of the Jewish race, and to hold that the vast majority of contemporary Jews are the lineal descendants of the diaspora of the Roman empire.’”” This view was materially changed during the last thirty years after anthropological investigations of several thousand Jews by modern methods have been published. It is the prevailing opinion at the present that the Jews have not maintained their racial purity to the extent indicated by the authors just quoted. All, even those who speak of the subject from a sentimental standpoint, agree that there are two types of Jews, who are said to present physically distinct characteristics. They are the Ashkenazim, or German, Russian and Polish Jews, and the Sephardim, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews.* Vogt, in his 1 Richard Andree, ‘‘ Zur Volkskunde der Juden,’’ Leipsig, 1881, pp. 24-25. 2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,’’ /ournal Anthropol. Iystitute, XV, 1885, p. 53. 83The European Jews are divided into two main groups, 4shkenazim and Se- phardim. The former constitute about ninety percent of the modern Jews, while the latter are only about ten percent. Ashkenazim has its origin in Ashkenaz, the son of Gomer, grandson of Japhet, and great-grandson of Noah (Gen. X, 3; I Chron. I, 6.). The Talmud and also medizeval rabbinical literature identify Ash- kenaz with Germany and Teutons, while according to Saadia, the Slavs are meant (Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, pp. 191-193). At present all the Jews from Ger- many, Poland, Russia, and Austria are called Ashkenazim partly because of the *¢ Yiddish ’’? or German jargon which most of them employ. The name Sephard; has its origin in Sepharad, the Biblical name of an unknown land into which the Jews exiled from Jerusalem were brought (see Aéadias, 20). The medizval rabbis believed that Sepharad referred to Spain and Portugal ; hence the name Sephardim for the Spanish Jews. When banished from Spain in 1492, about 300,000 Jews were dispersed ; some wandered to northern Africa, others to Italy, England, Hol- land, Turkey, Asia Minor, etc. The remnants of these Jews living at the present 158 FISHBERG ‘Lectures on Man”’ gave an excellent description of these two types. ‘The first found mostly in Northern Russia and Poland, Germany and Bohemia are often characterized by red _ hair, short beard, short concave nose, small grey lustrous eyes ; their body is inclined to be stout, the face round with broad cheek- bones, is similar to some of the northern Slavonians. On the other hand in the Orient, and around the Mediterranean, and also in Portugal and Holland are found Jews with long black hair and beard, large almond shaped black eyes, a melancholy cast of countenance, with a long face and a prominent nose. In short the type which we find represented in the paintings of Rembrandt.’ ' This view was supported by Broca, who stated that in his opinion the Jews are not a pure race, but a mixture of various races. The blond Jews in Alsace-Lorraine and Ger- many have their origin in intermixture with northern races ; in Russia there are evidences of mixture of Jews with Slavonians, Finns and Tartars. The view that there are two racial types of Jews has been shared by many other anthropologists ; Stieda, who was the first to investigate the problem in Russia by direct- ing two of his pupils to obtain measurements of Jews in Russia, arrived at the same conclusion which is shared by Top- inard, Deniker, and Weisbach.” Maurer describes in detail the physical traits of two races of Jews living in Bosnia: One, the Turanian type, with prominent cheek bones, with a broad mouth time in the Bakan States, as Bosnia, Europeon Turkey, Roumania, etc., are also known by the name Sfpagzuoli, probably because of the Spanish jargon they still employ. There were many of them in the United States, but they are rapidly disappearing by intermarriage wilh Ashkenazim, etc. These two groups of Jews differ in their traditions, rites, and physical type. The Separdim consider themselves as the branch of Israel which has maintained itself to the present day in its original Semitic — purity, and kept itself free from admixture of non-Semitic blood than the Ashkena- zim, ‘They refuse to intermarry with the German Jews, have their own synagogues, cemeteries, etc. 1 Karl Vogt, Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen, II, p. 238. 2See L. Stieda, ‘‘ Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’ Archiv fiir An. thropologie, XIV, pp. 61-71, 1883; B. Blechman, ‘‘Ein Beitrag zur Anthropol- der Juden,’’ Dorpat, 1882, Diss. ; P. Topinard, ‘‘Eléments d’anthropologie gén- érale,’’ Paris, 1886; J. Deniker, ‘‘The Races of Men,’’ London, 1900; A. Weisbach, ‘‘ Kérpermessungen verschiedener Menschenrassen,’’ Zedéschrift fiir Lthnologie, Erganzunsband, 1877. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 159 having thin lips; and large jaws. The nose is pear shaped, narrow and depressed at the root. The head is round, the eyes blue, and blond or reddish hair are frequently encountered among them. The other type is said to be possessed of all the traits which characterize the Semites, such as long head,*dark hair and eyes, etc.’ Other anthropologists have seen in the Jews more than a mixture of two races. C. Ikof, basing his opinion on measure- ments obtained of 120 Jews in Russia, and 55 Jewish and Karaite skulls derived from Russia, Turkey, Italy, Caucasia, etc., con- cludes that only the Jews of the Orient and in Southern Europe (Balkan states, Spain, Italy, Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, etc.), are of Semitic origin, with only a slight intermixture of other racial elements. The Jews in western Europe are possessed of all the morphological evidences of a strong mixture of Semitic blood with the indigenous populations of these countries. But the Jews in Russia are not Semites at all, because physically they have nothing in common with the latter, and actually belong to an entirely different race.” Many others have spoken of the Jews in a similar manner. Lagneau, for instance, denies that there are any Jews of pure race in any part of the world. The German, Polish and Russian Jews are a mixture of Teutons, Sla- vonians and Cossacks. The Jews on the north coast of the Mediterranean are mostly proselytes to Judaism of Hellenic and Latin origin; and the Jews in North Africa are the result of the intermixture of the Jews who originally resided here in antiquity in Egypt and Carthaginia with the local tribes of Berbers, Kopts and Phcenicians, later also with the Greek and Roman elements, finally during the middle ages with the Arabians.* Weissen- berg also, after an investigation of the physical characteristics of the Jews in South Russia, denies the prevailing idea that there is a unity of the Jewish type. He distinguishes the “ fine,’ the 1 Franz Maurer, ‘‘ Mittheilungen aus Bosnien, Das Ausland, 1869, p. 1163. 2K. N. Ikof, ‘‘Neue Beitrage zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’ Archiv fiir An- thropologie, XV, 1884, pp. 369-389. 3G. Lagneau, ‘Sur la race juive et sa pathologie,’ Bul. de la société a’ anthro- pologie de Paris, 1891. 160 FISHBERG ‘coarse’? Jewish type and also North European, the Caucasian, Mongolian and other types among them. ’ It is thus seen that most of the modern anthropologists who have studied the physical characteristics of the Jews have strongly discredited the theory of the racial purity of the Jews. Renan aptly said ‘il n’y pas un type juif, il y a des types juifs,” and ‘“‘judaisme est une religion, mais n’est pas un fait ethnolo- gique, mais une type accidentel,”~ Professor Ripley, alters most thorough study of the literature on the subject, arrives at the same conclusion.” 2 PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE JEWS. At the present there are no scientific writers on the subject who claim that the Jews are the direct descendants of Shem, the son of Noah, and that during the last 4,000 years have not admitted any non-Jewish blood into their veins through inter- marriage or conversions to Judaism. Even the sanguine de- fenders of the racial purity of the Jews, as Andree, Jacobs and Judt, agree that, in their early history, the ancient Hebrews have intermarried with the various indigenous tribes of Egypt, Syria and Palestine, and later during the diaspora with the Ro- mans and Greeks. Biblical tradition and history abounds in evidence to this effect. But not all agree on the question whether the Jews have ethnically intermarried with European races during the last 2,000 years of their dispersion. Some of the authors cited above bring forth evidence in support of this theory, while others deny its significance. From the present state of physical anthropology it is to be expected that if these intermarriages have really taken place to any extent the modern Jews should be possessed of many or most of the morphological traits which characterize their Gentile neighbors. This can be ascertained by a study of the anthropology of the Jews, in the same manner as Professor Boas has studied the American Indian half-breeds, and Mainoff, the Yakout half-breeds in Russia. 1S. Weissenberg, ‘‘ Die siidrussischen Juden,’”? Archiv ftir Anthropol., XXIII, 1895. 2E. Renan, ‘‘ Le Judaisme comme race et comme religion,’’ Paris, 1883. 3Wm. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, New York, 1899. Chapter XIV. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 161 In. part such work has already been done. Professor Vir- chow’s investigations of the color of the skin, hair and eyes of the school children in Germany ; Schimmer’s workin the same line in Austria, Korési in Hungary, Mayr in Bavaria, and Wat- eff’s in Bulgaria, have comprised nearly 150,000 Jewish chil- dren, compared with non-Jewish children in the various prov- inces in the named countries. Here we find that the percentage of blondes among the Jews is quite large, 32 percent in Ger- many, 27 in Austria, 23 in Hungary, 22 in Bulgaria, etc. The percentage of light eyes is also large as can be seen from the appended table (Table I). The type of pigmentation of the Jews being dark, one is at once struck with the large percen- tage of Jews having light hair and fair eyes combined, and the origin of of these ‘“‘ Indogermanic”’ Jews (as Virchow speaks of them) is at once questioned. Tanne, J." CoLor OF HAIR AND EYES IN 148,208 JEWISH CHILDREN. : No. of Hair (Percent). Eyes (Percent). Country. Chilo j= ae : : E Authority. dren. Blond. Brown. Black. | Red. | Blue. | Brown. | Gray. Germany (75,377) 32-03 | 54.39 | 11.46; 0.4 | 19.30 | 51.99 | 27.00 | Virchow. Austria (59,808| 27.0 | 55.40/ 16.90} 0.6 | 23.50 | 45.90 | 30.60 |Schimmer. Bavaria 7,054| 30.0 | 50.00 20.00; — _ | 20.00 | 49.00 | 31.00 | Mayr. Hungary | 3,141| 23.7. | 57.00 | 19.30| — _ | 18.30 | 57.50 | 24.20 |KGrési. Bulgaria | 2,828| 22.35 | 59.59 | 18.06 | 2.58 | 19.38 | 61.34 | 22.13 | Wateff. It is a striking fact, however, that a study of the distribution of the blond Jews according to the provinces of these countries 1 The figures in this table are taken from: R. Virchow, ‘‘ Gesamtbericht iiber die Farbe der Haut, der Haare, und der Augen der Schulkinder in Deutschland,’’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XVI, 1886; G. A. Schimmer, ‘‘ Erhebungen iiber die Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der Haut, bei den Schulkindern Oéestreichs ”’ Mitt. der Anthropol. Gesel. Wien, Suppl. I, 1884; G. Mayr, ‘‘ Die Bayerische Jugend nach der Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der Haut,’ Zeztschrift des Konigl. bayerischen statistisch. Bureau, VII, 1875, pp. 273-311; J. K6érési, Cou- leur de la peau, des cheveux et des yeus 4 Budapest,’’ Ann. de Demographie, 1878, pp. 136-137; S. Wateff, ‘‘ Anthropologische Beobachtungen der Farbe, der Au- gen, der Haare und der Haut bei den Schulkindern von den Tiirken, Pomaken Tataren, Armenier, Griechen und Juden in Bulgarien,’’ Correspondenz Blatt der deutschen Ges. fiir Anthropol., Ethnol. und Urgeschichte, XX X1V, 1903. 162 FISHBERG does not indicate the origin of the fair Jews, and does not con- firm the opinion that their blondness has been acquired in the countries where we find them at the present day. For it is not found that the percentage of blond Jews is larger in the northern provinces of Germany, where the indigenous population shows the highest proportion of blonds; on the contrary, here they are in the least, but further east and south, in Galicia, Buko- wina, etc., where the indigenous population is darker, the Jews show the highest percentage of blonds. This fact brought out in Virchow’s work has given rise to considerable discussion. Many (Luschan, Andree, Judt, Elkind) are inclined to believe that these blond Jews are the descendants of the fair-haired in- dividuals among the ancient Hebrews. Andree and Prunner Bey point to the modern non-Jewish Syrians, among whom fair hair and eyes are not infrequent. Luschan says that many blonds inhabited Syria and Palestine in antiquity; they were known in the Bible as the Amorites, ‘‘ the sons of Anak,’’ who were ‘“‘men of great stature,’ and are considered to have been “ Aryans.” The modern blond Jews are said to be the de- scendants of the Amorites, with whom the ancient Hebrews in- termarried quite freely.’ In Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki have studied the compara- tive anthropology of the races in that country, including the Poles, the Ruthenians and the Jews. The results they have obtained show great similarities in the somatic characteristics of these three races. Their stature is about the’ same, Jews, 162.3 cm., Poles; 162.2, and Ruthenians, 164, The, cepitane index: is: Jews, 83.5, Poles, “S4:4, and Ruthenians, ¢9s21o the same manner, while the Jews are much darker than the other still 13.7 percent have fair hair and 29 percent fair eyes.’ In Russia Talko-Hryncewicz has compared the Jews with the Little Russia Leto-Lithuanians, and White Russians. ~ He found that in Little Russia where the population is characterized by 1F, v. Luschan, ‘‘ Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden,’’ Correspondenz Blatt der Deutsch. Gesel. fiir Anthropol., XXIII, 1892, pp., 92-102. 2J. Majer and J. Kopernicki, ‘‘Chrakterystyka fiziczna ludnosci galicijskiej,’’ Lhior viadom. do anthropologti krajovej, Krakow, 1, 1877, IX, 1885. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 163 tall stature, the Jews are also taller than in Lithuania. That the stature of the Jews depends on the stature of the Gentiles of the country they inhabit has also been shown by Snigirew, who compiled the recruiting statistics of Russia for 1875. In Poland where the Poles are short of stature (162.7 cm.) the Jews measure only 161.3 cm. (4,470 observations); in Lithu- ania the general population averages 163.9 cm. and the Jews 161.2 (2,122 observations). In the Baltic provinces where the Gentiles are much taller the Jews are also taller, measuring 163.1 cm. on the average, and in Little Russia where the natives are about 167 cm. in height the Jews are 164.2 cm.’ And in Odessa they are even taller, 166.5 cm. In Western Europe the same has been observed. In Bavaria the aver- age stature of the Jews is 162.0 cm.’ while in Baden, where the general population is taller, the Jews measure 164.3 cm.* and in Turin, Italy, the Jews also measure 163.3 cm. on the average.” The head-form of the Jews has confirmed this fact in a more striking manner. It is observed that the cephalic index cor- responds to that of the races among which they live. In Cau- casia, where many of the natives are hyperbrachycephalic, the Jews are also extremely round-headed, and in Eastern Europe where most of the native races are mesocephalic, the Jews are the same, and in north Africa, where dolichocephaly is prevalent we find the Jews with the same head-form. This is best shown in the accompanying table (II) from which the following striking fact is to be noted: The Poles in Galicia are brachycephalic, cephalic index 84.4, and the Jews here have an average index of 83.6; in Poland the Poles have an average index of only 80.85, and the Jews also only 81.809. 1Snigirew, ‘‘ Materiali dlia medizinskoi statistiki i geografii Rossii,’’? Voenzo- medizinski zhurnal, 1878, 1879. 27. I. Pantukhof, ‘‘O virozhdayushchikhsia tipakh semitow,’’ Proc. Ressian Anthropol. Soc. at St. Petersburg, 1889. 3J. Ranke, ‘‘Zur Statistik und Physiologie der Kérpergrésse der bayerischen Militarpflichtigen, etc.,’’ Bettrdge zur Anthropologie und urgeschichte Bayerns, IV, 1881, pp. 8-35. Otto Ammon, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der Badener,’’ Jena, 1899, p. 646. 5C, Lombroso, ‘‘ L’antisemitismo e le scienze moderne,’’ Torino, 1894, ap- pendix. 164 FISHBERG Tanne If, CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Jews. Country. Cephalic Index. | Observer. (SAGEASUS ice nen as teases woe 87.5 Pantukhof. (Salieta ..$. Sone ou esc aera 83.6 Majer and Kopernicki. BAGeD. 2. caps de'aee see 3-5 Ammon. Ditrle Russia’. 14.5 Bee = 82.9 Talko-Hryncewicz. Wurtin, Ttalg ck eees one 82.4 Lombroso. Lithuania "202... 25s ccer seen 81.7 Talko-Hryncewicz. Ieusstan Polands ov. ceisi ete 81.89 Elkind. White" Ratssia. os c.cac coments 80.9 Yakowenko. Non-Jews. Race. Cephalic Index. Observer. Aissors im /Cautasia..02 55.2252 87.89 Arutinoff, Pantukhof. Armenians in Caucasia....... 87.0 Ivanowski. Poles in. Galicia. 2-cnsee 84.4 Majer and Kopernicki. Ruthenians in Galicia......... 84.3 Majer and Kopernicki. Germans in Baden<. 4..2.20.; 84.14 Ammon. Russians, Little: 5. ee 83.2 Talko-Hryncewicz. Ttalians in Durum. 2s 84.9 Lombroso. Letto-Lithuanians,............. 80.60 Talko-Hryncewicz. White Russians ::222523-0 $3.2 Talko-Hryncewicz. Poles. in, Roussia.of sper 80.85 Elkind. Wribite: Rarssians, 4. scoentetes 81.87 Ivanowski. In Baden the cephalic index of the Germans is 84.14 and of the Jews 83.5, and it is remarkable, says Ammon, that in the parts of the country where the heads of the indigenous popula- tion are broader, those of the Jews are about the same, and the reverse. There are very scanty data about the cranial form of the Jews living among extremely dolichocephalic races, particu- larly Semites, as the Arabians, Syrians, Berbers, etc., but all the evidence available goes to prove that here they are also dolichocephalic. Thus, Pruner Bey brings measurements of three Jewish skulls from north Africa, with a cranial index of 75, and two Jewesses with an index of 77.’ Quatrefages and Hamy have measurements of a Jew from Algiers with a cephalic index of 74.44, and five from Holland, 72.2,? and Dessau five 1 Memoirs de la société d’anthropologie, de Paris, Tome II, fasc. 4, 1864, p. 417) 2 << Crania Ethnica,’’ Paris, 1882, p. 513. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 165 other skulls from Holland (in Musee Vrolic) with an average index of 77.48. Davis described the skulls of three Italian and two Dutch Jews with an index of 76.33.’ All these skulls, confirm that the Jews who live among dolichocephalic races are also dolichocephalic. The crania from Italian and Dutch Jews mentioned by Dessau, Davis and Quatrefages are of Spanish Jewish origin, and their dolichocephaly corresponds to the type of head of the indigenous population of Spain. It is a fact worthy of mention that the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492, known as “ Sephardim,” or Spagnuoli have not everywhere preserved their type as is generally supposed. Thus measurements taken by Jacobs on 50 Sephardim in London show that the proportion of dolichocephalic heads (cephalic index less than 78) among them was 17 percent, as against 28.3 percent among the Ashkenazim.” In Turin also the cephalic index of the Jews is 82.14 and only 22.32 percent had indices less than 80.° This is confirmed by Livi who found the average in- dex in Italian Jews to be 81.6.* In Bosnia Gluck obtained meas- urements of 55 Spangnuoli, whose cephalic index was 80.1, and only 7.3 percent were dolichocephalic.? From all these meas- urements it is evident that the modern Sephardim are not long headed as was supposed. It is doubtful whether this is due to intermarriage with Ashkenazim, because the former have kept themselves separated from the latter. The frequency of blond and red hair among these Jews is also almost as large as among the German Jews. Beddoe found three percent of blonds among the Sephardim in Constantinople and Bruza, and six per- cent in London.® In Turin Lombroso found 5.8 percent, and Livi even 14.7 percent as against only 9.3 percent among the general population of Italy, and in Bosnia even 18.2 percent 1J. B. Davis, ‘‘ Thesaurus craniorum,’’ London, 1867. 2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘On the comparative anthropometry of English Jews,’’ /ourz. Anthropol. Institute, XV, pp. 76-88. 3 Lombroso, doc. cit. #R. Livi, ‘‘ Antropometria militare,’”? Roma, 1896, pp. 188-190. 5L. Gliick, ‘‘ Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Spaniolen,’’? W7ssen- schaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina, IV, 1896, pp. 587-592. 5]. Beddoe, ‘On the physical characters of the Jews,’’ Z7vansactions of the LEthnol. Soc. London, I, 1861, pp. 222-237. 166 FISHBERG of fair hairand 30.9 percent of fair eyes,’ while Jacobs found 21.3 percent of the Sephardim in London had blue eyes, which is more than among the Ashkenazim in that city who had only [i 1, percent of fair eyed: All these data tend to show that there is a great diversity of types of Jews when their stature and craniology is considered ; but when looked at from the standpoint of pigmentation, they present a more or less uniform type — wherever data are obtain- able it is found that about ten to fifteen percent have fair hair, and over thirty percent fair eyes. In other words, morpholog- ical characters which are obtained by the use of the tape and calipers, and which are not influenced to an appreciable extent by the personal equation of the observer depend in the Jews on the same characters peculiar to their non-Jewish neighbors, among whom they have lived for centuries. On the other hand pigmentation, a trait the study of which is subject to the personal equation of the observer (what one living among bru- nettes will call blond, may be called by another observer, living among blonds, a brunette) is found uniformly frequent among the Jews in various countries, independent of the frequency in which it is found among the Gentiles among whom they have lived. It appeared to the present writer that an anthropological study of the Jews in various countries by one observer, thus greatly eliminating the effects of the personal equation, may contribute to the solution of some of the obscure problems of the origin of certain physical traits of the Jews. It would be quite difficult for one individual to make such an investigationin Europe. Besides the extensive traveling it would entail, it would also be a difficult task to meet with Jews willing to submit to anthropometrical measurements. One has to read Dybowsky’s experiences in Minsk, Russia, to be convinced that in eastern Europe the task would prove quite difficult. After paying an agent for procur- ing individuals willing to submit to measurements for a consid- eration, it so happened that one of the Jews measured died sud- denly. This caused an alarm all over the city, the local police 1 Gliick, Joc. cit. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 167 interfered, and the measurements had to be discontinued. Most of the other anthropological researches of Jews in eastern Europe were obtained by physicians, in the regular course of their prac- tice among these people, or in hospitals. Very little success can be expected from trying to induce these people to submit to measurements for scientific purposes. New York City is the best place in the world to obtain an- thropometrical measurements of Jews. Of the 600,000 Jews ‘or more living here, more than three quarters have arrived to the United States within the last thirty years from the various European countries, also from Asia and even Africa. The vast majority are natives, or the descendants of Jews from Russia, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Roumania and other parts of eastern Europe; some have come from Syria, Palestine, and even from Algiers, Tunis and Morocco. The material for investigation is consequently the most heterogeneous, and can not be found to such an extent in any other city or even country. By using ordinary tact I succeeded to obtain measurements of over 2,000 individuals of both sexes, and all over twenty years of age. Over one half of these were applicants for relief in the United Hebrew Charities in this city. They offered no serious objec- tions to the procedure, believing that the measurements are a means of discovering the nature of their ailment, or their physical ability to work. Only the native Jews objected seriously, sus- pecting that these measurements are the “‘ Bertillon system,” and denying guilt of any crime, they usually refused to submit. It is to be regretted that mainly for this reason I succeeded to obtain ‘measurements of only 124 Jews natives of the United States. The following data were obtained for each individual: (1) Age; (2) sex; (3) nativity, country and province; (4) how long in the United States, if foreign born; (5) occupation; (6) color of —(qa) the hair, (0) the eyes, (c) beard, (@) variety of the hair; (7) stature; (8) girth of the chest, during quiet respiration ; (9g) longest diameter of the head; (g) width of the head ; (10) cephalic index; (11) circumference of the head ; (12) height of the nose; (13) width of the nose; (14) nasal index; (15) height of the face; (16) width of the face; (17) facial index. 168 FISHBERG Each of these data was recorded on a specially prepared card for each individual, which made it afterwards easy to classify, and compute the figures in various groups. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION OF THE AMERICAN JEWS. The main aim of this investigation has been to gather mate- rials for a comparison of the somatic characters of the Jews within the races and peoples among which they have lived before they have emigrated to the United States. ~ “The marivity ap the Jews under consideration has therefore been considered not by geographical or political boundaries, but as far as was possi- ble to ascertain, by ethnic conditions of their native countries. When one stated that his nativity was Russia, he was also asked in which province (government) of the empire he was born. As is well known, 93.9 percent of the 5,189,400' Jews in Russia, live in what is known as the “ Pale of Settlement.”” This com- prises 25 provinces in western and southern Russia, and Poland. The indigenous population of this region consists mainly as fol- lows: In Poland the Poles; in western Russia we have’ the White-Russians in the provinces of Minsk, Mohileff and Witebsk ; and the Letts and Lithuanians in the provinces of Wilna, Kovno and Grodno; the Little-Russians in Vohlin, Kieff, Podolia, Poltava, Tchernigoff, Bessarabia, Cherson, etc. It must however be remembered that while the predominating ethnic elements in these provinces are as indicated, still in many parts ethnic conditions are not so simple. Some parts of Rus- sian Poland have a large population of White-Russians and Lithuanians and the reverse ; In south and southwest the major- ity of the natives are Little-Russians, but in Bessarabia, parts of Podolia, etc., a fair number of Wallachians, Roumanians, etc. are encountered and further south, many Tartars. To obviate as far as possible all these disturbing factors, and to make the best of the situation, it was considered best to divide the Russian Jews into three groups: (1) Polish Jews, from the ten Polish provinces ; (2) Lithuanian and White-Russian Jews, from Kovno, 1 Census of Russia, 1897. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 169 Vilna, Grodno, Mohileff, Minsk, Witebsk, etc.; (3) Lzttle-Russian Jews, from Vohlin, Kief, Podolia, Poltava, Tchernigoff, Bessa- rabia, Cherson, etc. These were compared with the races among which they have lived in all cases where material for comparison was available in anthropological literature. The immigrant Jews from Galicia were compared with the Poles and Ruthenians in that country, and the Roumanian and Hungarian Jews, with the native Rouma- nians and Magyars in these countries. By dividing the material into groups according to nativity, it was found that the number of observations: in each group is rather small, to give reliable results. The figures obtained by measurement of the immigrant Jews in New York, were then combined with figures obtained by measurement of Jews in eastern Europe. In this manner it was possible to present a larger number of observations, making the results and conclusions more reliable. Thus our own observations of Galician Jews include 305 men, but combined with 836 men reported by Majer and Kopernicki, we have 1,141 observations ; the measurements on Polish Jews, of which 315 were measured in New York, were combined with 200 cases measured by Elkind in Warsaw, giving a total of 515 observations, etc. These combined figures were considered in connection with figures obtained by measurement of non-Jews in eastern Europe taken from the anthropological literature on these races. It was often deemed advisable to bring detailed statistics, because most of the literature referred to, is published in the Russian or Polish languages, which makes it inaccessible to the average American reader. For Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki’s and Weisbach’s works on the Poles and Ruthenians were used ; for the Russian Poles Elkind’s work was taken as standard, besides this, Olechnovicz, Talko-Hryncewicz, and Zakrzewski were often consulted. For the Little-Russians, Talko-Hryncewicz’s work was principally used, and also Die- bold, and Belodied. For the Lithuanians and White-Rus- sians, Talko-Hryncewicz, and Eichholtz’s researches, and the Roumanians, Pittard’s, and the Hungarians, Weisbach’s, and Janko’s works. Besides these, Ivanowski’s recent compilation 170 FISHBERG on the anthropology of the races in Russia, was freely drawn upon. It was considered of importance to discuss some special prob- lems in connection with the study of the physical anthropology. of the immigrant Jews in the United States. First the question of selection by immigration was investigated. This was done by comparing the results obtained by the study of the immigrant Jews with those who were measured in their native land. Liter- ature on the Jews in eastern Europe was available only for Poland, Galicia, Little-Russia; Lithuania, and White-Russia. It could not be obtained for the Hungarian and Roumanian Jews, the measurements here reported, as far as our knowledge goes, are the first published. In this connection particular attention was paid to the differences in respect to stature, head-form, pigmenta- tion, between the immigrants and the stay-at-homes. Next to this, the effects of occupation and social conditions on stature was considered, for reasons which are fully set forth in the text. The author is under the impression that he presents here, besides his own investigations on the anthropology of the Jews, also most of the available data on the subject published’in European literature on the anthropology of the Jews and the races and peoples among whom they have lived for centuries. Analyzing the similarities and differences of the physical type of the Jews as compared with the Gentiles in the same country, it is to be expected that many points may be brought out which may contribute to the solution of some of the more important problems presented by this most peculiar of races. CHAP ITI. tt. STATURE. The average stature of the 1,528 Jews examined by the present writer in New York City is 164.5 cm. (5 feet 434 inches). The maximum height is 187.5 and the minimum 135 cm. The tallest individual was thus 23 cm., or 13.97 percent, larger than the average ; while the shortest individual was 29 cm., or 17.97 percent of the average stature. The variation is thus seen to be more active in the production of shortness of stature. Asa whole, the range of extreme individual variation extended over 52 cm., or 31.61 percent of the average height, which is not large when compared with that observed in other European races, but quite large when considered in connection with obser- vations on Jews in various European countries. Thus, from Blechman’s work on the anthropology of the Jews in Russia, we find that the range of individual variation was only 17.4 percent of the average stature; Yakowenko found it to be, among the White-Russian Jews, 18.7 percent; Weissenberg in South Russia, 21.5 percent ; Talko-Hryncewicz in Little-Russia, 23.4 percent. The only group of Jews in whom the extreme individual variation of stature exceeds that observed among the Jews in New Yorkare the Galicians, reported by Majer and Koper- nicki ; they show a range of 34.5 percent of the average stature. Among other peoples the range of variation has been much larger ; in Gould’s extensive American statistics we find it to extend over 108 cm. But we deal here with a conglomeration of races. Pagliani, in Italy, has found a difference of 74 cm. between the maximum and minimum stature, and the same value has been found among conscripts in Baden, observed by Ammon, while the Jews in the same locality have shown a range of variation of stature of only 30 cm.—less than one half. Another fact worthy of note is that not one individual of 190 cm. in height or over was encountered among these 1,528 Jews 171 172 FISH BERG in New York, and a survey of the literature of the anthropology of the Jews does not reveal one recorded. According to Gould’s statistics, nearly 5 individuals in 1,000 are taller than 190 cm., and in England, according to the report of the Anthro- pometric Committee, 3 in 1,000. This again accentuates the shortness of stature of the Jews when compared with a tall people like the Americans or the English. The Italians, who are of about the same stature, or even lower than the Jews, show the same characteristic. Pagliani found only one individual in 7,000 examined to be 190 cm. or over in height.” Thatithe shortest individual among the Jews observed in New York was 135 cm. is also peculiar —it is best explained by recalling that dwarfed persons are less likely to emigrate to a distand land, and perhaps also that the immigration authorities may not permit their landing. Biologists have recently been making use of another method of estimating the variability of physical characteristics which gives better results than the mere average, with the calculation of the extreme variation of the maximum and minimum. It is known as the “error of mean square”’ or the “index of vari- ability.”’ This is determined as follows: At first the deviations [x] from the average, both positive and negative, are determined. Each of these is then squared [1*] and then added, and the sum is divided by the number of observations [7], and finally the square root of the quotient is extracted, thus: C= Aes : nu The resulting ‘‘o”’ is termed by Pearson the ‘‘ standard devi- ation.” It is a concrete number, being expressed in the same units of measurement as the measurement of the individuals measured. In the case of human stature it is expressed in cen- timeters. To make use of this method of estimating the variability of stature of the Jews, the magnitudes obtained by measurement were arranged in a series of classes, each class representing the number of persons who have attained a certain height, at inter- Ee ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 173 vals of one centimeter. Thus twelve persons were observed in the class between 152 and 152.9 cm. in height; 62 in the class between 169 and 169.9 cm., etc. The average stature being foes cm., it is seen that in the first casé “ 7”? = — 12.5 cm: ; pee = 156.25 and “x?-/” = 1875. - In the second class “2” =—=—+ 4.5, “47” = 20.25, and “ 247-f” =1,255.5. This was done for each deviation (grouped by centimeters), beginning with the smallest and ending with the largest value. The products of ““4*.f”’ were then added together and the sum of these divided by “‘z”’ =the number of individuals measured = 1,528, and the square root extracted from the quotient. By this process it was found that the standard deviation of 1,528 Jews was for their stature + 6.58. Within the limits of + 6.58 it is theoretically expected that about 68 percent of the number of variates should lie. Empirically this was confirmed. We found that within the limits of the standard deviation, z ¢., 164.5 + 6.58 (=171.08), and 164.5 — 6.58 (=157.92) were 1027 individuals == 67.21 percent. . As is well known, the determination of the mean or average is never perfect, it is always only an approximation to the true average. This is due to inevitable errors of observation and calculation. These errors may be diminished by careful atten- tion to details while taking measurements, and calculating the results, or by taking measurements on a very large number of people, but they can never be entirely eliminated. The finding of the “ probable error’’ is a good method of determination of the accuracy of the average value. This is determined by multiplying the standard deviation by the constant 0.6745 and dividing the product by the square root of the number of in- dividuals measured thus : Standard Deviation oO Vn The probable error gives the closeness of the approximation to truth. In the case of the Jews under consideration we have calculated that the probable error is 0.1133 cm. With the aid of this figure we can say that there is an even chance that the + 0.6745 X == 'O.0745 “number of observations 174 FISHBERG true average lies within the limits of + 0.1133; that the chances are four to one that the true average lies within twice these limits, and nineteen to one that it lies within thrice these limits, From the nature of the method used in obtaining the probable error, it will be observed that the probable error is less, z. ¢., the average is more accurate, the greater the number of observa- STATURE 14 lee 1528 JEWS 435 JEWESSES ~ PERCENT [e.0) aa 4 JE Ws | ES JEWESS JEWESSEs 2 ee ae = 1 1384 188 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 774 178 182 186 STATURE iGaake tions. This accuracy does not increase, however, in the same proportion as the number of persons measured, but as the square root of this number. As the standard deviation decreases, the probable error of the mean decreases. As our study of the Jews is mainly concerned with their racial characteristics, if any such can be discerned, we can not rely on the average alone to determine the type. This is only a con- venient, but very vague, means to express a complex group of ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 175 figures by a single or a few numbers. In order to appreciate, and bring out prominently, the various elements which compose a population we use other methods, besides the average. The best and the most widely adapted by anthropologists of the present day is that of coordination and seriation, by arranging the figures obtained from measurement of the individuals in an as- cending or descending order of figures, each expressing a certain stature. Thus we may elicit one or more figures around which most of the individuals are grouped; various racial elements may in this manner be discerned in a group of people who ap- parently are of a single more or less pure race. Taner (11, STATURE OF 1,528 JEWS. Stature (in cm.). Number. Percent. | Stature(incm.).| Number. Percent. 135-136 I 0.07 163-164 189 12.37 137-138 I 0.07 || 165-166 189 12.37 139-140 I 0.07 167-168 169 11.06 141-142 2 ©; 13 169-170 107 7.00 143-144 4 0.26 171-172 96 6.28 145-146 3 0.20 173-174 67 4.38 147-148 4 0.26 || 175-176 28 1.83 149-150 15 0.98 || 177-178 23 ¥.50 I51-152 20 Re ‘| 179-180 16 1.05 153-154 37 2 AB | 181-182 9 | 0.60 155-156 82 5.36 183-184 6 0.40 157-158 IIo 7.29 185-186 I 0.07 159-160 ‘ESO 9.82 187-188 I 0.07 161-162 197 12.89 a | Total. 15528... | ‘¥00.02 In Table III this has been done with the figures obtained by measuring the Jews in New York. It will be seen from the figures in this table that up to the height of 148 cm. are very few individuals ; only one percent were observed to be of such low stature. The number of persons at a given height now begins to increase slowly until the height of 162-163 is reached. In this group we find the largest number of people — 197 or 12.89 percent. The proportion of observations now remains about stationary, till 166 cm. is reached when the percentage begins to decrease steadily until the height of 180 cm., where the number of persons is again becoming insignificant. The 176 FISHBERG arrangement of the various heights attained by the Jews will best be appreciated by observing the curve plotted from these figures. It will be observed on figure 1 the curve on the left side rises steadily until it reaches the point of 162 cm. in height ; it does not descend in the same manner, but remains stationary up to 166 cm. It rises again at 171-172, and 174— 180, which indicates that there is an excess of tall men among the Jews in New York, and which is best explained by the fact that they are an immigrant population, and emigrants are always Pisce STATURE JEWS IN NEW YORK|_ _____ JEWS iN EUROPE Eis oO ae 6 Se) ob ES [ee es | 5 = =e fo ff He LA COPE Eee In nineteen is 132 136 140 i44 148 152 156 160 164 168 172 176 180 184 1&8 STATURE Ries 72: taller on the average than the people in their native home. This has been already shown to be a fact with other immigrants from Gould’s statistics. The reason assigned is that most of the dwarfed, sickly and infirm remain at home and do not ven- ture on so long a journey. It is mostly the strong, the healthy and the well developed who emigrate. That this is also the ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 177 case with the Jews in the United States, is seen from the fact that the average stature in New York City is 164.5 cm., which is much above that observed in eastern Europe. There, Snigirew and Elkind have found that the average height of the Jews in Poland is 161 cm.; in Galicia it has been observed to be 162.3 (Majer and Kopernicki) ; in Hungary 163.3% (Scheiber), etc. Only in south Russia it has been observed that the Jews are as tall as we find them in New York City — 164.5 cm. according to Snigirew and Weissenberg. And the Jews coming here from these regions were found to be much taller than those from other countries, as will be seen later. To test this point more definitely, we have collected from the literature on the anthropology of the Jews measurements of 1681 Jews in Eastern Europe for comparison with those in New York. These were taken from Majer and Kopernicki, 836 Gali- cian Jews; Talko-Hryncewicz, 506 Russian Jews; Elkind, 200 Polish Jews ; and Yakowenko, 139 Russian Jews. It will be seen that this represents nearly all the countries from which the Jews come to the United States, excepting Roumania and Hun- gary. For the former there is no literature available, and Scheiber’s statistics for the latter are not reported in a manner suitable for comparison. Grouping the figures into four divisions, as proposed by Topinard, and considering those who attain less than 160 cm. in height as of ‘“short’’ stature; 160 to 164.9 cm. as “ stature below the average,’ 165 to 169.9 cm. as “stature above the average,’’ and 170 cm. and over as “ tall stature,’’ we find the following proportions : TABLE IV. STATURE OF JEWS IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EASTERN EuROPE. ; Yako- _Talko- Majer& Jews, Europe. Jews, New York. Elkind Era Hrynce- Koper- = eae wicz. nicki. No. |Percent. No. Percent. eee gI 53 152 300 596 | 35-46) 356 | 23.30 Below the average... 57 46 152 291 546 | 32.48 460 30.10 Above the average... 40 7 | 128 165 360 | 21.41) 420 | 27.49 | ae. I2 13 74 80 179 | 10.65| 292 | 19.11 oe 200 139 506 836 1,681 100.00 1,528 100.00 (ee) PERCENT ~] 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 178 FISHBERG From this table (IV) it is seen that individuals of short stature were found in Europe to reach 35.46 percent, while among the immigrant Jewish population in New York City it was only 23.3 percent. Large stature, on the other hand, is among the Jews in Eastern Europe 10.65 percent, and in New York the propor- tion is nearly double, 19.11 percent. Median height, 160 to 170 cm. in height, is about equally distributed in both groups. The superiority for the stature of the immigrant Jews in the United States as compared with those in Eastern Europe, is depicted to a yet better advantage in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 2), STATURE NO NSJEWS —t —— Eee aes B= STATURE Fic, 3. constructed from the tables given in the works of the above mentioned authors. The curve for the Jews in the United States is situated more ‘toward the right, while the one for those in Europe, is more to‘the left, although their course in other regards is almost identical. 38 (192 ‘ a © Law ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 179 TABLE V. STATURE OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE. Jews. Non-Jews. Jews and Non-Jews. mm. a - - - Number. | Percent. Number. Percent. | Number. Percent. 2 aA ye I 0.01 I 0.01 117-118 nt, — — — — — 119-120 — — 2 0.03 2 0.02 121-122 — | — | 0.03 2 0.02 123-124 | — | — I 0.01 I 0.01 125-126 ae aa | — 2 0.03 | 2 0.02 127-128 — oo I OrOr I 0.01 129-130 ee 8 O.12< | 8 0.08 131-132 2 0.07 | 12 1s: | 14 0.14 133-134 | — — 7 ro op Fe aa 7 0.07 135-136 I 0.03 8 O82 i 9 0.09 137-138 2 0.07 17 O26 | EO 0.19 139-140 I 0.03 22 O.32)<+| 28 0.23 141-142 fe) 0.31 37 ol a 47 0.48 143-144 10 0.31 51 0.76 61 0.62 145-146 13 0.40 47 0.70 60 0.61 147-148 27 0.84 74 P20 IoI T.02 149-150 44 1.37 100 1.49 144 1.45 I51-152 79 2.46 I51 2.25 230 2.32 Pea-154. | - 119 3-70 164 245°. | 283 2.86 155-156 224 6.98 361 5.38 585 5.90 157-158 277 8.63 500 7-45 eh 7-83 159-160 341 10.62 652 9.72 993 10.01 161-162 414 12.90 680 10.45 1,094 11.03 163-164 394 12.28 848 12.64 1,242 12.52 165-166 905. L137 813 F212 1,178 11.87 167-165 | -289 9.00 652 9:73 941 9.45 169-170 210 6.54 491 (he 701 7.07 171-172 155 4.83 408 6.08 563 5.69 173-174 108 3 37 252 3-76 360 3-64 175-176 48 {52 147 2.19 195 1:07 177-178 | 30 0.93 97 1.45 127 1.28 179-180 23 O.72 55 0.82 78 0.79 181-182 13 0.40 22 0.33 35 0.35 183-184 | 4 Gi22 15 0.22 22 0.22 185-186 I 0.03 7 0.10 8 0.08 187-188 2 0.07 — — 2 0.02 189-190 —. -- I 0.01 I 0.01 3,209 100.00 6,708 99.97 9,917 100.02 On figure 3 is shown a curve constructed from the figures representing both the Jews in Eastern Europe, and in New York City, a total of 3,209 persons. It will be observed that the apex points at 162 cm. which is about the average for the Jews in Europe. Towards the left, where stature below the average 180 FISHBERG is represented, the curve runs progressively downwards, until the stature of 150 cm. is reached, when the number becomes almost insignificant. But to the right, where heights above the average are shown, a significant point is to be seen. Up to 168 cm. there is shown an elevation of the curve, which is not seen on the curve for the Jews of Eastern Europe, but exactly corre- sponding to the elevation in the curve representing the Jews in New York City. This again shows plainly the process of selec- tion which is usual for immigrants as regards their physical con- dition — the taller ones are more adventurous and are more apt to leave their native land in search of fortunes in a distant land. The first impression one gets while examining this curve is that the Jews do not show any evidences of intermixture with other races. It has been accepted by many anthropologists that the seriation and coordination of any physical character of a people, in which there has taken place an appreciable amount of racial intermixture will not show a smooth curve. It will display more than one apex, corresponding to the racial ele- ments which have entered into the composition of the people. On the other hand, when a curve shows a single apex — one maximum of frequency, around which are clustered all the other observations, the lesser values to the left and the larger to the right, it may be accepted as good proof of the purity of the race. Viewed from this standpoint, the Jews can be considered as pure, showing no evidence of foreign blood in their veins. The fallacy of such a contention will be evident when we will consider at first the stature of the races and peoples among whom the Eastern European Jews have lived for centuries. They are primarily those whom ethnologists class under the vague term “Slav” races. Of these weifind in Polandethe Poles, whose stature is quite short, 162 to 164 cm. in height (Majer and Kopernicki, Olechnowicz, Elkind, Snigiref, Zakrzew- ski, etc.) In Lithuania and White-Russia, the Lithuanians, Letts, and the White-Russians are somewhat taller — 163 to 165 cm. The Little-Russians in South Russia, and the Ru- thenians in Galicia are taller, to be sure, but their height does not exceed 166.7 cm. and in some localities it is much lower — ‘ a ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 181 only 162 to 163 cm.’ In Hungary ethnic conditions are not so simple. Here we have the Magyars who are among the shortest of Europeans, less than 162 cm. in height. The Slavs in that country are taller, being ethnically allied to the Ruthenians of Galicia and the Little-Russians of the Ukraine, this is to be expected — they reach 164.6 cm. The Germans in Hungary are of about the same height (Scheiber). The Roumanians are about midway between the short Poles and Magyars, the tall Little-Russians and Ruthenes. From the recent investigations of Pittard they are found to be. 165 cm. in height. A glance at the map prepared by Anutchin and reproduced by Ripley ’ showing the distribution of stature in this region of Europe, will make this point clear. This is the stature of the races among whom the Jews under consideration have lived for the last eight or ten centuries. If any infusion of foreign blood has taken place, these races must have been the sources from which it came. This we must remember at the outset, before considering the curve showing the distribution of stature of the Jews and Christians in Eastern Europe. In order that we may see the probable effect of such an inter- mixture of the Jews with the races among whom they have lived for a longer time, the following plan of investigation has been adopted: We have collected from the anthropological literature on the eastern European races measurements of 6,708 individ- uals, including : 1,055 Little-Russians, from Talko-Hryncewicz’s work. 476 Letto-Lithuanians ‘‘ cf ES a3 g61 White-Russians ‘‘ - sig 6 2,861 Poles from Galicia ‘* Kopernicki’s Zo 1,355 Ruthenians from Galicia ra ee These have been tabulated in Table V and the percentages of frequency calculated for each group of stature ; the results have been plotted on diagram as a curve. A glance at this curve reveals the following salient points. Notwithstanding the fact 1 Talko-Hryncewicz, Kopernicki, Anutchin, Ivanowski and others. 2 << Races of Europe,’’ p. 348, and also the map for Austria-Hungary, p. 350. 182 FISHBERG that it is composed of a group of peoples each of which has no special claim to exceptional racial purity ; notwithstanding that, no matter how pure each of these races may claim to be, still a mixture of all of them can not be considered as representing a pure type, — the resulting curve of stature, is as smooth as could be expected of the purest of races.’ One more point is to be considered of significance: The course of this curve is almost identical with that for the Jews, seen on diagram 3, with one exception, — is situated about two centimeters to the right, thus showing that the Christians of Eastern Europe are on the aver- age about two centimeters taller than the Jews. The apex points at 164 cm., while the one for the Jews points at 162 cm. Con- sidering the conditions of poverty and privation under which the Jews in Eastern Europe are laboring, the indoor occupations in which they are generally employed, and the absence of agri- cultural laborers among them, we are not surprised at the shortage of about one inch of stature they display, when com- pared with their non-Jewish neighbors, who are generally under better economic and social conditions, working mostly outdoors, etc. The similarity of stature of the Jews with that of non-Jews of Eastern Europe of which we have already spoken before, is yet more apparent when we consider them not ez masse, but in groups according to the country they inhabit. This we will do later. As a further test we have combined the 3,209 Jews with the 6,708 Gentiles and of both sets of figures constructed a curve which is shown on figure 3. This curve again shows no double apex, no significant elevations or indentations in its course, thus again proving that the smooth course of the curve representing the stature of the Jews can not be considered a proof of their racial purity. It is evident that no amount of foreign blood coming from the races of Eastern Europe, among whom the Jews have lived, would have shown itself in a study of the seri- ation of their stature. The reason for this condition is evident: The difference in the type of stature of the Jews and Gentiles in Eastern Europe is 1The slight indentation at the height of 162 cm. can be ascribed to chance. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 183 very slight — almost insignificant, 162 to 163 cm. for the former, and 164 to 165 for the latter, is about the standard of height for these peoples. Intermixture with people who differ but one to two centimeters in height cannot have any effect on the distri- bution of stature so as to be evident in a seriation, as can be readily seen on diagram 3. If the difference in stature had been larger, say eight to ten centimeters, supposing the intermixture had taken place with the Scotch, who average over 170 cm. in height, the curve might have shown it up by a double apex. What we desire to emphasize however at this place, is that the smooth course of the curve for stature of the Eastern European Jews does not exclude the possibility of racial intermixture. tapi. VI. STATURE OF 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY. | Lithuania) {1 jttle- Rou- Stature (in cm.). | Galicia. Poland. z2ndWhite- homies es Hungary. Naren Russia. 137-138 Origa Garr a Ta = “= = 139-140 — 0.31 — — — _ — I4I—-142 0.33 — 0. 36 — — -- — 143-144 |} 1.31 | — — = — — — 145-146 |. &.98: | — — —- — — — 147-148 Re a ee — 1.33 = — 149-150 2.05 | 4.95 — og! —_— — | 0.80 151-152 ees ee Oe O46). O45 1 33.t) 2 6.72: | — 153-154 }-.! 306% 4.13 a2) Gal 5:33 ee ee eS | 155-156 Weer ee} 7.20 6.18 2.19 4.00 3.57) |; 861 157-158 8.53 9.21 6.91 5-02 8.00 7.14 2.42 159-160 E2533 9.84 12.00 ree 6.67 EG.72 || 5-65 161-162 PIER |) PS. 24 | 14.55 12.70) ge,00: |) 13.87}. 3:87 163-164 | £2.46] I1.11 13.46 | 15.53 12.67 | —-7.56 12.10 165-166 Veh oRG.97 i) PGZy (13,90 |? -9633-) 25271 12.90 167-168 L787 | tost6 92). fo79 | 0.67 | (10,72, | ES. 32 169-170 ti pe} Gag cee eeay y) “me O7 | BSF | 1.46 171-172 | 6.23 3-49 [tN ee = oy A a BM 3-174) 2.63 1.90 436. |; 5.48 | 8.69) 5.00.) 8.07 175-176 } 0.98.1 -5.g0 1.46 1:37 2.07. |)-" (2860) 3.23 pia ges 4 10-33)| 2-59) | . O73). 137 |, 3-33.| “214 | - 323 179-180 i set Obs O70) @.0l | 1.34 |: 214) ' 4.03 181-182 | — 0.31 O77 Ft + 2237 0.67 | 0.72 | 0.80 183-184 6:65 | 6:31. |, 0.36 | — “E33 — | -- 185-186 (ek a ae — = — — | 0.80 187-188 | — = as — — — 0.80 No. measured. — 305 | gry 275 219 150 , 140 124 Average stature. | 162.2 | 163.4 164.2 165.7 266.0 ,|-165.7 | 167.9 184 FISHBERG On Table VI is shown the individual variations of the stature of the Jews in New York City, according to their nativity. It will be observed that there are noteworthy differences in the stature of each group of Jews. A comparsion of these figures with measurements obtained in Eastern Europe, shows that the immigrants are taller than the Jews in their native countries. Thus, the average stature of the Jews in Poland, was found by Snigireff and Elkind to be 161 cm. while those who left Poland and emigrated to the United States are found to be 163.4 cm. in height. In Lithuania and White-Russia Snigireff, Talko- Hryncewicz and Yakowenko found the average height of the Jews about 162 cm., and immigrants from this region of Russia are seen to be 164.2 cii..on the average. “In-Souths Russia Snigireff and Weissenberg measurements show that the Jews are over 164 cm. and the immigrants from this country are found to average 165.7 cm. in height.~ The same is trite-or tic Jews from Hungary, who in their native land were found to be 163.3 cm. (Scheiber), while those in New York are 2.4 cm. taller, averaging 165.7 cm.’ The only exception are they jews from Galicia, who were found by Majer and Kopernicki to be 162.3 cm. in their native land, while in New York they are of the same height. As will be seen later this exceptional phenom- enon is not confined to stature; ‘selection by immigration ”’ is also negative among these Jews as regards their headform. But in all the other groups it appears that the immigrants are taller than those left at home. This phenomenon appears in a more striking manner when we compare the immigrants with their correligionists at home by grouping the figures obtained by measurement in four groups of stature, short, below the average, above the average and tall. For comparison, the literature of the anthropology of the Jews in Eastern Europe has been utilized, and the figures are pre- sented in table VII. From this table (VII) it is seen that the proportion of short persons is larger among the Jews in their native lands than among those who emigrated to the United States. 29 percent of the Jews in Little-Russia are less than 160 cm. in height, and ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 185 Tape WOE. STATURE OF IMMIGRANT JEWs IN NEW YORK COMPARED WITH THOSE IN EASTERN EUROPE. Stature Galicia. Poland. eek Little-Russia (in cm.) —- 1S —= ae N.Y. | Galicia. N. Y. | Poland.| N. Y. | Lithuania. | N. Y. | Lit.-Russia. =—160 | 36.07 29.16 | 20.29 | ARO | 2E.46 | | aa.to |t4001 29.22 160-165 | 28.85 |: 29.17 | 30.48) 28.50 | 34.55 | + 33-09 -| 32.87] 29.00 165--170 | 21.64 | 25.00 27.30 | 20.00 | 29.09 | 19.42 30.58 27.87 170 + 13.44 16.67 13.02 | 6.00] 14.91 | 9.39 21.95 14.61 165 | 64.92] 58.33 | 59.68 | 74.00] 56.00! 71.19 | 47.47] 58.22 165 + S5205'| (4.67 40. 32°|'26/00 | 44:00 |": 28.89") [52.53 41.78 only 14 percent of the Jewish immigrants from that country are in this class of stature; in Lithuania the proportions are 38 to 21 percent. The only exception is again with the Galician Jews, where the proportion of persons less than 160 cm. in height was found by Majer and Kopernicki to be 29 percent and in New York City such short persons are more frequent, reaching 36 percent. Tall individuals, 170 cm. in height and taller, are more frequently met with among the immigrants than among those measured in their native land, again with the exception of the Galicians. Among the Little-Russian Jews this class of stature is 21.95 percent in New York and only 14.61 percent at home ; among the White-Russian and Lithuanian Jews 14.91 in New York and g.39 percent at home; and among the Polish Jews 13 percent in New York and 6 percent in Poland. The same is the fact with the Hungarian Jews when we compare our statistics with those obtained by Scheiber in Hungary.’ 1 The figures for the Jews in eastern Europe in this table are taken from : Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki, ‘‘Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyzskiej, ’’? Zdcor wiadom. do antropol. krajowej, Krakow, 1877, 1885, Vols. I and X ; Poland, A. D. Elkind, ‘‘ The Jews,” Publications of the Society of Friends of Naturai Science, An- thropology and Ethnography, Vol. XXI, Moscow, 1902 (in Russian) ; Little-Russia, J. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci zydowskiej Litwi i Rusi,’’ Zbior wiad. do antropol. Kraj., Vol. XVI, 1892; White-Russia, M. G. Yako- wenko, ‘‘ Materials for the Anthropology of the Jews,’’ St. Petersburg, 1898 (in Russian ). 2S. H. Scheiber, ‘* Untersuchungen iiber den mittleren Wuchs der Menschen in Ungarm,”’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, H, 1881, pp. 233-267. 186 FISHBERG For comparison of the Jews with the indigenous population of the countries in which they lived for centuries it has been deemed advisable to combine the figures obtained by measure- ment of the Jews in New York with those found in the anthro- pological literature of the Jews in eastern Europe. A fairly large number of observations are thus obtained, which may be expected to give more or less definite results. We have thus tabulated 1,141 Galician Jews (305 in New York and 836 in Galicia by Kopernicki); 515 Polish Jews (315 in New York and 200 in Poland by Elkind) ; 414 Lithuanian and White-Rus- sian Jews (275 in New York and 139 in White-Russia by Yak- owenko); 657 Little-Russian Jews (219 in New York and 438 in Little-Russia by Talko-Hryncewicz). These figures are placed in parallel columns with Galician Poles and Ruthenians (Majer and Kopernicki), Poles (Elkind), Letto-Lithuanians and White-Russians (Talko-Hryncewicz, and Little- Russians (Ivan- owski), and Roumanians (Pittard).' An analysis of the figures in this table confirms in a striking manner the similarity of the stature of the Jews to that of their non-Jewish neighbors. To begin with the average stature: In Galicia it is equal to that of the Poles of that country, and less than that of the Ruthenians who are known to be tall. In Po- land the Jews are slightly taller, and here the Poles are also taller than those of Galicia. In White-Russia and Lithuania the Jews are taller than those in the above-mentioned countries, and here we find that the indigenous population is also taller than the Poles; while in Little-Russia, where the people are distinguished by their superior height (being among the tallest of races of European Russia) the Jews are also tall. Weissen- berg found them here to measure 164.8 cm. in height, and Pan- 1 Majer and Kopernicki, Jvc. ci¢.; A. D. Elkind, ‘‘The Poles of the District of Wisla,’’ Public. Soc. of Friends of Natural Science Anthropol. and Ethnography, Vol. XC, Moscow, 1897; J. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludu ukrainskiego,’’ Zbi07 Widom. do. Antrop. ki7., Vol. XIV ; idem., ‘‘ Charaktery- styka fizyczna ludow Litwii Rusi,’’ zd¢¢d, Vol. XVIII; A. A. Ivanowski, ‘‘ On the Anthropological Composition of the Races in Russia,’’ Public. Society of Friends, etc., Vol., CV., Moscow 1904 (in Russian) ; Eugene Pittard, ‘‘ Anthropologie de la Roumaina,’’ LZ’ anthropologie, XIV, No. 1, 1993, pp. 33-58. ee ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 187 TaBLeE VIII. STATURE OF THE JEWS COMPARED WITH THAT OF NON-JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNNTRIESI EASTERN EUROPE. | FE 2 : g g g Po v a S = = o on 2 Country. mg B ® 2 = Ss 3 = ie Observer. “4 = = a >S ey eee are w en oe Galicia. / | Jews. | 35.93 | 33-22 | 20.24 | 10.61 | 69.15 | 30.85 | 1,141 | 1,623 | Fishberg, Kopern. Poles. | 13.67 | 32.93 | 28.90 | 24.50 | 46.60 | 53.40 | 2,861 | 1,622 | Kopernicki. Ruthenians. 21.78 | 26.47 | 22.94 | 28.81 | 48.25 | 51.75 | 1,355 | 1,640 | ms Poland. Jews. 35.53 | 29.71 | 24.47 | 10.29 | 65.24 | 34.47 515 1,625 | Fishberg, Elkind. Poles. 23.50 | 38.22 | 21.99 | 16.23 | 61.78 | 38.22 I9gt_ 1,640 | Elkind. Lithuania and | White- Nussia. Jews. White-Russians. 23.93 28.62 Letto- Little- Russia. | 27.05 | 34.06 | 25.85 13.04 | 61.11 38.89 | 414 1,635 | Fishberg, wenko. WIiCZ. Yako- SoFs | Peel4.| 52.55 | 47.29 961 1,636 |Talko-Hrynce- Lithua. 18.07 | 31.52 | 27.94 | 22.47 | 49.59 | 50.41 476 1,644 Talko-Hrynce- wicz. 657 1,639 |Fishberg, Talko- Jews. | 24.35 | 30.30 | 28.31 | 17.04 | 54.65 | 45.35 | | | | | Hryncewicz, Little-Russians. | 14.52 32.88 26.86 | 25.74 | 47.40 | 52.60 1,694 | 1,670 | Ivanowski. Roumania. | | | Jews. 18.00 | 27.33 | 24.00 | 30.67 | 45.33 | 54.67 | 150! 1,660 | Fishberg. Roumanians. _—«12.58 29.80 : 34579") 25:83-| 42.38 | 57.62 151 1,650 |Pittard. tukhof records the Jewish recruits in Odessa to be 165.6 cm. in height on the average, even taller than the Christian con- scripts of that city. Even Snigireff’s recruiting statistics show that the Jews measure here 164.2 cm. The Hungarians are also known to be tall, 164.6 cm., according to measurements of 77,579 Magyar soldiers,’ and here, also, the Jews are taller, 165.7 cm. in height.” Finally the Roumanian Jews appear the tallest of the Eastern European immigrant Jews in New York city. Pittard gives as the average stature of the Roumanians as 165 cm.; the same average stature was found by measuring ' Quoted from Deniker, ‘‘ The Races of Man,’’ p. 579. 2 From Scheiber’s statistics it would appear that the Magyars are shorter, only 161.9 cm., but he found the Jews superior in this respect, 163.3 cm. in height. The difference may be explained by the fact that the former statistics are from sol- diers, a picked lot from which all short individuals have been eliminated. 188 FISHBERG 59,761 Roumanian soldiers;' in Bukowina, Himmel records that the Roumanians reach 167.3 cm. in height.” We found no records in anthropological literature of measurements of Jews in Roumania, but from Himmel’s measurements of 100 Jewish soldiers in Bukowina, they are shown to be quite tall, 165.7 cm. on the average. It is noteworthy that the distribution of the classes of stat- ure confirms this condition very strikingly. It appears from this table that the proportion of short individuals, less than 160 cm. in height, is everywhere larger among the Jews than among the Gentiles of the same country ( excepting among the Rouma- nians, but here we deal with immigrants only, having no available statistics for Jews in their native country to combine with the statistics of the stature of the immigrants as was done with the other groups). But the percentage of these short individuals seems to run in almost direct ratio to the percentage found among the Gentiles in the same locality. In Galicia and in Russian Poland, where persons under 160 cm. in height reach over 20 percent, the Jews have 35 percent of short meny on the other hand, in Little-Russia, where such people are only found to the extent of 14 percent, and in Roumania where it is only 12 percent among the Gentiles, the Jews show also a les- ser proportion, 24 and 18 percent respectively. Persons of tall stature, 170 cm. in height and taller, are met with less fre- quently among the Jews than among non-Jews of the same country. Such persons are found to the extent of 10 percent among the Galician Jews, but the proportion increases in fre- quency as it increases among the Christians of a given country, and is found to be 17 percent among the Jews from Little-Rus- sia, and even 30 percent among the Roumanian Jews. That this is not an isolated case, is shown by the fact that Talko- Hryncewicz, Majer and Kopernicki and Otto Ammon mention the fact that in those parts of the country’ where the general 1 Deniker, Joc. cit. 2See Himmel’s ‘‘ KGrpermessungen in der Bukowina,’’ reported by Weisbach, in WMittheilungen Anthropol. Gesellschaft Wien, XVIII, 1888, Sidzungsbericht, pp. 83-84. 3 Little-Russia, Galicia, Baden. ? ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 189 population is of tall stature, the Jews display the same char- _ acteristic, and the reverse. THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS ON STATURE. The deficiency of the stature of the Jews, as compared with their non-Jewish neighbors is an interesting topic for investiga- tion. Itis true that the difference is but little, only one to three centimeters in favor of the Gentiles, but it is evident in almost every country where measurements have been taken. It is of scientific interest to inquire into the reasons why the stature of the Jews depends to a great extent upon the statute of their neighbors, wherever the latter are short of stature the Jews dis- play the same characteristic ; and the reverse, but what is most remarkable, they are always somewhat shorter than the Gentiles. One reason may be the fact that the Jews are mostly town- dwellers, while nearly two thirds of non-Jews are living in the country. The Jews are only rarely engaged in agricultural pursuits. ‘The general rule in Europe”’ says Ripley, “seems to be that the urban type is physically degenerate.’”’' Beddoe considers as proved that the stature of men in the large towns of Britain is lowered considerably below the standard of the nation and that such degradation is progressive and hereditary.” The same has been observed by Ranke in Bavaria,* Anutchin in Russia* and by many others. Ripley’ points out that ‘the unfavorable influence of city life is often obscured by the great social selection which is at work in the determination of the physical type of the population of great cities. While the course of the town type by itself is downward, oftentimes the city attracts another class which is markedly superior, in the same way that the immigrants of the United States have been distin- guished in this respect.’’ This advantage is of course not enjoyed 1 Loc. cit., p. 95. *J. Beddoe, ‘‘On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles,’’ J/em. Anthr. Soc. London, III, 1867. $J. Ranke, ‘‘ Der Mensch,’’ Vol. II, p. 131. 4D. N. Anutchin, ‘‘On the Geographical Distribution of Stature of the Male Population of Russia, St. Petersburg, 1889, p. 165 (in Russian). ®Loc. cit., pp. 95, 552-555. 190 FISHBERG by the Jews in Europe, because the numerical value of the Jewish rural population is almost insignificant. The superior stature of the Jews in the United States is to be ascribed to this very cause. The wretched social, economic and sanitary conditions under which they labor in the Eastern European Ghettoes, will also account for the deficiency they display in body height, when compared with their Gentile neighbors. As a matter of fact, in Galicia, where the economic conditions of the Jews are worst, they are shorter than any other class of Jews. Even the immi- grants of the United States from this poor country are the short- est, as we have seen above. The artificial selection which in- fluences favorably the average stature of immigrants, had no effect at all on these Jews. In Poland, where the economic con- ditions are better, the Jews are taller; while in South Russia the Jews are quite tall, corresponding possibly to superior economic conditions. The influence of poverty and social con- ditions on the stature of the Jews has been illustrated in a strik- ing manner by Zakrzewski in his work ‘‘ Ludnosc miasta Warszawy.’' He prepared maps showing the social status of the various districts in Warsaw, the capital of Poland and the average stature of the Jews and Poles in that city. A com- parison of these maps shows in a striking manner how short- ness of stature goes hand in hand with poverty. Another in- direct proof of this theory is the increase of stature of the first generation of Jews in New York city, where the social and economic conditions are much improved. The Jews are mostly engaged in indoor occupations. 720 of the 1528 individuals investigated in New York (47.12 percent) were working indoors. That workingmen who spend most of their time in closed rooms, particularly amid unsanitary sur- roundings, such as are generally obtainable in sweatshops, are shorter of stature, is well known. Ripley ascribes it to two causes: The first is artificial selection, ‘‘The physically well developed men seek certain trades or occupations in which their vigor or strength may stand them in good stead; on the other 1 Materiali antr.-archeol. Akad. umtej., Krakow, I, dzial I, pp. 1-38. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 191 hand, those who are by nature weakly, and coincidently often deficient in stature, are compelled to make shift with some pur- suit for which they are fitted. Thus workers in iron, porters, firemen, policemen, are taller as a class than the average, because they are of necessity recruited from the more robust portion of the population. In marked contrast to them, tailors, shoe- makers and weavers, in an occupation which entails slight de- mands upon the physical powers, and which is open to all, how- ever weakly they may be, are appreciably shorter than the average. The second cause is the result of the effects of the habits of life or of the nature of the employment. The condi- tions in the sweatshops act adversely on the physique of the younger tailors. Add to this the cramped position in which they work, the long hours, the unsanitary surroundings, etc., and you find all the conditions tending to physical degeneracy.* TABLE IX. STATURE AND OCCUPATION. ia: | Stat St | Occupation. Pee anes | Siete | aot tee ® | ar | sees iP" (cme) | Average. | Average. | i Indoor. | | | Tailors. Mala 161.3 32.79% | 33-33% | 22.05% | 11.85% Cobblers. 79 160.4 37.98 20.55. © )'r) 27.80) ')| 20.83 Fact’y workers.| 269 | 162.2 | 20.30% | |, 27.80 30.11 |) 35-65 Total indoor. | 720° «| 102-0. | 30.68 | 30:58 25.00 | 12:37 Outdoor. | | | Carpenters. Sg; ) £26450 1o.10 |.) 34/46 AS.66)° |) “21238 Iron-workers. 6B ||. TG. 3 20.59 | 26.47 | 27.94 | 25.00 Masons. ’ 44 | 167.9 5.02 |. at-oy | 28:00 { 21,35 House painters.'! © 58 | 167.5 15.52 25.86 31.03 27.59 Laborers. 85 1b6.8. | 20.41 | 22.35 29:45 | £8.83 Total outdoor. 344 166.4 20.93 PA Bee) 28.78 22.97 Mercantile. | | Merchants. 163 | 168.7 1 86.56 27:61 |) 35:90" | 28,83 Clerks. 105 | 16G;2: |, DE ae SRU2E |. 26.67 26.67 Peddlers. 130 164.3 | 18.47 37-69 | 26.15 | 17.69 Professional. 66 | 169.6 | 9.04 | 22.73 93.33 34.85 — In order to determine whether the peculiar occupations of the Jews had any effect on their average stature, I have classified 1W. Z. Ripley, ‘‘ Races of Europe,’’ pp. 89-93. 192 FISHBERG the material according to the occupations of the people who sub- mitted to measurement. The average stature of each class was calculated, and also the percentage of people of tall, medium and short stature among them. Among these 1,528 men under consideration, 720 (47.12 percent) were engaged in indoor occupations, including the various branches of tailoring, cobblers, cigar-makers, weavers, bakers, etc.; 344 (22.51 percent) were working outdoors, including: carpenters, house painters, masons, ironworkers, etc. ; 398 (26.65 percent) were engaged in mer- cantile pursuits, as clerks, etc., 130 were peddlers: 66 anette class generally called professional class, including the liberal professions and also students. The accompanying table (IX) shows the results of this inquiry. It will be observed that the tallest were the professional men reaching 169.9 cm. in height. They also had the largest proportion of tall men— 34.85 per- cent. The clerks and merchants come very close with 169.2 and 168.7 cm. respectively, in height. Beside these we note the peddlers, who though classed with the merchants, still are rather short, only 164.3 cm. The reason is apparent, the percentage of short people among them was 18.47, and tall, 170 cm. and over only 17.60. Coming to the people engaged in outdoor occupations we note that their average stature was 166.4 cm., two cm. above that for the Jews in New York City. Nearly 23 percent of them were 170 cm. and over in height as against only Ig among the Jews generally, and while the latter show 23.3 percent of short people averaging less than 160 cm. in height, such who are engaged in outdoor occupations, have only 20.93 percent of such deficient persons. Masons and house painters were the tallest of this class while the carpenters were the shortest. When we come to consider those engaged in indoor occupations, we are at once struck by the alarming proportion of short people, 30.98 percent were less than 160 cm. in height, and in addition to this the propor- tion of tall persons, 170 cm. and over, are found to be only 12.17 percent. We can add that only one of these was 178 cm., six feet tall, and he was not a tailor in his early years; only after emigrating to the United States at the age of twenty-one he ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 193 learned the trade. Their average stature is only 162 cm., 2.5 cm. (one inch) shorter than the general average for the Jews in New York City. Deplorably deficient in this regard were found the cobblers and tailors, 160.4 cm. for the former, and 161.3 for the latter. The proportion of short men was 32.79 among the tailors and reached nearly 38 percent among the shoemakers. These figures, though based on comparatively few observa- tions tend to show that the deficiency of the Jews’ stature, as compared with the other races in eastern Europe, may at least partly, be ascribed to the wretched social and economic condi- tions under which he finds himself within the gates of the East- ern European Ghettoes. Dr. 5S. Weissenberg also observed that the stature of the Jews in South Russia depends greatly on their occupations and social status, and Zakrzewski’s maps _ of the city of Warsaw confirm this in Poland — the largest Jewish center in Europe. The first generation of Jews in New York ‘City, which only rarely works at indoor occupations, lead a more active open-air life, which is conducive to normal growth and development, are also taller. This condition also confirms that the shortness of stature of the Jews is due in a great measure to their social conditions and environment. The influence of occupation, active open-air life and general prosperity on the stature of the Jews, is best seen from Mr. Joseph Jacobs’ measurements of English Jews. He found the average height of the Jews in London was 164.1 cm. (65 inches), but the Jews living in the ‘‘ West-End” of London were much taller, they averaged 171.4 cm. (67.5 inches). Jacobs attributes this superior stature of the “ West-End”’ Jews to their superior “nurture,” and social conditions generally.’ An analysis of the stature of the Jews born in the United States, as compared with that of their foreign-born parents, confirms Jacobs’ observations on English Jews. Among the 1,528 Jews under consideration 124 were native born. Their average stature was 167.9 cm., as against 164.2 cm. of the 1,404 Jews of foreign birth. This 1 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘ On the Comparative Anthropometry of English Jews,’’ Journal Anthropological Institute, London, XIX, 1899, pp. 76-88. 194 FISHBERG shows an increase of 3.7 cm. in the first generation. The increase in stature is yet better displayed in the accompanying table showing the proportion of individuals at a given class of stature accordingly to the four divisions of stature in which our material has been divided. TABLE 2 STATURE OF NATIVE AND FOREIGN JEWS. Foreign Jews Native Jews. Stature. E = a ; Number. | Percent. Number. | Percent Short. 345 24.57 II 8.87 Below the Average. 430 30.63 30 24.19 Above the Average. | 379 26.99 41 33-07 Rail: 250 | 17291 42 33.87 Total. yay igoa.) yD exeavoa) i 124 100.00. From this table we find that while among the Jews born in Eastern Europe 24.57 percent were of short stature (less than 160 cm.), there were only 8.87 percent of native Jews thus deficient in -body-height. On the other hand; tall men, 170 cm. in height and upward, are found among the native Jews 33.87 percent, as against only 17.81 percent. among their immigrant parents. The proportion of persons of medium height, 160 to 170 cm., is about the same in both groups. We can see in this a process of double selection at work. The immigrants are taller on the average than the people of whom they spring, as we have already seen. That stature is trans- mitted by heredity is not to be questioned. When to this are added other factors which are favorable to healthy growth of the body, we have good reasons for the superior stature of the native American Jews. Here during the period of most active growth, the Jewish child attends a modern public school, instead of the insanitary ‘‘ Cheder’’ (Jewish school) in Eastern Europe ; during adolescence the Jew here engages mostly in outdoor occupations, instead of the sweatshops which is the work shop of many of the immigrant Jews (only five of the 124 native Jews were engaged at work in sweatshops). Besides this, the native Jewish youth in the East side in New York City enjoys ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 195 quite freely open air recreations, games, bicycle riding, etc., all of which is conducive to healthy growth and development of the body. The superior stature of the native American Jews is thus seen to be a result of superior social conditions and environment. STATURE OF WOMEN. The average stature of 435 women examined by the present writer is 153.5 cm (5 feet, 0.4 inch.) They are thus II cm. shorter than the men. The ratio of stature of men and women is I to 0.931 or as 16 to 14.88, which is exactly the ratio of adult men and women in England.’ The absolute difference in stature between men and women is about the same as generally observed in other races, as can be seen from Deniker’s study of 35 series of measurements of women, that in 20 cases out of 35, , almost two thirds, the difference in height between the two sexes in any given population hardly varies more than from 7 to 13 cm. (3 to 5 inches) ; 14 times out of 35 it only varies from 11 to 12 cm., so that the figure of 12 cm. may be accepted as the average.” From investigations of Professor Franz Boas among American Indians, it is to be seen that among the taller American races the stature of women is 92 percent of that of the men, while among the shorter races the percentage reaches 94.3 The tallest Jewess examined was 170.3 cm., being 16.8 cm. or 10.94 percent larger than the average. The shortest was 133.4 cm., 20.1 cm., or 13.99 percent shorter than the average. In general the extreme variation extended over 36.9 cm., or 24 percent of the average. All these values are much smaller than those presented by the men, thus showing a much smaller range of variability of stature of the women. The standard deviation was found to be 6.20, which is practically the same as that for 2. @. 1 There the stature of men is 170 cm. and of women 160 cm., the ratio is thus as 16 to 14.88. See Report of the Anthropometric Committee, of the British Associa- tion, 1883. 2]. Deniker, ‘‘ The Races of Men,’’ London, 1900, p. 33. 3 Franz Boas, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer,’’? Verhand- ung. a. Berliner Anthropologischen Ges., 1895, pp. 74, 75. 196 FISHBERG the men (6.58), while the probable error is 0.20 — larger than that of the men (0.1133). This is due to the smaller number of observations on women, because the average is more accurate, and the probable error consequently smaller, the larger Ue number of individuals measured. Arranged in groups of tall, short, etc., we find the following distribution : Number. Percent. Short (130, em. aid) lessi)i-scet cee snescace ene 7 1.61 Below the average (10) toii52 emi) ))/e5.-nne.p encore 186 42.76 Above the average’ (4153 to" 157. cil)\o.seese-2ec0 142 32.65 Pall: (q53 andy albowye)its sees seercee enn rae 100 22.98 Botall ics avahese Ss anes tore eee ees 435 100.00 ier XG STATURE OF JEWESSES. Height (in cm.). ter |) Percent. Height (in cm.). Number. | a a ~ 3 ies z 133-134 I 0.23 || 153-154 58 13.34 135-136 2 | 0.40) 9 9) 55-156 65 14.94 137-138 2 | 0.46 157-158 39 | 8.96 139-140 5 | t.15 159-160 | 37 8.51 141-142 9 | 2:07 161-162 | 20 4.59 143-144 IO | 2.29 163-164 | 6 1,38 145-146 | 39 | 8.96 || 165-166 | 7 | 1.61 147-148 40 | 9.19 | 167-168 | 9 2.07 149-150 39 | 8.96 | 169-170 I 0.23 (51-152 7 46 LOLS 7. | omer 189-190_—si*7/f 202 eae &. ee | 1,528 100.03 The standard deviation was calculated to be 6.129, and the probable error 0.105, both of which are nearly the same as was found for stature. The range of individual variation is shown in the accompanying table (XVI) giving the seriation of the length of the head at intervals of two millimeters. The curve drawn 207 208 FISHBERG from these figures shows that there were few individuals with heads less than 176 mm. in length; the largest proportion of persons had heads 185-186 mm. long, and very few persons had heads more than 200 mm. long. At 189-190 mm, the curve appears to rise almost to the same height as at 186 mm., and thus gives the curve the appearance of having a double apex. oo PERCEN1 ~ 166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210 LENGTH OF HEAD Fic. 4. This and also the fact that the apex of the curve, representing the largest percentage of individuals, does not correspond to the average length of the head, 188 mm., may give the impression that this is good proof that we deal here with a mixture of two races, one whose average length of the head is 186 mm. and the other with a head 190 mm. long. While this does not exclude racial intermixture, to be sure, still it must be confessed that it does not prove it. The interval between the two maxima, ex- ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 209 tends only over four mm., and the apices rise only a little over one percent. Chance variation, individual error of observation may easily produce this variation. Two thirds of all the indi- viduals observed, had heads between 183 and 194 mm. long, which clearly points to single type of head, and not two types. On the other hand all these facts do not justify us in assuming that this is conclusive proof that the Jews are a pure race, free from any intermixture of foreign blood. The races among whom the Jews have lived for centuries in Eastern Europe, and with whom they might have intermarried, if at all, show the same characteristic, and have nearly the same average length of the head, as can be seen from the following figures :' Average Length of Head. Authority. Te5G) Great: Russians... ..5...0.00 185 mm. ) 602 White-Russians............. 188 : 611 Little-Russians ............. 184 a 540 Poles im Russia...........:: 186 ¥.oee Poles in’ Galicial:;......... 180.5 Majer and Kopernicki. 871 Galician Ruthenians....... 132.3 - a £90 Roumanians:....5.c.02. 0.30 185.76 Pittard. Bs0 A UMGANIANS oo... wcccs02 sss 187 Ivanoyski. The length of the head of these races is seen from these fig- ures to be between 180 and 188 mm. If the usual discrep- ancies which often occur between the different series of meas- urements of even a single and homogeneous race are eliminated, we find that the length of the head of the Slav races is about 183 to 187 mm. When we now investigate the anthropological literature of the Jews in Europe we find a remarkable similarity of conditions. As can be seen from the following figures the length of the head of the Jews in Eastern Europe also oscil- ates around these values. 1 These figures are taken from the following works: A. A. Ivanowski, “On the Anthropological Composition of the Races of Russia,’’? AZemozrs of the Society of Friends of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography, Vol. XXII, 1894 (in Russian) ; Majer and Kopernicki, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyj- skiej,’’ Zbzor viadomoset do antropology krajowej, Vol. 1, Krakow, 1877 ; Eugene Pittard, ‘‘ Anthropologie de la Roumaina,’’ L’ anthropologie, Vol. XVI, No. I, 1903, pp. 33-58. 210 FISHBERG Average Length of Head. Authority. 200 Polish JewSs..0: cman cask 184 mm. Elkind 438 Little-Russian Jews ...... 185.4 Talko-Hryncewicz 69 Lithuanian Jews <....<...;. 187.3 ee ee 413 Galician Jews (Series I) 183 Majer and Kopernicki (Series IT) 186 ce es Loo Russian’ Jews 725-0: eeese 188 Blechman 100 South Russian Jews...... 183 Weissenberg 139 White-Russian Jews...... 183 Yakowenko 67 WKussian Jews. ..22<)s. ob 28h 4.00 6.43 9.68 199-200 6.65, | 2.22 4.50.) ica 0.67 2.86 023 201-202 0.98 1.59 1.82 1.82 — Fas ob 43.23 203-204 O. 32 0.32 0. 36 Gak |) «= = 1.61 205-206 0.65 0.95 46) eon |" 0.67 _ 0.80 207-208 - — | 0.36 0.45 — — — No. observed. 325 ; i dae ey 2 $46 (+> 224 Average. 186. | 188 190 ESS. |. 187 188 190 Maximum. 206 | 2c6 207 208. 1-205 201 205 Minimum. 69.) aH 173 2 ae ee A 171 212 FISHBERG of the non-Jewish races have smaller heads, and larger where the non-Jewish races have larger heads, it is worthy of being mentioned. This is of importance also because many of the other somatic characteristics of the Jews, as stature, head-form, etc., follow the same rule. The relation of stature to the size of head is shown in the following table : Calculated Number Length of | Percent : Stature. Observed. Head. of Stature Length Difference. of Head. Shouli.geickseceaceee eee eee 350) 186. 4 Uti orene™ ays ese Below the average........... 460 187 2250) SO; een Above the average........... 420 188 [1.43 | For —3 Pall ntilve: eo pocacmeaenncenee 292 190 10. 198 —8 9 9 95 9 ‘Potalsi ke econ ee 1,528 188 11.43 — _ It will be observed from these figures that with the increase of stature the size of the head does not increase proportionally, although it increases absolutely. Thus, while the length of the head of the tall persons was 4 mm. longer than that of the short persons, but in the former it was 10.95 per cent of the body-height, as against 11.91 percent in the latter. If we take the average length of the head as a standard, and consider that the normal length of the Jew’s head is 11.43 percent of his stature, we should expect that the short people should have heads 178 mm. long; but empirically we find that it is 8 mm. larger than expected — 186. On the other hand, the tall persons would on the same basis be expected to have a length of the head of 198 mm., but empirically it is seen to be 8 mm. shorter —1gomm. All this again shows that with the increase of stature, the various parts of the body increase also, but only absolutely, and that relatively to the body-height it decreases. THE LENGTH OF THE HEAD OF THE WOMEN. The average length of the head of the 435 Jewesses was 179 mm.—g mm. shorter than that of the Jews, or 95.21 percent of the length of the head found in men. When it is considered in connection with the shorter stature of the women, it is seen ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 213 that their head is not at all smaller than that of the men. In men it was found that the length of the head amounts to 11.43 percent of the body-height, and in the women it is seen to be 11 percent— almost the same. The longest head encountered among the women was I99 mm., the shortest 159 mm., a dif- ference of 40 mm., or 22.34 percent of the average, and larger than that found for the men. The standard deviation is 6.085 and the probable error 0.193, both about the same found for the men. The seriation shown in Table XVIII, and its graphic repre- Tampere x VILE. LENGTH OF THE HEAD OF 435 JEWESSES. Bee). Number. Percent. oe en Number. Percent. 159-160 2 0.46 181-182 | 59 13.57 161-162 a _ 183-184 41 9.43 163-164 3 0.69 | 185-186 36 8.28 165-166 7 1.61 | 187-188 17 3.91 167-168 7 1.61 189-190 8 1.84 169-170 13 2.99 IgI-I92 10 | 2.29 171-172 27 6.21 193-194 3 / 0.69 173-174 26 5-95 195-196 I 0.23 175-176 54 12.39 197-198 a= — 177-178 56 12.88 199-200 I 0.23 179-180 64 14.71 Total. 435 99.97 sentation on diagram 4, show nothing of significance, except- ing that the curve is smooth and its apex occurs at 179-180 mm., the median length, where 14.71 percent of all the obser- vations are found. From Table XIX is seen that the average length of the head of the immigrant Jewesses is larger than that of Jewesses who remained at home. [Excepting those from Galicia, who meas- ured exactly the same as the Jewesses measured by Majer and Kopernicki in Galicia, the Polish Jewesses averaged 181 mm., as against only 177 mm. in Warsaw; the Little-Russian Jew- esses were found to have an average length of the head of 180 in New York City, and only 177 in their native land (Talko- Hryncewicz). This corresponds to the facts observed while considering the same measurement in men. 214 FISHBERG TaBLE XIX. LENGTH OF THE HEAD IN 435 JEWESSES, ACCORDING TO NATIVITY. Borie oe Galicia. | Poland. | Gea White! ee Roumania, | Hungary. | Russia 159-160 = | 1.79 a 1.35 — | — 161-162 -- — fo ae ee ae 163-164 704% 1 Ser. | Toe — | = — 165-166. | «2.46, || — 1.00 27Ois |v, eh ae tgr lh Sie 167-168 2:28 | a 2.00 — | — | = 2556 169-170 1.64 Bah 2.00 1.35 6.82 | "769 T7I=072 | 8.20. VN Para 6.00 1.35 ASGe ols) Lhe 173-174 6.56 TTA aA A500 6.76" 5! — | 10.26 175-176 Inds | 8:03 B2:00.. |, TRG) 22075. eon 177178 -. | 18:03 |) 214.20 “|| So;@o" = 2046 TS Or 1 a aebo 179=180. |) -WS5y57 |), waezo 16.00. | P3.51 I Cr eee eek ones 18i=132 ||) e100 10.71 20,00 «| « 20.27 6/52° “| 216726 183=184° |. Fig | 2e550 ie a eco. Nl eorsn 9.00 | \E5.20 r85=136- | °G.56 | “10771 JA is:00) "| "Gaby | 13-04 2.56 187-188 | 2.46 5.36 6.00 Boats valpes oten a 189-190 | 246° | yor | asco — le ey, | Bate I9I=192, | 3s28 | 3-57) “200 Fea 5e- -— |" 2156 193-194 | a |, = ee Omatl 1.00 135 —— — 195-196 | a —- 1.00 — _ | — 197-1098 a awe eee 199-200 Se 1.35 5 — | — No. observed. 122 56 100 74 | 44 | 39 Average. 178 181 179 Toone a 179 4 |) he Maximum. 192 | 193 196 199 | 197 IgI Minimum. 162% i= eno 163 160, Siig atk GO 167 The rule observed in men that the antero-posterior diameter of the head of the Jews depends on that of the non-Jewish races in the same country is not evident among the Jewesses. WiIbtH OF THE HEAD: The width of the head was obtained by searching with the points of the calipers along the temples, over the ears and some- what posteriorly. The average for the 1,528 men was 154.4 mm. — 9.37 percent of the body-height. The maximum was 174 mm., and the minimum 130 mm., a difference of 44 mm., or 28.57 percent of the average, which is larger than that ob- served for the length of the head — 20.74 percent. This is due to the fact that the individual who had a head of 130 mm. in width was quite an exception. He was an Hungarian by birth and his head measured 198 mm. in length, thus giving a ce- ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 215 phalic index of 65.66. He presented many signs of rickets in early life. Excluding this individual, we find that the extreme individual variation extends over 39 mm. (135 the maximum, and 174 the minimum), or 25.32 of the average, which is also larger than that found for the length of the head. This tends to indicate that the width of the head is not as stable a trait as is sometimes considered, and that its length is more valuable as a measure of somatic characteristic. The standard deviation was 5.482, and the probable error 0.9443. The seriation of the width of the head is given in the accom- panying Table XX, and in diagram 15, a curve is drawn from these figures. This curve appears smooth, pointing at 154 mm., which corresponds to the general average width. Over 80 per- cent of all observations have had heads from 147 to 160 mm. wide, a variation of only 13 mm. Tawra KX WIDTH OF THE HEAD OF 1,528 JEWS. “led ). Number. Percent. | obirite ). Number. | Percent. 129-130 I 0.07. || 153-154 234 | 15.32 131-132 — _ | 155-156 231 | 15.12 133-134 — -- 1 = 257=158 192 | 12.56 135-136 I 0.07 159-160 131 | 8.57 137-138 3 O27 | 3161-162 65 4.25 139-140 8 0.52 163-164 | 55 3.60 I4I—142 16 1.04 || 165-166 | 28 1.83 143-144 | 33 2.16 167-168 4 0.26 145-146 | or awe Pi 4.19 169-170 2 0.13 147-148 96 6.28 171-172 2 0.13 149-150 155 10.14 | 173-174 2 0.13 5 ia 205 (ee te a Total. 1,528 | 99.99 Taller men have relatively narrower heads than shorter men, as can be seen from the following table : | : Stature. aeeas komad | ea “Calculated Difference. | | Head | | [ ih es daunis «és wgh SOc) ‘ake. ) o80 | 146 | +7 Below the average.......... 460 | isay. ) 8.39 | es |) oa Above the average. ........ | 420 pea |) goes 156 — ORE aR ae her arene 292 | r5G. | 8.00 162 | —6 See oh tea | og37 | — _ 216 FISHBERG It is seen that while the absolute width of the head of the tall persons was on the average three mm. larger than that of the short people, they were nevertheless relatively narrower. The latters’ heads were on the average 9.8 percent of their ; bal elie EERE HH ‘s RWS Re Geers WIDTH OF THE HEAD (oo_ JEWS | I a Bs Spt ae ihe JEWESSES wT | at ACS A fe pA GEE Eine Pm A Id lade aah Ee ES a —t —_— — ie) oo ees Ea a i ie |_| al a a A Salis Saag a : a 4 is! Si at Cl PERCENT o Es | Te aPERERSCC ECE EPIC cop) alee ol aN i¢>) Bemvai ee Se Ses EERE BTR AHHH Pete see ene 4S GARRRS News cee, ED a= 4RRRRRRR ees. 130 184 138 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 174 WIDTH OF THE HEAD Le) Fi¢é. 5. body height, while in the former the percentage was only 8.99, being 6 mm. shorter than the average length and the short persons had heads 7 mm. wider than the average width would indicate. The average width of the head of the Jews according to their ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS Fd | nativity is about the same in each group, ranging from 153 mm. in the Roumanian Jews, 154 in the Polish and Lithuanian Jews, to 155 mm. in all the other groups. When compared with Jews who were measured in eastern Europe, the immi- grants have somewhat wider heads, but the differences are very small, from one to three mm. There is no evidence in these figures of acorrespondence of the width of the head of the Jews with that of the Gentiles of the country of their birth. In Galicia the width of the head of the Poles was found to be 152 mm. and of the Ruthenians 153 mm., that of the Jews is 155 mm.; in Rus- sian Poland Elkind found the average width of the head of the Poles in Warsaw to be 150 mm. on the average, and that of the Jews is 154 mm.; the Letto-Lithuanians and the White-Rus- TABLE OL, WIDTH OF THE HEAD IN 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO NATIVITY. | | | | | i h i j i ar ar hace Galicia. Poland.) ae White- ees Roumania. | Hungary. ieee mw: Russia. | ' ‘ ; 120-130 irae a ==: | = | — Q.71 — is ae ea ee ye ef ce ih ras 133-134 = ee a= | — — — _- 135-136 | — | — | — -— — | — | 0.80 137-138 | 0.32); — 0. 36 0.45 = -- _ 139-140 0, 32:|, 0.63; 70.73 0.45 | — Pe ae 0.80 141-142 | 0.65| 2.22 | 162° |) “0.45 — | — 0.80 143-144 | 2.63| 2.22| 4.36 0.91 2.00 aa 0.80 145-146 | 7.87 | 2.22 4.73 3.20 4.00 S57 * \, wivOE 147-148 5. Gr aubgel 9.09 10.05 2.00 7. 14 6.45 149-150 7.87 F290) [oes 6.85 ¥6,00' «| 8.57 TE. 20 151-152 15.40 | 13:32 | "0.02 16.98 | 12.67 12.86 14-72 | 13.96 | | ¥7.09 14.16 16.67 12.14 21.78 153-154 | 14.10) 155-156 13.22 07.46 16.37 53.70 14.67 £7.86 | "i520 157-158 Lia 5} HIL75 13.82 13.70 fiaae | 8.71 | 9,68 159-160 8.20 | 10.79 4.00 8.67 S67, | °7.86.| 14.51 161-162 4.92] 4.44 2.54 4.57 835. | 4.30 1,61 163-164 3.061 || 2.54 3.64 4.57 2.00) | 5.00 4.84 165-166 2:05 | 1.90 1.09 1.82 — les, 42286 — 167-168 0.32); — 0.73 — — Var! Ouge — 169-170 -- 0732 -_ 0.45 -- | -- — 17i-172 Q:32'| 6.32 — — — | — — 173-174 0.32) — — — 0.67 os — No. observed.) 305 315 275 219 150 140 124 Average. | 155 | 154 154 155 153 TS hut 54 Maximum. 173 i 168 170 174 r68:.°) - 164 Minimum. 138 139 178° | =“ 3S Beem ts TRO [hl 5 218 FISHBERG sians have an average width of 151 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz), and the Jews from that coun'ry 154 mm.; in Little Russia the indigenous population, according to Talko-Hryncewicz, have an average width of the head of 153 mm., and the Jews from that country average 155 mm.; finally the Roumanians measure 154 on the average (Pittard) and the Jews 153 mm. There is thus not evident any relation between the measurement of the width of the head of the Jews and that of the indigenous races of eastern Europe among which they have lived. The differences are almost insignificant, being less than the chances of error would lead one to expect. There is however a striking simi- larity in the average values as a whole. The fluctuations in these values is among the Gentile races from 152 to 154 mm., and among the Jews from 153 to 155 mm., practically the same. It cannot be expected that any influence one group may have had on the other should be evident from a study of the width of the head, because the values are practically uniform in magnitude. TASEE XC. WIDTH OF THE HEAD OF 435 JEWESSES. Number Percent. | Width of the Number. Percent. head (inmm.). Width of the O23 I TSrss2 50 11.49 131-132 I 133-134 I 0.23 |) 153-154 38 8.74 135-136 4 0.92 | “SE5—056 21 4.83 ia7=7138 2 0.46 || 157-158 12 2.76 139-140 16 3-68 || 159-159 8 1.84 tAt—142 | 32 7.25 1 fol-162) | I 0.23 143-144 43 9.89 || 163-164 | = ae 145-146 53 12.18 || 165-166 [ 0.23 147-148 78 E793 40 ln 1 49-150 74 17:04 Total. | 435 | 100.00 The width of the head of the women was 149 mm. on the average, or 9.77 percent of their average stature. The maxi- mum width was 165, and the minimum, 131 mm., a difference of 24 mm. or 16.1 percent of the average, whichis much smaller than that of the men. The standard deviation was 5.015; the probable error 0.162, both about the same as in men, consider- ing that the number of women measured was much smaller than ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 219 men. A glance at Table XXII and the curve on diagram 5 shows again the phenomenon observed when the length of the head was considered. The apex of the curve for the women rises much higher than that for the men—nearly 18 percent had heads 147-148 mm. wide, and 17 percent 149-150 mm. The curve in general is much narrower, and quite smooth. 77 percent of all observations lie within a range of 10 mm, — between 143 and 154 mm. This of course points to a great uniformity of type. Lanre, XX Lik Bie ny: | Galicia. Poland | and White a. Roumania | Hungary. ieee. 0) 82 — — — — — 133-134 | _ 1.00 — — —_— 135-136 | 1.64 1279 — 1.35 = = 137-138 0.82 — — 1.35 — — 139-140 2.46 — 3-00 10.81 4.55 — 141-142 7.38 8.93 9.00 a — 7.69 143-144 4.92 19.64 9.00 9.46 13.64 10.26 145-146 8.20 8.93 16.00 12.16 9.09 23.08 147-148 13.93 25.00 17.00 E7.57 22:58 17.95 149-150 22.95 10.71 19.00 12.16 15.91 12.82 I51-152 10.66 10.71 14.00 8.11 18.18 7.69 153-154 12.30 5-36 4.00 10.81 9.09 10.26 155-156 6.56 1.79 6.00 4.05 227 eek 157-158 4.92 5.36 1.00 2.70 — — 159-160 1.64 1:70 1.00 1.35 ash. . 2090 161-162 ~- — _ — a Pe R6 163-164 a ms — — — | — 165-166 0.82 a = — etl yee No; observed. | 122 56 100 74 oy a 39 Average width.) = 151 i 148° ' |) tag 148 i495 |) tad Maximum. | 165 159 159 159 160 161 Minimum. | 136 136 134 136 139 142 According to their nativity, the Jewesses show an almost uni- form width of the head, as is seen from Table XXIII. The immigrant Jewesses have on the average wider heads than the Jewesses in eastern Europe. Thus, the Jewesses in Galicia average 143 mm. (Majer and Kopernicki) in width, while the immigrant Jewesses from that country measured 151 mm.; the Polish Jewesses in the United States average in the width of the 220 FISHBERG head 148 mm., while in Warsaw this measurement was found only 146 mm. (Elkind); the Lithuanian and White-Russian Jewesses in New York had an average width of the head of 149 mm. and in their native country Yakowenko has found this measurement to amount to 144 mm.; and in Little-Russia the average was 145 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz) as against 148 mm. of immigrant Jewesses from that country. Compared with the non-Jewish women in these countries in eastern Europe it is seen that there is practically no difference between the two. The Gentile women measure as follows: White-Russian 145 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz), Little-Russian 148 mm., Polish 146 mm. (Elkind), Letto-Lithuanian 145 mm., Ruthenians 147 mm (Majer and Kopernicki). It is thus seen to be quite uniform, and this characteristic is shared by the Jewesses. THE CEPHALIC INDEX. The average cephalic index was obtained by multiplying the average width of the head by 100, and dividing the product by the average length, thus: 100 X “38 = $1.91 = Cephalic index: The minimum was 65.66, and the maximum 94.76, showing an extreme individual variation of 29 units, or 35 percent, of the average index. Excluding the individual with an index of 65.66 as pathological, there still remains a range of extreme variation of 24 units, or 29 percent of the average. It will also be ob- served that the deviation from the average was much larger toward the minimum — 20.73 percent of the average (65-82), while the maximum was only 14.63 percent distant from the average. This tends to indicate a greater tendency to dolicho- cephaly. The standard deviation was 3.176, and the probable error 0.05477, much smaller than that found in the case of stature and the length and width of the head. Between + of the stan- dard deviation, z. ¢., between the cephalic index of 78 and 85, were 1,243 individuals — 81.34 percent of all observations were ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 221 within these limits. The significance of this is more apparent when we consider the probable error, which was only 0.054. It shows that there is an even chance that when we should obtain another series of 1,528 Jews in New York City we shall find their average cephalic index within the limits of + of the probable error — 81.85 and 81.96. The chances are four to one that it will be within twice these limits, and nineteen to one that it will lie within thrice these limits, z. ¢., between 81.748 and 82.072. The head-form is thus shown to have a very small range of va- riability, and the average determined in this series is quite close to the true or ideal average. This confirms again the conclusion that the cephalic index is a very stable racial trait. Classifying the figures according to Deniker’s scheme, we find the following distribution : Number. Percent. Hyperdolichocephalic (less than 76)............... 44 2.89 Dolhiehocepuahe( 76: and 77) .isc-ccsncs- vtec deaseen. 112 7, 30 Subdolighocephalic (7G:and 79).22..ccseacsssaseoee- 236 r5c51 Mesocepinalic. (80 amd SE.)). /i0c0tec 5.0.04 vem ccreonsces 394 25.78 Subbrachycephalic (82 and 83) .2...:/..:c0s0000.00 367 24.01 Brachyceplialic (34 and 85)... 2h.c5....ssavecseeos vss 246 15.97 Hyperbrachycephalic (86 and more)............... 129 8.48 1,528 100.00 This shows that the type of the Jewish head is mesocephalic. Fifty percent of individuals had a cephalic index varying be- tween the limits of four units, 80 to 83 inclusive; over eighty percent varied only between the limits of eight units, 78 to 85. This of course, points to homogeneity of cranial type. This apparent uniformity of cranial type is displayed to a yet better advantage when the seriation of the cephalic index is ob- served in which each individual index is given with the percentage of frequency of persons who had a given index, as has been done in Table XXIV. The curve plotted ona scale from these figures on diagram 6 shows this in a graphic form. It will be seen that the cephalic index of 65 stands alone. It may be dis- regarded because it is a manifestation of rickets in the early years in its possessor. One individual had a cephalic index of 70, not one with 71. Only at 72 does the real series begin: 222 FISHBERG TABLE- X XTX CEPHALIC INDEX OF 1,528 JEWS. Cephalic Index. | Number. Percent. Cephalic Index. Number. Percent. 65 I 0.07 83 166 10.86 70 I 0.07 84 138 8.90 71 — a 85 108 7-OF 72 I 0.07 | 86 66 4°32 73 4 0.26 87 22 1.44 74 17 a | 88 28 cag 75 20 je | 89 4 0.26 76 40 2.62 go I 0.07 We 72 4.74 gI 3 0.21 78 III 7.23 92 3 0.21 79 125 8.18 93 I 0.07 80 194 12.69 94 I 0.07 8I 200 13.09 82 201 13.15 Tota] 1,528 100.00 7 ae eee Ose Ls BRERER BESS UEee eee 44|_| CEPHALIC UNDE 3621 i) e1e 1 ans 1528 JEWS Poe nekeeeere 13 AG. SG na ae REREMEEPRES 12 Be Reese eae So aU | Sa eS wl a 2 wee rw eine S 5 H8 tu Sas 6 78 CEPHALIC INDEX Fic 6 Bie RRS Ee Seka wae Tae h eS Ssee PT Tt | |] hee 82 84 86 88 90 92 ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 223 4 persons (0.26 percent) with an index of 73, and then the curve begins to rise steadily till the index of 81 is reached. At this point the number observed persons is over 13 percent. The curve now begins to descend steadily, with a slight rise at 88 which is of no special significance —it may be attributed to chance variation. This curve apparently proving uniformity of the cranial type of the Jews of eastern Europe, appears rather striking and peculiar. Appearing as it does, together with a wide range of extreme individual variation. In order to test our own results we have decided to compare this material with that of other in- vestigators. We have for this purpose obtained measurements of 1,113 Jews from the literature on the anthropology of these people in eastern Europe. Only such statistics were taken as were reported in a form suitable for comparison with our own figures. Such were found in the works of Yakowenko (139 Lithuanian Jews), Elkind (200 Polish Jews). Talko-Hryncewicz (507 Jews in Lithuania and Little-Russia), Weissenberg (100 South-Rus- sian Jews), Stieda (67 Jews in Minsk-Russia), and Blechman (100 Jews in Russia). Classifying these figures as we did our own we find: Pest ae Mataeepes) awe.) |) Combined: ee TONCITOCE PIANC. ¢ oi. fic epiaica vos a ninmto'ae seanaeensee' | 1.78% 2.89% | 2.42% EP MUMEPEES ERD aro 2 «5 oi a\a ceca einai em nie ae eS oar md 270. 07.36) 6:24 Se MEICUOCEDIAIIC o 5 555 sane azendsscnsdoadaavs eet seen nail bess. | 15.55 |, 14.23 MRE AMBRE Sete. < suttscatatdad Sada eset teaean ys eemaesb eee moze TZ eli 2aepoo! | 24.50 Se EMOMEV EC DAG aos ca caer owns eu ndnne eaeshda nek secas 25242) | 240%, |, 24.61 EON UNC oe goa cars ds ua vadeianecesvahet ones aeakar es oes | 18.69 Ts; 97 | 17.19 Puy perbrachycephalic }......)....2-.00<=s PAS ite A eeces 14.03 S477) | 10.88 From these figures it is seen again that fifty percent of all observations lie within the limits of four units, in each of the three series, and eighty percent within the limits of eight units. The seriation of these measurements as was done in Table XX V is yet more striking. In both series the curve is quite smooth, the slight indentations can be explained as caused by errors of observation and calculation, and are always expected to occur, no matter how careful the observer may be. The indentation at 224 FISHBERG the cephalic index of 81 in the curve for the a,103 Jews an Eastern European Jews, may be explained by this or by chance variation. This is probably also the cause of the elevation of the curve for all the 2,641 Jews at the index of 80. TABLE’ XXV. CEPHALIC INDEX IN 1,113 JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE. Cephalic Index. | Number. | Percent. | Cephalic Index.| Number. Percent. 70 | i Sy 0:09 || 84 112 10.06 71 1 noel a 85 | 96 8.63 72 I 0.09 86 72 6.47 73 5 0.44 87 | 34 3.06 74 rag 0. 36 | 88 | 22 167 75 | Cea 0.81 89 | II 1.00 76 162104 1.44 go ae. | 0.63 el | Silane 3-32 gI ser" | 0. 36 78 52 Fi 4.67 92 “2 | 0.18 79 88 7390 * 4} 93 3 0.27 80 126 | P1232 94 — — 81 127) a II.41 95 I 0.09 82 155 13.92 | 83 128 11.50 Total. P13 100.00 Before proceeding to discuss these curves as a test of the purity of race we want to point out one peculiar feature of these two series of observations. It will be seen that the immigrant Jews in New York have 10.25 percent of persons with heads of the dolichocephalic type (cephalic index less than 78), while the Jews in Eastern Europe have only 6.54 percent of such indi- viduals. On the other hand, 32.72 percent of Jews in Eastern Europe have brachycephalic heads (cephalic index 84 and more) while those who have left Europe and emigrated to the United States have only 24.45 percent of people with this cranial type. The difference is more striking when observed on diagram 7. The curve for the Jews in New York City is seen toward the left, while the one for Jews in Eastern Europe is moved to the right. All this tends to show that the immigrant Jews are more longheaded than the average of the people whom they leave behind in their native county. Lapouge, Ammon, Ripley and others will see in this a further proof for the theory that great cities serve, for some obscure reason, as an attraction to ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 225 long-headed humanity.'_ How far the longheadedness of the Jewish immigrants to the United States as compared with the Jews in Eastern Europe, is due to the same conditions which are oper- ative in Western Europe, we are not in a position to state. We 1113 JEWS IN ae EASTERN EUROPE PANE pace DES IIT HPht 24 10 ih Gs) BERS SAKS “~~ JEWS IN NEW YOR ae EaE ERSRARES Ee ima ANE San PLS ee ieee NAP aees Awe JAS ANSE Ss ARRAS Bee eebetel Dh bale abetubah ved] SR LER Si RRA Es Tae LJoOG2E SE ae Re Se eae ER RRR SERRA EIee See eae Pa RRPCR RAN 2. SR Sl) Bae Re eee Se ee Sia ee Lee RaAe 2 SSRN ARES JRS20P Ss RRERAeO SSN NER SS0BT So. (RARE ASAE eee Ss Sia le oe ee pp Yo 70 72 = TOS SeeeSOn (SA S40 686" 88) 90" 9 (99 CEPHALIC INDEX Pic. 7. merely note the fact, and canadd that from Jacobs’ observations in London, the same appears to be the case with the Jews there.” A combination of both series of observations, those of Elkind, Talko-Hryncewicz, Blechman, Weissenberg, etc., and those of our own, as we have done in Table X XVI, and the curve drawn from these figures representing measurements of 2641 Jewish 1 See Otto Ammon, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der Badener,’’ pp. 431 and 614 ; Wm. Z. Ripley, ‘‘ The Races of Europe,’’ chapter XX. 2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘* On the comparative anthropometry of English Jews,’’ /our- nal Anthrorological Institute, XIX, 1890, pp. 76-88. 226 FISHBERG heads, depict yet more graphically the homogeneity of the cranial type of the Eastern European Jews. This homogeneity may easily deceive us into believing it to be the best proof of the freedom of the Jews from admixture of foreign blood. This in fact was the opinion we entertained in 1902, when discussing the same problem,’ but a close study of the anthropology of the races and peoples in Eastern Europe among whom the Jews have lived for centuries, has materially altered our opinion. These Jews come from the parts of Russia known as Lithuania, White-Russia, Little Russia and Poland ; and also from Austrian Galicia, Hungary and Roumania. A careful study of the head- form of the indigenous populations of these countries reveals the following remarkable fact : their head-form is more homogen- eous than that of the population of any other part of Europe. “The perfect monotony and uniformity of environment of the Russian people’”’ says Ripley, ‘‘ is most clearly expressed anthro- pologically in their head-form ...amoment’s consideration of our map shows at once a great similarity of headform prevailing all over Europe from the Carpathian mountains east and north, The cephalic index oscillates but two or three points above a center of 82. . . . Our widest variation in Russia is about five units.’ It is safe to assume that if any non-Jewish blood has been infused into the veins of the Eastern European Jews during the last thousand years, must have come from exactly the races and peoples inhabiting just this region of Europe. A close exam- ination of the map ingeniously prepared by Ripley® shows graphically that the cephalic index of these peoples is about the same as that of the Jews we are considering. Any slight differ- ences that occur in some places, are also to be observed in the Jews from these countries. Wherever there is an increase in the width of the head of the native races, as for instance in Galicia, the same is to be observed in the Jews coming from these countries. The difference may be ever so small, it is still 1 See ‘‘ Physical Anthropology of the Jews,’’ I, Cephalic Index, American An- thropologist, N. S., 1V, pp. 684-706. 2Wm. Z. Ripley, ‘‘ The Races of Europe,’’ pp. 341-342. § [bid., P« 340. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 227 perceptible to the calipers when measurements are taken on the Jews. The cephalic index is considered by many anthropologists a primary test of race. At the present state of our knowledge we are not aware that it is influenced by any external conditions and environment. Neither climate, nor altitude, nor any artificial or social selection, social or economic conditions are known to have any effect on the shape of the head. Wherever any differences in headform have been found, anthropologists have always looked for its cause in the intermixture of races. But can we accept uniformity of cranial type, even such striking uniformity as is displayed by the Eastern European Jews when studied ex masse as a proof of their racial purity and the absence of any non-Jewish blood in their veins ? In order that we may answer this question intelligently, we have collected measurements taken by European observers on the various Slav races inhabiting the countries in which these Jews have lived for nearly 1,000 years. For Poland, Elkind’s work has been used; Talko-Hryncewicz’s works have been drawn upon for data on the Letto-Lithuanians, Little- Russians, and White-Russians ; for the Roumanians figures have been taken from Pittard’s recent study of this people. We have thus collected measurements of 2,906 non-Jewish inhabitants of Eastern Europe, and have compared them with the Jews under consideration. | A glance at Table XXVI and the accompanying diagram, 8, reveals the following remarkable features: The course of both curves is about the same, excepting that the curve repre- senting the Jews appears to be tending to display more dolicho- cephalic heads — it is more toward the left. The curve for the Slavs shows a small elevation at the index of 80 and an inden- tation at 81. That this is not an indication of any particular racial element can be concluded by considering the fact that the interval between the two apices is only one unit — 81; and the difference between the proportion of the indices is very small. There appears to have been a few more individuals with an index of 80, than might be expected theoretically, and a few less with the 228 FISHBERG XV. CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE. Cephalic | Jews. Non-Jews. | Jews and Non-Jews. ees. | Number. | Percent. | Number. |» Percent. | ~ Number, _ Percent. | | 65 I 0.04 ant, — I 0.04 70 2 0.07 Se cn — 2 0.03 71 — — ‘a 0.24 7 O.1I 72 25) OOF 2 0.07. || 4 0.07 73 9 *, 10:36 O 4 0.31 18 0.32 74 21 OL7Gi e} 20. «| 0.68 | 41 0.74 75 29 1260: Pai eee 0.93 56 1.01 76 56 72 eae 64 | 2.20. | 120 2.16 a7 109 4.12 (00 ma 3.44 | 209 3.76 78 163 G57, LOI © || 5-54 324 5.84 79 213 8 06 193 6.64 406 7: ae 80 320 12,12 277% \| ls LONE 633 11.59 8I 327 12.38 249 | So 57 576 | 10.39 82 356 | 13.48 334: | igo | 690 12.43 83 | 204) he. 3 335 CI5S 629 | 11.33 84 250 9.46 306 1.530 | 2556 | 10.02 85 204 vf ZAG” Sua ie eeaGo | Sia 86 138 Seo2 193 6.64 geal | 5.96 87 56 212 134 4.61 190 | 3-44 88 | 50 1.89 86 2.96 136 2.47 89 15 0.57 61 2.10 76 | 1.26 90 8 6:31 oC | |e ce 41 0.74 gl 7 0.27 RS. 4 0.52 22 0.39 92 5 0.19 6. alee OT ri | 0.19 93 4 0.16 4 O18 8 | 0.14 94 1 0.04 | ©:17 || 6 0.10 95 I 0.04 a O:1Q | 4 0.07 Total. 2,641 100.00) | ~ 2,906 / 99.99 5,547 100.00 index 81. The same holds good for the curve representing both Jews and Slavs on diagram 8. Here the curve runs quite a smooth course. The apex corresponds to the average index, and at both sides of the apex the curve descends steadily — the pro- portion of persons with given indices decreases regularly the further we get away from the average cephalic index. The largest proportion of persons had an index of 82 — the average cephalic index, and on both sides of this apex the curve runs steadily down. There appears to be a good symmetrical and harmonious arrangement of the curve on both sides. In fact there are all the evidences to lead us into believing that we deal here with a single, homogeneous and pure race. But, as we ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 229 know, there is here represented more than one half a dozen races, each of which taken by itself can not be considered free from foreign elements to any extent. The head-form of the Eastern European Jews, when studied en masse, is consequently not a safe criterion as to their racial purity. Even if they had intermarried, clandestinely or openly, in centuries bygone or in modern times, with their Slavic neigh- Pale Tear Meee en SR IR oie best i) Sec. | 14 eke Sheahan anal ae eet V Y BS Boao naeeE pes 72 “T4 76) _78780 62) "845766 “es “907 ‘92 94 96 CEPHALIC INDEX Bicio. bors in Eastern Europe, we can not expect that the foreign blood thus infused should be evident in the study of their cranial type. The differences, if any are to be discerned, are too small to be felt by the calipers and tape to an extent as to show any characteristics in the cephalic index. It may therefore be presumed that the only method which promises to give more or less satisfactory results is the applica- tion of the comparative study of the head-form of the Jews with . 230 FISHBERG that of the races among which they have lived for a longer time in given localities. If we find that the shape of the head is the same in every country, notwithstanding the differences displayed in this regard by the non-Jewish races in these localities, then we may of course see in this a good argument in favor of the purity of the race, and the absence of any serious intermixture of foreign blood. But if, on the other hand, we find that wher- ever the head of the non-Jewish population is broader or longer, the Jews also display this characteristic ; then the only cause to be assigned for this phenomenon is, at the present state of our knowledge, the admixture of foreign racial elements. TABLE XXVITE- CEPHALIC INDEX IN 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY. | | aa | Galicia. | Poland. | ey pes oumianta. Hungary. uae | | | Russia. | | 65 = a = = eS Ti Ostia = 68 —- — | — Poca. 1 ged ete — 70 — | 0.32 | = = oe ee == 71 | 2h | ae ee rs. = ay aa) 72 =| ene | = = 73 0.32 0.63 — O.30: 1). a= aa -— —- 74 0.32°)) S50) | 1.45 E37. Ge eh ea ae 75 0.98 omar, 3:98 | ESF) SS A OW a eOzeo 76 0.98 3:40") 4.30. |" 2.78 Ts 93 ah 2 Nas a eee ver 3.03 | 4a7or | 8.00 2.28 2:07 | 1.43 «| -O368 78 4.261 ||) 5208) Wr 1as08 Fog 6:67.) “5200-4 |) 0 14a 79 4.92 | 8.89 10.91 | 8.67 7233. |, eile Sao 80 £4.10. | 3.82 14.98" | TOs 13.39) Lhasa eee 81 | 13:77° | 9.21 | “120360 | 4-61 4) as ae. |) ne son eneass 82 | 14.43 | 14.92 9.45 | 19.63 0:33). |) toszs 9.68 83 12.40.0 | ew 8-60: . «4.0.60 4) (TOOG! Taare aleansies 84 §.20)" | 10:47 8.73 7-30 J Os33, Wel We acon 85 | 8.20 .| 27.20 2:54" ||, 0.40.1) 12:00") 9 O26) “bes 86 5.25 | 286 3.28 5-93 63007 1) ¥ 13357 > “ine As 87 2.63 0.95 O73 75 |). Sag, 2.38 eh ese) 88 3.93, || 53.00 4] O.73 ) 1" 20.45 ile s2s00) |) e260" Wi a 89 0.32 | “0,32 — — OOF gC. alent 9 go — | 0.32 oo ewe y ere ee gI —- | — — oo 0.67 Ae | se 92 0.98 — — -- ae 93 = 0.32 7 ln ae a eel 94 — O. 32 = — — sl es Number. 305 1315 275 219 150 140 | 124 Average. | 33:33 | 81.01 81.05 | 82.45 81.82 82.45 | 81.05 Maximum. 92.51 | 94.76 88.24 | 90.18 | 91.32 91.88 | 87.53 Minimum. | 73.63 | 70.52 TS34 | 75-42 © 76.14 65.66 74.69 ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 231 In Table XX VII (on page 228) is given the cephalic index of the Jews according to their nativity. The differences in the averages are very slight: the Galician Jews have an average cephalic index of 83.33, while the Lithuanian and Amerian Jews have only 81.05, the other groups, about 82. When com- pared with the Jews in Eastern Europe, we find that the head- form is about the same as in the immigrants, with one slight exception to be noted when they are compared in groups repre- senting the various types of headform. This has been done in Table XXVIII for the Polish, Lithuanian and Little-Russian Jews. For the rest there is no literature available, the present being the first measurements reported of Roumanian and Hun- garian Jews. TaBLE XXVIII." CEPHALIC INDEX IMMIGRANT AND EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS. Type Poland. iiiecuin, a2 | Tae Radeia.; oo N.Y. | Poland. N.Y. | Lithuania. | N.Y. |Little-Russia. =35 3.81 £3 FO) Gg One | 93.19 1.30 76—77 S27 RR. 3 ¥S 36 8.00 5-02 | 4.72 78-79 i ey a we 21.82 14.55 | 16.44 | 10.04 80-81 22.56 26.5 27.27 28.00 24.66" 183797 82-83 26.67 29.5 17.45 26.55 29.23 22.86 84-85 | 17.77 15.0 55.27 11.63 E9L- | 24:26 so =| («6.67 4.5 4-74 | 8.72 7-75 19.15 A comparison of the immigrant Jews from Galicia, with those in their native country (from Majer and Kopernicki’s measure- ments) is here given: Cephalic Index. New York. Galicia. -74 0.64 3-63 75-77 5.89 3.87 78-80 23.28 13.80 81-84 48.87 - 49.40 85 + 21.32 29.30 From these tables we see that the proportion of dolichocephalic individuals, with a cephalic index less than 78 is larger in the 1 The figures for the Eastern European Jews have been taken from the works of the following authors: Elkind, for the Polish Jews ; Stieda, Talko-Hryncewicz, and Yakowenko, for the Lithuanian and White-Russian Jews; Weissenberg and Talko-Hryncewicz for the Little- and South Russian Jews. 232 FISHBERG immigrant Jews than among those in their native countries, while the proportion of brachycephalic individuals (cephalic index 84 and more) is larger among the stay-at-homes, than among the immigrants. There are only two exceptions — Gal- ician Jews have 7.5 percent of dolichocephalic in Galicia, while those who emigrated to the United States have only 6.53 per- cent of persons with this type of head: and the Polish Jews have 24.44 percent of brachycephalic among the immigrants, as against 19.5 percent among those left at home. All the rest follow the rule that immigrants have a larger percentage of the dolichocephalic than brachycephalic type of headform. In the Galician Jews this possibly goes hand-in-hand with the absence of social selection which has been evident when stature was considered. A comparison of the headform of the Jews with the indige- ous populations of the countries in which they have lived is TABEEs OI: CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWISH EASTERN EUROPEAN RACES. ! ee A ae ie } erg oo. 8 SN Oo’ x Se) in } a | Yo oo = = cs < ee c Country. | ic 5 | qa 8 S = | jae eas = a ee Observer. | Sm | Se si Cs | a a a a = BD | ae, Wl ee. Ih Seal ieee a Poland. | | | | | | Jews. 515 | 81.75 |2.19| 7.19 | 15.35 | 24.27 | 27.75) 26.70 | 5.83 |Milland. mene | | | | | | berg. Poles. 226 | 80.85 | 2.65 | 17.25 | 22.57 | 20.36 | 23.45 | 7.97 | 5.75 |Elkind. Lithuania, and | | | | | | White-Russia. | | | | | Jews. | 550 ; 81.10 | 3.82| 10.18 ; 18.18 | 27.64 | 22.0 | 11.45 6.74 | Yakowenko, ‘Stieda, Tal. Letts. | 476 | 80.60 | 2.52] 6.30 | 13.86 | 21.85 | 23.95 | 19.76 | 11.76 | Talko-Hryn- | | cewicz. White-Russ. | 961 83.20 2.81 5.83 | 13.22 | 20.09 | 22.58 | 18.52 | 16.96 |Talko-Hryn- cewicz. Little- Russia. Jews. 757 | 82.45 |1.85| 4.09 | 11.89 | 20.49 | 24.70 | 21.12 | 15.86 |Talko, Weis- | | | senberg. Little-Russ. | 1055 | 83.20/1.23| 2.56] 7.96] 17.54 | 23.52 | 21.61 | 25.59 |Talko-Hryn- | | | cewicz. Roumania. | Jews. | 150 | 81.82 1.33) 0.33 | 20:67 24.67 | 10:3 |-15:0 6.67 Fishberg. Roumanians. | 190 | 82.92 |3.7 | 6.3 | 13.7 | 17.89 | 19.47 | 17.89 | 21.05 |Pittard. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 233 given in Table X XIX which shows some noteworthy character- istics." CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS, POLES AND RUTHENIANS IN GALICIA. Type of headform, Jews. Poles. Ruthenians. —-74 2.37 1.49 3-33 75-77 4.73 3.62 4.82 78-80 17.82 11.41 15.86 81-84 49.17 34.60 S25 85 + 25.91 48.88 38-74 From these tables is seen that the headform of the Jews, when compared with the indigenous races of the countries from which they come, shows great similarities. In Galicia, where the cephalic index of the Ruthenians is 83.5, and that of the Poles is 84.4, that of the Jews is 83.33; in Russian-Poland, where the cephalic index of the Poles is only 80.85 (Elkind) the Jews also are more longheaded, having an average cephalic index of 81.75; the same is:the case in Lithuania and White-Russia, where the Letts, are longheaded, with a cephalic index of 80.5 (Waeber), and even 78.5 according to Talko-Hryncewicz’s meas- urements, as are also the Lithuanians, averaging 78.75 (Talko- Hryncewicz, Brennsohn). Here the Jews have an average cephalic index of 81.10.” South Russia, where the Little- Russians are predominating in numbers, is another center of brachycephaly, their cephalic index is over 83 on the average, and even 85.61 according to Belodied.* The Jews in this region of Russia have an average index of 82.45. In Roumania very few measurements have been taken on the indigenous popu- lation. From Pittard’s recent work the Roumanians are seen 1The measurements of the non-Jewish races in this table are taken from the fol- lowing works: For the Poles, Elkind, ‘‘ The Wisla Poles,’’ AZem. Royal Soc. of friends of Natural Science, Anthrop. and Ethnography, Vol. 90, Moscow, 1896 ; Lithuanians and White-Russians, Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘Charakterystyka fizyczna ludowLitwy i Rusi,’’ Z2é2or Wiadom. do antropol. krajowej, Vol. XVII, Krakow, 1893 ; Little-Russians, zdem., ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludu ukrainskiego,’’ ibid., Vol. XIV, Krakow, 1890; Roumanians, Pittard, /oc. ci¢., Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki, Zoc. c?¢. 2 The White-Russians here are more broadheaded, 83.2 (Talko-Hryncewicz). 8 Quoted from Ivanowski, /oc. civ. 234 FISHBERG to have a cephalic index of 82.92." The immigrant Jews from that country had a cephalic of 82.82, nearly the same as that found by Pittard in the indigenous population, the difference in one unit may possibly be accounted for by the fact that the measurements on Jews were taken on immigrants who, as we have seen are, asa rule, slightly more dolichocephalic. For the Jewish and non-Jewish population in Hungary the data are scanty. Steinberg found 54 Szeklers in Transylvania to be mesocephalic (cephalic index 81.4), while 69 Magyars were hyperbrachycephalic (cephalic index 87.8)* and Janko’s measure- ments of 84 Szeklers gave an average index of 84.5. It will be seen that with such scanty and contradicting materials it is impossible to draw any conclusions. The Jews from that country had an average cephalic index ot 82.45. Considering that the cephalic index of the races in eastern Europe is almost uniformly confined within the limits of four units, 80 to 84, within the limits of personal error of observa- tion and calculation of the observer, it must be agreed that the headform of the Jews agrees closely with that of the non-Jewish races and peoples in that region of Europe. This is confirmed by a close study of the figures presented in Table XXIX, showing the distribution of the classes of headforms in Jews and non-Jews-in various eastern European countries where materials suitable for comparison are available. Thus longheaded indi- viduals, with a cephalic index less than 78, are found among the Jews in the tollowing order: 5.98 percent in Little-Russia, 7.1 percent in Galicia, 9.38 percent in Poland, 10.66 in Rou- mania, and 14 percent in Lithuania and White-Russia. Among the indigenous races in these countries the order is as follows: 3.79 percent among the Little-Russians, 5.11 among the Poles in Galicia (8.15 among the Ruthenians in that country), 8.80 among the Letto-Lithuanians and White-Russians, Io percent among the Roumanians, and 19.9 among the Russian-Poles. 1 Bassanovitch finds an average index of 77.5 in 106 Roumanian immigrants in Bulgaria ; Himmel, 86.3 in 200 Roumanian soldiers in Bukowina, and Weisbach found them to be hyperbrachycephalic, 26 individuals in Transylvania averaged 87.2. 2(uoted from Weisbach, Kérpermessungen, etc., pp. 201 and 227. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 235 It is thus seen that with only one exception, the Russian-Poles, the order is the same among the Jews and non-Jews. Brachy- cephaly, cephalic index 84 and more, is among the Jews in the following order: Lithuania and White-Russia, 18.19 percent ; Poland, 22.53; Roumania, 24.67; Galician, 25.91, and Little- Russian, 36.98. Among the non-Jews in these countries the order is as follows: Russian-Poles, 13.72 percent; Letto- Lithuanians, 21.52; White-Russians, 25.48; Roumania, 38.94; Galician- Ruthenians, 38.74, and Poles, 48.88, and finally Little- Russians, 47.1 percent. Here again we find that with the ex- ception of the Polish Jews, the proportion of brachycephaly among the Jews depends on the proportion of persons with such heads among the Gentiles among whom they live. CEPHALIC INDEX OF THE WOMEN. The average cephalic index of the 435 women was 83.24 — a little wider than that of the men. The maximum was 91.17 and the minimum, 71.47 —a difference of 20 units, or 24.09 per- cent of the average; thus showing a smaller range of extreme individual variation. The maximum diverged from the average by 8 units, 9.63 percent ; and the minimum 12 units, 14.45 percent. showing the same tendency of more pronounced varia- bility toward dolichocephaly, which was noted in men. The standard deviation was 3.419, and the probable error 0.110618, about the same as in men.’ Classifying the date in classes as was done in the case of the men, we find the following distribu- tion: Number. Percent. Eeeperuolichocelphialic:. i. 2205. cavaconanp anoint cncacer tenet 5 1.15 PIPCROCEDMANC 05, 0i50..assdanuacbaunvnsemdias+ te oueadsucs 21 4.83 PIE TOCEIRGLIC *..,..'s ceureks nominee cee teak 45 10. 34 ESOL IE fais » 45 5s ose My ne tiquan edueddd eeeedes ates a 110 25.20 Subbrachycephalic ......... sa'sinigs dete Raenigaastin nnn kiaetav' 103 23.68 PPMMEE BCS tus. cca snaate aNaeste ppaine tceet ote ate 82 18.86 EAPC UEACHYCODNALIC .... - oS a Ss a x w e a ZS <0 | an Vo) oe) fe) a + = 10:00 7.86 7:20 7I— 72 LP *g6a° “7-40.)° 9.09 | 10.50 7-33 | 8iag 8.87 73-74 .| 6.44 7-82 S730) Getz 4° - 8.07 4.30 10.49 75- 76 | 8.82 | I1.40 727 £.G2 | 6,00 8.57 4.03 77- 78 ee ee et lame pr | 5-46 4.57 4.00 11.43 8.07 79- 89 5-76 B59 5-46 5.02 207. Vi 500 | = 1.6% 81-— 82 pe tal Nowe | 5.82 274 | 2.00 2.57 0.80 83-— 84 OEY NMS ee © 2.54 2.25 | 2.00 2.86 |) — 85- 86 fH 62, | 293: }/ 1.45. | G45 Pc ea a oP 2.42 87- 88 easy eae G72.) Gury” “So |.” 16:71 1.61 89- 90 | 0.34 0.32 0.73 _— 2.00 — gI-— 92 ==") ]) | 5530 — ee OLD. | - 93- 94 ee Eee oe 0. 36 — | 0.67 Ba 95- 96 0.34 | — 0.36, — | — — | 0.80 es oe ae ee ee ee 99-Ico — | 0.32 0.36 | — | a pee = Number. 295 | 307 | 275 | 219 | 150 140 | 124 Average. pe2y | 7255 | 0G.23° | Go.8t |} Ge.55"| 7o.59: | 67.92 Maximum. | 95.34 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 88.74 | 93.18 | 93.74 .| 95.42 Minimum. A£0.%4 $0.18 | §0.79,! 54.23 | 50.64 | 48.27 | 51.83 drawn from these figures displays a striking variability of the nasal index. Although each ordinate is made up of two units, instead of one as was done with the cephalic index, it is to be noted that the curve is very irregular in its course, and its legs 256 FISHBERG in both sides diverge widely, they are not as close together as those in the curve for the cephalic index. All this again empha- sizes the great variability of the nose in Jews. This large variability of the form of the nose in Jews is again displayed when the standard deviation is calculated. It amounted to 8.07 in Jews and 7.117 in Jewesses, which is larger than that of any other trait thus far considered in our investigation. The probable error is correspondingly large: 0.1396 in Jews and 0.2333 in Jewesses. The difference in the nasal index of the Jews according to their nativity is almost insignificant. As can be seen from Table XLII giving the seriation of the nasal index in Jews and Jewesses according to their country of birth. Tassie Xin NASAL INDEX OF JEWESSES ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY. an ; | Lithuania | Tittle : Nasal Index. Galicia. Holand. and White- | Russia. Roumania. | Hungary. | Russia | 49-50 | = 0185 = 2:27 | ee 51-52 | 1.71 a | = ai aes | cha ary ae ee ae Rs a | 55-56 | = — =| 79 | — ott cee Meee 57-50 er | x 4.00 | 4.48 4.55 | 2.56 59=00° | 2a57 | 9 a7 9.00 | 5.97. | 4.55 7.69 61-62 | (00°. | 3.57 |p 93007 7 (8.967) er8ars. Tes ne 63-64 | “G00 | 10,71 — ||; J12500 13743" "|| =cgroo, “ee Sarg 65-66 | 9.40 | 12.50 5.00 | 7.4ON 4) LIZ 15.38 67-68 | 8255 8.03 | “o100 |" 18:06 2.270 | ages 69-70 | i423 | 7.86 | “i400 5-97 6/82) 4) 12.62 71-72 | 42582 | 10.7E = 10,00 13.43 9:09. 1" 2 7205 73-74 [= tire =) Se6) 4 1.00 5:07 7). .-0200— Va ee 7s08 75-76 [ TOSS = esaG 9.00 FAG P| As55 | |) eroree 77718 a te, 12.50 8.00 4.48 6.82 2.56 79-80 Prepare se 2:57 5.00 5-97 a 2.56 81-82 | age I.79->>| =*1,00 2.99 2.27 — 83-84 | 1.70 = 2.00 “= ss | = 85-86 | 0.85 1.79 1.00 SW eS le 87-88 | 0.85 179) |). == = 2550 89-90 = = | = a = sos 91-92 0.85. | — | — |) ei. aoe | — — Number. i iy 56 100:¢0 | 67 44 lI, 39 Average. 70.21 7O.2% || (68.950) 268.75 69.23 | 68.09 Maximum. | 91.49 87.36 | 88.12 | “ope 86.23. 88.18 Minimum. | 49.09 50.58 5763401) Sas 50.330) essa ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 257 THE SHAPE OF THE NOSE. The ‘ Jewish’? nose has been considered characteristic. Caricaturists have exploited this part of the Jewish anatomy to an extent which, as we shall see hereafter, is not warranted by statistical facts. Whenever a Jewish face is pictured, a hooked nose, one which looks like the beak of a parrot is generally portrayed. Even anthropologists have been led astray by this popular notion. Topinard, in his classification of noses, calls the hooked nose, the Jewish or Semitic nose. He enumerates several varieties of convex noses, generally known as aquiline : The simple aquiline, the ‘arched,’ some of which have the appearance of the beak of the parrot, others of the eagle ( ‘‘ bec dé perroquet,” ‘“ bec d’aiglé’’) according to the direction taken by the extreme point of the nose. But the investigations of anthropologists do not bear out the contention that the hook nose is characteristic of the Jews, at least as far as Jews from Eastern Europe are concerned. The present author has taken notes on the shape of the nose in 4,120 Jews in New York City, which includes Jews from all parts of Europe as well as natives. The results are shown in the following table. VARIETY OF NOSES IN 4,120 JEWS AND JEWESSES. ee Jews. Jewesses. Variety of Nose. = Number. Percent. Number. Percent. Sem 5 620060, 22 «cw de | 1,624 57.26 763 | 59.42 Hooked, aquiline......... | 404 14.25 163 12.70 Retroussé (snub) ........ | 626 | 22.07 178 13.86 Fiat and broad;...,....... 182 6.42 | 180 | 14.02 So, Aaa ek ie ae i ee 2,836 | 100.00 1,284 | 100.00 This shows that the predominant variety of nose-form among the Jews in New York City is the straight — 57 percent of Jews and 59 percent of Jewesses had straight noses. This variety of nose is known as the ‘“‘ Greek’’ nose, because the ancient Greek sculptors have usually produced in their statues faces with straight noses. But noses modeled after the form of the Greek monuments are very rare among all races. This is true partic- 258 FISHBERG ularly of that part where the root of the nose joins the forehead, which is represented in the productions of the masters as almost straight with almost no depression at all. The straight noses observed in the modern population of Europe show a more or less deep indentation at the root, while the dorsum is more or less straight. The ‘retroussé,’ concave or ‘‘snub”’ (known popularly as the saucy nose) noses were observed in 22 percent of the Jews and in 13 percent of the Jewesses. This variety of nose is usually short and comparatively broad; when looked at in profile the dorsum is seen to be short and but little elevated, while the nostrils are often directed upwards on both sides. The root is generally broad, low, and the dorsum is concave. This concavity may be of various degrees. It appears that Galician Jewesses very frequently have this form of nose. This variety of nose is very frequent in the Slavic races, particularly in the Ukraine among the Little-Russians, and in Galicia among the Ruthenian peasantry. It is a striking fact that these noses are also most often encountered among the Jews coming from these localities. The proportions of hooked noses among the Jews in New York was found to be 14 percent in the men and 12 percent in the women, which contradict flatly the prevailing popular opinion that every Jew is the possessor of a hook nose. This fact is also confirmed by statistics given in the works of other investigators. Thus, Majer and Kopernicki found among the Galician Jews 30.9 percent of hook noses; Blechman in Russia only 2 percent; Weissenberg in South Russia only 14 percent ; in Poland Elkind reports only Io percent in Jews and 4 percent in Jewesses ; Yakowenko in White-Russia found only 9.79 percent, and Talko-Hryncewicz found among the Jews of the Ukraine 26.3 percent of hook noses in the men, and among the women only 18.9 percent; while among the Lithuanian Jews the proportion was only 21.7 percent. We thus see that the proportion of hook noses among the Jews fluctuates between 2 and 30 percent, by far not as universal as caricaturists would lead one to believe. It is remarkable that hook noses are not ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 259 infrequent in the non-Jewish population of Eastern Europe. Among the Poles in Galicia 6.4 percent have this variety of nose, and the Ruthenians of the same country also have 6 per- cent of hook-nosed individuals (Majer and Kopernicki). Among the Little-Russians Talko-Hryncewicz found over Io percent among both men and women. The hook nose is thus not much more often encountered among the Eastern European Jews than among the Gentile populations of this region. On the other hand, in Asia Minor and in the Caucasus the arched or “ Jewish’’ nose is very often seen among the indigenous races, such as the Armenians, Syrians, Georgians, Ossetts, Lesghians, Aisores, etc. ; in fact, this form of nose is among these races more frequent than among the Eastern European Jews. There are various explanations why popular opinion artists and even scientists have always considered the arched nose pe- culiarly Jewish. Beddoe believes that it is due to a charac- teristic tucking up of the wings. Joseph Jacobs concludes that “the nose does contribute much toward producing the Jewish expression, but it is not so much the shape of its profile as the accentuation and flexibility of the nostrils.’”’ rom his composite photographs of Jewish faces he shows that when the nose is covered the Jewish expression disappears entirely, and that it is the so-called ‘‘nostrility’’ which makes these composites ‘“ Jew- ish.” ‘A curious experiment illustrates this importance of the — , vA FIG. 13. nostril toward making the Jewish expression. Artists tell us that the very best way to make a caricature of the Jewish nose 260 FISHBERG is to write a figure 6 with a long tail (Fig. 1); now remove the turn of the twist as in fig. 2, and much of the Jewishness dis- appears ; and it vanishes entirely when we draw the continua- tion horizontally as in fig. 3. We may conclude then that, as regards the Jewish nose, that it is more the Jewish nostril than the nose itself which goes to form the characteristic Jewish ex- pression.” ' Ripley agrees with Jacobs on this point, and con- cludes that next to dark hair and eyes and a swarthy skin, the nostrils are the most distinctive feature among the Jews.’ It is to be regretted that during this investigation of the somatology of the Jews, the present writer has taken no statistics of the fre- quency of this so-called nostrility, and is not in a position to either confirm or deny the contention. As it is, it seems that the ‘‘ nostrility”” is mostly found among those Jews who have arched noses, and is only rarely observed in those with straight or snub noses, and that among the inhabitants of Asia Minor and the Caucasus, who as was already mentioned, have arched noses, this nostrility is also very frequent. 1]. Jacobs, ‘*On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,’’ Journ. An- thropol. Institute, 1886, XV, pp. 23-62. 2°Wm. Z. Ripley, ** The Races of Europe,” p: 395. CHAPTER. VIl. PIGMENTATION. Judging from Biblical data, it appears that the color of the hair of the ancient Hebrews was black, ‘raven black’ appears to have been the ideal of beauty, as is seen from Cant. IV, 1; V, 11. Black hair is designated as a sign of youth in contrast with the white hair of old age. Josephus narrates that Herod dyed his gray hair black in order to appear younger.’ Black hair was considered beautiful, says Benzinger, black being the general color, while light or blond hair was exceptional.” King David and also Esau are credited with having red or “ ruddy ”’ hei. The color of the eye is not indicated in the Bible or Talmud, although this organ is mentioned more than 800 times in the Bible, and is described in detail as regards other character- istics such as the anatomy, expression, etc. It may be men- tioned in this connection though that according to some Hebrew scholars there is no equivalent in the Hebrew language for ‘“blue’’ in either Bible or Talmud. If black was the color of the hair of the ancient Hebrews, then it is evident that the modern Jews have not preserved the type. Our investigations of this trait has included 4,235 individuals over twenty years of age; of these 2,716 were men and 1,519 women. Besides the color of the hair and eyes observations have been made on grayness, baldness and freckles, and also on the variety of the hair. As will be readily observed by one who attempts to distin- guish the degrees of pigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, there is often considerable difficulty in deciding which color to assign a given individual. It is quite easy to distinguish golden blond from black or dark brown hair. But between these two 1«« Ant.,’? XVI, 8, I, quoted from Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, p. 157. 2 Art, ‘‘ Hair,’’ Jewish Encyclop., VI, p. 157. $7 Samuel, XVI, 12; XVII, 42; Genesis XXV, 25. 261 262 FISHBERG extremes there are found minor gradations which are not easily separated, and one often remains in doubt as to the class with which he is dealing. There also arises a problem concerning the number of colors into which it is advisable to divide the material. Some anthropologists distinguish as many as fifteen colors of skin, hair or eyes; while the late Dr. Virchow, in his classical elaboration of the material on the color of skin, hair and eyes of German school children, collected by the German anthro- pological Society * distinguishes only two colors for the skin (fair and dark), four for the hair (blond, brown, black, and red), and three for the eyes (blue, gray, and brown). This classification we have adopted, with only slight modifications ;- we distinguish six classes of hair coloration—black, brown, chestnut, light chestnut, blond, and red. The distinction between fair and dark skin is not always readily apparent, and in doubtful cases we have been guided by the general impression gained by a careful inspection at a distance from one to two meters from the individual. Only those whose skin appeared brownish or swarthy were taken as dark, and those having a yellowish or somewhat muddy tint were regarded as fair. The hair was considered black when the darkness was very deep, without a brownish tinge. Such hair usually has a luster which by reflected light gives it a bluish appearance, but this luster is not observable in black hair which is not kept scrupu- lously clean by frequent brushing. Brown hair was considered to be that which, although fairly dark, did not show a luster, or in reflected light, presented a brownish tinge. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish this color from black, particularly in hair the care of which has been neglected. Quite often “brown” hair will appear decidedly black when thoroughly cleaned and brushed. As chestnut we counted hair which by its coloration did not appear positively brown but which was not fair enough to be 1 <««Gesmtbericht iiber die von der deutschen anthropologischen Gesellschaft ver- anlassten Erhebungen iiber die Farbe der haut, der Haare und der Augen der Schul- kinder in Deutschland,’’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XVI, pp. 275-475. ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 263 termed blond. As this class includes many gradations of color, we have found it necessary to divide it into dark and light chest- nut. Most hair here considered to be light chestnut may some- times be taken for blond, especially when seen by direct sun- light, but close observation discloses a dark tinge. Much of the hair included in this class, shows a somewhat rufous appear- ance, without being decidedly red; in other instances it is almost flaxen, but with a dark tinge. Under blond we have classed hair which is almost white, as well as the flaxen, ashen, yellowish and golden blond _ hair. Some of these have a more or less grayish tinge, others are even slightly rufous, while still others have no decided color at all. There are many shades of red hair, ranging from fire-red through brownish-red to that which is almost blond but which has a decidedly rufous appearance. In doubtful cases we have been guided by other signs of erythrism, such as an abundance of freckles, and, where possible, by noting the color of the pubic hair, which is orange yeu! in most cases of erythrism. The color of the iris was observed at a distance of about one meter. Eyes showing the least degree of pigmentation were re- corded as blue, but deeply pigmented eyes, with a dark bluish appearance on close observation, were not included in this class. Only eyes having no color at all or a mixture of light blue and gray were counted as blue. All dark eyes which were not de- cidedly black were recorded as brown. In this class are included the ‘“beer-colored”” eyes (very common among the Eastern European Jews) and those having a deep dark tint which appears dark blue on close inspection. As gray were considered all eyes which could not be included in the above two classes ; it consequently includes most of those which some observers have described as green, although many of these are essentially brown. Such cases as the latter have been classed among the brown eyes. Black eyes are usually brown on close inspection, but at a distance of about a meter the iris appears deep black and shows no difference in the color of the pupil. 264 FISHBERG The color of the skin was observed in 2,272 individuals, in- cluding 1,188 men and 1,084 women. It was found to be as follows :? Jews. Jewesses. Darke shames scy25 eeesesser seers 269 22.64 276 25.46 Fair slanis,3s2) 2¢2-28e eee 919 77.36 808 74.54 ‘Lotal.cs ccesa poten 1,188 100.00 1,084 100.00 This indicates that Jewesses have a slightly darker skin than Jews. According to Ploss and Bartels? the skin of women is usually fairer than that of men. The distribution of the color of the hair is shown in the fol- lowing table: COLOR OF THE HAIR OF 4,235 JEWS IN NEw York Ciry. : | Jews. Jewesses Color of the Hair. | = Number. Percent. Number. Percent. Blackie) i teiee. Sess 1,219 | 44.89 650 | 42.79 BEOW Nic c623 chon Seen 760 27.98 430 28.31 Dark as 293 10.79 148 | 9.74 Chestnut ‘ Lapht, . ee | IgI 7503 137 | 9.02 BlonG) 353.0 5ssorssee see 165 6.08 94 | 6.19 Redes scent veer 88 723 60 3-95 ‘Lotal. 5 aoc. cee | 2,716 | Viige.co, SFP fee | 100.00 Dividing the hair in three classes as dark, fair and red, we find the proportion to be as follows: Color. Jews. Jewesses. Dark hair's eissiiesecseedaccgoae aceon ee eee 83.66 80.84 Fair Hair 5. cw Sica s tuys anna ea dde oa waien'ene 264 olor et the Eyes’... 23. <5. 02: So eee Oe Cnr er OF ASE 265 SOREL E Me RRL IMME 5 cle enn Sem eoaiscnb nV a wicby a's vawe erences AND OEE VES i Reve APRA GOA: Section met at 8:20 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding: The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : J. K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and Herman §. Davis, THE VARIATION OF. LATITUDE AT NEw York City > Part 2, Varig ATION OF LATITUDE AND CONSTANT OF ABERRATION. George B. Pegram and Harold Webb, Enrercy LIBERATED BY THORIUM. Wallace Goold Levison, Nore on A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE, AND THE DURATION SPECTRUM OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. In the first paper Professor Jacoby presented the results of seven years’ continuous observations for a study of latitude variation and the aberration of light, which results will be pub- lished as the second and last part of Vol. I, in the Academy’s RECORDS. 329 Series of Memoirs. To that publication the reader is referred for complete details and results; it is not possible here to do more than mention very briefly the plan of the work and to state the fact of its completion. The simultaneous and continuous observation of the same stars at stations situated on a single parallel of latitude, but separated widely in longitude, has long been recognized as the best method of attacking the problem under consideration. The first actual practical application of the method is the one treated in the present paper. The other participating observatory is the one at Capodimonte, near Naples, where simultaneous ob- servations were made by Professor Fergola and his associates. The New York and Naples work was continued until a simi- lar, but a more elaborate, plan was put in operation by the International Geodetic Association, which includes all civilized governments. This plan involved the establishment of four suitable special latitude stations, and rendered further work at New York and Naples unnecessary. The method used by Messrs. Pegram and Webb, in this in- vestigation of the energy liberated by thorium due to its radiv- activity, was to measure the difference between the temperature of three kilograms of thorium oxide, enclosed in a Dewar bulb, and that of a surrounding ice-bath, by means of a set of iron- constantin thermo-electric couples. Uniformity of temperature in the bath was secured by means of a rotating stirrer and careful heat insulation. The thorium oxide was cooled, so that its initial temperature was below that of the surrounding bath. Readings were taken at frequent intervals, and after several days the differ- ence of temperature became constant, with the oxide .o4° warmer than the bath. Several such series of observations were made. From the rate of change of temperature and from an approximate calculation of the heat capacity of bulb and oxide, a tentative value of the heat liberated was found ; 8 x 107° gram-calories per gram of thorium oxide per hour (.93 ergs per gram per second), org X IO-° gram-calories per gram of pure thorium per hour. Further investigation is being made to determine these values more accurately. 330 RECORDS. Mr. Levison presented the following note on a Tribo- phosphoroscope : Discs of thick pasteboard about 15 cm. in diameter are evenly sanded on one or both sides on a coating of liquid glue with the materials to be examined in powder, narrow bands being sufficient and only small quantities of the materials required. The disc selected is then rotated at a known and usually moderate speed (twelve revolutions per second, for example) by any convenient mechanism, such as an ordinary rotator used for illustrating the recomposition of light. A point or brush of wire or other material, or a piece of the same material with which the disc is coated, being pressed against the sanded surface, produces a trail of light which ex- tends from the point of contact in an arc more or less around the disc; varying in color with different materials and in length with the speed, and is maintained for some time unless the material is rubbed off by extreme friction. A grindstone or corundum wheel may often be used to advantage with hard substances as a substitute for the disc, since a specimen held against it soon coats it with a trace of the material which shows. its luminous trail beautifully. By means of the device described, the intensity of the light may be determined with a photometer, its duration from the length of the trail, and its spectrum delineated with a spectro- scope. The following approximate tentative results of the examina- tion of a few minerals are given to illustrate its applicability. 1. Sphalerite (1) from Utah. Light yellow concretions in gray massive sphalerite. Visible trails of a yellow orange color of respectively increasing brilliancy and length are produced with the tip of the finger; a wooden match; the finger nail; a brass wire brush; and a steel wire brush, or point; visible, with the latter, at a distance of several yards and extending about one quarter around the disc at the above speed. Hence, the duration is about 0.02 s. The spectrum is short, extending from about the line C to the line & and embracing some red, orange, yellow, yellow-green and green. (2) From another RECORDS. 331 locality very similar to the above in character, and afforded like results. (3) Of several dark colored sphalerites some showed a little light at the point of contact of the brush, but no trail. 2. Quartz. (Sandpaper disc or grindstone.) No light from brushes (except incandescent sparks from hard steel). A piece of quartz, however, gives a bright yellow light, and if of rock crystal is luminous within by internal reflection. Very short trail and duration. 3. Corundum. (Emery paper disc or corundum wheel.) No light from brushes (except as above). A piece of ruby or ruby corundum against the corundum wheel or a grindstone evokes a brilliant crimson light and short trail and is luminous within by internal reflection. Duration about 0.005 s. A piece of emery against a corundum wheel gives a like trail but is not itself luminous. 4. Pectolite, Woodcliff, N. J. Wire brush. Light greenish- blue trail only medium bright but extending completely around the disc. Duration over 0.08 s. 5. Limestone, Hellfire Rock, Utah. Feeble greenish-blue but similarly long trail. Duration over 0.08 s. 6. Willemite. (1) Hard yellow-green gem material, Frank- lin, N. J. Short greenish-yellow trail. Duration very short. (2) Opaque, massive green variety. Feeble short green trail. Duration about 0.02 s._ Best obtained with a specimen pressed against a corundum wheel or grindstone. Various specimens give somewhat different effects. (3) Pink or brown variety. Longer and brighter green trail. Duration about 0.03 s.: 7. Chlorophane. (1) Violet from Trumbull, Conn. Bright green and very long trail; best obtained by friction of a speci- men against a grindstone or corundum wheel or a disc coated with the same material. Duration over 0.40 s. Spectrum broad band in the yellow-green and green. (2) Green from Amelia Co. Courthouse, Va. Trail similar but brighter ; spectrum similar. (3) Red from Haddam Neck, Conn. Trail similar. In the discussions that followed the papers, Dr. George F. Kunz stated that Professor Baskerville and himself had under 332 RECORDS. examination a zinc-blende from Utah, the natural mineral vary- ing in color from yellow to fawn and to pale brown. This was the most intense tribo-luminescent substance that they had yet investigated. Two bits one fourth the size of a pea, if pressed together lightly with the fingers, caused a brilliant yellow-green light to glow as long as the pressure lasted; and it also pos- sessed the property of becoming radio-responsive to the beta and gamma rays of radium; that it was the first natural zinc- blende they had examined that showed this remarkable property. Mr. W. J. Hammer showed a sample of artificial blende made by Mr. W.S. Andrews, of Schenectady, N. Y., which gave very strong tribo-luminescence. C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary. SECTION “OF” DIOROGH: APRIL. 1) 1QOA- Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Underwood presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : Gary N. Calkins, THE EvipENCE oF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN AMCEBA PROTEUS. E. B. Wilson, THe CrLeavace-Mosaic IN PATELLA. D. T. MacDougal, THE EcoLocicaL ConpiTIONs IN A LocaL DESERT IN LOWER CALIFORNIA. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Professor Calkins presented ‘‘The Evidence of a Sexual Cycle in Ameba Proteus’ as shown by nuclear changes, includ- ing the processes of mitosis and nuclear multiplication by this method, the fragmentation of the multiple nuclei, the mitotic division of the chromatin fragments, and the formation of the secondary nuclei, and subsequent encystment of the parent form. The entire process was regarded by the speaker as indicating a series of changes leading up to the formation of RECORDS. 333 conjugating gametes and exactly analogous to the formation of gametes in allied rhizopods such as Polystomella, Centropyxis, and Chlamydophrys as recently worked out by Schaudinn, Lantern slides were used for illustrations. Professor Wilson’ ssubject was ‘The Cleavage-Mosaic in Patella ; with remarks on the Mosaic-Theory of Development.” This paper will soon be published in full in the Journal of Ex- perimental Zoology. Professor MacDougal gave a short talk on the topography, water-fall, drainage, botanical and zoological conditions in a local desert in Lower California. Gary N. CALKINS, Acting Secretary. SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. APRIL 18, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp, pre- siding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : Arthur Hollick, A Canor Trip Down THE YUKON RIVER FROM Dawson TO ANVIK. Edmund Otis Hovey, THE GraND SOUFRIERE OF GUADA- LOUPE, AN ANALOGUE OF Mont PELE. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Dr. Hollick said in brief: The trip was made under instruc- tions from the United States Geological Survey, with the special object of collecting palzobotanical material, from which to de- termine the age of certain exposures in central Alaska. The party consisted of Dr. Hollick, Mr. Sidney Paige, field assistant, and Mr. John Rentfro, cook and general camp assistant. The start was made from Seattle, Wash., on June I, 1903, by steamer to Skagway, Alaska, where they arrived on 334 RECORDS. June 5, and remained until June 11, wattine for the :icesto break up in the Yukon River. On June 11, the route was by railroad to Whitehorse, Yukon Territory ; June 12-15, by steamboat down the upper waters of the Yukon to Dawson, Yukon Territory, where a nineteen-foot Peterboro’ canoe was purchased and the trip down the river begun. The trip was ended at Anvik, Alaska, August 12, after about 1,100 miles of the river had been explored, and about 1,800 lbs. of specimens had been collected and shipped. The highest point north was reached at Fort Yukon, July 2, just beyond the Arctic Circle. The Yukon River occupies what was until quite recently a broad estuary. Subsequent elevation of the land resulted in the draining of the estuary and the formation of the present river valley, which has cut its way down through the estuary de- posits, leaving these as broad benches or terraces. Mastodon and other remains of extinct animals indicate the Pleistocene age of the deposits. One of the finest exposures is fat wire “« Palisades,”’ just below Rampart. The width of the river varies from one to ten miles, and the main channel is constantly shifting. It pursues a meandering course, sometimes impigning on the side of the old valley, sometimes on the other, and for long distances flows through the middle. Where it occupies the latter position, it is generally broad, with a current of about four miles per hour, and filled with innumerable wooded islands, mud flats and sand and gravel bars, which render navigation more or less a matter of guess- work, on account of the impossibility of telling where the main channel flows, and the liability of running into a blind slue or a long circuitous channel around an island. It was often found advisable to climb up the river bank to a considerable elevation in order to determine, by means of an extended view, where the correct course lay. Where hard rocks were exposed along the river banks, or a short distance away, these were subjected to careful examination in regard to their lithologic, palaontologic and stratigraphic characters. Amongst the interesting results obtained were (1) the deter- mination of the Tertiary age of certain sandstones above Ram- a RECORDS. 339 part ; and (2) the determination of the Cretaceous age of other sandstones and shales further down the river in the vicinity of Nulato. At one locality, a unique fossil flora was found, to- tally different from any heretofore known in America, consist- ing of Cycads of Lower Cretaceous types, mixed with Angio- sperms belonging to what have always been considered Upper Cretaceous types. Only a preliminary study has been made of the material col- lected, which will eventually be carefully examined and reported upon for the United States Geological Survey. The paper was illustrated with about seventy lantern slides, showing the principal topographic and geologic features of the route. Dr. Hovey showed twelve lantern slides illustrating the Grand Soufriére of Guadeloupe, and stated that the field evidence indi- cated that the present active cone of this volcano was closely analogous to the new cone and spine of Mont Pele, Martinique ; that is to say that it had been pushed up bodily into its present position, or had welled up through the conduit in such a viscous condition that contact with the atmosphere rendered it too rigid to flow. At the base of the cone, on the north, there is a gently rising flat area, apparently the segment of a circle, indi- cating the position of a part of the rim of a crater in existence before the construction of the present cone. The map shown in connection with the paper was prepared by M. Leon Le Boucher for the Club des Montagnards of Guadeloupe. This Club has recently celebrated the first anni- versary of its founding, and its report shows that it has done a great deal in a short time toward the opening up of roads and paths to the Soufriere, making the highest and one of the most interesting mountains of the Lesser Antilles readily accessible to visitors. Sixty members and visitors were present at the meeting of the Section. Epmunp Otis Hovey, Secretary. 336 RECORDS. SECTION OF- ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY AVPRIEN 255.) KOO: Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor F. J. E. Woodbridge, presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : William Jones, Nores oN AN ALGONKIN DIALECT. Franz Boas and Clark Wissler, ON THE GROWTH OF CHILDREN. Marshall H. Saville, PAaPER-MAKING IMPLEMENTS OF ANCIENT MExIco. Waldemar Jochelson, THE GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Dr. Jones presented a brief report of the method of word formation of the Fox dialect. The dialect is Algonkin and belongs to the group now inhabiting, or that once inhabited, the country contiguous to Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. Among the other dialects of the group are Ojibway, Ottawa, Pottowatomie, Menomonie, Kickapoo, and Sauk. Morphologically all these dialects stand in an intimate relation to one another. The absolute forms of much of the vocabu- lary are the same, but varying differences in the way of intona- tion, articulation and grammar, make some of these dialects seem somewhat removed from one another. Fox is near to Sauk and Kickapoo, and farther removed from Ojibway. The structural peculiarities of word building, as shown in the Fox, would come out much the same in the other related dia- lects. The system of forming words is by composition. The elements entering into composition are formatives and stems. Some formatives are prefixes but most are suffixes. Some of the suffixes refer to the pronoun and gender in the same form. Stems fall into two general classes, initial and secondary. Initial stems come first in a combination and secondary stems come after. Secondary stems can be subdivided into at least two RECORDS. B37 groups, one of the first order and another of the second: the former stand next to initial stems, and the latter, when in com- position, stand next to terminal pronouns. The stems refer to general notions. Initial stems usually express subjective states and secondary stems generally refer to objective relations. The meaning of one stem modifies the meaning of another in a reciprocal manner, with a result of greater specialization. Initial stems have greater extension and can often occur alone as adverbs. A number of particles precede the terminal pronouns. The particles refer to causal relations. Some have the special office of instrumentality, as with the hand, foot, mouth, voice and ear. The dialect makes a distinction between two opposing cate- gories. Objects that have life and movement come in one class, and objects without those attributes fall in another. The dis- tinction is maintained with great vigor throughout the dialect. A force like personification sometimes interferes with it. Professor Boas and Dr. Wissler presented a joint paper, in which they discussed the causes of the increased variability during the period of growth. On the basis of the results of previous investigations, it had been suggested that the increased variability may be due to differences in the rapidity of development. The authors have followed out this line of inves- tigation by collecting material regarding the variability of the period at which certain physiological changes take place. The times of dentition, the beginning of puberty, the appearance of the wisdom teeth, and the beginning of senility, were selected for this purpose, and it was shown that the variability of time at which these phenomena take place increases with increasing age, and apparently the rate of increase is proportional to the age. Furthermore it was shown that during the period of growth all the coefficients of correlation between the sizes of different parts of the body are increased. This can also be best explained by the theory that the phenomena of growth are largely due to acceleration and retardation. The paper by Professor Saville was illustrated by specimens. The paper by Mr. Jochelson reported the results of several 338 RECORDS. years’ study of the Yukaghir language, being mainly a*sketch of the Lolyma dialect. The phonetic and morphological pecu- liarities of the former are rather insignificant, but the Tundra dialect has absorbed a considerable number of Tungus stems, which in their use in word-formation have been subjected to the rules of the Yukaghir grammar. These investigations show that the Yukaghir language stands isolated from the Siberian lan- cuages of the so-called Ural-Altaic group, and that it has many similarities to the languages of the American Indians. The chief phonetic and morphological differences that distin- guish the Yukaghir languages from the Ural-Altaic languages are the following: 1. It has not the intricate system of vowel harmony that is found in Ural-Altaic languages. 2. We do not find that the vowel of the root is unchangeable — an important rule in Ural-Altaic phonetics. 3. The Ural-Altaic possessive suffixes of nouns and verbs are wholly absent in Yukaghir verbs, and present in nouns only for the purpose of expressing owner- ship of the third person. 4. Words are formed by means of suffixes and prefixes, while the Ural-Altaic languages use suf- fixes only. The chief points of similarity between the Yukaghir language and Indian languages are: 1. The existence of a simple har- monic law in the use of vowels. 2. The use of prefixes. 3. Adjectives are morphologically identical with verbal forms. 4. The verb-bases are mostly stems, consisting of a single vowel or a small group of consonants, while the noun bases are almost always derivatives of verbal-forms. 5. The conjugation of. transitive verbs is clearly distinguished from that of intransitive verbs. 6. Transitive verbs may be changed into intransitive verbs by means of suffixes, and vice versa. 7. We find in the Yukaghir language the polysynthesis of the American languages. 8. Although there is not the actual incorporation of the Amer- ican languages, the syntactical construction of the Yukaghir sentence is akin to it. JAMES E. Loucu, Secretary. RECORDS. 339 BUSINESS ‘MEETING, May 2, 1904. The Academy met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read and approved. The following candidate for election as an Active Member, recommended by the Council, was duly elected: William L. Osgood Field. The following Active Members recommended for election as: Fellows, were duly elected : Professor Thomas Hunt Morgan. Professor Charles B. Davenport. The Secretary reported from the Council as follows : That the Council had voted to return to the former method of publishing, three or more parts to be issued annually. That a special committee appointed to consider the best method of combining the libraries of the Academy and of the American Museum, has reported as follows: “1. That the Library Committee be authorized, in coopera- tion with the American Museum of Natural History, to set aside and dispose of such volumes in the library of the Academy as may not in their judgment be needed for the proper utilization of the two libraries ; provided, that the proceeds derived from the sale of such volumes be devoted to the purchase of addi- tional books and that books so purchased shall be a part of the Academy library. “2, That the Library Committee be authorized in codpera- tion with the American Museum of Natural History to revise the exchange list of the Academy in such a way as to avoid such duplication of exchanges by the two institutions as may in their judgment seem undesirable.’ It was voted that the recommendations of the Council be approved. The Academy then adjourned. Henry E. CRAMPTON, Recording Secretary. 340 RECORDS. SECTION: OF ASTRONOMY, PuYysitsy An CHEMISTRY: May 2, 1904.’ Section met at 8.25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and ap- proved. The following program was then offered: R. S. Woodward, THe THrory oF A DouBLE SUSPENSION PENDULUM. C. C. Trowbridge, MEASUREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY FEATH- ERS OF RECENTLY KILLED HAWKS, AND THEIR BEARINGS UPON THE PROBLEM OF BIRD FLIGHT. | George B. Pegram, The GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGES BY RADIUM. P. H. Dudley, BENDING Moments IN RaliLs, FOR THE SAME SUPERSTRUCTURE, UNDER DIFFERENT TyPEs OF LOCOMOTIVES. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Professor Woodward described a double suspension pendulum apparatus for determining the acceleration of gravity and gave a brief outline of the theory of the apparatus. The latter consists of two rectangular bars of brass, about twenty kilograms mass each, connected by two steel tapes of equal length in sucha way that when one bar is held rigidly horizontal, the other bar will be suspended horizontally by the equal and parallel tapes. It was shown that when the suspended bar vibrates longitudi- nally through small amplitudes its motion is very nearly the same as that of a simple pendulum whose length is equal to that of the tapes. It was shown also how small corrections due to the mass of the tapes and to their rigidity may be applied in order to get from the actual apparatus results in conformity with those of a simple pendulum. Dr. Trowbridge stated that during the spring he had suc- ceeded in obtaining a series of measurements of the primary feathers of the hawk’s wings, immediately after the death of the birds, and secured additional proof of his theory that certain RECORDS. b41 birds of prey habitually interlock their primary feathers in flight. It was found that when hawks are examined immediately after they have been killed, there usually appear deep depres- sions in the edge of the posterior webs of the emarginate primary feathers, where the feathers have been in contact, which are caused by the interlocking of the primaries. The measurements consisted in determining the width of these depressions at short intervals of time immediately after the death of the hawks. It was found that the depressions gradually disappeared, both in cases where the feathers were found locked and were then unlocked, and in cases where the feathers were found unlocked. Data were thus obtained from which well-defined curves were constructed, showing the re- covery of the web of the feathers after the pressure caused by the interlocking feathers was relieved. A number of life-size photographs were taken of the primary feathers immediately after the hawks were killed and the photographs of the depres- sions in the feathers when measured by a Repsold measuring machine, gave curves which agreed very well with those ob- tained by direct measurement. Similar curves were obtained by artificially interlocking the primaries for several hours and then measuring the recovery of the web of the feathers with a micrometer microscope. It was found that artificial locking of the feathers for ten minutes produced very slight or no depres- sions and locking them for several hours produced depressions only about one half as deep as those found when the hawks were killed. In the latter case they were from 2 to 3.5 milli- meters deep, and required from one to five hours to be reduced to twenty per cent. of the original depth, the rate of change of the depth of depression being most rapid at first. It was concluded from the measurements and photographs that the primary feathers found with the depressions in the web had been interlocked several hours or more, previous to the death of the hawks, which were killed while sailing in a strong wind, and that the theory of interlocking of the primaries of the wing in flight had been conclusively confirmed. 342 RECORDS. Dr. Pegram’s paper related to the generation of electrical charges by radium, with special reference to the suggestion of Soddy that when the a particles, carrying their positive charge, are expelled from the radium, there is no corresponding nega- tive charge left behind in the mass. A few milligrams of radium bromide were enclosed in a thick lead capsule, which was supported on a quartz rod in an exhausted vessel. Gold leaves attached to this capsule gave no indication of a charge, showing either that there was the usual generation of equal amounts of positive and negative electricity when the a particles are thrown off, if, as has been supposed, the number of a parti- cles is much greater than the number of negatively charged particles, or else that the number of 8 particles is about equal to the number of a particles. It remains to try a similar experiment with radium bromide which has been recently in solution, and, therefore, sends off few of the # particles. Dr. Dudley referred to his previous communications to the Academy, describing the stremmatograph tests, which afforded tabulations of the recorded unit fiber stresses in the base of rails, and their distribution under moving locomotives and cars. The determination from the unit fiber strains, of the negative and positive bending moments of the rails, due to the passing wheel effects, indicates that for a definite construction of the superstructure of the permanent way, they are independent, partially, of the total load of the locomotive or car, but de- pendent upon the type of each, in construction of wheel base and wheel spacing, in loading the foundation. In a series of stremmatograph tests, on the New York Cen- tral and Hudson River Railroad, near mile post No. 10, De- cember 23 and 30, 1899, locomotive No. 870, an eight-wheel type of engine, weight, 220,000 pounds, drawing the ‘“‘ Empire State Express’”’ of four cars, weight, 430,000 pounds, at speeds of 42 and 44 miles per hour, the average positive bending mo- ments for the engine were 12.40 inch-pounds per pound of static load, for one rail, constrained by a negative bending mo- ment of 1.88 inch-pounds. The average positive bending moments for the entire loco- a ae RECORDS. 343 motive were 11.48 inch-pounds, per pound of static load, con- strained by a negative bending moment of 1.71 inch-pounds. On December 30 locomotive No. 2032, a ten-wheel type of engine, with closer wheel spacing, weighing 283,go00 pounds, drawing the ‘Southwestern Limited” of ten cars weighing 910,000 pounds, at a speed of 40 miles per hour, at the same place as the preceding tests, the positive bending moment for the engine was 10.80 inch-pounds per pound of static load, for one rail, constrained by a negative bending moment of 2.18 inch- pounds — amore favorable result than for the eight-wheel type. For the entire locomotive, the positive bending moment — for normal tender wheels — was 9.82 inch-pounds, for one rail, constrained bya negative bending moment of I.g0 inch-pounds, indicating a more favorable loading of the foundation. The bending moments of different types of locomotives on the same superstructure are a measure of the relative efficiency of the dis- tribution of their loads to the foundation ; while with the same type of engine the relative efficiency of the construction of the superstructure of the permanent way can be measured. These are first bending moments measured in rails under moving loco- motives and cars. Dr. H. G. Piffard exhibited an electrometer specially designed for use in measuring radioactivity, and showed the action of the instrument by lantern projection. C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary. SEC TIOR OF BIGLOUGY- May 9g, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Underwood pre- siding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and approved. The fellowing program was then offered: E. W. Berry, THE CycADOFILICALES AND THE ORIGIN OF THE SEED PLANTs. D. T. MacDougal, MorpHoGENiIc CHANGES CAUSED BY THE TRANSPOSITION OF AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS. Atter the stated papers were presented Professor Dean exhib- 344 RECORDS. ited and read an interesting letter signed by Lamarck in 1796, at the Museum of Natural History in Paris. Professor Lloyd described a species of violet with a tendency to form three spurs of equal radial symmetry. Dr. MacDougal described the primrose plants, illustrating the mutation theory of de Vries, which are now growing at the New York Botanical Garden. Maurice A. BIGELow, Secretary. SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINE RALOGS. May 16, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp presid- ing. [he minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. On motion, duly seconded, it was voted that the Academy apply for registration in the Fighth International Geographic Congress to be held in Washington, New York, etc., in Septem- ber, 1904, and that the Chairman appoint the allowed number of delegates, himself to be one of the number. The Chairman appointed Professor J. J. Stevenson and Dr. E. O. Hovey to serve with him as delegates, three appearing to be the number allowed to the membership of the Academy. In the absence of Mr. J. W. Gidley, who was to have read a paper entitled ‘‘Some Observations on the So-called Tertiary Lake Basins of Western North America,” the program of the evening was necessarily changed from that which had been given in the printed announcement. The following program was offered : W.D. Mathew, Exurpition oF A SERIES OF FOOT-BONES ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, RECENTLY IN- STALLED IN THE HALL OF VERTEBRATE PALONTOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN Museum oF NATuRAL HIsTory. E. O. Hovey, Some Erosion PHENOMENA IN ST. VINCENT AND MARTINIQUE. J. Howard Wilson, Some or THE LOCALITIES IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND WHERE MONUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BRONZE AGES HAVE BEEN FOUND. RECORDS. 345 SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Dr. Mathew described a series corresponding to that illustrat- ing the evolution of the horse, and which is almost equally complete. It shows the derivation of the camel from small primitive four-toed ancestors which were exclusively North American in habitat. The earliest known ancestors are tiny animals no larger than a rabbit. The camels reached their maximum size and abundance in the Pliocene epoch, when they were much larger than the modern camels. Then they spread to the other conti- nents, disappeared entirely from North America and became smaller in size and far less numerous in species elsewhere. Dr. Hovey showed lantern slides from some of the photo- graphs taken by him in St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902 and 1903, for the American Museum of Natural History, which illus- trated the development of the new drainage systems and the rein- statement of old channels in regions which were most thickly covered by the 1902 and 1903 eruptions of the Soufriere and Mont Pele. In considering the subject of stone monuments, Mr. Wilson confined himself to those found in Northern France and South- ern England, and especially to the great groups near Carnac in Morbihau, and the well-known temples of Stonehenge and Ave- bury, in Wiltshire. The monuments were divided according to type into several classes, and a description of each of these given briefly with their comparative ages and the probable purposes for which they were constructed. Legends concerning these monuments were cited, and mention was made of the superstition and veneration with which they have been regarded by some of the more con- servative peasants, causing the worship of stone to be kept up to the present day in some remote districts. Before closing the paper, attention was called to the engineer- ing skill required in placing and erecting some of the monu- ments and the early age at which it made its appearance. The paper was followed by slides showing photographic views of 346 RECORDS. some of the most famous monuments, with maps and with draw- ings of several of the curiously engraved stones. EpmMuND Otis Hovey, Secretary. BUSINESS, MEETING: OCTOBER 3, 1904. The Academy met at 8:15, Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read -and approved. There being no business to come before the meeting, the Academy adjourned. Henry E. CRAMPTON, Recording Secretary. SECTION» OF ASTRONOMY, -PHYSsi¢Gs.72 CHEMIST RY. OCTOBER 3, 1904. Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and -approved. The following program was then offered : Reports of summer work were presented by several members -of the Section, after which an informal address was given by Dr. C. D. Perrine of the Lick Observatory, on ‘“‘ Recent Progress made in the Study of Nebulze by Photographic Methods.” CHARLES C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary. SECTION OF BIO OGY: OCTOBER 10, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor F. B. Sumner presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and -approved. The meeting was devoted to reports on summer work by members. Professor E. B. Wilson worked at the Naples, Sor- ‘bonne and Roscoff laboratories, continuing his studies of ger- RECORDS. 347 minal localization in mollusks. Professor Bashford Dean attended the zoological congress at Berne and the British Association meeting in Cambridge, and later visited places of scientific interest in France. Professor Bristol worked at the Bermuda Biological Station, of which he was one of the directors. Mr. Yatsu worked at the Tufts College laboratory in Maine. Mr. Kellicott worked at the Cedar Point laboratory, in Ohio, com- pleting his studies of the development of the vascular system of Ceratodus. Dr. Dublin continued his studies of germ cells at the Cold Springs Harbor laboratory. Dr. Townsend super- intended the remodeling of the water-supply apparatus at the New York Aquarium. Mr. Bigelow conducted special courses for teachers in the summer-school of Columbia University. Professor Sumner directed the laboratories and the biological surveys of the Bureau of Fisheries at Woods Hole. M. A. BiGELow, Secretary. eeECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. OCTOBER 17, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M.,; Professor James F. Kemp presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : The special business of the evening was the nomination by the Section of officers to serve for the calendar year 1905. The following officers were unanimously nominated by the Section: For Chairman and Vice-President of the Academy, E. O. Hovey, of the American Museum of Natural History. For Secretary, A. W. Grabau, of Columbia University. The program of the evening was then taken up. It was as follows : E. O. Hovey, St. Vincent, BritisH West InpiEs. THE ERUPTIONS OF 1902 AND THEIR IMMEDIATE RESULTS. 348 RECORDS. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Dr. Hovey gave a summary account of the results obtained on two expeditions undertaken by him for the American Mu- seum of Natural History in 1902 and 1903, for the study of the volcanic eruptions of the Soufriere, which began in May, 1902. Particular attention was devoted to the heavy coating of vol- canic ash deposited upon the northern portion of the island of St. Vincent and the ash-filling of the gorges of the Wallibou and Rabaka Dry Rivers, the devastation wrought in the forests and on the plantations within a radius of about five miles from the crater, the phenomena of primary eruptions observed in the crater and of secondary eruptions observed in the Wallibou and Rabaka ash-beds. The nature of the exploding eruption cloud was discussed, and-it was shown how the heavily dust- laden steam cloud kept close to the surface of the ground under the influence of gravity, while its initial velocity was furnished by the horizontal component of the explosion. About eighty lantern slides were used in illustrating the speaker’s remarks, BO. Ovex, Secretary. SECTION .OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND, raVenhOReG = OCTOBER 24, 1904. The Section met, in conjunction with the New York Branch of the American Psychological Association, at 4:30 P. M., and at 8:15 P. M. Vice-President Woodbridge presided. The following program was offered : R. 8. Woodworth, THE CorRELATION BETWEEN Moror STRENGTH, QUICKNESS AND ACCURACY. Robert MacDougall, Orcanic LEVELS IN THE DEVELOP- MENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Irving King, Some PROBLEMS OF THE FRINGE OF CoNSCIOUS- NESS. E. L. Thorndike, A Comparison oF THE MENTAL AND PHys- CAL RESEMBLANCES OF I WINS. RECORDS. 349 F. J. E. Woodbridge, Nore on THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUS- NESS. Proceeding to the election of officers for the coming year, the following were elected : Chairman — Professor F. J. E. Woodbridge. Secretary — Dr. R. S. Woodworth. R. S. WoopwortTH, Secretary, pro tem. BUSINESS MEETING. NOVEMBER 7, I9O4. The Academy met in Fayerweather Hall, Columbia Univer- sity, at 8:30 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read and approved. The following candidates, approved by the Council were duly elected as Active Members : Fred. A. Lucas, C. William Beebe. There being no further business to come before the meeting, the Academy adjourned. C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary, pro tem. pee T1ON OR ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHrEhHiS FRY: NOVEMBER 7, I9QO4. Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and ap- proved. The names of candidates for active membership were read and referred to the Council according to the By-Laws. The following program was then offered : F. L. Tufts, THE RELATION OF KATHODE RESISTANCE TO THE SO-CALLED SATURATION CURRENT IN THE DISCHARGE THROUGH GASES. 350 RECORDS. C. C. Trowbridge, THE DurATION OF THE AFTERGLOW ACCOMPANYING THE ELECTRODELESS DISCHARGE AT Low PRESSURE. The regular annual election of officers of the section was then held, which resulted as follows : Chairman — Ernest von Nardroff. Secretary — C. C. Trowbridge. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Mr. Tufts pointed out that the so-called saturation currents, obtained by Wilson and other investigators of the phenomena of electrical conduction through flame gases, were not true satur- ation currents, but only apparently so, owing to the development at the kathode of a high resistance, when the impressed electro- motive forces were over a few volts. By the use of a kathode coated with calcium oxide and heated by a separate flame, it was shown that the resistance of a flame connecting this with the flame remained practically constant. In other words, the current through the connecting flame increased directly as the potential gradient for gradients ranging from a few tenths of a volt to the centimeter up to gradients of as much as fifty volts to the centimeter. It was stated that experiments had been tried with the ordinary luminous gas flame as well as with flames rendered nonluminous by the admixture of air, and the relation between current and potential gradient was found to be the same for both kinds of flames. It was stated that experiments were in progress in which higher gradients than fifty volts to the centimeter were to be used. Dr. Trowbridge stated that the purpose of the investigation was to determine the nature of the glow that often appears after the cessation of the electrodeless discharge in gases at low pressures. Measurements made thus far on the duration of the glow in air, show a sharp maximum of duration between .1 and .o5 millimeter pressures and that this maximum point varies with the electrical conditions of the experiment. It was also determined that there is a critical point between .7 to .3 milli- meter pressures where the glow is only occasionally formed, RECORDS. 301 after which, as the pressure is further reduced the duration of the glow increases rapidly to the maximum. The electrodeless discharge was also made to take place at liquid air temperature, and it was found that the afterglow accompanying the discharge, while still fairly strong, was diminished considerably in duration and intensity at the low temperature of about — 186° C. The meeting then adjourned. C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary. Sct, OF BIOLOGY, NOVEMBER 14, I9O4. Section met at 8:15, Professor Underwood presiding. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. The following program was then offered : W.E. Kellicott, DEVELOPMENT OF THE VENOUS SYSTEM OF CERATODUS. M. A, Bigelow, SomME PREsSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE EGGs OF THE CRUSTACEAN HIPPOLYTE. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. F. E. Lloyd, BoranicAL RESEARCH AT THE DESERT LABOR- ATORY IN ARIZONA. Dr. Kellicott’s paper, on the ‘“‘ Development of the Venous System of Ceratodus,’ pointed out many similarities to the amphibian. These similarities are so numerous and exact, that it seems impossible to believe that the Dipnoi and Amphibia have not arisen as a common stock which has separated later into these groups. The adult relations and the mode of development of the vena cava of Ceratodus indicate that this vessel is not to be looked upon as one of the hepatic veins which has made a new connection with the posterior cardinal vein, but that its anterior portion develops as a short cut by way of which the blood from the mesonephros may be carried to 352 RECORDS. the heart after the atrophy of the pronephros and the associated veins. Mr. Bigelow briefly described some observations on eggs of the crustacean //7ppolyte subjected to slight pressure during . cleavage. While the normal cleavage is total, pressure pro- hibited the formation of cell-boundaries, and unsegmented eggs with 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 nuclei were obtained. When the pres- sure was removed the cell-boundaries soon appeared. The cleavage of this egg under pressure exhibits some striking resemblances to the normal superficial cleavage of eggs of allies. Professor Lloyd described the conditions for botanical research at the Desert Botanical Laboratory in Arizonia. Many photo- graphs were exhibited to illustrate descriptions of the peculiar flora in the vicinity of the laboratory and of the method of con- ducting experiments, especially those concerned with the rela- tion of desert plants to water. Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of the American Museum of Natural History, was elected chairman, and M. A. Bigelow, of Teachers College, Columbia University, secretary of the section for the year 1905. M. A. BIGELow, Secretary. SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINE RALRG Gs NOVEMBER 21, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F.kempopre- siding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : SUMMARY OF PAPERS. John J. Stevenson, THe IsLaAnp OF SPITZBERGEN AND ITs COAL. James F. Kemp, THe TITANIFEROUS MAGNETITE IN WYOMING. | RECORDS. 393 In introducing his subject Professor Stevenson, described briefly the coast of northern Norway and its geology and referred in some detail to Bergen, Hammerfest and other cities. Spitzbergen was then taken up and its coals and their geological relations were passed in review. The coal beds are of Jurassic age and the coal is peculiar in that it partakes of the characters of the lignites as well as of the true coals. The second paper on the program, by Professor Kemp, was presented only in abstract. The magnetite occurs in two places, fifteen and twenty miles north of Laramie, Wyoming, the former and smaller occurrence being near the Shanton ranch, the latter and larger being on Chugwater Creek. Both are in wall rock of anorthosite which is practically indis- tinguishable from anorthosite occurring in the Adirondacks. The ores range from 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. TiO,.. Thin sections show that they contain green spinels, and one slide pre- sents much olivine. They can be most reasonably explained as intrusive dikes. Inthis view the speaker agreed with Waldemar Lindgren who has published a brief note regarding them. The Section then adjourned. James F. Kemp, Secretary, pro tem. SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. NOVEMBER 28, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., F. J. E. Woodbridge presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : A. M: Tozzer, SurvivaLts oF ANCIENT RITES AMONG THE LACANDONE AND Maya. Clark Wissler, CEREMONIAL LIFE OF THE BLACKFOOT. SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Mr. Tozzer held that the unity of origin of the Lacandones of Chiapas and the early inhabitants of Yucatan seems estab- lished by the fact of the many relevant survivals of rites and 304 RECORDS. customs connected with the older culture as described by the early inhabitants and missionaries, as, for example, the cosmical conceptions, the use of incense-burners identical with some found in the ruins of Yucatan, the piercing of the ear with a stone knife, and the worship of jade and other idols of stone, long identical with Magle culture. That the Lacandones are the descendants of a lower stratum in the social organization of the Magas, the ‘‘gens rustica,’ seems evident from the lack of any- thing approaching skill either from an architectural or an artistic standpoint, the probable absence of a priestly class and along with this a seemingly complete ignorance of the ancient system of writing used among the Magas. Dr. Wissler discussed the general results of research in the religious life and practices of American Plains Indians, showing that the idea that supernatural power was received by the indi- vidual in a vision, dream or inspiration, led to the conception of an individual right to the use of such power, and that even in religious rites recognized as tribal, the formal ownership was vested in a single individual, and that the power of such rites in the affairs of men could work through his consent alone. It further appears that the right of the owner to transfer the religious rite was recognized and that this had a commercial aspect. This reached such a complex stage of development that it practically determined the whole economic organization of the people. On the subjective side, it appears that the real power sought and operated through the songs making up the ritualistic rites and that material objects and dance evolutions were regarded as secondary. The songs were regarded as prayers that the supernatural giver would always heed. R. S. WoopwortTu, Secretary, pro tem. RECORDS. 355 SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. DECEMBER 2, I9QO4. Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Kemp presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. The Section held a special meeting, at which 200 members and visitors were in attendance. The meeting was called to order at 8:25 P. M., and the programme of the evening was at once taken up. This consisted of a lecture by Professor Albrecht Penck, of the Imperial University at Vienna, who is an Honorary Member of the Academy. The speaker discussed ‘“‘ The Glacial Surface Features of the Alps,” and gave a brief summary of some of the results of the twenty years of masterly work which has been done by him and under his direction in the Tyrol. Professor Penck discussed in popular language the nature of the valleys of the Alps and showed by means of lantern slides and a'‘diagram how the glaciers have widened and deepened portions of their rocky basins and produced lakes. After a vote of thanks to the distinguished guest-of the evening, the Section adjourned. EpmunpD O. Hovey, Secretary. BUSINESS: MEETING. DECEMBER 5, 1904. The Academy met at 8:30 P. M., Professor William Hallock presiding. The minutes of the previous business meeting were read and approved. The Secretary reported from the Council as follows : That it was proposed to amend Chapter V, Section 1, of the By-Laws, by omitting the words ‘ Every Active Member shall pay an initiation fee of $5, within three months of his election or such election shall be void.” That the Council, as required by the By-Laws, had prepared the following nominations for officers for the coming year : 306 RECORDS: President — James F. Kemp. Vice-Presidents — Edmund O. Hovey, Ernest R. von Nard- roff, F. J. E. Woodbridge, William M. Wheeler. Corresponding Secretary — Richard E. Dodge. Recording Secretary — Henry E. Crampton. Treasurer — Charles F. Cox. Librarian — Ralph W. Tower. Editor — Charles L. Poor. Councilors — Emerson McMillin and F. H. Wiggin. The following candidates for election as Honorary Members had been approved by the Council: Hugo de Vries. G. Johnstone-Stoney. W.-C. Brogger: Karl von der Steinen. Ferdinand Zirkel. That the Annual Meeting would consist of a formal session for the presentation of the reports of officers and election of officers for 1905, and that this would be followed by a sub- scription dinner, at which the address of the President would be delivered. Due notice would be given the members regarding time and place of this meeting. The Academy then adjourned. Henry E. Crampton, Recording Secretary. SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS ane CH EMIS IR. DECEMBER 5, 1904. Section met at 8:30 P. M., Professor William Hallock presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and approved. The following program was then offered : C. W. Kanolt, THE ComBinaTION oF IONS WITH THE SOL- VENT IN SOLUTIONS. Bergen Davis and C. W. Edwards, CuEmicAL CoMBINATION OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE ACTION OF RADIUM. ~I RECORDS. 519) SUMMARY OF PAPERS. The object of Dr. Kanolt’s investigation was to determine whether or not the ions of a salt in solution are combined with the solvent. The method used was the electrolysis of a salt dis- solved in a mixture of two solvents, with the subsequent analysis of the portions of the solution around the two electrodes. If the ions are combined with either of the solvents, this solvent will be carried from one electrode to the other, and changes in the proportions of the two solvents are to be expected. Positive results were obtained with silver nitrate dissolved in a mixture of pyridine and water, indicating that pyridine was combined with silver ions. With the same salt in a mixture of alcohol and water, only negative results have so far been obtained. Other salts are being investigated. The experiments of Professors Davis and Edwards relate to the chemical combination of hydrogen and oxygen under the action of radium rays. The gases were enclosed in a vessel in such a way that a small change of pressure could be observed. About four milligrams of radium bromide were dis- solved in alcohol and deposited on the surface of a small sheet of platinum which was placed in the vessel. By means of electrodes the amount of ionization produced in the gas by the radium was measured. While the rate of forma- tion of water was quite slow; yet the number of molecules of water formed for each physical ion produced, was very large. The experiments are being continued by Professor Edwards. C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Secretary. SECTION” OF "BIOLOGY: DECEMBER 12, 1904. Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Underwood pre- siding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and approved, The following program was then offered : Henry F. Osborn, Recent Discoveries oF Extinct ANI- 308 RECORDS. MALS IN THE Rocky MOUNTAINS AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PRESENT PROBLEMS OF EVOLUTION. F. B. Sumner, EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ADAPTATION AND SELECTIVE ELIMINATION IN FISHES. | SUMMARY OF PAPERS. Professor Osborn exhibited the newly prepared skulls of Dzp- lodocus, Morosaurus and Creosaurus from the Bone Cabin Quarry, Wyoming. The skull of MWorosaurus is new to science, and is of a short-skulled type with a very prominent and convex fore- head. Like Dzplodocus it exhibits a large pineal foramen. Under the title “‘ Recent Discoveries of Extinct Animals in the Rocky Mountain Region and their Bearings on the Present: Problems of Evolution,’ Professor Osborn exhibited a series of skulls of the Eocene ancestors of the Oligocene Titanotheres, stating asa result of recent investigation that the Oligocene Titanotheres were found to represent four distinct lines of descent, in each of which horns independently developed, and that the Eocene Titanotheres also represented four distinct lines of descent, two of which became extinct, namely, the extremely short-skulled Pa/l@osyops, and the extremely long-skulled Dol- chorhinus, while the intermediate forms 7e/matotherium and Man- teoceras gave rise to the Oligocene forms 7ztanotherium and Mega- cerops respectively. As bearing upon the general problem of evolution, it was pointed out that the paleontologist enjoys the peculiar advantage of following a series through the origin and development of organs to their subseqent progression or decline. As early as 1888 the speaker had taken the ground that various palzontological series demonstrate the definite or determinate variations of certain kinds. In 1892 he connected with this the idea that certain series of animals related by descent from a common stem form exhibit the potential of similar evolu- tion, describing this as a law of latent or potential homology. It is now found in this series of Titanotheres that there is more than a potential of similar evolution ; there is evidence of a pre- disposition to similar evolution as shown in the wholly independent development in two distinct series of horns from hornless types RECORDS. 3dd9 at exactly similar points on the skull, namely, at the lateral junction of the frontals with the nasals. The communication had been in part presented before the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and before the Zoo- logical Congress at Berne. Dr. Sumner described his experiments that were undertaken in order (1) to determine the relative sensitiveness to asphyxiation of the three commoner species of Funudulus ; (2) to determine the relative ability of these and some other fishes to survive trans- fer to fresh water ; (3) to determine the minimum salinity which certain salt-water fishes could withstand; (4) to determine the effect upon these fishes of gradual and of abrupt changes in the density of the water. The results of extended biometric studies were set forth, from which (1) it was shown that when a given species was subjected to destructive conditions, and the mean characters of the more and the less resisting individuals were compared, differences were evident both in respect to type and to variability ; (2) that when different methods of elimination were employed with the same species, selection had reference to different characters ; (3) in the only case in which this question was tested, that the selective elimination of two closely related species, under the same conditions, appeared to have reference to the same char- acters ; (4) that specimens of /. heteroclitus inhabiting brackish water of low salinity differed in all of the measured characters from those living in pure salt water. (5) It was shown, never- theless, by comparison with the more and the less fit individuals of those experiments where fresh water was employed as the eliminative agent, that the fishes inhabiting brackish water could not have owed their modification to the natural selection of those individuals better adapted to a life in water of a lower density. (6) It was shown by comparing the mean characters of the three species of /uzdulus and by taking into account their rela- tive fitness to withstand certain conditions, that these differences of type could not have been due to natural selection acting with reference to these particular conditions. Dr. Hornaday, director of the New York Zoological Park, and ~ 360 RECORDS. Dr. Townsend, director of the New York Aquarium, called attention to some of the animals recently added to the collec- tions in their charge. Maurice A. BIGELow, Secretary. ANNUAL MEETING. DECEMBER 19, 1904. The annual meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences was held on December Ig, at the Hotel Endicott, at 7:30 P. M. Professor Edmund B. Wilson presided. A formal session was first held, for the transaction of the regular business of the Academy, and this was followed by a dinner at which sixty-six members and their friends were present. The appended reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Record- ing Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Editor were presented, and by vote placed on file. The report of the Treasurer was formally referred to the Finance Committee for audit. The Academy then proceeded to elect officers for the year 1905, tellers being appointed, official ballots prepared by the Council according to the provisions of the by-laws, being dis- tributed, and the votes counted. The following officers were declared elected: President — James F. Kemp. Vice-Presidents: Section of Geology and Mineralogy, Edmund O. ‘Hovey, Section of Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, Ernest R. von Nardroff. Section of Biology, W. M. Wheeler. Section of Anthropology and Psychology, F. J. E. Wood-. bridge. Corresponding Secretary — Richard E. Dodge. Recording Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus. Treasurer — Charles F. Cox. Librarian — Ralph W. Tower. Editor — Chas. Lane Poor. Councilors (to serve three years)— Emerson McMillin, F. H. Wiggin. RECORDS. 361 Finance Committee—John H. Hinton, C. A. Post, Henry F. Osborn. Proceeding to the election of Honorary Members, the follow- ing eminent men of science were formally presented, each by a Fellow of the Academy engaged in scientific work of the same nature as that of the nominee, and were duly elected: Hugo de Vries, presented by N. L. Britton. G. Johnstone-Stoney, presented by R. E. Dodge. W. C. Brogger, presented by J. F. Kemp. Karl von der Steinen, presented by Franz Boas. Ferdinand Zirkel, presented by J. J. Stevenson. Dr. Frederick A. Lucas was elected a Fellow of the Academy, being presented by the Recording Secretary. Professor Cattell then proposed the health of Professor R. S. Woodward, a past-president of the Academy, recently elected to the presidency of the Carnegie Institution. The President, Professor Edmund B. Wilson, then delivered his address upon ‘‘ The Problem of Development,” at the close of which a vote of thanks, proposed by Professor H. F. Osborn, and seconded by Professor J. J. Stevenson, was tendered to him. The Academy then adjourned. Henry E. CRAMPTON, Recording Secretary. REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY. DECEMBER IQ, 1904. The Corresponding Secretary makes the following report as to the status of the Honorary and Corresponding Members. A. little over a year ago letters were sent to all the Hon- orary and Corresponding Members on the lists of the Academy. As a result from the returns of these letters the lists have been greatly improved in accuracy and completeness. At present there are forty-five honorary members. One hon- orary member, Professor Von Zittel, has died since the last annual meeting. The list of Corresponding Members numbers one hundred 362 RECORDS. and eighty-three, of whom one hundred and forty-four have answered the communication sent a year ago. There are, therefore, thirty-nine who have not been heard from. Another letter of inquiry will be sent out in the spring and a failure on the part of these thirty-nine to answer this second communica- tion will be considered sufficient reason for the dropping of the name, unless the person is known to be alive. Very respectfully, RicHAarD E. DoncE, Corresponding Secretary. RFPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRET ae During the year 1904 the Academy met in business session on eight occasions, and the several sections held thirty meetings, at which seventy-six stated papers and lectures were presented upon the following subjects : Astronomy 2 papers,.1, lecture, Physics Tike Chemistry 1g pi Botany Sy tae Paleontology x2 tae Zoology Gas Geology Oey Mineralogy Prise Physiography 2'- > ailectunes. Anthropology and Archeology Sauyue Psychology ee bO gut Philosophy iyi es E leckine: Biography Ls eee Particular mention must be made of the lecture upon the Physiography of the Alps by Professor Albrecht Penck, an Honorary Member of the Academy. At present there are 278 Active Members, of whom 132 are Fellows ; the election of one Fellow is pending. During the year two members have died, six have resigned, while six have RECORDS. 363 been dropped on account of non-payment of dues. As five new members have been elected during the same period, there has been a net loss of nine. In accordance with a recommendation offered by the Library Committee, a more permanent union of the libraries of the Academy and the American Museum of Natural History has been effected, to their mutual advantage. In regard to publi- cations, it may be stated that the former method according to which papers presented before the Academy could be published in journals other than the Annals with the financial support of the Academy has been set aside. Inthe future, under an earlier method of publication, a volume of the Annals, to consist of three or four parts, will be issued during a calendar year. Particular attention is now being given by the Council to the matter of membership, and efforts are to be directed in the near future towards increasing the list of Active Members. As stated above there has been a loss of nine during the year, although the members that resigned exceed the new members by one only. Maintenance, however, is not progressive development unless in the face of adverse conditions. ‘The situation that confronts us is in some respects a difficult one, though not peculiar to the Academy. The special societies, each dealing with some restricted branch of science, will tend more and more in the future as they have in the past to draw away active workers from general bodies such as the Academy. Support for the Academy may therefore be sought with a fairer prospect of success from those upon whom demands are not made by professional duties that their activities shall be centered in the special organizations for scientific work. With such support, publication as one of our two main objects may be furthered. Efforts should none the less be made to draw into the Academy the younger men in active work who must carry forward the activities of scientific nature in the future, thus subserving the second purpose of the Society. One other subject of general interest must be mentioned. The Council has decided that the routine work connected with the several offices of the Academy shall be performed by a 364 RECORDS. clerical assistant, with an office at the American Museum of Natural History, who shall be under the general supervision of the Recording Secretary. This arrangement provides for a still further centralization of the activities of the Academy in the Museum, where the Library is already housed, and where the scientific meetings are now being held. Henry E. CRAMPTON, Recording Secretary. REPORT OF “THE TREASURE New York, DECEMBER 17, 1904. To THE New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Gentlemen: As required by the by-laws, I herewith sub- mit a statement of my receipts and disbursements since my last annual report, and a balance sheet from my ledger, as of this date. Respectfully yours, CG. Coxe Treasurer. RECEIPTS. Balance as per last- Annual Reports... joss ncs ore $5,364.62 Bequest of Dr. H. Carrington Bolton for Publication Pun 20 Se ea hey sea ae ee 1,000.00 One year’s interest at 414 per cent. on St. Ann’s Ave. Mortgage, 6121600, 9:05 .cphis ee 540.00 Interest: on- Deposits in, Banke. ...20:93o ee ee 172.0% Initiation IPeeseeui0 0, swe kts ey eee ee 30.00 Annual: wes 1@@ ic to ayi au. ee ee $30.00 ‘ LQO2 Sis we aod eee ee 60 00 2 TOO 3 nue denies eae eee 120.00 ‘ 1OG4 std Ne iseeaeeeecusns 1,750.00 - MQ 5 ee airs eee eae 10,00- 1,979:09 Keceipts from Annual Diner sioe3s ae eee 102.00 $9,179.29 ——. RECORDS. 365 DISBURSEMENTS. Invested in Bond and Mortgage at 5 per ems. on 200 Bast 135th Sti. joes. c- $5,200.00 Seer uUblications.. 2... 6. ws $949.18 URS Oe wie es eyes ee wo 87.94 861.24 Expenses of Recording Secretary...... 286.57 i orrespongditie. © tara. 28.00 a3 PTCASUICR oS ies eh a 8 65.96 op pi i a ee a oie a IQI.OI 2 FEN SECTS CoS ese a de ra 79.00 Assessments of Scientific Alliance ..... IOI.07 Meee: Annual Dinner, 1903......... 100/20" °O,61 3.05 Beeman a os. Se. fis eae 8 ace os $2,266.24 Meeunacy Keceipts ......... $2,812.67 : Bpenses oo s.2h 2)! x 1,612.85 Shine i cal ara 1,199.82 SS Ss oe . $2,266.24 5 2a eee 1,076.07 Accumulated Income..... $3,342.31 BALANCE SHEET. DR; Investments : St. Ann’s Ave. Mortgage, $12,000 at 4% percent. $12,000.00 135th St. Mortgage, $5,200 at 5 per cent..... 5,200.00 0 EO Sete en nee ae a ere oe 130.00 OE, SE ee Sees a oT ee 2,266.24 $19,590.24 Ci. ES DY STs ARs a eae $11,226.68 A 0S GS a ee 3,000.00 1 Sait ag TE Ss Sips it i a at Nl ee 1,897.25 Og SSR Tce I 183.49 SSE RUNG oe e2 oh as eS ee as os 218.77 SEE eANC AG PUT ne ae hs ses as tg ie RS ae a NIN oS ea kw bie Kg bce Kode ok nes 1,938.74 $19,590.24 New York, December 17, 1904. 366 RECORDS. REPORT OF “GEES GIBRARTAN. To THE NEw YorkK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: The status of the Library has changed but little during the last year. The new accessions have been 354 volumes and pamphlets and 2,283 numbers. A detailed and accurate account has been kept of all accessions so that a revision of the exchange list can be undertaken in the near future. Of special interest is the gift from Professor Gustav Retzius of an entire set of his publications. The library is catalogued and open to the public on week days from 9:30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Respectfully submitted, R. W. Tower, Librarian. REPORT -OFr/se EDGR: During the year 1904 the Academy printed and issued the following publications : Annals. — Vol. XIV, Part IV, containing a paper by George I. Finlay entitled, “The Geology of the San Jose) Dictues Tamaulipas, Mexico.’ This was issued in March and consisted of 71 pages, ten plates and one double page map. Vol. XV, Part II, containing the records of the meetings of the New York Academy of Sciences, January 1903 to December 1903, by Henry E. Crampton, Recording Secretary. This was issued in May and consisted of 62 pages. Vol. XV, Part III, containing a paper by Charles Lane Poor entitled, ‘“‘ Researches as to the Identity of the Periodic Comet of 1889-1896-1903 (Brooks) with the Periodic Comet of 1770 (Leéxell);* “This was: issued in December and consisted of 82 pages and two plates. These papers were mailed to every active member of the | Academy. Besides the above named papers the Academy assisted in the publication of a paper by Franz Boaz and a paper by Wm. Jones. These papers appeared in the publications of the American Anthropological Association. Vol: XVI, Parts I and TY, of the: Annals-and V ol-alie tare RECORDS. 367 III, of the Memoirs are in press and will be issued soon after the beginning of the year. Respectively submitted, CHARLES LANE Poor, Lditor. a ANNUAL, ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. Edmund B. Wilson, THE ProspLem oF DEVELOPMENT.’ The selection of such a subject as the problem of develop- ment for a general address to this Academy as a whole suggests a word of explanation. Within the privacy of our sectional meetings we are permitted to dig and delve as much as we please among the dry bones of specialization ; but on this occa- sion a righteous tradition imposes upon the president the duty of laying aside his special tools in order to address the whole scientific body over which he has for a time had the honor to preside. In offering a brief general discussion of some latter day problems of embryology and cytology I shall endeavor not to violate the spirit of this tradition. The task is not an easy one, owing to the complexity of the data and their strangeness to those who have not closely followed the details of modern biological work ; yet I am encouraged to make the attempt by the belief that the problem of development belongs to those 1 The critical reader will, I hope, be willing to bear in mind the condition under which this address was delivered. My endeavor was to convey to a scientific body, composed only in part of biologists, some individual impressions of a student of em- bryology and cytology regarding the general bearings of recent researches in his special field. It was not consistent with this purpose to give a critical résumé for biologists, nor could authorities be cited in detail. The general conception here developed will recall certain views contained in Driasch’s ‘‘ Analytische Theorie der organischen Entwicklung,’’ published in 1894 (themselves traceable to earlier conclusions of de Vries), but afterwards rejected by him in favor of an explicit theory of vitalism. The rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance, the newly produced evidence, on the one hand, of morphological and physiological diversity among the chromosomes ; on the other, of protoplasmic prelocalization in the egg, have, how- ever, placed the whole problem ina new light. I wish to acknowledge my indebt- edness to Professor Whitman’s fine essays on the questions that center in Bonnet’s doctrines, published in the ‘* Wood’s Hole Biological Lectures,’’ for 1893, which suggested the quotation from Huxley. 368 RECORDS. larger scientific questions that are of enduring interest to all students of nature. It is only fair to point out, however, that a consideration of recent advances in this subject necessarily and speedily leads us into a region that lies remote from everyday experience, surrounded by arid wastes of technical detail, and inhabited by folk who speak an uncouth foreign tongue. With the best of intentions, therefore, the native guide and interpreter has need of some forbearance on the part both of his country- men and of the outlanders whom he attempts to lead. I need not dwell on the absorbing, almost tantalizing, interest with which the problem of development has held the attention of naturalists from the earliest times. Twenty centuries and more have passed since Aristotle first endeavored to trace some- thing like a rough outline of its solution. The enormous ad- vances of our knowledge during this long period have taken away nothing of the interest or freshness of the problem ; they have left it, indeed, hardly less mysterious than when the father of science wrote the first treatise on generation. I will not dwell on the epoch-making work of Harvey, Wolff and von Baer, or the curious, almost grotesque controversies of the eighteenth century, when embryology invaded the field of phi- losophy and even of theology. I will only point out that even at that time, when embryology was almost wholly limited to the study of the hen’s egg, embryologists were already occupied with two fundamental questions, which still remain in their essence without adequate answer, and though metamorphosed by the refinements of more modern observation and experiment still stand in the foreground of scientific discussion. ‘The first of these is the question of preformation versus epigenesis — whether the embryo exists preformed or predelineated in the egg from the beginning, or whether it is formed anew, step by step, in each generation. The second question is that of mechanism versus vitalism — whether, development is capable of a mechanical or physio-chemical explanation, or whether it involves specific vital factors that are without analogy in the non-living world. It is especially to some modern aspects of these two questions that I invite your attention; and I shall a — ee a) RECORDS. 369 also consider briefly their relation to recent conclusions affect- ing our theories of heredity and evolution. Let us first seek to define more clearly the meaning of our terms. The embryologists of the pre-Darwinian period, unham- pered by historical conundrums, fixed their attention on the single objective problem of the nature of the germ and its mode of development. The hen’s egg contains something which, though not visibly a bird or even an embryo, will when main- tained ata temperature of about 37° C. for 21 days, cause a liv- ing chick to step forth from the shell. What is that something and what manner of machinery (if machinery it be) is set in motion to work such a marvel? The early embryologists found no real answer to this question. They determined the fact that at the beginning the egg contains nothing even remotely resem- bling a bird ; that as early as the second day a rudely fashioned embryo is visible in the egg: and that day by day, as the incu- bation proceeds, this embryo becomes more complex. The bird appears to be progressively created out of something that is without form, and void of visible structure. Its development, said Harvey and Wolff, is essentially a process of “ epigenesis ’’— a successive formation and addition of new parts not previously existent as such in the egg. This conclusion, roughly outlined by Aristotle, was apparently established on an irrefragable basis of observation, long afterwards, by Harvey and Wolff. In its superficial aspects the doctrine of epigenesis is no more than a statement of universally admitted fact. When followed to its logical end, however, this conception has failed, and will always continue to fail, to satisfy the mind; and some of the most acute of modern embryologists have expressed the opinion that no thoroughgoing hypothesis of epigenesis can be so framed as to be logical, or even conceivable. Even in the eighteenth century this doctrine was met by the opposing one of preformation and evolution. Advocated by such men as Malpighi, Haller and Leibnitz, this conception underwent its fullest development in the hands of the eminent Swiss naturalist Bonnet. Developed with great logical acuteness and set forth with captivating liter- ary skill, Bonnet’s theory was based on the fundamental assump- 310 RECORDS. tion that the embryo, though invisible, really exists preformed in the egg before development begins. The preformed germ was not conceived to be an exact miniature model of the adult. On the contrary, Bonnet thought of the germ of the fowl, for example, as differing widely in form and proportions from an actual bird, still the original preformation was assumed to be composed of parts that correspond, each for each, to the parts of the chick. Development, accordingly, was conceived to be only the unfolding and transformation of a preexisting structure, not the successive formation of new parts —a process of ‘“‘evo- lution,’”’ not of epigenesis. In this particular form the doctrine of preformation was conclusively overthrown by Wolff; but the principle underlying it has repeatedly and persistently reap- peared in later speculations on development, and still contests the field of discussion with its early antagonist. Hand in hand with this controversy has gone one of still more general scope between the two opposing conceptions that I have referred to as mechanism and vitalism. Is development at bottom a mechanical process? Is the egg a kind of complex machine, wound up like a piece of clockwork, and does develop- ment go forward like the action of an automaton, an inevitable consequence of its mode of construction? Or, on the other hand, does development involve the operation of specific vital entelechies or powers that are without analogue in the automaton and are not inherent in any primary material configuration of the egg? This question, I hardly need say, is included in the larger one, whether the vital processes as a whole are or are not capable of mechanical explanation. As a problem of embry- ology it is very closely connected with that of preformation or epigenesis, and in point of fact the two have always been closely associated. Evidently, by its very form of statement, any theory of preformation or prelocalization in the germ assumes at least a mechanical basis for development, z. ¢., a primary material configuration upon which the form of development in some measure depends. With theories of epigenesis the case is not so clear; for such theories may or may not be mechanical. Without further preamble I now ask your attention to certain RECORDS. 37 | facts which will place clearly before us the form in which these time-honored problems appear to us to-day. It is a familiar fact that development begins with the progres- sive segmentation or division of the egg into cells, which, con- tinually increasing in number, finally build up the body of the embryo. Until comparatively recently it was not suspected that the cells thus formed in the earliest stages had any constant and definite relation to the parts of the future body. The fact has now been established, however, that in a large number of forms (though apparently not in all) such a definite relation exists, both the form of division and the prospective values of the cells being constant. In the egg of the ascidian, for instance, the first cleavage-furrow passes pretty accurately through the future median plane of the body, and the two cells thus formed give rise respectively to the right and left sides of the embryo. Ina snail’s egg the relation is a different one, but is no less definite and constant ; in the four-cell stage, for instance, the material that will produce the shell and foot is located, mainly at least, in one of the four cells. Again, in a worm’s egg, after its seg- mentation into sixteen or more cells, we know very exactly how the materials for the head, the segmented trunk-region, the digestive tract, the muscles and the ganglia, are distributed among these cells. In all such cases the embryo seems com- parable to a piece of mosaic-work, each cell apparently having its own inherent particular character, and its own specific role to play. These facts place very conspicuously before us a modern form of the problem of preformation which we may conveniently call the problem of “germinal frelocalization.’ Does this mosaic- like character of the early embryo mean that the cells are inherently different? Are they in any degree individually pre- destined for their future development ; and if such be the case, can this predestination be traced back to protoplasmic regions in the egg before it has divided into cells? In other words, does the egg, or does it not, contain prelocalized, predetermined areas that have any necessary or causal relation to the parts of the future embryo? This is the first guise in which the old aie RECORDS. question of preformation presents itself to us to-day. I ask you to glance at the results of a few very simple experiments designed to test this question. They will give apparently quite contradictory results. Experiments on the eggs of certain animals, such as cteno- phores or mollusks, seem to give an unequivocal answer to our questions. If, for example, the cells of the segmenting egg of the mollusk Dentalium or Patella be separated from one another, at the two-cell stage or any later period, they continue to develop and produce living, actively swimming structures ; but these creatures are not completely formed whole embryos, but monsters that in many respects resemble pieces of a single embryo (Fig. 1, A). It is true that the wounds usually close and heal; but these structures, nevertheless, remain monstrous and defective, and if they are carefully studied it is found that only when taken collectively can they be said to constitute a single whole embryo. The cells are thus proved to be in some measure inherently different, and to this extent the cell-mosaic is shown to be a real mosaic. If we now extend our operation to the undivided egg, a result in harmony with this is reached. If certain portions of the egg of Dentalium be artificially cut off, the remaining portion, upon fertilization, regularly gives rise toa defective and monstrous creature that is not a whole embryo, but resembles a piece or fragment of an embryo. It is evident that this experiment seems to show pretty clearly that even before the egg has begun to divide into cells the parts of the future embryo are in some measure definitely prelocalized and predetermined in its different protoplasmic regions; and evi- dently, if this be the case, we seem further to have good ground for the mechanistic assumption that the undivided egg contains some kind of structural or material configuration upon which the character of the development depends. But let us not on this account too hastily accept a theory of preformation or prelocalization. Let us first look at the results of an exactly similar experiment performed on the egg of cer- tain other species of animals, for example, Amphiorus, a sea- urchin, or a nemertine worm. Separate here the first two or _ =—- 7 RECORDS. 373 Fic. 1. — Development of entire eggs and of isolated blastomeres of two-cell stage. A, Dentalium; at the left, development of the whole egg ; at the right, development of the isolated first two cells, producing two defective larve. JB, Amphioxus ; dwarfs. the corresponding experiment, isolated cells producing two perfect 374 RECORDS: four cells, and each develops, not into an abortive monster, but into a perfectly formed though dwarf larva (Fig. 1, £). Thus it is possible to produce from a single egg from one to four per- fect animals ; and in case of certain species (hydromedusz) it is theoretically possible by a similar method to produce from a single egg as many as eight or even sixteen perfect dwarfs. Again, in some of these cases, for instance in the nemertine, the undivided egg may be cut to pieces in any planes taken at random ; yet every piece, if of sufficient size, may upon fertili- zation develop as if it were a whole egg and produce a perfect dwarf. Here is an astounding contrast to the results of our first experiment. What becomes of our theories of prelocalization here, and what becomes of our mechanical theory of develop- ment, if we hold such a theory? Neither the cells nor the regions of the egg seem to have any predestination such as is shown in the molluscan egg. It is the essence of a machine or automaton that its operation is due to its structural configura- tion. Impair or destroy that configuration and the action ceases. But from these eggs we may take away any of the parts, or the whole may be cut to pieces, yet there is no impair- ment of action, but only a readjustment to form smaller sys- tems like the original whole. The egg, therefore, says the vitalist, can not be an automaton and its development is inex- plicable upon a mechanical theory. Such is the paradoxical result to which a superficial compar- ison of these two cases leads us — a kind of embryological anti- nomy, as it were, which at first sight may seem to take away all hope of finding law or order in these phenomena. I will undertake to show you speedily that the apparent contradiction is easily explicable. I have placed the two cases side by side because each seems .to demonstrate the truth of one side of an ancient embryological controversy ; and we shall presently find reason for the conclusion that each of the opponents, like the two knights and the shield, have recognized but a part of the truth. The probable explanation of the difference of the behavior between the eggs of Dentalum and of Amphioxus is a very simple one. When we closely study eggs of this type we find RECORDS. 379 ye Fic. 2.— Diagram of protoplasmic zones and their distribution at the first cleavage in different forms. 4, immature egg, assumed to have no definite segrega- tion of protoplasmic stuffs. 4, mature egg, with protoplasmic zones of horizontal stratification. C, first cleavage, division of the chromosomes. JL, £, /, different types of two-cell stage. 0, Dentalium type, the lower zone isolated in one cell. £, Amphioxus, nemertine, or echinoderm type ; equal division of the zones. /, hypothetical type with complete separation of two zones at the first cleavage. 376 RECORDS, that they do not consist of homogeneous protoplasm, but of different kinds of protoplasmic materials or stuffs that are at the outset arranged, roughly speaking, in horizontal bands or strata, as indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2, 4), where the number of strata is arbitrarily assumed to be four. Now, an examination of the manner in which the egg divides gives strong reason for the conclusion that in such forms as Amp/ioaus the first division bisects these stuffs, so that each of the first two cells receives one half of each stratum (Fig. 2, C, £). In the egg of Den- talium, on the other hand, this is demonstrably not the case, for the lower stratum passes over bodily into one of the cells and is quite excluded from the other (Fig. 2, )). The symmetrical division in Amphioxrus, the sea-urchin, or the nemertine, gives the immediate possibility of producing two smaller systems simi- lar to each other and to the whole egg. The symmetrical or qualitative division in Dentalium, on the other hand, does not give such an immediate possibility, for it produces two different systems neither of which is identical with that of the entire egg. It is highly probable that we find here a proximate explanation of the fact that each of the two cellsin Amphioxrus may produce a perfect dwarf, while in Dentalium neither produces such a larva. Facts like these are leading us to the conclusion that the imme- diate determining causes of development are to be sought in specific protoplasmic stuffs, or organ-forming materials, that are distributed to the cells in a definite way during division. These materials, definitely arranged, are sometimes plainly visible in the undivided egg. I have, for instance, been able to show that the egg of Denfahum contains an area of protoplasm at the lower pole that has a causal connection with the formation of the foot and shell, and probably also of the principal part of the meso- blast structures ; for if this area be cut off from the unsegmented egg the resulting embryo regularly lacks these structures. In like manner, Professor Conklin has recently been able to recog- nize in the protoplasm of the unsegmented egg of a species of ascidian the material of the future tail-muscles of the larva ; and though no necessary connection between this material and the muscles has thus far been experimentally proved, my experi- RECORDS. 377 ments on Deztalium leave by analogy little doubt that such a causal connection exists. We do not in the least know how these protoplasmic stuffs or materials act. We can hardly imagine how it is that one kind of stuff involves the develop- ment of muscles, others that of nerves, ciliated cells, or shell- secreting cells. We may guess that these stuffs may be anal- ogous to the so-called internal secretions, formed in the adult organism by such organs as the thyroid or the sexual glands, which are known to produce quite specific morphological effects on the body. A second guess is that the formative stuffs may be related to the soluble ferments or enzymes, which in other ways play so great a role in the economy of plants and animals. But, aside from this question, the evidence is steadily increas- ing, I think, that such stuffs exist, that they have a definite ar- rangement in the egg, and that in cases where the form of cleavage is constant they are distributed in a definite way to the cells into which the egg splits up. The cleavage-mosaic is accordingly to be conceived as an actual mosaic of different materials that are somehow causally connected with develop- ment of particular parts. When these materials are equally distributed by the earlier divisions, as in Amphioxus, each of the resulting cells may upon isolation produce a perfect larva ; when they are unequally distributed, as in Denxtalium, the cells are no longer equivalent, and upon being isolated produce the structures corresponding to the particular stuffs allotted to them.! These facts will presently bring us to our first general conclu- sion. First, if the protoplasm contain such stuffs, grouped and distributed in a definite way, to just this extent may develop- ment receive a mechanical interpretation — that is, be conceived as the result of an antecedent material configuration in the egg- protoplasm. We have as yet no very distinct idea regarding the degree of complexity of this initial protoplasmic configura- tion, though there are facts that indicate that it may not be very 1 It will appear in the sequel that even in the latter case the potentiality of pro- ducing a complete embryo may still be present in the nucleus, It is important to distinguish between such primary or original nuclear potentiality, which may be common to all the cells, and the secondary or immediate potentiality determined by protoplasmic specification, The relation between these is still an unsolved problem. 378 RECORDS: great, 7. ¢., that the prelocalization is of a somewhat general character. This question appears, however, to be of relatively minor importance in view of an additional conclusion given by detailed studies on the formation, maturation and early develop- ment of the egg. These studies leave no doubt that the srouping of materials observed at the time the egg begins its process of division is not, in some cases at least, a primary or original one, but is of secondary origin. They indicate further that early in the development the egg contains only a few of these specific stuffs, at the very beginning possibly none, and that as development goes forward new stuffs are progressively formed and distributed. Now, if this conclusion is well founded, the actual progressive development of the protoplasm must be conceived asa process of efigenesis, not of preformation and evolution. This is the first general result that I desire to emphasize ; and it is in harmony with the fact, on which all embryologists have been agreed, since the time of Wolff, that in its obvious features development is by the formation and addition of new parts not previously existent as such in the egg. The embryo is not actually preformed or even predelineated in the protoplasm from the beginning. The protoplasmic stuffs appear to be only the immediate means or efficient causes of differentia- tion; and we have still to seek its primary determination in causes that lie more deeply. We are thus led toa brief con- sideration of the question of the physical basis of heredity, which will direct our attention to an element that has hitherto been disregarded, namely, the nucleus, and bring us to a second general result. It was long since suggested by Nageli that there is a particu- lar substance or ‘‘idioplasm”’ peculiar to each species of plant or animal that is transmitted in the germ-cells and has the power to determine the development of the egg according to its nature. Later research has given very strong reason to accept this view in principle, and for the further conclusion that this physical basis is represented by a substance contained within the nucleus and known to cytologists as “chromatin.” Passing over the cogent, and I believe steadily accumulating, evidence on which RECORDS. 379 this conclusion rests, let us ask how the idioplasm is to be con- ceived. Some of those who have accepted the general concep- tion of the idioplasm have endeavored -to think of it as a very complex but still single and homogeneous substance — the frog’s egg, for example, might be conceived as containing a frog-determining substance, the human germ a man-determining substance, and so on. The most recent researches are, how- ever, continually strengthening the ground for a quite different conception, indicating that the chromatin does not operate as a simple substance, but is built into a complex fabric having a definite architecture. We are not here concerned with the par- ticular form of this conception developed by Weismann in his well-known work on the Germ-plasm, and elsewhere. I am referring to more recent results of observation and experiment which are giving new and more concrete evidence that the nucleus possesses a complex organization, and apparently one that must be conceived as a kind of primary or original prefor- mation, which bears a certain analogy to that assumed by Bon- net, though quite distinct from it. We may perhaps most readily approach the grounds for this conclusion by considering, first, an example of the indirect evi- dence drawn from recent experiments on inheritance. I givea single example, typical of a large number of known cases, of the heredity of single or unit characters in the so-called Mendelian inheritance. If pure gray mice be crossed with pure white albino forms, the hybrid offspring are all gray without visible trace of white. But if these gray hybrids be now paired with each other, both parents being gray, approximately 25 per cent. of their progeny are pure white without a trace of gray, and they continue to produce pure white offspring thereafter. Many similar cases are known, the same proportion of approximately 25 per cent. of the “ recessive’’ character in the third generation holding true, sometimes with great precision. What does this prove? First, that the white character is not really absent in the gray hybrids but only masked or concealed — “ recessive,” in Mendel’s terminology ; secondly, that the latent white char- acter may in the following generation be completely disentangled 380 RECORDS. or extracted from the gray; thirdly, since the proportion is definite, that the extraction takes place by means of some defin- ite mechanism. We are at present, I think, unable to imagine an explanation of these truly astonishing facts save by the assumption that the gray and white characters are borne in the egg by corresponding discrete bodies or entities of some kind, that may be mixed and unmixed without fusion, shuffled and unshuffled like cards ina pack. The evidence is so far wholly indirect, though I think none the less cogent. But now, bearing in mind that the case of the gray and white mice is but a single example of a widespread phenomenon, let us ask whether we can actually find any definite structures in the egg, and particu- larly in the nucleus, that may be assumed to represent such entities. One of the most significant and remarkable discoveries of modern biology is the fact that such entities exist, though it is important not to forget that their significance in heredity is as yet only an assumption, not a completely demonstrated fact. These entities are bodies known as ‘“‘ chromosomes,”’ and are represented in the diagrams by the rods in the nuclei.’ I can not within the limits of this address attempt to do more than touch on a few of the discoveries of recent years regarding the chromosomes, though I think they may fairly be claimed to constitute one of the most brilliant chapters in the whole history of biology. The number of the chromosomes is constant in each species and, only with a few exceptions of such a kind as to emphasize the rule, the number in sexually produced organ- isms is always an even one. It has been proved that during the fertilization of the egg one half of the chromosomes are derived from the father and one half from the mother (Fig. 3, 4), and the still more suggestive fact has been established — with probability through the study of normal development, with almost complete demonstration through the study of hybrids — that at every division of the egg the chromosomes also divide (Figs. 2, C, 3, 6, C,) in such a manner that their progeny are 1In point of fact the chromosomes are, as a rule, only distinctly visible at the period of cell-division. In the diagram they are represented quite schematically, as if visible in the resting nuclei. RECORDS. 381 distributed in equal number, step by step, to all the cells of the body. The remarkable conclusion is thus reached that the fertilized egg, and all the cells derived from it, contain a double set of chromosomes, paternal and maternal (Fig. 3, Y). The no less interesting result has been experimentally reached that either set —paternal or maternal—is sufficient for complete development (at least as far as the larval stages); for the egg may be caused to develop without the paternal chromosomes, while conversely the paternal chromosomes alone will suffice for the development of an egg from which the maternal nucleus has been removed. Here for the first time we catch a glimpse of the probable physical explanation of the phenomena of domi- nance and recession that have of late so greatly aroused the interest of experimenters on inheritance ; but above all, here is found our first definite basis of observation for the assumption that the nuclear organization is not merely a chemical or molec- ular one, but represents beyond this some kind of definite ma- terial configuration of the nuclear substance. The time will not allow me to do more than touch on the very recent work that has confirmed and extended this conclu- sion. It has been found, first, that in some species the chromo- somes show constant differences of shape and size, which points towards the conclusion that they may possess specific individual characters. But beyond this indirect evidence, and quite inde- pendently of it, Boveri has shown by direct experiments of great ingenuity and beauty that qualitative physiological differences among the chromosomes actually exist: for complete develop- ment is only possible in the presence of a particular combination of chromosomes. Hence the conclusion becomes probable that there is a definite causal relation of some kind between the indi- vidual chromosomes and the development of corresponding characters or groups of characters ; or, in other words, that the hereditary characters are in some manner distributed among the chromosomes which form their physical basis in the egg. We do not yet know in precisely what form this conclusion should be formulated. We do not know, for instance, whether a single unit-character, such as color, is determined by a single chromo- 382 RECORDS. —— |) | | | at Ye ss SS Vin i. : Fic. 3.— Relations of the chromosomes ; formation and distribution of protoplas- mic stuffs in later stages. 4, union of the germ nuclei (each assumed to have four chromosomes). 2, C, division of the chromosomes, with equal distribution of the paternal (g) and maternal (9) products. , scheme of nucleus at any later stage, with four paternal and four maternal chromosomes (corresponding or homol- ogous chromosomes connected by dotted lines). £, actual outline (after Mead) of egg of Amphitrite consisting of upwards of 64 cells (nuclei schematized). Ento- blast-cells unshaded, primary mesoblast cross-hatched, trochoblasts (ciliated g¢ells) dotted, cells of ventral plate (ventral nervous system, etc.) black; the other cells belong to the ectoblast. RECORDS. 383 some, or by a combination of chromosomes, or whether this may vary in different cases. In this direction we have taken but the first uncertain steps towards a new horizon of discovery. But the point I wish to emphasize is that if we admit such a dis- tribution of characters among the chromosomes in any measure and in any form, to just this extent have we admitted the prin- ciple of preformation as applied to the nuclear substance or idio- plasm. To this extent do we admit, for example, that the physical basis of inheritance in a frog’s egg is not simply a frog-determining swdstance, but is, in close analogy with Bonnet’s conception, a kind of original preformation or microcosm, in which the individual frog-characters are in some unknown manner represented by corresponding chromosome-characters. We can hardly imagine at present how this is possible ; and it must be freely admitted that such a conclusion has an appearance of artificiality and crudeness that almost inevitably creates a certain feeling of scepticism. Nevertheless, to a conclusion similar in principle to this the facts seem to be pretty definitely pointing. And now, finally, let us see how this conception, if accepted, is to be united with that of specific protoplasmic stuffs, as already outlined. We do not know in any positive way, but we may roughly present the facts to our minds by a kind of artificial hypothesis — somewhat as Ehrlich and his followers endeavor to present the side-chain theory of immunity by means of rough and crude diagrams. Let us assume, for example, that the specific protoplasmic stuffs are formed one after another by means of substances like enzymes that emanate from correspond- ing chromosomes.’ Putting the matter in the sharpest and crudest way, let us assume that each of the chromosomes in our diagram is responsible for the formation of the stuff correspond- ingly shaded. A few of these stuffs, formed and distributed as the egg ripens, determine the initial stages of development. In later stages other stuffs are formed by other chromosomes and progressively distributed to the cells by division. Thus the cleavage-mosaic grows progressively more complex and definite as development advances.- Each nucleus still contains the germ 1 Cf. Driesch’s ‘‘ Ferment Fiktion,’’? Analyt. Theorie, pp. 87-92. o84 RECORDS. or potentiality of the whole organism, but the cells assume specific characters according to the protoplasmic stuffs allotted to thems(Fie235 7 This attempt to portray briefly the szodus operandi of devel- opment is doubtless an excessively naive mode of formulating a highly complex and subtle process, concerning the real nature of which we still know very little. Even if literally correct it would still leave quite out of account some of the most impor- tant elements of our problem. I do not offer it as a well-estab- lished or fully rounded conclusion, but rather as a convenient way of placing before you one fundamental result, towards which I believe the drift of recent research is tending. This is that the germ consists of two elements, one of which undergoes a devel- opment that is essentially epigenetic, while the other represents an original controlling and determining element. The first is represented by the protoplasm of the egg. The second is the nucleus, which, as I have attempted to show, must apparently be conceived as a kind of microcosm or original preformation, consisting of elements which correspond, each for each, to par- ticular parts or characters of the future organism. The actual development of the embryo, which is manifested by progressive changes in the protoplasm, is by epigenesis, as Harvey and Wolff maintained. Its primary determination is by means of a preformed apparatus, handed on to the egg from preceding gen- erations in the nucleus, which, though not in any sense a min- lature model of the adult, yet somehow embodies in infinitesimal compass, the heritage of the race. And thus the most recent discoveries in this difficult field of research are bringing us toa position which can hardly be better stated than in the words written by Huxley more than thirty years ago: ‘“‘ The process which in its superficial aspect is epigenesis appears in essence to be evolution. . . . and development is merely the expansion of a potential organism or original preformation according to fixed laws.’ We should not, with the advantage of our present standpoint, read into these words of Huxley’s a meaning which it was impossible that he should have had in mind in writing them; yet without yielding to this temptation we may fairly ‘ RECORDS. 385 pay our humble tribute of admiration and homage to a scientific insight that was capable of reaching such a conclusion in the far away prehistoric period when chromosomes and Mendelism were unsuspected, when the nature of fertilization was unknown, and the internal mechanism of development was a wholly unsolved riddle. I will in conclusion add only a few words on the question of vitalism and mechanism in the light of the foregoing results. In so far as development may be conceived as the outcome of an original material configuration in the nucleus, and a secon- dary configuration in the protoplasm, it may be conceived as a mechanical process. But it must be admitted that this concep- tion leaves quite unsolved certain fundamental elements of our problem — such for instance, as the manner and order in which the protoplasmic stuffs are formed and assume their character- istic configuration, whether in the whole egg or in the isolated blastomere or egg-fragment; or again, how the wonderful phenomena of the regeneration of lost parts in the adult organ- ism can be explained. We have at present no positive data for an answer to these questions. But it can hardly be disputed that we have already made a considerable advance towards a mechanical solution of the problem, and if this be so, by what right does the vitalist demand that we shall adopt his hypothesis for the portions still unsolved? Let us seek an answer to this question in the answer to a broader one. What is the object of the study of development? I should state this object some- what as follows: First, to observe and to describe as completely and simply as possible the actual phenomena of development ; secondly, to determine to what extent, from its beginning in the egg to its completion in the adult organism, the process can be formulated in terms of the elementary laws of matter and of motion. But this is only a different way of stating that our object is to ascertain in what measure the operations of de- velopment, under given external conditions, are the result of an original configuration of material particles in the egg. Now, I do not need to say that even the approximate accom- plishment of these aims is still very remote, their complete 386 RECORDS. accomplishment impossible. I am fully in accord with the neo- vitalists in their assertion that the phenomena of development and of life generally have not yet been reduced to a mechanical basis, that they can not at present be fully described in physico- chemical terms. It is certain that living beings exhibit struc- tures more complex than any existing in the inorganic world, and different from them in kind. It is possible, probable I believe, that living bodies may be the arena of specific energies that exist nowhere else in nature. I admit fully that the inter- pretation of development I have endeavored to outline does not exclude, but in some ways actually suggests, the existence of such energies. I should, therefore, even admit that the vitalists are wholly right in their contention that the vital processes are not at present explicable as the direct result of such energies as are observed in the non-living world. To prejudge this question would set up a dogmatic barrier to progress, not only in biology but also in chemistry and physics. If this be vitalism there are probably many of us who must be enrolled as “ vitalists,”’ how- ever doubtfully we may regard the honor of bearing such a title. But if the word “ vitalism’’ be used in any other sense than as a convenient phrase, an x by which to designate an unknown quantity, if it be taken in a positive sense to imply in the living organism any negation of the fundamental laws of matter and of motion, the existence of any distinctive entity, or principle that does not fall within the chain of physical causation or that contravenes the general laws of physics, then, I protest, to accept “‘ vitalism”’ as a principle of interpretation is deliberately to abandon the scientific method in biological study. 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XVI, PART II pes PAGE | Jochelson, Waldemar. Essay on the Grammar of the Yukaghit Language . . . 2. |) O¥atga Fishberg, Maurice. Materials for the Physical An- thropology of the Eastern European Jews . 155-297 -Bumpus, Hermon C. Records of Meetings . . . 299-386 es. VOL. XVI PART III a - ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: CHARLES LANE POOR New York Published by the Academy The New Era Printing Company Lancaster, Pa. NEW . YORK: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICERS, 1905 President—JAMES F. Kemp, Columbia University. Recording Sccretary—HERMon C. Bumpus, American Museum. Corresponding Secretaryy—-RICHARD E. DopcgE, Teachers College. Treasurer —CHARLES F. Cox, Grand Central Depot. Librarian—RaLrpH W. Tower, American Museum. Editor—CHARLES LANE Poor, 4 East 48th Street. SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY Chairman—ERNEST R. von Narprorr, 360 Tompkins Ave., Brooklyn. Secretary—C. C. TROWBRIDGE, Columbia University. SECTION OF BIOLOGY Chairman—W. M. WHEELER, American Museum. Secretary—M. A. BicELow, Teachers College. SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY Chairman—EDMUND Otis Hovey, American Museum. Secretary—A. W. GraBav, Columbia University. SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Chairman—F. J. E. WoopsribGE, Columbia University. Secretary—R. S. WoopwortH, Columbia University. SESSION OF 1905 The Academy will meet on Monday evenings at 8.15 o'clock, from October to’ May, in the American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West [ANNALS N. Y. AcaD. SclI., VoL. XVI, No. 8, Part III, pp. 387-446 March I, 1906. ] one OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK WITHIN fre MORPHIC SCHISTS, AS ILLUSTRATED ON AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND, NEW YORK. ALEXIS A. JULIEN. (Read before meeting of February 15, 1904 ) CONTENTS. PAGE RN WMC*UCKIM, QOGIISION G2, 0.5 avenue tvs uccswhsethsecteoe cncedescsuncsddsecnenveresases 388 NR TN MEAN SIN ECM eo. sida peck 12s selena’ Su ridb'ss kan endecaawnWanete po aeds 388 Mer ueamicg processes HiteHdING OCCIUSION,....c0.. 55.7 dceccereascccssunkasndeie choees ees 390 PE remiGal Processes AILGMMINS OBPIUSION 5.2.25. n.sccce woasde) suewsnroserupenvessssennes 391 Mechusions on Mantattan Island < Varieties ...... 0.0. 6cccc0s.cccsssccasbucccsencnececes 392 Schist fragments within dikes................ Atiaea dk kkaakh so see St ane Need Nn 392 RMR IN BUA ase o, \- hcge se win a'o ao on Van dda ces oodtcted cnwanpoFoeens's 392 ONUPES PUMrite, Sislitate a MEE PAN OO! iy fos toa gaa'e Laine adi deend wngaten wakcaw de bas once de 392 hiorite on-Spuyten Waywil’ Creek saeseesendsedssteseseudseccees 429 Maryland ............sssccsscsccedectsececcesssvceesenssecaeestseusenceseascscnsesensecess 429 388 JULIEN Dela wares vcinaasicca sch dccnee paewvten ele tae mdeice tees ee eaee a ean eee ee 431 Pennsylvania: 2....35.ces duceeek gn ioe ab sateen te was cet eae pee eee ee 433 Massachusetts.’ 3.3. turcian-secewesee meee tae ee er eR ree ei oe 435 Loeation of cities. alongtheocelusion lines cc see ses toe ee ee ee 436 Coastal chain of valeanoes (2... oaccncc eee ee ee 437 Mount’ Manhattan and its associated peaks*2 Jia.pensaeesceee acne een eee 438 The terms zzcluston and enclosure have been commonly ap- plied to fragments of foreign rocks imbedded within sedimentary deposits, crystalline schists or masses of igneous intrusion. Thus, to take illustrations from structural features on Manhattan Island, New York City, we find here ordinary dikes of pegma- tite and aplite included in the upper stratum of micaceous gneisses and schists, which they frequently intersect, running partly along the foliation. Tongues of the schist itself also, or, it may be, lenses and sheets between the crossing dikes, project into the larger masses of intrusive granite in a manner fitly pictured by the broad term, inclusion. The same hard-worked term has also acquired a restriction, in optical mineralogy and lithology, to microscopic enclosures within min- erals and rocks. Need of the Term, Occlusion.— For foreign masses, com- pletely engulfed and enwrapped, whose constituents are con- sequently in state of reaction and interchange with those of the surrounding country rock and of general absorption into it, there seeins to be call for another term which may specifically define relationship to a new stratigraphical unit. Our language is surely for common service. Though the word occlusion has long been in use by our brother physicists and chemists, with reference to envelopment and absorption of fluids, may not the geologist safely borrow it, without danger of confusion, in appli- cation to somewhat allied phenomena found in his own field ? Its use will tend, I think, toward clearer recognition of the con- stant passage, alteration, absorption and disappearance of masses of imprisoned rock into a surrounding stratum and of extensive metamorphic changes thereby effected. Occlusions tn Igneous Rocks. — Attention has been directed toward the instances of envelopment of rocks of all classes within igneous dikes and flows and the consequent alteration, OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 389 even to total absorption of such enclosures — or, as it has been well expressed, “‘the striking results of extreme contact meta- morphism, displayed by fragments of rocks which have lain for a time in the bath of a molten igneous magma.” In the intimate association of widely diverse types of igneous rocks in the Tertiary of Great Britain similar results to those already noted on Manhattan Island have been recently de- scribed — ‘‘the tendency of an acid intrusion to follow closely the line of an earlier basic intrusion.” * But, in the igneous rocks of Skye, this has resulted, in different cases, in production of ‘a rock with evident xenoliths, more or less altered, a hybrid product with scattered xenocrysts, usually much disguised, or, in the extreme case, a rock which shows in a given specimen no direct indication of any foreign element. Even this last, however, will often betray its origin by some- w= She ‘Mmaxi- mum effects were found where a basic rock had been attacked by an acid magma, especially under one favorable condition, previously pointed out,* which has ordinarily prevailed during penetration of a solid body of igneous rock by a fluid magma, that “reactions . . . will be promoted by the former being still at a high temperature when the latter comes into contact with it.”’ The same observer has thus accounted also “for the con- tinuous or lenticular bands of basic rocks which are in places associated with the more acid and hybrid rocks as integral parts of the complex. These basic rocks appear to have been of the nature of gabbros, now transformed by metamorphism, and in some measure by interchange of material with the acid magma. A dark hornblendic rock of this kind, with more or less evident banding and foliation . . . has the general aspect of a medium grained diorite. Ina thin slice it is seen that the deep green 1J. W. Judd, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XLIX, 1893, p. 175. * For instance, the pegmatite dike which can now be seen following the foliation of diorite-schist down the bluff at West 130th Street and St. Nicholas Avenue, Man- hattan Island. SA. Harker, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., LIX, 1903, 210-212. 4 Tdem., Jour. Geol., VIII, 1900, 394. thing unusual in its mineralogical constitution. 390 JULIEN hornblende, which makes up more than half of the rock, presents in places the crystal outline proper to that mineral, proving that it is not merely pseudomorphic but has crystallized as such. The rest of the rock consists chiefly of a finely striated plagio- clase ; but there is also some unstriated feldspar, which may be orthoclase, and a few little interstitial grains of quartz are seen, These last two minerals probably point to a certain impregna- tion of the recrystallized basic rock by the granitic magma.” Other sections presented strings of magnetite granules and a little brown mica. This description of a diorite schist, known to be directly altered from a basic igneous rock, is almost a repetition of that of the diorite schist of Manhattan Island,’ indirectly altered after metamorphism. ‘The points of difference are equally significant ; the excess of quartz in the latter, from long-continued and thorough pegmatitic impregnation: the state of the iron oxide as hematite rather than magnetite, from the lower temperature concerned in metamorphism : and even the partial separation of bases, lime and iron oxide, represented by zoisite and hematite, probably from the same cause. On occluded masses of igneous material, the processes con- cerned have been of two kinds, mechanical and chemical. Mechanical Processes Attending Occlusion.— The following are the chief effects, as shown on Manhattan Island, of mechan- ical processes due to agencies of pressure, deformation and shearing. Flattening into lenticular discs with thin tapering edges ; the pegmatite occlusions in particular breaking up into small nodules and lenses, a few inches in length. Crumpling and corrugation by tangential pressure, in the 1A. A, Julien, ‘‘ Genesis of the amphibole schists and serpentines of Manhattan Island, New York,’’ Lull. Geol. Soc, Am., XIV, 1903, 427-439 The present paper, which is a further development of the same subject, offers the opportunity to record the following corrections to the former : Page 461, 4th line. For ‘* .7854V a2 or a,’’ read “73,” Page 465, last column, 3d line. Same correction. Last column, last line. For ‘‘a@’,’’ read “‘ d/2,’’ Page 492, 5th line. For ‘‘ paucity,’’ read ‘‘ poverty.”’ OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 391 basic schists, usually attended, first, by development of columnar or even fibrous texture under much crushing, associated with symmetrical jointage, and, ultimately, with a granular texture. Under extreme conditions, the diorite schist may become rolled up into isolated cylindrical masses, and, it is probable, some- times concentrated by thickening, in the direction of the pressure. Good examples of these phenomena have been also noted in occluded masses of diorite, passing into hornblende schist, inter- calated in limestone parallel to its foliation, at Jenny Jump Mountain in northwestern New Jersey, concerning which it is stated : ‘“‘In some cases it has been seen that these eruptives at a short distance from the contact are banded, and these banded phases, if seen alone, would not be distinguishable from the ordinary banded hornblende gneisses of the region.”’ * Squeezing of a plastic occluded mass outwardly from the margin of a lens along foliation planes of the adjoining country rock. Thus we find our diorite schist often intercalated in sev- eral or many thin sheets projected between parting planes of the eneiss in the same stratum, in forms which may be termed sec- ondary or occlusion-dikes. These simulate apophyses of ordi- nary or primary dikes and even show a limited tendency to in- tersect thin layers of the gneiss.” Chemical Processes Attending Occlusion. — These vary largely with the relative composition of enclosed igneous material and of contiguous rock. On Manhattan Island the pegmatite seams and lenses are bordered with excess of quartz, often intermixed with tourmaline, apatite, micas, and microcline. At the margin of the basic rocks, the diorite schists, the reactions are still more marked. The hornblende disappears by alteration to biotite, the rock becoming interlaminated with or entirely changed into biotitic gneiss or even biotite schist, with more or less garnet. These layers form gray bands, with the slaty lamination, sharply defined boundaries and often zigzag corru- gation, characteristic of the original hornblendic layers. Toward 1J. E. Wolff, Rep. State Geol. N. J., 1895, 52-59. 2 Julien, Zoc. czz., Plate 63, Fig. 1. 392 JULIEN their extremities they melt away vaguely into the adjacent gneiss, rich in both black and white micas, the former probably indicating in large part the final absorption and disappearance, to an unknown amount, of antecedent occluded masses of in- truded diorite. The outcrops of diorite schist and of its distinct biotitic derivatives, abundant as they are, afford therefore but a small measure of the number of the original dikes. Dark blotches of indeterminate outline seem to bear further testi- mony to a vast dissemination of occluded igneous matter and so to the conciusion that the Manhattan stratum was originally seamed through and through by an enormous number of dikes of gabbro, bronzite rock and pegmatite. Occlusions on Manhattan l[sland. — Several varieties of these may be distinguished. Schist Fragments Within Dikes. — Portions of the schists or gneisses themselves are sometimes found to have become sep- arated and enclosed within the margins of intrusive pegmatite dikes, perhaps displaying initial stages of absorption ; for ex- ample on the knoll in Riverside Park, opposite West 83d Street. Much more important, as already suggested, have been the results of interchange, in reverse order, from igneous intrusions cut loose during diastrophic movements from connection with their underlying magmatic sources, swallowed up and perma- nently imprisoned within the invaded schists and there now found in various stages of shearing, alteration and absorption. Pegmatite Occlusions. — Examples of the acid occlusions have been already sufficiently described. The amount of peg- matitic and quartzose matter thus introduced has been so great that huge masses of saturated gneisses have been converted in part or wholly into bedded granite, well shown still at Mt. Morris Park, at north end of Central Park and on Morningside Heights. The earliest series of intrusions evidently consisted of rocks of basic and ultra-basic composition, both of which have be- come almost completely metamorphosed into two present forms. Quartz-diorite Schist After Gabbro. — The intercalated sheets and lenses of this rock and its variants (hornblende schist, hornblendic gneiss, biotitic gneiss, biotite schist) often charac- OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 393 terized by zigzag folding down to minute corrugation, have been elsewhere discussed. As to its enrichment by quartz, while this has been doubtless derived through general diffusion from adjoining pegmatite masses, its partial indebtedness to internal reaction must be ad- mitted. A common opinion would attribute it entirely to re- constitution of minerals, during passage from a pyroxenic to a hornblendic rock.’ Most definite evidence on this point has been given by comparison of two analyses, of a dolerite and of its derivative hornblende schist, in the dike at Scourie, Scot- land *— almost alike except for the gain of two per cent. of silica in the schist. It will be inferred from previous statements that some forms of our diorite schist have become so thoroughly disguised by metamorphism that only careful study of earlier phases of the transition will enable recognition of the relationship. A rare form in the Woodward Collection *is a highly quartzose actino- lite-diorite (No. 153, from aqueduct-shaft at West 179th Street and 1oth Avenue), which bears to the eye an extraordinary resem- blance to an enstatite-diorite, and also reminds one of the con- stitution and structure shown in the thin section of amphibole- gabbro from Hollmuhle.* The frequent distribution of scapolite and wollastonite, in small quantity, among the gneisses of the Island, may yet prove to be of igneous relationship, as in Norway, Canada and the southwestern Adirondacks. Diorite Bed on Spuyten Duyvil Creek. — Many peculiarities of structure characteristic of an occluded igneous intrusion are illustrated in one bed, as yet undescribed, the largest remaining on Manhattan Island, along the shore of Spuyten Duyvil creek. It has been referred to by Cozzens, in 1843, as the site of a 1C. Callaway, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XLIII, 1887, 528. 2j. J. H. Teall, zdem, XLI, 1885, 135-137. 3] have been indebted to Mr. Anthony Woodward of the American Museum of Natural History for opportunity to examine his collection of specimens of rocks from Manhattan Island, now at Rutgers College, New Jersey; and to this I shall have other occasion to refer. 4J. Lehmann, ‘‘ Enst. d. altkryst. Schiefergesteine, Atlas,’’ Tafel XXII, Fig. 1. 394 JULIEN quarry, and more recently by the United States Geological Survey, in note of its location on the sheet for New York City.! Between the last northward turn of that creek and the Hudson river, the extreme northern end of Manhattan Island projects, for a distance of about one quarter of a mile, as a forest-covered rocky promontory, reaching a height of nearly 225 feet above the sea-level. The following appears to be the succession of beds. The lowest, foliated micaceous gneiss, often slaty in structure, envel- oping the sheet of hornblendic rock. Above this, a similar gneiss, with many garnetiferous layers, six to nine decimeters in thickness, much gnarled and contorted. The enclosed roughly crystallized iron-garnets vary from one to three centi- meters in diameter. Some layers are white, fibrous and thinly laminated, rich in parallel flakes of a quartz-fibrolite mixture. The highest beds, forming the crest, consist of alternations of micaceous gneiss with layers rendered granitoid by saturation with pegmatite in seams and lenses, often presenting an augen- Structure: Along a slope of 30° which forms the steeper eastern side of the promontory, a belt of hornblendic rock extends continuously, a little above the shore, from a point near 214th Street, for a distance of more than 1,000 feet, until it passes beneath the creek at the northern end of the outcrop. It is intercalated in the bed of foliated micaceous gneiss with generally coincident strike. This gneiss overtops it on the west, forming the sum- mit of the ridge, and also underlies it on the east, along the shore of the creek. There is much fallen talus, but the contact of the hornblende-rock with the gneiss on either side is un- covered in several places, sometimes with so sharp a line of demarcation that one may set one’s foot on both rocks at their junction. No difference was distinguished in texture or consti- tution of either rock near the line of contact. The thickness of the dioritic sheet was estimated at about 35 feet for a large part of its course. The bed of the creek is known to be occupied | by crystalline limestone, and a little valley on the east of the "Geol. Atlas of U. S., N. Y. City Folio, No. 83, Washington, 1903. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 395 southern end of the diorite outcrop is also probably underlaid by dolomitic limestone. Map and Cross-section. —While the general strike of the region, N. 45 to 50° E., prevails over this tract, an eastward bending toward the northern end to N. 61° E., may be due to the influence of the enclosed intrusive mass. It may be here noted that the other great bed of hornblende-schist and serpen- tine at West 59th Street, whose thickness approximated 30 feet,' presented a violent change of course from northeast around to north.”, Apparently in each case the disturbance may have been a remnant of ancient unconformity, the surrounding gneisses having been later crushed and adjusted into partial accordance with the intruded mass. Changes in the direction and amount of the dip, plotted on the accompanying sketch- map (Plate V) indicate the emergence of a series of sharp folds, the anticlines being partly overturned to the eastward and asym- metrical, their eastern legs being very nearly vertical. Two of these at one point are shown in the cross-section (Plate VI), ap- proximately on the line of 216th Street. In addition, the vari- ations in dip, often nearly vertical, along the eastern margin of the granitoid or pegmatitic micaceous gneiss, which constitutes the crest and mass of the hill, may signify the survival there of another sharp fold. This may imply that the mass composing the western slope is made up of a series of sharply compressed folds, obliterated during pegmatization, with assumption of a new foliation and system of jointage. Near the center of the hornblendic tract these folds have produced an expansion of the outcrop of diorite-schist to a breadth of more than 200 feet, from which an exaggerated idea of its extent and thickness might be inferred. The exhibition of structure denoting vicinity to the bottom of a syncline (Plate VI), at about 216th to 217th Street, and the low dips at the top of an anticline, near the northern disappearance of the outcrop, 1H. Credner, ‘‘ Die Gliederung der eozoischen (vorsilurischen) Formations- gruppe Nord-Amerikas,’’ Habilitationsschrift, Halle, 1869, I9. 2 Julien, Zoc. czt., Map, Fig. 9, p. 488. 396 JULIEN signify a pitch of the axes of the folds toward the northeast, directly opposite to the usual pitch in this region." All the features intimate intrusion of the original gabbro before the folding of the stratum of gneisses, and effacement of the ascending dikes as a natural result of deformation and occlusion. Petrographic Description. — The rock of the belt consists mainly of thinly laminated quartz-diorite schist or dioritic gneiss, similar to the hornblendic gneisses and schists of the island. It differs however in the general distribution throughout the fine- grained hornblendic groundmass of dull black grains and flakes of hornblende, 0.5 to 3.0 centimeters across, and about I to 2 centimeters apart. These mottle its fresh surfaces with black, shining spots and project over the weathered crust in dark lumps, as commonly observed on the weathering of diorites and gabbros. They seem to represent ancient phenocrysts — originally, it may be, of pyroxene — now altered to hornblende, comprising about a third of the hornblende of the rock, and with forms distorted by shearing. Their outlines are generally irregular, rectangular, rhombic, and very often rounded or ovate, producing an augen-structure in miniature. All the indications are of an original rock of gabbroitic habit, certainly without any resemblance to diabase. The more gently inclined beds at the top of one fold show a coarse banding, made up of light and dark layers, 3 to 50 centi- meters in thickness, which suggest bands of segregation or flow. Some of these are accentuated by impregnation with white pegmatite in seams or in ovate nodules, less than a decimeter in length, arranged in parallel planes ; or these may consist of milky quartz or of pure feldspar, often a white plagioclase. Every- where, however, throughout this bed, there is entire absence of the minor crumpling and corrugation of lamine of common occurrence elsewhere on the island. In the general groundmass around the large black grains hornblende predominates, mostly in slender blades or flattened prisms, jet-black and shining, 2 to 5 centimeters long. These are separated by grayish white parallel films, 0.5 to 1.0 milli- 1 J. D:. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct., (3), XX) 1886, 265. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 397 meter in thickness, made up of a mixture of white feldspar and gray quartz, amounting to about 25 to 35 per cent. of the volume of the rock. Much variation prevails in the proportions of the two minerals, one or the other predominating in different ledges. A little black to brown biotite, and still less white mica, garnet and pyrite sometimes occur. No trace of epidote or calcite was anywhere detected ; their absence may be corre- lated, in my opinion, with that of the sharp minor foldings and corrugations, only produced by intense pressure.' Occasionally feldspar and quartz fall short and a thin layer of black horn- blende-schist has resulted, with hornblende sometimes in coarse blades, up to 5 centimeters in length. Toward the southern end of the outcrop, where the bed tapers out, the rock becomes fine-grained and more thinly laminated, with hornblende blades rarely reaching 2 millimeters in length, as in the similar, thinly sheared hornblende schists at other parts of Manhattan Island. In a thin section, under the microscope, the minerals are found to be the same as in other dioritic schists of the island. Hornblende, mostly in prismatic or elongated grains, occasion- ally in granules or fibrous scales. Twinning common; maxi- mum extinction 15° to 16°; ¢ /\ ¢. Its rare inclusions consist of rods and spherules of colorless zoisite, plates and twinned crystals of plagioclase, scales of black hematite and rarely brownish red biotite. Plagioclase, abundant in angular parti- cles, showing twinning after the albite law. The low maximum extinction angles, in sections normal to twinning plane, suggest a rather acid feldspar. Apatite and hematite occur as inclusions. Quartz common, in the usual limpid grains. In both feldspar and quartz wavy extinction is very common, sometimes concen- tric. Occasional cloudy colorless grains were referred to orthoclase. Joints and Veins. — The mass of schist is intersected by a system of closely contiguous, parallel joints, with general direc- tion N. 5° W. These coincide in direction with well-marked parallel seams of division, often discernible in a hand specimen at intervals of a few millimeters. It is along these planes of 1 Julien, Joc. cit., 446, 493. 398 JULIEN weakness that the massive portions of the rock are often traversed by white quartz in minute seams, rarely over 0.5 millimeter in thickness, which weather out in delicate, often reticulating ridges. These plainly denote fine cracks produced by shattering of a brittle mass. Pegmatite veins or dikes have also insinuated themselves along the same planes in large numbers, parallel or branching and crossing, generally less than 5 centimeters in width, reaching 40 centimeters in one case. Their material consists chiefly of white feldspar, grayish quartz and a little white muscovite, crys- tallized along the central plane of the sheet, but sometimes only of milky quartz. It thus appears that the series of three successive igneous in- trusions is well illustrated in this bed. Their coincidence at many points is so well displayed that one may cover the con- tact of all three —diorite, lens of earlier pegmatite and pegma- tite dike of the last intrusion — with the palm of one’s hand. Lvidence of Unconformity. — The structure just described in these intrusions of basic igneous rocks during Paleozoic time ! — their intercalation parallel to bedding or foliation of the altered sediments they have entered —is a remarkable feature which prevails throughout the Appalachian belt. It may of course but conform to the suggestive observation in another region that ‘‘in such cases the dykes were probably not very different in age from the gneiss which they traverse ’’ ?—a rela- tion which, if established, may have been connected with inferior superincumbent pressure or with imperfect consolidation of the invaded beds. In one neighboring locality, indeed, they are found in dykes, distinctly intersecting other intrusions or the layers of the associated country rock, viz., those of the Cort- landt Series near Peekskill, New York. Elsewhere the published evidence on this problem seems to be indefinite and insufficient. As to Pennsylvania we have the statement, ‘‘a long narrow belt of sphene-bearing amphibolite schist in the city of Philadelphia . . . cuts across the meta- 1j. D: Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., (3), XXVIII, 1884, 386, 2 Bauerman, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XVI, 1885, 144. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 399 morphic mica schists of the region unconformably and is be- lieved by the author to be a highly metamorphosed intrusive dike of Lower Silurian age. The original augite or diallage has been completely converted into fibrous hornblende, and the influence of pressure is shown in the perfectly laminated char- acter of the schist, in the close foldings produced, and in the minute structure of the rock.’”’ A more satisfactory explanation of the structural character of the basic intrusive rocks at Philadelphia has been given ina recent letter from Dr. Florence Bascom, of Bryn Mawr, Penn- sylvania : ‘“(1) The pyroxenic intrusives, that is, the gabbro, meta- pyroxenite, meta-peridodite (or serpentines), occur in large intrusive bodies. These intrusive masses, in general, follow the, trend of the schists and gneisses, but when mapped can be clearly seen to cross the strike of the bedding of the schists and gneisses and to intrude indifferently into the mica-gneiss (Hudson age) and the Pre-Cambrian gneiss. This can be seen from the map, but in the field there are no good contacts. (2) Smaller intrusive basic masses occur which occasionally show contacts. Such an occurrence of a basic dike, now altered to a hornblende-schist, is to be found in the neighbor- hood of Swarthmore, on the Chester sheet. It strikes nearly parallel to Crum Creek and at an angle to the strike of the mica-gneiss. (3) There are other occurrences of altered basic dikes, now hornblende-schists, in which the hornblende-schist conforms perfectly to the schistosity of the mica-gneiss. In these occurrences the hornblende-schist possesses inconsider- able width and I first interpreted them as altered sedimentary material. Upon further investigation, their petrographic and chemical constitution proved to be similar to that of perfectly well authenticated dikes and led me to consider these occur- rences also as intrusive.” In regard to the last case mentioned, intercalation of horn- blende-schist in the foliation of gneiss, another possible explana- tion might be based on relationship of foliation to bedding, as 1H C. Lewis, Mature, 1885, 560. 400 JULIEN suggested by an observation in Delaware county, in south- eastern Pennsylvania, on a series of schistose and gneissic rocks considered to be more recent than the Hudson River group, probably altered Devonian: ‘ Throughout a greater portion of the gneissic and schistose belt the cleavage has been, in many cases, mistaken for the bedding of the rock. . . . The cleavage dip varies from 75 to 90 degrees. . . . The true bedding of the measures is nearly horizontal and undulating. The so-called ‘bottoms’ are more or less distinct lines of separation through- out the gneissic mass, and are the true lines of bedding. These ‘bottoms’ usually maintain their relative distance from each other and cross the cleavage planes at angles which are usually uniform in each locality. . . . In most of the quarries through- out southern Delaware county the ‘bottoms’ or bedding is sharply defined.’”’' Such distinction of the foliation of schists from their true bedding would of course establish the uncon- formity of all igneous rocks intercalated along the foliation. In this connection it has been stated, concerning the gabbros and gabbro-diorites of Delaware: ‘I have looked carefully for any other evidence of bedding except that coincident with the cleavage, but have found none. Theso-called ‘bottoms’... could not distinctly be made out in Delaware. Planes which might be taken for these were irregular and not continuous and correspond more to joints than to planes of bedding. ... It must be noted, however, that if we consider the true planes of bedding of the mica-schists to lie nearly horizontal, then the thin outlying lenticular masses of gabbro-diorite . . . which are apparently interbedded with micaceous rock, must be re- garded more strongly than ever as intruded bodies, cutting across the stratification. That these rocks are of this character the author is strongly inclined to believe.’ ” On Manhattan Island, in the upper bed of micaceous schists and gneisses, in which the diorite-schists lie enclosed, division- planes and joints intersect the foliation. But those at low angles are occasional, irregular, too obscure to be recognizable 1C. E. Hall,.Second Geol. Surv. Penn., Pt."I, C. 5, 1885, 2-3. 2. D. Chester, Bull. 59, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1890, 39-40. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 401 in evidence of bedding. If such evidences once existed along those planes, they have become obliterated. The conformity of the limestone-beds to the foliation of the gneisses also appar- ently indicates coincidence with a common bedding plane. Outcrop of Gabbro. — Through the courtesy of the Curator, Dr. E. O. Hovey, I have been enabled to examine the series of rocks from New York Island in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History. Two important specimens were found labelled ‘‘Syenitic gneiss, West 216th Street and 14th Avenue,” in one of which I detected the presence of bronzite. With the kind assistance of their collector, Dr. A. Woodward, and of old maps, I have searched that locality, on north of Inwood Heights, in vain for the out-crop. It was probably a small one and has been apparently covered up with debris during the twenty years which have elapsed. The authenticity of the specimens seems sufficiently established to call for a brief description, on account of their special petrographic importance. No. 107 is a coarse biotite-quartz-gabbro, fresh and unaltered, closely resembling a biotite-gabbro from Keeseville and coarser norite from Westport, near the Adirondacks, New York, and quite different from the gabbros of Westchester County, New York. Itis so feldspathic as to approach a norite or anorthosite, as shown by its specific gravity, 2.778, being chiefly made up of striated grains of greenish gray plagioclase, 10 to 15 milli- meters long, whose crystal outlines in many places impart a semi-porphyritic texture to the rock. The dark intervening aggregates, of about the same size, consist of black hornblende - brown bronzite, with silky fibration and high lustre, rarely reach- ing 15 mm. in length; scales of brown biotite, up to 4 mm. across ; abundant grains of gray quartz; anda few shining par- ticles of iron ore. In thin section, the texture is found to be allotriomorphic. The feldspars form over half the volume and comprise two kinds of plagioclase. The one presents, between crossed nicols, a twinning lineation in rather coarse bands whose large extinction angle indicates a basic variety. The other, with lower index of refraction, displays very fine lineation, often occupying but a 402 JULIEN. small part of a grain, sometimes crossed by another set of bands after the pericline law; the small extinction angle suggests an acid variety. Quartz grains occur in less abundance, with a few inclusions of black particles, colorless needles (perhaps apatite), chlorite scales, and many sheets of fluid cavities with bubbles. The cracks in the larger grains and the groups of angular granules imply partial crushing and granulation. Wavy extinction prevails in both quartz and feldspar. Zoisite appears in colorless, six-sided to rounded granules, with high relief, scattered sparsely through quartz, feldspar and hornblende — as in the diorite-schist of Manhattan Island '— but not in saus- suritic form. The ferro-magnesian minerals are also abundant and consist mainly of an orthorhombic pyroxene and three va- rieties of amphibole. The pyroxene, in brownish white fibrous blades, with parallel extinction, shows an absence of dichroism pointing to enstatite, or in other grains distinct dichroism, colorless to pale yellow, indicating bronzite, through with rare original inclusions. Hornblende, brownish green to yellow, also occurs as a primary mineral, with strong dichroism and absorption ; maximum extinction angle 11°. Still more com- mon is a straw-colored to colorless amphibole, the former feebly dichroic; maximum extinction angle 8°. The bronzite and both varieties of amphibole occupy the central part of larger grains which pass at the margin, most deeply at the ends of the fibers, into brownish white amphibole (like tremolite), with its fibration always continuous with the cleavage direction of the inner mineral. This fringe of colorless amphibole is invaria- bly coated by thin filmy wisps of bluish green chlorite, in mi- nute scales and blades, which also stretch out here and there along clefts and interstices of adjoining grains of feldspar and quartz. Sometimes a thin seam of brown biotite, in minute scales, intervenes between the amphibole and chlorite. The fibration of this amphibole is exceedingly fine, often producing the effect of a milky cloudiness; extinction ancle,o° fos. It is sometimes filled with black particles of iron oxide and may enclose biotite in elongated scales lying parallel to the fibration. 1Julien, /oc. czt., 436. Se OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 4038 Biotite is also distributed in aggregates of large, coffee-brown scales, intermixed with a little finely granular magnetite. The folia of all these dark minerals show curvature in places as from pressure ; so also the twinning bands in some feldspar grains, Order of paragenesis —bronzite and enstatite, zoisite, brown hornblende, plagioclase, pale amphibole, tremolite with mag- netite, quartz, biotite and chlorite. No epidote, olivine or dial- lage was distinguished. The other specimen, No. 109, is a still coarser quartz-gabbro- diorite, resembling but not quite so coarse as some gabbros of St. John, New Brunswick, and approaching the facies of a coarse norite of the Cortlandt series. Feldspar for the most part dull white, by incipient decomposition, intermixed with much white and gray quartz. The black ferromagnesian mineral, apparently hornblende, is largely distributed in rude prisms, often over 3 centimeters in length and 8 to 15 millimeters in breadth. Brownish black biotite is abundant, in part rendered brassy yel- low by decay. No bronzite appears to the eye, but many grains of garnet, up to 6 mm. in diameter. It has been a disappointment not to have been able personally to verify the character of this outcrop in place, to make sure that the two specimens had not been taken from half-buried transported boulders. But there are, at least, two earmarks re- vealed in the microscopic structure of No. 107 which are not in favor of that view: one, the form of the zoisite in isolated crystals, as found throughout the diorite-schists of the island, and not of the saussuritic character common else- where; the other, the alteration rim of colorless amphibole (tremolite ?) around bronzite and hornblende, a feature yet de- tected only in the gabbros of Delaware, and never any farther northward. Similar double fringes of uralite, tremolite and bastite around grains of diallage,’ and of tremolite and actino- lite around grains of hypersthene and diallage,’ of bronzite and 1L. Finckh, Zezts. d. d. geol. Ges., 1898, 94, 98, IOI, 115. 2Streng, V. /hrb. f. Min., 1862, 943, 948,950; J. H. Kloos, WV. Jhrd. f. Min., III, Beil.-Bnd., 1884, 24-33; G. H. Williams, Bull. No. 28, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1886, 40-45; F. D. Chester, Joc. cit., 23-25; A. G.. Leonard, Am. Geo/., WILL, Loor,: 15. 404 JULIEN enstatite,’ and of olivine,’ at contact of lime-feldspar, have been observed in gabbros of our, Southern States and of Europe. They have been commonly attributed to magmatic reaction before consolidation of the rock —a hypothesis open to ques- tion*—rather than to change during its subsequent meta- morphism. : In this connection reference may be made to a specimen of aphanitic texture, obtained by W. H. Hobbs (Lud. Geol. Soc. Am., XVI, i905, 169) from Man-o’-war reef in East River, east of Manhattan Island, supposed to be ‘‘a dense basalt like that so characteristic of the Newark areas of the Atlantic bor- der. It seems likely that this latter rock may be from a por- tion of a narrow dike within the series of crystallines.’’ Such an intrusion in this series would be unique, if established. Through the courtesy of Prof. Hobbs I have been supplied with a portion of this specimen, which has been found in thin section to consist of black indurated shale from the basal con- tact of the Palisades, an altered form commonly distributed in boulders over Manhattan Island and the vicinage of Brooklyn. Occlustons of Westchester County, New York. — To the north and northeast of Manhattan Island and New York City, similar intrusions are frequently found through Westchester County. Outcrops of pegmatite, diorite or hornblende-schist, hornblende- gneiss, biotitic gneiss and schist and ‘serpentine,’ occasionally holding enstatite or bronzite,* mark the derivative forms of the eruptives. At New Rochelle masses of amphibolite and actinolite-schist have suffered partial conversion into serpentinoid, and are asso- ciated with coarse black hornblendite, with hornblende in prisms several centimeters in length, hornblende schist, hornblendic 1H. B. Patton, Die Serpentin- und Amphibolgesteine nérdlich von Marienbad in Bohmen, Inayg. Diss., Wien., 1887, 11, 13, 18; E. Schulze, Zezts. d. d. geol. Ges., 1883, 433; F. D. Chester, Ann. Rep. 2d Geol. Survey Penn., 1887, 98: 2'Térnebohm, JV. /Jhré: 7; Min., 1877, 3833-1. Becke 7icks gun. a per Mitth., \V., 1882, 330, 355, 450; R.W. Schafer, 7sch. min. u. pet. Mitth., XV, 1895, 21; F. Bascom, Maryl. Geol. Surv., 1902, Cecil County, 130-131. 3 Bascom, Joc. c7t., 126. 4Dana, dm. Jour. Sct., (3), XX, 1880, 31; F. J. H. Merrill, 50th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus., 1896, 40-41. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 405 biotite schist and gneiss, and sometimes steatite. In the horn- blendites at New Rochelle and Rye, aggregates of iron-garnet, up to 5 cm. in length, may imply the result of contact reaction between the intrusive rock and adjoining schist. That this re- action has not involved the magnesian limestone of the vicinity, is shown by the absence of lime garnet. As to the huge boss of granodiorite, seven miles in length, in the town of Harrison, the described mineralogical constitu- tion’ indicates that this is buta phase of the granite and mon- zonite of the State Line belt in Pennsylvania.” Transition forms by metamorphism appear in the fringe of hornblendic gneisses around that area and perhaps the great tract of augen-gneiss in Bedford. Passing northward, outcrops of hornblende schist and diorite are met, first reported by Credner, and of gabbros, as at the new Croton Dam, with large pegmatite dikes in Bedford, as well as the common seams and lenses of the earlier pegmatite in- trusion. At the northern end of the county, the well known Cort- landt Series occurs on the southern. part of Montrose Point, below Peekskill, as well as across the Hudson river at Stony Point, and at Rosetown, a little further west. This covers an area of about 25 square miles and comprises the following rocks : peridotite (cortlandtite and pikrite); norite with hypersthene (also hornblende-norite, mica-norite, augite-norite or hyperite, and pyroxenite); gabbro (with mica-gabbro and gabbro-diorite ) ; diorite (with brown hornblende-diorite, hornblendite, green hornblende-diorite, mica-hornblende diorite) ; mica-diorite (with hornblendic and hypersthenic varieties). Diabase has also been reported, and the ultra-basic rocks, magnetite, emery and _her- cynite, besides metamorphic representatives in the hornblendic gneisses. Dikes occur, cutting through peridotite, norite and limestone, at Montrose, Verplanck and Stony Points.* In the Rosetown series, also, numerous small dikes are found around 1H. Ries, Zrans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIX, 1895, 80-86. 2F, Bascom, Joc. cit., 102. Per: Fa 8J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., (3), XX, 1880, 202. 406 JULIEN the edges of the area, where the massive rocks come in contact with the gneiss." Serpentinoid Outcrops tin the County.— Many beds of so- called ‘‘serpentine’’ are distributed through this region north of Manhattan Island. That at New Rochelle has been found rich in partly altered diopside, enstatite (Dana) or bronzite (F. J. H. Merrill), tremolite, often hydrated (‘‘ hydrous anthophyl- lite’’) and actinolite, with a large amount of carbonates, lying mostly in veins and nests of dolomite, magnesite and calcite. Other accessories are marmolite, brucite, deweylite, chromite, magnetite, spinel and perhaps zoisite. To the north of Rye an extensive tract of serpentinoid lies near to a ferriferous dolomite. Tremolite, and sometimes actinolite and dolomite, occur in all stages of alteration to hydrated forms, to amorphous serpentine and in part to tale. Pyroxene and chromite have also been recognized (Mather and Dana). At Portchester, several beds of serpentinoid occur, and small masses with traces of bronzite near Tarrytown.’ In nearly all these localities this rock has been found with the same associa- tions and alteration-products, particularly steatite, carbonates and limonite, with chert, jasper and chalcedony. . Serpentinoid Ridge on Opposite Side of Hudson River. — On the west, across the Hudson river, and along the very edge of its right bank, ridges of so-called ‘‘serpentine,’’ evidently once continuous, stretch for a distance of 14 miles, rising from an elevation of 70 feet at Hoboken, New Jersey, with an area of 30 acres, to nearly 420 feet on Staten Island, with an area there of 131% square miles. At Hoboken the actual outcrop extends about one third mile along the river bank, with a breadth not exceeding 300 feet. Inthe park south of Stevens Institute a knoll of this serpentinoid was formerly exposed, the most southerly exten- sion of the outcrop, with attached coating of a serpentinoid talus-breccia, the cement of the fragments consisting of brown lj, F. Kemp, tdem, (3), XXXVI, 1888;.253- 2Merrill, Joc. czt., 40-41. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 407 sandstone. This signified the projection of the outcrop above the level of the Mesozoic Sea, its gradual disintegration and probable extensive degradation. So far as the excavation of the adjoining part of the Hudson River canyon has been pos- sibly connected with erosion of a soft rock, it may be safer to refer this to the visible outcrops of serpentinoid immediately on both edges of the old bluff than to a hypothetical bed of dolomitic limestone of whose occurrence no direct proof has yet been found." All the evidence points to a volume in the original stratum of this soft and easily eroded rock far exceeding that of the present ridge. The northern end of the mass at Hoboken consists of light green serpentinoid, in part thinly foliated, with eastward dip 75°, toward the river; strike S. 20° W. In general it presents the uniform fibrous texture usual in rock serpentinoid, with admixture of brucite, marmolite, talc, dolomite, calcite, aragonite, magnetite, chromite and other minerals, mostly hydrated, in veins and seams. But the coarser mass on Staten Island, at the southern end of this occlusion, whose thickness has been estimated at less than 100 feet, consists largely of ophiolitic amphibolite and gray, green or colorless amphibole schists, sometimes pyrox- enic, besides actinolite, asbestus and tremolite rock, passing into serpentine, steatite and talc-schist, chlorite-schist, limonite and cellular quartz-rock. I have determined the specific gravity of two specimens from the point north of Tompkinsville, viz.: dark gray amphibolite, 2.863; light gray tremolite-schist, 2.844. Descriptions of these serpentinoid outcrops have been already published by J. D. Dana (1880-1881), N. L. Britton (1881), Por. Gratacap (1887), J. F.- Kemp: (1887), -G. P. Merrill (1889), F. J. H. Merrill (1896), and D. H. Newland (1901).’ Some observations concerning the distribution of this sheet deserve consideration. Its southern portion on Staten Island overlies an outcrop of coarse pegmatite for a few rods along the 'W. H. Hobbs, Bud/. Geol. Soc. Am., XVI, 1905, 176-180. 2Sch. of Mines Quar., XXII, 1901, 307-317, 399-410. 408 JULIEN shore near high tide level, at Tompkinsville ; though its con- tact with this later intrusion would not necessarily indicate its lower limit. Passing northward, serpentinoid has been found at Constable Point. At Jersey City a layer was met, a few feet in thickness, at the depth of 20 feet, on the south side of the Morris Canal, at the foot of Washington Street ; at the Pa- vonia ferry, at the bottom of a boring of 63 feet ; at the end of Long Dock, by a boring at the depth of 179 feet ; and in wells on Ninth Street, near Grove Street;-at va “depth-of > 700,ane 800 feet. Near the south end of Grand Street, Hoboken, at the depth of 40 feet in the marsh, a well was sunk 360 feet farther, ap- parently in serpentinoid. At Castle Point, the main outcrop less than half a mile in length along the river bank, descends below the water-level and is supposed ‘‘ to rest upon the gneiss rocks which outcrop farther south.”’? About one fifth of a mile further north, it is reported to have been found by drilling at a depthof 17.5 feet: These notes show great variation in the form, thickness and position of the serpentinoid sheet, perhaps in conformity with sharp flexures usual in the enclosing beds of gneiss. Some suggest the possible existence of another underlying sheet or sill of the same rock. It has been shown by Dana? and F. J. H. Merrill that the axes of folds of the Manhattan beds gen- erally pitch gently toward the southwest. As this bed of ser- pentinoid is located in that direction from Manhattan Island, at the distance of a mile, it may represent, unless brought up by an intervening fault, an intercalation in the uppermost part of the stratum. Microscopic Characteristics of the Serpentinoid. — The serpen- tinoid of Staten Island has been already subjected to careful examination in specimens from several localities.‘ Amphibole was found in abundance, associated with serpentine, talc, chlorite, chromite, magnetite, and occasional bronze-colored in- 1W. W, Mather, Nat. Hist. of N. Y., Pt. I, Geol. of First Dist., 1843, 284. 27. C. Russell, Geol. of Hudson Co., N. J., 69-70; Mather, of. c7¢., 603. 34m. Jour. Sci., (3), XX, 1880, 361. 4 Newland, Joc. ctt., 313, 316-317. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 409 clusions. The olivine mesh-structure, as well as the rectangular network of diopside, was distinguished in the thin sections, and even remnants of crystals of both minerals. In the Hoboken rock, the fine texture renders the constitu- tion less easily determinable, and from examination of one variety it was described as ‘‘a structureless mass of serpentine fibers.’ Other minerals distinguished were talc, chlorite, dolo- mite, calcite, chromite, with small amounts of iron ores. ‘‘ No traces of the original silicates could be found in any part of the exposure.’’ An analysis by Goodell was presented, without explanation of the low proportion of silica and remarkable excess of lime, both facts inconsistent with the composition of a ‘‘ rock thoroughly serpentinized throughout.”’ } The results will now be presented, from my microscopic ex- amination of 13 thin sections, prepared from selected specimens of this Hoboken rock, including light green, dark green, com- pact, laminated and brecciated forms, besides that deposited in veins of marmolite. In even the hand specimens the eye may distinguish a variegation of less altered, dark green spots, and of light green serpentinous spots, and abundantly in both, on certain surfaces, shining green facets, which other observations show to be more or less altered scales of bronzite or bastite. In thin sections under the microscope a variety of structures present themselves in great distinctness, particularly the knitted or bar structure, the lattice structure and a columnar structure, though never the mesh structure found in the Staten Island rock. In the tracts with knitted structure brilliant veinlets appear, between crossed nicols, in bent or twisted ribbons, greenish to brownish and orange yellow, with decided pleochroism, color- less to yellow and orange yellow ; greatest absorption in direc- tion of the veinlet. Their width rarely exceeds 0.02 millimeter but sometimes reaches 0.04 mm. In the latter case the usual structure is best shown, a central suture or a fine lamination in the plane of the veinlet, with a cross fibration on each side. Occasionally one veinlet is seen to cut across another. The cen- tral plane may exhibit thin continuous sheets, separated by a dark line or suture, and is often nearly isotrope (serpentine). 410 JULIEN The lateral bands with cross fibration show high interference colors and often a strong pleochroism, pale bluish green and greenish yellow to orange, yellow or colorless. Extinction parallel or normal to plane of veinlet. In places, some veinlets are thicker, continuous and parallel, so as to produce an appar- ent close lamination, with a micro-augen structure, through the lenticular form of intervening grains of a colorless mineral. This seems to mark, not a schistose structure of the rock, but an eminent cleavage or parting of the parent mineral, probably the orthopinacoid, ooPco (100), of diallage. The material of these veinlets may be composite, a mixture of chrysotile and chlorite,' or consist of micro-chrysotile, or often wholly of a mineral of somewhat higher birefringence to which the brilliant polarization colors may be mainly due, micro-nemalite, the fibrous form of brucite. Under sufficient magnifying power, the two minerals chrysotile and nemalite, may be easily discriminated by the rela- tive position of their axes of elasticity, ¢ lying parallel to the direction of the fibers in chrysotile, and Q in nemalite. This cross-fibration, in such veinlets within serpentinous rocks, has been hitherto assumed to characterize chrysotile alone. But in this serpentinoid, at least, the incomplete alteration shown in the veins which traverse the outcrop, enclosing brucite partly altered to nemalite and the latter partly to chrysotile, also ex- tends to the microscopic veinlets, which may comprise both micro-nemalite and micro-chrysotile. The general relation of these two minerals is the subject of another investigation. The interspaces in the knitted or bar structure rarely exceed O.I or 0.2 mm. in length, usually predominating in volume of the rock. In places, they are occupied largely by a colorless substance, without relief, cleavage or texture, but which is not isotropic or structureless, as it first appears under low power ; or it may be greenish yellow and feebly pleochroic, greenish to yellow. Between crossed nicols it offers an irregular aggregate of blades and plates, with sometimes a very minute platy tex- ture, fibrous in places. Low birefringence shown by feeble interference colors, pale gray or bluish gray to bluish white of 1 Newland, Joc. ctt., 317. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 411 the lower First Order, but sometimes reaching reddish orange or bright brown. Extinction of individual blades parallel or normal to chief plane of polarization of the nicols. On selec- tion of small isotropic spots an obscure biaxial interference figure may be shown in convergent light. This substance was identified as serpentine (antigorite) and predominates in some thin sections, but its higher interference colors suggest slight but genera] intermixture with a more birefringent mineral, brucite. In many thin sections, irregular colorless patches with little re- lief occur, sometimes 2mm. across, connected by narrow veinlets, O.2 mm. in breadth, generally in parallel arrangement. A dis- tinct pleochroism, colorless to pale yellowish, indicates the pre- dominance of a chlorite. Smaller bunches of the same mineral may occur in apparent isolation here and there. In large part they present aggregates of minute plates and blades of exceed- ingly fine fibrous texture, microchrysotile or perhaps micro- nemalite, often with abrupt terminations against the veinlet wall, and revealing in polarized light an abundance of short cross- partings, delicate but sharply defined. In some veinlets a symmetrical cross-fibration appears, normal to the walls; but the fibers are commonly bent, broken and mixed up, as if by rock movements. A somewhat high bire- fringence appears in interference colors of upper First and lower Second Orders, from white up to sky blue or turquoise blue. Prevalent extinction parallel to the fibers and wavy, but vary- ing to 7° in curved fibers. € axis parallel to the fibration. In convergent light, the straight bars of a uniaxial figure are com- monly seen, most distinct in the more unbroken plates, and very rarely a dim cross opening out on rotation into a_ biaxial figure. In most cases the direction of the optic axis coincides nearly or exactly with the fibration, z. ¢., parallel to c, show- ing the double refraction to be positive, the mineral being ap- parently uniaxial. These chloritic veinlets appear to be the ‘‘ colorless, low polar- izing bands,” for which another explanation has been offered.’ ' Newland, doc. cit., 317. 412 JULIEN Anomalies in their optical characteristics are partly due to the fine fibrous aggregation and to phenomena of strain, but doubtless in part toaslight but general intermixture with amor- phous serpentine, shown in ordinary light by yellow streaks, and perhaps with brucite. Within the interspaces of the network and imbedded in ser- pentine, another mineral, colorless to grayish, with some relief often occurs in irregular grains, elongated or lenticular, up to 0.3-0.5 mm. in length, by 0.1 mm. in thickness. They are rarely massive, but finely granular or mylonitic, as by crushing, though more or less indistinct parting planes, perhaps cleavage traces, occasionally appear, even to a platy structure ; these make an angle of 80° to 88° with the parallel serpentine veinlets. Extinction generally wavy, as indeed with all the anisotropic minerals, and imperfect ; maximum about 42°, though in some cases parallel to cleavage. No interference figure in convergent light was obtained. These grains may be assigned to an origi- nal mineral constituent of the rock before serpentinization, prob- ably disintegrated diallage, and now make up but a fraction of one per cent. of the volume. Magnetite is also dispersed in considerable quantity through both diallage and serpentine in these interspaces, in the form of black dust, minute cubes and elongated aggregates, which may reach 0.02-0.06 mm. These are largely gathered along the walls of the interspaces or darken the sides of the partly altered granules of pyroxene. A very few black particles consist of opaque, rhombic or hexagonal plates, or translucent reddish, orange and yellow scales, referred to hematite. The lattice structure is less common than the bar structure and usually inconspicuous, presenting cells or interspaces 0.2— 0.3 mm. across. Within these, grains of amphibole occur in two varieties. The one, considered to be remnants of a mineral antecedent to serpentinization, occurs in colorless, broad fibrous sheets and irregular grains, contrasting with the serpentine reticulation by their good relief. They are granular, as by crushing, and rarely OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 413 show cleavage traces. Interference colors brilliant yellow of First Order to greenish blue of Second Order; ¢=c. Maxi- mum extinction 16° and wavy. In convergent light, emergence of a negative acute bisectrix is indicated. Inclusions of pleonaste sometimes occur, arranged as if the amphibole represented orig- inal grains of bronzite. A secondary form of amphibole is also found, mostly color- less (tremolite), sometimes pale greenish or bluish (actinolite), with distinct pleochroism, greenish white to colorless or bluish white to pale salmon. It occurs in short prisms, elongated scales, or slender fibrous blades, with cross partings, to I mm. in length, with good relief. They may be gathered in clusters or radial groups, or loosely scattered, and may also occupy inter- spaces of the bar structure. Bright interference colors from yellow of First Order to greenish blue of Second Order. Ex- tinction generally parallel or at angle of 45° to the fibers and wavy, but varies up to 22°. Some grains twinned, with extinc- tion angle about 18°. In convergent light, the emergence of an optic axis appears, with three colored rings. Double refrac- tion negative. Along their margins the crystals are often col- ored brownish red and yellowish brown by iron ochre. Many are seen to pass into yellow serpentine, and some of the longer blades into talc. Bronzite appears in allotriomorphic colorless grains, with marked relief, usually mingled with scales of bastite and altered amphibole. It is generally full of irregular fractures and clefts, as by crushing, but in a few instances shows an eminent cleav- age parallel to the brachypinacoid, « Peo (o10). In some fragments a slight pleochroism was detected, greenish to yel- lowish white. Extinction imperfect in the granular form, par- allel in the compact, sometimes diagonal and wavy. Double refraction positive. Granules of chromite and pleonaste ar- ranged as original inclusions in this mineral. A peculiar kind of alteration is shown in some thin sections by passage into milky white, nearly opaque material. Many broad scales, finely fibrous, I-3 mm. across, were referred. to bastite. These are reddish or brownish white and 414 JULIEN pleochroic, reddish to colorless, with absorption deepest parallel to fibration. Interference colors brilliant, like those of tremo- lite, from yellow and deep red of First Order to sky-blue of Second Order. Extinction parallel to fibration; ¢=c. In con- vergent light, only obscure interference figure, the position of whose axial plane was not determined. Double refraction posi- tive. The scales are usually intersected by veinlets of colorless serpentine in an open network with elongated interspaces, often 0.2 mm. in length, sometimes polygonal with five or six sides, in a kind of islet network. Other scales, apparently of altered amphibole, resemble those of bastite, and are generally 0.17—.27 mm. in length, often color- less, or greenish and pleochroic, and without relief. These also possess an exceedingly fine fibration and occasionally show cleavage traces in a columnar structure. Interference colors in part like those of amphibole, in part bluish gray of First Order. Extinction in selected spots perfect and parallel, but generally irregular and imperfect, as in an aggregate of altered fibers, and apparently parallel. Around these grains runs a border, 0.010-0.014 mm. in width, made up of colorless granular tremolite, with marked relief. Much of this is columnar or rod-like, and many rods lie scattered around, as if loosened by movements. Minute veinlets of tremolite also penetrate the grains of amphibole, and granules lie here and there along its fibration. All the features point to steps in the passage of the primary bronzite and its bastitic derivatives into forms of amphibole, last of all into secondary tremolite. | Talc occurs in scattered blades, fibrous bundles and long wisps resembling the sheaves of tremolite, presenting the usual, brilliant interference colors, red, green, etc., of the Third Order. Extinction parallel to the fibers. ¢||¢. In convergent light, the emergence of an optic axis, with a system of rings, some- times appears. Chromite is scattered in jet-black angular grains of finely granular texture and high lustre in reflected light, up to 0.3 to I mm. in diameter. Many are irregular in form, rudely rhom- OCCLUSION OF TGNEOUS ROCK 415 bic or triangular, or present six-sided outlines like cross-sections of octahedra. Some are mere skeleton aggregates of loosely adhering granules by imperfect development, with hollow in- teriors occupied by serpentine. Even the massive grains are commonly intersected by sharp clefts filled with serpentine, whose parallelism indicates the plane of strain, coinciding with the schist-plane of the surrounding rock. Pleonaste is not a common accessory, though very abundant in occasional thin sections in grayish green angular grains, translucent and isotropic, some of which show six-sided out- lines. Many granules of chromite are included, sometimes to half or more of the volume of the pleonaste, and the grains of the latter may thus pass along a row into pure chromite and beyond back again into spinel. Granules of dolomite, with a little relief, are often mixed in the interstices of tremolite or gathered into nests, 0.8 to 2 mm. across, colorless, grayish or reddish white, with clouded mar- gins (by hydromagnesite?). Outlines sometimes projecting, with an obscure fibrous texture, Newton colors along the inter- vening lines, and many included particles of magnetite. The usual characteristic cleavage and high birefringence. Extinc- tion symmetrical. In convergent light, the bars of an uniaxial cross. Some clear grains with more relief were referred to calcite. The paragenetic relationship of the minerals offers the follow- ing order: chromite and pleonaste, diallage, bronzite, actinolite and tremolite, magnetite, bastite and hydrous amphibole, sec- ondary tremolite, brucite and serpentine, talc and chlorite, dolomite and calcite, hematite. It has been stated that the mineral of higher birefringence, associated with serpentine and chlorite in the veinlets, must be brucite or its fibrous form, nemalite. Where uniformly diffused, its minute scales or fibers, lying partly in planes normal to the visual direction and there- fore isotropic, must blend indistinguishably with its serpentinous matrix of feeble birefringence. This may account for the ap- parently greater proportion of serpentine observed in the thin sections than that indicated by the chemical analysis. But 416 JULIEN where the nemalite is concentrated, as in the lateral bands of the veinlets, with cross-fibration, its higher birefringence and relief betrays its intercalation among the films of serpentine and chlorite. Genesis of the Serpentinoid Schists.— Four hypotheses have been advanced to account for the origin of the rocks in this western ridge and of their congeners on Manhattan Island and in Westchester County. First, Alteration of a sedimentary rock.’ There is no longer need of discussion of this view. Second, Direct serpentinization of dolomite. But that mode of reaction and alteration, by solutions carrying silica, though actually observed in the limestones of this region, is here as generally elsewhere a subordinate and limited process. To this, however, has been probably due the origin of the ferruginous, dark green serpentine near Port Henry, New York,’ as well as, in part, of the serpentine at Montville, New Jersey ® (and at Rye, Westchester county, New York, according to Dana ‘*). As for replacement by injection of serpentine bodily into dolo- mite, it has been long ago observed that the conveyance of the mineral serpentine by solutions, if it ever occurs, is very limited in distance. All such deposits are confined to cracks and cavities within or very near the decomposing silicates from which the mineral has been usually derived. Its transference in quantity therefore and injection into a body of limestone are, I believe, everywhere unknown. Third, Alteration of amphibolized dolomite. Alteration of a magnesian limestone might pass through two metamorphic phases : amphibolization, the rock becoming pene- trated or even replaced by actinolite, tremolite, and other min- eral silicates ; and subsequent ophiolitic decomposition, by pre- liminary hydration and later change into hydrous magnesian VE. Wurtz, Proc. Lyc.. Nat. Fist Ny, Vs, W870. 182. 2G. P.. Merrill, Proc.’ U. S. Wat. aass, X11, 1890;5.507. 3 Jdem., XI, 1888, To5=111. 4j. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sr2., (3), X& 1880, 031. - OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK | AEF silicates, in part serpentine.’ While the prevalence of this proc- ess in other regions has been established — Massachusetts, the Adirondacks, Canada, etc. — its insufficiency to account for the phenomena at and near Manhattan Island has been already discussed.” Fourth, Alteration of ultra-basic igneous rocks. The application of this hypothesis to the serpentinoid calls for consideration of its chemical and mineralogical character- istics. Chemical Composition of the Serpentinoid. — We are indebted to Newland for publication of two analyses of these rocks, and a few others are added below for comparison. A. “ Light green serpentine,’ Castle Point, Hoboken, N. J. G. A. Goodell. B. ‘‘ Dark green serpentine,’’ Castleton Corners, Staten fend, N.Y: Sp. gr. 2.55. .G. A: Goodell. C. ‘‘Serpentine,’’ Kallerangen, Germany. G. Schulze. D. “‘ Reddish serpentine,’ Lower Predannack, Cornwall, Pig, - Sper. 2.77. M. W. Travers. E. ‘‘ Wehrlite-serpentine,” Ladkije, North Syria. L. Finckh. F. “ Lherzolite- and pyroxenite-serpentine,” Sarikaja Mtns., North Syria. L. Finckh. Ua cove wcesc a -% ig6.90° 4p 36.72 40.77 40.29 37.07 39.95 9 Se 1.29 1.06 3321 5.10 1.70 2.87 Se | 45 .49 2.81 — = = ct) Se eee S757) 6.59 1.79 4.94 8.03 11.55 oe ee | 1.46: || 1.53 6.12 3.98 — a a | 23-75 | 29.09 21.24 25.67 38.12 32.05 . re Le 9.95 13.74 11.85 — = ee | 13-14 | 14.54 10.70 8.17 14.84 % 13.40 98.31 | 99.97 | 100.38 | 100.00 99.76 99.82 A comparison of the figures in A and B with those of the published analyses of true serpentines from other regions will serve to establish the wide divergence of Goodell’s results and 1J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct., (3), XX, 1880, 32; N. L. Britton, 4m. VM. Y. Acad. Sci., 1, 1881, 167, and Nat. Hist. Soc., Staten Island, 1886. 2 Julien, oc. ctt., 449-453. 418 JULIEN to prove that the mineral serpentine, played but a small part in constitution of his materials. The analysis of a serpentinoid from Kallerangen? is pre- sented above, as offering a close analogy. That rock occurred in association with hornblende schists and gneisses, chlorite and talc schists, and was pronounced a decomposition product of an aggregate of aluminous tremolite, olivine, and in places bron- zite. All of these minerals, together with magnetite, chromite and newly formed chlorite, survived in microscopic particles, and a netted structure prevailed through the thin sections. A similar composition is shown by a serpentinoid (D) from Lower Predannack in the Lizard district of Cornwall, England, a reddish banded rock, rich in parallel crystals of colorless amphibole. Under the microscope it presented the mesh struc- ture of olivine, and, in some specimens, evidences of enstatite or bastite, and has been recognized as a derivative from a fine- grained peridotite.” Between the long-discussed hornblende schists and ‘‘ serpen- tines’’ of the Lizard district and those of the region near Manhattan Island, certain marked points of difference offer themselves. Here the rocks of both classes are decidedly homogeneous, schistose but not banded, blending together in- sensibly and often intimately intermixed, and retaining abundant indications of an actinolitic constitution which preceded the alteration into serpentinoid. They seem to be allied to the ser- pentine sheets but not to the banded hornblende schists of Porthalla in the Lizard district, and to correspond closely to some of the interesting examples of passage of igneous rocks into “serpentine,” in the extra-Lizard district, in the west of England, whose phases of alteration have been displayed in numerous published analyses. Serpentines from North Syria,‘ derived from alteration of 1 George Schulze, ‘‘ Die Serpentine von Erbendorf in der bayerischen Ober- Pfalz,’’ Inaug.-diss., Berlin, 1883, 21. 2T. G. Bonney, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XXXIV, 1877, 915, and XLVII, 1891, 472. 3]. H. Collins, Geol. Mag. (Dec. III), 1886, 360-366, and IV, 1887, 220-226. 4Finckh, /oc. ct¢., 125-126. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 419 wehrlite, lherzolite and pyroxenite —rocks all free from feld- spar — correspond closely in chemical composition with our serpentinoids, though differing in the purely magnesian base of the original pyroxenes. No feldspar or other mineral of alkaline composition has been distinguished in thin sections of our serpentinoids, nor the ‘‘pseudo-mesh structure,’’ indicative of serpentinized feldspar,’ nor the presence of alkalies in any analysis... The original con- stitution of a gabbro, even of a basic type, is therefore elimi- nated. The poverty in alumina and excess of lime show clearly that the original rock did not consist of an aluminous silicate, such as the aluminous augite or hornblende of an ordinary pyroxenite, limburgite, theralite or similar ultra-basic rock. They are however consistent with the composition of a diallage aggregate. From a correlation of the results of the chemical analysis with those of the microscopical examination of this serpentinoid, the following conclusions become impressed. 1. The remarkable excess of lime. This is not. consistent with the view that ‘‘ on the assumption that all of the water is united in the serpentine, the proportion of this mineral is to the total mass as about 4 to 5.”"* In the composition of serpentine magnesia is never replaced by lime. It becomes necessary therefore to assign this content of lime entirely to remaining molecules of diallage, mainly left in form of bastite, tremolite and hydrated amphibole. 2. The low percentage of silica. This indicates that a portion of the base must be free from that combination, z. ¢., magnesia as hydrate, in the form of brucite. A little calculation will show that no possible mode of combination of any silicates of probable occurrence could reduce the silica below 37 per cent., as found in the analyses. It is interesting to note the still lower percentage of silica and higher of magnesia in Nuttall’s old analysis: silica 30, ferric oxide 2, magnesia 52, and loss by ignition 16. These figures, if approximately correct, would 1 Finckh, /oc. c?¢., 109-110. 2 Newland, /oc. cit., 316 420 JULIEN indicate a proportion of nearly 30 per cent. of brucite. His specimen was of the usual ‘ dull yellowish green, inclining to olive” ; specific gravity, 2.82.' 3. Condition of the iron oxides, whether as hematite, magne- tite or combined in a silicate. Only a trace of hematite or free iron ochre was found in the thin sections. On digestion of half a gram of the finely pulverized rock in boiling saturated solution of citric acid, it was dissolved in a deep yellow solution, The small grayish residue of gelatinous silica, treated with hot solution of potassium hydrate, yielded traces of undissolved sili- cates (diallage, bronzite and talc), chromite and magnetite. The last was separated by a strong bar magnet, with apparently no disturbance of the feebly magnetic chromite. It thus be- came evident that the ferric as well as the ferrous oxide was present in that form in the diallage molecule, as illustrated in many analyses of pyroxene. recorded by Dana, who reports ‘“‘certain varieties containing the trivalent metals, aluminum, ferriciron andtnanganese. ‘These varieties may be most simply considered as molecular compounds of Ca(Mg,Fe)Si,O, and (Mg,Fe) (Al, Fe),SiO,, as suggested by Tschermak.” Mineralogical Constitution of the Serpentinoid.— Instead of the predominance of serpentine in our rock, the chemical and micro- scopical evidences suggest rather an admixture of hydrated forms of ferromagnesian minerals, such as those of which analyses, chiefly from American localities, are tabulated below in the order of increasing amounts of lime. a | Olivine. | Villarsite. Asbestus. Actinolite. Tremolite. Diallage. | Sahlite. SiO, ....:| 40.75 | 38:90 | .55.20°| §6:300/ 9 57.40 gI.4t |, Sg.a2 ALO, ...|) — — — 1.70 .40 4.32 | 1.06 iO ae = 0.36 7.80 11.82 4.30 1.40 | 9.31 | 6.01 MnO ..., — _ — _- —_— | 04. _ || 60 CxO 58 oo — = 10.70 13.90 20.60 23.62 MgO.....| 50.28 47.50 30.73 | 24.00 24.70: || 15.14- | 14.50 ae 6 sees oo 5.80 2.25 1.00 Ao) - |, eeeee 100.39 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 98.00 98.20 | 100.82 | 99.38 Analyst. | Manice. | By theory.. Beck. | Seybert. C. F. Ram- W. G. Brown, Bowen melsberg. | 1 Nuttall, daz. Jour. Sct., 1V, 1822, 16-17. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 421 Remnants of most or all of these minerals abound in these rocks, although, in large part, they are more or less altered and have passed into very minute particles, fibers and scales. In investigating the mineral constitution of the Hoboken serpen- tinoid, magnetite was separated in the manner already stated and weighed ; pleonaste calculated from estimated volume, on part of the alumina ; and chromite from percentage of chromic acid found in the analysis. The presence of carbonates in this rock having been shown by: Newland’s observations and my own, the loss in Goodell’s analysis was fairly referable to the undetermined amount of carbonic acid ; from this the carbonates were estimated, chiefly dolomite, with a little calcite and perhaps hydromagnesite. The remainder of lime supplied the basis for determination of the lime-magnesia-iron silicate of a composition intermediate be- tween diallage and augite; for this the analysis of leucaugite CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HOBOKEN SERPENTINOID. Mineralogical Constitution. || oh ok | he: Qk o¢ Go | rie wet os ei reteeee ey Ca vies une ch eee) ite Ee Ss | | | | | LS i .50|,) — —|— 35.) -15... — bs — | >o— US ee .28'|) — o5 | .o1 | —-| — | .o2| — | |} — OS re .69 Le — ! 44) —.|..21 |..04]) — 2 WERMNDES 05S s2 2. vecsecess Belicia Ost a | = TO gant = eee Dolomite with calcite and | | hydromagnesite......... Nefek cE oa — —) —/| —)} .77) 1.07) — |1.69 Diallage with amphibole | | | | Bid Dastite....:....cccess | §8.10]| 28.23 | .40.| — |5.44| .47 |8.17 | 14.46)..934° — Serpentine with talc...... | 18.45 || 7.63| .24| — | — | .47|7.62| — |2.49) — Brucite with bronzite....., 8.97) — | (:6,10,) — eerie -— UE en ic back vos aacave GG Fae JN SN OH ee pre — |6.53) — | | 100.00 | from Amity, New York, by Harrington, was selected as most suitable, with substitution of ferric oxide for alumina. From the remainder of silica, the amount of serpentine was calculated, on the figures of Garrett’s analysis of marmolite from Hoboken. From the balance of magnesia the amount of brucite was estimated. The remainder of water signified. the hydration of the greater part of the diallage molecule in the form of the 429 JULIEN observed alteration-products, bastite and hydrated amphibole, aside from the remnants of unaltered diallage, actinolite and tremolite. The analysis of the rock with the stated corrections, and its approximate mineral constitution so deduced, are given above. On separation from the above figures of the percentages of pleonaste, chromite, dolomite and brucite, the molecular ratios obtained suggest that the predominant mineral was a metasili- cate, with ‘oxygen ratio 4: S72: 1 22, asin | pyroxene. and that the products of hydration are equivalent to an orthosilicate, with oxygen ratio A:,S2 21:1. The, figures “are however inexact, probably through extensive removal of silica. A similar treatment of Goodell’s analysis of the Staten Island ser- pentinoid has yielded the following results. The amount of carbon dioxide was included by the analyst in the percentage of water and stated to be small. | CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STATEN ISLAND SERPENTINOID. | | 1 | v : . Sos ues Oe Gun Sx Oye OFlOwOS | al SF a Mineralogical Constitution. ay a at oS oe SS | Sf aa oS C Pe) Macnetite W. M. Davis, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., II, 1891, 317. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 437 The same twin belt of acid and basic crystalline eruptives, with their derivative schists, stretches from south to north along our entire Atlantic seaboard, approximately parallel to the coast but approaching tidewater only where it reaches Washington. Upon the granites and gneisses of its eastern margin, where this is crossed by the east-flowing rivers, a series of important cities and state capitals find their location : in Alabama, Montgomery, on the Alabama river ; in Georgia, Augusta, upon the Savannah ; in South Carolina, Columbia, upon the Congaree; in North Carolina, Raleigh, upon the Neuse; in Virginia, Richmond, upon the James; in the District of Columbia, Washington, upon the Potomac. Beyond that, directly upon the tract of eruptives, as else- where explained, there follow: in Delaware, Wilmington, upon Brandywine and Christiana creeks; in Maryland, Baltimore, upon the Patapsco; in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, upon the Schuylkill ; in New Jersey, Jersey City and Hoboken, upon the Hudson ; in New York, New York City and Peekskill, upon the Hudson; in Massachusetts, Boston, upon the Charles ; and in Canada, Montreal, upon the St. Lawrence. Throughout this great belt occur the same folding of beds and intense alteration of old sedimentary deposits as on Manhattan Island, and we find in all these sites of prominent American cities the degraded stumps of vast mountain ranges of the samie ancient uplift. The Coastal Chain of Volcanoes. —To the north of Washing- ton, where this range stretched along the border of the inland sea, it has left unmistakable evidence as to important charac- teristics in structure and physiography not yet clearly set forth. The facts stated concerning the abundant intrusions on and near Manhattan Island mark this location as an ancient center of in- tense igneous activity at a very early geological period. It was probably contemporaneous with the one already recognized in the Cortlandt series, near Peekskill, on the south side of the Highlands of the Hudson. In his discussion of the distribution of ancient volcanic rocks, as ‘‘disguised igneous masses in the oldest geological forma- 438 JULIEN tions,” along the eastern border of North America from Canada to Georgia, Williams has distinguished two parallel belts along the coast. In his accompanying map he has marked the Bos- ton basin as the known location of one such volcanic center in the more eastern belt; he also included, as another probable location, the region near Peekskill, nothwithstanding the ab- sence there of any recognized effusive or volcanic eruptives. This was based on the following view: ‘In New York State there are, as far as the writer is aware, no remains of igneous rock which have solidified at the surface. Nevertheless the isolated and highly differentiated Cortlandt series, near Peeks- kill, presents us with the deeply eroded roots of an ancient vol- cano, probably of Cambrian or Silurian age, whose superficial parts have entirely disappeared. The elzolite-syenite area in northern New Jersey is probably of the same character.”’ ' Though on the same map no such designation has been made of the sites of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the cor- relation which I think has been demonstrated, by data already given, would connect also the igneous rocks of these tracts, with their characteristic differentiation — gabbros and diorites, pyroxenites and serpentinoids, granites and pegmatites — rather with those of ‘‘the basal portions of volcanoes” than with abyssal types. Each of these three places, as well, offers in the disposal and structure of the igneous masses, the same evi- dences of local concentration of igneous activity, to claim a position on the same ancient volcanic belt. In the tract from Maryland to Georgia, also, where the lesser intensity of metamorphism has favored escape from effacement, recent investigations have even proven the presence of volcanic effusives, in the form of metarhyolite, diabase, gabbro and their derivatives. Mount Manhattan and its Associated Peaks. — If then we are to look upon the acid and basic intrusions, now found crowding the schists of Manhattan Island, as but the lower portions of vents which reached the surface in the form of fluent lavas, we are dwelling, at this site, not merely upon the igneous injections 1G, H. Williams, Jour. Geol., II, 1894, 1-31. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 439 which commonly swarm along the axis of extensive orogenic movement, but probably over the roots of one of the oldest and most violent volcanic craters ever existent upon the earth. In previous discussions of the eruptive crystallines along the eastern border of the Appalachian belt, grounds have been presented in favor of a prevalent hypothesis of the elevation of a mountain range upon the western rim of an Archzean conti- nent along the Atlantic, to which the name “ Appalachia”’ has been applied.’ However, in view of the probable relegation of these crystallines to Palzozoic age, it has been recently urged that ‘‘ the location of this hypothetical range, which is supposed to have supplied the sediments for the Appalachian sea during Palzozoic time, must be shifted, at least for the earlier Palzozoic, farther east where its roots would not lie buried under Coastal Plain deposits.’”’? Nevertheless the evidences of a huge moun- tain range along the tract of these Paleozoic crystallines remain exactly the same, testifying, it would appear, toward the suc- cession of that Archzan range by another enormous uplift along this inner line, in advance of the main Appalachian uplift on a line still further west. Its period, if estimated by that of the igneous activity, fell probably, it is believed, in the earlier part of the interval between early Silurian and late Carboniferous. From local evidences of intense vulcanism there is further reason to believe that this range rose here and there into lofty peaks. For the purpose of the physiographer, the one on the site of New York City may be designated as Mount Manhattan. Some comprehension of its height and dimensions may be gained, not merely from allowance for its apparently vast contribution of secondary debris to the later Paleozoic and Mesozoic within the interior sea-basin, but from an estimate of the area apparently covered by its base. To the north, rocks of exactly the same character stretch for forty miles till they blend with the Cort- landt series at the Archean Highlands on the Hudson river. To the northeast, they extend over Westchester county and beyond into Connecticut. To the east, on the shore of Long 1B. Willis, Vat. Geog. Mag. 2E. B. Mathews, Joc. cit., 159. 440 JULIEN Island, a remnant of the same rocks survives, penetrated by the same intrusive sheets of pegmatite and diorite, and they may underlie the island beyond. To the south, the submarine course of the buried channel of the Hudson river reaches for 120 miles, with a topographical uniformity which suggests erosion of the same class of rocks in that direction. On the southwest and west, the same gneisses, amphibole schists, ser- pentine and granite outcrop along the shore for over ten miles, on a probable westward extension of the same formation into or across New Jersey. The eruptive tract on Manhattan Island thus forms the center of a vast region of sharply folded, crys- talline schists, now degraded toward a base level, whose area, largely that of the base of Mount Manhattan, stretches over hundreds of square miles. The survival of the remaining portion of these ancient schists above the sea-level has been due only in part to the highly tilted position of ‘the layers, offering but their edges to attack by agencies of erosion and decay. Almost every knoll upon the island and even the long ridges, reaching 150 to 200 feet in altitude, such as Morningside Heights, Washington Heights, and the heights of Inwood, are capped or seamed by sheets of igneous intrusions of both classes, or even so saturated with pegmatite lenses as to have become consolidated into a granite mass. The resistance and protection thus afforded to the sur- rounding schists are attested by these hard bands and rounded hummocks, gnawed and scored by the teeth of the Great Glacier, and have preserved the varied topography of this exposed rocky promontory in preparation for the beautiful site of the great city. But the peak of Manhattan was but one of many which crowned the mountain wall stretching from southwest to north- east along the old coast, and which call for designation, for convenient reference. The lofty crest, with volcanic vent, on the site of Wilmington, Delaware, may be indicated by the original Indian name of that locality,’ as Mount Hopokahacking. 17, Acrelius, A History of New Sweden, Philadelphia, 1874, 24. OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 441 For the peak near Baltimore, Maryland, the name of the village which stands near the center of the eruptive tract may be used as Mount Powhatan. The summit which rose over the site of Philadelphia, Penn- sylvania, may be distinguished, after the old name of the Pas- sagonke Indians, as Mount Kuéquenaku.' The old volcano whose agency, according to Williams, is indicated by the eruptive rocks of the Cortlandt series near Peekskill and Stony Point, on opposite sides of the Hudson River, may be referred to, after the name applied to that locality by the Mohegan Indians, as Mount Sachoes.? To the northeast, for the center of volcanic activity at the Boston basin, we may resort to the old Indian name, in the form of Mount Shaumet.2 A variation of this name, Shawmut, has been already applied to one group of eruptives in vicinity of the same city.* Still further to the north, but inland, at the head of tidewater on the river St. Lawrence, the volcanic intrusions on the site of Montreal indicate an eruptive center at another peak, which may be designated, after the Algonquin name of the Indian village at that place, as Mount Hochelaga.’ The explanation of this interesting relationship, the location of many of the most important cities of our eastern seaboard almost in a straight line over the ruins of these ancient vol- canoes, rests primarily upon local hardening effected in the prevalent folded gneisses, seamed and saturated by tough igne- ous rocks, particularly those of acid constitution ; secondarily, upon variation in resistance, afforded by difference in structure 1 Signifying ‘‘ the grove of the long pine trees,’’ according to Heckewelder, S. G. Drake, Book of the Indians of North America, Book II, Boston, 1834, 17. For this and some of the other local names I am indebted to a painstaking search by Principal John W. Davis, Bedford Park, Bronx, New York City, Recording Secretary of the New York Society of Pedayogy. 2R. Bolton, Hist. of Westchester Co., I, New York, 1884, 112. 3 J. Quincy, A Municipal History of the Town and City of Boston during Two Centuries, 1630-1830; E. M. Bacon, Boston, a Guide Bock. 4W. O. Crosby, Zech. Quart. Boston, xii, 1899, 13, 163. > Hochelaga Depicta ; the early history and present state of the City and Island of Montreal. N. Bosworth, Montreal, 1839, 19, 30. 449 JULIEN and materials, to subsequent erosion during base-levelling and to direct attack of crossing streams. The latter characteristic — topographic modification through the presence of intermixed eruptives or of hard and soft derivative schists —has afforded conditions most favorable for the establishment of a large city. In the beginning, convenient access to both river and sea, with abundance of sea-food, has been as attractive to the aborigines who first chose, occupied and named these sites, as to the civilized settlers who followed. Then the excellence of a deep soil, rich in lime and alkalies, derived from’ decay of the oc- cluded lavas and traps and from their glacial attrition, has offered an important condition to the agriculture of the primitive inhabitants and afterward of the earlier immigrant. But the main advantages for permanent human settlement have been gained through the deep erosive dissection of a rock stratum of varied constitution. A glimpse from a high point, near almost any of these cities, reveals the essential attractions in depth of water along bold shores, capacious harbor, convenience and varied beauty of building sites, and access to outcrops of build- ing stone, clay and sand, which have resulted directly from the diversified topography but initially from its volcanic foundations. ~ ee —— Deal eater all 3 Xk cb ¢ PUA LE V- Map of tract along Spuyten Duyvil Creek, at extreme northern end of Manhattan Island. ‘The dark broken band indicates the out- crops of the layer of dioritic schist. The figures show the strike and dip as observed in the outcrops of the schist and gneisses. ‘The dotted line at 216th Street represents the position of the cross-section shown in Plate VI. (444 ) ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SEI., VOL. XVI. PLATE V <2 220th St. ~ Bete, elt Re te 219 th St. 1% . oF 4 tt pay Se. Gore, Sx a, aS SS ae ee . ‘ : Uj For ~ } y “/ > eae, os € wen ‘. / ae tins e; Tie / ; Se eer Ln he == x, : gr Die Ui ; a a ; S/S) ai ORR, pA wane al Ba erin rie — re areca) Riitare Bh / $ F ey Py, ’ sia 4 SS be ad ar 218 th St. ’ ’ ° : i] Peed rad 4 PN ee ea er att 7 aber wy ra We gees . ’ ’ ry Nie ae ¥ => STA fk a = wet ae ar of , Ree l ier re S/S ‘ ' nie rese = ees ‘ ad res =e ey Den oie ress A . / . ’ e righ bs ' e QO pee ale ate a . Cae | ‘ = ! ° 3 Gl PSH pa > AONE uc (On OE . Lepore / ‘ ‘ 7 PEM oa 217 th St, ‘ y, Cds Pf Bian, Sue ¥ ’ ‘ Tyo | pie ‘ ‘ as . A » Rein ewe, ate g t ‘32 wf, Gale ee AY) , ‘ 8 Uy , S . ’ / = kg ieee 7 8 * ' Si oe op laf 5 ‘ eee ee ean oe a ’ 38S : : S 3 ayaa fear ene [S, 18 ' = / Ly’ te ade ar / pd / Prins 2 ’ ’ ° a SAM Araya = PL. CR & ' a> J" a9 PS SR! PIR L881) 216 th St, Tt Ree ek Pig AT I rie i! ex U 1 rere | ae I fies hy bigd sak baa) *, it, ! ELC Tie e | TiS tee. cer hi Ve rhe i] ‘ ve 19/8 \ ve AP fal \ bet La Q ‘ f ‘ \ cee \ re | ee \ . lye | ai ate Veer ! te vel aay + vote | \ pene a ! 1 gah! ' see ‘ Le i rok : tay aN | | sol, jy I 6 ] = if t ) Sees A } Pit . ‘ eto \2U4 th St. hai me hoa ot % ~ Oo \ \ 7 \ - - xG \ mat Fd % si Pe Ce ss . rd 7 . , ¢ a \ s ¢ \ \ “7 Ps \ \ f ¢ LI \yZ a XN 7 Me ae > | : ‘ ms . / oe aN 4 pas ¥ a4 ity ' ¥ Ary *' 2 4% - PLATE VI. PLATE VI. Cross-section of beds on slope from Spuyten Duyvil Creek up to crest of Inwood Ridge. The dark layer of dioritic schist, display- ing two anticlinal folds, is intercalated in micaceous gneiss. “Toward the crest the lowest bed of pegmatitic gneiss is indicated by the broken lines. ( 446 ) PLATE. VI. L= ——— ———s ay = mele, VOR.) OV I . ] fh) | } Wi OPW se \ % AAS A =< O = > 4 Nn s) = i Zz < eer a, as 7, - . [ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Scr., VoL. XVI., No. 9, Part III, pp. 447-482, March I, 1906. | ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE LIMB SKELE- HON IN-AQUATIC REPTILES AND MAMMALS. By RaymMonp C. OSBURN. The history of animal life reveals the fact that a number of widely separated groups of reptiles and mammals have taken up aquatic life. That these aquatic animals were derived from ter- restrial forms is now universally conceded. Some of these forms seem to have attained almost to perfection in their adap- tation to life in the water, but the great majority are found scattered all the way along the path by which the former pro- gressed. The terrestrial type of limb, with which at the be- ginning all these forms were endowed, is not well fitted for use in the water, either for propulsion or for balancing, hence a great change in the limb is necessary before its possessor can become perfectly at home in its newenvironment. This change affects the limb throughout and finally brings about a complete reorganization of the limb in which scarcely any of the origi- nal elementscan be recognized. Thus in later Ichthyosaurs the only element of the original limb which could be identified with certainty if removed from the limb, is the propodial, which by virtue of its position at the junction of the limb with the girdle, has retained somewhat the appearance of a propodial bone. While, at the beginning, there must necessarily have been dif- ferences in size, shape and arrangement, and even in the num- ber of bones present in the animals belonging to groups of such widely different ancestry as these here dealt with, yet in the at- tempt to produce a perfect swimming organ the amount of par- allelism exhibited is remarkable. In most cases it is safe to say that the limbs were at first used both as organs of propulsion and of equilibration, and, indeed, certain groups have never passed this condition (Chelonia, Plesiosauria and Pinnipedia), though it is quite possible that 447 448 OSBURN some of the long-tailed reptiles like the Mosasaurs may have used the tail for propulsion from the very beginning of their aquatic existence, as the newts and certain semi-aquatic lizards are known to do. The tail is a much more efficient organ of propulsion than the limbs, however, and in forms where the anatomical difficulties in the way are not too great a tail fin is developed which relieves the limbs of the greater part of their work and leaves them with only the function of equilibration to perform. This results in the reduction in size of the fore limbs and the degeneration or loss of the hind limbs in the most ad- vanced forms. The final result, then, is as near an approach as possible to fish-like conditions of locomotion, with an expanded tail fin for a propeller and thin, flexible paddles on the sides for balancing. Naturally, the forms which show the greatest adaptation to aquatic life are those such as the Cetacea and Ichthyosauria which have entirely given up their land relations, while those which come upon the land occasionally, as the Chelonia and Pinnipedia at the breeding season, retain of necessity certain characters of the terrestrial type of limb. In the present paper the groups to be considered are those whose adaptation has progressed to the extent of modifying the limb skeleton, especi- - ally the Cetacea, Sirenia, Ichthosauria, Plesiosauria, Mosasauria and Thalattosuchia, and the less modified Pinnipedia and Chelonia. In the limbs of these forms the following modifications seem to be the most usual and of the greatest importance in the change from the terrestrial to the natatory type of limb : 1. Abbreviation of the limb as a whole. Curvature or backward extension of the limb. Distal dilatation of the limb. Parallelism or convergence of the fore and hind limbs. Tendency toward loss of hind limbs. . Tendency toward similarity in shape and function of all the poe of the limb. 7. Elongation of digits. 8. Hyperphalangy, or increase beyond the normal number of phalanges. ANE YY ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 449 9. Hyperdactyly, or increase beyond the normal number of digits. 10. Formation of smaller skeletal parts. 11. Concentration of all parts except the digits. 12. Cartilaginous progression in joints. 13. Loss of movable articulations in the limb. 14. Loss of tuberosities for muscle attachment. Bearing in mind now the fact that the various forms have been derived from different sources, and the possibility that in the process of their adaptation to aquatic life they may not all have followed exactly the same course because of special en- vironments or of innate differences in potentiality for modifica- tion, let us proceed to examine the above points as they are represented in the various groups of animals. ABBREVIATION OF THE LIMB. in all the forms of animals under consideration that have progressed far enough in aquatic adaptation to lose their land relation there is noticeable a very great shortening up of the limb asa whole. So far is this process carried in the Cetacea, Ichthyosauria and Mosasauria that the total length of the limb in many cases may be greatly exceeded by the diameter of the body. Especially is the abbreviation marked in those forms which have the tail fin well developed, as the Cetacea and Sirenia in which the hind limb is lost entirely, and in Ichthy- osaurs some of which have the hind limb very much reduced. The shortening always begins in the proximal end of the limb, with the prapodial and epipodial elements, and the digits are not shortened until actual degeneration sets in. This question will be given further mention in certain of the following topics. CURVATURE OR BACKWARD EXTENSION OF THE LIMBS. Almost without exception the natatory limb is curved back- ward. This may be seen in the Cetacea and Pinnipedia among the Mammals and in the Plesiosauria and Thalottosuchia and most Ichthyosaurs and Mosasaurs as well as in the marine Chelonia, among Reptiles. The extreme of curvature is found 450 OSBURN in the hand of the Thalottosuchian Geosaurus and the Cetacean Globiocephalus, in which the extremities of the fingers are at a right angle with the long axis of the humerus. The opposite condition is found in some of the Ichthyosaurs and Mosasaurs in which the limb is quite straight to the ends of the digits, but in such cases the whole limb is directed backward from the articulation with the girdle sufficiently to compensate for the lack of curvature. It must be noted, however, that in both these groups the most specialized forms show the backward curvature as well as the average of the curved-limb forms (cf. [chthyosaurus quadriscissus and Laptanodon natans among the Ichthyosaurs and Zylosaurus among the Mosasaurs). Gener- ally speaking, the longer limbs are more curved but this is not without many exceptions. The hand of Geosaurus is at once the shortest and most curved that has been noted, while some of the long limbed Ichthyosaurs, ¢. g., 7. acutirostris, have the limb quite straight. The backward curvature of the limb may be attained in a number of ways in various forms, by one of the following modifications, or, more frequently, by a combination of several of them in the same limb. Curved Bones of the Limb,— This is exemplified in all the groups where the bones of the limb have not become so short- ened as to obscure any curvature. In the Cetacea it is shown by numerous forms to a greater or less extent. The humerus is generally too short to exhibit any curvature but the radius and ulna are distinctly curved in a number of forms (cf. espe- cially Lalenoptera).’ The Ichthyosaurian limb is too much shortened to show curvature in any single bone, except that in Mixosaurus, the most primitive of the group, the humerus is long enough to show a distinct curve. The longer limbed Plesiosaurs, as a rule, show the curved humerus and femur to a greater or less extent (cf. PVlestosaurus, Cimoliosaurus, Pelo- neustes, Dolichorhynchops, etc.). In the Thalattosuchia the humerus is very greatly shortened but the longer femur is very noticeably curved. The Mosasaurs, as a rule, do not exhibit any curvature of the bones, which are greatly shortened, but in Zylosaurus the humerus is considerably curved. The Pinnipedia ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 451 and marine Chelonia still retain their land connection to some extent so their limbs are less modified than in the other groups, but even here the radius and ulna and corresponding elements of the hind limbs are in some forms very distinctly curved. The other bones of the limbs are naturally too short to show any curving, except very occasionally, e. g., the first metacarpal of Geosaurus. In some cases where the humerus and femur are not notice- ably curved the anterior border is longer than the posterior and as a result the distal articular surface is set at an angle to the long axis of the bone. The result is the same as that produced by the curving of the bones. Examples of this angulation of the joint may be seen in all the groups, but it is by no means constant and only about half of the forms examined show it, the others being indifferent or actually angulated in the reverse di- rection. However, any forward angulation of the joint is always more than compensated for by some other means, usually by having the radius longer than the ulna, etc. (cf. Cémoliosaurus eurymerus or Mirosauris). The Greater Length of the Radius and Tibia as Compared with the Ulna and Hibula. — This condition results in a backward angulation at the distal extremities of these bones very much as in the longer anterior border in the humerus or femur. It is, however, found in a much larger proportion of the forms studied. The measurements were taken from the middle of the articulating surfaces as in some cases the outline of the bones is very irregular. All of the Cetacea, as faras I] have exam- ined them, have the radius at least a little longer than the ulna and in some forms, @. g., Phocena, it is very noticeably so. In the majority of the reptilian forms studied the radius was found to be longer than the ulna; in some cases they are of equal length, but none were found in which the ulna exceeded the radius. In the hindlimb the same results were obtained except that in Geosaurus the fibula is somewhat longer than the tibia. It does not necessarily follow from the above that an angulation of the limb is always produced by the longer radius or tibia. In some cases the effect is very noticeable and in at least one 452 OSBURN case, C2moliosaurus eurymerus, the curvature of the limb is pro- duced entirely in this region, the radius being fully twice as long as the ulna, but in most reptilian forms the greater length of the anterior bone only compensates for other conditions. In the JZosasaurs the carpus and tarsus after the manner of their Lacertilian progenitors, are much wider posteriorly, especially among the less modified members of the group, and the longer radius and tibia help to some extent to even.up this deficiency in the anterior part-of the limb. In the hand of Mvosaurus, again, the longer radius compensates for the humerus, which is shorter on the anterior border than on the posterior. Suppression of Carpus and Tarsus Toward the Posterior Side.— In a few forms this is sufficient to cause a very distinct curve or angulation in this region of the limb. In Delphinapterus, Globiocephalus and Geosaurus the carpus is quite wedge-shaped with-the point posterior. In Delphinapterus this wedge is also curved. Inthe Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs the carpals and tarsals are so similar to the bones of the digits that in many cases it is impossible to distinguish between them with any cer- tainty. In Pleszosaurus dolichodetrus, however, the fifth digit is seen to articulate higher up than the others, and in the very advanced forms, such as Czmolosaurus among the Plesiosaurs, and Laptanodon and Ophthalmosaurus among the Ichthyosaurs, where the pisiform (cf. Baur) has moved up alongside of the epipodials to articulate with the humerus. This shifting of the . bones brings the digits on the posterior side of the paddle to articulate higher up than the anterior ones, thus assisting in the curvature of this part of the limb. In the Mososaurs as a group, the carpals and tarsals are lacking or nearly so at the anterior border but very well developed at the posterior side, a condition inherited from their Lacertilian ancestors, according to Williston. But while the less specialized Mosasaurs all show this condition it is very interesting to note that in more modified forms, such as Zylosaurus, the carpals and tarsals are almost wanting on the posterior side and the fifth digit ap- proaches articulation with the ulna. Curvature of the Digits. — This condition exists quite gener- ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 453 _ ally and occurs in all groups. In a few forms, by way of excep- tion, the digits are quite straight but in every case these forms seem to be earlier and less adapted to aquatic life, and in every group where straight digits occur it is worthy of note that the species occurring later have the digits curved. Occasionally the limb may be sufficiently curved in some other region, when the digits will be more nearly straight (cf. Czmolosaurus eury- merus). The Cetacea, without exception so far as my observa- tions have carried, have the fingers more or less curved. Some- times, asin Lalena and Lalenoptera the curvature may be slight, while in others, ¢. ¢., Globiocephalus, the curvature is very great. The Plesiosaurs, also, seem to have the digits curved in all cases. In Crzmoliosaurus eurymerus the curvature is but little ; in Plestosaurus dolichodetrus it reaches the other extreme. The Thalattosuchia (cf. Geosaurus) show the backward curvature, also. In the Mosasaurs, W/. /emoinicri seems to have the digits of the hinder limb perfectly straight, and the hand of Cudastes velox is little, if at all, curved. It is worthy of note here, how- ever, that these forms also show a more primitive condition of carpus and tarsus and other indications of lesser adaptation to aquatic life than is found in /Platecarpus and Tylosaurus, for example, which have the digits well curved. The Ichthyosaurs present a variety of conditions. The Triassic J/xvosaurus, which is undoubtedly the most primitive, has the digits distinctly curved. Some of the later Jurassic forms, such as /chthyosaurus acuttros- tris and /. communis have the digits quite straight and these species are much more modified in some respects than J/xo- _ saurus. However, against this must be placed the fact that in L. quadriscissus, I. ingens and Laptanodon natans, which by car- tilaginous separation of the bones and by other signs point to a greater adaptation to a swimming life, have the digits curved. Again the Triassic genera Merriamia (Leptochetrus) and Tore- tocnemus which Merriam has recently described and which are nearly if not quite as old as AZzxrosaurus, have the limbs fully as primitive as that genus in some respects and greatly modified in others. In Merriamia the digits are somewhat curved, but in Toretocnemus they seem, judging from somewhat fragmental 454 OSBURN remains, to be quite straight. Possibly the very great reduc- tion in size of the limbs of the latter genus may be responsible for this condition. | Frequently the paddle is extended backward by the separa- tion of the digits at their distal extremities so that the posterior digits are thrown back at an angle tothe others instead of being parallel or nearly so. This is never found in the anterior border of the paddle, but when present is always posterior. Many of the Cetacea, such as Phocena, Monodon, Delphinapterus, Globio- cephalus, Balena, etc., exhibit this to a remarkable degree. In the Mosasauria the angle at which the fifth digit is set is remark- able, especially in the very short limbed C/zdastes velox and in Platecarpus. Other forms may show this toa less extent and the third and fourth digits may also be somewhat separated. The Thalattosuchia show but little separation of the digits and in Plesiosauria and Ichthyosauria the digits are remarkably close together. Again it must be remarked that in Laptanodon, the latest of the Ichthyosaurs, there is some separation of the digits. Another factor which sometimes enters to cause a backward extension of the limb is hyperdactyly, or the addition of extra digits on the posterior side of the limb. According to Baur this addition of extra digits never occurs on the anterior border. In the Cetacea very rarely a sixth digit, or part of one, is added. In Ichthyosaurs it is quite common and as many as four extra digits have been noted in the hand of /. dongimanus. Hyper- dactyly does not appear in any of the other groups. The greater length of the digits toward the posterior border as compared with the anterior ones causes a sloping off toward the posterior border that gives much the same effect as the curving of the digits, with which it is almost always coupled. In almost all cases the first digit is noticeably shorter than those following and in many cases the second and even the third may be somewhat abbreviated so that a graduated slope is formed from the first to the fourth. Inthe few cases where the first digit is equal to or greater than those following, as in the foot of Mixosaurus and the hand of /chthyosaurus ingens or J, conybeart, the digits are greatly curved. However, the hind ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 455 paddle of Mosasaurus lemoinieri, though in part wanting, and of Ichthyosaurus acutirostris, also lacking the tips of the digits, seem to be exceptions even to this and have the first digit as long as the others and perfectly straight. Perhaps a complete limb might show this to be an error in judgment, however. Frequently in the Cetacea the first digit is so reduced as to be nearly or entirely wanting, and in the longipinnate Ichthyosaurs it seems to be absent in all cases. This results naturally in throwing the anterior border of the hand on the second finger, and thus farther back. In a few instances the paddle is extended backward largely by the broadening of the bones. Examples of this may be seen in Mixosaurus, Cimoliosaurus, etc. This matter will be alluded to further under the head of distal dilatation. DistAL DILATATION. A modification of universal occurrence among swimming animals is the distal dilatation or broadening of the limbs in the formation of paddles. At any rate the limb becomes broad in proportion to its thickness. In certain long-limbed forms like Megaptera among the whales or /cehthyosaurus acutirostris among the reptiles the limb is evidently not greatly broadened, but it is at least reduced in thickness until a thin paddle-like form is attained. The incipient stages of this dilatation may be seen in animals which have only recently taken up aquatic life and which have not yet lost their land-relation. Evidently the first part of the limb to show this broadening is the most exposed part, z. ¢., the hand or foot. Later the process continues up the limb until finally all the bones of the limb may become affected. The humerus and femur may even become involved in this change clear up to the articulation. In all but afew cases the point of greatest breadth remains in the digits. The most common method of increasing the breadth of this region is found in the spreading of the digits. This is shown by practically all aquatic mammals and by aquatic reptiles generally except the Plesiosaurs and the Ichthyosaurs where spreading of the digits is rare and slight. Again, the breadth 456 . OSBURN of the bones of the digits may be increased sufficiently to make © this portion of the limb the widest. In the Sirenia the width of the hand is in part due to this, and in Plesiosaurs where the hand is widened and in some Ichthyosaurs the width is entirely due to the great breadth of the digits. In many Ichthyosaurs and rarely in the whales the hand or foot may be widened by the addition of one or more extra digits, a process known as hyperdactyly. Kitkenthal has shown this to come about in e- /uga, the white whale, as the result of the splitting of the fifth digit and there is reason in the view that hyperdactyly has come about in the same way in Ichthyosaurs. In Cetaceans never more than one extra digit is formed, but as many as four extra digits, or nine in all, are known in Ichthyosaurs. These without exception are found on the posterior border of the paddle. It is possible that still another method of broadening the hand may have been the separation of the bones of the digits by em- bedding in cartilage. In /chthyosaurus ingens, and especially in Laptanodon, this seems true. In a few cases only, the carpal and tarsal region is found to be the widest part of the limb, though this region is usually somewhat broadened. In J/xosaurus this is exceptionally well shown. In some whales as Glodiocephalus or Phocena this region is the widest part of the limb but here the fifth finger has moved up alongside of the carpus, and the carpus itself is not greatly broadened. In some instances the breadth of this re- gion appears to be much increased by the cartilaginous separa- tion of the bones. Thus in Delphinapterus, Phocena, etc., the carpal region is quite broad while the bones are small and em- bedded in cartilage. The same thing is evident in Laptanodon among the Ichthyosaurs. A cartilaginous extension of the posterior border of the carpus, materially widening this region, is known-among the..Cetacea. The epipodials tend toward great breadth and become short- ened about in proportion as they become widened. Among the forms here dealt with they are found the least modified in the genus A4alenoptera, among the Cetacea, where, although they are somewhat flattened, they are about twice the length of ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 457 the short humerus. Even in the Sirenia there is considerable broadening in this region. Among the reptilian groups the epipodials are greatly modified in every case examined, except in the hind limb of Thalattosuchia. In a number of cases the greatest breadth of the limb is found in this portion. In Plesi- osaurs this seems especially to be true. In Czmoliosaurus tro- chanterus and C. portlandicus the position of the ‘ pisiform”’ alongside of the ulna and its homologue beside the fibula makes this region very evidently the widest. In the hand of the Thalattosuchian Geosaurus the breadth is greatest in this part, due to the extreme breadth of the very short radius and ulna. In Mosasaurs also these bones are very broad, and in every case in Ichthyosaurs they are much broadened though this re- gion is usually not as broad as the more distal portion of the limb. There are two factors producing the breadth in the epipodial region, the increase in the breadth of the bones themselves, and the separation of the bones at their distal ends. In the Mam- malia there is no real separation of the distal ends of the radius and ulna though in some cases (cf. Globtocephalus) the inter- medium interlocks between their ends. In Plesiosauria and Thalattosuchia also no distal separation is evident, and in Ich- thyosaurs it is seen only in M/zxosaurus where it is quite notice- able and is probably a primitive character. In the Mosasaurs, however, they may be separated at a very wide angle (cf. espe- cially the hands of C/zdastes and Platecarpus) and all show it to a greater or less extent. It is possible that this tendency has been derived directly from their Lacertilian ancestors which show some distal separation, but, however its presence is to be accounted for, it seems pretty certain that the Mosasaurs have developed it greatly and made the most of its possibilities in broadening the paddle. Stereosternum, one of the Rhyncho- cephalia, shows quite a little distal separation of the epipodials. It also has the fifth digit set out at an angle as in the Mosa- saurs. The humerus and the femur are probably the last bones of the limb to become affected by distal dilatation, but in the most 458 OSBURN advanced cases they may be broadened almost to the point of the articulation with the girdle. The only completely aquatic forms which show no modification of the humerus in this way, as far as I know, are the Sirenia. This lack of modification may be accounted for by the peculiar way in which the paddles are used by these animals when feeding or resting in shallow water and in holding the young. The femur of Geosaurus shows little or no dilatation and remains very long, though in absence of tuberosities, in curvature and in other ways it is evidently natatory. The humerus of Geosaurus is much more progres- sive and is greatly shortened and broadened. In the Cetacea without exception the greatly shortened humerus is also notice- ably widened, especially in Phocena and Globiocephalus. In the Plesiosaurs the humerus and femur are longer than is usual among aquatic forms, but the dilatation is very evident. In Cimoliosaurus trochanterus and C. portlandicus the ‘‘pisiform”’ and its homolog of the hind limb find room to articulate with the propodial beside the greatly widened epipodials, and C. eurymerus is even more expanded than these, being the only case, as far as observed, where the broadest part of the paddle is the distal end of the humerus. The extreme of modification is found among the Mosasaurs and Ichthyosaurs. In the former it is always marked and reaches a climax in the hand of Llatecarpus, Phoplatecarpus and Cldastes. According to Williston the humerus of Platecarpus is the most modified, its width distally being nearly equal to its length. The Ichthy- osaurs are equally modified, even in the early Triassic forms (cf. Mixosaurus, Toretocnemus, Merriamia and Shastasaurus). The humerus of Skhastasaurus, according to Merriam, is the most specialized known—‘‘the shortest propodial segment known in the limb of an Ichthyopterygian ’’’ — and a very nar- row notch on the anterior border represents the “ last trace of a shaft of a ‘long bone.’ ”’ In the marine Chelonia there is formed a very good paddle and the distal dilatation of the whole limb is very evident. The individual bones do not show it to any extent, however, as far as observed. The seals are in the same condition, and the ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 459 partial retention of terrestrial habits probably accounts for both. The Nothosauridz, probable ancestors of the Plesiosaurs, while undoubtedly aquatic, had not necessarily — judging from the condition of the limbs — lost their land connection, and they show but little distal dilatation of the bones. Laviosaurus has the humerus well curved and somewhat expanded distally, and Simosaurus, according to the plates in Von Meyer’s “ Fauna der Vorwelt,”’ shows considerable distal enlargement. If the No- thosauride are the ancestors of the Plesiosauride, as seems to be the case, we have in these two families the most complete story of the evolution of the swimming limb known in any one group, for the earliest Triassic members of the Nothosauride are semiaquatic while the latest Cretaceous forms of the Plesio- sauride are thoroughly adapted for marine life as von Zittel has already pointed out (1902, p. 172). PARALLELISM OF FORE AND HIND LIMBS. In many aquatic forms there is a very evident parallelism between the fore and hind limbs, and a correspondence in action which is never met with in terrestrial forms. The fore and hind limbs in most cases meet the water in the same manner with the result that they become very similiar in structure. The Pinnipedia are an exception, for, while both fore and hind limbs are evidently adapted to aquatic life, there is a very different use made of them in swimming. Cetacea offer no evidence on either side as the limbs of ancestral forms are not known and recent forms lack the posterior limbs. A com- parison of the fore and hind limbs in Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria or Mosasauria, however, shows great similarity in shape and structure as well as in their angle of attachment with the body. There can be no question but that the fore and hind paddle of a Plesiosaur acted in the same manner in propelling the body through the water. In Mosasaurs the same thing is evident. In later Ichthyosaurs, owing to the development of the tail fin, the hind limb becomes much reduced, but still it retains its similarity to the fore limb (cf. /chthyosaurus communis, 1. Quad- viscissus etc.), while in Mxosaurus, which is the least modified 460 | OSBURN of the Ichthyosaurs, the simility in shape, size and angle of at- tachment is easily noted. The Thalattosuchia have the limbs so greatly different in length that it is difficult to find much similarity except in the matter of curvature and angle of attachment. It is to be noted that in the matter of curvature or backward extension the limbs are always similiar —if the fore limb is straight the hind limb is also found to be straight, but if the fore limb is curved the hind limb will assume about the same degree of curvature. (Cf. Mixosaurus, Toretocnemus, Platecar- pus, Lylosaurus, Plestosaurus, Dolichorynchops, etc.). THE TENDENCY TOWARD THE Loss OF THE HIND LIMBS. This character in those forms which have developed a caudal fin is found almost without exception. In such forms the tail becomes a much more efficient propelling organ than the limbs and the latter are of use chiefly as organs of equilibration. The anterior limbs, from their position, are naturally more useful in this respect than the posterior and the latter tend toward reduc- tion. In aquatic animals which have not developed a tail fin we have two widely different conditions. The Pinnipedia illus- trate one condition where the hind limbs swing backward and together act as a propeller very much after the fashion of the flukes of a whale — so much so in fact, as to have suggested to Ryder the mistaken hypothesis that the flukes of the Cetacean are only misplaced and modified hind limbs. The long and supple vertebral column renders this motion possible in the Pinnipedia. In the Chelonia the nature of the spinal column and the box-like exoskeleton prevent any such use of the hind legs as is seen in the seals, and the fore legs become greatly enlarged organs of propulsion while the hind paddles are com- paratively very weak. The skeleton of TZhalassochelys, for example, reminds one of a side-wheel steamboat with enor- mously large paddles and with twin rudders behind. Among the forms with a tail fin the Cetacea and Sirenia are preeminent with the entire loss of a posterior limb externally, The Ichthyosauria at first seem a little puzzling from the fact ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 461 that the earliest forms known, Mivosaurus from the Middle Triassic of Lombardy and Shastasaurus, Merriamia and Toretoc- nemus, from the Upper Triassic of California and Nevada, offer very conflicting evidence. One would naturally expect the limbs of these early aquatic forms to show to some extent the characters of their terrestrial ancestors — at least to approach this character more nearly than later forms—and this, indeed, J/vosaurus does, as Baur has shown (Ueber die Abstammung der amnioten Wirbel- thiere). In this genus the hind limb is as well developed as the anterior and both bear very evident marks of terrestrial origin. With the other Triassic genera mentioned, however, the case 1s quite different. In all three the limbs are very much specialized and much reduced, but in 7oretocnemus the hind limb is equal to or greater than the fore limb, according to Merriam, while in Merriamia the hind limb appears quite diminutive in com- parison with the fore limb, When our knowledge of these genera is more complete we shall doubtless find them to be an early offshoot of primitive Ichthyosaurs, in which the limbs have become precociously adapted to aquatic life. The tail of Delphinosaurus (Shastasaurus) perrini, according to Merriam must have borne a very well developed tail fin, as it shows the sharp deflexion and elongated spines found in later Ichthyo- saurs. The Ichthyosauride, of the Jura-Cretaceous, have the anterior limb much better developed than the posterior one, and sometimes the latter is very weak. In these forms the tail fin was well developed for locomotion. (See Fraas’s figure of /. guadriscissus, Quenst.) The Plesiosaurs are comparatively long-legged and short- tailed and the limbs were undoubtedly used for propulsion to a greater extent than in those forms with a longer tail. While the limbs are evidently adapted for swimming they never become so reduced as in forms which come to use the paddles mostly for purposes of equilibration. Williston has well ex- pressed the condition in this group, ‘‘ Among the Plesiosaurs the hind limbs are always powerful and well developed, though in all forms known to me they are less powerful than the front ones. Here the relative shortness of the tail has imposed a distinct propelling or sculling function upon the limbs.”’ 462 OSBURN The most highly adapted Mosasaurs possessed a tail fin pro- duced by the elongation of the neural and hzemal spines and while this was probably not as effective a propelling organ as the more highly specialized flukes of the whales and Ichthyo- saurs, yet its presence was sufficient to cause a reduction in the hind limbs. Williston has already remarked upon this evident ‘“ weakening of the hind limbs, particularly in the more special- ized groups like the Tylosaurine.”’ In Chdastes velox the hind limbs seem much weaker than the anterior ones. The Thalattosuchia seem to be an exception to the rule, for according to Fraas, Geosaurus suevicus, the only thoroughly known form of the group, has the paradoxical combination of a well developed tail fin and a hind limb very much larger than the fore limb. The fact that this limb shows only compara- tively little adaptation to aquatic life suggests the possibility that Geosaurus had only recently lost its land relation, the well developed tail fin notwithstanding. TENDENCY TOWARD SIMILARITY IN SHAPE AND FUNCTION OF ALL THE BONES OF THE LIMB. In the limbs of swimming animals there is no occasion for the specialization of various parts of the skeleton such as ex- ists in terrestial animals. All the elements of the limb skeleton except the propodial have approximately the same function to perform and consequently all parts except the humerus and femur tend to become very much alike, and even the distal ends of these bones may lose their differentiated character and become mere rounded plates. The process is one of degeneration in which all the differentiation brought about by the varied stress of terrestrial life is lost and the bones become at last in the most ex- treme cases mere rounded plates — ‘‘ Stutzplatten ’’ — with no characteristics by which one can be distinguished from another. These may be either closely set, ‘‘ eine Plaster von polygonalen Platten ’ (Fraas), as in most Ichthyosaurs, or separated by carti- lage in which they are embedded, as in Baptanodon and Lchihyo- saurus ingens. The propodial element retains in part at its proxi- mal end its original function, —at least it continues to be the ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 463 _ portion by which the limb is attached to the girdle and by which the movement of the limb is possible, though even here the bone becomes much simplified, for the movements of the nata- tory limb are less complex and more restricted than those of the terrestrial type of limb. But, however much the propo- dial element may be reduced and simplified it is always recog- nizable as a propodial element. As much cannot always be said in regard to the epipodials, for in the most advanced cases, e. g., certain Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, these bones are not distinguisable from the more distal elements except perhaps in the matter of size. In sucha form as Laptanodon, and in fact in nearly all Ichthyosaurs above the Trias, there is an even gradation from the phalanges through all the bones of the limb up to and including the epipodials so that the limits of carpus and tarsus cannot be distinguished either from the epipodials or the digits. The metacarpals and the metatarsals are seldom distinguishable in any swimming limb from the phalanges, ex- cept sometimes by their larger size, and the phalanges in all cases (Szrenta excepted) taper off to a point. The changes which take place in the epipodial region are perhaps the most interesting as well as the most marked of all. In the usual form of ambulatory limb the radius and tibia are quite different in function and in appearance from the ulna and fibula respectively, and they have quite different parts to play in the formation of the joints at their proximal and distal ends. In the natatory limb, with the loss of joint strain and freely movable joints, the function of the two bones becomes the same and they tend to take an equal part in the articulations at their proximal and distal ends and to become of the same size and shape. This tendency is seen even before the bones become much reduced in length, as in the Sirenia and Mysticocete whales. From this point on we have in the various groups all the stages in the evolution of the paddle to the point where the epipodials are merely rounded plates embedded in cartilage (ec. g., Baptanodon). The toothed whales have progressed farther than the whalebone whales, Glodiocephalus being among the most modified, but the radius is always distinguishable from 464 OSBURN the ulna. The Mosasaurs are still further advanced, especially the later forms, 7y/osaurus, Plioplatecarpus, etc., and the radius and ulna approach each other in appearance pretty closely. Tri- assic Ichthyosaurs and most Plesiosaurs have the propodials evidently differentiated from the more distal elements though radius and ulna may be nearly alike in shape and size, and finally, in the later members of these groups they become indis- tinguishable from neighboring carpals and tarsals. It is not strange that Gegenbaur, casting about for an incipient tetrapodial limb in connection with his ‘ Archi- pterygium ”’ theory, should settle upon the Ichthyosaur limb as the example which should connect the fin of the fish with the limb of the higher animal, or that Marsh, following the lead of Gegenbaur, should hail the discovery of Lapfanodon as showing limbs ‘less specialized than those in any other known form above the fishes,’ the humerus alone being differentiated out of the “‘ primitive cartilage.’’ It remained for Baur to demonstrate that the Ichthyosaur limb is not the least but the most special- ized, approaching the condition of the fish fin as an adaptation to aquatic life. ELONGATION OF DIGITs. This factor in the formation of the swimming limb seems to be without exception. It is one of the earliest to appear, it occurs in all groups and apparently in all individuals and shows no tendency to be lost. Even in such a form as Merriamia or Ichthyosaurus communis, where the hind limb is evidently degen- erating, the digits are still elongated in comparison with the remainder of the limb. In some forms all of the digits are elongated, and even extra digits added to the paddles may be greatly increased in length (cf. the sixth digit of many Ich- thyosaurs), but in other cases certain digits only are elongated while the others retain their original size or even become greatly reduced. Thus in the hand of Globiocephalus the second and third digits are enormously extended while the first, fourth and fifth are quite degenerate, and in /chthyosaurus acutirostris three greatly elongated digits are present while the other two, prob- ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 465 ably the first and fifth of the original pentadactyl limb, have vanished entirely. The elongation of the digits may take place by an increase either in the length or the number of phalanges, — hyperpha- langy. Undoubtedly the former method is the original one as we find it in many forms not otherwise greatly modified. The Pinnipedia, the marine Chelonia and the Thalattosuchia show only this modification. The earlier Mosasaurs show very little hyperphalangy while the phalanges are greatly elongated. The whalebone whales are much less modified in this respect than the toothed whales and in them the elongation is largely due to elongation of the bones, while in the latter group hyper- phalangy coupled with a cartilaginous separation of the bones is the general mode. In the Plesiosauria and Ichthyosauria, and particularly in the latter group, hyperphalangy is devel- oped to such an extent that it accounts entirely for the length of the digits. It is only in such early Ichthyosaurs as M/xo- saurus and Merriamia that we can observe any characters of long bones present in the phalanges. HYPERPHALANGY. Several theories have been proposed to account for hyper- phalangy. Howes has suggested an “‘intercalary syndesmosis ”’ such as occursin some Amphibia, the formation of a joint in the middle of a bone by ossification of the ends of the bone only, the joint appearing in the cartilaginous portion remaining, but there is no substantial evidence to support this theory in the reptiles and mammals. Weber, Ryder and Baur have tried to prove that the addi- tional phalanges were formed by the ossification of terminal or extradigital cartilages such: as those:that appear on the ends of the digits in the Pinnipedia, or to quote Ryder, “The carti- laginous extension of the ungual phalanges, I take it, has afforded the basis, in some ancestral seal-like form, for the development of an increased number of digits beyond the ungual phalanx, as in Cetacea.’’ While there may be nothing in the nature of things to prevent such a process taking place, 466 OSBURN there has never been any real evidence adduced to show that such ossification of extradigital cartilages really occurs. A third theory which has been more generally accepted than the ones just mentioned for the reason that a considerable amount of evidence has been brought to its support by its author, is Kukenthal’s theory of ‘‘double epiphyses.’’ These epiphyses by retarded ossification become separated from the shaft of the bone. Separated double epiphyses are commonly met with in Cetacea and Kikenthal mentions one case (Hyferoédon rostra- tus) in which they appear as separate bones even on the radius and ulna. Once separated as distinct bones these epiphyses would tend soon to become the same size as the bones from which they separated, owing to similarity of function. Double epiphyses in Mammalia would admit of as many as twelve phalanges in a single digit, while as many as eighteen might appear in the fourth digit of a reptile. These numbers are rarely exceeded and only by certain toothed whales among the mammals — Glodiocephalus may have a maximum of seven- teen —and by a few Ichthyosaurs, such as /. communis, among the reptiles. To explain such cases Kutkenthal assumes the formation again of double epiphyses in these secondary pha- langes, and finally the development, by retarded ossification, of a third set of phalanges. In this connection it is of impor- tance to determine whether all of these groups of reptiles show- ing hyperphalangy possessed epiphyses. These structures at least appeared very early in some reptiles, and Ktkenthal cites the case of a MWesosaurus from the Karroo formation, which pos- sesses double epiphyses. On the other hand it is worthy of note that in the Chelonia, which according to Gadow do not possess epiphyses, forms like Chelone and Thalassochelys have de- veloped remarkably long digits without any increase in the num- ber of phalanges. HYPERDACTYLY. The presence of additional or supernumerary digits is known in only two groups, the Ichthyosauria and Cetacea. In the former group it occurs frequently, and as many as four extra digits or nine in all are known in one species, /chthyosaurus longimanus. ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 467 In the Cetacea it is of rare occurrence, and never more than one extra digit is present. These extra digits always appear on the posterior side of the paddle. Baur offered the suggestion for the Ichthyosaurs that the sixth digit was produced by elongation of the pisiform or its homolog, but there is no direct evidence in favor of this view, while the breaking up of the digits toward the end in sucha form as /chthyosaurus communis indicates rather that they have been produced by a splitting of the digits. At any rate Baur’s suggestion would not be suffi- cient to cover cases where more than one extra digit appeared. Kiikenthal has shown in the case of the whales that the sixth digit is produced directly by the longitudinal splitting of the fifth. As to the reason for the appearance of extra digits, Kuken- thal has given what appears to me to be a very satisfactory ex- planation, and one for which he, together with Leboucg, has ad- vanced considerable evidence in the whales. The extension of the swimming membrane on the posterior margin calls for extra support which is at first met by a widening of the last digit. Finally, retarded ossification causes a separation of the digit into two parts in somewhat the same way as the double epiphyses are separated from the diaphysis in hyperphalangy. Thus the need of widening the supporting area of the posterior border, together with the tendency toward the formation of smaller skeletal parts in the swimming limb, would account for the ap- pearance of the additional digits. FORMATION OF SMALLER SKELETAL PARTS. This principle, which, I believe, Kiikenthal was the first to mention, is exhibited by nearly all forms which have progressed so far in aquatic adaptation as to lose their land relation. It is best seen in the Ichthyosaurs, but the Cetacea, Plesiosaurs and later Mosasaurs also showit well. It is about coextensive with hyperphalangy by which it is in part produced, but it also in- volves the direct reduction in size of certain parts and a con- centration towards the proximal end of the limb. The purpose is evidently to produce a limb that shall be uniformly flexible — 468 OSBURN the type of limb best suited for locomotion in the water, as wit- ness the fins of fishes with their many-jointed rays giving them an even flexibility. CONCENTRATION OF ALL PARTS EXCEPT THE DIGITs. A little comparison will serve to convince any one that the elongated type of propodial and epipodials with which we are familiar in terrestrial forms is wholly unsuited to perfect loco- motion in water. In all reptiles and mammals which have become permanently aquatic the shortening up of this region of the limb is so evident as to need little comment. The most highly specialized forms in this regard are found among the Ichthyosaurs in which the humerus may be so shortened that its length scarcely exceeds its breadth (cf. Shastasaurus), while the epipodials in nearly all cases are even shorter than wide. The Thalattosuchia (cf. Geosaurus) present the curious anomaly of a very greatly shortened fore limb, while the hind limb is little modified. Williston is probably right in thinking that this hind limb of Geosaurus was of little use in the water and was probably carried close to the tail in swimming, after the manner of newts. Among the Mosasaurs Clidastes and Plioplatecarpus seem to be the most highly specialized in this respect, while among the Plesiosaurs, Czmoliosaurus, and in the Cetacea, Globtocephalus, are among the most modified. Another factor in the concentration of parts is the shifting as certain elements into new positions. Chief among these may be mentioned the shifting of the so-called ‘ pisiform’’ or its homolog (cf. Baur ‘On the Morphology and Origin of the Ich- thyopterygia’’) to a position alongside of the epipodials articu- lating with the humerus or femur ; the shifting of the fifth digit to articulate directly with the ulna as seen in some whales, per- haps best in Globiocephalus, and the Thalattosuchia; and the massing together of the bones in the carpal and tarsal region against the ends of the epipodials, so that the intermedium is sometimes interlocked between their ends. Concerning the ‘‘ pisiform ”’ it is necessary to state that there is grave doubt as to the identification of this bone. Williston holds that the extra ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 469 bones in the epipodial series are not misplaced carpals and tar- sals but new growths like supernumerary digits. This idea, however, is not éntirely a new one, for Baur himself in the above-mentioned paper refers to it as ‘the pisiform or another element of a new-formed ray.’ Until we know more of this region of the limb, however, it will be impossible for us to de- termine whether the bone in question is a shifted mesopodial, as it may well have come to be during the concentration of this region, or an entirely new structure formed zz széa perhaps by being split off from a neighboring bone. In the meantime it seems well to retain the name ‘“ pisiform’’ already in use and take it with the necessary grain of salt. The shifted pisiform occurs only among the latest Ichthy- osaurs (Baptanodon and Ophthalmosaurus) and _ Plesiosaurs (Czmoliosaurus). The most advanced condition noticed is that seen in Czmolosaurus trochanterus where the pisiform lies partly alongside of the distal end of the humerus. The massing of the carpals and tarsals is best know in the Ichthyosaurs, where the bases of the digits are usually also massed, though it is shown equally well by some Plesiosaurs, ¢. g., Peloneustes. In some forms the same result of shortening may be attained by the reduction of the carpal and tarsal region, either in num- ber or size of the bones or both. (Cf. Delphinapterus, Phocena, Balenoptera, etc., among Cetacea, and 7y/osaurus among the Mosasaurs). CARTILAGINOUS PROGRESSION IN JOINTS. Later forms always show the presence of more cartilage than their predecessors, and it is perhaps safe to say that the adapta- tion of a species to aquatic life may be measured by the amount of cartilage developed in the limb joints. The bones of the digits are usually merely separated by cartilage pads — longer near the tip where greater flexibility is desirable — but occa- sionally some of the phalanges may be entirely embedded. The carpal and tarsal bones in all groups tend to become em- bedded in cartilage, with excavated edges, set off from each other, reduced in shape to round plates or ossicles, and in some 470 OSBURN cases finally lost. The Mosasaurs show an interesting series in this respect with stages marking all the steps from the Lacertil- lian type of carpus to that of Zylosaurus proriger which retains only one small round ossicle in the mesopodial region. The Ichthyosaurs also show many intermediate stages between the interlocked bones of the early Jurassic species and the carti- lage-embedded ones of Laptanodon. Inthe Cetacea such forms as Delphinapterus, Phocena, and Lalena are especially instruc- tive. The ends of the epipodials and the distal end of the pro- podials may also become covered with cartilage to the extent that they are more or less evenly rounded, for all bones tend to take this rounded form when they become so embedded in cartilage that they are not affected by the impact of any neigh- boring bones. Loss oF MovaABLE ARTICULATIONS IN THE LIMB. All necessary movements of the natatory limb can best be made at the point of attachment of the limb with the girdle, all movements are of the limb as a whole, no flexing or torsional movements within the limb are required, no motion of certain digits or other special parts is necessary. Hence there is in all swimming limbs the tendency toward the reduction of all mov- able joints, the final result being the production of a more or less flexible paddle without power of special movement in its individual parts. Such we find it in the Cetacea, Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria and Mosasauria and probably in the Thalatto- suchia, and partially in the Sirenia, Pinnipedia and marine Che- lonia. This may be attended by anchylosis of certain bones as in Monodon where humerus, radius and ulna are solidly united, or in Wanatus where radius and ulna are anchylosed, but this never occurs except with proximal elements. More generally the bones are merely united by or embedded in cartilage, as this admits of a certain flexibility. In many Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs the bones interlock quite closely without the inter- position of a noticeable amount of cartilage, but in the latest forms of both these groups the cartilaginous embedding of the bones becomes evident. The marine Chelonia, which go on ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 471 shore to lay their eggs, and the Sirenia which have a peculiar use of the paddle when.feeding and holding the young, have retained certain movable joints. Loss oF TUBEROSITIES FOR Muscle ATTACHMENT. Naturally, upon the loss of movable joints or the need of them, would follow the degeneration of the muscles of the limb and consequently of the muscle attachments. This is plainly evident in all the groups under discussion. The only tuberosi- ties retained in the completely aquatic limb are those at the head of the humerus and femur for the attachment of those muscles which move the whole limb. In conclusion the writer wishes to thank the American Mu- seum of Natural History for the use of material, and especially to thank Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn for the use of his library and for many valuable suggestions during the progress of the work. ADDENDUM. Since the above was written a very noteworthy paper by Professor John C. Merriam has appeared in the Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, May 5, 1905. In this paper Professor Merriam describes the ‘‘ 7halattosauria,’ an entirely new order of marine reptiles from the Triassic of California. This group represents an offshoot of the primitive Diaptosauria and is most nearly related to the Rhynchocephalia, standing in relation to this group about as the Mosasaurs do to the Lacer- tilia, according to Merriam. The two genera, WVectosaurus and LThalattosaurus, in order of their specialization, exhibit no aquatic characters not already mentioned, but in regard to the aquatic adaptation of the limbs they fall in line in all respects with the groups already discussed. in the foregoing paper. Only the propodial and epipodial elements are thus far known and these seem to be about as much specialized as those of the later Mosasaurs. The Thalattosauria are of interest in the present paper chiefly because they add one more to the list of separate 472 OSBURN groups which have taken up marine life and which have devel- oped a swimming paddle out of a terrestrial type of limb. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, June 6, 1905. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Baur, Geo. 87 On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida. Jour. Morph., Vol::l INO. 1, 2sept, mee. 85 Ueber das Archipterygium und die Entwicklung des Cheiropterygium. Zool. Anz., No. 209, VIII, Jahrg., 1885. 87 Ueber die Abstammung der Amnioten Wirbelthiere. Biol. Centralbl., 1887. . 127 On the Morphology and Origin of the Ichthyopterygium. Am. Nat. sept, 1837: 88 Ueber den Ursprung der Extremitaten der Ichthyop- terygia. Bericht 20, Versam.> Oberrhein. “Coleg, Vereins, Jan., 1888. 86 Bemerkung iiber Sauropterygia und Ichthyopterygia. Zool. Anz., No. 221, 1886: Born, G. "76 Die sechste Zehe der Anuren. Morph. Jahrb, Bd. J, 1876. Dames, W. 95 Ueber die Ichthyopterygier der Triasformation. Svz¢- sungsberichte der Konighch Preusstschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1895. 93 Ueber das Vorkommen von Ichthyopterygiern in Tithen Argentiniens. Zettschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft, Jahrg., 1893. De Blainville. Osteographie. Dollo, M. L. 82 Note sur l’Ostéologie des Mosasauridz. Su//. Musée Royal a’ Histotre Naturelle de Belgique, 1882. 99 Nouvelle Note sur l’Ostéologie des Mosasaurs. Aud. Soc. Belge de Geologie, 1892. Flower, W. H. Osteology of the Mammalia. Fraas, Eberhard. 96 Die Schwabischen Trias-Saurier. estgabe d. Kdnig- lichen Naturalien-Cabinets tn Stuttgart, 1896. ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 473 02. Die Meer-Crocodilier (Thalattosuchia) des oberen Jura. Paleontographica, Bd. XLIX, 1902. 91 Die Ichthyosaurier der Siiddeutschen Trias- und Jura- ablagerungen. ‘Tiibingen, 1891. 88 Ueber die Finne von Ichthyosaurus. /ahreshefte d. Vereins f. vaterl. Naturkunde in Wirtt., 1888. 92 Ueber-ein neuen Fund von Ichthyosaurus in Wurtem- burg. Meues Jahrb. fiir Minerologie, etc., Bd. II, 1892. Gadow, H. Reptilia, Cambridge Natural History. Gegenbaur, C. 98 Vergleich. Anat. d. Wirbelthiere. (Vom Skelet der Gliedmassen, pp. 467-594). Leipsig, 1898. Untersuch. zur vergl. anatomie der wirbelthiere. Heft I, Carpus and Tarsus. 80 Kritische Bemerkung iiber Polydactyle als Atavismus. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. IV, 1880. 88 Ueber Polydactylie. Morph Jahrb., Bd. XIV, 1888. #18) Ueber das Gliedmassenskelet der Enaliosaurier. ema. esks., wae ¥, THeit, 3. 1880, Hawkins. Book of great Sea-dragons. Howes, G. B. ue: 88 Observations upon the Morphology and Genesis of Super- numerary Phalanges, with especial reference to those of the Amphibia. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1888. Jaekel, Otto. 04 Eine neue Darstellung von Ichthyosaurus. Deutschen Geol. Gesellschaft, Bd. 56, Jahrg., 1904. Kukenthal, W. 88 Ueber die: Hand der Cetaceen. Anat. Anzeiger, Nos. 22 and 30, 1888. 92 Ichthyosaurier und Wale. 4. Jahrb. f. Mineralogie, etc., 1892. | Mittheilung tiber den carpus des Weisswals. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. XIX. 90 Ueber die Anpassung von Saugethieren an das Leben im Wasser. Zool. Jahrb., 1890. Monogr. on Cetacea. Leboucgq, H. 87 La nageoire pectorale cétacés au point de vue phylo- génique. Azat. Anz., II, Jahrg., 1887. 474 OSBURN 99 Ueber die Entwickelung die Fingerphalangen. Ver- handl. @d. Anat. Gesellschaft, Mai, 1899. 89 Recherches sur la morphologie de la main chez les Mam- miféres marins. Arch. Liol., 1889. Lydekker. 92 Recent Advances in Knowledge of the Ichthyosaurian Reptiles. Vat. Science, Sept., 1892. Marey, E. J. 93 Comparative Locomotion of Different Animals. Trans- lated from Za Nature, Vol. XXI, pp. 215-218, Sept. 2, 1893. Marsh, O. C. "79 A New Order of Extinct Reptiles (Sauranodonta) from the Jurassic Formation of the Rocky Mts. Am. Journ. S61, Vol: X VAL, 2870) 80 New characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. Amer. Journ. Sct, VOl.. XIX 288e:; 80 The Limbs of Sauranodon, with Notice of a New Species. Amer. Journ. Sct., Vol. XIX, 1880. Merriam, J. C. 02 Triassic Ichthyopterygia from California and Nevada. Univ. Calif., Bull. Dept. Geol.; June; roe2- 94 Ueber die Pythonomorphen der Kansas-Kreide. /Pa/e- ontographica, XLI Band, Stuttgart, 1894. 03 New Ichthyosauria From the upper Triassic of California. Bull. Dept. Geol., U. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif., May, 1903. 05 The Types of Limb-structure in the Triassic Ichthyosau- ria. Am. Journ. Sctence, Vol. XIX, January, 1905. 05 The Thalattosauria. Memoirs of the California Acad. of Sctences, San Francisco, May, 1905. Meyer, H. von 47-55 Fauna der Vorwelt II. Frankfort am Main, 1847-55. Parker, W. K. 80 Report on Development of the Green Turtle, Che/one virtats. Challenger Rept., 1880. _ Origin of Turtles, 950. Repossi, E. 02 Il Mixasauro degli Strati Triasici di Besano in Lom- bardia. Soc. Italiana di Scienze Naturale. Milan, 1902. , ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 475 Ryder, J. A. 85 On the Development of the Cetacea, together with a consideration of the Probable Homologies of the Flukes of Cetaceans and Sirenians. U. S. Com. of Fish and Fisheries, Com. Rept. for 1885. Seeley, H. G. 74 On the Pectoral Arch and Fore-Limb of Ophthalmosau- rus. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXX, Dec., 1874. Thompson, D’arcy W. 86 On the Hind Limb of Ichthyosaurus, and on the Mor- phology of Vertebrate Limbs. /ourn. Anat. u. Physiol., 2 eV Ol> MX: TSSG; True, F. W. 04 The Whalebone Whales of the Western North Atlantic. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1904. Weber, Max. (Ueber den Carpus der Cetaceen) Anatomisches iiber Cetaceen. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. XIII. Wieland, G. R. 00 Some observations on certain well-marked stages in the evolution of the Testudinate Humerus. Amer. Journ. Scez., Vol. IX, June, 1900. Williston, S. W. 02 I. Restoration of Dolichorhynchops osborni, a new Creta- ceous Plesiosaur. II. Notes on some New or Little-known Extinct Reptiles. III. On certain Homoplastic Characters in Aquatic Air- breathing Vertebrates. Bull. U. of Kan., Sept., 1go2. 95 New or Little-known Extinct Vertebrates. Kan. Univ. Quar., Jan., 1895. 'O7 Brachysaurus, a New Genus of Mosasaurs. Kan. Univ. Quar., Apr., 1897. 'O7 On the Extremities of Tylosaurus. Kaz. Univ. Quar., Apts, 1397. 97 Range of Distribution of the Mosasaurs, with Remarks on Synonymy. Kan. Univ. Quar., Oct., 1897. 98 Mosasaurs. Univ. Geog. Surv. of Kan., Vol. IV, Part I, Topeka, 1898. 04 Relationships and Habits of the Mosasaurs. /ourn. of Geol., No. 1, 1904. 476 OSBURN Woodward, A. S. Paleontology. Yakowlew. 02 Neue Funde von Trias-Sauriern auf Spitzbergen. 1902. Zander, R. Ist die Polydactylie als theromorphe Varietaét oder als missbildung enzusehen? Arch. f. Pathol. Anat., Bd.125. Zittel, Karl A. von 02 Textbook of Paleontology (Eastman’s translation). 1902. de? , ee ' + ie he "Mes £1 abst ov . LATE VII ' bd = hs ; ‘q : a" “4 Ee en ahd eS fie. x 4 + we hss id a 2 4 oh } oe aes |, i, né< . : a ae Fe e PLATE, Vile Mixosaurus, fore limb, — after E. Repossi. Mixosaurus, hind limb, — after E. Repossi. Delphinosaurus perrint, fore limb, — after Merriam. Shastasaurus osmonti, fore limb, — after Merriam. Ichthyosaurus acuttrostris, hind limb, — after Fraas. Toretocnemus californicus, hind limb, — after Merriam. Ichthyosaurus communis, fore limb, — after Lydekker. Ichthyosaurus communis, hind limb, — after Lydekker. . Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus, fore limb, after Fraas. 10. J/chthyosaurus ingens, fore limb, — after Fraas. 11. Baptanodon natans, left hind limb, — after Marsh. 12. Plestosaurus dolichodeirus, fore limb, — from Hawkins’ Book of Great Seadragons. 13. Plestosaurus dolichodetrus, hind limb, — from Hawkins’ Book of Great Seadragons. 14. Cimoltosaurus eurymerus, fore limb, — after Lydekker. 15. Cimo/iosaurus portlandicus, hind limb, — after Lydekker. 16. Cimoliosaurus trochanterus, fore limb, — after Lydekker. 17. Peloneustes, fore limb, — after Lydekker. 18. Geosaurus suevicus, fore limb, — after Fraas. 19. Geosaurus suevicus, hind limb, — after Fraas. 20. Dacosaurus, lateral and anterior views of humerus, — after Fraas. NOP GOUT, SNe «ate (Oo: GN sl (478 ) a ee ee o= | | > : ‘ e's : : ‘ aa 4 > \ aT i | | ‘5 ' > j i : | % - i | :. | | - 7 7 ° | | ; *y ; ‘7 i : - “4 ‘ | | 4 | ; z A's | | 2 F | > 3 3 ; a ’ | * "es " te, Bae 2 | ; i . ‘ F ' f “4 ’ a ‘ tan | 2 a x Se PLATE VII. ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCl., VOL. XVI. IVA IOV 102 .CADATE Bie tanwa he PLATE VIIL. (479 ) - i rive es ‘« = éD ay -_ 7 ‘a “= te ~~. PEATE, Vik 21. Mosasaurus lemoiniert, hind limb, — after Dollo. 22. Platecarpus corypheus, hind limb, — after Williston. 23. Plhoplatecarpus marshit, fore limb, — after Dollo. 24. Brachysaurus overtoni, humerus, — after Williston. 25. Lylosaurus proriger, fore limb, — after Williston. 26. Clidastes velox, fore limb, -— after Williston. 27. Mosasaurus horridus, fore limb, — after Williston. 28. Platecarpus ictericus, fore limb, — after Williston. 29. Manatus, outer aspect of left limb, — original. 30. Monodon monoceros, \eft hand of embryo of 24 cm., — after Kiikenthal. 31. Balena mysticetus, hind limb and girdle, — after Flower. 32. Monodon monoceros, outer aspect of left fore limb, — original. ( 480 ) ¢ 4 = Lf _— ie arade CALS ty vee ls ase ea Spat gee ns. vs On ee _ SE eee ei clea aay t é 7 . nek - : * 7 ‘ ss = 2 , x ae A <8 a 3 ~ = “ts y a AS pO Lt I Oh See al oP a SS conte ie. ee em pi es ewe ‘ee > 2" >= ae Se a . yi as Ce : CSS: haan > 7 e gt 4; Fs is rein q Sea Ve he ’ wy ae ’ I —, yi . | eS ve 2. cuit! ip ee a i me > AVX JOV 102 ADA Mut i 7 ¥ 7; A ees UF A) Pick PEROT: (481 ) 33" one 35: 36. 37 PLATE? EX: Balenoptera intermedius, hand of young, — after Burmeister. Balenoptera bonaérensts, hand, — after Burmeister. Delphinapterus leucas, young, — original. Globtocephalus melas, — after Flower. Phocena communis, outer aspect of left fore limb, — original. ( 482 ) WNNALS: N} oY. ACAD? SCI, VOL: XVI, PLATE. IX. GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XVI. Names of authors in heavy face type. Titles of papers in SMALL CAPS. 0 157 EE Se. hohe. 29 dia fe oc St 67 Abbreviation of limb in aquatic reptiles and mammals ........ 449 ABERRATION, CONSTANT OF, AND, VARIATION OF LATITUDE; THE VARIATION OF LATITUDE IN NEW York City, J. K. Rees, Harold Jacoby, Herman S. Davis. 328-329 RIES oa 5 hee m's Ghee ole lee ee 106 Absorption of rock ........ 388, 392 ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION IN DEVELOPMENT, INTRA-COL- ONIAL, A. W. Grabau........ Acceleration of gravity, pendu- lum apparatus for determining. 340 Accessory chromosomes ...... sa; 36 NEE 6 a oi wich ony ape sl cle 88 /S 109 Accusative definite ............ 107 CEE GE e/a So decks Sole ats 105 Accusative indefinite .......... 107 MeeMemiaN PeTIOd .......600%0 72 os CO OP ae oer e ree are Bre Actinolite..403, 406, 407, 413, 415, 416, 420, 422, 426, 428, 431, 435 PeGHIMIOMITE-—CIOTILG 2. vee cee ee bs 393 Berramenite: schist... se. oad sss 404 meetion, aspects Of .....26... 131-133 ACTION AS THE CoNCEPT oF HiIs- TORICAL SYNTHESIS, P. Hughes 324, 327 Motion, degrees of .......; 131-133 BIMMICRESS O80 00 23 06 as ood ws £31 mrorelatise To*) ref. ec ee ck ee 440 ADAPTATION AND SELECTIVE ELIM- INATION IN FISHES, ExXPERI- MENTAL STUDIES oF, F. B. Sumner (Abstract)....... 358, 359 ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE Limp SKELETON IN AguatTIc REPTILES AND MamMats, Ray- mona ©. Osburn ........ 447-482 PATER so sd dia k le ea 353 Adjective, Yukaghir language.112-113 Advent Bay ...... 83, 85, 88, 92, 93 charactersof-: coalsof ..... 86 section ;of coal beds of....85-86 mavervs off indnner <2... 6... 136 PET ENACE: eran Sh ic< ay CER sR 136 Gr AOL PRN eR Siw 135-136 POSGN OF. Yeoitxn. cus etches 136 MCD tbs. Me ME ne Se. 's 134-135 PRCROSAMICI ERG AE 2s wis oe lide one da 303 AFTERGLOW, THE DURATION OF THE, ACCOMPANYING THE ELEC- TRODELESS DISCHARGE AT Low Pressure, C. C. Trowbridge (UISEOOOE ie SAE tela oss 350-351 PRECOL SABES, occ oie: dis.cs oe Beicle ss 326 En Ge | eee ees eS 2 ps 314 POPSOR CRE fay os. S he 6 ea elle 259, 288 milabama, lignite of «05: .\.<0 sn 322 ease w RIVET cc) k cae aa te eA 99 Alaska, angiosperms in ’....... 335 Cretaceous sandstones in... 335 UGS TENS cod ug a! sk ee 335 Tertiary sandstones in..... 334 ALGONKIN DrALeEct, Notes on AN, William Jones (Abstract), 336-337 Pnlce EC GNNRE So 5p ts, dicinengle sane eee 04 Aups, THE GLACIAL SURFACE FEATURES OF THE, Albrecht Penck (Abstract) fesse 355 muauenr= ref. Soot eae 285 ALTITUDE OBSERVATIONS WITH THE HyPSOMETER IN THE CAN- ADIAN Rockies, Herschel C. Parker (Abstract) ..... . «299-300 Alumina in serpentinoid ....419, 421 Amelia County Courthouse, Va. 331 American Museum of Natural History, Morris K. Jesup, Predident ...~ sehen wee se Odes. 97 483 484 INDEX. IMESIPE: , sce cin dtc Re ee ee 423| favorable conditions for ...... 167 AWUCDS. sc... dsie's cee eee 67 || Anti®onite@ xo). os clan ee 411 Ammon,. Otto; refi. tere 163, 164| Antler carved in human form.. 319 on stature, 171,188,209, 224,225, 282 Ants, THE SENSE OF SMELL IN, Adele M. Fielde (Abstract) .302, 304 AMCBA PROTEUS, THE EVIDENCE Anti HRIivet’\...2-. a5 cna eer 99 OF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN, Gary Anutchins ret. 3. Vi si3.c seen 181, 189 N. Calkins: (Abstract). ..432=339 Anvil 4 Alaska. Asics 3 see 334 Amorites, ancestors of load A AGL pee ieyetes Sei eee 300," 3075-432 JEWS sie we pee eee 162; .285,' 200) Aplite oS... ee 388, 433 Amphibia..... 35, 42;.43;.47, 351, 405. appalachia yo. bs nc ceo eee 439 Amphibian spermatocyte........ 21 | Appalachian Belt, occlusion tracts Amphibole. .402, 403, 408, 412, 413, BONS eo ons sc eee, adeno eee 429 414, 415, 418, 419, 421, 422, .423,, APPARATUS AND MeEtuwops, NEw, 426, 427, 428 J. McKeen Cattell (Abstract), Amphibole-gabbro, ....5. .%.. A. 393 324, 325-326 Amphibole schists, Aquatic reptiles and mammals, 390, 398, 407, 428, 431 abbreviation of limb in.. 449 Amphibolite, ophiolitie 4220... 407 curvature of limbs in...... 449 Amphioxus, experiments on eggs degeneration of muscles in. 471 OF dhaias ed tcanc eee aes 372-377 distal, dilation-ani..2.ce oe: 455-459 Anadyr River. oc: wane ee 98 elongation of digits in...464-465 ANALOGY, Hasits BAsep on, C. H. loss of hind limbs in... .460-462 Judd.. (title conly)c Sees 324 parallelism of fore and hind Analysis of Spitzbergen coal ..86-87 [tm S ii iis ter..+ 4... 418, 429 Bosanguets cet... nea see 308 BoTANICAL RESEARCH AT THE DESERT LABORATORY IN ARI- zona, F. E. Lloyd (Abstract), 351, 352 Bourgeois, L’Abbé; ref........ 69 Boveri; ref. on chromosomes, 2, 32, 33, 48, 381 | Brachycephalic, 221, 223, 224, 232, 235, 230, 241; 280,- 281, 284, "286; 288, 289 Brachystola, 22, 25, 27, 34, 36, 41, 467 °47 WEEE Peles oot | oss se Se eee 308 Bristol; C. L.; report of sum- WOE WORK :. 5 Vit aoe ae eee 347 British” Columbia: = o).27.- 300, 318 BasasadGamana. oie os SS ee se ee 301 British Isles in second glacial POEIOR Fie ere ee eee 71 Britton, N L.; ref. on serpentin- O1d -OULCKOPS: 2 22 se aoe ae 407, 417 Brocas rei si2c cc sce ae eos 158 Brogger, W. C.; Hon. Mem..... 361 Bromeliads” 72.06. ee eee 314 Bronze ase: 7 Sess. cee oe eee 70, 73 Bronzite, 392; 402, 403, 404, 406, 409, 413,-414, 485, 418,420, 421, 422, 424,425, 433,434, 435 Brood! "powelic6- 2 skeicoecs ene 31.2 150 Brooks: : rete ae. She eee BEx Bccom;. wel. 4 2 eee 302 Brown, Barnum; ref... 5.0... 312 Brucite, 406, 407, 410, 412, 415, 419, A20; 421, 422, 2g; 426: “4:27, aes Bryces Tek. ccc a hoe ds. eee 44 Bryozea; ectoprocteus: .".% 522.7. «- 5 Bitkowina\.. Joe S22 aoe en 188, 234 Bumpus, Hermon C.; Recording Séeretaryc2 sain soe cere 360 Biamnseits feb... ae eae eee 75 By-Laws; amendment abolishing 11 tiation: (Pee ss 2 sis ast ecseeceiees 355 aCth oe BA baire Staph ceiens See eae aia Caking coals, comparison of.... 90 COLGMATES oi ini d ee ee ee 83 Calcite, 397, 406, 407, 409, 415, 421, 427 | Calkins, Gary N., Tue Evipence OF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN AMCGBA PROTEUS (Abstract) 2 ss cca: 332-333 Callaway; ys tettce tee 393 Cam brian age tisc sir ec shen wae 323 CAMEL, EXHIBITION OF A SERIES oF Foot BoNEs ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE, W. D. Matthew 2.63225 duc oes 344-345 |: GanaerniGes: SS. eh me oe eee 235 | CANADIAN RockIEs, ALTITUDE OB- SERVATIONS WITH THE Hyp- SOMETER IN THE, Herschel C. Parker ° (Abstract) .35....% 299-300 WC GNGTGIIG. <7 ede tek we x eters 314 INDEX. 487 MRE AOL E 5. os, cepchalpin'e Siete stoners 39| Chemical processes attending oc- CaNoE Trip, A, DowN THE CGSB 5 oh oie ae sw ails eo tbs 391 YuxKON RIVER FROM DAWSON TO Anvik, Arthur Hollick (Ab- ALC Lara are ks, 5 af'ol sie )'as Jayen rents ey Bian SN a Po aa Soe Sao, ni “shdl dua ago mebalcase 69 CHOCGINDIUS. .. 00.0 000% ies 18, 22 Pape BONCMIAN. ... i206. an eee 04 BOTOCIOMIOTITS. oo 6: care, o.dias%eeie eeders 329 | AE ae Sa eee ete sr- ee mes 312 Carboniferous strata of Western DS 8 ts, 3. anwidS avin, wi Bi ERS 323 Carboniferous strata of ~* Spitz- DETIEM oe wales Fe 82, 83, 84, 90, 94) Garainal numbers. i... 00's bibgy TTS | EE ee Ree aire 7a. Sac.| Carpus...452, 453, 463, 464, 469, 470 Case-Suffixes 103 Case, temporal of nouns....110, 136 oo SS ee ene 4, 8 Cattell, J. McK., New Apparatus AND MetHops (Abstract), Gye" a) 6 60, fe ee) @ 6 6 0 0) 0) eo 66 : 324, 325-326 RS SAIIWES VOICE. 6 dicin sicine ainreise 131 Caustic potash, reaction on coal, 89, 90 MIMI Ee fas ee ak oes Bhd agakene 42 Central France, Tertiary flints in. 69 DME ATIC inns vse evens sales 392 MRC le a FF chy. «eh oaiel’slteiavelione Shiota 31 OO 2 i a ee 333 DECEOSOMIG | coi. 0.5 sia. cinieie.s'e 25, 28, 31 Cephalic index of Jewesses. .235-242 Cephalic index of Jews, 162, 163, (table 164), 164-165, 220-235, 280, 281 (RESET ARS Se a ORS Pete eee 347 CERATODUS, DEVELOPMENT OF THE VeENouS System oF, W. E. Kel- meotr (Abstract) .chx sna: 351-352 CEREMONIAL LIFE OF THE BLACK- Foot, Clark Wissler (Ab- SEMEN Soha ooo. miocd ta tacyate Sie 353, 354 _Cetacea, 448, 449, 450, 451, 453, 454, 455, 456, 458, 459, 460, 465, 467, 468, 469, 470 MPIC CO oo iin os ici ot 406, 426 MMU LOLs woe Suc 2s opie tele 288 NENG Sow mht ohcinel eo esc 6 Socece 194, 202 Es ees el sae rn ik neces 466 Chelonia..302, 447, 448, 451, 458; 460, 465, 466, 470 CHEMICAL COMBINATION OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE ACTION or Rapium, Bergen Davis and C. W. Edwards (Abstract), 356, 357 Chemistry, Section of, Meeting, Jan. 4, 1904... .299-302 Pen Kh. TIAA oho s 311-312 Magn 3, SOA... ees 320 Apt. iy S086 pes sone 328-332 May 2, “1G04. <6 seg's 340-343 GOES, au PGOAS fois ace 346 MONS, FO TO04 esha 349-351 Mee. BS oTOGHis << ain's to 356-357 Cherson, .provinee Of 2.0.14 .5/. 168, 169 CHORE Rel cts cOhal dit « oa ie 406, 426, 428 Chest, girth of, influence of social GONCUIONS. ON). . 25... ects Aa 202-203 Chest measurements in Jews. 200-206 Chester F. D.; ref., 400, 403, 404, 425, 426, 431, 432, 433 Chiapas eee edie s pwn ak 353 CHILDREN, ON THE GROWTH OF, Franz Boas and Clark Wissler CAMSETSICE) oa\elats. sie Sal. hates 336.0 937 Chiamydopurys sos 2. Sa Bene 333 Chlorite..402, 403, 408, 409, 4I0, A4II, 415, 416, 418, 421, 422, 423, 428, 431 Sloe -Senist ~. sss eG Ales ste 407 Chlofepliahie® eis kl. 6.055 hte eek 331 GHOFISLGMEES G6 ott Melle aw 303 Christy, Henrys -ref ..0i)s0- 5 68 Chromatin in nutritive cells...30—-31 Chromatia-retieulum j...:.65..56; 22 Chromite, 406, 407, 408, 409, 414, 405. -418) 420). 425, -422, 427 Chromosomes, accessory ....... 33 Chromosomes, conjugation of, in GQOSEMCRIS a woe ale so nee 20 Indiviauality iff; 2.22... 33-34 formal number of: 55... 225: 49 reduction of, in odgenesis. . 19-20 relation to inheritance. . 380-384 ne Oitelesti. FEE v0 <2 archi ean eee oa 157 Guranoscope, “Hipp. vs. ss 99 Cimoliosaurus..450, 452, 455, 468, 469 C. eurymerus..451, 452, 453, 458 ic POTTGIOTCUS <6 food aes 5 457 C. trochanterus ..... 457, 458, 469 Cities on occlusion line...... 436-437 late. Ws Silene oo Kaeo 423 CLASSIFICATION, THE, OF THE Rerptiria, Henry F. Osborn CDSE ACT i dyes 2 0's 302-303 488 INDEX. Cleavage in Pedicellina ameri- ConcEepT OF HISTORICAL SyYN- GANG. sles bose es 253 eee 31-32 | ‘THESIS,~-ACcTION As THE, —P: CLEAVAGE-MosaIc IN PATELLA, E. Hughes “(Abstract)* ....2.% soa, 427 B. Wilson (title only)....332, 333 | Conditional mode ...... 120, 126-127 Ghidastés -../ic3. Si ee 457. 458 | Conflict -of wisual ‘fields: 3... 23- 326 Co. Velod. cinta Gee 453, 454, 462 | Conglomerate, “ Wyoming’”’..... 324 Clinochlore. ..s.v200 ites oe 423 | Conjugation, definite, of verb.. 120 Goal ‘Bay 2 3...6320 o-oo ee 93 | Conjugation, indefinite, of verb: 120 Coal, discovery of, in Spitzbergen 83)| Conjugation of chromosomes in Coal measures strata in Spitz- OOSENESIS FF tga 20 bermen is ies BSS ee eee se 84)| Conjunetive moderns 7s. - ea 120, 126 Goat, ‘Tur ISLAND oF SprITz- Conklin; ref. on Crepidula. .26, 29, 44 BERGEN AND Its, John J. Ste- ConsciousNESS, NOTE ON THE venson (Abstract)........ 352-353| Nature or, F. J. E. Wood- Coccolobts uvifeniiwnc. 0 Se 314 bridge (title only): 022. ee 349 Cochitispuebib' i452 oe eee 317 | CONSTANT OF ABERRATION, VARI- Collective numerals. .c5452 4.2% 116! ATION OF LATITUDE AND; THE Collignons' grefit.,.2.: 5.082 Aaeee 253! VARIATION OF LATITUDE AT NEW Collis: J. Hy met. tee sce 418, 427| York City, J. K. Rees, Harold Cologne, lignite near .......... 322 Jacoby and Herman S. Davis CoLorapo, A NEw GicaAntTic Tor- CAbstract)! toe: oe Ween ee 328-329 TOISE FROM THE MIOCENE OF, O. P. Hay (Abstract) 312=313 Color-blindness, method for test- OUCh ORO. Cc, STIG, bist ie a See 326 Cotor Contrasts, R. S. Wood- worth (Absteact).. ....2ceue 324, 325 CoMBINATION, THE, OF IONS WITH THE SOLVENT IN _ SOLUTION, C. W. Kanolt (Abstract) ..356, 357 CoMET, LEXELL’s Lost, oF 1770; RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN- TITY OF, WITH THE PERIODIC CoMET OF 1889, 1896, AND 1903, Charles Lane Poor (Abstract). 311 Comitative case Seay WO 109 Commercial possibilities of Spitz- bergen: coal. 25 22. Saas 93-94 Comparative (casera nie aae en le IIO CoMPARISON, A, OF THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL RESEMBLANCES oF Twins, E. L. Thorndike (title: only), 2432-226 Comparison, degrees of........ Comparison of Jews with Gen- tiles, 162, 169, 286-287, 290-291 with indigenous popula- tion _. 186-187 with non-Jews in Russia, 162-163 Comparison of Spitzbergen and Pennsylvania coals 87-89 Completion, prefix signifying... 132 Complexion of Jewish _ school children in Europe 161-162 Compsognatha 303 S08 ¢ s0 ws 90m 1e * \6, eo. duewela no ww 6. 6) 6, Co a6 6) se meee CONTINENTS, OUTLINE OF THE IN TERTIARY ~ Times, We aD: Matthew (Abstract) ..314, 315-316 Cooperative voice A ret eT & 131 'Codrdination, determination of Stature Dy Sic. c kau sera 175-180 Cope: rehi o2 5505 asses 302, 303 Copepod Ovary VIRISI ee a oe ere 155-297 ECWIHUS eA8 wows Sees WIS oe a eee 44 EcLipsre, SOLAR, THE RESULTS OF THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE LAST, S. A. Mitchell (title only).... 320 ECOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC DaTA FOR Woops Hote, Es- TABLISHMENT OF A PERMANANT Recorp or, F. B. Sumner and R. C. Osburn (title only) o/s) eats INDEX. Ecotocicat ConpiTions, THE, IN A» LocaL DESERT IN LOWER CatiForNIA, D. T. MacDougal BESS ORIY) cs ccd oe 432, 933 Ectoproctous Bryozoa........... 5 Editor, N. Y. Acad. Sci., Annual RRM GFE i 52,5 «i chen a axtes 366-367 Edwards, C. W., and Bergen Davis; CHEMICAL CoMBINA- TION OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE AcTION oF Rapium (Abstract), 356, 357 EGGS OF THE CRUSTACEAN HIp- POLYTE, SOME PRESSURE-Ex- PERIMENTS ON THE, M. A. Bige- Reece pstract) 45 6.45...0%s 351-352 NES a atic. 4. « adobe sons 66 RMB TELS ie careless viv iv e's a eG 547 MNT S TEE oa ses ee ae 169, 283 | TERSOMTE-SYENITS occ wiele ase ae eis 438 PSG R one ee orec ita Wael tn endo gI ELECTRICAL CHARGES BY RADIUM, Tue GENERATION oF, George B. Pegram (Abstract)....... 340, 342 ELECTRICITY, DISCHARGE OF, IN HicH VacuaA, AND IONIZATION oF GasEs, LATEST THEORIES RELATING To, Bergen Davis PEISELACE)). obs eles oc 300, 301-302 ELECTRODELESS DISCHARGE AT Low PRESSURE, THE DURATION OF THE AFTERGLOW ACCOM- PANYING THE, C. C. Trowbridge Pensieact). iF. sGie Coe. 350-351 Electrolysis of salt solutions.... 357 Electrometer, exhibition of, by H. Reranch 3k 343 PeetrOscope: sic). i. eect as are PRA. TOOL fe 2.0 Scene ae bey 67 Elephnas Gntiquus.....ecs005: 07, 72 Elephas primegenius.......20.2+ 67 ELIMINATION, SELECTIVE, IN FIsHES, EXPERIMENTAL STUD- IES OF ADAPTATION AND, F, B. Sumner (Abstract)...... “S390; 359 Elkind; ref..162, 169, 177, 180, 184, Pos. 160, L197, GS, 262.5210, 217, 220, 229, Bab. 227, 29%, 232,. 233; 237; 24%... 258, - 265... 266,. 267,. 260, 291.) 272, 299. 282, 283 ; Milis, Havelock: ref:...:.. 237, 264 ES eee ener tee 405 Maspirical, Idealism... ..:... 252. 27. OS a oe 388 GI POCES Fis, to, ota cd flav ea! eid 5 Endoprocta, hermaphroditism in.5, 6 491 ENERGY LIBERATED BY THORIUM, George B. Pegram and Harold Webb: (Abstract) “0... 328, 329 ENGLAND AND FRANCE, SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN, WHERE MONUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BronzE AGES HAVE BEEN Founp, J. Howard Wilson (Abstract ors.4 ach see 2 344, 345-346 ENGLISH Worps, THE DISTRIBU- TION OF ERRORS IN SPELLING, Robert MacDougall (Abstract), 307, 309 Enstatite, 403, 404, 406, 418, 425, 433, 435 Enstatite-diorite 397, 403 PEBISENESIS 2 6. e5ictle os 8 368, 378 Mrmephvsesie t ahist ot ahetde sche oe 467 “Epiphyses, double,” theory of.. 466 Epipodial, 449, 452, 457, 463, 468, 469, 471 Equatertale plate: 4 2.4. sR ye Sis 26 EROSION PHENOMENA, SOME, IN St. VINCENT AND MARTINIQUE, E. O. Hovey (Abstract). .344, 345 ERRORS IN SPELLING ENGLISH Worps, THE DISTRIBUTION OF, Robert MacDougall (Abstract), 397, 309 Error of mean square....... 172-173 ERUPTIONS, THE, OF 1902 AND THEIR IMMEDIATE RESULTS, IN Sr. Vincent, Bo W: 1. E.. 0. Hoyey §(Abstract).. 3.6.6. 347-348 Paktmo: Gialects. 24. 2a. eke Oe. 103 Petey i oh a. Aide e ses iste cage ee ery ESSAY ON THE GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE, Walde- mar Jochelsom.2..2: 22.44 4¢. 97-152 ESTABLISHMENT, THE, OF A PER- MANENT RECORD OF SYSTEMATIC AND EcoLoGicAL DATA _ FOR Woops Hore, F. B. Sumner and R. C. Osburn (title only). 321 Ethnic conditions in Russian Po- Landen se ONS ee ee wee ees ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE PuesLos oF NEw MEeExtIco AND ARIZONA, DURING THE SUMMER oF 1903, George H. Pepper CA DSEESCU)..dets s aMertanet ede 317-318 492 INDEX. Europe, northern, ice shéets an... 66| Female (pronucleuss. 2. t=... ...-. 31 POVISUICM Sal, chaise scm ore art ote e amet 303 | Femur, Eyans, Sir: John; ‘céfiii. 222.6 67 451, 455; -457,-458, 462, 468; 471 EVIDENCE, THE, OF A” SEXUAE INGrnS. eta gt ote tee tated ene 94, 314 CycLE IN AMCGBA_ PROTEUS, Bernas) €f@uir schinde ce eons pee 314 Gary N. Calkins (Abstract), Ferric oxide in serpentinoids... 419 332-333 | Fertilization in Pedicellina ameri- Evidential mode: ...:.- 120, 128-129 COME GIES te he ean ae 31-32 EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, Ex- Bibpglat: Letaees cece tere 451, 457; 463 HIBITION OF A SERIES OF Foor- Fielde, Adele M., THE SENSE OF BONES ILLUSTRATING THE, W. SMEBLIEN ANTES cre ae etrs 302, 304 D. Matthew (Abstract)....344, 345| Fiesta de San Augustine....... 217 Evolution, potential of similar.: 358) Fiesta. de San Esteban..>.2..5. 317 EVOLUTION, RECENT DISCOVERIES PPT basket t far ken dene oe one 39 oF ExTINcT ANIMALS IN THE Rocky MouNTAINS AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PRESENT ProBLEM oF, Henry F. Osborn (Abstract) 357-359 EXHIBITION OF A SERIES OF Foot- BONES ILLUSTRATING THE Evo- LUTION OF THE CAMEL, W. D. Matthew (Abstract)....... B44. 345 Expedition, Jesup North Pacific. 97 Expeditions‘ Maknte...46..23000 97 Experience, continuity of.2:.2 357-359 Eyes, Jewish, color of, 263, 265—273, 28100282) 283 Face of Jews, measurements of 245-248 Racial index oP jewsi-arees ee 248 Falconer:, ‘ref.3 44s seeee 67 Bangen’ coals... ci. Sees 90, QI Fangen; G. A.3 sef <5 84, 85, 92 Fangen mine, section of rocks at. 91 Harinen. ref... .\....vanksnee 32, 39, 48 Faulting in coal ‘beds. . »..2ce.e8 92 FEELING, SIMPLE AND ORGANIC SENSATION, THE GENERIC RE- LATION OF, Margaret E. Wash- burn) ititle only).?.. i 24a 307 Pye sae 6 eo Ok ee gI Feldspar..390, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 419, 428, 432, 433, 434 Vl Sect a ae meee sera CE 430 Finckh, L.; .ref., 403, 417, 418, 419, 423, 427 First maturation division of OOCYTES. 52518 eer eee Zen Pirst.. polar cbody voi... eee 28, 30 First. somatic spindle. “i022 32 | Fishberg, Maurice; Marteriars FOR THE PHYSICAL ANTHRO- POLOGY OF THE EASTERN EvurRo- PEAN JBWSe: Dhue Ste eee 155-297 Fishberg, Maurice; ref., 187, 232, 241, 267, 269, 273 FISHES, EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES oF ADAPTATION AND SELECTIVE ELIMINATION IN, F. B. Sumner CADStrach) ii hare eet ates 358, 359 Flemming; ref :. <5 22. 4; 42.) aor Flints, Tertiary in central France. 69 Flints) worked: §.\02 36 ates Mieke 67 FiorA, THE, OF Dominica, F. E. Lloyd (Abstract)..... 312, 313-314 Flowerime plants: 25 ..1denee 43 Fluorescent | bodies: / a1. <5) eee 76 Flute ceremony at Oraibi pueblo. 317 Foettingers ret... oc woos ee FooT-BONES, EXHIBITION OF A SERIES OF, ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, W. D. Matthew (Abstract)... .344, 345 Fox: dialect: Gace vccn iets pes Re eee 336 Eraase ret. te. a eee eae es 461, 462 Fractions, Yukaghir language... 115 FRANCE AND ENGLAND, SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN, WHERE MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BRONZE AGES HAVE BEEN Founp, J. Howard Wil- son (Abstract) 344, 345-346 bie) « ae fe i France, palzolithic man in...... 73 Francottes fete 3. o3a0 ccs oe 46 Frankel, Leeoks* tefi..).4. 0s: rss Franklin; oN. Jie iret: 0% sere 331 Kraser. Riwerssn sete eee 318 INDEX. 493 French expedition to Spitzbergen. 82)! Geosaurus..450, 451, 452, 453, 457; FRINGE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, SOME 458, 462, 468 PROBLEMS OF THE, Irving King G...sueiiegds 2 Pa Lawes 462 ee 348 | Germany, blond Jews in........ 165 meee riguetted. 2. ........ 322—-323| GERM CELLS OF .PEDICELLINA 0 NS; sae 306 AMERICANA Lerpy, THE Huis- Fundulus heteroclitus.......... 359 TORY OF THE, Louis I. Dublin, Future tense, Yukaghir language, 1-64 IIg, 121, 123 ‘Germinal prelocalization”..... 371 Futurity 139 een 6-6 6 ee 8 6 0 0} de SEB Pe Gabbro..389, 392, 396, 399, 405, 419, 423, 428, 430, 431, 432, 433, 438 Gabbro-diorite........ 430. 432, 494) PPMMPO-OPARILE 2.1... tect ees 432 | Gabbro, outcrop of......... 40T, 404. Gadow; ref. on Chelonia....... 466 Galician Jews..186, 188, 200, 206,| £19, 231, 266, 268, 272,. 276 SE SN 2S (a a 186 EMT Ae ce ie nw mc own) wale nest 48 a ae ee ee 391, 397 Gegenbaur; ref. on “ Archipteryg- Ss le 464 0 a 71 IE APICES oo so ea ci ew vd ties woe 301 Gender, Yukaghir language..... 112 GENERATION, THE, OF ELECTRICAL CuarGes By Rapium, George B. Pegram (Abstract)....340, 342 GENERIC RELATION OF ORGANIC SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEEL- Inc, Margaret E. Washburn SS ? A a ie 307 Dante? 32s, te 157 Gentiles, comparison of Jews with.162-163, 169, 286-287, 290-291 Geographical Society, Russian RIE Ss Ca ot. ec Se ee 97 Geographical Congress, Eighth JS Ce | rc 344 GEOGRAPHICAL RECONNOISSANCE, A, OF THE UINTAH RESERVA- TION, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH, Charles P. Berkey (Abstract), 321, 323-324 | Geology, Section of, Meeting, Jan. 18, 1904. ..305—-306 Pep. 55, 1904... :. 314-316 Brats © 2T, 2604.2 sas 321-324 Pere .F8.7 8904...) 1. 333-335 | May 86, T0044... 2 344-346 Ocha *175 "NOOR 6 x 4s. 347-348 Biever 21, PQOA. sso: 352-353 SS) FR MTOORS : sd. deseo k 355 Le Er 259, 288 Gerund, Yukaghir language. .134-135 Gergamee vers. tis. he: Ree 303 ' Girth, relations to stature... .203-206 LC es 9 5 pes a oR ee a aR 68 | Bere one oe oak te ns ae 66 ferigd>; fourth so Fo SOS 71 METIGU,, "SOCOM Oe od ee Sa 306 in northern Europe.... 71 petinr.. Unites S205 2 22 0 ay GLACIAL SURFACE FEATURES, THE, oF THE Atps, Albrecht Penck Rest eetet ) Meee wee bea 355 Giaciern ithe Great. $52. 805 sb 3. 440 Ghedgens Tet gos) es RS AG” 156 Globiocephalus..450, 452, 453, 454, 456, 457, 458, 463, 464, 466, 468 GIHGKS T6b ns ee 165, 166, 277 Gatnodomtias 20.4.3.5.6.0.0 ook }6 68 303 Gneisses, micaceous....388, 394, 395 GSeistem> cel. ibs. eas 200, 205 Goodell, G. A.; analysis of ser- PEMMIMNOIG. 4.05 ewes A417, 422, 425 Gould; ref. on stature..171, 172, 176 Grabau A. W., INTRACOLONIAL | ACCELERATION AND RETARD- | ATION IN DEVELOPMENT (title ist Sh Rae ele sede E steraaafane fee nse" 321 GRAMMAR, ESSAY ON THE, OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE, Walde- mar Toenelsen. i.272.4 +. « 97-152 GRAMMAR, THE, OF THE YUKA- GHIR LanGuaGce, Waldemar Jochelson (Abstract). .336, 337-338 Grand ma vated: ss... 6 eke. Ss 314 GRAND SOUFRIERE, THE, OF | GUADELOUPE; AN ANALOGUE oF Mont Pert, Edmund Otis Hovey (Abstract)......... $54) “435 Granite. .388, 392, 428, 429, 430, 432, 435, 437, 438, 440 fSieettte -DOEPMYER <2 6. pc's le ee « 430 Granite dikes underlying serpen- eneIea Soe sors. OP ae cts 428-429 reaREee INAGTIAL SC. sk. ws be. e's 428 PsramideiGrmte 32. woth lee. vans 405 oo a RR. a, 431 Granulation of chromosomes.... 21 Granulite 494 Gratacap, L. P.; ref. on serpen- tinoid ‘outcrops... sees eee 407 Gteat Britain, Tertiary of... 389 Great Russians ..5225 22.0): 283, 284 Gréeenland....5% 4. eR eee eee 82 Gregoire; ref:: suc. 32,°39; 48 Gregory? rel}: dea 7 ee ee 39, 48 Gnifhins ‘ret ...3.. 5. ee 25, 926,27.) 30 Grodno, province of...... 168, 169 GROWTH OF CHILDREN, ON THE, Franz Boas and Clark Wissler (Abstract) 2.020 meow 336; 337 Gryllotalpg,, soc scans alo eee 27, 40 GUADALOUPE, THE GRAND SOU- FRIERE OF; AN ANALOGUE OF Mont Pet, Edmund Otis Hoyey: (Abstract)i-itcc. 3. B23) 3a5 Gulf stream, influence on Spitz- bergen climate.i22 Axcou. eer: 94-95 Gintherey reise es. ee ee 303 Hasit CuRVE FOR ASSOCIATIONS, THE DETERMINATION OF THE, J. E. Lough (Abstract) ...324, 327 Hasits Basep on ANALOGY, C. H. Judd (title only). nic. 2 eee 324 Haeker; ‘ref. .3, 48,22; 23; <275 436: 39, 40, 44,-44, 51 Haddam Neck. ‘Gann i207. sere 23 Hematoxylin, Haidenhain’s..... A283 Hair. Jewish, color Of. --/. aes 262-279 Hall, C. E.; quoted on schistose and gneisste: rocks... :1)..1.%.c.ce5 400 Hallers,refica ae ee ee 369 Hammer, W. oie reftsn.- hee ene 2a2 Hammerfest...) ace arene He ee pe ye Hamy® reise. 2.35 oe Sa ere ee 164 Hano?s his o. 2, hese aoe ee 317 Harker, Ay: tet. 42 eee ee 389 Harmer: fet 522 sr: secre eee Bead Harveys retoo- cee: 368, 369, 384 Matachek? ref. 22.5 eee 5 Hawks RECENTLY KILLED, MEAs- UREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY FEATHERS OF, AND THEIR BEAR- INGS ON THE PROBLEM OF BIRD Fuiicut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab- Sita) heh a eee 340-341 Hawks’ wings, interlocking of fears. 18 .\ 25.55) oe cree 340-341 Hay,.O. P., A New GIGANTIC TORTOISE FROM THE MIOCENE oF CoLorapo (Abstract)... .312—-313 Head-form of Jews, 163, 280, 281, 287-289 Head, horizontal circumference Bex” sts Wi ahale, Sa ee Re 242-244 INDEX. Jewish, statistics of, 206-244, 280, 281 length of, in Jewesses...212-214 ii 7) Pewse sk 5.0 ct ee 207-212 width of, in Jews. ee 214-220 Hearing, instrument for testing. 326 Hebrews, ancient, compared with modern Jews..... 285-286, 288-289 Heckewelder; refi... ooo. 441 Haidenhain’s hematoxylin...... 4.526 Height of Jewish nose...... 249-251 THEN CONIVG, BRSo nn oo etree 314 Helium and.sgadium compounds. .- 312 Hefitire Rock 3 8 ocr eee 333 Hematite .<5.300). 3907, 412) 405, 520 Henkines > crefiesi fe eee 27 Henman, V. A. C., THe TIME PERCEPTION AS A MEASURE OF DIFFERENCES IN SENSATION CADSERACE)) Ace. cartes cs eee 324; 326 HENRY CARRINGTON Botton, BIo- GRAPHICAL SKkeETcH oF, D. S. Matin ya. eae eee 75-81, 351 Hepatiea | S....0 sssta aete te eee 314 Hercynite ...... nile hs ote as ene 405 Heredity, Mendelian phenomena OF «bg aa arse oe ile ee 33, 48 Hering’s binocular demonstration of. color secontrast 5... ata 325 Hermanns ret. og set eee 43 Hermaphrodgites, 4.7... j«2.c anne mee 5 Hermaphroditism in Endoprocta.5, 6, 7 Hert wigs) ref os. tc 6 choterta ne ae 2; AGie Heterotypic ring =... 235 oe 32 Hills. ""R. C.3 4ref. ccc ese eee gI Himmiel* ret os 5 ¢ aeaoe ee 188, 234 Hinton, John H.; mem. of Fi- nanee. Com: 2)... wo aes aierenennae 361 Hipp chronoscope-..2: 1.9 eee 326 HIPPOLYTE, CRUSTACEAN, SOME PRESSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE Eccs oF THE, M. A. Bigelow (ADStraCt hiss ccaciestenmreniere Ge ee HISTORICAL: - SYNTHESIS, * ACTION AS THE Concept oF, P. Hughes (Abstract. cs iewct se toe 234. | 327 History, THE, OF THE GERM CELLS OF PEDICELLINA AMERI- cANA Lerpy, Louis I. Dublin. . 1-64 PAgbtiteey.).siioovercrncnte cae 285, 288 Hobbs, W. H.; quoted on basalt. 404 Hochelaga, Mount 441 Hollick, Arthur, A Canoe Trip Down THE YUKON RIVER FROM Dawson TO ANnviIK (Abstract), 3337335 o) sce) ee) ee) 6) a) een ee INDEX, Hollick, Arthur; collection of pegmatite...... 428 oe SS 333-335 ES 317 Hopokahacking, Mount......... 440 Horizontal circumference of the er re 242-244 Hornblende. .390, 391, 396, 401, 402, 403, 419, 428, 432, 433, 434 0 ee re 426 ER sic shea are a Sin a & be ae 430 IPEDS Sine ores os\G. 9 OS Wah 431 schist..391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 399, 404, 405, 418, 425, 426, 430, 432, 434 0 ee eer 433 Hornblendic gneiss, 392, 395, 404, 405, 418, 432, 435 rock 389, 393, 394 Horse, quaternary G¥,. 72 Hovey, Edmund Otis; Delegate. 344 2 pg he RE ae ee ee 401 St. VINCENT, BRITISH WEST INDIES ; THE ERUPTIONS OF 1902 AND THEIR IMMEDI- ATE ReEsutts (Abstract), 347-348 SoME Erosion PHENOMENA IN ST. VINCENT AND Mar- TINIQUE (Abstract). .344, THE GRAND SOUFRIERE OF GUADALOUPE ; AN ANALOGUE oF Mont PELE (Abstract), 3037300 Vice-Pres., Sect. of Geol. tie, Wetter, . 5,45 8% ss aes 360 Howes; ref. on hyperphalangy.. 465 Se note Se a oe a aioe 67 Hudson River Canyon.......... 407 Hughes, P., Acrion AS THE Con- CEPT OF HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS RMACT) 42's oe eke Sot ec Humerus..450, 451, 452, 455, 457, 458, 459, 462, 464, 468, 470, 471 Hume’s PutLosopny, A NEGLECT- ED Point 1n, W. P. Montague Oeeenract)< sth. ce cee wee 324, 326 Hungarian Jews 169, 185 ew mre a Ses 6 wane @ & 345 wyis S fee, 2) elo wa ae Huxley; quoted on evolution.... 384 PRE eS sod i oc est ve 303 ee ee 5 Hydromagnesite...415, 421, 423, 427 Hydrous anthophyllite.......... 406 UO ee ee eer 72 Eyimenopnyilacee ...:2.....00% 314 Hyperbrachycephalic. .163, 221, 223, 234, 235, 280, 281, 288, 289 495 | Hyperdactyly. .449, 454, 456, 466-467 , Hyperdolichocephalic, 2213: 229;: 235). FR0y, 281 FEUDOTALE? osc di oS ae one ee 2 432 Hyperoddon rostratus.......... 466 Hyperphalangy..... 448, 465-466, 467 Hypersthene...... 403, 405, 424, 432 Hypersthene-gabbro ............ 430 HyYPsSoMETER, ALTITUDE OBSERVA- | TIONS WITH THE, IN THE CAN- ADIAN Rockies, Herschel C. Parker (Abstract) oi... 0c. 299, 300 Pe a att hese eas G nae 66, 7I oscillation of climate in... 71 lee: fiord 2.2 82, 83, 84, 92, 93, 94 ‘Tce sheets in North America... 66 in Northern Europe........ 66 Ichthyopterygia........ 303, 458, 468 Ichthyosauria. .303, 448, 449, 454, 459 460, 465, 466, 470 Ichthyosauride 461 Ichthyosaurs. .302, 447, 449, 450, 452, © 6) 67S © B56 6 2 8 0)» wo 453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460-470 propodial bene of....:...>. 447 Ichthyosaurus acutirostris ; 450, 453, 455, 464 I. communis.453, 459, 464, 466, 467 Tr. CORVOCORE ore ios os sci 2 0 een 2 454 To IMZeEnsS 2.225 453, 454, 456, 462 T. lOmBtManus ... 2c ows 454, 466 I. quadricissus..450, 453, 459, 461 tdéalism, empirical ©. 4 0.0% ace 327 PCOMIABE a 5 aches ae os aaa 378-379 PUA US ea oes Atte don tee a Sigs So ele. 8 325 POPECOUS. MIACTIIAS . nos xc c.s nine mac 389 Igneous rock, composition of.423-425 IcnEous Rock, THE OCCLUSION OF, WITHIN METAMORPHIC Scuists (Abstract) 314, 315 Igneous Rock, THE OccCLUSION OF, WITHIN METAMORPHIC ScHISTS AS ILLUSTRATED ON AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND, N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387-442 DRGE HG is BP terion Was eatin oa 159 Immigration, relation to stature, 176-180, 184-185 Imperative conjugation, negative, ) Yukaghir language, G20, \Z21 positive, Yukaghir lan- ET 2 sda oa a 120 Imperative mode, Yukaghir..120, 121 Imperfect tense, Yukaghir...... 119 496 Imperial Academy of Sciences in. ‘St. -Pétersburenstcc2ee see 98 Inchoative mode, Yukaghir..120, 129 Inclusion, application of. term... 388 Indefinite conjugation, Yukaghir ; interrogative ..120, 122, 123 negative. : 3720, 120.122) 123 of verbs.120, 121-123 (table) positive. 120). 121 pies Tse Indefinite pronouns, Yukaghir.. 117 Index, cephalic; of Jews..162, 163 164 (table), 165,.220—242, 280, 281 PACTA: i 2 tenet ies tere rapa aen eee uals 248 MASA le 2 ire tee ee ee ae 253-256 of variability. = aacee nae 172-173 Of. “vitality wet ssen eee 200, 205 Pra ie cate nyse Genes oratatehe tet wale oc 305 Indian languages compared with Y utlccrseinittsny spy ichs mae amano te cra 338 Indians, American plains, cere- monial Wifesote .. 8 seen eee 354 Indicative mode, Yukaghir, (20y 02223 Indigenous population, compari- son, of Jews iiwith:.).07 cee 186-189 Indigirka: ikivet..¢. 08: aoe eee 99 Individuality in chromosomes. . .33-34 * Indogermianic:”. Jews... ee 161 Inheritance, Mendelian...... 379-380 Initiation fee, amendment to By- Eaws ‘abolishiiige wc. se oe 355 Instrumental case, Yukaghir.... 109 “Intercalary symdesmosis ”..: .. 460 Interlocking of feathers in hawks’ WITS Ssyhoctre create bie 340-341 Intermixture of Jews with other FACES. “5. Shiv eek ene See 180-183 Interrogative, Yukaghir language, P20, 4 12s eros, red Interrogative pronouns, Yukaghir. 116 INTRACOLONIAL ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION IN DEVELOPMENT, A. W. Grabau (title only)... 321 Intrusive: “Gik€s RYek ? o> ova sy aeons 143 Korési; ref. on complexion of Jewish school children in Hun- SAEG oh i eee head ee RS 161 498 INDEX. Kovio; province of, 62) 250..2ee 168 | compared with Jewish in- Kuequenaku, Mount..02.%..<%..)-% 441 | IAD IBARIES) ch tutiorehc eeeates 162-163 Kiikenthal; ref. on hyperdactyly, (sGktSp ls 5 aa eeta ke Se ee oe ee 168, 180 456; 467) | Lesehians: ..dcxcc wee. « eters 259, 288 on theory of ‘double epi- RG@uea mites: 5,026 aie sheer eee 421 physes 2°"... Ak hae ee eee 466 | Levison, Wallace Goold, Nore Kunz, George F.3 ret: .. 3: 311, 331 ON A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE, Kunz, George F., and Charles AND THE DuRATION SPECTRUM Baskerville, PHosPHORESCENCE OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT IN DIAMONDS PRODUCED BY Liecer (Abstract)s2. :.: 328, 330-332 PITCHBLENDE (Abstract), Lewis, H. C.; quoted on intrusive 299, 300-301 FOGKS) capo a othiitrc-tpeac,eteretan: eae 399 Kunzite® (0 tn.3.50 2% See oper ie cae 01 | Lewis. Seuitd...ivs. cee saree 83 Kymographs: 2.54 seem cis theee 325 LexeLus. Lost Comer or 1770; RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN- LACANDONE, SURVIVALS OF THE TITY OF, WITH THE PERIODIC ANCIENT RITES AMONG THE CoMET OF 1889, 1896 AND 1903, Maya AND, A. M. Tozzer (Ab- Charles Lane Poor (Abstract). 311 Sstfact). «2. eater eee ee 353. 354 luterzolite. so. < ces 416, 426, 42755 430 Lacertiliac. 25. eee oe 2085 477.) WRMAS! c)c:s sections eae 314 Bapneaw} reins. 7 eee. soe 159 | Librarian, N. Y. Ae. Sci, Annual Laguna; pueblo of. 3... 6:2. ome 317 Report: *Of 55 fas caches Moa ee 366 Lamarck, exhibition of letters Library Committee, Report of... 339 signed! by. 2s aes eos ieee 343, 344| Libraries of Academy and of Lapoige: ret s.. tere eee ee oe 224| American Museum, method of Large Chukchee River-25 <4. --+ 99 Combining. 2s 5 ys weet 339 ESGr 1 OSQUEUS Ghote ae ree 459| Library of Academy; proceeds Lartet, Edward; ref.:25.).-- 2. 68 froinicSalesc:... t3 546 eee 339 LATEST THEORIES RELATING TO LIGNITE AND PEAT, RECENT AD- THE DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICTIY VANCES IN THE UTILIZATION OF, IN HicH Vacua AND IONIZATION H. H. Wotherspoon, Jr., (Ab- oF Gases, Bergen Davis (Ab- Stract irs. d ak eee eee 321-323 stracthis.. ! Snes sae 300, 301-302] Lignites in. Spitzbergen........ B58 LATITUDE, THE VARIATION OF, AT Lilienthal,: J.; dict. eto gI New Yorke (‘Cirv< Part 2: LAVAGE Sess So ee 30 VARIATION OF LATITUDE AND LIMB SKELETON IN AQUATIC REP- CoNSTANT OF ABERRATION, J. TILES AND Mammats, ADApP- K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and TIVE MOopDIFICATIONS OF THE, Herman S. Davis (Abstract), Raymond C. Osburn...... 447-482 228-320 | Limburgsite 5 ..5¢.se ke ee 419 Lausitz district: . e255... aorre ee 3224) LAME: vs saeiel renee Siete eee ane 390 Daiwa fi.'s Sins oe ec ee ee 438,) 442 | Ieimes seldspate ss 1.0. ere 404 Le Boucher, Leon, ref. 2.'. 25.22. 235 | Lime in serpentioid...... 4.00. 419 Leboucq; ref. on hyperdactyly... 467 | Limestone. ...331, 391, 416, 429, 433 Lehmann, Js) ret. hae eos 303 | Limestone, dolomutic...;..a oe 407 Peibnitzs’ rel... eee ee 369 | LIMESTONE, Microscopic STRUC- entutiay 64s rans See Bei ee 316 TURE AND ORIGIN OF CERTAIN Lena iver... 63 ieee eee 99 STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES in, J, Lenhossek; ref. on sex........ 4 D; Irving: (Abstract)? 2. 305-306 Bentienlar, bands... 2.08.4 ae 389 | Limestone, “Wasatch <. ...ee. - 423 Lenticular masses” .. 2.5 oeSs te: #05 | edmonton ee eee 406, 407, 427, 428 Leonard, A. G.; ref...2...: 403, 433| Lindgren, Waldemar; ref. re- WE CPICOACHOTON. G2 65 cies a oan te 83, 94 garding intrusive dikes....... 353 PPLOCH CIT US \.cs. 5.0 wii ok @ 6 cute ote A5'9 |) PAT TS el a en ene oe 24.) 2B ar Ae Letter-equivalents ... 6/624. 4 6. 327 | Linin fibers in synapsis......... 21 Letto-Lithuanians. .181, 186, 199, 217,| Linin-reticulum .............-- 22 220, 227, 234, 235, 268 |\Lithology, ee ee tee eee 388 INDEX. Lithuanians. ..168, 180, 185, 186, 209; vittle Russia, Letto-Lithuanians compared with Jews of....162-163 Little Russians..168, 169, 180, 181, Has, leo, £90; 200, 215,,220, 227, Baa, 235. 250, 250, 268,.284,- 290 A re 17, 20 ied, R.; ref. on Italian Jews... 165 Lloyd, F. E., Botanicat ReE- SEARCH AT THE DESERT LABORATORIES IN ARIZONA (Abstract) SET THE FLORA DoMINICA (Abstract) 312, 313-314 ref. on a species of violet... 344 LocaLiTiges NOTED FOR THE DIs- COVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHIS- TorIc Man, RECENT JOURNEYS AMONG, J. Howard Wilson. .65-74 LOCALITIES, SOME OF THE, IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND WHERE MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BronzE AGES HAVE Breen Founp, J. Howard Wil- son (Abstract) 344, 345-346 Locative in Yukaghir 106 LocoMoTIvEs, BENDING MoMENTS IN RAILS FOR THE SAME SUPER- STRUCTURE UNDER DIFFERENT Tyres or, P. H. Dudley (Ab- stract) 340, 342-343 Peescramnciwon Of... ......66026- 309 “LoGIcAL THEORY, STUDIES IN,” Dewey’s, Henry Davies (Ab- 307, 308-309 352 OF oe ee eee eo .6.t ws 0 © © «8 © aie ay 6 6) mm wo & ee! fe 0) (6. fomre-et-Gher (6.8 oes Ie ee os 69 Beetaiet Giallo. ws es le ems 338 Hemproso, C.: ref...... 163, 165, 288 London, Quaternary deposits of. 67 Loss of hind limbs in aquatic rep- tiles and mammals........ 460-462 (UES SE? 7 a 39, 48 Lo Dah SS eae 308 Dowean Hy pOLrmesis...... i... 5 308 Lough, J. E., THe DeETERMINA- TION OF THE HABIT CURVE FOR AssociaTions (Abstract) ..324, 327 LowER CALIFORNIA, THE Eco- LOGICAL CONDITIONS IN A Lo- cat’. Desker’ on, D. T.. Mac- Dougal (title only)........ 332-333 NMEERROUSD ES or ee Secs. va suri so cs ws 4 Te GRRGUMSCOIES.. oy 5s saline tate eee See McClune) refs iu bs ee on BR. McCreath, Andrew S.; ref., 86, 87, 88, 90 MieGrecOrs. Tel, «oid. so cee 302 x Measurements of Jews in N. Y. City, favorable conditions for.. 167 MEASUREMENTS OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT, Naomi Norsworthy CADStHBEE clack once mie ae 324, MEASUREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY FEATHERS OF RECENTLY KILLED HAWKS AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PROBLEM OF _ BIRD Fricut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab- Stract) (cctians sesiceeeereee 340-341 MEASURE OF DIFFERENCES IN SEN- SATION, THE TIME PERCEPTION as A, V. A. C. Henmon (Ab- 325 StEACt) Qakes ee eee 324, 926 Measuring machine, Repsold.... 341 Mechanical processes attending occlusion | ich tayo 390-391 Mechanism vs. vitalism..... 368, 386 | MGSOCCIOPS Gane mvatt stem shette cetera 358 Meealosauria: $0. nn pace eee 303 Mezapiera i. ied. satan eee ee 455 Memoirs of American Museum of Natural. Eustory) 7. = 2-4e iat 10m Mendelian inheritance ...... 379-380 Mendelian phenomena of heredity, 33, 48 Menomonie? dialect)... j.2.00ee 336 MENTALLY DEFICIENT, MEASURE- MENTS OF THE, Naomi Nors- worthy * (Abstract). 2s: 324, 325 MENTAL RESEMBLANCES- OF Twins, E. L. Thorndike (Ab- SEPACE) ssc sch tees eters 324-325 Merriamia....453, 458, 461, 464, 465 Merriam, John C.; ref. on Ich- thyosaurs...453, 458, 461 on Thalattosatitia.).. .cc 471 Merrill, F.° J. oe; “ret, 404, 406, 407, 408, 433 Merrill, G. P.; ref. on serpentin- Oidt SCIMIStshe) hee aes ee 407, 416 Mesocephalic..163, 221, 223, 234, 235. 260, 201.. 207, 280 Mesonephros of Ceratodus...... 351 MesOSQHPUS® Sob. b mc = oon ees 466 MeSosuclitia oi igeag ays: «pp 244 keene 303 Mesozoic “Seaesci.. aves eaten 407 Metacarpal’ ihr. ttc pares ened 463 METAMORPHIC SCHISTS, THE Oc- CLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK witHi1n, Alexis A. Julien CADSERAICE) gu. )2, 2 ens. 8% cos Stal “sns INDEX. 501 METAMORPHIC SCHISTS, THE Oc- CLUSION OF IGNEOUS RocK WITHIN, AS ILLUSTRATED ON AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND, miexis A. Julien......... 387-442 Metamorphism of rocks........ 389 MPePAEICIEGIUS: . . 2. icc eee 51 Peeta-OeTidOdite . 2... 2. cc saan 399 SE Serr ae 10, 19 eerpliase, somatic. .........40. 19 Mreta-pyroxenite ..... 2.2... 8 antes 399 Meta-rhyolite ......... 430, 431, 438 ENR cs while oye ara a eles, wclele 463 Method of codrdination and seri- ation, determination of stature 7 ES ae ees eee 175-180 Method of investigation of Ameri- DREW EE orc le ooh od whee ow we 168-170 Metuops, NEw APPARATUS AND, J. McK. Cattell (Abstract), 324, 325-326 Methods of fixing polyps....... 3-4 0 SS SS Sis eee eae 43 Mica....390, 391, 392, 397, 399, 432 Micaceous’ gneisses. 388, 394, 395, 434 MifemeEOUS SCMIStS..... cence nn: 431 MMIPOAGG. ok. cic a Aig ise os kc ss 405 ERIM ie oes sc ek ine oe 399 PIC ik ae en eee he wee 391 Misero-chrysotile............ 410, 4II Mivero-memelite .......6. 005000. 411 Microscopic STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF CERTAIN STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES IN LIMESTONE, J. Deitving (Abstract)... ... 305-306 MPIICHAIN 4c ciele «bes na aeecteae | Milne-Edwards; ref......:..... 156 MMMIROSOINEE ook ce ea Rane 314 menmetalogy, optical.:.... 6. i. 6.0.2.2: 447-482 Mohileff, province of........ 168, 169 MoOnT. Tel sence = 4 is ole ae eo 94, 95 NET GILON . age an a tka a Zins, ote 454, 470 Montague, W. P., A NEGLECTED Point IN HuME’s PHILOSOPHY (Abstract). -\.,:.< Dae keene fale 324, Montgomery; ref. on chromo- SOMES. .2, 3, 11, 20, 21, 27, 32, 333 35, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44 MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BronzE AGES; SOME OF THE LOCALITIES WHERE FOUND IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND, J. Howard Wilson (Abstract), 344, 345-346 Moore; ref. on synapsis.32, 35, 39, 48 Morbihau 345 Morgan, Thomas Hunt; Fellow. 339 327 Morningside Heights.........-. 392 MGOFOSAUPFUS. ere cies 0.2.05 Mae aa 358 MorpPHoGENIC CHANGES CAUSED BY THE TRANSPOSITION OF AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL Prants, D. T. MacDougal CESEIE” GIA M sholast c's GN 6c Bre we ote 343 Motrid, Doe; ret se: 5 915.92, 93 WiOSHGAMTIai. 2.0. «came is teens 303, 470 Mosasaurs..448, 449, 450, 452, 453, 457, 458, 459, 462, 464, 465, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471 Mosasaurus lemoinieri...... 453, 455 Motor impulse, accuracy of..... 308 Mount. Manhattan. ...3....o- 438-440 502 Mount PELE, THE GRAND SOUFRIERE, OF GUADALOUPE, AN ANALOGUE OF, Edmund Otis Hovey (Abstract). 2.23. 2gchNaa5 Moustérian periods . Jo20..c8 0008 72 Miller, -Freg.retss...12 5, o6e eee 98 Munsell °C. iss “netictcen 2 oe oe gI Masct, 2.veinaeca ee Peete & 314 Muscles, degeneration of, in aquatic reptiles and mammals. 471 MUSCOMITG+ tcc s. cates eeetinee 398 Mysticocete whales -)ss.25e ees 463 Mysine. slutinosad 0. sso 37 Nageli; ref. on idioplasm....... 378 IN GIVE POOLS oro ore A eens pee 327 Namiber 2140 226 Sc 2 sett cet ere B07, N amipayooA ais. cies ob es eer ee 317 Naples c1..oiores bn aaeatiea ORs 329 Nasal\ index ‘of Jews:5: . dob. 253-256 Nathorst; ref. .83, 84, 85, 91, 93, 94 NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, NOTE ON THE, F. J. E. Woodbridge Ctithe. corilys) cc) s.ccc cys < seen 349 Naumann s Ges: fc... sear 94 NEBUL BY PHOTOGRAPHIC METH- ops, RECENT PRoGRESS MADE IN THE Stupy or, C. D. Perrine (title Onl yoinn sj) Sais vaton Sooo eee 346 IWECLOSMUTUS. Ty. Slot 6b ee Mer enees 471 Negative of imperative mode (Vakarhityc sons cee ee 120; 121 Negative of indicative mode ( ¥ikae hits) oe tea T20) D2e2"12¢ NEGLECTED Point, A, IN HuME’s PuiLosopHy, W. P. Montague (ADSEPACH tie eases So See 327 Nemalite.,c 5.02.8 ATO, -415;2- 406427 » AN COLEEMIG Fs ianrnen ingen ee cee eee 68, 70 | Neolithic Age. tat. p a cere eke 306 Nervous SYSTEM, ORGANIC LEv- ELS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE, Robert Macdougall (title OEY)» \ersrans eine eee eee 348 NieStaaiia:. t204 fs ee eee ee 304 New APppaRATUS AND METHOopDs, J. McK. Cattell (Abstract), 324, 325-326 New GIGANTIC TorToIse, A, FROM THE MIOCENE OF CoLorapo, O. P. Hay (Abstract) 312-313 Newland J. H.; ref. on serpen- tinoid outcrops, 407, 408, 410, 411, 417, 419 New Mexico Anp Arizona, ETH- NOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE PUEBLOS OF, DURING THE SUM- ©. ‘oof » Se a) te | North America, ice sheets in... Nose, Jewish, height of N N Nott; | N INDEX. MER OF 1903, George H. Pep- per (Abstract) 317-318 New York Academy of Sciences, record of meetings, Jan. to Dee. 299-386 New York City, favorable condi- tions in, for anthropometrical measurements of Jews New York City, THE VARIATION OF LATITUDE IN } Part 2. VaR ATION OF LATITUDE AND COoN- STANT OF ABERRATION, J. K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and Her- man S. Davis (Abstract). .328—-329 Nickerson; ref 6 Witsche>:, cef.c 2442. oeeeac ae 5 Nominative, definite suffixes of.. Non-caking coals, comparison of. Norite 405; 420) 490) .aeer Norsworthy, Naomi, Measure- MENTS OF THE MENTALLY DE- FICIENT (Abstract) 324,0325 66 82 322 97 Sip) fe) 0) een) (6) e eale lw fa! [a Wh ejges eerie) Oo) se (se (0) e%a.(0) a) o.e L e eae North Cape North Dakota, lignite of........ North Pacific Expedition, Jesup. fe) (e) Syle: (0; 16 © 1s) wee ve 6 le. we) en aL ee of C40. my wie wl ome) ta) © [els eke ie eo) 0) \s 2) 8) <0) (aa ee “ nostrility ” shape of width of 251-252 @,.0) 6 a ec) 0 E.6) S16, 6 Ore Note oN A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE AND THE DURATION SPECTRUM OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT Licut, Wallace Goold Levison (Abstract) 328, 330-332 NoTES ON AN ALGONKIN DIALECT, William Jones (Abstract) . 336-337 yothosauria Yothosauride e. © se Bes si.eie, = 156 Youn, Yukaghir language....103-112 declension) Gb2)s.,c2-+ras cance 110 form, relation to verb form. 133 ©, 0 s,s) we) eviove We.) \uia te: \a a) (eran wes WETbal ce 0 sen ag eomepeeeee 133-134 Nova. Zembla 0. 28;.0. 2. eee 82 Nirchal: ‘seutes< 2..c fin asa eee 313 Niicleolis:; (62g. 2 co. ieies ac eee a 51 Number (Yukaghir), dual...... DLL plutei... Shes oie sea hears 110 Numerals «(Yukaghir) 7. ..2. - 113-116 Catditialo > «oat. See I13-I15 COMECTIME Bis cu cle ice Sot ee 116 distributive ....cc. 2) Saas Ts (heganve eke ld 2 eae Ree ee cs GEMIAl 2c. etm eee oer res N wtrifive teelis: 2.045 ac te oe ene 30 NUL DAIS GEE seo eee 420 TN DEX. 503 Meniweron line, cities on....436-437 Ornithopoda ....-.. cee nee eee 303 Occlusion, need of the term..... 388 | Orogenic movements -.--=. 624%. 315 Occlusions of Westchester Co., + Osthorlase 0... 6 plas ae oe 390 Ee ee 404-406 |Osborn Henry F.; Finance Com- Occlusion tracts along Appalachian | Rb AY tee carp ciathss cave 361 0 eee ee 429 GEE. b dksae Seats 302," 8909, SIs B16 OccLusion, THE, oF IGNEOUS | RecENT DISCOVERIES OF Ex- RocK WITHIN METAMORPHIC ; TINCT ANIMALS IN THE Scuists, Alexis A. Julien (Ab- Rocky . MouNTAINS' AND SUM Osis oe o2's swt ae SATs Sly THEIR BEARINGS ON THE OccLusIon, THE, OF IGNEOUS PRESENT PROBLEMS’ OF RocK WITHIN METAMORPHIC Evo.LuTion (Abstract) .357—359 ScHISTS, AS ILLUSTRATED ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE AND NEAR MANHATTAN -ISLAND, N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387—442 iamemray Cial€Ct .. 1. we ee 336 OS RR: 70 Sreenmovicz; ref........-.. 169, 180 ee ah ee" 326 Oligocene Tuitanotheres, Eocene Bee sds OL TNE... 5 oiicn lena els war 358 Olivine. .353, 403, 404, 409, 418, 420 424, 425, 426, 427, 435 MATE -BADDEO. occ 3. 5 be a so Be wd 423 Mmmmon Rivet. o... 6.6 sk oe ee 98 ON THE GROWTH OF CHILDREN, Franz Boas and Clark Wissler Memeract) ko. bee abt 237 0 17, 20-31, 40, 50 cytoplasmic changes of... .30-31 cytoplasmic polarity of...... 30 first maturation division of.25—28 second maturation division of, 28-30 Odgenesis 2s 17—3 1A Oodgenesis and spermatogenesis, Baiinanison OF. oo... ek ce ens 48-49 US Sea ee 17, 18-20, 49 SME ood 15) 2 oiclwstv'ant!s, ah ese Oa 423 (EL i nh a re eae 427 Oe ey aera ere 303 Ophiolitic amphibolite ......... 407 BewOId HOUTC. . 6. 6. as cee ws 41, 42 Ophthalmosaurus........... 452, 469 DUET ca tetas 1 i. a a at 303 Optative mode (Yukaghir)...120, 126 De Stas Siege c's 245.2 Weweca’ 314 Order of words (Yukaghir).... 140 Ordinal numerals (Yukaghir)... 115 OrGANIC LEVELS IN THE DEVEL- OPMENT OF THE NERVOUS Sys- TEM, Robert MacDougall (title only) ORGANIC SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEELING, THE GENERIC RE- LATION oF, Margaret A. Wash- burn (title only) C70. 6) we 68) 6, SE SS 8 ee: CFR. Cie) es vw 307 |} Pareiasauria REPTILIA 302-303 Osburn, Raymond C., Apaprive MopIFICATIONS OF THE LimMB SKELETON IN AQUATIC REPTILES AND MAMMALS, 447-482 and F. B. Sumner, Tue Es- TABLISHMENT OF A PER- MANENT RECORD OF SYSTE- MATIC AND ECOLOGICAL DaTA FoR Woops’ Hote Ctitlessonine)es «cate tics. eats 321 SSEi her Opes lhe Ate t Bor ocs he 259 Ottawa dealeeea. . x se. alesse «co-5 0 336 OUTLINES OF THE CONTINENTS IN Terrrary . lasers: W.. D. Matthew (Abstract)...314, 315-316 ON rear anes, ht eh ce et ace ed du eCeed ote i Ovatier COPEPOE . re.cs waselstcieres ake 18 SOWIE TERR don a Sie tue wie ols 303 Ox, spermatogenesis of......... 38 Oxygen gas, celebration of hun- dredth anniversary of discovery. 76 RCC ss ac ool aa ir a ee 3 Pagliani; ref. on stature..... 171, 172 Paige, Sidney; field assistant in PAU ASHA sae ciate s Game 2 ins oe 333 Paleolithic Age, four periods of. 72 WUE OPE Eee eich a a eee 68, 306 times, conditiéns in....... 70-73 PU @OSNGE Sb a os ao ou Ad ah Boe oe 358 “ Pale, of, Settlement)... 602. 168 Pantukhof, I. I.; ref., 163, 203, 204, 282, 288, 290 PapER MAKING IMPLEMENTS OF AncIENT Mexico, Marshall H. Saville (title only) .......... 336 348 Parallelism of fore and _ hind limbs in aquatic reptiles and Mmanwmeis? .. seve oes el at 459-460 PAPAIN? 50S o9-acctetve 0s ated Pes 303 a Pee 303 504 INDEX. Pareiasauridse 2 sss: see aes 303). Pelyeosauiria’ ....228 . aan eee Parrotichide <<\. lead eartw ky es 28, 30 Palarity iM--OOCyteS. 6.5 saws 20, 30 Polish Jews. .162, 168, 181, 185, 186, 200, 200, 217, 219, .266,° 268, 272 Poltava, province of Polystomelila * Polysynthesis ” Poor Charles Lane; Editor RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN- Try or LEXELL §) ost CoMET OF 1770 WITH THE PERIODIC COMET OF 1889, 1896 AND 1903 (Abstract). Position of adverbs (Yukaghir). Positive forms in verb (Yuka- Dis shee eee ee Oe pe ay) ea en a E20, 221, -1a2, POStUVISUL «c:d-s8 bi ear as ek eee Possessive absolute pronouns Pipe 2 |e ali (hy oh eA Om a gre do Possessive suffixes (Yukaghir).. Post, C. A.; Finance Committee. Post-synaptic processes Potential mode (Yukaghir)..120, Potential of similar evolution... Pottery-making Pottowatomie dialect Powell; Powhatan, Mount Predentata Predisposition to similar evolu- tion in Titanotheres Preformation Prehistoric archeology PREHISTORIC MAN, RECENT JouR- NEYS AMONG LOCALITIES NOTED FOR THE DISCOVERY OF REMAINS oF, J. Howard Wilson, 65-74, (Abstract) 305, 4070 (6 es vene & eee ele Be 6.8 ae SO) 0 Wb e el 8 le) Bs 8 ve alee fe “Prelocalization, germinal ” PieGimeeweltaries «Sere hue ave he ws PRESENTATIONS, PRIMARY AND Seconpary, Henry Rutgers Marshall” (Abstract)... <3. 2<- Present-preterite tense (Yuka- PE ae sae eal aaa 119, President’s Address, N. Y. Ac. STL Oe BON ee cate et es notin hie: 367 PRESSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE Eccs OF THE CRUSTACEAN Hip- POLYTE, M. A. Bigelow (Ab- SRE ABE Toasts. th ete ee lak ET. PERE Wide? EE hc. oh sees ce Salle): 0: wee ee ee Sate ae era Peete TE. cs ee eka tk Cee S PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRE- SENTATIONS, Henry Rutgers Marshall (Abstract)... ....<. PRIMARY FEATHERS OF RECENTLY KiLLep Hawks, MEASUREMENTS OF THE, AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PROBLEM oOF_ BIRD —386 506 Fiicut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab- | stract) 340-341 | Primitive egg cells, resting stage Se © “eo ‘ee © (eb) oe /o0) 'e) fe oun OE chi, aes een ee ee 18 | PRISUUTUS PREG. cs ater ee eae es 459 Sachoes., Bleue. . 5 ssc ck otc ss. 441 Sr a | es a ee 37, 46 508 INDEX. SANE? oF ache ations vee cee 420: Schmid bs ers: Geers cero eee 5 St. Petersburg, Imperial Academy Schockaert; ref oic si 2: 45, 46, 47 Or PSCreneeS' iste eee cetoeiee 98 | Schoenfeld ref 20... ons 38 Saint Prest, gravel pits of....... 70 | OCHTAUES? Teta. cee. oa route ee 427 St. VINCENT AND ManrTINIQUE, Schreiner, A., and K. E.; ref.... 37 SoME ERoSION PHONOMENA IN, Schulze, E.> ret

(sx: stchaeeecnietc eee ee 408-416 Schimmer; ref. on complexion of mineralogical constitution of, Jewish school children in Aus- 420-423 EGU shi ishy bre ence 161, (271, “274 outcrops in Westchester Co., Sehists; ‘crystalline 25. sn eet S55 Ni Waa e-e ees i oe ee 406 Schist fragments within dikes... 392 reactions with bronzite..... 424 ScHists, METAMORPHIC, THE Oc- ridge of, on west bank of CLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK Hudson cA «ax see 406-408 WiruHin, Alexis A. Julien (Ab- Serpentinoid schists, chemical SETACt ec ss 2G Se aa eee A145 315 composition of....417—420 Scuists, METAMORPHIC, THE Oc- Ofigin (Of we. .cs nee 416-417 CLUSION OF IGNEOUS RocK Sertwlarig % oosn ise vs co ties See 5 WITHIN, AS ILLUSTRATED ON Servians Wis iy ctetc ey cakes tinneer 284 AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND, Sex relations in Pedicellina N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387-442 GMETICANG 185.055 ws ee De eu 4-8 INDEX. SEXUAL CYCLE, THE EVIDENCE OF A, IN AM@BA PROTEUS, Gary N. Calkins, (Abstract)........ 332-333 Shale 404 Shamans, Dead, A Tale of What the Ancient Yukaghir Did with SRM lors are cia i ses be I4I-152 Perret EANCH 22). ke ce ee 353 Bmemmet, Mount ............... 441 SUMGSVOSGUPUS. 26. eee 458, 461, 468 PERM Sie koe ead ocd Las 461 Shem, as ancestor of Jews...... 160 Smcehedropitzki: ref........... 273 Shulze, G.; analysis of serpen- ES ae eee ae re ne 417 Saungopavi, pueblo of......... R17 Srcpomavi, pueblo of .......... 317 ENN es ee 2 guts oe ee 70 NR SE Se ene ee 83, 94 Silica. .393, 409, 416, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424, 426, 427 BPUEIOONIE 2. senses wece ree ue 427 PEMTIOGAUS. Scie sta ee ess cp ss 357 MANTIS ers wt heey ceemae a 303 NT i 459 eimereness of action ..+....... 131 Siphon pens for time records. ...326 Sirenia..448, 449, 456, 457, 458, 460, 463, 470, 471 mramwray, Pilasica’ 6.2.65. ee ee dies 333 Skeletal parts, smaller, in aquatic reptiles and mammals ....467-468 SKELETON, Lims, IN AQUuATIC REPTILES AND MAMMALS, ADAP- TIVE MOopDIFICATIONS OF THE, Raymond C. Osburn...... 447-482 Skin, Jewish, color of..262, 264, 279 Skye, igneous rocks of.......... 389 MR eS cnc eb erase @idla'e 429 Slate, hornblende .............. 433 [wavonic type” of Jews..:... 284 UMMM Artec con Hae hss mag Seas 284 Ls 0 426 SMELL, THE SENSE OF, IN ANTS, Adele M. Fielde (Abstract).302, 304 Smith, Harlan I., Arcu£oxocic- AL SURVEY OF THE INTERIOR OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON DuRING THE SUMMER OF 1903 PRTG ACE eco aie s.0-b:4 anced gee 317-318 Snigireff; ref., rO¢; 177; 180, 184, 200, -20T,..205 eR TNE g hai 5 wyctin ees kis enieine 431 Social conditions, influence on girth of chest...... 202-203 influence on stature.189—-195 509 Society of Antiquaries of London. 67 G0GGys -fSl Fea ae ae ats gta SoLaR EciipsE, THE RESULTS OF THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE Last, S. A. Mitchell (title OME) Likesaatecsut Moone eee ts 320 Solutfian- period...) aes. oe 72 SOLVENT IN SOLUTION, THE Com- BINATION OF IONS WITH THE, C. W. Kanolt (Abstract) ..356, 357 Somatic ‘spindle, Mest}. js. sc. 4 : 32 SoME EROSION PHENOMENA IN St. VINCENT AND MARTINIQUE, E. O. Hovey (Abstract)..344, 345 SoME PROBLEMS OF THE FRINGE oF CONSCIOUSNESS, Irving ine Circle Only. > ode at ees 348 Somme River, implements and Same, (ewe ee Sere oe oie ek eA 66, 73 Sone, Valley Olle cms «ass ocala km 67 Soufriére, active cone of, com- pared with cone of Mt. Pelé... 335 Soufriére, eruption of the...... 348 Sound harmony of vowels....... 138 South America 6.5. ote eee’ 316 SRGLNUOU Ser te fed oS F50,|. 265, 277 Sparking “potential... . 252.6% 301, 302 SVPCCEVO SCOPE atc laig e aiWin.s Wo! + erste: 8 one 330 SPELLING ENGLISH WorDSs, THE DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN, Robert MacDougall (Abstract), 307, 309 SU CEMIRASTES | fos c ule wer wenscee we at Spermatids, formation of, in Pedicellina americana....15—-16, 33 Spermatocytes in Pedicellina QMELICONG «2.2.2.2. II-I5, 33, 50 Spermatogenesis and odgenesis, ChiiparisOtMer s44, ee aa 48-49 Spermatogenesis in Pedicellina QUNCFICOME. ha oS einint os 2, 8-17, 49 SPermatoeomia.. o..4. ai Q-II, 33, 49 Spermatozoon, matured, of Pedi- cellina americana .......... 16-17 SSMS ET GE col otc: Bara eae lawn x a ahs 330 SE MOMONS aioe sa ah enunicias sine x es 302 SPINOR. MOP ode cae sees EV SIME cave oPmeoe trie 353, 406, 415, 427 Sprrenie... ko. 22; 36, 40, 43, 42, 50 Spirifer Pewuhavn 5 ee ees ees 84 Spitzbergen coal, analysis of...86-87 SPITZBERGEN, THE JURASSIC COAL or, John J. Stevenson...... 82-95 SPITZBERGEN, THE ISLAND OF, AND Its Coat, John J. Stevenson CAPS sery es ide coe wins 352-353 510 INDEX. Spitzbergen archipelago, descrip- MATIC EcoLoGICcAL DaTA FOR HanMmOr ke Os ark uc otaneEere re 82/ Woops Hore (ttle only).:--: 321 Spodumened ) . vOrs Seas ee 301| Sumner, F. B., ExPeriMENTAL Spuyten, Duyvail (Creek esac oe 393 | STUDIES OF ADAPTATION Squamata 5 89... aneereaes ere 303 | AND SELECTIVE ELIMINa- Stalagmites U2 is eis. ya pane £2 es TION IN FiIsHES' (Ab- Staten Island, occlusion on..... 407 Strace)e Sak ee See bee. 358, 359 Stature, determination by method Report of summer work.... 347 of coordination and seria- Supine, Yukaghir language, TORN 5. o tote ecto 175-180 120, 127-128, 130 effect of occupation on. .190-195 effect of social conditions on, 189-195 of Jewesses 195-199 of Jews..171-199, 280, 282, 283, 286, 287 Relation to. cirthe it. ces 203-206 relation to immigration, 176-180, 184-185 Steatiterk.. wines AOS, 406, 407, 435 Stemberes® ref! ts .2 8045 i5. Fe 234 SECTCOSTETNUNMN “55a. ss ha cme eee 457 Stevens, Miss; refs... s fool225: 37 Stevenson, A. E.; ref........ 92, 93 Stevenson, John J.; Delegate... 344 THE ISLAND OF SPITZBERGEN AND Its Coat (Abstract), 352-353 THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZ- BERGEN 0 ds stae Soleo Soe muse 82-95 Stieda; ref...... 158, 223, 280,232 Stockholm Academy of Sciences. 82 | Stonehenge 27a. see tee 7A, 345 Strasburger> sef......).- 32, 39,48 Stremmatograph tests ...... 342-343 Strenesiscer sweats eek ote ee 403 Stresses, unit fiber. 5... esis ae 342 Striated positive column ....... 301 SETMtCs: Hels eure eee ers ga “ StuDIES IN LoGicAL THEORY,” Dewey’s, Henry Davies (Ab- stract) 307, 308-309 STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES IN LIME- STONE, Microscopic STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF CERTAIN, J. D. 6) @ ele. a) eo 6 (aq) © (6) 6,18, wie) te Erving ‘CAbstract)/ 56a 305-306 Subbrachycephalic, 221, 223) 235 ZOO. 265 Subdolichocephalic, 221, 223, 235. 200. -2o1 Sixes: CASE. \.cicis sic § «cree 103 DUSSESSIVE® , o.c.ai0-5 ecaiaeh eee 103-4 SEM Fei ce! cece, Sos aus nea ee 67 Sumatra, solar eclipse in, t901.. 320 Sumner F. B., and R. C. Osburn, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PER- MANENT RECORD OF SYSTE- SURVIVALS OF THE ANCIENT RITES AMONG THE LACANDONE AND Maya, A. M. Tozzer (Ab- stract) 353; 354 SUSPENSION PENDULUM, DOUBLE, Tue Tueory oF A, R. S. Wood- O) e) 6 a) eee Ge, a) 8) eee) ele le ie: ie Ward Abstract) eatin ceeer 340 Suttons ‘ref3.2, 23)" 01) 22.) 25a 32; 333.34, 36, 40,48 Swedish geologistsin Spitzbergen. 82 | Switzerland, paleolithic man in. 73 Syenitic @neiss! >... ee eee 40l Synapsida H..3: woe 220, 363 SYMAPSIS> 2.fhas we aoe Lf, 32 <35y reese linin-hibers: ingos ce esa 2 univalent-irodsS” di... 21 Synaptic knobs: 2.4.20 .: soe eee Lo, 25 ““ Syndesmosis, intercalary ”’ 465 Syntasmatite: 4 haus ee eas Cie 426 SYNTHESIS, HistTorIcAL, ACTION AS THE Concept oF, P. Hughes (Abstrach)s Sieve eae RBA B87 SyTians.s- corel ee 164, 259, 288 SYSTEMATIC AND ECOLOGICAL DaTA FOR Woops Hote, Es- TABLISHMENT OF A PERMANENT Recorp oF, F. B. Sumner and R. C. Osburn (title only)... 32% Tale..406, 407, 408; 409, 403; [4ir4; 415, 420, 421, 422, 423, 425, 428, 435 Tale=sclitst..nc 2 eee anaes 407, 418 Tale, A, of What the Ancient Yukaghir Did with Their Dead Shamans-— (2c. eee ae 141-152 Talko-Hryncewicz; ref..162, 160, 177, I8I, 184, 1854 T66, 187) 166, 198, 210, 213" 25S; 220, see. eeae 227) 23 292 (eo ae., 2o'7, saat mane 250, 264, 265, 266, 267, 200, 271; 272, 273, 275, 284 Talusebreceta’™” o255¢. 214. eee 406 Tangential pressure, corrugation DY. sis, p ie eae NE a at ae ee 390 Parr RG refock Ste ee 436 Tarsas ioe 452, 453, 463, 464, 46 INDEX. ee eee ae ee Tchernigoff, province of....168, 169 eS: ee es erg 393 Delmatotherium . os. see eee ee 358 MSIGE Sas ee oe IGe* SYS" FO Temporal case of nouns...... I10, 136 Memees (Yukaghir)............% 119 ES cre nics vicisce Re e.0'dm, alate 314 Geeeetey COAL .. 2... te ese 93, 94 deposits, flints in........... 69 See HOO; 315, 316 @ Great Britain..s>... 389 OO ee arn wie 68, 70 Tertiary sandstones in Alaska... TERTIARY TIMES, OUTLINES OF THE CONTINENTS IN, W. D. Matthew (Abstract)..314, 315-316 EMI E Sok c pireeee se 303 DPEStUDO OSDOTMANG .. 260.2 s ness 313 Tesuque, pueblo of ............ a17 Thalassema........ 25. 26, 27; 205.44 MESSOCILCLYS . oo 0 oo eo ee 460, 466 EUEMEHOGAUCIA 6), sua Scie w es 471 MIITTOSOUTUS «0. eee eee 471 Thalattosuchia. .303, 448, 449, 450, 453, 454, 457, 460, 462, 465, 468, 470 oo 2 ee 303 + oi a Ree ae 69 THEORY, THE, OF A DouBLE Sus- PENSION PENDULUM, R. S. Woodward (Abstract)....... 340 Se See 419 enOuOMEa eS cal eee 303 Thermo-electric couples ........ 329 0 Oe ee or 303 DEMEEONUOTDH A... 6. ens tw len ens 303 MIE 05. io. «5s dn dae eet oe 303 ME Oe nce ccna cme ee ig ’ meernpeon, J. J.; ref.......... 301 meempson River ............. 318 THORIUM, ENERGY LIBERATED BY, George B. Pegram and Harold Webb (Abstract)......... 328, 329 | Mattei OXIGe 2... 1. sec w anes 329 Thorndike, E. L., A Comparison OF THE MENTAL AND PHysIcAL RESEMBLANCES oF Twins (title only)... 348 MENTAL...RESEMBLANCES OF Twins (Abstract).....324—325 Pea metre TStONeS oo cc ek nnd 65 MUPVEGNOSOOM® 20. ss ous vw ve clea 45, 46 a ee ee ae 451, 452, 463 PMEMRU IE oo cic Pk woe eek 300, 301 168 TIME PERCEPTION, | | 511 THE, AS A MEASURE OF DIFFERENCES IN Sensation, V. A. C. Henmon CPE AER i. a ulek wow eee 324, 326 Time records, siphon pens for.. 326 TITANIFEROUS MAGNETITE, THE, IN Wyominc, James F. Kemp Sea Ee orca. ohn ite ae a52.. 983 PHAMOCRETIWM 46 i ow cee ie Gea s 358 Titanotheres, Eocene ancestors of PePOAGCENS 5). 0 is 4 ees g Oe 358 DP HAPREETES. i ocoia oon PC Rew gI Osea MES donee Str ale 'tho ald khan a mens 431 Topinard; ref..... 158, 177, 249, 257 TOPS ALIVER 606s 6 6G s eiein do 319 Toretocnemus....453, 458, 460, 461 ‘RGPRCOGREI > TEE is dow oes a as 404 TortToIseE, A New GIGANTIC, FROM THE MIOCENE OF CoLorapo, QO. ey a oS nr 312-313 Toula, Prof. Franz; ref...82, 84, 94 SPREE ANG ING nS elle ass aD hoe ca 391 Tower, Ralph W.; Librarian... 360 Townsend, Charles H., Report of PRTTATIET, P VAL GEES vias Se ail Gs Sonia 2 347 Towaseud. J... Sus; TL os 560s 0s 301 Tozzer, A. M., Survivats oF AN- CIENT RITES AMONG THE LACAN- DONE AND Maya (Abstract) .353-354 PCE LAG Sb aoe eS SX a Rinse Kiar 48 Treasurer, N. Y. Ac. Sci., Annual RePete AT oe tea s,s 5 hie 364-365 Tremolite..402, 403, 406, 407, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418, 419, 420, 422, 425, 426, 428, 431 Triassic. .453, 458, 459, 461, 464, 471 Tribo-luminescence ............ 301 TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE, NOTE ON A, AND THE DwuRATION SPEC- TRUM OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT Licut, Wallace Goold Levison [PE SEGREE Doar Scce 2 Med p cso nc 328, 330-332 Trinity College, collection of ATSC RNS SOEs Sone oh his he & his 76 SP EMOMVGHIS 6 dicts e «so Om dd bo 2 303 ATEN AORN! nn. was sche ax" 331 Trowbridge, C. C., MerAsuRE- MENTS OF THE PRIMARY FEATHERS OF RECENTLY KILLED HAwKsS, AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PROBLEM OF Birp Friicut (Ab- SRERGEN = pepe tthe £2 00k, 340-341 THE DwuRATION OF THE AFTERGLOW ACCOMPANYING THE ELECTRODELESS DIs- CHARGE AT Low PRESSURE (Abstract) 350-351 512 Tutts, F. L., THe RELArion or KATHODE RESISTANCE TO THE SO-CALLED SATURATION CuR- RENT IN THE DISCHARGE © THROUGH Gases’ (Abstract), 349, 350 T wundta, dialect sees aoe 98, 99, 338 FE UGIIGUES.. (ois R Lain ete heey eee 99 Tungus stems in Tundra dialect. 338 Tunicates Turanian typevot ewe 158-159 Turin, cephalic index of Jews in. 165 Twins, A CoMPARISON OF THE MENTAL AND PHySICAL RESEM- BLANCES OF, E. L. Thorndike Ctuthes only: .0cs craks 2 Serie te 348 Twins, MENTAL RESEMBLANCES oF, E. L. Thorndike (Abstract), 324-325 eyed: Se oe spaces of dreamt acoe Aueememete B55 Mylo sauainice aces. 208 oo een ee 462 Tylosaurus, 450, 452, 453, 460, 464, 469 EL ePVOPTIge? orn ae eee 470 UINTAH RESERVATION, SOUTH- EASTERN UTAH, A GEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE OF THE, Charles P. Berkey (Abstract), 321, 323-324 Ulna..450, 451, 452, 457, 463, 464, 466, 468, 470 ULTIMATE RELATION, THE, BE- TWEEN Macic AND RELIGION, Irving King (Abstract) 307, 309-310 Uniform positive column °.5-... 301 Unittiber (stresses s.a5.0- renee 342 Univalent rods in’ synapsis <-,-- 21 UNIVERSE’S, THE, PLACE IN Man, Francis Burke Brandt (Ab- Strach yi |. Ui s 2 eos 307-308 Ural-Altaic group of Siberian langedages...o8 sae ae 98, 103, 104 Ural-Altaic languages compared with Yukaghir language ...... 338 MI Calbe os ccd GS Sa eee eee A032. 427 Ni rAANIte.” }.).<.cvaeahs, aoscsneueee cements 300 Uranium compounds: 2.4.22 => 76 “Uranium, index to _ literature OE ee as Vays ois sige eae 76 PU RCISEUIEN. v.55 ocd ate e teats eee 18 Mec. fold: aca tance Gok Rai 330, 332 Utau, SOUTHEASTERN, A GEO- LOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE OF THE UINTAH RESERVATION, INDEX. Charles P. Berkey (Abstract), 321, 323-324 Van der. Stricht nets... swage 46 Van Hise, C. R.; ref...423, 424, 425 Van. Wintwarter: ref... 22.05. 38 Variations, definite or determi- TA Ris aire aula wy een see VARIATION, THE, OF LATITUDE IN New Yor«k City; Part 2, VARI- ATION OF LATITUDE AND Con- STANT OF ABERRATION, J. K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and Her- man S. Davis (Abstract). .328-329 Vena cavaot Ceratodus.c. oan: 351 VENOUS SYSTEM OF CERATODUS, DEVELOPMENT OF THE, W. E. Kellicott: «(Abstract):..-..e5 351-352 Verb, conjugation of 120 Verb form, relation to noun form. 133 Verb, Yukaghie’ <0 cee eee 119-133 WVergolays) cele cities 5.) -csia eee 329 Vertebral: Scates” .jnc. foe oe 313 Wialis case (Yukaghit): a.\s0ccer 106 WallAaTStte toscana eles 420; 4222; 3420 Violet; description (of a::.eae 344 Virchow; ref. on complexion of Jewish school children in Germany....<162, 162) 26252745275 Visual fields; conflict of. i.)-2 25 326 Wistual’ stimuli” 57 3.4.2 eee 308 Vitalism vs. mechanism..... 368, 386 Vitality, index of, in Jews..200, 205 Vogt; ref., “ Lectures on Man,” Vohlin, province 10t.:7. 24. .- 168, Voices, Yukaghir grammar. .130—-131 Volcanoes, coastal chain of. .437-438 Vom “Raths rei... eee 27,540 Von Baer; ceb...92. faves aca 368 Von. Buch; eis. i725 ¢. «202, 835.04 Von der Steinen, Karl; Hon Went: “fc Bac eS arc ativan edie mites 361 Von Maydell, Baron; ref...... Von Meyer; ref. on Simosaurus. 459 Von Nardroff, E. R.; Vice Pres., Section of Astronomy, Physics and’ Chemistry ap... 2 vaeaeroe 360 Von: Zittel, Prof:; death of: ... 362 | ref. on Plestosavridx.. -.. +4 459 Worob ete rete ce ane 283, 284 Waebens seftioii i. Sac seers ee 233 Wallachianist 55.5. sx citen eta tees 168 VV SAS aos erie es eae, Shae ere hw, * Wasatch’ limestone INDEX, 515 Washburn, Margaret E., Tue | GENERIC RELATION OF ORGANIC THE PROBLEM OF DEVELOr- SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEEL- MENT, President’s Address, BeeeCHIFIC OLY). oe. soe ee os 307 | 361, 367-386 Washington, state of ...... 316, aig. WisGe.. Eo Ase ster. oie kates 301 WASHINGTON, STATE OF, ARCH#- Wilson, J. Howard, Recent OLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE IN- JouRNEYS AMONG LOCALI- TERIOR OF THE, DURING THE TIES NOTED FOR THE Dis- SUMMER OF 1903, Harlan I. COVERY OF THE REMAINS rare (Abstract) ........ 317-318 OF PREHISTORIC MAN, 65-74 Wateff; ref. on complexion of (Abstract), 305, 306 Jewish school children in Bul- SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN 0 Sie vel Ae ys FRANCE AND ENGLAND Webb, Harold, and George B. WHERE MoNUMENTS' OF Pegram, ENrercy LIBERATED BY THE LATE STONE AND THortum (Abstract)..... 226," 429 BronzE Acres Have BEEN Seenee €6Guartzite ........65.. 323 Founp (Abstract) .344, 345-346 Semen. rer. on hyperphalangy.. 465 | Wiltshire ........... 00.06.0500 345 RAEI oc pie oo) «a nyc wea as 419, 427| Wissler, Clark, CEREMONIAL LIFE Weisbach; ref.158, 169, 234, 277, 283 OF THE BtacKFoot (Ab- Weismann; ref. on germ plasm. 379 BENAGE hind ar okie F ciee Ses 253, 354 Weissenberg; ref..159, 171, 177, and Franz Boas, ON THE mee eae 202, 210, 223; 225, 231, GROWTH OF CHILDREN meee 27. 241; 258, 265, 266, 271, CADstract) xas0 Gas soe 396031 387, 275,277, 278 Witebsk, province of........ 168, 169 Westchester Co., N. Y., occlusions Wolff; ref. on epigenesis.368, 369, 384 ROE ghia Sa u-te S.8 404-406| Wolff, J. E.; quoted on banded serpentinoid outcrops in.... 406 PeeLGN Saye 2h. Sale sive aoc SRS 391 Whales, Mysticocete ........... Mba VN OllASTOMILG <... sc Bi “avi at whl Ge od re At oe ee 4) i Beet uy o hy PW Hy YW ’ ae un HL ere ‘ Aa, ary Dae AMET the) esa . au a) ‘ en i anny A eS 2 an’ we ah Le on v| eval’. ' My an : , bs (y » Me yh a el a”) rat Vs } i abs “i i" Ne } - vA ® ‘ : co 4 “ , ; 7 civ * a 7 a! he , » “ao : . “s P iy - } we. ‘ j A : u \ j prea ig \ a7 te r < tae y ‘3 inaoae = . Ie or € ” aaa a ~~, x ’ 4 ey J s m ‘ : | ‘uae ae iy trae Te t, ; a See ; ve ee Cie Ne a ye ie ‘ @ oe. 8 . Aes Pi } . ai ] alc wiih NN 3 9088 01302 1