x RAN OF PHILOSOPHY. NEW "i JANUARY TO JUNE, 1822. VOL. III. NINETEENTH FROM THE COMMENCEMENT. — I ———————— ondon: Pishi Sp G Malkeud Nay Geidgeatrost ; FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY, PATERNOSTER-ROW. A kawa. ai 1822. ! ie uke (it ait gh ek e ROS O T ETAL KA ^ ; ` UAE PO d p ard s SAKA et. Pee ee re $ pen Wiki 2 e dics GE BHA urn naue s "PE dr SAM. d E Hb d ' | : MAN 1 kA X Era) X EE . oe? ue ITI EX. Ku. gh ca » 4 =" " " ; ae k aa ss a iyi : | m 7 PES E s a y. t r 5 PREF PE E A^ Ai p ROS kline z DOR S Bau ia voe temm "E TET INE ? XX COR eA we yw ew ns €: d Y 1 ^i » 3 C Fá Tura ES eta es WE T E FIT 9 bite oe ¢ tht EUN doy i» cee a we ee » ' NUMBER L—JANUARY. Meteorological Register for 1821. By Mr. Stockton............... Page On the Magnetic Phenomena produced. by Electricity. By Sir H. Lm Bart. PRS AEA EUNN dv enia SOLUS didi io NR SA veo PRIMED dos aei go vi On a new Anemometer. By: Col. Beaufoy, BRE. hepatitis ai. gomata Chemical Examination of Spider's Web... ¿L O Musas Nesey iod On the perpetual ] Renewal of Leases. By Mr. y: ames Adams............ 12 On True Temperature, and the Causes of Calorific Capacity, Latent Heat, | &c. By John Herapath, Esq. (concluded) «biisi :« iod sanat cade lh Reply to X. By John Herapath, Esq. ..... .. jade edad cx vases 2Q On some Segue. Remains found near r Bath. _ By Mr. H. Woods, «ies» 85 On Olefiant Gas.. bi o à RBRUM (D hs ciae oi 199 Observations on Mr. "Murray s Pagkain on the Decomposition of Metallic Salts by the Magnet. ............ e S oia o, vilia 2 eH iai aM D's sesssseses 39 On the Properties of Peroxide of Hydrogen. By M. Thenard » ix lian sioe) vi di Astronomical Observations. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.,................. 53 On the Mean Places of 46 Greenwich Stars. By James South, Esq. FRS. 54 On Mr. Schooleraft’s ** Account of the. Native Copper of Lake Superior, &e.”. By J. Taylor, Esq... soes 8:5 WTF ETIEN VASA e Ml Riu e 56 Analytical Account of Philosophical Transactions for 1821. Part II.... 60 Dr. Davy's Travels in Ceylon ................ vv. 63 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Nov. 8, 15, £2, 30, fé Dec: 23......' 72 LA BAT E T ND TN WANKRAPRMPRleS 2465255227 pope basia ek era eM NO Plymouth: Breakwater. ela beled ede a:e; 14 baiona Looms T Ventilation of Rooms ................ PP aa 4 4k ao. as. ............ 2 Me Lampyris Noctiluca and Splendido. bith ek » squad aNwaokh tar vv voro»! qe New Analysis of Meteoric Iron. sisuiii oih. agaon ioaad 02 T New Scientific Books... ..... eese. v& odds iid das ia ed res Va VA 78 Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal for November. 4: c 22 79 . NUMBER IL—F EBRUARY.. | Analysis of the Variegitel Copper Ore. By R: Phillips, FRSE. FLS. &c. .81 Meteorological Observations made at Crumpsall. By Mr. Blackwall... 87 Meteorological Journal kept at Bushey Heath. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.. . 9r On the Communication of Magnetism to Iron. ' By the Rev. Mr. Powell 92 On the Separation of Iron from other Metals. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. 95 iv CONTENTS. Page Analysis of Two Finnish Minerals. By Dr. Von Bonsdorff............ Mob Demonstration of a Proposition. By Mr. James Adams........ «v MUS 105 Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism (concluded) ....... CONES TIU . 107 Reply to B. M. By Mé Ji Muotráy). 1.30 RAR... os eu OSE On Cadmium. By Dr. Clarke. .............. n TTPTTIIR Y On a peculiar [mperfection of Vision. Be] Dr. Whitlock Nicholl ...... 198 On Congreve Rockets, By Lieut. ARN .....- «c2 UU «e 138 Statements of Prof. Playfair respecting the University of Chilli eec eo 138 Analytical Account of Philosophical-Transactions for 1821. Part II. (continued). ............... TT eee neenene nnn nnn nnns 143 Proceedings of the Royal — Jan; 10, " and TEST Vrba tesan oe, DOE Preparation of Quinine... Pee ee dies ve Maik) CE 151 Improvement in Stringed Inétfinegibi ofl 192 xl... Aa rere: ssa pee 151 Comparative. Analysis of the Food and: Excrement vf the Nightingale... APUD 7. Analysis.of Black and Green Tea: .. Wee ont gry Pour 168 Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogen... Jasna adh bas y isian, YIIEÉ 3] Sulphato-tricarbonate.of Lead .... . 1.1221. li. ME D [ado za ona Calc-sinter found to be Caleareous Spar... | sql afol vl. ob vigas New Mineral from Aachen. .. ..... eee eee. Meo ESTA 154 On the Spurs of the Ornithorynchus .. Yr Peor disi Methods of kindling Fire on the Sandwich Mlle: mul ri eo. cons oi Lighting Public Clocks with. Gas............ eere i.e d 2.91 NU. Miss ‘New Scientific Books ... ... .. eee A tA SEL cy pe 1156 New Patents. |. eee eere wea cule 4.92 E KAIA a Mr. — Meteorological J ouríal for x December. OBES, pao dr. an diy BUE cig easet deii TN — want Tu o ther NUMBERIIL-MARCH. — — — On the Weight of an Atom of Alumina.” ETEN Thukisa; me FRS. ......... ves ees VS eve sss s 199 999 ASA VAST PVP tSt . 161 On the. Deposition.of Crystal i Agitation. "y Thénise Thomson, MD. | D —Ó te TERTA 10 LIES, 169 Meteorological Results. kept at Gori fon! 1821. By E.C. "nac En. 175 On teret; titi of Copper. . By Francis Lunn, BA. FRS. . 179 On the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton. ......... a... ........... a iR 183 On the Forrnation of Ice in the Beds of Rivers. By Thomas M*Keever,- ~ MD................ POET Tit tr ee. 187 Meteorological Journal kept at Helstófi ‘Cornwall, for 1821. By Mr. M. P. Moyle....... o o2 niaaa RN VECES EPOD UNE 190 On Cadmium. By Dr. Clarke...... az RAVE Teas COP Sra OA 105 On a Deposit found in the Waters at Lucca. By Sir H. Sain Bart. PRS. 199 On Carburet of Nickel. By Mr. N. Mill... ................ PTT. wae 201 Chemical Examination of Cubebs.. By M. Vauquelin. ..... ve éd vo:S0g On the Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel... By Prof. Berzelius.... 206 Astronomical Observations. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. .................. 216 Meteorological Register for 1821, kept at Kinfauns Castle, .,............ 217 CONTENTS. v Page Analytical Account of A Treatise on a Section of the Strata from Newcas- tle-upon-Tyne to Cross Fell, Cumberland, &c. By Mr. Westgarth Forster. Sedand Edition wy i's. 9 ete Fe anra Ov a vn ed 218 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Jan. 31, Feb. 7, 14; and 21. ........ 227 Geological Society, Nov. 2, Dec. 7, Jan. 18, and Feb. 1.. ee E ENINA PE Pss EKAR SCN Be rs Ue Benes erst ba) 2 49344 230 New Scientific Books. P DAOS P sens qe pe «cvi eins WP slavish VEO) ed 4x 238) Mx Howard's Meteorological Journal for January! iius céviweleosdl vide 939 cecidit — NUMBER IV.—APRIL. Answer to the Review of the Sixth Edition of Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry, in No. XXI. of the Journal of Science, Literature, and the ' Arts, edited by Mr. Brande. By the Author of that System ........ oe 241 Astronomical Observations. By Col, Beoufov, BRS y's wade ssemsaksnne se 275 Experiments : and Observations on the Resistance of Water, with Remarks on the Apparatus. By Col: Beaufoy, o CERIS iit pane MSAN ng ten, S20 Meteorological J ournal kept at Lancaster for 1821. By Mr. Heaton.... 289 Reply t to C.’s Observations on Mr. Herapath’s Theory sii soyi Steak an 200 On the Crystalline Form of Yellow Copper Ore, with an Analysis. -By i W. Phillips, FLS. &c. and R. Phillips, FRS. L. & E. ELS. &c....... 296 On the Influence of ‘Humidity i in modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. By ' Thomas Thomson, MD. BBS. Kc... anarlslictt-yoviM po seach e 302 Observations on the Temperature of Mines i in Cornwall. a Mr. M.P. Moyle..4.. eee eee eh orte ne Sehr rentrer obra 308 Analytical Account of Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Geneve. Premiere Partie.............. eere . 310 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Feb. 28, March 7, 14, and 21. ...... 312 — Royal Geological Society of Cornwall .............. 313 | Death of Edward Daniel Clarke, LLD. FRS, &c. &c........... RAE WA 314 Precipitation of Silver by Chlorine .............. piv d (inerat 314 Composition of Oxalic Acid.................................... TD 315 Hot Springs of St. Michael. ..........:1 1 eee ee eee l... .............. 315 On the Solution of Carbonate of Lime. ........... Pisis RAV addi 4 a4 we 316 New Scientific Books........ vii) UNA dU UN QUA QUE AA V) 3A V S0 sa awasqa T op 317 M Pusroli!uiniqio0)0A A o. ES CL RR CRAVE HQ S 318 Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal for February .. .. .... .... ... ss... 319 — NUMBER V.—MAY. Anatomical Discoveries respecting the Organ of Hearing in Fishes .. .... 321 Analysis of Brass. By Mr. Keates..... VONT ICONS sue ca vesp on 325 On the Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c... By Prof. Sedgwick vv s oe e. 329 vi CONTENTS. A New Method of hanging Sluice-Doors and Flood-Gates. Pay. W. bi sn. SS. ie Le RO. FR BA ORT AEA Q S ERN 855 Reply to G.’s Observations on Mr. Herapath's Theory .,........... 4... 357 Meteorological Journal kept at Manchester for 1821. By Mr. Hanson .. 371 On Blocks of Granite, Syenite, &c,imbedded on Diluvium. “By Mr. N. J Winch CReWweevdessevenseesesvearsbees ee eeeeeeasareeees sabes mr On the Geology of the Eastern Part of Yorkshire. By Mr. N. J. Winch 374 List of the Freshwater and Land-shells occurring in the Environs of Bris- © ` tol, with Observations. By Mr. Miller. ........... vies «9 Vis Q4 970 Remarks on Mr. Moyle's ** Observations on the Temperature of Mines in Cornwall.” By R. W. Fox, Esq. ............ (eesad i4 easisiseseosess OBI Answer to Mr. Murray's ** Reply." .. Ud MA. NOTET eesieseteve DOR On the Influence of Moisture i in WOR fytg the Bpeeifio D of Gases: ' KU PHO, LITTA AE E E RSA "385 Analytical Account of the Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical vial iii O and the Examination of Minerals. By J. J. Berzelius, Translated ^o; from the French, by J. G. Children, Esq. ................. f eevee eles 1387 Proceedings of the Royal sočiety, | ce 28, "pil 18, and aT RERE son jJ. 5 po rea Yar Por AT STEN ANSI FIAS ^: bsp SATTON iy .. 301 Seeds of thé Croton Tiglium:..2... A sopa a PO OE. Specific Gravities ;.::::: a TPPP O es ve Effect of Heat on the ooi Matis of the "Roby. "X3 YE ECLOG ttt ET Libre Hund Ciieulus. 2,5. 151 L Sup A OS SS MAE NE DOR Arseniuretted Hydrogen Gas.. aper Si puMTDLUTE T0 Sanc HU, AM On the Roots of Black Hellebore. res 4071 Ad] ida i P o. SY P. 993 Heavy Spar. ........... erint (d spt 19 SUAINE, 257, 00 HANE Slide of Alpnach ;.:... 1:12:21: 393 Preparation of the Protosulphuret of — IDE 394 New Scientific Books .;... tH xr reni: PE) Ce naf e 394 New Patents ior 22.221220. 02 EET Me acebeeeccceses P PIT C DUO Astronomical, Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS..................................... nter . 396 Mr. nens Meteorological Journal: for March. . T X YOA 2521909 — edet | NUMBER VI.—JUNE. aÑ 3 Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. By Dr, Forchhammer...» s: 401 Astronomical Observations... By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. ...,........- owes 406 Ona Clock with a Wooden Pendulum. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS........ 406 On the Motions produced by the Difference in the Specific Gravity of Bodies... By Me: Ç. Sylstra susse osos .. cused gap MPa Wika, e € MON . 408 On the Temperature of Mines in Cornwall. By Mr. M. P. Moyle...... 415 On.Neutral Series, By Mr, Maratani nie ce otto o ore PER dashes 417 Influence of Humidity in modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. By John Herapath, Esq. ss i4 6p «41 - 04 sie viele iisk teco donde ierit TAS 20 A419 CONTENTS. vil Page On Right Angled Spherical Triangles. By Mr. J. Adams. . . 422 On the Mathematical Principles of Chemical ses a By the Rev. J. B. Emmett (continued). . SW. FORI SARUA IAN aya IE VOREN 425 On Diaspore. By G. B. “ru iay FLS... ess eteoesosoesooo soos eevee 433 On Cadmium. By W. Herapath, Esq. .......... iyway ww waya 400 On the Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. By J. Dodd. (con- cluded) ...... pide Salih ols 0s sin Hin see, Veo Veneti vean vidlale wb ws, . 437 On the Smelting of Tin ond in. Cornwall We Diam. By John yon, aq. cin’ irpo oo e Erro sus S e mo qe en eoo en q Nu. bia s 40 Analysis of Two Varieties of Native Carbonate of Nuno By M. BENE eis id be senten dd 4s mero KA Ve MEET RDA Y eU ae O soe Ua a» 456 Proceedings of the Royal Society, PAM 25; May 2, 9, 16, ind 23 EN 458 Geological Sonet ja Feb. 15, March 1, 15, and BOTH ML P P 458 Erratum in Dr. 'Thomson's Paper, ‘ On certain Saline Sohidias, &c."., 462 Composinon of Formic Acid... 2,123 41.55 au steed ‘nen’ . 463 Effects of Boracic Acid on the Acidulous Fluates of Potash, a. ud ... 463 . Analysis of Lepidolite ................ "PIX ERIT "POSU TEL Ee o 464 Analysis of the Red Lepiddlise from Moravia ............... vircs 465 On the Tourmaline from Karingsbrakka, in sweden. Sr AC e PHAR e. 467 Lampic Acid.......... oss se A IA PN SAVE PEETA AE Vasa es 469 Preservation of Anatomical Specimens MSN. Vedi AN e URN Co B fois 469 Tuve Niitate of Soda s u... cce C UE Oe ee ee RE ga as 469 Quantity of Copper ried 1 in Cornwall..... $e AARAU MU Bee d L. EEA 470 | New Scientific Books . CU ed RA VE ae y Wa PORE COTS ANNUS 474 TO PAN CU Aka. ll CER E, APR S ERA LT i ATI Mr. Howard's edicion! Journal for April... Rr EMO PIT 473 Jou yp gree ar oe PONT eee Pen ere Ñ "S emm 475 ERRATA. — —— Page 16, dele Theory of Evaporation, | line 3, Case 1, for Q, g, t, read Q, q, t's 91, Art. 16, for 32°, read the zero of. f 22, 26, Confirmation, for thai, read that. 23, 33, for expand, read expand most. 26, 16, for 915, read 315. 11, for Torrecellian, read Torricellian. 84, for 435, read 434. 89, after Calculation, read page 448. for 116, read *116. 98, line 2, from top, after Annals of Philosophy, read New Series. 31, line T, for and, read cx PV 85, line 14, from ti Jor M3, read J& ep: of the analysis. "^ ANNALS ^ PHILOSOPHY. JANUARY, 1829. ARTICLE I. Further Researches on the Magnetic Phenomena produced by: Electricity; with some new Experiments on the Properties of- Electrified, Bodies.in their Relations to conducting Powers and Temperature.* By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS. I. In my letter to Dr. Wollaston on the new facts discovered by M. Oersted, which the Society has done me the honour to publish, I mentioned, that I was not able to render a bar of steel magnetic by transmitting the electrical discharge across it through a tube filled with sulphuric acid ; and I have likewise mentioned, that. the electrical discharge passed across a piece of steel through air, rendered it less magnetic than when passed through a metallic wire; and I attributed the first circumstance to the sulphuric acid being too bad a conductor to transmit a. sufficient quantity of electricity for the effect; and the second, to the electricity passing through air in a more diffused state than through metals. To gain some, distinct knowledge on the relations of the dif- ferent conductors to the magnetism produced by electricity, I instituted. a series of experiments, which led to very decisive results, and confirmed my first views. II. I found that the magnetic phenomena were precisely the same, whether the electricity was small in quantity, and passing through good conductors of considerable magnitude ; or, whe- ther the conductors were so imperfect as to convey only a small } S * From the Philosophical Transactions, for 1821; Part II. New Series, vou. 111, B j 2 Sir H. Davy on the Magnetic Phenomena [JAN. quantity of electricity; and in both cases they were neither attractive of each other, nor of iron filings, and not affected by the magnet; and the only proof of their being magnetic, was their occasioning a certain small deviation of. the magnetized needle. rk q Thus, a large piece of charcoal placed in the circuit of a ve powerful battery, being a very bad conductor compared with the metals, would not affect the compass needle at all, unless it had a very large contact with the metallic part of the circuit; and if a small wire was made to touch it in the circuit only in a few points, that, wire did mot gain the power of attracting iron filings ; though, when it was made to touch a surface of platinum foil coiled round the end of the charcoal, a slight effect of this kind was produced. And meesmilar manner fused hydrate of otassa, ene of the best of the imperfect conductors, could never be made to exert any attractive force on iron filings, nor could the smallest filaments of cotton moistened by solution of hydrate of potassa, placed-im the circuit, be made to move by the magnet; nor did steel needles floating on cork on an elec- trized solution of this kind, placed in the voltaic circuit, gain an polarity ; and the only proof of the magnetic powers of electri- city passing through such a fluid, was afforded by its effect upon the magnetized needle, when he metallic surfaces, plunged in the fluid, were of considerable extent. That the mobility of the of fluids did mot interfere with their magnetic powers as developed by electricity, Í proved, by electrifying mercury, and Newton's metal fused, in small tubes. These tubes, placed in a proper voltaic circuit, attracted iron filings, and gave magnetic powers to needles; nor did any agitation of the mereury or metal within, either in consequence of mechanical motion or heat, alter or suspend their polarity. LUN Ua aut II. Imperfect conducting fluids do not give polarity to steel when electricity is passed through them ; but electricity passed through air produces this effect. Reasonmg’on this phzenome- non, and on the extreme mobility of *the particles of air, T concluded, as M. Arago had likewise done from other:consider- ations, that the voltaic current in air would be affected by the magnet. 1 failed in my ‘first trial, which 1 have referred to in a note to my former paper, and in other trials made. smceby using too weak a magnet; but T have lately had complete success ;. and the experiment exhibits a very striking phenomenon. | — < Mr. Pepys having had the positis to charge the great bat- tery of the London Institution, consisting of 2000 double plat of zine and copper, with a mixture of 1168 parts of water, 108 parts of nitrous acid, and 25 parts of sulphuric acid, sy oad were connected by chareoal, so as to make an arc, or column of electrical light, varymg in length from one to four inches, according to the state of rarefaction of the atmosphere in which it was produced ; and a powerful ‘magnet being presented to 1822.] produced by Electricity... 3^ this arc’ or column, having its pole'at a'very acute angle to it, the'are, or column, was ‘attracted or ‘repelled with a ‘rotatory motion, or made'to revolve, by placing the poles in: different - positions,’ according to the same law as the electrified cylinders of platinum described in my last paper, being repelled when the negative pole was on the right hand by the north pole of the magnet, and'àttracted by the south pole, and vice versá. lt wasi proved by several experiments that the motion de- ended. entirely upon the magnetism, and not upon the electrical inductive ‘power of the magnet, for masses of soft iron, or of - other metals, produced no effect. "phe eleetrical'arc or column of flame was more easily affected by the magnet, and its motion was more rapid when it passed ` through dense than through rarifed air; and in this case, the ` conducting medium or chain of aeriform ‘particles was much i shorter. | x | | | “Ltried to gain similar results with currents of common electri- ` city sent through ‘flame, and in vacuo. They were always affected bythe magnet; but it was not possible to obtain so decided a result as with voltaic‘electricity, because the magnet itself ‘became electrical by induction, aud that whether it was > insulated, or connected with the ground.* | “dV. Metals; it is well known, readily transmit large quantities of:electricity ; and the obvious limit to the quantity which they are capable of transmitting seems to be their fusibility, or volati- lization by the heat which electricity produces in its ‘passage through bodies. | Now 1 had found in several experiments, that the intensity of this'heat was connected with the nature of the medium by which the body was 'surrounded ; thas a wire of platinum which was readily'fused by transmitting the charge from a voltaic ‘battery’ in the exhausted receiver of an'air-pump, acquired in air'a much lower: degree ‘of temperature. Reasoning on this circumstance, it'eceurred 'to me, that by placing ‘wires in a medium much - denser'tlan'air, such as ether, alcohol, oils, or^water, T might enable them to transmit a much hicher charge of electricity than they could convey without being destroyed m air; and thus not only gain some néw results as to the magnetic states of such ` wires, but likewise, perhaps, determine the aetual limits to the powers of different bodies to'eonduet electricity, and the réla- tions of these powers. er Oe A wire of platinum of 1, of three inches m length, was fused in-air, by beme made to transmit the electricity of two batteries of ten ‘zine ‘plates’ of four inches with double copper, stroneiy - Y made several experiments on the effects of currents of electricity simultaneously through ‘air in different states óf rarefaction in the same and different directions, ‘ both from: the voltaic.and common electrical batteries ; but I could not establish the fact of their magnetic attractions or repulsions with regard to each other, which probably. was owing to the impossibility of bringing them sufficiently near. B2 4 Sir H. Davy on the Magnetic Phanomena [JAN. charged: a similar wire was placed in sulphuric ether, and the. charge transmitted through it. It became surrounded by glo-: bules of gas; but no other change took place; and in. this. situation it bore the discharge from twelve batteries of the same ; kind, exhibiting the same phenomena. When only about an. inch of it was heated by this high power in ether, it made the. ether boil, and became white hot under the globules of vapour, . and then rapidly decomposed the ether, but it did not fuse. When oil or water was substituted for the ether, the length of the wire remaining the same, it was partially covered with small : globules of gas, but did not become red hot. | ibo On trying the magnetic powers of this wire in water, they were found to be very great, and the quantity of iron filings that it attracted was such as to form a cylinder round it, of nearly the | tenth of an inch in diameter. | To ascertain whether short lengths of fine wire, prevented . from fusing by being kept cool, transmitted the whole electricity of powerful voltaic batteries, I made. a second independent. circuit from the ends of the battery with silver wires in water, so . that the chemical decomposition of the water indicated a resi- duum of electricity in the battery. Operating in this way, I found that an inch of wire of platinum of +1—, kept cool by water, i left a great residual charge of electricity in a combination of twelve batteries of the same kind as those abovementioned; and - after making several trials, I found that it was barely adequate. to discharge six batteries. Kd V. Having determined that there was a limit to the quantity . of electricity which wires were capable of transmitting, it became easy to institute experiments on the different conducting powers of different metallic substances, and on the relation of this power . to the temperature, mass, surface, or length, of the conducting . body, and to the conditions of electro-magnetic action. Thése experiments were made as nearly as possible under the | same circumstances, the same connecting copper wires being used in all cases, their diameter being more tan one-tenth of. an inch, and the contact being always preserved perfect ; and parts of the same solutions of acid and water were employed in . the different batteries, and the same silver wires and broken. circuit with water were employed in the different trials ; and. when no globules of gas were observed upon the negative silver | wire of the second circuit, it was concluded that the metallic . conducting chain, or the primary circuit, was adequate to the discharge of the combination. To describe more minutely all . the precautions observed, would be tedious to those persons . who are accustomed to experiments with the voltaic apparatus, and unintelligible to others ; and after all, in researches of this nature, it is impossible to gain more than approximations to true results ; for the gas disengaged upon the plates, the different distances of the connecting plates, and the slight difference of, 189 s produced by Electricity. b time in making the connections, all interfere with their perfect accuracy. | si The most remarkable general result that I obtained by these researches, and which 1 shall mention first, as it influences all the others, was, that the conducting power of metallic bodies varied with the temperature, and was tower in some inverse ratio as the temperature was higher. ` wr ovK wire of platinum of 44, and three inches in length, when kept'cool by oil, discharged the electricity of two bat- teries, or of 20 double plates; but when suffered to be heated by-exposure:in the air, it barely discharged one battery. Whether the heat was occasioned by the electricity, or ap- plied to it from some other source, the effect was the same. ‘Thusea wire of platinum, of such length and diameter as to dis- charge a combination without being considerably heated; when the flame of'a spirit lamp was applied to it'so as to make a part of it red hot, lost its power of discharging the whole electricity ofthe battery, as was shown by the disengagement of abund- ance of gas in the secondary circuit’; which disengagement ceased. as soon as the source of heat was withdrawn. | ^^ There are several modes of exhibiting this fact, so as to pro- duce effects which, till they are witnessed, must almost appear impossible. Thus, let a fine wire of; platinum of four or five inches in length be placed in a. voltaic circuit, so that the élec- tricity passing: through it;may heat the whole of it to reduess, and let the flame'of a spirit lamp be applied to any part of'it, so as to-heat that part to'whiteness, the rest'of the wire will instantly become cooled below:the point of visible ignition. For the converse of the experiment, let a piece of ice or a stream of cold air be applied to. a part/of the wire; the other parts will immediately:become much hotter ;. and from a red, will rise toa white heat. Phe quantity of electricity that/ean: pass’ through that part of the wire submitted to'tlie changes of temperature is sowmuch smaller) when it is hot than: when it is cold, that the ‘absolute temperature of the whole wire is diminished by — apart of it, and, vice versá, increased by cooling a part OMI eogiR ASUI Wt A » In comparing the: conducting powers of different metals, 1 found much: greater differences than Í had expected. Thus six inches of. silver wire of ++. discharged the whole of the électri- city of 65 pair of plates of zinc and: double copper made active by a mixture of about one-part of nitric acid of commerce, and 15 parts of water.«»Sixinches of copper wire of the same diame- ter discharged the electricity:of 56 pairs’ of the same combina- tion, six inches of tin of the'same diameter carried off thatvof 12 only, the same quantity of wire of platinum that of 11, and of iron that of 9. Six inches of ‘wire of lead oft- seemed equal in their conducting powers.to the same length of copper wire of , 6 Sir H. Davy on the Magnetic Phenomena | [S&N. sig. Alb the wires were kept as cool as possible: by:immersion in a basin of water.* Ap eaa A; made. a number of experiments of the sames kind; butithe results. were never? precisely: alike,- though: they . sometimes approached very near each other. |. When the. batteries. were Inghly charged, so that the intensity ofthe electrieity.was higher, the differences were less between the bestand worst:conductors, and they were greater when the charge was extremely: feeble. Thus, with a fresh charge of about one part of nitric.acid; and nine. parts. of water, wires of 2. of silver and ' platinum five inches long, discharged: respectively the elecetrieity-of 30, and seven double plates. | L odit 19 hte ril sets Finding that when different portions of the same wire plunged- ia a non-conducting fluid were connected with different parts of the same battery: equally. charged; their. conducting: powers appeared. in: the inverse ratio of their lengths; so, when six inches. of wire of platinum of .1,discharged the electricity of 10, double plates, 3 inches discharged that. of 20, 14 inch that of 40, and l inch that of 60; it occurred to me that the condueti powers of the different. metals might: be more; easily com inthis way, as it would be possible to make the contacts in less time than when the batteries wereychanged, and consequently with less variation in the charge. — d nb d .atidxorens Operating in: this way, I ascertained that: in discharging the electricity of 60 pairs of plates, 1 inch:of' platinum:was.equal ito about 6 inches of silver, to 54 inches of copper; to: f gold, to . 3'8 of lead, to about .9; of palladium, and 45; of irony all) the metals. being in a.cooling.fluddmedium. 9 oo 000 Í found, as might have been expected, that the conducting power of a wire for electricity, in.batteries-of the sizecand mums ber: of plates just described, was nearly:directly.as the mass: ` thus, whem a certain. length of wire of platinum discharged one battery; the same length of wire of) six times. the: weight diss charged six, batteries; and the effect was, exactly: the; same; provided the wires: were kept: cool; whether the mass: was n >> [JAN. and 16:667. — 14:526 = 2-141; then by the rule, we have 34:526 : 2:141 :: 3. (5 + 50) : 24:32, the present value of all the ` heriots and fines ; the conventionary rent multiplied:by-the-per- petuity is 2} x <= = = 41:666, &c. geom Therefore, 24-32 + 41:666, &c. = 65:986 = 657. 19s. 82d. is the present value of the landlord's interest in the estate. ample 3.— A lease of an estate is granted on three of the best lives that can be found, with a perpetual right of renewal with the ‘best lives also, subject to a fine of 200/. for each renewal; required the present value of the landlord’s interestin the estate, according to observations made at each ofthe places ` mentioned in the foregoing table, interest being either4 or 5 per cent. Answer.— The numbers standing against Carlisle, and under 4 and 5 per cent. are 78936 and *57355, each of which being multiplied by the fine for renewal (200/.) will produce 157:872/. and 114714. respectively, which are the present values of the landlord's interest in the estate, according to the Carlisle tables. In like manner, the remaining values are found, and the whole get down as under. "NA According to he... , 4 per cent. 5 per cent. Carlisle tables .. .... `. AOE. 17. 649. cue 11477 Wp Pad. French tàbles........ A90. RR Opr S cT Swedish tables. .......201 .1 42 ....148 11 1l Northampton tables. .. 249 5 7 PE AS EE Demoivre's hypothesis. 288 10 42 .... 221 10 54. London tables . ...... «WE dU $ Sw MOD B SEE Although the last two mentioned tables are not much used at ` present, yet seeing the different results produced by the preced- ig four, it would, in my opinion, be proper to advise such per- sons who may have occasion 'to make bargains wherein the probabilities of lives are concerned, tostipulate that.a particular table should be the ground work of their agreement; then, what- ever might be the consequence, it must be abided by. Would not a standard set of tables of mortality'be as desirable and beneficial in this country, as standard tables of weights and measures ? | ‘An approximate value of an annuity on a single life may be found as follows within particular limits : | "Take half the complement of the age to 86, and find the pre- séit value of 1/. per annum, which corresponds to the |" complement, and you will have the value of the given life for an annuity of 1/. nearly, the rate of interest being 4 per eent. If: the rate of interest be 5 per cent. take half the complement ‘of the given age'to 85, and proceed as above, according to the | Carlisle tables. 1822] therperpetual Renewal of Leases. 15 ` If the tables of M. de Parceiux be used as given in Mr. Baily’s Annuities, take half the complement to 85 for 4 per cent. and to 84 for 5 per cent. The following table will show how near the true and approximate values agree : v Carlisle Table 4 per.cent. Parceiux' Table 4 per:eent. | Years | Half | Years | 4. Year's | Half} Year's: Age.| purchase |comp.| purchase rdg Age.| purchase |comp.| purchase — by table. [to 86.| by rule. - [by table. to 85.| by rule. 711197592 | 394 | 19:688 | —:104. | 10 | 19:008 | 374 | 19:255 | +247 10 | 19:585 | 38 19:368 | —211 ||:i5.| 18:502 | 35 18:665 | 4:163 15 | 18:956 | 35$ | 187186 | —:170 | 20 1 17°938 | 324 | 18:011 | +-073 90 | 18:363 | 38 | 18:148 | —-215 | 251 17:420. 30 | 17-292 | —-128 25 | 11-645 | 304 | 11:440 | —205 | 30 | 16:810 | 275 | 16:496 | —':314 80.| 16:852. |.28. ||. 16:663. | —'189 135.1 16:084 25 | 15:622 |. —7462 35 | 16-041 | 254 | 15:802 | —-239 | 40 | 15:133. | 22.) 14-654 | —:419 40 | 15:074 | 93 | 14857 | — 217 (45 | 13:904 | 20 | 13:590 | —:314 45 | M-104 | 20 | 13:809 .|.—:295 | 50 | 12:526 | 174 | 12:412 | — TFM 50 | 19:869 | 18. | 19659 |.—:210 [554 11-173 | 15 | 41:18 || —055 55 | 11:300 | 155 | 11-385 | +:085. | 60 | 9-713 | 124i, 9:685 ,| —:028 60 | 9663 | 13 9:986 | +323 |.65 | 8:039 | 10 | S111 | +72 65! 8:301 | 103 | $485 | +1287] 70.| 6-394 1$ | (6367 :|-—:027 70 | 6-709 8 6-733 | +°024 | 5 | 4945 5 4452 | — 493. 151 .»939 | 54.|..4:847,| —392 k _ .] : Carlisle Table 5 per cent. Parceiux' Table 5 per cent. . Dd Wears |cHalt| Years | pig, |i | Wean's [Half | eats || pus rchase co purchase. ge.) purchase |comp.| purchase. rere 1o by table. fo 85 T mie je | by table. to 84. by rule., — q 106790 | 89 | POT | -227 | 10 | 16213:| 31 | 1671 || -p498 401 16-669 | 375 | 167189 .| 4-120 |.15 | 15*865..| 34 | 16:283 | --418 15 | 16-227 | 35 | 16-374 | 147 | 20 | 15:469 |.39 | 15:808 | 4-334 20 | 15:811 | 32$ | 15:903 | +086 | 925 | 15:111 | 994 | 15:256 | 4-139 -25 | 15:303 | 30 ,.15:312 |. -:069 | 30. 14-693 | 97 | 14:648 | —-050 3014793 | QTE | 14*10 | 4:041 | 35 | 14-175 | 242 | 13-946 | —*229 35 | 14-127 | 95 | 14:094. | —-033 | 40 | 13-459.| 99. | 13-163 | —-296 40 | 13-390 | 993 | 13:896 | —:064 ' 45 | 19-487 | 194 | 19:93 | —:914 45} 19:648 .-20 | 12462 ||.—-186 | 50 | 11:363:| 17 | 11:974 t| — 089 50/13660 | LT% | 11489. | —:178 | 55.| 10-242 | 143 | 10:139. | —-108 55 | 10°347 | 15 10:380 | 4:033 | 60 | 9-003 | 12 8:863 | —:140 $60 | 8:940 | 124 | 9:198 | +198 | 65 | 1:535 | L| 7-415 | —*190 *9»5,| 77165 | 0 | 7799 | —943 19710] 6055 | 7 15786 | —:269 104 6:336 | 14| 6394 | —212 |. | ; Tt will be observed that-the half complements form arithme- tical progressions whose common difference is half of unity. The student must be careful not to mistake the h2if complement for the expectation of the correspondiug lives. 16 Mr. Herapath on True Temperature, and the [JANS . ni "no^ | ^ 1ó ITA i ; I ARTICLE V. ; Tables of Temperature, and a Mathematical Development of the. Causes and. Laws f the Noe arg which have been adduced in Support of the Hypotheses of ** Calorific Capacity, Latent Heat,’ &c. By John Herapath, Esq. | + ia (Concluded from vol. ii. p. 462.) Theory of Evaporation. Pror. XXIII. Pros. VIII. The weights of two quantities of water and steam in contact being given, and their common temperature, it is required to determine the temperature and quantities of water and steam which will result from the mixture with them, in a given space, of a given weight of any other body whose baromerin and temper- ature are known; no chemical action being supposed to take place. | | " In the solution of this problem, we suppose no foreign cause to influence the results either by * vada dd ” or other- wise. Case 1.—Let us conceive the matter of the vessel to have no effect. Put W, w, and t, for the primitive weights of water and vapour and their common temperature; and let Q, g, t, and Q’, denote the weight, baromerin, temperature, and volume or mag- nitude of the other body. Let also W’ denote the weight of water after the mixture, and + its temperature. Then By the principles we have already demonstrated | 7 (Qq 11 W + llw-6W’) = QqU' -(6W-110ow)t....ÀA Again: suppose v be the volume of unity weight of water at the temperature T, and that it becomes v. + J (t — T) at any other temperature 7; then we havejW' v + WJ (+ — T) for the volume occupied by the water in the mixture. In the same manner, if > v represent the volume of unity weight of vapour at the temperature T and elasticity E, we shall have T r v (W +w — W^) for the volume of vapour in the mixture b pori 15 of the present paper, and the Theorem in the Anna gor July, 1816. Whence gi Š for the given space in which. the mixture is made, we have, by thequestion, supposing Q” at the temperature 7 becomes Q’ + x (r—1^) x (—10U)--Q' + W jv + (c — Di + qu ro (W + o — W) = 8 DE B. Eliminating from A and B the quantity W’, we shall have an 1822.] Causes of Calorific Capacity, Latent. Heat, &c. 17 equation involving only 7 and known quantities. The value of t being determined from this equation will afterwards enable us to determine that of W”, and consequently the weight of the vapour. . | | . Case 2.—When the matter and temperature of the vessel are to be taken into account, we must substitute for them in the equation A in the same manner as we have for the matte: and temperature of the body Q. And in the equation B, we must make an allowance in the capacity S for the effect of contraction or expansion on the capacity in changing from the temperature of the vessel to the temperature 7. By this means we get two new equations A, and B, from which eliminating W^, as before, we obtain the value of 7, and thence the other requisites of the problem. .Cor.—By the same process we can find the effect of the mix- ture of a quantity of water and vapour at one temperature with another given quantity of water and vapour at, another tempera- ture, the capacity, temperature, and matter of the vessel being given. From this we may find how much water at a given tema perature it would take, when intromitted into a vessel filled with. water and vapour of a given temperature, to reduce the temper- ature or tension of the mass from one given quantity to another, as well as many other things of a similar kind. These are, how- ever, problems which, though very interesting, we cannot, in the. present state of science, exhibit in finite equations ; and for this reason I think it unnecessary here to pursue the inquiry. Scholium. - The theorems contained in this part of the present paper, contain all that is necessary to be known relative to the force, condensation, and laws of aqueous vapour in the theory of the steam engine. A moderate share of ingenuity will enable engt- neers to apply the principles Í have developed to the resolution - of almost, or, perhaps, every problem that can arise or be pro- posed relative to the power and operations of that useful instru- ment. I had at one time thoughts myself of entering pretty fully into the resolution of the more practical cases; but perceiving? this was a matter ofno unusual difficulty, when the physical part. was clearly expounded, I have thought it better to employ the little time I have had to devote to these things to a more lumi- nous development of my physical principles, and ofthe evidence I have had at hand to support them, than to cramp one part of the subject without advantage to the other. ~ Sometime ago I had promised myself to close the present paper with the last volume of the Annals; and, for this purpose, had availed myself of the kind indulgence of the proprietors and editor to occupy in the two or three last numbers larger portions of that work than are usually allowed to single individuals. New Series, vou. 111. C 18 Mr. Herapath on True Temperature, and the [JAN: However, as I approached the end of the part which has just- been published, finding it utterly impracticable to close the paper within the prescribed limits, I was in part prevailed on by the Rev. Mr. Trimmer to undertake to try the success of my inquiries on the laws of Chemical Combination, Decomposition, &c. | In this proposed inquiry, my attention was intended to be particularly directed to the investigation of the merits of the atomic theory, which has been of late Dens so ably advocated by those distinguished eee ichter, Dalton, Gay- Lussac, Thomson, &c. Unhappily other circumstances have so intervened to delay my taking up the inquiry that I find it impossible to prepare for the present number in the manner I could wish ; and, therefore, I have thought it preferable to make the development of my views the subject ofa nia communica- tion. However, it may not be uninteresting to philosophers to know, that though I have had but the opportunity of a few scat- tered hours to consider the subjects, my principles have enabled me to succeed in the demonstrations of the. leading laws and henomena of Chemical Union. For instance, I have reason to Bilieve I have perfectly succeeded in demonstrating Dr. Richter's heenomena of saturation, which are the foundation of Dr. Wol- Tode sliding rule of chemical equivalents ; Dr. Henry's laws of the absorption of gases ; Mr. Dalton’s theory of definite pro- rtions ; and a variety of other things which flow from them. ut of all the phenomena I have hitherto demonstrated in this art of my inquiries, none have pleased me so well as the proof E been able to give of M. Gay-Lussac's observation of the laws of volume in the chemical union or disunion of gaseous bodies. -This proof, besides confirming the general views of Gay- Lussac, illustrates my theory of gravitation by a train of facts: not less beautiful than unexpected; nor when. contemplated as the simple consequences of a simpler cause, less splendid than simple, nor less simple than consistent and evident. Indepen- dently of corroborating the consequences deduced from observa- tion, the full development appears likely to lead us to an uninter+ rupted unclouded view of changes and phenomena more refined than have yet been conceived; but yet marked with that sim-. plicity which so strongly characterizes the ever conformable operations of nature. — One singular thing flows from my investigations on this sub- ject perfectly consistent, with what I had anticipated in other henomena, and have mentioned in page 257, and other places, in the last volume of the Annals: namely, that almost all che- mical combinations are preceded by a disunion of the particles of the component bodies. Not only does it appear that the par- ticles of the heavier gases, as oxygen and chlorine, which have commonly been conceived to be simple bodies, are decomposable, but also that the particles of hydrogen are likewise decompos- able; and that in the formation of water they «are actually 1822.] Causes of Calorific Capacity, Latent Heat, &c. 19 trisected. In the combination of hydrogen with chlorine to form muriatic acid gas, the particles of hydrogen are still further divided ; and 1 have reason to believe there are other cases in which the division is carried to a much greater length. I have often sought for some satisfactory reason that philosophers might have for ranking hydrogen among the elements, but have not yet met with any. Sir H. Davy thinks the great levity of hydrogen is an argument in favour of its elementary nature. Levity may certainly induce us to think that the body in which it most predominates approximates the nearest to an elementary substance; but in such a case as this, it can, it appearsto me, by no means be considered a proof, or even a probable argument, of hy- drogen being an element. Forinstance, ifhydrogen beesteemed an element because it is about 142 lighter than common air, among what bodies must we rank light whose levity to that of hydrogen has, in the strictest sense of the word, no appreciable ratio ? Yet this very body, light, we have good reasons for believing, consists of molecules of at least seven different sizes ; and it 1s not absolutely certain that even these molecules are indivisible atoms. Even the implied size of the particles of hydrogen has, I think, from its levity, been considerably overrated. Accord- ing to the theory I have demonstrated, it appears that the diameter of a particle of hydrogen is more than two-thirds that of a particle of nitrogen. Surely then there can be no argument gained in favour of the simplicity of that body from the smallness of its particles, especially as nitrogen is considered to be a compound. | There is no direct method of ascertaining from the old theory the relative sizes of the different gaseous particles ; but from the results of some experiments it seems possible to arrive at some- thing like a ratio. Thus in the formation of muriatic acid gas from the exposure of equal parts by volume of chlorine and hydrogen to common day light, we have evidence enough, ifthe old theory of gaseous repulsion be true, to demonstrate that equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine contain equal numbers of particles; and, consequently, that the diameters of the hydro- gen and chlorine particles are respectively as 1 and 3:3. These dimensions, therefore, could be esteemed very little more an argument in favour of the elementary nature of hydrogen than those drawn from my theory. In fact I can discover no one phenomenon whatever which sanctions the probability of hydro- gen being a simple body. Its combustibility is by no means an argument'in favour of such an idea; and the size of its particles, any how computed, is rather an argument of the contrary. The superior disposition it exhibits to combine with other bodies, which Sir H. conceives is partly demonstrative of its elementary’ nature, I think I shall be able to prove is due to a very different cause. | Another important consequence seems to flow from my inqui- e 2 ` 20 Mr: Herapath on True Temperature, and the [Jan. ries into, the atomic theory ; namely, that hydrogen, oxygen, aqueous vapour, and in fact all pure gases, are very nearly, if not accurately, homogeneous. Hence the theorem which I have iven, p.. 454 of the last volume, for finding the baromerin of sl airs, is, as.I suspected, very nearly, or, perh perfectly correct in all pure gases and vapours, whether Yam wa simple or compound. | is theorem for practice will be more convenient in this form 33 AG; in which G represents the specific gravity of the gas, that of hydrogen being unity, and the baromerin of water also unity. uo iatis In an early part of the present paper, I had hinted my inten- tion to undertake the refutations of the modern doctrines of * capacity and latent heat." "This I have still in contempla- tion to do; but as the present communication has already been extended to a very unusual length, it has appeared advisable to defer the execution of this intention to a future period, and to close the present paper with abrief recapitulation of the things I have in the course of the two papers developed and demonstrated, with the authority of the pheenomena annexed. By this recapitu- lation, I shall give a kind ofindex to the papers, and at the same time afford philosophers an Vet nid of seeing by a glance of the eye the great variety of phenomena I have succeeded in developing; by which means they: will be the better able to judge of the merits of the theory I have embraced. I shall say nothing of the theory of collision, because it relates to perfectly hard bodies, and does not, therefore, properly speaking, come under the class ofordmary phenomena. — — | Doo 0 ANNALS, VOL. I, (New Series.) PHANOMENA 34m , Developed. — Confirmed by 1. P. 343,— The elasticity of a given This is generally admitted, but I do portion of gas is the same whatever be the not know that it has ever been made the figure of the vessel in which it is contained, ^ subject of direct experiment. provided the capacity and temperature be | : the same. (LoT EL 25 9. P. 344.—Other things being alike, B le in air, and in other gases by. the elasticity of any gas is directly as the ie f ^ compression, or reciprocally as the space. 3. P. 345.— The elasticity is as the The law of Boyle united to the experi« uare of the temperature directly and sim- ments of De Luc and myself, ^ of the:space inversely. | i 4, P. 346.—Elasticities being equal, De Luc and myself. the spaces are as the squares of the temper- Fi atures. 5. Ibid.— mn, ge of tempera- Dalton and Gay-Lussac. ture equally equal volumes of all gases, other things being alike. 1822,] Causes of Calorific Capacity, Latent Heat, &c. 21 _ ANNALS, VOL. I. (New Series.) . PHANOMENA Developed. 6. P. 346,—If the elasticities of any two gases have an invariable’ ratio, and their temperatures an invariable ratio, their volumes will have an invariable ratio. 7. Ibid.— The temperature of water freezing is to that of water boiling as y 8 8. P. 347.—The same results are ob- tained by measuring the temperatures by the elasticities, under. an invariable vo- lume, as by the volumes under an inva- riable compression. 9. P. 349 and 350.— Prop. 10, and its corollaries. 10. P. 401.—Sudden condensation in gases produces heat, sudden rarefaction cold ; if the condensation or rarefaction be slowly made, no perceptible change takes place. | tQ iy: T C DS ph heat ra- idly, but fee ight lines. yi 12 Ibid. — The lighter the gas, the more rapidly it abstracts temperature under certain circumstances. 13. P. 403.— The baromerin of hydrogen is four times greater than that of oxygen. 14. Ibid.— Two particles of oxygen go to one of h go to form water. 15. Ibid. — eneral theorem of temper- ature. 16. Ibid.—Absolute cold 4489 Fahr. below 329 Fahr. . Mt. P. 406.—Megethmerin of mercury to water as 1 to 25 masses of particles as 27 to 1. 18. Ibid.—Phenomena of ** capacity for caloric ” due to megethmerin. 19. P. 407.— Phenomena of ** latent heat” due to aggregation and decomposi- tion of particles. 20. P. 408.— Law of attraction in very small bodies at sensible distances inversely as the square of the central distance, directly as the mass of the attracted body, and the temperature being the same, as the mass of the central body. 21. Ibid.— Particle attracted by a sphere at a distance as mass of particle and mass of sphere directly (temperature being inva- riable) and square of central distance inversely. " 22, Ibid.—Law of attraction. on 8 per- fectly solid imperviable cylinder shown. Confirmed hy No one directly, but the experiments of ‘De Luc and myself in éonsequence. De Luc and myself. Mariotte, Dulong and Petit. - Have not been proved directly by any * one, but may be inferred from the general law of temperature confirmed by the expe- riments of De Luc and myself. Mollet asd Dalton. Leslie. Leslie, Davy, Dulong and Petit. Crawford's ratio of capacities nearly confirm it.— (See vol. ii. p. 211.) Ditto, ditto. De Luc's and my experiments,—(See p. 405, and vol. ii. p. 100.) Ad Ditto, ditto. Calculations and comparisons with ex- periments of Henry (Dalton), p. 406; also vol. ii. p. 208. Ditto; also vol. ii. p. 202, 203, 445, 448, 453, 454, and 460. Expounded briefly, p. 407, fully in theory, vol. ii. p. 256, and verified in theory; p. 443, &c. by calculations from ex- periments of Black, Watt, Rumford, Kir- wan, Irvine, Lavoisier and Laplace, Thomson, Ure, Crawford, Southern, &c. Newton. Newton. Cannot be confirmed but by inductione: 22 - Mr. Herapath on True Temperature, andthe — (JAN. ANNALS, VOL. I. (New Series.) kd ddl PHANOMENA Developed. 23. P. 409.—T wo homogeneous spheres of the same temperature, attract one ano- ther as their quantities of matter directly and square of the distance of their centres inversely. 94. P.410.— Present theory of gravita- tion would not produce the least sensible effect on the system in a period many mil- lion times ?9857196067612610 years. 95. Ibid.—Activity of present theory of attraction so great, that it would act equally intense on bodies moving either with or instit, with a velocity at least many million million times fastér than light. 96. Fhid.—Resistance of the gravific fluid can produce no sensible effect on the system in a period of many million years. 91. P. 411.—Attraction is greater the greater the temperature of the attracting body. 98. P. 412, —Ellipticity of the earth by old theory of uniform attraction should be too little by the pendulum, and too great by Newton's calculation. 29. P. 414.—Attraction between par- ticles when they nearly touch increases much faster than the squares of the dis- tances diminish. 30. Ibid.—Affinity and phenomena of chemical action arise from figures of the component particles, f Confirmed by Newton, Newton and Laplace that the system has apparently the utmost stability, and without foreign interference will continue the same for many thousand years, — — Laplace has proved that the TN of gravitation must be at least six millior times greater than that of light. | Newton and Laplace show, thai if there be any resistance, it is too small to become sensible in several thousand years. Euler, in the Refraction of Light ; Laplace's Computation of the Ann. Equa. of the Moon ;* Diminution of Planetary Attraction in receding from the Sun ; and in the small Action of Comets. nag By pendulum ;};; by most of the ad- measurements ,1;; and by Newton's cal- culation 515. Many chemical phenomena; also by Newton, Desaguliers, Laplace, &c. Idea always entertained by our best phi- losophers, but hitherto has not been proved. My late inquiries into the laws of combination between gases wi Bases, and gases with fluids, &c. will, I A demonstrate it. A tolerably fair proof may be drawn from my theory of evapora- tion, vol. ii. p. 363, &c. me 9 ANNALS, VOL. II. (New Series.) PHÆ OMENA Developed. 31. P. 99 and 100.— Results of two of De Luc's, and one of my own experi- ments. Mean difference of the three from m th of a degree Fahr. Mean ditto from old theory, 5:4? Fahr. Ratio of these differences as 1 to 162. 32, P. 98 to 103, and 201 to 211.— Confirmed by Also by other experiments made by myself on mercury. ` The experiments of Dalton and myself. * There has been lately a prize obtained by two French mathematicians for a set of lunar tables completely theoretical ; I do not know what they make the Ann. Equa. ; I ' 6r x3 ET have not seen any account of their computations, : ` 1822.] Causes of Calorific Capacity, Latent Heat, &c. 23 ANNALS, VOL. II. (New Series.) PHANOMENA - Developed. Mathematical theory of phenomena con- nected with ‘* capacity for caloric,” in Prop. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, and their corollaries. 33. P. 209.—Usually bodies that ex- pand by heat have greatest baromerin or “capacity.” — * 34. P. 210.—Baromerin or capacity of gases and airs usually greater than that of solids or fluids; a general but not univer- sal rule. 35. P. 258.—During the liquefaction of such solids as ice the temperature is sta- tionary. 36. Ibid.—If a given weight of a fluid at a given temperature will just liquefy a given weight of a solid in one mass, it will just and no more than do it if the solid be in any number of pieces, or pulverized. 31. P. 259.— The temperature of ebul- lition in fluids is constant. 38. Ibid.—The liquefaction of solids and the vaporization of fluids are usually . attended with an apparent diminution of temperature ; and vice versá the solidifica- tion of fluids and the condensation of vapours with an apparent increase of tem- perature 39. P. 260.— During the time of actual solidification, the temperature is constant. » » 40. Ibid.—W ater may be cooled down below its freezing point without solidify- ing. If shaken, it solidifies in part, and temperature ascends to 32° Fahr. 41. P. 261.—Water cooled below 32° ‘Fahr. may bestirred without freezing. — — .. 42, Ibid.—Water with opaque bodies floating in it freezes, if cooled only a few degrees below 32° Fahr. 43. Ibid.— Water gently cooled below 32° Fahr. will not freeze, suddenly cooled 44, Tbid,— Piece. 'of io. -duowir into water cooled below 32° Fahr. causes it to e. Confirmed by Quotation from Davy’s Elements Chemical Philosophy. / ud ~: Crawford and others. Do not know who first observed it, but I think it was Fahrenheit. I am not acquainted with the original Pero of this fact. I think it cus Hooke. Black. Black, I believe. Mairan, Fahrenheit, Gay-Lussac, Black, Blagden, and "Thomson. : By the experi- ments of the last, the theory is confirmed numerically, vol. ii, p. 449, Blagden, Blagden. Blagden. Blagden. N.B. Neither when writing this part nor since have I had an opportu- nity of examining the circumstances this phenomenon attentively. When writing this part, a very important phenomenon, the expansion of water as it cools below 40° Fahr. escaped my notice. M. Biot, however, in the Traité de Phy- sique, tom. i, p. 254, has so nearly approached to my ideas on the subject, that were I to describe it I should do very little more than transcribe the explanation he has given. 45. P. 262.—Rise of temperature in condensation of airs and solidification of fluids ; and diminution of temperature in liquefaction of solids and vaporization of fluids are generally but not necessarily true. Phenomena expounded in the following pages. Mr, Herapath on True Temperature, and the ANNALS, VOL. II. (New Series.) PHANOMENA 46. P. 262, — Fluidity results either from ^ conem of particles, or the extent of their tions overcoming the — of ir irregularity of . Of course, ‘solidity results from irregularity of figure and smallness of extent of corpuscular vibrations. 41. Ibid.—Carbonic oxide and oxygen unite and form a (carbonic acid) with a baromerin less San that of either of the component gases, and with a greater spe- cific gravity. 48. P. 264.—Solids may, under pecu- liar circumstances, be converted into airs with an increase of temperature. - 49, P. 265.—All changes which pro- duce a gréater number of particles out of ihe same quantity of matter occasion a diminution of temperature; all changes which diminish the number of particles increase the temperature. 50. Ibid.—Chemical rule **that all chemical changes produce an alteration of temperature," is general, but not universal; and d spud of nature. 51. P. 261.—Airs have generally their icles less than those of fluids. Hence in a given weight, there is generally a ter number of particles in an air than in a solid or fluid. 52. P. 261, 268.— Condensation of va- is owing to the irregularity of the res of their particles, and, therefore, occasioned by ‘a diminution of tempera- ture 53. P. 265.— Difference between va- pours and gases, is merely in the figures of their particles. 54. Ibid.—Vapours unconnected with their fluids, and at all higher temperatures than that of their condensation, are perfect gases, and follow the same laws. 55. Ibid. — Mixture of different vapours, or of — and if no chemical ‘action place, has the same law as mixture of gases. 56. P. 270.—Calculations of specific gravity of steam at different temperatures. 51. Ibid. Pressure aids condensation vf vapours; this effect of pressure dimi- = z the - ture increases. . P. 2T71.—Two gases separately incondensible mixed together may easily 59. P. 979. — Temperature of ebullition of all fluids is increased with an increase, and diminished with a diminution of pres- sure. Conf/medy i EMS r TET Discussion of parallel phenomena. - Phenomena of “ specific heats ” which show that the baromerins of airs usually exceed those of fluids and solids. Well nowt vhanemiion- Ail of temperature produces condensation, _ -. Theibest proof áf this-is the eoincillétite LIT I Dalton. Dalton and Gay-Lussac. ——— Experiments of Southern and Sharpe. Mixture of sulphurons acid gas and hydrogen, i Robinson, 1822.] Causes of Calorifie Capacity, Latent Heat, &c. ob ANNALS, VOL. II. (New Series) PHANOMENA A Developed. 60. P. 272.—' The Fahrenheit tempera- ture of ebullition increases and decreases more rapidly than the compression, 61. P. 213.—' The temp. of the lique- faction of solids is not influenced by exter- nal pressure. 62. Ibid.—Ebullition arises from vio- lent decompositions in the interior, not at the surface of the fluid. 63. P. 363.—Evaporation is a decom- position of the superficial particles arising from the mutual collisions of the particles, or the temperature of the body. 64, P. 365.—In equal or unequal, but great depths, the evaporation is at the same temperature proportional to the ex- posed superficies. 65. Ibid.—'T'wo portions of the same fluid cooled from any common to any other common temperature by evaporation alone, lose quantities proportional to the original quantities of the. fluids; conversely two portions of the same fluid losing by evapo- ration quantities proportional to their weights, would be equally reduced in tem- perature, if their temperatures were at first equal. 66. P. 368,— The incremental conden- 1 sation of any vapour at the same tempera- ture in vacuo is, ceteris paribus, as its elasticity. 67. P. 369.—The megethmerin being the same, the increment of condensation is as the cube of the temperature. 68. P. 370.—The incremental conden- sation is as the elasticity and temperature seg ey, AWD: 9 69. Ibid.—'The incremental condensa- tion in the same vapour is as the specific gravity and cube of the temperature con- jointly. 10. Ibid.—Other things being alike, the mixture of any quantity of gas with vapour in a given space produces no effect on the celerity of condensation, however much it may augment the elasticity. J 1. P. 312. —If there be sufficient fluid, and the temperature the same, the tension of the vapour will be the same whatever space it occupies. “72. Tbid.—Pressure has no effect in augmenting or diminishing the absolute evaporation of any fluid, the température ing the seme. — T3. P. 313.— Calculations. from the preceding theory agree with six experi- ments at a. mean to within about fifteen parts in a thousand of a grain. Confirmed by De Luc, Betancourt, Shuckburgh, '&c. Is a well-known fact, but I do not know the discoverer, or who ‘has made direct experiments on it. It is generally, I think, admitted, that evaporation takes place at the surface. Dalton, Leslie, &c. Shown in the scholium to be consistent with phenomena, ; The proof of these laws appears in the perfect agreement of the whole theory with the experiments of Dalton, Gay-Lussac, De Luc, &c. Dalton. The truth of this can appear only as. à part of the general theory. à; ; . Dalton. 26 Mr. Herapath on True Temperature, and the (Jan. ANNALS, VOL. IL. (New Series.) - Developed. _ 34. P. 314.—A theorem expressing the u-— evaporation. . B. This theorem is misprinted ; it should be —; (T z — T E). 15. Ibid.—Vapours in vacuo can only support a given pressure according to the temperature, but mixed with sufficient gas can support an indefinite one. PHAZNOMENA Confirmed by . Dalton, ^ Let + = ¢ t be the tension of the vapour at the temperature ¢, and E the elasticity any gas occupying the space S at the temperature T. "Then if e be the elasticity of the S t mixture, and sthe space occupied, we have e = E mt? This is a more general equation than that given by M. Biot in the Traité de Physique. It is, however, like his and all others of this kind, not mathematically true, in account the quantity of gas absorbed at the temperature f. consequence of not taking into I shall PNIS NE communication, consider this circumstance, and show how to make the necessary allowance. 76. P. ?15.—Rarefaction of air pro- motes desiccation. 11. Ibid.—Method of obtaining a Tor- recellian vacuum. 18. P. 316, 311, and 378.—Formule for determining the apparent and absolute quantity of vapour at any time in the at- mosphere, with a method pointed out of verifying by them the truth of the theory. T9. P. 381.—Formule of the effect of cold water in drying a room. 80. P. 382, — Apparent evaporation is proportional to the velocity of the current of air passing over the surface of the fluid. 81. P. 384.—Either a current or an agitated air increases apparent evapora- tion, and diminishes the temperature. 82. Ibid.— Water of a low temperature, or even ice in a current or an agitated air, may lose more weight by evaporation in a given time than water of a higher temper- ature in a still atmosphere. 83. P. 384, 385, 386, 387, and 388.— Water commonly colder than the atmo- here. 84. P. 435.— Theorem for the tension of — vapour in contact with its fluid at all temperatures. 85. P. 440.— Temperature of no eva- poration — 130? Fahr. 86. P. 441.—The temperature of ebul- tition higher than the temperature of ten- sion, 81. P. 444.—Baromerin of ice to baro- merin of water as 19 to 22. 88. P. 445.—'* Capacity " of water being 1, that of ice is *86. 89. P, 441.— Theory of the calorime- kr Calculation of capacity of iron plate 116. Leslie, &c. “a been partially tried by Smeaton, I shall be glad to see these formule brought to the test of experiment. Leslie. Leslie and Dalton, I think the superior evaporation of ice is to be found in Clare, Rowning, or Hamilton. ! a TIE Wells and myself. a re ss ' Experiments of Robison, Dalton, Ure, and Southern, but principally Ure's. The theorem confirmed by Ure's expe- riments. . Shown from the experiments of Robison, Dalton, and De Luc. x ^ Experiments of Black, Kirwan, Irvin Thomson, and Lavoisier and Mean of Irvin and Kirwan, ‘85, . ° “Lavoisier and Laplace, “111. -1822,] Causes'of Calorifie Capacity, Latent Heat, &c. 27 ANNALS, VOL. II, (New Series.) PHANOMENA Developed. 90, P. 449.—Theoretical calculations of water frozen by agitation in two experi- ments of Thomson. 91. P. 451.—Baromerin of vapour to that of water as ll to 6, 92. P. 453.—Theoretical determination of the ** capacity." of aqueous vapour 1°83, that of water being 1. 93. P. 454.—Formula for determina- tion of baromerins of homogeneous gases compared to that of water, and nearly of all gases. g 94. Ibid.— Specific heats of the lighter.. airs exceed those of the heavier. 95. P. 456.— Theoretical calculation of vapour lost by suddenly opening water . heated to 4009 Fahr. | 96. P. 400.—Mean capacity of water between 329 and 1229 Fahr. to ditto be- tween 122° and 2129, as 151 to 14. 91. Ibid.—Capacities of water and mercury decrease with ascent of tempera- ture, and vice versá. 98. Ibid.— The greater the ratio of water to vapour in the experiment, the less, ceteris paribus; will be the numeri- cal value of latent heat. 99. P. 461,— The higher also either or both the temperatures, the greater, under equal circumstances, will be the value of latent heat. 100. Ibid.—Combining the notion of caloric with our formula, the temperature has less influence. 11° under certain circumstances. A calculation gives Confirmed by Differ in one instance yhd part, and in the other a sth. Mean. diff.: from four experiments by Thomson, Ure, and Rumford, Zth of a degree Fahr. Crawford’s experiments give 1:55, Has been verified in aqueous vapour by Crawford's experiments. Crawford, De Laroche, and Berard. Agrees with Watt’s experiment to a Ap IT th part of the whole water. De Luc's and my experiments as 15 to 14, De Luc, Dalton, Ure, and myself, Experiments of Ure and Rumford. Have no experiments to confirm or dis- prove it. Southern’s experiments under similar circumstances give an increase of 89.. The nature of the thing is such that this may be looked on as à coincidence. "These are theleading facts I have deemed it needful to select. Several others I have, for the sake of brevity, particularly in the latter part, it will be seen, omitted. I intend to make no comment on the number, extent, and variety, of these testimonies, or of the. subjects to which they relate, but shall leave philosophers to form their own opinion of the merits of a theory which can in so great a number of instances, and on such subjects, be the faithful representative of phenomena. ' Cranford, Dec. 19, 1821. J. Herapatu. P. S. Since finishing the preceding paper, I have computed from Dr. Ure's theorem, which it seems accurately coincides with experiment at 210° and 220° Fahr. the tension of steam at 212°, and I find it 30:1413, instead of 30, the compression due to ebulli- tion at 212°. This, therefore, confirms what I have said, p. 441 and 442, respecting the temperatures of tension and ebullition, and respecting Dr. Wollaston's thermometer. The neglect of the distinction I have alluded to will commonly make the Doctor's instru- - ment err nearly 75 feet, or 25 yards, in the heights determined. i Rei Dr. Ure's theorem will, in general be much more commodious for practice in the following forms than in the one he has given; namely, + = 28:9 x (1:34 — F — 210 ek E F—210 *0005 F) '* or log. + = log. ?8'9 + "de tension, and F the Fahr. temperature in degrees. . log. (1:34—:0005 F) where 7 is the 28 Mr. Herapath on True, Temperature, &c. [Jax. ERRATA Discovered in those Papers of Mr. Herapath, published in the Annals of Philosophy, which have his Name to ae o — Page. ; 821. April.—274, line 2, from top, for FRS: read V PR8. line 13, for shown all, read shown that all. 276, line 18, for nn. equa. read Ann. Equa. line 11, from bottom, for receive, read conceive, — — 278, line 15, for revolved, read turned. | pr 282, Cor. to Def. 1» viis Desin! od ida did 285, line 10, from top, for monumentum, read momentum. e 287, line 11, in Demons. of Prop. 3, for (a —5), A, read (0-9) % "m line 13, Jor body. This, read body, this. June.—409, line 18, from bottom, for méme qui, read méme que. line 16, for des fois, read de fois. July.— 55, column 5, dele ditto at Paris. for Pekin, read Paris; and immediately beneath, in the blank, supply ditto at Pekin. Aug.— 89, column 5, for melts, read melt. opposite 1260 true temp. supply Oil of turpentine boils. 91, column 5, dele oil of turpentine boils. 96, line 17, from top, for Mr, read Dr. 101, line 8, for or thought, read or had thought. i Sept.—905, lines 11 and 12, dele the commas after given and mixed, 208, line 5, from bottom, for presents, read present. Oct.—265, line 11, from top, for showt hat, read show that. 307, in the note, for ausam, read ansam. Nov.—364, line 4, for By his, read By this. 365, last word of iM of Prop. VII. Jor arcs, read areas. 374, line 20, for — ST + - t E), read; (T « — T' E). 383, line 2, from zx for world, read wind. Dec.—435, line 1, for 16, read +16. 3:0531169 3:0531169 - read 14445621 74445621 line 1 of Ex. 3, for as, read As. 438, line 20, from top, for 2*934°, read 293:49. 446, line 9, from bottom, for no solidification, read no total solidification. 450, in NB. for 888° — Sec, read 888°, see. . 457, line 2, Case 1, for Suppose F,, read Suppose F. 465, line 11, from bottom, for side? read reside? In Ex. 2, for 1822.] Mr. Herapaties Reply to X. 29 ARTICLE VI. Reply to X. By John Herapath, Esq. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Cranford, Dec. 14, 1891. i X. informs us that he wishes the objections he has advanced against my theory, or rather the difficulties he has met with in the perusal of it, “ to be received without offence." I assure him that any observations on my works published in the same friendly spirit in which his appear to be, whether I reply to them or not, I shall always respect; and however much they may differ from my ideas, shall uniformly regard them as the candid effusions of a liberal mind. . It is, therefore, my request, that X. receive this reply to his * Remarks” with the same feeling of friendly: good. will with which I can assure him it is dictated ; and should my observations in any place appear harsh, which I trust they will not, I hope this preface will be admitted a suffi- cient apology for what is not the effect of intention. X. acknowledges in his second paper, in the Annals for Nov. that he has “ found ” in his first, ** some observations ” (misre- presentations) * which he would wish to retract;" but adds, that they-are ** only one or two of little or no importance." In this, I must beg’ to differ from him both as to number and im- portance. However, as he has made so candid an acknowledg- ment, I will not press the matter. | In his first paper, p. 224, Annals for Sept. he suspects me of having argued falsely from my principles ; and in his second, repeats the charge. He says: * We may certainly grant that the elasticity varies as the action of the particles against a given portion. of the surface containing the gas, but ¿ may fairly be questioned, whether this action can be measured by the momen- tum x the number of returns." Does X. perceive that this is not demonstrating, but merely surmising, that | am wrong? The only reply Í should, perhaps, make to such an observation is, “ Lay aside surmise ; endeavour to show I am wrong; and I will s to prove Í am right.” However, if X. will consult p. 341 and 342, Annals for May; 1 think he will find I am not mistaken in the conclusion I have drawn. My objectis to compare the effect of a gaseous body so constituted as I have described, with a pressive force. Now a pressive force is an incessant and a per- petual kind ofaction. All opposing forces, therefore, which are to be equated with pressure, must be such as, under equal cir- cumstances, would produce the same effects, whether these effects be estimated for a moment, for an hour, for a day, or for any time indefinitely. Hence the necessity of taking time into account; and of computing the elasticity by the 30 Mr. Herapath’s Reply to X. [Jan. sums of the collisions in a given or an indefinite time; that is, by the product of a single collision and the number of them, or b the product of a single momentum, the number of actin parti- cles, and number of returns. Had T, therefore, omitted the fac- tor X. objects to, I should haye committed a sad error ; it would have been like endeavouring to equate a single impulse with an unceasing force for an indefinite time,—a manifest impossibility. To illustrate this, the best course is, perhaps, that which I have already pursued, p. 341 Annals for May. Let the perfectl hard. ball A be continually solicited in the vertical direction C by some uniform force, such as that of gravity ; and when it has descended to E, and acquired the velocity a, let it be met by another perfectly hard ball B, not impelled by this gravitating force, having a contrary velocity b; so that B ó = A a. Then the. opposing momenta being equal by Prop. 5, of my theory. of collision, A will begin to reascend with an C equal momentum A a; and veins still acted on by by the T invariable gravitating force, it will continue to ascend until eA all its motion be destroyed.. After this, it will again 7» begin to descend, and at E will have the same momentum as before. | If now it be a second time met by the ball B with the momentum Bb = A a, it will a second time re- >} ° ascend and descend in precisely the same way as at the — E first... The circumstances of a third, fourth, &c. collision | > being the same, the phenomena. of a. third, fourth, &c. ascent and descent will be the same; and thus the effect | of gravity on the one will be. counteracted by the equal 3.) aud uniform collisions of the. other. Let. f be the force e B of pressure or gravity, t the time of acquiring the motion | A a; then 2 ft, 4ft, 6ft ....2nft are the effects of 1, D avity to be overcome by 1, 2, 3,..... n collisions ; so ' Hi that. after the nth collision, or after a certain time T, the effec of gravity overcome is 2 nf í =m A a = n Ba. If, therefore, T be accounted from the commencement of the descent of A to the completion of the nth contact, we shall have bc dx (n —1), 21 E Hence n Ba = and But if ¢ be taken n —1 2n-—1 indefinitely small, the oscillations of A will not sensibly. change it from a state of apparent rest, and in that case 2 for any given time T must become exceedingly great, so that » B a = fT. Putting, therefore, T = 1, we have f =m B a; that is, the force of pressure, or, which is the same, the action of the ball to support that pressure, is equal to a single momentum of the ball multiplied by the number of returns in a unity of time. Thus X. "M perceive that the subject admits of a rigid mathematical roof. Ha j X. asserts that I have, “by my own confession, assumed an. hypothesis producing a result at variance With experiment.” Surely X. must haye been curiously mistaken. He cannot and t =. 1822.) Mr. Herapath’s Reply to X. 31 . imagine I could act with such palpable absurdity. Let him look: at the passage again, and he will find I have neither expressed nor implied such a variance of my theory with experiment, much `: less have I confessed it. a | His seventh paragraph of his first paper charges me with a mathematical error. By the theorem. have given, p. 57, Annals. for July, 1816, E & Vw and TF supposing the volume V constant. In this theorem, T' is the true temperature, E the elasticity, N the number of partieles in the air, and W the weight or specific gravity, taking V as constant. Now p being the mass of a particle, W = p N; and, therefore, E « Te N. . (Ta N Ao 5 ipo Prop. 8, we are speaking of, pisa constant quantity. This will satisfy X. that the error does not lie on my side. Indeed from: the obviousness of the thing, I was surprised he should have: advanced such a charge ; and still more so at his not rectifying it in his last paper. : X. says: “Ifthe temperature be in the subduplicate ratio of the volume, that when the temperature is nothing, the volume’ - itself is nothing.” This, I grant, is a correct inference, and: would have weight had I not provided against it. In the enun-- ciation of my Prop. 7, of the first paper, I have distinctly drawn: my inference on the supposition of ** the particles being indefi- mitely small.” Again, in p. 103 of the last volume, I have said :: * Had Mr. Dalton applied his views of fluid expansion to gases," (that is, that the squares of the temperature are as the increments : of expansion from their greatest density), he would have anti- cipated the general law of temperature I have given." These; and other passages of the kind published before X.’s first paper appeared, clearly show that I was perfectly aware of what Í was writing, and did not write without thinking.” It is strange, there- fore, that X. should have drawn the inference he -has about: * nonentities and nascent existencies.” But let us take X. on his own grounds; and supposing I had not had an eye to this point : of greatest density, let us see how much my determination of the real zero might err'on that account. By our best experi- merits, steam is about 1400 times lighter than water, and nine: times heavier than hydrogen. Now if hydrogen be 50 times lighter than phosgene gas, we may certainly conceive it possible for a gas to be eight or ten times lighter than hydrogen. In such a case, the volume ofthe body in the aeriform state would be in round numbers about 100000 times greater than in the: liquid or solid, supposing the same law to hold: good as in the condensation of vapour. Again, experiment teaches us that the same laws of expansion and. contraction by temperature are: true under one compression as under another. Let us, therefore, instead of a compression of 30 inches of mercury to the inch a T° N; for in one and the same air, as in 32° Mr. Herapath's Reply to X. [JAN.. reduce it to three inches. Then the volumes of the body in the: two states would be as the numbers 1000000 and 1. "Therefore, . taking this condensed volume into account, the law of tempera- ture, instead of 1, or *5, ought to be :4999995, which differ-. ' ence in the law being neglected, would occasion an error of quee th part of each degree of Fahr.; that is, on 480°, the. istance of my real zero from the melting of ice, the error would. amount to less than the ,.1,,th of a degree. Therefore, grant- ing to X. that gas does exist atthe real zero, which, I think, he. will find I have never denied nor even questioned, my determina- tion of this point cannot be in error the twenty thousandth of a. degree ; and I could easily show him, if necessary, that it can- not err the twenty thousand millionth of a degree, In fact, i£. the experiments of Messrs. Dalton and Gay-Lussac are correct, . the position, of the real zero is correct. The. position of this. zero may be proved without having recourse to any law or theory. of temperature whatever; but of this, I shall speak atanother time. _ Now X. denies in toto the existence of this real zero, however much experiments and theory agree, because we have never arrived at it; yet observe what he says in the eighth paragraph of his first paper: ** We find by experiment that the proportion ” in forming water “ of two of hydrogen to one of oxygen, holds good whatever be the volumes we try, and thence we clearly and. rightly infer that the same must be the case when the volumes. are infinitely small or atoms.” | Who, I beg to ask X. has ever experimented with single atoms? If no one has, how comes it that X. can * clearly and rightly infer" beyond the reach of: experiment, and yet another cannot? May we not from this, * clearly and rightly infer," that it is commonly much more eas and natural to take things for granted, and without proof, "ud favour one's prejudices, than to admit others, however well sup-. ported, that.oppose them ? . One or two curious conclusions I could draw from this para- graph of X. were I inclined; but it is much more consonant to my feelings to. stop short, than to use the privilege of my own justification to draw unpleasant consequences from the opinions of one who appears disposed to be liberal. I must, however, . beg to tell him, that I never * admitted that an atom may be composed of particles.” A particle is composed of atoms, and may be of other particles ; but an atom, which is an elementary: indivisible body, cannot be composed of particles. I beg also to observe, that 1 have never said, I believe, * that the particles of a body in the solid move swifter than in the fluid state," though such a thing is neither impossible nor absurd.* ri: “ He finds,” says X. p. 391, Annals for Nov. * that within a certain range gases go on expanding nearly as the squares of a certain set of numbers. Now within the same range, the expan- * Xs paper, Annals of Philosophy for Sept. p. 226. 1822.] Mr. Herapath’s Reply to X. 33 sions are alsomearly as the simple ratio of another set of num- bers; that set of numbers is the common Fahrenheit tempera- tures ; therefore, within this range little evidence is' gained for or against his theory." ‘To the first sentence I may reply, it is not a set of numbers, but a theorem, T have found: ` I may fur- ther observe, that this theorem I discovered in the year 1815 or 1816; and was not aware that there was a single experiment in existence to confirm it until Dr. Ure’s paper on the tension of vapours appeared in the Phil. Trans. for lel; for I have not to this day seen any of De Luc’s papers. I may likewise add that 1 never attempted to try the truth of it myself until the fall of 1820, after I had in vain endeavoured to interest the Royal Society in the proof. This latter part can be confirmed by my cousin, Mr. W. Herapath, who knows I had no apparatus, and assisted me in making thermometers for the purpose in Aug. and Sept. 1820. Dr. Thomson can, I have no doubt, likewise recollect my asking him his opinion about June, 1820, in Queen-square; Westmin- ster, respecting these projected experiments, and the best method of culpis thermometers for high ranges. These facts will, perhaps, satisfy the world, that I have not procured experiments; and formed a theorem to suit them ; but that I first drew fróm my principles a theorem, in ignorance that there was any thing in existence to confirm it; then openly proposed it to the Royal Society as the test of my views ; and afterwards, when they would neither try it, nor recommend it to be tried, succeeded in trying and proving it myself. Authenticated circumstances of this kind will, T have no doubt, have their weight with men of liberality, and make a due impression of the soundness of the theory | have expounded, on minds uninfluenced by interested motives in opposing it. ` "With respect to the other part of the quotation, the bestreply is that contained in p. 100, Annals for Aug.’ I have there com- puted three experiments, two by De Luc on water, and one out of six or seven by myself, equally consistent, on mercury. "The sum of all the deviations of these experiments from my pre-inves- tigated theory, is the one-tenth of a degree of Fahr.; and the sum of their differences from the old theory, sixteen degrees two- tenths. Thus, instead of the two theories agreeing, as X. says they do, nearly equally well with experiments, the’ one wanders 162 times farther tron them than the other. | ^ These, I believe, are the principal objections which X. has advanced against my views. On most of his other observations, ' particularly that of capacity, which is only a suggestion, it is unnecessary for me‘to make any remarks. I shall, therefore, _ with a notice of one more of his ideas, close this paper, and take that leave of him he appears willing to take of me. ` . * We: cannot,” observes X. in his last paper, ** take Mr. Hs law of temperature as the true law, unless we are sure it holds good at all points in the scale; but of this we cannot be sure any New Series, vor. rtt. D 34 Mr. Herapath’s Reply to X. (JAN: further than within those limits at which experiments have been tried. How do we know that beyond those limits the law of expansion may not be modified, or some totally different law revail?" If these arguments be admitted, we must also reject ewton’s law of attraction, because we are not certain that it holds good beyond Ouranus; and we are confident it does not between very small bodies at very small distances. We must likewise reject the universality of attraction on the earth, because we are not certain * it holds good at all points.” We must, moreover, for the same reason, reject the general laws of optics, electricity, magnetism, &c. and, 1n fine, all generalization what- ever. e must descend again from general laws to insulated facts. »We must destroy this beautiful system, which the reiterated efforts of the human mind have shown to exist, and have wrested from the chaos, and cleansed from the rubbish of antiquity. We must descend once more to confusion, to igno- rance, to uncertainty. We must cease to admire this noble order of things, because, in all links of the chain, we are not cer- tain of its truth. Finally, we must no longer confide in the probable continuance of phenomena whose uniformity and con- stancy we every day witness, because X. will not allow us to depend on the laws by which they are governed; and we must resolve into doubt and disbelief our knowledge of things whose symmetry, order, and sublimity, manifest the omniscience, and demonstrate the omnipotence, of the Deity. lon I have the honour to be, dear Sir, | Your most obedient servant, | ita J. HERAPATH. ie P.S. I beg leave to suggest to those who may please to support or oppose my theory, that the most effectual way of doing it is by direct experiment. "There are several things I have pointed out which yet remain to be proved. The experi- mental confirmation or refutation of these things would be infinitely more effectual in seconding their views, and do much more good to science than all the arguments and — they can employ. An excellent opportunity of verifying or refuting what I have said of capacity in p. 460, last vol. presents itself to those who have a good calorimeter. By Cor. 1, Prop. 18, if a given body at 212? Fahr. melt W quantity of ice ; at 420:5? it will melt 2 W ; and at 657:9?, three times W. If the theory of uniform capacities be correct, it should be 2 W at 392°, and 3 W at 572°. Should the capacities be increasing, 2 W and 3 W would come out with temperatures still lower than 392? and 572? : so that here is a fine opportunity to refute or confirm. I néed hardly observe, that to be exact a quantity of the body should be used suflicient to liquefy considerable portions of the iee, nhi ey x | : 1822.] -On some Vegetable Remains found near Bath, 35 Articur VII. Account of some Vegetable Remains found in a Quarry near Bath. | By Mr. H. Woods. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) | b SIR, North Parade, Bath, Oct: 1821; n SEARCHING for extraneous fossils in a quarry of white and blue lias at Tiverton in the neighbourhood of Bath, I discovered, some wood in different changes of petrifaction, the appearance and situation of which I will proceed to describe as relevant to à question which I intend ultimately to ask respecting it. n The quarry consists of, first, a very thin stratum of vegetable mould ; secondly, broken pieces of stone in various states of decomposition ; thirdly, the first bed of white lias, about two feet thick, which, with its substratum of clay, contains a great. quantity of cornua. ammonis,: gryphoid oysters, and. several species of anomia ; fourthly, the second bed, six or eight. feet thick, partly blue, with its corresponding stratum of clay upon which it rests, containing but few cornua ammonis, but so numerous are its venuses, muscles, and gryphoid oysters, parti- cularly the latter, that it may be said almost to consist of these religiue of shells, agglutinated by media of sand and clay (in its clay Í found a small piece of compact iron ore, and several tro- chite of the stem of the pentacrinite); and, fifthly, the third bed; which is also a mixture of white and blue stone, but with an excess of the latter, containing few petrifactions. In one part, I was told by the quarrymen, a considerable quantity of mundic or pyrites was oceasionally found, and from the fissures of the stones, in addition to some small and, in most instances, imperfectly formed crystals of carbonate of lime, I picked out clay, smooth, compact, and perfectly unmixed with any other substance. i - I have here described the quarry, which is, as far as) it is worked, about 20 feet in depth, as 1 saw it, mentioning only the fossil remains which I observed and collected ; but, in addition to these, the Rev. J. Townsend (in his “ Character of Moses; &c."), enumerates various species of cardia, sacculi, helices, mytili, mye, &c. but particularly siliquastra, and whole jaws of some amphibious animal. To his work I, therefore, refer for a more complete account of the lias quarries in Somersetshire, and proceed to the immediate subject of this communication. As Iwas returning from the wall of the quarry, among a heap ofthe blue stones, which had been hewn into a proper size and shape for paving, I observed in one a cavity about four inches broad, and eight or ten in. length, lined with an incrustation of very small brown crystals. Along this cavity, partially attached, 5 pe + 36 On some Vegetable Remains found near Bath. [JAN] lay a rounded body consisting of the same kind of crystals arranged longitudinally in grooves, divided at nearly regular distances by transverse septa of white crystals, the channels between which were filled up with a crumbling substance resem- bling charcoal, and which, like that, readily enters into combus- tion without flaming. The same substance seems more or less to be distributed in the interstices between the crystals, appear- ing thus, as if tlie crystallized granulations were in the direction of the fibres, or rather sap vessels of wood, and the transverse crystals, bearing a similarity to the septa so plainly observable in the timber of oak and beech. My curiosity being excited, I returned to the quarry, in the. hope of discovering more vere of vegetable matter, and my hope was not disappointed. Jn the interstice between two large. blocks of stone, near the bottom of the third stratum, I found a larger quantity of a nearly similar substance jammed in between the two stones, but unconnected with either (the former specimen was enclosed within a solid block). The process of crystalliza- tion is not so complete in this as in the other’; but although it has the same carbonized appearance, its specific gravity is greater, and it is not so readily, m fact scarcely at all inflammable, possessing a greater mixture of earthy or calcareous matter uncrystallized. A workman informed me that large pieces, to use his own expression, “ as thick as his thigh," have been found at considerable depth in the quarry. > - Mr. Townsend, in the before-quoted work, mentions charcoal being found in the great oolite and forest marble, and other authors have noticed the same phenomenon, but none, that I recollect, specify at what depth it has been discovered, nor, which is of still greater importance, precisely of what substance, whether organic or inorganic, the superstrata consisted,* the wonder being, to find the remains of wood (and I think that my specimens are wood is indisputable) thus situated. My object in troubling you with so circumstantial an account is to elicit from one of your geological correspondents an expla- nation of the occurrence of this substance beneath three strata of stone, 20 feet in thickness, formed entirely of oceanic remains: The universal deluge was one single convulsion of nature. This climate is not subject to partial or secondary ones, and every appearance of the quarry evinces an uninterrupted repose during ages. The deluge might have caused the antediluvian dry land to become the bed of the postdiluvian ocean, and vice versá ; but this charcoal, petrified wood, semi-coal, or by whatever name it may be called, seems to demonstrate a convulsion prior to that which piled upon it an innumerable quantity of marine animals. A solution of this difficulty will, perhaps, be beneficial to science; and much oblige yours, &c. H. Woops. * Mr. Townsend also mentions wood mixed with shells in enumerating allwviat fos- sils; but that L conceive does not at all apply to the present subject. 11 1822.] On Olefiant: Gas. 37 em : ~ ARTICLE VIII. On Olefiant Gas. _ (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) ~~ SIR, |. Sept, 29, 1821. `: ` Dn. Henry, in his very interesting memoir “ On the Aériform Compounds of Charcoal and Hydrogen,” read before the Royal Society in February last, and published in the Annals for Sept. has described a new gas obtained by heat from oil and pit coal, which possesses the property of being condensed to a liquid form by chlorine, without the agency oflight, in common with olefiant as, but differs from that compound in specific gravity, in its illuminating power, and in the properties it presents on combus- tion with oxygen. From the observations Dr. Henry was ena- bled to make on this gas, in the intervals of leisure he then enjoyed from the discharge of his professional duties, he was led to conclude that it was * either a mixture of olefiant gas with a. heavier or more combustible gas or vapour, or a new gas, sue generis, consisting of hydrogen and charcoal in proportions which remain to be determined.” A comparative examination of the different. facts communicated in the memoir above referred to will be found to strengthen the former of these conclusions; but with some modification, perhaps, of the original views of this excellent and accomplished chemist. The specimen of oil gas which contained the greatest proportion of the new compound ` was furnished to Dr. Henry from the manufactory of Messrs. John and Philip Taylor, of London. The specific gravity of this specimen was ‘906, common air being 1, and it yielded in 100 parts:38 volumes of a gas, condensible by chlorine, and 62 volumes of mixed gases, not pessoas that property, being of the specific gravity of :606... Now :906 x 100 —:606 x 62-38 — 1:395, which is the specific gravity required by the 38 volumes of condensible gas to give an aggregate weight. of :906 to the mixture. But the specific gravity of olefiant gas 15.072. . It is evident, therefore, that the greater part, at least, of the above 38 volumes could not be olefiant gas, but that it consisted of some other compound, the elements of which exist in a much closer state of condensation. N The phenomena this gas exhibits with oxygen stil further serve to establish that conclusion. It appears that four volumes and, a half of oxygen are required for the complete combustion of one.volume of the new compound, and that the gaseous pro- duct is three volumes of carbonic acid. For the saturation of one volume of olefiant gas, three volumes only of oxygen are 38 On Olefiant Gas. [JAN. necessary, and two volumes of carbonic acid result from their joint action. A volume and a half more of oxygen, therefore, is consumed in the present case, and an additional volume of car- honic acid produced from it, from which we may infer that the new gas contains an atom each of carbon and of hydrogen more than exists in an equal bulk of olefiant gas, and that its specific gravity, therefore, will be greater by the addition of the respec- tive specific weights of those elements. It has been already mentioned that the specific gravity of olefiant gas is 972, and it is well,known, that this gas is formed of one atom of carbon and one atom of hydrogen. The specific gravity of vapour of carbon, as has been shown by Dr. Thomson in a former volume of the Annals, is 4166, and of hydrogen *0694 ; but 4166 + -0694 = 486, which is only one half of the specific gravity assigned. It must be inferred, therefore, that in the constitution of olefiant gas, two volumes of vapour of carbon, and two volumes of hydro- gen, are condensed into one volume—a deduction which the phenomena attending the explosion of this gas with oxygen amply confirm. — n | . It was before stated, that three volumes of oxygen are required for the above purpose, and that two volumes of carbonic acid are the gaseous result : to explain which it is necessary to assume that two volumes of carbon are present to saturate two of the volumes of oxygen, and produce the two volumes of carbonic acid; and that there are also two volumes of hydrogen in com- bination to unite with the remaining volume of oxygen, and form water. In conformity with these views, the new gas will, of course, be compounded of three volumes of vapour of carbon and three volumes of hydrogen condensed into one volume; and its specific gravity, as already stated, will be the specific gravity of olefiant gas, augmented by the specific gravity of each of the additional elements of which it is composed, or :972 + *4166 + :0694 = 1:458. Proceéding upon these data, and supposing the 38 volumes of condensible gas, which formed the subject of Dr. Henry's experiments, to be * a mixture of olefiant gas with a heavier or more combustible gas," as he suggested, and that this heavier or more combustible gas is the one above described, the proportion of the two necessary to produce a specific gravity of 1:395, as deduced from his experiments, will be 100 volumes of the heavy olefiant gas, ifit may be so called, and 1:49 volume (very nearly) of the light olefiant gas ; for = n a sns 1:395, from *063 | whence z = — = :14893, x It may be concluded from the foregoing observations, and, perhaps, satisfactorily, that the gaseous body which has been discovered by Dr. Henry among the aériform products from oil and pit coal is not “a new gas, sui generis, consisting of hydro- ¥822.] Decomposition of Metallic'Salts by the Magnet. 99 en and charcoal in proportions which remain to be determined,” but a modification of olefiant gas, constituted of the same elements as that fluid, and in the same proportions, with this only difference, that the compound atoms are triple instead of double. May we not be permitted to infer from this, that there is yet another and a simpler combination of carburetted hydrogen undiscovered, in which one atom of each of the elements is associated in the usual binary form ? i ARTICLE IX. Observations on Mr. Murray’s Paper on the Decomposition. of | Metallic Salts by the Magnet. | (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, | Mr. Murray’s paper is contained in the last number of the Philosophical Magazine, and the author prefaces his relation with saying: ** I shall here take leave to select a few of the numerous experiments repeated in the course of my researches, and it would, methinks, be difficult to summon any objection to them." I beg leave to differ from Mr. Murray, and for reasons which I shall now assign. Mr. Murray's first statement is, that “a solution of permu- riate of mercury was by the magnet. soon reduced into running mercury, and the supernatant fluid was not affected by the albu- amen of the egg." - (fa URRE I prepared a dilute solution of corrosive sublimate, and placed a perfectly unmagnetic steel bar in the solution, “ running mer- cury ". was immediately precipitated. . Hence magnetism is not _Tequisite to the production of the effect, and consequently itis worthy of Mr. Murray’s consideration, ‘whether - ** fine steel filings" unmagnetized will not be as. * admirable an antidote to ‘corrosive sublimate”? as those which are magnetized. I believe their inefficacy will be equal. E ^ Mr. Murray says: “ Nitrómuriate of platinum was decom- posed with a brisk effervescence, distinctly audible, and with a visible spray between the eye and the light." I placed an unmagnetie steel bar in a solution of nitromuriate of platina, and the platina was precipitated with all the phenomena above described by Mr. Murray. Consequently magnetism has no share in producing the decomposition. * Fine Dutch steel wire was selected," says Mr. Murray, “ and proved to be non-magnetic. It was thrown into nitrate of silver where it remained for 14 hours without being affected, part of this was made the uniting wire between the north and south 40 . Observations on Mr. Murray’s Paper on the :[JaN. poles of two bar magnets; when it became speedily: plumed with crystals of silver.” CAN "Cte ipe “£ A portion of the same wire was snapped in twain, and the magnet passed over one of the fragments, and both. projected into solution of nitrate of silver. That which was magnetized reduced the silver, while the other remained inert," rr . I divided a dilute solution, of nitrate of silver into three portions. In one I placed a steel bar hardened at the ends, but mich did not attract iron filings, and consequently was not magnetized. In the two other solutions of nitrate of silver, I put magnets formed of similar bars, the nortli pole-of one, and the south pole of the other, being immersed, their opposite poles projecting above the edges of the glasses containing the solutions; the pre were then connected by an unmagnetized steel wire. Several hours elapsed before any sensible precipitation occurred in either of the three glasses; at length a few fine brilliant flakes of metallic silver appeared in all of them, and I did not observe that they were formed sooner in one solution than the others. These flakes increased very slowly, till a certain quantity had collected, when the action increased rapidly, and an abundant precipitate of reduced silver was collected in each of the three glasses. I could perceive little or no difference in the quantity of the silver thrown down, or in any other respect, the results in the three solutions being as nearly similar as possible, excepting that from some unknown cause the unmagnetized bar was much more deeply corroded at the part in contact with the surface of the fluid. The increase of action after a certain quantity of silver had been precipitated, was probably owing to the contact of the metallic precipitate and the iron. aiei” It is evident from these experiments that magnetism has. no power whatever in modifying, increasing, or reversing the mutual action of steel and solution of nitrate of silver. . Indeed it is so well an established fact, that iron precipitates silver from its solution in nitric acid, that it is quite unaccountable how it should have escaped Mr. Murray's knowledge both from reading and experiment. The following authors distinctly mention that silver is precipitated from its solution by iron. |Newmann, Chemistry, page 47 ; Murray, vol. iii. p. 212; fourth edit. ; The- nard, vol. ii. p. 314, second edit. iad . If magnetism were really. capable of decomposing metallic salts, it would probably reverse the order of affinity, as occurs in voltaic combinations, when. copper is precipitated on. silver wire rendered negative by the battery. 1, therefore, immersed two magnets connected by a steel bar in two separate glasses containing solutions of sulphate of zinc, the arrangement being just the same as that of the magnets in the solutions of nitrate of silver; not the least precipitate was produced in either, nor in a third solution of sulphate of zinc containing an unmag- netized bar; the only. observable effect was, that the bars were all slightly tarnished. 1822.] Decomposition of Metallic Salts by the Magnet. 41 . The next experiment, related by Mr. Murray, which I shall notice is the following: “ A portion of. platinum. wire that suffered no change in nitrate of silver in solution, was made the uniting wire between the poles of a powerful horse-shoe magnet (that supported 121bs. weight). When this was immersed into nitrate of silver, it soon became discoloured and acted upon." _ I immersed a, platina wire in a solution of nitrate of silver, the opposite the ends of the wire being connected. with. the two oles of a pretty strong horse-shoe magnet. After remaining about 30 hours in the solution, the surface of the: platina wire was not in the slightest degree tarnished: The: solution: was a portion of the same as that employed in the other experiments. i conclude, therefore, that magnetism has no power whatever in influencing the action of platina on nitrate of silver. uidqiea . The last statement of Mr. Murray's. which I shall allude to is, that ‘two magnetic bars were left for two days in phosphorous acid. ` The acid was decomposed; the north pole of one of the bars was scarcely affected, but the north pole of the other was corroded half an inch deep, and. developed the fasciculated structure described by Mr. Daniel.” (ts l arranged some magnetic and unmagnetic bars in phosphoric acid in the same mode as described with respect to nitrate of silver. The north pole of one and the south of the other were immersed in separate glasses, and at first. were not connected, but were afterwards by a smaller magnet, south and north poles being respectively in contact with north and south poles of the immersed magnets. The action of the phosphoric acid upon the magnets was not in the slightest degree increased by the contact. The circumstances which I have now detailed, I think, justify me in concluding, that Mr. Murray's experiments are fallacious, and his inferences unwarranted by facts. | Lam, Sir, your obedient servant, B. M. AnTICLE X. On the Properties of Perovide of Hydrogen or Orygenated Water. By M. Thenard. (Extracted from the last Edition of his Traité de Chimie.) : WATER is combined with a large quantity of oxygen, by dis- solving peroxide, of barium in muriatic acid, and adding sulphurie acid to the solution. These two operations are to be several times repéated with the same liquor; then adding sulphate of silver, and at last barytes, and separating the precipitates suc- cessively by the filter... Muriatic acid readily dissolves the per- , 42 W M. Thenard on the oque. — RANG oxide, and there result muriate of barytes, and weakly oxygen- ated water. The sulphuric acid precipitates the it and liberates the muriatic acid, which then acts upon a fresh quantity of peroxide of barium, so that there is no difficulty in repeating the process several times, and there remains at length water holding more or less oxygen in solution. The mode in which the sulphate of silver acts is evident, the use of it is to separate the muriatic acid, and replace it by sulphuric ; the barytes com- bines with the sulphurie acid, and precipitates it. en the operation is performed with pure materials, and in proper pro- portions, it is evident that the last result is me 2 oxygenated water: it is then to be put into a glass vessel with a foot, and this placed in a large capsule, two-thirds filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, the apparatus is to be P under the receiver of an air-pump, and the air exhausted. The pure water evaporates much more readily than the oxygenated water, so that in two days it will probably contain 250 times its volume of oxygen; and when the solution contains 475 times its volume of oxygen at the temperature of 57°, no further concentration takes place by keeping it longer in vacuo.* Physical Properties of the Peroxide of Hydrogen. - The peroxide of hydrogen is fluid and colourless as water. It is inodorous, or at least it is so nearly so, that few persons can discover any smell. It gradually destroys the colour of litmus and turmeric paper, and makes them quite white. It acts upon the epidermis very readily, sometimes suddenly, whitens it, and oceasions prickings, which continue for a longer or shorter period, according to the nature of the individual and the thick- ness of the portion of liquor applied; if it be too thick or be renewed, the skin itself 1s attacked and destroyed. Applied to the tongue, it whitens and pricks it, thickens the saliva, and produces a sensation which it is difficult to describe, but which resembles that of certain metallic solutions. Its tension is extremely weak, much weaker than that of water: this is the reason why oxygenated water, at common temperatures, is con- centrated in vacuo by the intervention of an absorbing body such as sulphuric acid. This also is the reason why the evapo- ration in this case becomes gradually slower, so that at the end itis extremely slow; still, however, it always takes place, for it finishes by the whole of the liquor disappearing ; and this occurs without the production of any gas, which shows that the peroxide of hydrogen is vaporized without decomposition. I tried, but ineffectually, to solidify the peroxide of hydrogen. Exposed to a low temperature for three quarters of an hour, it remained liquid; when also water which contains only 30 or 40 * For the precautions requisite to be observed in preparing oxygenated, water, the reader is referred to M. Thenard’s Traité de Chimie, tom. i. p. 563. udi 1822.1 New Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon. 43 times its volume of oxygen, is subjected to a temperature of 12°, the part which remains fluid is much more oxygenated than that which freezes. Itis even probable that if the latter contains any oxygen, that itis derived from a certain quantity of interposed water. wii | | ne ^ T thought at first that I might employ this cit to concen- trate the oxygenated water, especially by taking care to break the ice and to press it strongly in linen : it did not succeed; the ice even after compression retained too much oxygen to be rejected. | | ! | ` One of the properties of peroxide of hydrogen which T endea- voured more particularly to establish, is its density ; this I found to he 1:452. Itis, therefore, evident, that the peroxide is much more dense than water, and itis not necessary to take its specific gravity to be eonvinced of this; it is sufficient to pour it into water, for although it is very soluble, it flows through it like à syrup. | Of the Action of different Bodies upon the Peroxide of Hydrogen. There are some bodies which have no action upon peroxide of hydrogen ; others render it more fixed, while some decom- pose it, and combine with a part of its oxygen ; but it is particu- . Jarly worthy of remark, that a considerable number decomposeit - at common temperatures without uniting either to the water or to the oxygen gas which results : sometimes even this decom- position occurs with a sort of detonation, owing to the sudden disengagement of the gas. In this case, the temperature is so far from being reduced, as might be supposed on account of the oxygen passing to the gaseous state, that it is so much raised as to produce light. Sometimes also the body during its decompo- sition of the peroxide, is itself decomposed; such is, for example, the oxide of silver, which immediately upon coming into contact with the peroxide, even largely diluted with water, disengages all the oxygen, and is itself reduced. Of the Action of Imponderable Bodies. » Heat quickly decomposes the peroxide of hydrogen ; but the decomposition takes place more slowly as it proceeds. The water, in proportion as it is liberated, undoubtedly combines with the undecomposed portion, and renders it more fixed. This may be learned by the following experiments : œ Put.some peroxide of hydrogen into a small glass tube, heat it gradually from 55° to 212°, by placing the tube in water, it will be seen that the decomposition will be quite sensible at 68°; it occurs with greater ebullition, if the peroxide is subjected immediately to 212°; the experiment would be dangerous in a vessel with a narrow neck, with eight grains of the peroxide. Nevertheless, when thrown upon a red hot metal plate, it does not detonate. | 44 sodes God, Thea pg the cc) 444 (Jan; Let this experiment le repeated, after having so diluted the peroxide, that it shall contain only seven paper yr ea its volume of oxygen, the clisengagement of the gas will not be per- ceptible, even at 120°, but it becomes so soon afterwards, and goes on increasing untilit ceases. From this period, the liquor contains no gas, and consequently will not effervesce with.oxide of manganese. | | | WIN All other circumstances being equal, peroxide. of. hydrogen suffers no more alteration by exposure to light than in darkness. In both cases, small bubbles are disengaged from time to time, and it finishes at the expiration of some months, even at common temperatures, with being for the most part. deoxidized. This deoxidizement, which, probably depends upon. many causes, appears to me to be principally produced by some: particles of matter which the peroxide retains. To preserve it as much as possible, it must be surrounded with ice. Wn; When the peroxide is subjected to the action of the voltaic ile in the same way that water usually is, similar results are in th cases produced, excepting that with the peroxide, the dis- engagement of oxygen gas is much greater. Í ought to observe, however, that I have not collected the gases to examine them, ` Of the Action of the Metals at Common Temperatures. In general the metals tend to decompose the peroxide of hydrogen, and to restore it to the state of protoxide or water. I know only four which do not sensibly. possess this property ; won, tn, antimony, and tellurium, The most oxidizable are oxidized, and at the same time produce a disengagement of oxygen.: The others, on the contrary, retain their metallic state, so that all the oxygen with which the water combines to become peroxide is liberated. In order to effect the decomposition readily, it.is indispensably necessary that the metallic matter should be finely divided, Any metal which in the state of fine powder readily disengages the oxygen of the peroxide, effects it very slowly if the powder be coarse, and still more so if it be in mass. | The same phenomena occur even when the peroxide is diluted with water, excepting that they are less distinct, and continue longer. This will appear from the examination which I am going to state with respect to the action of metals upon the diluted peroxide. | ‘The experiments were all performed in the same way. The liquid was first put with a small pipe into a little glass tube closed at one end, after which the metal was introduced... The quantity of peroxide employed in each experiment amounted only to a few drops ; when diluted with water, a larger quantity was employed. The action was considered as complete, when no more gas was evolved ; and this was rendered certain by the addition of a small quantity of oxide of manganese. All the 1829.] Properties of Peroxide of Hwdrogen. 45 metals were tried inthis manner, excepting uranium, titanium, cerium, barium, strontium, calcium, lithium, and the metals of the earths. j TRAP Pn sod Of the Metals which decompose the, Peroxide of Hydrogen, and disengage the Oxygen without undergoing any Change. — Silver, finely divided, procured by the recent decomposition of nitrate of silver by copper, and. pure peroxide of hydrogen. Sudden and violent action, the extrication of heat so great, that the tube became burning hot; the silver retained its metallic state, and all the oxygen was instantly disengaged, keel] Silver, finely divided, and peroxide contcüning nine times its volume of oxygen. Sudden and brisk effervescence, no sensible heat: the silver was not oxidized ; the action: was soon over, and all. the oxygen was disengaged. : The tube is not heated unless the peroxide contains at least 30 times its volume of oxygens, » Selver precipitated from the solution of nitrate of silver by copper, butthe parts of which were become less finely divided by drying. | Action upon the peroxide much weaker than with the finely divided silver of the two preceding experiments. ` bra Silver in filings. : Action much, weaker than the last. _ iot Silver in mass. Action extremely weak conipared to that with divided silver. "T T [. -» Platina in fine powder, prepared from the animoniaco-muriate, calcined with common salt, and pure peroxide of hydrogens Phenomena similar to those with silver; the action, perhaps, a little stronger. 1 do not.conclude from this, that the. platina itself acts more upon the peroxide than silver ; for in order.to ascertain this, the state of division of the. metallic particles, which so much influences their action, must be equal. | - Platina in fine powder, and peroxide containing nine times its volume of oxygen. Phenomena similar to those with silver. Platina in. filings and in mass. The same. action upon the eroxide as with silver in filings and in mass. hda 'Gold, finely divided, procured from the decomposition of muriate of gold by sulphate of iron. The same action upon the pure and diluted peroxide as with silver aid platina, provided. the liquid be not sensibly acid. Gold in filings and in mass. The same action upon the per- oxide as with silver in filings and in mass. _ Osmium in black powder and pure peroxide. Action more violent than with the preceding metals, which may depend upon the métal being more finely divided: in other respects, the phe- nomena were similar; the same effects, except as to intensity, with osmium and diluted peroxide as with platina and silver. Palladium in powder, prepared. by calcining. ammoniaco- miriate of palladium, and pure peroxide. Ready and very lively, action, but less so than that. of platina, silver, gold, and osmium; great extrication of heat. All the oxygen was disengaged 46 os M. Thenard on'the oi ‘Jane almost as soon as the action occurred; the metal did not appear to be oxidized. If the peroxide were sensibly. acid, it acted. much less readily. sarien . Palladium in powder, and. peroxide containing only nine volumes of oxygen. The same phenomena as with silver, n dm that the disengagement of oxygen was rather less rapid. | ú; | T Rhodium in powder, prepared by calcining the ammoniaco- muriate of rhodium, with pure and diluted peroxide. The action of this metal is nearly the same as that of palladium, excepting that the presence of a little acid did not retard it so much. ` Lead reduced to fine filings and pure peroxide. Action at first slow, but which gradually increases, and finishes in a few minutes, becoming extremely à and exciting much heat. All the oxygen is disengaged, and I do not think that the lead is ont&iusd. ii Lead reduced to fine filings, and peroxide containing nine volumes of oxygen. Action at first weak, gradually becoming: stronger, and then the bubbles of oxygen are rapidly liberated, and raise the metallic particles. Is there not a little: oxide formed, which, it will be hereafter seen, readily. decomposes oxygenated water? It is certain, that at the .expiration of an hour, no oxygen remains in the liquor. id Bismuth, well powdered, and pure peroxide. The same phe- nomena as with lead. | coi - Bismuth, well powdered, and liquor containing only nine volumes of oxygen. The action is extremely slow. Bubbles are only occasionally given out; but at the end of some hours, the liquor was always deoxidized. The metal did not appear to be oxygenated. | H Mercury and pure peroxide. The same phenomena as with lead and bismuth, provided the solution be not acid ; when it contains a little sulphuric acid, there is also formed a red sub- stance, which is ki carcin a subsulphate. Mercury and peroxide containing only nine volumes of oxygen. Very evident disengagement of gas, especially when the solution is rather alkaline than acid: the mercury is not oxidized : one drop of a very weak acid is sufficient to stop the yox t msn Cobalt, nickel, cadmium, copper. Very weak action. Of the Metals which decompose the Peroxide of Hydrogen, absorb- ing Part of the Oxygen, and disengaging the remainder. Arsenic in powder and pure peroxide. Sudden and most violent action; flame produced by the combustion of the arsenic, which, acidifying, prevents the whole of the oxygen from being disengaged or absorbed, at least instantaneously ; consequently very great disengagement of heat. When the peroxide is in excess, all the arsenic becomes acid, and is dissolved. 4 1822.] Properties of Peroxide of Hydrogen. 47 Arsenic in powder and peroxide containing only one-ninth of its volume of oxygen. No effervescence ; the liquor becomes immediately acid. This acid rendering the peroxide more fixed, it remains for a long time more or less oxidized. Molybden reduced to criam and pure peroxide. Very violent action ; combustion of the metal with light ; great extrication of heat; production of a very soluble acid, the taste of which is rather strong, and gives a yellow colour to the water. All the molybden disappears when the peroxide is in excess. | - Molybden reduced to nét and peroxide containing only nine volumes of oxygen. Sudden brisk effervescence ; production of acid ; absorption or disengagement of all the oxygen: at the end of 15 hours, the liquor was of a superb blue colour. ‘Tungsten, chrome, and pure peroxide. The action weak at first; and with the tungsten only after some tíme it becomes violent. j | | Potassium and pure peroxide. Sudden and violent action ; vivid combustion ; disengagement of oxygen, and formation of alkali: the experiment ought not to be made in a narrow tube, for sometimes explosion occurs. 3 | s - Sodium and pure peroxide. The same phenomena as with: potassium. | | Manganese and pure peroxide. The metal, in the form of small globules, produces brisk effervescence, and deoxidizes the liquor readily. May it not be imagined that it is first oxidized, and that it is the oxide which expels the oxygen? Yet the glo- bules did not appear to be altered. In powder it acts still more strongly, becoming very soon violent: at the same time that the oxygen is disengaged, great heat is excited. Manganese and peroxide containing only nine times its volume of oxygen. Brisk and sudden effervescence ; no heat ; complete deoxidizement of the liquor in a short time, (Zinc.) Action very weak. ron, tin, antimony, tellurium. No, or scarcely any, action at all, even with the concentrated. liquor. Action of the simple AP nii 1o Combustibles.. _. Among the simple non-metallic combustible bodies, there are only selenium and charcoal, which act upon peroxide of hydrogen in a marked manner. Selenium in powder and pure peroxide. Sudden, and very violent action; disengagement of great heat without light; com- plete acidification of the selenium, which, owing to this, imme- diately dissolves. Selenium and peroxide containing only nine times its volume of oxygen. Noheat. Occasional bubbles are disengaged ; but the liquor is acidified in a few minutes. ! Charcoal in fine powder'and pure peroxide. Sudden and very brisk action; production of very considerable heat; disengage- a of all the oxygen without the formation of any carbonic sabe soni: od? - | » dir . Charcoal in fine powder and peroxide containing only nine times its volume of oxygens’ Brisk effervescence without heat ; all the oxygen is disengaged without the production of carbonic ‘acid. Pass a certain quantity of the liquor up an inverted tube containing mercury, then introduce some well powdered ‘char- coal. It will be found that the gas which is readily evolved from the liquor is merely oxygen, and that it will be PA oterhiri ina very short time. | NA Lamp Black. No action, unquestionably because the liquor does not moisten it. | š t Hip ao 48 n UM. Thenandion the o DaN. Action upon Metallic Sulphurets at Common Temperature: | The greater number of the metallic sulphurets which I have tried have a very marked action upon the peroxide of hydrogen. "Very often this action is violent, and accompanied with much heat when the liquor is concentrated. Moreover, whether it be diluted with water or concentrated, there almost always results a sulphate, and a more or less sensible disengagement of oxygen. This occurs with the sulphurets of copper, antimony, lead, and iron: they are scarcely brought into contact before they are converted with effervescence into sulphates. The sulphurets of arsenic and of molybeden act with more violence than the preceding upon the concentrated peróxide ; heat and light are produced; but no sulphate is formed’; the arsenic is acidified, and the sulphur remains almost unacted upon. The sulphurets of bismuth and of tin act very feebly, even upon the peroxide in the most concentrated state; the sulphurets of silver and of mercury (cinnabar) have no action at all. | h - Action of Metallic Oxides at: Common. Temperatures. 5: In general, metallic oxides tend to restore the peroxide of hydrogen to the state of protoxide or water. Some of them produce this effect by becoming more oxidized; others without alteration, but disengaging all the oxygen in the gaseous form, which water absorbs to become peroxide. Some again disen- gage the oxygen, and are themselves reduced ; but few exert no action at all. dae "i The decomposing: power of the oxides varies much. Several expel the oxygen so suddenly from the liquor, that a kind of explosion occurs, and then much light and heat are evolved. The action of others, on the contrary, is slow, occasioning but slight effervescence, and no sensible heat. | «y Of the Oxides which absorb the Oxygen of the Peroxide, and restore it to the State of Protoxide or Water. These oxides are barytes, strontian, lime, oxide of zinc, oxide 1822.) Properties of Peroaide of Hydrogen. 49 and peroxide of copper, oxide of nickel, the protoxides of man- ganese, iron, tin, cobalt, oxide of arsenic; and probably several others, is requisite that the metallic. oxide should be moist or iu solution: otherwise: the oxygen would. be disengaged, or would remain in combination. It is moreover. evident that in. proportion as the new oxide is produced, itis possible that it may expel a portion of the oxygen from the liquor,.so that the action may become complicated. | v apii When barytes water is poured. into concentrated. or diluted peroxide, a great number of brilliant:scales are preci» peee these are merely hydrate of peroxide of barium, but if — reduced to powder be used instead of barytes water; with slightly diluted peroxide of barium, a violent:extrication of oxygen gas takes place, and much heat is excited. This heat may be.derived from the absorption of the water of the peroxide by the barytes. Asto the disengagement ofthe oxygen, it may be attributed: to the heat produced by. the absorption, of water, and the formation: of a small quantity of peroxide of barium: hydrate of barytes possesses the power of evolving oxygen from the peroxide of hydrogen in all cases. Strontian. Strontian presents the same appearances with the peroxide as barytes: does. TE : Lime. This: base also produces with the peroxide of hydro- gen, phenomena analogous to those which have been mentioned with the two preceding bases. Hydrate.of Copper. This hydrate, when mixed with the per- oxide of hydrogen, becomes immediately a new oxide of: an ochre-yellow cblour, and it rapidly evolves the oxygen of the peroxide which remained undecomposed. When the peroxide i$ concentrated, the action is vivid, there is disengagement of heat, and'it requires much to. convert all the oxide of copper into peroxide. In order that the peroxidation may take place, it is not only requisite that the peroxide of hydrogen should be diluted with water, but other circumstances hereafter to be mens tioned must be attended to. | ! Caleined Peroxide of Copper. Yn this state the oxide:of copper cannot of course combine with more oxygen ; it produces a. very ilo effervescence of oxygen gas) when put into peroxide of yarogen. | | Hydrate of Zinc. The same as copper: this.oxide becomes. a peroxide with: oxygenated. water, so, that very littie oxygen is evolved. `; Laud | Oxide of Zinc. by: Calcination. More: converted into peroxide cm the former case; the evolution of oxygen gas 4s extremely ight. . Hydrate of Nickel; “This is another oxide, which, with the peroxide of hydrogen; probably forms anew oxide; it also occa- sions a slight disengagement of oxygen. New Series, vor. rir. E 50 | M. Thenard on the | (JAN. Oxide of Nickel by Calcination. Very evident effervescence of oxygen from the peroxide of hydrogen. a0 Protoxide of manganese, iron, tin, cobalt. These protoxides, when in the state of hydrates, are converted into peroxides in the same way as those already described. When oxygenated water is poured upon these hydrates recently precipitated. b potash from their solution in acids, they are immediately peroxi- dized. The peroxides of manganese and cobalt will afterwards act upon the undecomposed peroxide, causing the rapid expul- sion of its oxygen in the state of gas; the action of the peroxide oe iron is not very strong, and that of tin produces no sensible ettect. | Oxide of Arsenic becomes acidified. Of the Oxides which expel Oxygen from the Peroxide of Hydrogen without oars ow {om or Deoxidixed. | There are a considerable number of oxides which possess this property; they will be described as nearly as possible in the order of their power of decomposing. Native peroxide of manganese in fine powder, with concentrated peroxide of hydrogen. Sudden and very violent action; the heat occasioned so great as to make the tube burning hot; the deoxidation of the peroxide of hydrogen instantaneous and complete. | The same oxide of manganese with peroxide containing only nine volumes of oxygen. Very brisk and sudden effervescence ; all the oxygen disengaged in a very short time from the oxygen- ated water. Very finely divided peroxide of manganese,-obtained by adding oxygenated water to a solution of manganese, and decomposing the solution by potash. The action of this oxide is stronger than that of the native oxide ; and when the experiment is performed with the concentrated oxygenated water, it takes place with a kind of explosion. Peroxide of cobalt in powder. This ferum the same effects with tne concentrated peroxide of hydrogen as the native per- oxide of manganese does. Massicot in powder and highly concentrated peroxide of hydrogen. Violent action, great heat ; disengagement of all the oxygen in a tew minutes. inium and peroxide of lead. "These two oxides act also very strongly upon the peroxide of hydrogen ; the action of the per- oxide is extremely violent, and 1t becomes protoxide. Hydrate of peroxide of iron, and concentrated peroxide of hydrogen. Action soon becoming very strong ; great heat, and complete deoxidizement of the liquor in a very short time. Hydrate of peroxide of iron, and liquor containing only one- ninth of its volume of oxygen. Very sudden effervescence, but 1822.] Properties of Peroxide of Hydrogen. 51 not brisk ; so that the deoxidizement requires some hours for its completion. dis. Oxide of iron, from the decomposition of water by hot iron. Weak action upon the peroxide both concentrated and diluted. Fifteen hours were not nearly sufficient to complete the deoxi- dizement of the liquor; for it was found after this time nearly unaltered. | Oxide of nickel, peroxide of copper, oxide of bismuth. “The action of true oxides upon the concentrated liquor is not very ` istrong, but it is sufficient to evolve all the oxygen in the space of a few hours, and in 15 hours they evolve it from the peroxide containing only one-ninth of its volume of oxygen. | Potash, soda. ` Strong action even when they are dissolved in water upon the concentrated peroxide of hydrogen ; rather rapid evolution of oxygen; very soon perfect deoxidizement. When the peroxide of hydrogen is diluted with water, the decomposi- tion takes place less rapidly, but eventually all the oxygen is expelled. Gelatinous magnesia, and highly concentrated peroxide. of hydrogen. Very evident evolution of oxygen gas which gradually subsides before the total deoxidizement. Gelatinous magnesia, and liquor containing nine times its volume of oxygen. Rather brisk effervescence, which gradually subsides before the deoxidizement is complete. It appears, ' however, to evolve proportionally more oxygen when the liquor is dilute than when it is concentrated. j Magnesia in powder. The action is weaker than when in the gelatinous state. i Hydrate of barytes, strontian, and lime. But little action. Oxide of uranium, procured by decomposing sulphate of uranium with potash. Still less action than the last oxides. Oxide of titanium in powder, sublimed oatide of zinc, oxide of cerium.: W eak effervescence. At the end of 30 hours the liquor was scarcely deoxidized. A Of the Oxides which evolve the Oxygen of the Peroxide of Hydro- gen, and which at the same time lose their own either partially or totally. These oxides are the oxides of silver, mercury, deutoxide and peroxide of lead, of gold, platina, and probably iridium, palla- dium, and rhodium. Oxide of silver. Of all oxides this appears to have most action upon the peroxide of hydrogen; it immediately expels its oxygen, and this occurs so rapidly, that explosion may happen when the peroxide is concentrated: moreover, the heat produced is such that luminous spots are perceived. when the experiment is performed in the dark. Under these circum- stances, it is not extraordinary that the oxide of silver should be reduced: the experiment should not be made in a narrow tube. E? mR ` On the Propertiesof. Peroxide of\ Hydrogen. [Jan. _ The action is very strong, even when the peroxide of hydro- gen is diluted in water. In fact, oxide of silver occasions very evident and sudden effervescence in water which contains only a fiftieth of its volume of oxygen; so that, when a tube is filled with mercury, and/inverted, and water containing 12 times its wolume of oxygen is passed up into it, oxide of silver afterwards thrown up sinks the mercury so suddenly that the eye follows it with difficulty. In this case, there'is no sensible production of heat, and. yet the oxide of silver is reduced. This oxide is reduced even in the most diluted peroxide of hydrogen, so that | at must not be conceived that the expulsion of the oxygen from . the metal is not the effect of temperature ; it may happen that at the moment of the action of the oxide of silver upon the peroxide of hydrogen, the particles which act upon each other are much heated, and that their number being very: smail compared with the liquor, they are incapable of raising its’ temperature half a degree. i353. (nnd eroxide of lead in powder. The action of this oxide upon the peroxide of hydrogen is nearly as strong as that of the oxide of silver, and the results are similar, excepting that the peroxide of lead is not reduced, but becomes merely yellow protoxide in the concentrated. liquor. I doubt whether it undergoes similar deoxidizement in the diluted liquor. Minium and peroxide of hydrogen. The same phenomena as "with the peroxide, excepting that the action, which is less rapid, ` takes place without the evolution of light, and with less extrica- tion of heat. | | | | Hydrated peroxide of mercury, and ‘peroxide of hydrogen. The hydrate of mercury previously moistened with water was put upon: blotting paper, and the trial was then made in the usual way. Ina moment, the yellow colour of the oxide became red, effervescence occurred, and soon became violent; there was then great extrication of heat, the-mercurial oxide was reduced, aud the liquor completely deoxidized. pub Hydrate of peroxide of mercury, and liquor containing only ‘nine volumes of oxygen. Very moderate effervescence; no sen- sible heat; the oxide reduced in 24 hours; complete deoxidize- ment of the liquor also, provided the peroxide of mercury is in excess. 2M | | Peroxide of mercury by heat in fine powder. "This oxide in powder was of a greenish ochre yellow colour; when put into the concentrated peroxide of hydrogen, it became red, like’the hydrate, and acted like it, but less quickly; the action always finished violently, the disengagement of heat being very great, and the oxide reduced. Its action upon the diluted liquor 1s weak. Brown owide of gold in powder, and highly concentrated per- oxide. Action sudden; violent; great extrication of heat; reduction of the gold ; complete deoxidizement of the liquor. 1822.) Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical Observations. 58 Oxide of gold, and liquor containing only nine volumes of oxygen. Sudden, brisk effervescence; no heat; the gold reduced ; and the liquor deoxidized 1n a short time. Oxide of platina in powder, obtained by boiling muriate ‚óf platina with soda. Similar action upon concentrated and diluted peroxide of hydrogen as the oxide of gold. Oxide of osmium, procured by calcining osmium with chlorate of potash, and highly concentrated peroxide of hydrogen. No sensible action; but as soon as a small quantity of potash is added, great effervescence ; much heat; and the clear colour- less liquor becomes of a dark brown. t is uncertain whether the oxide of osmium is reduced. The peroxide diluted with water acts similarly, excepting with less intensity. Of the oxides which do not act sensibly, if at all, upon the. per- oxide of hydrogen. These are alumina, silica, oxide of chrome, peroxide of tin, protoxide and peroxide of antimony and tungstic acid. | Several other oxides are undoubtedly similarly cireumstanced, but having had no opportunity of trying them, 1 cannot speak 2 with any certainty. - ARTICLE XI. Astronomical Observations, 1821. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. -Latitude 51°. 37’ 44:93" North. Longitude West in time 1’ 90:93", ‘Noy. 20. Emersion of Jupitet’s ‘first i 9" 24' 34" 2 Mean Time at Bushey. 9 mdi i. 2» 2 vale tk 25 55 ) Mean Time at Greenwich, Nov. 27. Emersion of Jupiter’s first j ll 20 19 2 Mean Time at Bushey. (AP er dala, - À 11 91 40 Mean Time at Greenwich, óS. l. bi 22:1 42904. 124 5 50 43 Mean Time at Greenwich. Nov. 29. Emersion of Jupiter's third Mean Time at Bushey. GEM oi os ehh dws anaes Mean Time at Greenwich. Dec. 6. Emersion of Jupiter's first Mean Time at Bushey. li Mean Tine at Greenwich. Mean Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich. : isatellite oie u l eee se. Dec. .6. Immersion of Jupiter's third Nov. 29. Emersion of Jupiter’s first $ 5 49 13 Mean Time at Bushey. RR TA ie ARAN í o 0-00 To G 3 54 | Mr. South onthe =" ` (Jan. ARTICLE XII. The Mean Places of 46 Greenwich Stars, reduced to Jan. 1, 1822, | - from the Catalogue published in the Nautical Almanac for 1823. By James South, Esq. FRS. l (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, erry Blackman-strect, Dee. 25, 1821. In the Quarterly Journal of Science published in January and July last, Corrections in Right Ascension of the 36 principal Fixed Stars, were published by me for every day of the present year, and it was my intention to have continued them annually had not the Astronomical Society taken up the matter upon a more extensive scale ; and under the idea that the first results of its labours would have appeared before the public in time sufficient to render the prosecution of my plan almost, if not altogether useless, that leisure which must have been employed by me to have had the computations ready against the present period, has been otherwise disposed of. Should, however, fresh delays long postpone the publication of the Society’s tables, I shall feel it my duty to resume the task, unless, in the mean time, some one should anticipate me. | Unable, therefore, at present to give the corrections, I must content myself with offering a catalogue of the mean places ofthe 46 stars reduced to:January 1, 1822, and I am the more anxious to do this, in consequence of one which has appeared in the Nautical Almanac for 1824 ; of this production it is needless for me to say any thing, except that it is inaccurate and unsatisfac- tory ; inaccurate, as far as the north polar distances of its stars are concerned; and unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the long conti- nued habit of giving the right ascensions to hundredths of seconds, has been abandoned. While, however, in common with others, 1 lament that such a catalogue should have found its way to the pages of a book which, in accuracy and precian; should be surpassed by no one issuing from the press, | cannot consent to withdraw my confidence altogether from preceding catalogues, and go abroad in search of better; thinking, as I do, that although unforeseen circumstances may have conspired to render one objectionable, still all should not be placed in the like con- demnation. Under this impression, let mé urge upon my fellow labourers in the same pursuit, the propriety of adhering to their own Greenwich catalogue published in the Nautical Almanac for 1823 ; so will their observations tally with each other's, and also with those made at our own great national establishment, with instruments which are not less the pride and glory of Great Britain, than they are the envy and admiration of the world. J. SouTH. .1892.] Mean Places of 46 Greenwich Stars. , 56 The Mean Places of 46 Greenwich Stars. Reduced to Jan. 1, 1822. Stars’ names. | | Right ascension. N.P. Dii Declination. y Pegasi aper -sesa 0 4 500 15 48 19°75 14. 11 40°25 N « Cassiopeia. ...... 0 30 2761 34 96 9448 | 55 33 35°52 N Polatis........-.. 0 51. 30:03 1.38 26°67 88 21 3333 N COEM. quesos oid OTe MI 67 22 59-899 | 22 37 04 N "d C REOBRE tase 2 59 59:13 86 36 48:69 95393 1131 N BE PUN ciere oes 3 1 39:65 40 46 50:87 49 13 913 N Aldebaran. ...... 4 25 43-14 194.0548: 29°F 16 8 3623 N Capella...... "PS 5 3 3341 44 11 39°35 | 45 48 20°65 N ni AOAC Le v^. ev DR «vie 55.5.9922 98 24 50-01 8 94 50:01 S |y LL PM ER B 19. SUT. 61 33 9398 | 98. 96 504115 N K Orionis..........| 5 45 32°42 84 ^38 .,930 (|. 1,, 91. DOTON Bus. o. dis sei 6 31 18:19 106 98 39:39 16 28 39°39 S BE pei TN T. 23. 13513 51 43 50-43 32 16 957 N Procyon ......... T. 99" 58°97 84 19 32:17 5 40 91:93 N TUN S Tus She s T 34 2485 61 33 845 | 98 96 51°55 N & Hydra .......... 9 18 50:51 91 53 9T'57 T 53 rat S Regulus. ........ 9 58 5316 TT 9 58:28 19 50) TTN « Urse Maj........ 10 52 39:65 27 17 25°20 | 62 42 3480 N E Leonis. 3 21... us. ll 39 58:59 14 25 58-01 15 34 199 N /B Virginis ......... ll AL 25°59 87 13 54-66 2 46 534 N y Urse Maj. ......| 11 44 25°53 35 18 55°25 | 54 41 475 N Polaris, S. P... .| 12 57. 3008 l 38 26°67 | 88 9l 39:38 N. Spica Virg. ...... I3 15 4974 100 13 41°18 | 10 13 41188 » Urse Maj........| 13° 40 31°19 39 AT Al-61 50 12 18:389 N Arcturus..... bela 38290 69 59: 9:87 20 6 50°13 N la Libre.........| 14 40 51°61 105 14 56:00 | 15 14 56:00 S 2«Libe...:......| 14 41 3:05 105 17 40:13 15 17 4013 S B Urse Minor.....| 14 51 1972 8. OM br > 74 52 5817 N « Corone Bor...... 15 27 9:40 62 40 47:16 27 19 12°24 N & Serpentis «»««. 4. .|. 15 . 35,., 90:55 83 (0 2419 6 59 35°21 N Jm os es ews 16 18 30°55 116 | 33:34 | 26 1.35348 A Herculis. ........ I" 6 32-29 15.93 54:55 | 14°36 545 N æ Ophiuchi...... .. 17 26 40°70 R098). 615. 112" 4l 53-25"N y Draconis ...... «4; 99 BBS 38 99... 9:85 | 51. 30. 50°15 N W ENTIS Y... l... 18 30 54:95 51 99 33:45 | 38 37 96:55 N. y A SUA l 19 37 47-98 79 48 45:46 10 Il 14:54 N « Aquile. ........| 19 49 6-00 81 35 37°27 8 94 22-73 N B Aquile ...... ... 19 46 3431 84 1 46-99 5 58 13:00] N 1 < Capricorni.....| 20 7 46°56 103 2 5900 |13 2 59008 2 « Capricorni ..... 20 8 10°31 108. 5 16°TS 138..5. 13°15 S &:Cygni i... uu. 20 35 22-14 45 91 3:33 | 44 38 56°67 N a Cephei .......... 21 14 19-55 | 98 9 5845 |61 50 1:55 N BUG, yu... 21 926 19:58 20 13 9-24 69 46 5076 N « Aquarii. ........ 21 56 3844 91 10 45°81 l J0 45°81 8 Fomalhaut ...... 22 41 41:64 120 33 47:60 | 30 33 AT60 S CO BREL videvik wiel» 22 55 54:20 75 44 57:10 | 14 15 290 N « Andromede.....1 93 59 12°52 61 53 30°33 | 28 6 29°67 N 66 Mr.J. Taylor on Mr: Schoolcraft's ** Account of the (Jan. LT Ashe XHI. Observations on Mr. Schoolcraft's: .** Account. of the Native ~ "Copper on the Southern Shore of Lake Superior, with Histori- oot Citations and Miscellaneous Remarks, &c." By John Taylor, Esq. MGS. Mining Engineer. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy:) SIR, j Ir appears from the information detailed by Mr. School- craft, that specimens of native copper, varying in weight from a few pounds, have been at various times found on the.shore of Lake Superior. Mr.S. says: | "i “The first appearances of copper are seen on the head of the portage across Keweena point, two hundred and seventy. miles ieyond the Sault de St. Marie, where the pebbles along ‘the shore of the lake contain native copper disseminated in parti- cles varying in size from a grain of sand to a lump of two pounds weight. Many of the detached stones. at this place are also coloured green by the carbonate of copper, and the rock strata in the vicinity exhibit traces of the same ore, ‘hese indications continue to the river Ontonagon, which has long been noted for the large masses of native copper found on its banks, and about thc contiguous country. ‘This river (called. Donagon on Mellish’s Map) is one of the largest of thirty tributaries which flow into the lake between Point lroquois and the Fond du Lac. It originates in a district. of mountainous country intermediate between the Mississippi river and the lakes Huron and Superior, and after running in. a: northern direction for one hundred and twenty. miles, enters the latter at the distance of fifty one miles west of Point Keweena, in north latitude 46° 52’ 2" according to the observations of Capt. Douglass. It is connected by portages with the Menomonie river of Green Bay, and with the Chippeway river of the Mis- sissippi, routes of communication oaas kinai travelled by the Indians in canoes, At its mouth there is a village of Chippe- way Indians of sixteen families, who subsist chiefly on the tish (sturgeon) taken in the river; and "whose location, inde- pendently of that circumstance, does not appear to unite the ordinary advantages of Indian villages in that region. A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from the lake " the river three or four leagues, where it is succeeded by high broken hills of a sterile aspect and covered chiefly by a growth of pine, hemlock, and spruce. Among these hills, which may be considered as lateral spurs of the Porcupine mountains, the Copper Mines, so called, are situated, at the distance of thirty 1822.] Native Copper: of Lake Superior, &c.^ 57 two miles from the lake, and m the centre of a region charae- terized by its wild, rugged, and forbidding appearance. The large mass of native copper reposes on the west bank of the river, at the water's edge, and at the foot of a very elevated bank of alluvion, the oet of which appears, 'at some former period, to lave:shpped into the river, carrying with it the mass of copper, together with detached blocks of granite, horn- blende, and other bodies peculiar to the soil of that place. The copper, which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in:con- nexion with serpentine rock ; the face of which it almost com-, pletely overlays, and is also disseminated in ‘masses and grains throughout the substance of the rock. The -surface of the metal, unlike most oxydable metals which have suffered a long exposure to the atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy; which is attributable either to alloy of the precious metals, or to the action of the river, which during its semi-annual floods carries down large quantities of sand and other alluvial matter, that may serve to abrade its surface, and keep it bright. The shape of the rock is very irregular—its greatest leneth is three feet eight inches—its greatest breadth three feet four inches, and it may altogether contain eleven cubic feet. In size, it considerably exceeds the great mass of native iron found some years ago upon the banks of Red River in Louisiana, and now deposited among the collections of the New York His- torical Society; but, on account of the admixture of rocky matter, is inferior in weight. Henry, who visited it m 1766, estimated its weight at five tons. But, after examining it with scrupulous attention, I: have computed the weight of metallic copper in the rock at twenty two hundred pounds. The quan- tity may, however, have been much diminished since its first discovery, and the marks of chissels and axes upon it, with the:broken tools lying. around, prove that portions have been cut off, and carried away. The author just quoted observes, *that such was its pure and malleable state, that with an axe he was able to cut off a portion weighing a hundred pounds.” Notwithstanding this reduction it may still be considered one of the largest and most remarkable bodies of native copper upon the globe, and is, so far as my reading extends, exceeded only by a specimen found in a valley in Brazil, weighing 2666 Portuguese pounds." After various details as to circumstances under which the w. r ua been found, the author proceeds : “From all the facts:which I have been able to collect on lake Superior, and after a deliberation upon them ‘since my return, | have drawn the following conclusions :— “lst. That the alluvial soilalong the banks of the Onton- agon river, ‘extending to its source, and embracing the con- tiguous region which gives origin to the Menomonie river of Green Bay, and to the Ousconsing, ‘Chippeway, and St. Croix 58 Mr.J. Taylor on Mr. Schoolcraft's « Account of the [JAN. rivers of the Mississippi, contains very frequent, and some most extraordinary imbedded masses of native copper; but that no body of it, which is sufficiently extensive to become the object of profitable mining operations, is to be found at any particular place. This conclusion is supported by the facts already adduced, and so far hat Siege ua aids can be relied upon, by an application of those facts to the theories of mining, A further extent of country might have been embraced along the shore of lake Superior, but the same remark appears applicable to it. | _ 2d. That a mineralogical survey of the rock formations skirting the Ontonagon, including the district of country above alluded to, would result in the discovery of very valuable mines of the sulphuret, the carbonate, and other profitable ores of copper; in the working of which the ordinary advan- tages of mining would be greatly enhanced by occasional masses, and veins of native metal. This deduction is rendered probable by the general appearance of the country, and the concurrent discoveries of travellers,—by the green coloured waters which issue in several places from the earth,—by the bodies of native copper found,—by the cupreous tinge which is presented in the crevices of rocks and loose stones,—by the geological character of the country, and by other analogous considerations." On The statement which is made by Mr. Schoolcraft that has gertowerly induced me to notice his paper is contained in the ollowing paragraph : | 4 | ** The discovery of masses of native copper is generally con- sidered indicative of the existence of mines in the neighbour- hood. The practised miner looks upon them as signs which point to larger bodies of the same metal in the earth, and is often determined, by discoveries of this nature, in the choice of the spot for commencing his labours. The predictions drawn from. such evidence, are also more sanguine in propor- tion to the extent of the discovery. It is not, however, an unerring indication, and appears liable -to many exceptions. A otached mass of copper is sometimes found at a great dis- tance from any body of the metal, or its ores; and these, on the contrary, often occur in the earth, or imbedded in rock strata, where there has been no external discovery of metallic copper to indicate it.” he opinion here expressed, and which is given as that of poste miners, is certainly incorrect; itis one indeed which as been often repeated by the writers of books, but which I will venture to add does not rest on the testimony of practical men... Detached, or insulated masses of native copper, or even of the richer kinds of ore, do not of themselves. indicate the proximity of valuable mines, and in fact their occurrence 1s rare even in the most productive districts. | 1822.] Native Copper of Lake Superior, &c.” 59 The expenditure of considerable sums in unsuccessful trials; and consequent loss and disappointment, have often heen the result of acting upon speculations similar to those quoted by Mr. Schoolcraft, which, though certainly plausible, are not borne out by experience, and which, therefore, it is desirable should be known, are founded only on a popular error. It is not uncommon to see specimens of ore of great richness exhibited, and to hear-it inferred that they are a certain prog- nostic of valuable mines, whereas experienced miners know that they are to be considered merely as rarities, that they occur frequently in irregular deposits, and seldom in any large quan- tity. The regular veins from which alone a miner would expect much, are generally enriched in a different manner; and when ore occurs in large masses so as to be worth working, those masses are usually composed of those varieties which are not extraordinarily productive of metal.' | . ^^ Native copper and very rich copper ores do occur indeed in veins, and have been often found in some of our best mines ; but they are of themselves not relied on as promising indica- cations, unless accompanied by other favourable symptoms, and must be considered as rare productions, rather than as forming - notable part of the produce of mines, In judging of the probability of any country being productive of copper, a miner would attend to the appearance or discovery of regular veins,—to their extent,—to the rocks in which they occur,—the substances which they contain, —and to many other things which he would deem more: important than any casual specimens of the metal or its ores, and particularly the richer varieties. : | He would require at least a combination of some of those indications which experience has shewn to be favourable in order to pronounce that expensive trials were justifiable, or that success was probable; and in forming his judgment, such evi- dence as is here produced would have but little weight. = With regard to the probability of copper being found in the country described by Mr. Schoolcraft, near Lake Superior, so as to become an object of research, it appears to me that from his report, there is very little to encourage such an expectation. Scattered fragments of native copper are found inclosed in masses of rock, not even in situ,—their original situation un- certain,—the rock itself not commonly productive of copper,— the surrounding country alluvial, or composed of red sand- stone,—no indication of veins,—and no appearance of substances as are most frequently found accompanying the ores. | The fact is a very curious one, and if, as Mr. Schoolcraft spe- culates, these masses may have been ejected from volcanoes in the Porcupine Mountains, it.would be more desirable to exa- mine those mountains than the district in which they now ap- pear to be placed by some extraordinary chance. | Jonn TAYLOR. 60 o5 o Analyses.of Books, í ‘Man. ARTICLE XIV. ANALYSES OF Books. | €A. Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1821. Part TI. "Tuis part of the Philosophical Transactions contains fifteen papers, the first of whichis : | 1 An Account of Experiments to determine the Times of Vibra- sions of the Pendulums in different Latitudes. By Capt. Edward Sabine, of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, FRS. and FLS. For the important communications made by Capt. Sabine to the Royal Society, a Copley medal has been awarded to -him. Of this elaborate paper it will be impossible to give even a. sketch, for the results of the experiments are contained in upwards of 20 tables, some of which are of great length. The .precau- tions which were taken to ensure accuracy will be best learned from Capt. Sabine's own words. He commences his paper by stating, that “ the clocks and pendulums used in these experi- ments are the property of the Royal Society, and were prepared gue direction under the immediate superintendance of Capt. - ater, who, in a manuscript account presented to the Royal Society, of the instruments furnished to the expeditions on the northern discovery, has described them as follows : A “ í The clocks were made by Shelton, and are the same which accompanied Capt. Cook round the world: for each clock, a pen- dulum was cast in one piece of solid brass: this was furnished with a knife edgeof hard steel, perfectly straight, and finished b drawing the edge longitudinally two or three times on a so hone, so as to take from its sharpness, and thus preclude any alteration from wear; the back of the knife edge bore firmly against a:stout cross piece, and the heads of the screws secur- ing it, were sunk below the surface, and concealed by brass pins, to prevent their being removed: the knife edge was carefully adjusted, soas to be at right angles to the direction of the: vity : a very firm support of brass was screwed to the thick plank which forms the back of the clock case ; in this were imbedded two pieces of agate, which were ground into portions of hollow oylinders, finished in the places to receive the knife edge of the pendulum : parallel to the agates, a small level-was fixed in the direction of the cylinders, by means of which they could «be laced truly horizontal: an arc divided into degrees and tenths, t-which might be read off by estimation to hundredths, was attached to the back of the clock case at the bottom of the pen- dulum, to give the arc of vibration. | . | “ « Each clock was furnished witha triangularsuppert of wood : contrived by Dr. Wollaston, and ‘so firmly arranged that there appears no reason to apprehend any motion in the point of sus- -¥822.] Philosophical Transactions for 1821, Part II. 61 nsion ; and it is sufficiently obvious that no change can take placein the length of the pendulum, but such as may arise from a variation in temperature.’ ” ; Assuming the length df the pendulum vibrating seconds in ‘the latitude of London, viz. 519 31^ 08:47 at 39-13929 inches, -which has been determined by Capt. Kater, the following table is given by Capt. Sabine, as presenting its length at each of the stations at which the clocks have been set up, deduced from the ‘observations detailed in this paper. (h: Length of the pendulum h ' Places of observation. ` ^ Latitude. vibrating, seconds, | ta r Inches. Bordon 7 Pe: 519 31^. 08:4" N. ..., 39:13929- Wl. PSP ueni 60 09 42:0 UTE 39:16999 : «Hare [sland...... 70. 26- 170 .... 99:1984 Melville Island. .. 74 47 124 SL SR 207* * “Capt. Sabine’s ‘paper concludes with deductions as to the ` figure of the earth ; and he gives the following table as contain- ing the diminution of gravity from the pole to the equator, and the resulting elliptieity of the earth deduced from the preceding observations ; and the method followed in obtaining these deduc- tions, Capt. Sabine states to be the same as that described by Capt. Katerin the Philosophical Transactions for 1819, p. 420, | | Ditninution of gravity Ellipticity, ` — London and Brassa........ 04 50050900 ee. iE “London and Hare Island...... 'Q058082» oe Brassa and Hare Island. ...... ODL IT E LEE London and Melville Island’... *0055258' .... t, ! II. Some Observations and Experiments on the Papyri found'in the Ruins of Herculaneum. ` By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS. This paper contains, first, a detail of the author's early experi- ments im England on fragments of papyri; secondly, a descrip- tion of the rolls in the museum at Naples, ond of some analytical experiments made upon them; thirdly, a detail of the various ‘chemical processes carried on in the museum: at Naples on the MSS. and ofthe reasons which induced Sir Humphry to renounce his undertaking: before it was completed; and lastly, some general observations on the MSS. of the ancients. "^ As chlorine and iodine- have no action upon pure carbo- naceous matter, and a'strong attraction for hydrogen, it was conceived that they might be employed to: destroy the matter which occasions the adhesion of the leaves, without injuring the carbon of which the ink is composed. "A fragment "of a brown MS. the layers of which were strongly adherent, was'immediately acted upon by being placed 62 _ Analyses of Books. (Jan. in an atmosphere of chlorine, and the letters became much more distinet; the vapour of iodine had a sensible, but less distinct action. | In using chlorine it was found necessary to employ only a small quantity of it, and when the temperature. was properly regulated, the muriatic acid vapour formed assisted the sepa- ration of the leaves. | The number of MSS. found at Herculaneum was stated to Sir H. Davy to be originally 1696; of these about one-fourth had been operated on or pv to foreign governments ; and on inspecting the state of those which remained, it did not a pear that more than from 80 to 120 offered proper subjects for experiments; and this estimate afterwards appeared too high. Sir Humphry remarks that the persons to whom the care of the MSS. is confided, or who have worked upon them, have always attributed the appearances which they possess to the action of fire, more or less intense ; but he is of opinion that the operation of fire is not at all necessary for producing such an imperfect carbonization of vegetable matter as that displayed by the MSS. and he strengthens his opinion by observing, that at Pompeii, which was covered by a shower of ashes that must have been cold, as they fell at a distance of seven or eight miles from the crater of Vesuvius, the wood of the houses is uniformly con- verted into charcoal; yet the colours on the walls, most of which would have been destroyed or altered by heat, are perfectly fresh, and where papyri.have been found, they have appeared in the form of white ashes, as of burnt paper. Sir H. concludes, that the different states of the MSS. depend upon a gradual process of decomposition, by the action of air and water; the results of the action of heat upon the © different specimens of the papyri proved likewise that they bad never before been exposed to any considerable degree of temper- ature. Only one method, and that a very simple mechanical one, had been used for unrolling the MSS. It consisted in attaching thin animal membrane by a solution of glue to the back of the MSS. and carefully elevating the layers by silk threads when the glue is dry. This, however, was found to be attended with some inconvenience, which Sir H. Davy proposed to obviate by mixing the glue with sufficient alcohol to gelatinize it: in this mode, the alcohol, from its greater lightness, penetrated further into the papyrus, but produced its greatest effect immediately on the firstlayers. Ether was also tried by Sir H. Davy, and found to be efficacious; it was applied by a camel’s hair brush, with precautions, for which we must refer our readers to the paper, as well as for other experiments. For some time, Sir H. Davy states, that he was at liberty to choose and operate upon specimens ; but even after the efficacy and use of the new processes were fully allowed by the unrollers 1822.) Dr. Davy's Travels in Ceylon. 63 ofthe Museum, such obstacles were thrown in the way as to induce Sir H. Davy to desist from all further operations. ! This paper is accompanied with several engravings of copies of a few of the fragments, selected from nearly 100, for the pur- pose of showing their nature. (To be continued.) Án 9. An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and of its Inhabitants, with Travels in that Island. By John Davy, MD. FRS. Dn. Davy informs us in the preface, that his work is formed from original materials collected in Ceylon during a residence on that station on the medical staff of the army from Aug. 1816, to Feb. 1820. The substance of the three first chapters is on the physical state. of the island in general, and on some particular branches of natural history; and it is to these chapters that our atten- tion will be particularly directed, though much curious matter is contained in other. parts of the book which has been col- lected with a judgment and perseverance that justify the ge- neral and high estimation in which its author's abilities. are held. ni: y - Dr. Davy remarks that the name of Ceylon, familiar to us, but unknown to the languages of the east, is derived probably from Sinhala, the ancient appellation, for which Lakka, and in Pali, Lanka, is now substituted by the natives and commonly used. The island is in the tropic of Cancer, situated nearly between the parallel of 6? and. 10? N. latitude, and between 80? and 82? E, longitude. | | We shall now proceed to make extracts from the observations contained upon the subjects most interesting to our scientific readers under various heads. | | Geographical Notices of the Interior.—-The country is low, and almost flat, with the exception chiefly of the southern extremity ; Adam's Peak, the Samenella of the Singalese, the most lofty mountain of Ceylon, is about 6,152 feet perpendicular height, and Namana Cooli Kandy, which there is reason to infer is the next loftiest, is about 5,548 feet high. | ‘The character of the interior, in relation to surface, greatly varies. No where is the distinction of high and low land more obvious. With tolerable precision it may be divided into flat country, hilly, and mountainous. The mountainous division is skirted by the hilly, and the latter is generally bounded by flat | country. Dividing the island into two equal parts by an imaginary line across, from west to east, the mountainous regions will occupy the middle of the southern half.. The centre of this region is about 7° N. and 80? 46’ E. Its great length is about 67 miles, and. its greatest width about 53. It. is not easy to describe with accuracy the boundaries and extent of the hilly division, The features of each of the three divisions of) the interior are necessarily peculiar: grandeur is the characteristic of the mountainous, beauty of the hilly, and sameness of the lowland country, which a covering of luxuriant vegetation, with few exceptions, spread over the whole, does not tend to dimi- nish. In few countries do mountains exhibit greater variety of forms and directions. They most frequently occur connected im chains, and terminating in rounded or peaked. summits. I do not recollect a single instance of a solitary insulated mountain. Their sides are always steep, and occasionally precipitous and rocky. In some parts, the chains. of mountain observe a paral- lelism in their course; in other parts, even neighbouring moun- tains do. not correspond with any regularity in their direction. By some inquirers it is supposed that a correspondence may be traced between the proportional heights of the mountains, and the depths of the adjoining valleys. As a general rule, such æ supposition is not applicable to Ceylon. The curious cireums stance of there being no lakes, notveven a single stagnant pool among the mountains, is alone almost sufficient to show the fallacy of the preceding conclusion. pata! Ld In the highlands of Scotland, where the loftiest mountain is 2000 feet lower than Adam's Peak, there are many lakes exceeding in depth 600 feet, and it is hardly credible to suppose that lakes of proportional depth ever existed in Ceylon that have since been filled up by the detritus) of rocks, little, if at all, more liable to decay and be disintegrated than the rocks of the moun- tains of Scotland. | haan . Geology and Mineralogy.of Ceylon.—In Ceylon, nothing is to be observed of that order and succession of rocks that óccur in Saxony and in England, and in many other parts: of Europe. Uniformity of formation is the most remarkable feature in the geo- logical character of the island. As far as my information extends; the whole of Ceylon with very few exceptions consists of primi- tiverock. Another remarkable geological circumstance is, that though the varieties of primitive rock are extremely numerous, and indeed almost infinite, the species are very few, and seldom well defined. The most prevailing species is granite, or gneiss ; the more limited are quartz rock, hornblende rock, and: dolomite rock, and a few others, which may he considered, perhaps, with advantage under the head of imbedded minerals. TOY The varieties of granite and gneiss are innumerable, passing from one to another, and occasionally changing their character altogether, and assuming appearances, for which, in small masses, it would be extremely difficult to find appropriate names» Regular granite is not of'very common occurrence. Onevof the best instances [ know. of it, is in the neighbourhood of Point de Galle, where it is of a grey colour, and fine-grained: Graphic 1822.] Dr. Davis Travels in Ceylon. 65. granite is still rarer.» Fhe only good example of it with which L. am acquainted is at Trincomalee, where it occurs of a beautiful quality, on the sea shore, about half a mile beyond Chapel Point, imbedded inva granitic rock. | The quartz, in this instance, is black or grey rock crystal, and the felspar highly crystalline, and of a; bright flesh colour. The quartz envelopes the felspar in very thim:hexagonal or triagonal cases, so that nothing can: be more different in appearance than the longitudinal and transverse fracture of the rock. | Neither is sienite common. It occurs, rather forming a part of rocks of a different kind, than in great mountain masses. Well formed gneiss is more abundant than granite. Its peculiar structure may be seen in many places, but. no where more beautiful than at Amanapoora, in the Kandyan provinces, where it consists of white felspar and quartz in. a finely crystalline state, with layers of black mica, containing disseminated through it numerous crystals of a light coloured. garnet.: The more limited varieties of primitive rock, as quartz, hornblende, and dolomite rock, seldom occur in the form of mountain masses. | » Quartz in large veins and imbedded masses is abundant in the granitic rocks. It is in general milk-white, translucent, full of rents, and so very friable as to remind one of unannealed glass. — — -i Pure hornblende and primitive greenstone are far from uncom-. mon. They constitute no entire mountain or hill that L am aware of, but they form a. part of many, particularly of Adam's Peak, and of the hills and mountains adjoining Kandy. The varieties of dolomite are almost as numerous as those of nite. When purest, it is snow-white, generally crystalline, . Often highly crystalline, composed of rhombs that. are: easily separated by a smart blow, but rarely finely granular. . L found a-specimen of the highly crystalline kind, of specific: gravity: 1-98, composed of Carbonate of magnesia............ «2: 00:0 Carbonate oflime .......... ap repetentes 36:9 Alumina...... to hi ncaa ta bap red ee o 4:1 00507 esp APTA Tue. Wi art Pip apy y Mao ft vc & a0 aN ip uwhia pA ROS ente y Viet: À, ~ 100-0 _ A very fine granular kind, of a beautiful whiteness, well adapted for statuary purposes, is found in the neighbourhood of. Fort Macdonald. A specimen of it that I tried was of specific gravity 2°74, and contained only a very small proportion of car- bonate of magnesia. The varieties of most importance are mix- tures of dolomite with felspar and mica, and even quartz. It is in: rocks of this kind that the nitre caves of the interior are found. "In external character and general structure, the varieties of. New Series, vou. 111. donum 66 _ Analyses of Books. | [JAN. primitive rock exhibit fewer marked differences than might be expected, à priori. abus he recent formation is highly deserving of investigation, both as a partial exception to the comprehensive idea, that the whole island is composed of primitive rock, and on account of its own interesting nature. ‘The rock that occurs in this forma- tion, is of two kinds limestone and sandstone; both of these may become very useful. Very good lime may be made of the former, and serviceable millstones may, perhaps, be made of the latter, if it can be found, as is very probable, of a coarse quality. ‘We beg to refer our readers to the original for a more extended account of the geology of this island, aware that our limits will not allow us to make more copious éxtracts ; and proceed to consider its i Mineralogical Productions.—The mineralogy of Ceylon is, in certain respects, singular and curious. The island is remarkable for its richness in gems, and its poverty in the useful metals. It is remarkable too for the number of rare minerals that it affords, and for the small variety of the ordinary species: thus, in its mineralogical character, quite oriental, better fitted for show than utility, for pomp than profit. SAIOA ouisurio . Its mineral productions may be considered under two heads ;. namely, those that belong to granitic rock, and those. that belong to dolomite rock. Tr ae The only metallic ores hitherto found in Ceylon are of iron and manganese. Iron, in different. forms, is pretty generally. diffused, and tolerably abundant. I have met with the followin species: lron pyrites, magnetic iron ore, specular iron ore, red. hematite, bog iron ore, and earthy blue phosphate of iron. Red hematite and bog iron ore are more common than the other spe-. cies. It is from these ores that the natives extract the metals. Iron pyrites is rare: it is to be met with at Ratnapoora, 1n. Saffra- gam, disseminated through a grey felspar rock, and in veins of ` quartz, at Mount Lavinia, on the sea shore. Magnetic iron ore I have found in masses, imbedded in gneiss, in the neighbourhood of Kandy, and ih a granitic rock at Katabowa, in Welassey, and disseminated through a similar rock at Trincomalee. The earthy blue phosphate of iron has been procured from a marshy ground in the neighbourhood of Colombo, and from a bed of bog-iron ore, near Atgalle, not far from Kandy. It is said to be used by the natives as a pigment. It is worthy of notice, that no great bed, and that no vein of iron ore, has been found in Ceylon. Only one ore of manganese, viz. grey manganese, or the black oxide, is yet known in Ceylon. I first discovered it, about two years ago; m several parts of Saffragam and of Upper Ouva. algo d From the nature of the rock, it might be expected that other metals would be found in Ceylon. .. It may be remarked, it is not for want of search they have not been discovered. | ** Wherever,” says our traveller, * 1 have been amongst the mountains, I have 1822.] Dr. Davy's Travels in Ceylon. 67 sought niore particularly for tin and copper, but iu vain, having never observed the slightest traces of either, or of lead. Most of the gems for which Ceylon 1s celebrated, occur, I believe, in granitic rock. | Belonging to the quartz family may be enumerated quartz, iron-flint, chalcedony, and hyahte. Ceylon affords all the varie- ties of quartz, as iO amethyst-rose-quartz, cat's-eye, and prase. Rock crystal occurs in abundance, both massive and crystallized, of various colours, good quality, and in large masses. ‘The natives use it instead of glasses for the lenses of spectacles; they employ it too for ornamental purposes, and in statuary. Amethyst, also, is pretty abundant. Very beautiful specimens of this mineral are found in the alluvion, derived from the decomposition of gneiss and granitic rocks, in Saffragam and the Seven Korles. I have seen a large crystal of it, lately found near Ruanwelle, containing apparently two distinct drops of water. Rose quartz, which is pretty common, is often found in the saine place as amethyst. wu produces the finest cat's- éyés in the world, indeed the only kind that is highly esteemed, and that brings a high price.’ Prase is a variety of quartz that is of rare occurrence in the island. The second species, iron flint, is not uncommon in the Kandyan country. The third spe- ciés, chaleedony; there is strong reason to suppose, exists in the mountains’ of the interior. ‘The fourth species, hyalite, is extremely ‘rare ; 1 have met with it only in a nitre cave in Doom- bera, partially encrusting a granitic rock. one Mera: ‘Belonging to the schorl family, I am acquainted with two spe- cies only that undoubtedly occur in Ceylon, which are topaz and schorl. “The topaz generally passes under the name of the * white or water sapphire." It is generally white, or bluish or yellowish white ; it is commonly much water-worn, and perfect: crystals, of it are very rare. Schorl, I have not found in that abundance I expected : common schorl indeed is not uncommon. Tourmaline is rare ; the few.specimens | haye seen of it of the dome honey-yellow, and red varieties, were of bad quality, and could not ascertain their locality. It is the opinion of some writers, that both the emerald and beryl are found in Ceylon. The former certainly is not found, and it is even doubtfui if the latter is. Of the garnet family, three species occur in gneiss or granitic rock, viz. the garnet, pyrope, and cinnamon stone. | “The Zircon family is richer in Ceylon than in any other part of the world. "Besides the two well established species zircon and hyacinth, I have met with a third, massive, opaque, and” uncrystallized, and of a dark-brown colour; I have specimens of it weighing two or three ouncés from Suffragam. b “For the ruby family Ceylon Kas long been celebrated. Four species of it, viz. spinell, sapphire, corundum, and chrysoberyll, ` occur, I believe, in gneiss, or granitic rock. ' Spinell is compara- ` tively rate ; ‘Sapphire is much more common. v 9 F 2 68 Analyses of Books... (Jan. .. The: purple. variety or the oriental amethyst is rare; a green variety is still rarer. The black, sapphire too is rare.. Corundum Wisa fin uently met with than the sapphire.. I know. of one, poe where it abounds, and I am not aware that/it has been ound any where else in the island. Corundum is the only Species of this family not considered a gem, and the only one: that is applied to any purpose of utility... In the state of fine powder it is largely employed by the lapidary in cutting and polishing stones, and by the armourers in polishing arms. T » Of the felspar family, it is highly probable, that several species g^ in the island. I have met with all the subspecies, of spar. weed Of the hornblende family 1 am acquainted with two species, only that occur in Ceylon, viz. common hornblende, and glassy, tremolite. 3 od <., Pitchstone, is the only mineral of the, family of this name L have ever found n. Ceylon. | | JA "datur „Mica, as a constituent part of granite and gneiss, is abundant. Common chlorite is to be met with occasionally. Green earth, i& more rare: this mineral is of an unusually light colour, varying, from green to light apple-green. | wt . Magnesian minerals are, far from abundant in.Ceylon. The only minerals of this kind tbat L met with were dolomite,, car-, bonate of magnesia, .and.talc. The very rare mineral, native car-. bonate of magnesia, [ discovered in a nitre.cave in the valley of, Maturatta, accompanied with dolomite, and. encrusting and. in- cluded in gneiss. . The best specimens of it were of à pure snow- white, earthy texture, rather harsh to the feel, destitute of smell. when breathed on, and not adhering to the moist tongue. It va- ried in specific grayity | from 2:32 to 2°70, according to its com-: pactness. One specimen ofit that I examined was composed of. Carbonate of magnesia . .... eese eene 86 Water. 1.111... Ari de ode 5 Silica, with slight traces of carbonate of lime. 9 9 CACO. 3dd 0 | | 400 . Calc spar, anhydrous gypsum, and calc sinter, are the only: pure calcareous minerals that I have observed in Ceylon. | ` Belonging to the inflammable class of minerals L know of, only two that occur in Ceylon, viz. graphite and sulphur, the latter” is extremely rare in Ceylon; indeed its occurrence 1s not yet, dioses in a manner perfectly satisfactory. "The mode in which gems are sought for is so simple that it. hardly deserves the name of an art. [tis only in: alluvial ground), it has been remarked, that these: scarce LL beautiful. minerals have yet been discovered in Ceylon. Where there isa proba- . bility of finding them, pits are sunk from 3 to 20 feet deep i the., coarse sand and gravel, through which they are generally dis~: * 1822.1 Dr. Davy's Travels in Ceylon. 69 seminated is collected and carried in baskets to an ‘adjoin’ ing stream, where it is well washed; the lighter particles are got rid of by a rotary motion given to the basket in the opera- tion ; and the residue, still wet, is transferred to shallow baskets for careful examination. | ‘Ores of Iron and Manganese, it has been observed, are the only ores that have yet been discovered in Ceylon, With the mode of reducing the former, and of working the iron which they extract, the natives are well acquainted. Their process of smelting iron, like most of their other processes, is remarkable for its simplicity. The most complete Singalese smelting-house that I ever visited consisted of two small furnaces under à thatched shed. | j "Salts.—The saline productions of Ceylon are far from nume- rous. ‘The only salts, the existence of which I have ascertained in a satisfactory manner, are the following ; viz. nitre, nitrate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, and common salt. "These salts, with the exception of common salt, have been found hitherto in the interior only, and in certain caves, where; not being liable to be washed away by the heavy tropical rains, they admit of being detected. ` : | Nitre and nitrate of lime are of frequent occurrence. Judging from four nitre caves that [have visited, and from the specimens of rocks of several more that [have examined, I believe that they are all very similar; and that tbe rock in which they occur, in every instance, contains at least felspar and carbonate of lime, from the decomposition of the former of which, the alkaline base of the salt is generally derived, and by the peculiar influence of the latter (yet not at all understood) on the oxygen and azote ‘of the atmosphere, the acid principle is generated. Nitre Cave of Memoora.—The fitst view of the place was exceedingly striking. A large cave appeared in a perpendicular face of rock about 300 feet high crowned with forest, at the base of which was a stage or platform of rubbish, that seemed in danger of sliding into a deep wooded valley, closed in by moun- tains of considerable elevation, and remarkable boldness. "The cave was 200 feet deep, and at its mouth, which was nearly semicircular, about 80 feet high, and 100 wide. its floor was rocky and steep, rapidly ascending inward, and its extremity ‘was narrow and dark. To facilitate the ascent, ladders were placed in the most difficult situations. The nature of the rock ‘of which the walls of the cave are formed, has already been described. The workmen whom I found at their labours, 16 in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed ; their bodies almost naked were soiled with dirt, and their bushy “beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When Tarrived, they were occupied, rotin the cave; but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then “going on i the open air, of filtration, evaporation, and crystal- 70 ~ Analyses of Books. [JAN. lization, The apparatus employed was curious from its simpli- city and rudeness. A small stream of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes, supported by sticks ; and the evaporating vessels, and indeed all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural, and partly artificial. 1 was informed that during the last 50 years, for six months in the dry season, it has been annually worked, and that each man employed was required to furnish a load of nitre, which is about 60 pounds, to the royal stores." | ad Saltpetre.—The preparing of saltpetre, and the manufacture of gunpowder, are arts which the Singalese, for many years, have constantly practised. The process of preparing the salt, in different parts of the country, was very similar. hen the salt occurred impregnating the surface of the rock, as in the cave near Memoora, the surface was chipped off with small strong axes, and the chippings by pounding were reduced to a state of powder. ‘This powder, or the loose fine earth, which, in most of the caves, contained the saline impregnation, was well mixed with an equal quantity of wood-ash, The mixture was thrown on a filter formed of matting, and washed with cold water. The washings of the earth were collected in an earthen vessel, and evaporated at a boiling temperature till concentrated to that degree that a drop let fall on a leaf became a soft solid. The concentrated solution was set aside, and when it had crystal- lized the whole was put on a filter of mat. The mother-lye that passed through, still rich in saltpetre, was added to a fresh weak solution to be evaporated again; and the crystals, &fter having been examined, and freed from any other crystals of a. different form, were either immediately dried, or, if not suffi- ciently pure, redissolved and crystallized afresh. The operations just described were generally carried on at the nitre caves. In the province of the Seven Korles, besides extracting the salt at the caves, the workmen brought a quantity of the earth to their houses, where, keeping it under a shed protected from the wind and rain, without any addition excepting a little wood-ash, they obtain from it every third year a fresh quantity of salt. Gunpowder.—ln their mode of manufacturing gunpowder, which is very generally understood, there is not the least refine- ment. To propre the constituent paris» scales are used, but not weights. The proportions commonly employed are five parts of saltpetre, and one of each of the other ingredients of sulphur and charcoal. The charcoal preferred is made of the wood of the parwatta tree. The ingredients moistened with very weak lime water, and a little of the acrid juice of the wild yam, are ground together between two flat stones, or pounded in a rice mortar. After the grinding or pounding is completed, the moist 1822.] Dr. Davy's Travels in Ceylon. 7l mass is exposed to the sunshine to dry. Nothing further is done to it; no attempt is ever made to granulate it, and it is used in the state of a very coarse powder, or impalpable dust. Considering the rudeness of the method, the gunpowder is better than could be expected. Some specimens of it that have been examined have inflamed readily, exploded very strongly, and have left little residue. Common salt forms it great quantities in certain lakes on the sea-shore, but of rare occurrence indeed in the interior, except in very minute quantity. Dr. Davy has given a detailed account of the manner in which salt 1s procured, and is deci- dedly of opinion, that the sea is the source from which the salt is derived, and that evaporation is the cause of its production or forming. fe - Dr. Davy observes, that the importance of the subject is greater than it may appear to a casual reader, the monopoly of salt of the Megam-pattoo yielding government a revenue of at least 10,0007. a year, and the whole island being almost entirely dependent on this district for the supply of this necessary of life. He adds: Were the salt lakes scientifically managed, they might be made to yield not only any quantity of common salt to supply all India, but almost any quantity of magnesia might. be extracted from the residual brine. Jewellery.—The Singalese work in gold and silver with consi- derable dexterity and taste; and, with means that appear very inadequate, execute articles of jewellery that would be admired certainly in this country, and not very easily imitated. The best artist requires only the following apparatus and tools :—a low earthen pot full of chaff or saw-dust, on which he makes a little charcoal fire ; a small bamboo blowpipe, about six inches long, with which he excites the fire; a short earthen tube or nozle, the extremity of which is placed at the bottom of the fire, and through which the artist directs the blast of the blowpipe; two or three small crucibles made of the fine clay of ant-hills ; a pair of tongs; an anvil; two or three small hammers; a file ; and to conclude the list, a few small bars of iron and brass, about two inches long, differently pointed for different kinds of work. It is astonishing what an intense little fire, more than sufficiently strong to melt silver and gold, can be kindled in a few minutes in the way just described. Such a simple portable forge deserves to be better known: it is, perhaps, even deserving the attention of the scientific experimenter, and may be useful to him when he wishes to excite a smail fire, larger than can be produced by the common blow-pipe, and he has not a forge at conimand. The success of the little Singalese forge depends a good deal on the bed of the fire being composed of a combustible material, ` and a very bad conductor of heat. i It would be tedious to enumerate the variety of work a native blacksmith is equal to; locks, and even gun-locks and gun- barrels, do not exceed his abilities. The workmanship is indeed 72 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JAN coarse, and not tó be praised, but still they answer pretty well the purpose for which they were intended, and give satisfaction: to those unacquainted with better. The smiths use a composi- tion aS a hone in sharpening knives, and cutting-instruments, that is»worth noticing. It is made of the capitia resin and of corundum. The corundum, in a state of impalpable powder, is mixed with the resin rendered liquid by heat, and well incorpo- rated. The mixture is poured into a wooden mould, and its surface levelled and smoothed while it is hot; for when cold, it is extremely hard. It is much. valued by the natives, and pre- ferred by them to the best of our hones. In concluding our extracts from this volume, it would be injustice to the author not to. remark, that it is written in & plain and clear style, and embraces many topics of general mformation. It is embellished with maps, numerous engravings, and cuts, which serve well to illustrate the entertaining par- ticulars contained in the text. ! | une —é<— ARTICLE XV. Hed iqi ta Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. pe: ROYAL SOCIETY. | ng . Nov. 8.—The first meeting of the Society took place this.day; when the Croonian lecture, on the “ Adjustment. of the Eye,” by Sir E. Home, Bart. was commenced. ñ ipa _ Nov. 15.—The above lecture was continued and. concluded. + ` Nov. 22.— A paper was read, entitled, “ Experiments to deter- mine the Amount of the Dip of the Magnetic Needle in London; in August, 18212” By Capt. E. Sabine. i Nov. 30.—This being St. Andrew's. Day, the Society, held their annual meeting, when the following gentlemen were elected - officers for the year ensuing: . 7 President,—Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Treasurer.—Davies Gilbert, Esq. MP. | TI 1] Secretaries.—William. Thomas Brande, Esq. and Taylor Combe, Esq. | f Council,—Bishop of Carlisle; C. Hatchett, Esq.; J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. ; Sir E. Home, Bart.; John Pond, Esq. ; W. H. Wollaston, MD ; Thomas Young, MD.; Earl of Aeda Matthew Baillie, MD.; John Barrow, Esq.; B. C. Brodie, Esq.; William Hamilton, Esq.; James Ivory, Esq.; Marquis of Lans~ downe; Alexander jade: MD.; Thomas Murdoch; Esq.; Sir Robert Seppings, Knt. n , Sir H. Davy, the President, delivered a discourse on presentin two Copley medals, to J. W. Herschel,. Esq. and Capt. Edwan Sabine, RA. In the limits to which we are necessarily restricted; 1822.] Royal Society. 73 it is quite impossible to do justice to this discourse, orto convey to the reader an adequate idea of the profound’ attentioh and respect with which it was received by the Society ;: but we:shall attempt to.sketch an outline of some of the more striking and interesting. parts of it. The President began by observing, that the progress of disco- very is always an. agreeable subject of contemplation, whichis increased when it arises from the talents of our own countrymen, especially when connected with the power of distinguishing them by a lasting token of respect. The President then stated his conviction that the Society would participate in the satisfac» tion he felt in the decision of the Council, in awarding Copley medals to the gentlemen already named. | ~ Alluding to the labours of Mr. Herschel, Sir Humphry Davy observed, that no branch of science is so calculated to excite admiration as the sublime or transcendental geometry, as:show- ing the wonderful powers of the human mind, and demonstrating the beauty and wisdom of the system of the universe. It must be gratifying to the Society, he observed, to see Mr. Her- schel who, at an early period of life, had gained academical honours of the highest kind, successfully continuing his pursuit f that.kind of knowledge by which; from the labours of Newton, the Royal Society had acquired so much glory. Sir Humphry then mentioned: that Mr. Herschel has contributed four papers to the Transactions of the Society.on pure mathematical subjects; the merits of these, he observed, could only be appreciated by deeply studying them. Mr. Herschel, the President continued, had not confined himself to the invention and development of formule, but had made important applications of them, and that although the higher mathematics strengthen the reasoning facul- ties, and afford intellectual. pleasure, yet their grandest end and use are in solving the physical phenomena of the universe, and modifying the properties of'matter. Sir H. then alluded to two other papers of Mr. Herschel, in the Transactions of the Society, on ..Physico-Mathematical subjects, connected with optical phenomena. In the first of these papers, on polarized light, the author.was stated to have added to the subject, by some novel investigations, and hadreduced the explanation of the phenomena tó: one general fact. In this paper Mr. Herschel had extended or modified the views of others, but the second on the aberra- tions of compound lenses and object glasses was more original, and was, as the President observed, on a. subject highly im- portant: to practical optics, by enabling artists to substitute mathematical rules for empirical methods in working their glasses ; thus: adding, said the President, “to the immense obligations owing to the name of Herschell in every thing con- nected with the progress of modern astronomy, and the -know- ledge of celestial phenomena." ; On presenting. the medal to Mr. Herschel, the President. 74 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JAN. desired him to receive it as a mark of the respect and admira- tion of those talents which he had applied with so much zeal and success ; and to preserve it as a pledge of future exertions in the cause of science and of the Royal Society ; and he as- sured him that he could communicate his labours to no public body by whom they would be better received, or through whose records they would be better known to the philosophical world. * Mr Herschel," the President observed, ** was in the prime of life, in the beginning of his career, and had powers and ac- quirements capable of illustrating and extending every branch of physical inquiry ; and in the field of science, there were spots not yet investigated, or not yet cultivated. Where the laws of sensible become connected with those of insensible motions, the mechanical with the chemical phenomena, he observed that lit- tle was known; and that in electricity, magnetism, heat, the re- lations of the crystallized forms to the weights of the elements of bodies, there were a number of curious and important ob- jects of research. x “ May you continue,” said the President, in concluding his address to Mr. Herschel, ‘ to devote yourself to philosophical _ pursuits, and to exalt your reputation, already high, * Virtutem extendere factis, and these pursuits you will find not only glo- rious, but dignified, useful, and gratifying, in every period of life : this indeed," continued the President, ** you must know best in the example of your illustrious father, who, full of years and of honours, must view your exertions with infinite pleasure, and who in the hopes that his own imperishable name will be perma- nently connected with yours in the annals of science, must look forward to a double immortality.” In speaking of the researches of Capt. Sabine, the President observed, that the expeditions to the Arctic regions, which had been planned with much liberality and sagacity, had awakened Strong interest in the public mind, and he observed that it would be unnecessary to point out the particular merits of those bold and enterprising persons who had devoted themselves to the cause of science and their country. | | As, however, Capt. Sabine had been appointed Astronomer and Philosophical Observer to the two first of these expeditions, in consequence of the recommendation of the Council of the Royal Society, they had thought it. right to express their sense of his merits by awarding him a Copley medal. ` The President observed, that Capt. Sabine had shown great industry and perseverance in making experiments under pecu- liarly difficult circumstances, and had accumulated an immense number of observations in astronomy and meteorology, and in the phenomena of magnetism and gravitation ; and the principal of the experiments were conducted on the ice of the oar sea, where the vessel was for several months frozen up. During a considerable part of the time he was in darkness, or only guided. 1822.] _ Royal Society. > E by a very doubtful twilight ; and such was the intensity of the cold, that the artificial horizon of mercury became frozen during an observation, and yet, continued the President, Capt. Sabine's experiments seem to have been conducted with as much care aud precision as if he had possessed the conveniences of au Observatory, and the advantages of the happiest climate. The President stated, that three papers by Capt. Sabine had been published in the Philosophical Transactions, the two first relating to magnetic phenomena, and the last containing an account of experiments on the acceleration of the vibrations of the pendulum in. different latitudes. | The President then entered into some details on the subject of Capt. Sabine's last paper, and stated the results of his experi- ments, and he observed, that he was now gone to complete his investigation even to the line; “having braved the long night, and almost perpetual winter, of the polar regions, he is gone . with the laudable.object to expose himself to the burning sun and constant summer of the equator.” | Capt. Sabine, not being present for the reason already stated, the President delivered the medal to his brother, requesting that in apprising him of what has taken place, he would state to him | the deep sense entertained of his merits. His knowledge of the expression of the opinion of the Royal Society may, perhaps, | said the President, animate him during the difficult enterprize he has undertaken, as he had already shown how highly he values the praise of the Royal Society, which, with the good opinion. of his countrymen, had been hitherto the only reward of his labours. “ Assure him,” said the President, * how strongly we feel his disinterestedness and genuine love of science, and that our ardent wishes are expressed for his safe return, and for the successful. accomplishment. of all the objects of his voyage, which will ensure to him additional claims upon the gratitude of all lovers of science.” | Dec. 23.—On some Alvine Concretions found in the Colon of - a young Man, in Lancashire after Death, by J. G. Children, Esq. FRS. &c. | It appears from the statements contained in this communica- tion, that the young man, whose case it relates, had eaten at various times a large quantity of plums, and generally swallowed. the stones. After some time, a hard circumscribed tumour was discovered on one side of the abdomen, which was distinctly felt to be an alvine concretion. The usual remedies were applied in vain for removing it, and after having been attended for about three months by a medical man he died. On opening the body, three closely compacted coneretions were found rather high upon the left side, and a fourth consider- ably lower. This last was sawn asunder by the medical gentle- man wlio opened the body, and was found to contain a plum stone in the centre. 76 Scientifit Intelligence. = =F The total weight of the concretions in the state in which Mr. Children received them was about 42 ounces ; the DE i weigh- ing 1036 mg and the smallest about 511 grains. "The specific gravity of the largest was 1:875. ~ 100 parts yielded, by analysis, animal matter, chiefly gelatine. ........... 95:9 2» Résinsisoocsnwti. ln «dabo elati : uu ee Ammoniaco-magnesian- phosphate... 5:16 Phosphate of lime. wo. oc ee. vib 4534 Vegetable fibre. .../éb01/9l 1221/9. 0209 - 99:9 The vegetable fibre appeared to be derived from the oatmeal which forms a considerable proportion of the food of the labour- ing class in Lancashire. | Maryata aaa sqa ` Tl On the same day, a paper was read, by Dr. Wollaston, on the Adjustment of Chromatic Object Glasses. ` ` At the same meeting, a paper was read, by Sir Everard Home, on a new Species of Rhinoceros found in the Interior of Africa. N - — — J 7 wm ` Amie KI. e , ' SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND. NOTICES OF SUBJECTS’ CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. Td d 9i 2f I. Comet. The Sydney, or New South Wales Gazette of April 7, mentions à beautiful comet at that period visible in the hemisphere. It formed a triangle tothe south-west, with the west shoulder of Orion and Aldebaran. ) rete à II. Plymouth Breakwater. i M. Dupin furnishes a very curious estimate of the number of per- sons employed on this chef-d’ceuvre of naval architecture, and the quantity of stone sunk by each individual. On contrasting this with the parallel works at Cherburgh, it appears that three persons at. Ply- mouth were enabled to accomplish as much as four at the latter place, in the same period of time. | | III. Ventilation of Rooms. ` Mr. Perkins has suggested an improved mode of ventilating and warming rooms. It consists in introducing a column of cold air im- mid: at the back of the stove, and by this means, a large portion of the heat usually wasted or misapplied, is equally diffu d over the room. The greater the quantity of air which is made to strike against. and pass by the stove, the greater is the quantity of heat given out by it. It will not, however, work to good advantage when the room 1822,] l Scientific. Intelligence. 27. is air tight, and to remedy this evil, it is adviseable to pierce an aperture in the ceiling, or by opening a door in an adjoining apart- ment produce the necessary current. IV. Lampyris Noctiluta and Splendidula. In a curious paper on the phosphorescence of these animals, M. Macaire has drawn the following conclusions, which he gives as the result of a variety of observations :—l. A certain degree of heat is necessary to their voluntary phosphorescence. 2. Their phosphores- cence is excited by a degree of heat superior to the first, and is irre- coverably destroyed by a higher temperature. 3. All bodies capa- ble of coagulating albumen take away from phosphorising matter its ower of phosphorescence. 4. The phosphorescence cannot take “PASA in a gas which contains no oxygen. 5. It is excited by the galvanic pile, but'no effect is produced upon it by common electricity; and 6. The phosphorescent matter is composed principally of albumen. — (Bibliotheque Universelle:) ` V. New Analyses of Meteoric Iron. . Dr. John, of Berlin, has lately submitted to analysis, specimens of the meteoric iron, which is disseminated in the aérolites of Chatonnay, of P Aigle, and of Sienna ; the following are the results of his experi- ments.— Iron of the aérolite, Of Chatonnay. Of l'Aigle. Of Sienna. Rep MR MAUS gly a ES EN Wee. «ome io 92-72 "NEN TT T 9050777 2. ufu, PRIORA ao 5:10 . Sulphur,..... 1:007 hs Cobalt, : OD ors} Minute quantities which were not weighed, "' "Chrome a trace. ... 064946 "100-00 :3Bri John states; that by comparing these results with those of the analyses: of the great masses: of malleable iron, to which a meteoric origin is usually attributed, it 1s found, i 4. That the iron of aérolites, and tbe malleable iron. in large masses contain) the same substances, viz. iron, nickel, ‘cobalt, chrome, and: perhaps a trace of manganese, which Dr. J. discovered in the iron of: Wow: | | Qe lta that the iron of aérolites does not contain quite so much nickel as.the great malleable masses. -8u The iron of aérolites evidently contains sulphur ; but as it is at the same time very malleable, it is probable that the sulphur is not combined with the whole of the iron, but only with a small portion; and.arising from.the:magnetic pyrites disseminated through the whole mass.. The E aema: of iron prove this assertion, for when they are very malleable and ductile, as the iron of Pallas, that of Hume boldt, that.from Ellbogen, &c. they do not contain any trace of sul- phur. It has been said that the iron discovered in Siberia by Pallas; is;contain a portion.of this substance; but Dr. John could not diss ver any in it.—(Ann. de Chim.) | 78 New Scientific Books. Das. ARrTICLE XVII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, . Mr. Crabb, author of ** English Synonyms Explained," has in the press “A Universal Technological Dictionary,” containing the éxplana- tion of all terms of science and art,, drawn from the most approved wri- ters ancient and modern. The work will be completed in Two Quarto Volumes, and will be illustrated by numerous plates, diagrams, and cuts. lt will be published in Monthly Parts, the first of which will appear on March 1. A Prospectus of the Work is nearly ready. Illustrations of the History, Manners, and Customs, Arts, Sciences, and Literature, of Japan ; selected from Japanese Manuscripts, and rinted Works. By M. Titsingh, formerly chief Agent of the Dutch ast India Company, at Nangasaki; and accompanied with many coloured Engravings, faithfully copied from Original Japanese. Paint- p and Designs. | x r | | | emarks on Cutaneous Diseases. By Mr. Wilkinson. j ~ The Principles of Medicine, on the Plan of the Baconian Philoso- pry: Vol. I, On Febrile and Inflammatory Diseases. By Mr. R. D. amilton. | 19^ 10 JUST PUBLISHED, © An Epitome of Pharmaceutical Chemistry. By Rees Price, MD. 12mo. 3s. or on a Chart adapted for framing, 25.64. == ago A Natural Arrangement of British Plants according to their Rela- tions to each other, as pointed out by Jussieu, De Candolle, Brown, &c. including those cultivated for Use, with the Characters, Differ- ences, Synonyms, Places of Growth, Time of Flowering, and Sketch of their Uses, with an Introduction to Botany, in which the Terms newly introduced are explained. By Samuel Frederick Gray, Lecturer ^ Botany, &c. with 21 Plates, in Two very large Volumes, 8vo. . 25. : dri A Pathological and Surgical Observations on Diseases of the Joints. By B. C. Brodie, FRS. Assistant Surgeon to St. George's Hospital, and Lecturer on Surgery. 8vo. With Plates. 16s. | T Generic and Specific Descriptions of the Carnivorous Animals, which are intended to form a distinct Treatise on the Order Carnivora, as well as the second Part of the History of Vertebrated Animals. By Edward: Griffith. | No. I. Price 10s. 6d. to be completed in Six or Seven Num- bers. +i %11 T pa eil *4* This Work will be illustrated with coloured impressions of Copper-plate Engrav- ings, all from Original Drawings, many of which are of undescribed species and varieties, A Letter to Dr. Parry, on the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in certain Diseases, &c. By Edward Jenner, MD. &c. 4to. 5s. : ^A System of Pathological and Operative Surgery, founded on Ana-- tomy, with Engravings. By Robert Allan, FRS. ` Vol. II. 12s. 64. ` "Miscellaneous Works of the late Robert Willan, MD. Edited by Ashby Smith, MD. $vo. 12s. RRA 1822.] Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. 79 ArticLte XVIII. . METEOROLOGICAL. TABLE. e LE ASh x: |BaRoMwETER.| TugRMOMETER.; | ^ [| Hygr. "at .. 1821, Wind. | Max, | Min. | Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain.| 9 a.m. |.. hoi m : Te aay Ce ee T i 11thMon. n sll Nov. 1/S Wi300099908| 60 55. — |— 2| W ` |99:0829:90|. 63 55 — 13 3| W 9290020949 57 | 40 | — | 39 i 4| W 30-16 2942 46 28 — 10 5| W .|30:3830:19| 54 28 —: 6/8.: W130'38:30:551-.41 «4:30 a 7 u Bh9480:38|30126! 48.4: 89 — 8 E |30263022) 48 36 57 i 9 E |30:2283019 46 38 — ó 108 E30:1030:04 58 44, — 11 S 30:04/29:93| .55 45 — 75 19; W |30:03/29:93| ` 56 35 — 01 13; E- |29:93\29°86| . 55 40 — |= 14S .. W/29:86'29'82) 58 52 — 12}. 158 WI29:82 20:57] 61 51 — 09 168 :/Wj|29:65:99:57| 5 50 = 55 > .128- WI29:0629:65 54 47 — {roz C648 N.. 1300712996. 50 | 41 38 198 W]30:07/30:00| 52 49 — 28 20S ` W|30:00129'75| 52 A5 — 07 21N Wi29:7529:65|..50 38 -— 09 29S W|?9777:29'60| 55 45 — 03 93S ^ W|?9:9029:75| 54 35 — 15 94S .W|?9862977| 52 41 — j— e 25N W|9?97799:45| 55 46 | — 25| 26 ' .W|29:58:29:304..56 .| 42 — (1:39 27\N W|29:8629:58| 44 30 -— 28S W|29'8499:690| 55 | 43 | — 04 908 .-W|99:04/99:84] - 54 | 400 | — 14 -30N W)?29:97:29:67| 55 42 56 | 16 30:38/209:3601 63 | 28 | 1°51 |467 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. — A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. Vu Y TM 80. Mr. Howards Meteorological Journal... [Ja N. 1822. REMARKS. | Eleventh Monih.— 1, 2. Cloudy. 3. Rainy: very stormy night: the wind blowing quite a gale. 4, Stormy. 5—8. Fine. 6, 7. Lunar halo and corona. 9. Fine: Cirrus: lunar halo, 10. "NN cloudy. 11. Rainy. 12. Fine, Ís. Cloudy. Vis Cloudy. 15. Cloudy. _ 6. Rainy: squally. 17. Cloudy: rainy night. . Fine. ..19. Rainy wate fine afternoon, 20. Cloudy. All the marshes in l neighbourhood flooded to a considerable depth from the rains of the last few days. 91. Cloudy. Cirrocumulus and Cirrostratus in the afternoon. 22. Rainy morning = 93. Cloudy: drizzly. 24. Rainy. 25. Fine: stormy night. 26. Fine morning: rainy afternoon, 27. Fine. 28. Drizzling: very cold wind. 29, Fine. 30. Fine day : stormy night. ** Daniell’s Hygrometer indicated a depression of 15? at noon on the 7 th; on the Sth, 9°; on the 9th, 10°; and on the 10th, 5°.. This gradual approacli to the point of saturation, during a succession of fine days, followed, as will be seen, by wet weather, deseryes notice. Observations with this instrument will be given occasionally in future. RESULTS. | Winds: N,1; Ej4; SE, l; S, 1; SW; 14; W, 5; NW, 4. Í "Barometer: Mean height For the month... etree .... eee eee ee ...... .......... . 99-897 inches. x For the lunar period, ending the MU ILC $c For 14 days, ending the 5th (moon south) . .......... 99-914 | For 13 days, ending the 18th (moon north)... neo da — 30-004 ‘Phermometer: Mean height ; i For the month. . eo» Wes «bac lineo ecee spe doo dla dbo. 41:3839 PATH UR pov degna QEALA OA RAN Spe o 48-344 | For 30 days, the sun in Scorpio. . *............. epee .. 41:593 E tion t.s.. assos eso SANE nal E EE AEE dte ....... 1-51 in. Rain, ...... "^ —........ n ntn NN, O EE E 1m ali^ veo! asians 4:67 Laboratory, Stratford, Twelfth Month, 91, 1891. R. HOWARD. ANNALS PHILOSOPHY. FEBRUARY, 1822. ARTICLE I. Analysis of the Variegated Copper Ore, or Buntkupferers. Et By R. Phillips, RSE. FLS. &c. Ix looking over the analyses of the various sulphurets of cop- per and iron, I was struck not only with the different results obtained by analysts of great experience, but also with the diffi- culty of reconciling any of their statements with the idea that these sulphurets are definite compounds of the ingredients of which they are constituted. "That they are of regular composi- tion can, I think, hardly be questioned when specimens from different countries are compared, and especially when it is con- sidered that they are all occasionally met with in the crystalline state; and have generally different primary forms. . “For the reasons which I have now stated, I propose to examine the native sulphuret of copper and the sulphurets of copper and iron, and with this intention I shall now state the experiments which I have performed upon that which, from accidental causes, first attracted my notice, namely, the variegated copper ore, or buntkupfererz of the Germans. This ore is thus described in Phillips's Mineralogy : | `“ Its colour seems to consist of an intimate mixture of copper red and tombac brown, with an irridescent tarnish, generally of blue, sometimes yellow. The fracture is imperfectly conchoidal occasionally, more often fine grained and uneven; it is soft, je frangible, and sectile in a slight degree. Specific gravity . On the subject of the crystalline form of this substance, my New Series, VOL. 111. G | 82 Mr. R. Phillips onthe ` ` (Fëm. brother (Mr. W. Phillips) has presented me with the following remarks : * [n some treatises on mineralogy, the buntkupfererz is cited as being found in cubes of which the solid angles are replaced, and in cubes of which the planes are-eurvilinear. The Abbé Haüy, however, in his Traité, notices it under the name of * cuivre pyriteux hepatique,’ considering it as resulting from cop- per pyrites, and, as it may be assumed, by some natural transi- tion analogous to the known passage of the red oxide of copper of Chessey into the green carbonate; and he quotes it under the same nane as ‘ah appendix-to:cópper pyrites in his Tableau Comparatif. E ED xy " eingin the possession of a specimen from Cornwall, on which there are many well defined and brilliant crystals, I detached some, and have obtained from one of them, which is in the form of the cube having all the solid angles replaced, the following results by means of the reflective goniometer : qadin 249) heat 0909399052; a «oncretum...... Ye, MO WA P 5208 Us MEN. up rs a on brétum ,. .... Q^. 289 OO ip/G M E2747 2p JOD 90 8 c on breturn ....... uc Bi, PROP urs mM 109 40 QHBÀ A inu Maid 125 16 P^ónc.. S05 ^q Poser morc 125 35 “If evidence were wanting to show that the (nb is in the general form of the cube, it might be added that the average of the six measurements a on b and c and their return planes,'is so near 90? as to amount to 89° 56’, and that the planes P" P" and their opposed planes, together with the plane a and its ` return plane, may be measured by simply turning the crystal on the axis of the goniometer so as to show each of those planes in succession. | di ww * [n attempting to cleave the crystals of this substance, I have not been so thoroughly successful as could be wished. Cleav- 1822.) -Variegated:Copper Ore. 83 yages are, however, attainable parallel to all the planes P, though not sufficiently brilliant for the use of the reflective goniometer ; but determinate enough to satisfy me that the primary crystal is the regular octohedron.: | | “The primary octohedron, besides the modifying planes by which itso nearly passes into the cube, is also subject to another modification, causing it sometimes to assume a form which might be mistaken for a rhomboid ; but its planes are; not suffi- ciently defined on any of the crystals in my possession to allow of measurement or determination. “ The preceding measurements and remarks it is presumed will suffice to show that this substance is not derived from copper pyrites, and that its crystalline forms are not in any degree allied to those of thàt substance, which does not occur in the form of the regular tetrahedron or octohedron. | Diw '* It may not be amiss to add, that the buntkupfererz is some- times found. in the mines of Cornwall apparently. in the form of the six-sided prism, frequently tabular, or in crystals which approach in form to a double six-sided pyramid with triangular planes, and which are allied to the six-sided prism; the use of the knife, however, will always, as far as my observation goes, evince that it is merely a coating of the buntkupfererz, on crys- tals of the vitreous copper." | Klaproth has given two analyses of this ore, one specimen being from Hitterdahl, in Norway, and the other from Rudel- stadt, in Silesia: the results are thus stated : - From Hitterdahl. ‘From Rudelstadt. DM due oec 1970. L1 eee ae 19 Ébpper, ...... Gk - Rut d GAs De atiede «408 AUN. | 80... Thoth o tad 6. orld —DOxgysen vores ..... TO eod uy. 5 100-0 100 _ ‘Tt as difficult to‘ conceive that this ‘mineral varies 'so much in its composition as that the copper in one specimen should ‘exceed that of the other in the proportion of 69:5 to 58, or that, as also stated by Klaproth, the quantity of iron in one should be ‘more than twice as great as that in the other specimen; if they had been crystallized, this difference might be supposed to have arisen from a cause already mentioned ; namely, that other copper ores are sometimes covered with this. In order to form some idea of the probable constitution of the variegated copper ore from both these analyses, I shall state what are, I believe, almost universally, or with little variation, allowed to be composition of sulphuret of copper, sulphuret and persulphuret of iron. | poen | e 2 i 84 Mr. R. Phillips on the | [Fen. By Mr. Chenevix’s analysis, native sulphuret of copper consists of M. isis Ei a allot ote, nil ge Copper. .... sa ratapa bl re fii tie es 100 Accordin to Dr. Thomson, hydrogen being 1, sulphur is 16, iron 28, and copper 64; and sulphuret of copper is composed of One atom of sulphur `. sess ee eùs sesse 16 One atom of copper.......... VEA 80 These proportions it will be observed agree almost precisely with those quoted from Chenevix. According to Mr. Hatchett, magnetic pyrites, or the protosulphuret of iron, is composed of Sulphur ........ VE s p.s. pis s.a a 5: iU AFOD. ocetne ea p qM ARA ARA awed T... ee 27:94 44:00 This determination agrees also very nearly with Dr. Thomson’s numbers, according to which, it is composed of | One atom of sulphur. ................ 16 One Mél OF I 0177.22. Poe ee ear, r | 44 Persulphuret consists of, according to ; Dr. Thomson, Mr. Hatchett, Two atoms of sulphur. .... 32 ..... . 92:16 One atom of iron. ........ 28 ....., 97:84 60 60-00 These statements are also very nearly similar. | Putting the oxygen out of the question, it will be seen that the specimen of copper ore from Hitterdahl is stated to consist of 19 of sulphur, 7:5 of iron, and 69:5 of copper. Now in order to take the simplest view of the subject, let us examine whether these quantities are compatible with the supposition that this ore may be a compound of an atom of sulphuret. of id in with an atom of sulphuret of iron. According to what has been alread stated, 64 of copper combine with 16 of sulphur, or one-fourt of its weight, then 69:5 would require nearly. 17:4 of sulphur, which being deducted from 19, the whole quantity, would leave only 1-6 to combine with 7:5 of iron ; now the protosulphuret of iron is composed of 16 sulphur and 28 iron ; consequently the 1:6 of sulphur would be sufficient for only 2:8 of the 7:5 of iron. It is indeed true, that if we reckon 2*6 of the 4 as sulphur, which 1822.) Variegated Copper Ore. 85 -Klaproth has considered to be oxygen, we may regard this ore as & compound of sulphuret of copper and of sulphuret of iron ; and it would then appear to consist of four atoms of sulphuret of copper and one atom ofsulphuret of iron; thus 64 sulphur ... Four atoms of sulphuret of copper. 4 256 posco : 256 copper "One atom of sulphuret of iron... E jM cial 364 According to this, its composition will be By theory. By analysis, substituting sul- phur for oxygen. - Sulphur. ...-...... LAW, LERNTE . 21:65 Copper . asss operes 70:93 V eee aks |. 69°50 OIE, DOUG d 0 789/02: 1006080 100-00 98:65 Loss .... 1°35 100-00 This is unquestionably a possible, but I think not a probable, combination; and that the coincidence is accidental is more likely, because the specimen from Rudelstadt contains the same quantity of sulphur, nearly 12 per cent. less of copper, and about 24 times more iron. : According to Mr. Chenevix (Phil. Trans. 1804, p. 60), this ore consists of © Sos o eder d Error eerte 17 to 25 EMEN cals Sano gin tk une sé e? 65 60 FIORE sha uccRe oe te ces caer ts RÀ ae ! | 100. 100 ` On these analyses I would remark, that in the first state- ment the sulphur exceeds only by 0:75, the quantity required to convert the copper into sulphuret, without leaving any to com- bine with. the iron ; while in the second, the proportions of the constituents are such as to indicate a compound of two atoms of p sen of copper and one atom of sulphuret of iron. rom the differences which exist in the proportions of the constituents of this mineral by the eminent analysts named, I was desirous of submitting the variegated copper to fresh exa- mination: for this purpose I employed a specimen from Ross Island, in the lake of Killarney, which appeared to be remark- ably pure, of a crystalline structure, although not exhibiting a regular crystalline form, and perfectly unmixed with any other ` Mr. Ry Phillips on the (es. kind of copper ore, to which I am inclined to attribute: the variations in the analyses that I have already quoted. 8 As a preliminary step, I roasted some of the ore until the sul- phur was perfectly expelled; the residuum was dissolved in nitric acid to saturation. Water added to the solution occasioned no precipitation, nor did muriate or sulphate of soda; From these experiments I conclude that the ore contained neither anti- mony, bismuth, silver, nor lead. A quantity of the ore, without being roasted, was dissolved in nitric eng ; the solution after being treated with nitrate of barytes, gave no precipitate with nitrate of lead ; consequently the ore contains no arsenic. In order to determine the proportions: in which -the sulphur, iron, and.copper, exist in the ore, I reduced 120 grains off it to powder, and, heated it in a-retort with dilute nitric acid, adding muriatic acid towards the end: of the operation, to prevent the separation of the peroxide ofiron. — — i After the complete conversion of the sulphur into. sulphuric acid, I found 0°6 of a grain unacted upon; it consisted of small particles: of quartz wien had evidently been mechanically mixed with the ore. To the-solution of the ore, nitrate of barytes was added in excess to precipitate the sulphuric acid. The sulphate of barytes was separated. by a double filter; dried on a sand heat, after being thoroughly washed, it weighed 216:5 grains. Of this, only 211 grains could be removed from the filter, and they lost 4*8 grains by exposure to a red heat in a platina crucible’; consequently 5*5, the quantity left on the filter, would have lost 1-25 grains by similar treatment. The whole quantity of ignited sulphate of barytes amounted, therefore, to 210-45 grains. ` To the filtered solution, after the separation of the sulphate of barytes, sulphate of soda was added to precipitate the excess of barytes employed; the solution again filtered was treated with ammonia in excess, which precipitated the peroxide of iron. This, after washing and ignition, weighed 24 grains. The ammoniacal solution of copper was put into a retort, and evaporated to dryness. The residual mass was dissolved. in muriatic acid, and precipitated with excess of potash: the pre- cipitate, which was. peroxide of copper, was washed, dried, and ignited ; it weighed 91-6 grains. ; According to Dr. Thomson, 118 of sulphate of barytes are equivalent to 16 of sulphur; 210-45 will, therefore, indicate 28:5. According to the same authority, 40 of peroxide of iron contain 28 of metallic iron ; 24 will, therefore, give 16°8 :‘per- oxide of copper is universally allowed to contain one-fifth of oxygen ; 91*6 will, therefore, give 73:28. It appears, therefore, that this ore consists of Sedge Site ]ooss 1 Variegated Copper Ore. © -Y 87 In d AEN oa In 120 parts. In 100 parts. Hania ooSulphur eee 2057200 018 23°75 JJ ede ACL AN Barge, EL FOO TELOV y i 14:00 >: Copper. ...... ese 998 ME ORAL 61:07 cE a a Rae ce OO” MINI. 0:5 | 119-18 99-329. . UL DOBRA aonn š oo 099 0:68 120-00 100-00. ~ What has been. already stated as to the composition of the sulphuret of iron and that of copper, will show that 16:8 of iron require 9*6 of sulphur to form the protosulphuret or magnetic rites, leaving 18:9 of sulphur to unite with 73:28 of copper. ow as copper combines with one-fourth of its weight of sul- phur, 73:28 will require 18:32, leaving an excess of 0°58 of sulphur. | rom what has been now detailed, I think it will appear that the variegated copper is a definite compound of one atom of sulphuret of iron and two atoms of sulphuret of copper, or indi- cated, asalready noticed, by one of the analyses of (wea or it may be regarded as consisting of magnetic pyrites and vitreous copper ore. On this view of the subject, its. atomic constitu- tion will be as follows : 1 atom of sulphuret of iron 16 + 28 — ........ 44 2 atoms. of sulphuret of copper 16 + 64 x 2 = 160 204 Or it consists of Í P puree. 11.5501 00P 308205 F). 23:53: TOME VOCNI aE EAL PE ST! PET SS 13:78 Doo a D. EY V Ce a 0» pa . 62°74 120-00 100-00. These quantities, it will be observed, do not differ from the analysis which I have given, more than may be reasonably allowed for the errors of operation. ARTICLE II. Meteorological Observations made at Crumpsall, in KÉiicaslüre. ! By Mr. John Blaekwall. (To.the Editor of the, Annals.of Philosophy.) SIR, Crumpsall Dec. Y1, 1821. T LATELY proposed a plan for taking daily observations ofthe temperature of the atmosphere (Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii. p. $8 Mr. J. Blackwall’s Meteorological Observations [Frs. 297, New Series), which, if generally adopted, would probably, ` in a great measure, obyiate the error and inconvenience arising from the various and unsatisfactory modes of taking such obser- vations, that are practised by the majority of meteorologists. I now trouble you with observations on the barometer, accom- anied with a few remarks, hoping that they may prove useful in pointing out the advantage of establishing a general unifor- ity in the manner of conducting .observations on the daily pressure of the atmosphere. Should they appear suited to pro- mote this desirable object, I shall feel obliged by your giving them publicity. our obedient servant, | i Joun BLACKWALL. —— A Series of Barometrical Observations made on Oct. 1, 1821, at Crumpsall, in Lancashire, with a View to determine the best Method of obtaining the Extremes and Mean of the Atmosphe- rical Pressure, during the Period of the natural Day. Hour. Barometer.| Hour. Barometer. Hour. Barometer. 12 night, 29:405 9 29:900 6 99:453 I 29-365 ` 10 29-195 T - 99:510 2 99:390 11 99-200 8 29-535 3 29-985 12 noon| 29-220 9 iti 29°560 | 4 29-242 l 29:240 10 29-580 5 29:240 9 99:955 ll 29:595 6 29-232 3 29-290 12 night 29-610 7 29-220 4 29°340 8 99-900 5 29-400 The methods of taking daily observations of the pressure of the atmosphere which are. generally practised, are so very imperfect, and lead to such erroneous conclusions, that the column of observations headed ** Barometer," is, perhaps, inva- riably one of the most defective in every meteorological journal : indeed, when we reflect how little is certainly known respecting the causes that produce the local changes that are almost perpe- tually taking place in the weight of the atmosphere, and how fluctuating those causes are with which we are acquainted ; when we consider also how few observations are usually made in the day, and that still fewer are made during the night, we shall cease to be surprised at the great inaccuracy of barome- trical results. The Jaws that regulate the temperature of the atmosphere, at least of that region of it about which our inquiries are more immediately concerned, are better understood, and appear to act with much greater regularity than those that influence its pressure. So uniform indeed are their operations, that the maximum of temperature is now known to occur about half-past two o'clock, p. m. in our latitude, and the minimum about half 8227] ` made at Crumpsall, in Lancashire. 89 an hour before sun-rise, in the ordinary course of things... A knowledge of these facts would enable those who have the leisure, and are so disposed, to ascertain the daily extremes and means of temperature, with a tolerable degree of precision, if the invention of self-registering thermometers did not offer a much more eligible means of procuring such information ; but the case is very different with regard to atmospherical pressure, as it is quite uncertain at what periods the maxima and minima may take place. It, therefore, rarely happens, that the true daily extremes and means of pressure are obtained from the very small number of observations that are made in the course of the natural day by the majority of meteorologists ; and it would be difficult, if not impossible, to lay down a plan for conducting such Observations, with the instruments that are commonly used for this purpose, that would be sufficiently exact and convenient for general adoption. | : These considerations, together with the desire of doing some- thing towards establishing a more regular and efficient mode of observing than any of those which are at present in use; induced me to turn my attention more particularly to the nature of the instruments employed; when a little reflection convinced me that if a good self-registering barometer could be obtained, it ' wouid assist me in my project very materially. | Shortly afterwards, having procured a self-registering baro- meter, I placed it by a common upright one, in a room on the second floor, about 151. feet from the ground ; and after compar- ing them, and finding that they corresponded exactly, at 12 "o'clock on the night of Sept. 30, I commenced the preceding observations, which were made with the. common barometer ; one or two gentle vibrations being given to the mercury, for the purpose of disengaging it more effectually from the tube when- ever an observation was taken. | gai The weather was stormy, with frequent showers through the day ; a strong gale from the W. prevailing till two o'clock, p.m. when it shifted to the NW, from which point it continued to "blow with violence till midnight. The extremes by the common barometer were 29:610, and 29:195, the mean of which is 29:402, the range being :415, and the mean of the 25 observations is 29:347. The following tables contain the results of observations taken atthe most convenient hours before noon and afternoon. 90 . Mr.J. Blackwall's: Meteorological, Observations. Resulis of Two Observations, 0, " ; [ 1 ij die Hours. Maximum. Nuus, s, 2m etal >. T3 Tam..... 6pm. 90.453 | 29220 29:336 BT Si Tdo: .... T do. 99:510 29-990 29:365 900 T do. .... 8 do. 99:535 29:290 29:311 B15. > Tdo, .... 9 do. 99:560 29:990 99-390 -340 T do. .... 10 do. 29-580 99-290 29-400 360 ` 7 do. .... 1t do. 99-595 99-290 99:401 . 315. S8. or9do. .... 6do, 99:453 29-200 29°326 :953. 8 or 9do, ..... 7 do. 29-510 99-9200 | 29355 “310 8 or 9do. .... 8 do. 29°535 99:200 29: 367 *335 S or 9 do. .... 9 do. 29-560 '" 29-200 29:380 . *860 8.or 9. do, .... 10 do. 99:580 99-200 99-390 :380 8 or 9 do. .... 11 do. 29:595 29:900 929-307 |. :395 id Results of Three Observations.* Houts, Maximum. | Minimum. | Mean. Range., TaM... land 6p.m. |. Bac 29:304 Tdo..... Y. de, |. . 29:323 TER cee 3 8do. |. ' 29°331 Paoi. 1 9do. | | 99:340 | 1 do. s... l 10 do, H 29:346 hn Td. J. UU dba L 29°351 | 8 or 9do. .... 1 6 do. 29°297 8 or 9do. .... 1 T do, 29316 | 8 or 9 do, .... 1 8 do. 99:895... | S.or9do ....1 9do, 29:333 | 8or9do.. 1 10 do. ; 29:340 8 or 9 do. .... 1 lldo | ü 99:345 The. correct extremes for the day, and of course the exact range, are not to be found among these results ; yet the true mean is very nearly approximated in several instances, and in one or two, it may even be considered as obtained. with. a suffi- cient degree of precision ; but this near conformity to the mean of the 25 observations, is evidently merely accidental; and when: it is recollected at what. different hours, and with. what various instruments meteorologists take their observations, the bad consequences of the present want of system will be. very arent. | . The extremes by the self-registering barometer: were 29:610, and 29-190, the mean being 29:400, and the range 420. Here the extremes and range may be looked upon as correct, but the mean is erroneous, exceeding the mean of the 25 observations,” by rather more than 1-20th of an inch. This arises from the variations of the barometer being irregular between the extremes, a much larger proportion of the observations being below the mean found from these extremes than above it. . Whenever the mercury moves uniformly up or down through the natural day, it is plain that the mean found from the extremes must coincide * In consequence of a mistake in the Maximum, Minimum, and Range, which was not discovered till too late for correction, they are omitted altogether.— Ed. 1899] Col. Beaufoy's Metedrological Journal for 1821. 91 with the daily mean ; and in almost every other case; there is'a reater probability that this mean should be accurate than that ic one found from two, three, or even a greater number of observations should beso. ‘It seems then that the self-register. ing barometer affords a much more certain method of obtaining correct results of the daily pressure of the atmosphere than any other that could be conveniently adopted; but as the foregoing observations and remarks may not appear so conclusive to others as they do to: myself, 1 purpose giving a series of observations made with the common and self-registering barometers: in the month of October, which, I trust, will prove to the satisfaction of every one the great superiority of the latter as a meteorological instrument. SAMO Y d qM e 11 i p^ AmricLE TII. Meteorological Journal kept at Bushey Heath, in the Year 1891. ei By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. ! (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) . DEAR SIR; e Bushey Heath, Stanmore, Jan, T, 1822. You will oblige me by inserting in the Annals of Philosophy % summary of a meteorological table kept by me at this place, and which I believe to be accurate ; one day's observation only (the 17th of July) is omitted. The mean monthly heights of the barometer, thermometer, De Luc's hygrometer, together with the quantity-of rain and evaporation in inches, are inserted, as well as the mean temperature observed with a Six's thermometer. The altitudes of the barometer and thermometer were taken at nine o'clock in the morning, at which hour the heat of the weather nearly corresponds with the mean temperature of the natural day; the greatest difference in January amounting to 2°83 degrees, the thermometer in the morning being minus that quantity. The rain guage is 16} feet above the ground, and 5384 feet above the sea. This: height was deduced from several corresponding barometrical observations made at Bushey, and im the Strand: by Mr. Cary, whose instrument is 73 feet higher than the mean level of the sea; and the summit of Bushey Heath 558 feet, or four: feet lower than the Signal House at Beachy Head, which I found was elevated 562 feet above low water mark. | | On the 25th of last month (December) at half-past twelve in the morning, the mercury in the barometer at this place sunk to 21-609 inches, the night was very dark, with fog and small rain, accompanied by a light wind from the eastward. This unusual depression of the quicksilver, instead of being indicative of a ` s 9 Mr. Powell on the Communication’. [Fi9. hurricane, or some other convulsion of nature, was followed by a cloudy morning, with a strong wind from the north-west; at nine o'clock the weather cleared up, and continued fine until the going down of the sun, which set in a bank of dense clouds. The ext day the wind came round to the east with rain. On the "° 28th of December at 9" 30’, p. m. the barometer stood at 27:8 inches, the wind blew very fresh from the SE, and the subsequent day it was light from the NW, with rain... It is remarkable that in the year there has not been a calm day at Bushey Heath, and in the stormy days of November and December, the wind was particularly unsteady ; nearly calm at intervals, followed by violent gusts—a proof that the eause of the wind was constantly fluctuating. I remain, dear Sir, truly yours, | Mark Beauroy. — — 4 Summary of a Meteorological Table. 1821. |Barom.|Ther. |Hyg.| Rain. | Evap: Mest N NE gz ls low wwe ; VN Jan...|99:420 |342 |81-0| 2-115] 06803103 1. 8| 0| 9 | O 1t i 1| 0 Feb. . .|29-784| 36-8 |68-2| 0-991| 1-300 35:09 119.| 01 | 1| 110, 6| O March 29-174 | 40-8. 102| 2-692| 9:835 49-12 1| 2 | 0| 3 | 1 14| 3| 6| 1 April. .|29°205 | 48-4. 64-6 | 2140| 371104981. 2! 6 | 110 | 0/14 | 1| 6| O May .. 29-517 | 49-4 (62-7 } 1-930| 3-690 4893, 0 8 | 4j 1| 0 11 | 1) 8] 3 June..|29:606 | 54-6 |62-1| 9-141| 3:640 54-61. 119 | 1| O | 1| 2 | 0, 6.70 July . .|29-469 | 58-3 68-3_ 9:904| 3110/5859, 1| 4 | 2/1 | 0| 18 | 1| 6| o August29 499 63-5 69 9| 2316| 4-000 63-90 0 5 5|3|0|10|3 4| Y^ Sept. . .|29°392 58-4 707| 2900| 3:000 5951| 0. 1: 0/4 | 0} 13 | 4| 8: | Oe Oct. ..|99-160 | 49-8 |T3-2| 3-258} 2-030 50-79, 0, 2.| 0) 1. |.9| 13.| 1 6 |..0, Nov...|99-358 | 46-4 |15:8| 4-549| 1-860 4688 0, 1| 0| 5 | 0) 19 | 0| 5| 0 Dec. ..99-007 |41-5 5-2 4617| 1-500 42-470, 0 1/6 | 1/16 0| 2| 0 Mean ,199:411 | 48:51 701 31:159 50:955 49:09, 763 [14140 | 6145 15 691 5. The winds between the cardinal points are described as NE, SE, SW, and NW. | ÅRTICLE IV. An Account of some Experiments on the Communication of Mag- netism to Iron in different Positions. By the Rev. Baden Powell, MA. of Oriel College, Oxford. | (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Plumstead, near Woolwich, Dec. YT, 182 ü Tue first idea of the following experiments was suggested to me on reading sometime since a paper by Mr. Scoresby, pub- lished in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, No. 8, and an 1822.] of Magnetism to Iron in different Positions. 93 abstract of which is also given in the Annals for May, 1821. Among other interesting facts, he states, that iron may be ren- . dered magnetic by being bent, scowered, filed, or twisted, in the position of the magnetic axis, or near it. He states, however, nothing more with respect to the degree of magnetism communi- cated at different inclinations ; it is to the determination of this oint that my inquiries have been directed; and I conceive I Lotbdluniwerod a simple law by which the increase of intensity thus communicated is regulated, as the inclination varies from the magnetic equator to the axis. I am not aware of any similar law being given by other writers ; the paper above alluded to being the only one I know of, which treats at all on this depart-. ment of the science of magnetism. | | | The experiments which I have tried have been conducted in a very simple manner; pieces of iron wire, which were previously found to have no magnetism, were fixed at different inclinations to the magnetic equator (every 10th degree); assuming the dip at: 70? 30’, according to Mr. Barlow’s determination. The appa- ratus was fixed in the plane of the magnetic meridian; and the wires being fixed firmly at one end were, by means of the other, wrenched or twisted in such à way that they retained their recti- linear form, and their position at the proper angle. The same number of turns in wrenching was given to each piece; and when thus magnetized, their respective intensities were deter- mined by comparing the deviations which they caused on a light magnetic needle, care being taken that they were all placed in a similar position and distance from the pole of the needle. I selected six sets of experiments which | considered as most to. be depended on, the mean results of which are as follow : the was n | 90° | so» | 70» | 60° | 509 | 40» | 30° | 909 | 109 lo "mag. equator. 3° 50/10 Mon ators. logo 34/1260 10/125° 10'|239 15/|219 10/| i19 50'|149 15'|109 30! of experiments, It is obvious that the deviations do not diminish as the inclina- tions ; I, therefore, after several trials, considered the following law as giving a very near approximation to the above results. tan. D, & sin. I. D = deviation. I = inclination. This will be obvious by comparing the respective sines and tangents; which are: sin. I. 10000000|984807 8|9396926 3660294|7 660444) 6427876 5000000|3420201 1736482 an. D.| 5000352 14913386 4698539 429633913872058 3217067 2539676! 1853390 0670043 In the present experiments, the greatest deviation correspond- ing to the inc. .90°, was, for the sake of convenience of compa- 94 Mrs Powell on the-Gommunicatioy .. (Pes; rison; Vot placing the wire-at.such a distance from the k of the needle as to make it deviate as nearly as possible ? 94^, and the same distance was kept. with the other wires. By. examining the tables, it will be seen that the tan. of 26° 34^. is very panny the half of radius, or sin. 90°, and the tangents which are the nearest to the halves of the other sines given above are those of mes 36" 13”; 95* 10^; 23? 25^; 20° 58^; 179 49^; 14» 9; 0o 497; ogg and. this set of arcs differs from the mean of the above experi- ments by quantities, which are covered by the unavoidable uncer- tainties both of experiment and observation. | Should the law which I have proposed. be. considered suffi ciently established, I conceive it affords a strong confirmation of the truth of the ingenious theory, proposed by Mr. Christie, respecting the nature of magnetic action (of which he has given an account in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Part I: and in the Edinburgh Phil. Journ. No. 10), when combined. (as Mr. C. admits it may easily be) with the theory of M. Ampere concerning the magnetic or electrical currents, ` d wo? - Let us suppose, according to Mr. Christie’s idea, magnetic currents in the direction of the dip xad; thendf . . at right angles to this line is the magne- e tic equator. .Let d ca e represent a por- tion-of one of the wires magnetized, asin. — my experiments, of which the thickness isa b, and the inclination < cd f. Then also the current x a d is supposed to be ` composed of currents perpendicular to its axis; let a c be the direction of one of l E these. The wire is magnetized by imbibing these magnetic currents, being put into a state fit for imbibing them by the torsion ; but when magnetized, it also possesses currents perpen- dicular to its axis ; therefore, if it imbibe a current in the direction ac, this must be resolved into a 6 and ó c, of which a 5^ is alone effective in producing magnetism. Then itis obvious that c a: a b :: rad. : sin. inc. and consequently theintensity of magnetism which is measured by the tan. of the deviation produced on the needle, varies as sin. I, which is the law I have deduced from experiment. | his coincidence appears to afford a strong presumption in' favour of the actual existence of magnetic currents, or rather Na o so of magnetic currents (to adopt M. Ampere's idea) in the atmosphere; and for leading us to consider them as the -causes by which magnetism is communicated, as in these experi- ments, or generally by position. i When pieces of iron are placed at different inclinations, it has been found that by mere position they may, after a time, imbibe € 1892] of Magnetismto Iron indifferent Positions. 95 magnetism, It appéárs from Mr. Scoresby's experiments, that there are various’ dnte by which this: wee iia be accelerated, such as ‘torsion; ‘bending, filing, scowering, &c. T have found that a piece of ‘iron may be placed near the poles of a magnet; and remain for some time, without receiving any magnetism’, but if; while in this ‘position, any of the above ‘operations ‘be érformed on it, it immediately becomes magnetic. I have also nd that if a piece of iron wire be bent or twisted into any figure, and in this state be magnetized, and then bent back into an opposite direction, or even simply straitened, its magnetisti is either wholly, or very nearly, destroyed. "The same thing also occurs if the wire be magnetized when straight, and then bent; Hence I think we may infer, that an intestine friction of the particles of iron makes it capable of imbibing magnetism ;: and a similar friction in an opposite direction made after the former | pues a contrary effect. What connexion these facts may ave with M. Ampere’s idea of the spiral currents may be'an interesting subject of investigation. At present I will.conclude by remarking, that the apparatus used by Mr. Scoresby in his experiments appears, from the desctiption, to be well adapted for experiments of the kind I have described. I, therefore, 6on- ceive it not improbable that my ideas may have occurred to him also; but till any more accurate examination of them is madé public, I think the present memoir may not be unacceptable to those who are interested in the improvement of this branch 6f science, which, owing in a great measure to the labours of Mr. Barlow and Professor Hansteen, and the universal interest in it excited of late, both in a theoretical and practical point of view; seems to be advancing with unexampled rapidity ; and to pros mise a rich harvest of discovery, both in application to practical purposes, and in opening new connexions with other depart~ ments oPserhóe. Tam) Sir, yours; &e. ' "7 n eo pu Yu j POT BaDEN PowErr. © ARTICLE V. On the Separation of Iron from other Metals. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. FRS.* AN easy and exact method of separating iron from the other. metals with which it may happen to be mixed, has always been a desideratum in chemistry. Every one conversant with the analysis of minerals is aware of the difficulty of the problem, which indeed is such that, in experiments conducted on any thing , * From the Philosophical "Transactions, for 1821, Part II. 96 Mr. J. F. W. Herschel on the [Fer. like a large scale, it might hitherto be regarded as insuperable. In consequence of this, and of the importance of the inquiry, there is hardly a chemist of eminence who has not proposed some process for the purpose but (with the exception of that which depends on the insolubility of the persuccinate of the obnoxious metal, which I have not tried, and which is too expensive to be resorted to for any but the nicer purposes of analytical research), they are all of them either inadequate to the end proposed, intolerably tedious, or limited in their appli- cation. That which I have now to propose, on the other hand, is liable to none of these objections, being mathematically rigo- rous, of general appieno and possessing in the highest degree the advantages of facility, celerity, and cheapness. It is briefly this : The solution containing iron is to be brought to the maximum of oxidation, which can be communicated to it by boiling with nitric acid. It is then to be just neutralized while in a state of ebullition, by carbonate of ammonia. The whole of the iron to the last atom, is precipitated, and the whole of the other metals present (which I suppose to be manganese, cerium, nickel, and cobalt), remains in solution. The precautions necessary to ensure success in this process are few and simple. In the first place, the solution must con- tain no oxide of manganese or cerium above the first degree of oxidation, otherwise it will be separated with the iron. It’ is vonscn’y probable in ordinary cases that any such should be pre- sent, the protoxides only of these metals forming salts of any stability ; but should they be suspected, a short ebullition with, a little sugar will reduce them to the minimum. ` If nitric acid, be now added, the iron alone is peroxidized, the other oxides. remaining at the minimum.* Moreover, in performing the pre- cipitation, the metallic solution should not be too concentrated, and must be agitated the whole time, especially towards the end of the process ; and when the acid reaction is so far diminished that log-wood paper is but feebly affected by it, the alkaline solution must be added cautiously, in small quantities at a time, and in a diluted state. If too much alkali be added, a drop or two of any acid will set all right again; but it should be well observed, as upon this the whole rigowr of the process depends, that no inconvenience can arise from slightly surpass- ing the point of precise neutralization, as the nosh precipitated carbonates of the above enumerated metals are readily soluble, to a certain extent, in the solutions in which they are formed (though * Dr. Forchhammer, in a paper recently published in Thomson’s Annals of Philo- sophy, contends that the proto-salts of manganese are absolutely void of colour. To this . I can only say, that I have not succeeded in depriving the muriate of its pale rose colour . by any 1 of ebullition with sugar or alcohol, which, however, not a trace of deutoxide could be detected in it. I cannot help regarding the process here proposed for freeing manganese from iron as preferable to that of Dr. F. f 318221] Separation of Iron from other Metals. 97 perfectly neutral). In the cases of cobalt and cerium, this xe-dissolution of the recent precipitate formed by carbonate, of ammonia is very considerable, and a solution of either of these metals, thus impregnated with the metallic carbonate, becomes a test of the presence of peroxide of iron, of a delicacy surpass- ing most of the reagents used in chemistry, the minutest trace of it being instantly thrown down by them from a boiling solu- tion, provided no marked excess of acid be present. To be certain, however, that we have not gone too far, it is advisable, after separating the ferrugious precipitate, to test the clear Aliquid, while hot, with a drop of the alkaline carbonate. Ifthe loud which this produces be clearly re-dissolved on agitation, we may be sure that only iron has been separated. If otherwise, a little acid must be added, the liquor poured again through the filter, so. as to wash the precipitate, and the neutralization. per- formed anew. S ~i The precipitation of iron above described seems at first sight ‘to result from a double decomposition. Were it so, the princi- ple of the method would be merely a difference of solubility in -the carbonates of iron and the other metals, and as such would shave no claim to be regarded as rigorous. Such, however, is mot the case. The iron is not separated in the state of a carbon- ate, but of a subsalt, or a simple peroxide, the whole of the ‘carbonic acid escaping with effervescence at each addition of the alkali. The phenomenon turns on a peculiarity in the per- oxide of this metal, in virtue of which it is incapable of existing sn a neutral solution at the boiling temperature. If we add an alkaline, earthy, or metallic carbonate by little and little to a cold solution of peroxide of iron, the precipitate formed is redis- -solved with effervescence, readily at first, but gradually more and more slowly, till at length many hours, or even days, elapse -before the liquid becomes quite clear. Meanwhile it deepens an colour till (unless much diluted) it becomes dark brown or red. "If the addition of the carbonate be carried as far as possible with- ~out producing a permanent precipitate, the solution is perfectly "neutral, and continues clear at alow temperature for any length -Oftime. In this state it may be evaporated to dryness in vacuo, ¿and the residue (which does not effervesce with acids) is still soluble in water without letting any iron fall, and so on as often as we please. | The compound thus formed is, however, far from permanetit. dtas im fact in a state of tottering equilibrium, which a very ‘slight cause is sufficient to overset. Supposing the point of Saturation to have been exactly attained, the addition of an extremely small quantity more of the alkaline solution is sufficient ‘to-determine the separation of the whole, or nearly the whole, ‘metallic contents; and if the solution operated on be pretty concentrated, it fixes after a longer or shorter time into a stiff New Series, vou. 111. H ie 98 Mr. J. F: W. Herschel onthe ^ [Fes. and almost solid coagulum. Again, if to the coagulum ‘so formed, a quantity equally inappreciable of the original ferrugi- nous solution be added, it gradually liquefies, and after some time is completely redissolved (forming no inapt representation of the celebrated imposture of St. Januarius’s blood).* ua A similar change is produced by an increase of temperature. Tf we heat a solution exactly neutralized as above described, it speedily grows turbid, deposits its ferruginous contents in abundance, and at the same time acquires a very decided acid reaction. The acid so developed holds in solution a portion of oxide, but if the neutralization be performed afresh «while hot, this separates entirely, and the liquid after filtration has no more action on gallic acid, ferrocyanate, or sulphocyanate of potash, than so much distilled water.+ | f It is not my object in this paper to enter into any minute detail of the nature of the persalts of iron, a subject not nearly ‘exhausted, and which want of leisure alone has prevented my entering upon, but merely to point out the practical application of this one of their properties, to an important object in analysis. "The principle here developed furnishes a ready method of detect- ing the minutest quantities of other metals in union with iron, and, therefore, cannot but prove of important service in various. cases where this metal constitutes the chief ingredient in the substance examined, as in meteoric iron, the various natural oxides of this metal, &c. &c. I will exemplify this in one or two instances. | x |. 96:00 grains of meteoric iron (furnished me by the kindness of Dr. Wollaston) were dissolved in dilute nitro-sulphuric acid, ‘leaving behind a minute quantity of a brilliant black powder, which, however, dissolved by digestion in nitromuriatic acid, and appeared only to contain an excess of nickel. "The solu- tions were mixed, and being neutralized at a boiling tempera- * The phenomenon described in the text appears to me to differ from ordinary preci- pitations and solutions, in the small proportion between the precipitant and the precipi- tate, the solvent and the matter dissolved. I can call to mind but one instance of so “small a quantity of matter operating a chemical change on so large a mass, viz. the decomposition of oxygenated water by fibrin and other animal substances. "The action seems to be propagated from particle to particle, Whether the superabundant oxide of ‘iron be retained in solution in a state at all analogous to that of the oxygen in Thenard’s experiments, might possibly deserve consideration. f + It was in 1815, in the analysis of a specimen of the gold ore of Bakebanya, given me for that purpose by Dr. Clarke, that I first remarked the separation of oxide of iron from a clear neutral solution by mere elevation of teriperature, and attributed it to the presence of an oxycarbonate capable of subsisting in a low temperature, but decomposed by heat. That thisis not the true explanation is already shown, and I have considerable doubt of the existence of a percarbonate of iron at «ny temperature. | The most cogent mode of exhibiting the experiment is, perhaps, the following :— Having rendered a solution of protosulphate of iron rigorously neutral, by agitation with carbonate of lime and filtration, dissolve in it a small quantity of chlorate of potash (a salt perfectly neutral), The solution when raised to ebullition is xidized, a quantity of subsulphate precipitates, and the supernatant liquid is found decidedly, and even strongly acid. | 1892] Separation of Iron from other Metals. 99 türe by carbonate of ammonia, aud. the iron separated, a green solution remained. Into this, when boiling, a drop of persul- phate of iron being let fall, was immediately precipitated in the state of subsulphate, which, being separated, the solution was boiled with excess of caustic potash till all smell of ammonia disappeared. Oxide of nickel separated, which, collected and strongly ignited, weighed 4:65 grains, or 12°92 on the hundred, which (taking the atom of nickel to weigh 30, and that of oxy- gen 8, hydrogen being unity) gives 10-20 per cent. for the con- tents of the specimen analyzed in metallic nickel. 100 grains of titanious iron from North America, being dis- solved in muriatic acid (after the requisite ignition with potash) were treated (after separating the titanium) with excess of car- bonate of lime, and filtered. The excess of carbonic acid being expelled, ammonia was added, and a small quantity of a white precipitate fell, which speedily blackened in the air, and proved to be mere oxide of manganese, uncontaminated by iron, and amounting to half a grain. —Manganese has been suspected in various species of cast iron; and though Mr. Mushet's experiments go to prove that it doesnot usually enter in abundance, they can hardly be regarded as esta- blishing the fact of its absence. It might not be uninteresting to resume the investigation with the aid of a mode of analysis so well adapted to experiments on alarge scale, as I have no doubt that, with proper care, one part in a thóusand, or even less, of manganese might be insulated from iron. The separation. of iron from uranium cannot be accomplished by the process above described, that metal possessing a property analogous to that which forms the subject of this paper. By inverting the process, however, we shall succeed even here. A mixed solution of iron and uranium being deoxidized by a cur- rent of sulphuretted hydrogen, and then treated with an earthy carbonate, the iron passes in solution, while the uranium sepa- rates. ‘This difference in the habitudes of the two oxides of iron presents us in fact with a kind of chemical dilemma, of one or the other of whose horns we may avail ourselves in any proposed case. In studying the habitudes of uranium, however, I have met with some anomalies which require further investigation. Zirconia too might probably be freed from iron with equal faci- lity by a similar inversion of the process; but this I have not yet had an opportunity of trying satisfactorily. J. F. W. 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A "il É : EIE 5 E d : | ‘ > £g f s š v ^ | Ë j ' s E = $ za B | E Ed . | z.4 1 : E^ = H, Fš x r. k j -¥ | d * l| + | | | š E ~~ e Kod Ç ° - = = e ~ AM = s 2 ~~ 00 v WS - Ver š rv “Manuva | : SONIA *Warawowuqnj || erp Add. "ISI 2 E i ij t Pea yI 14 euy eget : 1823]. Mr. Stockton’s*Meteorological:Register for 1821. 109) ANNUAL RESULTS. Barometer. p STON HO - Inches; Highest observation, Jan. 23. Wind, N. .......... 30-880 Lowest ditto, Dec. 26. Wind, S (continuing 14 hours) 27-380 Fee ee aot atiy; QL. A aN 2 ae e ODD Mean annual barómetrical pressure. . .......... s... 29-587 ` Greatest range of the mercury in December......... 2-820 Le qoin Jum? AIN TSERE bes e Huh 0:930 Mean annual range ofditto .......... 5. 2.00... 1606+- Spaces described by ditto, u ENE eee Lilo QUUD . Total number of changes in the year .......... ee aoi siiis TOP n Six's: Thermometer. i Greatest observation, Aug. 23. Wind, SE. ....... . 48:000 . Least ditto, Jan. 2 and 3, wind, N; and Feb. 26, SEN NE CU VPN. We 3 aie Ws Yr EU Vg aoi pa 20:000 ` Range of the mercury in the thermometer. ......... 58:000. Mean annual temperature . o.oo. te ere het t 47:908 . GOOD AE0EU.2... cece S... 38:000 Least ditto in December. .............. OUR ONE 21:000 Meum dto. sv. id oe ids erectio. eere 30:416. Winds Days North and East ..... Nodo tendis she UN dut, dig ad fa N SATA 70-000 North-east and South-east’ ...........: sse. d e 57:000: SON einer WEE 2209 TS 01,22 ER M ee, d 119-000 South-west and north-west ............ cele eee 99+000 Varmibia s. Lu. ove Fé eraat WAS © Weis 3 2 $ Capa EA 20:000 Rain, &c. : Inches Greatest quantity in Dérember.................... 5:370 Lo ud DEDITUS sow euam eme wo p Sia e mr hh 0:260 Too t AOE Thé VOOR ece nn o ors wm ce we sa s. u... 28:960 | OBSERVATIONS. Pressure.—The most prominent features which present them selves, and the most worthy of remark, are the great elevation: of the barometer in January, and its unprecedented depressions’ in December, the greatest of which, and the minimum for the:- year, occurred near midnight on the 24th, and continued until 102 Dr. Bonsdorff’s Analysis A2. 3M. [FEN two, p. m. the 25th, attended with a most violent gale from the south, thunder and lightning, and torrents of rain, amounting, with what had fallen during the previous night, to nearly three inches. On the 29th, the barometer again fell to 27°73, after which, it rose rapidly. From the 16th to the 31st, it never attained 29:00, though the changes in its direction were almost daily, and frequently considerable. | ae emperature.—The mean annual temperature, which is 1° above that of the preceding year, and is owing to the mildness- of the autumnal and winter months, fully compensated for the , decrease from the usual averages experienced in May, June, an July, which were the only months below the means of the cor- responding periods in 1820. | | ind.—lhe prevailing winds are again SW. and W. The N. and S. ones are nearly equal, and the NW. and SE. exactl so. The strongest winds have blown from the S. eee towards the close of the year. ' Rain.—The amount of rain, which has annually and gradually decreased since the wet year of 1816 is less than that of the preceding one, though the last two months haye nearly brought up the general average. If the rain be taken from the last quarter of the moon, commencing the 16th ult. up to the same time of the present period (the 15th) the total amount exceeds six inches and a half, a most unusual quantity for these parts. | New Malton, Jan. 15, 1899, | . JAMES STOCKTON. | i [Tre (H Articiy VII. Analysis of Two Finnish Minerals. By P. A. Von Bonsdorff, Ph.-D. of Abo. (Extracted from Memoirs presented to the ‘Academy of Sciences in Petersburgh.) vas I. Steinheilit, or Dichroite, from Orrijarvi. Tuis mineral occurs in the copper mine of Orrijarvi, in the parish of Kisko, in Finland, and has for a long time been consi- dered as blue quartz; it is found sparingly, and is accompanied with common quartz, greyish talc, and yellow copper ore. The colour of this mineral is either light or dark Berlin blue, and sometimes, though rarely, it is nearly colourless. Those fragments which are pure and ofa dark colour, exhibit two differ- ent colours very distinctly, like the dichroite from Spain and the East Indies. In one direction the colour is a deep clear blue, and in the other light grey, and sometimes so light as to be nearly colourless ; it is translucent; the lustre of the fragments is glassy ; it is hard, giving sparks plentifully with steel. Accord- ing to Count Steinheil, it occurs in four, six, and eight-sided 1822.] x of Two Finnish Minerals. 103; prisms ; the crystals are large, and generally incrusted with tâlc, which renders it difficult to measure the angles: the specific gravity is 2:603. Exposed to the heat of the blowpipe, it becomes paler, and at a higher temperature the thin edges are difficultly fused. It dissolves in borax and microcosmic salt, exhibiting, while cooling, the appearance of iron; it does not combine with soda; with the solution of cobalt, it gives a brown colour, verging to blue on the fused edges. By exposure to a high temperature, the loss amounted to 1-65 per cent. and the experiment was repeated with scarcely any variation. The analysis was performed as follows : a. 296°2 parts of fragments of this mineral, of a violet blue colour, were reduced to powder, and levigated in a calcedony mortar, with the addition of water. The powder being dried: had not increased in weight, proving that it had gained nothing from the mortar. The powder was heated with 1000 parts of carbonate of potash in a platina crucible, the mass was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, and evaporated to dryness in a platina dish. It was again digested in muriatic acid, and the silica left. weighed, after ignition, 146. $a ih 6. The muriatic solution was decomposed by ammonia, ‘and gave a precipitate which, after washing, was boiled with solu— tion of potash, and then filtered. From this, muriatic acid and carbonate of ammonia separated alumina, which, after washing, was ignited and weighed ; it was then treated with sulphuric acid, which left 1-4 of silica; the sulphuric solution upon the addition of potash gave crystals of alum, which contained 96:5 of alumina, l | | c. The brown precipitate which remained undissolved by the potash was dissolved in muriatic acid, mixed with a little nitric acid, and heated to ebullition. "The solution diluted with water was neutralized with ammonia, and precipitated with succinate of ammonia: the precipitate after combustion in an open platina vessel gave 14:8 of peroxide ofiron. d. The solution freed from iron gave 1:0 of alumina with car- bonate of ammonia, was then evaporated to.dryness, and the. muriate of ammonia being separated by heat, it was decomposed by carbonate of potash, and gave a precipitate which after igni- tion weighed 2-0 parts, and by sulphuric acid, 1:9 of magnesia, was dissolved, and 0*1 of oxide of manganese was left. bit. €. The solution, remaining after precipitation with ammonia, treated with carbonate of potash, heated to ebullition, evaporated. to dryness, and again dissolved in water gave a precipitate. which, when ignited, weighed 29:8 parts. ` | >» Diluted sulphuric acid left 0:7 of silica, and dissolved 29°: parts, which were magnesia... This magnesia, and that above obtained, were found to be pure by means of a solution of cobalt, which imparted its red colour, and by sulphuric acid, which yielded pure sulphate of magnesia, 104 Dr. Bonsdorff s Analysis (Fre: ‘The result of this analysis is as follows : amd. gmaim l i i 3 TOURSI Boi 4 ee «+++ 49:95 containing 25°11 of oxygen... 515 Aluiina i; «2. eet Sod. yal. ».:04 30 (lia amaari Mea Magnas we vn - 145,4 Govicoteth 4041 uu Dai sn Peroxide of iron, sori WOO a heli o o Lo 2:69 ari ule +» Oxide of manganese 0:03 . 00 . .Volatile matter ,... 1:65 ' Q5 99:96 When the composition of this mineral is considered with relation to the eleetro-cheniical theory, and the doctrine of defi- nite ap acce it is evident that the quantities of oxygen in the silica, alumina, and magnesia, are nearly in the proportion of 1-4 and 6, and consequently we might express the mineralogical formula by M S* + 4 A S; but as the peroxide of iron can only exist in combination with the silica, and as M. Mitscher-. lich* has proved that the peroxide of iron gives the same crystal- line forms by combining with electro-negative bodies as alumina does, the composition of this mineral will be more properly expressed by the following formula M S? + 4 j| S, which, when. the quantity of oxide of iron remains unchanged, gives the calculated result of the composition of this mineral as follows: _ SINGM UA. Le que JUL P) 20 X1 E Alumina. ...... Be MO 0 018719, 214 v... 92460 Magnesia .,........ np d Php qe pii 10-82 Peroxide of iron .............. eid TRO It will be observed that these proportions agree very nearly with the actual results of the analysis. IT. Malacolit from Tammare, in Finland. During a mineralogical tour, I found this mineral in an aban- doned lime quarry, at the village of Tammare in the parish of Hvittis. | It occurs in large’ masses, accompanied with calcareous spar and noble serpentine. Its colour is white, sometimes greenish white ; it is translucent; the lustre vitreous ; not very hard, giv- img but few minim with steel. It has a laminated structure ; the angles of the fragments are similar to those of the common malacolit. Its specific gravity is 3:256. . Before the blowpipe it melts per se, with slight effervescence, into a translucent glass. It is dissolved by borax, microcosmic salt, and soda, and forms with them a clear glass. With solu- * See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome xiv. p. 172, Sur la Relation qui existe entre la Forme Crystalline, et les Proportions Chimiques: Par E. Mitseherlich. — qs] nef Pu erent 18 tion of cobalt, it'gives a red’ colour at the fused edges, indiéatihg. the presence of magnesia. The analysis. was performed as Pollo we: A portion of thie mineral reduced to fine powder was ignited with three times it&' weight of carbonate of potash, and treated, as already described. in the former analyses, with muriatic acid, and left pure silica; The muriatic solution gave a small quantity of precipitate with” ammonia, which was separated into alumina and peroxide of iron: the remaining solution gave a precipitate with oxalate: of ammonia ; the oxalate of lime was washed, dried, decomposed by heat, and left carbonate of lime. The solution was then precipitated with carbonate of potash” at a boiling heat; the precipitate obtained was ignited’ and: weighed ; by solution i in sulphuric acid, it gave a small quani- tity of sulp ate of lime, and the dissolved portion consisted’ of ure magnesia. The minerallost 0°32 per cent. by a red heat. e results of this analysis were as follow: i i di eere e es cus 0483 containing 27.58 of oxygen i! Bine 440.4 A 24-7804. 024 3. 6:95 ' "Magnesia ........ D BE, s). dud. 718 AF24 Alumina MA TES LESE 0:98 , Oxide ofiron. .... 0°99 | Volatile matter.... 0:32 We find from this analysis, that the quantities of oxygen: in the magnesia and lime are very nearly equal, and that the oxy- ` fc n of the silica is four times that of each of the other earths: his mineral is consequently composed of one atom of magnesia, one atom oflime, and four atoms of silica,. and its mineralogical: formula willbe C S* + M S?. - Arici VIII. x Demonstration of a Proposition from Simson’s Euclid, y p. 301. . By Mr. James Adams. (To the Editor of the Amah of Philosophy.) ,. SIR, ^ Stonehouse, Jan. 12, 1821. Tue insertion. of the following proposition and demonstration in-the Annalsof Philosophy, when convenient, will oblige ` Your humble servant, JAMES ADAMS. 106 Mr. Adams's Demonstration of a Proposition. [Fxn. Proposition.—To demonstrate that two sides of a triangle that is inclosed within another, may together be greater than any two sides of the triangle that includes it, in any ratio which is less than that of two to one. | Demonstration.— Let ABC A . be a scalene triangle whose ^ shortest side is A B, ia the ` side B C ; take C D equal to A B, and join A D ; make D F also equal to A B, and divide A F into indefinitely small equal parts, such as ` Am, mv, &c. JoinmC,FC; Sls. A then.(20 . 1 e.) will Az + m € > A C, much more will. m F + mC > AC admD + mC > A B + AC. Now suppose A C and the angle B A C to remain constant. while A B, B C, vary; then if À B decrease, C B will increase, for A B + B C will always be greater than A C ; and when A B and its equals, C D, D F, become indefinitely small, the points D and F will approach to the point C, and the point B to the point A as their limits, but to which they never can arrive as long as the triangles B A C and D m C have any magnitude : hence the variable lines B D, B C, m D, approach to the fixed line A C as their limit; so that the difference. between them. may at length become less than any assignable line. If the points D and F be conceived actually to coincide with the point. C, and the points B and m* with the point A, the triangles BA € and D m C will cease to exist, for their equal bases A B and C D will vanish together; then m C + m D would become AC+AC=2ACandAC+AB=AC+O=ACH therefore, the ratio of mC + m D to AB. + A C, may be any ratio, less than two to onc. m d Corollary.— Neither an isosceles triangle standing on its shortest side, nor an equilateral triangle, will answer the condi- tions of the proposition, because the straight line A D, drawn within the triangle A B C, will be /ess than either A B, or its equal A C. | | It is stated at page 301, before quoted, that Pappus Alexan- drinus has demonstrated this proposition in book the third of his mathematical collections, which Í have never seen, neither do I know that a demonstration of the property has been published elsewhere. | * Inthe former part of the demonstration, A F is supposed to be divided into inde- finitely small equal parts, and D F issup to be diminished continually; therefore, A F would, in consequence, increase, become any length less than A G; but since any given quantity divided by an indefinitely great quantity, will produce an indefinitely smal! quantity, A m may be considered indefinitely small. | 1822.) Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. : 107 AnmriCLE IX. | Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) . MY DEAR SIR, | I REGRET that circumstances have occurred which have pre- vented me from completing the sketch of the history of electro- magnetism, of which you have already received a part.. Much has been done in this new branch of science since last April, up to which time my, brief account goes, but I am not so circum- stanced as to be able to give a fair account of it. As you wish for the theoretical notices I had got together, I send them here- with, leaving it with your discretion to use them as you think fit. | lam yours very truly, M. y; oy (Concluded from vol, ii. p. 290, New Series.) . Having, in the previous pages, endeavoured to give you such an account of the experimental results as have been obtained by the labourers in this new branch of science, I will now, in as “ brief a manner as possible, state the theoretical views taken of them by different philosophers as far as I can understand them. The first attempt at a theoretical explanation of the phenomena, which deserves attention, is that of M. Oersted. lt cannot be doubted for a moment by any one who has read the papers of this philosopher both on the discovery and prior to it, that his theory rather led to the experiments, than the experiments to the theory. Chance indeed seems to have had very little to do with the discovery except in retarding it, for the thoughts were con- ceived, and the experiments devised, some time before they were made. Notwithstanding all this, I have very little to say on M. Oersted's theory, for I must confess I do not quite under- stand it. Before the year 1807, a work was published. by M. Oersted, entitled, “ An Inquiry into the Identity of Chemical and Electrical Forces," and the eighth chapter of it 1s occu- pied in considering the identity of the magnetic and electric powers. In this work, M. Oersted proposed to try whether elec- tricity the most latent, has any action on the magnet, and appears to have considered the two powers as identical. When, however, the experiment had been successfully made, M. Oersted was enabled to give a more defined form to his theory, andhis first paper* concludes with an hypothesis that will, he thinks, readily explain all the phenomena. When a wire is made to connect the two poles of a battery so as to discharge the * See Annals of Philosophy, xvi, 216, 108 Historical Sketch of Electromagnetism. [Fis electricities of those poles, an effect is supposed to take place in the wire, dependent on the union of the electricities, called the electric conflict; and it is this effeet,or action, or state of the electricities that is considered capable of affecting the magnetic needle, and changing its‘direction.. AV, Ms oi 7 The electric conflict acts only on the magnetic particles of matter. Allnon-magnetie bodies appear penetrable by the elec- tric conflict, while magnetic bodies, or rather their magnetic articles, resist its passage, and are, therefore, moved by the impetus of the contending powers. The electric conflict is not confined to the conductor, but is considerably extended through” the circumjacent space, otherwise it' could not act on the needle’ ata distance. It also performs circles, for, without this condi- ' tion, M. Oersted says, it seems impossible that'any one part of” the uniting wire d placed below the magnetic pole showta” drive it towards the east, atid when placed above it towards the’ west; but it is the nature of a circle that the motions in oppo- es os should have an opposite direction. . Oersted then adds, that. all the effects on the north pole mentioned in his experiments, may be easily understood by sup- posing that negative electricity moves in a spiral line, bent towards the right, propelling the north pole, but not acting on the south pole. The effects on the south pole are explained in a’ similar manner, if to positive electricity be ascribed a contrary” me and power of acting on the south pole, but not on the north. ' : ^ "The theory of M. Oersted, therefore, seems to require that’ there be two electric fluids; that they be not either combined or’ separate, but in the act of combining so as to produce an electric conflict; that they move nevertheless separate from each other, ` and in opposite spiral directions, through and round the wire; and that they have entirely distinct and different magnetical’ powers; the one electricity (negative) propelling the north pole* of a magnet, but having no action at all on the south pole; the” other electricity (positive) propelling the south pole, but haying’ no ^ pie over the north pole. have before said, that I am not able to comprehend the- whole of the Professors statement, and, perhaps, therefore, ought not to send you any account of it. Itis to be hoped, however, that this celebrated philosopher will shortly develope” the principles more at large, which have already led him to the’ results he has published ; and there can be no doubt that in pur- suing them he will arrive at other results as new to the world, as” important to science, and as honourable to himself, as those he has already made known.* | | . The experiments made by M. Berzelius have been mentioned. in a former part of this letter. They are contained in a letter to * See Annals of Philosophy, ü, 991, New Series.—Ed. 4H899.] — Historical Sketeh of Llectro-magnetism. 409 M. Berthollet.published in the Annales de Chimie, xvi..113,and are accompanied by some theoretical notions ,very different-to those of M. Oersted. Instead of using a round wire to con- „nect the two. polés,,of the battery, M. Berzelius- employed ¿bands of tin, and parallelopipeds, and concludes that they present £he-magnetic phenomena under better circumstances for obser- vation than the round wire. Has conclusion is, that the internal magnetic state of a transverse section of the wire TITO may be represented by two magnets placed with IT Sub dne inches together as in the figure ; so | "that. if the wire used be square, it. willthen bea . metallic parallelopiped through. which the electric |) J) * Qurrent. moves, each of its angles will be a mag- Toho tht »neticipole, equal in. extent to the length of the. . . hike spatallelopiped, through which the currentis passing: the opposite angles will be magnetic poles of the same kind; while those which terminate the same face will have different poles. ‘Hence án. passing a needle round the wire, four poles should be found; a north, a south, a north, and a south.* | š ^ M. Berzelius remarks also, that it appears each-electricity (for he supposes two) is represented in the wire by its. own: magnet, nd that each has its analogous magnetic pole turned to the same side as regards its direction. It is evident, he says, that the ordinary magnetic phenomena differ from those of a current in this, that in the latter case there is a double and inverse pola- rity, while in common magnets thereis only simple polarity, and though the double magnetic polarity may be readily imitated artificially, there are no means known of imitating by electricity, ie simple magnetic polarity. Ee . M. Berzelius thinks that this exposition explains all the pheno- mena that have yet been observed, and will explain all:those that shall be; for, he says, it is sufficient to foretell all: those of which the conducting body is in this state susceptible. He considers M. Ampere as quite wrong in his conjectures, and the hypotheses of M. Oersted, though ingenious, yet very impro- bable. It is, however, probable that M. Berzelius has been himself too hasty inhis conclusions. The state of the wire, indi- cated in the section above, is utterly incompatible with the expe- miments of M. Oersted and others, as may readily be seen ‘by reference to fig. 2, 0, 7, 8, 9, 11, of. Pl. IX, vol. ii. Annals, New Series, and to the phenomena they are intended to illustrate. Andeed.it is only necessary to experiment with a view of ascer- taining the four supposed poles in the angles of a square wire, ‘and it will be immediately found that instead of any particular rangle exhibiting a constant polarity, it will present the pheno- mena of either a north or south pole as the needle approaches from the one or the other side towards it. There can, how- «ever, be but httle doubt that M. Berzelius will correct his opi- — 2#. Annals of Philosophy, ii. 287, New Series, MO Historical Sketch of WBlectro-magretitm. [Ylin -nions, and contribute to the advancement of this branch ofscience, by something worthy of his great name. o. 910 ‘Among the names of those whom I have had occasion to note at different times as occupied in endeavouring to give such an account of the principles of electro-magnetic phenomena as should form a correct theorv, or at least such a statement of the laws which govern them as should account for the phenomena, is that of Dr. Wollaston. haj 7 Fi Dr. Wollaston has not himself, that I know of, published any thing; but a statement appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Science, x. 363, which has his name to it, and is to be assumed, therefore, as containing his opinions. The high value of this philosopher’s opinion is well known, and I should withhold a very important part of this sketch, if I were not to copy all the little that comes with such authority. IET * 'The phenomena exhibited by the electro-magnetic or con- junctive wire may be explained upon the supposition of an elec- tro-magnetic current passing round the axis of the conjunctive wire, its direction depending upon that of the electric current, or upon the poles of the battery with which it is connected. = -~ Dr. Wollaston. S * [n the above figures, such a current is represented in two sections at right angles to the axis of the wire, when similarly electrified, from which it will be Xi rud that the north and south powers meeting will attract each other. * [n the following figures, the sections of the wire are shown N n posee dissimilarly electrified, by which similar magnetic powers meet, and consequently occasion a repulsion.” - M. Schweiger, of Halle, has also proposed a theory which he thinks more.explanatory of the new phenomena than that of M. Oersted. The latter indeed he opposes as insufficient to account for many of the effects, and inconsistent with others. The only account I have yet seen of M. Schweigger's theory is in the Bibliotheque Universelle, March, 1821, p. 199, where it is stated that to explain the phenomena, he supposes two magnetic axes to exist in each transverse section of the conducting wire, the axes being perpendicular to the direction of the current, and the | 3899 Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. HI one above being in one direction, the one below in the opposite direction. This opposition in the direction of the magnetic current in each of these axes is necessary, because of the abso- lutely inverted manner in which the phenomena are presented when the needle is above and below the wire. It is difficult to understand how the above theory is to explain the phenomena described by Oersted, but it would not be fair here to give an opinion on its merits, as the account is not taken from the original paper, but from an abstract drawn up in another language. | | Hd - The Marquis Ridolfi appears to have formed the ides that electricity may be a compound of magnetism and heat, and many experiments are described in the Bibliotheque Universelle, Feb. 1821, p. 114, &c. made with a view of separating electricity into these elements, or of composing it from them. No experimental proofs of the correctness of the opinion were obtained. _ Of all the theoretical views that have been given of electro- magnetical phenomena, those by M. Ampere are the most exten- sive and precise, and have been tested by the application of facts and calculation very far beyond any of the rest. Indeed it is these alone among all those that have been given to the public, which deserve, if any do, the title of A ebat a If I had pro- fessed to send you any thing more than a sketch of electro-mag- netism, I should have been afraid to touch this theory, but as it is, I trust that M. Ampere will excuse the imperfections he ma see in the following account, if for nothing else, yet for the humble professions of this letter. i | . M. Ampere commences by assuming the existence of two electric fluids, according to the theory which is now general, 1 believe, in France. There appears to be no doubt about his meaning on this point, for though he uses the term electricity very frequently, and in a way which might be understood, per- haps, as applying equally either to a particular state of a body, or to a particular fluid existing among its particles, yet by the use of the term electric fluids in one place, and by the mention of electric currents as currents of matter, it is nearly certain that M. Ampere means to speak of electricity as consisting of two distinct fluids, which, though the one is called positive, and the other negative electricity, are to be considered as equally posi- tive in their existence, and possessed of equal powers. | The voltaic battery is considered as an instrument possessing the power of conveymg one of these electricities to the one end, the other to the other end. That which goes to the zinc end of the battery is called positive electricity ; that which goes to the copper end negative: these names being retained, it may’ be qe merely in deference to custom, and not because they "have any reference to particular qualities of either the one or the other fluid. > | | When a metallic wire is made to touch the two poles of the | H2 Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. | fFer. voltaic: battery, being a conductor of electricity, it carries off the two fluids; but the battery having within itself the power of continually conveying fresh portions. of the fluids to thetwo »extremities, the first portions that are removed by the wire:are succeeded by others, and thus currents are produced, which.are «constant as long as the battery remains in action, and the poles „continue connected by the wire. Now as itis in this state that athe wire is capable of affecting the. magnetic ‘needle, itis very -àmportant for tne exact comprehension of the theory that arclear and precise idea of its state, or of what is assumed to be its »state, should be gained, for on it in fact the whole-of the theory vis founded. Portions of matter in the.same state as this wire, may be said to constitute the materials from which M..Ampere . forms, theoretically, not only bar magnets, but even the great magnet of the earth; and we may, therefore, be allowed ¿to expect that a. very clear description will first be offered of sit. This, however, is not the case, and is, I think, very much to be xegretted, since it renders the rest. of the theory considerably - obscure, for though certainly the highly interesting facts disco- wered by M. Ampere could have been described, and the general »laws and arrangements both in conductors and magnets stated „with equal force and effect without any reference to the internal -state-of the wire, but only to the powers which experiment proves it to be endowed with, yet as M. Ampere has chosen »always to refer to the currents in the wire, and:in fact:founds shis theory upon their existence, it became necessary that a cur- anent should be described... . ^ nh aga At p. 63, vol. xv. Annales: de. Chimie, .M. Ampere, while speaking of the battery and connecting wire, says, it is generally agreed that the battery continues to convey the two electricities in the two directions it did at the moment the connexion was _fixst;completed ; “ so that a double current results, the one:of positive electricity, the other of negative electricity, parting in opposite , directions from the points where the electro-motive vaction. exists, and reuniting in that part of the circuit opposed ` »to-£hose points." This reunion would, of course, take place:in »the wire, and one may be allowed to ask, whether the magnetic effects depend on it, as M. Oersted seems to think, who calls it the electric conflict, and also what becomes of the electricities that aceumulate in the wire. But from other parts of M. Ampere’s memoirs, a very different idea of the electric currents “may be gained; the one electricity is considered as continually ‘circulating in one direction; while the other electricity circu- dates. and moves in a current in the opposite direction, so that the two electricities are passing by each other in opposite direc- tions. in the same wire and apparatus. "ad i „Without, however, dwelling on the state of the wire when thus. circumstanced, M. Ampere is content, in order to avoid confusion, when speaking of the direction of the electrical cur- 4ents, to wave attention to, the two, and. to speak :as if *there W. w... T .1822.] Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. : Hs “were but one only, which is to be called the electrical current, without any reference to positive or negative, and which is con- ‘sidered as moving in the battery from the copper to the zinc end, . und in the wire from the zinc to the copper end. : It is evident that thus modified, the existence of the current, and its direction, are assumed. simply for the convenience of having something to which the direction of the electro-magnetical motions may readily be referred; and, Peu one f when thus spoken of, no refer- ence is made to the way in which the double current exists in the wire, or to the cause of the production of magnetism by it. : ^^ In the historical sketch 1 have already given you of the facts -as they were discovered, I mentioned that M. Oersted first ascer- ‘tained the mutual action of the wire and the magnetic needle. . He showed that the apparatus had power over the needle only when the connexion was completed, consequently the electricity must be in progressive motion, or forming a current, as M. Am- pere states, before it can become magnetic. M. Ampere, then, discovered the fact that two electrical currents (using the word in his own sense) were capable of acting on each other, and pro- ducing entirely new electrical phenomena. This discovery was noticed in the former part of this letter,* and it was mentioned that when the. currents were in the same direction, they attracted each other; when in different directions, they repelled each other. These’ attractions and repulsions differ entirely from those exhibited by electricity in a state of tension, as m be seen by referring back to the account given of them. M. Ampere nevertheless considers them as belonging to the electri- city, but only when it moves in currents. They are, he thinks, ut ee on certain properties which these currents possess, and are not produced by the action of any magnetic or other fluid which the electricity has set at liberty. Electricity, when accumulated, has the power of causing cértain attractions: and. repulsions which are called electrical ; when in motion it has the power of causing certain other attractions and repulsions; namely, those in question. - [om | 63 "Having then ascertained these new properties of electric cur- rents, M. Ampere, in.the progress of his reasonings, reverted back to Oersted's experiment, and removing one of the currents, he substituted a magnet in its place. The results were the same as before; the attractions and repulsions were of the same kind, and took place i the same manner; so that the effects which were known to be electrical with the two wires, were produced, when in place of one of them a magnet was used : only, the dis- tribution of the powers in the magnet seemed to differ from that im the wire or current ; for that power which is exhibited by one side of the wire: is concentrated in one end of the magnet, and | "© Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii, p. 215, New Series, New Series, vor. 111. I 114 . Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. .[Fx 5. ow power exhibited by the other side of the wire in the other end. | On taking away the remaining wire, and substituting a second magnet for 1t, the two acted in the usual manner; but the action was found to be analogous to that of two electrical. currents. So that M. Ampere was forced by his experiments, and the view ‘he had taken of them, to conclude, that all the attractions, whether excited by two wires, a wire and a magnet, or two magnets, were purely electrical, and, in fine, that all magnetic phenomena are occasioned by electric currents. | Taken in this point of view, electricity and magnetism are identical, or rather, magnetic phenomena are.a series of electri- .cal phenomena. Hence magnetism should form a branch of electricity under the head of electrical currents; but before we dispose of it in this premature, though convenient, manner, we should endeavour to state what the arrangement of electrical currents are which M. Ampere has found it necessary to assume to account for the various known phenomena of magnetism. ` The arrangement of magnetic power in a conducting wire is so different to that in a magnet, that it is not at first very evident how the one may be considered as convertible into the other. Currents of electricity, according to the theory, were essentially necessary to the production of magnetic phenomena, but where are the currents in a common magnet? It was a bold thought to say they actually existed in it, but M. Ampere has ventured the idea, and has so arranged them, theoretically, as to account for . very many ram phenomena. | A magnet, M. Ampere says, is an assemblage of as many .electric currents moving in planes perpendicular to the axis, as there may be conceived lines, which, without cutting each other, form closed curves ; for, he. says, it seems impossible to him from the simple corisideration of the facts, to doubt that there are really such currents round the axes of magnets ; and magne- tization consists, he says, in an operation by which there is given to the particles of steel the property of producing in the direc- tion of the currents before spoken of, the same electromotive action which is found in the voltaic pile, the electric calamine of mineralogists, the heated taitin, and even in the I formed of moistened paper, and discs of the same metal at different temperatures. With regard to the extent of the curves which these currents travel through, the theory has not yet decided whether it relates to the whole magnet, or to the particles of which it is formed. If a section of a magnet perpendicular to its axis be conceived, the currents situated in it may either be concentric, in which case they will vary gradually in extent, or they may exist round each particle, in which case they are of uniform size, but very minute. It appears from calculation that either of these arrange- 1822.) Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. 115 "ments would account for the phenomena. M. Ampere is, I believe, inclined to adopt the latter.* .. Conceiving a magnet then to be formed in this way of electric currents, and reverting to the experimental results obtained b the action of a wire and a magnet on each other, if one end ofthe magnet be presented to one side of the wire, it will attract it; if ‘to the other side, it will repel it. The reason according to the -theory is evident: the currents pass in different directions on the two sides of the magnet up on one side down on the other. ‘When that side is towards the wire in which the currents move in the same direction as in the wire, attraction takes place; when the opposite side is towards the wire, repulsion takes place, ‘because the currents are in opposite directions. If the magnet be turned round, and the other pole be brought near the wire, ‘the direction of the currents in the magnet will be turned also, ‘and motions opposite to those which before took place will now occur, because the place of the similar and dissimilar currents has been changed. In consequence of the idea which had been formed of a mag- 'netas an assemblage of electric currents in planes perpendicular ‘to the magnetic axes, M. Ampere endeavoured to obtain an ‘imitation by forming a spiral or helix of wire, and passing a cur- rent of electricity through it. As the electricity traversed the spirals, it would nearly resemble the different currents in the magnet; and the effect of the obliquity of the spirals was coun- 'teracted by returning the wire from the extremity down the axes of the helix. This instrument has been described before, and the gea of the effects produced by it to those of the magnet ‘Stated. deni It would lead me far beyond my original intention were T to extend further on this part of M. Ampere's theory, nor is there any occasion ; for I am sure all those who are anxious to under- “stand or pursue the subject, will think it necessary to read M. Ampere's papers ; and for those who may think a sketch suffi- cient, I have already said enough. Let us, therefore, notice "very briefly that philosopher's opinions on terrestrial magnetism. ~ Naturally led by his elaborate views to substitute terrestrial magnetism for the magnet he had previously used in experiments on the wire, M. Ampere was induced to suspend a circle very delicately, in hopes the earth's magnetism would make it tra- verse; for as according to his theory, wire and magnets moved each other, not by-any supposed pole or point of attraction and repulsion, but by the attraction and repulsion of the currents passing through them, he hoped to be able to make a current move also by those he assumed to exist in the earth. The suc- cess of this experiment has been related,f and was certainly -sufficient to make the author trust very confidently to a theory ...* Journal de Physique, xcii. 163. | : T Annals of Philosophy, ii, 981, New Series. + Ibid, ii. 279. 12 116 Historical Sketch of Blectro-magnetism. | [Fwr. which had guided him so safely to such novel and important results. ial ed) 3gobs e beniloni exniad The traversing of the curve; by the magnetism of the earth added another argument to those in support of M. Ampere’s theory. If the experiment had not succeeded, the distinction ‘between the curve and the needle would have been fairly urged against the theory ; as it succeeded, it admits of being adduced as another proof that currents in.curves such as those M. Am- pere assumes to exist in the magnet, are sufficient to account for the | penile presented by it. But the'important conclusion M. Ampere arrives at from itis, that the magnetism of the earth is itself caused by currents of electricity, which, moving from the east towards the west round the globe are at right angles to the magnetic meridian, These currents, if they exist, are compared to those which would be found in a voltaic battery if its two extremities were made to meet, . There, is. nothing probably in the globe which can be compared to. the continuous conductor formed by the metallic wire, but M. Ampere has shown that. the battery itself is magnetic; and he, supposes, it probable that the arrangement of the materials of the globe may be such as to constitute a battery existing likea girdle round the earth, which, though composed .of comparatively, weak. elements, is suffi- €iently extensiye to- produce the effeets of terrestrial magnetism. its irregularity in that ease would,account for the distorted forms of lines of similar variation, and the changes that take place in it, would explain. the change of the direction. of. the. needle. Some general action, however,| is snpposed to exist which aids an producing. the; eyrrends of glegtrcity,, and. ina, direction approaching parallelism with the equator; and the variation is Supposed to;depend.on the progress of oxidation. in, the conti- mental regions, of the earthy A Mi To ul. O: 3518 Des Ko The diurnal variation is considered as dependent ou the diurnal change of temperature; in the superficial electro-motors of the globe. , The various strata of magnetic materials are considered as so many voltaic.piles. js. qued, duana Supposing that electric currents actually, exist. in, the. masses ‘of matter which form the planetary and stellar globes,,M, Am- pere suggests the possibility that they may sometimes. be so powerful as to make the heat which is, necessarily excited rise to ignition, Im this case, a. permanent) incandescence. with a brilliant light would. be produced without. either combustion.or dogs of substance. “ May we not suppose,” says M. Ampere, * that the opaque globes are so only because of the small degr of energy in the electric currents established in them, and. ip. the more active currents, the cause of the heat, and. light. of those globes that. shine by themselves.” (qx ekhi do 2499 Such, Sir, is the sketch I must beg you to accept of M. Am- pere’s theory. I need not again apologize for its imperfections, but refer, as to an easy remedy, to the philosopher's own papers. 1822] Historical Sketch of Blectro-magnetism. 117: im the Annales de Chimie. I must again say, that having assumed the'existence of two distinct electric fluids, and the identity of electricity with magnetism, I think the first part of the theory by no means sufficiently developed. M. Oersted has, in this respect; aimed at more perfection than M. Ampere ; with: what success; it is not necessary for me to determine. — [To the historical sketch of electro-maenetism with which T have been favoured by my anonymous correspondent, I shall add a sketch of the discoveries that have been made by Mr. Faraday, of the Royal Institution; the memoirs which ‘contain the account of these very important experiments are’ contained in the 12th volume of the Quarterly Journal.— Ed.] Mr. Faraday’s attention was first directed to the verification: of the results: obtained by previous experimenters as: tov the attractions and repulsions of the needle by a connecting wire: in attempting this, he ascertained that the position of the needle: with respect to the wire greatly modified the effects produced ; he ascertained that the apparent attraction of the needle on one side, and its consequent repulsion on the other, did not occur: under all circumstances; but that accordingly as tle wire was. placed nearer to, or further from, the pivot of the needle, attrae- tion or repulsion was produced: on the same side of the wire : this will, perhaps, be more clearly understood in the author's. own words: “ If the wire be made to approach perpendicularly . towards one pole of the needle, the pole will pass off on one side in that direction which the attraction and. repulsion at. the: extreme point of the pole would give; but if the wire be conti- nually made to approach the centre of motion, by either the one or the other side of the needle, the tendency to move in the former direction diminishes; it then becomes null, and the needle is quite indifferent to the wire ; and ultimately the motion is reversed, and the needle powerfully endeavours to pass the opposite way." H ` From the faets which have been: now stated, Mr. Faraday concludes, that the centre of magnetic action, or true pole of the needle, is not placed at its extremity, but in its axis at a little distance from the extremity and. towards the middle ; that this point has a tendency to revolve round the wire, and necessarily, therefore, the wire round the point; and as the same: effects in the opposite direction take place with the other pole, it is evi- dent, in the opinion of Mr. F. that each pole had the power of acting on the wire by itself, and not as any part of the needle, or as connected with the opposite pole. The attractions and repulsions he considers. merely as exhibitions of the revolving motion in different parts of the circle. ! | It will not be necessary to follow Mr. Faraday through all the ‘difficulties which he had to contend. with, or to describe every 118 Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. ` [Fes.. ingenious form of apparatus by which these difficulties were. overcome. The annexed cut will exhibit one of the | modes which he employed to exhibit the motion of a wire round a magnetic pole. Place a portion of mer- cury in a tube closed below by a cork, and fix a small magnet so that one pole shall project above the surface of the mercury. Take a piece of clean copper wire about two inches in length, amalga- mate the two ends, form a loop at one end, and at - the end of another piece of wire form another loop, by which hang. the first piece; this affords free motion, and the amalgam allows good contact, fix this over the magnet, so that the end of the moveable piece shall just dip into the mercury ; then connect the mercury with one pole of a voltaic combination, which is readily done through the magnet, and the wire with the other; and the moveable part will im- mediately revolve round the magnetic pole, and con- tinue to do so as long as the contact is continued. On bringing the magnetic pole from the centre of motion to the side of the wire, there was neither attraction nor repulsion; but the wire endeavoured to pass off in: a circle, still leaving the pole for its centre, and that either on: one side or the other according to circumstances. ` All the directions of the motion are reducible to two; when. a current of electricity passes through the wire, the north pole. rotates in one direction, and the south in the other. . Suppose a» watch lying on the table, and let its face be considered as the: mercury, and the pivot, the north pole of a magnet; a wire: dipping into it being negative below, and positive above, would. pass: round the pole in the direction of the hands of the watch; if. the connexion be reversed, or the magnetic pole changed, the motion will be the reverse of the hands. If the wire be: made fast, and the pole move round it, the motion is similar, and : in the same direction. iL Our limits will not allow us to describe the numerous and» highly curious and interesting experiments which Mr. Faraday has made with the poles and wires, having one or more of each, > and arranged in different ways. The results of some of these: experiments were, that needles, instead of being attracted by» their poles, were attracted by their centres.. Needles were not, attracted merely by the wire, but on arriving at it, still endea- voured to continue their course in the direction in which they: had begun it, and on the wire being removed from the one side , to the other of them, so as to obviate the mechanical impe- . diment it offered, they move on as at first, being apparently » repelled: no attraction was observed to exist between a pole . and a wire : all these phenomena are referable to the revolving . motion. | | TL There are someresults relating to the theory of M. Ampere which ; _ — 1822:] — Historical Sketch of Electro-magnetism. 119 appear very extraordinary. It is first noticed that there is a similarity between the natural magnet and the helice electrò- | magnet of M. Ampere. It is also observed that owing to the ` form of the imitation, and the properties of the wire, such a helix must.exhibit the properties of the two sides of the wire in a separated state at its extremities. Mr. Faraday then proceeds to notice the polarity of a circle formed from a portion of con- necting wire, and of the helice : this he considers to be merely the result of rotation. In revolving round a wire, the pole describes a circle in. a plane perpendicular to it, and it moves with equal force in each part of the circle. These circles it would describe round each successive portion of the wire ; but let the wire be considered as bent into a ring, and it is evident these circles recede from each other in the external part, while in the centre of the ring they converge together and accumulate in one spot just as would happen with the spirals of a bell-spring if it were bent into a ring ; consequently the powers which move | the pole are most energetic in the centre of the ring into which the wire is formed ; and though the movement has the appear- ance of attraction on one side of the ring, and of repulsion on. the other, it is always that of rotation; hence the production of what ‘are called poles; and the transition from the poles of a. ting to the poles of helices are clearly made out. This explanation. of the electro-magnet is then followed by experimental illustrations, and it is afterwards compared with. the common magnet; the accordance Mr. Faraday appears to. . think as great; but he nevertheless mentions some differences ; among them are the following: The similar poles of magnets’ repel at most distances, but if brought very near to each other, they attract ; this attraction is not strong, and it differs from that of dissimilar poles in not inducing any neutralizing effect. Two dissimilar poles will take up a certain quantity of iron- filings when separate; when together, they will not take up nearly so much, but two similar poles will take up as much, and: even more, when together, than when separate. This effect is not produced by the helice magnet. Is it not probable that the effect mentioned by. Mr. Faraday may result from the reciprocal inductive action of the magnets upon each other? ids No success attended any of the attempts to render the proper- ties of common cylinder magnets similar to those of the helice magnets. M. Ampere's experiment of directing a curved con- ducting wire-by the magnetism of the earth was repeated with success. - | The influence of the earth's magnetism in producing the. effects which had been obtained by a common magnet was next endeavoured to be ascertained by Mr. Faraday ; at first he was unsuccessful; but since. his first paper was published, a second has appeared in the form of a note at page 416 of the Institution Journal, which contains facts meriting a much more conspicuous 120 Historical Sketch of Bleetro-mugnetiom. (Fihi place. As the action of the magnetic pole on the wire was always independent of the axis joining the extremes or poles of the magnet; it was concluded that in those motions which would probably be produced by the earth, all consideration of the magnetic axes might be omitted for the time, and the pole considered as a point, the position of which is indicated by the dipping needle, Mr. Faraday does not appear to lay much stress on the existence of magnetic poles in the earth, but is rather inclined to consider them as apparent only, and the result of an action analogous to that of the ring before spoken of; but he seems to assume the dipping needle as indicating the resultant of all the terrestrial magnetic forces ; and, therefore, as the datum on which to commence, Mr. Faraday has made a mistake in iving the dip as 72° 30’; it is only 70° 30'. The motions, wever, do not regard the quantity of dip so as to be confined to a certain range, but probably occur in any part of the earth. » Judging from the former experiments, the results expected were that a connecting wire would always move laterally, and in a plane at right angles to the dip: this requires the wire to be | ecoute to the dip; if removed from the perpendicular a ittle way, it would still, however, move, though with diminished force. To get this result experimentally, a horizontal piece of wire was suspended from the ceiling by a silk thread, its ends dipped into mercury in two basins, and these were connected with the voltaic apparatus ; the wire immediately moved laterally,and thatin every azimuth, and the direction of the motion was precisely that described in the former experiments. Thus when the wire was E. and. W. the E. end to the zinc, and the W. end to the copper plate, a single pair of plates being used, the motion was towards: the N.; when the connexions were reversed, the motion was to- wards theS. When the wire hung N. and S. the N.end to thezine |y the S. end to the copper plate, the motion was towards the . when the connexions were reversed towards the E. and the intermediate positions had their motions in intermediate directions. An apparatus was made use of in another experiment resem- bling that described for the revolving motion, but larger and more delicate, and the moveable wire was made to form a greater angle with a perpendicular than that formed by the dipping needle. In these circumstances, the moment the communica- tion was completed, revolution began, and continued by the magnetic force of the earth alone on the wire, Mr. F. deduces from these experiments, the cause of the direction taken by Ampere's curve. Considering it as a polygon óf an infinite number of sides, he shows that the attempt of those sides to rotate by terrestrial magnetism would place the curve in the position, M. Ampere found it to take in his experi- ments, “Mr. Faraday concludes this part of his note by stat- ing his expectation “ that in every part of the terrestrial globe, an electro-magnetic wire, if left to the free action of terrestrial. 1822.] — Mr. Murray's Reply to B. M. 121 magnetism, will move in'a plane (for so the small part we eat experiment on may be considered) perpendicular to the dip^of the needle, and in a direction perpendicular to the current of electricity passing through it." - | - An expectation was entertained, in consequence of this law, that where the dip was small, a difference in the weight of am electro-magnetic wire might be perceived when the current d through it in different directions. In endeavouring to estimate if the difference were perceptible im these latitudes, a . very remarkable effect was observed. On suspending a piece of wire from a lever, and letting very fine wires dip from it into two cups of mercury, it apparently became lighter every time the electric current was passed through it either one way or the other. This effect was at last found not to be a real alteration in the gravity of the wire, but to be an affection of the mercury, with which it was in contact. The wires when dipped into the metal drew upa little elevation around them owing to the cohe- sive attraction of the mercury. On close inspection, it was observed that every time the connexions were completed, these elevations were diminished, so that in fact the wire was lightened of a portion of the weight before attached toit; on breaking the connexions the elevations resumed their original bulk. Hence when electricity passes from a fine wire into mercury, or from mercury into à fine wire, an effect is produced equivalent to & diminution of the cohesive attraction of the mercury. . Whether itis really such a diminution, or is due to some other cause; remains to be determined. ! In concluding this imperfect sketch of the labours of. Mr. Faraday in this new and interesting branch of science, we earnestly recommend him to continue his researches on a subject which he has so ably illustrated and enriched by discoveries that are in the highest degree curious and important. ARTICLE X. Reply to B. M. By John Murray, FLS. MWS. &c. &c. x (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Surry Institution, Jan. 12, 1822. I am a stranger to the name which the letters B. M. are pro- posed to adumbrate. If truth be the object of this writer, why does he blush to own it? Is science to be a masquerade, and its friends appear in false or fictitious characters? An honest mam ought to be ashamed of such a contemptible subterfuge—“ talia fures? It is something to grapple with a noble enemy even ^ 122 Mr. Murray's Reply to B. M. [Fes- should we fall in the contest, but it is neither expedient nor pro- fitable to exchange “ thrusts” with a shadow. I have thus premised, because I have laid it down as a fixed principle never to notice any attack upon me by anonymous personages, ‘and this must be my apology for the undisturbed silence I shall in future preserve in similar cases. i The observations introduced into the pages of the Philoso- phical Magazine comprise only a very few selected from very: many experiments on the subject in question, and I drew m inferences from the combined aggregate, and not from individual and insulated phenomena. The ?nefficacy of steel or iron filings in cases of poisoning by muriate of mercury as pronounced by: B. M. and their efficacy as inferred by analogy, on my part, is the subject in both cases of mere opinion. Here then we stand on equal ground. The subject of poisons has received much of my attention ; and when my erperiments come to be detailed, perhaps it will be seen that I shall have laboured to better pur- pose in this interesting field than B. M. A This writer has inferred, that the steel he used had no magne- tism-in its composition, because it did not attract iron filings ; but how numerous are the instances where magnetism obtains, and this property is absent. De la Rive’s floating annulus is highly magnetic, but I have not observed any tendency to attract iron filings. Perhaps the authority of Sir H. Davy may weigh with B..M. “The only proof of the "e ae powers of electri- city passing through such a fluid was afforded by its effect upon. the magnetized needle." But it is needless to extend observa- tions. of this description, when we know position, juxta position with a magnet, filing, hammering, scowering, twisting, &c. all communicate magnetism to steel or iron; and it is more than probable that magnetism is never absent from iron, and that to this may be ascribed the action, of ferruginous bodies on the magnet in which the attractive effect seems mutual. l was not ignorant of the action of muriate of mercury or nitrate of silver on steel which B. M. has presumed to suppose (after he himself seems to have been set right with respect to the latter) by referring to the authorities he thus superfluously quotes. The precipitation of one metal by another, as of n by iron, silver by copper, &c. has been ascribed to voltaic influence by Von Grotthus, Sylvester, Donovan, &c.; while the principle is generally recognized by philosophers ; and, prima facie, is it not reasonable to suppose that the separation of every metal from its combination with every acid whatever (at least to the great extent I have proved it to be) is to be attributed to the magnetism of the iron or steel, an influence or power possessed almost exclusively by them? Where am I to find recorded that iron separates silver from a solution of the acetate, or platinum from the mitromuriate, &c. Even the extensive and almost 1822.] Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. . 123 unbounded power which iron exercises over the domain of metallic salts would itself be a discovery. The cause of the effect is the only legitimate subject of question. As to the phenomena of the bars immersed in phosphorous acid (B. M. seems to have. used phosphoric acid), | have simply stated the fact asit occurred: to me, and became the object of my senses ; and the same obser-. vation i to the platinum wires. This last was witnessed by several persons as well as myself, though it is neither for nor. against the general issue ; neither do I mean to insist upon this phenomenon, which may have been the incidental effect of an. impurity in the solution of nitrate of silver ; but that the pheno- menon did occur as I have described it, I do most unequivocally: assert. | i -I have nothing to do with the mere hypothetical part of B. M.’s paper; I must, however, stigmatize the expression |. * fallacious " (which he, however, with one exception only, has proved experimentally correct), and “ inferences unwarranted by facts,” to be precipitate, rude, and ungentlemanly. I have the honour to be (in haste), Sir, Your obedient servant, J. Murray. ARTICLE XI. On Canmium, and the Habitudes of some of its Ores, showing the: Means of detecting the Presence of the Metal in English. Ores of Zinc. By E. D. Clarke, LL.D. Professor of Mineralogy in the ‘University of Cambridge, &c. | | (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Cambridge, Jan. 21, 1822. Ir is now nearly two years since I communicated to the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy a discovery (since fully con- firmed by much abler chemists than myself) of the presence of. Cadmium in the Derbyshire ores of zinc.* || As I believe that the complete. reduction of this metal and 1ts exhibition in the metallic state have not yet been accomplished by any chemist. in Great. Britain, (all the specimens of it that have been seen, coming to us from the continent), I shall again call the attention of your chemical readers towards the means we possess of effecting this object, especially as I have since discovered cadmium in a greater variety of substances than I was at first aware of, and. have it in my power thereby greatly to facilitate the means of procuring it. In one single instance, and almost accidentally, I. "i (5 * See Annals of Philosophy, Xv. 21 2, Art. V. dated: Feb. 18, 1820, have myself succeeded in the revival of cadmium, so as to witness its beautiful silvery aspect; but I have never been able to obtain the metal in any quantity, and it is only within the last week, owing to the kindness of Dr. Wollaston, who presented me with 2 lamina of pure cadmium, às he received it from Professor Stromeyer, that 1 have had the satisfaction of examining this: curious substance. From the appearance exhibited by this spe- cimen, it has the colour and aiam of silver, and has all the pliability of a piece of tin foil. Its other characters in the: metallic state are known, and, therefore, need not be mentioned. Before I proceed to any further account of its ores, I will just mention two experiments for its revival, which seem to be attended with success. The first I have once before men- tioned ; it consists in filing a. glass test-tube (which con- tains a portion of the oxide of cadmium adhering to the inner surface) with Aydrogen gas, and then with a common blow- pipe directing the flame of a. candle against the tube, so as to give it a red heat. In this experiment, if care. be used so as to prevent the breaking of the glass tube, metallic cadmium seems appareut m a thin cuticle upon the inner surface of the glass vessel. I have said “ seems apparent," because the quan- tity is too small to allow of any satisfactory examination after- wards, and also because it may be objected that this metallic appearance is owing to the revival, not of the cadmium from its oxide, but of another metallic oxide used in the manufacture of the glass. Another way, less liable to objection, relates to an experiment by which | undoubtedly obtained. a sight of this metal, although in a quantity so minute as to be hardly visible to the naked eye. It was accomplished in the following man- ner: A small quantity of the pure oxide of cadmium was dis- solved in muriatic acid, and a piece of paper being steeped in the solution and dried, was made into a pellet between the fingers, and supported upon a slip of platinum foil before the blue flame ofthe blowpipe. Hereasthe muriate became concentrated b the burning of the paper, and afterwards decomposed, the oz: of cadmium was beed by the carbonaceous matter both of the paper and the blue flame, and as it began to burn' and to exhibit its reddish-brown protoxide upon the platinum foil, a small bead of cadmium remained upon the surface of the platinum; which, being fixed into the end of a deal splinter, admitted the action of the file, and exhibited the silvery aspect of the pure metal. In this experiment I had no room to doubt of the nature of the result; because the oride which I used came from Professor Stromeyer himself, and there was no impurity in any of the sub- stances I had employed. As the temperature at which cadmium becomes volatilized 1s so inconsiderable, it is of course difficult to attempt its reduction by means of heat; the metal burning im the very instant of its revival, unless the greatest caution be observed. The phenomena, however, attendant upon its com- 1822.] Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. 125 bustion are among the most remarkable properties of the metal, and they are those of which chemists have availed themselves in detecting the presence of very minute portions of cadmium in its various Ores. Berzelius, in the inestimable volume which he has recently published upon the ** Use of the. Blowpipe,"* seizes with avidity this striking character, and makes it the prominent and discriminating character of the ores of cadmium. -But long before the publication of this work of Berzelius, and at the time when Dr. Wollaston, by his own experiments confirmed the fact of the discovery of cadmium in the English ores of zinci this illustrious chemist had already availed himself of the same striking property in the metal. Speaking of: the oride of cadmium as obtained from those ores, in a letter which I received from him dated February 14, 1820,°Dr. Wollaston says, “ fixed at the tip of the blue flame, itis gradually reduced, yolatilizes, and is carried along the slip of plata, coating it with its, peculiar reddish-brown protoxide in a way that cannot be mistaken by one who has once seen it." Indeed so striking is the manifestation of this characterin ores containing the most minute portions of cadmium that the fact of its presence in the silicates and carbonates of sinc needs no other test. But there is a method of putting those minerals to the trial of cadmium which seems to me preferable to that mentioned by Berxzelius, who uses charcoal for à support. It i$ simply this : Triturate a portion of the silicate or carbonate, of zinc supposed or not to contain cadmium, and place abont the tenth of a grain of the powder upon a slip of platinum foil. Then direct the blue: flame of a candle towards it by. means of the blowpipe; if any cad- mium be present, its oxide will be reduced, volatilized,. and a protoxide will be deposited upon the surface of the platinum, with the peculiar reddish-brown colour before mentioned. ¿Another mode. of showing the presence of cadmium in the ores of zinc, remarkable for its simplicity and certainty, is also due to. Dr. Wollaston. This consists in dissolving the edr- donates of zinc, or gelatinizing the silicates in muriatic acid, getting rid of the excess of acid, and adding distilled water ; Ahen removing any metals that iron will precipitate, and. filter- aa ** De l'Emploi du Chalumeau dans les Analyses Chimiques," &c, a Paris, 1891. - ji * “Ce phénomène est si marqué dans l'oxide de cadmium, que les minéraux qui comme le carbonate de zinc, contiennent un ou deux pour cent de carbonate de cadmium, étant exposes un seul instant au feu de réduction, déposent à peu de distance de la matière d'essai, un anneau jaune ou orangé d'oxide de cadmium que l'on apércoit Pau- tant mieux que le charbon est plus refroidi, Cet anneau se forme: bien avant lê com- mencement de la réduction de l'oxide de zinc, et si les’flocons de zinc se montrent en "méme temps, c'est une preuve quel'on a poussé l'insufflation trop loin; mais si l'on ne peut découvrir aucune trace jaune avant que la fumée de zine commence à former un depot sur le nes on doit en conclure que la matiere d'essai ne contient pas. de cad- mium." (bid. p. 132.) " ; | (o Dr. Clarke since writing this;article has himself discovered cadmium in the metallic Jar sheet gine.of commerce, <À communication from him upon this subject will appear in our next number, — Ed. 126 Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. (FE. ing the solution, which is to be received into a platinum capsule, containing a piece of zinc. The cadmium, if any be present, will coat over the interior surface of the capsule with a precipitate of a dull leaden hue, and will adhere so firmly as that it may be washed, and thereby freed from any remaining solution of zinc. Muriatic acid being now poured ‘into the capsule will dissolve the lead-coloured coating with effervescence, and either the carbonate of potass or caustic potass will yield a white precipitate, which, by heat -before the blue flame of the blowpipe, will exhibit the remarkable :character already pointed out, as characteristic of Cadmium. - As it will not I hope be long before some of the chemists of Great Britain will obtain cadmium in the metallic state from the res which this country affords, I will mention the localities of some of them, and give such a description of the minerals in which I have myself detected the presence of this metal, that there can be no difficulty in meeting with a supply of ore neces- sary for the experiment. | "The Cumberland. Cave, near Matlock, contains both silicate and carbonate of zinc, and both are cadmiferous. I have received from Professor Sedgwick of this University, specimens of both those minerals, which he himself brought from that cave. ‘The carbonate being the most abundant, I will describe this first. All the carbonates and silicates of xinc found in the Cumberland Cave go by the name of Calamine, and are promiscuously sold by 'the dealers in minerals, either as electric or non-electric Claie. ‘just as the name best ‘answers the purposes of sale. Hence -arises that confusion in cabinets of mineralogy, whose owners, trusting to the dealers, have not given themselves the trouble to examine chemically the specimens they have bought. Nothing can be more easy than to distinguish between a carbonate and a silicate of zinc, even when they are not crystallized: both are soluble in acids leaving no residue, but the first effervesces upon ` the immediate action of the acid ; while the second, exhibiting no effervescence, forms, as the solution evaporates before a fire, or over a lamp, in a watch glass, a transparent jelly. | The carbonate of zinc of the Cumberland Cave is often sold as a silicate. It is a very compound mineral, consisting of no less than three distinct varieties of the carbonate aggregated into one mass, besides galena, fluor, quartz, sulphate of barytes,* and other bodies. To speak, therefore, of the specific gravity of such a mineral mass would be absurd. Of the three varieties of the carbonate of zinc which it contains, all are cadmiferous. The Jirst is of a honey colour, exhibiting a sparry fracture, and a * Small flattened acicular crystals of the sulphate of barytes are seen in the cavities, Opaque, and of a white colour. Immersed in muriatic acid these crystals effervesce owing to some earthy carbonate of zinc, by which they are covered; but they become wv transparent, and remain insoluble, exhibiting their true characters before the blowpipe. à 1822.] | Dr. Clarke on, Cadmium. . 197 radiated structure, like wavellite.. The second is a grey stalactite body, externally resembling chalcedony, and appears in cavities as if the substance, like tallow or wax, had been melted and flowed over.the. surfaces of those cavities. The third is an earthy, or arenaceous body, of an orange-brown colour, wholl soluble, with the most lively effervescence, in muriatic acid. All these contain rather less than one per cent. of carbonate of cad- mium; insomuch that when the mineral has been triturated and exposed upon platinum foil to the action of the blue flame before the blow-pipe, the proof of the presence of cadmium is made instantly apparent by the test already mentioned. T . In the same cave where this carbonate is found, there is found another mineral, called also Calamine, which is cadmiferous.; but which instead of being, like the former minerai, a carbonate, is a silicate of zinc. This occurs more rarely, but the mineral is crystallized, and very pure, aud gelatinizes in muriatic acid, in the most perfect and transparent manner, being slowly soluble in that acid without any effervescence.* ‘This mineral presents an aggregation of small crystals, whose forms cannot distinctly be ascertained. Externally it is of a grey colour, and when broken, the interior of the crystals exhibits the sort of radiated or stellar structure, which characterizes one variety of the car- bonate ; and the two minerals so much resemble each other in this respect, and in their lustre and colour, that they may easily be confounded. The specific gravity of the silicate estimated in pump water at the temperature of 50° of Fahrenheit equals 3:10. Possibly all the Derbyshire carbonates of zinc may contain cadmium, as well as some of the silicates. This metal appears to me to be so decidedly present in many of the ores used in our manufactories that I have reason to believe it exists also in the zinc manufactured from those ores ; for if a little sheet zinc be scraped with a knife, and the powder placed upon charcoal or upon platinum foil, and exposed. to the blowpipe, the appearance of the “anneau jaune, ou orangé, d'oxide de cadmium,” mentioned by Derzelius as a test of the presence of the metal is easily manifested. This is a matter which may soon be confirmed or contradicted by a regular chemical examination of the zc of commerce. ^. Other carbonates of, zinc containing cadmium are those of Mendip, in Somersetshire, of a dark grey colour, investing cavi- ties, as a stalactite, in masses otherwise of a reddish-brown hue. I have not been able to detect any of this metal in the carbonates of zinc from Holywell, in Flintshire. The specimens which. I examined were stalactites, which had coated over the crystals of other bodies, and destroyed them; appearing in hollow pseu- * It was found in the Cumberland Cave as before mentioned, by Prof. Sedgwick. T See a former note. i 128 Dr. Nieholl on a peculiar Impérfection [Fibl domorphose forms. 1 have also been unable to ascertain its esence in the white botryoidal silicates of xinc from Hungary. But as this article has already been extended to a greater length than T at first expected, I shall, for the present, postpone making; any further observations. doo oL tke boc O EDWARD DANIEL CLARKE. * HJ AnrICLE XII. | Remarks on a peculiar Imperfection of Vision with Regard to Colours... By Whitlock Nicholl, MD. MRIA. FLS.&c. &c. ` (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) j 1.4 STR, | Cases of imperfection of vision with regard to colours are recorded in the Philosophical Transactions ; and similar cases,* which I have reported, have been published in the Transactions of the Medical and Chirurgical Society of Londón-F — — "The principal peculiarities in each of these cases dre; the confounding red with green, and pink with blue. Since no attempt has (as far as I am acquainted) been made to explain the cause of these peculiarities of vision, I am tempted to hazard some conjectures respecting it. UM icis] db id Before I enter, however, on the subject of these cases, I must premise a few general observations. | | Cases occur in which the sensibility of the retina, with regard to light, is above the natural standard. We also meet with eases in which that sensibility is below that standard. In the former cases, a faint degree of light causes the production of that sensation which we term seeing; whereas, in the latter instances, a strong degree of light is requisite for the production of that sensation. A retina, then, may besensible to a powerful degree of light, although it is insensible to fainter degrees of light. | | : i P When the retina has been powerfully acted upon by a power- ful degree of light, it may become insensible to light; or, if it , have been accustomed to the action of strong degrees of light, it may become insensible to fainter degrees of light; whereas a retina, from which all strong degrees of light have been for LE p withheld, may become sensible to very faint degrees of licht. | LÀ | hen the retina has been powerfully acted upon by one parti- cular set of the prismatic rays, it may become iisensible to that * See two papers, the one bearing daté Jan. 1177 ; the other, May in thesame year. * Vols. vii. and ix. t Y E. 1822.] of Vision with Regard to Colours, 129 set; yet it may continue sensible, or it may be so in an increased degree to the other sets of rays. | | hen the retina has been for some time powerfully acted. upon by rays) of light which have produced the sensation seeing red, that sensation will at length cease, although the action of those rays be continued ; yet if at such time the action of those rays be even continued, or if rays of mixed light be admitted to the retina, or if all rays of light be excluded from the retina, the sensation seeing green willarise. In like manner, the long conti- nuance of seeing green leads to the production of seeing red. ) When after the long continuance of the sensation seeing red, the sensation seeing green arises in the manner just described ` (and vice versá), although the sensation thus undergoes a change with regard to what we term colour, it continues precisely the same with regard to what we term shape, and extent of surface; so that a retina which has become insensible to the action of one of the prismatic rays may still be adequate to all the com- mon purposes of vision, since, although there may be a defect of sensation with regard to colour, it does not follow that there is any defect with regard to shape and extent of surface. It appears then that there is a certain state of the retina necessary, in order that the mixed rays of light so affect it as to produce vision. It also appears, that there is a particular state of the retina requisite, in order that each separate and distinct . set of the rays of light so affect it as to produce a corresponding peculiar and distinct kind of vision. ‘There is, for instance, a. state of the retina in which all the rays of light, whether blended or distinct, so affect the retina as to produce vision. Such. a state may be termed general sensibility of the retina. There is a state of the retina in which all the rays of light, whether blended or distinct, fail to affect the retina in such a manner as to produce vision. Such a state may be termed general ¿nsensi- bility of the retina. There is a state of the retina in which a certain set of the prismatic rays (as, for instance, the red rays) fail to produce a corresponding kind of vision. There is also. a state of the retina in which only one set of the prismatic rays (as, for instance, the red rays) affects the retina in such a manner as to produce vision. In such cases, there is partial sensibility and also partial insensibility of the retina, That state of retina then which fits it for being so acted upon by one particular set of the prismatic rays as to produce vision, does not necessarily fitit for being so acted upon by another set, or by all the other sets, of the prismatic rays. It appears then that whenever light acts upon the retina in such manner as to produce vision, it produces a certain condi- tion or state of the retina which is essential to the existence of that kind. of sensation which is termed seeing. It appears also, that in order that each distinct set of the prismatic rays so affect the retina as to produce a distinct corresponding kind of the New Series, vor. 111. K 130 Dr. Nicholl on a peculiar Imperfection [Fes. sensation seeing, it is necessary that it produce a distinct corre- sponding state of the retina, which state is essential to the existence of such corresponding sensation. There is, for instance, one state of the retina which is essential to the exist- ence of the sensation seeing red; another state which is essential to the presence of the sensation seeing yellow ; and so on. So that, when we speak of seeing a certain fixed number of colours, we imply that the retina can have that number of distinct states produced init. These states which are essential to the presence of sensation, I have termed sensual states. Let us call that sensual state which produces the sensation seeing red, A; that which produces seeing orange, B; that. which gives rise to seeing yellow, C; that which produces seein green, D ; that which causes seeing blue, E; and that whic roduces seeing violet, F. | , Et has been already stated, that when the sensation seeing red can no longer be produced by the action of rays of light, the sensation seeing green may still be produced, or it may arise spon- taneously ; and vice versd. It follows then that the sensual state of retina, A, is a state different from, or opposite to, the sensual state, D. | i It appears then that if a retina be capable of assuming the several states, A; B, C, D, E, F, the individual who pos- sesses that retina may have the several sensations, seeing red, seeing orange, seeing yellow, seeing green, seeing blue, seeing violet, produced. If the retina be incapable of assuming any sensual state, the individual possessing it cannot have vision produced, he will be blind; but if'a retina be incapable of assuming the state, A, the possessor of it cannot have the sénsa- tion seeing red, he will be blind qwoad that sensation, and so with regard to the other sensual states. The several sensual states of the retina from which the varie- ties of vision arise are commonly produced by the action of rays of light; butit has been shown that the sensations seeing red and seeing green may arise in the absence of light. It follows then that the presence of rays of light is not essential to the production of sensual states of the retina, or, in other words, to the presence of various kinds of vision. By whatever means then a sensual state of the retina is produced, by such means will vision be produced ; the particular kind of sensation pre- sent will depend upon the particular state which is induced ; for instance, by whatever means the state, A, is produced, by such means seeing red will be produced, and so on. The sensations seeing red, seeing yellow, &c. are then only so far dependent upon the action of light, in as much as such action produces a corresponding sensual state of the retina ; for seeing a colour is a sensation dependent upon a peculiar state of the retina which is'commonly produced by the action of rays of light, but which may arise in the absence of those rays. 1822.] of Vision with Regard to Colours. 181 "The colour then which is seen in any case is connected with the presence of rays of light only in the relation of effect and cause. Light is divisible by the prism into several sets of rays, whereof one set excites the sensation seeing red, the next seeing orange, the third seeing yellow, the fourth seeing green, the fifth seeing blue, and the sixth seeing violet. These several sets are distin- guished by the names red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet rays. ‘The red, yellow, and blue rays are termed primary rays. The orange ray 1s considered as a compound of the red and yellow rays ; the green, as a compound of the yellow and blue rays; and the violet, as a compound of the blue and red rays. The orange, the green, and the violet rays are, therefore, termed compound rays. ~ Let us suppose a retina to be insensible to red rays. In such a case, it would be sensible to the two other primary rays, namely, to the yellow and to the blue rays. It would be sensi- ble also to the ray compounded of these two rays; namely, to the green ray. The action of light then upon such a retina might produce the sensations seeing yellow, seeing green, and seeing blue. It would not produce the sensation, seeing red. And as the orange and the violet rays are each in part com- pounded of the red ray, the sensations seeing orange, or seeing violet, would not be produced by the action of light upon such a jeune, 9 Let us suppose a retina to be insensible to yellow rays. In such a case 1t would be sensible to the two other primary rays ; namely, to the red, and to the blue rays, and also to the ray compounded of these two rays ; namely, to the violetray. The action of light then upon such aretina might produce the sensations seeing red, seeing blue, and seeing violet ; but it would not produce seeing yellow. And as the orange and the green rays are each in part compounded of the yellow ray, the sensations seeing orange and seeing green would not be produced by the action of light upon sucha retina. ` 3 Let us suppose a retina to be insensible to blue rays. In such a case, it would be sensible to the two other primary rays; . mamely, to the red and to the yellow rays, and also to the ray compounded of these two; namely, to the orange ray. The action of light then upon such a retina might produce the sensa- tions seeing red, seeing orange, and seeing yellow; but it would not produce seeing blue. And as the green and the violet rays are each in part compounded of the blue ray, the sensations seeing green and seeing violet, would not be produced by the action of light upon such a retina. | If a retina be insensible to the orange ray, it may be so from being insensible either to the red, or to the yellow rays, of which two rays the orange ray is compounded. In the former case, seeing blue, seeing yellow, and seeing green, may arise: in K 2 132 Dr. Nicholl on a peculiar Imperfection {Fes. the latter case, seeing red, seeing blue, and seeing violet, may arise from the action of light. In either case, seeing blue may be produced. ay If a retina be insensible to the green ray, it may be so from being insensible, either to the yalio, or to the blue rays, of which two rays the green ray is compounded. In the former case, seeing red, seeing blue, and seeing violet, may arise ; in the latter case, seeing red, seeing yellow, and seeing orange, may arise from the action of light. In either case, seeing red may arise. If a retina be insensible to the violet ray, it may be so from being insensible either to the red or the blue rays, of which two rays the violet ray is compounded. In the former case, seeing yellow, seeing blue, and seeing green, may arise; in the latter case, seeing red, seeing yellow, and seeing orange, may arise from the action of light. In either case, seeing yellow may arise. It appears then that if a retina be insensible to a primary or to a compound ray of light, it can only be affected by light so as to give rise to the sensations seeing three prismatic colours, two of which colours will be primary colours, and the third, a colour compounded of these two. | Let us apply the preceding observations to the retine of the individuals who are the subjects of the cases alluded to at the commencement of this paper. By these individuals red is confounded with green, and pink with blue. | | | q We have seen that, in ordinary retinæ, the sensual state A, or that which produces seeing red, is different from, and indeed opposite to, that state, D, which gives rise to seeing. green. 1t is highly improbable then that in these individuals the red ray and the green ray should excite the same kind of sensual state of retina, or that two different sensual states (as A and D) should be produced by the action either of the red or of the green ray; If then the red ray and the green ray cannot produce the same sensual state, and if two different sensual states (as A and D) be not produced by those two rays, it follows, that in these indi- viduals, one of those rays fails to produce a sensual state of the retina ; that, in other words, their retine are insensible, either to the red or to the green ray ; consequently, that if they have sensation produced by the red ray, they have none excited by the green ray, and vice versé. ' We arrive then at this conclusion, that the retinz of these individuals are insensible, either to the red ray, or to the green ray. Yr they are insensible to the red ray, those individuals can, as we have seen, only have the sensations seeing yellow, seeing blue, and seeing green, produced by the prismatic rays. |... ^ | 1822.) -of Vision with Regard to Colours. 133 s: If they are insensible to the green ray, they may, as has been shown, have the sensations seeing red, seeing yellow, and seeing orange; or seeing red, seeing blue, and seeing violet, produced by the action of the prismatic rays. | These individuals confound pink with blue. Pink is a faint shade of red. Now as I have argued that the red and the green rays cannot each affect the retine of these persons so as to produce seeing, but that their retine must be insensible to one of these two prismatic rays, so may I adduce the same arguments to prove that they cannot be sensible both to pink and to blue rays ; but that they must be insensible either to pink or to blue rays. If they are sensible to pink rays, we must conclude that they are also sensible to red rays. But if they are sensible to pink, we must suppose them to be insensible to blue; conse- quently, if they are sensible to red and pink rays, they are insen- sible to blue rays. | lt appears then that the retine of. these persons are sensible either.to yellow, blue, and green rays, or to red, yellow, and orange rays, In either case, their retine will be sensible to yellow rays. We accordingly find that these individuals never confound the sensation which is excited in the presence of the yellow ray, with any of those which are produced in the presence of either ofthe other prismatic rays. Their retine are fully sensible to the yellow ray. . If then the retinz of these persons be sensible to green and to blue rays, they are insensible to red and to orange rays. As the green ray is compounded of the yellow and of the blue rays; as the orange ray is compounded of the red and of the yellow rays; as yellow enters into the composition both of the green and ofthe orange rays ; and as the retine of these persons are sensible to yellow; it appears that they are insensible either to the red orto the blue rays of light. If then these persons can have the sensation seeing red, they cannot have the sensations seeing green, seeing blue, Or seeing violet; and if they can have the sensation see/ng blue, they canüot have the sensations seeing red, seeing órange, and seeing violet. In either case then they must be insensible to the violet rays. It sometimes happens when the retine of ordinary individuals have been for a long time acted upon by strong light, that if the blended rays of light be then thrown upon the retina, the sensa- tion which results from their action is that of seeing red, we explain this occurrence by supposing, that in consequence of long exposure to strong light, the retina has become insensible to all the rays, excepting the red rays. The red ray then appears to exert a more powerful influence on the retina than any of the prismatic rays. : Of all the prismatic rays, the red ray is the least refrangible, 134 Dr. Nicholl on a peculiar Imperfection (Fes. and the most heating ; next in order, in these réspects, is the orange ray ; and, thirdly, the yellow ray. ul aas From what has been MN then it appears probable that if a retina be insensible either to the red, or to the blue rays, it is insensible to the latter of these rather than to the former. . If then we suppose that the retine of these individuals are insensible to the blue rays, they are sensible to the red, to the orange, and to the yellow rays, which are the three most power- ful, most heating, and least refrangible, of all the calorific rays. . We arrive then at this conclusion that the retina» of these individuals are sensible to red and to yellow rays, and to the rays compounded of these two sets of rays, or to orauge rays ; but that they are insensible to green, to blue, and to violet rays. I proceed, lastly, to compare the conclusions at which I have arrived with the facts observable in the cases of these indivi- duals. Butit must be recollected, that it is impossible to ascer- tain the kind of the sensation seeing’ which any ray of light produces in another person by its action upon his retina. We can only ascertain whether two different rays do or do not excite in him two sensations, which he describes as differing from each other. For instance, it is impossible to ascertain whether the red ray produces in another person the same kind of sensation that it excites in me; but I can ascertain whether the red ray produces in him a sensation different from that which he receives in the presence of any other ray. Both he and I agree to call the sensation which the red ray excites in each of us seeing red, but this term does not describe the kind of sensation ; it merely denotes that such sensation is different from the sensations which are produced in him by other prismatic rays. The action of the first set of the prismatic rays upon the retinee of these individuals gives rise to the sensation seeing a colour; and to describe this sensation, they employ the term which others use to denote the sensation produced by the action of that set, they call it seeing red.* | The action of the second set of the prismatic rays upon the retine of these persons gives rise to the sensation seeing a colour, which they describe as being of a kind different from that which arises from the action of the first set of rays; and to describe this sensation, they employ the term which others use to denote the sensation, produced by the action of the second set of rays; they callit seeeng orange. f The action of the third set of the prismatic rays upon the retine of these persons gives rise to the sensation seeing a colour, which. they describe as being different from. those which are produced by the first and second sets of prismatic rays; and to describe this sensation they employ the term which others use to * They sometimes call it also seeing green, since they use the terms seeing red and. sccing green indiseriminately to denote the same kind of sensation. 1822.] of Vision with Regard to Colours. 135 denote the sensation arising from the action of the third set of rays; they:call it seeing yellow. f It will be recollected that when the sensation seeing red has been for a long time kept up in ordinary cases by the continued action of the first set of the prismatic rays, the sensation seeing green arises, and vice versd.. But (in the case of Mr. Buchanan*) when the long continued action of the first set of prismatic rays: had produced the long continuance of seeing colour (which he also terms seeing red), no other sensation. of seeing a different colour arose ; so that, in his case, the long continuance of seeing red does not produce seeing preen, as it does in ordinary cases. When the retine of these individuals are exposed to the action of the fourth set of the prismatic rays, a sensation seeing a colour is present, which they describe as being the same as that which is produced by the action of the first set of prismatic rays. The first and the fourth set of rays do not then produce in these per= sons two different kinds: of sensation: If then the first set of the prismatic rays produces a peculiar corresponding sensation, the fourth set of those rays does not produce such sensation as L, have already endeavoured to prove; so that if we admit that these persons can have the sensation seeing red produced, we must deny their being able to see green; we must suppose their retine to be insensible to the green rays ; to be, in other words, incapable of assuming the sensual state D ; and this inference: seems confirmed by the fact of no new sensation arising in Mr. Buchanan after the long continuance of that sensation seeing colour which is produced in him by the long-continued action of the red ray upon his retina. We are then, | think, warranted in supposing that these individuals do not see green. Why then do: they see red in the presence of the green ray? As far as regards the green ray, they are in the state of a nyctalopic, whose retina is sensible only to the red. rays which are contained in’ mixed light. They are in a state similar to that of persons whose retine have been long acted upon by green rays, and who then have the sensation seeing red, although their retina are still acted upon by green rays. The retine of these persons cannot assume: the sensual state D; the presence of the green ray, therefore, does not produce any sensation. As then the sensation seeing red. arises in the presence of the green ray, and as such sensa- tion can be produced only by the action of red rays, such sensation must arise from the action of the most powerful of the rays which are contained in the mixed light to which their retine are also exposed ; namely, of the red rays ; so that when their reting are exposed to green rays, since they cannot assume the state D, and as they are sensible only to red, orange, or yellow” œ Medico-Chirurg. Trans, vol ix. Part II. The experiment was not made in the case, : 136 Dr. Nicholl on a peculiar Imperfection [Fes. rays, they are acted upon by thered rays which are contained in, the mixed light to which they are also exposed, and the sensual. state A arises. | t oh |, When the retine of these individuals are exposed to the action. of the. fifth set of prismatic rays, the sensation seeing a colour: arises. This sensation is not the same as either of those which. arises from the action of the first, of the second, or of the third. set of prismatic rays. They describe it as not being the same as. seeing red, seeing orange, or seeing yellow. Wishing then to distinguish by name the sensation which arises in the presence. of the fifth set of prismatic rays, they apply to it the name: which others use to denote the sensation produced in them b the action of those rays ; they call it seeing blue. These indi- viduals confound dark blue with crimson. Crimson is a dark shade of red. What they call seeing blue is then seeing a deep dark shade of that colour which is excited by the red ray... The subjects of the two cases which 1 have recorded cali the crimson, curtains of their respective beds blue by day-light, and red by: candle-light. That is, by day-light, they have the sensation: seeing a dark shade of vu whereas, by candle-light, they have a fainter degree of that sensation, or the sensation seeing a: lighter shade of that colour. As they use the term blue to: denote seeing a dark shade of red, so do they use the term Light, blue to denote seeing light shades of red, which other people call pink, or they indiscriminately use the terms light blue and pink to denote the same sensation. When then the darker shades of blue are presented to the retinz of these individuals, as their, retine are (as I have endeavoured to. prove) insensible. to blue: rays, they will not have the sensation eiae blue, but they wall, be acted upon by red rays of a dark shade, which excite the: sensation seeing dark red. For if they did not see any colour: during the presence of dark blue rays, they would see black, and: seeing only a few red rays mixed with o colour, they, in fact, . seea dark shade of red. Mr. Buchanan informs me that he can-- not distinguish dark blue from black by. candle-light, and he. p that what gives him by day the sensation seeing dusky red, affects him so little by candle-light, that he then scarcely sees; any colour. These persons confound grass green with scarlet, light blue with pink, dark biue with crimson, very dark red with, black. , The fact then appears to be, that these individuals see: red, see orange, and see yellow, from the actions. of the first. second, and third sets of. rays respectively.; but that, as they, advance in the prismatic range, their retine are affected only by the red rays of the mixed light to which they are also exposed, they see only shades of red, varying as they advance towards the | most refrangible rays, from a sensation similar to that which is excited by the first set of the prismatic rays to less vivid degrees of the same sensation, until at length no sensual state being 1822.] of Vision with Regard to Colours. 137 produced in the retine, they have a sensation similar to that which is present in the absence of all luminous rays ; that is, they see black. They have sensations of seeing colour excited only by red and yellow rays, and by the various compounds of these two rays ; and they have distinct sensations produced onl by strong rays of these sets of prismatic rays; for all dark shades of red, of orange, of brown, as well as deep green and purple, are by them confounded with black, i. e. with the absence of all colour. The subject of one of my cases saw but three colours when he looked through a prism. Mr. Buchanan says that the rainbow appears to him yellow in the centre, and. blue at the edges, which latter assertion proves that he uses the terms red and blue to denote similar sensations. The order of. the prismatic rays being as follows : Red, orange, yellow, green, light blue, dark blue, violet. . The corresponding order of sensa- tions which arise in these individuals, in the presence of these successive prismatic rays, are as follows: Red, orange; yellow, red, pink, dark red, dark indistinct colour, orblack. |. . .. The facts observable in the cases of these individuals seem to. ie with the conclusion which I arrived at in the earlier part of this paper; namely, that the retine» of these individuals „are sensible to red and to yellow rays, and to the rays compounded of these two sets of rays, or to orange rays, but that they are insensible to green, to blue, and to violet rays. | . Some persons possess auditory organs, which enable them to discriminate a great variety of sounds, while other individuals. who possess great quickness of hearing with regard to sound in. general, are, nevertheless, unable to distinguish any great variety in the kind of sounds which they hear. There is general sensibi-. lity of the auditory nerve required for the production of the. general sensation hearing ; there is a partial. sensibility of that. nerve required for the production of varieties in the kind. of that sensation. If an auditory nerve be so formed as to be capable of assuming a great variety of sensual states according to the. nature of the impressions made upon it, the possessor of that nerve is said to possess a nice ear, while he whose auditory nerve possesses only general sensibility is said to have an unmusical ear. It is the same with regard to the retina. It may possess general sensibility, enabling its possessor to see shape aud extent of surface accurately, while it is incapable of assuming the usual variety of sensual states, thereby preventing the possessor of it from seeing that variety with regard to colour, which the posses- sors ofthe ordinary kinds of retine are enabled to distinguish. — 138 Mr. Alderson on Congreve Rockets. [Frs. i ArticLe XIII. | | On Congreve Rockets, . By Lieut. R. C. Alderson, (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Hull, Jan. 12, 1892, Í was very much astonished on reading in the 12th number of the Annals of Philosophy for December last, under the head ôf Scientific Intelligence, the very ingenious invention of the application of the Congreve rockets to the whale fishery attri- buted to Capt. Scoresby of the Fame. Asa friend of Lieut. Colquhoun, of the Royal Artillery, the inventor of this mode of destruction to the whale, I cannot help contradicting a state- ment so erroneous. Lieut. Colquhoun having applied to the son of Capt. Scoresby, of the Fame, who commanded a fishing ship hick sailed from Liverpool, to take him out for the pur- pose of trying the effect of the rockets on the whale, and finding that that gentleman had previously engaged to take out Capt. Manby on a different plan, was recommended by the son to the father Capt. Scoresby of the Fame, at Hull, with whom Lieut. Colquhoun and two artilleryman sailed ; the result ofthe voyage was, as stated in your valuable work, successful beyond expec- tation ; and I have no doubt from the improvements made in the weapon by the patentees, Sir William Congreve, Bart. whose name stands deservedly so high in the scientific world, and Lieut. Colquhoun, since the voyage, that it will be of vital importance to those concerned in this trade in all its branches, and more patticularly in the sperm fishery, since it requires little skill in its application, and wet has no effect whatever on it. I shall esteem myself particularly obliged if you will give publi- city to these facts in any shape you may think proper; and allow me to subscribe myself, Sir, Your most obedient humble servant, ` - R. C. ALDERSON, Lieut. Roy. Engineers. . ArticLte XIV. Statements of Professor Playfair respecting the University of . | Cambridge. ` (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Trinity College, Oct. 25, 1821. I nope you will allow me to take advantage of your pages for the purpose of correcting certain mis-statements which have 1822.] Prof. Playfair on the University of Cambridge. 189 been recently made by some eminent writers. of Scotland with respect to the history of the Newtonian philosophy in this Uni versity. The assertions of which I speak are to be found in the second part of the late Professor Playfair’s “ Dissertation on the History of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences,” which accompanies the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica : and. are repeated to a certain extent in the second part of the corresponding Dissertation on. the History of the Moral and Metaphysical Sciences by Mr. Dugald Stewart. . The first. of these authors has stated, that in the University of Cambridge the Cartesian system kept its ground for more than 30 years after the publication of Newton's discoveries in 1687 : and that, at the end of that interval, the Newtonian philosophy entered the University by “ stratagem,” and under the protection of the Cartesian, in consequence of the publication of a translation of Rohault’s Physics, accompanied with notes, by Clarke, about 1718: the purport of the notes possibly escaping. the notice of the ‘ learned doctors," who, the writer seems to have thought, had the principal direction of academical education. A belief is further expressed in a note, that ** the Universities of St. An- drew's and Edinburgh were the first in Britain where the New- tonian philosophy was made the subject of the academical prelections." . i shall be as brief as possible in showing how extremely inac- curate these statements are. One of the principal proofs adduced is an expression of Whiston's, in his Memoirs, where he says that David Gregory was inculcating the Newtonian hypothesis at Edinburgh, while they (* poor wretches") at Cambridge were studying the Cartesian. Considering the great age of Whiston when he wrote his life, his expulsion from the Jniversity, and his notorious inaccuracy, he cannot beconsidered as unexceptionable authority on this side of the question, But it is Curious enough that in the very page of his book in which this passage is found, he also speaks of setting himself ** to the study of Sir Isaac Newton's wonderful discoveries, in his Philo- sophie Naturalis Principia Mathematica, one or two of which lectures," he says, “ 1 had heard him read in the public schools, though I understood them not at. all at that time.” These “ academical prelections" were probably previous to the publi- cation of the Principia in 1687; and at all events it seems a strange undertaking to set up a claim of priority for any other lectures, in opposition to those of Newton himself upon his own philosophy. And, little as the reader would suppose it from the statements above referred to, his successors in this professorship were as zealous promulgators of his doctrines as their contempo- ranes in any other place. Newton was Mathematical Professor at Cambridge at the time when he published the Principia, and con- tinued so for 16 years afterwards. The same Whiston became, in 1699, his deputy, and in 1703 his successor ; in which capaci- 140 On Statements by Prof. Playfair. [Fer ties he delivered lectures, which he afterwards published (in 1707 and 1710) under the titles, ** Prelectiones Astronomice,” &c. and ** Prelectiones Physico-Mathematice, Cantabrigia | in Scholis Publicis habite, quibus Philosophia Illustrissimi Newtoni Mathematica explicatius traditur et facilius demonstratur; à Gulielmo Whiston, AM. et Matheseos Professore Lucasiano. In usum Juventutis Academice.” In 1707 the celebrated Saunder- son, having acquired an extraordinary portion of mathematical knowledge, came to Cambridge with the intention of fixing him- self in the University by means of it. . And though the subject was already occupied by Whiston, the blind. geometer was encouraged, with the permission of the Professor himself, to give a course of lectures on “ the Principia, Optics, and Arith- meti¢a Universalis, of Newton : " which lecturés, we are informed by his biographers, became extraordinarily popular. . In 1711 „Saunderson succeeded to the Lucasian professorship ; which he held till 1739 ; so that I presume I may here venture to break off the chain of evidence of an uninterrupted succession, from the time of Newton himself, of professors who have delivered his philosophy from the chair which he had occupied. And se much for the claim of its priority in the academical prelections of other places. | 14 It is further asserted that though the professors in England. might, at an early period, be Newtonians, as, for instance, David Gregory, who removed from Edinburgh to Oxford in 1690; “the real and efficient system of the Universities was not cast in that mould till long afterwards.” Now why we should suppose the lectures of the scholar at Edinburgh or St. Andrew's, to have been more efficient than the lectures either of the same person or of his master, at one of the English Universities, | am com- pletely at a loss to discover. I do not, however, mean that the sublime system of our wonderful philosopher was universally adopted or understood as soon as it was delivered. I believe, that at that time the possession of the knowledge and qualifica- tions requisite for the study of the Principia was very rare in any University ; and the reception of that memorable work among the great continental geometers is a sufficient proof that it was. not sure of finding favour even with men of eminent: mathema- tical attainments, and great love of truth. It must of necessity have required some time to pervade so great a number of per- sons, of such various talents and tastes, as are in the English Universities thought necessary for effectual instruction... Espe- cially too when it is considered that the subject to which the discoveries referred, formed only a part, and at that time not & — part, of the course of academical studies. We do, owever, find very earlv indications of the Newtonian — making their way into all parts of the system of the University. About 1694, the celebrated Samuel Clarke, then an undergra- duate, defended in the schools a question taken from the philo- 1822.] respecting the University of Cambridge. 141 sophy of Newton—a step which must have had the approbation of the moderator who presided at the disputations: and his translation of Rohault, with references in the notes to the Prin- cipia, was first published in 1697; and not in 1718, as Prof. Playfair has strangely asserted It was republished in 1702 with more copious additions from the principles of Newton, which could hardly “ escape the notice ” of any body who saw the book, since they are mentioned in the title page.* Public exercises, or acts as they are called, founded on every part of the Newtonian system, are spoken of by Saunderson’s biographers} as very common about 1707. By this time these studies were extensively diffused in the University ; and it is mentioned that the Principia rose to above four times its original price.f In 1709-10, when Dr. Laughton, of Clare Hall, a zealous Newto- nian, was proctor, instead of appointing a moderator, he dis- charged the office himself; and by the most active exertions, stimulated still further the progress of mathematical science. He had previously published a paper of questions on the Newto- nian Philosophy, apparently as theses for the disputations. He had been tutor in Clare Hall from 1694. The lectures of persons in that capacity Prof. Playfair considers as the only effective part of the University system; and according to him, these instructions were very late in receiving the impression of New- tonianism. Dr. Laughton’s had probably been on Newtonian principles for the whole or the greater part of his tutorship ; but it is certain that for some years he had been diligently inculcat- ing those doctrines, and that the credit and popularity of his college had risen very high in consequence of his reputation. It may be remarked also, that Cotes, the friend and disciple of Newton and Bentley, who first made his philosophy known to the readers of general literature, resided in Cambridge during the time of which we are speaking ; the one as Plumian Pro- fessor, and the other as Master of Trinity College ; and it can hardly be supposed that their influence would not be exerted in favour of the system which they admired. This indeed might be the less necessary, as there is not, so faras I have discovered, the slightest circumstance which indicates any opposition to its introduction. | | * A third edition appeared in 1710, with mathematical investigations, by Mr. Charles Morgan, of the laws of falling bodies, the rainbow, &c. which contained as good an elementary exposition of those parts of applied mathematics, as, I believe, existed at that time: so that the book might probably, as Prof. Playfair asserts, be in use at a later period. What misled Prof. Playfair so far as to induce him to assign 1718 as the date of Clarke's translation, I am at a loss to imagine ; except it were that he took his information from Hutton's Mathematical Dictionary, under the word . Rohault, where the edition of 1718 (the fourth) is the only one mentioned. + See Preface to his Algebra. t From 10s. or 12s, to 2l. 2s. For these particulars see Nichols’ Literary Anece dotes, vol. iii, p. 332. 149 Prof. Playfair on the University of Cambridge. [Frx. It is unnecessary to make any separate answer to the obser- ‘vations of Mr. Stewart ;* as even if we allow his assertions, they will not imply any thing very “Sita to us. The amount to this; that the philosophy of Newton was publich taught at Edinburgh and St. Andrew’s before it was general. adopted at Cambridge, That this was after it had been publich taught here, I think I have proved. The Scotch were fortunate in possessing in the Gregorys men of great mathematical talents, of minds open to conviction, and of industry and capacity to master in a short time a new system of the universe ; but even they, we may suppose, could not transfuse these qualifications at once into the whole body of their pupils. After what time the ‘Newtonian doctrines had been stu v in Scotland to the extent which the facts above mentioned indicate with respect to Cam- bridge, the very different constitution of their academical esta- blishments from ours, gives us nó means of judging. (inpet: "Without attempting to trace further the history and progress of that philosophy which is now so zealously cultivated in the University of Cambridge, I have, I trust, sufficiently shown that the assertions with respect to the tardy influence of Newtonian- ism, have been hazarded with great inattention to facts ; and I may be allowed to add, that it seems very doubtful whether evidence equally strong can be produced of its early prevalence in any other academical institution. The respect and admira- tion which are attached to the names with whose authority the assertions in question have come to us, feelings in which 1 sin- cerely participate, make it highly desirable that their inaccurac should be exposed. In reply to misrepresentations so extraor dinary, I have not allowed myself to go beyond a plain statement of facts. en 11 I am, Sir, | Your obedient servant. * It would be exceedingly interesting, and might throw some light upon the question, to see a copy of the ** Compend of Newton's Principia,” of which mention is made in Hutton's Dictionary, and quoted by Mr. Stewart, and which is there said to have sup- plied Theses for academical disputations at Edinburgh in 1690. - The interval between the publication of the Principia and the date of this document is extraordinarily short : the candidates for degrees who could in 1690 defend such a series of positions, must have begun to study that work the moment it issued from the press ; except we sup that then, when the ideas it contained were so new, and when the preparatory mathematics were so much more laborious than they are now, it occupied a shorter time than it is found to require from a modern student. E 1822.] Analyses of Books: 143 ARTICLE XV. ANALYSES OF Books. Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1821. Part TE: (Concluded from p. 63.) XVI. Observations on Napthaline, a peculiar Substance resem- bling a concrete essential Oil, which 4s apparently produced during the Tyasaia of Coal Tar by Exposure toa Red Heat. By . J. Kidd, MD. Professor of Chemistry, Oxford. : (Communicated by W. H. Wollaston, MD. FRS.) i x EE Dr. Kidd observes that although.this substance has been noticed both in the Annals of Philosophy and the Institution Journal, there has not yet appeared, as far as he has been able to discover, any systematic description of the mode by which it may be obtained, or of its relation to the substance from which it was produced. | In For the mode m which this substance (which Dr. Kidd-pro- poses to call naphthaline) is: usually obtained, we refer to the journals already mentioned. Dr. Kidd procured ‘it with several other products by passing the vapour of coal tar through an ignited. iron tube. . | ! AasvewoR. nodo He first obtained in a condensing vessel an aqueous fluid, hav- ing an ammoniacal-odour, and a dark-coloured liquid, resembling: tar in appearance ; the properties. of both of which are minutély detailed. Some of this dark-coloured liquid was submitted to slow distillation ; the product consisted of two fluids, one of which had the appearance of oil, and the other of water. After these products had passed over, “ a conerete substance, as white as snow, began to collect in dispersed crystalline flocculi, in the upper part of the body and neck of the retort, so as, in a short time, almost wholly to obstrüct the passage." "This was the e yet sought for, and its properties are thus given by Dr. 1 . ^ri d "i x , UÉYT I" L i : * Properties of the white concrete Substance.—Taste, pungent and aromatic. ha Š H i i —^* ]t is particularly characterized by its odour, which is faintly aromatic, and not unlike that of the narcissus and some other fragrant flowers. This odour is readily diffused through the surrounding atmosphere to the distance of several feet, and obstinately adheres for a long time to any substance to which it . has been communicated. i ; “When in its purest state, and reduced to powder, it is exceed- ingly smooth, and slightly unctuous to the touch; is perfectly white, and of a silvery lustre. ** Specific gravity rather greater than that of water. 144 Analyses of Books. [Fes * It does not very readily evaporate at the common atmosphe- rical temperature ; for, à comparison being made between this substance and camphor, in the quantity of half a grain of each in a very minute state of division, it was found that the camphor had entirely disappeared at the end of 18 hours, while the sub- stance in question had not disappeared entirely at the end of four days. 3 ! x A quantity of it being exposed to heat in a glass vessel soon melted ; but did not begin to boil till the temperature had reached 410° of Fahrenheit: the heat being then withdrawn, it remained liquid till cooled down to 180°; at which point the lowest por- tion was seen ooy to congeal : the remaining portion con- gealed gradually ; and when the whole had become solid, its temperature was 170°. The structure of the congealed mass was. distinctly crystalline, and the crystalline lamine were slightly flexible. | ** [tis not very readily inflamed ; but when inflamed, it burns. rapidly, and emits an unusually copious and dense smoke, which soon breaks into distinct particles that fall down in every direction. | ; iw di “ Does not affect the colour either of litmus or of turmeric. ** Insoluble in cold water; and very sparingly soluble in boil- ing water, from which it separates, in cooling, in such a manner as to render the water milky, which was before transparent : a portion. however, still remains dissolved, for the water, when ltered, possesses in a slight degree the taste and odour of the substance, and after a few hours deposits it in minute crystals. ** Readily soluble in alcohol, and still more so in ether, at any temperature ; the solubility, in either instance, greatly increased. by increase of temperature. rofa * A solution of this substance in four times its weight of boil- ing alcohol becomes, in cooling, a solid crystalline mass. It is precipitated from its solution in alcohol by water, without acquir- ing any additional weight. “ [t is soluble in olive oil, and in oil of turpentine. fii * [t does not combine either with an aqueous solution of potash or ammonia; nor is it sensibly affected by contact with ammoniacal gas. | ** Soluble in acetic and in oxalic acid, to each of which it communicates a clear pink colour. A saturated hot acetic solu- tion becomes a solid crystalline mass in cooling. | * It blackens sulphuric acid when boiled in it; the addition of water to the mixture having no other effect than to dilute the colour : neither does any precipitation take place. upon saturat- ing the acid with ammonia. | ** Sparingly soluble in hot muriatic acid, to which it commu- nicates a purplish pink colour. | büg vu ! ** When boiled in nitric acid, it both decomposes; the acid, and is itself altered in its composition ; and, in cooling, is abun- 1892,] Philosophical Transactions for.1821, Pari IT. 145 dantly deposited in short acicular crystals aggregated in. stellis form groups... These. crystals, pressed between folds of unsized. paper, in order to separate the adhering acid, and then exposed to heat, are readily melted : in cooling, the melted mass shows evident traces of acicular crystallization, and the crystals are of a yellow eolour. This yellow substance is readily inflamed, burns with a bright flame, emits much smoke, and leaves a consider- ablé residuum of carbon. . i | Al | rM * Of all the characters. of the white concrete substance described in this section, its ready disposition to: crystallize is, perhaps, the mostremarkable.) . "m : ` » “ If thrown into a red-hot crucible, a dense white vapour arises from it; which, being received into a bell glass placed over the crucible, is condensed round the lower part of the glass. in the form of a white powder ; but in the upper and cooler part of the glass distinctly crystalline plates are forraed, of a beautiful silvery lustre. | "ihr à * A similar and equally beautiful crystallization’ may be obtained by boiling this substance in water, in a glass matrass having along neck ; in the upper part of which crystals will be formed and deposited during the boiling. . “If exposed to a degree of heat not more than sufficient to melt it under a beli glass, the vapour that rises from it crystallizes before it reaches the surface cf the glass, and flies about the interior with exactly the appearance of a shower of minute parti- cles of snow. ! | | | . “ Ifa piece of cotton twine be coiled up like the wick of a candle, and after having been dipped in this substance while melted, be set on fire for a second or two, and then blown out, the vapour will soon begin to crystallize round the wick in very distinct thin transparent lamine. - “ This experiment affords one mark of distinction between this substance and benzoic acid, and also between it and cam- phor; for under other similar circumstances, benzoic acid crys- talizes.in acicular crystals, which are often grouped in a stelliform ; and camphor crystallizes, or is rather congealed, in . globülar particles having a stalagmitic appearance. | * The most usual crystalline form. of this substance is a rhombic plate, of which the greater angle appears to be from 100? to 105?: crystals at least of that form I have repeatedly ob- tained from its solutions in water, in alcohol, in acetic acid, in the yellow oil described in the last section ; and lastly, by meit- ing and. very slowly cooling the substance itself. Sometimes several of these plates are variously grouped together; some- times a single plate intersects another plate at nearly right angles, so that in some points of view the compound crystal appears simply cruciform. The only distinct modifications .. which | have observed of the common form are a rhomboidal plate, which is very nearly rectangular ; and an hexagonal plate: New Series, voL. 111. L ^ 146 e — Analyses of Books. (Fes. the latter variety may be easily traced from the rhombic plate by the incomplete developement of the smaller angles of the usual rhomb." ipa . With respect to the elementary constitution of this substance, Dr. Kidd says, that he is “ not enabled to give any satisfactory information ; but it is evident that it contains a very great pro- portion of carbon." ` It is greatly to be regreted, that Dr. Kidd did not complete his labours by giving an analysis of this curious substance. ` XVII. On the Aberrations Y Compound Lenses and Object Glasses. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. FRS. &c. In the commencement of this elaborate communication, its author remarks, that it has been made a subject of reproach to mathematicians who have occupied themselves with the theory ofthe refracting telescope, that the practical benefit derived from their speculations has by no means been commensurate to the expenditure of analytical skill they have called for. Mr. Herschel has, therefore, in this valuable paper supplied the artist with practical matter which cannot fail to prove of the highest utility. | XVII. An Account of the Skeletons of the Dugong, two horned Rhinoceros, and Tapir of Sumatra, sent to England Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Governor of Bencoolen. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS, - With respect to the dugong, Sir Everard remarks, that ‘The bones of the skeleton, when mounted, give us a form very differ- ent from what is met with in the whale tribe. It may be còm- pared to a boat without a keel, with the bottom —Ó so that in the sea, the middle part of the back is the highest point in the water; and as the lungs are extended to great length on the two sides, close to the spine, they furnish the means of the animal becoming buoyant, and when no muscular exertion is made, the body will naturally float in an horizontal posture. * When we consider that this animal is the only one yet known that grazes at the bottom of the sea (if the expression may be allowed), and is not supported on four legs, we must admit that it will require a particular raode of balancing its body over the weeds upon which it feeds. | i * The hippopotamus, an animal that uses the same kind of food, from the strength of its limbs, supports itself under water; and the dugong, as a compensation for not being able to support its body on the ground, has this means of steadily suspending itself : in the sea peculiar to itself, the centre of the back forming the oint of suspension, similar to the fulcrum of a pair of scales. his peculiarity of position explains the form of the jaws, which are bent down at an angle with the skull, unlike the jaws of other animals. This new mode of floating, when compared with that of other sea animals, makes a beautiful variety. The balena mysticetus, that goes to the bottom of unfathomable depths to .48229.] Philosophical Transactions for 1821, Part II. 147 catch in its whale-bone net the shrimps that live’ in that situa- tion is surrounded by blubber not unlike a cork jacket. * The enormous spermaceti whale, whose prey is not so far removed from the surface, has the mass of spermaceti in a bony concavity upon the skull. 3 ~The shark tribe haye the liver loaded with oil, placed in nearly the same situation as the lungs of the dugong. * As there are no vegetables (I believe) growing at the bottom of the sea in very deep water, the nice adjustment of the body of the dugong is confined to the shallows in the creeks near the land." Upon comparing the bones of the two-horned rhinoceros with those of the single-horned species, Sir Everard observes, that there is no difference deserving of particular remark, except that in the two-horned, the projection towards the front of the skull formed by the union of the nasal bones, is more nearly in a straight line, and more extended. ‘This peculiarity, he chinks, may be required to give sufficient surface for two horns. The tapir of Sumatra, as well às that of America, are stated to have a greater general resemblance to the rhinoceros than to T, other animal. : "© This paper is accompanied by five plates ; and an account of the viscera of these animals is also given ; for which we refer to the original paper. | 3f XIX. On the Mean Density of the Earth. By Dr. Charles Hutton, FRS. x ' It appears from this paper that in two instances only the mean density of the earth has bean certainly or approximately deter- mined by experiment. = The former of these experiments," Dr. Hutton says, “ was made by Dr. Maskelyne, in the years 1774, 1775, and 1776, by means of that large mountain* in Scotland, in measuring its dimensions, and in comparing its attraction on a plummet with that of the whole earth on the same ; the calculations on it hav- ing been made by myself, and first published in the Philosophical Transactions of the year 1778 ; and since more correctly in the second volume of my Mathematical Tracts. The other experi- ment, by Mr. Cavendish, was by observing the attraction on small pendulous balls, of two inches diameter, by larger ones of ten inches diameter, as compared with the attraction of the earth on the same. | =< By some strange mistake, or perversion, for many years, it was customary among certain persons, to withhold the mention of my name with regard to the great share that I had in the expe- riment on Schehallien. “But from certain complaints which I have made, some little justice has lately been awarded to me on that head ; though still, it would seem with reluctance, as the * Schehallian. 219 148 jtd Analyses of Books. Anat T S. [Fes. opinion is promptly assumed that the latter small experiment is susceptible of the greateraccuracy, and the numbers 1n its result gratuitously adopted as nearer the truth than that of the former. s this is an opinion which I have never been able to bring my inind to acknowledge, and as it is a matter of great importance in the present state of physics, I have been desirous to draw the attention of philosophers to a closer consideration of the subject, with a view to a more deliberate and impartial decision of this int. | T d '“ From the closest and most scrupulous attention I can employ on this question, the preference, in point of accuracy, appears to be decidedly in favour of the large or mountain expe- riment over that of the small balls.” From the Schehallian experiment, Dr. H. thinks, that the mean density of the earth is five times that of water, but not more; while, from his experiment, Mr. Cavendish has assumed the mean density to be = 5:48. Dr. Hutton afterwards points out some of the errata in Mr. Cavendish’s paper ; and concludes that the medium of the first six of his experiments is 5:19, and of the other 23 experiments 5:43, and the mean of both these means, he observes, is 5:31, instead of 5:48, the error arising from -the sum of the numerical calculations... The difference of 0°31, or about the 17th part of the whole, Dr. Hutton thinks must be ascribed to the inaccuracy of making and reading off experi ments with such intricate and inadequate machinery as that used by Mr. Cavendish. | Dr. Hutton observes, “ that he:cannot conclude this paper of inquiry. without expressing a hearty wish for the repetition of the large or mountain experiment, in some other favourable situation, and with improved. means, if possible." For this pur- pose, the Doctor suggests an idea, that one of the large pyramids im Egypt might profitably be employed, instead of a mountain, for this experiment. | | TU XX. On. the. Separation of Iron. from other Metals. By J. F. W. Herschell; Esq. FRS. Xe. | 1, "i This paper is given in the present number of the Annals... XXI. On the Re-establishment of a Canal in the Place of a Portion of the Urethra which had been destroyed. By Henry Earle, Esq. Surgeon to the Foundling, and Assistant Surgeon to St. Hesshalamery's Hospital. (Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS.) Ln . For the particulars of this paper, which is entirely surgical, we must refer to the original volume. T | af — XXII. Calculations of some Observations of the Solar Eclipse on Sept. 7, 1820. By Mr. Charles Rumker. (Communicated by Thomas Young, M D. For. Sec. to RS.) : isi For this paper, which can hardly be abridged, we must also refer to the volume. XXIII. An Account of the Remeasurement of the Cube, Cylin- Im 1892;] Philosophical Transactions for 1821, Part II. 149 der, and Sphere, used bythe late Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn; in his Inguiries respecting a Standard of Weights and Measures, By Capt. Henry Kater, FRS. à; q Ao aos LL The experiments above referred: to are detailed in the. Philoso- phical Transactions for 1798 ; and “it may there be seen,” says Capt. K. “ that à cube, a cylinder, and a,sphere of brass, were employed, the respective dimensions of which being given, as well as the weight of water displaced by each, the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water might thence be readily ascertained, . In reviewing these experiments, so much care appears ta have been bestowed on those parts of the inquiry which relate to weight, as to leave no reason to doubt their accuracy ;. but as Sir George Shuckburgh has not entered into: so full a. detail of the method ‘he pursued) in..the measurement of the cube, the cylinder, and the sphere, I felt it to be desirable that this operat tion ‘should be repeated before the Commissioners of Weights and Measures should make their final Report.” . paH aida Sir -George’s experiments were repeated by) Captain Kater, and the paper concludes by collecting under. one view the data furnished. by Sir George Shuckburgh’s.experiments ‘and his own measurements, and he observes, that ‘‘ From these data, the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water in a vacuum at 62°, deduced from the cube, appears to be | 43 | 252:907 of Sir G. Shuckburgh’s grains. From the cylinder. .... 252:851 , From the sphere NMP iay] The mean of which is., 959-838 which is equal to 252-722 grains of the Parliamentary Standard.” XXIV. An Account of Observations made with the Eight Feet Astronomical Circle, at the Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, since the Beginning of the Year 1818, for investigating the Effects of Parallax and Aberration on the Places of certain Fixed Stars ; also the Comparison of these with former Observa- tions for determining the Effects. of Lunar Nutation. By the Rev. John Brinkley, DD. FRS. and MRIA. Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin. ; ‘Respecting this very elaborate paper, we can scarcely say any more than state the purposes for which the experiments detailed in it were undertaken, which are thus mentioned by Dr. B. ** The results of the observations which I now beg leave to lay before the Royal Society, were instituted with a view of dis- covering, if possible, the source of the differences that has existed between the results of former ‘observations made here, and of others made at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; and they will, it is imagined, be found to be useful relative to some other important points in astronomy. ** My former observations of certain stars pointed out a devia- tion of about one second from the mean place, after having made 150 -- Analyses of Books.) =. [FEB. all the usual corrections. Mr. Pond’s observations pointed out no such deviations. The deviations that I had found agreed with the effects of parallax. The observations that [ have since made, far more numerous than the former, concur in exhibiting the same results: in showing deviations in certain stars that can be explained by parallax. Every other suggested solution of the difficulty appears quite inadequate thereto. It is, I think, nearly demonstrated, that no change of figure in the instrument has occasioned it, and that the uncertainties of the changes of refraction can have had only a very small share, if any, in pro- ducing the effect observed.” | EET | XXV. On the Effects produced in the Rates of Chronometers by the Proximity of Masses of Iron. By Peter Barlow, Esq. of A : n Military Academy. (Communicated by John Barrow, Esq. ») ij Aabañy5 Mr. Fisher, who accompanied Capt. Buchan in 1818 to the Arctic Regions, has shown, in a paper printed in the Philoso- phical Transactions for 1820, thatthe rates of chronometers differ on shore and on board, losing in the former situation, but gain- ing in the latter : this variation be ascribed to the influence of the ship's iron on the balance, and his communication contains a detailof the various experiments which he performed, to show that the magnetic influence tends to accelerate the motion of the time-keepers by its influence, on the steel part of their balances. Referring to Mr. Fisher's experiments, Mr. Barlow found that five out of the six chronometers which he used were retarded, while all Mr. Fisher's were accelerated. ^ ^ ^ ^" From a number of experiments which have been made, Mr. Barlow says, it appears * that a chronometer ought to be kept as carefully. at a distance from any partial mass of iron, as the compass itself." MCA | i XXVI. On the Peculiarities that distinguish the Manatee of the West Indies from the Dugong of the Last Indian Seas. By Sir Everard Home, Bart.. V PRS. | XXVII: On a new Compound. of Chlorine and Carbon... By Richard Phillips, FRSE. FLS. MGS. &c. and. Michael Faraday, Chemical Assistant in the ‘Royal Institution... (Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS.) | ragod PEA to We have already given some account, of this paper in the Annals, . | I : I 8 T XXVIII. -On the Nerves ; giving an Account of some: Experi- ments on their Structure na a Functions, which lead to a new Arrangement of the System. . By Charles Bell, Esq. (Commu- nicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS.) | y$ XXIX. Further Researches on the Magnetic Phenomena pro- duced by Electricity ; with some new Experiments on the Proper- ties of Llectrified Bodies in their Relations to conducting Powers and Temperature. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS. | s This paper was printed entire. in the last. number of the nnals, | T : o nod 1822.) Proceedings of Philosophical Societies, , eil Arricuz XVI. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. The following papers have been read since our last report : Jan. 10.—A letter from Capt. Hall, containing. Observations on a Comet seen at Valparaiso. Elements of the above Comet, by Dr. Brinkley. Jan. 17.—On. ultimate Atoms of the Atmosphere, by Dr. Wollaston. -On the Expansion in a Series of the Attraction of a Spheroid, by James Ivory, Esq. Jan. 24.—On the late Depression of the Barometer, by Luke "Howard, Esq. On the anomalous Magnetic Attraction ‘of Hot Iron, by P. Barlow, Esq. ARTICLE AVII. i SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. 2t Hide lich of Quinine. M. J. Voreton, of Grénoble, employs the following method in x] paring Quinine, by which he says he is enabled to procure about two ounces and a half of Quinine from. eleven. pounds of Cinchona, in- stead of an ounce and a half, or an ounce and three quarters procured by the common process. The Cinchona reduced to a coarse powder is to be digested in water, acidulated with about one hundredth of its weight of. muriatic acid. | At the expiration of 24 hours, the Cinchona is to be strongly pressed, to be again treated with dilute, muriatic acid, and the processes are to be repeated, till the Cinchona loses its bitterness. The filtered infusions are to be mixed and treated with excess of pure magnesia, the mixture to be boiled for a short time and then suffered to cool. The magnesian precipitate is to be washed with cold water, dried, and digested in alcohol : by distilling this solu- tion the Quinine is obtained. —(Annales de Chimie.) II. Improvement in Stringed Instruments. M. Fischer of Leipsic, recommends the use of platinum wire, as a substitute for brass and steel, in the strings of musical instruments. He describes the tone as much finer than in instruments in which the usual metals are employed, and it certainly posseses the almost unique advantage of preserving its metallic brillancy, though surrounded by, the continued. deposit of a damp atmosphere.—(Rev. t Oct. 1821.) ` 152 - Scientific Intelligence. ^^ [Fxs. III. Comparative Analysis of the Food and Excrement of the Night- | ingale. i M. Braconnot having collected the excrement of a nightingale, with the intention of extracting uric acid from it, which it contains in great abundance, afterwards undertook to compare its constituent principles with those of the ox's heart upon which the bird was fed. Three hundred parts of ox's heart yielded the following substances : TUNG... aisle occhi! f meis ws ih ARIE QS MALUM Cero 231°11 Fibrine, vessels, nerves, cellular membrane, fat, and phosphate BT nn Mia a hie at Mur it ftetit Mala aa ea 59 Albumen retaining the colouring matter of the blood, phos- . phate of lime and magnesia, s. ra» sape Kaie dhines daR 8°20 Extractive matter soluble in alcohol (ozmazome). ...... hoe 09 2D Lactate of potaih ss... 2... o's sin use o e ERN UNAY re SEhokpháte:of potash. vdi 10. 00:55:21,534. 900.1094 A eee 2209 046 Chioride‘of potussium. |: .2:252 0:212 21:0 TES eae UN 0:38 Ammoniacal salt. and free acid... .... 66608. cee eee A trace Tea 300:00 Thirty-six parts of the excrement of the nightingale yielded the following substances: Super-urate of potash and ammonia....................... 19:00 A peculiar substance slightly animalized, soluble in water, and MER in WOOL is spn YS WASA PK ARS oer A LEER Ferruginous phosphate of lime. ........ Vae due 9 da 4 2» Ria d 1:50 Sulphate of potash ........,.,. eee WAA AAB Mes $9». . MIND o0. LV os ance dab aa St a aha n GR PLA aa Su 2:22 Acer Los BÑ Chloride of potassium. ... ......... Fi Hans pet ut mph pat pw nace 0:28 Phosphate of potash and ammonia. ...................... 0:28 Unknown combustible acid combined with ammonia ..... za« LN Ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate... ........... reece eee 0:08 Free lactic and acetic acid about ..,...... P ywiowht ghi d rupi 0:10 05070 Weste dr ade opere ue V Basta pide) PH sO We MT py Ae 0:10 Peculiar black matter, resembling that found in urine by M. TIEMM Re fetes aod P y es A under PAS rua ee “0:10 A brown thick oil readily soluble in alkalies and in alcohol from lo pu y aa oa kcu Pa od lo MS erre yels a Soa » 9 a nila ee c Muriate of ammonia estimated at................ Ae Meet Boo | 35°84 (Annales de Chimie.) IV, Analysis of Black and Green Tea. Mr. Brande has lately made a comparative analysis of black and green tea, from which he finds that ** the quantity of astringent mat- ter precipitable by gelatine is somewhat greater in green than in black tea, though the excess is by no means so great as the comparative . flavours of the two would lead one to expect. 1t also appears that the entire quantity of soluble matter is greater in green than in black tea, ` -¥822.] Scientific Intelligence. 158 ‘and that the proportion’ of ‘extractive matter not precipitable by gela- ‘tine is greatest in the latter.” died ?1 ^^ «*Sülphuric, muriatic, and acetic acids, but especially the first, occa- sion precipitates in infusions both of black and green tea, which have the properties of combinations ofthose acids with tan. Both infusions ‘also yield, as might be expected, abundant black precipitates, with solutions of iron; and when mixed with acetate, or more especially with subacetate of lead, a bulky buff-coloured matter is ated, leaving the remaining fluid entirely tasteless and colourless. "This ‘precipitate was diffused through water, and decomposed by sulphur- etted hydrogen; it afforded a solution of tan and extract, but not any traces of any peculiar principle to which certain medical effects of tea, especially of green tea, could be attributed.” Mr. Brande observes, that there is one property of strong infusions of tea, belonging especially to black and green, which seems to announce the presence of a distinct vegetable principle; namely, that they deposit, as they cool, a brown pulverulent: precipitate, which passes through ordinary filters, and can only be collected by deposition and. decantation ; this precipitate is very slightly soluble in cold water of the temperature of from 50? downwards, but it dissolves with the utmost facility.in water of 100° and upwards, forming a pale-brown transparent liquid, which furnished abundant precipitate in solutions of isinglass, of sulphate of iron, of muriate of tin, and of acetate of dead ; whence it may be inferred to consist of tannin, gallic acid, and extractive matter. | The foilowing table is given by Mr. Brande as showing the respective quantities of soluble matter in water and alcohol, the weight of the precipitate by isinglass, and the proportion of inert woody fibre on green and black tea of various prices : One hundred parts of tea. wn Soluble in with telly —— Green hyson, 14s. perlb. ..| -41 44 31 56 TitlesdEs..ciia-.suoswes|o (94 43 29 57 wal: ME IPP p odis o EE RA n 36 43 26 57 DNO o. iss exu] 200 42 25 58 DUI AG thn big. ec ibo 9À 4l 24 4.59 Black souchong, 12s,......) 35 86.4 BB rook: 64%: DMtas Ori o... odores a e| 5:040 37 28 68 DE. Jib. oi sob 6o otmi bls 96 35 24. 64 Ditto, BN. V ous otal MERTE 35 81 26. 45.0568 (Royal Institution Journal.) V. Spontaneous Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogen. ` Tt has been long known that a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen voa when exposed to the direct action of the sun's rays. In order to try if this effect could be produced by the radiation of a com- mon culinary fire, Professor Silliman filled a common Florence oil- flask (well cleaned) half full of chlorine gas, and was in the act of introducing the hydrogen in the pneumatie cistern. ** There was not 154 Scientific Intelligence. [Fes.- only no direct emanation from the. sun, but even the diffuse ise light wa Wi Sa WO feebler than common by a thick snow-storm, is | had covered the skylight above with a thick mantle, and veiled the heavens in a singular Ts for such a storm. Fedar these circumstances, the hydrogen was scarcely all introduced before the, flask explode with a distinct flame ; portions of the glass stuck in the woodwork of the ceiling of the room, and the face i eyes escaped by being out. of the direction of the explosion; nothing but the neck of the flask remained in hand. . This.occurrence then proves, that a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen gas may explode spontaneously. ina diffuse light and even in a very dim light."—(American Journal of Science, Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 343.) | | 1 VI. Sulphato-tricarbonate of Lead. Ë A very fine specimen of carbonate of lead was recently brought from Leadhills, by Alexander Irving, Esq. who found it by analysis to bea sulphato-carbonate. Upon examining its crystals, I find it to be the sulphato-tricarbonate of Mr. Brooke. The crystals, which are of considerable size, are acute rhomboids, with. cleavages perpendicular to the axis of the rhomb.. They are of a bright sap-green colour. Upon.examining their optical structure, | find that they have two axes of double refraction, the principal one of which is coincident with the axis of the rhomb,, The sulphato-tricarbonate, therefore, cannot have the acute rhomboid for its primitive form, but must belong to the pris- matic system of Mohs, D. B.—Edin. Phil. Jour. T vip |. VII. Calc-sinter determined to be true, Calcareous Spar... sci The, Rev. Dr. Fleming, of Flisk, transmitted to me lately two speci- mens of this substance, with the following remark: ** Lamellar.calc- sinter from Macalister's Cave in Sky. I procured these crystals in shallow pools in the cave filled with the calcareous water... The indi- cations.of crystallization are distinct, but the crystals seem to be but in progress. The summits of the crystals ofthe smallest piece are smooth and flat, and indicate the prisms below to be five-sided, and sometimes four-sided. I regard these specimens as exceedingly curious, as they are genuine examples of Neptunian calcareous spar. . 2. Acicularly Crystallized fibrous Calc-sinter.— This substance -is from the. Isle of Man; the specimen from which these fragments. were. separated was given me by Mr. Stevenson several years. ago, .and.is. interesting as being a recent aqueous formation." : Dr.. Fleming adds, “ that all the calcareous matter in Macalister's Cave, whatever.be its external form, stalactitic, stalagmitic, or encrusting, is all more or less in the state of calcareous spar, with the usually foliated structure: that which lies in the pools or hollows of the caves has its crystalline forms like those in the specimens sent." Upon examining these interesting specimens, I succeeded in extracting from them regular rhombs of calcareous spar, having their angles of the same value as the finestspecimens of carbon- ate of lime... Their double refraction and their polarising force, were of the same character and the same intensity as the purest Iceland spar. D. B.—(Edin. Phil. Jour.) VIII. New Mineral from Aachen, near Altenberge Having examined a very fine crystal of Stilbite from Aachen, near 1252 1822.) Scientific Intelligence. 0155 “Altenberg, which Mr. Heuland was so kind as to transmit to me, I have found it to differ essentially from all the stilbites, and even from the new species into which Mr. Brooke has separated the substances for- merly ranked under this name. Since I examined this mineral, I have learned that it is considered by Hauy as a variety of stilbite, to which he gives the name of Duo-vigesimale. D. B.—(Edin. Phil. Jour.) IX. Onthe Spurs ofthe Ornithorynchus. Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, has lately had an opportunity of examining the skins of a male and female ornithorynchus from New South Wales. The spurs of the male were remarkably strong and sharp, and the per- foration in them so extremely minute, that it is not surprising that they escaped the notice of the first naturalists who examined them. The tubes were so fine that they would not receive a horse hair, though they admitted a human one.—( Edin. Phil. Jour.) '. X. Methods of kindling Fire on the Sandwich Islands. There are various methods of producing fire. In the Caroline Islands, a piece.of wood being held fast on the ground, another short piece, about a foot and a half long, of the thickness of a thumb, even, as if turned, and with the end bluntly rounded off, is. held perpendicu- larly over it, and put in motion between the palm of the hand, like the mill used for making chocolate. The motion is at first slow, but is accumulated, and the pressure increased, when the dust produced by the friction collects round the bores, and begins to be ignited. This dust is the tinder which takes fire. The women of Eap are said to be uncommonly clever at this process. In Radack and the Sandwich | Islands, they hold on the under piece of wood another piece a span long, with a blunt point, at an angle of about 30 degrees, the point of the angle being turned from the person employed. They hold the piece of wood with both hands, the thumbs below, the fingers above, so that it may press firmly and equally, and thus move it backwards and forwards in a straight line, about two or three inches long. When the dust that collects in the groove, produced by the point of the stick, begins to be heated, the pressure and the rapidity of the motion are increased. It, is to: be observed, that in both methods two pieces of the same kind of wood are used; for which purpose, some of equally fine grains, not too hard, and not. too soft, are the best. Both methods require practice, dexterity, and patience. The process of the Aleu- tians is the first of these methods, improved by mechanism. They “manage the upright stick, in the same manner as the gimlet or borer which they employ in their work: They hold and draw. the string, which is twice wound round it with both hands, the upper end turning in a piece of wood, which they hold with their mouth. In this way, I have seen a piece of fir turned on another piece of fir, produce fire in a few seconds; whereas, in general, a much longer time is required. The Aleutians also make fire by taking two stones with sulphur rubbed on them, which they strike together over dry moss strewed with sul- phur.—(Kotzebue's Voyage, iii. 259.) XI. Method of illuminating the Dials of Public Clocks with Gas. . Messrs. John and Robert Hart, of Glasgow, who have been long known to the public for their scientific acquirements, as well as their 356 New Scientific Books. [Fgs. practical ingenuity, have erected avery ingenious apparatus for illumi- ating Mii ha the dials of the Tron Church and Post-office steeple in Glasgow. .* The apparatus consists of a No. 1 Argand burner, placed -a few feet out from the top of the dial, and enclosed in à nearly liemi- spherical lantern, the front of which is glazed; the back forms a para- bolic: reflector; the dial receives not ony the direct, but a conical stream of reflected rays, and is thus so bri liantly illuminated, that the hours and hands can be seen with nearly the same’ distinctness at a distance as through the day.’ To mask the obtuse appearance of the Jantern, its back has been made to assume the form of a spread eagle, above which is placed the city arms, the whole handsomely executed and gilt, ` The gas-pipe and lantern move on an air-tight joint, so that the lantern may be brought close to the qudd d^ tome when necessary. The gas is first ignited by means of a train or flash-pipe, so perforated, that when the gas issuing from the holes at the one end is lighted, the holes along the pipe become so, and thus the gas inside the lantern is kindled as if by a train of dry gunpowder: in this way the light might be first communicated either from the street or from the steeple. The effect of the lighted dial is at once cheerful, pleasant, and useful. By a simple contrivance, the clock disengages a small detent, something similar to the larum in wooden clocks. ‘This shuts the gas cock, and instantly extinguishes the light."—( Edin. Philos. Journal.) | 9m] "n ARTICLE XVIII. NEW SCIENTIFIC. BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, 4 Mr. Children has in the press a Translation of Professor Berzelius's work on the Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analyses and Mineralo- gical Investigations, with Notes and other Additions by himself. It will form an octavo volume, and be illustrated witli engravings. A comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. By Grenville Penn, Esq. 1 vol. 8vo. JUST PUBLISHED, A Description of the Shetland Islands, comprising an Account of their Geology, Scenery, Antiquities, and Superstitions. By Samuel Hibbert, MD. MFSE. 4to. With Maps and Plates, 37, 35. Twelve Essays on the Proximate Causes of the Aggregate and Ato- mic Phaenomena of the Universe, Physical, Mechanical; Chemical, and Organical. By Sir Richard Phillips. 8vo. With Plates. 95. A Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System. Vol. I. on Con- vulsive and Maniacal Affections. By J. C. Prichard, MD. &c. Syo. 12s. š w A Treatise on Diseases of the Chest. Translated from the French of R. T. H. Laennec, MD. By John Forbes, MD., 8vo. 14s. The Eneyclopedia Metropolitana, or Universal Dictionary of Knowledge, on an Original Plan, comprising the two-fold Advantages 1822.] New Patents. 157 of a Philosophical and Alphabetical Arrangement. With appropriate and entirely new- Engravings, Part V. 1l 1s. To be continued regularly till completed. t i «The Introductory Lecture of à Course upon State Medicine, deli- vered in Mr. Granger's Theatre, Southwark, Nov..1, 1821. By John Elliotson, MD. &c., .8vo. 25, 6d. An Inquiry into the Opinions Ancient and Modern concerning Life and Organization. : By John Barclay, MD, Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, &c. | 8vo. 14s. The Principles of Medicine on the Plan of the Baconian Philoso- phy. Vol. I. on Febrile and Inflammatory Diseases. By R. D. Ha- milton. $S8vo. 9s. 22 «The Botanical Cultivator; or a Practical Treatise on propagating, rearing, and preserving, all Descriptions of Plants cultivated in the Hothouses, Greenhouses, and Gardens, of Great Britain... By Robert Sweet, FLS. 1 vol. 10s. 6d. A Treatise on Bulbous Roots, particularly those heretofore included under the Genera Amaryllis, Cyrtanthus, and Pancratium. By the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert. With coloured Plates. | 5s. A Monography on the Genus Camellia, By Samuel Curtis, FLS. Large folio. 3⁄4, 3s, plain., 6% 165. 6d. coloured. | Physiological Lectures. By John Abernethy. Complete m 1 vol. 8vo. 18s. " . Essays on Surgery and Midwifery, with Practical Observations and Latent Cases. By James Barlow. 8vo. 12s. | History of Cultivated Vegetables. By H. Phillips. 2 vols. royal Svo. ll. lls. 6d. Jai Hortus Suburbanus Londinensis; or a Catalogue of Plants, culti= vated in the Neighbourhood of London; arranged according to the Linnean System: with the Addition of the Natural Orders to which they belong. biis ARTICLE XIX. | NEW PATENTS. , Owen Griffith, of Tryfan, Carnarvonshire, Gent.; for an improve- ment in the principle and construction of manufacturing or making trusses for the cure of ruptures or hernia, in whatsoever part or parts ofthe body it may be situated.—Oct. 18, 1821. 'Thomas Martin and Charles Grafton, of Birmingham, printing-ink manufacturers, for a method of making fine light black, of à very . superior colour, Which they call spirit black; and a new apparatus for producing the same.—Oct. 24... i . Benjamin Thompson, of Ayton Cottage, Durham, Gent. fora me- thod of facilitating the conveyance of carriages along iron and wood. rail-ways, tram-ways, and other roads.—Oct. 24. -Gharles Tuckley, sen. of Kenton-street, Brunswick-square, cabinet- maker, for certain improvements applicable to window-sashes, either single or double hung, fixed or sliding sashes, casements, window shutters, and window blinds.—Nov. 1. i 188 New Patents. [FE». Samuel Hobday, of Birmingham, patent snuffer-maker, for a method of manufacturing the furniture for umbrellas and parasols, and of unit- ing the same together.—Nov. 1. John Frederick Archbold, Esq. of Serjeant's-inn, Fleet-street, Lon- don, for a mode of ventilating close carriages.—Nov. 1. Richard Wright, of Mount-row, Kent-road, Surry, engineer, for improvements in the process of distillation ,— Nov. 9. avid Redmund, of Agnes-Cireus, Old-strect-road, Middlesex, engineer, for an improvement in the construction or manufacture of hinges for doors.— Nov. 9. - - ma Areton Egells, of Britannia-terrace, City-road, Middlesex, engineer, for certain improvements on steam-engines.—Nov. 9. William Westley Ric ards, of Pio agina gun-maker, for an im- provement in the construction of gun and pistol locks.—Nov. 10. James Gardner, of Banbury, Oxfordshire, ironmonger, for a machine preparatory to melting in the manufacture of tallow, soap, and can- dies ; and which machine may be used for other similar purposes.— Nov. 9. John .Bates, of Bradford, Yorkshire, machine-maker, for certaim machinery for the purpose of feeding furnaces of every description, steam-engines, and other boilers, with coal, coke, and fuel of every kind.—Nov. 9. William Penrose, of Stummorgangs, Yorkshire, miller, for various improvements in the mtackingry’ for propelling vessels, and in vessels so propelled.—Nov. 10. Bowles Symes, of Lincoln's-inn, Esq. for an expanding hydrostatic iston, to resist the pressure of certain fluids, and slide — in an r. asha cylinder.—Nov. 10. Joseph Grout, of Gutter-lane, Cheapside, London, crape manufae- turer, for a new manufacture of crape.—Nov. 13. Neil Arnott, of Bedford-square, MD. for improvements connected with the production and agency of heat in furnaces, steam and air engines, distilling, evaporating, and brewing apparatus.—Nov. 14. Richard Macnamara, Esq. of Canterbury-buildings, Lambeth, for an improvement in paving, pitching, and covering streets, roads, and other places.—Nov. 20. John Collinge, of Lambeth, engineer, for an improvement in hinges. — Nov. 22. Henry Robinson Palmer, of Hackney, civil engineer, for i improve- ments in the construction of rail-ways, and tram-roads, and of the carriages to be used thereon.—Nov. 22. Thomas Parkin, of Skinner-street, Bishopsgate-street, merchant, for an improvement in printing.—Nov. 24. William Baylis, jun. of Painswick, Gloucestershire, clothier, for à machine for washing and cleansing clothes,—Nov. 27. Thomas Motley, of the Strand, patent letter-maker and brass-foun- der; for certain improvements in the construction of candlesticks or lamps, and in candles to be burnt therein.—Nov. 27. Robert Bill, Esq. of Newman-street, Marylebone, for an improve- ment in the construction of certain descriptions of boats and barges.— Dec. 5. 1822.] Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. 159: ARTICLE XX. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE... ee C BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, _ |Hygr. at 1821. | Wind. | Max: | Min. | Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain.| 9 a.m. |. :12thMon. ub Dec. J| VW |29-96/99:67]. . 47 39 — 03 Q W ]|99:97)99'81|. 51 49 k l sonet 3S W/3000/29:75| 54 33 — 80 AN W|30:0029:85 48 | 39 | — 15 3 5 "W'!30259985| 51 | 32° | — ' 09 (X 6N W! 3302830115 41 39 — | 7S E30:0629-91| 49 "| 40 — | — ^8 W 1130163006. 52 46 = Oboe 9S W|30:1630:11| 52 50 - 02 | 10 $S /30:28:30:05|. 55 35 — | 03 7 IN W/{30-36'30°28} 44 27 — | © 125 E|30:34/3004| 51 49 — | 138 Ej3008/,3004| -52 58 401 — 14 S |30043004! 51 41 d 03 15S . E|30:04:9987| 51 | 49. | — b^ 168 W|2987,99:62| 54 48 —|— 17/5 W|29-62/120-94/ 59 | 42 | — 1 48 | ) 18S — Wi29:94/99-99| 52 49 — 11 ]9S Wi29:45|20:22| 50 34 — 06 | 20/8 . W!29:45|98:50| 40 38 SEGUE D 21N Wi|29:37/2896| 48 | 39 | — |. 03 | 2255 Wi29°51\2860} 50 | 41 | — 26 | $3 Wo 129-1712900! 46 39 56 | 08 94 S 2900/2783, 48 38 -— 78 25N W.|983/98-21| 41 28 — 26 | E (290512823) 44 | 30 | — 1 35 e 27'S Wj29:05/98:88| 46 39 — 35 ^98/8 ^ E28:46/28:40| ^ 47 36 — 68 .99N | W29:11128:46| . 46 41 - 18 .308 Ej299029:1| 46. | 34 FUA 03 "S1IN ^Wi99:90]129*88| 41 39 25 3036197-83| 35 | 97 | r31 4S5 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 160 Mr. £Howard's Meteorological Journal... [F en. 1822. REMARKS. Twelfth Month.—l. Rainy. 2 Cloudy. 3. ‘Rainy. 4. Fine morning: rainy night. 5, Showers: some thunder in the afternoon, 6. Fine: cold. 7. Fine morn- ing: drizzly afternoon, 8, 9, 10. Fine. 1l, 12. Cloudy. 13, 14, 15. Fine. 16. Fine day: rainy night. 17. Fine morning : rain in the afternoon : night squally. 18, 19, Fine. 20. Heavy showers at intervals during the day : night stormy, with lightning. 21. Small rain in the morning: afternoon, fine, 22, 23. Fine. 94. Rainy. 25. Very fine. 26. Rainy. 27. Rainy: hailabout noon, 28, Rainy $ some sleet about half-past one, p. m. e E This month is remarkable for a depression of the bh dri which, for London at least, or its vicinity, is nearly without a precedent on record. "T'helowest observation here given, 27:83 in. was obtained at Tottenham from a portable barometer of Sir HJ Engléfield’s construction, about five, a.m, on the 95th, . "Thé barometer at the labora- tory was not observed when at its lowest point, The indexes of many wheel barometers retrograded on this occasion into the set fair part of the scale, and were found in the vicinity of 31 inches, a circumstance which occasioned some curious remarks on the sup- posed inconsistency of the weather glass with the weather. We had no storm of wind of any consequence after this great depression, which, it should be remarked, had been coming on for about two weeks, It appears by the papers, that a like state of the baro- metet was extensively observed at the same time on the Continent, and that very teme pestuous weather attended it, far to the south of our island, f RESULTS. Winds: E, 1; SE, 6; S, 3; SW, 9; W, 5; NW T. | + Barometer : Mean height For the month. , VEM LMB RA d cR Do MES s yas. SP es odd a 16th. si gea detin ests. 99:916 For 15 days, ending the 3d (moon south)... ........ 29-186 For 12 days, ending the 15th (moon north).......... 30:085 For 15 days; ending the 30th (moon south) .......... 29°005 “Thermometer: Mean height Kor the month... . (pa coe eros co tm tips qb dia Go ONE? For the lunar period, $. c.so oiite. KASU I vecoces s AD 133 For 30 days, the sun in Sagittarius. snara sse saors. 45'316 Evaporation. . . +e ee ew eee *""""* ^ .. "n 1:31 in. P t *À Rain. s... rep PP UU A a a B a ese 4'85 Laboratory, Stratford, First Month, 22, 4822. R. HOWARD. ` ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. MARCH, 1822. ARTICLE I. Ex riments to determine the Weight of an Atom of Alumina. y Thomas Thomson, MD. FRS. Regius Professor of Che- mistry in the University of Glasgow. - Ir is not unlikely that the labour which I have bestowed in order to render the following experiments as accurate. as possible will appear to some persons a waste of time. But I am of opinion that it is of the greatest importance to determine the atomic weights of bodies with the utmost possible precision. When this desirable object is gained, the art of analysis, at pre- sent so laborious and so uncertain, will be greatly simplified. Besides, alumina being a constituent so generally found in crys- talized minerals, an exact knowledge of its atomic weight cannot but throw considerable light upon the constitution of a. very numerous and interesting series of crystallized minerals. l have examined a considerable number of the salts of alumina, but found none of them fit for my purpose, except common alum—a salt which crystallizes with great ease and regularity, and which can be readily obtained in a state of the most perfect purity. It is not sensibly altered by exposure to the air, and may, therefore, be obtained without difficulty at all times in the same state. It is wellknown, thatalum consists of four different constituents, which are always present in it in exactly the same proportion ; namely, sulphuric acid, alumina, potash, and water. The object of my experiments was to determine the weight of each of these constituents in 100 grains of alum) ` cut. „l. I may observe, before detailing my own experiments, that New Series, vor. 11. M | 162 Dy. Thomson on the [Marcn, we have a good many analyses of alum. But the one which appears to have been made with the greatest care, and which approaches nearest the truth, is that of Berzelius, first given to the public in the Annales:de Chimie, vol. Ixxxii. p. 258. The result of this analysis is as follows : Sulphuric acid .. 060400000 dees es. . 9429 Alpe, «62 cv ena e ER oka 10:86 Potash ..... i di» niv dite d iplb eife Vite 9:81 Water. ox. os. K Xe Qasa Sign enr. 45:00 99:90 - Upon this putos Ape it may be requisite to make a few remarks. (1.) His mode of determining the sulphuric acid was to dis- solve 100 grains of alum in water, and precipitate the sulphuric acid by means of muriate of barytes. The sulphate of barytes obtained weighed exactly 99:765 grains. Now as sulphate of barytes is composed of 5 sulphuric acid + 9:75 barytes, it is obvious that 99:765 grains of the salt contain only 33:82 grains of sulphuric acid instead. of 34:23 grains—the quantity stated by Berzelius ; so that Berzelius overrates the acid, as found by his experiment, by about two-fifths of a grain. I shall show hereafter that the real quantity of sulphuric acid in 100 grams of alum is 32-854 grains, or nearly one grain less than the quan- tity indicated by Berzelius’s experiment. T 1 (23 The alumina was obtained by dissolving 100 grains of alum in water, and precipitating it by ammonia in considerable excess. - The precipitate was washed and dried in a strong red heat. The alumina thus obtained in one experiment weighed 10:86 grains; in another 10°67 grains. This 1s very nearly the mode which I employed. I would remark only that an excess of ammonia is not necessary. ` If you add simply the quantity. required to saturate the sulphuric acid united with the alumina, the whole alumina will be precipitated. The advantage of this method is, that little or no alumina will be dissolved by the excess of ammonia. ` Berzelius indeed recovered this portion by evaporating the ammoniacal liquid to dryness; but the alumina in this case is apt to be ‘carried off with the liquid as it evapo- rates. This I suspect tobe the reason of the small deficiency of alumina in Berzelius’s experiments. This deficiency. in one case was about one-fifth grain; and in the other, two-fifths of a grain. These quantities are indeed very small; but they havea sensible effect in altering the atomic weight of alumina ; for even the smallest of them amounts to nearly two per cent. of the whole weight of the alumina, | | (3.) His mode of obtaining the potash was to digest 100 parts of alum in a phial with carbonate of strontian and water till the whole sulphate of alumina was decomposed and XT S iei The filtered liquid was evaporated to dryness in a platinum. a 1822.] | Weight of an Atom of Alumina. 163 crucible. The sulphate of potash weighed 18:3 parts ;. but. was: . found, when dissolved in water, to contain 0*15 of sulphate of strontian ;. so that the real quantity of sulphate of potash obtained was 18:15 parts: Now sulphate of potash is a com- pound of five parts acid + six parts potash ; so that the true quantity of potash in 18:15 parts is 9:9 instead of 9°81, as stated by Berzelius. | : (4.) Berzelius’s mode of determining the water of crystalliza- tion in alum was to heat the salt in a platinum crucible over a spirit of wine lamp. The loss of weight sustained was — 45 per cent. I find that by this method we cannot drive off the whole of the water from alum. A small portion still remains which cannot be dissipated, except by the application of a red heat. The analysis of alum by Berzelius then, when corrected, gives us the following results : RENE T our el E RA ah eel. cns Alumma. . . << aie ile i e a 10:86 MM QU uL KU E Ris siis a 9:90 (00757 Sp qi le pair ON qA, qi Dp ERES 45:00 99°58 leaving a deficiency of almost half a per cent. which, as we shall see afterwards, was owing to water not driven off by the heat of a spirit of wine lamp. © IL. 1 shall now relate as concisely as possible the experiments: which I made in order to ascertain the constituents of alum; omitting, as is my usual practice, all the trials which were either unsuccessful or.not more successful than those which I state. On the present occasion, the experiments which I omit were at least 10 times more numerous than those which I give ; for I employed a great variety. of ways to analyze alum, partly to check my results by one another, and partly to determine which ` mode of analysis was easiest and most to be depended on. 1. Sulphuric Acid. —When 60:875 grains of pure alum crys- tals are dissolved in water, and the solution mixed with a solution of 53 grains of chloride of barium, a white precipitate falls, consisting of sulphate of barytes. After this precipitate has subsided, 1f we test the clear liquid which swims over it by means of solutions of glauber salt and muriate of barytes, we shall find that it contains ro traces either of barytes or of sulphuric acid. Consequently the barytes from 53 grains of chloride of barium exactly saturates the sulphuric acidin 60:875 grains of alum»: But the barytes from 53 grains of chloride of barium amounts to exactly 39 grains, or 9°75 x 4; but 9:75 barytes just saturate 5 sulphuric acid. It is obvious from this, that 39.grains of barytes will just saturate 20 grains of sulphuric acid; consequently 60:875. grains of alum contain exactly 20 M 2 164 oo Dr. Thomson on the [Marcn, grains Of: sulphuric acid: 100 grains’ of alum must of course contain 39-8549 grains of sulphuric aeid. — e» dw. dua ; In this determination, from the great insolubility of sulphate of barytes, I believe the number to be correct at least to às many decimal places as I have given. : Now Berzelius’s number (evem when corrected) exceeds this by 0°9658 grain. DUCIT 2. Water.—To determine the weight of water in alum by direct experiment is attended with difficulties, which, for some time, I found insurmountable. Indeed after a vast number of attempts, I found such discordance between my results, that. E was induced to suspect that the water in alum was nota constant tity, and that of consequence an analysis of this salt pers etly correct was impossible. By degrees, however, 1 began to suspect the sources of the variance, and a closer inspection put me on a way of obtaining the water, if not by one simple process, yet by uniting two together. 1 shall give in the first place one or two of my early results, that the reader may per- ceive the want of agreement between them. (1.) 100 grains of alum exposed for three hours to a heat of 600° lost 44-04 grains; or almost a grain less than Berzelius disengaged by means of a spirit lamp. We see from this that Berzelius had applied a heat exceeding 600? in intensity. (2. 100 grains of alum exposed to a low red heat lost 70:72 grains. This obviously exceeded all the water in the alum, while it appeared to fall short of the water and sulphuric acid added together. For if the water amounts to 45 grains (and from Berzelius's experiments it cannot be: less) ; the water and sulphurie acid united amount to 77:8542 grains. ..(3.) 100 grains of alum exposed to a strong heat in a wind furnace lost 71-66 grains. This also falls short of the water and sulphuric acid. | tigen examining the alumina which remained when the resi- dual matter of experiment (2) was digested in water; by dissolv- ing it in muriatie acid, and mixing the solution with muriate of barytes, I obtained a precipitate of sulphate of barytes indicating the presence of little more than 1-10th of a grain of sulphurie’ acid. The alumina from experiment (3) examined in the same way gave no traces whatever of sulphuric acid. The solution made by digesting distilled water on it (which contained the sulphate of potash from the alum) being examined, was found to. give a strong purple tinge to cudbear paper. Of course it contained an excess of alkali. It thus became evident that the heat of a wind furnace is sufficient not only to drive off all the water and all the sulphuric acid united to the alumina, but like+ wise a portion of the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of potash. emus iro the whole sulphuric acid from this solution by means of muriate of barytes, I found that the quantity of sulphu- rié acid which it contained was about 0:8 grain below the quan- 1822.] Weight of an Atom of Alumina. 165 tity which the sulphate of potash in 100 grains of alum ought'to contain. This 0*8 grain had been dissipated by the heat of the wind furnace from the sulphate of potash, and had rendered i ` alkaline. These facts suggested a method of determining the quantity of water in alum, and upon putting it in practice, I found that the process, when repeated carefully, gave me always the very same result, Instead of 100 grains of alum, I employed in pre- ference 60:875 grains. | My method was this: I exposed 60-875 grains of alum to an intense red heat in a wind furnace in a platinum crucible which I had previously weighed. The loss of weight sustained was 43°62 grains. "The residual matter in the crucible was digested in distilled water. The clear solution was separated from the alumina by the filter, and the filter was washed with distilled water till the liquid ceased to be affected by muriate of barytes. The solution thus obtained was concentrated on the sand-bath, and then precipitated by muriate of barytes. The sulphate of barytes obtained, after being washed, dried, and heated to redness, weighed 13:28 grains, which is equivalent to 4:504 grains of sulphuric acid. 1f we add this weight of sul- phuric acid to the 43:62 grains driven off by heat, we obtain 48:124 grains as the weight of the whole water and sulphuric acid contained in the 60-875 grains of alum. If from this quan- po we deduet 20 grains, formerly shown to be the weight of the ‘sulphuric acid, there remain 28:124 grains of water. A repeti- tion of this experiment gave the very same result, | Should any person think of repeating this experiment, he must be on his guard not to use filtering paper till it has been digested for some time in distilled water; for I was once or ` twice deceived by using a filtering paper, which exhibited traces of sulphuric acid. I was puzzled at getting more sulphate of barytes than 1 ought to have had. The excess indeed was very small; but it prevented that exact coincidence between different experiments which I was anxious to obtain. The reader will please to observe, that 28:124 ‘almost exactly coincides with the weight of 25 atoms of water ; for 1-195 x 25 -= 28:125. My number is only ++, less than this quantity. 28124 Surely then I am warranted in concluding that 60-875 parts of alum contain exactly 25 atoms, or 28:195 parts of water: 100 rts of alum then contain 46-2012 parts of water, which is ‘2012 more than the quantity detected by Berzelius. | 3. Potash—To determine the potash. contained in alum, I found that an easier process than that of Berzelius gave results fully as accurate. 100 grains of alum were exposed in a plati- ‘num crucible to a moderate heat on the sand-bath till the water of crystallization was dissipated. The crucible was then kept ‘for half an hour in a red heat. Distilled water was now poured upon the mass remaining in the crucible in successive portions, 166 Dr. Thomson on the ° [Mancu, and digested on it till it ceased to take up any thing... The Mquepvs solution thus obtained being evaporated to dryness, the sulphate of potash remaining weighed 18:09 grains. . On. dis- solving the sulphate of potash in water, and pouring ammonia into the solution, a slight opalescence was perceptible, indicating that the salt was not absolutely free from SI Date of alumina. It was not possible to collect, far less to. weigh, the extremely minute portion of alumina thus disengaged. But by dissolving small quantities of sulphate of alumina in water, and throwing down the alumina by means of ammonia, I was enabled to con- clude that the sulphate of alumina mixed with the sulphate of potash from the 100 grains of alum amounted very nearly to 0-02 grain. Deducting this from the. 18:09 actually found, there remain 18:07 grains for the sulphate of potash really contained in 100 grains of alum crystals. Now 100: :, 60:875 :: 18:07 : 11:0001125. This last number differs so little from 11 that there can be no hesitation in adopting 11 as the true quantity. Had I made my experiments on 60:875. grains of alum instead of 100, and obtained so near. a coincidence, I, would not have regarded myself as at liberty to consider the weight obtained .as differing from 11 grains ; because the sources of error are too numerous to make it at all likely that the sixth decimal figure can be depended on. ! sie BOIWTE Eleven grains then is the quantity of sulphate of potash con- tained in 60:875 grains of alum. Now 11 sulphate of potash are composed of 5 sulphuric acid + 6 potash., Thus exactly one- fourth part of the sulphuric acid in alum is united to the potash. And the weight of potash contained in 60:875 parts of alum is 6, or an atom of potash. | | nit nó sd Y , 4. Alumina.—From the preceding experiments, it is evident that three-fourths of the sulphuric acid in alum are.united to the alumina. This in 100 grains oftalum amounts to 24:64 grains. LI calculated the weight of carbonate of potash, carbonate of soda, and carbonate of ammonia, just sufficient to saturate 24°64 grs. ‘of sulphuric acid. Each of these quantities was added to 100 grains. of alum. previously dissolved in distilled water, and the whole was well agitated till all action was at.an:end. By this addition, the alumina was completely precipitated from the solu- tion, while no excess of any of the alkalies could be detected after the precipitation in any of the residual liquids, except. of he ammonia, which | had added slightly in excess ; from the carbonate containing rather more ammonia, than 1 had supposed it to do. To obtain the whole alumina from each. of these liquids, the method which I employed was this; I took; three -pairs of double filters, each filter, in every pair’ being exactly of the same weight. The two filters constituting each pair were placed the one within the other, and put into glass funnels in the usual way. Into the first pair I poured the liquid contain- ing the alumina separated by means of the carbonate of potash, 1822.] : Weight of an Atom of Alumina. _ 367 hat by carbonate of soda into the second pair, and that by car- bonate of ammonia into the third. The nuk sd on each pair was edulcorated by distilled water till the water which passed through ceased to produce any effect on muriate of barytes. The filters were then allowed to dry in the open air... When as dry as they could be made in this way, the two filters constitut- ing each pair were separated from each other. The outermost was put 1nto one of the scales of the balance, and the innermost still containing the whole alumina. was put into the other. -As the two filters were exactly, of the same weight, it was easy to determine the exact, weight, of the alumina. A. portion of the alumina thus weighed was now detached from the filter, and exposed to a strong red heat in a platinum erucible; and from the loss of weight which it sustained; it was easy to deduce the loss of weight which the whole alumina would have sustained had it been subjected to the same process. - Thé' following are the results of these experiments : (1. The alumina precipitated by the carbonate of potash weighed 24:59 grains. When heated to redness, it was reduced to 10-988 grains. ATBHA i "o" p .(2.) The alumina precipitated by the carbonate of soda - weighed 24:34 grains. When heated to redness, it was reduced to 10°82 grains. y > (8.) The alumina precipitated by the carbonate of ammonia -weighed 30:44 grains. ^ When heated to redness, it was reduced an atom of acid and. an atom of alumina. | ' 168 Dr. Thomson on the [Maren, The three atoms of sulphuric acid then must be combined with three atoms of alumina. Consequently 6:74555875 must be Een = 92-9485, a number which would represent the weight of an atom of alumina if my experiments had been perfectly accurate, But it is easy to show that my number is sath part too small, and that the true weight of an atom of alumina is 2°25. ipis | For this purpose let us take the constituents of 60-875 grains of alum as determined by the preceding experiments. equiyalent to three atoms of alumina; but Sulphuric acid ........ 20-000 or 4 atoms MEN Loud dc ulna nike 28-125 25 atoms Potash ....... si shave alien 6:000 1 atom Alumina. ...... tent 6:745 3 atoms 60-870 | (01^ uel iro is Ri oia]. e eos U. dip exe DEG There is obviously a loss amounting to 0:005 of a grain. If we add this to the alumina, it will make the three atoms of it to weigh 6:75 ; and consequently the weight of 1 atom will be 2:25. Now as the weight of an atom of sulphuric acid, potash, and water, is known with precision, it is obvious that the loss can only fall upon the alumina. Hence there can be no doubt that the true quantity of alumina contained in 60-875 grains of alum is 6:75, and that an atom of alumina weighs exactly 2:25. Alum then is composed of | dsbog dije 4 atoms sulphuric acid ........ = 20:0 3 atoms alumina ......... ¿4 desea! 676 ] atom potash....... ies oss enn 6*0 " DG atoma WALE csv vox wax vb ale @s 28:125 I 60-875. | So that the weight of an integral particle of alum is 60:875. We may represent the composition of alum in a different way, as follows : 3 atoms sulphate of alumina ..,.,. 21:75 gale 1 atom sulphate of potash., ++» ss; 11:0 diem 25 atoms Water .....« 44 eo onore» 29125 | 60-875 These proportions are more convenient for caleulation tham the usual mode of representing the constituents of 100 grains of alum. However, for the sake of those who prefer that method, I shall state the centesimal constituents of alum as follows: — "5 tia 1822] Weight of an Atom of Alumina. 169 P Sulphurie acid. uo aksa lon viduus 2928542 | Amna aig dV s ulaqa pil 11-0882 POOR. Wiel somes BLL uid xg S c 9:8562 Miedo ii bod elis odas diui acd an .» 46:2012 99-9998 Or it may be stated in this way : Sulphate ofalumina ............ 35°72885 Sulphate of potash. ..... -gita 18-06975 aec AAY EOC conecte Ne y ETC 46°20123 99-99983 . But it is much more convenient in general, because we are not perplexed by a great number of decimal places, to employ in our calculations the weight of an atom of the salt. The atomic weight of an integral particle ofany salt never can contain more than three decimal places. When the atoms of water in it are represented by an even number, then the decimal places never can exceed two. | Ithas been alleged that alum owes its property of reddening vegetable blues to a quantity of bisulphate of potash which it contains ; and this opinion has been supported by the following pe gy Mix together solutions of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of potash—a precipitate, it is said, appears. Hence it is alleged that the sulphate of potash is converted into bisul- phate of potash, and that the alumina thus partly deprived of acid. becomes insoluble, and occasions the precipitate. I have repeated this experiment with all possible care, and with. salts in a state of purity. I never could obtain any immediate precipi- tate whatever ; but when the mixed liquid was allowed to remain for 24 hours, there was always a deposit of alum crystals. We have, therefore, no evidence whatever of the presence of bisul- phate of potash in alum ; and the preceding experiments are quite incompatible with such a supposition. — à AmriCcLE II, - On certain Saline Solutions which may be cooled without Crys- taldization ; but deposit Crystals when agitated. By Thomas Thomson, MD. PRS. Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. : a ^r has been long known to chemists that a saturated solution of sulphate of soda in a well corked phial may be cooled down to the eommon temperature of the atmosphere without the depo- 170 -Dra Thomson on thes | [Marca, sition of any crystals. But the moment we take out the stop- per, the excess of sulphate of. soda separates in a fibrous form, so that the whole liquid. assumes the appearance of an opaque solid, while at the same time its temperature rises. I am ‘not aware that any person. has hitherto attempted to give a satisfac- tory explanation of this phenomenon. | here are two salts which possess this property to a consider- able extent; carbonate of soda, and sulphate of soda. Probably there are more, but these are the two which I have examined with attention. . With sulphate of soda, the phenomenon never fails; but when we employ carbonate of soda, the success depends entirely upon the temperature. If we can cool down the solution below 50°, the success is certain; but at higher temperatures than 50°, the crystals are not deposited imme- diately, though they generally appear in a few hours. The Ear ses formed are very different in these two liquids. In the solutions of carbonate of soda, the crystals appear at the sur- face in the form of small stars, not unlike flakes of snow. These fall slowly through the liquid, giving the appearance of a shower of crystals. The deposition goes on for some minutes, and the crystals accumulate at the bottom of the phial, and at last fill it for rather more than’ one-third of the portion occupied by the liquid. The sulphate of soda begins hkewise to crystaihze at the surface of the liquid ; but the crystals are so abundant, that the whole surface becomes at once solid, and this crystallization ‘goes on slowly till it reaches the bottom of the phial in about a quarter of a minute. "The crystals thus formed put one very much in mind of the fibrous variety of sulphate of lime. The ‘crystals gradually sink towards the bottom of the phial, and in two or three days constitute a solid mass occupying at least ‘four-fifths of the liquid, while the remaining fifth is a clear transparent liquid occupying the upper part of the phial. >To enable us to understand the nature of the phenomenon more accurately, let us examine each of the two solutions a little more closely. | 9$ | AIS. | [ 40, ORANG 1. Carbonate of soda is a salt composed of 1 atom carbonic. acid... 2°75 i Wm 9008 > 40 tha 14. WAWAN: = 40 . 1] atoms Wateree. sse sss eeso = 12:375 A 19-125 _. When heated, the water of crystallization is sufficient to cause itto run into a liquid. When exposed. to the temperature of about 400°, it gradually loses the whole of its water, and is converted into a hard, white, dry, saline mass, which dissolves in water much more slowly than the crystals. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that both the anhydrous and crystallized salts are much more soluble in hot water than cold water. 1822.]: Deposition of Crystals by Agitation. 171 _. I threw the whole of the liquid and crystals upon a cotton cloth. | After the liquid had passed through, the cloth contain- ing the crystals was subjected to pressure between folds of filter- ing paper as long as it imparted moisture to the paper. The cloth with the crystals was then exposed to a gentle heat, which was gradually augmented till all the water, of erystalliza- tion was driven off. The anhydrous salt obtained in: this 1 or 355 part of the salt. Now the water of crystallization belonging to 123-15 grains of anhydrous carbonate of soda is 223°6 grains. i As the erystals were deposited, the temperature of the mixture was augmented by 14°, as accurately as I could determine. The weight of the glass phial in which the solution was kept was 1351-7 grains. But the specific heat of glass is as nearly as . possible one-fifth of that of water. Instead of the glass, there- fore, we may substitute a quantity of water equal to, one-fifth of the weight of the glass, or 270:3 gr. The specific heat of a saturated solution of carbonate of soda is very nearly. 0:75. We may, therefore, substitute for the solution a quantity of water weighing just three-fourths of our liquid, or 1879:2 grains. This, with the water representing the glass, makes a total of 2149:5 grains.. Now the water of crystallization of the.crystals which manner weighed 123-15 grains, were deposited. (223-6 grains) constitute zi part of the whole. Now if we suppose that this water during the crystallization of the salt parted with the whole of its latent heat amounting to 140°, and that this was the cause of the augmentation of tem- perature observed ; it is obvious that the temperature of the 1409. . PTT sg = 14:462. Though this is almost half a degree higher than the elevation of temperature which I observed, I have no doubt that the latent heat of the water of crystallization of the salt deposited was the sole source of the heat observed. For my experiment was exposed to two sources of error, which I could, not com- pletely obviate, and both of which had a tendency, to make the latent heat of the water of crystallization appear higher than the augmentation of temperature observed. . | 4. The salt took nearly three minutes before it was all depo- sited, and during all that time, the temperature of the liquid was augmenting. But as it was about 14? higher than the surround- ing atmosphere, it is obvious that a portion of the heat must have been dissipated before it reached its maximum ; conse- quently the augmentation, of temperature which I observed must have been a little less than the truth. ; | 2. "The. erystals of carbonate of soda which I collected on the- cotton cloth were exceedingly small, and they contained a great liquid would have been elevated 172 : Dr. Thomson on the [Marcn, deal of the liquid within their interstices. This liquid T endea- voured to get rid of by means of filtering paper, which imbibed it; but after the crystals were rendered as dry as gay this means, they were still far from being perfectly so, A sm portion of liquid must still have been contained within the inter- ‘stices of the crystals. Now this liquid still held a consi- derable quantity of carbonate of soda in solution. Hence the weight of anhydrous carbonate which I obtained must have somewhat exceeded the truth, Had the quantity been such that the water of crystallization which it contained amounted to a instead of $3 then the elevation of temperature observed would have been exactly equal to the latent heat. | I have no doubt that these two sources of error taken toge- ther are the cause of the small difference of half a degree between the theoretical and practical results. TWPTDM When the liquid from which thé crystals of carbonate of soda had been deposited was set aside for two or three days, an addi- tional crop of crystals separated from it. These crystals were weighed, and found to amount to 214-6 grains, which is equiva- lent to 75°89 grains of the dry salt, Thus it appears that 8-13ths of the surplus salt are deposited immediately in crystals, while the remaining 5-13ths remain in solution ; but are notwith- standing deposited in the course of two or three days in the state of crystals, Thus the liquid was at last reduced to the state of a saturated solution at 50°. 2. Sulphate of soda is a salt composed of latom sulphuric acid........... = 60 l atom soda. ..... d od ST E ic RO d ass od) 10 atomd water. . 1247720120 0220 11:25 20-95 When heated moderately, its water of crystallization is suffi- cient to cause it to liquefy. Gay-Lussac has shown that water of the temperature 106? dissolves a maximum óf this salt, and that the solubility diminishes when the temperature is increased, I have reasons for believing that carbonate of soda is distin- guished by a similar property, but its maximum point of solubi- is as high as 120°. At that temperature water is capable of Fr e up a greater quantity of the anhydrous carbonate than at To form a solution of sulphate of soda capable of bean | when MOT we have only to dissolve 51 parts of the oy - lized salt in 49 parts of water; or, which is the same thing, 22-44 parts of the anhydrous salt in 77-56 parts of water; or 28:91 parts of the anhydrous salt in 100 parts of water. This constitutes a saturated solution at the temperature of 88-259. 1822.] Deposition of Crystals by Agitation. . 173 If we attempt to make a solution containing a greater propor. tion of salt than that just stated, we shall find that it cannot be cooled down without depositing crystals. The specific gravity of the above solution at. 87? is 1-1995. I have never been able to determine the specific gravity at 60°, but think it likely that at that temperature it would be 1-228. | When the above solution is cooled down to about 50° in a well-corked phial, if we draw the cork, a copious deposition of fibrous crystals make their appearance on the surface of the liquid; and the crystallization in about half a minute extends through the whole liquid, converting it into a semitransparent fibrous white solid, while in the mean time the temperature of the whole rises, as nearly as I have been able to determine, 24° of Fahrenheit. “° : | ‘One hundred grains of the residual liquid after the separation of the crystals bemg evaporated to dryness left 8:62 grains of anhydrous sulphate of soda. Hence it is obvious that this liquid is a compound of 100 parts of water + 9:43 parts of anhydrous sulphate. We see from this that very nearly two- thirds of the whole salt in solution had been deposited in crys- tals by an instantaneous crystallization. | In an experiment which I made, the weight of the glauber salt solution was 2118 grains; and the weight of the phial in which it was, amounted to 1032 grains. — - The whole sulphate of soda in the liquid, supposing it in a erystallzed state, was 1070 grains. Of this quantity, two- thirds, or 713 grains, were deposited in fibrous crystals. Now the water of crystallization in this quantity of salt amounts to very nearly 399 grains. M. he specific heat of a solution of glauber salt is about 0:73. We may, therefore, consider the 2118 grains of the solution as. equivalent to 1546 grains of water. If we reckon the specific heat of the phial 0-2, we may consider it as equivalent to 206 grains of water, both of which together amount to 1752 grains. ow 399 grains (the water of crystallization of the salt) consti- tute ad of 1752 grains. Hence we obtain the amount of the ‘heat evolved by the water of crystallization. If we multiply 24°, (the number of degrees of rise of temperature) by 4:39, the product is 105:36?. ' | It would appear from this, that the water of crystallization does not, in the act of solidification, part with the whole of its latent heat, but only with about three-fourths of it. But a phe- nomenon which always has taken place in all my experiments on this subject (and they have been numerous) enables us to account for this apparent diminution of heat in a satisfactory manner. When the phial containing the fibrous crystals mixed with liquid 1s set aside for some days, the crystals subside, and 174 . On the Deposition of Crystals hy Agitation. [MArcn, a portion of clear liquid swims over them. Now if we: examine the crystals, we shall find that the lower part of them is still fibrous ; but just under the liquid portion, there is a stratum of regular prismatic crystals of sulphate of soda. . It is obvious from this, that the whole salt did not separate in crystals at first. An additional quantity was obviously deposited : after- wards. Hence | overrated the weight of the salt deposited in a fibrous state, and consequently the weight ofits water of crystal- lization. Nor is it difficult to see the reason of this. The increased temperature of the liquid (amounting to 24°) will of course prevent the whole surplus salt from being deposited till the liquid cools. I have not been able to determine the weight of this second crop of crystals (as I did with respect to the solu- tion of carbonate of soda); but from their appearance, they cannot amount to a smaller proportion than one-fourth of the whole mass of crystals deposited. Hence we have reason to conclude, that the weight ofthe fibrous crystals at first deposited was only 530 grains, instead of 718 grains. Now the water of crystallization of this quantity of salt is about 300 grains, consti- tuting = of the whole mass. Now 5:83 x 24 = 189-92, á From this statement there seems no reason to doubt that the water of crystallization of the salt which crystallizes gives out its latent heat, and that this evolution is the cause of the augmen- tation of temperature observed, though the difference of solubi- lity has not been hitherto accurately determined. It will appear, from what follows, that at the temperature of 50?, 100 parts. of water dissolve about 14-5 parts of the dry salt, which is equiva- lent to 48:01 parts of the salt in crystals ; while at the temper- ature of 98°, 100 parts of. water take up 23°69 parts of the dry salt, equivalent to about 67:11 parts of the crystals. — | To form a solution of carbonate of soda which deposits crys- tals when cooled down to 50? (on taking out the stopper) we have only to dissolve an ounce troy of the dry salt in 4-22 ounces of water. Now this is the same thing as dissolving 25:69 parts of the dry salt in 100 parts of water. 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SI | Sst | MS] € cI | O 0 £ £ £1 | € £ 0 I g | 48q0”O & 616 6I-[ 02%.) 9 | #1 | MS] I OI I 0 q 9 et | € 8 0 0 0. `] ° ° **3dəg Š 00} | 190 | 68 | FI | Lt | 3S | O E Ei 0 9 ETEei Ir | 0 0 p |°‘3sndny S 660 81-0 18-0 ol i$ | AN |. 0 9 1 € 6 |9 gc 2 É € 0 0 € Foi Ape O 9&1 YL-0 66-0 6 i6 | aS | 0 1 1 £ L T $ I t 9 Y ë g. -f -mr S 618 | cro PLT cI | Of |; A | 6 st | 0 91-1 8 ë + ç I g [ |` ° deny a c. 40d 01-0 160-| SL | st | A | S 6 | 0 0 9 | 2b v ë 9 0 y D [mi ^E 6s 68-I 19-1. | LE | *1 | MN] ë 86 | O 01 8 E 1.1 Y 8 0 0 g p PEN = o | O10 | 680. | £ q |a |€ 9 | 0 0 I v 0 I 8 | a | o | 6 jAremqar z i 903 all 6-0 9 | ct | A | O LA 0 0 I - š q q + 9 o | Arenuer un Nn RM ! Boat Ts Bl Bee ee Fak ES ase SS ieee GR Pee ea Š Bese e aes | C L 3 T 23 SF gue te : É S te B E Š E: zi z 13 ç = = o * uw ^ " ` = = * font * e $ - b X aR @ pa ën £ . 2 S rd „NS ° Š > > S 'SXHON] NI NIVY > 6 2s. | "UHXHLVIA, ANV ANIM- . HM UE qe 3 y o R z oo ^ ‘ == 178 Meteorological Results kept at Cornwall, for 1821. [MAncm, : Barometer. Highest, Jan. 23. - Wind; Ez: e ceeéeeceee even ea ce 90:60 Lowest, Dec. 28. Wind; SE. s Gay aaa. eee ees 27:85 Register Thermometer. Highest, Aug.22. Wind, SE;...... i ier eius 3 Lowest, Jan. l and 2. Wind, NE and SE ............ 26 Common. Thermometer. Highest, og. ais |. WANs M. res eie San ans EAR RECRER E Lowest, Jam. 1. Wind, NE 75.70.2400 aes erede e oh 26 : Observations. Jan. 1.—Weather fine and clear, with a sharp frost ; 2d and 3d a fall of snow, which continued at intervals throughout those ‘days, but disappeared on the night of the 4th ; from 6th to 20th, Pil showery, and misty, The remainder of the month very ne. | Feb.—This month, with the exception of three days, was very fine, and remarkable for the height of the mercury in the baro- meter, which stood above 30:00 for twenty-three successive days. There are but £wo instances in thelast three years, in any month, wherein the mercury stood above 30°00 more than eleven days, and those not in succession. | | : March.—In general, wet and stormy. “On the 26th, it blew a strong gale from the SW, with heavy rain; between eight and nine o'clock at night, the wind. uL shifted to the NW, blowing a hurricane. i April.—This month, like the former, was wet and stormy ; some heavy hail showers, with thunder and lightning. May.—Also wet and unseasonable. June.—In general, a very fine month. July.—Like the former. August, September, and October.—Almost constant rain, with heavy gales of wind, accompanied by thunder and lightning. December.—This month might have been added to the former three, but it was necessary to remark, that on the 28th, the mer- cury in the barometer fell to 27:85, being 00:43 lower than it had fallen for the last four years (on the 4th of March, 1818, it stood at 28:28), and it has been asserted by persons who have been in the constant habit of observing the fluctuations of the mercury for nearly 40 years, that they never saw it so low. It may be proper to remark, that the observations refer to the common upright barometer, ! 1892.) Mr. Lunn on Native Phosphate of Copper. 179. .- Rain, &c. for Three Yeats. Wet days.* Dry days. . Rain in inches. Prevailing wind.’ TOPO Meee LLLI AES COR abe S oio 1A W 1820.-23187- ...,.56(229 ua 346719 d NW 1821.—185 [EN MD 180 ee... 32:51 ...... SW — Q Means 167 wie ws 198 ¿4 2 965168 Note by Dr. Forbes.—The rain-guage made use of in Mr. Giddy’s observations is placed on the top of a chimney (not overlooked by any neighbouring buildings) about 45 feet from the ground. The following + are the average results of two guages (the one kept by Mr. Boase, the other by myself) placed on the ground, several hundred yards apart, and also some hun- dred yards respectively, from the site of Mr. Giddy’s. A com- arison of their results (which accord very exactly with those of Mr. G.’s), shows their coincidence with former observations of a like kind (see Howard's Climate of London, vol. i. tab. 66), and points out the absolute necessity of noting the local circum- stances of the pluviameter in every tabular record of the rain. —J. F. ARTICLE IV. Analysis of a Native Phosphate of Copper from the Rhine. By Francis Lunn, BA. FRS. of St. John’s College, Cambridge.t Amone the e in of Klaproth iis one of a phosphate of copper from the Firneberg, near Rheinbreitenbach, où the Rhine: the mineral had long been mistaken for malachite, from its external resemblance. ‘lhe German chemist obtained as his result MART ^ Wet days comprehend rainy, showery, snowy, and those in which hail fell. ZIMMER AURA aW SP 3°53 ZEHL, STS. SIR OE AA. 9:66 MINI per cent. Water. v.v DESE q e eS 4454 = 15:454 28:8 100-000 Now it is fair, àt least, to compare all theory with experimental results ; if we consider the mineral as composed of one atom of phosphoric acid, one atom of peroxide of copper, and two atoms of water, the quantities per cent. will stand as below ; and by the side I have placed the experimental result for comparison. Theoretical composition, ^ Experimental result, Phosphoric acid........ 22222 .......... 21:687 Peroxide of copper. .... 63:492 .......... 62-847. Water 9099999979795 Q e t e < 14:285 "997997992949 15:454 It will be seen that the difference 1s in no case equal to unity except in the water.* If we were to represent the constitution of this mineral by the symbols of Berzelius, which, being derived from the Latin, are more general than the English initrals of Thomson, but adopüng the opinion of the latter with regard to the constitution of phos- phoric acid, | Its chemical sign would be Cu P + 2 A q. Its mineralogical .... ... Cu P + 2 Aq. There can be no doubt of Chenevix's artificial phosphate being a biphosphate, as stated by Thomson + ; and it is rather singular ` that a neutral combination which has nót hitherto been formed in the laboratory of the chemist, should be the very substance formed by a natural process in the earth. * Throughout these calculations I have made use of the atomic weights recently laid down by Thomson, because in some trials of verification I found them to accord best with experiment. : + Thomson's System of Chemistry, vol. il. p. 607. Fifth Edit, 1822.] © On the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton. 183 ARTICLE. V. Remarks on the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton. (To the Editor of the Annals of. Philosophy.) SIR, + Nov, 1821. - Í am induced to send you some observations on the geological features of the cliff at Brighton, which I have extracted from notes made at that place in 1817, as I find that some very extra- ordinary views: have been entertained of the relations of the strata there visible. ; I refer particularly to an account by J. F. Daniel, Esq. FRS. published in the fourth volume of the Journal of Science, edited at the Royal Institution, which “records some hitherto unno- ticed combinations and positions which materially affect our hitherto received notions of the coniparative ages of these upper formations." These are the author's words, and he describes (atabout half-way between Brighton and. Rottingdean) the very remarkable appearance of a bed of loose pebbles in the solid chalk and veins of flint passing from one part of the chalk to another through the bed of pebbles without suffering any fracture or dislo- cations 6.660 v | | | This account was published, I believe, in 1818. In the spring. of this year in a lecture at the Royal Institution, 1 heard these assertions argued upon, and illustrated by drawings. Entertain- ing, however, doubts as to their accuracy, I hope that you will not deem the description which I send superfluous. I may be in error certainly, but as what Mr. Daniel has described 1s, if correct, of so much importance in geology, the publication of my notes may induce some of the mauy visitors to Drighton to undertake even a toilsome walk of two or three miles along its shore of loose shingles to ascertain the truth between the con- flicting statements. | It will be observed that the very spot which I have described (that is, half-way between Brighton and Rottingdean), as having the cliff formed entirely of the solid chalk, is that where these extraordinary appearances are said to occur. I may observe in favour of the view I have taken, that Mr. Webster, in his excellent paper on the Strata lying over the Chalk, published in the second volume of the Transactions of the Geological Society, though he describes the peculiar structure of the cliff at Brighton, takes no notice of the remarkable appearances that Mr. Daniel and others dwell upon so much. he observations that I send, it should be noticed, were made previously to Mr. Daniel's publication, Your obedient servant, AI i | Ix nAGATOR. 184 On the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton; [MAncu; On Sept. 24, 1817, I examined the structure of the cliff at Brighton. From the dirt and rubbish thrown over it, it is impos- sible to make any observations on the west part of the town, nor is the structure clearly to be perceived on the east till you arrive at the last groin, which is near the termination of the houses on the east cliff, | | Here there is a passage cut in the cliff to descend to the shore, and a little in advance of this a good idea may be gained of the structure of the whole of the cliff between this place and Rotting- dean. | | From the top to about four feet above the level of the shingle (as it then was) the cliff consists of fractured chalk flints inter- mixed with small, mostly rounded, fragments of chalk, cemented together by a very pale ferruginous clay ; the cohesion of these materials, though not very firm, is sufficiently strong to make it difficult to pull out a projecting flint by the hand, and also to allow the olif to be absolutely perpendicular, which is mostly the case: the fragments of flints, though they appear to have been subjected to the action of water, are nevertheless by no means rounded; they are merely deprived of their sharp edges and angles. | | | Under this stratum, which, as I have said, occupies the whole of the cliff to within about four feet of the level of the shingle, is a bed or layer of perfectly rounded pebbles; they appear to be mostly chalk flints, are quite loose, and rest upon a thin layer of fine silicious sand, and this again rests upon the: solid chalk. The latter circumstance cannot, however, at present be seen till you have advanced about a mile east from this spot. These rounded pebbles are mostly ofa large size, and have no intermixture of clay or other substance to bind them together: this may be said generally of the bed. In several spots, how- ever, and particularly a little cast of the groin in the upper port of the bed, the interstices are filled up by calcareous matter in a state of very distinct crystallization: hence these pebbles falling from the cliff, form masses of considerable firmness ; in other parts, the calcareous matter is in an earthy state : further to the eastward, they are not unfrequently mixed with clay or sand, but still continue loose. > | A This bed may be distinctly traced to within about —— of a mile of Rottingdean; it may always be distinguished from the superior stratum by the rounded form of the pebbles ; it is about six feet iii thickness, and from this it does not vary, except near its termination, and in one or two other places. After continuing for about two miles from Brighton, on a level with the present bank of shingle, it begins to rise very gra- dually, and the solid unaltered chalk appears on which it is seen to rest, except where the thin layer oft fine sand occurs, and ` this is in some places mixed up with the pebbles. About a 1829.]: On the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton. 185 mile and. an half from Rottingdean, where the bed is about four feet above the level of the shore (these four feet consisting of solid. chalk) large rounded pieces of chalk begin to occur in it, and these gradually increase so much, that in some places they form the greater part of the bed, and are of a very large size. This intermixture continues for about a mile; the bed. then gradually becomes thinner, and less regular, appearing to have some intermixture with the upper stratum, and, continuing to get thinner and thinner, is lost about one-eighth of a mile from the ravine of Rottingdean. Insome places, a good deal of clay is mixed with the pebbles ; in others, they are small, but always preserve their character of roundness. isti a rounded piece of granite among them, and saw several rounded fragments of the primitive rocks lying on the shore which were probably all derived from this source. I likewise found a bone of an animal, of the class mammalia, in two places distinctly imbedded in the pebbles : in both cases, it was in a very soft and decomposed state. Pieces of argillaceous iron stone are not of unfrequent occurrence in it. The frequent falling of the cliff on this shore is I think to be almost entirely attributed to this loose bed of pebbles, near Brighton, where it is on a level with the shore. It is readily washed away at spring tides, and the cliff undermined, but that part of the cliff on which the town stands is now well defended by a low wall built against it : this covers the bed of loose peb- bles, and prevents the sea from undermining the cliff. Towards Rottingdean, where it is elevated by the solid chalk above the reach of the waves, the shore is much narrower; but even here, the action of the weather causes the pebbles frequently to fall out, and deprives the upper part of the cuff of its support: hence there 1s at this part a projecting ledge of chalk about four feet in height, which continues to resist the sea, though the cliff above it has fallen away. — . The stratum which forms the upper and main part of the cliff is tolerably uniform throughout, merely varying in this; that in some parts the flints are more abundant, but always of the angu- lar déseription above mentioned; in others, the fragments of chalk and agglutinating clay are most. predominant, sometimes to the total exclusion. of the flints., At about one-eighth of a mile from Rottingdean, the solid chalk is seen to form the whole of the cliff, but it is very difficult to say at what exact point the debris ceases and the chalk begins, owing probably to the washing down of the surface by the rains, which, in many parts, conceals the real structure ofthe cliff. Although I have described this stratum and the bed of peb- bles as continuing the whole way from Brighton to Rottingdean, yet it must be particularly noticed that about half way between the two places, for about 100 yards, the cliff is formed entirely af 186 On the Geology of the Cliffs at Brighton. [Marcu, from top to bottom by the solid chalk. On the west side, the bed of pebbles is seen gradually to cease. On the east, it disap- ars under masses which have fallen from the upper parts of the cliff: at this part, therefore, not only the bed of loose peb- bles, but the upper and thick stratum of angular flints and clay, are entirely wanting.* | At that part of the cliff which is exactly opposite the end of the New Steyne, the workmen were forming a descent to the shore, and this operation showed that the structure of the cliff was precisely the same here as to the eastward. About halfway down, a circular hole had been dug in the debris of chalk and angular flints, and passed through the bed of loose rounded pebbles into the chalk on which the bed was seen to rest. I could only see a section of the cliff on the west side of the ' town in one spot, and that near its termination; it was there composed entirely of angular fragments of chalk flints. Itis so low that Í suspect if the bed of loose pebbles extended so far, and kept the same elevation it has on the east, that it must be seen here. | : Above the cliff I could not see the slightest indication on the surface of the junction of the debris with the chalk ; it certainly does not extend far inland ; for at the west end of the town, there is very near the shore, a clay from whence they make bricks. Atthe church, the chalk is close to the surface, and on the opposite side of the valley, it is seen at a less elevation ; and between the town and Rottingdean, there are several indica- tions of the chalk from within half a quarter of a mile to half. that distance from the edge of the cliff. 5 t It is remarkable that this stratum of debris externally con- forms to the various undulations of the chalk surface to which it is united ; so that from external appearances, no alteration of the substratum would be suspected. | | Atlow water, the solid chalk may be seen forming the shore all the way between Brighton and Rottingdean. * The following is Mr. Daniel's account of (as I suppose) this spot: ** About half way between Brighton and Rottingdean, the cliff presents some very curious and import- ant particulars. The upper bed, which has been assuming by gradual degrees more and more the characters of chalk, is decidedly chalk, and towards the top contains two hori- zontal veins of thin flint. The bed of shingles suddenly contracts to the width of a few inches, but maintains its situation and characters uninterrupted. The lower bed of chalk is intersected by veins of flint, which here traverse the bed of shingles, and continue their course through the upper bed till they reach the horizontal veins before described." 1822.] On the Formation of Ice in the Beds of Rivers. 187 ARTICLE VI. On the Formation of Ice in the Beds of Rivers. By Thomas M*Keever, MD. Assistant to the Dublin Lying-in Hospital. . (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) Tur numerous and formidable difficulties attendant on an explanation of the principles which, under particular circum- stances, occasion the deposition of an icy incrustation in the beds of lakes and rivers, have induced many philosophers to consider the circumstance as highly improbable ; while others have gone the length of altogether denying its occurrence. We are, however, no longer dependent on the casual information afforded by uninformed persons for proofs of the fact; the per- sonal observations of several very eminent chemists having placed its existence beyond the possibility of all doubt. Mr. Leslie, in a note prefixed to his very interesting work on heat, tells us that many of the rivers in Siberia and Switzerland are found to have their beds lined during the greater part of the year with a thick crust of ice. Saussure describes a similar appearance in the lake of Geneva. Mr. Garnet, in a late num- ber of the Quarterly Journal of Science and of Arts, gives an | accurate and minute account of this singular phenomenon, and mentions one place in particular where it may be observed in a very striking manner. “On the river Wharfe, near Otley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire," Mr. G. informs us, “there is a weir or mill dam, the structure of which is of hewn stone, forming a plane, inclined to an angle of from 35? to 50? fronting the north, and extending from W. to E. to the length of 250 or 300 yards. When the wind suddenly shifts from SW. to NW. and blows with great impetuosity, accompanied with severe frost, and heavy falls of snow, the stone which composes the weir soon becomes encrusted with ice, which increases so rapidly in thickness, as in a short time to impede the course of the stream that falls over itin a tolerably uniform sbeet, and with considerable velocity ; at the same time the wind blowing strongly from the NW. contri- butes to repel the water, and freeze such as adheres to the crust of the ice, when its surface comes nearly in contact with the air. The consequence is, that in a short time the current is entirely obstructed, and the superincumbent water forced to a higher level. But as the abovementioned causes continue to act, the ice is also elevated by a perpetual aggregation of particles, till by a series of similar operations, an icy mound or barrier is formed, so high as to force the water over the opposite shore, and produce an apparent inundation. But in a short time, the . accumulated weight of a great many thousand cubic feet of water Presses so strongly against the barrier as to burst a passage 188 Dr. M*Keever on the " s [MARCH, through some weak part, through which the water escapes, and subsides to its former level, leaving the singular appearance of a wall or rampart of ice, three or four feet high, and about two feet in thickness, along the Brostest part of the upper edge of the weir. The ice composing this barrier, where it adheres to the stone, is of a solid consistency, but the upper part consists of a multitude of thin laminee, or layers resting upon each other, ina confused manner, and at different angles of inclination, their interstices being. occupied by innumerable spicule, diverging, and crossing each other in all directions. The whole mass resembles in its texture the white and porous ice, which may be seen at the edge of a pond or small rill where the water has subsided during a frost.” Tu A variety of hypotheses. have been framed with the view of accounting for this curious phenomenon, all of which, however,. I think I may with confidence assert, are either inadequate to an explanation of the facts, or are altogether inconsistent with the ipay < ass doctrines of chemistry. ` As the point is, theré- fore, still open for discussion, Í beg leave to state in a very few words in what manner I conceive the deposition to take place.: While reading Mr. Garnet’s paper, I was very forcibly struck. with the peculiar circumstances under which he. states -this incrustation to take place: thus he tells us that ice of this description is seldom seen adhering to any substance, except rock, stone, or gravel; and that it is always found in greatest abundance in proportion to the magnitude and number of the stones composing the bed of the river combined with the velo- city of the current; as also that it abounds most in rough and rapid places, and that he has never observed it where mud or clay is deposited. Now it has occurred to me that, perhaps, the formation of ice in those situations may be owing to the same causes that give rise to the deposition of dew and hoar frost on grass, twigs, and other fibrous substances; namely, by their possessing a greater radiating power, by which they are: enabled to discharge a larger quantity of heat from their surface. The roughened surfaces of the stones Í conceive to operate in the same way as the vegetable fibres do, in a clear, unclouded atmo- sphere, by allowing each “ affluent" wave* to. come in closer proximity with the surface, and thus favour the discharge of caloric from the bed of the river. That none appears where mud or earth is deposited, I should suppose to be owing to their presenting a comparatively smooth surface, in consequence of ` which, the stratum of incumbent fluid is prevented coming into such close contact as if a rugged one were presented. Just m the same manner as if we were to take a highly polished globe of silver, and fill it with hot water, it will take suppose 20 minutes to cool down 10 degrees ; butif its surface be scratched with sand paper ¿z one direction, it will now cool down the same number of degrees in half the time, The striated surface of the * Dr, M‘Keever adopts Mit, Leslic's theory of radiation.— Ed. 1829.] Formation of Ice in the Beds of Rivers. 189 metal allowing of a closer, though still partial contact with the bounding atmosphere, is thus brought to a state more favourable for exciting energetic pulsations. On the same principle, a thin covering of muslin, or even of flannel, instead of retarding the » escape of heat, as a priort we should suppose, does actually favour its more rapid discharge. The NW. wind. probably acts by its greater degree of cold, causing (at least until the temperature of the entire mass is reduced to 39) a constant precipitation of chilled particles from the surface to the bed of the river. How the rapidity of the currents can hasten the effect, it is difficult to say ; unless on the same principle that a strong breeze accelerates refrigeration in atmospheric air, so in like "manner the rapid current affording a constant supply of water at a lower temperature may cool down the bed of the river with greater rapidity, and thus bring it to a condition more favourable for the production of this icy crust. | t will in all probability be objected to the suggestions I have here thrown out, thàt they are in direct opposition to the obser- vations‘ of Prof. Leslie, who asserts, that when the cannister, reflector, and differential thermometer, were plunged into water, that no radiation could. be observed, and. hence: this ingenious philosopher concludes, that no radiation will take place, except when. the radiating body is surrounded by an elastic medium. I may remark, however, that the experiments which he adduces - in support of this opinion are by no means decisive ofthe point. Substances, as Dr. Thomson very accurately remarks, cool so rapidly when plunged into water that there is hardly time for the differential thermometer to be affected ; besides that, the heat could scarcely accumulate in the focal ball in such quantity as to occasion a sensible rise. Moreover, I can see no reason whatever why radiant caloric should not pass through water* as well.as air. "They are both fluids ; they receive and transmit slow communicating caloric in:à precisely similar way ; namely, by a constant recession or migration of heated particles : they agree in many of their phy- sical and chemical properties, such ‘as great freedom of motion among their particles, extensive solvent power, elasticity, &c. What is, there then I would ask in the constitution of water that should incapacitate it for the transmission of radiant caloric ? Moreover, 1f not transmitted through this fluid, what then becomes of it? Is it converted into slow communicating caloric ? This would be asserting their identity, a point about which I may remark philosophers are by no means agreed. But admit- ting the fact, it appears to me that such a conclusion would be rather favourable than otherwise to the hypothesis I have ven- tured to advance; for if slow communicating caloric be capable ef direct transmission through fluids, and of this, the experi- * "There is nodoubt that radiant heat can pass through water: the questionis, whe- ther it can commence its radiation in water. — Ed. 190 Mr. Moyle's Meteorological Journal [M Anca; ments of Hope, Murray, and Traill, permit us no longer to doubt, what difficulty is there in conceiving, that a peculiar modifica- tion of it should also be transmitted through the same medium. But it may be asked, allowing the vahdity of this theory to account for the deposition of the first stratum of ice, Ni on io not each succeeding layer as fast as it is formed take that situa- tion which its lesser specific gravity would assign to it, and rise to the surface of the water. This at first sight would appear a very formidable objection : it must, Peat bà recollected that this “ ascensional" effort will only be exerted when the con- gealed mass is surrounded on yai À side by water. The aqueous crystals, as they may be termed, shooting from all the prominent points of the bottom, would, by their intertexture, become firmly infixed to the inequalities of the ground, and prevent the water from insinuating itself beneath." The continual deposit of sand and mud must likewise contribute to keep it sunk. I am fully aware that the few remarks I have here ventured to offer on this curious and interesting subject require the support of actual experiment in order to give them the stability of a per- manent theory. This, however, I leave to those whose leisure or abilities better qualify them for such pursuits. In the mean . time they may supply the plan of more important information on the subject, and may, perhaps, be the means of turning the attention of chemists to the investigation of a phenomenon ` which has hitherto baffled all inquiry. | — —— ARTICLE VII. Meteorological Journal kept at Helston, Cornwall, for 1821. x By Mr. M. P. Moyle. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Helston, Jan. 20, 1899. In sending the following meteorological journal kept at Helston, Cornwall, for the year 1821, for insertion in your Annals, it will be proper to state the circumstances under which it is formed. It consists of three observations daily, viz. at eight o’clock in the morning, at one at noon, and from ten to eleven o’clock at night, or as near as possible to those hours. The barometrical heights are very correctly made by a sliding index measuring from the surface of the mercury in the reser- voir. The thermometer has a due northern aspect, and is insu- lated from the wall of the house, on which indeed the sun never shines. I give you only the mean of the three daily observa- tions, stating at the foot of each month the maximum and minimum for that month. Where the wind was variable, the most prevailing for the 24 hours is given. ` I am, Sir, your obedient servant, M. P. Moxrr. pat aD å — kept at Helston, Cornwall, for 1821. 1822.] £l] fs1940oys prey puv «pno[o KzoA *Kurex sÁep $I *Spuop 11250 yra fom sep *spho[ 90990" wA suy s£ep gp. $ urex pue “sory “(pno sfep el "Spmo[o 3990 — quA C6-8& “u 0-18 10-6 ** "Utpr BRS 08-83 UN 08-0 ` ` XU] 0.ëç 69-08 ° ° xe 079 09-08 "xe. 8-12 c9-68% * "ueo Y- ZST-0S “ueo 8-5F CP L-63 “uve yi AN 9-LF 86T-62 1g 0-0€ 066-08 IS M 0- LE 909-66 08 9-6F 082-08 0€ MN 9-7 986-66 66 9-8y 9€0-08 66 M SLY $88-66 86 A 0-LF £60-66 86 0-1F $90-08 86 MN O-SP 915-66 Lö "t 9-17 SEF-63 1 £.6y 086-08 Lg S [527 £16-66 96 "t O-8F 98-6 96 0-8 £1f-08 9% MN 0-LF 891-66 që a 9-2 098-66 Có 9-CF 067.08 që AS 9-8T OSF-63 | 16 a 0-0f 076-68 ve SSF 066-08 16 YN PEE ST6-66 £6 a 0-0F $81-0£ Eg §-L¥ $99.08 £6 N eT 068-66 Z% "t 9.%T 026-08 ee 9:87 066-08 ë N 9-9F S0T.66 13 a 0-St €61-0£ 13 9. Lý 081-08 13 MN S-97 964-63 03 N 0-68 - 66-08 06 9-0€ £L6-08 06 MN pth | O1S-66 61 a 9-68 996.08 | 6l 0-16 ST I-08 6I AN 0.11 969-66 81 aN 9-98 £91-0£ SI 0-1¢ SL1-08 8I T 9-6F Sh8-66 | LI a 0-6T 961-0£ LI £-0€ 970 0$ Li `. £ 9-87 090-08 9I a €-98 92$-0£ 9r £-6Y 096-68 | OI as 9.ch 981-08 cI a 0-88 068-08 GT 9-0¢ OSL-63 | St a $-9F SOLOS | FI a £I 083-08 TT 8.8y 618-68 | TI AS 9-87 0S6-68 $I a 0-8 603-0 SI L-0¢ $26-66 £L AS 0-0€ 916-66 el "UN 0-0F OFI-08 el 1-06 £86-66 eI AS c- yy $£9-66 II a 9:09 9LT-0£ Il V-6y $96-82 It A 0-66 009-66 | OI T §-2F 081-0 OT $-9F 026-82 | OT AS 0-66 067-66 6 N ELE 060-08 6 9-67 $18-86 6 AS $-19 £98-66 8 S 9-9F | 9T$-0€ 8 9-67 906.58 | 8. AS 9-0¢ 966-66 L S O-SP 906-08 L 1-9F 066-83 L MS 9-1¢ $19.66 9 S 27 $8€-08 9 G-0F 0v6-S2 | 9 M qS 0-66 008.66 | € AS G-68 089-08 | €. 9-48 069-98 | S MS 0-IG 979-63 | Tv MN 1524 971-08 Y SEE $91-66 | ¥ M ÁqS . 9-£€ 996-66 £ MS 1-8 068-08 € 99-68 990-66 c= AS 9-64 08€ GB g "n Aq N L-8¢ 01:08 e ESE 962.66. | Z M OL 991-66 Tw | MS $6F | 18-08 r “qa |. 9:86 961.66 pw ‘PUM “WHIT, |*19j9ur1eq 1281 UAM “UOT, |'939u0ivqr 1381 ‘wey, |'193ouoieq | — "1681 meme CL SR m, emat Se ERE f. 4 [Marcn, Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Journal 192 — M rE ee I x 'sAOQs 3487s pue uer skep SI ‘sramoys pu urerskvp aq 00-LF. | 009-63 "URW 00-8F 016-68 "tuu 00-18 . £6-66 UuWg- ` 00-41 018-08 * XEN 00-09 096-0 | ''x*W 00-¢9 GLOS ** XEN LL84 | -800-08 * UROL 96-29 08-6% | “W EZ 169-66 * uva aS c9-69 | 000-08 IS | Y S 00-19 LLL-6 08 ANG PE-FS €60-08 08 AN EE-FS $66.66 | O08 "S 99-£9 9rI-08 | 63 MS 00-29 | 090-0 68 A ÁqN | -E049 98.66 66 - HS 99.09 081-08 86 ANN 99-6F 086-66 83 MN 09-¢¢ £61-66 86 a $$-09 970-08 1e MN 89- LP 918-66 | 1⁄4 N 00-¢¢ 989-66 Lg a 99-19 090-08 98 MN YS-GY £16-66 92 "IN 00-8G 919-63 96 Hn €8-19 090-08 që M 09-66 0£0-08 ç . S 19.#¢ 916-63 96 a 00-09 990-08 po "N 99-8F 991-62 yo as 68-9 OFS-63 | +3 aN ¢9-09 SHLOS $6 AN 99:66 | 991-66 £6 AN 91-96 966-68 $6 a 00-19 OFL-OS 6S A" 60-66 086.66; | 32 ki $6-9C $19.68 | $6 "UN 00-09 080-08 12 "ü PEPS E008 Ië N 00-86 091-66 18 a ¥E-6S 0¢0-08 03 " $$-9€ 061-0 06 a §S-1¢ 097-66 06 a €§-8¢ SITOS 6I ass $$-6¢ | 090-08 61 AS £8-1€ 06€-62 61 o 00-6¢ 986-08 $81 N £816 911-66 81 A $8-8€ E1163 81 a 00-29 03-08 LI AS ¢9-1¢ 028-66 | LI M 99-9 £f€-66 LI HN 00-29 £61-08 9I S áq M Ņ+8-87 | 907-68 9I A 88-ÇF 918-66 ot a £$-19 943-08 çI M 00-09 0S8-68 GI M 09-Cp 91f-66 et AS 00-9€ osos | FI M 09-09 097-68 F1 AS -88-97 986-63 Ai AN 00-LG 013-08 £1 A 00-67 998-66 $I A 9¢-9F 089-66 SI AN 00-69 092-08 al M 09-66 080-08 al M 01:1F 918-66 al aN $££-6€ 096-65 | H MN 99-£¢ 508-08 il AS 00-0€ g0ç.68 lI AN ESIS $68-66 01 AS 90-9¢ 108-08 OI AS 0L.0€ 081-66 or MNN 99-1¢ £98-66 6 M 89-3G | 996.63 6 MS OBS £16-66 6 MAGN ££-LG S0L-63 8 A 09-6¢ FEL-63 8 A 4q N OF- Lt $81.08 8 AS 99-69 999-66 L MS S8-E¢ ‘OSF-63 L MN £E-3¢ £108 |_L AS çç.çgç 968-66 9 AS 00-GF [342 9 AM 99-6f £60-08 9 MS 00 £9 061-66 gç S 99.1 00F-68 ç N 00-SF £91.66 ç AS ££.19 009-6 v S EE EG 380:6% + MN 00-9F $68.06 | Y AS 00 09 9€ L-62 I "s 99-69 089-66 $8 A $8-8F 015-68 I MS EES $66-65 ë AS S6-F¢ 061-68 | š MSM 99-LS $8$-66 6 ASA 649 | 000-08 | 1 une MN 006€ | OF6-63 | T ÆN 8 001v | $€8p6š | 1 dy ‘PUM "uueuqy |'10;9umueg | "1281 PutAA "uuewy, |'ioyouoieq| [881 "pur A, "wa |'139wba*qp| 281 193 kept at. Helston, Cornwall, for 1821. IRAJ | — e a -i EO nir iae d d —————— e W SIMONS js Aavoy (QA pue ‘Sawy adpungg, n | 00:86 ‘yns tp ur 101uduuaq T, ""- . "SloAOs Áavoq pue uwr sep pM “£3303 "w dinem ays nez TER L : ding juSqs pue mer tlie ei óda 019-68 afe 00-C€ Ose-Gs | Sune k 00-89 0ep.68 | ^ut 0:01 086-08 ** xen 00-91 001-08 tt Xp] dA 00-81 üzs: | *'xem T-69 968-63 “ueo | 0679 1 16: 6g “ueo Wa 11.69 868-68 tuea | ! NÁqA 08-99 cs | TS WS 00-99 $6608 | ts A £69 $66-68 | Of A 09.19 £r9.66 | OE AM 00-69 906-65 | 08 MN: £-6q 961.68 | 68 AS 99-99 906.68 | 68 "W 99-19 950-08 | 6z MS £.09 809-66 | 86 8 00-19 019:68 | 86 MN ££-8€ 976-66 | 86 A 0-66 906-65 Lg Sq 00-9 $16.66 ič N 4d M 00-09 600-08 | 1⁄4 AS $-59 906-68 | 98 as S889 976-63 | 93 AC 99-79 996-06 | 9% A 8-69 696-66 | g MS £y-g9 006-66 | 9 A 00-99 061.68 | €6 MN T-L6 981.66 | $š M 28-69 088-68 ^| +g CAMS. | 886€ | 98066 | v6 A 0-19 659-63 | $6 SÁd A 08-89 016-68 | $ë CUM C £1666 | 86 MN 9.29 96166 | 66 a 98-0L | 080-08 öö M 066-66 66 A q N 0-89 scoe | Ië a 08-19 $f008 | 18. M 05168 | 16 A 9-19 998-68 | 03 a 99.c9 090.08 | 03 MS $61.68 | 06 ANN 9-[9 610-08 | 6I B. 99.19 001-08 | 6l q Aq 998.68 | 61 N 44 0-89 990-08 | SI NÁQAN 08-79 $€0-0€ | SI ke S108 | ST ° AN £99 @L1-08 | Lf M 99.79 950-08 | LI M Áq S 90r06 | LI AN 0-69 Lte-08 | 9t A 68-19 960-05 | 9T MN £50-06 | 9t A Áq N 8.19 9ip.08 | I M Aq N 20 89 $60.08 | I M` 961-66 | öt MNN 1-89 £10-0€ TU A 99-29 98-63 tI MN 918-66 yt ANA. €.6€ 07:008 | €I AN 89-69 036-63 | 918.65 | €I AS 6-09 908-68 | šI S íq M 08.19 006-68 et = MS 9-89 016-68 II M 08-19 S81:66 qt P: AN 6-6¢ 061-68 | OI A 00-6€ 066-68 ot : A Leo | 989-63 | 6 M 99-09 | 009-63 6 5 N (q 'A ë-.S9 089.66 | 8 S 4q A 00-19 | 981:6ë 8 > AS 9-99 OF9-66 | L M 90-F9 9F0-08 L A W: 8-19 00168 | 9t N 4q A 99-19 | 016-68 ^» S MS 0-99 018-68 | € A 09-19 ££8-66 ç Š ASS O19 0696% | + a 0:69 97668 Y uA M Aq 9.69 | 90868 | 8 S áq A 69-19 | 080-08 s 9 M Áq S 0-04 66-66 | & : MS ' 00-99 9F0-06 $5 19 MN 0:99 096-66 | I 1dog MN 00:89 986-68 r ¿mr < SO L (uS iT ` pa SORAS GÀ uA "uua, |'iejeunxeg| *[G8I TUAM di SE. | 1n2to |. “1681 x ea EUM MU REI ico T tere [Marcn, -Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Journal. 194 *suuos prey pur ^sxo&ous ‘ures Kavo sdep 18 uos apt Axomoys pue “Sox uret såep pf — | 01$ aoe | UN 0-98 1-63 "ur osr | 00068 | “UTNE 0-8€ 91-0€ ** xe 0-19 £608 | “xew 0-£9 €&.08 | “XW T9-9F $9198 | “uan 8-6€ 961.65 | “uen &-9€ | OF8-66 | “uen AN 0-9F 000-06 | IS A 0-6€ 918-06 | TE MN 0-1F €£88.66 | OE M 98€ 961.66 | OS S OLE $66.68 | 0E AN ç.çF $6L88 | 68. A. Esg ESLG | 63 as £-8q 080-08 | 68 AS L-Ch ELL | 82, A 0-48 OFL-66 | 86 as 0-49 08108 | $6 A rot 981.98 | 16 JNN 0-§F 8G1-63 | 16 S 9:29 970-06 | 16 AN 3-0F eck-se | 98 S E-P SFL-66 | 93 S g.6ç 986-63 | 9% A 0-1T 918-86 | & AS 9-99 £69.66 | C6 A 0-L¢ 86-63 | €6 a S-IF 962-88 | Të MS € £G 911-63 | T6 M 9.tç 969.65 | #8 A 0-8F 91-65 | £6 N 4q A 0-1€ 911-68 | S M O-PS 014-68 | $6 M 0-6€ £66-66 | 83 A. 0-99 9LL.66 | 65 UM 9-8 021-63 | č N Áq A OIS 926-63 | 18 M 0-0¢ 961.68 | 16 AS 8-8F 0F0-63 | 16 A £-Ly 681-63 | 08 S áq A EFS 06666 | 08 A 0-29 Ores | 08 A £-9r 9FI-65 | 6I S íq M 0-869 $68-66 | 6l A 6 Lg 961-63 | 6l AS 0-6€ 686-86 | SI A 44g 6-69 06F-63 | SI AN. 9.1 £06-66 | SI AS 0-6€ 0001-65 | LI ass 0-49 982-66 | LI UN Seg 0c0-08 | LI AS 0-£C 06F-65 | 9I S 0- LG O3r-63 | 91 N 0-1€ OSLOS | 9I 8 £-9€ 969-66 | SI S £-8G 0F9.66 | SI N 9-1¢ ofe-0s | SI S g-çç €19-66 | TI S 0-18 059-66 | VI MS £-1€ 08:08 | FI A 8.86 981.66 | €I S 0-9€ 918-66 | SI s Áq H EGS 0S&0S | SI AS 0-98 088-66 | et S áq M 9-£€ 089-66 | el a 4qN 0-99 016-63 | I o[quu A 9-27 081-08 | II MS 9-69 018-68 | TI MN BLE §66-68 | H ASS £-yc OF8:66 | OL AS 8-16 098-63 | OI as 3-09 $$L68 | OI MSS €-9¢ 866-66 | 6 as 0-99 068-63 | 6 S 6-9€ $9008 | 6 AS E-G 010-0 | 8 as E-G 0c8-63 | 8 N 4q A 9-68 090-08 | 8 Ass EFS 606-66 | L ass £-6q 056-66 | L MSS 0-19 $r6-66 | L S Áq 4 £-6€ 900-08 | 9 "S £-6V $rr66 | 9 A $.09 050-08 | 9 A £-6€ 066-63 | € A Aq N 0-8F 908-66 | S ANA. BLE 00668 | € A $-1€ 956-06 | T AN 0-19 051-68 | f AS ¥-89 ostes | Y AN £-6F 069-08 | € AS | 01€ 999-68 | £ AS 9.09 008-68 | € MN EU 806-66 | š MS 0:09 006-66 | š AS 0-09 OI: | & NA OIG 091-68 | 1 a M | 9-69 $36-66 | I “AON MN 09-L¢ 016-08 | t'O- “PULA "unen, |*399wovg | "181 ‘PUM waq, |*1939uoavq | [681 PUM. | yr ['uexwnueq | — "[GSI 1822.] Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. 195 ` ARTICLE VIII. tios On the Presence and Proportion of Cavmium in the Metallic Sheet Zinc of Commerce. By E. D. Clarke, LL.D. Professor -of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge, &c. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) . DEAR SIR, Cambridge, Feb. 6, 1822, THe phenomena exhibited by burning metallic zinc upon a disk of platinum, having excited in my mind a suspicion of the presence of cadmium in the zinc used for the experiment, I con- ceived that nothing would be easier than to have this matter put beyond doubt by a regular chemical examination of the zinc itself. I might, however, have spared myself some trouble if I had known, or rather had recollected, at the time that Professor Stromeyer, in the account published of his own experiments, mentions the fact of the presence of cadmium in metallic zine.* This circumstance was so little heeded by other chemists, to whom | had communicated my reasons for believing zinc contained cadmium, that had I not accidentally referred to the publication now cited, Í might have continued in the belief that this circum- ` .Stance had not hitherto been ascertained. It may, perhaps, however, appear to your chemical readers that the pains I have taken upon this subject have not been altogether nugatory, if L shall succeed, as 1 hope to do, in making them acquainted with some properties of cadmium which either were not before : observed, or respecting which the accounts before published were in themselves erroneous. First, then, in the precipitation -of metallic bodies by tron, previous to the examination of a salt containing cadmium, it may be stated, as. a doubtful point, whe- ther, if the action of the ¿zon be continued long enough, some, if not all, of the cadmium may not be precipitated. I have the greater reason to rely upon an experiment which I made with a view to ascertain this point, because I used for the preparation of the salt of cadmium, some oride of cadmium from Professor Stromeyer himself, which Dr. Wollaston had kindly presented to me. . Having dissolved this oxide in muriatic aed, and neutralized the solution by evaporation with a very gentle heat, and the addition of distilled water, 1 suffered two cylinders of polished ron to remain in the liquid during 24 hours. Previously to the placing of the ¿ron in the liquid, it yielded an orange- yellow precipitate to sulphuretted hydrogen; and a white preci- pitate to carbonate of ammonia, which had all the characters of athe carbonate of cadmium... But no change of colour was caused my cts * See Annals of Philosophy, vol. xii, p. 108, 1819. i | "ny 7 | l 196 Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. [Maren, by sulphuretted hydrogen after the iron had been immersed for the time specified ; nor could [ any longer obtain a satisfactory proof of the presence of cadmium by the usual tests. The account which appeared in a volume of the Annals of Philosophy,* published in October, 1819, with the title of New Details respecting Cadmium, by M. Stromeyer, taken from the Annalen der Physik, lx. 193, mentions as a property of cadmium, that “ the precipitate formed by the carbonate of ammoniais not soluble in an excess of this solution, zinc exhibiting a different property." This is certainly erroneous, if Prof. Stromeyer's own oxide of cadmium may be considered a proper substance for pre- paring the salt necessary for the experiment. Having dissolved & portion of this oxide in pure muriatic acid, and neutralized the solution, as before, adding distilled water, carbonate of ammonia yielded a white precipitate, which was wholly soluble in an excess of the carbonate. The importance of attending to this fact will be evident to all your resddre who pursue the process pointed out by Prof. Stromeyer for obtaining cadmium from its ores. I think it also right to mention (with a view of putting chemists upon their guard, who have not had more experience in these matters than myself), that some of the phenomena exhi- bited by the combustion of cadmium, so nearly resemble those éxhibited by /ead under the same circumstances, that the absence of the last mentioned metal ought always to be carefully ascertained. Before I proceed, therefore, to relate an account of experiments which have enabled me to separate. cadmium from zine, it will be proper to mention such characters of the former metal as may serve to identify it under all circumstances. For this purpose, owing to the brevity and perspicuity with which the present Regius Professor of Chemistry at Glasgow has pointed out these properties, I shall quote two letters I had the honour to receive from him upon this subject, when he kindly undertook to examine some carbonate of cadmium which — Thad obtained from an English ore of zinc, and when he con- firmed by his own observations the fact of the presence of cadmium in the mineral I had examined. According to Dr. (Thomson, there are certain trials which may be considered as affording the “ experimentum crucis” with regard to this body, especially in distinguishing CapMruM from Zine. (1.) **Phos- phate of soda precipitates zinc in small crystalline scales ; it pre- cipitates cadmium 1n a white br s powder. t (2.) Sulphur- etted hydrogen throws down Zinc white, but CADMIUM yellow, | which remains fixed at a red heat.” Other chemical characters of Cadmium are, the solution, with effervescence, both of its * See vol. xiv. p. 271. | + MS. Letters of Dr. Thomaon, dated Glasgow, Jan. 95, 1820, and Feb, 1, of the same year. + It also penae lead in the same form, but lead precipitated by carbonate of ammonia is not redissolved by adding an excess of the carbonate, or by liquid ammonia. 41822;] Dr, Clarke on Cadmium. 197 oxide and carbonate, and of metallic Cadmium in muriatic acid. The oxide obtained from this solution by heat and alkalies has a yellowish-brown colour. The muridte, as before mentioned, is repe ova white by carbonate of ammonia, and is redissolved y adding an excess of that carbonate. It is moreover precipi- tated white by potass,* ammonia, and sulphate of soda ; yellow by sulphuretted hydrogen, and white by prussiate of potass. To these characters may now be added the striking pheeno- mena observed in the combustion of Capmium, by Dr. Wollas- ton, and by Berzelius. According to Dr, Wollaston the oxide of cadmium is white: when fixed at the point of the blue flame, before the blowpipe, supported upon a platinum disk, the carbonaceous matter of the flame reduces the oxide, so that the metal, being revived, burns, and deposits during its combustion, a protozide of cadmium, of a reddish-brown, or copper colour, easily to be recognized by those who have once seen it. According to Berzelius, whose obser- vations in point of time succeeded those of Dr. Wollaston, subs stances containing Cadmium, when exposed to the action of the blowpipe, and supported upon charcoal, yield a yellow oxide, which is deposited in the form of “a rine” around the body exposed to trial. He calls it “um anneau jaune, ou orangé, d'oxide de cadmium ;” and such, he maintains, is the subtlety of this test, that the carbonates of zinc which do not contain more than one per cent. of the carbonate of cadmium, exhibit this appearance; insomuch, he adds, that if there be no manifesta- tion of this “ anneau jaune,” it is a proof that the substance. under examination does not contain Cadmium. » Your readers will thus be put in the possession of a few facts, within a small compass, which will be found useful in judging of the validity of the eiiiai observations. f . Having exposed some filings of zinc upon a platinum disk before the blue flame of a wax candle, urged by the common blowpipe, I perceived that the polished surface of the platinum was altered by the experiment, and that an appearance resem- bling that of the protoxide of cadmium, produced under similar circumstances, was apparent upon the metal. To see whether this appearance was owing to the dead which is contained in the metallic zinc of commerce, I exposed some white oxide of lead to the same trial, and obtained nearly a similar result ; but with marks of a fine blue colour mixed with hues of yellow and of reddish-brown. I, therefore, resolved to submit the zinc to a chemical examination. For this purpose having dissolved it in muriatic acid, and neutralized the solution, adding distilled water, I suffered iron to precipitate as many of the metallic impurities as that metal would throw down during some hours that it remained immersed in the liquid, which was then filtered, . * Liquid caustic potase precipitates cadmium white, in the form of a hydrate, which is not redissolved by an excess of the precipitant; and this distinguishes it from zinc. 198 Dr. Clarke on Cadmium. [Manocn, and received into a platinum capsule containing a piece of clean zinc. In a short time both the interior of the platinum capsule and the surface of the zinc were coated over with a precipitate of a dull leaden hue; and this, being washed, exhibited before the blowpipe, and also after solution in muriatic acid, all the characters before mentioned as peculiar to cadmium, with this exception, that the precipitate yielded by the muriate to sulphur- etted hydrogen was somewhat darker than the precipitate caused when cadmium is precipitated by the same reagent, which made me suspect that it was still contaminated with /ead. I, therefore, went to work in another way, and dissolved the zinc in dilute us tuti acid, following Stromeyer's process when obtaining cadmium from the sulphurets of zinc, which contain sulphuret of lead. As soon as all the zinc had been dissolved, Í took care to have a great excess of acid present in the solution by adding fresh sulphuric acid to the liquid, which was afterwards filtered. I then sent a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through it, which in the space of a few minutes communicated to the solution the fine orange-yellow colour, which characterizes the recipitation of cadmium by means of that reagent ; but many ours elapsed before the precipitate was sufficiently disengaged to subside. . As soon as it had subsided, it was of dingy yellow colour. The supernatant fluid being then decanted, muriatic acid was poured upon the precipitate, and slowly evaporated. Afterwards distilled water being added to the dry muriate, the liquid was filtered, and it exhibits the following properties : 1. Carbonate of ammonia causes a white precipitate which, by excess of the carbonate, is redissolved. The solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue exposed to a smart red heat in a pomen crucible, affords an oxide,* similar to that mentioned y Stromeyer. He says Cadmium forms only a single oxide, 100 parts of the metal combining with 14:352 of oxygen. * The colour of this oxide varies according to the circum- stances in which it is formed. It is browmsh-yellow, light- brown, dark-brown, and even blackish. 1t is quite fixed, and infusible in the strongest white heat, and does not lose its oxygen." + | 2183468 e oxide I obtained by exposing the carbonate to a vio- lent heat agrees with Stromeyer’s oxide ; but, in one instance, instead of turning to the brown colour of snuff, which that does, it remained scarcely altered by heat. In this respect, it could not be considered as agreeing with Stromeyer’s own * This would, perhaps, afford the finest yellow pigment known ; and when it is con- sidered that a very powerful temperature is necessary to produce it, perhaps it is of all colours the least likely to be affected by atmospherical changes of temperature after- wards; neither would it be blackened by exhalations from the coal fires of our aparte ments ; bnt the colour is rarely in two instances alike; itis sometimes of a fine orpiment- yellow, and at others of a darker hue. ! idis eh + See Annals of Philosophy, vol, xiv, p, 270, 1819. 1822.] Ona Deposit found in the Waters at Lucca. 199 oxide of Cadmium, with which, however, in other chemical properties, it remarkably corresponded. In subsequent trials 1 obtained a yellowish oxide, similar in colour and in chemical characters to that which I have from Prof. Stromeyer. It changes to a snuff-brown and even black colour when exposed to heat before the blowpipe, and regains its own colour afterwards when cold. Five hundred grains of zinc yielded exactly a single grain of this oxide by the process I have described ; so that allowing, according to Stromeyer, that 100 parts of the oxide of cadmium contain 14:352 of oxygen, the proportion of metallic cadmium in 2-10ths of a grain of the oxide (which is all I had obtained from 100 grains of zinc) would , equal 4*7. of a grain nearly, and all the cadmium which, in the metallic state, is contained in 10,000 pounds weight of metallic zinc is nearly equal to 17 pounds. The cadmium, therefore, in this alloy exists nearly in the state of the pure go/d in our last silver coinage, and in very small quantity. But to proceed with the other chemical qualities of the liquid I have mentioned : 2. Phosphate of soda causes a white pulverulent precipitate, which is redissolved by adding liquid ammonia. 3. Liquid caustic potass causes a white precipitate’ which 1s not soluble by adding the potass in excess. 4. Zinc immersed in the solution becomes invested by a pre- cipitate of a leaden hue, which, after solution in muriatic acid, exhibits the characters of metallic cadmium. f 5. Sulphuretted hydrogen causes a precipitate which is at first of an orange-yellow, and afterwards of. a dingy yellow colour. 6. All these precipitates, when exposed to the action of the blowpipe upon platinum or charcoal, have the habitudes of Capmium. But if any chemist shall hereafter be able to prove that a substance may possess all the characters I have enume- rated, and yet, after all, not be Cadmium, no one will be more thankful for the intelligence than your humble servant. ^ I remain, dear Sir, &c. Epwarp DANIEL CLARKE. ARTICLE IX. Memoir on a Deposit found. in the Waters at Lucca... By Sir Humphry Davy,. Bart. President of the Royal Society, Lon- don, and Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Naples.* - Tux waters of the baths at Lucca, at the spot where the tem- perature is the greatest; that is to say, in what are termed the * From the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Naples. 200 Ona Deposit found inthe Waters at Lucca.) [Marcn, caldi or hot baths, eject in a considerable quantity a substance that produces a deposit of a brownish-yellow hue. ` Having col- lected various quantities of this deposit, and having submitted it to chemicai experiments, I have discovered it to be a compound of oxide of iron and silica: not having a balance. sufficiently accurate, it was impossible for me to ascertain with, precision the exact proportions: in the single experiment, however, that I made for this purpose, the oxide of iron was to the silica in the proportion of 4 to 3. vilis | w7 _ It is extremely probable that the oxide of iron and the silica _had been dissolved together in the water, and deposited at the same time, because the silica being separated from the oxide by means of a weak acid, it appears to resemble gelatine, and because the deposit, when examined in its natural state, was found to be uniform in its substance, even when looked at ` through a lens. 3 | _ Although the oxide of iron, when first discovered, proves to be peroxide, it is nevertheless very probable that it exists in the water in the form of protoxide, or that it is converted into peroxide by the action of the air which is dissolved in the water, The probability of this opinion is further confirmed by the circumstance, that the colour of the water is not changed by the addition of the triple prussiate of iron, nor by that of gallic acid, it being well known that protoxides generally have a greater disposition than peroxides. | ! The analogy which I established some time since, during my researches as to the decomposition of alkalies and earths, between the base of silica and that of boracic acid, and the facts described by MM. Smithson and Berzelius, furnish reasons for ¢lassing silica among the acids ; and it seems probable that the oxide of iron and the silica undergo a real chemical combination in the warm water, and that they separate from it im conse- quence of its cooling after issuing from the mountain. When the deposit is obtained from its diffused state in water, it contains no other substances than oxide of iron and silica; when it is taken from the bottom of the waters, carbonate of lime and sand may be observed mixed with it. These two substances are, however, evidently extraneous. From many experiments which I made I am convinced that after it has Suite its source, the water yields no deposit whatever ; but it appears certain that the water, which, on rising from the spring, possesses a temperature of 112°, must be ich warmer within the mountain, and that consequently its solvent power must there be much greater. When a considerable quantity of it is evaporated, a small por- ‘tion of silica and oxide of iron is found, a discovery that ‘had been made by Signor Battista Tessandori; and I haye ascer- tained by experiments that these substances are obtained in the same state, and nearly in the same quantity, in which I have stated them to be discovered in the brownish-yellow deposit. 1822.4 !/ Mr. Mill on Carburet of Nickel. . 901 -: jÀ:small. portion of oxide of iron is found in the Bath Waters; where likewise it.is accompanied. with silica ; nor is it improba- ble that this earth is in many cases the cause of the oxide of iron being dissolved in the water; and these facts combined furnish:us probably with an explanation of the manner in which ochre is generated. As to what may be the effect of the com- bination of oxide of iron and silica.on animal bodies, it is the province of medical men to examine, and to determine upon, after long and adequate experiments. AnrICLE X. On the Formation of Carburet of Nickel, and Method of obtain- ing the Metal pure. By Mr. Nicholas Mill. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) h AE London, Nov.16, 1821. LirrLE being known relative to nickel and its compounds, particularly of the formation of the carburet which was first glanced at by Dr. Thomson in a paper on the purification of this metal, inserted in the Annals of Philosophy, the originality of which was lately laid claim to by two individuals in two late papers in the same publication, I have taken the liberty of for- warding to you the following process : | giri ' . ‘Let the native arseniuret or sulphuret of nickel be finely pounded and mixed with charcoal also pounded, and placed in a flat bottomed. crucible, and exposed to a dull red heat for two hours. Blow. off the charcoal with a pair of bellows, and dis- solve the nickel in nitrosulphuric acid. Evaporate and. crys- tallize.. Beautiful green crystals of the form of a square solid will be obtained. Let these be carefully selected, dissolved in water, recrystallized, and mixed with a. small portion of borax and pounded charcoal, and fused for a quarter of an hour in a strong red heat. When: cold, break the crucible, and under- neath the borax will.be found a button with a very high degree of lustre, very fusible and magnetic, which latter fact proves its freedom from arsenic,* from which substance, by other pro- cesses, it is very difficult to free it. The carburet thus formed is brittle and fusible, and if.exposed to the flame of the oxyhy- ürogen blowpipe becomes malleable ; but it may still, and most . commonly does, .contain copper ond iron. In order, therefore, to obtain the malleable metal pure, dissolve the carburet im nitric acid, neutralize the solution, and precipitate by aqueous * Chenevix ; Richter. ` 202 M. Vauquelin on the [Manen, potash. Redissolve the precipitate in aqueous ammonia, satu- rate the excess of alcali by nitric acid, and precipitate the copper and iron by a bar of zinc. Nothing will now remain in solution but nickel, and, perhaps, a little cobalt. To obtain the nickel free from this metal, precipitate it by aqueous potash, and the cobalt will remain in solution. If this last precipitate be dried and mixed with borax and exposed to a heat of 160? of Wedg- wood, the metal will be reduced in a pure state. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Nicuoras Mirr. ARTICLE XI. Chemical Examination of Cubebs. By M. Vauquelin.* Cunzss are the fruit of the piper cubeba (triandria trigynia), a perennial plant which grows in the Philippine Islands, in Java, Guinea, and the Isle of France. The cubebs which were employed for these experiments were resumed to have been collected three years ; they were imported y the Dutch, and had been in a warehouse m Paris for 18 months. | These grains do not all possess the same colour; they are rounded, and attached to a stalk: if they are examined after being macerated in water, four coverings are discoverable; the first is fleshy, and softens in water; the second is of a grey colour, and is nearly transparent; the third is thin like the peel of an onion, of a yellowish-brown colour; the fourth is a very thin white pellicle immediately covering the grains, some of which are round, and entirely fill their covering ; others are flat on one side, and rounded on the other; others again are wrinkled and covered with fatty matter; and lastly, there are’ some which are of a white colour. | Many ofthese grains contained a white concrete oily matter, and which had every appearance of a crystal. This concrete matter melted in a silyer spoon, remained fused, and without emitting any odour. Seven hundred and seventy-two grains of bruised cubebs were put into a retort with water, and subjected to distillation. The water which came over was turbid, and covered with small drops of volatile oil, the consistence of which was greater than that of common volatile oils. It hada strong taste, which * From the Memoires du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, tom, vi. 1822] Chemical Examination of Cubebs. 208 somewhat resembled that of peppermint. In this respect, Murray has committed a great error: he says that Beaumé obtained two ounces and one drachm of this oil from two pounds and a half of cubebs ; whereas it was only one ounce one drachm from twelve pounds and a half of that grain which Beaumé obtained. | The distilled water possessed all the odorous properties of the oil, but it was alkaline, for it restored the blue colour of litmus paper which had been reddened by an acid; wishing to know from what alkali this property was derived, I saturated it with weak sulphuric acid, and evaporated the solution. The residue of the evaporation being examined contained a salt, that had all the characters of sulphate of ammonia mixed with a little essential oil. Itemitted ammonia upon the addition of a few drops of potash. When put on a hot iron, it was vola- tilized in the form of dense white vapours. The residue of the distillation when filtered had a brown colour, a bitter taste, and with reagents the following effects were produced : 1. It gave an abundant yellow flocculent precipitate with nitrate of silver, a great part of which was redissolved by pure nitric acid. 2. Oxalate of ammonia produced no effect. 3. Nitrate of barytes gave a light flocculent precipitate. 4. Galls gave a bulky brown precipitate. | 5. Acetate of lead gave an abundant precipitate, and the liquor was rendered almost colourless. 6. It reddened litmus paper slightly. By evaporation, it gave a brown extract, which was slightly acid. It was divided into parts, and subjected to several opera- tions. | 1. It was treated with alcohol, to which it imparted a yellow colour: the alcohol, when evaporated, left a substance, of a fine colour, which redissolved in water, except some particles of a brown dry resin, that softened between the teeth, and had an acrid taste. That part of the extract which was insoluble in alcohol was dissolved in water, but there remained some particles in the liquor which appeared to be albumen coagulated by the alcohol. ! | | 2. A portion of this extract being burnt gave an ash contain- ing subcarbonate, phosphate, a little muriate of potash, and some phosphate of magnesia. ! . 9. The remaining part of the extract was dissolved in water, and precipitated by acetate of lead. The precipitate being washed and decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen, gave a small quantity of malic acid mixed with a little colouring matter; the "n rom which I had separated this acid by means of acetate of lead, being treated with the subacetate of the same base, gave 204 p M. Vauquelin on the... [Manenu, a yellow precipitate which, being put into alcohol, was dissolved with the exception of a few particles, possessing all the-proper- ties of gum ; the yellow precipitate assumed a rose colour, with a shade of violet, by the action of heated sulphuric acid. d heliquor from which the above-mentioned precipitates were obtained was in its turn exposed to a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The lead. being separated by these means from e liquor, there was obtained, by evaporating the latter, a yel- lowish matter of a nauseous odour, and of a flavour resemb ing that of raw peas, and the substance which is found in leguminous plants. It is precipitated by galls, and dissolves better in weak than in strong alcohol. . When heated in a tube, it gives all the products common to vegetables, without any mixture of animal matter, iw The different substances which have been described do not appear to be the active matter of the cubebs ; the grains which had been acted upon by water were treated with boiling alcohol. This solution being filtered left upon evaporation a green sub- stance which had peculiar properties, and the appearance of fatty matter. [tis fluid, of a disagreeable smell, an acrid bitter taste, somewhat resembling that of balsam of copaiva, and it occasions slight irritation in the throat. When put upon paper, it occas sions spots, like fat oils. This paper, when heated, gives out a little volatile oil, which was mixed with the fatty matter, but the paper remained spotted. | | The fatty matter, when washed with water, communicated to it a little pungency ; the water, when evaporated, left an extrac+ tive matter which had also been taken up; dissolved in cold ether, it left a residue of a resinous nature, This oil when obtained b means of ether from the grain separated from the shell is mu whiter, because the shells contain a much greater quantity of colouring matter; the fatty matter was subjected to ebullition ia weak sulphuric acid, in the hope of separating its acrid property; the plan did not succeed ; I merely remarked that the sides of the vessel to which it was attached became coloured from a rose- red to a violet-purple : if water be poured upon this. colouring matter, it changes in colour, and becomes blue. Balsam of eo- paiva, and even turpentine, treated by sulphuric acid, became of the same colour. i .. Wishing to know whether this substance existed in the shell, or only in the grain, I took 77:22 grains separated from all their shells, excepting the two last. This quantity digested. in alcohol gaye about 2} grains of the matter in question; while 77:22 grains of the shells which contained no kernel gaye me scarcely one grain of it. It is, therefore, evident, that this matter occurs in every part of the grain, but most abundantly in the centre. This peculiar matter dissolves in ether or in aleohol ; submitted to distillation it yields a small quantity of essential oil, but the 1822.] Chemical Examination of Cubebs. 205 residuum is transparent, solid, and possesses an acrid taste; and is soluble in ether, alcohol, and potash, from which it is prè? cipitated by an acid. When compared with balsam of copaiva, it bears some resemblance to it, but there are some points of difference; “When it is procured by means of ether, its colour is like that of balsam of: copaiva. : When these substances are put into distilled water, they impart a disagreeable taste to it’; if these solutions be afterwards evaporated, extractive matters are obtained, which bear the strongest resemblance to each other, and when treated with sulphuric acid, assume a colour varying from rose-red to pur- lish-violet. The balsam of copaiva treated with this acid suf- fers the same changes, excepting that the colour produced by it is not so fine. | "The matter from the cubebs dissolved in alcohol and submitted to distillation gives some volatile oil; the same happens with the balsam of copaiva, but the odour of the latter is more disa- greeable than that of the former. Ether has similar action upon these two substances : the mat- ter of the balsam of copaiva when treated with carbonate of soda becomes of a fine white colour ; the resin of the cubebs assumes a light yellow; the two solutions underwent different changes by ebullition, that of the balsam of copaiva did not afford any precipitate ; the contrary occurred with the substance obtained from the cubebs. [ Notwithstanding these slight differences, which may depend upon some colouring principle retained by the resin ofthe cubebs; there can be no hesitation in believing that a strong resem- blance exists between it and the balsam of copaiva, and that it is this peculiar matter in which that property resides that has been discovered and employed in the cure of gonorrhoea. Being desirous of discovering whether the kernel contained any essential oil, I separated the shells very perfectly, and sub- mitted the kernels to distillation. I obtained by this process & distilled water similar to that which had been procured from the entire grain ; some small drops of oil were apparent at the sur- face of the water; but the smallness of the quantity prevented me from making an exact comparison between it and that obtained from the entire cubebs. x About 150:5 grains of cubebs were burnt, and left an ash, weighing about one grain ; it had a green colour, like that com- municated to potash by manganese. Treated with water, this residuum lost nearly half a grain of soluble salts, composed of subcarbonate, phosphate, and a little muriate of. potash. The residuum. insoluble in. water was taken up by muriatic acid, excepting a small quantity of silica: this solution was found upon examination to be composed of phosphate of magnesia, and a trace of iron and manganese. 206 c os M. Berzeliusonithe>..) [Marem . The resinous matter of cubebs, decomposed in a glass tube, exhibited the usual appearance of vegetable matter ; the vapours which were disengaged had a penetrating odour, and se isie] litmus paper. ¿ qiw N i = «Itis evident from this analysis that cubebs contain: nf 1. A volatile oil which is nearly solid. ? 2. Resin, resembling that of balsam copaiva. 3. A quantity of another and coloured resin, 4. A coloured gummy matter. _ 5. An extractive principle similar to that which is found in leguminous plants. : ' ral 6. Some saline substances. ! | I am desirous that this analysis, upon which I have bestowed some pains, may serve to direct physicians to that employment of cubebs in the healing art, to which they may. think them applicable. | | ARTICLE XII. On the Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel, and on a new Combination of Nickel with Arsenic and Sulphur. By J. -~ Berzelius.* ! | WITHIN a few years, two new metals have been announced as discovered in the ores of nickel (vestium and wodanium). It was afterwards found that these metals were only alloys of nickel with iron and arsenic. Even the celebrated ‘Richter was deceived 20 years since by a similar alloy, which he took for a new metal, and named niccolanum.: rs d The cause of all these mistakes is to be attributed to the imperfection of the analytical methods which have been employed to separate nickel from other substances, especiaily from the arsenic and iron with. which it is accompanied. Seve- ral metallic arseniates, especially that of iron, possess the pro- erty of dissolving in acids, as if they were weak salifiable ases; the alkalies precipitate them without altering their com- position, and when these oxides are reduced by means of char- coal, arseniurets are obtained, which, when compared with the pure metals, appear to be peculiar metallic substances. Che- mists who are accustomed to examine every thing by the blow- pipe cannot, however, be deceived in this respect, because even the smallest trace of arsenic is detected by the smell, when thes substances are heated with soda upon charcoal. "à I, Common Method of analyxing the Ore of Nickel. i The powdered mineral is dissolved. in nitric acid.. There * From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom, xvii. 1822.) Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. 207 remains some sulphur mixed with a little silica. The residue is mo the sulphuris burnt, and the remaining silica is again weighed. . | _ The nitric solution evaporated to dryness is again treated with concentrated nitric acid to acidify the arsenic, and render the oxide of iron insoluble,* which is afterwards separated. This latter process is nevertheless absolutely incorrect; for the arse- niate of iron readily dissolves when the solution contains acid in excess. ` | | The acid solution, nearly neutralized by an alkali, is precipi- tated by nitrate of lead, which separates arseniate of lead ; but as this compound 1s soluble in nitric acid, it must be evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass treated with water. It is very true that if the iron could be separated by the method above described, we should succeed in separating the nickel from the arsenic by means of nitrate of lead. Usually, however, the pre- cipitate thus obtained contains arseniate of iron and arseniate of lead, in the mixture of which it is impossible to calculate the quantity of arsenic. Added to this, when an arseniuret is dissolved in nitric acid without the addition of muriatic acid, a great quantity of arsenic is converted into arsenious acid, and the precipitate becomes a mixture of arseniate and arsenite of lead. From the solution which. contains the nickel and the lead added in excess, the latter is precipitated by sulphate of soda; afterwards sufficient ammonia is added to redissolve the oxide of nickel, and the alumina and every. other substance mixed with the ore of nickel, which is insoluble in ammonia, is obtained. The ammoniacal solution is to be evaporated, and the nickel pre- cipitated, by. subcarbonate of soda or potash, taking care to evaporate every trace of ammonia liberated by the carbonate. The oxide of nickel, thus obtained, usualiy contains cobalt. M. Thenard and Fourcroy. attempted to separate those oxides by peroxidizing them by means of oxymuriate of lime, and treating the peroxides with ammonia, which decomposes and. dissolves the peroxide of nickel, but not the peroxide of cobalt. This method, however, is not quite correct ; for the portion dissolved contains a little cobalt, and the residuum contains nickel. Mr. Phillips. discovered another method, and. one which is more proper to be employed in analyses. It consists in diluting the ammoniacal solution of the two oxides with a considerable quantity of water, after which a solution of potash is to be added as long as precipitation takes place: The nickel is precipitated, and the cobalt remains in the-liquor from which the ammonia is obtained by evaporation. ‘his method is not rigorously exact, but the traces of cobalt which are- precipitated with the nickel may be entirely neglected with respect-to analytical result. M. Laugier afterwards discovered another method of preparing * Aikin's Dictionary of Chemistry, ii. 136, 208 Aki. Iy MOBA bol. (MEAG nickel absolutely free from cobalt, slowly e ing an ammoniacal aeta of the oxalates oh nickel mises Dobalt. "The oxalate of nickel is deposited, and that of cobalt remains di solved in the form of a double oxalate of cobalt and ammonia. But this process, as M. Laugier observes, cannot be employed in an analysis. EL | i 10 SDLZO - Dr. Thomson proposes, in order to obtain pure nickel, to dissolve the ore of this metal in a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid, which leaves the greater part of the arsenious acid undissolved : to the filtered solution, potash. is to be added, and then the double sulphate of nickel and potash is to be crystal- lized. By this method the arsenic is separated, for the crystals do not contain.any ; but if the ore contains cobalt, zinc, and copper, these metals also form double salts with potash which are not separable by crystallization from that of nickel. Added. to this, Dr. Thomson's method is not applicable to analysis. It is to M. Stromeyer that we are particularly indebted for a knowledge of the composition of nickel ores. It is he also.who informed us that wodanium and vestium are not peculiar metals 7* but he has not yet, as far as I know, described the analytic method by which he obtained his results. This circumstance is nevertheless extremely important ; for without it, the bios de of the result depends entirely on the confidence which is placed in the author. 904 | M . M. Berthier has given us analyses of an arseniuret and of an arseniate of nickel. We owe to him a very good process for determining the quantity of arsenic acid in a solution deprived of insoluble bases.. It consists in dissolving a | fm weight c iron in nitric acid ; this solution is to be poured into the liquid from which tlie arsenic acid is to be separated, and precipitated by means of ammonia. The precipitate formed is subarseniate of iron, which after being heated is to be washed, and the quan- tity of arsenic acid is discovered, because that of the oxide of iron was previously known. | L 254 M. Psaff, of Kiel, has lately examined the same ore of nickel, which is the principal subject of this memoir. The observations which I have already made upon the ancient methods of analyz- d these ores arè for the most applicable to that selected by . Psaff, and which I consider it useless now to describe. He found this oré to consist of ‘ie p PF AE asa 7S pay val Lhe cin h akin T y. Arsenic. ..... m tahala ns aréa orai AORN EDU it basi besabanteuididi «so»teton 29-46 PHDIUE ^ aaa cin dod Ws sadéo t0 ER Loss s»... ... ... inia tee, ROER EIR d "That vestium is not a peculiar metal was also shown by Mr. Faraday in the Royal ipeicasion Journal, vol. 6. p. 112, but whether before or after M. Stromeyer, I do not W,—Ed. f [9 Y A 18224) | Method of analyzing, the Oresiof Nickel. 209 This ore of nickel excited my curiosity some time since, when. T examined; séveral minerals in order to. discover, selenium in | them. The sulphur, which it contains proved. to me that it differs entirely from arsenical nickel, and 1 intended to analyze , it upon a future occasion. In the mean time, M. Psaff published: an analysis of it, which might render any further examination superfluous, if there had not been so considerable a loss... Some phenomena which I observed at the time of my first experiments induced me to undertake this analysis; and the difficulty of obtaining. a. satisfactory. result engaged. me in numerous researches. Il. Examination of some Substances. which are obtained in the | Analyses of the Ores of Nickel. Arseniate of Iron.—The red oxide of iron combined with the -arsenious and arsenic acids is soluble in: caustic ammonia, and; gives a red coloured solution. If the solution also contains. sulphuric and nitric acids, it deposits in a few days a yellow powder, which dissolves:in water, in attempting to wash it upon: a filter. If a solution of arseniate of peroxide of iron in nitric acid be evaporated until the greater part of the acid is volati- lized, a white powder is obtained, thatis insoluble in water, and: which is neutral arseniate of peroxide of iron; ^ When subjected toa scarcely visible heat, it loses 17-68 per cent. of water, and: becomes red; but if the fire be increased to redness; it appears. to ignite for: a moment, and becomes yellowish-white. ` The water contains twice as much oxygen as the base. If caustic ammonia be: poured upon this arseniate before it is dried, it is readily dissolved ; the dry arseniate requires some digestion to: dissolve it. The red solution left exposed, evaporates; and loses. its excess of ammonia, but does not deposit any thing, and finishes by: forming a transparent) red mass. This mass is: à. double subarseniate of peroxide of mon and ammonia.» When heated in a proper apparatus, it gives at first much ammonia and. a‘little water; but at the moment in which the mass begins to redden, water, azotic gas; and arsenious acid, are disengaged, and the latter sublimes. The residuum- acquires a greenish colour, and appears: to be an arsentas-ferroso-ferricus. The double subsalt in question dissolves in water mixed with a little: ammonia, but pure water decomposes it, and dissolves arseniate of ammonia, as well as a small quantity of undecomposed double subarseniate, the residue left: being a subarseniate of peroxide of iron.) < | The subarseniate of iron is not soluble in. ammonia, even though it be first dissolved by an acid, and: ammonia added to: the solution. Consequently when in a solution which contains cest iron and ‘arsenic.acid, the latter is sufficient only to» orm a subarseniate ‘of the peroxide; the addition of ammonia ` New Series, vou. 111. P ` 210 . My Berzelius on the |. [Marcn,! produces no trace of soluble double subarseniate ; but each por- tion of arsenic acid that is added renders a certain quantity the peroxide soluble in ammonia. The subarseniate of pepita ; of iron which contains the slightest excess of base, ch is inso- : luble in ammonia, is that whieh is formed by the oxidation of the i neutral arseniate of the protoxide. Consequently, if neutral: arseniate of protoxide be dissolved in nitromuriatic acid, and. ammonia in excess be added to the solution, all the arsenic acid , and all the peroxide of iron are precipitated. | Caustic potash even, when in great excess, does not com- River decompose arseniate of peroxide of iron. . I twice igested the same portion of this compound in strong solutions of caustic potash, which left a substance perfectly similar to peroxide ofiron. "When dried at the heat of boiling water, and afterwards heated to redness, it lost 0-134 of its weight, which was water; the remaining 0:866 was dissolved in muriatic acid, and precipitated by hydrosulphuret of ammonia. | i The sulphuret of iron, after being well washed, was dissolved. in nitric acid: precipitated by ammonia, it gave 0:796 of per- oxide of iron. The arsenic acid, therefore, weighed 0:07.. The oxide of iron contained 24-4 parts of oxygen; the water contained : 12, and the arsenic acid 2°43 parts; consequently these quanti- ties are to each other as 1, 5, and 10. This substance then, if it be not a mixture, is composed of subarseniate, with water of. combination, and hydrate of peroxide of iron. "When made slowly red hot, it suffers more rapid combustion than most other substances in which I have hitherto observed it. = da The arseniate and arsenite of protoxide of iron are also soluble . in ammonia, but less so than those of the peroxide : the solution when exposed to the air assumes a greenish colour. | The arseniate of nickel dissolves in ammonia in whatever pro- portion the arsenic acid is: combined ; but if in a solution of arseniate of nickel there is any peroxide of iron, and if the. arsenic acid be not in sufficient quantity to form neutral salts | with the two oxides; the ammonia precipitates not only some. subarseniate of iron, but also some subarseniate of nickel, in the form of a double subsalt; which is of a green colour. -If the. arsenic acid is not sufficient to form the double subsalt, it forms a mixture of subarseniate of iron with the double salt, and in, this case, the precipitate has more or less the colour of oxide of- iron. l f; (m8 Bi 6 D If the arseniate of nickel does not contain any oxide of iron» (protoxide or peroxide), it is totally decomposed by caustic, potash, pner if it be first dissolved in ammonia, and the solution of potash be afterwards. poured in. > A compound of) nickel and potash precipitates, and the arsenic acid remains in) solution combined with the alkalies. If, on the contrary, the, liquid contains iron, the precipitate contains arsenic. js o s= 1822] Method of analyzing thé Ores of Nickel. 21T - A solution of arseniate of iron and nickel, saturated with an alkali even to the commencement of precipitation, and after- wards mixed with a solution of acetate of lead, precipitates arse- niate of lead. and arseniate of iron; until no more remains in the liquid... This circumstance arises from the affinity of the arsenic acid being so much greater for the oxide of lead than that of the acetic acid, that 1t forms a. subarseniate of lead in the liquid which contains acetic acid in excess. The subarseniate of iron not being soluble in it precipitates at the same time ; for the strongest acids combine with the oxide of lead, and the acetic acid 1s at length the only free acid in the liquid. "The solution which contains the oxides of nickel and lead; when mixed with sulphate of soda, suffers the greater part, but not the whole, of the oxide of lead added in excess to separate. If excess of ammonia be afterwards added, a greyish precipitate is formed composed of oxide of lead and oxide of nickel. In order to separate the last remains of the lead, sulphuretted hydrogen must be employed. | Hydrosulphuret of ammonia does not separate arsenic acid from oxide of nickel; for the precipitate produced is as soluble in an excess of hydrosulphuret as in caustic ammonia. The solution has a very deep yellowish-brown colour: when rather concentrated, it loses its transparency. Acids decompose it; but the precipitate contains some arsenic, and usually a small quantity of sulphuret of nickel is redissolved by the acid, even when it is only the acetic. If an ammoniacal solution of this sul- phuret, which contains arsenic acid, be evaporated, a part of the sulphuret is deposited in the form of arseniuretted sulphuret of nickel (that is to say, a compound of sulphuret and of arseniuret of nickel), and another part oxidizes in proportion as the ammo- nia evaporates, and gives rise to a solution of nickel. The sul- phuretted arseniuret of nickel is insoluble both in muriatic acid: and in ammonia... Cobalt differs from, nickel in being perfeetly well precipitated by the hydrosulphurets, without being redis- solved by an excess of them. -Oxide of Nickel and other. Salifiable Bases.—It is well known: that oxide, of nickel dissolves, completely in ammonia. ` This: solution ought to be considered as forming a double subsalt;z yet the hydrate of nickel is soluble in ammonia, although in a quantity much smaller than the oxide combines with an acid. - The same -affinity that determines the solubility of oxide of nickel in ammonia exists between it and other bases, although the combinations with these latter are insoluble in. water, Consequently when a solution of nickel is mixed with another of an insoluble base, the, ammonia occasions a precipitate, which contains nickel, and from. which an excess of ammonia cannot Separate this metal. ; | | ji In this case the oxide’ of nickel is divided between the two P2 ye M. Berzelius on the ^. [MaARCH, . bases, towards which it usually acts as an acid or electro-nepa- tive body. It is in this manner that it precipitates with the alkaline earths, the protoxide of iron, of manganese, lead, &e. But with the protoxide of iron: and. with alumina, it precipitates in the state of base or of electro-positive body, and on this account, thése latter contain much less than the former. If the oxide of nickel contains small quantities of another base, it is very frequently difficult to discover what this base is. Barytes; strontian, and lime, are shown when a concentrated solution of the oxide is mixed with carbonate or sulphate of ammonia, which recipitate the earths, and form soluble salts with the oxide. hosphate of ammonia cannot be employed to separate it from magnesia; for though phosphate of nickel is soluble in all pro- portions in ammonia, it precipitates nevertheless with phosphate of magnesia, without the possibility of separating it by ammonia added even in great excess. I know of no other method of separating them, than that of ites eos,- the oxide of nickel from the mixed solution by hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and of immediately decomposing the excess of the hydrosulphuret by a few drops of acetic acid, and filtering the solution. The mag- nesia remains in the solution, and may be separated from it in the usual manner; but in general, different methods must be followed with every base with which the oxide of nickel may be mixed. St | It follows from what has been mentioned, that the solubility of oxide of nickel in ammonia cannot be employed to separate it perfectly from foreign admixtures insoluble in this alkali; for the parts undissolved or precipitated always contain more or less oxide of nickel. D) Lai The combination of oxide of nickel with caustic potash appears to me to be the most remarkable of all those which it forms with salifiable bases. When a solution of caustic potash is gradually added to one of nickel supersaturated with ammonia, a whitish precipitate appears, which redissolves, but which is eventually reproduced, and does not again disappear. When the potash ceases to render the liquor turbid, it becomes colour- less, and a greenish sediment is slowly deposited. On this occasion, the oxide of nickel combines with the potash, and becomes insoluble. The redissolving of the first formed portions of the precipitate is derived from their decomposition by the ammoniacal salts; but at the moment in which the latter are ` decomposed, the precipitate remains undissolved. The preci- pitate is insoluble in ammonia. Separated by the filter, it forms a gelatinous mass, which it is extremely difficult to wash. If there is any lime in the liquid, the precipitate is less coherent, and more easy to wash ; but it then contains all the lime remain- ing in the solution. Boiling water penetrates the wiccolate of potash (sit venia verbo) much better ; but it also decomposes it 1822] ^| Method of analyxing the Ores of Nickel. 213 and separates the potash); and when the liquor which passes through the filter is evaporated to dryness, and leaves no resi- duum, the washed oxide is an hydrate of nickel which contains no trace of potash ; if, on the contrary, there was an alkaline earth, it would remain combined with the oxide. ‘There is»considerable difficulty in ascertaining whether the oxide thus obtained contains alkali or not. Thinking at first that the washed oxide still retained the potash precipitated with it, I endeavoured to analyze it in order to determine the quantity of potash retained ; but all methodsin the humid way completely failed. There remained then only to reduce the oxide by means of hydrogen gas, as I had done with the oxides of lead and of copper. One hundred parts of nickel, heated to redness before the experiment, gave me 78:8 parts of nickel, which, digested for a long time in water, did not impart to it the property of acting like an alkali; or, if there was any action at àll, it was scarcely perceptible: then, as we know from other experiments that 100 parts of oxide of nickel contain 78°70 of nickel, it is evident that the oxide contained no potash. In another experiment I obtained from 100 parts of oxide of nickel, 79:7 of nickel; but this nickel imparted to water the property of acting as an alkali. This water became: turbid by exposure to the air and on the addition of oxalic acid, it, therefore, contained lime. This oxide was obtained by an analysis, in which I had not separated from the ore the traces of carbonate of lime that it frequently contains. Those bases which are soluble in ammonia possess the other properties of oxide. of nickel to such an extent, that it is often difficult'to discover them, especially when they are in small quan- tity : these bases are the oxides of cobalt, copper, and zinc. Oxides of Nickel and Cobalt.—I have already observed that Mr. Phillips has given us a method of separating these two oxides by means of caustic potash. In order that it may succeed, it is requisite that the ammoniacal solution should be ve dilute, and that the water with which itis diluted should be freed from atmospheric air by long ebullition; for the addition of potash gives the oxide of cobalt, which is dissolved, a streng disposition to become peroxide, which appears to depend upon the potash combining with the acids, the oxide of cobalt is held, therefore, in solution by the ammonia alone; whereas, before it was dissolved in the state of a double subsalt, consisting of ammonia and oxide of cobalt. ! | 1f the solution contains atmospheric air, the oxide of cobalt combines with its oxygen, and the oxide of nickel comes down with the peroxide formed. The more concentrated the solution is, the greater is the tendency of the oxide of cobalt to peroxi- dize; and it then frequently deposits during filtration. It is, therefore, easier to separate a large quantity of nickel from a small quantity of cobalt, than the converse, although in every.case 214 wo M. Belseliuson the ol [M Aw; the quest of oxide of cobalt thus carried down is tooinconsi- derable to alter in any notable degree the result of an analysis ; especially as the two oxides possess the same saturating power: and gr ato d the chemical constitution of the compound is easily discovered. If the oxide of nickel precipitated by’ the potash contains any cobalt, it becomes brown when any. ve dilute acid is poured upon it ; forthe peroxide of cobalt dissolves much more slowly than tne oxide of nickel. - Ito maybe disco- vered also by means of the blowpipe, if the oxide of nickel be treated with borax until it is reduced, and the red colour which it gives to glass disappears. If it contains cobalt, it is then discovered by a more or less perceptible blue colour, I am of opinicn that by Mr. Phillips’s method, we may perfectly succeed in separating these two oxides, especially if the abovementioned precautions are observed. Hooi | (2349 AL (OB flo La v` The oxide of cobalt remaining in the ammoniacal liquor gives itia rose colour. By evaporating: the solution, the i iie deposited in brown flocculi, and may be collected by the filter. If the ore under examination contains silica in such a state that it‘may be dissolved, it now precipitates with; the oxide of cobalt. | Oxides of Nickel and Copper.-—1 have not been able to deter- mine whether oxide of copper is soluble in ammonia or not. Tt i$ certain that all those solutions which are generally regarded as oxide of copper in ammonia. are double salts with excess of base: I digested oxide of copper in concentrated ammonia for age days in a stopped bottle... The solution became of a light-blue colour-in 48 hours, and it did not afterwards increase: » A drop of carbonate of ammonia let fall into the liquor immediately dis- solved a part of the oxide; and made the lower stratum of the liquid of a deep-blue colour. |—. `» Vos V. A sebo ^ When an ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper is mixed with caustic potash, the oxide of copper is precipitated in a few. seconds, and if the quantity of the ape iien sufficient; it is entirely deposited in the form of a blue hydrate, which it is very easy to wash. When well washed, it yielded blue hydrate of copper, combined with two atoms of water; it does not retain any trace of potash. In order that the copper may be perfectly precipitated from the ammoniacal solution, much: more caustic potash must be employed than to separate oxide of nickel—a circumstance which is probably derived from cuprate of potash forming only in a liquid which is saturated to a certain degree with hydrate of potash; it is more easily decomposed than the niccolate. t ‘I endeavoured to take advantage of these properties of oxide of copper to determine the quantity of copper in these analytical experiments. The method which has been always used to pre- cipitate metallic copper by iron is extremely bad, and always gives incorrect results ; for, on one hand, the copper is always 13899.] | Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. 215 mixed with carburet ofiron, which separates from the precipi- tating iron in proportion as it dissolves ; on the other hand, the reduced ‘metal can scarcely be dried without suffering consider- able oxidation. ‘If the oxide of copper be precipitated by a car- bonated alkali; this alkali, when added in excess, always dissolves a small quantity of carbonate of copper. This may indeed be obtained, if the solution be evaporated to dryness, and the resi- duum be made red-hot ; the carbonate of copper is then decom- posed, and water separates the alkaline subcarbonate from it ; butthen the oxide of copper covers the sides of the crucible, and adheres very firmly to it. "The crucible must first be weighed alone; and then with the ‘oxide of copper, which must be dis- solved by an acid. ` No one of these methods is convenient. I have found that the method of separating oxide of copper from its ammoniacal solution by caustic potash) gives a much more correct result than the foregoing processes. ‘The separation is ‘not, however, perfect; for the ammoniacal liquor, when filtered, becomes brown on the addition of hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and in a few days flocculi are deposited, but. so inconsiderable in quantity that I could not weigh them with certainty. I also endeavoured to precipitate the copper from its solutions by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and to weigh the dried bisulphuret ; but it always gave me at least three or four per cent. too much weight for the oxide of copper employed, for the bisulphuret of copper becomes acid during exsiccation, as occurs with the similar sulphurets of rhodium and of platina. When distilled in a small apparatus to expel the excess of sulphur, the sulphuric acid, and moisture, the remaining protosulphuret of copper gives the quantity of copper with more exactitude. But let us return to the mixture of oxide of copper with oxide ofnickel. What I have already said of the analogy of these two: oxides proves that the /oxide..of nickel, when precipitated by caustic potash from a solution which contains copper, must con- tain some of this metal, a part of which, however, still remains dissolved in the ammonia, unless a great excess of potash be added. It is, however, very easy to separate the copper from the nickel by ‘sulphuretted hydrogen, which ‘precipitates the mer from its solution in an acid without acting upon the atter. Oxides of Nickel and of Zinc.—The oxide of zinc dissolved by ammonia is also precipitated by an addition of caustic potash ; but it precipitates more slowly than the oxide of nickel, and requires more potash. Its presence is discovered in oxide of nickel by reducing the latter by means of soda in the flame of the blowpipe. If it contains zinc, the charcoal is covered with a white incrustation of oxide of zinc; but to effect this, it is necessary to use a strong heat. In an analysis of a metallic mixture which I performed a long time since, I endeavoured to 216 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical: Observations. [M Agen, these two oxides by slightly heating their nitrates so as to peroxidize the nickel. I afterwards poured upon it «dilute nitric acid, which dissolved the subnitrate of zinc, leaving. the peroxide of nickel unaeted upon. ` It is: difficult to. perform this experiment ; for either too much or too. little heat alters the results, and the separation|is never complete, even when it suc- ceeds well. Another process suggested itself afterwards. ‘The mixture of the two oxides is put into a bulb blown in the middle of a glass tube, through which a current of dry muriatic acid gas is passed : the bulb is to be heated by means of a spirit lamp; the oxides combine with the muriatic acid; and the water, as well as the muriate of zinc distil, and may be received in a vial con- taining water. The muriate of nickel being much- less volatile than that of zinc remains in the bulb. If the empty: bulb be weighed before the commencement of the experiment, and after having put the oxide mto it, it is necessary only to weigh it to find the relative weights: of the two oxides; but the muriate of zinc may also be precipitated by subcarbonate: of soda, and its quantity determined ima direct mode. 00 v oo omi Dne ora 1 | Lo beleonthiuedy C 251 i ] & Ti VE ) I wR i PO (yr U i ERIS, eni E to 1: 09-19: sbato 902 4el 9d 34r M. Hit. DLA MTS 355483 į {9 t t (yD £1 4 e iW 5S (HER: U U ARTICLE Astronomical Observations, 1822. 7 . By Col. Beaufoy, ERS. — 7 od sigs to ^^Latitndebl9 37/443" North, Longitude West in time l^ 90:93. > (tts j Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. r SOP ae "7 «4 1 Ad i IU" | Jan. ]4. Emersion of Jupiters first € 6” 99! 97" l Mean Time at Bushey. — satellite, 4. .............. 0 6 23 48 $ Mean Time at Greenwich. Jan. <9, Emersion of Jupiter's second § 6 “54 15 2 Mean Time at Bushey. - > hun a «risiede ordines 6 35. 56 $ Mean ime at Greenwich, Feb. 6. Emersion of Jupiter’s first ( 6 40 52 2) Mean Time at Bushey. POC) Usafélliter;. 122. ern. (00 42 18 $ Mean Time at Greenwi 1892.]' Meteorological Register keptvat\Kinfauns Castle. 917 Articte XIV. Meteorological Table... Extracted from: the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Britain. Lat. 56° 23' 30". Above "the «Level of the Sea 129 feet. | 3 32509 t RE M TAGS v wae ; i idv Morning, 10 o’clock.|Even., 10. o'clock. Mean Depth | No, of days. «siepe Hi Mean height of Mean height of | bv web. Raat Six’s —— | or |Fair. Barom. Ther. Barom. | Ther. | Ther. |In. J00|Snow. $3 Choy || 2991 | 31:645 | 99-180 | 36-905]31-295| 3:90 | 14 | 17 Beli aos iio -.380:131,]-:40:150 | |. 30:124 ]:38:928/40:351 |. 0-60. || 7 | Oe arch.......|.. 99:465 |. 49:096. |... 99:425 |.39-774/41:290 |. 3:50 |. 18, H 18, | epit 29:510 | 49:366 | 99:503 | 45-20041:366 | 3°35 |. 16 | 14 May ........| 29:168 | 50:193 | 929"158 | 44-935/47-838} 1:70 | 15 | 16 June:........| :30'119 | 56:666 | 30:112 | 50:866/54-800| 0:50]; 6 | 94 ene 99:184. |...59:161 +| 29:786 1.54 709/58:419 | -1-10:| ¿12 } 19 DIS" porast 29'802 | 59:619 | 29:800 | 55:292,59-290| 1:15| 9 } 22 ept.........| 99:649 | 51-368 | 99-630 | 54:066/56-666| 9-10 | 16 | 14 Oct, ........| 99:654 | 48:901 .| 929-647 |.41:58049:000 |- 1-15 | "14 | YT NON: wiesa sesat 129463. | 49:933 |. 29:481. |.41-100,42-633.|.. 5:95, ]..90 | 10 | CONO AGAIN 29:176 | 40:290 | 29:178 | 39-93540-999| 4-80| 25] 6 Aver, of year.| 29-747 | 048-779 | 29-686 1745176841931 | 29:00 | 172 1193 OO ANNUAL RESULTS.” ; MORNING. |, ‘+c BAROMETER; |. | (OCO THERMOMETER. ` . Observations, Wind, Wind, BENCH, du. 99... W SU LA. Sept S. o. saa. ratasqa. ¿Q ossa ll" Wena Dec^35- 777 "Mw ST eS Ua US 105211 P, SW... eu" OPM EVENING. Highest, Jan. 22 .., 2 INP W: i... 30*69 |'Sept./.8 >of... 0... 6. 2 SEP Lowest, Dec; BS. ci. w ..... 28:12 Jan. 4 w... ...... ETETETT NE .... 919 Weather. ges Days. Wind Times. OE he AAA (V. we cues sve. 453 N and N E Noti. 10 Rain or snow ..... . ou - obi Eoshd gË (5:04. NITET ; — S and S W......... Seetepters or 365 Los OQ N apqequiacufg .. LTS 365 N Extreme Cold and Heat, by Six’s Thermometer, „Coldest, Jan: m Wind S Ww. eo Coe o... ................... 129 Hottest, Aug. ?23, Wind S E... .srsnse erre senecaene, 14° Mean temperature for FOAL AA PES O E EA NA des 41:9315 s ` Result of two Rain Gauges. In. 100 Centre of Kinfauns Garden, about 20 feet above the level of the sea . ........... 91:18 Kinfauns Castle, 129 feet *"*eté*st*qnanaeteoevonqqeovsonqonoce?estotespecnstqhts 29-00 218 E 4p s TIT Analyses of Books. X sis [MARCH, ARTICLE XV. 4 ANALYSES or Books. ^ (50008 TOM | O° POR vA MA al ay thee VU V ) "sy oe A Treatise on a Section of the Strata from Newcastle-upon Tyne to Cross Fell, in Cumberland, with Remarks on Mineral Veins in general, &c. &c. To which is added a Treatise on the Disco- very, the Opening, and the Working of Lead Mines, with the ^ Dressing and Smelting of Lead Ores. By Westgarth Forster. A "i Second Edition. n 1821, +: No country in the world has carried the art of mining so far as England has done. : vri e who have of late years visited our mfing counties are struck with our efforts, the success f , application of mechanism, and with the regularity of system that mà in some districts; and yet when they inquire for. an nglish book in which they may find these Valider: and see their Dita trabado they are surprised to learn tha theirinquiry is in vain, and that except some obsolete treatise; or detached paper na journal, or in a Society’s Transactions, nothing of the kind exists, Ipasitiadt RENAE ee wil The title,of the work now before us; which we have somewhat abbreviated, would lead us fo expect that for a particular and for an important district, something. had now been done; and though we may think that those whose experience is confined to one country, should not. attempt an account of mineral veins in general: yet we-readily admit that nothing would be more desirable than a record of the observatións of practical men relative..to those situations with which „their WS aa ds greatest. We wish, therefore, Mr. Forster had been guided more by such a rule, and we think that he might have avoided some errors, and have made a more useful be 99 nok,’ dedit "The part of the country under consideration. is -a curious one, and is singular for the number, extent, and regularity, of the . beds, into which its stratification is divided, differing indeed most widely, though Mr; Forster does not seem willing to think so, from most other mining countries, which set at defiance the accurate sections which are such good guides to a Cumberland miner. The upper series of these beds contain the coal of Newcastle, and in the lower series which basset out from under the coal measures, are found the valuable lead mining fields of Derwent and Allendale, in the county of Northumberland ; Weardale, and. Teasdale, in Durham ; cod Alston Moor, Nanthead, and Cross Fell,.in Cumberland. | Lr It is stated “ that the general rise or acclivity of the strata, which is pretty. well known to. be in this.part of our island to the 1822J | On a Section of the Strata, &c. 219 south-west, and the dip or'declivity to the NE. which m Cross Gill- Burn; in. Alston’ Moor, Cumberland, makes two degrees 35 minutes with the horizon, or nearly one yard in 2722” (^ to Thus by their rise to the westward, they crop oup and présent @ succession to; the observation of the naturalist, and to the Tesearch and labour of the' miner, while “ the stratification has,” ag is observed, p. 92, “been ascertained with the greatest pré- «ision by the multitude of shafts and workings of the lead niines;" so that each individual bed is anticipated and calculated upon with the greatest confidence: | arte. q l Thus indeeda valuable series of rules are established, which ender mining herë comparatively a simple process, and the miners of many parts’ of England would indeed have reason to :Xejoice, if they could be thus relieved of some of their greatest uncertainties. | .S55j204 J 16 ¿19 The work consists of a preface—introduction—the treatise on the sections—on mineral veins in general—list of! lead mines— yón the opening and working of mines—dressing and smelting the Ore wot o1 Í BG 5idug | fii + OJRUOTQOT We shall make some remarks on what occurs toüs under each head:as:worthy of notice. : O | | | ob 39M; ^d Of the preface; we have little to say, except with regard to lone passagé, wherein the author denounces theoty'as the bane -of geological science, charging it * with having’ cramped the ‘efforts of inquiry, and ‘paralyzed the exertion of research." “19 -5 Is not. this: rather: too: dogmatical:and unphilosophical? arid after all, is it true?) We are not the advocates of any system, ‘but has not an hypothesis often led to investigation? Has not a favourite, and, perhaps, an absurd theory often led to the collec- tion, the arrangement, and the record of facts, and which but for this we should never have: known? Can Mr. Forster take upon himself to say that the labours of De Saussure, Hutton, De Lue, "Wemer, Playfair, and Cuvier, would have been what they are without this stimulus, not to mention the tribe of other useful -writers who: have been called forth: by: their more: splendid example? | +<: The factis, that the mind, as soon as facts are collected, tends to theorize, and the simplest deduction in geology is often but ‘an hypothesis. Such language as the above is, however, rather the fashionable slang of a sect of geologists, and we are rather mc to see a practical man fall into it. ‘ooThe introduction had better have been omitted, or Mr. Fors- er might have submitted it to some of his mineralogical friends who would have given him a better classification of stones than that which disposes them into scintallant, or otherwise. | ^", The treatise on the section is divided into two parts, and the first properly and naturally takes the upper beds into considera- tion, which are usually called the coal measures. + y The general description of strata which it begins with, is 220 Analyses of Books. » si) (Manon, clearly written, and is the more valuable, as it evidently results from the author's own knowledge, and includes, therefore, some of those, minuter remarks for. which. we are always thankful to practical men.. ru | I; we et T + . We are amused. to, observe a note added, p.:16, relative to "Mr. W. Smith, which is an old acquaintance, having appeared in almost the same words, in various forms, and at divers periods, jo the pages of the Phil. Mag, appended. to Mr. Farry's contri- butions. | TEN | | The explanations refer to the section, which.is neatly executed, and which, under the head of coal measures, includes: 90 beds, occupying a total thickness of 361 yards. In these are found: 13 beds of coal, not mitior. such as are less than one foot thick, and making an aggregate depth of somewhat more than 13 yards of this substance. ery The explanation itself is almost entirely composed of extracts from, Mr. Winch’s valuable papers in the Transactions, of the Geological Society. This mode of filling out a book we strongly reprobate ; in a new work the public have a right to new matter, and a reference to what has been published is sufficient. o Neither do we see the use of the number of tables of measure- ments of strata at. different collieries, many of which are to be found in other publications, and are after all but of little general interest; nor do we like quoting from Williams's Mineral King- dom a few tables of strata which are found to accompany coal in other parts of the kingdom, which relate: merely | to» White- haven, Derbyshire, and one place in Scotland. | Thus in what should appear to be a comparative: view of coal stratification, no notice is taken of the immense depositories in Staffordshire, Shropshire, or South Wales, nor is their most valuable accompaniment, ironstone, at all noticed, or its relation as to position and so on, or where it exists. The second part of the treatise on the section, and which relates to the lead measures, begins with the following passage, which we extract as a favourable specimen of the author’s com- osition : | -.* The strata which I shall now endeavour to describe is that art of the series which. occurs in the lead district, comprising Derwent, East Allendale, and West Allendale, in the county of Northumberland; Weardale, and Teasdale, in the county of Durham; and Alston Moor, in the county of »Cumberland. There are in this district two places where three counties meet in one point; viz. Rampgill Head, one mile south-west of Coal Cleugh and Caldron Snout, a waterfall on the river Tees. At the former of these places, the counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Durham, form a union ; and at the latter, the counties of Durham, Yorkshire, and Westmoreland. “ This tract of country differs considerably in external appear- ance from that in which coal occurs so plentifully. The easy 1822.] — On a Section of the Strata, &c. 291 and natural undulations of the surface in the neighbourhood of Newcastle become exchanged for more rugged and alpine eleva- tions; the fertile valleys of the Tees, the Wear, and the Tyne, are greatly contracted in breadth, and separated by sterile and ` desolate mountains, whose summits for a great part of the year are covered with snow. ! | © “Among these mountains are distributed the various valuable lead mines, which constitute so large a part of the mineral treasures of Great Britain, and equal, if not excel m productive- ness any yet discovered in the world." "n ' Here we must stop our quotation to remind Mr. Forster that. he is not writing a poem or a romance, but that, as the author of a book which may be hereafter referred to for facts, he ought to have been more careful. Before advancing so much, he should have inquired, and a. very. slight research would have informed him better. ! | That the lead mines in question can form so large a part of the mineral treasures of Great Britain as this sentence would imply cannot be true, if the iron, the copper, the tin, and the lead, of other districts be for a. moment considered. | Bat as correctness. of facts is-of the first value in works of - this kind, and to statistical inquirers is. most important, we shall do our best to show how this matter stands. : i Excluding the iron from our account, although both that and coal are mineral treasures of the very first importance, yet they are not derived from veins such as Mr. Forster had in his view; and, secondly, because we do not know any good estimate of the value of iron. in this kingdom. deas We shall confine ourselves then to the produce of the true mines of the metals, of which accounts may be procured. We will first state the proportion of lead which these mines na compared with that of the kingdom at large; and though rom documents before us, we should have ranked them higher in this respect, yet we must of course take Mr. Forster's account to be correct. We wish that instead of a short average of the’ quantity of lead ore raised annually from 1800 to 1821, he had given us tables of each year's produce. Such tables would be . very interesting, particularly when compared with prices preced- ing or succeeding changes of quantity. — | e have, in the following statement, added two columns, one in which the ore is reckoned in pig lead, according to Mr: Fors- ter’s rule; and the second, in which the value is stated, taking it’ at £24 per ton, its probable value. when smelted: and delivered at the usual places of shipment; and we shall reckon the value of the metals from other districts in the same way. | Mr. Forster states the average annual’ produce ending’ with 1820, p. 420, as under: | 222. -+ Analyses of Books, |. [MAncu; “Joel i ` Bings of ore. . "Tonsofpigleal. Value, Dis wa Arte iy 4 | rd 2 Be d. Teesdale mines ...... 8000, equal to 1778 .. 42672 0 © eardale ditto. ...... 17000 ...... 3777....::90648 ..0 40: Mlendale ditto. ........ 8000 ....... 1778 .. 42672 0 Alston Moor and Cross » " Big Nr ow anik wih 5 19000 .......,4223 .. 101852..0 ^ 0 Dufton Fell, Dun Fell, ‘ | pol Silver Band and Hil- | D ton mines in West- ~ path 45 » morelangd; ss: 600.1 1900516: (Odie 220;2 9B 5:0) 10 53500 , 11889 985336 0 O We will next state what we believe, from good authorities,’ and for some of which we can vouch, to be a near approxima- tion to the quantities of lead produced in other mining districts: inthe kingdom. ° | MU d : Tons of pig lead, | Value. l d g OTI uf 55 siidi Yorkshire. . ijssshicsos qe die 4900 ...... 107600 0 O: North Wales and Shropshire .... 6000 ...... 144000. 0 0 Septland.;. uei deo nb oaie corse ied 20002251. Oe 48000 0 0: Derbyshire. .. +... de 3€ (de 5000. .......120000 0 0 Devon and: Cornwall............ 1200... ..... 28800 0 0 AE. ^os... 39100 448400 0. 0. Thus it stands as under: ` ! M. i Alston Moor, &c. €c......... +. 11889) ...... 985836. 0 0 Other parts of the kingdom .... 19100 ...... 448400 0 0 yo sata fe 30989 . ` , 733736 0 0 Here then we find that the mines in question produce about, four-tenths of the /ead of the kingdom, a large proportion) cer- tainly. We have still to estimate the extent of other mineral: treasures, limiting ourselves as we have before mentioned. This: can. be done from more certain sources, and Mr. Forster would: find accounts of the annual produce of copper and tin in Corn wall to.a certain period in Dr. Price's book on the mines of that. county, and he would see, it also continued to the year 1810 in. Rees’s Cyclopedia... The quantity. of copper made in England is likewise published every six months. when the East India con- tracts are rade, and may be seen in the Cornwall newspapers. ' From sourees of this kind, we are enabled to state that the produce of copper in the kingdom was in.1820 as ona 38 JEN omse JAJ AGI Silio moi. o8 5:0 Si d Cornwall)... »» «b 6915 tons fine copper 22112 774480 .0 Q Devon, Anglesea, b a Staffordshire, &c. 1788 dito ^ 900256 0 O -———— o 8703 | 974736 0 O0 1822.] On a Section of the Strata, &c. 293. ) The tin of Cornwall and Devon was reduced in quantity about this period by a great depression in price, but it may be esti- mated at... | [ 3000 tons block and grain at #70. .......... 210000 0°'0 The total value of these metals of the kingdom may, therefore, be stated to be: . | | EX s d. COD ruso ueesepsérreqetees eie eva NR 974736 0-0 MCS ids crs ek Pe P ra bes ut Me v^. be 799790. "0r 70 Eo cod d ea P e MES L2 lad MRS NAS E FTA i 210000 0 0 1918472 .0 O To this ought to be added the value of silver, manganese, antimony, cobalt, zinc, but of which no probable estimate can. be made. ` | | | So that the real proportion of the mineral treasures ofthe king- dom of this sort to be assigned to the district which Mr. Forster treats of, is about one-seventh of the whole. | Via adiu Now as to its equalling, or excelling in productiveness any part. yet discovered in the world, we might mention the value of pro-. ducts of each. of the three principal mining districts of Mexico, where we are told by Humboldt, that one mine only called Valen-. ciana, yielded from the year 1771 to the time at which he waa: writing the annual amount of 600,000/. | ‘But not to leave our own country, it will be seen in Mr. Tho- mas’s short account of the mines, appended to his excellent map: _ of the principal, mining district in Cornwall, and which takes in; only about 26 square miles, that the mines in that space produced in 1818, 55,920 tons of copper ore, which being reduced into, copper at a medium rate of produce, and then valued, would amount to 516,656/. to which he mentions, in addition for. tin; 41,880/. (valued in ore only, and this district not including the. principal mines of this metal), and we have 558,5364. or just double the produce. of all the Cumberland and Durham mines, and raised in a much smaller space. . | In the compass of Mr. Thomas's survey are mentioned (table, . p. 74) two mines, Dolcoath, and the United Mines, as producing the one 850, and the other 950 tons of copper ore per month ; these together would make 1780 tons of fine copper in the year, worth near 200,000/.. We do not know what the produce of. that extraordinary. spot in Anglesea, the Paris mine, at its best: time, may have amounted to, but we conceive that if the copper: then raised in a year was valued at present prices, which. are not high ones, the money would be as much as that of a year's lead. of Cumberland, &c. W. 10. du uin- comparing: individual mines with other lead mines, Mr. Forster unfortunately gives us but few data; he mentions; p.274, 224 - "Analyses of Books. > «O | [Marci Breconsike, as having formerly Ep in some years 10,000 bings of ore, which. would be 2250 tons of lead ; and, p. 232; Hudgill Burn mine, is stated to be yielding 9000 bings, which: would be 2000 tons of lead. We have reason to think het s produce of this rich mine has increased and is now near | tons of lead. uidi mp . But even this has been exceeded by other lead mines, one in: Hulkin mountain in Flintshire, the property of Earl Grosvenor, produced within the last seven years 1900 tons of ore in a quar- ter ; which would be at least 5000 tons of pig lead in the year. And in the same mountain, in the late Earl’s time, there was at: another mine at one period 3000 tons of ore dressed and washed ready for smelting. We need not pursue this part of the subject further : we have noticed it particularly because we are of opinion, that writers on such subjects, who have it. in their power, would. render their books useful and mteresting, if they would register facts which; by affording just comparisons, would lead to great additions to our statistical knowledge, the importance of which is so ob-: vious : and further, because errors, such as we have noticed; are copied and distributed by other writers who: quote them without being able to judge as to the real state of the case. ` The great peculiarity of the country under consideration, is: a stratification strikingly uniform. in its arrangement and cone taining an extraordinary number of beds; which with unbrokem continuity, prevail over a large extent of ground. ‘Some’ of: these beds are peculiar for the rich state of the lead veins that traverse them, while others above or below, though enclosing! the same veins, -have produced little or no metal. rq; St To A table exhibiting the relative productiveness of these beds; or a section in which by a figure the proportion of lead in each might have been shown, would have been a very uei. n thing. We mean-of course, that all that could be thus exhibited» would be an approximation to the truth, which might, however, have been collected ‘from the experience and opinions of the best miners. Mr. Forster tells us that the great limestone, whieh) appears to be 21 yards thick, ** (p. 103,) has been nearly as: productive of lead ore, as all the other strata taken together." The whole number of beds enumerated, which lie beneath: the coal measures, reckoning from the deepest stratum of that: series, down to the red sandstone, amounts to 148; and of these, 122 are classed under the head of lead measures: they: consist principally of plate or shale, hazle or gritstone, and limestone, alternating with each other. i 1 39118; It appeáts to us from Mr; Forsters notice of the different: strata, that lead ore is not found abundantly much under the tuft or water sill (a tender irregular gritstone) lying immediately: under. the great limestone, and the 38th bed of t the series,—but . this important fact; if it be so, is not explicitly stated. — «^. hr ali ai ee eR TC 1892] '- On a Section of HO Strata, &c. 225 " As according to the statement that the great limestone has. produéed as much lead, as all the others taken together, and as this bed. is 21 yards thick only, we may reckon, that. very, productive ir aug limited to a space or thickness C ma to the double of this, or about 42 yards, or in the language, most usual in the English mines, to about 21 fathoms. This will doubtless appear very extraordinary to other miners, who know no'such limit to their operations, and who see thin veins rich in the metals, to depths that are only limited by the, power that bas'as yet been applied to carry on the operations. by which mining is pursued. © — rra gini | -The actual thickness of the beds, which, are productive of, lead’ in various ‘proportions, however; appears to be about 225. yards, or 112: fathoms, as we infer, froma passage m p. 212, where it is said that they are those that are between the grind- stone sill, and the five fathom limestone ; and which, by reter- ring to the section, we find occupy the above space But here is then, as above shown, one half the value contained in 10+. fathoms ; and the other half, occupying 102 fathoms, would be of course betterif it were also comprised m an equal space, and making together, as we have stated it, 21 fathoms. "This is a small allowance of workable ground, and it must be rich indeed to produce what it does, either in the number and. extent of the veins, or in the degree in which these veins axe. yoo ae with ores. type} | | er ^ Mr. Forster has, in the same page (212,) quoted Mr. Price,.to. show that the richest parts of the Cornwall strata are, for cop-. per, from 40.to 80 fathoms deep ; and for tin from 20 to 60; which would make it appear, that in other countries the metali- + | férous parts of the rocks were also limited to certain depths. _ Why has Mr. Forster referred to an authority written. so long. h^ .and when ern such a. notion. did prevail, but whiclias | . certainly not true? There are many recent, accounts, of the. mines in Cornwall, in papers in the Gedtoaital Transactions, by, Dr. Berger, by Mr. Phillips, and others, and there are the sèc- tions before mentioned by Mr. Thomas, by which it will appear - that the rocks in Cornwall are not divided imo strata, in the ` sense the word is used'iu Mr. Forster’s book, and that copper. ore: is found at-all depths to which the powers of man have. been’ able to follow it, and that no indication has presented itself by which it can be concluded, that it may not yet be pur- sued further, and by a continued application of the skill and energy which make the Cornish mines so remarkable—some of them being already full 200 fathoms under the level of the sea. The account of the curiously stratified state of the district, exhibited in the section, is followed by some tables of strata in - other places, as at Arkengarth dale, and Swale dale in York- shire; and also by a long extract from Mr. Farey's works, with New Series, vor. 111. Q 226. . Analyses of Books. ~. [Manen, respect to the rocks in Derbyshire. The inference which is intended to be drawn from all this seems to be, that the beds may be identified in all these different places. In our judgment, there is no ground whatever for such an opinion; but the gentle- men of the north are so pleased with the accurate way in which. they can calculate on coming to a particular bed, that they are very apt to imagine that their rules would apply all over the king- dom, if people would but understand and use them. Now in Arkengarth Dale are the chert beds, which are not to be found in Mr. Forster's section, and the only coincidence seems to be a bed of limestone of 12 fathoms thick. Before we get to Derbyshire, there are mining fields not men- tioned, such as Paitly Bridge, in Yorkshire, where, on Greenough Hill, it is limestone from the surface to the full depth of the mines, say 50 to 60 fathoms, and on the other side of the town, some extensive mines are in gritstone only. At Grassington Moor are a few beds of metalliferous gritstone alternating with plate, and under these is limestone already proved to a great thickness, and of unknown extent in that respect. | As to Derbyshire, it appears to us that in no place is stratifi- cation more irregular, nor do we pretend to understand Mr. Farey’s arrangement of its parts, but it may be observed that on the western edge of the gi is one of the deepest mines in. England, we mean Ecton, and that is carried to the depth of 225 fathoms from the surface, and nothing occurs all the way down but limestone. The toadstone beds, we believe, ought to be there, but unfortunately they are not to be found. Mr. Farey calls this limestone, shale limestone, but that 1s only true in part. The fact is, that no rules for mining in one country can be. laid down as fit to be followed implicitly in another, and that a, simple detail of things as they are, is what we think should be aimed.at by authors of such works as the present. We object also to swelling out a book by long extracts from, - other authors, and in particular we do not see why the account. of the Huttonian. and Wernerian theories should have been transplanted’ from Dr. Miller's. edition of Williams's Mineral, Kingdom. 3t | aut Rua Having now gone through the first and most important part of . the book, the treatise on the sections, we must close our obser», | vations for the present. Ze ~ 1822.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 227 AnricLE XVI... Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Jan. 31.—Observations on the Length of the Second’s Pen- dulum at Madras, by John Goldingham, Esq. FRS. Feb. 7.— Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones belonging to extinct Species of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippo- potamus, and Hyena, and some other Animals discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, near Kirby Moorside, Yorkshire, by the Rev. W. Buckland, FRS. o Feb. 14.—Mr. Buckland's paper was continued. | Feb. 21,—Mr. Buckland's paper was concluded. This paper gives a. detailed account of an antediluvian den of hyeenas discovered. last summer at Kirkdale, near Kirby Moor- side, in Yorkshire, about 25 miles north-east of York. "The den is a natural fissure or. cavern in oolitic limestone extending 300 feet into the body of the solid rock, and varying from two to five feet in height and breadth. Its mouth was closed with rubbish, and overgrown with grass and bushes, and was accidentally intersected by the working of a stone quarry. Itis on the slope of a hill about 100 feet above the level of a small river, which, during great part of the year, is engulphed. The bottom of the cavern is nearly horizontal, and is entirely covered. to the depth of about a foot, with a sediment of mud deposited by the diluvian waters. The surface of this mud was. in some parts entirely covered with a crust of stalagmite ; on the greater part of it, there was no stalagmite. At the bottom of this mud, the floor of the cave was covered from one end to the other with teeth and fragments of bone of the following animals : hyena, elephant, xbinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, two or three species of deer, bear, fox, water-rat, and birds. The bones are for the most part broken, and gnawed to pieces, . and the teeth lie loose among the fragments of the bones ; a very few teeth remain still fixed in broken fragments of the jaws... The hysna. bones are broken to pieces as much as those of the other animals. No bone or tooth has been rolled, or in . the least acted on by water, nor are there any pebbles mixed with them. The bones are not at all mineralized, and retain nearly the whole of their animal gelatin, and owe their high state of preservation to the mud in which they have been imbed- ded. -The teeth of hyenas are most abundant; and of these, the greater part are worn down almost to the stumps, as if by the operation of gnawing bones. Some of the bones have marks of the teeth on them; and portions of the focal matter of the Q2 228) Proceedings of Philosophical, Societies: — [MAR GM; hyeenas are found also in the den. These have been analyzed by Dr. Wollaston, and found to be composed of the same ingre- dients as the album grecum,*or white fteees of dogs that are fed on bones, viz. carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and triple phosphate of ammonia and magnesia ; ahd, on being shown to the keeper of the beasts at Exeter Change, were immediately recognized by him as the dung of the hyena. The new and curious fact of the preservation of this substance is explained by its affinity to bone. . x filoh vc Y. 30-teulrrb » The: animals found in the cave agree in species with those that occur in the diluvian gravel of England; and of great part of tlie: northern hemisphere; four of them, the liyena; Giephiant: rhino-- ceros, and hippopotamus, belong to species that are now extinct,’ and to genera that live exclusively in warm climates; and^which are found associated: togetlier only in thé southern portions ‘of Africa near the Cape 1t'is certain ‘from the evidence afforded by the interior of. the den (which is of the same kind with that | afforded by the:ruins. of Hereulaneuni‘and Pompeii) that all these" animais lived and died in: Yorkshire; in the period immediately* preceding the deluge ; ‘and‘a similar conclusion may be?drawn with respect:to England*generally; and to those other extensive? regions. of the northern: hemisphere, whére*the diluvian @ravel | contains the remains of similar'species of animals. The extinct: fossil. hyena most nearly resembles that species which’ now’ iuhabits:the Cape; whose teeth-are adapted beyond those ae other animal to the purpose’of eraekine: bones, and whose habit’ itis to carry home parts of its préy’to: devour them in the caves: ofroeks which it inhabits. This analogy explains the aceumuc^ lation ‘of the: bones in the den at Kirkdale. They were carried imfor food by the hyeenas ; the smaller animals, perhaps, entire; theo larger ones piecemeal; for by’ nó other means could the ' bones:of'such large animals as the elephant and rhinoeérós have: arrived at:the inmost recesses of so small’ a hole, unless rolled! thither by water; in whicli case, the: angles: would have been: worn off by attrition; but'they are not. | HERR SOR Judging from the proportions of the remains now’ found in'the den; the/ordinary food) of the hyenas seems to have been oxen, ` deer, and water-rats; the bones’ of the larger animals are more ` rare; and the fact of the bones of the hyenas being broken up . equally with the rest, added to the known preference they have’ for putrid flesh and bones, renders it probable that'they devoured! the:dead carcases' oftheir own species. Some of the bones and teeth appear to have undergone various stages of decay by lying’ at therbottom of the den while it was inhabited, but little-or none ' simce the: introduction of the dilavian sediment in which they” have been imbedded. The circumstances’ of the cave and its) contents:are/altogether inconsistent with the hypothesis, of all’ — the: various’ animals:of such dissimilar habits Having’ entered it^ 4 " = 4 | 1822] “Royal Society. 229 spontaneously, or having fallen in, or been drifted in by wateryor with any other than that of their having been dragged in, either entire on piecemeal, by the beasts of prey whose den it was. Five examples are adduced of bones of the same animals dis- covered in similar caverns in other parts of this country, viz. at Crawley Rocks near Swansea, in the Mendip Hills at Clifton, at Wirksworth in Derbyshire, and at Oreston near’ Plymouth, In some of these, there is evidence of the bones having: been introduced by beasts of prey ; but in that of Hutton Hill, m the Mendips, which contains rolled pebbles, it is probable they were washed in. In the case of open fissures, some may have fallen in. ^A comparison is then instituted between these caverns iu England, and those:in Germany described by Rosenmuller, Esher and Leibnitz, as extending over a tract of 200 leagues, and con- taining analogous deposits of the bones of two extinct species of bear, and the same extinct species of hyena that occurs at Kirkdale. | ^" In theYGerman caves, the bones are in nearly the same state ‘of preservation as in the English, and are not in entire skeletons, ‘but dispersed asin a charnel house. ‘They are scattered all over the caves, sometimes loose, sometimes adhering together by stalagmite, and forming beds of many feet in thickness. They are of all parts of the body, and of animals of all ages ; but are mever rolled. With them is found ‘a. quantity of black earth ‘derived from the decay of animal flesh ; and also in the newly ‘discovered caverns, we find descriptions of a bed of mud. The latter is probably the same diluvial sediment which we find at ‘Kirkdale. The unbroken condition of the bones, and presence ‘of black animal earth, are consistent with the habit of bears, as ‘being rather addicted to vegetable than animal food, and an this ease, not devouring the dead individuals of their own species. In the hyeena’s cave, on the other hand, where both flesh and bones ‘were devoured, we have no black earth; but instead of it we find in the album grecum, evidence of the fate that has “attended the carcases and lost portions of the bones whose fragments still remain. | ‘Three fourths of the total number of bones in the German caves belong to two extinct species of bear, and two-thirds of the remainder to the extinct hyena of Kirkdale. ‘There are also ‘bones of an animal of the cat kind (resembling the jaguar or spotted panther of South America) and of the wolf, fox, and polecat, and rarely of elephant and rhinoceros.* -- "The bears and hyena of all:these caverns, as well as the ele- phant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, belong to the same extinct ‘species that occur also fossil in the diluvian gravel, whence it ‘follows that the period in which they inhabited these regions -*..M. Rosenmuller shows that the bears not only lived and died, but were also born, «in the same caverns in which their bones have been thus. accumulated, and the same conclusion follows from the facts observed in the cave in Yorkshire. 230 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Manrcn, was that immediately preceding the formation of this gravel by that transient and universal inundation which has left traces of its ravages committed at no very distant period over the surface of the whole globe, and since which, no important or general phy- sical changes appear to have affected it. ¿g Both in the case of the English and German caverns} the bones under consideration are never included in the solid rock; they occur in cavities of limestone rocks of various ages and formations, but have no further connexion with the rocks themselves, than that arising from the accident of their being lodged in cavities produced in them, by causes wholly uncon- nected with the animals, that appear for a certain time to hav taken possession of them as their habitation. | GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Nov. 2, 1821.—A letter from M. Brieslak on the Gypsum of Monte Seano was read. j! The gypseous deposit of Monte Seano is covered by a bed of yellow arenaceous marle, of four or five feet in depth, in which are found many rounded masses of the same marle ; some large irregular crystals assuming the rhomboidal form of gypsum, and a thin layer bed of whitish compact gypsum of a scaly foliated fracture. Under this marle bed, sulphate of lime appears in horizontal layers, varying in thickness from two or. three inches to three or four feet; and interrupted in many places by thin strata of grey schistose marle, with veins of fibrous and granular gypsum. ‘The sulphate of lime is penetrated with a bituminous matter, of a compact, granular, or foliatéd or fibrous texture, and for the most part of a grey colour, but sometimes approaching to black, which sometimes exhales by percussion or friction. ‘The gypsum of this quarry is very remarkable for the great number of vegetable remains which it contains; but in general, the impressions of the leaves are so much broken, and the stalks so irregularly dispersed, as to render it difficult to determine the genera to which they belong. Prof. Moritti, however, disco- vered among them the leaves of the salix caprea, of the viscum album, and of the acer platanoides; plants which at present may be found growing in the neighbourhood of the quarry. * Observations on the Species of Belemnites called Fusiform, on Fossils of the Cactus Tribe, and on the Opercula of the Fos- sil Echini," by Mr. Cumberland, were read. | i* i From a close examination of numerous specimens of belem- nites in the Stinchcome Quarry, near Dumley, in Gloucester- shire, and especially of some large ones of the fusiform species, Mr. Cumberland was enabled to discover that these bodies were only the nucleus of the interior of the upper part connected by a cylinder with the alveolus that belonged to its smallest chamber ; and in one specimen he observed a triform muscle which fornied the apex of die pointed end of the cone of the belemnite, ‘and of .1822.] ' Geological Society. 231 ‘which he had before remarked some traces in the Oxfordshire specimens. , In the cut made for a new road to ascend Clifton Downs from the Hot Wells, Mr. C. met with a specimen of one of those stones which have been generally referred to the Cactus tribe ; and in which a part of one of the supposed species or leaflets was in situ, but broken off about a quarter of an inch from the base of the depressed pustule, with which, however, 1t exactly fits. | Among the specimens of echinus in Mr. Cumberland's collec- tion are two species, viz. the esculentus, and the cordiform, both of which exhibit opercula zn situ, and another in which the inte- rior with a cell to receiveit when withdrawn, is manifest. | Dec. 7.—The reading of M. de la Beche's ** Observations on the Geology of the Coast of France," was concluded. From Fecamp to Cap d'Antifer, the cliffs are composed of chalk with flints, containing the usual fossils of the same chalk in England. From the latter point, similar strata resting on green sand extend to beyond the Chateau d'Orchet, when the sand disappears. ‘That portion of the interior which is bounded by the coasts of the sea and Seine, consists of chalk covered generally by flint gravel. ! - The green sand forms the under part of the cliff as far as Cauville, where it appears to rest in marl containing green earth. At Cap de la Héve, an inferior bed of iron sand, con- taining mica and silicious grains, and overlying blue marl, and marl stone, becomes visible. This green sand contains abun- dance of aleyonia, echinites, and other organic remains. At Benerville, the green sand is wanting, but the Vaches Noires Cliffs between Villers sur Mer and Dives are capped by it; and it there rests partly upon coral rag, and partly upon oolite beds above a thick blue clay, corresponding in character with the Oxford clay, and contains a variety of organic remains, among which are some remarkable alcyonia that have been described and figured by M. Lamouroux. Inland, the prevailing rock, is a loose silicious sand, containing nodules of blue lime- Stone, or chert, dispersed in layers. Near Lisieüx, a thick stratum of whitish soft calcareous sandstone, containing green earth, is quarried under it for the purposes of building. "The blue marl and marlstone which rises under the iron sand at Cap de la Héve is composed of marl and argillaceous limestone in alternate layers, and has so much the appearance of blue lias that it has been mistaken for it; but an examination of Hengue- ville Cliff shows it to rest on the oolite formation. At the latter pes itis about 150 feet thick. This stratum contains the ossil crocodiles mentioned as found at Havre, and described by M. Cuvier. | i Some traces of Portland beds are observable above the coral gag at Hengueville cliff. The latter contains numerous fossil 232 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Manon, corals, echinites, &c. Below this, stratum appear in the under part of the hill between Tongues and Benerville, but the best section is afforded.by the Vaches. Noires cliffs, where the blue mail or clay, agreeing in its geological position with the Oxford clay, attains the thickness. of about 300 feet. It exhibits various organic remains, o. which are .a. fossil crocodile described by Cuvier, bones of the plesiosaurus, a fossil. fish, septaria, ammonites, &c. | | exl From Dives to St. Come, the coast is flat and sandy, with the exception of some low cliffs of forest marble between -Lyon and Luc. From St. Come to St. Laurent, the calcareous sandstone with chert seams that accompanies, the inferior oolite, is seen forming the top of the cliffs, rising gradually. to the. westward is far as St. Honorine, and thence ascending to the NNW. rom Vierville to Grand Camp, the entire cliffs are composed of «calcareous sandstone with chert; and the blue lias is, conse- quently below the level of the sea, | Logs . The inferior oolite may be traced inland,in a south-easterly direction from between Maisy and Isigny, in the neighbourhood of Bayeux, where it appears to rest upon quartz or gravel beds of the new red.sandstone formation., From Bayeux to within three or four miles eastward of Villers, it rests upon lias ; and from thence upon apos slate and et baby a to between Thury-Harcourt and St. Laurent de Condel, / dd) The first appearance of the lias.eastward on the. coast is between St. Come and Arromanche, under the calcareous sand+ stone with chert seams. From hence to St. Honorine, the lias occupies the lower part of the cliffs.. At the latter place, it forms a curye, and dips NNW, disappearing to the W. of St. Laurent. In the interior, it may be, traced in a south-east direction from Isigny to Villers, and. beyond, a small portion of at. is found resting upon argillaceous slate, until it becomes hidden under the inferior oolite.. Between. lsigny and Carenton, and between Carenton and the dece vete dí a et it consti- tutes the elevated ground behind tlie alluvial flat which separates. the hills from the sea, and extends a considerable distance into the interior. Atthe last mentioned point, it rests upon the new red sandstone formation which appears on nó other portion of the coast. The lias of this part a France precisely resembles. that of the south of England, and contains similar organic remains. P In the department of Calvados, gravel beds, composed. of rounded pebbles of quartz, constitute the most abundant strata of the new red sandstone formation, being associated with beds of silicious sand, of a whitish colour for the most part, and occa sionally joined with red marl. - | in eg dk e From Bayeux to Villers, the lias rests upon these gravel beds, In the department of La Manche, the new red sandstone occu- pies a considerable tract. of country in the vicinity, and to the eA) u Geological Society. 233 south-east of Carenton. At.St. Jean, it rests upon argillaceous slate, and to the westward in the neighbourhood of St. Vaast, it is found in a similar position. At Litry, in the department of Calvados, it is supported by the coal measures. ^ The top of the Brugére de Crecy, on the road from Condé sur Noireau to Caen, is formed of a conglomerate consisting of rounded quartz nodules, from the size of a pea to three or four inches in diameter, agglutinated by a hard red argillo-silicious cement, and resting upon nearly vertical strata of argillaceous slate and greywacke, "à which, part of the mountain is composed. Near St. Laurent de Condel the same porphyritic conglomerate rises through the oolite formation; and it is visible between . Valagues and St. Vaast. It bearsa striking resemblance to that associated with the new red sandstone formation in the neigh- bourhood of Exeter. | | | "At Litry, ESE. from Bayeux, coal measures occur, resting’ upon argillaceous:slate, and occupying an oval space about 1700 yards from E. to W. and 850 yards from N. to S. The direc- tion is E. and W. and the dip 22? to N. . In general, the quality of the beds is indifferent. At May, between St. Laurent de Condel and Caen, the com- pact sandstone that is found overlying the transition limestone, and forming part of a large denudation in the oolite formation, has the appearance of old red sandstone. The beds vary much in thickness, are sometimes micaceous, and dip 45? to the N. Between Centaux and Langannerie a similar stratum appears resting upon quartz rock near the last mentioned spot. The general character of the quartz rock that occurs in the departments of Calvados and La Manche is that of indurated sandstone passing in some instances into common quartz. 1t às found in beds varying from two to eight feet in thickness, and resting on each other ; the colour passing from white or whitish grey to a red tint. The denudations in the oolite formation in this district are formed wholly or in part by quartz rock. Be- tween Tourville’ and Mondrainville in the road from Villers to ‘Caen, argillaceous slate and greywacke are observed resting on this rock, and dipping with it at about an angle of 45° or 50° to the north. At Falaise, the quartz rock is intersected by similar strata, and in the country between Valogues and Cherbourg, icularly in the mountain of Le Roule, which rises behind the ter town, the same appearances are observed. In the quartz rock of Le Roule, cylindrical bodies, like those mentioned by Dr. M‘Culloch, as arising in the quartz rock of Glen Tilt, are occa- sionally found. -^ Of the south-western part of the department of Calvados, a considerable part is formed of argillaceous slate and greywacke, extending in a line which passes nearly W. from the neighbour- hood of Perrien to Litry, in a south-eastern direction to Villers, and ESE. to Croix, whence it runs to the SE. aud crosses the 234 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [MAncx, road from Pont d’Onilly to Falaise. The greywacke isnot very abundant among the argillaceous slate, but may be observed in ‘several places. 04 gi pA In the north-eastern part of the department of La Manche, the slate is in general of a similar character to that found in the for- mer department. | | At St. Vaast and Reville, the slate hills suddenly terminate upon granite, which resembles in its characters that: of Dart- moor, like it containing large crystals of felspar, sometimes ‘as much as two inches in length; and varying in colour from a rey to a light red tint, according: to a change in the colour of e felspar. At Reville, the granite of the coast has a tendenc: to split in two directions, one E. and W.; the other N. and S. and to form large blocks, of which the angles are not right angles. The granite of St. Vaast and the opposite island is split into similar oblique. blocks, and the fissures are in the same direction. At St. Honorine, a grey granite «is found, of which that in the neighbourhood of Vins may be deemed a continuation. . | T On the coast of Calvados there are. the remains of two sub- marine forests ; one, namely, between Renerville and. Villers sur Mer; and the other opposite St. Laurent, whose trunks and branches of trees cross. each. other in every direction, and the eneral appearance resembles very much that described by Mr. | cade as occurring on;the coast of Somersetshire, near the river Parret, except that the trees, are. more fully decomposed, bere used for manure, by the,country people of the neighbour- ood. 121] 64 Soon t Te vt scd) 03: Bek x From the preceding.aceount st; will. be, seen that the rocks of this part of the coast of France correspond àn position, and very generally in structute.and organic remains, with similar rocks on the coast of England, being probably;the continuation of those which appear along-the,coasts| of JJorset and; Devonshire, and the Isle of Wight. „tusiq nistesw tera -sit vlofaib: A paper was read on “A Freshwater, wren at Hordwell Chth lembabieal and \on/the-subjacent; Beds om, Hordwell Cliff to Muddiford. - BystihotoneM etary Beni: f. 16a 208 AE In this, paper. Mr Webster, stated, that, having very recently examined this coast, he found, that Hordwell cliff was not formed of the London clay as was generally supposed ; and as he ha stated from the accounts of. others. an a former paper publish ini the Transactions of the Geological Society; but that it was composed of beds analogous to the lower freshwater formation ofthe Isle of Wight. Ünder these beds, which dip to the E. is another of white sand, and below this in the next cliff to the W. appears the bed similar to the London clay, and which con- tains the well known fossils published by Brander. | This forms also the inferior part of a part of the coast still further to the W. called the High iis which reaches nearly to Muddiford. 1822.) ^o. Geological Society. 235 This series of beds, sad 1r WDR to those on the opposite side of the Island at Headen Hill, Isle of Wight, is considered by - Mr. Webster as affording a strong confirmation of the opinion he had formerly advanced respecting the extent of the Isle of Wight basin. Mr. Webster also enumerates several fossil freshwater shells which he found at Hordwell Cliff, and among other remains is a fossil capsule or seed vessel. Jan. 18, 1822.— The reading of “ A Description of Specimens collected on a Journey from Delhi to Bombay,” by B. Fraser, Esq. was concluded. ý The distance from Delhi to Bombay is about 720 English ‘miles, but the author’s deviations from the immediate route make his course amount to not less than 1000 miles. He apologizes for the incompleteness of his collection, and the accompanying memoir, by stating the difficulties which attended the con- veyance of specimens, unfavourable, and other circumstances. It is, the author states, generally known, that the central part of India, north of the Nurbuddah, and between that river and the valley of the Jumna and Ganges, rises gradually from north . to south, abruptiy from the west, and irregularly from the east- ward, so as to form. a sort of plateau, the southern portion of which, in the province of Matira, is elevated about 1600 or 1700 feet above the Nurbuddah, and about 2000 feet above the sea. The present memoir relates principally to the western and north western portion of this elevated tract. | The city of Delhi is placed upon a rocky ridge, about 120 feet in height, close to the river Jumna, and on the north- eastern verge of the plateau just described. The most northern pont of the hilly region is at "Tooham, south of Hansee, about ‘90 miles north of west from’ Delhi. This hill, which is about 700 feet in height, is eoniposed of granite. The hilly country is terminated on thé/nó:diowest by a long range of hills, which skirts immediately the great western plain, of which the sandy desert forms the principal’ portion. 2 The northern part of the tract described by the author is com- posed entirely of primary rocks, ‘which are succeeded on the south by a very extensive trap formation stretching. down the west of the Peninsula as far south as the neighbourhood of Goah, a distance of more than 500 miles. The extent of the trap formation to the eastward is not yet known; but the author supposes the primary rocks to be continued southwards, through the whole of the peninsula to Cape Cormorin. | „At Delhi, the rock is quartz, and the same substance occu- pies a very large portion of the surface, to the south and west, constituting apparently the upper part of the mountainous tract, and frequently assuming the form of sharp insulated peaks, called by the natives..** dants,” or teeth, which are described as being in one place * of pure white, and glittering like snow.” 236 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. | [Maren, Other primary rocks, granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate, and in a few places granular limestone, are occasionally observed. Dolomite, of a bluish-grey colour, is commonly used: “for building in the vicinity of Ambire and Taypore, and the white marble of Mokranna, about 35 miles north of Ajmere, is remark- able over all this part of India. | About 14 miles west of Ajmere, the primary tract is succeeded by a country comparatively plain; from within which, the pri- mary range is seen extending to a considerable distance towards the north, and to the west of the south. This plain is diversi- fied by sand hills, with clay in the hollows between them, and occasionally by barren high banks of hard clay mixed with ** kunken," a term applied by the author to a peculiar sort of calcareous concretion, which he has not described in detail. The basis of the flat country seems to be sandstone of several varieties, but in general of a dull reddish hue ; the beds some- times rising into hills 300 or 400 feet in height. In several places all the buildings are formed of this reddish stone, and it colours all the water m the tanks. The sand appears to have been formed of the detritus of this rock. | . Within the flat country, north and west of the primary moun- tains, many salt lakes occur, one of which, that of Sambur, north-west of Jaypore, supplies nearly the whole of Upper India with salt; the waters becoming impregnated during the rain season to such a degree, that when the lake dries up, the salt 1s found crystallized in abundance under the mud which “it deposits. | mg ep Sd eiiis s e hills about Joudpoor, the most western point to which the author's course extended, occupy a considerable space to the north, west, and south of that place, aud are of very differ- ent appearance from those above described. They consist of claystone porphyry, which appears-to repose on the sandstone. In returning towards the south-east, “ dentated peaks” of quartz were seen about Pahlee, and the:eountry became more fertile ; and in crossing the ‘mountainous range already men- tioned, about 70 miles south of the neighbourhood of Ajmere, the rocks were still found to be principally quartz, the peaks of which rose to about 2000 to 2500 feet above the plains to the west. The plateau in general in this place being: about 700 to 1000 feet above the country immediately on the south. © © — About Odeypoor, the quartz lies upon ‘reddish granite, which continues for some miles to the east, and is succeeded by a low range of mins extending to 50 or 60 miles from Odeypoor ; after which no more primary substances were seen. ds of compact limestone occur just below this quartz range, and occupy apparently a tract of considerable extent in the vicinity of Neymutch. pc In this vicinity also, low hills, like artificial mounds, are Observed ; the commencement of the extensive basaltic district 1822s]. ;/ Geological. Society. 237° already: mentioned, which,in its progress to the south, rises into numerous. summits of) remarkable. structure: and | appearance. The upper part. of the heights is generally. perpendicular, with a rapid. slope | beneath; and the! faces-of the hills which, in some instances, rise to the height of 1500 feet, are divided by parallel: and horizontal beds of basalt alternating with amygdaloid, which abounds in zeolites Ione place; aboutt or 16 such beds were distinctly observable. A small hill near the bank,of the Nurbuddah is crowned with basaltic columns, and ‘less distinct appearances of the same kind were seen im other; places. In one case; the basaltic rock was traversed by a dyke of yey compact texture, resembling jn emen The immediate bed of the Nurbuddah consists of basalt, but in the. valley to the,north of the river, a granitic compound, Gami and: clay: slate, were. found 2n. situ ; the last 1 in. vertical strata ranging about NW. and SE. ~ Phetown of Baug, ata short distance from.the- river, is built on horizontal beds of sandstone, and the route, for sixGr eight. miles, was over rocks of the; same kind, of various shades of colour, red, yellow, and white, ; disposed in strata... In.severaljof the hills, a.bed of compact, yellowish-grey limestone, containing: caves; was observed above the sandstone, and’ immediately’ beneath: the soil, resembling the limestone of N eymutch, already: mentioned, about 140 miles to the north. = -The trap range, south’ of the Nurbuddah, is of bolder features, but of the same materials’ and’ sttuctute with’ that above: . the C'ündéish, a low tract surrounded onall sides by mountains ; die the Brace ance amd pou Medicom 2i the hieu in i P d t ee ge £ icis forms of. which have treqvently aitincted the observation. of'travellers. |... Feb. 1.—The Annal ‘General Meeting was held; witét the following) members: were tet —' of the "— ‘for nh, ensuiigyear: <- 7. President —William Babin qm; MD: FRS. "Vite-Presidents.—Rev. Wi liam. Buckland, FRS: ; William. Haseldine Pepys, Esq. FRS.; Henr Warburton, Esq. FRS. ; and. William Hyde Wollaston, MD. FRS. Secretaries.—William: Henry, Filton, MD. FRS;; and. Mr. Thomas Webster. -- | Foreign Secretary. —Henry Heuland, Big. -Council.—Hon,. Henry, Grey: Bennet; MP, ERS. ; Ania: Aikin; Esq: FLS;; John. Racal MD. ERS. and-FLS.; ; Henry: James. Brooke, - ; FRS: and: FLS.; Daniel: Moore; zo FRAS. and FLS.; eorge Belias. Greenough, Esq. FRS..an FLS.; Major Thomas Colby, LLD. FRS., L. and E. ; Augustus 238 New Scientific Books. [Maren, Bozzi Granville, MD. FRS. and FES, ; Peter M. Roget, MD. FRS.; Thomas Smith, Esq. FRS: and FLS.; Charles Stokes, Esq. FRAS: and FLS.; and Philip Barker Webb, Esq... =: Mr. Thomas Webster, Keeper of the Museum, and Draughts= man. l ¿I yao BIHI Articte XVII — NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, We understand that the First Part of the Memoirs of the Astrono- mical Society of London will be ready for publication in a few weeks. ' Practical. Observations on Paralytic A liéctions, St. Vitus's Dance, &c. By W.V. Ward. e909 , | A System of Analytic Geometry. By the Rev. Dionysius Lardner, AM. of Dublin. | | T "Dod i JUST PUBLISHED, ` Ë H In The Theory and Practice of Gas-Lighting, in which is exhibited an ' Historical Sketch of the Rise ‘and’ Progress of the Science, and the ` Theories of Light, Combustion, and Formation of Coal; with Descrip-^ tions of the most approved Apparatus for generating, collecting, and distributing Coal Gas for illuminating Purposes. By T. S. Peckston, : of the Chartered Gas-Light and Coke Company's Establishment, Peter- street, Westminster, 8vo. With 14 Engravings of Gas Apparatus. Price 17. 1s. Boards. | bon ati | i Botanical Rambles, designed as an easy Introduction to the Science , of Botany. 12mo. 4s. [2 bise prey, Peters ag A Journal of popular Medicine, explaining the Nature, Causes, and ` Prevention, of Diseases, the immediate Management of Accidents, and the Means of preserving Health. By Charles Thomas Haden, Sur- geon to the Chelsea and Brompton Dispensary. 2 Vols. 8vo. 185. An Essay on the Symptoms and History of Diseases. By Marshall - Hall, MD. $8vo. 6s. ! ii. A The Principles of Medicine on the Plan of the Baconian Philosophy. : Vol. I. on Febrile and Inflammatory Diseases. By R. D. Hamilton. , 8vo. 9s. vati | A Description of the Island of St. Michael, comprising an Account ` of its Geological Structure; with Remarks. on the other Azores, or Western Islands. By John Webster, MD. Royal 8vo. 13s, fie Robisen’s System of Mechanical Philosophy. Edited by Dr. Brewster. 4 Vols. 8vo. With 50 Plates. 4. | | Works of the late John Playfair, Esq. with a Memoir of the Author. ` 4 Vols. 8vo. 2l. 12s. 6d. j A Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Descriptión of Hindos- ` tan, and the adjacent Country, from the most authentic printed Docu- ` ments deposited at the Board of Controul. By Walter Hamilton, Esq. . 2 Vols. 4to» With Maps. 44.145. 6d. j ERETT ete A DIEM, i 1892.] .. Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal: 239 AnrICLE XVIII. METEOROLOGICAL. TABLE. + eT a Tt. Batomerer,| ‘THERMOMETER, Hygr. “at 1822, Wind. | Max. } Min. |, Max. | Min. | Evap. |Rain.| 9 a.m. 1st Mon. Jan, 4jS --E|29:88|2974|. 44 :| 32 ¿< 11 a :2IN.- W|29:909974] 41 yf) 99 |. — 3S MWI29:9020:28 38 | 33 — 24 AN Ej29:96129:28| 739 33 -— 5 N 1301929906 38 | 81 S 6| N ]30:12/30:05| 38 28 — 7IN Wi30'21|30*05| 37 30 — | — Ç 8 N |30243021 41 35 — 9 N 130253024) 45 30 — 02 10N Wi|30:31]30:24| 45. 1:84 — 11N Wj30:3930:31| 47 39 — 12) W |30°:39|30°38| 47 Al. eu 13| W |30'38|30:34| 48 39 — 14|N. . WJ30:34/30*21| 47. |; 38 50. 15IN :Wi30'30130:24| 41 29 — © 16N Wij30':24/30:23| 37 24 — ; ? 171S | Wij30:4030:29| 44 30 -— | e. 738] ^W'.30:43]130-40| 43 :1 33 | — | 19}... W |30:4330:27|" A7. (541. po 20) W |3039,30:07| 49 | 30 | — IN ` W|30:5080300%48 TIS 22) W _.130:500:36 46 "|^ 39 — 23S W|30:335]3002| 46 | 41 = |= ) ^94 S8 WI30:0830':02 48 | 41 AQ’! 599 ERIE dest 25NN W|30:16/3008| 48 39 — 02). 926IN : WI30:38130:16 a7 | 96 | — i 27\N: . W|30:38/30:27|.. 44... 39 | — } 28| W 30'27/3027| 51... 32 — 29| W (30'41|30:24| 48 26 iie 30/N W/30'41/30-40|.. 47. |. 28 -—. e 31S. W!I30:40130:28] 54 36 30 30'50129-28| 54 94 1:29 |0:62 | The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. _ A dash denotes that. the result is included in the next following observation. — Mili: 240 Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal) -[MaAncu, 1899; Jl W erg A GOGAT ERP sod TAM ET — First Month. ly Em se. RE e. opinga Qe Peg white frost in the morning. 3. Overcast ini din igi edes Ts The, 7. A take snow! iu-:the'fosetioóh) 7859. Fined” 10: Foggy : calm, -- st. Ditto 12. ‘Foggy morning. 13, Fine. 14. Very fine day, 15. Mori “fine and clear : day, fine. 16, Very fine day. IT. Snowy moming : doudy day.” 9: ihing rnv day, fine, 19. Cloudy. 20. "Fine, ` oh Very ühe. 2% Foggy i vene 23, 34. Dizzy. 25. Cloudy. $6. Cloudy. 21, 98. eine - $9. Foggy msg: cloudy. 30, Fine. 3l. Fine. g Te 0° j i š [o0 ga 65 0:06 9 L*0 V I > an 1 861^ SS MoobiISQLW. Wis CO P — 1-08 T cM e cies He KUN — d sULEae. bose oe Yor om ABR ef Th HEOI oce W OW 1 1 : $0: OE DS). oN Loe Winds : Ny, NB, 14 851 sw, s sete) | ro “oo ff) w ads Mean height T m xi OF 1 LOW For the month. . IET Sek. QE RE BEN =: 80908 indus | for da uer petol nding dió 15th..... ihe ly, ; .. 99-556 For 12 days, ending the 9th (moon north). .. opti e . 29812 For 15 ayay ending e 24h (moon — QC... SON d x Gh i C6 i df e Q Thermometer: Mean height | T [. «b (yari 60:01 7 2-56 Hoer For 'the'month...... tate teewenes —— S! — iecit A bodies o^ 39985 For 30 days; the sun in Capritom . ML . -== 38950 Evaporation. .. eee eee ee ee eee) ueteres F 99in.- > i - » I Rain. KIA. * "959489299292. .24A8992994A—99929 A. Oe OO OV 9» OO! BR OO tee 0-62. I > » T — A "^ . i etr ) 5 4 e ° . - , E M T Laboratory, Stratford, Second Month, 99, 1899... ROHOWARD. ` ' ANNALS. PHILOSOPHY. APRIL, 1822. ARTICLE I. Answer to the Review of the Sixth Edition of Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry, in No. XXI. of the Journal of Science, Euratite; and the Arts, edited bv Mr. Brande. By the Author of that System. | | Tuovcnu this Review appeared about a year ago, circum- ‘stances, which itis needless to state, prevented me from examin- ing it till the month of February last. The accusations contained in it are of such a nature that I consider myself called upon to refute them ; end I have only to regret that my answer was not " drawn up immediately after the publication of the Review itself. c Common report has announced that the Review in question was written by Dr. Andrew Ure, of the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow ; and several circumstances induce me to give credit to that report. With Dr. Ure, however, I beg leave to disclaim any concern. I should consider it as a superfluous task to attempt any. vindication of myself from his aspersions. No publication of his can ever do me the smallest injury where the name of the author is known. . Mr. Brande being the acknowledged editor of the Journal of the Royal Institution, I am bound to consider the Review as containing his sentiments of me and my work.’ The fifth edition of my System of Chemistry was reviewed by him pretty much in the same manner as the present. I was urged at the time by several friends, for whose opinions I entertain the highest respect, to answer that attack. But after reading it over, the Review appeared to me to show so little knowledge of the sub- ject, that 1 thought it better to overlook it altogether, Had the New Series, vox. 11. R | 242 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to the Review of the [Apriu, reviewer of my sixth edition confined himself to sneers against my skill as a chemist, or my competence:to draw up a System of Chemistry, I should have considered it an useless undertak- ing to attempt the defende of a work, which has run through six editions, without any support whatever but its own merit ; which has been translated into most European languages ; which has, in some measure, stamped the character of every systematic treatise both in Britain and America, and even on the continent of Europe ; and which has been sanctioned by the almost unqua- lified approbation of the most eminent) chemists in Britain, France, and Germany. "° =" CREE But when Mr. Brande thinks proper to arraign my character as a man, and to accuse me of the basest and most profligate conduct ; it is no longer in my power to remain silent. Silence indeed in such a case could scarcely fail to be construed into an acknowledgment of guilt. But as my real conduct has been the very reverse of what Mr. Brande has stated it to be; as I have uniformly prided myself in the honesty, sincerity, and indepen- dence of my character; as I have been at considerable pains to give credit to whom credit was due; as I have uniformly, both in my System, and in the Annals of Philosophy, while I continued its Editor, given the merit of every Fett uso fact to the original discoverer of it, as far as my knowledge of the subject enabled me to go ; as I am not conscious of any wilful misrepresentation or twisting of facts to serve any particular purpose ; 1 should consider myself as guilty of a kind of felo de se, if I were not to step forward in the present case in my own vindication. © L owe it likewise to the bem of Glasgow, to which I have the honour to belong ; and to his Majesty, who bestowed on me the Professorship, which I fill, without any solicitation.on my part, to show the world that neither my abilities, my knowledge, my industry, nor my character, render me unworthy of that situatioa, or of the kind and munificent manner in on it was bestowed on me. | It is some consolation at least to think that Mr. Brande has placed me in very good company. An attack upon Berzelius pretty much in the same style as the recent uim against me, appeared in an early number of Brande’s Journal. In another number we have a tirade against Gay-Lussac, scarcely less flip- pant, and about as well founded. . The object seems to be to convince the public that all chemical knowledge is confined within the walls of the Royal Institution. I consider Mr. Brande's attack upon the College of Physicians, and upon the Universities of Oxford, "fected 46; and Glasgow, as connected with the same system. What renders these attacks more indecent and improper than they otherwise would be, is, that the Editor of the Journal has never had the benefit of a Univer- sity education, and seems quite ignorant of the systems fol- lowed in these seminaries. For instance, when he says that 1822.] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 243 chemistry is taught no where in Great Britain except in London and Edinburgh, he surely was not aware that the system of medical education is exactly the same in Glasgow as in Edin- burgh; that the professors in Glasgow are at fully as much pains, and that the number of medical students is increasing annually at a rapid rate... He cannot have been aware that the three last chemical professors in Edinburgh (Drs. Cullen, Black, and Hope), had previously filled the chemical chair in Glasgow; and that almost all the additions which these gentlemen made to the science were made while they occupied a place in our University. "The chemical course of lectures in Glasgow occu- pies six months, and the lectures are delivered on every day of the week, except Sunday. A separate hour is devoted to exa- mine the class, and even practical experimenting is not neg- lected. Will Mr. Brande pretend that an equally extensive course is given at the Royal Institution? The Review, which I am going to examine, is a most furious attack upon me from beginning to end, and denies ‘me all credit whatever as an author, an experimenter, or a chemist. It is made up of different kinds of accusations, which are mixed toge- ther with some ingenuity and address ; but which I shall make bold, notwithstanding the many witty sneers against my fond- ness for scholastic divisions, to consider and refute under three separate heads. 1. I am accused of being utterly incapable of writing English, and of being ignorant of the first principles of arrangement. 2. I have made many false, statements of facts partly to injure the reputation of Sir H. Davy, and partly to promote my own absurd and erroneous chemical opinions. 3. My book is stuffed with innumerable errors into which I have fallen from being unacquainted with the elements of the science of chemistry. ! i These are heavy charges indeed. But what opinion will my readers form of the candour and gentlemanly feelings of Mr. Brande, if 1 show that the Reviewer, in order to give a colour to his accusations, has had recourse to direct falsehood, to pitiful prevarication, and to the stale trick of raising into proofs of ig- norance what he must have been perfectly aware were errors of the press ? As my present object is not to make any attack upon Mr. Brande, but merely to vindicate myself, I shall pass over his introduction without animadversion ; though such is the ten- dency to inaccuracy and misrepresentation that even there we find both in abundance.when perfectly uncalled for. What can be more inaccurate than the statement that the French have been satisfied with a single elementary work on chemistry ; or that no controversy, or want of politeness, has existed in chemi- cal discussions for a number of years back? The pages of his own journal, not to go further, exhibit controversies of the most virulent kind; and gratuitous attacks upon the character and R2 244 Dr; Thomsow's Answer to the Review of the [Arnit, abilities of some of the first chemists of the age. But let us examine the accusations contained in the review with s minuteness. VN 4300 ol $i I. Arrangement and Style. I B ` Mir ble i _ I shall quote the passages of the Review which allude to my ino ep and style, and subjoin to each of them my remarks. ** We are at a loss to learn why a new edition has come forth: It was not vor etsy called for, and nothing but a decidedly superior work should have been tendered to the public.”— (Review, p. 126.) | "n. ! To this I answer that the book is not my property, and that the new edition was published not by me, but by the book- seller to whom it belongs. 'I was obliged by my agreement to correct the press, and nothing more; and in the present case, as the book was printed in London while I resided in Glasgow; even this task was but imperfectly accomplished. The new edition, I presume, was printed because the old had been sold. I am not aware that booksellers proceed in any other way. Indeed I had reason to know that the book was out of print, because several of my own students had informed me that they could not procure a copy. Why it was necessary that the new edition should be decidedly superior to the old, I do not per- ceive. Nor could any blame have been attached to me, though it had been printed verbatim from the fifth edition. But it is in reality decidedly superior ; because it contains all the additions which had been made to the science in the interval between the fwo editions, as far as they were known to me; and that my statements were ee: complete is evident from this, that neither Mr. Brande nor Dr. Ure, though they have both published books since my sixth edition appeared, have introduced a single topic, so far as I can observe, which I had not previously handled. What is the discovery which I have omitted to notice? The assertion of the Reviewers that it is ten years behind the present state of the science is remarkable only for its shameful false- hood. Nota single proof is advanced in support of it, except that I took no notice of the newly discovered connexion between electricity and magnetism. Now I was the first individual in Great Britain who made known Prof. Oersted's discovery. It En in the Annals of Philosophy for October, 1820. efore I became acquainted with this discovery, the whole of the sixth edition of my System was printed. Indeed, as the book was published in October, or soon after, Mr. Brande must have been aware of the absurdity of the accusation; and he must have been induced to bring 1t forward because he had no real omission to point out. "T | " ‘But had Í even omitted some of the minor discoveries, it would not have been very surprising ; nor, situated as I was, would the omission have been very culpable. I may, therefore, 1822.]. Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 245 take some credit to myself for the great pains which I took. to insert every novelty deserving of notice. To expect that I should write anew the whole book was very unreasonable. It would have been a task which I had no motive whatever for performing. I undertook merely to insert every thing which I considered as worthy. of notice in its proper place. The repeti- tions to which the Reviewer alludes are exceedingly trifling, and do not altogether amount to 10 pages. The assertion that the second volume is a repetition of the first is so palpably untrue, that the Reviewer must have been aware of its inaccuracy when he made it. The first volume consists of 580 pages ; the second of:722. Of these, there are 556 pages which treat of sub- stances not so much as mentioned, or even alluded to, in the first volume. -Now were the remaining 166 pages printed ver- batim from the first volume, it would not be true that the second volume, or even the greater part of it, is a repetition of the first. But the fact is, that not a single page of repetition is to be found in the book. M » What the Reviewer has thought proper to call repetition is, Í conceive, attended with considerable advantage to the reader. In the first volume I give in a few lines the essential characters of the different mineral acids and bases; while, in the second volume, these bodies are treated. of in detail, and their properties and history given at length. I find great advantages resulting from this plan of teaching the. science ; and should be happy .to have an opportunity of comparing the progress of some of my own students with those of Mr. Brande. f » We proceed to the second division of the first book of his system, comprehending ponderable bodies, which are handled in a very heavy style.” —(Review, p. 140.) * By the aid of many. italics, the Doctor tries in vain to give emphasis ‘to his favourite mode of writing, which, from its extreme rarefaction of ideas, might be called the vacuous."— (Ibid. p. 129.) ril | t » ©The whole information ‘contained in his-four papers on the specific gravities of the gases and the true weights of the atoms might have been easily conveyed in one-twentieth of the com- pass." —(Ibid. p. 125.) | | im l —'The want of discernment evinced in these attacks upon my style occasioned some surprise at first. I may be very often accused of great,carelessness.of style; but never, unless 1 deceive myself egregiously, either of want of energy or diffuse- ness. Indeed the Ai properties of my style are just the opposite of diffuseness.. Iam remarkably concise, though I ‘hope always clear, and generally energetic. Nothing indeed can constitute a greater contrast than my mode of writing, and that .of Mr. Brande. » If he be a good writer on scientific subjects, it ‘follows as a necessary consequence that I am a bad one.) ot refer the reader to his History of Chemistry in the Supplement 246 Dr. Thomson s Answer to the Review of the [APRIL] ta the Encyclopedia Britannica, to his article Chemistry in the same book, to some of his prefaces in the Royal Institution Journal. In point of diffuseness, want of energy, and bad taste, these dissertations constitute a perfect contrast to every thing which ever flowed from my pen. Indeed were 1 disposed to criticise style, nothing would be easier than to retaliate upon Mr. Brande. As to the nature of my own style I am very willing to let it rest upon the four papers which the Reviewer has stigmatized in the passage just quoted. These papers, with which the Re- viewer in fact had nothing to do, occupy 67 pages of the Annals y orat They contain the details of my experiments to termine the specific gravity of 21 gases, and the atomic weights of 13 important bodies. I had to discuss the experi- ments of preceding writers, and to endeavour to point. out the causes of the difference between their results and mine. Thus every individual substance occupies, at an average, almost exactly two pages. All these experiments were made with..à degree of care and attention, which, L confidently affirm, has never been surpassed. In opposition to the Reviewer's: state- ment, that * there is scarcely a single determination of Dr. Thomson’s on any chemical subject of difficulty, during the last eight years, wish has not been reversed," (p. 122.) I venture to assert that the determinations in these four papers, and in several more since published, will withstand all the attacks, of Mr. Brande, however violent and long continued they may bes that they belong to one of the most difficult and most ur ru uq parts of chemistry; that they are essential to the very founda- tion of the science; and that they have established the atomic theory upon a foundation which cannot be shaken. I ** Over all the British compilers, Dr. Thomson claims prece- dence. Some of the others are content to transcribe from his collection, but he seldom or never condescends to pay any of his brother compilers a similar compliment. Possessing the minute patience of an index framer ratherthan the enlarged capacity of asystematist, he has contrived to bring together a great number of chemical facts, with copious references, convenient to the student, and imposing on the general reader; but in our opinion not entitling his work to be called a System of Chemistry."— (Review,p.121. '- coy | The inference, I presume, which the Reviewer wishes to be drawn is, that Mr. Brande's little elementary work, or his article Chemistry in the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, is entitled to be called a System of Chemistry; and that the same name may be bestowed upon the new edition of Nicholson's | oirin Dictionary. : jasn a The attack upon my arrangement awakened my curiosity, and induced me to turn to Mr. Brande’s article Chemistry in ` the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica. As I expected 1822:) Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 247 something very superior, the reader may judge of my surprise when I hayan iid adopted the rmt a6 sons aD | Part I.—Attraction, Heat, Electricity. .. H.— Radiant Matter. | III. —Undecompounded- Bodies. | 1. Acidifying Supporters of Combustion. . 2. Acidifiable Combustibles. n ei 3. Metals. | IV.—Vegetable Chemistry. 5 V —AÀnimmal Chemistry. ; | | bino»: Would not the author of such an arrangement have: acted more wisely, if he had not directed the attention of the public to arrangement at all? Do not parts first and second clash with each other? Does not the first part include the second? The division of the simple bodies is obviously my old one. ~ The very terms have been borrowed from me. I abandoned.it, because the recent discoveries, for which we are chiefly indebted to Sir H. Davy, have broken down the line of distinction between the simple acidifiable combustibles and the metals: for example, arsenic burns as readily, and at as low a temperature, as charcoal itself. It is acidifiable too; for arsenic acid 1s: à powerful acid, and neutralizes the bases as completely as any acid whatever. What can be more preposterous than to class arsenic and tellurium; bodies which enter into gaseous compounds with hydrogen (precisely as phosphorus, sulphur, and selenium; do), with a set of bodies which enter into no gaseous compounds whatever? He who does not perceive that arsenic and tellurium have a much closer resemblance to sulphur and selenium than» to any metal, may indeed amuse the ladies and gentlemen -whe attend the Royal Institution; but is not likely to make any arrangement calculated for the improvement of the science. My arrangement of the simple bodies was not made without the most careful reflection. If I erred, I must acknowledge that my error was not the effect of haste. Plausible objections may indeed be made to several parts of this arrangement. These objections I examined with all the care of which I was capable; before the fifth edition of my System was put to the press. J am still of opinion, that it is upon the whole the best of which. the science m its present state is susceptible. I have divided. the simple bodies, as the reader will find by consulting my System, into cm sets, viz. siue ROLE 1. Supporters. ido Bidiriliosti bli ..9. Combustibles. | | The supporters are three, oxygen, chlorine, and iodine.: To these I have added a fourth, fluorine, which is still only: conjece tural. No doubt chlorine and iodine might. be placed among the incombustibles, as has been done by the French chemists ;, but I think that, upon the whole, these bodies bear a much closer | 248 Dr. Thonison’s Answer to the Review ofthe [Arnir, resemblance to oxygen than to sulphur. At any rate Mr. Brande has no right to find fault with this part of my age ment since he has followed it himself. ` The only simple incombustible known is azote. ` The Reviewer is very facetious at my stupidity in believing azote to be incom- bustible.. And I shall willingly come over to his opinion as soon as he shows me that he can set it on fire. What pitiful quibbling is he guilty of in order to make out the combustibility of this substance !' Were it really combustible, no fire could be kindled without exploding and destroying the whole: air of the atmosphere. The very circumstance that atmospheric air has continued unaltered , notwithstanding the infinite number of fires which have been burning for these six thousand years, I hold to be a decisive proof that azote is incombustible. I have given an explanation of what I mean by combustion, in my Sys» tem, and the meening which I affix to it coincides with the usual acceptation of the word. If the Reviewer chooses to take the word in a different sense, what have I to do with that? He ht with just as much propriety substitute the word heavy for Hole, and then affirm that hydrogen gas is the heaviest body i in nature, and ridicule me for describine 1t as light. "The nature of the acids formed by the union of azote end oxygen is quite different from that of those formed when oxygen and combustible bodies unite. They approach more nearly to: the acids formed by the union of oxygen with chlorine and: iodine. indeed azote may be considered as approaching as near the supporters of combustion as it does the' combustibles... But: it coincides with neither, and must, therefore, in the —— state of our knowledge, stand by itself. | 1 The simple combustibles I have divided into three sets 5 namely, | 1. Acidifiable Combustibles. 2. Alkalifiable Combustibles. <3. Intermediate Combustibles. L The bodies constituting the first set are converted into acids when they combine with some supporter of combustion. "They aré all capable of entering into the composition of some gas or other; while none of the ‘other two sets enter inte - pump compound at all. «© I have been blamed by some for placing arsenic andl telluriunt among the acidifiable combustibles; but my reasons appear valid. As for osmium, I was uncertain where to lace it, and consulted Dr. Wollaston, whether he thought it likely that it belonged to the first or second set. It was his advice that. led me to place it where itstands. The position is only provisional, till a set of experiments be made to determine its wet situation; of which at present we know nothing. ^^ Mart "In his Review of my fifth edition, Mr. Brande jddiouted me for considering silica as an acid. As this ridicule has not been 1822.] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry... 249 ., repeated in the new review, we may presume that he has seen. the propriety of the arrangement, | Indeed this improvement was | not made by me; but by. Mr. Smithson and Professor Berzelius. I was satisfied jof its justice by their arguments; and the number - of silicates which I. have described in my sixth edition cannot, I think, leave any doubt on the subject in the mind of any well informed chemist. | BITS Joa S1 | | I have been blamed for not classing chromium, molybdenum, ` tungsten, aud columbium, with the acidifiable combustibles. My reason for leaving them out was that they do not enter into | any gaseous compounds, and that they decidedly belong to the class of intermediaté combustibles. | E The intermediate combustibles are those bodies which have the property of forming both bases and acids when they unite with’ oxygen. In one proportion, they form compounds capable of uniting with acids, and, therefore, perform the function of alkalies. | In another proportion, they form compounds capable’ of uniting with alkalies, and, therefore, perform the function” of acids: Hence they cannot with propriety be classed either with the acidifiable or alkalifiable combustibles, but are interme- diate between both. It is not unlikely that some bodies may: deserve a place in this class which I have ranked with the alka- lifiable combustibles. Thus manganese seems capable’ of form- ing an alkali when united to a minimum of oxygen, and an acid: when united to a maximum. . My reason for leaving it in its old’ place was a wish to verify the recent experiments respecting raanganesic acid; and this I have not yet found leisureto do. ^ » These remarks will supersede the necessity of noticing parti- cularly the vast mass of abuse which the Reviewer has contrived to heap together. The first volume of course contains the wholé of my arrangement, because it contains the whole of the simple bodies. The science is not yet far enough advanced, to admit the compound bodies to be systematically arranged. I have adopted the plan which appears to me most convenient for the student; but other methods might be adopted, and in fact have been adopted by others. | ¿The sneers in which the Reviewer so frequently. indulges respecting my general observations are most uncandid. Every one of the observations to which he alludes. was rigidly correct when. I first. wrote. it... Subsequent discoveries have, in some cases, introduced one or two. exceptions. These I have. not always*had)it in. my power to notice. I was anxious to: swell the book as little as possible, and did not scruple to pass over the few existing exceptions ; because an attentive-reader of the first volume was enabled without difficulty to state them for him- self... 1.am not: willing to abandon the character for precision; which. I have long enjoyed, though the Reviewer has thought proper'to call it in question : on the contrary, 1 flatter. myself that L possess.it inno common degree. If some of my earlier 250: Dr, Thomson's Answer to the Review of the [(Arrr1; experiments were deficient in correctness, the reason was, that minute accuracy in chemical analyses did not at thattime appear to me.an object of ven Q importance. The knowledge of the atomic theory has altered my views in this respect. | All my recent experiments have been made with the most scrupulous. attention, and the results which I have given in seven different apers on the specific gravity of gases, and the atomic weights of sott are as near the truth, as it was possible for me. to go with. the apparatus which I employed. : T . Let not this statement be warped (as the Reviewer. has done) into an insinuation that I lay claim to. any superiority in experimental dexterity. So far from, this, L consider the accuracy of my results to be in reality owing to my want of dexterity; for it obliged me to look out for à method in which no dexterity was required. There is little difficulty. in procuring the substances to be experimented on, pure. There is little difficulty in weighing the quantity wanted, true to the hundredth part of a grain; in dissolving it in distilled water; and in mixing two such solutions together. Such is the whole process. Any person, however little dexterity he may possess, will succeed in such experiments, if he be at the requi- site po For example, I weigh 11 grains of sulphate. of potash, and 13:25 grains of chloride of barium; dissolve each respectively in distilled water, and mix the solutions. . After the sulphate of barytes has subsided, I test the clear supernatant liquid by mixing a little of it first with muriate of barytes, and next with sulphate of soda. Not the least. opalescence is pro- duced by either. Hence I conclude that the liquid contains no sensible quantity either -of sulphuric acid or of barytes. This experiment, simple as it is, determines the composition of sul- phate of barytes to be: ro vedo Sulphuric acid ..... egi, ri lags’ 5:0 ZEN a a o'r tine be ibia BO 29. | TETS - And demonstrates that 5 and 9:75 respectively represent the atomic weight of sulphuric acid and barytes. ^ MeFRIT The Reviewer asks with a sneer (Review, p. 124), whether the preceding experiments of Berzelius, Wollaston; &c. are to be considered as good for nothing, and whether they are to be superseded by mine. I beg leave to ask in my turn whether the experiments of Bergman, Wenzel, Kirwan, and Richter; were good for nothing, and whether they are'to be supersedea by those of Berzelius, Wollaston, &c.* "The object of every experimenter is. to discover the truth; but, from the imperfect nature of his apparatus, he only makes an approximation. His result serves his. successors as a point from which they are enabled to set out; and if they be at the requisite pains, the / LI ` 18929.] | Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 25l labours of their predecessor will almost always enable them to © approach somewhat nearer the truth than he did. To) the labours of Berzelius I have always acknowledged myself greatly: indebted. “They are (all things considered) surprisingly accu- rate; nor should I have been able in many cases to have obtained. good results without their assistance. If I have come nearer the truth than he has done, it was only because I was enabled to profit. by his experiments. | As for Dr. Wollaston, the introduction of his name is most uncandid.. His scale of chemical, equivalents was constructed not from his own experiments, but from those of others. He examined them with his usual sagacity, and the numbers which. he pitched upon approach in general very near the truth. His paper contains only a single experimental result of his own; namely, the composition of saltpetre; by which he determined the equivalent for nitric acid and azote. Now the fact is, that I have adopted almost the very atomic weights of these bodies which he had previously given. My obligation to him for these numbers had been distinctly stated in my former papers ; conse- qe I had no occasion to allude to the subject again. sides, im my paper on the specific gravity of the gases, I deduced the atomic weights of azote and its compounds in. a different way; but in a way which I consider as very. satis- factory. As a specimen of the uncandid way in which my observations have been represented by the Reviewer, I may notice the ridi- cule which he throws on my statement, that acids are compounds of a supporter and combustible or incombustible. Now I ask, is not this observation true with a very few exceptions? We are: at. present acquainted with 50 acids to which it applies correctly. There are two acids, the chloric and ?odic, which are composed: each of two supporters of combustion. In these two acids, I consider the chlorine xi iodine to act precisely the part which azote does in nitric acid. This is the view which the French chemists have. taken, and it has induced them to place both chlorine and iodine among the combustibles. I have given my reasons for preferring my own arrangement ; but I admit that in. these acids the chlorine and iodine act the part. of simple incom~ bustibles, Ido not, therefore, regard their existence as an exception. to the general law, but as proving that chlorine and. iodine may be considered under two points of view, either as supporters of combustion, or incombustibles. It is this double capacity of these- bodies that constitutes the great distinction between them and oxygen. There is another set of gaseous bodies capable of uniting with bases, and often on that account considered as acids. These are the compounds of hydrogen with sulphur, selenium, and. tellurium. Now these bodies | have expressly separated in. my System. Whether my reasons for this separation be conclusive, 252 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Review ofthe [A niy; 1 shall not at present inquire ; but it must be obvious to every one that if these three bodies be excluded, my general observa- tions are precise. DU LI NEM EET -I think it unnecessary to notice or refute the numerous:and. sweeping attacks upon several-of my chapters ; because they: sufficiently refute themselves. For example, my account of combustion is said to be absolute verbiage. 1 have only to say; that I have given the best account of it which I could; and upon looking into the writings of Mr. Brande upon tlie same. subject, Ë cannot find that they contain more, or indeed nearly: so much information, as mine. I have given an historical view of the different opinions respecting combustion, which have been successively adopted by chemists. And whatever Mr. Brande may think on the subject, I-must be allowed to retain my opinion that these historical details constitute some of the most instruc- tive, as well as entertaining articles ; and that they are very-well calculated to rectify our own views. Had this gentleman made himself better acquainted with the history of the science, he. would have avoided several awkward mistakes into which he has fallen. bu TT - The Reviewer panegyrizes Sir H. Davy’s researches on flame. I agree with him in opinion that the experiments contained in that paper, like all the other experimental researches of that gentleman, are extremely valuable. They are characterized by that mixture of invention and dexterity which so eminently: dis- tinguish all his productions, and which have deservedly raised him to so high a rank among modern chemists. ` But it would be rather singular if these experiments should be considered as à reason for passing by in silence all the laborious investigations of so many chemists, who have preceded Davy, and who have accumulated a much larger collection of facts than it was possi- ble for him to do. I am not aware of any new general principle deduced by Davy from his experiments, which ought to alter our previous opinions respecting combustion ; and for my own: part I must confess that after all that has.been written on the subject by Berzelius, Davy, and even Mr. Brande, the theory of combustion is still a desideratum. I have advanced a conjec- ture on the subject, which the present state of our knowledge enables us neither to confirm nor refute. . The Reviewer ves ridicule this conjecture if he pleases; but this is à task which he will find much easier than to refute it. | Qi II. False Statements of Facts. | lo yiawsqno I come now to what I consider as by far the most important part of the Review ; because it is a direct attack upon my cha- racter. The Reviewer has the effrontery to affirm, that 1 have mis-stated various facts on purpose, in order to gratify certam malignant passions of my own, and to injure certain individuals of whose reputation I was meanly jealous. After Mr. Brande’s 1822.] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 253 attacks upon Berzelius and Gay-Lussac,' which, if: they meant any thing, went to accuse them of similar: conduct, 1 had no reason to be surprised. at his advancing such: an accusation against me. But this does not preclude the necessity on my part of vindicating my character. ppt sd oe nuum _ “ Dr. Thomson's attacks on the exalted’ reputation. of the President of the Royal Society have long excited our surprise and indignation, and as we observe them still persevered in, and still unanswered, we shall use our humble endeavours to expose theirinjustice and futility."—(Review, p. 122.) 2 This impudent assertion the assertor knew to be. false when he made it, and has betrayed his knowledge in the very review in which it is contained. It is false that I have ever made any attack either on the character or reputation of Sir H. Davy. On the contrary, I have always been in the habit of reckoning him among the number of my friends. ‘I have always spoken of his talents and. of his labours with that respect which I felt for them, and have always been proud to think that his discoveries have reflected a lustre upon the country in which they originated. As an Editor of a journal, and as a chemical writer, L have laid it down as a rule, to be impartial; and never to allow my private feelings, whatever they were, to influence my judgment. <: This conduct, in which Í mean to persist, and in which I shall always glory, has drawn upon me, it. seems, the formidable resentment of Mr. Brande, _ who has magnanimously volunteered to expose it to the obloquy of: the scientific world. The accusations are seven in number. I shall examine them one by one. The reader will observe that these- accusations, which fill a considerable portion of the Review, have nothing to do with the merits of my System of Chemistry. They have been pulled in head and shoulders by the Reviewer as topics on which he thought that he could descant with some pathos and effect, I feel obliged. to him for his accusations. Satisfied that my conduct as an author and an editor will bear the strictest scrutiny, and that these accusations will only tend to raise my character instead of injuring it, I shall proceed to exaniime the validity of each. oul» 1 have stated that.“ Sir H. Davy has embraced the Dalto- nian theory with some modifications and alterations of terms; but his notions are not quite so perspicuous as those of Mr. Dalton, and they do not appear to me so agreeable to the prin- ciples of sound philosophy."— (Annals of Philosophy, ii. 33.) — 1 cannot for my part conceive any thing more innocent than this passage, and am unable to discover the attack upon Davy, which it seems lies concealed in it...I was warranted in saying: that Davy had: embraced the principles of Dalton, because 1 knew it tobe the fact. | Both ,Dr.: Wollaston and Sir H. Davy will recollect a long.conversation which we had on the subject, after ihingidtalerRogalafieciety, Club in the summer of 1807. 254 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Review of the [Apnixr, ‘Both Dr. Wollaston and myself attempted in vain ‘to convince Davy that the doctrine of definite proportions was not a chi- mera. What led ied afterwards to embrace the doctrine, I need not here state, though I am acquainted with the whole history. If Mr. Brande has any curiosity on the subject, either Dr. Wollaston or Mr. Davies Gilbert can inform him of the par- ticulars. ç My statement then is the mere annunciation of a matter of fact without any intention whatever of hurting the feelings of any one. I knew from Davy himself that he had no idea what- ever of definite proportions till Mr. Dalton had made known the outlines of his theory. Even five years after that period, Da had not embraced it; and I was aware of the influence whic ‘had atlast induced him to adopt it. With the knowledge of all these facts should I have acted honestly, if I had not stated that the atomic theory originated with Dalton. Surely Sir H. Davy’s reputation, and his character as a chemist, stand sufficiently high to rénder it unnecessary for him to seek to bolster up his repu- tation by laying claim to the discoveries of others. Such con- ‘duct may be left for chemists like Mr. Brande, who, not being in the way of adding much of their own to the stock of science, might have some excuse for attempting to pilfer from their richer neighbours. But Sir H. Davy, who stands at the very top of the list of British discoverers ; whose reputation is so high, and so deservedly high ; whose inventive faculties are inexhaus- tible, has no occasion for such pitiful conduct. So far from supposing that I was doing him an injury by assigning the honour of the atomic theory to him who was really entitled toit, I never once doubted that he would himself admit the truth of my statement; and feel gratified for my supplying an omission which he himself on reflection must have wished he had not made —] mean the omission on his part of stating the origin of his notions on the subject. | ish When I stated that Davy's explanation of the atomic theory was not so perspicuous as that of Dalton, I meant merely that 1 did not understand it so well. vns 2. But “ the full force of my hostility to Davy was exerted,” it seems, “in depreciating the miners’ safety lamp."—(Review, . 122.) | T Now I deny that I ever depreciated it. I did indeed, when I heard Davy's account of his first lamp read to the Royal Society, express p opinion in my Journal that it could not be used with safety. Whether this opinion was well or ill founded, I do not know. Perhaps it may have been ill founded. But as I honest believed at the time that the lamp was hazardous, I think that’ was bound.to state my reasons for this opinion to the public. The lives of a great number of individuals were at stake. It was, therefore, important to point out every conceivable objec- tion. lt was Davy’s business to examine these objections; to - 1822:] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 256 refute them if they were futile, and to benefit.by them if well founded. .. n » So far from supposing that I was.injuring Davy, or endeavour- ing to detract from his merits, I conceived that I was doing him a service; and most persons in his situation would have been of the same opinion. How far my objections were well founded, it is not for me to say; but almost immediately afterwards Davy himself rejected his first lamp, and invented another, much superior to it in — respect. | »3onob Against this new lamp, I never in the Annals of Philosophy stated a single objection of my own, nor, as far as 1 recollect, of any other person. It is true indeed that a furious contro- versy respecting the person who had the merit of first in- venting the miner's safety lamp, immediately arose, and va- rious papers, written by the parties, were admitted into my journal. I acted with the utmost impartiality: as a proof of this, I may state that I received abundance of anonymous letters. accusing me of partiality to Davy, to Stevenson, and to Clanny. Í saw very early that the whole had become a party question, and that motives quite different from a regard to truth animated the disputants. ‘The papers were inserted without any comment on my part; and as soon as I saw that they contained nothing but mutual recriminations, I stopped them altogether. One of the last, if not the very last, inserted was by Mr. Children. 1 happened to be in Cornwall when this paper was sent to my pub- lisher. -I had left materials for two successive numbers. The consequence was that Mr. Children's paper could not be inserted till after my return to London. When I reached home I found a letter from that gentleman complaining that his paper had been withheld from the public, and written in a style very different from what is usually to be found in a letter from one gentleman to another. Of this letter I took no notice. It gave me infor- mation for the first time, that Davy and his friends thought that I was hostile to.hislamp. | : My conduct then with regard to this controversy was fair and honourable. 1 was actuated by no hostility to Davy; but thought myself obliged to deal exactly the same justice to all claimants. That I discharged my duty as an editor with the most rigid impartiality appears from this, that all the controver- sialists accused me of partiality to their adversaries. 3. l am accused of garbling and disfiguring Davy's researches on flame. * The whole spirit of the original memoir has been dissipated. What remains is a mere caput mortuum, calculated to convey the most inadequate ideas of Sir H. Davy's discove- den" devien; p. 131.) | What answer can be given to this impudent assertion ? To this paper of Davy I have devoted three-pages, a greater space than is occupied by the account of potassium, or of the compo- . sition of muriatic acid, or indeed any topic discussed in the 256 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Reviewof the (APRIL, System. Had I allowed three, pages to every valuable which I had occasion to notice, my System would have exte to 100 instead of 4 volumes. “The object, which I had in view was to draw a comprehensive and distinct outline, and to leave thestudent to fill up the minute details by consulting the original papers, to which l always refer. I have given, I conceive, all the important additions to our knowledge of flame contained in Davy’s paper. Had any thing been omitted, there can be no doubt that our Reviewer would have specified it.. Since he has confined himself to general abuse, I may take it for granted that he had no particular omission to point out...» ino Dotyge 4. The fourth accusation is so very uncandid that I was sur- prised to meet with it even in this Review, virulent, and hostile, and malignant, as it is.. In my short chapter on Electricity, which, occupies only 10 pages, I state that in 1803, Berzelius and Hisinger made a capital discovery respecting the action of the galvanic battery in decomposing bodies. They found that oxygen and acids accumulate round the. positive pole ; while hydrogen, alkalies, earths, and metals, accumulate round. the negative pole. Acids and bases may be made to pass through a considerable column of water, and even to cross each other, in order to accumulate round the poles to which they are respec- tively attracted. In the concluding paragraph. I méntion. that Sir H. Davy took up the subject where Berzelius and. Hisinger laid it down. His celebrated dissertation contains merely a veri- fication of the law discovered by Berzelius and Hisinger, [then state his subsequent steps and discoveries.—(System, i. 171.).. On this statement of mine, the Reviewer descants in fourlong pages, and affirms in direct terms that the law in question was not discovered by Berzelius and Hisinger, but by Sir H. Davy. To this IL answer, that I have quoted the very words of. their paper... It was published in 1803 in German and French, and in 1806 im. Swedish. It was never translated into English ; but Davy quotes it in his celebrated lecture, and, therefore, was acquainted with it. My statement being true, I was bound. as an. honest man to make it; nor do I see that it takes in the least from the value of Davy’s paper. The discovery of Berzelius and Hisinger remained neglected and unproductive, and might have so.continued till the present day, had not Davy taken up the sub- ject. where they laid. it down; and by his genius and industry, aided by a more fortunate situation, laid it open to,all the world; and. had he not by his subsequent discoveries, awakened the attention of chemists to its great importance as an instrument of analysis. | ; The Reviewer mixes these unjust remarks. with accusations gainst me for passing over Davy's electrical. discoveries so slightly as I have done. Had he been candid enough to quote the two concluding sentences of my chapter, the true motive of my conduct would have appeared, and his animadversions would 1822.) | Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 257 have been spared. ‘These two ‘sentences are as follows: “These and many other topics will find their place in anothér work, which I intend to publish hereafter, on Electricity and Galvanism. In the present work, I think, they would be impro- perly introduced, as they would divert our attention too long from the proper phenomena of Chemistry."— (System, i. 172.) ^ This work, for which I have made considerable preparations, would have appeared before this time, had my professional duties, which are very laborious, left me sufficient time to arrange it for the press. When it appears, our Reviewer will have another opportunity of displaying his talents for abuse. adir MN 6,1 am accused of having ascribed the first accurate experi- ments on chlorine to Gay-Lussac and Thenard; though I was well aware that they had been made by Davy. ` AN eos - tis somewhat singular, and shows clearly the motives by which this writer was actuated, that his own statement proves to a demonstration that my account is correct. To be satisfied of this, the reader has only to turn his attention to the dates of the papers respectively published. : | Vi On the 15th of December, 1808, a paper was begun to be read to the Royal Society, by Sir H. Davy, entitled, ** An Account of some new Analytical Researches on the Nature of certain = Bodies." The reading of this paper occupied two evenings. In it Davy quotes repeatedly a number of the Moniteur for the 27th May, 1808, which contained an abstract of the experiments of Gay-Lussac and Thenard. He even mentions some of their attempts to decompose chlorine; though the most important of their experiments on muriatic acid and chlorine could not have been in that Moniteur, as they were not read to: the Institute till the 27th February, 1809. / Now the eighth section ^f this paper contains Davy's researches and opiaions concerning muriatic acid before he was aware of the experiments of Gay-Lussac and Thenard. He made various attempts to decompose muriatic acid without suc- ceeding; and concluded from his experiments that muriatic acid gas, when as dry as it could be made, contained the third of its weight of water. After relating many attempts which he had made to decompose muriatic acid, and which, though unsuccessful, exhibited many curious and highly’ important results, he concludes in the following manner, which the Reviewer has misquoted : oe PUN | _“ There is, however, much reason for supposing that in the singular phenomena of inflammation and detonation that have been described, the muriatic acid cannot have been entirely passive ; andit does not seem unfair to infer, that the transfer of its oxygen, and the production of a novel substance, are con- nected with such effects, and that the highly’ inflammable nature of the new compounds partly depends upon this circum- New Series, voL. 111. S | 398 — Dr omen Anwer ta the Renee ofthe. [Appapi stance. I am still pursuing the inquiry, and I shall not fail | ine Ci VAT tp communicate to the Society such result: as may appear worthy of their attention” © 5.7. 00 There can be no doubt, from. all that appears in this paper, that in the month of January, 1809, Davy was of opinion. that muriatic acid is composed of oxygen and a combustible basis. The experiments of Gay-Lussac and Thenard were read to. the Institute on the 27th of February, 1809. An abstract of the was published in the second volume of the Memoires haber during the summer of 1809. Gay-Lussac and Thenard showed that muriatic acid cannot be obtained from chlorine except by means of hydrogen, or some substance containing it. ; They conclude their experiments in the following manner; U * Le gaz muriatique oxigené n'est pas, en effet, décomposé le charbon; et on pourroit, d’apres, ce fait et ceux qui sont rapportés dans ce Memoire, supposer que ce gaz est un corps simple.. Les phénoménes qu'il présente s'expliquent assez bien dans cette hypothése ; nous ne chercherons point cependant àla défendre; parce qu'il nous semble, qu'ils s'expliquent encore mieux sen regardant l'acide muriatique oxigóné comme un corps ; š composé.”—(Mem. d'Arcueil, 11; 357.) . How was it possible after reading thesé two papers to avoid saying that the first great addition.to our knowledge of chlorine was made by Gay-Lussac and, Thenard? Davy attempted to decompose, muriatic; acid, but did not succeed. The French chemists showed that.oxygen could not be extracted from chlo- rne. by any method whatever, and they state in explicit terms that, it might be considered as a simple body... |... s a Davy's next paper, entitled ** Researches on the Oxymuriati Acid, its Nature, and Combinations,” was read on the, 12th oÍ July, 1810... es introduction to this paper he gives an histo- rical. detail of what had been done respecting the oxymuriatic acid, mentions the paper of Gay-Lussac and Thenard as already published, and states the curious nature.of the experiments con- tained in it. It as clear then to a demonstration, that the expe» zunents of these gentlemen were generally known before Day suggested his opinion that chlorine is a simple body. This is all that [ state. in my System, and I never so much as dreamed that ` ay, person either would or could call the accuracy of the state- , ment in question. PM ` g^". . Davy, in the paper just mentioned, and in another read to the Royal Society on the 15th. November, 1810, details the experi- ments. which he had made to see whether chlorine gas could be decomposed, shows that they were all unsuccessful, and oM we have no evidence whatever that it is. a compound. Hence he deduces that, in the present state of our knowledge, we must consider it as: an undecompounded substance, The. present theory then, respecting chlorine and muriatic acid, is owing to the 18929] -Sith Edition of his System of Chemistry: 259 sagacity of Davy.) This I have stated in my System in the very strongest terms, and have given Davy all that credit to which, in my opinion, he is fully entitled... -4v7 .) mi As But | must now draw the reader's attention to.another parti- cular, because it/shows that this malignant writer was conscious of the inaccuracy and falsehood of his statements, and that;he drew them up with no other view than to make up the appearance of čase; by jumbling together the most monstrous and incon- sistent, falsehoods. In my account. of the Improvements..in Physical Science during the Year 1815, inserted in, the first number of the seventh volume. of the Annals, of Philosophy, Y notice, (p. 27) the efforts. of the French chemists | to. depri Davy of the honour of this discovery, and show their futility. iod absurdity...» These. remarks. are. terminated by the: following observations :. “ If -Gay-Lussac always maintained it, as he informs us; but: was prevented. from publicly embracing it by the authority of Berthollet, we may pity his pusillanimity, but.can- not on. that account admit his claim as the first propagator of a theory;which he publicly opposed.” (P.28;) "The commentary on this passage by the Reviewer is as follows: “ Since that period, however, Dr. Thomson has setup as) the autocrat. of chemistry, assigning to each of his contemporaries the rank ihe ought to occupy with despotic decision. |. Of Gay-Lussac. he Says, * we may pity his pusillanimity.’ "—(Review, -pa 123;) Had the Reviewer quoted the passage fairly, the absurdity of this tirade would not only have been obvious to every reader; but it would have appeared (contrary to his. assertions) that, so far from having attempted to: deprive Davy of the hö- hour of being the author of the modern theory respecting muriatic acid and chlorine, I have done hinithe most ample ustice.. ad 1 :6. Lam accused of having perverted Davy's account of chlo- niodie acid to suit my own atomic notions.—(Review, p. 142.) .. ‘I request the reader to peruse my account of this substance in vol. 1. p. 194, of the System of Chemistry. If I have not stated Davy’s experiments without any perversion, I am no judge of what perversion means. 7. But one of the most curious, as well as uncandid, attacks upon me by the Reviewer is contained in his observations respecting the composition of phosphoric acid. The passage as too long to quote it here: I must, therefore, refer the reader to it in pages 147 and 148 of the Review. I have already, in various articles in the Annals of Philosophy, given an historical sketch of the facts respecting the discovery of the composition of phosphoric acid; but in order to show the reader the malignity as well as falsehood of the Reviewer’s account, I must give a short view of these facts here. ` The first attempt to eter the constituents of phosphoric x S 260 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Review 'of the (Avi, acid was by Lavoisier (Mem. Paris, 1777, p. 65; 1780, p. 343 ; and 1783, p. 416). ‘His experiments were continued’ 12 years, and his ultimate result was, that the acid is composed of two phosphorus and three oxygen. unites o fea Davy, in his Elements of Chemical Philosophy (p. 286), says; that when a grain of phosphorus is strongly heated in oxygen gas, it absorbs four cubic inches and a half of the gas... Thi statement coincides with the original onë of Lavoisier. = Whe- ther it was the result of experiment on the part of Davy does not appear. eut Im I Y . M. Rose endeavoured to determine the question in 1806 Gehlen’s Jour. ii.309, Second Series), by acidifying phosphorus means of nitric acid, and then saturating the acid with oxide of lead. He deduced from his experiments that the acid is a compound of 100 phosphorus + 114:75 oxygen Hommes of phosphorus yielded, when thus treated, 481 grains of phosphate of lead. But as phosphate of lead is composed of 14 oxide of lead -- 3:5 phosphoric acid, it is obvious that 481 grains of it contain only 96:2 grains of phosphoric acid. Hence the true deduction from Rose's experiments is, that phosphoric acid is a compound of 100 phosphorus 4- 92:4 oxygen. TERTE In the year 1816, a paper of mine on the composition of ug eun acid, and on various phosphates, was read before the Royal Society. I had repeated Rose’s experiments with go care, but found the method not to be relied on. I, there- ore, drew my conclusions from the gas absorbed, when a given weight of phosphorus is burnt in retorts filled with common air. The result of my trials was that one grain of phosphorus, when thus burnt, absorbs 3:66 cubic inches of oxygen gas. ' Hence J concluded that the acid is composed of 100 phosphorus + 123:5 oxygen. This result was not quite correct. The error amounted to nearly 1-13th of the whole, or about 1-4th of a cubic inch, by which the oxygen gas absorbed was too small. The error was owing to the extreme difficulty of burning all the phosphorus, or of weighing with accuracy the unburnt portion. iq dj Soon after this, a set of experimeuts on the same subject was published by M. Dulong. His result almost agreed with mine. According to him, phosphoric acid is composed of 100 phospho- rus + 1248 oxygen. ^^'^ idi 105 943 S995 wert A few months later; Berzelius favoured the chemical world with ‘the’ tesult»‘of his own experiments on the subject. He found the acid composed of 100 phosphorus + 128:17 oxygen. I do nót sée any reason why I should be ashamed of my expe- riments. Compared with the preceding statements of Lavoisier, Davy, and Rose, they are exceedingly accurate. © And though Dulong and Berzelius, who followed me, have approached somewhat nearer the truth, yet they weré unable to reach itu (The, principal object of my páper was to show^that one of 4899) Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry, 261 JBerzelius's canons, which he still employs in all his reasonings, s mot so general as he had supposed. This canon is as follows : Imall salts, the oxygen contained in the acid is either equal to that contained in the base, or it is a multiple of it.” I showed 4n my: paper that this supposed canon was inconsistent with the «composition of several of the phosphates. .. My reason for with- drawing this paper was, that after it had been read I bad made the experiments on phosphuretted hydrogen gas (which J after- svards published), and from which I deduced that phosphoric acid is composed of 100 phosphorus -- 1934 oxygen. This discovery: made it necessary to alter all the analytical results, "because they had been calculated from.incorrect data. Indeed it became evident that a repetition of the analyses would be ^mecessary to ensure precision; and to oppose Berzelius’s canon ^with inaccurate experiments would have been both imprudent sand useless. | | i x My experiments on phosphuretted hydrogen gas. were made ‘:with so much care that I confided in the accuracy of my results; ‘but 1 was unable to .reconcile them with Berzelius’s analyses of ithe phosphates; nor was I able to prove in a satisfactory way that Berzelius was wrong. ^^; While L was reflecting on this want of coincidence, and trying = "to account for it, Il received a short paper from Mr. Dalton, which L. published in the Annals of Philosophy, xi. 7. He "informed me that he had repeated my experiments on phosphu- -— ‘vetted hydrogen gas, and had found that it combined with twice ‘its volume of oxygen gas... The reader ought to be informed uthat Mr. Dalton had previously made experiments on this gas, and had found that it combined withits own volume, or with 12 .its . volume of oxygen. I had every reason, therefore, to confide in the accuracy of his new statement ; and I adopted it ‘the more readily, because it enabled me to reconcile Berzelius’s wianalyses with my own experiments. ` The sheet of the fifth edi- tion of my System containing my account of Aes Tui was in the press, and IL altered the numbers in it so as to bring the com- P ctam of. phosphoric, acid to. agree. with the statement of alton and the. analyses of Berzelius. My own experiments f ‘applied to hypophosphorous, and phosphorous acids. . I repre- sented the composition of the three acids as follows : DH ges PI H Phosphorus. Oxygen. [hne co FLU apes etd: i7. ^. 1 volume + + volume . "Phosphorous acid. .......... 1 dsl ""Phosphoric acid’ ;.......... Mt + 1: Thus my own experiments, those of Dalton, and those of Ber- »zelius, all tallied with each other. The coincidence was irresis- tibly seducing.. I was constrained to yield to it. s Soon after this, I went to Glasgow, and I was not in posses- sion. of a laboratory for nearly two years. - One of the first things 262 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Review ofthe (Arni, which I did, as soon as it was in my power, was: to: Dalton’s experiment. I found it inaccurate... "The whole struc- ture immediately tumbled to the ground; and I was led back to the original opinion which I had stated in my — maa mre retted hydrogen gas. And those gentlemen who attended my lectures the ensuing course will remember that I then gave the composition of phosphorous and phosphoric acids precisely as in my sixth edition. uv Dodd | | tkt: | Davy's paper appeared soon after, and confirmed me in the accuracy of my experiments. Still I was unable to reconcile the analyses of Berzelius with this view of the composition of these acids, and this induced me to express myself with some reserve in the account of the composition of this acid which L gave in that edition; and I am of opinion (whatever the Reviewer may say to the contrary) that such reserve and hesitation: ought. always to be met with in elementary books, unless» we: cam clearly show that the results stated by one of the parties are erroneous. (05 roger It was only after I had made the experiments related in my paper, which begins the New Series of the Annals, for January, 821, that I was able to show that Berzelius’s analysis of phos- phate of lime is inaccurate. These experiments were necessary before the subject could be considered as closed. © = nu My conduct during the whole of this discussion has been, I think, just what it ought to have been. The hesitation and uncertainty in. which i remained till I obtained decisive evi- dence, ought rather I think to be mentioned in my praise than as a proof of want of consideration. | A nba duod Thus have I minutely examined all the accusations of the Reviewer, which affect my character ; and I appeal to the can- dour of the reader if they have not been shown to be every one of them false, malignant, and disgraceful, to the accuser: © As for my observations on the Council of the Royal Society, to which the Reviewer alludes in so — a manner, | have — to say that when I made them, I thought them just, and I still continue of the same opinion. As a Fellow of the Society, I thought myself not merely entitled, but called upon, to notice any little inadvertence on the part of the Council of the Societys I have reason to know that some of the gentlemen who were members of the Council at the time, whom I have the happiness: to reckon among my friends, were not in the least hurt at what Isaid. One gentleman indeed told me that he was displeased, but he was not à member of the Council ; and I never have been in the habit ofregulating my conduct by his particular taste. IH. Errors from Ignorance. ioio ilin sis» This part of the Review, had it been drawn up by a man of skill and candout, might have been valuable. It is" searcely possible for one practical chemist to review the labours of 1822.] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 263 another without throwing out remarks which may benefit the reader. Every experimenter has methods of his own, which he has brought to a considerable degree of perfection, though they have probably been overlocked by his fellow labourers. The very circumstance of drawing the attention of chemists to such particulars cannot but improve the art. Nor is it less advanta- geous to compare together the methods followed by different chemists to, accomplish the same object. I was sorry to observe nothing of that nature in this part of the Review. The most consummate petulance, accompanied as it always is with the most: woful ignorance, characterizes every one of the Reviewer’s observations. To enter into a minute refutation of such accusations would be a superfluous task. To the real chemist, their absurdity will appear at a glance; and those who are not acquainted with the subject are not likely to trouble themselves either with the accusations or the answers. I think it necessary, however, though at the risk of encroaching upon the patience of the reader, to notice every accusation which appears to be of any importance. -d. Light.—The attack upon my account of light in p. 128 of the Review cannot surely require any answer. Í am not aware of any thing wrong in my observations, nor do I admit the jus- tice of a single statement advanced by the Reviewer in opposi- tion to them... One specimen of the Reviewer's mode of writing will be amply sufficient for the reader. I say thatthe “ particles of light: repel each other, while the particles of other bodies attract each other, and accordingly are found cohering together in masses of more or less magnitude." — (System, vol. i. p. 23.) To this the Reviewer subjoins : ** This is sad prosing. Have the sun and stars no sensible magnitude? Do the particles of gaseous bodies cohere together?" (Review, p. 128.) It would appear from this passage, that, in the Reviewer's opinion, the sun and stars are mere masses of light. Unless he thinks so, his obser- vations are absurd and inapplicable ; and if he does think so, he: is ‘a very fit person truly to ridicule the opinions of others respecting light! The particles of gases do not cohere together, because they repel each other as well as the particles of light. But I should like to know the gaseous body which does not enter as a constituent into some solid or fluid body, whose par- ticles cohere. Have we any evidence that light constitutes a ponderable part of any body ? Such is the Reviewer's mode of throwing ridicule on my account of light! It demonstrates, think, that the chapter contains nothing upon which he could fix any animadversions ;. for could he have pointed out any thing really absurd or inaccurate, the passage about the sun and stars would surely have been omitted. 2. Expansion.—The Reviewers observations respecting ex- pansion in p. 130 of the Review, show merely that he has not 264 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to the Review ofthe [Aprix, considered the mechanism of expansion ; and that ignorance of a subject does not deter him from writing ọn dt; ies oinas oso I cannot avoid noticing a most extraordinary passage in the same page of the Review. A paper exhibiting the strength of alkalies, drawn up by Mr. Charles Tennant, of St. Rollocks, Glasgow, is inserted in the Annals of Philosophy, vol. x. p. 115, with the author's name attached to it. This paper the Reviewer ridicules in such a way that every reader must suppose that I was the author of it. Now, in the first. place, the table is an accurate one ; and Mr. Tennant, who drew it up, is entitled to great credit for his a iy for he had deduced the true atomic weights of potash and soda (6 and 4) from his own experiments several years before they had been recognised by any scientific chemist. It was this circumstance which drew my attention, and induced me to insert the paper, in order to secure for Mr: Tennant that priority to which he was justly entitled. . The tabie was intended for the bleachers only, and Í] have had the means of knowing that it has been of great use to them. But suppos- ing that the paper had been wa ie and useless, what had that. to do with my System of Chemistry? Have no trifling papers, appeared in the Journal of the Royal Institution? M 3 Thermometer.—The Reviewer affirms that my account of this instrument is contemptible. I have had the curiosity.to look into. Mr. Brande’s account of it, and find it nearly the same as mine. It certainly contains nothing more than mine does.. The Reviewer conceives that I should have given an account of the: mode of making these instruments. Ifhe will come and attend. a course of my lectures in the University of Glasgow, he will: have an opportunity of panning a minute detail of every thing. that I know respecting the making and use of this very import- - ant instrument. But such details would have been inconsistent with the nature of my System. of Chemistry. I might às well. have given a minute account of the mode of making crucibles, , retorts, mirrors, air-pumps, electrical machines, hammers, anvils, and stone jugs. I might in this way have swelled out my booki; to the size of an Encyclopedia; but I should have rendered jt, much less adapted to the student of chemistry than it is...) s: 4. Galvanic Battery.—l have “ repeated the gross blunder which, in our former critique, we. pointed out relative to the. energy of the pile, which he very ignorantly says, ‘atleast as far. as chemical phenomena are concerned, “ increases in proportion — to the size ofthe pieces.' "—(Review, p. 136.). That this state- ment was not the effect of ignorance must be known to all who. have attended my lectures in Glasgow. 1 have an apparatus for. the purpose of showing that the heat, and consequently the action of the pile upon metals, depends upon the size of the ` plates ; and that thick wires may, be melted by a battery which... neither gives shocks, nor decomposes, water, nor ignites char- : 4822.] Sixth Edition of his System of. Chemistry. 265 coal. It was the heat and effect on metals to which I alluded under the name chemical effects; but the phrase, it appears, from the Reviewer mistaking it, was not sufficiently precise. 5. I never mention chlorate of potash nor red oxide of mer- ce a as convenient substances for furnishing oxygen.—(Review, p. 140.) Had this statement been true, I do not think the omis- sion would have been of any consequence. But in vol.ii. p. 232, of my System, I expressly say that 100 parts of chlorate of pot- ash, when heated, give out 58:69 parts of oxygen. j; I never employ these bodies myself for procuring oxygen gas, because I can obtain it equally pure, and at a much smaller expense, from the black oxide of manganese. If the oxygen . as given out about the middle of the process be collected, it will be found very pure... I obtain it every year by this process with less than a half per cent. of azote. m 6. WhatamIto make ofthe following quotation from my System? «The weight of an atom of oxygen in the subsequent part of this work willbe denoted by 1st, a volume of oxygen is equivalent to two atoms, próvided we suppose, as I have done, that water is a compound of one atom of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen.” — (Review, p. 140.) The passage in my System is really as fol- lows: “ The weight of an atom of oxygen in the subsequent part of this work will be denoted by 1. A volume of oxygen is equivalent to two atoms, provided we suppose, as Í have done, that wateris à compound of one atom of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen."— (System, i. 179.) "The Reviewer must have been sadly put to it in his search into mistakes, when he was driven to the necessity of creating them by misquotation, that he might have an opportunity of animadverting upon absurdities. which originated with himself. s 7. I quote the following passage from the’ Review, without. — to understand it. ** The deutoxide of chlorine was iscovered about the same time by Sir H. Davy and Count Von . Stadion, of Vienna; but Davy's account was published sooner than that of Count Von Stadion." The account of the former was published in Thomson’s Annals eight months before that of the latter appeared. Surely some qualm of conscience must have smitten our compiler in writing his next page. ‘ But the properties of the substance described by the Count differ 80^ much from those of the gas examined by Davy, that it is proba- ble they are distinct substances."—(Review, p. 142.) anra ‘Does the Reviewer mean to arraign the accuracy of my state- ment respecting the experiments of Count Von Stadion? It looks a little like it. Davy's ‘paper was read to the Royal Society in May, 1815, and published about the end of July. The Count's paper appeared in Gilbert's Annalen for Feb. 1816, . or about six months later than Davy’s. My reason for believing | that Von Stadion was unacquainted with Davy's paper was not merely because the Count no where alludes to it, but because 266 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to the Review of the [Arnit, Gilbert, in his appendix to the Count’s paper, in which he gives an historical detail of all that had been previously done ‘on the subject, never alludes to Davy's paper. He must; theref: have been unacquainted with it in February, 1816. Ji .« 8. In p. 142, the Reviewer ridicules me for stating. that a volume of chlorine is equivalent to an atom, while half a volume of oxygen. is equivalent to an atom. These inconsistencies, it seems, I should have avoided had I followed Davy. I must bear the ridicule as well as I can, because I am satisfied that my statement is true, and that it is of importance. 9. The Reviewer has pointed out an arithmetical error in my section on fluorine; and asks how I could have: allowed it to remain uncorrected in two editions of my System. The reason was simply that I did not suspect its. existence. In my fifth edition 1 had deduced the atomic weights of bodies as nearly as I could from the experiments of others. .I had formed. the resolution of investigating the subject with all the precision of which I was capable by experiments of my own. ` Hence in the sixth edition I naturally allowed every thing which I had not yet verified by experiment to remain unaltered. This was the reason why the section on fluorine was printed verbatim. from the fifth edition. | ; VN The readers of the Annals of Philosophy are aware of the assi- duity with which I have prosecuted this mvestigation. I have now determined the atomic weights of all the simple bodies, except about 15. Fluoric acid has occupied my attention as well as the others; but my experiments on it are not yet rea for publication. I may, however, state here, that at present. am inclined to consider fluor spar as a compound of Lo ES SUED RBS OL las ANT TRA e ecu: 03:55 Hence the atomic weight of the acid seems to be 1:25. It may be a compound of one atom of oxygen and one atom of an unknown combustible, whose atomic weight is 0°25, or double that of hydrogen. If we suppose it a compound of equal volumes of fluorine and hydrogen, then the atom of fluorine will weigh exactly as much as the atom of oxygen. This is rather against the probability of the existence of fluorine. | ' : 10. In p. 144 of the Review, the writer thinks proper to dis- pute the accuracy of my experiments on hydrocarbonic oxide; though it is evident that he has never repeated them. I have prepared this gas at least a dozen of times; have exhibited its properties to my students; and it has been repeatedly examined and analyzed by my pupils. 4 it 11. In the same page, the Reviewer denies that I ascertained in 1810 that chloric ether is a compound of olefiant gas and chlorine. I refer the reader to my = =. on the subjeet printed in the first volume of the Wernerian Transactions, p. 516. He 1829.] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 267 will find a set of experiments on it detailed, and my conclusion from. them, as follows: “It isa substance of a nature quite peculiar, and seems to consist. of the two gases simply combined together." Ií did not determine the proportions in which the two gases unite; that was reserved: for Colin and Robiquet; but my experiments left me in no doubt respecting the cónsti- Auents. ` 9m | | ^ * [n the same paper we find him using for another analysis an olefiant gas, which, by his own account, contained 16 per cent. of common air, and the oxygen gas was mixed with 11 per cent. of common air. We would like to know how he ascertained so precisely the proportion of common air when he was in the habit of operating with such impure materials."—(Review, p. 144.) «F shall gratify this laudable curiosity of the Reviewer. I ascertained the volume of oxygen gas in the olefiant gas by means of nitrous gas, employing Dalton's formula for the pur- pose. This volume, when found, I multiplied by 5, and. consi- dered the product. as the volume of common air mixed with the olefiant gas. I ascertained by repeated trials the volume of pure hydrogen, which left the smallest residue when detonated with the oxygen gas. The pure oxygen was obtained by taking half the volume of this hydrogen gas. The residual volume I consi- dered as azote. To it 1 added one-fourth of its volume, and called the sum the volume of common air present. Oxygen containing 1-11th of its bulk of common air is far from impure. It. contains about 92 per cent. of pure oxygen, and only 8 per cent. of azote. With such a gas, very good results may be obtained. -Indeed in many cases itis expedient to diminish the purity of the oxygen gas employed, by mixing it with a certain portion of common air. 12. But. we come now to what the Reviewer seems to have considered as his master-piece,—his defence of Mr. Brande's notion, that carburetted hydrogen gas is merely a mixture of olefiant gas and hydrogen gas. By this time I dare say he is ashamed of what he has written on- this subject, and would mp barter nine-tenths of his wit for one-tenth of my preci- sion. For Dr. Henry's paper published last summer in the Phi- losophical Transactions has demonstrated the peculiar nature of this gas, if any demonstration was necessary. | Indeed my state- ment in the Annals of Philosophy, xvi. 380, was decisive of the inaccuracy of Brande’s views. That a mechanical mixture of ihree volumes of olefiant gas and two volumes of hydrogen should be uniformly extricated from stagnant water in all places would be truly miraculous. Dr. Henry found its specific gravity the same as I had done, and that specific gravity is incompatible ‘with Brande's notion, as are indeed all the properties of the gas. The Reviewer has mis-stated my reasoning in the Annals; but atis not worth while to put him right. -If Mr. Brande chooses sto persist in his opinion in the face of common sense, I have 268 Dr. Thomson's Answer to the Review of the [Arnit, nothing to say to the contrary, Let my arguments and the experiments of Dr. Henry on the one hand, and the statements of Mr. Brande and the witty observations of the Reviewer on the other, be placed in opposition to each other, and let the che- mical world judge between them. : b. . 13. With respect to my mode of taking the specific gravity of phosphuretted hydrogen gas, the Reviewer obierit * This confession betrays poverty of invention, and ignorance of the methods previously practised in such cases.”—( Review, p. 147.) This observation from an individual, who, so far. as is known to the public, never took the specific gravity of a gas in his life, and directed against me, who have : ime a the specific gra- vity of more than 20 gases, with a degree of care and accuracy „seldom equalled, and never surpassed, had surely been better spared. 1 affirm that my method is susceptible of greater accu- racy than that which the Reviewer insinuates that I did not know; and this I affirm from having repeatedly tried both methods. ‘The less complicated an experiment is, the greater is the chance of accuracy. Aut Py 14. In page 149 of the Review, a most indecent attack is ‘made upon a paper of mine printed in Nicholson’s Journal, vol. vi. p. 92, ** On the Compounds of Sulphur and Oxygen." This paper was printed so carelessly that the meaning in several places is much obscured. The experiments described in it were made with an apparatus by no means well Mu for accuracy ; but they were so often repeated, and so carefully, that the errors committed are inconsiderable. In my calculations, I employed Mr. Chenevix's analvsis of sulphate of barytes as a datum, which is now known to be inaccurate. When the error thence arising, and which has nothing to do with my experiments, is corrected (and it is in any one’s power to make the correction), the Si- riments related in pages 95 and 96 show that sulphurous acid is composed of | Sulphur. ............ LM Sat 42. 4817 Orgel « case sno Mes SNF jo exieeába 5 ie SEBO esi 100-00 | Now the true composition of the acid is now known to be : Sulphur........ BA Z Tes. a. UNE 50 Oxygen......... WU que 10112 50 100 Will the Reviewer pretend that this result is not near enough the trath to warrant what I have said in. my System? Let him compare it with the latest analysis of Berzelius, and see whether it will suffer by the comparison. . As for the experiments of Davy, 1822] Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 269 to which the Reviewer refers as the first which established the true composition of sulphurous acid, I am not acquainted with them. d bya hi TN 15. I may leave the Reviewer's remarks on my account of arsenic to any reader of the least candour without being appre- hensive as to the result. My statements in the System (as the reader will find) were deductions from the experiments of Ber- zelius, which I have since found not to be quite accurate. The irue atomic weights of arsenic and its REA tum are given in my paper in the Annals of Philosophy (New Series), vol. i. P 15, and vol. ii. p. 129. : 16. The Reviewer affirms that the analyses of Vauquelin, Arvedson, and Gmelin, all concur to show that the weight of an atom: of lithia is 2:3, and that I, in defiance of these authorities, make it, 2:25.—(Review, p. 150.) 1 have shown in the very page to which the Reviewer alludes, that the mean of the experiments of Vauquelin and Arvedson give the weight 2:254, which very nearly agrees with my number. Nk 17. The remark upon my directions for forming muriate of barytes (Review, p. 150) shows that the Reviewer 1s not practi- cally acquainted with the e of this salt. Í have made it very often, and have tried the Reviewer's method as well as others. The directions in my System I think the best. Nothing is gained by keeping out the iron of which the author speaks; because the muriatic acid. of commerce is never free from that metal. You must, therefore, heat your salt, and redissolve it in water and crystallize, before you can get it in a state of purity, whatever care you take to exclude the iron mixed with your barytes. During the last two years I have generally prepared the salts of barytes by fusing the sulphate with an alkaline car- bonate, washing off the alkali, and then dissolving the carbon- ate of barytes in the required acid. I am not sure that this method is more economical than the other, but it is less trou- blesome. | | | 18. The absurdities respecting manganese’ to which the Reviewer alludes (p. 150) are absurdities: of his own, not of mine. I leave him to correct them at his leisüre. As for my account of steel, which he says has long: been the ridicule of practical men (p. 150), I have only to say that T have given. the best account of it which I could. ' I have witnessed the process several times both in England and Scotland, and have availed myself of the description of it published by Mr. Collier in the ^ fifth volume of the Pas shietes Memoirs. I must rest contented in my ignorance till Mr. Brande thinks proper to. enlighten the world on the subject. /55:19. "The sneer against me (Review, p. 151) for not adopting Mr. Donovan's estimate of the. composition of the: mercurial oxides is quite misplaced. When I praised Mr. Donovans TON I FYSX 0 210 270 Dr. Thonison’s Answer.to the Review of the | | Xem, paper, I did not allude to these estimates. I can make allow- ance for errors even in a good paper. If this were not made, what chemical paper would be entitled to praise? Where is the chemist to be found who has: not very frequently fallen into analytical mistakes ? ) 3ddel o | vna o) ANISUR _ 20, The sneers at my account of ammonia. could not. have cone from any writer of the smallest candour: I do not attempt to reconcile the discordant statements. My own of course are those which L consider as nearest the truth. Even they would require to be ‘re-examined, ‘Thè experiments were made 20 years ago, when neither my weights nor my measures were so accurate as they are at present, | fk tarota oi] š ar2b. "The Reviewer is quite indignant that I håve: given Mr, Dalton’s: table of the strength of sulphuric acid, instead of Dr. Ure's.—(P. 153.) .. Liconsidet Dalton s, as far as it goes, as the best of the two. | To:a practical chemist, such a table is in fact of very little use: J find át of none, except in the rare;case of having a dilute acid by me. My method of proceeding is this : Lkeep by me à few pounds of sulphuric acid, which I have paüri- fied by distillation; and .concentrated.as far as, possible... Such acid. has the specific gravity 1°8447,..and)is| composed of 5 real acidand 1:125 water ; consequently 61 grains of it contain exactly 5 grams of true acid. l can weigh the exact quantity of this acid. wanted with as little trouble as of diluted acid; I after- wards. dilute, this, portion, at pleasure... Indeed I, have a glass measure graduated to. grains, by which I can, measure. the quantity of acid when minute,precision is not wanted. A table similar to, that of Dr. Ure's, we find of no use in my laboratory. - ; 22. "The sneer about làmpic acid (p. 153) had better have been omitted, Mr. Daniell having himself acknowledged that this acid is merely the acetic, and consequently verified my opinion. 23. I do not believe that in the whole history of chemistry. any thing can be pointed out more uncandid or unjust than the Reviewer's remarks upon my paper on Oxalic Acid, published in the Philosophical "Transactions for 1807. I did not succeed in ascertaining the exact proportion of water contained in this acid; my method (simply heating the acid on a sand-bath). not being capable of separating-the whole water. The consequence of this was, that. my oxalicacid contained water, and of course my data for. determining the composition of the oxalates being wrong, their composition is inaccurately. stated in my paper. , To cor- rect the error it. would be necessary to subtract the rhum of water which I allowed to remain in the acid. If the Reviewer does so, he will find my results tolerable approximations. | The value of the paper does not depend upon these numerical analyses. It contains a great deal of matter, of which I have uniformly availed myself in all the editions of my System pub- lished since 1807. I may mention here that Berard wrote a / 1822. Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 271 papain the same subject soon after me, and on purposerto rec- tify my analyses ; but/his results deviate as far from the truth as mine, and obviously from the same cause. pp : ~The allegation by the Reviewer, that my. analysis of oxalic acid was inaccurate because my oxalic acid still retained 32:5 per. cent. of wateris disgracefully unjust. He must have known that my experiments were not. made upon oxalic acid, but upon a dry oxalate. No water existed in the acid as I employed it, and, therefore, none was to be deduced. My near approach to truth in these experiments, notwithstanding the numerous diffi- culties attending my method, afford unequivocal evidence of the great care employed inthe experiment. | ^, ^. |. | aA may mention here that Berard in his paper denied the existence of binoxalate of strontian. I. have frequently formed this salt since, as well as binoxalate of barytes. "They are both crystallizable and well'défined salts. ony E h 24. The Reviewers observations on my analysis of chloride of lime (p. 156) are so ridiculously absurd that it wouldi:be waste of time to make a serious ‘answer to them. Does he know so little of this substance aš to Suppose that chlorate of lime ever does or can enter as a constituent into it? If he thinks: so, I would advise him to try 'a' few experiments on the passage of chlorine’ gas through dry lime. They would cure his petulance, and give him some information on a subject about which: he obviously knows nothing. | 25. The Reviewer's remarks about the quantity of muriatic acid gas absorbed by water (p. 157) are as usual very witty ; but the wit does not affect me. T have given the result of my. expe- riments. Let him repeat them, and show them to be inaccurate, and then sneer away and welcome. Till then I shall only say; that it is easier to sneer than to experiment. | 26. The Reviewer's remarks on my account of the. modé of preparing chlorocyanie acid are shamefully unjust. | 27. I have now noticed all the Reviewer's attacks upon me for want:of knowledge, which seem entitled to any observation, with the exception of two, which I cannot with propriety pass over in silence. I must still therefore, request the readers indulgence for a short time before Í conclude. I shall first quote the following paragraph from the Review : * Mineralogy, which now begins to assume the systematic aper of the other parts of natural history, by the labours of Verner, Hauy, Mohs, and Jameson, is here exhibited in a truly chaotic state. He has no allusion whatever to the natural his- tory. method of Mohs; which promises to do for the study. of minerals what the sexual system did for plants; enabling a person on taking up a specimen fo refer it to its peculiar class, order, genus, and species, till he discovers its name and various relations. His first chapter “ On the Description of Minerals,” is. copied from Prof. Jameson's Treatise on the External Charac- 272 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to the Review of the [Arrir, ters. We find the same chapter, in the same words, in the former edition, but with a reference to Mr. Jameson, which is now suppressed. The only observable alteration, indeed, in his present article on Mineralogy, is the erasure of Prof. Jameson’s name wherever it formerly occurred."—(Review, p. 166) — The arrangement of minerals which I have adopted is that of Werner, with a few slight alterations to fit it better for a chemi- cal work. If it be a chaos, then the same term may be applied to every system of mineralogy which has hitherto appeared. How far the Reviewer's statement, that the Mineralogy in mi sixth edition is just a reprint of that in the fifth, the reader wi be enabled to judge when I inform him that it contains no fewer than 38 new species, the names of which I shall here subjoin for the Reviewer's satisfaction: ^ ` | : Turquoise, + Bucholzite, Peliom, © f : Papercoal, Colophonite; | Eucairite, Helvine, i J Tennantite, Eudyalite, Seleniuret of copper, Allophanite, > _. Bismuthic carbonate of copper, Basalt jasper, 'n Titaneous iron ore, Spherulite, _ Dow Sulpho-arseniate of iron, Karghalite, | sos s oo c Skoroclite, . Mesolite, ! Knebelite, | Skolezite, 1h oif Carbo-silicate of manganese, Petalite, | Glance nickel, Gieseckite, |... Wodan pyrites, Ambligonite, . Arseniate of nickel, Caranthine, | o: Antimonial sulphuret of lead, Calamite, | Arsenio-sulphuret of lead, ~: Baikalite, | Antimonial arseniate of lead, Fassaite, ; Tungstate of lead, Polyhalite, Aluminate of lead. Besides these new species, which constitute no trifling addi- tion, I have changed the position of'a considerable number of species, rectified the description of more than two-thirds of the whole, and added many new analyses, all indeed that had come to my knowledge. 1 conceive, therefore, that the attention which I paid to this part of the work, and the improvements introduced into it, are much more considerable than could have been anticipated. Instead of censure, therefore, I was entitled to no small degree of praise. | With respect to the'system of Mohs, which has been adopted by Jameson in his last edition, I must confess myself an incom- etent judge, because I do not understand it. [have perused Mohs little treatise on the Characters of the Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species, a copy of which the author did me the honour to present to me. 1 have likewise read the account of 3822.) Sixth Edition of his System of Chemistry. 278 the method published in the Edinburgh Journal; but neither of .these accounts puts it in my power to understand the nature of the arrangement. . Mr. Jameson's last edition is a cypher with- out a key. Underthese circumstances, 1 thought yf obliged to omit my references to Jameson’s System. could not refer to the old edition after the author. had published a new .one ; and I could not refer to the new edition, because I did not understand it. Thus circumstanced, I thought the best thing I could do was to refer to Hoffman's Mineralogy, instead of Jameson's. It contains the Wernerian descriptions in the veri ‘words of Werner; and is the original from which most of Jame- son's descriptions are taken. mid —. But even if I had understood Mohs's system, I question if I should have adopted it, because it is not adapted to a chemical view of minerals. If Mohs succeed in establishing an artificial system which will enable the student to find out the name of any mineral of which he may happen to have a specimen, he will perform a very useful task. But surely it will not be said that the last edition of Jameson's Mineralogy is in this predicament. In a chemical treatise, the composition of minerals is the most important point. Now Mohs has not paid any attention to the composition of minerals, but has been guided by something respecting the crystalline shape which he has not put it in, our ing to understand. I shall.give one order as an example, and select it the rather because all the minerals arranged init are chemical compounds. Hi ORDER VLosBany Y£. Genus I.— Lead. Spar. Sp. 1. Sulphate of lead, 2. Molybdate of lead, 3. Chromate of lead, 4. Phosphate of lead, 6. Garbonate of lead. Genus IL— Hal Boryl. Sp. 1. Carbonate of barytes, 2. Sulphate of barytes, 3. Poieni of strontian, 4. Sulphate of strontian, X Genus IL].— Tungsten. Sp. 1. Tungstate of lime. Genus IV.—Calamine. Sp. 1. Silicate of zinc, 2. Anhydrous carbonate of zinc, 3. Hydrous carbonate of zinc. New Series, voL, 111. T 274 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to the Review; Sc. [APnir, GEN us V.—Red Manganese. Sp. 1. Silicate of manganese. . Genus VI.—Sparry Iron. Sp. 1. Carbonate of iron. | _Now I appeal to every reader whether a chemist could adopt -such an arrangement. All minerals are probably saline com- .pounds, and Berzelius has gone a considerable way to prove this; but I do not consider mineralogy as yet ripe for a true . chemical arrrangement. Much labour must still be bestowed upon. the chemical analysis.: I have been occupied with the ‘zeolites occasionally for more than a year, and the 14 or:15 minerals which I have already analyzed have given me much -additional information—enough to enable me to arrange my own cabinet; but not to publish a systematic arrangement of even the zeolites. I would still allow the Wernerian arrangement to remain, were I to publish a new edition of my System to-morrow. By the united exertions of chemists in every part of the world, a true natural arrangement of minerals will, by degrees, be accomplished. But festina lente is an excellent adage, of which the Reviewer would do well to avail himself. ' | . The only other point to which I think it will be necessary to allude is, the animadversions of the Reviewer on my chapter on the analysis of minerals. He has pointed out one or two typo- graphical errors, and invented as many more. This chapter was written nearly 20 years ago, and consists chiefly of speci- mens of the mode of analyzing minerals taken from the best analysts. Since that time I have repeated more than once almost every analysis contained in it. I could certainly have improved it somewhat ; but to have given accurate formule for the analysis of every mineral is still Wai our power. A pre- cise knowledge of the atomic weight of every constituent of the mineral kingdom is an essential preliminary. This I have been acquiring only since my sixth edition was published. Even at present my knowledge is incomplete, some very essential atomic numbers being still wanting. We lie under very great obliga- tions to Klaproth, and Bucholz, and Vauquelin, for their nume- rous analyses of minerals. They have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the mineral kingdom ; while they have invented 4 many methods of analysis, which have added much to the resources of the practical chemist. But we still require more accurate methods than those with which these chemists were satisfied, before we can acquire that precise knowledge of the composition of minerals which is requisite for an accurate che- mical arrangement. Towards this desirable object, I have turned a great deal of my attention, and have contrived a variety of methods for bringing the art of analysis to the requisite 1822.], Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations., 275 degree of perfection. Some of these I have occasionally pub- lished ; and I am not without hope of being able, in the course of time, to lay a practical system of chemistry before the public. One part of this system indeed, that which respects the gases, I Have nearly completed. But salts, metals, and minerals, present so very extensive a field, that I am'apprehensive lest the life of one individual should be too.short to traverse the whole of it. I take this opportunity of calling the attention of chemists to the importance of such a desirable object. The joint labour of many may accomplish with ease. what would surpass the most gigantic efforts of a single individual. lata TIS lius have I finished my remarks on Mr. Brande's Review of my System of Chemistry. When I perused it for the first time with/attention in the month of February last, the impression which itleft upon my mind was, that many of the animadversions must-be well founded. They are made with an air of such con-- fidence and plausibility that they are well calculated to make an impression on the reader. o After having thus investigated them one‘by one, I am amazed to find how very few of them have any justice in them, and feel fully confident that every reader will participate in my astonishment, and agree with me that a more uncandid review has scarcely ever appeared, and that it fixes an indelible stigma both on the editor and the author. y ARTICLE l. Astronomical Observations, 1822. . By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. __ Latitude 519 37 44°3” North, Longitude West in time 1’ 20-93”, Feb. 23. Emersion of Jupiter’s third Ç 7 7’ 13” Mean Time at Bushey. Lied CX p y A SBR Waaa iyi puwa, T 8 34 j Mean Time at Greenwich, Feb. 27. Immersion of a small star Per ) 8- 31 .49 Mean Time at Bushey. hb. n QUINIOB iso wie ec ble aD ARA one Feb. 27. Immersion of a small star per i f ET OUI CBAR UIS M6 aldea cilia i 8 53 21 . Mean Time at Bushey. Mar. 1. Emersion of Jupiter’s first i 6 56 27 2 Mean Time at Bushey. A an. | ° 6 5T 48 ? Mean Time at Greenwich. Mar. 2. Emersion of Jupiter’s second Ç 6 35 33 ) Mean Time at Bushey. MO: satelli i 6 36 54 ? Mean Time at Greenwich. D The occultations of the stars by the moon were made under very favourable circum- ` stanees, and their brilliancy remained undiminished till obscured by the dark limb of the moon. | wae A. £, E ] E T 9 276 Col. Beaufoy on the Resistance of Water, [Apnrit, I ARTICLE HI. f B Experiments and Observations on the Resistance of i Water, with; Remarks on the Apparatus. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Bushey Heath, March 4, 1822. In the third volume of the Annals of Philosophy, Dr. Thom- ‘son published several of the experiments made at Greenland Dock, between the years 1793 and 1798, on the resistance of water to variously shaped bodies. Among these were the direct, and oblique resistance of two square iron planes, whose united surfaces measured 2:972 superficial feet, the centre of each plane being immersed three feet beneath the surface of the water.: On reference to the original papers, I am persuaded that an error was committed in placing the planes obliquely to the s e of - the fluid, instead of diminishing the angle of incidence from 50 to 40 degrees; for it appears that when the planes formed the angle of 50 degrees with their path, the motive weight of 134 pounds produced a velocity of 4-575 feet in a second, and that the same weight gave exactly the same result when the planes, obliquity was reduced to 40 degrees. That this statement is incorrect is proved by a motive weight of 334 pounds, which, when the angle was 50 degrees, drew the planes with the velo- city of 2,283 feet per second, and at an angle of 40 degrees, 2,366 feet. In consequence, in the annexed Table I, I have rejected the experiment at the angle of 40 degrees, and com- bined those at the other angles, with some experiments not pre- viously inserted in the Annals. The experiments were reduced to the same velocity, six feet in a second, by finding the expo- nent m of the resistance: according to this formula, m = log. R — log. r log. V — log. v 334, and V and v the corresponding velocities. By calculating the exponent m for every angle of obliquity from 90 degrees to 10, nine values are obtained, the mean of the whole is 2:0154; or somewhat greater than the square of the velocity. The exponent m being found, the various resistances the planes met with at the different angles of incidence, and moving with different velo- cities, are reduced to the same velocity six feet per second by making R = + x a and the motive weights calculated by this formula are written down in Table I. To compare the experiments with more facility, the resistance of the two planes are reduced to the area of a square foot, or 42,885 pounds, and beneath these reduced resistances are placed the sines to radius 42,885 pounds, by which it appears that m wo exceed the , R and r representing the motive weights 134 and 1822.] with Remarks on the Apparatus. | Sau resistances from 90 to 30 degrees. At this angle the numbers -are nearly equal, the resistance being rather greater; afterwards the sines again exceed the resistances, ‘This comparison might have been more readily made by dividing all the resistances by the greatest resistance, and under these ratios placing the natural sines which are to be found in many books of logarithms. These numbers and their squares are also inserted, and in no one instance do the experimented resistances coincide with the square of the sine. The reduced direct resistance when com- ared with the plane's resistance at six feet in a second, see able IT. is in excess 24 pounds. This discrepance may be partly attributed to the larger surface of the two planes, and partly to subsequent improvements of the apparatus with which the experiments of Table II. were made. A motive weight of 42,885 pounds, according to the experiments in that table, would produce a velocity of 6,587 feet per second. Two circumstances. affecting the oblique resistance are the negative pressure and the accumulation of the fluid on that part ` of the plane on which it first strikes ; that such an accumulation takes place is well known to practical men from the greater stress of the weather brace above the lee one of square sails hoisted by the middle, and forming an acute angle with the wind's direction. This fact is exemplified in the custom of ` slinging the yards of luggers by the thirds, by which one-third of the yard 1s before, and two-thirds behind the mast, and an equilibrium of the pressure of the wind is produced. "That non- elastic fluids produce a similar effect was clearly shown in the rudder of the vessel built under the inspection of the láte Earl Stanhope. His lordship, with the view of lessening, or rather annihilating, the labour of the helmsman, caused the pivots of - the rudder to be inserted in the middle of the upper and lower surface, but on trial to produce the desired equipoise, it became necessary to shift the axis a third of the rudder’s length, reckon- ing from the foremost extremity. From these observations, it appears-that the oblique resistance of a plane consists of four parts, the impulse, the friction, the minus pressure, and an accu- mulation of the fluid on the fore part of the inclined surface. That these experiments are superior to any yet published may be inferred, without arrogating any great merit to those who made them, from the size of the experimented bodies, and to the accuracy of the apparatus which measured the velocity of the - moving bodies to a small fraction of a second, a circumstance essentially necessary to obtain accurate results. It is most desirable that experiments of this kind should be repeated ; and I anticipate with much pleasure the publishing of the second volume of Hydraulic Experiments made at Fahie Mines, in Sweden, under the scientific and able management of Messrs. Lagerhjelm and Kallstenius, at the expence of the Mineral Society. 278 Col. Beaufoy on the Resistance of Water, [Apnit, In the Annals for October, 1815, Prof. Thomson did me the favour to insert a table of experiments on the direct resistance of water to a plane one foot square, and immersed to the mean depth of six feet, but owing to an META in copying the eighth column, entitled * Exponents of the Minus Pressure,” was erroneous, and, therefore, expunged. T haye now the pleasure of sending another, Table iL, which does not materially differ from the former, excepting in the last column. The first contained the resistance of a square plane; the present, the mean resistance of a square and round plane, each containing 144 square inches, or one superficial foot. | | Column 1 contains the velocity of the planes through the water in feet per second. | Column 2, columns of water, the base of each being one foot square, and the respective altitudes equal to the space through which a heavy body must fall to acquire the velocity of one, two, or three feet, &c. in a second. E Column 3, the weights of the different columns of water in lbs. avoirdupoise. | ‘ Column 4, the mean resistance of the two planes in lbs. avoir- upoise. | alios 5, the difference between columns 3 and 4. Column 6, the minus pressure found by experiment. In Column 7 is set down the exponents of the minus pressure. These exponents are found by calculating the various values of m answering to one and two feet, and the corresponding weights "1616 and ‘6075; then two and three feet, and the correspond- ing weights -6075 and 1-2973, and so on as far as 12 feet. The mean value of the eleven exponents, 1,7646, is then used, and the table extended to 20 feet; but the same reliance is not to be placed upon the resistance of velocities exceeding 12 feet per second. . The minus pressure is thus determined : Figures 1 and 2 have the same fore and middle parts; the bows or foremost extremi- ties wedges each oblique side, measuring three feet, and the base one foot; the middle part a cube one foot square; the stern or hinder part of fig. 1 1s likewise a wedge whose oblique sides exceed the foremost by one foot and six inches, these sides being four feet and six inches long. It is evident by inspecting the two figures, that as their fore and middle parts are similar, the difference of resistance, after deducting the friction of the water (which in all cases, the planes excepted, has been done), must proceed from the form of the sterns. The experiments made with these bodies, 1 and 2, are contained in Table3. To corroborate the above experiments, solids 3 and 4 were em- ployed ; these, like the former, had the same fore and middle parts, the bows circular, and the centres cubical, but in fig. 4, the wedge stern end was taken away ; therefore the variation in the resistance in this case, as in the former, proceeds from alter- 1822.] with Remarks on the Apparatus. 279 ing the after extremity. The experiments. made with these: bodies, 3 and 4, are contained in Table 4, and show, like the former, a considerable increase of resistance. "The minus pres- sure found by these last experiments is set down in Table 2. The minus pressure thus ascertained rests on the supposition. that a wedge whose oblique sides exceeds the width of the base four times and a half is devoid of that kind of resistance. To . clear up any doubts on this subject, experiments were made with bodies 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; the stern ends of solids 6, 8, 10, were: shorter than those of 5, 7, 9; the oblique sides of these mea- sured in length three feet, and the oblique sides of the others four feet and one half. Tables 5, 6, and 7, contain the experi- ments, with these figures, and justify the conclusion that the minus pressure of those solids that have the longest after extre- mity is so minute that it may be considered as nothing, and consequently rejected. By consulting Tables 3 and 4, it might be concluded that of all the variety of forms of which the stern end is susceptible, the most obtuse would have the greatest minus pressure. To prove or disprove the justness of this inference, the resistance of solids 11, 12, 13, were found, the last being the same as figure 2, that is, with a square stern. Fig. 12 is the same as fig. 8, turned end for end, or the hind part made the bow and vice versá; but the stern of fig. 11 is an equilateral triangle. The result of these experiments is set down in Table 10, and it is very singular that an equilateral triangle so far from diminishing the minus pres- ` sure, augments it; and, on the contrary, a semicircular after. body diminishes the minus pressure. The effect of joining an equilateral triangle to the base of an isosocles considerably augmented the resistance near the surface, as will appear from the following experiments : A wedge 43 feet in length, 4:75 feet in width, and 1,28 feet in depth, and nearly immersed, required a motive weight of 8951 pounds to draw it 12 feet in a second through the water by the vertex. On the addition of an equila- teral triangle to produce the same velocity, 470 pounds were, requisite, being an increase of 744 pounds. That the shape as well as length contributed to diminish the negative pressure appears by comparing the result of fig. 12 with fig. 11, as con- tained in Table 8. The minus pressure of fig. 9 being nothing, it might be expected that the plus pressure or head resistance of this figure would be the same as the weight of water contained in Column 3 of Table 2; but on examining Table 2, the head resistance is smaller; consequently the plus pressure increases in a less ratio than the squares of the velocity. Some observations on the size of the bodies, and the difficul- ties experienced in making the experiments, may not prove unacceptable to those who hereafter engage in a similar employ- ment. It is recommended that the size of the bodies whose resistance is to be determined, should, if square, not exceed one 4 ; 280 Col. Beaufoy on the Resistance of Water, [ApriL foot in diameter; at first sight it might appear that the larges the surface, the more accurate the experiment, which, though true in theory, is false in practice, for kisi solids both by bulk and weight became unwieldy, and consequently difficult to manaee; and when experiments were to be made beneath the surface of the water, considerable trouble occurred in accurately placing, and firmly securing, the immersed body to the conduc- tor. When practicable, only one bar should be used in attach- ing the upper and lower bodies to each other; the shape of the bar should be elliptical with the transverse or longer diameter parallel to the centre line of the experimented body, This form of bar is advantageous on many accounts; it meets with less resistance, is not so liable to bend from the impulse of the water, and answers the purpose of a rudder by a small alteration in its parallelism, which, without affecting the accurácy of the experi- ment, will prevent the conductor from deviating with its attached solid from the intended course through the water. It would be à further improvement if the tremulous motion of the iron bar caused by its elasticity was prevented, whicb might be done b: placing the bar in a metal case, and filling up the vacuity "o melted lead. The part ofthe bar which passes through the con- ductor should be circular, that the figure attached may be placed accurately by turning the bar; and a mark should be made-on the bar, and another on the upper part of the conduc- tor, which ought to correspond when both are truly adjusted. At the bottom of the bar, a concave screw is cut, which fits into. one of a contrary description that projects from the solid whose resistance is to be found. To prevent the bar from sinking, and being lost when necessary to detach it, the upper part was. formed into a hook, and to this was fastened a line, One of the;principal reasons for recommending one bar in preference to two, originated from the loss of time, trauble, and. . vexation, in the year 1796, proceeding from the use of two. Many of the experiments made at that time were so extremely discordant as to induce a belief that the particles of water when once displaced did not arrange themselves in the same manner 5 but on reflection it was thought that the bars which were cylin- drical, one inch and a half in diameter, and six feet asunder, were sufficiently close for the eddy water of the foremost to affect the resistance of the hindermost, which, on a further separation of the bars to nine feet, was found to be the case ; at the same time it was deemed adviseable to alter the shape from a circular to an angular figure. In making experiments of this kind, it is neces- sary to have a considerable length of line to draw the figures by. To avoid the inconvenience of a high mast which, if a single pulley was used, would be unavoidable. A system of pulleys was adopted, and it was found from experience that two double blocks answered the purpose ¿odu well. The sheaves or wheels of the block were not placed in one shell, or side by A uta M NEL S esa y ee oe e NR NL NE atis Eger re w ma ee ANM 3 e de^ -. dinge bt 1822:] with Remarks on the Apparatus. ` ` 281 side, but under each other; and the lower sheave of the block fastened to the top of the mast was smaller, and the uppermost sheave of the lower or movable block was also the smaller. By this arrangement every pet of the line was parallel, and the uncertainty caused by the friction of the line against the sides of the frame avoided. The diameter of each of the larger wheels was ten inches, and that of each of the smaller, seven inches ; and for the sake of lightness and appearance, they were inserted in iron frames, put together with nuts and screws, for the conve- nience of taking to pieces. A double cylinder would answer the purpose of a system of pulleys; but so much inaccuracy is caused by the friction of the line in winding as to exclude this contrivance. The shape of the conductor represented by figure 14 is prefer- able to any other. The total length 26 feet, each oblique end six feet, the depth one foot, and the breadth one foot nine inches to two feet; the middle part was excavated within an. inch of the bottom, sufficiently capacious to admit a quantity of iron or lead ballast to sink it and its attached body within an inch or somewhat more ofthe surface of the water. To prevent any alteration in the trim, the water should have access to the hollow by means of small holes, in which the ballast is stowed. The attached body or solid, whose resistance is the object of the experiment, ought to be rendered heavier than water by insert- ing cylinders of lead, so placed that the centre of gravity may be at the place where the bar is inserted. Prior to the commencement of each. day's experiment, the conductor, with the attached solid, should be weighed ; that is, as much additional known weight placed on the conductor as will sink it level with the surface of the water, If, on a second day's trial less weight from the absorption of water is requisite to sink it, ballast must be taken out, The conductor is perfo- rated in the middle, and near the commencement of the oblique stern, to admit the bar. A minute alteration when in motion of the horizontal position of the conductor, from the resistance of . the water to the under body is made evident, by the water. run- ning above the thin edge of the bow or forepart. The edges of the bow and stern should be protected from injury by thin pieces ofiron. The correct velocity, or the true resistance, is the latter art of the course; and after the line which gives motion is (if . immersed during the run) above the water, Attention must be paid to this circumstance, or no accurate result can be expected ; for the error will be in the compound ratio of the length and velocity of the line which is in contact with the water. | I remain, dear-Sir, truly yours, 3 Mark Brauroy, [APRiL, 282 a a ea ae ee eS Col. 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"SANT M “HTH LIVA AM "AT LAWOUVG "IX LGJWONOXH I, "ISS "uojeopp uyor ayy Aq “'42)spoup yo 2doy pousnor 102120040932] v fo mory «4DjnQv], "AI ATONLUY New Series, vou, 111. 290 Ds Reply-to C.'s Observations [APRIL ARTICLE V. Reply to C's Observations on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. (To the Editor of the Axr of Philosophy.) SIR, Ir you think the following answer to C.'s observations on Mr. Herapath’s theory worthy of a place in the Annals of Philosophy, it is at your disposal. I am Sir, Your obedient servant, D. —— f -— * He who has published a theory on any point in philosophy," our correspondent C. gives us to understand in his attack on r. Herapath, “has no right to complain” of any observations tending to expose its fallacy; and from the mode of his ownattack we may, I suppose, add, in whatever manner they may be made. Without inquiring into the soundness or propriety of this new doc- trine, we may with justice affirm, that when a man sets himself up as a judge in scientific matters without being fully competent, and acrimoniously attacks the theory of another without well under- standing it, or the subject, * his exposure is all he ought to expect." Should it appear, as I think it will, that C. has done both of these things, ‘ he will, therefore, have no right to com- plain of the following observations " in rep to his. C. sets out with an observation well calculated to:give us a ` high opinion of his inductive accuracy. Mr. H. had said, * It is impossible by correct reasoning from false principles to bring out true conclusions." "The axiomatic evidence of this position no one, I think, can dispute, if what is evidently implied be con- sidered ; namely, that the reasoning as well as correct must be complete by including all the circumstances which bear on the case. But C. says, ** In innumerable instances true conclusions may be brought out by correct reasoning from false principles. If, for instance, the errors on each side should exactly compen- sate each other, the result will be correct, though the foundation be erroneous," So then correct reasoning must contain errors ; that is, I apprehend, truth must be error. -Of course, by parity of argument, false reasoning must contain no errors, or error must be truth, and wrong, right. Is it not a happy thing Newton did not know, or did not believe this ? How is it after so “ conclu- sive an argument," C. thought. it necessary to continue his * observations?” Would not this * beautiful reasoning! and invincible demonstration ! " at once crush the whole of Mr. Hs theory? What does it matter about their having no connexion with the subject ? C/s reasoning has “ the distinguished excel- 1822.] ` on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. "281 lence” of disproving equally well not only the thing he would wish, but every thing else, whether connected with it or not. Alluding to the loss and development of heat in the changes ‘of state, C. objects to Mr. Hs theory of heat by motion, * because heat may for a time become imperceptible, and again be developed, without -being destroyed ? “ If, therefore,” says C. * heat and motion be identical, motion cannot be destroyed, which the experience of every day tells us is untrue.” Here C. would plainly charge Mr. H.’s theory as being incompetent to explain, nay, as being repugnant to the phenomena of latent heat. Now observe, Mr. H.'s ** Theory of the Changes of State and the Concomitant Phenomena,” in which the subject C. alludes to is copiously explained, was published in the Annals for October ; C. in his ** Observations," dated nearly a fortnight afterwards, tells us he had seen this very number of the Annals, and of course this very explanation, for the want of which he gravely tells the world Mr. H.'s theory is defective. Perhaps Cs creative talent can give some acceptable: form to this nondescript offspring of ‘his fertile invention ? If this cannot be done, C. will find in the December number the mathematical laws of the defect he com- actin of numerically confirmed by the experiments of Ure, omson, Dalton, Southern, Watt, Black, &c. Probably the experimental testimonies of these philosophers may induce a conviction of the validity of Mr. H.’s views, which, it is to be hoped, C. will have liberality enough to acknowledge. Speaking of the gravific medium which Mr. H. confesses to have adopted from Newton, C. says: “ Show me this fluid; prove its existence." In the name of common-sense, and of all that is reasonable, who, besides C. could have made so unac- countable a request? What reply could C. expect from Mr. H. to such a demand but this very natural one? “ Show me your one or two fluids of electricity, of galvanism, and of magne- tism; show me your favourite fluid of caloric; show me these, or either of them, and by the very same means I will show you the fluid you desire. ** Prove the existence” of attraction, and by that identical method, or those identical phenomena, I will ‘prove the existence" of my gravific fluid. ** Besides," Mr.H. . might add, “ I will do more ; | will * prove its existence,’ as I have in p. 411 to 415, Annals for June, by other phenomena to whose solution you cannot apply the vulgar notions of attrac- tion." This would be the natural reply of Mr. H. or of any one, toso unexampled a demand. But the oddity of this odd request is, ** Show me this fluid." Surely C. does notrequire Mr. H. to make this fluid visible? He does not wish, does he, Mr. H. to catch and bring to him a nameless being, a few particles of a fluid, which Newton says is so extremely subtile as to be able to pe the pores of the densest bodies with the utmost facility? — f such be C's desire, I feel persuaded Mr. H. will readily under- v2 292 D.'s Reply. to Cs Observations [APRIL take the task, if it be only to satisfy his incredulity, provided C. will show Mr. H. how to succeed. HP BOTY Accuracy, it seems to me, should be rigidly adhered to in a discussions. An author should never be made appear to say what he has not. In more than one instance, C. has, I think, not been over delicate in this respect. At present, I shall adduce an example which will serve as a specimen of the rest ; and lest there should be any mistake or difficulty in turning to Mr. H.’s opinion, I shall place right against it one or two quota- tions from his first paper. | | Quotations from C.’s “ Observations on Mr. "Herapath's Theory,” Annals for Dec. 1821, p. 420. “ But whether the atoms be ‘elastic or hard, having the pro- perties of elastic bodies which Mr. H. has attributed to them." ' See also Mr. tions, p. 282. Mr.Herapath's paper, Annals for April, 1821, p.279. — = * 'Thereforeit appeared to me that the ultimate atoms ought to. possess two properties in direct contrariety, hardness and elasticity,” * . mm Schol. Prop. II. p. 285 and 286. ** Hardness and softness are diametrically opposite pro- erties, and elasticity is nothing but an active kind of softness.” “To argue*** is to abandon the definition of hardness, and to adopt that. of elasticity, which has no connexion whatever with it.” | H.s Defini- These quotations exhibit too marked a contrast for comment ` ` to increase. It will exercise C.'s ingenuity to identify them; but it is to be hoped C. has not taken advantage of an anony- mous signature to say what would press too heavily on the credit of a name. | C. speaks of Sir Isaac Newton, and insinuates to the world that Mr . H. is trying to overturn him. equality of reciprocal attraction in the pl and of which no proof whatever deduced merely from analogy, Except in the absolute lanets, which Newton can be furnished, there is no one phenomenon in which.Mr. Herapath does not perfectly agree with Newton. Indeed Mr. H. is almost the only philosopher ofthe present day who has not * Mr. H. has written softness, but immediately before he tells us that “ elasticity is nothing but active softness; " and he now, therefore, uses softness instead of elasticity merely to make the contrast the stronger. 1822.] on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. | + 993 arrogated to himself the liberty, on the most trivial grounds, of ` opposing that great philosopher ; and it must be no little grati- fication to Mr. H. that while his discoveries fully confirm the -views of that illustrious man, they have so stable and inde- structible an authority as that of Bacon and Newton. But since C. opposes Newton to Mr. H. I beg to ask him on what grounds he does it? Is it on the doctrine of heat? If it be, he must excuse me for publicly telling him that Newton’s and Mr. Hs views of the nature of heat coincide; they both conceive heat to consist in motion. Perhaps C. who takes great pains to appear to know something of Newton's works, is not aware of this. That he is, by his observations, unacquainted with it, though one of the commonest of Newton’s ideas, is evident ; for we can hardly bring ourselves to believe, if he knew it, that a man so peaceably inclined as to commence a violent contró- versy without cause or provocation, and moreover so modest as to withhold his name from an attack as virulent as it is violent, could quarrel with Mr. H. for following one, whom he, C. does indeed really profess to admire. » Let us, however, examine C.’s objections to the theory of heat by motion. He says if two bodies be placed in contact, the one having larger particles than the other, that the temperature of the body with the larger particles, though at first equal to the other, will continually increase from the mere contact and une- qual size of the particles. For, says C. ** it is evident that the atoms of A" (the body having the smaller particles) “ may impinge upon the atoms of B, whether they be approaching A or receding from it; that is, the atoms of A having a greater velo- city may either meet or overtake the atoms of B ; and the proba-: bilities will be nearly equal the one or the other." This I grant is nearly correct; but C. goes on; “ if one atom a, of the body: A, having a greater velocity than the atom 5, of the body B, overtake the slower atom, the atom a will lose some of its velo- ‘city which will be communicated to the atom b, and thence among the other atoms of the body B. The communication of motion from the atoms of A to the atoms of B will not be com- pensated ; for the atoms of B having less velocity than the atoms Of A, will never overtake them.” Hence by this “ Beautiful reasoning ! Conclusive argument! Invincible demonstration! as self-evident as that two and two make five" (C.’s own words), he concludes, that “ the temperature of the body B shall conti» nually increase.” What becomes of the temperature of A, I do not know; C. has not told us ; but I suppose as “ the tempera- ture of B shall continually increase," that of A increases too. Hence we have another source of heat we did not know of before. It is only to put two bodies in contact with unequal particles, and we shall have heat generated without the aid of friction or percussion ; and without chemical, galvanic, or electric action. And all this results, by C.’s mathematics, from a theory fathered ^ 294 Ds Reply to C.’s Observations [Aprin, by Bacon, aad supported by Newton ; namely, that heat consists. in motion, What a wonderful discovery! “ a discovery," to use. the words Sir H. Davy has employed on another occasion, * that. seems to have been reserved for C. and the year 1821 ;" adisco- very, it is plain, that makes it “as self-evident as that two and. two make five;" that Bacon and Newton, as well as Mr. Hera- path, * have in truth quite mistaken the. road to philosophical: science." Having proved the importance of C.'s discovery, let us consi-- der a little more attentively whether it be really a consequence: of Mr. Herapath's theory, or of C.’s “invincible ” mathematics. Mr. Hs Prop. 4, in the Annals for April, 1821, stands thus :: * If a hard body overtake and strike another hard body, moving: with a less velocity in the same right line, the first body will after the stroke, continue its course with the same velocity which the other body had before it ;; and the second body will acquire from the stroke a momentum equal to the difference of the: velocities of the bodies previous to the contact, drawn into the. mass of the first body ; that is, if A B represent the two bodies; and a'b their velocities before collision, the motion of A after- wards will be A b, and that of B, Bb + (a — 0) A Hence‘ conceiving that the particles of each body move uniformly and respectively with their mean velocities, which is the precise case C. Mis considered, it follows in the case of A overtaking B, that B will return to its body with the motion 2 B ó — b A; and A, instead of returning to its proper body, will continue to move: towards the other body with the motion A 0, until it meet with B, or some other particle, in its exit from the body. For A. cannot now overtake another particle, because its velocity from: the last collision is reduced to the same as that of the particles: of the other body ; nor can it return to its own body, because the. collision did ‘not give it an inward, but merely diminished its. outward, motion. Now the outward particle which A next strikes must evidently meet it with the mean motion B 6 of the: particles to which it belongs.. By Mr. H.'s Prop. 5, of his first. paper, an exchange of motion between A and the second struck. particle will take place; A will return to its body with the: motion B b or A a, and the particle struck to its body with the motion A 6. The motion, therefore, which is communicated to: the body to which A belongs by the return of this particle, under the view in which C. would considerit,is A a; that is, the same: as the proper motion of the particles of the body ; and the total. motion with which the two particles struck return to their body. is2 Bb — Ab + A0 = 2B b; that is, precisely the same as the sum of the mean motions of any two ofits particles. Conse+ quently the temperature of the body, which C. says ought to be augmented, is neither augmented nordiminished, by being in con- tact with a body of an equal temperature having particles less in size. ek EIA Rie 1822]. on-Mr. Herapath’s Theory. 295 The circumstance under which I have considered this; cotre- sponds to the mean circumstances of the case. I have omitted. to consider the unequal motions of the particles arising from: their mutual attraction, which will sometimes make them strike: with a less, and sometimes with a greater, than their mean force; but which ultimately come to the same thing, as if they were all mutually moving among oneanother within prescribed paths, with- a velocity uniform for the particles of each body. However, though this omission will make no difference on the mean com- munication of motion from one body to the other, it will, how- ever, make a considerable difference in one case on which C, has ventured to deliver his opinion. C. says, “the greater. atoms having less velocity than the less will never overtake’ thém." This is not universally the case. In consequence of the mutual action of the particles, they move both in their goings and returnings swifter at some parts of their paths than at others. Generally speaking, in the exterior particles,. which . are those ofthe two bodies that come in contact, their velocities are the swiftest immediately before and after the collision; and. the slowest immediately preceding and following the exterior: extremity of their path. Hence, therefore, the greater particles. may often move much swifter than the less; and BP. ae may frequently overtake and strike them, notwithstanding asserts the contrary. This little circumstance will, perhaps, help to show C. that his haste in this attack on Mr. H. exceeds his judgment, and his temerity his depth. — . | T From the views I have just taken, it follows that if two bodies be brought into. contact, having unequal temperatures, and nothing foreign interferes, they will ultimately have the same temperature; the particles of the body with the higher temper- ature communicating just so much of their excess of motion, as will give to the particles of the other body, individually, a momen- tum equal to their own reduced momentum. For as the parti- cles ‘strike one another in all directions, the differences of temperature which are momentarily communicated to each body by the contact, are distributed as soon, or almost as soon, as communicated, by the successive particles in every direc- tion. By this means, the motion of the particles. which first received the difference of temperature becomes. presently: affected. in the very opposite direction to that m which the dif- ference was first communicated; and consequently the differ- ence between the. communicated motions from body to body becomes less. And thus this difference continually diminishes until the two bodies attain a common temperature. This very simple and obvious consequence I should not have taken the- trouble to explain, had not C. drawn conclusions on this subject too absurd to be entertained by any other person, I apprehend, but himself.: Because by Mr. Hs theory of collision, when two perfectly hard bodies meet moving in opposite directions, an: 296 Messrs. W. and R. Phillips on [APRE] exchange of momenta takes place, C. concluded. that if an absolutely cold body were brought to touch a warm one; no matter how great its temperature, the hot body would become absolutely cold, and the cold one would become as hot as the other was; and this, I believe, is to hold pon whether the bodies have an equal or an unequal number o than the hot one, motion must, to an indefinite extent, be gene- rated by the mere contact; and if the cold body contain a less. number, motion must by the same means be indefinitely: destroyed. It is impossible to tell when one considers these: ridiculous conclusions what we ought rather to do—to smile at the folly, or to pity the absurdity and presumption of the man,: who could thus venture to utter to the world such things as the legitimate consequences of a theory, supported by Bacon, Des. Cartes, and Newton !! : Ihave now shown, so far as C. has objected to it,thatthetheory of heat by motion is not incompatible, but perfectly compatible, with phenomena. He that desires to see the theory amply and fully expounded, may consult Mr. Herapath's last paper in the : Annals, from July, 1821, to January, 1822. It will there be found that Mr. H. has not clothed his theory in the deceitful garb of general reasoning, but has reduced it to mathematical and numerical laws ; and has defended the whole by a phalanx. of facts, which it would, perhaps, put even the confidence of C. to the blush to oppose. (To be concluded in our next.) T ARTICLE VI. On the Crystalline Form of Yellow Copper Ore. By William: Phillips, FLS.&c. With an Analysis. By Richard Phillips, FRS. L. and E. &c. YELLOW copper ore occurs in Cornwall in different states ; namely, crystallized, amorphous, and mamillated, the latter variety sometimes passing into botryoidal and stalactitic. - Every mineralogist, beginning with Romé de Lisle, has to the present time considered the ordinary crystalline form of the pem copper ore to be the regular tetrahedron, which also has een assumed to be the primary form of its crystals, except by Mohs, who considers it to be an octohedron, with a square base, and who notices cleavages parallel to its planes. giunti . Y have for several years been in possession of regular cleavages ` of this substance with perfectly brilliant planes, and even of the ` primary octohedron produced by cleavage, without, however; ` particles. Hence if the cold body should contain a greater number of particles: 1822. so vU Yellow Copper Ore. ^ 297 having been able to satisfy myself as'to the manner in which that octohedron lies (if I may so express myself) in the tetrahe- dron, which is the prevailing form of the crystals; and I should: have found it extremely difficult to satisfy myself on this head, without the assistance of M. Levy, whose mathematical and crys- tallographical acquirements are too well known to need a comment by me. | | cer : | The tetrahedron in which pyritous copper most commonly occurs, but which is never to be found, as far as my observation’ extends, without what may be termed the replacement of its solid angles, is so nearly allied to the regular tetrahedron, that’ it is not surprising it should have deceived the eye of the mine- ralogist, even when assisted by the application of the common goniometer to its planes, since the two tetrahedrons differ but very little from each other in measurement. : Fig. 1. Fig. 3. ^ Fig. 4. Fig. 1 represents the primary octohedron, which is more acute than the regular octohedron, the measurement of P on P^ or P” on P" being 101? 52’, and that of P on P" or P” on P% being 126? 30’: these measurements were taken on brilliant planes of cleavage by the reflective goniometer: ^ ^c y 298. Messrs, W. and R. Phillips on [APRIL ` _ Fig, 2 represents the primary octohedron having the edges of its pyramids, though not of their common base, replaced ; and it - so occurs in Derbyshire. | : Fig. 3 represents the ordinary form of its crystals; namely, a, tetrah edron having its angles replaced, and in the direction in which. it will most obviously, appear to be constituted of the. planes m m, m^ m”, of fig. 2. Hence the tetrahedron is a. secondary crystal, arising. from the complete replacement of all the primary planes by those which truncate the edges of the. primary crystal. It exhibits a remarkable deviation from that metry of form gener so apparent in substances of which e primary crystal is a perfectly regular solid ; for here, although the crystal is so far symmetrical that the planes are alternately large and small, it deviates by so much from that more. perfect equality in the proportions of the secondary planes. observable in those belonging to regularly geometrical primary cry stals. l Fig. 4 represents a crystal in my possession from Cornwall, in which all the planes, except two or three, are sufficiently bril- liant for the use of the reflective goniometer, and this crystal, which exhibits planes that are not very common, or rather that are very uncommon, might alone be assumed as affording suffi- cient evidence that the primary form is not the regular tetrahe- dron... Annexed are the measurements; but it seems requisite» to premise, that angles taken on natural planes, however bril- liant, are rarely perfectly accurate, and in proof that the — are not so, it will be observed that P on P" taken on the natur planes is 102? 15’, but on planes of cleavage 101? 52’, as before stated; but taking the latter as the basis of his calculation, these. measurements will assist the mathematician ; for experience leads me to the conclusion that the difference between truth and. error lies generally within the narrow compass of 30’. P oni P^; otf on P". ¿ ebawonu 102 15 Pon Por PORE t; cuci y 126 30 Pate itis dui, Bid. weeds. 151 25 P: dil a. aver iid saarilla 209 (0 adiu P on m; or/ I owe. s vin ni 141 15. imn" on T s vidt Seer 141. 15. M on m, or m" on m" ..... eese. 108 35 m" .om e; or A&^ on e... see ees 144 20 t^ os fn ovYero. i... TVs ee T OO CRRERLSETTIRE 4. uu 126 30 bond, pi yo sigri J. ilies odds 149 . 2 WON, vue. ede Votive é. ........ > 160- 54 LL. Prémie aA 133 50. ñ Oni Mi iu icid Veios VV. oad, Seni none *. .. . . .. é €. 0 # @ q 0 we a w kent eo 144 10. n on n’ Cle Pewee oe oes C4 Oe eoe 111 50> 1822.] Yellow Copper Ore. 299 | Analysis. | ` I cannot find that crystallized yellow copper ore has ever been _ subjected to analysis, but the amorphous has been Dig jii both by Lampadius and Gueniveau. According to the former, it . consists of OON no. S RUN 43-70 BS Yes cee adult hehe sos PU wee. PEDI MOET. as cee treey eee. Rear v 99529 -100-00 According to Gueniveau, taking the mean of two analyses, one specimen being from Sainbel, and the other from Baigorry, this ore (omitting a small extraneous admixture) consists of OMIT wie al saluc es eyle s w orca a qa 36:36 eg Lael dec wivtusmm dion eid! 33°00 Coppers. seve — €— P 30°64 | 100-00 To analyze this ore, I proceeded in the mode described in page 86 of the present volume. One hundred grains reduced to powder were heated in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acid until the whole of the sulphur was acidified. Half a grain of earthy matter was left undissolved ; to the clear solution, nitrate of barytes was added in excess; and the sulphate of barytes: obtained, after washing and drying, weighed 259'3 grains. The excess of barytes being separated by sulphate of soda, the clear solution: was supersaturated with ammonia so as to’ dissolve the oxide of copper, and precipitate the oxide of iron ; the latter washed and dried, weighed 46 grains. a3 The ammoniacal solution of copper was heated with potash so as to evaporate the whole of the ammonia, and reduce the cop- per to the state of peroxide: this, washed and dried, weighed 37:5 grains. According to Dr. Thomson, 118 of sulphate of barytes are equivalent to. 16. of sulphur ; 259:3, therefore, indicate 35°16 : 40 of peroxide of iron contain 28 of metallic iron ; 46 will give 32:2; and as peroxide of copper contains one-fifth of its weight of oxygen, 37:5 are equal to 30 of copper. On adding together these products, it will be found that with the earthy matter they make 97:86, leaving a deficiency of 2:14 in the 100 parts of ore. As this loss is so considerable, I repeated the analysis as far as regards the copper, in which the error was suspected to exist ; but I obtained precisely the same quantity of peroxide as at first. I, therefore, examined. the solution of potash with which the oxide of copper had been boiled. This solution was saturated with. nitric. acid, carbonate of soda. was added. to it, and a. white precipitate was formed, which was blackened by sulphuret- 300 . Messrs, W. and R. Phillips on. [APRIL, ted hydrogen; it was, therefore, probably oxide of lead. An- other portion of solution saturated with nitric acid gave a preci- pitate with nitrate of lead, after all the sulphuric acid had been thrown down by nitrate of barytes. It is evident, therefore, that ' some arsenic acid was present. BARN i Crystallized yellow copper ore appears, therefore, to consist of Sulphur. ...... sits abe Wak Aes Neen 35°16 | loss WARA i Aegis Ua we Fy lasta qa 3720 ri. i UDUDDUL 4S Aa u> kn Mihe à "edil Mu Li a e^ PAGAY MAHAL ss. vado Nacinto Sh ^* ed OO BP | | 97°86 Lead, arsenic, and loss. ........... . 214 100-00 If we neglect the small quantity of lead, arsenic, and earthy matter, as extraneous, it will appear thatmy analysis of the crys- tallized ore agrees so nearly with Gueniveau’s statement of the composition of the amorphous variety, that they may be consi- dered as differing only in form. | The mamellated variety was next submitted to analysis: this is much less common than the other varieties, and I am not sure. whether it occurs in any other place than Cornwall.» It is thus - described by Count Bournon, in the Philosophical Transactions. for 1801, under the name of yellow hematitic copper ore : “ This. kind of copper ore is sometimes of a deep yellow colour, which. inclines the more to green, as it is destitute of brilliancy. : It is very compact, and, when broken, the fracture appears smooth, sometimes a little conchoidal ; its surface, however, has a very fine grain, which, when viewed with a powerful lens, resembles. the aggregation of a very close compact mass of the finest sand.” It is afterwards stated that it occurs mamillated, botryoidal, and in the form of small cylinders ; and: by the decomposition of the surface, it acquires violet, blue, and green colours. K In the same volume of the Transactions, Mr. Chenevix has given an analysis of this ore, according to which it consists of BGIPOUEs yy cove eed k AXA WAQ cR Pis bi a a EE PE A IR a a 30 CINE OF POR OS oia denne aay: xot ydp ler menace Piqpa, ys) © ) APUL in y UMEN The first observation which occurs with respect to this ana- lysis is, that there does not exist, as faras I recollect, any mineral which consists of a sulphuretted metal in combination with an oxide. Added to this, it is to be observed that the sulphur exceeds by 4:5 the quantity required to form a protosulphuret with the copper, and is deficient 3 to form a persulphuret. - 1822.] Yellow Copper Ore. 301 ' a On examining Mr. Chenevix’s process, it will be seen that he neglected to examine the nitric solution of the copper and iron for sulphuric acid, which must have been formed while the ` nitric acid was dissolving these metals, and the quantity of sul- phur was determined merely by weighing the portion remaining unacidified. This circumstance will: account for a part at least of the deficiency which Mr. Chenevix has attributed to oxygen ; and further, to prove the iron exists in the state of oxide, he says, that the greater part of the iron, but none of the copper, is dissolved in muriatic acid. I must confess that I have obtained different results... After long boiling in muriatic acid, the ore lost only seven per cent. and of this à part was copper. | I found that this ore contained a little arsenic, but I did not discover traces of any other metal, excepting iron and copper. I performed the analysis in the mode already described, and obtained from 100 grains, 1:1 of insoluble earthy matter, 254-2 of sulphate of barytes, 44 of peroxide of iron, and 39 of peroxide of copper; and according to what has been already stated of the composition of these substances, the ore consists of rsen NE d PNA Ua ae UE ke tos 34:46 a i eoo noa E LOL IUD Pus Ls sa 30°80 Untper TERE Eee ad Li Se Sakae de e 31:20 Earthy matter ...... PEINE 142 2 SÀ 1-10 KL ou, yi l. S S 244 100:00 Now these proportions differ, excepting in the quantity of copper, most materially from the results of Mr. Chenevix; but they agree so nearly with those obtained by Gueniveau from the amorphous and by myself from the crystallized variety, that I - trust it will be evident that all the varieties are similarly consti- tuted; and I shall now attempt to show their atomic constitution. A compound of two atoms of protosulphuret of iron and one atom of persulphuret of copper, would consist of 4 atoms of sulphur 16 x 4. ........ — 64 2'atoms of iron 28: x2... ...... a = 66 Paton OF coppers 225 PIS 9 7. Va =; 64 | | 184 And 100 parts will give IRS ain sled nena AHORRO hace § 34°78 Ms UNDA BOURSE y «HEME Coren NK Ag 30°44 CARATS T NNI E PPT a QUEUE MIRROR bint» 34:78 As | 100-00 ^ With respect to the crystallized yellow copper ore, it will be seen that if we neglect the arsenic, lead, and earthy matter, as 302 Dr. Thomson on the Influence of Humidity [APRIL extraneous bodies, and supply the deficiency with copper, 100 parts will consist of | "oon | Sulphur, CeCe gti WA wi 35:16 Iron ..... .... ..... 6 | t £9 ........ 32°20 CORRER senno Fr iom nod 6 aratro» eim LODE MS a -100-00 Still leaving the copper about two per cent. too little, and the sulphur and iron in. excess. If, however, we adopt the same "m with the analysis of the mamellated yellow copper, we shall ave a very near approximation to the. theoretical composition which I. have suggested ; ‘viz. aoro: Sulphur. ........ OO eal ee dn ole wees 94:46 deg ee UKE ER 009 e ca Mea iav 30°80 ` ors 5 pO CODER DC On NE oan rye 34°74 . ARTICLE VII. On the Influence of Humidity in modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. By Thomas Thomson, MD. ERS. Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. : A FRIEND of mine, whose intelligence and candour I estimate very highly, mentioned to me some time ago that he considered the specific gravity of hydrogen gas given in my paper published in the Annals of Philosophy, vol. xvi. p. 168, as inaccurate ; because the gas had not been previously freed from. moisture ; and being collected over water, must have contained as much vapour as was compatible with the temperature at which the specific gravity was taken. This objection renders it proper for me to enter somewhat more into detail than I did in that paper, in order to show how far my mode of experimenting guarded against this obvious. source of inaccuracy. I do this the more willingly, because it will give me an. opportunity of calling the attention of chemists to a property of vapour, ascertained indeed more than ten years ago; but which does not seem to have yet attracted the attention of scientific men; at least I am not aware of any allusion to it in any of the.systematic works on heat, which have lately appeared. In the second volume of the second series of the Manchester Memoirs, published in 1818, there is à paper by John Sharpe, Esq. entitled ** An Account of some Experiments to ascertain whether the Force of Steam be in Proportion to the generating Heat." In this paper, Mr. Sharpe relates experiments proving the truth of the two following propósitions: 1. Water heats equably, or in the same time (supposing the heating cause the .1829/]] dn modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. 303 ysame) from 120° up to the highest temperature which ‘it can reach without boiling (and that temperature depends w the pressure). Suppose, for example, that it is heated 10°, or "from 120°-to 130°, in three minutes, it will be heated from 270° ‘to 280? in the same time. The reason of this equality I sup- | -pose to be that the quantity of heat constantly flowing into the "water from the fire (or the difference between the temperature of the fire and water) is. so considerable, that the 150° or 200° of ‘heat which have been added have no sensible effect in diminish- ‘ing’ that difference. 2. Six ounces. of steam of 212° condensed ‘into water give out as much heat as six ounces of steam of the temperature 275°; but the second six ounces come over in à ‘much shorter period than the first. - dul. | | M. Clement, whom I had the pleasure of seeing in Glas ‘about two months ago, informed’ me that he had verified this ‘last experiment of Mr. Sharpe at different. temperatures ; and what adds to the value of these determinations is, that he was not aware of Mr. Sharpe’s experiments till^I pointed them out to him in my own library. Thus the experiments of Mr. Sha and M. Clement serve mutually to confirm each other, and: rentitle us to draw the following conclusion from them : -What- ever be the temperature of steam from 212? upwards, if we take the same weight of it, and condense it by water, the temperature | of the water will be always elevated the same number of degrees. It follows from this general law that the latent and sensible : heats of steam (reckoning from 32?) added together always form ‘a constant quantity, whatever be the temperature of the steam. "This puts it in our power to determine the latent heat of steam at every other temperature, provided we be acquainted with» it at the temperature of 212°. Now the latent heat of steam at 212? I believe to be 1016°. The sensible heat of steam at 212° (reckoning from 32?) is 180°; consequently the sensible and latent heats of steam at 212? added together make up the quan- tity 1196°. And this being the amount of the latent and sensible ‘heats of steam at every temperature, the method of determining the latent heat of steam at all temperatures becomes selfevident. _ "The following table exhibits the sensible and latent heats of ‘steam at a variety of different temperatures : “Temp. of the steam. ' Sensible heat. Latent heat. FICAN PIT 30 pipo sr] PE AIG «71196? xdi Bad ^ DU sci ao BO 22009 412389. 1178 s PER OEY, Pi Bay wogny, q . 1128 BEP is ek IA : 1900 VIN USOIM 1078 > cult Dok a Ae. RON TIT. oF to uS 1028 edic: A AL a LS 1: ht uQ 211. AIO SU LEE dir 1 oer tun R: 978 SO U £a dies TU Cake Py q 928 344 Pere 0... .... 312 sa e ooa... 884 “600 SCHO CEPT W. 468 e. .. eoo o. 728 304 Dr. Thomson on the Influence of Humidity [Apnrit, The inspection of this table, which the reader may easily extend ad libitum, will enable us to explain several phenomena, which, though they have been long known, have not yet, so far as l know, been satisfactorily accounted for. Mr. Watt, for example, found, that water could be distilled over in a vacuum very well at the temperature of 70°; but to his great astonish- “ment, the latent heat of the vapour was just as much greater than the latent heat of steam at 212?, as the temperature of 70? was lower than 212°. Now, from the preceding law, it is obvious that this must be the case, and that more fuel is required to -distil water in vacuo than in the open air.. One of the advan- tages which Mr. Woulfe stated as belonging to his high ressure engines was, that they performed more work with a ess expence of fuel than the ordinary steam engines. And I have been told by more than one Cornish gentleman conversant with these engines, that they really save a considerable quantity of fuel. Now itis easy to see from the preceding table taken in conjunction with the known increase of the elasticity of the steam at high temperatures, that this must be the case. The elasticity of steam at the temperature of 344° is eight times reater than at 212°; while, at the same time, the latent heat is 32° less. It is necessary indeed to raise the sensible heat of the water to be converted into steam 132° higher than 212°. But this is an expenditure of fuel only made once for all; for the water, when once heated to that temperature, may be kept at it with comparatively little fuel. Thus steam is employed with the greater economy the higher the temperature to which it is raised. But the great strength necessary for vessels containing high pressure steam, and the eater liability of these vessels to be injured, necessarily sets a imit to the temperature to which the steam can be raised. This law, to which the latent heat of vapour is subjected, bas struck. several persons to whom I have stated it with surprise ; yet it is perfectly analogous to what takes me in other bodies. hus it 1s well known that the specific heat of common air increases in proportion to its expansion. This is the reason why the temperature of the air diminishes in proportion as we ascend in the atmosphere. Now the latent heat of vapour is analogous to the specific heat of air. It ought, therefore, to increase in proportion as the particles of the vapour get further and further from each other. We have only to admit that the specific gravity of vapour increases with the elasticity or the temperature, to render the whole perfectly perspicuous. Now every thing conspires to satisfy us that this is really the case ; but if we admit it, we can easily ascertain the specific gravity of vapour at every temperature. From the experiments of M. Gay- Lussac, it follows that the specific gravity of steam at 212? is 0-625, supposing the specific gravity of air at that Seo sivit to be unity. From this, itis obvious, that if we reckon the specific verted into steam, its volume is increased 1754 times. Now this approaches very near to 1800 times, which was the increase of bulk: determined long ago by the experiments of Mr. Watt... . The following. little table exhibits the. specific gravity sof ¥apour at different temperatures both above and below 212°, calculated on the supposition that the specific gravity of vapour increases as its elasticity... The reader, by. means of the tables of the elasticity of steam at different temperatures, which I have inserted in vol, i. p.61, of the, sixth edition. of my System of Chemistry, may extend. this little table as far as he thinks proper. ‘The specific gravity of common air at.60? is reckoned unity. j Temperature, Sp. gr. of aqueous vapour. ABO t ANN doro wig FEE OT AT 3g: Pais p ke thor bt Ap 0:00413 ov Avila DAC Igli-g «» GAP + » ells a as -0-00590 caue ol at ae wh repo! wee 000824 an 70 adh od} Woted OQ. abe P OD Sn ds ái BBD v98re 5iubsqea vA dau. sog eM i» «3581014405... 0E: Ai ire b 90 “ey UV o bie w Obi be ed o c) i W pid. ó 0:02140 it H? ur w30 IO ion. otani «243 « ocxsaieeossp a 1002880 | A ROS: | Q9. ALi Gildea uari Q T 0:472 200 uUi i A «alex 90i kie an U AE FOLI 300 aV RAE od SON AGE E. (ups 2:203 j » 93436 kb Glide » «340 Daria ooo ELO ..l have entered into the preceding details, because the know- ledge of them puts it in our power to determine the amount of the error occasioned by the gas, whose specific gravity we are deter- mining, containing as much vapour as can exist in it under the given temperature. ` | x Let us suppose that we determine the specific gravity of com- mon air by weighing 50'éubic inches of it in a glass flask at the temperature of 60?. ‘And let us suppose further that'this por- tion of air is saturated with vapour from having been left for some time in contact with water. At the temperature of 60°, the elasticity of vapour is 0°52 inch of mercury, and its specific gravity 000824 ; while that of air is 1000. Now 0:52 is nearly 1-58th of 30... The problem, there- - fore, is reduced to finding the specific gravity of a mixture of 57 volumes of air of the specific gravity 1, and one volume of vapour of the specific gravity 0°00824. | Let A = volume of air = 57. a = specific gravity of air = 1. — volume of vapour — 1. 6 = specific gravity of vapour = 0:00824. 2s. & = specific: gravity of mixture. New Series, VOL, 111. X. 306 Dr.-Thomson on the Influence of Humidity I ase j4 Then, by a well known principle in pneumatics, | ^. PITE Aa + Bb _ 57 + 000824 MOOR r= T= A 209899, ^" > piv presence of the vapour, it is obvious, diinininhes ‘the ific gravity of the air a little. The true specific gravity of air should have been 1:0000; but we have obtained only x :9829, which is less by 0 0171, or somewhat more than Lp art. If the temperature, instead of 60°, had been only 329, the error would have been less. At that temperature, the elastici of aqueous vapour is 0-2 inch, and its specific gravity HOSP so that the volume of air is 149, and that of po l. | - Here we have A= "149 | a= l B=1 b= 0 00314. abit | en ed A-a + a 149 + 0-00314 _ 0-99336, A: + | 150. | or little more than 1- 150th jai below the truth. We see from these examples, that the specific gravity of air is diminished very nearly by the volume of. vapour mixed with it. And the lower the temperature,- the. more nearly does this Mpprose to accuracy; because the specific. gravity becomes s less and less considerable. S W en the gas under examination. is. heavier than common ait, the error becomes more considerable. The heaviest gas, whose specific gravity can be taken over water, is chlorine, ts specific gravity is 2-5. Let us determine the error, when we. weigh it, A and over water at the temperature of 52°, Here we have ` A = 149 a = 2°5 B= 1 b. = 0-002314 and xi pertes Aa + Bb 149 x 2:5 + 000314 es ^X Here the error is 07083313, or 1-30th part. When the gas is lighter than common air, the error Maie nishes; but still continues too great to be neglected. The lightest gas with which we are acquainted is hydrogen gas. Its specific gravity is O 0694. Let us determine what the specifie gravity would be when weighed over water at the goes 0f32?. We have A = 149 a = 0:0694 B=1 b = 0:00314 and Aa+ Bb 103472 + 000314 — 10:35096 1:3 150 = Tj = 00690. 1892.]. in modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. 807 Here the error is 0*0004, or about 1-173d part; or the specific avity of hydrogen gas, when taken in this way, comes out a 73d part below the truth. | ; "The method, which I am in the habit of adopting to obviate ‘this source of maccuracy, is very simple; and though it does mot annihilate the error ; yet it reduces it to so small a quantity, that it may be neglected without any bad consequences. The method is this; | | - "The flask in which the gas is to be weighed is exhausted by the air pump, and then filled with common air, which has been -standing for some time upon the same water trough with the gas whose specific gravity is to be taken. Thus filled with -common air, it is weighed very accurately by means of a balance made for me by Mr. Crichton, of Glasgow, which when loaded with a pound in each scale turns sensibly with the 1-200th of a rain troy,* . The flask is then exhausted and weighed again. | Tet the loss of weight be m. Finally, the flask is filled with the gas, whose specific gravity is wanted, and weighed again. Let the increase of weight be n. .It is obvious that the specific. gravity of the gas is — =. | `| Let us suppose that the specific gravity of pure hydrogen gas: is taken in this way at the temperature of 327. We have seen that at that temperature the hydrogen gas weighs 1-173d part - less than it would do if it were dry, and that the common air weighs 1-150th less than the true weight. These two errors do not indeed balance each other exactly ; but they reduce the error to 1-7th of what it would be, if we were to deduce the spe- cific gravity of the liydrogen gas by comparing it with the weight of dry air; so that the deviation from the truth 1s reduced to 4. part. And by this the hydrogen gas will weigh more than it ought instead of less ; for 0°9933 : 1 :: 00690 : 0:06946 = specific gravity of hydrogen gas thus deduced. Now this exceeds the true specific gravity of hydrogen gas by somewhat less than 2 in the fifth decimal place. Now if we suppose the flask capable of holding 100 cubie inches of gas (and this exceeds the size of my flask), the hydro-. gen weighed would not exceed two grains. My balance is onl capable of going to the 1-200th of a grain, or to the 4000th part of the weight of the hydrogen. Hence it is obviously incapable of determining the. weight of the hydrogen gas to the fifth decimal place with accuracy. On that account I never go fur- ther than four decimal places; so that an error in the fifth is of no consequence. Let us see, what the error would amount to if we take the ct gravity of hydrogen gas in this way at the temperature of 60°. | | | . * This balance does Mr. Crichton's skill a great deal of credit, It is the best balance for chemical purposes which I have ug seen, oo FO X 1808) OHM Moyleorthe 77 ^ (enit, «il |j 5nT 9 ; M (00 0 a = 06694 T zia DERI poco BR 1. D = 000824 and. .: ^ 5 coa abii Aa+ Bb 05890-00894 3-96657, , lap oi pile te mem 58. iy: vos al TE RID Here the error is 00106, or almost 1-65th part, by which the hydrogen gas is too light. But, at the same temperature, com- «mon air saturated with moisture is about 1-58th part too light. “These two errors: do not quite correct’each other; but they ren- der the specific gravity of the hydrogen gas somewhat higher than the truth; for 0:9829 : 1:::0:06838 : 006956 = ‘sp. gr. of hydrogen gas taken in this way. "This exceeds the truth about »1-600th part. We see from it that the specific gravity of hydro- “gen gas should be taken at as low a témperature as possible. ; I have little doubt that ‘the specific gravity of hydrogen gas ‘found by Berzeliusand Dulong ; namely, 00688, was a httle too slight, in consequence’ of the singe of the ‘vapour of water in it. To prevent the vapour of water from mixing with their gas, they covered the surface of the water in the trough with.oil. | "But if the gas, when’ roduced, passed through water, as it ` "obviously must have done, this precaution could not have . “answered the end intended. It is obvious that the presence of "vapour, instéad of augmenting the specific gravity of the gases, ` ‘would have diminished it. "Ihe error then in the determination | "6f the specific gravity of hydrogen gos by Biot and Arago, did | “not proceed from the presence of "of a small quantity of common air. vapour ; but from the. presence | . r 7 ? I Y ) rit wv ATY J IBU = “y. í f Í _ l Í si t r — s m is ee sc nitent A adio, daa ARTICLE, VIII. ah adi AEE Qa A Observations on the Tempe ae, 0 j Mines in Cornwall. ait hed ath SONU M. P. Moyle. ES (To'the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) % SIR, » A | | Helston, March 16, 1892. Mr, Fox having communicated to the editors of the Annales ‘de Chimie et de Physique new determinations on the tempera ture of the earth at various depths, these. gentlemen haye pub- dished them, along with an extract made by M. Fourier, from his profound geometrical researches on heat. - C — ^ ^. Mr. Fox's observations were made in 10 different mines in this ,county. from the.depth of 10 fathoms to that of 240 fathoms, atin- tervals of 10fathoms from-each observation; and; according to his 1822.1 ;. Temperature of Mines in Cornwall. 309.. descent, it appears that the temperature of the earth gradually.. increased from that of 50-18? Fahr. at 10 fathoms to that of. 82-04? Fahr. at 240. fathoms, the bottom of Doleoath Mine. ` This statement of Mr. Fox differing so entirely from a few obser-- vations which I made a. few years since on the temperature of. mines, compels me to notice them, and more particularly when. Mr. F. would wish to infer the great, superiority of temperature of the internal part of the earth over that of the surface. At the bottom of the mine at Dolcoath, 240 fathoms deep, there. issues from the vein a jet of water, whose constant temperature~ is 80:04? Fahr. ** What more evident proof cau be given,” says Mr. Fox, “ of the great heat of the interior state of the lobe?" Surely Mr. F. would not infer from. this the superior eat of the internal strata generally ; he might as well draw his. conclusions from measuring the. temperature of the boilin fountain in Iceland, which spouts its columns to the height of 90 — feet, and is found boiling-hot after its descent. The source of - this heat it is not necessary to discuss; but I am apprehensive, that Mr. F. would not have found the temperature of the earth ` os the same depth, and some way distant from the spring, so M have taken the temperature. of several different mines at various depths, and in the working part of mines have generally . found the increase of temperature m a similar ratio to what Mr. Fox states; the cause of which Linferred was from the presence of so numerous a body of workmen in different parts of the said. mine, often amounting to 400 or more, at one time, under ground, and generally the greatest number at the bottom; also from the greater confinement and. density of the air. Surely this must have a great effect in not only warming the atmosphere of the spot, but the very walls of the galleries, and even their beds, to the depth of many inches; and although Mr. F. may have taken his observations when the bulb of the thermometer has been * placed six or eight inches in the body of the rock," he must not forget that the surrounding atmosphere must have penetrated to that depth before he could possibly have placed the thermometer there. I come now to state a few of the results of my own observa- tions. It doesnot appear from Mr. Fox's account that any part of a mine remote from the working had been proved, where we . certainly should expect to find the medium, or rather the true mean, if any where. "This I have done in several instances: one ortwo may suffice to convince the candid reader that Mr. Fox must either have drawn false conclusions, or did not take the temperatures in a proper manner. ` Some years since in Wheal Unity (the same mine which Mr. Fox visited), one of the galleries to the western part of the mine, at the depth of about 150 fathoms, which had not been worked for more than 12 months, at. the extreme end, there being no, 310 ' ^ Analyses of Books.’ [A Pnir, cürrent, I found the temperature was just 65°, while the working part at the same depth was 74°. ` | IL SB In Wheal Trumpet Tin Mine, the extreme eastern part at 75 fathoms in depth, has not been worked for 18 months. This gal- lery has no other communication with any other part of the mine for a distance of more than 20 fathoms in length: herethetem- erature was two months since 52°; the working part, 30 fathoms istant, at the same time, and at the same depth, was 67°, the temperature of the open atmosphere being 60°. At the 86 fathom gallery in this mine, the water that issues from the vein was 51°, while the air of the same place was 68:7?. ila I have also proved the temperature of several old mines which have ceased working for many years. At the adit level of Old- Trevenen Tin Mine (14 fathoms from the surface), the tempera- ture was less by 4? than the common atmosphere. This most probably may be owing to the stillness of the air, and not being subject to such quick variations oftemperature as on the surface. A. shaft in this mine being full of water from the bottom to the adit level, the water proved 2:5? lower than the atmosphere at the surface, which, in my opinion, clearly proves that had the bottom part of this mine (about 110 fathoms) been much warmer than the surface of the earth, its heat would, in the course of eight years, which is the time since she ceased working, have been communicated to this water generally, especially as this shaft is always overflowing, and in which case it would be indi- cated by the thermometer. | ! inpe cad, I might adduce more instances to prove what I have here asserted, but I conceive sufficient has been said to show that Mr. Fox could only have tried places in which the air was influenced by the presence of the workmen. I can also prove’ that considerable variation in the temperature of a part of a mine is caused by the different currents of air, being in some places very still and confined, and in others, a few feet distant, | 50 strong that a candle is constantly blown out. nin I am, Sir, your humble servant, M. P. Movie. ARTICLE IX. ANALYSES or Books. Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève. Tom. ]. Premiere Partie. We are informed in the preface to this work, that although: the Physical Society of Geneva originated in. 1790, yet the 1822.] "Mémoires dela Société de Genève. 311 greater part of the Memoirs which had been read before it have been gradually published by their authors in scientific journals, or other works. The Society being, however, of opinion, that several communications which. they possessed were worthy of publication, a part of them has now Bean printed; and for this we are indebted to the present volume, or rather the first part of a volume. ! l Oe The names of those who constitute the Society are sufficient to raise expectations that the subjects treated of will be of such a nature as to interest the scientific reader ; and we think it will be allowed, on perusing the memoirs contained in this volume, that the Society has made a judicious selection of the commu- nications presented to them. p ' These Memoirs are 12 in number, and, for the present, we must content ourselves with enumerating them, intending to take an early opportunity of making such extracts from the more interesting, as may convey some idea of their respec- tive ments. | I. Memoir upon some Peculiarities in the Eye of the Tunny (Scomber Thynnus of Linneus), and some other Fishes. By Mr. L. Jurine. T II. Notice respecting the Teeth and Mastication of the Fishes called Carp. By the Same. : HI. On the Effect of the Motion of a refringent Plane upon Refraction. By Mr. P. Prevost. | ` IV. Observations upon the Relations which exist between the Axes of Double Refraction, and the Form of Crystals. By Mr. F. Soret. V. Notice respecting Mica. By the Same. y ~ VI. Memoir on different Physical and Meteorological Instru- ments. By Mr. Peter Huber. . VII. Memoir on the Fall of Leaves. By Mr. P. Vaucher. © "^ VII. Notice relating to the Basaltic Country of the Depart- ments of the Rhine, Moselle, and Sarre. By Mr. M. A. Pictet. : IX. Memoir on the Charagnes. By Mr. Vaucher. X. Essay on the Spermatic Animalculi of several Animals. By MM. J. L. Prevost and J. A. Dumas. XI. Memoir on the Natural Affinities of the Family Nym- phea. By P.M. De Candolle. ! | XII. On the Influence of Green Fruits upon the Air before they ripen. By Mr. De Saussure. | 312 Proceedings of Philosophical-Societies. [APREN . ARTICLE. X. | Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Feb. 28.—Communication of a curious Appearance lately observed upon the Moon. By the Rev. F. Fallows. pte On the Difference in the Appearance of the Teeth and Shape of the Skull in different Species of Seals.. By Sir Everard Home, Bart i March 7.—Experiments and Observations on the Develope- ment of Magnetical Properties in Steel and Iron by Percussion. By William Scoresby, Jun. (Communicated by the President.) March 14 aud 21.—A paper was read on the Alloys of Ste By J. Stodart, Esq. FRS. and Mr. Faraday, Chemical Assistant | to the Royal Institution. : ~ These alloys were first made on a small scale in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. The results proring satisfactory, the experiments were extended, and alloys made for the purpose of manufacture to a considerable extent; these proved equal, if not superior, to the smaller productions of the laboratory. he. metals that formed the most valuable alloys with steel were stated to be silver, platinum, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and palladium, and, with the exception of silver, the best pro- portion of the alloying metal about 1-100th part. Steel with silver will combine with only 1-500th part; when more is fused, the metals form only a mechanical mixture. These alloys may be advantageously used for every purpose where good. steel is required, but the scarcity and value of some of the metals must operate as a preventive to their general introduction. | The experimentalists were most liberally furnished with all these metals through the kindness of Dr. Wollaston, | The presence ofthe alloying metal in the alloy was constantly proved by chemical tests, and the compound, alter being forged into a bar, was further examined as to uniformity, by acting on the surface previously brightened by diluted acid. | _ É . Such processes of analysis were given as were deemed useful to the manufacturer, the general process. was to act by dilute sulphuric acid, to burn off the carbon &c. from the residuum, and then examine the matter left by the means generally required for each particular metal. A remarkable fact was noticed as to the promptness of action exerted by acids on some of the alloys; those, for instance, containing platmum, and some other metals — acted on many times more rapidly by acids than unalloyed steel. The action of acids on hard and soft steel was found also to leave residua very different in kind; that from hard steel being a 1822A) Royal Geological. Society,of Cornwall. 313 black carbonaceous powder; while that from soft steel and soft alloys was in much greater abundance and plumbagenous. . When the alloys were acted on by dilute sulphuric acid, the residuum boiled ia the acid, and the powder left acted on by: nitric acid, this powder, whenever the alloy contained a metal insoluble in nitric acid, was either detonating or strongly defla- grating; whereas, when the alloying metal was soluble in nitric acid, the powder was entirely dissolved, and nothing of a similar nature produced. | It was observed that the metals.platinum and rhodium combine with steel in every proportion, forming with some of the higher proportions beautiful compounds, the colour favourable for me- tallic mirrors, and not subject to tarnish on exposure to the atmosphere. Steel with the last named metal was particularly noticed. ! ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL. The following papers have been read since the last Report : On the Mineral Productions and Geology ofthe Parish of St. Just. By Joseph Carne, Esq. FRS. MRIA. Member of the Society. On some Advantages which Cornwall possesses for the Study of Geology, and on the Use which may be made of them. By John Hawkins, Esq. FRS. Honorary Member of the Society. On Stratification, and on the external Configuration. of the Granite of Cornwall. By John Forbes, MD. Secretary of the Society. On the Gwithian Sands. By Henry Boase, Esq. Treasurer of the Society. | On the Siaty Rocks of Cornwall, more particularly on those usually denominated Killas. By Dr. Forbes. | Additional Observations on the Temperature of Mines: ` By R. W. Fox, Esq. Member of the Society. . á Notice on the Geology of Nice. By G.C. Fox, Esq. Member of the Society. Some Account of the South American Mines.. By the Rev. John Trevenen. Some Account of the Mines of Pasco, in South America. By: Mr. Richard. Hodge.. Communicated, with additional Obser- vations, by Sir Christopher Hawkins, Bart. MP. FRS. Member ofthe Society. - | | ! Some Account of the external Features (natural and artificial) of a Country, from which its Geological Structure may be inferred. ‘By Dr. Forbes. | | : Notice of the Quantity of Copper raised in Great Britain and Ireland in the Year ending June, 1821. By Mr. Alfred Jenkyn, Member of the Society. — mr Notice of the Quantity of Tin. raised in Cornwall in the Year ending June, 1821. By Joseph Carne, Esq. FRS. 314 : Scientific Intelligence?) °°. [ApRtt, Officers and Council for the present Year. pico " v President.—Davies Gilbert, Esq. MP. VPRS.&c.&c. ` .Vice-Presidents.—Sir C. Hawkins, Bart: MP.; Sir. R. H. ye, KCB.; J. H. Tremayne, Esq. MP. ; HP. Tremenheere, . B dA Forbes, MD. Treasurer.—Henry Boase, Esq.) |... Librarian.—Rev. C. V. Le Grice, AM. Curator.— Edward C. Giddy, Esq. b Ios Assistant Secretary.—R. Moyle, à odi Baai su mich TUS The Council.—Joseph Carne, Esq. ; H. M. Grylls, Esq.; W. Bolitho, Esq.; W. Dennis, Esq.; R. W. Fox, Esq.; Rose Price, Esq.; J. Paynter, Esq.; S. Stephens, Esq.; Rev. W. Veale, and T. Giddy, Esq. p rM as ARTICLE XI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS » CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE... | L Edward Daniel Clark, LLD. FRS. &c. &c. In announcing the lamented death of this distinguished philoso- pher and traveller, the editor is permitted to state, that a biographical notice by one of his intimate friends perfectly competent to appre- ciate his merits in every branch of science, will appear in the next number of the Annals of Philosophy. m II. Precipitation of Silver by Chlorine. | The editor of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. XVIII. p.270, alluding to a statement made by Mr. Faraday and myself, that a gas was chlorine, because it precipitated nitrate of silver, says ina note, “ This gas could not be pure chlorine, for it would pond i nac nitrate of silver; it must have contained hydrochloric acid." | | ' It is difficult to account for this mistake, and still more difficult to suppose that it could have originated with either of the acknow- ledged editors of the Annales de Chimie; to prove its incorrectness, it is requisite, only to refer to the tenth volume of. the same work, p. 425, and eleventh volume, p. 108,—M. Gay Lussae there states, that if nitrate of silver be dropped into a solution of chloride of lime, until. no further precipitation takes place, the supernatant liquid, if mo- derately heated, is decomposed, and oxygen, gas disengaged ; and if the residual matter be dissolved in water acidulated with nitric acid, a portion of chloride of silver remains behind, The fact is, that a portion of chlorate of silver is formed which prevents the precipitation of the whole of the silver in the state of chloride; but it is evident from this very statement, that when chlorine gas is passed into nitrate » of silver, a portion of chloride must be precipitated. © =+- Nitrate of silver must, therefore, be considered as a'test of the’ 1822.) Scientific Intelligence. 315 resence of chlorine, even when uncombined with hydrogen ; and it is also evident, that nitrate of silver cannot be relied upon for deter- mining the quantity of free chloriné: nor did Mr. Faraday and myself attempt to employ it for this purpose.— Edit. | III. Composition of Oxalic Acid. M. Dobereiner stated about five years since, that oxalic acid con- tains no hydrogen, and that it is formed of equal volumes of. oxide of carbon and carbonic acid, combined with a proportion of water. He considered this water as essential to its existence, and that if it were taken away, the acid would be decomposed. Reflecting afterwards upon the great affinity which fuming sulphuric acid. has for water, he performed the following experiment, which he has described ina pamphlet upon pneumatic chemistry : Five grains of dried oxalic acid, but still containing a quantity of. water, were mixed with 200 grains, of fuming sulphuric acid, in an apparatus for receiving gases over mercury. The oxalic acid gra- dually and totally disappeared, and produced 9:4 cubic inches of gas ; the sulphuric acid became less fuming. 'The gases washed with ammonia were reduced to 4^7 cubic inches, and consequently contained 4^7 cubic inches of carbonic acid. The gas which the ammonia did not absorb was oxide of carbon; for it burnt with a blue flame, and being detonated in Volta's eudiometer with half its volume of oxygen, it produced an equal volume of the car- bonic acid, without any appearance of water; the weight of carbonic acid, added to that of the oxide of carbon, represents exactly that of the anhydrous oxalic acid ; and M. Dobereiner concludes that this acid. contains no hydrogen; for if it contained any, sulphurous acid should. be formed ; or if the hydrogen was combined with a portion of oxygen of the oxalic acid, the carbonic gas and the oxide of carbon would be found in different proportions. | | In this experiment, the sulphuric acid combines only with. the water, and in order that it may succeed, it is requisite that the sul- phuric acid should be fuming, like that of Nordhaussen: for common acid does not decompose oxalic acid.—(Ann. de Chimie et Phys.) IV. Hot Springs of St. Michael. The vicinity of the springs is indicated by the increased temper- ature of the earth, a sulphurous odour, and the escape of vapour or steam from every crack or fissure in the ground. The. volumes. of smoke and steam rolling upwards from the surface to a great height, till they are. gradually diffused through the atmosphere, or mingle: with the heavier clouds that crown the summit. of the mountains, produce a striking effect. The confused rumbling and hissing noise that is heard for some time before we arrive in sight of the springs, increases at last to an incessant and terrific roar, and seems to issue. from the very spot. on which we stand. he. earth returns a hollow: sound, and great. caution is required to avoid stepping into the pools and streams of boiling water with which its surface is covered. "C The quantity of hot water discharged through the innumerable orifices in the ground is prodigiously great, and the different streams unite, forming a small river, that, still hot, joins the Ribeira Quentes The largest streams are termed. “caldeiras, or boilers, and a shallow basin of earthy matter has been formed round each of them 316 Scientific Intelligence. [ApRin, by depositions from the water. Much of the water.is constantly re- strained within these reservoirs, and its surface is more or less agitated. by the escape of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and the ejection of water from below. The temperature of some of these springs on the second day of December, between three and four o'clock, p. m., the thermometer standing at 63 degrees, Fahrenheit; the barometer at 29:4, was as follows :— 207° 200° 98° 137° 208° 190 134 RES LL adi 114 184 94 122 171 147 * The basin of the largest spring particularly designated as “ the. Caldeira," is circular, and between twenty and thirty feet in diame- ter. The water in this boils with much greater violence than in any other Caldeira, and distinct loud explosions occur at short intervals, which are succeeded by a very perceptible elevation of the centre of the body of water within the basin. This is attended with a loud. hissing noise, the escape of great quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen, gas, steam, and sulphurous acid vapour. On. account. of the high; temperature, and vast quantities of steam, it is dangerous to ap- pe near this spring, except on the windward side, The cattle, owever, are often seen standing on the opposite side, to free them». selves, as it. is supposed, from vermin. The peasants ave in the habit of placing baskets filled with lupines, beans, and other veges tables, on the edge of the basin where they are speedily cooked. | Every interstice in the ground, and the surfaces of many of the. loose rocks, are incrusted with sulphur, which is sometimes, crystal-. lized in acute pyramids, but more commonly in delicate fibres. A, considerable quantity of it might be collected in a short time. Silex: is deposited from the water under a variety of forms, and many small e of pumice and altered lava are cemented by it,—(Dr. Webster's istory of the Island of St. Michael.) V. On the Solution of Carbonate of Lime. Mr. Dalton, in a paper containing remarks on the analysis of spring and mineral waters, has stated some interesting circumstances res- pecting the alkaline properties of solution of carbonate of lime. It is stated, ‘that all spring water containing carbonate or super-carbonate of lime, is essentially limy or alkaline, by the colour tests. And this alkalinity is not destroyed till. some more powerful acid, such as the sulphuric or muriatic is added, sufficient to saturate the whole of the lime. Indeed, these acids may be considered as sufficient. for tests of the quantity of lime in such waters; and nothing more is required than to mark the quantity of acid necessary to neutralize the lime. It does not signify whether the water is boiled or uüboiled, nor whether it contains sulphate of lime along with the carbonate; it. is still limy in proportion to the quantity of carbonate of lime it con- tains. Agreeably to this idea, too, I find that the metallic oxides, as: those of iron or copper, are thrown down by common spring waters a the same as by free lime, notwithstanding, this carbonate of ime, in solution in water, contains twice the acid that chalk or limes stone does, I fully expected the super-carbonate of lime in solution * The above are put down in the order in which they were examined. 1822.) New Scientific Books. 317 to be acid; but it is strongly alkaline, and scarcely any quantity of carbonic acid water putto.it, will overcome this alkalinity. Pure carbonic acid water is, however, acid to the tests. I could not be convinced of the remarkable fact stated in this paragraph, till I actually formed super-carbonate of lime, by super-saturating lime water in the usual way, till the liquid from, being milky became clear. It still continued limy, and was even doubtfully so when two or three times the quantity of acid was added. It should seem, then, to be MARS n to obtain a neutral carbonate of lime, as it is to obtain à neutral carbonate of ammonia, in the sense here attached to the word neutral.?—Memoirs of the Manchester Society. 2 ARTICLE XII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS OR |... PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, ; lus |. The Naturalist's Guide, or Directions for the collecting and Preser- vation of Animals and Plants. By William Swainson, Esq. 5o Practical: Observations on Paralytic Affections, Deformities of the Chest) and Limbs, illustrative of the Effects of muscular Action, By Mr. W. T. Ward. Ot uw | A System of Analytic Geometry. By the Rev. Dionysius Lardner. in The Fossils of the South Downs, ‘or Illustrations of the Geology of "Sussex; By Gideon Mantell, FES. 1n one Vol. royal 4to. with numerous Engravings.. | GE (o | JUST PUBLISHED. Me 9 | Anr sy of the Astronomical Society of London. Vol. I.” 4to. ZR IS 7 007 PM | “A Universal Technological Dictionary of the Terms used in all Arts and Sciences. By George Crabb, AM. Illustrated with nume- rous Cuts, Diagrams, and Plates, 4to. Parts. I and II. 9s, each. To be completed in 12 Monthly Parts. My _ Trayels in the Interior of Southern Africa. By W. J. Burchell, Esq. ‘With an entirely new large Map, numerous coloured Engravings, and 50 Vignettes, tom the Author's Original Drawings. 4to. Vol. I. 41. 145. 6d. NY By xum, l | _,An Essay on the Uterine Hemorrhage, which precedes the Delivery ofthe Full-grown Foetus; illustrated with Cases. ` By Edward Rigby, "MD. FLS. FHS. &c, 8vo. 75. e - A Series of Questions and Answers, for the Use of Gentlemen pre- paring for their Examination at Apothecaries’ Hall ;, with copious and uscful' Tables annexed. By Charles Mingay Syder.. 4s. . - The Chemical Decompositions of the London Pharmacopeia, By Charles Mingay Syder. 18mo. 15.642. . . | | | 2 Pme ‘on Cutaneous Diseases, By J. H. Wilkinson. 8vo. 3s. 6d. | The Florists Directory, a Treatise on the Culture of Flowers. By James Maddock, Florist. 8vo. Plain, 12s.; coloured, 20s. 818 v oNew Patents. 07 [A PRIL, AmricLE XIII. NEW. PATENTS. C. Broderip, Esq. of London, now residing in Glasgow, for various improvements in the construction of steam-engines.—Dec. 5, 1821. H. Ricketts, of Phoenix Glass Works, Bristol, glass manufacturer, for an improvement in the art or method of making or manufacturing lass bottles, such as are used for wine, porter, pe: or cyder.— ec. 5. OPAC W. Warcup, of Dartford, Kent, engineer, for certain improvements upon a machine for washing linen, cotton, or woollen cloths, whether in the shape of piece goods, or of any article made up.—Dec. 10, W. Horrocks, of Portwood-within, Binnington, in the county of Chester, cotton-manufacturer, for an improvement in the construction of looms for weaving cotton or linen cloth by power, commonly called Power Looms.— Dec. 14. J. Winter, Gent. of Stoke-under-Hamdon, Somersetshire, for cere tain improvements in a machine for sewing and pointing leather gloves with neatness, much superior to that which is effected by manual labour.— Dec. 19. LÍ bis i f S. Brierley, of Salford, Manchester, dyer, for an. improved. method of preparing raw silk, and cleansing the same, for the purpose of dyeing and manufacturing.— Dec. 19. Di ? J. Gladstone, of Castle Douglas, in the stewatry of Kircudbright, and county of Galloway, engineer and mill-wright, for an improvement or improvements in the construction of steam-vessels, and mode of ropelling such vessels by the application of steam or other powers.— ec. 20. Julius Griffith, Esq. of Brompton Crescent, for certain improve- ments in steam-carriages, and which steam-carriages are capable of transporting merchandise of all kinds, as well as passengers, upon common roads, without the aid of horses. Partly communicated to him by foreigners residing abroad.—Dec. 20. | Pierre Erard, of Great Marlborough-street, musical instrument maker, for certain improvements on pianofortes, and other keyed musical instruments. Communicated to him by a foreigner.—Dec. 22, G. Linton, of Gloucester-street, Queen-square, Middlesex, mecha- nist, for a method of impelling machinery without the aid of steam, water, wind, air, or fire.—Dec. 22. R. Ormrod, of Manchester, iron-founder, for an improvement in the mode of heating liquids in boilers, and thereby accelerating and increas- ing the production of steam. Communicated to him by a person residing abroad.— Jan. 7, 1822. R. š Harford, of Ebbro Vale Iron Works, Aberistwyth, iron- master, for an improvement in that department of iron commonly called puddling.—Jan. 9. J. Harris, of St. Mildred’s-court, London, tea-dealer, for an im» provement in thé manufacture of shoes for horses and cattle,—Jan. 9. 1822.] a: ' Mr, Howard's. Meteorological Journal. 319 ARTICLE XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. ee UU O "lBAkowrETER.| THERMOMETER, | Daniell's hyg. 01892; | Wind.| Max; | Min. | Max. | Mim. | Evap. |Rain.] ^ at noon. re ani sb (fü YDUObJ l.i Mur wd Jd 92d Mon.) ann 16: 9 Pr | UWé5 1g" Wi30982993 48 | 35 | — 3° Q'S - » Wi29793/29 54.1540 fo 44: |. — 271.5. 58 3S WI20:8820:55 47 31 — AS — Wi29:8829:41| 49 36 — 12 5S W|30:26/1209:45| 52 30 — 01 6 6| W 130:96|29:99| 45 32 — 20 mS 'W|29:99999:92| -51 |. 43 — 20 4 SIS W|29-98/29*96| 50 4,2 — 11 9S WI29:9929:97 53 41 — | 3 10/8 El30:0929'99| 54 38 — 115 | Wj30:31/30:09| |. 51. | .35 —. 16 12IN Wj30:51130:25| 43 34 ` 57 | 13/8 Ej|30:25|30'18| 50 36 — 10 14|S — E|30:18,30:16| 50 31 on 4 15 S--130:42,30:15|.. 54 85 — 07 14 16| W |.|30:44,3042| 48. | 97. pe T 12 17| W JB0443044 59 | 40 | — |. “18iS : Wj30:463040| 56 | 41 -— 02 9 19IN . W|30:4630*14| 51. k -36 -== 6 20|S. W|30:41:30-06| 48 39 — 11 21} N 130493041) 46 26 A4, 14 221S W|30'41,30:38| 50 36 — 11 ^93]S :'W|3038:330:27] 50 | 39 | — 94S . W\30°31|30:28) 55..1..48 ih) — | 25|N W|30:31,30 21 55 | 44 — | 5 €e6| W ]|30:563021 52 | 36 — of ,27jN W|3070/30:5600 48 | 24 | — M p^ W|30:76/30:36| 50 29 AT a 18 50'76|20:41| 56 | 29 1°58 |o:82] 20—3 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 390 Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. [A p riL] 1899. JADOIOOJOHOATAM Second Month.—1. Fine. 2. Cloudy: a very stormy night, the wind blowing a gal the greater part of it. 3. Very fine. 4. Cloudy and fine. 5. Very windy all day: a heavy storm of wind and rain about six, a.m. 6. Fine: lunar hilo. T, 8, 9. Cloudy. 10, 11. Fine. | “12, Cloudy. 18, Foggy morning} fineeday. i4. Fine. 15. Fine: rain at night. "T6. Fine. IT. iini ey 18, 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain in the evening, 21. Cloudy and fine,’ 22. White frost. 23. Fine. ` 24. Cloudy. » et. Fine. 88. Hour frost : fine. 1T c OS BSUS V Ele le; | ae 0j vdelgg- Qe Wr eh j i Ness oF. ESU 4 Om 3 I i op TIE" Xa 1 - ° "n x ia PE E “ L P , š | i OC 09 iks. “RESULTS. 9 l SW en © NA A f i ý | I ; ; EE 00-0! / " Y x -~ ooo | ji Winds: Ni sb, $i $1 ev i3; D - : "al IGI Ce" OC ale t = Barometer : lins BE, oe ppt copies 2 For the month. . Aud. QM E oret. 2 30:193 inches. For du i piod ending the Mit OR ics... Ë: H 30159 For 13 days, ending the óth (moon. north): - TER 30-095 For 14 days, ending the 20th. (moon sey. ed oa, . 30-209 Thermometer : Mean height | an (pOg toe! n. Hs I l OPTI B, X. For the month. d x *......... vr» €— 2 43:331 For the lunar period jst s a.. ele oped Ub Lee OR. 41:583 For 29 days, the sun in Capricorn Hana nar Aan Evaporátion. oe Los. pas cg Ws: A CUR 1-58 in. Ruin... **eos...............................:. ...... WOVE He vere 0-82 Laboratory, Stratford, Third Month, 91, 1822. — : Re HOWARD. ; EOM. | Gal vi ANNALS PHILOSOPHY. MAY, 1822. ARTICLE I, Anatomical Discoveries respecting the Organ of Hearing in Fishes. In the year 1820, a thin quarto volume was published at Leipsic by Dr. Ernest Henry Weber, entitled ** De aure et auditu Hominis et Animalium, pars I. De aure Animalium Aquatilium," By this first part, Dr. Weber considers the fol- lowing new facts to be the results of his anatomical labours on fishes. We, therefore, insert a translation of them here in order to draw the attention of our comparative anatomists to the. anatomy of the ear of fishes.* 1. The petromyxontes (lampreys), both of rivers and the sea, are furnished with a cartilaginous vestibulum separate from the cavity of the cranium, but they are destitute of semicircular canals, both cartilaginous and membranaceous. They are like- wise destitute of lapilli enclosed in the vestibulum, or in a bursa, and have no external organs of hearing: "Their membranaceous vestibulum is divided into different cells. 2. In several genera of osseous fishes, and especially of the order abdominales, the swimming bladder is joined in a particular way. with the internal ear, and is useful to the membrana, tympani. 3. This conjunction of the swimming bladder with the internal ear in the cyprinus carpio (common carp), brama (bream), tinca (tench), carrassius (crusian), rutilus (reach), aphyas, leuciscus (dace), alburnus (bleak), and doubtless in all the cyprini; Hke- *: We have not ventuxed to translate the Latin names by which ‘Weber distinguishes the parts which he describes, conceiving them likely to be more generally intelligible... than the «corresponding English ones. * ew Seres, VOL. 1l. —— Y- 322 Anatomical Discoveries respecting [May, wise in the silurus glanis and cobitis fossilis and the barba- tula, is accomplished by means of six ossicula auditoria ( of which are placed on the right side and three on the left united with the three superior vertebre by articulation. These may be compared to the stapes, incas, and malleus. The apex of the malleus always adheres to the upper part of the swimming bladder. 4. All the fishes just enumerated are furnished with two cavities (atria). situated in the first vertebra near the foramen occipitale. Each cavity is shut by the stapes of that side in which it is placed; and the stapes may either be drawn from it, or applied to it, by the action of the swimming bladder. Hence this cavity may be compared to the fenestra ovalis in man. Each cavity (airium) is furnished with a little bone peculiar. to itself which shuts it up. H i Ki 5. In all the fishes above enumerated, each cavity (atrium) has access to the sinus imparis by means of two holes cut in the occipital bone. ‘This sinus is situated in the middle part of the. uA n portion of the occiput. Passing into the cranium like a fork, it is divided into two canais, of which the right passes to. the right labyrinth, and the left into the left labyrinth, to which it adheres in that place in which the saccus and vestibulum. membranaceum are united. . bu cdi cero SA 6. In all the fishes above enumerated, there are found certain «ostia leading into the same cavity of the cranium, covered with. :Skin and muscles, which must be considered as the fenestra of the osseous vestibulum, since the cranium of osseous fishes. serves the same purpose as the vestibulum osseum. _ Z a 7. In all these fishes, the three superior vertebrae. receiving, the ossicula auditoria are increased, augmented in size, iod remarkably altered. ^ noii 8. All these fishes possess an interior lapillus of the sack, re- markable by a peculiar form, long, and spinous. with dd 9. The ossicula auditoria of the cyprinus are enclosed by two membranous auditorial fosse, one of which is situated on the. tight side, and the other on the left side of the three superior. vertebra. The fossæ auditoria communicate with the cavity of the cranium by the two lateral occipital bones, and contain an oily liquor of the same nature as that in the cranium. — 10. The ossicula auditoria of the cobitis fossilis are included. . in a cavity of the transverse process of the second vertebra, answering the purpose of the cavity of the tympanum. ‘ceived s 11. The osseous capsule, enclosing the swimming bladder of the cobitis fossilis is formed from the transverse progense of the. third vertebra, expanded into an osseous bulla... This capsule has. two great external apertures, surrounded outwardly by àn elevated margin, covered by the external cutis. By two other anterior openings, the apex of the malleus of the right and left side enters into the osseous capsule, and is there fixed to the L4 "urb: 1822.) the Organ of Hearing tn Fishes. 323° awittiming bladder. “This osseous capsule answers the same egent the annulus of the tympanum in the human infant. "Consequently sonorous tremors have access to the swimming bladder through the apertures covered with skin; from which they are transferred by means of the malleus, incus, and stapes, to the niembranous labyrinth. | " 12. This conjunction of the swimming bladder and internal €ar is brought about in other fishes not by ossicula auditoria, but so that canals from the swimming bladder ascend directly to the head, and are joined to the ear in different ways. TT . 13. In the sparus, salpa, and sargus, the top of the swimming bladder ascends to the base of the cranium divided into two canals. A peculiar membrane unites the apices of these canals to the margins of two oval bones situated on the right and left -sides of the base of the cranium. | "ddl ; ' 14. In the clupea harengus (herring), two very narrow canals of the swimming bladder enter into two bony canals on the right and left side of the base of the occipital bone. Each of these canals is again divided into two small bony canals whose extremities swell out into hollow bony globules, the anterior and posterior. "The canals of the swimming bladder fill up these’ bony canals and globules. ‘The appendix of the membranaceous yestibulum enters into the right and left anterior bony globule” near the bullous end of the swimming bladder; so that reaching the extremity of the swimming bladder, it forms a septum, which’ separates the cavity of the appendix of the vestibulum filled with: water from the cavity at the extremity of the swimming bladder filled with air. The circumference of this septum is surrounded’ by a ring nearly cartilaginous. Hence in the herring the sono- rous tremors of the swimming bladder are transferred to the’ membranous vestibulum itself. | 15. The anterior part of the right membranous vestibulum of the herring communicates with the anterior part of the left mem- branous vestibulum, by means of a transverse membranous canal passing below the cerebrum, in such a manner that mer- eury cannot be injected into either vestibulum without? filling" at the same time the membranous vestibulum ard the semicir- y .. cular canals of the opposite side. - 16. The lower end of the swimming bladder of the herring and anchovy is produced into a canal situated between the two ovaries, and behind the rectum which opens into the ostium genitale. x 17. The swimming bladder of the cobitis fossilis is not simple, but consists of two parts, the upper greater, and the lower, very small, situated without the bony capsule. A fibrous process passes from the skin to the swimming bladder by an externat- opening of the osseous capsule. j 18. The canal for air (canadis pneumaticus) of the swimming” bladder of the cyprini entering into the esophagus cannot be^ Y 2 324 Anatomical Discoveries respecting [Mav, opened and shut by means of a valve, but forms a muscular tumour, through which the air canal penetrates in a spiral direé- tion, diminished to the fourth part of its size. ^34 NAT 19. The ear of the ray fish is not furnished with a si external passage, as all anatomists have hitherto believed ; but with two. Besides the fenestra of the vestibulum cartilagineum closed by a membrane, described by Scarpa and Cuvier, there exists a fenestra of the vestibulum membranaceum situated. beside it. The fenestra of the vestibulum membranaceum is to be-compared to the fenestra ovalis in man, and the fenestra of ihe vestibulum cartilagineum to the fenestra rotunda in man. The fenestra of the vestibulum cartilagineum forms an opening into the cavity of the vestibulum cartilagineum, the fenestra of ihe vestibulum membranaceum in like manner forms an opening into the cavity of the vestibulum membranaceum. f 20. Between the fenestra of the vestibula membranacea cut out in the cartilaginous cranium (belonging to the right and left ear) and the skin covering the occiput, two bags are interposed filled with a white calcareous liquor, and Quina each other. From each of these, a large membranous canal entering through the fenestra of the waina membranaceum, descends into the vestibulum membranaceum, and fills its cavity. These bags - called by Weber the sinuses of the external ear, and compared by Monro to the conche of the human ear, answer the purpose ol the cavity of the tympanum, and the liquor included in them serve the purpose of the bones of the ear. | 21. One or more very small canals, detected by Monro; but not found by Camper, Scarpa, Comperetti, and Cuvier, pass from: the auditory sinus of each side to the cutis, and there open by very small mouths. By these canals, any excess of the calca- reous liquid contained in the sinus auditorius may be thrown out. - Í 22. There is a small muscle belonging to each auditory sinus, by means of which the auditory sinus may be compressed, and’ — its liquor either thrown out through the small apertures opening. ` in the cutis, or impelled through the canal into the membranous, vestibulum. In this way the vestibulum membranaceum may be either compressed or relaxed. 23. The vestibulum membranaceum of the raia sarpedo mar- morata (Risso) does not contain white cretaceous lapilli ; but a gelatinous mass, mixed with a black coloured sandy matter. ` 24. The membranous semicircular canals of the raiz are joined to each other and to the vestibulum membranaceum in quite a - different manner from those of the squalus carcharias (white shark). The semicircular canals of the squalus carcharias have. a semicircular form, while that of the raia has a circular form.. The semicircular canals of the squalus carcharias proceed by one `: extremity from the vestibulum membranaceum, and by the other extremity return into it; whereas those of the raie are quite 1822.] the Organ of Hearing in Fishes. 325. separated from it, and indeed have no communication with it except by two very small ducts. One of these ducts passes from the vestibulum membranaceum to the posterior canal, which has the form of a. circle, and does not cohere to the rémaining canals; the other passes to the anterior canal. 25. The observation of Treviranus that the auditory nerves are not always to be considered as branches of the trigeminus is. proved to be true. | ..96. The nervi auditorii accessori have different origins in different fishes ; proceeding from the cerebrum, the par vagum, and the trigeminus. Nor are these nerves always destined to the same parts of the labyrinth. In the raia torpedo, the squalus carcharias and the petromyzon (lamprey), the nervi auditorit accessarii do not belong to the ear. In several of the cyprini; the author describes a very remarkable. deviation. in these nerves. . NU 27. The branches of the nervi auditorii belonging to the ves- tibulum are sof?, and, as it were, spread over its inferior surface. The branches sent to the ampulle are hard, and penetrate into the cavity of the ampulle, constituting a semilunar plexus jut- ting out into the cavity. The sonorous tremors of the fluid included in the semicircular canals are readily transferred to these nerves. The nerves. of the vestibulum receive the sono- rous tremors of the solid bodies included in the vestibulum or $ack. . . | ARTICLE II. On the Annlysis of Brass. By Mr. W. M. Keates. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, | HaviNc noticed that most chemical writers, who have made mention of brass, state the proportions of the two metals which compose that alloy,to be very different from what they really are, I was induced to attribute the incorrectness of their statements to some fallacy in the mode of analyzing it; this opinion was verified by some experiments which I made on the subject. The formula recommended by the most eminent writers is solution of the alloy in dilute nitric. acid, adding excess of caustic potash, boiling, to take up the oxide of zinc, and throw down the oxide of copper. " This method of proceeding seems to have been followed frone a consideration of the known habitudes of each oxide when per se, rather than founded on the result of direct experi- ment. For although the oxide of zinc, when alone, is readily soluble in an excess of caustic alkali, yet when precipitated along with oxide of copper, a part only is taken up by that menstruum. 326 Mr. Keates on the Analysis of. Brass. [Mav; This probably arises from some mechanical combination of the two oxides, and not from any chemical union. The followi experiment may, I think, be considered as sufficient proof ‘of, the aey of the above mode of analysis, ie) won 25(AÀ.) 100 grains of brass dissolved in diluted nitric acid; the solution was heated until it was nearly neutral, and diluted wit distilled water. t asian] " eti Landi (B.) 540 grains of caustic potash dissolved. in six ounces. of water, were added to the solution À in a flask capable of holding 36 fluid ounces, using agitation during the mixture. The fla was placed on a sand-bath, and the contents boiled for an hour. and a half, precautions being taken to prevent the mixture being thrown out of the flask, to which it is very liable, from the great weight of the precipitate preventing the regular escape of steam. The whole was filtered while hot, and the precipitate, which was of a dark-brown colour, after being ia, washed, dried, and: heated to redness, weighed 111:5 grams. ioe i j atiy SOM oo(C.) The filtered fluid, which was. extremely alkaline, was reduced toa convenient bulk by evaporation, and supersaturated with muriatic acid; carbonate of soda was now added in excess, which threw down carbonate of zinc, this was separated by the filter, and heated to redness ; the oxide of zinc resulting weighed 14 grains, equal to 11:2 grains of zinc. iiit s (D.) 100 grains of the precipitate (B) dissolved in dilute sul- phuric acid left a small quantity of sulphate of lead, which, being e ATHE the solution was rendered very acid, and two polished cylinders of iron immersed in it, which precipitated the copper, this, when collected and» dried, weighed rather more than 62-5 grains, which gives 70 grains of copper in the 111-5 of precipitate, | CAM ids. dU adr | (E.) The solution from which the copper had been precipitated was boiled with nitric acid to peroxidize the iron, and nearly neutralized by carbonate of soda. Ammonia was now added in excess, and the oxide of iron thrown down by it separated by filtering. wei Le oim ed n- 164124 6d den : (F.) The filtered ammoniacal solution was, with the addition: of muriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass heated, m a silver crucible to drive off the muriate of ammonia; after which the residue was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, to which solution carbonate of soda was added in excess, and the precipi- tate resulting, after being heated to redness, weighed 22-5 grains, equal to 18 grains of zinc. | Thus, then, the products of the analysis are : Conpet ab TY) oi. conn aa eens 70:0 OMARE OSNA FE. use vast dca de dee. 4 99-2 P rs GKDOCR RO ICE ; Sup Ago Bp o6 008^ 1822.) Mr. Keates on the Analysis of Brass. 327 "Now had the mode of analysis under consideration been per- fect, the precipitate (B) ought only to have weighed about 37:5 grains instead of 111:5, and that at (C), 36-5 instead of 14 ;—a difference much too great to be attributed to any error.in the Ahdnipülation. Had the residue left by the potash been taken for oxide of copper, it would have given only 11:2 per cent.:of zinc in the brass, which approaches pretty nearly the quantity assigned by some writers; and as the defect in the analysis probably arises from some mechanical cause, it is, therefore, likely that no two experiments would give the same results for an alloy of uniform composition. | 4J^In recommending another mode of analysis to the notice of ‘chemists, I do not pledge myself that it is one which will give results of mathematical accuracy; but which nevertheless will be found sufficiently correct for any practical purposes, and may Serve until some one more versed in analytic research than myself shall point out a better. | "^(A.) 70 grains of copper and 30 grains of zinc were dissolved in dilute nitric acid. The solution, with the addition of a little sulphuric acid, was evaporated to dryness, and redissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, adding the acid considerably in excess. A little. sulphate of lead which remained was separated, but not weighed ; it might arise from the zinc or the acid.: . =; M : (B. The solution being much diluted. was introduced into a flask, and brought to the boiling point. Three polished cvlinders. of iron, one inch long each, were introduced, and the boiling continued until the solution became nearly colourless. A portion of the liquid was now tried for copper by a fresh piece of iron, but the surface remained perfectly free from it ; and upon adding one drop of a solution of nitrate of copper, a precipitate took place, which shows that tbis test was sufficiently delicate. * (C.) The mixture was filtered while hot, and the copper well washed with very dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards with boiling water; and being dried, was put in a crucible covered with charcoal powder, and melted, the button weighed (69:5 grains. pot i - The filtered fluid was now proceeded with precisely in the same manner as at (E) in Experiment I. The oxide of zinc obtained weighed 36°75, equal to 29:4 of zinc. This gives GOWER ET ETC T CD DI COT OTT 69:5 EDO «ca cci s nodos vad ks PWN PE 29:4 98:9 DA ta ne wait N wie nnsvedie nts T Y 1-1 100:0 The deficiency of half a grain of copper, and little, more than half a grain of zinc, is not greater than what often occurs in 328 + Mr. Keates onthe Analysis of Brass. [MA y, analysis; and it is probable that even that quantity would be ‘lessened by care in’ conducting the operations. In performin this analysis, it is necessary to drive off the whole of the nitric acid from the solution (A), and to have sufficient excess of sul- phuric acid to prévent the copper from attaching itself too ‘closely to the iron; in other respects, the excess of acid is not material. The boiling must be continued until such time as the ‘solution becomes ‘colourless, or till it ceases to give any indica- ‘tion’ of copper by any tests which may be applied. ‘The solution ‘should be filtered while hot, and the precipitate washed with very „dilute sulphuric acid. If the i Red one dried "without the risk of oxidizing, the fusion of it may be dispensed with ; ‘but if it is thought necessary to melt it, the charcoal powder, after the fusion, should be carefully washed, as minute grains of copper are generally dispersed through it. The iron ‘used for precipitating the copper should be as pure as possible, as frequently an insoluble black substance, which is ee | carburet of that metal, separates during the action of the acid : should that be the case to ei considerable degree, so as ‘to ‘interfere with the results, it is highly probable that it would be ‘got rid of by fusing the precipitate. ort PJI Boiling the ‘solution during the precipitation of the copper has many advantages over simple immersion of the iron in a cold solution. By the former method, a complete precipitation is soy obtained in an hour ; while, by the latter, the solution has held copper at the end of four days, and even when a com- plete precipitation has been obtained (whichis not often the case), a portion of the iron deposits in the state both of protoxide and peroxide, which can only be got rid of, at the risk of dissolving'a portion of copper with them ; besides which, the copper frequently adheres with such obstinacy to the iron as to render the estima- tion of it impracticable. | TT ew hau . Asa menstruum from which to precipitate the copper, sul- huric acid possesses decided advantages over any which I have tried ; if the alloy contains lead, it is left insoluble in the first instance ; also the copper is not reacted upon when precipitated, as is the case when the nitric acid is employed; the progress of the operation too may be judged of from the colour of the solu- tion. [tis probable that the acetic acid mightbe employed, but I have not made trial of it. | 1822. On the Geology of the Isle. of Wight, &c. 399 do a; yi og fla: ARTICLE III. | On the Geology of the Isle of Wight, 8c. voe capte a Heri Ae : «To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) o SIR, Trinity College, Cambridge, March 11, 1892, THERE appeared in:the Annals of Philosophy for Sept. 1821, an article by one of your correspondents (Mr. G. B. Sowerby), on the Geology of Headen Hill, in the Isle of Wight. With some of his observations I entirely concur ; and I appreciate as highly as he can do himself the importance of an intimate acquaintance with certain branches of natural history. Without such know- ledge it must be impossible to ascertain the physical circum- stances under which our newer strata have been deposited. To complete the zoological history of any one of these forma- 4ions, many details are yet wanting. It is principally with the hope that.my own. observations may be in some measure. sub- servient to this end, that I have ventured to request their inser- tion in your journal. | » I must at the same time state, that some of Mr. Sowerby's views respecting the classification of the formations over the chalk differ widely from: my own. An absence of several months from the University prevented his remarks. from falling into m hands before December. A series of engagements, of which at is unnecessary here to speak, have prevented me from undertak- ing the task of replying to them until this moment. eu | The point on which your correspondent appears to differ most widely from myself is in the estimate he has formed respecting the merits of those who have preceded him. ` He seems hardly to have considered that the honours of inventive talent must chiefly be awarded to those who first point out the way to disco very, and from obscure and seemingly imperfect data are able to deduce important general conclusions. One thing, however, is most certain, that sarcastic animadversions, either on societies, or individuals, can never tend to promote the investigations of truth. | / [tis impossible that the praise of successful investigation should be withheld from Mr. Webster. His excellent and origi- nal communications respecting the formations in the Isle of Wight are in the hands of every English geologist, and prove both his diligence in the observation of facts, and his sagacity in drawing the right conclusions from them. No subsequent dis- -coveries can possibly take away from this merit, even though they point out some objects of detail which had been, perhaps, either overlooked or misunderstood. | In the following notice I intend, first, to give some account of 330 o “Prof. Sedgwick on the ° | [Mav, the fossils contained in the iron sand and the other beds imme- diately beneath the chalk. ` Secondly, to offer some remarks on the formations above the chalk. "The observations on which thé remarks are principally founded were made during two visits to the Isle of Wight; one in the early part of the year 1819 ; the other in the 2 part of last summer. iq . No paper in the Annals of Philosophy will be quoted, except the one before alluded to ; it will, therefore, be only necessary to refer to the page in which any particular observation is con- tained. I have the honour tobe; Sir, © ^5 au in Your most obedient servant, x A. SEDGWICK. | fot — Dum - ' j i L Olservations on the Formations between the Portland Oolite and the Chalk. jaa ` Since the publication of Mr. Webster's letters to Sir H. Engle- field, the deposits between the Portland oolite and the chalk have generally been subdivided into three formations. (1.) Iron sand, a formation of ferruginous sand and sandstone. (2.) An argillaceous deposit (Tetsworth clay of Mr. Greenough). 3.) Green sand, a siliceous deposit, containing subordinate beds of limestone, &c.; generaily characterized by the presence of a certain quantity of green earth. This classification is indepen- dent of all theory, and is only to be considered as a convenient mode of arranging a great many similar beds, the geological relations of which have been made out by actual observation, The three formations may together be considered as the repre- sehtatives of the quader-sandstein of Werner, as they anpear to be associated with rocks of the same age, and agree with it in some of their more minute characters. Many details must, however, be supplied before even this point can be completely established. From the whole analogy of the English coast, as well as from the best accounts with which we are acquainted; there can be no doübt but that some of the beds here described are widely extended in the north of France. In many parts of England, they preserve an extraordinary unity in their general relations and external character. On the whole, if we follow the great chalk escarpment towards the north-east, they gra- dually thin off, and sometimes, perhaps, entirely disappear. A few miles to the north of Flambro' Head, the chalk is seen in the cliff reposing on the clay of the vale of Pickering, without the intervention of any beds of sand or sandstone. With whatever certainty the great relations of the three formations above-men- tioned may have been established, errors may arise in fixing points of detail from some of the following causes. (1. The colouring principles of the upper and the lower sand are some- times wanting. (2.) The green particles which characterize the upper sand sometintes abound so mucl in the lower as to alter 1822.) Geology of the Isle.of. Wight, &c. 331 its.ordinavy appearance, (3.) The red oxide of iron abounds so much. in. some masses of the green sand that, without care, they might be confounded with the ordinary beds of the iron sand. Another distinctive character, founded in the abundance of orga- nized fossils in the green sand and their entire absence from many parts of the iron sand, might sometimes lead to erroneous conclusions. In the sandy parts of Bedfordshire, one may pose! for miles together without seeing even a fragment of a ` ossil shell ; yet some beds, which are subordinate to the same sand formation in the Isle of Wight, exhibit innumerable traces of beings which once possessed an organized structure. A good account of the fossils of the ¿ron sand is undoubtedly a desidera- tum. Mr. Sowerby's work will, 1 hope, eventually supply this want. I shall consider myself fortunate if this brief notice should induce any one to visit those localities which best illus- trate the zoological history of the formation. . All the upper beds of the ¿ron sand in the Isle of Wight partake of the high inclination of the central chalk range (Mr. Webster's Letters, p. 122, &c. &c.). As the bearing of the coast between Freshwater Bay and Brook Point, is considerably inclined to the direction of the strata ; they rise up in succession from the level of the beach, arid are thus brought out under circumstances most favourable to a minute examination. The natural section between. Culver.Cliff and the middle of Sandown Bay affords similar faci- lities for observation. Between Brook Point and Sandown the strata are nearly horizontal, and many parts of the coast present papm alar escarpments. The upper beds would, therefore, e inaccessible, were it not for the deep channels worn in the face of the cliff by the rivulets which descend from the central chalk range. _ As the fossils which characterize the formation are not uni- formly distributed through its mass, it may be proper briefly to enumerate some of the principal changes which are exhibited in the mineral composition of its subordinate beds. wid . (1.) Siliceous sand variously coloured by oxide of iron, the colours sometimes very splendid, and beautifully contrasted. With these beds are sometimes associated a kind of coarse sili- ceous grit (carstone) cemented by oxide of iron. ..(2.) Fine white siliceous sand often passing into sandstone. (3.) Beds containing a variable admixture of argillaceous matter. They often contain carbonate of lime, and a considera- ble quantity of green earth. The more siliceous varieties then assume: the. appearance. of green sand. In all these varieties there are fossils, most frequently in the form of casts. .(4.) Beds of slate clay associated with pyritous wood coal. Some. subordinate calcareous beds contain. fossil. shells, and innumerable bony fragments of a small fish. | »45.). Beds of impure shell limestone. They abound in some parts of, Sandown E and occur in almost every part of the 332 o Prof. Sedgwick on the > [May, cliff between Brook Point and Freshwater Bay. Along with them are several of those concretions described in the fifth volume of the Geological Transactions under the name of Curl.* Only such beds have been deseribed as are found in the Isle of Wight, and may serve in some measure as guides to those who are examining its fossil history. It would be quite foreign to the objects of this paper to describe the beds of fuller’s earth, lastic clay, yellow ochre, &c. which are found in other parts of England subordinate to this formation. II. FOSSILS or THE Iron SAND. 1. Obscure impressions of reeds and other vegetable bodies mixed with carbonaceous matter, and sometimes disposed in regular layers. "They abound in the argillaceous beds, and are contaminated with the presence of much iron pyrites. ` | "Carbonized wood is found in all parts of the formation.: It sometimes makes an approach to the appearance of jet. More commonly the particles adhere so imperfectly that the specimens crumble al the fingers. Near Brook Point the masses of mineralized wood are seen at the time of low water scattered about the strand like the great beams of a timber yard. Mr. Webster + has given an accurate and graphical description of this portion of the coast. The changes undergone by these bodies are various and interesting. Traces of the original bark are by no means uncommon ; and in one instance we found it marked with deep lozenge-formed iudentations. Carbon and pyrites abound in almost all the specimens ; and the several pus are often held firmly together by carbonate of lime which as insinuated itself into every portion of the mass, and partially displaced the woody fibre. hen the lime is taken up by acids, there remains behind a friable skeleton of carbon. In other examples, the process of replacement is so complete, that the specimens may be regarded as true petrifactions. I thought this more remarkable as all the specimens of similar origin which I have seen in the iron sand of Norfolk and other parts of England, are silicified. The existence of this vast quantity of fossil wood is the more interesting, as it points out an analogy between the iron sand and the quader-sandstein of Werner.{ Our * These concretions are found occasionally in the greywacke formations; they abound in many of our coal districts, and are by no means rare in certain portions of the Lias clay, the Oxford clay, and the Kimmeridge clay. Perhaps there is not one of our great argillaceous deposits in which traces of them may not be found. 1 They most frequently appear in the form of distinct hemispheroidal concretions adhering either to the upper or lower surface of beds of ironstone, or impure argillaceous limestone, which traverse the masses of slate clay. Sometimes also they exhibit a conformable arrange- ment between two indurated beds, and seem intimately associated with layers of impure carbonate of lime which have a fibrous structure transverse to the strata, All these varies ties are found in the Isle of Wight. + Letters to Sir H. Englefield, p. 153. t See D'Aubuisson Traité de Géognosie, vol, ii. p. 228, &c. 1822.] Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. m information respecting the other fossils of that formation is too meager to afford us much assistance, | | Wing 9. ZoornvTEs.—(1.) We found between Freshwater Bay and Brook Point aby ie is concretions, deeply tinged by the red oxide of iron. They present such well defined. spheroidal terminations, that there can be no doubt of their being derived. from some organized body, though they do not exhibit distinct iraces of animal structure. n! 2 ved (2.) Stems of the body described by Mr. Webster under the name of the tulip alcyontum. The stellated, transverse sections of the stem,* et are so common in blocks derived from the green sand formation, appear also in some beds of the iron sand. near Red-cliff.' dj 3k _ (3.) A compound Madrepore. The stelle arise from a pedicle, and are grouped in a regular spheroidal form. Some of the larger specimens appear to be formed by the union of several distinct spheroids. They exist in the form of calcareous conere- tions, in a reef of indurated ?ron sand, which appears below the high water mark on the eastern side of Sandown Bay. Itis a continuation of some of the inclined beds of Red-cliff, and. its, induration arises from the presence of a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime. I am the more particular in describing this locality, as it abounds in several fossil species which are in a state of perfect preservation. I unfortunately reached the spot when the tide was running in, and was only armed with a hammer and a small chisel. Any one who wishes to investigate . the subject further, ought, after providing himself with more powerful weapons, to visit the. reef before the time of low water. ! | = 4.) An obscure coralline body. From the same locality. In its structure it has a general analogy with the bodies described by Parkinson, vol. ii. p. 137, 138. | 3. Univatves.—(1.) Vermicularia. Sowerby, Min. Con. pl. 57. Several traces of this genus were observed in the Red- cliff reef above-mentioned. Along with them were some adher- ing serpule. : (2.) Ammonites. We found a single fragment of this genus in a bed of coarse greenish sand near Brook Point. ! -(9.) Rostellarta, Casts, sufficiently characteristic, to deter- mine the genus, are found in the upper part of the cliff at Shank- lin Chine. | | (4.) A highly ornamented. univalve, with raised longitudinal ribs, probably a rostellaria. In the same state with the preced- ing. "We met with fragments of the shell near Brook Point. (5) Vivipara (?) A smali species resembling that which abounds in the Purbeck marble. From the beds of shell lime- stone neartne top of the ron sand formation in; Freshwater Bay. * Geological Transactions, vol. ii. plate 29, 334 “Prof. Sedgwick on the —— [Mav, Casts, probably derived from the same shell, are found in some earthy beds between the last mentioned locality and Brook omt. : i a ts LN wk wr be eeu - casts of at least three or ur species of univalves which abound in the upper part of thé cliff “9 Shanklin. | | PET Br mat bi Every one who has examined the localities of fossils must have remarked that in strata abounding in the oxide of iron, they are frequently stripped of their shelly covering. In soft argillaceous | beds, even the colours of the original shell are sometimes pre- served, but the specimens are generally friable, and often disfi- gured by compression. In other mineral masses, more espe- cially such as contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, the fossils which can be detached from the matrix are in a beautiful state of preservation. Several species which exist only” as casts in the ferruginous cliffs of Shanklin, are finely preserved’ in Red-cliff reef. Itis probable that perfect shells belonging to all those species of which we have now only the casts, may be found by any one who has time to examine the localities above- mentioned. te | 4. BivarvEs.—(1.) Gryphea sinuata. Min. Con. t. 336. : (2.) Ostrea. Atleast three distinct species.. £^ (a.) X palmated cockscomb oyster, associated with, and sometimes adhering to, the preceding species. They are found in regular beds which traverse the cliffs of Blackgang Chine and Shanklin Chine. "Traces of the same beds appear to the west of Brook Point. . | | | ; (b.) An undescribed species; much elongated; in general form somewhat resembling the ostrea tenera. Min. Con. pl. 252, p.2, 3. This species abounds in some of the calcareous beds t the west of Brook Point. | | (c.) A small flat oyster, associated with the preceding. Thin beds of this fossil traverse some of the argillaceous strata of San- down Bay. The shelly matter is sometimes replaced by minute crystals of selenite which have originated in its destruction. The analogous facts exhibited by the Oxford clay and the Kim- meridge clay, are too well known to require any description. There are probably more species of this genus; but the speci- mens are generally too ruinous to show any good distinctive characters. (3.) Perna. | (a.) A large thick quadrangular shell. : | (bj Resembling perna aviculoides (Min. Con. ply 66), but the fragments too imperfect to determine the species. Both are found in Red-clift reef. The perna aviculoides is a characteristic - shell of the middle oolite formation (coral rag). A perna of rade ` trapezoidal form is also found in that formation near Weymouth; but is of an entirely different species from the quadrangular shell above mentioned. - 1822.] Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. 335 ALD TAO elie ui ad sica sill xs ! ; (a), Dedalea. . Min. Con. pl. 88. ; AS 4 i hire) EET l . APT a 3 Aleformis. Min. Con, pl. 215.. y . Both species are found in Ked-cliff reef. Casts of the latter abound in the ferruginous beds of Shanklin Chine. It is very common in the green sand formation. | a _(5.) Astarte excavata (?) Min. Con, pl. 233. — Red-cliff reef. “(6.) Sphera corrugata. Min. Con. pl. 335. Red-cliff reef. (7.). Terebratula. Too much imbedded to exhibit specifie characters. Resembles terebratula pectita. It exists in great abundance, and in various states of preservation, in some beds near Shanklin Chine. | En .. (8.) An exceedingly minute oval-shaped bivalve. It exists in immense abundance, often appearing like a thin farinaceous coating interposed between the lamine of calcareous slate clay, . which occur in the argillaceous beds of Sandown Bay, and various other parts of the formation. aj .(9.) A bivalve abounding in the thin beds of limestone which occur in so many parts of the formation. Casts of the same: shell are common in some of the less indurated beds. We were in no instance able to obtain specimens with distinct specific characters. | | (10.) To this list may be added the casts of four or five spe- cies which are in too impcrfect a state to be ascertained. From the upper part of the cliff near Shanklin Chine. | | 5. VERTEBRAL Bones, Fins, &c. or A SMALL Fisu.—In great abundance in some impure calcareous beds, west of Brook oint. To these we may add the bones of a large cetaceous animal which were found, as I have been informed by Pro- fessor Buckland, in Sandown Bay. | "The preceding list, however imperfect, will show that the tron sand is by no means destitute of fossil inhabitants. They are generally in a bad state of preservation, and little inviting to the collector. But on this very account, the few beds which exhibit them in a state sufficiently perfect for description are the more deserving of a minute examination. Ill. TETSWORTA Cray. This bed, interposed between the green sand and the iron sand, is perfectly continuous in the Isle of Wight.* Itis of compara- tively little interest, inasmuch as it contains very few fossils. In the ruinous cliff formed by its western termination, we found fragments of a thin calcareous bed containing traces of a. small species of vivipara. This fact, if confirmed by better specimens, would be interesting, because shells of the same genus abound in the Petworth marble, which is derived from the same form- ation. * See the plates accompanying the work of Sir H, Englefield on the Isle of Wight. 336 ¿ AProf. Sedgwick on the)... [May, IV. Green SAND AND CHALKE Formation, => The great geological phenomena presented by these two for- mations haye been admirably detailed by Mr. Webster. their fossil history has already received considerable illustration : much, however, remains to be done. The zoophytes (especially of the green sand) would afford excellent materials in the hands of a good naturalist, as the species are very numerous, and the eater part of them remain undescribed. — "Wee Fa The beds of green sand in Freshwater Bay are in a state o imperfect aggregation which favours the extraction of dio remains. "The corresponding beds which appear nearthe eastern extremity of the island: are in a state of much greater induration. They. are there seen in contact with a variety of indurated marl which. forms the basis of the chalk. deposit. The line of junction is ill defined, as the green sand appears to pass into the bed which repose upon it, by gradations which are almost insensible. These ambiguous appearances are limited to the extent of a few feet, and can throw no IMERI in the way of a proper classifi- ‘cation. of the two formations. In some other parts of England, the case is far different. The argillaceous matter, which always forms a constituent of the lower chalk, prevails to such a degree that the beds gradually pass into a tenacious clay. On the ther hand, the lower portions of this argillaceous marl become mixed with sand and sandstone, which seem to link them to the green sand formation. Hence arises an ambiguity. | The beds of argillaceous marl may be considered as forming a portion either of the green sand, or of the chalk series. Mr. Greenough, in his Geological Map, has chosen the former alter- native. As far as my own observations go, the choice has, É think, been unfortunate. Perhaps the proper mode of avoiding all ambiguity would be, to give an appropriate name to all those varieties, of chalk marl which are in the state of a tenacious clay, and to represent them by a peculiar colour. The strata in the: neighbourhood. of Cambridge afford an example of the arrange- ment we have been describing. The order of superposition is as follows : "t (1.) Chalk with flints, forming an escarpment which ranges about 10 miles to the east of the town. (2.) Indurated chaik marl, the upper portion approaching the true character of chalk, the lower portion becoming gradually so Suplleceque, that it at length loses the appearance ofa cretaceous rock. | | (3.) Tenacious bluish clay (galt) separated from the preceding by a very thin bed, which is mixed with green sand, aid contains a great many fossils. No denudation immediately about Cam- bridge shows any inferior formation; but on the confines of Bedfordshire, the galt is seen reposing on the iron sand.* -This *. Geol: Trans, v, 114, om Bibig orld më : 1822.] - Geology of the Isle of. Wight, &c. ` "S. account might lead any one who is unacquainted with the fossils of the district to suppose that the thin bed of green sand is the ` representative of the green sand formation; and consequently, | that the great bed of clay Galt) is identical with the Tetsworth clay. before mentioned. The conclusion would not, however, bear the test of examination for the following reasons: . -(1.). The fossils of the thin bed of green sand, amounting to about 20 species, do not belong to the suite of the green sand formation ; but partake of characters common to the upper and ` lower beds associated with it. ,(2.). The fossils of the clay (galt) form a suite nearly identical ` with those of the Lolkstone marl which reposes on the green sand ` formation.* | fig . (8.) When the galt in. the vicinity of Cambridge is perforated ` for the purpose of obtaining water, the first discharge forces up a considerable quantity of green sand—a fact which indicates the existence of the green sand, formation below the galt; All these facts combined with the intimate connexion between the chalk and the beds on which it reposes, lead to the conclusion that the. galt. of Cambridge is an argillaceous. variety of chalk ` marl. . Any system of classification. which unites this great argillaceous. deposit with the inferior green sand. formation, | assumes the existence of a relation respecting which the denu- dations of the country afford no evidence whatsoever. | Notwithstanding the intimate relations between the argilla- ceous marl and the superincumbent beds, it would not be expe- . dient to represent it on a map by the ordinary colour. of the ` chalk ; for the colour would then cease to mark the boundary of a distinct escarpment. . If these views be correct, the proper mode would be to represent the argillaceous varieties of chalk marl by a distinct colour; which would then mark the superfi- cial. extent of a flat region stretching out from the foot. of a well- defined chalk escarpment. .The mode recommended would moreover be in harmony with that which is adopted in the super- ficial delineation of the greater part of the English oolite series. This series (as is obvious from the enumeration in Mr. Green- ough's Map) consists of three distinct oolitic deposits, each rest- ing on a great bed of clay. The Lias clay.and the Oxford cla have appropriate colours assigned to them. In conformity wit the system, an appropriate colour ought also to be given to the Kimmeridge clay wherever it appears at the surface. The Port- land oolite and the superincumbent Purbeck beds might then be conveniently represented by a single tint. * Geol. Trans. v. 51. 3 + The supplies of water obtained by boring have never been known to fail, This seems to prove that there is an impervious bed, probably of clay, immediately under the green sand on which the galt reposes. For itis hardly conceivable that a large forma- tion of sand should be always so saturated with water as to be able to force up a column to the height of nearly 200 feet, wherever the upper bed is perforated. — New Series, vor. 111. Z 338° Prof. Sedgwick onthe = [May, ` Every. one who is acquainted’ with the continental works on geology must have remarked the extraordinary meagerness of their details respecting most of the secondary rocks which are newer than the formations of the Türingerwald. The English: formations belonging to the same epoch are exhibited in a beau» tiful and perfect order, for which it is in vain to look in any" other part of the world which has been yet examined. The great beds of clay, interposed between the several oolitic depos“ sits, first enabled Mr. Smith to separate them from each’ other). and to trace their distinctive characters. All’ such points of detail, when once well established, become so many new terms of comparison, by which we may eventually be’ enabled: to fix’ the relations. between our own formations, and those in’ other | parts of the world. An accurate delineation’ of all those argilla- ceous beds, which form so distinguishing a feature in English gpaloey, is certainly an object of the first importance. Ourgeo-- Ogical maps, as far as they are: constructed on that principle, not only point out the demarcation between mineral beds of separate characters, but àcquamt us at once with the general” aspect of the surface. The colours of the argillaceous beds representing the extent of low, marshy, featureless. districts ; ile the colours of the several oolitic’ formations, and of the” chalk, point out the limits of a succession of bold: escarpments’ and prolonged natural terraces. — ^. «9. SIM. 49 IINE The preceding digression has not originated in any spirit of captious criticism’; bot in difficulties which have been expe- rienced. in classifying some of the beds’ which support the chalk ; and in an earnest wish that the authors of our geological maps, who have supplied us with so many'admirable details, may leave’ nothing undone-which can possibly be effected. ! V. Ow tue Formations or Sanp AND PLAsTIC CrAY, 5 LoNposN Cray, &c. ' The English formations which rest immediately upon the chalk belong to a» distinct epoch im the natural history of the. earth ; for they are not co-extensive with, nor always conforma- ble to, the beds by which they are supported, but rather resemble” materials which have been mechanically drifted’ into the deep depressions or water-worn denudations of the older rocks. They’ are, therefore, generally limited to the extent of certain pre-exist- ing inequalities in the surface of the globe. | AUN E eposits originating in the way we have described must necessarily be of variable thickness, and liable to: every possible: modification from the action of mere local causes. Any useful classification of their component beds would, perhaps,. never have been effected, had not the organie remains ‘preserved in them exhibited. an extraordinary uniformity of character and. arrangement. An: accurate examination of these spoils: has, therefore, supplied us with the means of establishing analogies’ 1892.] Geology of the-Isle-of Wight, 3c. 339 between phenomena which otherwise must have appeared entirely unconnected. | As the physical characters of any strata become: more liable to variation, all the accompanying circums stances are of proportionally greater importance. Hence, arrangements of some of our formations have been made exclu- sively, from» zoological. considerations... It. must, however, be obvious, ¿that classifications of this kind. would be of no use to the geologist, unless accompanied: with direct observations on the superposition of the mineral masses in which the organic remains are entombed; The existence of a. given suite of fossils in any rock proves nothing respecting its age, unléss we can show that the same suite is associated with other strata of known relations; and even: then, our conclusions on the subject. are. only founded on analogy. No one ought, therefore, to puni on such grounds as these before his observations: have: been. widely extended. He may then become: acquainted with so many corresponding facts; that phenomena, which. at first presented nothing but obscure analogies; may at last become as conclusive in establishing any geological relation as the most direct. evis dence. | | LOT The truth of this statement is so obvious that it would have been unnecessary to bring it forward, had it not been overlooked: by some of those who object to the present arrangement of our tertiary rocks, | ! | | "x o. The lowest, and at the same time the most widely extended ` deposits in the chalk basins.of London andthe Isle of Wight; are generally divided into the two following formations : : 1, Sand and Plastic Clay. Composed of a great many beds of sand, insome places white and pure; in othersimpure and tinged ' with almost every possible shade of colour. Subordinate to which are beds of fine potter’s clay, impure argillaceous beds sometimes . containing calcareous concretions, beds. of rolled flints, thin béds of impure wood coal, &c... The beds of sand and pebbles appear to have originated in a state of things ill suited to the preserva- tion of organized beings: accordingly, with some remarkable exceptions, we find few of their remains in this formation. 2. London Clay. A formation of tenacious clay, often abounding im septaria ; sometimes containing thin beds of argillaceous lime- stone ; containing also, more rarely, beds of sand and calcareous sandstone. Organic remains are dispersed in most extraordinary profusion through almost every part of this widely extended. formation. | _ The separation of the two formations above-mentioned is not, marked out by any extraordinary natural epoch; but is. merely assumed as a convenient classification, founded on constant geological relations ; on a decided differeuce in the composition of the constituent beds; and a still more decided difference in z 2 340 Prof. Sedgwick on the = [May their zoological phenomena. It was first pointed out by Smith (Farey's Survey of Derbyshire, p. 110, 111). ^ Parkinson’ afters wards furnished us with many interesting details, and esta the complete identity of the great argillaceous deposits “of the London basin, and of the Hampshire coast, (Geol. Trans. voli? p. 336). But it was reserved for Webster to describe! a’ still more important series of facts which went far to complete the: natural west a of the two formations. The propriety of this’ classification has been further confirmed by elaborate sections taken by Buckland and Conybeare from certain parts of the London basin.* (Geol. Trans. iv. 277.) We have been thus par ticular in enumerating authorities, because they all tend to esta- blish a conclusion vilieh it has lately been attempted to invali-- date. On referring to the specific objections urged against the classification we have been describing, it will be seen that , are all:founded on the examination of a single natural section. (Annals of Philosophy, p. 217, 218.) ‘The statement contains; therefore, in a great measure, its own refutation. No man livin can on such grounds judge of the propriety of any geological arrangement ; still less is he entitled to assert that every thin b is in favour of his own opinion. It requires ty e compari- sons before we can form a correct estimate of the extent and relative importance of any system of beds; and without that knowledge we are not in possession even of the elements of a good arrangement. ; | ai " The extraordinary vertical beds which appear in Alum Bay, and are continued in the same position on the north side of the chalk range to the eastern extremity of the Isle of Wight, are separated by Mr. Webster into two formations. (Geol. Trans. ol. ii. 1.11, &c.) : MfG ABA. AAAS Din ac m 5G | (F) oeny Plastic Clay. ; Extending from the chalk to the bed of cemented pebbles marked (z:)) ^ | 177757 s **(2)) London Clay. Represented" in this instance by a bed (B) about 250 feet thick. © .- ^ 155^ anebasie qn "i " Against thissystem' itis urged (Annals, p.217), that there is a, bed of London clay marked (d) in the same section; below the greater part of the beds of sand and plastic clay’; that there isäs UM apparent continuity in the bed (d), as in the one marked To this we reply, that there is no apparent continuity in either _* The pits at Catsgrove Hill, near Readin 3 are. noticed by Dr. Woodward, al la series of specimens collected by him from that locality, are still lodged in the cabinet at the University of Cambridge. His account of the section, as it existed more than) 100 years since, is as follows: (Cat. of Fossils, vol. ii. p. 41.) o) 1S AME ** The uppermost stratum is of gravel, about two feet thick. “Thin clay of various ~ colours, purple, blue, red, liver-colour, 33 feet. Next the sand, with the o t composed of grains, greenish, black, and white, one foot thick. Under this’ clay, with some oyster shells in it, but very tender and rotten, a foot thi neath,,.chalk, in which the workmen have sunk. 20 feet without finding; the | He afterwards adds, that the bed of sand with oysters had been tra d for ditty side of Reading. < H T LLG x A aryen "T 4 í} 1 od v Y ""WSI s Hae T3" ¿35 AM b a yam 1822.1 Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. 341 of the beds... Nothing is placed before the eyes except an irre- ular. surface laid bare by a section transverse to the range of the valet ie above the chalk. _ But we do know that a great argil- laceous deposit, resting on the sand and plastic clay formation, is almost co-extensive with the basins of London and of the Isle of Wight ; and that its general relations, and the fossils contained in it, are identical with those of the stratum (B) in the section of Alum Bay. On the other hand, we do not know, by the evidence of other sections, that the stratum (d) is continuous. Indeed there is all the proof which can be afforded by negative evidence that it has no rank but that of an accidental or subordinate bed. It is further stated (Annals, p. 218) that. the fossils of the lower argillaceous bed (d) are identical with those of the Lon- don clay. This assertion, taken in its utmost extent, only proves that the sea, during the age of the sand and plastic clay forma- tion, was sufficiently tranquil to allow the propagation of certain species of mollusce. Nor is it extraordinary that the progeny of these animals should be found in still greater abundance in newer argillaceous beds, deposited under circumstances more favoura- ble to the existence of organized beings. But after all, is the assertion correctly true? The argillaceous bed (d) was examined by Mr. Henslow and myself during our first visit to the Isle of Wight in the year 1819. i The fossils of the stratum were principally confined to the septaria. Among the specimens brought away on that occasion, I find the following : (1.) Fragments of an oyster nearly resembling ostrea pulchra. (Min. Con. pl. 279.) se^ (2.) A mya and pinna, both probably London clay fossils; because, if I mistake not, the same species are found in the rocks of Bognor. (3.) Casts of two species of bivalves, and of one univalve. It is worthy of remark, that not one out of this suite is figured in the Fossilia Hantoniensia of Brander. On the other Eig thousands of fragments of the well-known London clay fossils are dispersed through almost every part of the upper argillaceous bed (B); agreeing (as was observed by Mr. Webster) in their state of preservation as well as in their specific characters with the organic remains of the Hampshire coast. Two other facts are brought forward (Annals, p. 218) to prove that the beds we have been considering ought not to be separated into two formations, viz. the existence of septaria in the stratum (d), and the existence of decomposing rolled flints both above and below the argillaceous bed (B) We may briefly observe ; first, that septaria prove nothing respecting the age of the beds in which they are contained ; because they are found in all the argillaceous deposits associated with our secondary rocks; and secondly, that rolled flints prove nothing except the mechanical origin of the banks of sand in which they are contained, and may be found in any stratum which is newer than the chalk. 342 Prof. Sedgwick on the [Max, Had we possessed no information respecting the beds imme: diately above the chalk, except that which is derived from the Isle oF Wight, no one would, perhaps, have thought it necessary to separate them into two formations. So much may safely be conceded to the objections we have ‘been considering. “We must at the same time remark, that the section in Alum Bay can hardly convey any correct notion respecting the classifica- tion of the component beds, because the regular order of depo- sition has been interrupted by a catastrophe which hurled all the strata into a emi entirely different from that which they once occupied. Under such circumstances, it would be most unphi- losophical to hasten to a general conclusion before other locali- ties have been examined, in which the successive deposits have met with no interruption, and in which all the accompanyin phenomena are exhibited in more perfect order. The Hampshire coast from Studland Bay to the eastern termination of Hordwell cliff, offers the best possible commentary on the ew i Alum Bay; for in that part of the basin, the lower beds have not* been displaced since their first deposition, and are laid bare bya succession of good sections, The sand and plastic clay forma- Aion occupies every portion of the cliff between Studland Bay and Christ Church Head. In following the coast in that direc- tion, the beds are found to have a slight inclination in a direction about ESE. At the termination of the cliff of diluvium on the east side of the Christ Church river, these beds reappear with the same inclination which gradually carries them under the ‘London clay. ‘The line of demarcation is perfectly well defined, and the London clay then occupies the whole cliff, and exhibits a succession of beds of very great thickness. By the continued inclination towards the imaginary centre of the basin, they are successively vonga down to the beach, and at length disappear (nearly opposite the village of Barton) under formations, which are evidently contemporaneous with the horizontal beds of Headen Hill, and will be mentioned in their proper place. The portion of the sand and plastic clay formation, south of Poole harbour, may be examined in any of the great pits which have been opened in it. The following section, taken from one of the clay-pits to the north-west of Corfe Castle, may serve as an example, The beds are counted from the top. " (1.) Yellow sand with ferruginous concretions. .. 20 or 30 feet. (2.) A thin bed of ferruginous grit resting. on impure Eb WO debi: tos TREE E^ eoa l ee PS Se E O Pinepotters clay. ...255 os 10012 puas, X10202. fue (4.) ee mag grit, and very impure pyritous wood- —. Pol sack cece y U XM bey pit TAURO EL. da (53 Good clay....... ih nw bases den ham (6.) Dark impure clay... ......seeee een ntn Sah cu ‘(7.) Fine potter's clay ..... P LO ook: META E - (8.) Impure sand and clay of unknown thickness. 1822.] Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. 343 _ The sandy cliffs, west of Christ Church Head, are traversed by irregular subordinate argillaceous beds, some of which con- tain calcareous concretions. The presence of organic remains may be expected in such cases, though my very limited observa- tions did not enable meto detect them. tis impossible to give any description of the London clay without. entering on details which are incompatible with the objects of this notice. The natural section exhibited between Handfast Point and the western termination of Hordwell Cliff, not only affords a satis- factory confirmation of the classification which has been adopted ; but by a slight imaginary prolongation of the beds may be linked to another natural section between Colwell Bay and the Needles of the Isle of Wight. "These general views enable us to connect the great depositions on both sides of the Solent, and to fix the relations of the vertical beds of Alum Day by evidence not short of demonstration. VBE T VI. BEDS BETWEEN THE LONDON CLAY AND THE LowER ii FRESHWATER FORMATION. | The vertical beds of Alum Bay are succeeded by a formation _principally. composed of siliceous sand; the lower portion of which is considerably inclined, while the upper portion is nearly horizontal. It should seem, therefore, that this formation belongs to the epoch of the great catastrophe which tilted the central chalk range into its present unnatural position. The ‘section in Whitecliff Bay confirms this hypothesis. All its more important features are beautifully delineated in the work of Sir H. Englefield on the Isle of Wight; and the accompanying descriptions by Mr. Webster prove that its component parts are contemporaneous, and probably continuous, with the formations of Alum Bay. The two localities, however, differ from each. other in some points which are not unimportant. The /ower freshwater beds rest immediately upon the most northern vertical bed of Whitecliff Bay, and descend so rapidly to the level of the beach that it is impossible to ascertain the nature of the strata by which they are afterwards supported. Nor is this the only ‘distinguishing circumstance. The last vertical bed bears little resemblance to the London clay (D) of Alum Bay; for it is principally composed of siliceous sand, and contains a distinct suite of fossils. I have no specimens of these fossils now before me; but from memoranda made upon the spot, they appear ` chiefly to consist of the following genera : | (1.) Ostrea, with a convex and deeply striated valve. (2) Venus... `: (3.) Nucula. 4.) Murex, two species. - (5.) Rostellaria rimosa. (6.) 'Cerithium, one or two species. T.) Ancilla subulata, &c.- I ` 944 | Prof. Sedgwick on the — "[Mav, ... With the exception of the undescribed oyster, all these species . are found in exactly the same state of preservation, in the upper marine formation of Colwell Bay. From all these facts, which . at first appeared sufficiently perplexing, we concluded ; first, that „ithe London clay had never extended to Whitecliff Bay, or, at least, had thinned off to such a degree as to be quite insignifi- cant; and, secondly, that the most northern vertical bed of . Whitecliff Bay was part of a formation of siliceous sand, &c. between the ns clay and the lower freshwater beds. An examination of the Hampshire coast completely confirmed us in „this opinion. It has already been stated that the London clay . terminates in the cliff nearly opposite the village of Barton. Beds of sand of a light-brown colour there first make their appearance at the top of the cliff, and follow the dip of the infe- - rior clay. They are succeeded by other beds of sand, containing two well defined layers of coaly matter which may be traced in the escarpment for a considerable distance. On the last men- tioned sandy strata rests a bed, five or six feet thick, which con- tains a considerable portion of argillaceous matter. The whole system of these beds above the London clay is more thar 40 feet .thick. The lower sandy strata contain a few marine shells, among which we remarked some very large cerithia; but the . highest beds abound in many species which (in addition to a few London clay fossils) form a suite, absolutely identical with that which characterizes the most northern vertical bed of Whitecliff Bay.* At the eastern end of this portion of Barton Cliff com- mences a freshwater formation, resting on the beds last described, and dipping like its associates about ESE. As nearly all the fossils I collected from this part of the coast were unfortunately lost, I am compelled to rely almost exclusively on memoranda made by my friend Mr. Whewell, who assisted me in collecting many of the facts detailed in this paper. The notes were, how- ever, taken on the spot; and are, therefore, we hope, sufficiently accurate to establish the genera! facts for which we are contend- ing. It appears from what has been stated ; first, that a regular marine formation principally composed of siliceous sand, sepa- rates the London clay from the freshwater beds of the Hampshire coast; secondly,that thesame formationis probably continued with- out interruption from Alum Bay to Whitecliff Bay ; and, thirdly, that the disturbing force which upset the mid region of the Isle . of Wight, acted after a part of this formation had been deposited. A deposit preserving the same characters in places which are’so * It is too much to expect the same phenomena in all the minute parts of a terti. deposit ; otherwise one might look for a similar suite in the bed (E) which tes the white sand from the lower freshwater formation of Headen Hill. (Geol. "Trans. voL ii. pl. 11.) We last summer only examined this bed in a single point, where it had,been exposed by a land slip immediately above the great sand pits, It there. ined v little argi matter, but was composed P git mir uuri w to have been rudely blended together in agitated’ water. “We found. nic C P d : 18221] Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. ^ 0845 remote from each other, may probably have extended over the greater part of the Isle of Wight basin. 'The siliceous beds which in the neighbourhood of Paris are often found between the calcaire grossier and the lower freshwater formation, are strikingly analogous to the beds we have been describing. Whether the Bagshot sand which rests immediately on the London clay can be referred to the same epoch may admit of doubt, because the time of its deposition is not, I believe, limited by any known succession of newer beds. The proper . ' data for solving the question will probably be given in the next ` volume of the Geological Transactions. VII. HORIZONTAL BEDS IN THE NORTH or THE [SLE oF Wicur, &c. | Since the publication of Mr. Webster's letters to Sir H. Engle- ` field, it has been universally admitted that all the northern region of the Isle of Wight is composed of nearly horizontal beds, of later origin than any of those which have been enumerated. As the separation of these beds into three distinct formations is founded simply on zoological considerations, without any primary reference to the nature of their component parts; the propriety’ of such a separation can only be established by a rigid determi- mation of the fossil species contained in them. With the com- pletion of this task Mr. Webster has been for some time employed; especially since the objection to his arrangement, which appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for last September. Every thing may be expected from the zealand talents of one to` whom we are already so much indebted. Those facts, connected ` "with this subject, which have fallen under my own observation, - will be given without any details, except such as are absolutely necessary to make them understood. The classification published by Mr. Webster will be adopted without any reserve. T 1. Lower Freshwater Formation. During a visit to the Isle of | Wight, made by Mr. Henslow and myself in the year 1819, we "verified almost all Mr. Webster's observations on the portion of ' this formation which extends from Headen Hill to Colwell Bay. -In the northern part of Totland Bay, we found alternating with the indurated lower freshwater marl, several thin beds of clay, one of which containéd many specimens of a small shell we considered a cerithium. Not only from its associates, but also from its specific characters, we are now convinced that it is a freshwater shell. According to the modern nomenclature, it must, therefore, be called a potamides. ln some of the upper - beds of the formation (more especially in Colwell Bay, near the » place where they descend tothe beach and disappear) we found -undoubted proofs of the mixture of marine and freshwater species, "not only in the argillaceous- marls, but in the masses of fresh- "Water rock. A single specimen ‘struck off from one of these -majses.contains examples of the following genera: ^^ ^ 346 ` Prof. Sedgwick.onthe — déder. (1.) Ostrea. ` teuk.hei cad sid add (2.) Venus. TN [ odi 10-5 (3) Cerithium. —.— fi i ) (4) Planorbis. "ws | (5) Iymnea. Y is m — The lower portion of the cliff between Gurnet Point and East ‘Cowes presents many examples of the mixture or alternation of marine and freshwater genera, which cannot be accounted.for ¿merely by the degradation of the upper part of the cliff. “This fact, and the probable reasons of it, are both stated by Mr. Webster (Geol. Trans, ii. 213). In every portion of the coast where there is any escarpment between Whitecliff Bay and Bem; bridge Ledge, and also between the mouth of Brading Harbour and Priory Park, we found well defined beds of the lower fresh- water formation. We have already remarked, their junction with tbe. vertical beds of Whitecliff Bay.. Immediately to the north of this junction, and from thence to Bembridge Ledge, ‘many of these beds lose the character of indurated calcareous marl, and pass into a variety of hard shell limestone. In this state they are quarried to.a considerable extent, and the larger blocks are cut down by a saw into forms. which are suited for -exportation. "These rocks do not, as far as we observed, contain -any marine spoils; but they exhibit innumerable traces of the common freshwater fossils ; viz. paludina, planorbis, and lymnea. Nor are they, as in some other places, at all confounded with the marine marl which rests upon them. A thin oyster bed of the upper marine marl may be traced in many parts of the bay where there is a clean escarpment, in almost immediate contact "with the inferior rock." The beds just described have been referred by mistake to the upper freshwater formation. (Geol. Trans.ii.228.) It would hardly have been necessary to notice this oversight had it not been copied by those who have described this part of the island without any personal examination of it. Either.a dislocation, or at least a considerable flexure, of the freshwater strata, takes place at the entrance of Brading har- bour; for on the south side of the harbour they dip to the north, but on the north side of it they dip at a more considerable angle inan opposite direction. The remaining part of the cliff as far as Priory Park presented a repetition of the same phenomena, viz. the dower freshwater rock surmounted by the argillaceous marl of the upper marine formation. : The demarcation was, however, no longer well defined, but showed a mixture or alternation which probably originated in a gradual passage of one formation into the other. An examination of this part of the Island convinced ms that. Mr. Webster had correctly classed the calcareous. beds near Ride with the dower freshwater formation. We had be -adopted..a contrary opinion. In addition to the. Giga of Accounting for the app e of any portion. of the a s water rock in the cliff between Gurnet Point and Ride ; we may .1822.] Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. B47 observe, that the mineralogical character of the calcareous: beds in that part of the coast almost compels us to unite them with the similar beds near Brading harbour and Whitecliff Bay. It would be improper not to mention in this place the appear- ance of the lower freshwater beds between Yarmouth and Gurnet -Point. In that part of the coast they generally lose the appear- ance of an indurated calcareous marl, and pass into masses of stiff ‘clay or argillaceous marl, which are not unfrequently of a. bright green colour. Many of these green beds preserve their continuity for a great extent; and their order of superposition is beautifully traced out wherever the lower part of the cliff is not masked by the rubbish which is perpetually descending from the upper argillaceous beds. : It seems impossible. to avoid arranging them with some of the rocks we have been describing. Perhaps they may be the representatives of the highest part. of the lower freshwater formation which is so frequently associated with beds ofargillaceous marl. In this instance we may consider the caleareous portion of the formation to have been almost excluded by its associate. These beds of argillaceous marl are no where more perfectly exposed than in a part of the coast between Yarmouth and Hampstead Cliff, which is covered at "high water; for in consequence of a very unusual angle of incli- nation towards the south, they are: brought out one from under another in a long succession. The whole formation is subdivided by almost innumerable layers of fossil shells which follow the planes of stratification. "The beautiful preservation even of the minutest characters both of the bivalves and of the univalves, and still more, their arrangement in distinct families, affordya "proof not short of demonstration, that the whole: system has originated in a tranquil deposition. Unfortunately the specimens are so friable that they generally fall to pieces when they are extracted from their matrix. Among these fossils we remarked an abundance of some of the following genera : ad | (1) Paludina. > beu —(2.) Potamides. (3.) Melania, more than one species. (4.) Cyclas, two species. | (5.) Unio (?) generally in the form of large casts in which: the nacreis beautifully preserved. ] '(6.) Planorbis, more than one species. (7) Lymnea, more than one species. in The two last were not so abundant as the others. There were also in the partings of some of the beds traces of vegetable impressions. From the green marl beds of Thorness Bay, we obtained very fine impressions of a kind of large flag. Adding what has been inta. to the details already published by Mr. “Webster, we may conclude, that in every part of the north coast "of the Tsle of Wight, from Alum Bay to Whitecliff Bay, where "there is a good denudation, the dower freshwater formation may 348 Prof. Sedgwick on the. [Mav, be traced, generally near the base of the escarpment, and. sur- mounted by ruinous masses. of argillaceous marl. . In sinking a well for the use of the barracks near Newport, they are said to have brought up from the depth of 265 feet some specimens of en marl containing fossils exactly resembling some of those which abound at the foot of Hampstead Cliff. Lam m posses- sion of one of these specimens, which, if its locality be correctly iven, almost proves that the dower prevede formation exists in some places near Newport about 260 feet below the surface. An examination of the old cabinets of Dr. Woodward had lon since led me to expect that very important traces of the fresh- water formations would be found on the Hampshire coast; but I bad never, before last July, an opportunity of verifying the conjecture. After an excursion. made by Mr. Whewell and myself to the neighbourhood of Christchurch, we returned by the Barton and Hordwell cliffs.. This enabled us to observe the -first appearance of the London clay, its termination in the cliff between the villages of Barton and Hordwell, and the beds of marine sand which succeeded, as we have already mentioned. The existence of a freshwater formation, extending nearly through the whole of Hordwell Cliff, was certainly more than -we had ventured to anticipate.. Any minute details which we might offer i te this part of the coast would be received with distrust, as we lost nearly all the specimens we collected from it; and the attempt would be unnecessary, as Mr. Webster -has subsequently undertaken the description of it. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with stating, that the formation which succeeds the marine sand above-mentioned is. composed of various coloured beds of sand, loam, carbonaceous clay, argil- laceous and calcareous marl seldom in a state of induration, several carbonaceous beds, some of which are three or four feet thick, &c. &c. All these beds are succeeded by some thick beds of bluish argillaceous marl, which are prolonged to the east, and at length carried, by the natural dip of the strata, under a cliff of diluvian gravel. Among the characteristic fossils may be enumerated the following : (1.) Planorbis. (2.) Lymnea. (3.) Paludina. | | (4.) A small bivalve which resembles mya; it exists in immense abundance in the freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight. (5.) Melanopsis. (6.) Cyclas. (7.) Unio. (8.) Potamides, &c. &c. We found, however, several cerithia, and some other shells which we at the time considered of marine origin. From this circumstance we were disposed to regard the great deposit of Hordwell Cliff as the representative both of the lower freshwater 1829.) Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. 349° and upper marine formations of Mr. Webster. No part of the coast’ appears to offer any trace of the upper freshwater de- ` posit. DANGLY | 2 2. Upper Marine Formation. By this we understand all the. beds of.argillaceous marl, sand, &c. which in Headen Hill are interposed between the two freshwater formations. (Geol. Trans. vol. i. pl. 11.) They occupy a very wide superficial extent in the north of the island ; yet there are few places in which. their ~ natural history can be studied with much advantage, if we except: . the cliff between Meaden Hill and Colwell Bay, the argillaceous beds of Hampstead Hill, and the upper part of the escarpment in Whitecliff Bay. Mr. Webster derived from the first of these localities all the facts which were connected with the zoological history of the formation. In our examination of this deposit, we were convinced that its true limits cou'd not be perfectly ascer- tained without a more rigid determination of the genera of its fossil inhabitants than had yet been attempted; we did not,- however, by any means, arrive at the conclusion stated by Mr. G. Sowerby (Annals of Philosophy, p. 219), viz. “ that if we depend upon fossil as the principal means of identifying strata, we shall see great reason to believe that there does not exist any marine formation between the two freshwater ones." As the determination of this question is of considerable importance, we) think it proper briefly:to state the grounds of our opinion. : ^ (1) In general, the lower calcareous beds appear to have been: tranquilly deposited in freshwater. But if we ascend to the: argillaceous marl which rests immediately upon them, we not only find a complete change in the physical circumstances of the deposit, but a new suite of organic remains, some of which are. of marine origin, others of a doubtful character, and a few are: identical with those in the lower beds. All this seems to indi- cate a marine inundation. Without some such interruption, it is not possible to conceive how a single marine shell. should have found its way into a freshwater deposit. On the contrary, it is perfectly conceivable that any quantity of freshwater shells should have been drifted down into a marine deposit, and become so much mixed with it as to have altered its whole character/ (2.) There is much direct evidence to prove that the marine inundation lasted. for a considerable time. The oyster bed above the freshwater rock in Whitecliff Bay has been already mentioned. Two oyster beds may be traced m some parts of Headen Hill; and single oysters are dispersed in many other. portions of the formation. | ) Mr. Webster pointed out a great bank of oysters in Colwell Bay, many of which. have their valves united, and are locked: together in the way in which they usually live. This bank is Several feet thick, and the species could hardly have existed in their present state had they not been propagated on the very X955 Th WG) 3 350. Prof. Sedgwick omthe > [Mav; spot where they are found. Again, in the great argillaceous: deos “vrh Headen Hill and Colwell Ba "eni also in the cliff near Hampstead, other marine shells are found in a beautiful: state of preservation. The ruinous condition of the cliff precludes the: possibility of determining their exact arrangement. | They ear, however, chiefly to abound in the lower part of the: deposit. Without pretending to give a complete list even of the owe which we collected, it may be proper to enumerate: following. genera : | | finite s bestest (1.) Murex, at least two species abound in Colwell Bay. | (2) Buccinum. pa S jb (3) Ancilla subulata, by no means a rare shell in Colwell Bay. (4.) Voluta, resembling voluta spinosa. 9) e (53) Rostellaria rimosa. =“ | i t IE D TCT The last two mentioned species are certainly rare. There are two or three other Londay clay fossils in the marine beds of Cola well v e. g the murex effossus and murex innexus of Brander (Foss. Hant. Nos. 28, 30), and fragments of a:species of fusus. (65 Natica.- ^ | à dà | 2 PUT 7.) Venus. | 78.) Nucula. 135 EELE EN airs = Corbula, a small species is very common m Hampstead Cliff.. d. JULI 'itariiwirtawsty (10.). Two smallbivalves (of the genus corbis?) abound in the x part of Hampstead Chiff. One of them is also commonin Jolwell Bay. | [2 | piir «11.) Mytilus. i gig SHH Fonte This list, however imperfect, is quite enough for our present purpose. Along with the preceding species are some which are; = aps, of an ambiguous origin; and others which are undoubted reshwater shells. A few of the latter specimens were probably: drifted into the beds at the time of their formation; but the greater number may have descended into their present situation yy the degradation of the superior strata. As we ascend torthe higher parts of the formation, we find innumerable: examples of certain genera which do not exist in this climate, but have been discovered in various parts of the world among the inhabitants of freshwater. The cyclas and potamides are most abundant, and with them are generally associated the melanopsis and nerita, &c. There are two species of perite, one of which nearly resembles the merita fluviatilis. As, however, the beds abounding in these enera also: contain a few marine shells, may they not have been deposited in the brackish waters ofan estuary, or ina basin which was’ still partially affected by a marine mundation? In some beds at the top of the formation, which: are exposed bya land- slip in the middle of Totland Bay, all traces of a marine- origin have disappeared. The phenomena exhibited by the section are as follows, beginning from the bottom: EARP s 5411 1822.) Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. 351- (1) Bluish clay containing innumerable fossils..of the: oii - genus potamides,&c.. Whole thickness not exposed. (2) Yellowish: sand with the lymnea, paludina,. and 8 8 plünorbissi ois. hi o's ie osie sy b daviensdies robe vss oy: dete. (3): Carbonaceous bed .. ..... PET ES mes be «e (4) Yellowish sand with many specimens. of potamides, — mos melanopsis, and cyclas n «vore ee e sitwa pay: wyeiiedy (5:) A thin coaly bed. | ! Y ARE IHE Wee (6.)»Sandy beds without shells seu. eee... «dedo «JA QE 9 - Immediately over these was the upper freshwater. calcareous rock forming a bold escarpment. : ity? 322 Inethe Hampstead Cliff, the argillaceous marl. beds of this formation are considerably more than. 100, feet thick. They, contain a great many fossils in a beautiful state of preservation, . among which are five or six species we did not find in any other. part.of the island... In the upper part of the cliff, not far from the. capping of diluvian gravel, there are some. thin beds entirely composed of four or five species of shells, which have been dri- ven pell-mell together, and now adhere to each other like masses: of Suffolk crag. Even at this great elevation, we found.a thin. bed filled with a small shell of the genus corbu/a, resembling that. which is figured by Sowerby, t. 209, f. 4. ! » From:all that has been stated, we conclude, that. the whole formation originated in an interruption to the deposition.of the. beds of calcareous marl occasioned by a marine inundation ; that. the lower part of the formation may be considered of decidedly marine origin; that some: of the intermediate beds may have been formed during a partial or interrupted communication with the sea; and, lastly; that some of the upper. beds were deposited’ in a part of the basin from which the sea was entirely excluded. In a single instance, we found a fragment of a small bone; and. a) beautiful vertebral joint of a fish in. one of the marine beds of Totland Bay. This fact is: worth recording, as it had not been) remarked before; but it-throws no light upon the present ques tion. On the whole, the name of upper marine formation may, perhaps, be conveniently. applied. to the whole system of beds: between the upper and lower freshwater formations; though the extended labours of naturalists have proved, since the publication: of Mr. Webster's: paper, that several of its fossil inhabitants: belong to genera which are now only known to exist in fresh- water. | ial There are two: other observations.in the Annals of Philosophy, p. 220, which we shall briefly notice ; first, “ That the Woolwich beds may be. contemporaneous with this upper marine formation, for many of the shells contained in it are species of freshwater genera;” and, secondly, * That the crag on the coasts of Suffolk and Essex bears evident marks. of identity with alluvium.” In regard to the first of these observations, without stopping to 359^ ' - Prof. Sedgwick on the [May, ’ . notice the manner in which it is brought forward, we reply, that > the order of superposition cannot be determined against the direct evidence of sections. If it can be shown that the section . given in the Geological Transactions * is erroneous, the argu- ment may then be listened to, but not till then. Again, fresh. water shells may be expected to appear occasionally in any bed ` of a tertiary deposit. - -They exist in great abundance in some arts of the plastic clay formation; between the calcaire grossier \ and the chalk of the Paris basin. Their existence in the. sand | and plastic clay of the London basin only establishes a new ana- logy between the contemporaneous formations of the two coun- tries. | The observation on the Suffolk crag is given with too much confidence. Some of the masses of broken shells might have originated in the diluvian action which formed our great beds of gravel. But in other places the shells make an approach to a. more regular arrangement, and are often associated with thick ; beds of siliceous sand. The coast of Essex may, perhaps, give a. clew to the true relations of the deposit. Atall events we think, that even the imperfect denudations of the Suffolk coast prove: that the crag is superior to the London clay. In the absence of» more perfect details, I will transcribe two important sections which I obtained from. my lamented friend Dr. E. D. Clarke: They are made out from a register of the borings of the strata undertaken last year in the hopes of finding a spring of fresh-. water for the town of Harwich.{ | Co First Section in the Town of Harwich. " : Feet... In. MA Aoibh siau abessent 9d va b. à n) nbn ife ala 3. 0 (2.) Sand, a strong spring of salt water. ....... B3 We Who v iiia v (B. Bins clay lo uz ppo kuyu, niin a makes 20 . 0 (4.)- Shingle and gravel .....: obus eros eisso horses er] 2o li (62p Red icoasise: san day! b: ST boe ih o him eai oo we Lenin. B (62: Coarae: grawel ou 3d ui enia edita n AR bit riores 4 0. (7.) Coarse dark.sand . ......... eese be whith end 6 0. (Six Clay: green aúñdired ii. si. bansag cn bieira e ag ' 6042 (83). Ghreeñiclayzyupayu ka viewers donee han rmt hen d l 10 (195); Chàlk ə apren A. occaeca Mb hot hou i hn orn vicia dubio idi (11.) Chalk mixed with fine sard............ Mrita Oy. 9 (12.) Chalk, grey from the mixture of dark sand ; seve- ! ral flints ux iraa ofseptarià «>» aeoo . bes teer fi AC (13.) Pure carbonate of lime .......... [o estu iis orar son 176 0 * Vol. iv. pl. 13. y 94) + I have been informed by my friend Mr. Underwood, of Paris, that many of the — naturalists now consider the plastic clay as the lowest freshwater deposit of the see rp these borings were undertaken, no chalk had ever been reached in the neigh- TS] dolg heii Wins." W iieodé Jatiki commencing 198 Feet South of the preceding, and HO" Hight Feet above the High Water Mark. | | X. ë Feet. (1) Soll, gee este ene eh neeese e ereseeboeeseaesee 4 (2.) Sand containing salt springs. ..... ——— I V (3.) Blue clay, containing selenite, KC... sio cee vee eee cone) 74 ( (4.) Gravel, with vegetable matter................ Unknown -. In the neighbourhood of Harwich, the crag is associated with No. 2. No. 3 is probably the representative of the London clay. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, will then represent the sand and plastic clay ormation. bi If these views be correct, Mr. Smith's arrangement of the crag must be considered quite untenable, | 3. Upper Freshwater Formation. We have now arrived at the last of the formations discovered by Mr. Webster—a system of calcareous beds more than 100 feet thick, which appear to have been deposited in a freshwater basin to which the sea had no longer any access ; for we find in it no marine shells, and very few of those species for the living analogues of which we have to look among the river shells of distant climates. On the contrary, there are diffused almost through every part of it innumerable specimens of genera which abound in the stagnant waters of England. To the details published by Mr. Webster (Geol. Trans. ñ. 226, &c.), we have very little to add. In the higher part of the hill above Totland Bay, we found among the beds of compact limestone the casts of one or two species of land-shells, and of a large turbinated shell which we have not seen described. Immediately above the limestone, there is a thin bed of clay containing lamine of coaly matter, and many shells, of the genus cycías, I a state of perfect preservation, and with their valves united. Asthe same species is very abundant in some parts of the upper marine formation, we imagined during our first visit to the island, that we had discovered the trace of a marine deposit over the highest freshwater beds. The facts already stated prove that the supposition was devoid of foun- dation. Indeed we may hope that difficulties which at first appeared insurmountable in classing the tertiary rocks will gra- dually disappear as inquiries respecting the genera of freshwater shells are more widely extended. The formation may be traced on the north side ofthe road between the villages of Freshwater and Calbourne ; but it does not extend very far to the north, nor has its eastern termination been well ascertained. It may be expected on the north side of the chalk range between New- i port and Whitecliff Bay : its existence, however, in that region- ias not been yet ascertained. All the blocks we have seen near Bembridge and Whitecliff Bay are decidedly derived from the lower freshwater formation. ‘Of the blocks which are scattered New Series, vou. 1m. 2A 354 Qn the Geology of the Isle of Wight, &c. [Mav, about the surface in the northern parts ofthe island, near Cowes and Ride, we cannot speak with the same confideuce, though they may, perhaps, generally be traced to the same formation. From all these facts we conclude, that the upper freshwater rock does. not. occupy so large a superficial extent as has been Ona review of all. the phenomena presented by the tertiary deposits of the Isle of Wight, I see no good reason for altering their present classification—a conclusion which every one must arrive at with pleasure who properly estimates the scientific researches of Mr. Webster. At the time he commenced his examination of the Isle, little was known respecting our newer strata, nor had any one successfully attempted to identify them with the similar formations of the Continent. In proof of the truth of this assertion, we have only to recollect that there appeared in 1811, under the sanction of the Geological Society, a paper by Dr. Berger, in which the strata over the chalk were confounded with the strata under the chalk ; and in which the Portland oolite was, by a magical power of misarrangement, made to represent the calcaire grossier of the Paris basin! VIII. Dirvviuw. This paper has already extended to so great a length that we shall omit some of the observations we intended to offer on the avel beds of the district. Itis true that in many parts of the sle the external form of the country has little connexion with its physical structure. The accumulation of diluvium may, however, be sometimes traced to specific denudations. Thus we find that the masses of gravel which are so much accumulated to the north-west of Newport are connected with one of the eatest denudations exhibited by the whole chalk range. The denadstión of Brading is, perhaps, still more remarkable. The small rivulets which spring on the south side of the central range do not descend into the sea by the way which nature seems to point out to them; but cut directly through the chalk downs, and find an outlet in Brading harbour. This fact proves that these rivulets have not excavated their present channels, and that the greater inequalities presented by the surface of the Isle have not arisen out of the ja continued action of those destructive causes which are now in operation. Many other parts of our great chalk range present the same phenomenon, — a j P. S. The fifty-ninth number of Sowerby’s Mineral Concholo has appeared during the passage of the preceding paper throug the press. It is now attempted to arrange under the genus potamides a great many shells which have been considered as 1822.]. Mr. Marratt on Sluice«Doors and Flood-Gates; 355 cerithia, .The shells which I have described by the generic term potamides belong exclusively to the species ventricosus and acutus, figured in plate 341. In their external characters, they are sufficiently distinguished from cerzthia, and they are so inti- mately associated with freshwater shells that it is hardly possible for them to have been of marine, origin, . An enumeration of the fossils subsequently figured by: Mr. Sowerby. (plates 339; 340), was intentionally omitted, as they were considered of doubtful — origin ; and, therefore, of no assistance in; separating the forma- tions. It is very important that those who collect fossils on the Hampshire coast should describe the localities more carefully than they have been in the habit of doing. P. rigidus, pl. 338, is probably derived from some of the sandy beds which separate the London clay from the lower freshwater formation. “A few freshwater, shelis may be expected in such a marine deposit. To avoid all ambiguity, would it not be better to expunge the genus potamides, and consider all the species as cerithia ? ‘Those which are inhabitants of freshwater might be distinguished from the others by some epithet, which would answer the purpose better than the artifice of making a new genus without any new generic characters. The fragments of the bulimus ellipticus (Min. Con. t. 337, f. 2), were found in the highest bed of the upper freshwater rock of Headen Hill, | ARTICLE IV. À New Method of hanging Sluice-Doors and Flood-Gates. "n "m By W. Marratt, AM, |... ` (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) ` ) SIR, . "E i ‘Liverpool. . _ Tue usual method of hanging doors which are intended to keep up or let out water from sluices, dams, &c. is either to place them so that they may be opened like common doors, or else to elevate and let them down by machinery; in both cases, the operation is. often very tedious and troublesome. The fol- lowing method, which, for any thing that I know; is new, and has not yet been put in practice, is certainly in many cases pre- ferable to the methods just alluded to. | Let a rectangular door be fitted to the place for which it is designed, and let it be hung, by placing across it strong gud- geons, which must turn in holes made in the jambs, or in a wooden frame placed for the purpose; or they may play in cir- cular holes made in the stone work. The proper situation for the gudgeons on the door may be thus determined : Draw two 2 A2 356° Mr. Marratt on Stuice-Doors'and Flood-Gates. [May, vertical lines, the whole length of the door, and find the centre of pressure of the door, corresponding to the situation the door is to have in the water ; that is, according to the depth to which it is to be immersed ; lay off on these vertical lines the distance of the centre of pressure from the upper end, and draw a line across the door through the centres of pressure ; this line may be called the line of pressure. Place thé axes, or centre lines, of the gudgeons so as to coincide with this line, and the gate will turn upon the gudgeons, and keep up or let out the water as occasion may require. ` | We may observe first, that such a door can be opened with the smallest force possible; that it will retain or keep any posi- tion im which it may be put; and, consequently, that any quan- tity of water may be evacuated at pleasure. “It may lid be closed again with the greatest possible ease; for the pressure of, the water above and below the axis on'which the T turns, being in all positions of the door equal, any effort which 1s sufficient to overcome the friction of the several parts will be all that is required either to open or shut the door. ^. ^ | ^ o0 This mode of hanging sluice doors will be extremely useful and convenient in situations where the sluice is liable to be choaked up with sand; in such situations miuch labour and expense are often required to open the doors when hung in the common way; but, according to this method, the door will be easily raised to a small height, which, being effected, the water will soon make its way, and carry away the sand along with it. Gates hung in this manner would be the best of any for the head of a mill-course, and the practieal engineer will easily determine other situations in which they may be used with advantage. As these doors or gates must always remain across the river, or sluice way, it is obvious that this mode cannot be applied where large vessels have to pass in and out; it may do, however, for small craft, and in every situation where navigation is not concerned, this mode of application is manifestly superior to the method now in use. | i Liam | " Where the sppe end of the door is even with the surface of the water, the distance of the line of pressure from the top of the door is two-thirds of the length of the door; in every other situation, whether the top of the door be above or RRAS the. surface of the water, the centre of pressure coincides with the. centre of oscillation, and is not difficult to determine. Tables for the use of mechanics might be easily constructed, if this method should be generally adopted in those situations for which it 1s best suited. ! di 1822.] D.’s Reply to: C.'s Observations. 357 ARTICLE V. Reply to C's Observations on- Mr. Herapath’s Theory. (Concluded from p. 296.) C. now sets himself about refuting Mr. H.’s theory of colli- sion. A very few words will be sufficient to display on this point the ‘ distinguished excellence of C.’s beautiful reasoning! conclusive arguments ! invincible demonstrations ! as self-evident as that two and two make five.” |. C. admits that Mr. H. is cor- xect in his Prop. 2, Annals for April, 1821. He allows that * bodies act with a force equal to their momentum ;" and, there- fore, as one consequence, that the force.with which a hard fixed plane and a hard ball moving perpendicularly upon it come in con- tact, is equal to the momentum of the ball. Again, C. grants that “ the intensity of the force with which two hard balls moving in opposite directions come in contact is equal to the sum of their momenta." Admitting, therefore, that the three momenta in these two cases are respectively equal, it is evident, by what C. himself allows to be true, that the intensity of the collision in the latter case is double the former. Now whether the changes ‘of motion be equal to the whole or only to half the intensities of collision, or even to a certain part of the intensities, it is on all hands allowed, I believe, in the case of perfectly hard bodies, that the changes of motion have at least the same ratio as these intensities. Foy instance, ifa certain intensity of stroke produce ‘acertain change of motion, double, treble, &c. that intensity will enerate a double, treble, &c, change of motion. Therefore, in the case of the hard body and plane, the change of motion in the ‘body is the half by what C. admits to that in either of the two movable bodies. Consequently if, as C. asserts, each of the two bodies just lose the whole of its motion by the stroke, the body striking on the plane will lose only half its motion ; and, there- fore, after the stroke, it will proceed right through the fixed imper- viable plane, with the other half motion which remains to it! Such a consequence as this; such a refutation of Mr. Hs theory, is well worthy the profundity of C.; and undoubtedly DOM i it as self-evident as that two and two make five, that Mr. H. has in truth quite mistaken the road to philosophical science.” | .. It is true C. does not say that the body will pass through the plane. He indeed tells us that Mr. H. is right in saying the body will remain at rest on it. The conclusion, however, which I have drawn.is a legitimate consequence of what he grants and admits; and such I will venture to say that he will get no man of respectable scientific ability openlv to contradict. Probably this reasoning may “ not quadrate with” C.'s notion of induc- 358 Ds Reply to C.’s Observations [May, tion. Should this be the case, it must be considered that C. does not work by the ordinary rules of philosophizing; and, therefore, unless he employs some preferable means to sanction his inductive asseverations, he must pardon common capacities for distrusting a system so very comprehensive as to prove truth error, wrong right, and, perhaps, even black white. Besides what 1 have shown, we have other equally happy consequences flowing from C.'s physics that would be not a little amusing if we had time to pursue them. Of these, I shall merely select the following two or three, which will set Cs depth and knowledge of the subject in question in the most advantageous point of view. C. says “ that the intensity of the stroke between two bodies moving towards opposite parts is equal to the sum of their momenta ;" and, therefore, when one of them is at rest before the stroke, the intensity must be equal to the momentum of the other. These propositions precisely. coincide with Mr. Herapath's. Moréover, C. says that a hard body striking a hard fixed plane poanto acts with a force equal to its momentum. This force is evidently the inten- sity of the stroke. Hence, therefore, the momenta in both cases being equal, the intensities of the strokes, and consequently the effects of these intensities on the motions of the bodies are equal. But C. tells us the one body after the stroke remains at rest on the plane; therefore, the other body striking the quies- cent one likewise remains at rest after the stroke. Now, though this agrees with Mr. H.’s theory, it is decidedly at variance witl the old. The old rose makes the two bodies after the stroke to go on together; and hence the collision deprives the striking body of only a part not of the whole of its motion. ` C. has con- sequently embraced views in direct opposition to the theory he means to advocate ; and that too in the very elementary parts of it; and what makes it better than all in the elementary part of a subject, * whose principles," he tells us, * are as nearly as possible self-evident.” It is not, I think, in the power of C. or any person whatever, to refute Mr. Herapath, or overturn the theory of heat of our illustrious Newton. Let me remind C, that it is of no avail to attempt to annihilate theories which have been fairly deduced from facts, by mere assertions. Indeed I enter- tain some doubt whether C. clearly understands the theory which he has undertaken to advocate. | y From the examples I have given, an estimate might easily be made of the value of the rest of C.'s observations. I might hence be very well excused from attending to his other remarks ; but lest he should conceive I dismiss them too hastily, I will accompany him a step or two further. | | Mr. Herapath, in his theory of collision, says, “ if a hard ball or, other hard body be held against a fixed hard body or plane, and in this way receive the impulse of another body," the force with which the one side ofthe intermediate body is driven towards 1822.] on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. 359 the other is equal to the momentum of the moving body. In proof of this, Mr. H. argues that “ the fixture being at rest, the part of the intermediate body which is against it cannot be urged any way by the fixture; and, therefore, the force with which the moving body comes in contact with the other side; thatis, the momentum of the body, is the force of constipation." But C. says, “ the two surfaces of the intermediate body will be urged towards its centre,” in consequence of the reaction of the ` fixture, ** with a force exactly as great as if each side had been struck with a momentum equal to that of the moving body." Thus instead of the centre being urged towards the fixed plane, which merely opposes a passive resistance, this quiescent plane, according to C. drives the side it is in contact with towards the centre. ill C. have the goodness to tell us how this takes place? Will he be kind enough to explain to us how and in what direction a quiescent and a fixed body can actively urge another without elasticity? But he informs us the thing can be proved by experiment. No doubt C. has made this experiment, and will immediately favour the world with it. A great treat I am persuaded it will be to our men of science. As an humble admirer of scientific truth, I shall myself feel highly gratified and obliged. In the interim, however, I cannot help saying, that had I seen an experiment producing such a result, I should have much questioned the fidelity of my senses. | * If," says Mr. Herapath, “ two perfectly hard bodies, mov- ing in the same right line, but towards opposite parts, come in contact, the sum of their momenta being the motion with which the two bodies approach, is, therefore, the motion or force with which their surfaces come in contact." This, C. has “the dig- nified condescension” to admit. “But” continues Mr. H. * the force with which the surfaces come in contact is the force with which each surface, or body, is acted on at the time of the contact in a direction opposite to that in which the body was moving." Nothing surely can be more evident than this ; and, therefore, to have attempted to explain or illustrate so obvious a thing would have been to offer an insult to the understanding of his readers ; particularly when we consider that these readers were to be the members of the Royal Society, who are reputed to be men of talent and ability. Nevertheless, C. says “ he is at a loss to discover how it can be proved,” notwithstanding he allows that the intensity of the stroke is equal to the sum of the momenta. What, I would ask C. is meant by the intensity of the stroke but the violence of the contact? And what is this violence of contact but the force with which each surface is struck? For example, if I strike a nail with a hammer, the momentum with which the hammer comes in contact with the nail measures, and is just equivalent to the violence or intensity of the blow on the nail; supposing both bodies absolutely hard. 360 D.'s Reply to C.'s Observations | [Mav; This intensity of. impulse .is:equally felt by the. hammer, not, from any vis viva of reaction iu the nail, but from what, may. be. termed a passive opposition to its motion. The same also must evidently hold good in the intensity of the stroke between two. bodies moving towards opposite parts ; each: of the bodies Due the hammer and nail receives an impulse equal to the whole. intensity of the contact. However, since C. finds.a difficulty in this case, to oblige him I will try if I can put it more. simply than Mr. Herapath could well be expected. to do, when writing to the Royal Society. And to prevent; C. from confusing himself by attending to more than one idea at a time, { will endeavour to demonstrate the separate steps in separate prepositions ; taking care, for like reasons, to make the proofs, as far as I can, analogous to those notions in the old theory to which I dare believe him he has paid much attention, though unfortunately with, as I have shown, but little advantage, Prop. A. If two perfectly hard and equal balls at rest be similarly struck by two other perfectly hard balls moving with equal momenta, the intensities of the strokes are equal. For because the two bodies struck are perfectly hard, equal, similar, and quiescent, and the strokes similarly given, no differ- ence on either of these accounts can be made in the intensities of these strokes. Whatever difference exists. must, therefore, depend on the momenta and the manner in which the impulses are communicated. But all the bodies being absolutely hard, the strokes are mere impulses, which are begun and finished with the very commencement of the contact; and are, therefore, equally smart with respect to duration under every velocity. Hence the velocities of the moving bodies have no effect on the intensities of the strokes, all other things being alike. The momenta, therefore, alone influence the intensities of the strokes ; but in the present case the momenta are equal; the intensities consequently are equal. » | The substance of this theorem appears in Mr. H.’s Cor, to Prop. 1, Annals for April, and is distinctly mentioned and made the foundation of Mr. Herapath’s demonstration of his Prop. 3, though C. in his parody of this demonstration has, notwithstand- ing its evidently indispensable importance, descended for the purpose of suiting his own views, to an artful omission of it. Prop. B. If two perfectly hard, equal, and quiescent balls be similarly struck by any two other perfectly hard balls, the intensities of the impulses will have a ratio equal to that of the generating momenta. By the preceding Prop. if the momenta were equal, the inten- 1$22.]. - on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. 361 sities would be equal; ¿And by the demonstration of this same roposition, it appears, that because all the bodies are perfectly Bord, and the two. quiescent bodies. perfectly equal, and the strokes similarly given, the intensities of the impulses are due to the momenta.alone. ‘But other things. being alike, causes are proportional to their effects ; and the effects of the momenta in this case are the intensities of the impulses. -The intensities, therefore, are proportional to the momenta. | _ Cor.—Because the unconstrained changes of motion. are pro- portional to the intensities of the impulses, the changes. of motion both in the bodies striking and bodies struck, are propor- tional to the momenta. Before I proceed further, it will be needful, in order to ease C.’s mind of apprehension, to show him that the preceding Props. are perfectly compatible. with the notion introduced into his favourite, but little understood, theory of collision. This I shall do by a few quotations. “The force of percussion is the same as the momentum or quantity of motion, and is represented by the product arising from the mass or quantity of matter moved, mul- tiplied by the velocity of its motion; and that without any regard to the time. or duration of action ; for its action is consi dered totally independent of time, or but as for an instant, or an infinitely small time."—(Hutton's Mathem. Dictionary, vol. ii. . 169.) ditis | 3 “ Bodies that. have equal quantities of motion have equal forces or equal powers, to produce motion.” —(Playfair’s Outlines of Nat. Philos. vol. i. p. 32.) | _ “ The momentum, or quantity of motion, generated by a single impulse, or any momentary force, is as the generating force."— (Hutton's Courses, vol. ii. p. 132.) In the same page the same writer says: * The velocities being equal, a double mass will strike with a double force; a triple mass with a triple force ; and so on.” | These quotations not only confirm. the two preceding Props. but the first confirms the principles on which they.are founded ; namely, the evanescent continuance of the strokes. What makes it the more extraordinary is, that these are two of the principal authors whose works C. wants to oppose to Mr. Herapath. M‘Laurin’s Fluxions, in which I believe his views of collision are expounded, I have not by me., If I had I should probably ‘be able to give another amusing specimen of C.’s knowledge .of names instead of things; but l will now beg leave to make one more quotation. from another, of our mathematicians, whose honest opinion in this matter may be entitled to some attention, even if it be not supported by the discovery that Newton in his theory of heat * has quite mistaken the road to philoso- phical science." | “if a body striking another gives it any motion, £wice that DP] a 362 D.’s Reply to C,’s Observations [May, body striking the same with the same velocity will give it twice the motion, and so the motion generated in the other will be as nek of percussion.” —{Emerson’s Tracts, p. 13.) v1 IR shall make no further observations on the coincidence of the preceding Props. and the quotations; let C., if he can, show the difference. Let him also tell the world what he himself means by the following passage in his paper, Annals for Dec. p. 421; and let him point out which or what part of the preceding Props. it refutes. “ Now bodies act with a force equal to their momen- tum." 1f C. cannot do either of these things, perhaps he will have the goodness to clear up the following difficulty, or paradox, which has perplexed me a little in his favourite doctrine. Let a erfectly hard ball, A, moving with any velocity, a, strike in the line of its motion another perfectly hard ball, B, at rest; then b the old theory the motion of B after the impulse, or the motion it Aa _ AaB acquires by the stroke, = A a — A = =—; and in any -A A+B +B? . other parallel case the motion acquired by the same B at rest — A'a' B A! + B` Hatton, Playfair, Emerson, and C. himself, it is evident that if the momenta A a and A’ a’ were equal, the intensities of the strokes and momenta due to the body B after the strokes would be equal. That is, ans = VR 5, or A = A’, however une- ual the values of A and A’ may be. In other words, if the eory and quotations be both correct, there cannot be a number greater or less than unity. Would C., the unsolicited friend and voluntary champion of the old theory, be kind enough to unravel this scientific enigma? I need not exhort him to embrace so excellent an opportunity of displaying, without equivocation and subterfuge, and without any paltry attempt to evade, the true merits of the theory he professes so well to understand. As the principles of the tepi for which he voluntarily, I will not say unnecessarily or officiously, throws down the gauntlet * are as ` nearly as possible self-evident,” it will not, I presume, require any time or reflection in him to explain this matter. In next month's Annals, therefore, I hope he will, for the credit of him- self and theory, mathematically clear it up; and thus expose the fallacy of what, perhaps, he will readily demonstrate to be “mere figments of the imagination.” Should, however, a want of leisure prevent his complying with my request at so early a eriod as [have named, let him only say in the next number that ^ will do what I require, and I will patiently wait any time that he pleases. | eb oe 4. Now by the views in the quotations I have made from Prop. C. Ifa perfectly hard ball strike another perfectly hard ball at rest 1822.] on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. 363 in the line described by the centre of gravity of the former, the striking body will remain at rest after the impulse, and the other will proceed in the same right line in which the former was mov- ing, and with the same momentum. | All that I require for demonstrating this Proposition is, that the intensity or force of percussion be the same as, or equal to, the motion generated ; and that the force of percussion be proportional to the generating momentum. Without adverting to the preceding propositions, each of these postulates is admitted in the quota- tions I have made from the authors C. has quoted against Mr. Herapath. shall, therefore, nottrouble myself about their accu- racy, which is indeed “ as nearly as possible self-evident,” but shall proceed with the rest of the proof. Let B, B’, be-two per fectly hard and equal balls at rest, and let A, A’, be any two other ` perfectly hard balls striking respectively B, B’, according to the conditions of the proposition. Let also a, a’, be the velocities of A, A’, before the strokes, so that A a = A^«'. Then if b be the velocity of B after the stroke, and / that of B’, we have B ó = B',andó = b. Now if A move at all after the stroke, it must follow the body B with an equal or less velocity than 5; because it could not move the contrary way unless the force of percussion was greater than the generating momentum, which is impossible. The same is likewise true of the body A’. There- fore, if they do not remain at rest, let them follow B and B^ with the velocities p, p’, respectively. Then because the sum of the ‘momenta in each case before and after the stroke is the same Aa=Ap+ Bob, and A’ ad = A’ p' + B W, and conse- quently A p = A’ p’; that is, the velocities p, p’, remaining to A, A’, after the strokes are reciprocally proportional to the bodies A, A’. "Suppose A = D, then p will be à certain part, for instance, the nth part of b, so that n p = b. Therefore b = n p Sha e and p’ = 0’ JG Now the value of a may. be. any thing we please, and, therefore, much greater than » ; in which ‘case p’ must be greater than Ë; that is, if p has any magnitude, the body A^ which cannot move faster than B’, because it comes behind it, might nevertheless have a greater velocity in the same direction, which is absurd. Therefore, p and p^ must each be equal to o, the only case in which the equation A p = A’ p' ean be universally true; or both the bodies A, A’, must remain at rest after the impulses, and, consequently, the bodies B, B’, proceed . ‘with the momenta A a, A’ a’, respectively. | Í < Cor. 1.—Because the intensity of the stroke is equal to the momentum communicated, and this momentum is equal to the momentum of the moving body before the stroke: this momen- tum of the body before the stroke is equal to the intensity of per- cussion; and the whole of this intensity must be equally felt by each of the bodies without any regard to their relative size. 364 Ds Reply to Cs Observations [Max, Cor. 2.— Hence also the velocities of the bodies in motion before and after the stroke are reciprocally proportional to the odies. ! 4d d Alber Cor. 3.—And because the momentum communicated is equal to the momentum of the moving body before the stroke without respect to the relative magnitudes of the bodies, it follows that a double, treble, &c. quantity of motion will generate a double, -treble, &c. quantity of motion, not in the same quantity of matter her but in any quantity. _ This, though at variance with the results of the old theory, as I have shown above, precisely4$oincides, in the case of the same .quantity of matter struck, with the views in some of the above qune from Dr. Hutton and Emerson. But the following „declaration in Hutton's Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 170, puts it beyond a doubt that results from Mr. H.'s theory accord with the usual opinion of mathematicians on this subject. |.* Now it is a law,” says Dr. Hutton, ** universally allowed in the communication of motion, that when different bodies are struck with equal forces, the velocities communicated are reciprocally as the weights -of the bodies that are struck.” Therefore, if it be true, as the same “writer says in one of the preceding quotations, ** that the veld- .€ities being equal, a double mass will strike with a double force, &c." we want no further evidence that Mr. Herapath's theory furnishes consequences ‘ which have been admitted as incon- trovertible by the ablest mathematicians in all ages.” ` ajig The demonstration of this Prop. and its Corollaries, it will be ‘seen, is rigorously. mathematical. from data which have been admitted by decided advocates for the old' theory,—the very authors C. has opposed to Mr. Herapath. Nothing more, there- fore, need be advanced in.support of the proposition; but I might observe that I could here subjoin a rigorous proof similar to the one C. has, by leaving out certain principal parts, paro- dying others, and unhandsomely offering them to the world, as C. has done with Mr. Herapath. . Taking, however, no further notice of this part of the init I cannot but compare the reasoning C. tells the world is Mr. Herapath's to a picture whose intention the artist thought it needful to explain by writing under it, “This is a Cow;” lest it might be mistaken for any thing else. uia | From the views here developed, and the constitution of aeri- form bodies, as laid down by Mr. Herapath, if a body composed of absolutely hard particles mutually impinging on one another in the way Mr. H. has assumed in his theory of heat, be projected in such a body as our air, it will proceed with a velocity gradually diminishing on account of the resistance it continually expe- riences from the opposition of the air. Fora single particle may, from Mr, H.'s principles of collision, be stopped, or even driven backwards, by the first particle it met with at rest, or moving 1n 1822.] on Mr. Herapati’s Theory. 365 the opposite direction. In any compound body, however, it is only the superficial particles of the body the particles of the air Strike against; and since the particles of the body are not fixed to, but freely moving among, one another, except inasmuch as they are prevented from flying off indefinitely by their mutual attraction, the intensities of the collision between the particles of the body and particles of the air are merely equal to what would arise if the former particles were free and disengaged, and moving with the same velocity as the body of which they form a part. These intensities, therefore, and the effect which they have on the progress of the body, are by no means the same as they would be if the particles of the body were firmly and inflexibly united, or the body itself one perfect solid. . Though this conse- quence is one of the most obvious that can be, C. has raised a * wonder how the cannon balls with their hard particles can get on, when they strike the hard particles of the atmosphere in the lines of their centres of gravity.” Perhaps the greatest wonder is, how so acute a reasoner as e should have published an objec- tion which evidently has no foundation to rest upon. | ` After what. I have shown of the merit and weight of C.’s observations, and Mr. H.'s principles of collision, he will, per- haps, take it kindly of me if I let alone his * pin's head” difi- culty. I must confess I am very much disposed to oblige him; and, therefore, will leave the wisdom of one head to solve the heenomena of the other. But I must beg leave to tell him that. Mr. Herapath had minutely considered this objection, and clearly answered it in the very number of the Annals, and only five. pages after the Proposition from which C. would make us. believe he had the sagacity to draw it. Would C. have the oodness to tell us whether the discovery of this consequence is dde to his own penetration ; or whether he has brought forward. the objection Mr. Herapath had himself raised, and artfully omitted to notice Mr. Hs explanation, for the purpose of undermining a theory which prejudice would not allow him to admit? Besides, what I have mathematically deduced in Prop. C. Cor. 3, from the principles “ which," C. tells us, “ are as nearly as possible self-evident," Mr. Herapath has distinctly shown, p. 292 and 293, Annals for April, 1821, ‘that the whole difficulty of the case turns on the abstraction of the ideas of magnitude and momentum." But I believe I have promised C. pi to pursue this part of his objections. I will, therefore, esist. ! Prop. D. If two perfectly hard and equal balls come in contact, when moving with equal momenta in the same right line towards oppo- site parts, the intensity of the stroke as felt by each body in a direction opposite to that in which it was moving, is equal to the 366 Ds Reply to C.’s Observations [May, sum of the momenta of the two, or twice the momentum of either one before the stroke. - irit TA Mr. Herapath has demonstrated this theorem generally in his Prop. 5, Annals for April, 1821. I have chosen this particular, case of it, because against this, C. has levelled his objections ; and in the proof I intend to have recourse merely to what I have already demonstrated from the principles admitted in the old theory, and to a result which agrees equally well with both theories. TI l ET By the old theory, if a hard body A, having the velocity a, strike directly another hard equal body A’ at rest, the motion communicated to A’ by the impulse is 2-— A= 4. And by the same theory, if the two same balls meet each other, instead of one of them being at rest, with equal opposite momenta A a, A’ a', the motion destroyed in either, or, which is the same, the motion communicated to either is A a. But by the quotations L have made from C.’s quoted authors, these communicated motions are equal to the intensities of their respective strokes felt by each body in the direction in which the motion is communicated. Therefore, the intensity of the stroke on either body when one is at rest, is half as great as when both meet with equal opposite. momenta, Now when one of the bodies is at rest, I have shown, Cor. 1, Prop. 6, by strict mathematical reasoning from the prin- ciples admitted in the old theory, that the intensity of the stroke on each is equal to the momentum of the moving body ; when, therefore, they are both moving with equal momenta towards opposite parts, the intensity of the stroke on each is equal to twice the momentum of one, or the sum of the momenta of the two. i Cor.—Hence the two equal bodies after the impulse recede towards the parts whence they came with the same momenta, they had before they met. For the motion communicated by the impulse is equal to the intensity of the stroke on the body, and this intensity is equal to 2 Aa; but at the time of the stroke, the body had a momentum in an opposite direction equal to A a. Therefore at the time of the contact, the body is the same as if it was urged in two opposite directions by the forces A a and 2 A a, the former impelling it in the direction in which it was moving, and the latter on the contrary ; consequently it retraces its path with the momentum A a. . . er his conclusion, brought out by strict mathematical induction, from the principles of the old theory, coincides with Mr. Hera- ps and also with the theories of Wren, Huygens, and is. i y Itis worthy of remark, that C. by way of mathematically refut- ing this conclusion, admits the principle of Mr. H.'s proof, that the intensity of the stroke is equal to the sum of the momenta, 1822.]. on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. | 367 but denies the consequence, without showing why, or assigni any other reason, than that he is “ at alossto discover” how it follows. We shall, perhaps, not lose our pains in transcribing what C. says on this subject; for if we can derive no informa- tion, the consideration of it will afford us amusement. “ How," says C, “ Mr. H. proves that the intensity of the stroke is the force with which each of the balls is acted on in a direction opposite to that in which it came at the time of the contact, I am at a loss to discover." | * The intensity of the force," observes C. * is equal to the sum of the momenta with which both balls come in contact, half of which is one direction and half: in the opposite.” Here Cs mathematical refutation of Mr. H.’s theory amounts to this—he cannot see how it is, nor how it is not. But the beauty of all lies in the elegant, the decisive, the irrefragable mathematical demonstration with which he esta- blishes his counter proposition. He tells us “ half the intensity is one direction, half in the opposite ;” and he proves it—how ? —not mathematically, not by common legitimate induction ; but without a fact—without a circumstance, nay even without a word either for it or against it. This mode of procedure is per- fectly consistent with C.’s general method, but let me again remind him that mere assertions are totally insufficient to over- turn well-founded reasoning. | “If” says C, “a man push with all his strength against a wall, say with a force of 10, action and reaction being equal, the wall resists with a force as 10. If, instead of the wall there be an opposing active force, another person, for instance, pushing against the first with an exactly equal force," ** by Mr. Hera- paths reasoning, each person would be acted on in a direction oppo- site to that towards which he pushed, by a force equal to twice the force of either one; that is, with a force of 20, and consequently both must be pushed backwards." ‘These sentences, as far as I understand them, distinctly charge Mr. H. with confounding pressure with impulse, and with applying the laws of a single impulse between perfectly hard bodies to a pressive force. Flatly to contradict this, and to challenge C. to produce only one expression of Mr. H. corroborative of such assertions, would be to raise this attempt to depreciate and misrepresent. Mr. H.’s labours to an importance to which not even the best of C.'s objections seems entitled. I shall, therefore, merely quote a passage or two from Mr. Herapath's papers declarative of his opinion on pressure and impulse ; and then leave C. to compare them with his own assertions. * [t is manifest from the drift of it,” (a passage in Mr. Tred- gold's attack) ** Mr. T. can compare pressure with impulse. Of course, he can also compare a mathematical line with an area; and thence tell us how many lines there are in a superficies, how many superficies in a solid; and, as a finale, I expect how many 368 — D.'s Reply to C/s Observations = [Mav, inches in an: hour." —(Mr. Herapath’s Reply to Mr. Tredgold; Wich Bee LDA) an eee ,* Had T *** it woul Hive been like endeavouring to equate a single impulse with an unceasing force,” (pressure he’ means) * for an indefinite time—a manifest impossibility.”—(My, T1.’s Reply to X. Annals for January, 1822, p. 30.) ` Wewp teak . tells us that the “ pushing Wad, have just quoted, which (with how much truth the reader may judge from the, counter quotations), he informs the world, is Mr. Herapath’s, is that by which it is intended by Mr. H. that “ the doctrines ‘of Newton, Maclaurin, Hutton, Playfair, and innumerable other mathemati- cians, are to be overturned in relation to the collision of hard bodies.” We have already seen that C. has not been over for- tunate in quoting, nor very happy in understanding, the writings of Dr. Hutton and Prof. Playfair, though it be true they deliver * principles as nearly as possible self-evident." In the present instance, I think, we shall find he has not been more successful in his acquaintance with Sir I. Newton. ‘However, it is neces- sary for me to premise, that I am not aware Newton has said any thing of collision, except in the first part of his Principia. Ifhe has m any other places, I shall be happy to be corrected; for I do not recollect to have seen it. Even here he has given nothing in the shape of regular argument: a few loose ideas only, thrown in apparently more by accident than design, are all I can per- ceive. They happen, however, to be of that peculiar cast as to satisfy us that C. has either not seen them, or not understood them; or what, perhaps, is more probable, that his zeal to oppose Mr. Herapath has outstripped his discretion and his knowledge ; and hence occasioned him to quote authors withoutknowing what they have written. de n the Schol. Cor. 6, Principia, Third Law of Motion, Newton. says: “ By the theory of Wren and Huygens, bodies absolutely hard return from one another with the same velocity with which they meet.” This was the case with the theories of Wren and Huy- gens when the bodies were supposed to be perfectly equal ; and, - therefore, instead of coinciding with the doctrine of collision C. advocates, it coincides with Mr. Herapath's. That Newton was not here confounding hard with elastic bodies appears from the sentence immediately following the above, and implying that though ‘he did not question the truth’of this case of Wren and Huygens’s theories, yet the evidence of it was greater in elastic bodies. * But this may be affirmed," says Newton, “with more certainty in perfectly elastic bodies." | M9 wi To satisfy us what his opinion was, he says in the same Schol. * By the same” (first and second Laws of Motion), “ together with the third Law, Sir Christopher Wren, Dr. Wallis, and Mr. Huygens, the greatest geometers of our times, did severally determine the rules of the congress and reflection of hard bodies 1822.] on Mr. Herapath’s Theory. 369 and much about the same time communicated their discoveries to the Royal Society, exactly agreeing: among themselves as to those rules. Dr. Wallis indeed was something earlier in the rave: then followed Sir Christopher Wren; and, lastly, r. Huygens. But Sir Christopher Wren confirmed the truth of the thing before the Royal Society, by the experiment of pendu- lums, which Mr. Mariotta soon after thought fit to explain in a treatise entirely upon that subject." Nothing can be plainer than this ; and, therefore, nothing more evident than that the theories of Wren and Huygens were those which the best philo- sophers of Newton's time embraced, and which Newton himself looked on as established by the experiments of Wren. ' Now it ni» crib happens for Cs assertions and objections, that the two principal cases of Wren's theory for hard bodies ; namely, that wherein the equal bodies meet with equal opposite momenta, and that wherein * one of them is at rest before collision, exactly coincide with Mr. Herapath’s. Mr. H., therefore, instead of standing opposed to Newton and * the ablest mathematicians in all ages," has in the two leading cases of his theory the expressed testimony of no less than Wallis, Wren, Huygens, and Newton; besides Mariotte, and probably a number of other respectable mathematicians. But the most extraordinary cir- cumstance is, that the present doctrine of collision, which has evidently crept into existence since the days of Huygens, New- ton, &c., C. unequivocally gives us to understand is that which has been embraced by * the ablest mathematicians in all ages,” notwithstanding here is indisputable evidence that a different theory was maintained not 100 years since by the first mathe- maticians the world has yet produced. How would C. wish us to dispose of this new article? Shall we debit his accuracy or his knowledge with it? Shall we lay it to his insinuation that Mr. H.’s theory cannot account for the phenomena of latent heat ; to his assertion that Mr. H. makes hardness and elasticity the same ; to his parodying of Mr. H.'s theorems for the purpose of misrepresenting them; to his charge that Mr. H. confounds pres- sure with impulse? Or shall we add it to his knowledge of New- ton's theory of heat ; of Hutton, Playfair, and Emerson's princi- ples, and of Wallis, Wren, Huygens, and Newton's theories of collision ? I will not, however, * push C. to the wall" on this subject. | l have now replied in detail to C.’s objections, &c. to Mr. Herapath's theories of heat and collision ; and I have shown that he has not advanced a single circumstance tending to weaken, much less to invalidate, any one of Mr. H.'s views. Indeed in the whole that C. has said, there is not, one would imagine, even .* leannot speak positively as to this case; but unless the impression of it in my mind has changed since I read it in the Phil. Trans. it is precisely as I have stated. New, Series, voL. 111. 28 370 Ds Reply to C.’s Observations. [Mav, an attempt mathematically to refute Mr. H.’s propositions, or to show that his reasoning is erroneous or illogical; for though Mr. Herapath has dealt so largely in numerical facts, has developed ‘so many laws, has Men poss his theory with so many experi- . ments, and has predicted the phenomena of so many new and - untried cases, yet C. has not ventured to question a single fact, to refute a single law, to invalidate a. single experiment, or to disprove one solitary phenomenon either advanced or predicted. We might in truth say, the whole of C.’s attack exhibits a man struggling with a subject to which he is unequal, or with which he is unacquainted ; yet who would like to say something if he could ; who is clearly in possession of the Will to refute, and as clearly in want of the Power. Hence we see misrepresentations- for arguments, unsupported assertions for proofs, errors for facts, and ingenious quibbling for sound reasoning. To form an opinion, however of Mr. H.'s labours, and of the probability of his having succeeded in the great objects of his inquiry, let any one who is capable of judging examine thecoincidences of his investigations with facts, collected in the Annals for Jan. 1822 ; let him look at the simplicity of the principles, attributing to matter only two properties, hardness and inertia; let him after- wards consider the number, extent, variety, and apparent incon- ruity, of the experimental testimonies adduced ; and then let im say, not whether it is probable Mr. H. has succeeded, but whether it is possible he can, with such corroborations, not have succeeded. On any opinion thus formed, and given by minds competent to judge, and liberal enough to acknowledge convic- tion, Mr. Herapath may with safety rest his credit and his fame. . On the subject of Mr. H.’s connexion with the Royal Society, into which, 1 think, C. has imprudently entered, I shall at this: time say nothing. If Mr. Herapath's labours stand the test, the Royal Society will find, even among those who now support them, if they have acted improperly or illiberally, enough to. blame and to censure them ; and if their conduct has been eor- rect, or marked with liberality and encouragement, Mr. Herapath: rs en I presume, will not be among the last to acknow- edge 1t. t eae Ths now only to request that if C. answer this reply, he will: do it candidly, and not evade or avoid the absurdities I have: pointed out, both in his own arguments, and in the theory for which he commenced the attack. An open and honourable opponent, however sharp or severe, willalwaysinsure the — ona generally the approbation, of D. 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(MY, The annual mean temperature of the past year is 51°; being about 2° above the average ; the mean of the first three months, 40°9°; second, 54:1°; third, 61:9?; fourth, 48°; of the six winter months, 444°; six summer months, 579°. The maxi- mum, or hottest state of the year, was 81°, which occurred on the memorable 19th of July, the Coronation of King George IV:; the minimum or coldest state was 23°, which is only 9° below freezing ; this happened on the 4th January, making an annual variation of 58°. From the above, the reporter is enabled to draw the following comparison between the past and preceding year, viz. the average heat of the six summer months of 1821 was nearly one degree more than that of 1820, and the heat of the six winter months, 5° above the corresponding ones of the preceding year, so that the temperature of 1821 has been more mild than usual, and not marked by any very great extremes. The annual mean elevation of the barometer is nearly 29 inches and 7-10ths; highest, 30:65, which was on January 23 ; lowest, 28:16, which happened on December 28; the difference of these extremes makes 2:49 inches : mean of the six summer months, 29:75; of the six winter months, 29:63. The mean daily movements of the barometrical surface measure near 48 inches ; total number of changes, 105. The barometer through- out the month of February was remarkably high and desultory inits movements : on the contrary, in the month of December, it oscillated most extraordinarily ; and towards the close of the year very low ; the utmost depression was the minimum of the ear. “b 43 * ^ 1822.] Mr. Winch on Blocks of Granite, Syenite, &c. 373 ones of 1821 is 101... February was the driest, and September and November the wettest. nti - The south, south-west, and west winds, have been the most prevalent: those winds were noticed to blow on 224 days. On the 18th, 19th, and 20th of March (about the vernal equinox), the wind blew hurricanes from the north-west, attended with rain, snow, and sleet: On the night of the 30th of November; and following morning, the wind blew a most violent gale from the south-west, accompanied with hail and rain; the damage done in consequence, by the falling of chimneys, unroofing of houses, &c. was great; several lives were lost in Liverpool and other places, and a large number of vessels suffered in the har- bours and on the neighbouring coasts. Bridge-street, Jan. 28, 1$22. ARTICLE VII. On Blocks of Granite, Syenite, &c. imbedded ow Diluvium. By N. J. Winch, Esq. FLS., and MGS. . (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) | SIN |; Newcastle-upon- Tyne, March 10, 1822. AmĮmoNe the interesting phenomena serving at every step to arrest the attention of the geologist, there is one of ordinary occurrence in the north-east of England, which, I believe, is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for; and in hopes that some of your correspondents may be able to explain the true cause of à cireumstance appearing to me to be enigmatick, I take the liberty of addressing you on the subject. Embedded in the diluvium of Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire, large blocks of granite, syenite, porphyry, greywacke, as well as of -encrinal limestone, and basalt, are every where to be met with. "That the granite, &c. &c. should have been transported by the agency of a powerful eurrent of water from the cheviots or even from the mountains in the vicinity of the Cumberland Lakes, previous to the formation of the vale in which the river Eden flows, can readily be imagined; but the puzzling part of the fact às, that the loose earth in which these large and heavy masses are deposited appears to owe its origin to the strata immediately below it. For instance, on the red sandstone ofthe vale of Tees there is a red soil; and our porphyritic, basaltic, and encrinal limestone hills, are well known to afford a rich and fine pasturage, owing to the nature of the earths, resulting from the disintegra- tion of these rocks. On the other hand, the coal field is gene- rally covered by a strong clay mixed with a portion of sand 374 Who Mr. Winch onthe © ^ . [Mav, evidently derived from the shale and sandstone on which it rests. The question to be resolved is, * Why the current of diluvian waters, possessing sufficient impetus to bring enormous ments of rocks from great distances, did not denudate the strata of the light soil in which these masses are now embedded not only in the /ower but in the upper part of the earth resting upon the more solid substrata.” I remain, Sir, Your most obedient servant, > ON. J. Winen. ARTICLE VIII. On the Geology of the Eastern Part of Yorkshire. By N. J. Winch, Esq. FLS. and MGS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, | Newcastle-upon-Tyne, March 20, 1822. Tue Rev. G. Young, aud Mr. Bird, of Whitby, have just published a quarto volume on the Geology of the Eastern Part of Yorkshire, which, through the favour of a subscriber to the book, I have had an opportunity of perusing. Of the merit or demerit of the work, i do not feel myself inclined to speak, but as the authors have travelled out of their road for the purpose of ‘writing strictures on two essays of mine printed in the Transac- tions of the Geological Society of London, I shall take leave'to rebut the charges of inaccuracy and presumption brought against me by these gentlemen. ` | The first is comprised m the following note, p. 170: “ Mr. W. is mistaken in asserting (vol. iv. p. 7, Geological Transactions), that the'white oolite limestone at Hartlepool contains no shells ‘or marine exuvie; the authors found in it both univalves' and bivalves, especially the latter." Now every geologist knows, that one part of a stratum may contain, and another be devoid, of organic remains ; and that there were none in the quarry at "Hartlepool, when I inspected it, I am certain, for specimens of the rock taken at the time are still in my possession. ‘The next is in the letter press at p. 171, under the head of Dykes: “ In a quarry at Whitley, near Cullercoats, where there is an extensive mass of magnesian limestone, detached from the great beds. of the county of Durham, there is a similar dyke (see Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 25), which intersects the coal and sandstone strata under the limestone, and does not pass through the latter, Xe.’ - In reply to this, allow me to observe, I never said the dyke at “Whitley was a basaltic dyke. My words at p. 25, are: “ Besides the fissures filled with. basalt, others of a very different nature intersect the coal field. These, if large, are called dykes, but 1822.] © Geology of the Eastern. Part of Yorkshire. 375 if inconsiderable, troubles, slips, or hitches; and are the same that some geologists have called faults. I have already noticed the main, or 90 fathom dyke, when speaking of the limestone quarry. at Whitley, &c. &c." And at p. 26, “ It is highly pro- bable it traverses the lead mine district, and produces lateral and valuable metalliferous veins therein.” The word basalt never occurs in my description of this fissure. Letter press, p. 287, * In many instances, through a fondness for generalizing, or an attachment to theory, authors have bestowed the name of coal basin where it is by no means appropriate. Thus we read of the coal basin of Newcastle, or the coal basin of the Tyne and Wear, though the coal strata of that district are no more in the form of a basin than the metalliferous limestone on which they are understood to repose, or the magnesian limestone which reposes on them.” ‘To this I answer, that the numerous sections pub- lished in the Transactions of the Geological Society, prove the coal measures of this district to rise by gentle degrees towards north and south, and more rapidly to east and west; therefore, these strata must rest in a trough or basin, which by no means is the case with the encrinal limestone, or magnesian limestone beds. Note, p. 287, ** Since the two preceding parts of the work were printed, we have seen a paper by Mr. W. entitled, * Observations on the Eastern Part of Yorkshire, published in vol. v. of the Geological Society’s Transactions. In that paper, ‘Mr. W. states, that the coal formation which covers the shale forms a basin. Had that gentleman examined our district himself, instead of attempting to deseribe it from scraps of information collected from others, he might have avoided this mistake, as well as several other errors into which he has fallen.” ‘The observations in question were sent to the Geological Society o long ago as the year 1816, and extracts from them appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for that year, vol. vii. p. 140, and of ‘course, I conclude, must have been known to the Rev. G. Young; and as that gentleman has more than once honoured me with a call since that period, had he hinted his suspicions of my never having investigated the part of the country where he .now resides, I should have acquainted him that several years ago my affairs frequently called me not only to Whitby, but to Hull, Scarborough, Driffield, Stockton, &c.; and from notes taken on those occasions, together with colliery borings kindly communicated by Mr. Buddle, my paper, which, I am sorry to see appears to have given offence, was chiefly compiled. lremain, Sir, your most obedient humble servant, (OUN.J. Winch. 376 Mr. Miller on the Freshwater and Landshells (May, d i ; "4r renal LE ARTICLE IX. / enu cad E A List of the Freshwater and Landshells occurring in the fice. rons of Bristol, with Observations, By J. S. Miller, ALS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Bristol, March 11, 1892, Ir the following catalogue of the fluviatile and terrestrial shells occurring in the neighbourhood of Bristol, drawn up from my ‘own personal observations, should be judged worthy of a place in the Annals of Philosophy, it is entirely at your service. Your obedient servant, J. S. Miter. Ie ——— To attach any high degree of value to local catalogues of this nature would be to exaggerate the interest and importance of contributions which can hold but an humble and subordinate iioc in the pages of science, still they are far from useless. eing founded on personal observations more precise in propor- tion as they are more limited, they furnish the surest foundation on which more general results may. be built, and in the present stage of zoological inquiry can hardly fail to afford many new facts. | ; Thus the field of observation which the present list comprises will be found to afford several species not hitherto recognised as British, and some hitherto entirely nondescript. I have been enabled also, in the course of my local researches, to glean some new facts with regard to the habits and organization of some of these animals which appear to have escaped the notice of former inquirers, and have availed myself of the present opportunity of recording them. Ed. In the following list I have adopted the names published in Dr. Maton and Mr. Rackett’s Descriptive Catalogue of British Testacea in the Linnean Transactions, vol. viii, and occasionally added those new generic rames which have been stated by more anodern authors. * 1. Mya pictorum. Freshwater, Unio pictorum. Drapernaud. 2. Tellina cornea. In ditches. Cyclas cornea. Drapernaud. 3. Tellina lacustris. In ditches. Cyclas lacustris. Drapernaud. 4. Tellina pusilla. In pools. Dillwyn’s Cat. of Rec. Shells. 5. Tellina amnica. In ditches. Observation —I have met with individuals of the above four species of tellina, containing minute young living shells which prove the animals viviparous. M 6. Mytilus anatina: In rivers and pools. Anodanta anatina. Drapernaud. 1822] occurring in the Environs of Bristol. y 377. + Observation.—I perfectly agree with Dr. Maton in considering M. avanensis only a variety of M. anatina. Miss Bennett, of Nortonhouse, favoured me lately with specimens from Tisbury, Wiltshire. "They are old shells, and from the animal having lived. in water, highly impregnated with chalk and calcareous matter, its epidermis has secreted so rapidly, and increased the shell so much in thickness, that the Linnean character * testa fragilissima " is entirely lost. © 7. Bulla hypnorum. In ditches. Physahypnorum. Drapernaud. ` 8. Bulla fontinalis. In ditches. Physa fontinalis. Drapernaud. 9. Voluta denticulata. In the Avon below the Hotwells. i:o Observation.—Its columella does not continue to the com- mencement of the spire, which is empty, and shows no spiral septa. ` ; nl) | | 10. Buccinum terrestre. On Leigh and Clifton Down. - Bulimus acicula. Drapernaud. | 11. Turbo elegans. In Leighwood, &c. : | Cyclostoma elegans. Drapernaud. » 12. Turbo fontinalis. In ditches. . Cyclostoma obtusum. Drapernaud. 13. Turbo nautileus. In ditches. Planorbis cristatus. | Drapernaud. | 14. Planorbis imbricatus. . Drapernaud. In ditches and pools. 15. Turbo cristatus. In ditches. Valvata: sperorbis.. Drapernaud. » 16. Valvata minuta. Drapernaud. | | i Observation.—Of this, I have only found two dead shells in ‘the drifted sand, &c. on the Banks of the Avon. - 17, Turbo laminatus. Leighwood. » 18. Turbo nigricans. Leighwood. - 559: Turbo Everetti (nobis), on willow trees, near river banks. Spec. Char. — A turretted, fusiform, ventricose. striated, brown, opaque shell, with nine reversed volutions. Aperture with two teeth. Observation.—1 consider this a distinct species, it having only nine volutions, whereas T. nigricans has always twelve. 1 have named it after W. Everett, Esq. of London, a gentleman zealous in the study of British conchology. yiip. Obser. a.—Montagu states the frequent occurrence of turbo ' laminatus and nigricans deprived of their brown epidermis; But lhave suites of specimens of all the three species in various stages of growth, which have a white epidermis, show no mark of being worn, and are evidently interesting, though rare varieties. | | | Obser. b.—As I frequently make sections of shells by grinding them down to come at the details of their internal- formation, 1 yit 2 378 Mr.. Miller on the Freshwater-and .Landshells (May, discovered, in the year 1814, the valve-like appendage which turbo laminatus and nigricans possess. When Dr. Leach visited me in 1815, I pointed it out to him, which he considered as a new and interesting discovery. The Doctor furnished me with several other reversed shells to facilitate my further researches on this peculiar organization, and mformed me subsequently (when in Paris) that M. Drapernaud had noticed the valve-like appen dage, and from it derived in part the character of his new - enus Clausilia. This information deterred me at the time from Farther inquiry; yet as I have subsequently found that M. Dra- yernaud seems at a loss concerning the use of this valve ; and M. Cuvier, in his Regne Animal, vol.ii. p. 409, states, ** de cette petite lame, on ignore l'usage dans l'animal vivant ; " I will here venture to add the opinion which I have myself been led to form on this subject. | | Independently of the various contrivances which Nature has resorted to for the protection of the otherwise easily vulnerable mollusc, it has taken peculiar care to guard the apertures of many univalves from the intrusion of enemies. Hence the aper- tures are sometimes peculiarly contracted, and provided with numerous folds and teeth. . Other mollusc have a calcareous operculum, permanently affixed, which increases in thickness, and enlarges on a depressed spiral plane, as the opening of the shell extends with the growth of the animal thus continually assimilating to its size, and when the animalretreats, excluding it completely from all external intrusion. In the clausilia, Nature has combined the protection afforded by means of con- traction and folds, and also added an. opercular appendage. The inhabitants of the Clausilia, when nearly fall grown, secretes a thread-like, elastic, calcareous filament, one of whose ends is affixed to the columella. This filament makes a half spiral turn round the columella insinuating between its folds. hen the animal finishes its shell, and completes the aperture, it secretes at the unattached end of the filament a spoon-shaped calcareous lamina conforming at its margin to the contour of the aperture. The lamina is somewhat smaller than this, and its margin is rounded. Its adhesion to an elastic filament enables the animal to push it when it comes out of its shell against the columella, and the same elasticity closes it, on the inhabitant retreating, thus securing it from intruding enemies. Thus then this valve may be compared to a door provided with an elastic spring. The elasticity of the filament may be restored to its full power by some times immersing it in water, as I have ascer- tained in sections made with a view to this inquiry. 20. Turbo juniperi.. On mountain limestone rocks. 21; Turbo muscorum.. In moss. | 22. Turbo sexdentatus. Leighdown. dots ti Observation.—The above three species belong to Drapernaud's genus Pupa. | 1822] . occurring in the Environs of Bristol. . 379 23. Turbo carychium. ‘In moss. Auricula minima. Drapernaud. Carychium myosotis. Ferussac. | | "Observation.—Why. does M. Cuvier place this shell, whose animal lives in moss, among those inhabiting freshwater ?. 24. Helixlapicida. Leighwood. 25. Helix planorbis. In ditches. 26. Helix vortex. In ditches. Planorbis vortex. Drapernaud. 27. Helix spirorbis. In diii cu) 28. Helix contorta. ° In ditches. Planorbis contortus. Drapernaud. 29. Helix alba. In ditches. Planorbis hispidus. Drapernaud. 30. Helix fontana. In ditches. 31. Helix paludosa. .In moss. 32. Helix ericetorum. . Clifton Down. 33. Helix virgata. In fields.. | ; Observation The abundance of this species in a field at Torkington, a few months ago, occasioned the report, that it had rained snails ! T. i | 34. Helix caperata. . In dry situations. 35. Helix rufescens. In. hedges, &c. 36. Helix nitens. . Under stones in moist places. 37. Helix alliaria. (nobis): | | iMd i Spec. Char. An umbilicated, depressed, pellucid, shining horn-coloured shell, having no more than four volutions. Observation.—This species never arrives to the size of H. nitens, has one volution less, and is found under moss on old trees. Itsinhabitant smells strongly of garlick. vitis n088. Helix cristallina. Muller Verm. ; - «Observation.—Found near the roots of grass, resembling the two former species ; but infinitely smaller. - LM 89. Helix cantiana. Near hedges. v 40. Helix hispida. Leighwood. 41. Helix radiata. On old trees. oo Helix rotundata. Drapernaud. -.42. Helix umbilicata: In dry rocky situations. ^49. Helix subrufescens (nobis)... In woods. ; » Spec. Char. A subumbilicated, very slightly carinated, irregularly’ striated, slightly raised, diaphanous shell, with. five volutions, and a somewhat round lunated aperture. 2s) Observation.—1 have found but few individuals of this new species, which:differ from H; rufescens in the shell*being thinner, rather corneous, and but very slightly carinated. From H.his- pida, it differs in being only subumbilicated, and:not hispid. 44. Helix pomatia. Rareat Stapleton. | 45. Helix arbustorum. . In woods. 380 Mr. Miller on the Freshwater and Landshells [May, 46. Helix nemoralis. In hedges, &c. . 47. Helix hortensis. In hedges, &c. | Helix grisea. Dillwyn. "A Sie Observation.—Of this, a more turreted variety occurs in some laces. | | 48. Helix lackhamensis. In woods. Bulimus montanus. Drapernaud. 49. Helix obscura. In woods. Bulimus obscurus. Drapernaud. 50. Helix lubrica. In moist places. Bulimus lubricus. Drapernaud. 51. Helix palustris. In pools. Limneus palustris. Drapernaud. 52. Helix fossaria. In ditches. Limneus minutus. Drapernaud. 53. Helix succinea. In moist places. Succinea amphibia. Drapernaud. 54. Helix putris. In ditches, &c. .55. Helix tentaculata. In ditches. Cyclostoma impurum. Drapernaud. 56. Helix auricula. In the Froom. Limneus auricularius. Drapernaud. 57. Testacella Maugii. . Sowerby. | Observation.—Mr. T. Drummond, jun. while engaged at Messrs. Sweet's and Miller's Nursery, informed me, in 1816, of the occurrence of a limax in their grounds, with a minute shell at its tail. This proved to be a testacella, and has been lately described by Mr. G. B. Sowerby as a new species in his recent new on the Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells. It pro- ably was introduced into that Nursery with foreign plants, but propagates now freely in the open ground ; bears the winter, and increases much in rich soil; so that it can no longer be consi- dered as an alien. I have sent from time to time a great many specimens to my scientific friends; so that I believe they are now pretty much distributed, and in the collections of man British conchologists. The animal lives on earth worms, whic it draws in, with its proboscis-like mouth, entire ; and if taken hold of, when thus gorged, disgorges it immediately. . The earth worms frequenti swallow the young testacella, and we may sometimes meet the shells in their intestines. Te tésta- cella lays but few eggs ; these are ovate, and if placed on the hand,' frequently burst like a soap-bubble, dispersing in minute fragments. 58. Nerita fluviatilis. In pools near the Avon. 59. Patella lacustris. In pools and ditches. Ancylus lacustris. Drapernaud. 60. Patella oblonga. In the river Froom. Ancylus fluviatilis. Drapernaud. 5» I I | 1822.1 | occurring in the Environs of Bristol. P 381 I cannot close this list without mentioning an undescribed ` helix found by me in 1817 on the boards that line a pine (bro- melia)bed. ald Helix Goodallii (nobis). | Spec. Char. A subperforated, turretted, pellucid, pale corneous, or almost white shell, having from six to seven volu- tions, and an ovate aperture. Observation.—The inhabitant a limax of a green-yellowish colour, which is transmitted through the shell, and gives it that tinge when found with the animal in it. On account of the pine bed being frequently disturbed, full grown specimens are rare, and I possess but few that show seven volutions, the major part having from four to five. When full grown, one-third of an inch, or rather more, long. I have sent specimens of it (as a new ` bulimus to which modern genus it belongs) to the Linnean Society, Mr. Sowerby, Dr. Goodall, and several other gentlemen. I have named it after Dr. Goodall, the Provost of Eaton, so well known as a conchologist, and who had the goodness to commu- nicate it to Baron de Ferrusac, at Paris, now engaged in pub- lishing a splendid work on Land and Freshwater Mollusce. ARTICLE X. Remarks on Mr. Moyle's “ Observations on the Temperature of ^ Mines in Cornwall.” By R. W. Fox, Esq. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) ESTEEMED FRIEND, April 20, 1822. - In 1819 and the two following years, I made some communi- cations to the Cornwall Geological Society on the temperature of several mines in this county, to which subject my attention had been directed in 1815; and some of the results noticed therein had been obtained in that year. | A friend of mine, who had assisted me in my inquiries, being about to visit France, I communicated to him the substance of my papers with a view of obtaining information respecting the temperature of the mines in that country; and through this channel, some of the facts mentioned in them were introduced into the Annales de Chimie et de Physique. I observe that the last number of the Annals of Philosophy contains a letter from M. P. Moyle, alleging, “ that either E have drawn false conclusions on this subject, or that the temper- atures have not been taken in a proper manner.” 2 | As the second volume of the Transactions of the Cornwall Geological Society, in which, I understand, my communications ` x= 382 Mr. Fox's Remarks on Mr. Moyle's Observations [Mav. are to be inserted, is now in the press, I shall at present refrain ` from entering into a detail of the facts which they contain. must, however, observe, that my conclusions have been drawn not only from the temperature of the veins, but from that of cross levels at a considerable distance from them, and of those arts of the mines which were least affected by currents of air and in which there were few or no workmen; and although I am well aware that many adventitious, and indeed opposite, causes operate in mines, which render it difficult to obtain satis- factory data as to the true temperature of the earth at equal depths, I think it will appear, when the above-mentioned volume is published, that due precautions have not been neglected to prevent their effects as much as seemed practicable. The temperature at different depths and stations in 13 mines, which varied from 540 to 1430 feet in depth, and averaged above 800 feet (being all those from which I have received any infor- mation) is given in the communications to which I have referred ; and not one instance has occurred in the course of my inquiries in which the temperature was not greater in the deepest part of the mine than near the surface; and in most cases, it increased in proportion to the depth. This remark applies whether the tem- perature of the air, of the solid ground, or ofthe jets of water, as they flowed into the mine, were taken; yet commonly, a very small proportion of the workmen in deep mines are employed in the lowest galleries. I think the following facts are sufficient to prove, that the heat, in some mines at least, must be attributed to some other cause than the presence ofthe workmen, &c. An opportunity occurred some time ago at Treskerby Mine, which is 840 feet deep, to ascertain the temperature after.the. workmen had been absent for two successive days ; when it was found that no diminution of heat had taken place during that time; but that both the water (which flowed copiously into the bottom of the mine) and the air continued at 76°. | | At the end of the deepest gallery in Dolcoath Mine, 230 fathoms, or 1380 feet, under the surface, a thermometer four feet long was inserted to the depth of three feet in the ground, and was closed round with earth. In this situation, it was left more than eight months, during which time no workmen' were employed near it ; it was frequently examined, and it denoted a constant temperature of 75° or 754°, except when the’ water from accidents to the machinery gained on the pumps, and filled the gallery, which occurred more than once for some weeks together.. Immediately after the water had been drawn out, the mercury was found to have risen to 76° or 77°; but in a few days, it resumed its previous station of 751°. | An increase of temperature was also produced in the United Mines in the two deepest galleries, 1140 and 1200 feet under the surface, in consequence of an influx of water for a few days ; 4822:] on the. Temperature of Mines in. Cornwall. 383 in the former, it was 87:5?, and in the latter 88°, which is by much the highest temperature I have heard of in any of the mines of this*county. 2 "VEA For a statement of the other facts I have collected, and also of the temperature of cross galleries, I must beg to refer to the Transactions of the Cornwall Geological Society ; but I may remark, that the latter were generally a few degrees under the temperature of the galleries in the direction of the metallic veins at the same level; and this small difference does. not appear extraordinary, when it. is, considered that independently of the latter being sometimes more affected by extraneous causes, the - veins afford an easier passage to the water and vapour, than the more compact ground in which they are enclosed. As far as. my inquiries have gone, I consider the ratio of the increase of temperature may fairly be estimated at about one degree for every 60 or 70 feet in depth. | | M. P. Moyle states, that he found a gallery. in Huel Unity, 150 fathoms deep, of the temperature of 65? ; this being 12° above the mean temperature of our climate, taking it at 53°, - as I have done (which is, I believe, rather too high than too low an estimate), nearly approximates to the ratio of increase before mentioned. ; - In the case of Huel Trevenen Tin Mine; he describes the tem- perature of the water to have been lower than that of the atmo- sphere; but as he does not say, what the temperature. of. either was, no inference, L conceive, can be drawn from this case. And here.I may remark, that in Tincroft, and Cook's Kitchen Mines, which had been for along period partly full of water, the tem- perature was found to increase. considerably in descending, although in a less ratio than in other mines. which. were not. so. circumstanced ; and this I attribute to the influence of evapora- tion, and the accumulation of colder water from the surface. Huel Trumpet Tin Mine appears to present the only exception: which M. P. Moyle has specified. Not having visited the mine, L am ignorant of the circumstances of the case ; and whether it be a copious stream from the vein, or only some water accumu- lated by dropping from superior strata, which. is reported to have been at 51°, we are not informed. if, however, it be an exception, let not the cold. stream of Huel Trumpet be a stronger. argument on one side of the question, than the hot spring of Ice- land is admitted to be on the other. jer enia s: | . Respectfnlly thy friend, R. W. Fox. 384 B. M?s Answer to Mr. Murray's * Reply.” | [Mav, AnmriCcLE XI. An Answer to Mr. Murray's * Reply.” By B.M.* -, (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, j Mr. Murray is of opinion * that it is neither expedient nor profitable to exchange thrusts with a shadow." I admit the propriety of this as a general rule, trusting you will for once allow me to violate it by replying to Mr. Murray. This gentleman informs us, that the experiments which I have already asserted and maintain to be fallacious, ** comprise only a very few selected from a very many on the subject in question, and he drew his inferences from the combined aggregate, and not from individual or insulated phenomena.” The only meaning which I can discover in this passage is, that although a part of a number of experiments may be inaccu- rate, yet as they are accompanied by others, which may be equally fallacious, inferences may be fairly deduced from the whole. , Mr. Murray has recommended magnetized steel filings in cases of poisoning by corrosive sublimate, on the supposition that they are more efficacious than those which are unmagnetized. ‘This idea is grounded on the assumption that unmagnetized steel is incapable of effecting the decomposition of the muriate of mer- eury. I have shown this idea to be incorrect, and quoted various authorities and experiments to prove that steel is capable of decomposing muriate of mercury without being mag- netized. How has Mr. Murray answered this objection? Why, by stat- ing that he “ was not ignorant of the action of muriate of mer- cury or nitrate of silver on steel which B. M. had presumed to — y, OS will repeat the grounds on which I rested my opinion of Mr. Murray's ignorance of these facts. | I allow they are not good, but they are his own experiments. He says that “a solution of permuriate of — was by the magnet soon reduced into running mercury." . Mr. Murray does not indeed’ here say that common steel is incapable of producing this effect, but he evidently supposes it by stating that he employed a magnet. . ith respect to the action of steel upon nitrate of silver, the evidence as to Mr. Murray's knowledge of the subject is com- plete. He states that * fine Dutch steel wire was selected, and proved to be non-magnetic. t was thrown into nitrate of * See Annals of Philosophy, present volume, p. 41 and 121. 1822.] Dr. Apjohn on the Specific Gravity of Gases. 385 silver, where it remained for 14. hours without being affected. Part of this was made the connecting wire between the north and south poles of two bar magnets, when it became speedily . plumed with crystals of silver.” | Now Ido assert that if Mr. Murray believed in the accuracy of his own experiments, he was totally ignorant of the action of steel upon nitrate of silver; for in this experiment he has stated, and attempted to prove, that no action takes place. The expe- riment is indeed fallacious, but then it proves even more than Mr. Murray's ignorance of the facts with which he asserts that he was acquainted. | I had intended to offer a few more observations upon some parts of Mr. Murray’s reply which I understand, and quoted others that I do not comprehend ; but, I think, I have done .enough. In parting with him, I would advise him in future, should his experiments excite any further notice, not to employ,. in his reply, such terms as “rade” and “ungentlemanly ;” they are harmless, except to the reputation ofhim who uses them. | I ain, Sir, your obedient servant, | | UB M. ARTICLE XII. Remarks on the Influence of Moisture in modifying the Specific er Gravity of Gases. By James Apjohn, MD i (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, ae "erue Trinity College, Dublin, April 20, 1822, Upon reading (in the number of the Annals for this month), Dr. Thomson's Observations on the Specific Gravities of the Gases as modified by Moisture, it at first struck me that some mistake had been committed in attributing to steam at 212? only the specific gravity of :472. . Into this ‘opinion I had been led by s ane that Dr. Ure, in his Dictionary of Chemistry, had “stated it so high as :625. A closer examination, however, proved that the specific gravity given it by, Dr. Ure was too ge dnü-iüdicated, as the probable source of the error, the assumption of air at 212? as the unit of comparison. .. Dr. Thom- ‘son has'fot Overlooked this circumstance in his paper, but his mode of estimating the effect of moisture on the densities of the gases appears to me altogether incorrect. The principle of the method adopted by Dr. Ure for the same purpose is true, but his number for steam being too high, his results are erroneous. As this is à subject of some importance, I trust I shall be excused for entering. a little into detail. It has been shown by Dalton New Series, vou. 111. 2c | 386 Dr: Apjöhn on the Specific Gravity of Gases. | ÉM AY, | vee Iw à 1^ 101 HAST Jt. SISUW davit .and Gay-Lussac, that y will represent the volume which any given bulk of dry gas, as z, assumes, when satürated' with steam whose elasticity is f, p representing the atmospheric pressure at (the time. Let the increased volume equal v, and we ‘shall have ke D, ox =, and the expansion produced by the steam = Um vx pat =v x T. The ratio, therefore, of the dry gas to the expansion produced in it by the moisture is that of — y 1. Dr. Thomson; through some oversight, considers this as the ratio in volume of.the dry gas to the steam with which it ois saturated, whereas the true ratio of these is that of LM i, fus" saturated with moisture. Calling it y, y = d x a+ b, a and 6 denoting the respective specific gravities of the dry gas, and of steam whose elasticity is f. , The following table, con- structed from this formüla; exhibits the specific gravities of some of the principal gases when saturated with, moisture at the tem- ‘perature of 60°. In calculaüng ó, the specific gravity of steam at 60°, I-have used Mr. Dalton’s table of elasticities. ! (oco das. ^ oos Spi gr. ofdry. ^ — Bp- gt. of moist. pe C rv leerlo joie 1 I e 0:907... RY. » aes orenna ALLEL 2. IDEE cw "Nitrogen ; 71. 277 25" aiga 11 317 uqa ro Chlornne .1....:... 29-5000. .......2/4644 ' Hydrogen. ..:.....'0'0694 ...... "0-0761 -i The. expression given above may easily bemade to assume the form of y = a— 4 4, Then, by substituting for Ó its ` valae, ‘which is*472 xs we shall have y = a — a 4412 x L. ‘From which it appears that the specific gravity of the moist gus is equal to, less,or greater than that of the:dry, according'as the specific gravity of the dry gas is equal to, greater, or less than 7472, tbe specific gravity of steam at 2129, ` 'his-resultis worth recollecting, as by it the subject of moisture, as modifying gaseous specifie gravity, is divested of allyperplexity. Thus by it. we learn; that hydrogemis the only one 4 the permanent gases II IO: ` & | c .4597*3 1822] Analyses of Books. 387 whose density, at least at all ordinary temperatures, can be increased by moisture, as it is the only one whose specific gravity 3s less than *472. The densities of all the rest are diminished by moisture, and that, the more as we descend in the scale of temperature ; for as we descend, their specific gravities increase, and of course the differences between them and the constant quantity -472. As an inference also from this result, I may remark, that the rule so much insisted upon, of taking the spe- cific gravities of the gases at a low temperature, is so far from being general, as to apply to hydrogen alone. In order to determine the specific gravity ofa gas, it is only necessary, as is well kuown, to take the weights of equal bulks of it and atmo- spheric air,at the same temperature, the former divided by the Jatter, giving the specific gravity required. Air, however, is always impregnated with more or less moisture, and the other gases, as usually collected, are saturated with it. . Unless, there- (xS they be, previous to weighing, thoroughly dried, the result- ing.number must be inaccurate. Dr. Thomson’s mode of reduc- ang the error, which consists in saturating the gas and air before weighing them, is valuable for all the gases but hydrogen. In its case, the error would be thus increased instead of diminished. The following mode of éliminating the error is perfect, and suffi- ciently simple. , Let the given gas and the air be both saturated with moisture. -Then if W = weight of moist air, and W^ = weight of moist gas, c — capacity of the flask in cubic inches, and ó = specific gravity of steam at the common temperature | OF 10591) ) * of the gas and air, TE will express the specific gravity of the gas in ts dry state: :305 b c = weight in grains of a volume of steam whose magnitude = c, and specific gravity = b. The rationale is obvious. ARTICLE XIII. P gr --..... ANALYSES or Books. The Use ofthe Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis, and the Examina- . &on of Minerals. By J. J. Berzelius, Member of the Academy ` -of Setences at Stockholm, &c.. Translated from the French of M. Fresnel, by J. G. Children, FRS. L. & E. FLS. MGS. &c. With a Sketch of Berzelius's System of Mineralogy ; a Synop- tical Table of the principal Characters of the Pure Earths and Metallic Oxides before the Blowpipe, and numerous Notes and Additions, by the Translator. London, 1822. . We have great satisfaction in announcing the appearance of this translation of Berzelius's work on the Blowpipe. When the | 2c2 | 388 Analyses of Books. [May, number of minerals is almost daily increasing, and when every discoverer of a new locality is giving a fresh name to a mineral which to him may be new, although others may be well acquainted with it, a work, like the present, must be deemed of great importance, as arta Mes ied wae to decide upon the nature of a specimen without having recourse to a tedious, and frequently unsuccessful, analysis. No person could be selected from among the numerous philo- sophers of which the present day has to boast, who is better diei dd than Berzelius for the task which he has undertaken. We fully concur in the statement of the translator, * that the name of Berzelius, as a skilful and patient experimenter, stands almost unrivalled ;” and that the present essay, although occa- sionally obscured and perplexed by his peculiar hypothetical notions, “ amply vindicates his claim to the high reputation he has acquired.” i aed The use of the blowpipe cannot be more clearly or better described than in the author's introduction. ‘In the analysis of inorganic substances, the use of the blowpipe,” he observes, * is indispensable. By means of this instrument, we can subject portions of matter, too small to be weighed, to all the trials necessary to demonstrate their nature, and it frequently even detects the presence of substances not sought for nor expected in the body under examination. The facility that it affords for discovering the constituent parts of metallic fossils, renders it, equally indispensable for the miner, whose common processes are sometimes singularly disturbed by the occurrence of vit n substances in the minerals he operates on, and whose nature; for want of time or skill, he can but seldom ascertain by sufficiently elaborate and delicate chemical experiments, but which the ready and convenient use of the blowpipe enables him to develope in a few seconds. To the mineralogist, this instrument is absolutely necessary, as his only resource for immediately ascertaining if the inference he draws from external characters, such as form, colour, hardness, &c. be legitimate." | With respect to his work, Berzelius remarks, that itis “a system of chemical experiments, made in the dry way, as it used to be called, and almost always on a microscopic scale, but which presente us in an instant with a decisive result.” He has evidently been at great pains in selecting the specimens upon which he operated, having been supplied with them by Haüy, Bournon, Gillet de Laumont, Brongniart, Brochant, and other names well-known to mirieralogists of every country. '. In his historical sketch of the blowpipe, Berzelius refers to Gahn, who, he assures us, attained to such a degree of skill in its use, that he could detect the presence of substances in a body by its means, which had escaped the móst careful analyses, conducted in the moist way. “ Thus,” says Berzelris, * when 'Ekeberg asked his opinion respecting the ‘oxide of T5 f10 5 , ^ (hukyaq q O 1822.] Prof. Berzelius on the Blowpipe. 389- columbium, then recently discovered, and of which he sent him a small specimen, Gahn immediately found that it contained tin, although that metal does not exceed 1-100th of the weight of the mineral.” To this he adds, that long before the question was started, whether the ashes of vegetables contain copper, * | have seen him many times extract, with the blowpipe, from a quarter of a sheet of burnt paper, distinct particles of metallic bis af : f - These facts are worthy of particular notice, and they offer great encouragement to those who have hitherto neglected the use of the blowpipe, or have rejected it as difficult, to renew their attempts. - The parts of which the book, or rather the translation, con- sists, are: The translator’s dedication to Sir H. Davy ;—his preface and a note to the reader, explaining and rectifying some mistakes, induced by Berzelius’s hypothetical notions of combi- nation, and his attempt to reconcile the theory of volumes with the atomic or corpuscular theory. We have then a sketch of Berzelius’s mineralogical arrangement by the translator. This is followed by the author's introduction, and the remainder, constituting of course the greater part of the work, is arranged under the following heads: Description of the blowpipe, includ- ing the flask, flame, and support; the reagents, and their use, follow ; and of these a very complete account is given. We have then the pyrognostic characters of the alkalies, earths, and metallie oxides, detailed: these are followed by the characters . of minerals; and the work concludes with an account of the. pheenomena developed by urinary calculi before the blowpipe. It is to be observed that Mr. Children has introduced a very: useful Synoptical Table of the principal characters of the pure earths and metallic oxides before the blowpipe. * It may not, perhaps, be uninteresting to the reader, to have an example of the mode in which mineral bodies are treated in this work : we give at hazard : ! | “ Phosphate of ironin bluish transparent crystals, from St. Agnes, in Cornwall. | | D j “ Alone, in the matrass, gives a great deal of water,intumesces, and becomes sprinkled with grey and red spots. © * On charcoal, intumesces, reddens by the heat, and then very readily fuses into a steel-coloured globule, with a metallic lustre. * With borax and salt of phosphorus, behaves like oxide of iron. * With soda, on charcoal, in the reducing flame gives grains of iron, which are attractable by the magnet. On platina foil, there is no indication of manganese. * With boracic acid dissolves readily, and by the addition of metallic iron, in the manner detailed at p. 129, gives a fused regulus-of phosphuret of iron. * All the varieties of phosphate of iron that I have had an opportunity of examining, behave in the same manner ” 390 Analyses of, Books; ~ = [Mav, The number. of reagents is not very great, and they are easily. rocured in.a state of purity : they are carbonate of soda, borax, salt of. phosphorus, prepared by dissolving together. 16 parts of muriate of ammonia and 100 parts of crystallized phosphate of, soda, and crystallizing the solution ; vitrified boracic acid, nitre,, gypsum, fluor spar, solution of nitrate of cobalt, tin, iron, bone: ashes, silica, and oxide of copper. d Three plates accompany this work ; two represent the instru-, ments recommended by the author, and which. may be procured either at Messrs. Knights', in Foster-lane, or Mr. Newman's, in. Lisle-street. The other plate. is introduced by the translator, representing Brooke's, or Newman's blowpipe, an account. of which has been very properly introduced, although, we think, it is a very powerful rather than a. very useful instrument... , , Our observations have been hitherto nearly confined to the. original work ; but weshould do even that injustice without notic-. ing the share which the translator has. had in forwarding. and elucidating the views of his author. Mr. Childrenistoo well known; to require any encomium from. us for the zeal which he has. ma- nifested in every thing relating to chemical science. His acquaint-. ance with the blowpipe has already been exhibited in his transla». tion ofthe fourth volume of Thenard's Chemistry ; but both on that. and the present occasion, we must consider him rather as the: illustrator than the mere translator. da | _ In our opinion, he has most properly rejected. Berzelius's signs: Án and connected. as they are with their author's. eculiar views. of atomic. composition, we think, with Mr, Chil. dren, “that they are:rather calculated. to perplex than facilitate. our progress." That the. reader, however, may not lose the information they are intended to convey, Mr. Children has sub-- joined in notes, the compounds they respectively. indicate in. common language. The least useful part of the, translators labour has, we think, been the introduction of a sketch of Ber- zelius's mineralogical arrangement. It will, however, probably have, its.use by deterring others from hastily following [MERE Se attempts. Who, for example, is likely (in this country at least): to describe a garnet as a bisilicate of protoxide of iron, silicate of rotoxide of manganese, and silicate of alumina? 0 s Notwithstanding this last remark, we beg most. earnestly: to recommend the work to our readers; and. to. offer both to the author and translator our best thanks for the benefit which they have bestowed both on chemical and mineralogical science, “Sad cane TT IM Ts j : T2 T LUT A79 tb 1 ‘Pe . gus Haircare is ^ pit [d S TE | Ateste ose cef nda hy wish: emt i I i ; ARREA j 5 ewer - FT sie th aeia i 3 n ada HA F nry 18223} : Proceedings .of Philosophical, Societies. 391: | nod: onAXRIIOLE. XIV. | Proceedings of Philosophical Societies: ROYAL SOCIETY. March 28.—On the Anatomy of Whales. By W. Scoresby, Esq. | m 18.—On the Changes that have taken Place in the Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. By John Pond, Esq. Extract of a Letter from Capt: Sabine to the President. Some Observations on the Buffy Coat of the Blood. ` April 25.—On the Nerves. By Charles Bell, Esq. ARTICLE XV. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND! NOTICES: OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. I. Arrow. Root. Indian arrow root: grows wild in every part of the island of St. Michael. At present, it is almost entirely neglected by the natives, but some of the foreign families prepare small quantities of it for their private use. The root:incits»natural state is extremely acrid:to:the taste, and if chewed; produces a profuse salivation; when applied to the: skin for some time, it produces heat, redness, and. pain... The prepa= ration:consists in separating the fecula by careful and repeated washings aftertlie root ‘has been grated; but the effects produced by handling: the root, are;so unpleasant, that persons can with difficulty be hired to: conduct the:necessary operations.—(Dr. Webster's Description of the Island of St. Michael) | II. Seeds of the Croton Tislium. It appears, from the experiments of Dr. Nimmo, that these seeds which yield ‘the. very active oil-of ‘croton, lately gioi as a vun snm: ‘consist of, .. . „Acrid matter soluble in alcohol . 27°5 Fixed oil soleble in oil of turpentine. 32°5 Farinaceous matter insoluble in both. 40 | | 100:0 | , Digesting. sulphuric, ether upon:.100' parts. of the bruised seeds, wing. the whole. upon a filter; covering it closely during the pro- cess of filtration, and. washing.the. residuum with; a sufficient quspa of ether, it was found to weigh 40. parts, 60 having been dissolv 392 Scientific Intelligence. [May, By this process, from 300 grains of the seeds, from which, if 102 ains are deducted for the shells, there are left 198 grains of the ernels, there were obtained upwards of two drams, by measure, of an oil which possessed all the qualities, as to taste and medicinal efficacy, which the purchased oil contained.—(Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts.) Ill. Specific Gravities. The following specific gravities have been taken by M. M. Roger and Dumas, with great accuracy. T Specific Gravity Jé@,uy Sç, ial 3s .p9 vu. He 9021 0:950 Silica. oe «rd. ab ded Lo 2:650 : Bosse abd, «od oie E s du 1:830 Arsenious acid ;..1........... 3:698 Protoxide of copper. .. ........ 5°749 Oxide of bismuth......... e. 8449 Oxidenf leadi.ac-b u t; A s. 8010 Peroxide of mercury. ........ 11:29 Caustic lime: o, shad. s u iyi 3°08 Carbonate of lime ............ 217 Anhydrous sulphate of lime .... 2:960 Crystallized sulphate of lime.... 2322 [to os} sal Scion dara donde 4:900 Nephelme * 165 o. osu O blo Ve se 3:270 Sulphur 6... 2395) Q uM epi « 2:086 (Edin, Phil. Journal.) IV. Effect of Heat on the colouring Matter of the Ruby. In subjecting rubies to high degrees of heat, Dr. Brewster ob- served a very singular effect produced during their cooling. Ata high temperature the red ruby becomes green: as the cooling ad- vances, this green tint gradually fades, and becomes brown, and the redness of this brown tint gradually increases till the mineral has re- covered its primitive brilliant red colour. A green ruby suffered no. change from heat ; and a bluish green sapphire became much paler at a high heat, but resumed its original colour by cooling.— (Edin. Phil. Journal.) V. Large Human Calculus. | . The Reverend J. Cumming, Professor of Chemistry, at Cambridge, has lately given an account to the Philosophical Society, of a calcu- lus in the possession of ,Trinity College, which weighs 32 ounces ; its specific gravity is 1756, and it measures 153 inches in circum- ference. Its nucleus is lithic; to this succéeds a considerable portion of the oxalate of lime variety, followed by layers of the triple crys- tals, covered by a thick coating of lithic, which is occasionally broken by a layer of the triple crystals, and the external surface is princi- pally composed of the fusible caleulus. Professor Cumming notices also a cal cius composed. of vegetable matter and the phosphates found in the intestines of a horse, which weighs 64 ounces, and measures 37 inches in circumference, is 4 55 009 Gin s vt cit ti 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 393 VI. Arseniuretted Hydrogen Gas. .M: Serrulas proposes the following method of preparing this gas. A mixture is to be made of two parts of antimony, two parts of bi- tartrate of potash, and one part of arsenious acid, they are to be well triturated together in a mortar, and heated strongly for two hours in a close crucible. The alloy which results, when in contact with water, produces hydrogen gas, saturated with arsenic, and it may be preserved for any length of time in close vessels: to obtain the gas, about 150 grains, reduced to coarse powder, are to be put quickly under a jar filled with water, and inverted in a glass basin containing water. Many cubic inches of arseniuretted hydrogen gas will be ob- tained in a few minutes.—(Journal de Physique.) ! VII. Analysis of the Roots af Black. Hellebore. M. M. Feneulle and Capron have lately analysed the roots of black hellebore. The products which they obtained were :—1. A vo- latile. oil; 2. A fatty matter; 3. A resinous matter; 4. Wax; 5. A volatile acid ; 6. A bitter principle ; 7. Mucus; 8. Alumina; 9. Gal- late of potash, and acidulous gallate of lime; 10. A salt, with an ammoniacal base. - VHI. Heavy Spar. Stromeyer has published an analysis of the heavy spar of Nutfield, in Surrey, from which it appears, that it contains no sulphate of strontian; and further, that the proportions of the earth and acid are nearly the same as in the artificial sulphate of barytes. This latter fact, Stromeyer remarks, is of importance, from its showing that the natural combinations of bodies are constituted according to the same fixed proportions as those which are formed artificially —(Edin, Phil. Journal. ) | It has surely been long known that the composition of artificial sulphates, carbonates, &c. is similar to the natural. —Ed. IX. Slide of Alpnach. M. Rupp, a skilful engineer, of Wirtemberg, constructed some years ago a slide for the purpose of conveying fir trees from the forest of Mont Pilate, near Lucerne, into the lake of that name. The distance which they had to be conveyed is about 46,000 feet. "The medium height of the forest is about 2500 feet.. The horizontal distance, when reduced to English measure, is about eight miles. The declivity is one foot in 17:68; the medium angle of elevation 99.14! 20". .'This declivity, though so moderate on the whole, is in many places very rapid ; at the beginning of the inclination it is about one-fourth ofa right angle, or about 22° 30', in many places it is 20°, but no where greaterthan 22? 90. . ` | dd I E Along this line the trees descend, in a sort of trough, built in a cradle form, and extending from the forest to the edge of the lake. Three trees squared and laid side by side form the bottom of the trough; the tree in the middle having its surface hollowed; so that a rill of water, received from distance to distance ‘over the side of the trough, may be conveyed along the bottom and preserve it moist. The trees which descend by this ‘conveyance are spruce firs; very straight, and of great size, All their branches are lopped off; they. 394. New Scientific Books. [May, are stripped of the bark, and the surface made, of course, tolerably smooth. The tree is launched with the root foremost into the steep part of the trough, and ina few seconds àcquires.such a velocity as enables it to reach. the lake in the short space of six minutes, The. late Professor Playfair, from whose works this notice is taken; saw: five trees come down; the greatest of them. was a spruce fir à: hun-: dred feet long, four feet in diameter at the lower end, and. one foot: at. the. wien The slide. crosses in its. way. three: great. ravines, one at the eight of 64 feet, another at. the height of. 109, and the» third, where it goes:along the face of a rock, at thatiof 1573 in two; places it is conveyed under ground, "be! ; X. Preparation of Sulphuret of Mercury. Dr. Taddei recommends the following process for the preparation of this substance, as being one which effects the combination immediately, and ina more perfect manner than that generally employed. Put one part of sulphuret of potash into a-mortar, with three or-four parts of mercury ; triturate together, adding a little water by degrees, until the: whole is reduced to a homogeneous black: paste ; then add. flowers of. sulphur, in:equal quantity to the mercury employed, and. mix the: whole by a short trituration. Then wash the sulphuret. with repeated. portions of water till all the-alealine. sulphuret is removed. The sul- phuret. thus prepared is not of the. black colour of that, obtained. by simple trituration. Dr. Taddei says, that the addition of-a little. sul-, phuret.of potash to the. mixture of sulphur and. mercury, does not. render a Jong trituration unnecessary, but that, proceeding as above, the substance is prepared instantly.— (Giornale;di Fisica, v. iv. p. 12.) , — — — ARTICLE, XVI. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS l dii JUST PUBLISHED. . a 13 ee The Use of the Blowpipe, in:Chemical. Analyses, and in: the Exami- nation of Minerals, By J: J. Berzelius; Memberof the, Academy: of Stockholm, &c. &c. and translated from the French of M. Fresnel, by: = — m» L. and E. FLS: &c.&c. Witha emen cun ius's. System of Mineralogy; :a Synoptic Table of the principal Ghesinceéen of the Puacclunahs cul “Metallic Oxides: before the: Blows ipe; and numerous: Notes and Additions :by the: Translator. ` With: iree; Plates; 8vo.. 128.08 tu diode: sbarra tb hisua Conversations on Mineralogy. With Plates, engraved: by Mr. and Miss Lowry from Original. Drawings, comprising: upwards. of 400 igures, of- Minerals, including 12. beauti oured. Specimens. ls. 12mo.. 14s. Boards.» $ aiia reo il@ite? , (Tono An: Inquiry: into: the Opinions, Ancient and Módern; on: Life. and Organization. John: lay, MB». Sron Merhar (sade to Hir _ An: Epitome: apne ee rg gman Rot wes a scientifically may; be: facilitated. By» Rees: Pri j le 296986id uaig ilb U. ol To TON Use waq tt 1822.] ; ^ New Patents. . . : 395. A Comparative View of the Mineral and Mosaical Geology. By Granville Penn, Esq. 8vo. 12s. A Treatise on Apoplexy.; By,John Cooke, MD. The Principles of Medicine. By R. D. Hamilton. 8vo. 9s. A Natural History of the Crinoidea, or Lily-shaped Animals. By J. S. Miller. 4to. 20. 12s. 6d. Zoological Researches in the Island of Java, &c. &c. with Figures of Native Quadrupeds and Birds.. By T. Horsfield; MD. &c. No. I. Royal 4to.: 12. 11s. 6d. each. To be completed in Eight Numbers. Remarks upon: Morbus Oryzeus. By: R. Tytler, MD. MAS. In Two Parts. 8vo. 8s. The Works of John Playfair, Esq. late Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh: with a. Memoir. of the Author. 4 Vols... 8vo... 2/.,12s. 6d. VERO A ; AnrICLE XVII. NEW PATENTS. ; ` W. Ravenscroft, of Serle-street, Lincoln's-inn, peruke-maker, for a forensic wig, the curls. whereof are constructed on a principle to super- sede the necessity of frizzing, curling, or using hard pomatum, and for forming the curls in-a-way- not to be uncurled; and also for the tails of the wig not' to require tying in dressing ; and, further, the impossibility of any person untying them.—Jan. 14. i D. Loescham, Newman-street, Oxford-street, and: J. Allwright, Little Newport-street; for an improved keyed musical instrument. Communicated to him by a-foreigner.—Jan. 14. A. Gordon, London, and D. Gordon, Edinburgh, Esqrs. for im- provements and additions in the construction of lamps, and. of compo- sitions and materials to: be burned in the lamps, and which may also be burned in other lamps.—Jan. 14. | D. Gordon, Edinburgh, Esq. for improvements and additions to steam-packets, and other vessels; part of which improvements are applicable to other nayal and marine purposes.—Jan. 14. A. Applegath, Duke-street, Lambeth, for improvements in printing machines.—Jan.14. . | n J. Hague, Great Pearl-street, Spitalfields, for a method of making metallic pipes, tubes, or cylinders, by the application and arrange- ment in the apparatus of certain machinery. and mechanical powers.— -Sir W.-Congreve, Bart.; for improved methods of multiplying fac- simile impressions to any extent.—Jan, 29. À P. Ewart, Manchester; for anew method of making coffer-dams.— iR. Bill, Newman-street; foran improved method of ‘manufacturing metallic tubes; cylinders, cones, or of other forms, adapted to the construction of-masts, yards, booms, bowsprits, casks, &c.—Feb, 5.. F. L. Talton, New Bond-street; for an astronomical instrument or watch, by which the time of the day, the progress of the celestial bodies, as well'as carriages, horses, or other animals, may. be. cor» š ny ascertained.. Partly; communicated. to him by e foreigner.— eb. 9. | 396 Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical, Magnetical, (May, ARTICLE XVIII. Astronomical, Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations. pu By Col. Beaufoy, F.R.S. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 519 37/ 44:3" North. Longitude West in time 1^ 20°93”. ~ Astronomical Observations. : March 2. Emersion of Jupiter’s first $ "^ 12’ 27” Mean Timeat Bushey. - satellite. .................. 0 T 13 48 Mean Time at Greenwich. Magnetical Observations, 1822. — Variation West. Morning Observ. Noon Observ. ‘Evening Observ. Month. Hour. Variation. Hour. | Variation. | Hour. | Variation. . March 1| 8h 33'| 949 89' 47"| 1h 30’) 949 37! 46" | 9| 8 30|94 96 421.1 30/24 40 40 3| 8 30 24 81 30| —.—|— — — ; i 4| 8 28 | 24 30 28 1.,38.] 94...31... 18 i5 5| 8 30,24 98 18| 1 34) 24 36 5l 6} 8 34) 24 2T IT 1 30 24 31 08 1| 8.98|94 98 04 1 30,94 38 05 8|.8 32| 24 921.06, 1 30|24 36 55 9| 8 36| 24 91 94| — —|— — — 10, 8 32| 94 26 43 1 30|94 35 43 11) 8 35194 927 24 1 40/24 34 20 12| 8 317 | 24 ?T 37 1 25) 24 36 TI 13; 8 40,94 31 30 1 26| 24 38 11 14} 8 35| 24 27 45| 1 25) 24 36 30 15| 8 35 | 24 30 19 1 95,94 36 22 16| 8 25 |24. 31 50 1 16,234 36 41 MW| 8 32|94 91 36| 1 95|94 35 24 y 18; 8 30|24 96 40] 1 25| 24 36 58 re 19| 8 35/24 27 54| 1 25} 24 35 OT | 6h 05'| 24° 32^ 12" 20| 8 30/| 24 26 29 1 27 | 24 36 02] 6 15]| 924: 81: 30: 21}. 8: 35.| 94. 28 26). 1 951 24 37 55 | 6 25)| 24 27 42 92| 8 30/24 24 35} 1 ;25 | 24 35 09| 6 18 | 24 25 38 23} S 30) 24 95 53| 1 30] 24 36 49] 6 20] 24 28 48 94| 8 30 | 24 96 26 P25 | 94 '3S5- H 6 20 | 24° 28 39 25; 8 351 24 25 93, — —|— — —| 6 25 | 24 27 29 26|: 8 30/94 2445) — —|— — —|— —|— — — 27; 8 30| 24 25 25 1 27 | 24 38 15). 6 25) 24 30, 20 28| 8.3294 25 55| 1 34) 24 35 96, 6 13|94 28 58 90| 8 28 94 96 30| 128] 24 36 13| 6 90|94 98 14 30; 8 40194 96 15| 1745194 35 46| 6 21|94 2T 54 31| 8.35| 24 25 46 | 1301 94 35 9296] 6 30|94 2T 33 I [HD y 15 moy B i f P : Mean for , T y | i i anes) "Month. bs 32 | 24 91 38 1 99|94 36°36) 6 20/24 98 45 , « By comparing the mean of these observations with those of March, 181 9, the pe iod- of the greatest western variation, the morning decrease is 5’ 40", the noon 5’ 06", and. the evening 6^ 32”; mean of the three 5/46", which is an annual diminution of l 55". 1822.) and Meteorological Observations.: ~< 397 Meteorological Observations. Month.| Time. | Bar. | Ther. | Hyg. Wind. . | Strength. Weather. Six, k "Least ' |Greatest March Inches. . f x f Morn. .|29°786| 359 | 63° SSE | Pleasant |Fine Noon. ./29°736| 45 56 WSW Fresh [Very fine Even ee T — s poe moin Morn. .|29:811 |... 43 1l. SSW . | Moderate (Sm. rain pe 46:5 Noon..|29:819| 51 61 SSW |Fresh jCloudy ` js 52 jo d 2 I Even..| — — — —— amm Morn. .|29:814.| . 43 85 SW. |Freh |Fog Noon. .|29*780| 54 55 SSW |Fresh Very fine 54 Even..| — — tt — em : I Morn. |29:614| 41 80 SSW- Fresh - [Cloudy | Noon. ./29°525} 52 62 SSW. |V. fresh |Fine _ jo 58 eo Even..| — NM — | — aa M. Morn..|29:489| 45 I 15 f OW Moderate Cloudy ; Noon. -|29°505| 49 54 WSW |V. fresh |Fine. | 542 | 56 — 5 Even .. [o — i € EL Morn. .|29:026| 51 84 SW by WiHard /Sm. rain 64 |Noon- -/29:067|- 52 | 65 | WbyS |Hard (Cloudy | }45 | 525 Even..| — =- — — Morn..[29-100| 41 | 65 | | W . |V.fresh [Clear 14 |Noon- -/28:935| 43 | 64 | WNW. |Veryhard|Showery Even... — — < as 3 Ww, Morn--|29:168| 37 68. | W byS |V.fresh {Cloudy 84 |Noon- -/28°882| 47 66 | W byS [Hard |Showery | +35 | ATT Even..| — —, 1: —: — — — | Morn. -29:171|.. 40 64... W Fresh. {Very fine| 94 |Noon- -/29:220| — 78 || SW . {Moderate | Rain 38:3, 50°5 Even..| — | — ~ — — — Morn.-.|29:110| 50 16 SW Hard. Showery 104 |Noon--|29:087] 55 53 W Hard Showery jo 56 Even..| — "Todi. 73 = —. — |) Morn. ./29-288} 41 58. W Hard). (Very fine| M4 |Noon..|299:499| 44 52 W by N Hard /|Showery {se 46 Even. i}. — = — — —. — |, Morn. .|29°881; 37 59.) W Light. |Clear "i Noon..|?9:889| 47 53 | WSW. |Moderate|Very fine oes 48°% Even.. = — m Tag — A (anny T Morn. .'29°718| 39 63 | SEbyS |Freh “Fine |) "| —- 137 (Noon, ,|29°593| 50 | 48 SSE Fresh Fie | 5355,54 Even... — — ATE | 43 .| 941 142 |Noon,.99:500| 54 | 66 SW jLight Rain Even... — — — — — — Morn, ,|29°735; 44 52 | NE by E [Light — (Clear 152 [Noon,,29:753| 58 | 47 | Variable |Light (Clear ' 1 Morn,,29-485| 41 69 SSW ! Fresh +- {Cloudy 1 l Even,.|| — — = — } Morn, .|29°713) 4T 86 | SW by S |Fresh (Fog \ 16 40 | 58:8 Brn. 99:641] 53 60 SSW Hard Cloudy | Veni. — rn Ez ue — "me orn..|29:784| 49 10 W.by S |Fresh | (Cloudy 172 |Noon..|29:165| 50 T2 S Moderate |Fog, rain Even..| — — — — | — Morn. .|29°770| 45 65 INWbyN Fresh |Fine 1 Non, .{29°900} 51 51 W Moderate Cloudy Even,. — Lo Je — cim ane 18 t i10 nomnmunmriiuii tes ee ‘398 Col. Beaufoy's Meteorological’ Observations. MAY, Strength. Weather. Six’s. lu fallen between the lst of March nd | noon ws ist of April, 0:715 inches. Evaporation, sie the same Za 3°78 riches. | 1822.1 | My."Howard's Meteorological Journal. 399 ARTICLE XIX. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. eZ pies (E ||BAROMETER,| TuERMOMETER.| ^ ^| — >| Dante's’ hyg 1822. Wind. | Max. | Min.| Mex..| Min. | Evap. |Rain.| . at noon. "Sd Mon. ; i MRI n PAL March 3| Var, |30:36/90:30|..50 ^| 329 — i Br ... 98 . W|30:38/307360] 57 SS l1 y 13 3S W/)30'38/30°19) 58 28 ov | AS Wi301930'07 ^58 | 39 |“ — T rn 16 5N Wi!3007|99:65| 55 43 — 02 20 6S8 Wi296929'65|. 55 41 — 10 2 7) W 1297512956) 55 34 . 58 | 11 4 SIS ' W 29:78 29:56] - 48 39 — Al 3 9S Wj9852972|:159:5|]:547 = 05 2 108 W|29:90)29'85| 55 35 — 27 11N W 30:45 29:90. 48 29 — 18 19S . W/30°45|30°28! 50 31 — 16 13$ +E 30'28|30*044. WU ME 39 ro e sod. 22 14S | Wi|30:29:30'04| 60 Sh) SS A OS 3 15| N 130:29,30'25| 53 37 Tl l. 16/8 W/130°33/30°25| 57 50 == OU 10 1718 -:W/80:331307*30| -54 47. | == | 06 ISIN W30:4230:32| 57 1. 40 .| — * 9 19N "W|30 35 30°32; 62 | 50 | — 3 ""eolN- -W|80-35|30*81| ^57 41 | — 3 sagt) W.. .|80:3680:351 600%] 589. k » 49 8 QN W/130°39/30 28) 57 87 — 17 93, W 1302812970) 66 44 — 23 94 W |29°86/29°28! 53 36 —|— 495| W. 430.13)29:84|.. 54 | Bae | — ^| ^98 8 26} W ]13028]3013| 54 | 46 ||. .— 271S Wi|30:28|3004| 60 40 57 10 988 W4|30*45|30*01|. 72 ‘AG ee 18 2918 W|30'4529'77| 62 46 — 20 308 ` "W|30'39)29:58| 58 33. —'|18 1l 31 N 30:45|5039| 48 32 48. 50:45|29:98| 72 29 2°65 11:60 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9. A. M. on the day indicated in the first colin. A dash denotes ma the résult is included in the next following observation. ' 400 Mr. Howard's Meteorological. Journal. [M ay, 1822. Third Month.—l. Hoar frost: fine. 9. Fine. 3, Hoar frost: fine. 4. Ditto. 5. Cloudy: very boisterous night. 6, 7. Showery. 8. Rainy. 9. Drizzly. 10. Windy: rainy. 11, 12. Fine. 13. Cirrocumulus, 14. Drizay. 15. Fine. 16. Drizzling. 17. Cloudy. 18. Fine: an ignis fatuus seen in the marshes neat Bromley in the evening. 19—23. Fine. 24. Cloudy. .25. Rainy. 96. Cloudy. 27. Fine. 28. Fine, and very warm; Cirrocumulus and Cirrostratus during the whole of the day, 99. Fine. 30. Rainy. 31. Windy: cloudy, | bad ` ." RESULTS. pos | TT. Winds: N, 2; SE, 1; SW, 15; W, 6; NW, 6; Var, 1. ` Barometer: Mean height : ts; | a For the xaotith,, «du. db os ded ce ACE sy OREORe ss « 30-420 inches. For the lunar period, ending the 15th. ............... 30218 For 13 days, ending the 5th (moon north)............ 30:328 2 |. For 15 days, ending the 20th (moon south) .......... 30-095 Thermometer: Mean height For the inenili] ysi yt apara, e bb Sind As akka. Mde 41:388? | For the lünar period .. . .. . .... Poo deo snos y Sa PT: 3 44-034 | Kor, 90 days the sun in Pisces , olia pas dob bed e - 457100 fipondos. + dye < eee oe... o... . tp vs vera eepe Ns tha ....... 265 in, Rain. NOE T MOS OST MOM VE 1:60 - * root í) sit Laboratory, Stratford, Fourth Month, 90, 188%. R. HOWARD, . — eN - Pm ee iu E Rd LE Vor aane ANNALS oF PHILOSOPHY. „JUNE, 1899. o Articre I. Account of a. Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. ! . By Dr. Forchhammer. "(To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, sam | Aprit 18, 1899, ` Tue very low state of the barometer throughout a great part of Europe in the months of December and January, although not ' immediately followed: by any eruption of the volcanoes in Italy, excited apprehensions of violent volcanic phenomena in Iceland; and in the month of March, letters were'received in Copenhagen from which the following account is drawn up. In the beginning of the month of September, the frost began on the east coast, and on the east part of the north coast of Iceland, with a violence that was quite unexpected after the experience of the preceding years. An’ amazing quantity ‘of snow fell, and the Greenland ice surrounded the whole east and north coast accompanied as usual by continual snow and frost. It was remarkable that the fine weather continued on the south coast of the island till the beginning of November, the lowest state of the thermometer at Ness, near Reikiavig, being on the 29d and 24th of September — 41? Fahr. On the 19th of Oct. it suddenly fell to 23? Fahr. which lasted, however, only for one day, and before and after that time the temperature of the atmo- sphere was constantly above the freezing point, until on the 1st of November, when constant frost began. The island, though frequently alarmed by earthquakes, had experienced no volcanic eruption since that famous one of 1783 New Series, vou. tit. 2D 402 Dr. Forchhammer ona - [JuNE, and 1784 from the Skaptaa-Jokkul, which destroyed such a great part of the cultivated lands, except some small eruptions which were said to have taken place in the interior, far from the inha- bited part ofthe island, and which passed away without attracting further notice, when in December, 1821,a new crater was suddenly formed on the £yafjeld-Jokkul, a mountain of which, among the numerous volcanic eruptions, only a single one is mentioned, in the year 1612, when a great part of the ice of the mountain burst, and was thrown into the sea. The Eyafjeld-Jokkul(known among sai e name of Cape Hekla) is th kek: Ort s fe w É = sa ; and, according to the last measurements, is 5666 feet high. Itisthe southernmost of the chain of mountains in which the dreadful eruptions in the middle of the last century took place, and at about equal distances from the Kolla and Hekla. From 1024 to 1766, 24 eruptions are recorded to have occurred. That part of the mountain where the crater was formed borders two sides the cultivated land, which "belongs to the hundred (Syssel) of Rangarvalla, in the south part of the island. The following account is an extract of a letter from M. Bry- niulo Sivertsen, Minister at Holt, in’ Eiafields-boigden, to the Bishop of Iceland, M. V idalin :—** The. real crater is about five miles from my house a Holt. ..The fire made its way sud- denly by throwing off the thick mass of ice which scarcely ever melts, and of which, qne mass, N S feto rand 20 fathoms in circumference, fell towards the north, and, therefore, fortunately notoverthe village. At the same time, a number of stones of different. sizes. slipped down the, mountain, accompanied by, a noise; like thunder; nol real earthquake; however, was felt, After this a. prodigiously high column of; flame rose: from the. crater which illumined the. whole country round so completely, that the people in the. house at Holt could see as erfectly at. night as in the day time... At the same time much ashes, stones, gravel; and large half-melted pieces of the rock, were thrown about, some of which amounted to the weight of 50 pounds. In, the following days, and.until the new year commenced, a great. quantity. of fine powder.of pumice fell in the surrounding country. according to the direction of the wind, so that a thick bed of 1t. covered the fields. It resembled the falling of snow, and pene- trated through all openings into the houses, where it exhaled an unpleasant smell of sulphur. The eyes suffered extremely by this dust. At Christmas; a violent storm from the South, raged ; it rained hard, which produced the good effect of, blowing and. washing away the n i from the fields, so that they will do but: little harm, We think ourselves extremely fortunate that so frightful a revolution in our immediate neighbourhood has pro- — duced no bad effects either on men or animals.” p Another extract of a letter from M. Terve Johansen, the Pro- vost at Breidebolstad, about 181 miles to the west of the volca- 182241. Volcanie Eruptión 4n Iceland. 403. noes; dated thé. Ist of February; 1822, gives the following ad- ditions :— We: still..see the column of fire of the volcano; shining with the same: clearness as in thé beginning, without, : however, throwing: lava: into: the inhabited part. of the island. The ashes are greyish-white, have a sulphurous taste, and it is : reported. that ;they) burn: with flame when thrown into the. fire. The ice of. the Jokkul was twice broken, and an eye-witness has i assured me that some of the: pieces were three; times às high as : himself; 'and..of many fathoms! iu circumference. || Among the numerous. half-melted stones, one has been: found thrown to the distance of about five miles from the crater.) We have had no : accounts of the bad effects. of this eruption either on men or animals. The | thick, mass of vashes«spread: over the: land. of ` Vester Eyafield and; Oster Landoe, ‘which began to occasion diseases among: the: sheep, has: been: blown away; by-a heavy-- storm, and since that time the» wind has carried the ashes from: the volcano into the uninhabited mountains ; the diseases among, the sheep soon:disappeared:" Dissi! +» a weildan lanog & i'Ehe third. account is from) M. Steingrim Johnson, Provost at. . Rangarvallà canda Vestmamoesyssel;: and written from - Odde;: or 30 to; 35 miles to: the-W. of the volcano, dated Dec: 19; 2]. Ü ¥ iin HD 365 LB Oak ` iw š 341 i Í “ On Wednesday, Dec. 19, at twilight, and later in the evens: ing, a reddish light»appeared. on: the El. which was: the more surprising, asi it was elear; 100 ove: 2 | ? Dec..20.—At one: o'clock in the afternoon, a number of rather > prenary aei was seen. collected: about.the top of the mountain d above Eyafjeld-Jokkul, ES Efrom Odde; the clouds soon changed o into a highocolumn:of; smoke increasing in thickness and dark- `` ness. Though the weather was clear and calm; the smoke was carried to the: south; at sunset, the eruption seemed to cease, but the smoke soon. rose again, and even more violently than: before.» When: it was dark, we: clearly»saw the moving and and sparkling flame ; from which we concluded that the eruption . must be violent. | Afterwards we heard that it was on the east or south side of the Vesterjokkul,near Hudnasten, and opposite to the.farmhouse of Skaale, in the parish of Holt. | | Dec.21.—There was a violent storm, and the fire was observed varying in» intensity ; clouds of smoke rose with great violence. They remained on the mountain, and to the westof the Jokkul, whose white brilliant colour was now destroyed by the shower: of ashes. | | | Dec. 22.— The same phenomena; the clouds increased, and. spread all over the sky, principally towards the south. Dec.23.—The same smoke. In Hvols-Reppen, and. in this parish, the people believed that they saw the falling of ashes which came from the north-east. Afterwards we were told that a great. quantity of them had fallen that night, and before, in the ` villages that were nearest to the volcano. » 2D2 404 Dr. Forchhammer on a [JUNE, - Dec. 24, 25.—The clouds of smoke remained on the same lace, and in the same direction, as before ; now and then the was observed on the place ofthe first eruption. N nia Dec. 26, 27.—Heavy storm from north-east; the clouds of smoke on the same place. | | | 1 Dec. 28.—The weather began to get more calm ; it seemed as if the column of clouds was divided into two, which took different — directions by different currents of wind. : a ‘Dec. 29.—Weather calm and pleasant. The clouds of smoke moved towards the north and east over the ice mountains. Late in the evening a mild rain. MEUS iB 1⁄ During this whole time, the cold was moderate, not exceeding 25° Fahrenheit, and sometimes it was 4? above the freezing point. It is reported that the water of the river which falls into the , and in the other rivers that come from the Jokkul and the surrounding mountains, had increased considerably dur- ing the first days of the eruption. In the vicinity of the volcano a constant rumbling noise was heard, now and then accompanied by a dreadful crash, as if the whole immense masses of stone and ice were going to fall together... The greater part of the ashes was fortunately carried towards the north, into. uninhabited mountains and heaths, where also a great quantity of pumice has fallen.” | - | yabaouhe (f nO "7 In another letter from the same Provost, dated Feb. 23, it is said, “ The clouds of smoke have not yet disappeared, and to- day they are increased. No ashes, however, have been observed during a long time, and the Jokkul has resumed its shining white colour, so that the rain and wind must have removed the ashes. The smoke greatly resembles the steam rising from boiling water, and certainly owes its origin to the fire below: Some imagine they have observed that the Jokkul has decreased, and is now lower near the crater, which certainly must now be larger than before, the column of clouds increasing in circumfe- rence, So it appears at least from this side from N. to S.; but whether the same has taken place in the other direction, from E. to W. Í am not able to say. It has been reported that) to the E. two other volcanoes have had eruptions, the mountains Katla and Oraefa Jokkul, but nothing is known about it. Since the eruption, the weather has become worse, owing to its unparale leled variableness, storms, and afterwards cold, and a great quantity of snow.” Dr. Thorsteinson, in a letter to Prof. Oersted, gives the follow- ing additions :—** Since the 1st of January, the violence of the eruption has.been decreasing. Though the town of Reikiavig is about 74 miles from the volcano, the flame was observed there several times at night, when the weather was clear. People that recollect the eruptions of 1766 and 1783 think this trifling, but principally because it has done no harm. Though distant about 74 miles from the volcano, I thought that the weather 1822.) Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. 405 became much milder after the eruption. Though the barometer ` was pretty low during the eruption, yet it was lowest on Feb. 8, when it was only 27:25 inches; but the fire did not increase, nor did we feel any thing like an earthquake ; but near the volcano, they had constantly small shocks.” The vessel which brought this news had left Iceland on the 7th of March, and it is reported that the sailors when at sea again saw a violent fire. | c— The State of the Barometer and Thermometer from the Beginning of December to the End of February, at Nes, near Retkiavig, in Iceland. By Dr. Thorsteinson. (Reduced to English Measures and Fahrenheit's Thermometer.) | 1821. | Barom. | Ther. 1822. | Barom. | Ther. 1892, | Barom. | Ther. Dec, 1} 28:99 9231 Jan. ]| 29°75 39 Feb. l|] 29:34 |. 12 9| 98:61 233 ; 2] 29:84 274 9| 29°35 14 3| 28°75 12 3| 29-90 274 3| 2923 IT A| 29°32 »" dA 1999515 931 A| 29-07 235 5| 29°38 | 234 5| 30°18 34 5| 99:05 17 x Gh) 2943.4... 27 TUN 34 6| 91:99 17, 1| 29°46 204 1| 3012 33 qI 97:88 184 B| 29:49 184 8| 30°08 33 8 21:25 235 9 29°55 184- 9| 29°32 | 95 9| 28:70 84 10; 29:61 27 10} 29°62 25 . .109| 29°05 21 1i; 29-03 34 11| 29°68 25 Il} 29-42 21 12} 29:18 36 12| 29°63 234 12| 29°32 21 13) 29-12 39 13] 99:49 25 13) 29°16 34 14) 29°18 91 14| 99:48 233 14; 2905 9T 15, 29:25 | :32 15| 29:25 32 15 28-99 27 16 29:10 39 16] 99:23 23; 16] 29°57 25 171. 29:12 4i || 11| 29:60 25 I?| 28°56 27 8, 29°16 Al 17:181 es gs 234 18) 2772 9T 19}. 29:14 34 19|. 99-05 25 19, 98:25 27 20}. 29-04 30 20) 29:15 95 `: ,90| 98:33 86 2ji| 28°70 95 91} 29-34 20 91| 28°49 25 :1199|:: 28°53 234 22). 99418 233 99| 98:63 232 93| (28°57 25 23| 29°84 25 23; 98:45 184 24i 28:54 |. "25 24| 30:05 | 32 24| 29-66 8 95, 28°52 21 | 25| 30:06 234 95, 29-68 9 96, 98:49 30 | 26; 30:02 30 96| 29°60 l E 97|: 98:58 27 27} 3000 27 27|. 28-76 36 28|- 28:99 54 25] 29°40 30 28) 29-11 25 29} 29-12 34 | 29) 29°13 25 30, 29-13 36 ..80| 928-96 95 31} 29°83 | 36 h ai] 99:06 | 21 406 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomücal:Qbservations. [Jume, j 2 T f I "Ww à ( bret) 1 il a n au cece B IT pO e " I ias jrr 40,091 OG Jaswot aswe Jide À HOLY: | (PHI). O4 "now KRY TOU ,^»6:932m Jost Dip ; AR LE], k. VÀO enw ji nady onsolo v. ar sesa dud ; saniye da sail odi: wag [99M ovr bib > ; i w ~ e i By vey jd , Astronomical Observations, 1822." ^ "m By Col/Bebüfoy; PR84020 (ero oes | 3646243531 a JC DA. ; GE pea 1 Bushey Heath, near Stanmore: 5 =» v= msns Latitude 519 37’ 44:3" North. Longitude West in time 1^ 20°93”. i i n ] ' i Ñx, mes 41i 5 i April 30. Occultation of d Leonis by the : Immersion 15h os’ 003. | Sidetial CM ği MOUS saath no osse MAE Emersion 16 06 00:3 " ay 1. Occultation of u Leonis by the) a 2 - 380 Sidérial t I (0000 fo bt buck Ses ave a Í Emersion asian — " mee 1254 "2 ARTICLE III. | On a Clock with a Wooden Pendulum. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Bushey Heath, Stanmore, May 16, 1822. In the Annals of Philosophy fot March, 1820, I was favoured by the publication of a paper describing a clock with a wooden pendulum, and its rate of going for 12 months; and in the same month of the following year, a similar table was inserted of the daily rate for a like period. I have now the pleasure of sending you a third year’s register of the clock’s diurnal variation: The rod has hitherto remained in its natural state, but I purpose try- ing the effect of covering it with varnish. If olive oil be exposed to the rays of the sun for a considerable length of time, it becomes colourless, limpid, free from mucilage, and not easily congealable. I have exposed two eight ounce phials, nearly filled with this oil, to the solar beams for one and two years, and con- sequently can speak to the fact. The bottle should be opened occasionally to allow the gas to escape, or the cork may be expelled. Chronometer makers would find this mode useful o. treating the oil they commonly use for clocks and watches. I remain, fne Sir, truly yours, s WES Bravrov. eS t s ° BOJNE OM} PIVATOS nd 3501 + sanitet otto preAtoy 38d 1301 « oe = *poaoype sem umynpuad ot JO yuat otn tguonuA rosqó SSSI} JO 1901650105 IYI 03 SNOT — L6-1— 98-IL | 96-89 I— |f €9.6— 96-L 99-08 I— II | &6-1— Q9. Ol. I- |p YL6— 80.08 | OL68 I- j _ — +09-0+ 18-1 98:90 0— {PFI 90.1— LI-§ Grep I— |g 99-1 — €9.11. | 69.60€ 0— l ds . 6sot ELE 19-80- 0— JH 68-1— 81.6 83-0 I— fè ‘ure OF I~ OF 1 16-0F 0—. 1% S8 ILO+ €1-6 Otai 0— [9° '6881 £6-0 — 81-6 L&68 0— Bë Ë stIt £C-y eer! 0— jg LN 68-0— £6-Y OGLE 1— jte L6-6— FES 61.98 0— Ië = O0L0O*t 08. 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By Mr. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Great Russel-street, April 22, 1822. Arr the writers on dynamics have treated largely on the | effects of fluids in motion, as regards their resistance and their . direct impulse on surfaces, without entering scarcely at all into the causes of their motion, and particularly those motions resulting from, or affected by, a difference of specific gravity. Prof. Robinson, and several other authors, have given us the principles and excellent formula for calculating the different results of air rushing into a vacuum and into any other rarified medium approaching a vacuum; but these do not at all apply to the subject I here wish to treat. ‘The ordinary formula and ` calculations for falling bodies are all made on the supposition that the effects take place in vacuo. They, of course, will not apply when the body falls in a medium of the least possible den- sity. The data relative to falling bodies are : À = the height the body falls from. 4 = the time of falling. ^» = the velocity acquired by the fall. Sh the space a body falls throvgh in one second = 1644. Then since a body in falling through any space acquires a velocity which would take it through twice that space in the same time ; the velocity of g will be equal to 2 g. The body would, therefore, pass through 2 g in the next second, if gravity were to cease, but it causes the body to pass through another g in the second second, making the whole 3 g; this with the one g in the first second makes 4 g. It will be found by similar reasoning that it will have passed over 9 g at the end of the third second, and so on as the square of the time. . The velocity acquired in each successive second will be 2 g for the first second, 4 g for the second, 6 g for the third, and so on. Hence it will appear that the whole space passed over in any time is as the square of that time, and as the square of the velocity ; and that the velocity is, therefore, as the time. It may appear unnecessary to a mathematician to give these parti- culars, presuming that those likely to read this article will be acquainted with such elementary knowledge. But I do it. with. the hope that some may read it, who would have stopped short of what I have in future to communicate from the want of such | elementary knowledge. IP 2.4 From the above reasoning, we shall have as the square of one 1822: Difference in the Specific Gravity of Bodies. 409 second is to g, so is the square of t ori? toh; that is, by multi- plying means and extremes, we have À = g t?. By taking the same course with the velocity, which for one second (from what has been observed above) will be 2 g, we have as the square of 2 v or 4 g?1s to g, so is t? to À. | his gives 4g*, ñ = g v?, and v? = 4 g h. From the first expression, t = : and ¿ = V "iu s from the second expression v = 2 g? he and h = ed These for- mule, as has beem observed, are true only when bodies fall in vacuo. In the atmosphere, or any other medium, the velocity acquired by falling through a given space will be less than the above in the inverse ratio of the difference between the specific gravity of the body and the medium in which it falls.. The dif- erence of specific gravity in this case is precisely the same in effect with the difference of the absolute gravity of two unequal weights at each end of a cord, and hanging over a pulley. Ifthe | weights are equal, it is plain that no motion will take place, since the only moving force is the difference of the weights, and the matter to be moved equal to the sum of these weights. Hence if A (as above) be the height which the heavy weight would fall through, we shall have the following formula for the velocity, r Ni O s 2 g? h® x woo W and w being the weights. It will be evident that when W = w, v equals nothing, and when w equals nothing, v will be the same as the first formula would give. The motion of bodies in different media is affected in the same way by the difference of specific gravity, and the theorem is the same, with the exception of the denominator being the greater specific gravity, and not the sum of the two as with the motion of the unequal weights. | Let Š = the specific gravity of a body greater than the medium in which it falls, and C = the specific gravity of the medium; then we shall have, agreeably to the above theorem, p = 21 h? x Tan . To make this more familiar, let S = 9, being the specific gravity of copper nearly, and c = 1, being the specific gravity of water; andleth = fourfeet. Thenv = 2 x V 16x 44x TES = 147, being 12 feet less than if the body bus fallen through the same space in vacuo which would be 16 eet. | When the difference of specific gravity is very small, the effect ofthe medium is more conspicuous, as is well known in the ex- periment of the feather and the guinea. When bodies fall in vacuo, the velocity is accelerated during the whole time of falling; whatever may be the space to fall through; but in falling throug 410 Mr. Sylvester on the Motions produced by the (Juns, .amedium of any density, the velocity hasa maximum at. which it arrives when the resistance of the medium is equal to the force of gravity, After this, the body moves with a uniform velocity, "The time in which the body attains this maximum is as the ratio between the surface and weight of the body, which may be a ratio of any assignable magnitude, limited. only by the extent to which matter is divisible. This will be obvious when it is known that jn so dividing matter, the-weight decreases as the cube of the diameter; while the surface diminishes only as the square of the same. . Hence matter of the greatest specific gravity may be so divided that it may acquire a maximum velocity by falling through the pat aina space, acquiring a uniform velocity of any assignable value. A body, whatever may be its figure, by falling in a fluid, will describe a prism, the base of which will be the surface which moves against the fluid. When the prismatic column of the fluid, formed by the falling body, becomes equal to the weight of the body, the resistance of the fluid will be equal to the force of gravity, and consequently the body will, from that oint, move with a uniform velocity. If the surface presented to the fluid during its motion be a hemisphere, it will meet with only half the resistance which would be given to a plane surface. Let a equal the surface presented to the fluid. h = the height it will fall from to acquire a uniform velo- city. 1 = the sedeite gravity of the fluid. — the specific gravity of the body. í the length of the solid prism. Then f : B :: 0: hel =F, and this is the same ‘whatever may be the value of a. hen B is less than f, then the body will rise in the fluid, and will attain its greatest velocity, when by its rising, it has formed a prism equal in weight to its own bulk of the fluid, having its own area of base and specific gravity. In this case, / B = fh, and / is greater than A in the ratio that fis greater than B. What will be the length of a prism of lead in order that it may Bic jui its greatest velocity by falling through one foot of water : In the theorem Z =4* h = 12 inches, B = 11, and f= 1. = 11 inches, the ength of the prism. Iff = zi il being the specific gravity of air, the value of / will be obtained for a prism falling in the atmosphere, in which case / = = of an inch whatever may be the area of the surface. If the falling body be a sphere, then it will meet with only half the resistance 1822.) » Difference in the Specific Gravity of Bodies. 4L, ofa: cylinder or prism. with.its flat face perpendicular to the direction of motion. osie sdi Jo #9) ! idu ^ Now let x = the diameter of the sphere, and also of the prism 'of the fluid, which is to be equal to the weight of the sphere. h = the height of the last prism. ; | ^w = the velocity acquired by a body falling through A. SUB = the specific gravity of the body. E haf = thatofthe fluid... plow | je = 3,1416; and . | | ' | cog = 167 = the space a body falls through in one second. Then the content of the sphere will be =, and that of a prism of the fluid of the height the body falls from, to acquire its greatest velocity, will be as which would be equal to the re- ‘sistance, if the surface were A flat, and perpendicular to the ‘direction of the fall, but the sphere has only half that resistance. cee y) coxa kan s Ag kay kishi k aa | 6 mea Set ges 4B—f " l6gBf ` .. What will be the diameter of a sphere of lead to fall at the rate of one foot per second after it has attained its maximum. In ‘this Case, 0 22 1l, and À 93 — 25 23 inches = 3. = *1875. B = 11, specific gravity of lead. f = ‘00119, that of air (water being 1). [ey | 2/8 x 4815 x 0019 ^ B — f —:99881. z = —y iosas = 0000152 inches nearly. "The maximum velocity of the same sphere in water will and x = . Hence be obtained by putting, instead of h, 4 Hence we get 9 v? f ? n 5 598 = 16g x (B — f).andvy == (ond c D'Y = = 0329 feet per second, and 46 x 16, x1000001266. x. (11.— 142 i 31 1:974. feet = per minute. lf the sphere were of a specific gravity of 2, about that of earthy matter, by which water is sometimes rendered muddy, its uniform velocity would be :6414.feet per minute... The falling of various precipitates in chemical experiments must depend upon their specific. gravity, and the size of the, particles; data might be obtained from an experiment by observing the time in which bodies are falling, the diameters and specific gravities being known, in order to find the magnitude of particles of other mat- ter, the time of falling and their specific gravities being known. Very small shot of a given size might be made to fall in a long glass tube filled with water, and the time of falling observed ; rom this data, if the time of any other matter falling be given, the height fallen from and specific-gravities being known, the size of the particles may be found. -The unequal times for the 412 Mr. Sylvester on the Motions produced by the [JUNE, subsidence of different precipitates shows a striking difference either in the specific gravities or the size of the particles. The. earths and their insoluble salts are longer subsiding than those of the metals, and the latter subside quicker as their specific. vities are greater. We hence are enabled to explain how arge | werte of matter may exist in the atmosphere-and in. other fluids apparently in a state of suspension, but in reality. seen uim a velocity inversely proportionate to their size and: specific gravities. This in the atmosphere is visible to the eye, when viewed in a sun-beam, and is principally animal and vege-: table matter. This explains the cause of the air becoming Cone; taminated when heated to a temperature approaching to a red heat ut which the foreign matteris decomposed.) ¢00 Cist oio We are also enabled to account for the aqueous matter in the atmosphere in the form ofclouds ; this has formerly been supposed in a.state of suspension in some intermediate form between water and vapour; this as well as the visible matter observed when. aqueous vapour is condensed, is nothing more than giobules of real water, there being no intermediate state between real water and its elastic invisible vapour. Hence we have frequently in the atmosphere spherical masses of real water from the size of the largest drops of rain to those which are so minute as not to reflect light sufficient to make them visible. Supposing steam or water in the elastic form (which can exist at all temperatures) to consist of distinct atoms, each surrounded by an atmosphere of caloric, the smallest particle which could exist in the state of water, would consist of two individual atoms, the next three atoms, and so on till the particle becomes visible. ¿ l 'The first appearance of condensation is a slight opacity, which soon becomes whiter, as is observed in mist or fog. As the par- ticles become larger, they fall with more rapidity, and assume a darker colour, as is observed in various states of clouds. By having recourse to the formula above given, we may form some idea of the size of the globules of water to give an appear- ance of their being suspended, in which state clouds have been supposed to exist. In this case, as before, we put r = the diameter of a particle, or globule of water. What must be the diameter of a globule of water to fall at the rate of one inch per second after it acquires a uniform velocity ? Here v = 1 inch. f= 44 -:00119. i 1643. | # 1. Bix f =: 9988) 11i: | 39$ . io Baxti 00119 rie» : iég(B-f) 16x16.x 12 x 9988. 000001164 pcr f When the body is of less specific gravity than the liquid, it rises as a cork rises in water; although in these cases principle 1822.] Difference in the Specific Gravity of Bodies. 413. of levity seems to operate, the effect is to be attributed to the superior pct gravity of the fluid, and is relatively the same as if a body of the same specific as the fluid were to fall through a fluid of the same specific gravity as the body, the difference of specific gravity being the moving forcé. In order to ascertain the velocity with which a certain volume of cork would rise in water, the same result would be obtained by considering the fluid as being of the specific gravity of the cork, and a solid of the volume of the cork, but of the specific gravity of the fluid, the velocity at any point will be the same, the direction being wards instead of downwards. da | | ^ What will be the greatest velocity which a sphere of cork of. one inch in diameter can acquire in rising through a column of l6g r(. B +f) ur —— Py, Let r=1 inch=-0833 feet ; B=and24 f = 1, SB 16.x 16 x :083 x ‘76 | 3 x '24 What must be the diameter of a sphere of cork to acquire a. uniform velocity of one inch per second? | | $o5B::1. = bgg- B)? 8 x 13 x24 Tike THESIS 000312 in inches. _ When fluids of different specific gravities are mixed together having no chemical affinity for each. other, as is the case with - oil and water, or water and mercury, the lighter fluid ascends ` with the same velocity, and in every respect is similar to a solid body of the same specific gravity with the fluid, if the lighter fluid. be kept in a distinct volume, as is the case with a balloon. It is exactly the same as if a body of uniform density having the mean specific gravity of the gas, and the matter containing it, and tbe theorem applied to the case of cork rising in water, would equally apply in this case. If a constant stream of the lighter fluid be introduced into the denser one, and the succes- sion kept up, a uniform velocity will be established which will be as the square root of the height, and as the difference of density between the two fluids to the greater density. It will be the same thing whether the fluids are naturally of different specific gravities, or the volume of one part of the fluid be changed by a change of temperature. This may be illustrated by filling a tall glass vessel with hot water containing small pieces of amber, a substance very nearly of the same specific gravity with water ; the sides of the vessel exposed to the air become cooled, and the water in contact loosing its heat becomes specifically heavier and descends; and as this is taking place all round the vessel, an upward current takes place in the middle of the eolumn water? . The theorem v = ( will become v = then v — = 22-5 feet nearly. this will give z in feet; and r = 414 Mr. Sylvester on the Motions produced by the [JUNE] caused by the descending current, as may ‘be observed by thé» direction of the particles. of amber.’ If, instead of putting: hot» water into the vessel, cold water were employed, and the bottom: of the vessel heated, the heated part becoming specifically lighter,:: immediately gives place tothe heavier fluid which isycolder, ev the same appearance. will take: place as before ; the current remaining permanently uniform, so long as there exists the same: difference. of temperature between the. different parts of. the: fluid. l | ito fud ",3109 galt 19 "ow di This is: what takes place in the atmosphere when partial heat: is applied ; the heated column in proportion to the rarefaction isi fiuskied upwards by the surrounding dense column. || We have rio. instance. of this kind so familiar as the ascension of the» smoke and heated air in chimneys,. It has been always found that the velocity of the ascending current’ was greater as the" chimney was higher, and in proportion to the heat applied at. the bottom... Stith > 466 a I | s f š 1 i ‘ LE I Many years ago having occasion to write an article on furnaces” for a popular work, I found that the power of draft in chimneys : was not strictly as the height, bu£ as the square root of the same ; and as the ratio'of the difference of density between the rarified column and the outer air to the density of the outer air, Mals” found that under the greatest rarefaction that could be giyen, the velocity was always less than a heavy body would acquire by falling through the height of the chimney. U — ^ si -— If V be the velocity which a body would acquire by falling | through the height of the chimney, D, the density ofthe outer air; d that of the air in the chimney, and v the velocity of the: heated. current; then. = V x, 7, as has been shown with, , bodies rismg or falling in a fluid. If À = the height of the chimney, or any other column of heated air, then v = 2 g* he D—d x u. 128 ` [es d | | | ai “ An essay on this, subject has lately appeared in a respectable. periodical work. in. which the. principle. of, air rushing into. a: vacuum is assumed to calculate the relative changes of heated air. as applied to the ventilation of buildings. We do not require any, stronger proofs of the incorrectness of the principle on which the: calculations are founded than «the results given, in: which the. velocity of a,current is. made about five times, greater than:a- body would acquire by falling through the height of the chimney. . The formule above given agree very nearly with practice, and may be made more useful. by getting the. value of: d in terms, of. the temperature, D being always that density which the temper- : ature of theatmosphere would give... For this purpose, let T = the temperature of the atmosphere by Fahrenheit’s scale, ¢ that. . of the heated column, and let e = the expansion orthe increase Ps a m of Sese de ves Then. th, om T mili express the, difference of temperature between.the atmosphere and the heated. column... If, therefore, the,volume,at T be called 1, that at one degree above will be 1 + 6, ‘and that at ¿ — T wil be, (kopñeya c ai Se | "Then. hinog the ed, pe will be inversely as the sii we, have as.D:dz(l-b e": a u Qy nost 4 usd. Là Legg? b "Hence D^ d= 1 qup Tid "1919" Ñ t — dive yty The temperature of a chimney bito 1205; that af the outer air 40°, and the height of the MART p 40 fect, what will be the velocity of the current? .. 1 Tn this case, 0 = 2 x 4 x X407 a fauna drm 002085 = 73964; In: getting. the denominator: of the fraction, it may be seniste to have the i pinum of 1:00208, which is :0009038. We | 4 am, yours Des | | p ; C. SYLVESTER. ‘ni Y OF * í w Ë + À F iu ^ " 1 1 H > " - OW E A = £ o 3 Ha ! mens TANNER, ° |o | ARTICLE V. ! On.the Temperature of Mines in Cornwall: By Mr. M. P.Moyle, ` . (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) ` ' SIR, : Helston, May 8, 1899; WHEN I asserted in the Annals of Philosophy for April last: that Mr. Fox had drawn false conclusions as regards thé tetiipéto ature of mines in this county, the impression on my mind «was; that sufficient attention had not been paid to the selection of spots free from doubtful causes, but he assures us in your last’ number that every precaution was made to obviate such effects)!’ I hope this was the case; as T am fully convinced from the expe- riments which I have made, that it is otherwise impossible to! get near the truth ; and I most sincerely hope that Mr. Fox does: not feel offended at any remarks of mine which may be in oppo-: sition to his own, as I conceive itis only by the collision of facts by different individuals that the truth can be elucidated. I would now remark that unless we can select spots where workmen have no access, and where the air and water are in à ° state of rest, it will be impossible to gain the truth. A favourable d tcl of this description occurred to me five days since in heal Trenoweth Mine, 100 fathoms east of Crenver and Oat- field Mines on the same load. This mine has discontinued working (I believe) for more than 12 months, or at least as far 416 On the Temperature of Mines in Cornwall... (Junz,' as Te the presence of miners. The adventurers of the above united Mines still keep the engine (a water wheel) of Wheal Trenoweth working for the purpose of relieving the burden of their own engines. Mi Da rash The adit at which the water is discharged is 32 fathoms from ` the surface : here the water from Wheal Trenoweth 100 fathoms from where it was drawn up was 54°, This water ‘gradually increased in temperature from this place, where we Pec — Ó to the mouth of the pump, where the water drawn from the bottom was 56°; 15 fathoms deeper the walls of the shaft were 54°; a gallery at this level 40 fathoms east of the shaft was only, 53°; and five fathoms deeper still, or 52 from the surface where there is a second cistern of water, the water was 57°; the walls at the same time 544°, and at the bottom 66 fathoms, or 396 feet, the water that ran through a small crevice, as well as the walls of the shaft, were still 54°. The temperature at the surs. face before descent was 62°; on our return 64% orn o? Here I would say that there is positive proof of no increase of temperature for 34 fathoms, being precisely the same at the bottom as at the adit level. The increase of heat in the water at the cistern, and at the mouth of the pump, I can only attribute to the friction of the machinery, which certainly.appeared to be very great at the time. | "i To show the influence of a few persons on the temperature of the air of a small mine, I found on our return (being three per-- sons) that the air was 1? warmer than at our descent at the adit level. Possibly I might be mistaken should I assert that the internal strata of the earth generally are not warmer than the mean of the surface. I do not find that 53? is at all too high for this mean, and. should we be able to find a single instance at the bottom of some of our deep mines where the temperature is not above the mean, I conceive Mr. Fox’s theory must be relin- . quished. Some of my experiments were made several years since, and, perhaps, not with that degree of accuracy with which they ought to have been. I have, therefore, refrained from giving an at present. The above may be relied on. I mean to prosecute this subject further; and that by various means, particularly by sink- ing a self-registering thermometer to the bottom of some of our oldest and deepest mines long ceased working, and consequently - full of water. 1 think this the only certain means of arriving at the wished-for accuracy. The facts when collected I shall certainly present to the public. I am, Sir, your humble seryant, , M. P. Morte. "age 7 MU - E 1822.1]; Mr. Marrat ón Neutral Series. 417 siak d RENN + see Do Wi ey S WI ; abi bU ; T drgue ds fa ARTICLE. VI. Some. Observations on Neutral Series. By W. Marrat, AM. Member of the Philosophical Society, New York, and private Teacher of Mathematics, Liverpool. ax 3 "y ayasa -» | (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) s. -37i Tue following neutral series 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 4-'&e: to infinity has exercised the talents of some of the greatest mathematicians since the time of Leibnitz, who was among the first that noticed it Dividmg 1 by 1 +. a, we obtain the following series, viz. 1— a+ a — as" + at — &c.; ‘and by taking the value of @ ` equal to 1, it produces the series of units above given; becaüse every, power of unity is 1. » Leibnitz makes the above series; when a = 1, equal.to.2, and in that-one-particular:case itis trie; Euler notices the same series in bis algebra,“ This series,” the observes, ‘ appears rather contradictory ; for if-we stop at: — 4, the series gives, nothing, and if we step.at +. 1, it gives 1.1 But this is precisely what:solves the difficulty ; for since we must go on: to infinity without stopping either-at! += l.or — 1, it is: evident that the sum can-neither be 0 nor 1; but that the results:mustiie ` between the two, and, therefore, be equal ito! 1;". In the case: before .us,; where the series is deduced from the expression .. Ty at becomes, when d 5 1,57 em lir duod mtu .... ‘and the'series is evidently ‘equal to +. The result; as Euler observes, certainly.lies between 0 and 1, but it: i$ mot uni- gives also the same series as that above for +; and again” pa = FHP 1 + i 14 e.c which is still the same; and the series will be the same whatever may be the number of ones in the denominator of the fraction from which it is produced. The arithmetical mean then between 1 and 0 only gives the Value of the series in one particular case out of an infinite number. ! Again, we have > 4-4 = $5. 1. Tel ; l lll L mt $2 ; š; 2” 483 io A K&c..... KOORTI ^ s MI 1 sal | — 1 + &e. .... and the samé series will always be produced if the number of ones.in: the denominator exceed the number inthe numerator; that is: the series will be produced, if nine units be divided by ten units, or 99 units by 100, ór 999 by 1000; whence it is obvious that the series is equal to any fraction less than unity, which is its. New Series, vor. 111. 2E 418 ^o Mr. Marrat on Neutral Series; || l! [JuNzE, greatest limit; the other limit is zero, as we shel soon demon- strate. Let us reduce into series, i = ] — z + at z: + z4 — 2° + Ke. .... to infinity.. l Frata’ L bpoxraahtea3 5 i — dui 5 — 76 10 all 15 J idem em z+ + + z T + z — Ke. eee The first of these series contains the successive powers of a, or it may be said to contain all the terms; and when x = 1, it becomes — =1=1-—-1+4+1-1 + &e. to infinity. “The second series wants several of its terms, and on that account it ought to be less than the first; however, when -r = 1, it becomes 1 = 1 — 1 + 1— 1 + &e. .... to infinity. In the third series, more of the terms are wanting, and this Series should be less than the second series; however, when r= l,itbecomes 4 = 1 — 1 + 1 — 1+, &c. .... to infinity. In the fourth beflés; several more of the terms are gone ; but when v = l, wehave; = 1—1+4+1—1+&c.... . to infinity. It appears from all these expressions that the two first terms remain constant, but that the other terms gradually disappear, according as the number of terms in the denominator increase ; $ ~whence it also appears from the law of continuity, that the value -Of the series oug regularly to diminish. We will now determine the series, when the denominator con- . sists of an infinite number of terms ; thus let 1 od pat 22+ 294 KC. 0.0. sum = A+ Ba + Oz + D z + ke. iR Multiplying the second side of this equation by the denomi- nator of the first, we have A--Bz-r-CrzlIDso-x&c +'A r + Br +CrP P.I Az? +Br 4.2.0. +A. and. equating the coefficients of the same qu of z, À — 1, B+A=0,C+B4+A=0,D+C+B+A=0; that is, A = 1, Bie —1C=0,D = 0, &c.; therefore, 1 l4 a*4- 2? 4- z* + &c. ad infin. the two first, or 1 — x, have vanished. Let x = 1, then Imm ERE TTS G T7 = 1 — 1 = 0; whence it is manifest that when the denominator ctum of an infinite ' ‘number of =] — z+ x — xt + OP ee eT T SP. BEC. ois on = ] ed + z — 2: + x — 2° + x" — Ke. ... = ] — <, where all the terms, except axol Mr. Herapath on the Influence of Humidity, &c. ANG units, the value of the series is 0; the value of the series then always lies between 0 and 1. : soa e observe then that whatever may be the number of units in the denominator, if that number be less than infinite, the form of the series is still the same. It would appear from the preced- ing investigation, however, that the value of the series diminishes continually from 1 to 0, and that the value of the series 1 — 1,+ 1 — 1 + &c. to infinity varies from 1 to 0. : It is well known that a neutral series is the limit between a diverging and a converging series ; may we not then from this circumstance, and what is shown above, conclude that such a series has no determinate value ; at least that it has no value that can be determined from the series itself by a direct investi» gation. If theseries 1 — 1+ L — 1 + &c. .... be said to have a determinate value, or limit, we may naturally ask, which of its values is meant? Or if 1 should chance to meet with: the above series in any calculations, what vulgar fraction ought ups : x Tm BAC.tan, BC | "n ru d faim BAC sin. AC j. od sin, DY =. cot. BCA tan. AB of) old AG 2 f cos: AB cos. BC q sib. Y ad cai 1 cot. BAC cot. à | on Tft pena S 18 ci dris e. eos; BC 50x 562 aus cos. BAC = 4 cot, AC tan AB ; ^ j: x R AND ; sin. BAC eos. AB ` P. cos. BCA = dpt AC tan. BG d 1822.] Right Angled Spherical-Triangles. 425 18. The above equations, 10 in number, contain all the combi nations that canbe made out of the sides and angles of the right angled spherical triangle A B C, viz. A B, B C, A C, B A C, and BC A, which may be arranged in the following manner: - AB |AB INC .|BC TAC lac |B6 {AB [AB JAG ` AC {BC ^ jac JAB AB Ac [Bac {Ac [BAC |BC ^ -BCA [BAC |BAC |BCA |BC ^ |BCA [BCA |BAC |BCA |BCA. 19. Baron Napier's two well known rules relative to right angled spherical triangles are comprised in thé equations, art. 17, the left hand side of each represents the middle part, the right hand side composed of tangents and cotangents; the adjacent parts, and those containing sines and cosites, the separated parts. adii i | ; ARTICLE IX. -On the Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. By the Rev. J. B; Emmett. ` au. (Continued from vol, i. p. 88, New Series.) | Ix the former papers, in the numbers for August, September, November, 1829, and January, 1821, i have explained the cause of theexpansion of solid matter, cohesion, and crystallization, on the supposition that: the force of attraction which is concerned, is the same as that which produces planetary motion, and that caloric is real matter. Before proceeding to the consideration of liquid and gaseous bodies, the atomic theory, and chemical action, I shall demonstrate that there is not in matter any force, except that which varies inversely as the square of the distance, and that the effects of heat cannot: possibly: arise. from any motion existing among the particles of matter. I shall, there» fore, commence with the consideration of the action of eorpus- cular forces in general. Jo ag oid » There isa remarkable difference between the action of corpus- cular forces and of those which act between sensible masses of matter; for example, a large mass of glass exerts no sensible force upon bodies which are placed very near to it, provided there be a sensible distance between them; but take a capillary tube of the thinnest possible glass, and immerse one end of it in water, the fluid will rise to; and. remain at a certain height, which altitude is found, by experiment, to be inversely as the diameter of the tube, exactly or very nearly : hence there is a superficial attraction between the glass and the fluid, which very much: exceeds the weight of water. That this attraction is 426 ooo Rev. Je B. Emmett onthe... Pune, entirely, superficial is evident: take a thick tube, having the same opening, andthe water will rise no higher. — — — ` A steel wire of 1-10th inch in diameter will lift a weight of several hundred pounds without breaking ; therefore the attrac- tion between two circular discs of steel of 1-10th inch in diame- ter exceeds by many million times the weight of a disc, having the same diameter, and a thickness equal to the diameter of one article of steel; yet the attraction of two large masses of steel is almost insensible, if there be any sensible distance between them. These have been supposed to arise from a force which varies inversely as the cube or fourth power of the distance; such a force does not exist, as will appear from the following reasoning, which depends upon four phenomena. Phenomenon 1. Place together the surfaces of two perfectly plain plates of glass; on separating them, their mutual attraction will be very sensible, even if a single fibre of silk be interposed ; it acts in vacuo, or in the air. 2. A drop of any liquid will adhere to the under surface of a horizontal plate of glass or metal. | 3. Two drops of any liquid, as mercury, water, &c. placed upon a horizontal plate of ida or metal, and very near to each other, approach and unite into one drop. 4. When two gases which do not combine chemically, as car- bonic acid and hydrogen, are placed in a vessel in the order of their specific gravities, they soon attain a state of perfectly equa- ble mixture. i From phenomenon 1, solids exert upon each other a sensible force of attraction, when their surfaces are placed in contact with each other, which vanishes when the distance becomes sen- sible. Since all liquids expand by heat, and contract by cold, and since the quantity of the expansion is sensible compared with the entire volume, the particles of any liquid cannot touch each other at the ordinary temperature of the air, but are at a distance which bears a finite ratio to their diameters: at that distance, phenomena 2 and 3, their mutual: attraction very greatly exceeds their weight, and from 3 is sensible at measura- ble distances. From phenomenon 4, the mutual tendency of gaseous particles to each other exceeds their weight at a distance which is many times greater than their diameter. Suppose these effects to result from a M) N force which is inversely as the cube of © the distance. Take an evanescént or elementary pyramid C A D, whose ver- tex is A ; let a corpuscle be placed at A; take two sections K L, G H, parallel to each other; and let these sections be evanescent plates of matter of equal 1822] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 427 thickness. The area K L: area G H :: A I? : A H* but force of particle at L : force of a particle at H :: A H° : A L5; compound these proportions, and the force of K L : force of GH: AG: AL. AtA erect a c gps n AN; take LI: FH :: force of plate K L : that of GH; and draw the hyperbola M I B, whose ordinates LI, H F, D B will be as the force of attraction of the sections at those distances; therefore the area BILD will repre- sent the force of the frustum C K L D; consequently the force of the whole pyramid to a particle placed upon the vertex is infi- nite, since the area BOM NA Cis infinite. B b Take now two equal spheres of the same matter, A BC D, and abcd; let P be a corpuscle at a certain distance from ABCD, pone in contact with a b c d; take two elementary cones passing through the centres and equiangular, A P E, ape; let A C = C K of the former figure ; and in the same, let ap = GA; then the force with which P is attracted : force with which p is attracted: area B IK C : area F M NA G :: a finite area: an infinite one; therefore the force with which a corpuscle is attracted will be infinitely greater in contact than at the least possible distance. Therefore if the attraction be finite in con- tact, it vanishes when the corpuscle is removed to the least pos- sible distance from contact ; but ifat any distance it be finite, it must be absolutely, and without any exception, infinite in con- tact. By observation, the force of cohesion is finite ; but by phenomena 2, 3, and 4, the attraction at a distance is finite; therefore if the force be inversely as the cube of the distance, it must be infinite, which is not the case. But such a force does not exist. Let A B C, ab cbe two unequal spheres, having the same den- sity, the force of attraction being inversely as the cube of the distance ; let P and p be corpuscles similarly situated with 498 . Rev. J. B. Emmett onthe (Jaw, tespect to each; in A BC, take any two elementary, pyramids A b EB, BEF C; and in adc take two Kapa Aniar and similarly situated ones a de b, bef c; in each of the solid figures A D E B, a deb, the number of similarly situated parti- eles or points is as the cube of the homologous lines; that is, the number in A D E B: that nad eb :: PE: p e orasR’: 2? (R and r being the radii of the circles), but the force of each is as p e : P E^; therefore, by compounding the proportions, the force of AD E B: that ofad eb :: RB 79:7 R5:: 1: 1; and the entire solids may be divided into an equal number of similar and similarly situated elementary pyramids, each of the correspond- ing pyramids of one attracting equally with one of the other ; therefore, the entire attraction of the two spheres will be equal, when the corpuscles are placed at distances which are in propor- tion to their radii. Take, therefore, a globular vessel filled with aliquid, and of a large diameter, ‘as one or two feet; find from the density of this body in its solid and fluid states, what ratio the distance betweenits particles has to their diameter (this is as V/ 2 ) and place a particle of matter in this ratio from the V Density globe; it will be equally attracted by it, as it would be if im- mersed in the liquid; and more, if nearer; but at this ratio of distance from the corpuscles themselves, the attraction exceeds the force of gravity by phenomena 2, 3, and 4; therefore it ought to be attracted to the globe, but no such effect takes place; therefore there is no such force. In addition, if there were, it would not be purely corpuscular, but would be affected by the mass; let there be two spheres of equal density, whose diameters are A and B, and the distance between their centres D; D being in a constant ratio to their diameters ; the force of 3 « ` . A x B AS B n . j attraction will be as — or as x 1. e. as A’; therefore, if the force acting between two spheres of considerable magnitude be insensible, when there is a considerable distance between them, much more will it be insensible when the spheres are very much reduced, and the same ratio of distance remains. Form now a spherical drop of a liquid of particles of a given magnitude, and suppose its. tendency to a plate of glass, phenomenon 2, to exceed its weight. Diminish the magnitude of the particles, and the tendency of each is as D?, and the number in a section of a l given magnitude is as 55; therefore. the whole tendency dimi- nishes as D; since then at a considerable distance this force is almost insensible in large spheres, it cannot produce phenome- 1 non 2. In the same manner, unless the force vary as s, at the least, it cannot produce phenomenon 2, 3, and 4, if it act by the entire mass. | 1822.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 429: ‘The force, therefore, varying as the inverse cube or fourth: power of the distance, does not exist ; if it did, it would not be: able to produce the observed effects, as it could not be purely corpuscular; but these forces are purely corpuscular, and depend not upon the mass of matter concerned, but merely upon the: intensity of the attracting force, and the absolute distance of one attracting surface from another. This action will be considered in the next paper: in the remainder of the present communica- tion, I shall proceed to an examination of the nature of that vibratory motion which has been supposed to produce the phe- nomena of heat. : T In a former paper, I examined some parts of this hypothesis, and stated some reasons which induced me to adopt that which supposes heat to be real matter: I shall now demonstrate this» intestine motion to be impossible. The particles of all matter are known to attract each other; and the direction of the force is invariably that of right lines meeting at the centre ofthe body, if spherical ; and always meeting in it; therefore, when two bodies, whatever be their magnitude or figure, attract each other, they move in a right line which passes through them until they: come into contact ; after which, they remain at rest. Now if sulphuric acid and water be mixed, heat is excited, and the volume is diminished: the particles, therefore, are nearer to each other than they were before mixture. If the heat excited result from any vibratory motion, it must continue’ so long as the heat can be perceived ; it, therefore, cannot be a motion which is in the direction of a right line joining the centres of the parti- cles; for this brings them together, and produces a state of rest; the vibrations then must take place in a direction which: is oblique to-thisline. Let us, therefore, see what sort of motion is possible. "That one particle cannot oscillate about another as its centre, or about the centre of gravity of the two, 1s too evident to require any proof; but one may oscillate between two. Let A and F be two equal particles of matter eii placed at any given distance from each other; a third, B, may be made to oscillate between them in the right line C D, equi- distant from them, and at right angles; let the force of attraction vary as x (D being the distance, and z the index); but E and F, and E and A, and A and F, will always attract each other ; let B be at E; the force with which it acts upon A and F to bring them together, or in A. the direction A F, is as arr while A and F attract each other | APA | perfectly free from all resistance, the motion must soon cease, in the same direction, force being as — ; therefore in a medium 490 aa kG Res. Jo B. Emmett on ihe s Bunn, since the particles will soon come into contact, and of course preserve a state of rest. And if more of these systems be added, and systems themselves be made to oscillate, a state of rest will be attained very speedily and sooner in a large mass than in a smaller ; but a large body retains its heat longer than a smaller one of the same kind of matter. The only motion that can be rmanent is one of revo- n E. Let. two particles A and B, equal and simi- lar, revolve in a non-resist- ing medium ; their revolu- - tion round S the common centre of gravity, and the | centre of their. common ` `; | a oh orbit may be continued indefinitely. Add another system, equal and similar, revolving round their common centre of gravity s; join S s, and bisect it in T. The motion of each system might continue independently of the other; but each particle of one being attracted by each of the other, the two equal systems must approach each other in the direction Š s, and soon destroy each other's motion, except they revolve round T their common centre ef gravity: add more systems, and they must all revolve round the common centre of gravity of the S ti If, therefore, any body be not at the absolute zero of temperature, there must be a motion of the whole of its parts round its centre of gravity, which in solids is impossible, and in liquids and gases would be evident by vortices which of necessity must produce mechanical effects, which is not the case. Besides this, the motion could only exist in a non-resisting medium ; under the pressure of the air, and the weight of the body, it must be instantly destroyed. A solid could not retain its heat for many hours, since all must attain a state of rest in nearly the same time. This motion is also phy- sically impossible, if the force of attraction be supposed to vary inversely as the cube of the distance ; forif a body revolve round a centre of force, and be so attracted, its orbit must be a circle, or a logarithmic spiral, the former only being permanent, and revolving in a circle, if it be disturbed by any other force, which it must be by the attraction of adjacent particles, the weight of the mass, and pressure ofthe air, it becomes a logarithmic spiral approaching to the pole; and attaining this, all motion ceases ; and when this is the case, the body becomes. absolutely cold. In addition, whatever be the force of attraction, since cohesion vanishes when the particles of a body are separated to the least. possible distance from contact, it is absolutely impossible for there to be any cohesion in solids if the particles have.any such. motion, since they never can touch each other. A motion of this sort, therefore, cannot continue; and it will cease in nearly the same space of time in all masses of the same matter. The motion itself may be now proved to be impossible, and, if it did 1822.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 431 exist, to produce effects quite the reverse of those which are observed in the phenomena of heat. ! 1 i! From what has been said, it is evident that were there no resistance to this species of motion, it could be permanent only when the force of attraction is inversely as the square of the distance ; but in a resisting medium ; thatis, under the pressure of the atmosphere, and the weight of the parts ofthe body them- selves, the motion must cease after very few revolutions. Con- sider the weight of the particles alone; this will give them a tendency to describe a parabola in the higher part of their orbit ; then in the lower, the. action of gravity counteracts the tangen- tial force, and ultimately must destroy it; and even in liquids or gases, it is evident that there is resistance enough almost instantly to destroy all motion ; and as the quantity of resistance thus opposed to the motion ofthe particles does not depend upon the volume of the liquid, but upon its density, the magnitude, and velocity, of the particles. If two unequal volumes of the same liquid contained in similar vessels be heated to the same temperature, the motion will be destroyed, or the heat will cease, at the same moment in each ; but by experiment, the heat con- tinues longer in the large than in the small volume. Again: since the force of attraction acts only in right lines, which in. spheres are directed to their centres, it is quite impossible upon any principle that it can give rise to any sort of rotation what- ' ever; since this can be produced only by a force acting obliqueh to that of attraction ; for any number of bodies attracting adi other, and at liberty to move, will move towards their common centre of gravity only: there is, therefore, no cause whatever to give rise to any motion of rotation. m yt | ^ But even supposing the motion itself possible, the effects will not coincide with the phenomena of nature. The great pheno- menon to be explained is this: All bodies, whether solid, liquid; Or aeriform, are increased in volume by increased heat, and diminished by reduction of temperature; therefore, the spaces through which the particles move are greater at a high than at a low temperature, and the velocities are supposed to be quicker. Let us see how far this can result from the known laws of curvi- linear motion. Let two | bodies A and a describe i mh respectively two circles A bG, a b g, with uni- form motions ; the cen- tres of force being the 79 centres S and s of the circles : let AB, a b, be two evanescent ares, which are described in the same portion of time; from B and 5 draw the perpendiculars 499 . 77. Rev. J. B. Enimett onthe) (Rss, ‘BC, be, and complete the parallelograms C D, cd; join A B, ab. By the nature of centripetal force, it is imeach as DB: d. Now A C: chord AB schord AB: AG... A C = 2922, chord? a 5 7 UT similarly a c = | | Since the evanescent chord is equal to its arc, the centripetal force with which A tends to S : that with which a tends to 5 x: AB ab ag "ag | ; "^ Again, since the arcs described in the same time are a& the velocities V and v, centripetal force at A : that at a :: i iM b yo I x Ta" sy OF RT. l ! 7 mt If T and ¿ be the periodic times, centripetal force of A (F) : . R r i | " à Por force of a ( f) :: P e Hence if the times T and í are respectively as R" and 7", the - ls. -— 1 À vélocities are as —— and —— or Vand X — and the centri- Re- 1 r” — 1 Bere a l petal force F is as u Seta ; | | Pat, . Af, therefore, the velocity of a particle be increased by heat, it is greater at a remote than at.a nearer distance from its centre Loe * 1 M .` . | š b of force; and in this case —— must have a negative index, or 2 n must be less than l; therefore =— must be as l at the T1 i» least, or centripetal force must increase with increased distance. If such a force as this existed in the particles of matter, its effects upon the moon would be very great, as may be proved by phenomena 2, 3, and 4. . If the force of gravity vary inversely as the square or cube of the distance, the greater velocity attains in the smaller.orbits; which is highly inconsistent with the phenomena of the solidification of liquids by. cold. And in all cases, if the motion be obstructed, 1. e. if part of the centripetal force be removed, the consequence is a diminution of the orbit, which is changed into a vrai y in which all motion soon ceases, as the bodies ultimately come into contact. If, therefore, thi werethe cause of heat, the pressure of the atmosphere would soon destroy the motion, and the body would arrive at the true zero of temperature. gi | dp i The phenomena of combustion furnish us with another argu-, ment which is fatal to this hypothesis. Warm a grain of sand, notto ignition, and let it fall upon a piece of dry amm. de i will set 1t on fire, and the wholé will be consumed ; intense heat. will be liberated; this may communicate heat to larger masses | —" Jw 4 ^d PSA wm ` 1822.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 433 of combustible matter, and produce a fire of unlimited magnitude, If this be the result of any motion, the whole must have been communicated from the single grain of sand, for from the union of the particles of the combustible body with those of oxygen, no such motion can possibly result ; and every person who is at all acquainted with but the first principles of mechanics must see that such an effect is utterly impossible, and absolutely opposed to every known law of the communication of motion, it being quite impossible that the motion given to a small mass of matter can communicate a greater in greater masses, which must be the case, if the cause of heat be motion. Still more impossible is the existence of a mere vibratory or undulatory motion. , In the above researches, perhaps, I may not have described ^the sort of motion which is intended; the reason why I have selected that-of rotation is, because it is the only one is saw can have any permanency, and has been more particularly defined by some writers, than either vibration, undulation, or any other that has been supposed; and in general, the intestine motions that have been introduced to explain the phenomena of heat have been expressed in such vague terms, and in a manner so totally destitute of precise definition, that it is impossible to collect any thing that will enable any one to submit it to a mathematical inquiry. I have, therefore, selected that which of all others is the most likely to answer the conditions, being the only one that can be permanent, when there is no resistance opposed to it. _ In the next, I shall apply the principles to the constitution of liquids. | (To be continued.) ARTICLE X. On Diaspore. By G. B. Sowerby, FLS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, A sECOND mass of this curious and rare mineral has just fallen into my hands : it is a remarkable circumstance that the lo- . cality of a mineral so extremely singular, and at the same time so well characterized, should have remained for so long a period ‘unknown; for it will be recollected that the only mass hitherto known had come accidentally into the hands of M. Lelievre, and that from this specimen, whatever small bits exist in collections have been broken. From the data which I have with this speci- men, I think I shall be able to trace its precise locality. Mr. Children has been so obliging as to subject some frag- New Series, vou. ru, 2r 434 | Mr. Sowerby on Diaspore. ^ June, ments to a eritical examination by the blowpipe; and he has favoured me with the following account of his experiments. He will probably take et y of this opportunity to complete a new analysis of this mineral, which he will communicate to you. I am, Sir, yours, &c. G. B. SOWERBY. a Examination of the above by means of the Blowpipe. By J. G. Children, FRS. L. & E. ELS. &c. &c. Specific gravity = 9:205, which is probably a little too light, as some very minute air bubbles. adhered to the specimen after immersion in water which I could not completely detach from it. Alone in a glass tube decrepitates violently, splitting into minute fragments with a sudden explosion. At first but little moisture is given off, but when the bottom of the tube is nearly red-hot, abundance of water condenses in the upper part. The water has no effect on blue litmus paper. The assay loses its colour, more or less, by heat; and frequently becomes milk- white on the surface : the fragments do not brown moistened turmeric paper. | Alone in the forceps, or on charcoal, it :s infusible. With soda, on the platina wire, itgives an opaque globule of a dirty pearl colour, inclining to yellow, in the oxidating flame: In the reducing flame the globule is almost black externally; internally dark-grey, inguni Ro brown. The assayin this expe- riment was pulverized ; soda lias scarcely any action on a frag- ment. " With borax, on the platina wire, im the oxidating flame, a fragment of the assay dissolved with difficulty in a large propor- tion of the flux into a perfectly transparent glass, which was yellow, while hot; quite colourless, cold. In the reducing flame, the glass retained its transparency, and was colourless both hot and cold. | | With salt of phosphorus, on platina wire, in the oxidating flame, the pulverized assay dissolves ai into a perfectly transparent. glass, which is deep-yellow, while hot, quite colour- less cold. In the reducing flame, the glass is colourless both hot and cold. No silica skeleton nor residuum is left, nor does e glass become opaque by flaming with either of the two last fluxes. : With nitrate of cobalt, a fine deep-blue colour. With boracic acid and iron, no trace of phosphoric acid. Berzelius states that the fragments of a small piece of Lelelievre's diaspore, * heated to slight redness," restore the blue colour of reddened litmus paper. (Use of the Blowpipe, p. 227.) T did not, however, find thie to be the case, and therefore Mr. Sowerby’s mineral perfectly agrees in all its blowpipe characters »with the diaspore of Lelievre. ! 1822.] Mr. W. Herapath. on Cadmium. 435 iy (che: e hoe ` On Cadmium, and the Sources of procuring it in Quantity. By Mr. W. Herapath. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Bristol, 56, Old Market-street, April 1, 1822. ` WHEN reasoning on the properties of cadmium, its volatility in the metallic state, and fixidity as an oxide, 1 expected to meet with it in the sublimed products of the zinc smelting house. I accordingly visited one in this neighbourhood, and broughtaway some specimens, among which I have discovered the metal in much larger quantity than it has hitherto been obtained, varying from 12 to 20 per cent. being’ six times more plentiful than in the richest substances examined by Stromeyer. | ` It may be proper here to mention the exact situation in which it is to be met with. I believe it is well known that zinc is reduced from the ore by a sort of distillation, the calamine with small coal as a flux being introduced into a pot closely covered on the top, but having a tube leading from its bottom into a vault below ; just under this, there is a vessel of water placed, and a moveable tube is kept long enough to reach from the short tube nearly to the surface of the water. The workmen are not in the habit of connecting the two tubes until what they call the “ brown blaze” is over, and the “blue blaze ” begun: this brown flame is owing to cadmium absorbing oxygen; it sublimes, and is attached to the roof of the vault, but in the greatest quantity immediately over the orifice from which it issues; it is mixed with. soot, sulphuret of cadmium, and oxide of zinc. The colour is a compound of brown, yellow, black, and white, varying with the quantities of the different substances which enter into the mixture. .. To obtain the metal, I have used the following process: Add to the sublimate an excess of muriatic acid ; fiiter and wash the residue; add the washings to the liquid ; evaporate to imi to get rid of the excess of acid ; redissolve in as little water as possible, filter again to separate the insoluble part; introduce a. plate of zinc, and the cadmium is precipitated in the form of small leaves. In reducing these to a mass without loss; I have found considerable difficulty from the volatile nature of the metal, &c. I followed Stromeyer's process, until I found that the globules which sublimed into the cold part ofthe tube were anore malleable, and did not, as he describes, scale off when long hammered ; I, therefore, put the spongy precipitate into a black glass tube (closed at one Ate, gatis with a little lamp-black F 436 Mr. W. Herapath on Cadmium. [JUNE, or wax; and kept the end containing the metal in the red heat of a common fire-grate until the whole of the cadmium was sub- limed into a part of the tube very near where it was red-hot, After throwing out what remains in the bottom (and which may be done without danger of losing any of the sublimate, as that adheres very firmly to the glass), introduce some wax, and heat it gently ; while the wax is in the act of burning, the metal will melt and form a button, if assisted with slight agitation ; it should be allowed to cool, before it is taken out. Its colour is such that those of my friends who have seen it supposed it to be silver; but when compared with a piece of that metal it has a blue cast. The bottom and sides of the button are covered with facets, having exactly the appearance that it would assume if it had been struck on every part of the surface with a small ham- mer. When examined with a strong lens, the superficial crystals resemble stars each having a mate from which six spicule radiate. I have inclosed a lamina for your examination; you will perceive that it is more malleable than Stromeyer found it ; it is very probable that his contained a little zinc, The specific gravity at 62° of the specimen from which this piece was cut, was 8:677. As to the weight of the atom, Stromeyer calls it 6:9677, but his analysis gives Carbonite 2,122212 XAR PIA TIED QT: 7-05 Sulphate . .....,1 74 PESTON TUS UJ 7:05 TtratE 02, SPO ALG ¿z 00999 Chionde A 36 00214. 1345443 199 . 7:15 Phosphate": 37005 2.5 iU. UR pO, odi) . 6°89 Ode pri I FBG IUDA «e VEDI 6-96 Average Wiis dooa oiler Ue diio os es o: 22008 From this, I think, we might infer, that the true number is 7, at least in the absence of a greater number of experiments. He has stated, Annals, vol. xiv. p. 271, that ‘the precipitate formed from muriate of cadmium by carbonate of ammonia is insoluble | in an excess of carbonate." This has been contradicted by the late Prof. Clarke, Annals for March, p. 196. In order to set the question at rest, I made some muriate of cadmium, both of the substances being pure; then put 1-l0th grain into two watch glasses, adding a few drops of water to dissolve it. I poured upon it a solution of carbonate of ammonia (saturated at 60°) until it amounted to 227-17 gr. it appeared to have dissolved a p. ; but having stood 12 hours, it was decanted, washed, and ept at 150? long enough to evaporate any carbonate of ammonia left in it; the residue was ‘08. Now as *1 grain of muriate of cadmium is equal to -084 carbonate, supposing the :004 of loss to be cot , instead of the unavoidable errors of experiment, 1822.] Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. 437 it cannot be more soluble than one part in 56792, so near approaching to insolubility as to lead to the conclusion that Dr. Clarke was in error. | | In one instance when subliming the pure metal, the top of the. glass tube was not closed, and it had been kept in the fire longer an usual ; upon scraping out the sublimate, instead- of metal, it consisted of purple, opaque, radiating, needle formed crystals ; imagining it to be a carburet, I threw it into muriatic acid, where it dissolved without effervescence, and left no residue; it, therefore, must have been a crystallized oxide, but whether the oxygen was in a different proportion than hitherto found, I have not had time to ascertain ; butas Í am engaged at present in experiments upon. the metal, in a short time you will receive an account of any thing which may be interesting. I cannot conclude without offering an opinion as to the best mode of procuring it in suffi- cient quantity to be useful in the arts. As the cadmium rises earlier than the zinc, the first products of the distillation, must contain more than the last; if the tube was put up immediately upon the pot being charged, and the first few pounds ofzinc kept separate, I have no doubt but the zinc smelter would find in it enough.to pay his expenses in subliming it; in fact, the addi- tional expense would be very trifling, as they do not sell the zine in the crude state in which it is found after distillation, but always melt it into lumps ; this is done in an iron pot, by putting an air-tight top to it, and increasing the heat, perhaps, 200°, which: may be done with little fuel, they would accomplish it, and thus be enabled to render the new metal ata price very little higher than they do zinc. |... I remain, Sir, , j 5 Your most obedient servant, WirLiAM HrRAPATH. ARTICLE XII. On the Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel, and on a new ., Combination of Nickel with Arsenic and Sulphur. By J. Berzelius. | grax: Bi T (Concluded from p. 216.) IIT. Analysis of a White Ore of Nickel from Loos, in’ Nelsing- U MC ^ and. | | Tuts ore of nickel is not crystallized ; it is a white brilliant metallic mass, of a granular structure. "There are two varieties which are very difficulty distinguished from each other. In one of these varieties, the grains are rounder; it decrepitates in the fire with extreme violence; when heated in a glass tube closed at one end, it leaves a mass resembling kupfernickel, and a por- tion of sulphuret of arsenic sublimes. The other variety is also 438 ^ M. Berzelius on the ` [Junn, granular, but the grains'are less equal; the structure is by this rendered less compact ; it has then the appearance of a cobalt ore, it decrepitates less, gives sulphuret of arsenic by distilla- tion, arid leaves a silver-white Pici noi | It appears that it is the first of these varieties which was: examined by M. Psaff. The two first analyses which T am now going to describe were made on the first variety; and the . remainder on the second, as may be seen by the results. (A.) Analysis by Means of Nitric Acid. a. Forty parts of the pulverized mineral were treated with pure nitric acid until the undissolved portion appeared to be merely sulphur. The residuum weighed 1:38 part. The sulphur was burnt, and left 0-27 part of silica, or at least of an earthy pow- der. The weight ofthe burnt sulphur was, therefore, 1-11 part. b. The solution precipitated by muriate of barytes gave 28-77: parts of sulphate of barytes, equivalent to 3:96 of sulphur, which, added to 1*11 before obtained, make a total of 5:07 parts, or 12-675 per cent. c. The barytes added in excess was separated by sulphuric acid; and afterwards a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. was passed through the solution, as long a sulphuret of arsenic was formed, which was washed upon a weighed filter; it was well dried, and was weighed while inclosed in a covered platina’ crucible, in order to prevent the attraction of moisture during its cooling. It weighed 36:87 parts. It was afterwards treated with caustic ammonia upon the same filter; the ammonia dis- solved the sulphuret of arsenic, leaving as a residuum the sulphur which was separated from the sulphuretted hydrogen during the experiment by atmospheric air, and the peroxide of iron of the liquid, which was reduced to protoxide. This sulphur was white, and weighed, when well dried, 1-17 part. The 36:87 parts, therefore, contained only 35-7 parts of sulphuret of arsenic, equi- valent to 21:75 parts of metallic arsenic, or 54:38 per cent. of the weight of the mineral. | d. The solution deprived of arsenic, and heated to reoxidize the protoxide of iron, ammonia was afterwards added to it in great excess. It occasioned a precipitate of an olive-green colour; this was separated, and dissolved in muriatic acid : this solution was neutralized as nearly as possible, and the iron was precipitated by succinate of ammonia. The succinate of iron decomposed by heat in an open vessel gave 1:83 part of oxide of iron, which, when treated with soda by the blowpipe, smelled strong of arsenic. 3 Py vs e, The ammoniacal solution was mixed with that from which the iron had been precipitated by the succinate of ammonia ; subcarbonate of potash was poured into it, and the ammonia was evaporated. ‘The oxide of nickel thus separated weighed 15:32 parts, : "Chis See En 1822.] Method of anülyxing the Ores of Nickel. 439 f- This oxide was treated with muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness; the dry mass was redissolved in water, which left a white powder undissolved. This powder was arse- niate of peroxide of iron, which, after heating, weighed 1 part, equivalent to 0*44 part of metallic arsenic, and to 0-215 of iron. The quantity of oxide of nickel obtained was, therefore, 14-32 arts, equivalent to 11:27 of metallic nickel. In that which 1 des estimate as pure nickel, there was 'a small quantity of lime which became evident when the’ solution of neutral muriateé of nickel was mixed with an excess of subcarbonate of ammonia 5 but the quantity of carbonate of lime precipitated was'too incon+ siderable to be separated and weighed. | The analysis then gives vii ATROIICS € ÉS roteln ese erre e bem shen » 95:50 SEMA (8-0 eh gb re bin aire lesen) 12:67 ice Poss Hives PUE IQ AR QUU! d 28-17 PRISE dth oki ohms RR ERC TT T TT T STE 3°63 EADY JngttqE «none Tet weer eb cho previo dA 100:58 The excess given by this analysis is undoubtedly owing to the hygrometric moisture contained in the sulphuret of arsenic at. the time of weighing. This inconvenience would ‘be, however, easily avoided by fusing the sulphuret in vacuo, if at thetime of the solution of the ore, the formation of a small quantity of arsenic by the action of the nitric acid upon the arseniuret could be prevented; this last circumstance renders the method employed in the analysis described quite inapplicable ; for it is not a question of approximations, but of results, as accurate as possible. ar ede dt | (B.) Analysis by Means of Nitromuriatic Acid. The lime found in the preceding analysis made me suspect a mixture of carbonate of lime with the ore. In the following. analyses I have employed an ore of nickel which was powdered and digested in dilute muriatic acid, until all the carbonate: of lime was extracted. i | 3 fr 8l | a. Ten parts of the nickel ore dissolved by nitromuriatic acid, left 0°55 part undissolved; this was sulphur, which burnt with- out residuum. The solution gave 6:5 parts of sulphate of barytes;. equivalent to 0:897, or added to 0°55 14:4 per cent. of sulphur. b. The liquid was then deprived of the excess of barytes by means of sulphuric acid. It was afterwards precipitated by caustic potash, added in great excess. The precipitate, welt washed, was re-dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution was mixed with caustic ammonia, until the oxide of nickel was dissolved. The ammonia left 0:98 part of sub-arseniate of iron. This dissolved in concentrated muriatic acid, without any: green appearance, which indicates even very small quantities of 440 M. Berzelius on the | [Juxx, nickel, or cobalt, when the acid is concentrated. This solu- tion of the sub-arseniate was decomposed by caustic potash, leaving 0:82 part of sub-arseniate, which I have mentioned above. The potash had, therefore, taken up 0:16 part. of arsenic acid. The 0:82 part of subarseniate, produced by the potash, contained 0:764 of oxide of iron, and .conse- quently the 0:98 part are equivalent to 0:116. of metallic arsenic, and 0:529 of iron. c. The ammoniacal liquid, mixed with the caustic potash, furnished 3:44 parts. of oxide of. nickel, equivalent. to 2:7 parts of the metal. The liquid, separated from the. oxide. of nickel, was evaporated until the ammonia was completely, vo- latilized, without depositing any thing. ¿It was afterwards mixed with the alkaline lida resulting from the precipitation of the oxide of nickel, and the subarseniate of iron. This mix- ture now contained arsenic acid... It was neutralized by means of muriatic acid. y gis d CAN d. To separate the arsenic: acid, I used. M. Berthier's me- thod. I dissolved. ten parts of common iron wire in muri- atic acid, and poured the solution into the preceding, and pre- cipitated with an excess of ammonia. . The precipitate, read and heated to redness, weighed 22:4 parts. But ten parts of metallic iron, which in general contain 0:0005 of its, weight of carbon, give 14:35 parts of. peroxide. Subtracting: 14:35 from 22:40, gives 8:05 parts, for arsenic acid, which, added to the. 0-116 pus obtained. in 5, gives. a result of 8:166. parts of arsenic acid, equivalent to 5:332 of metallic arsenic. |. n" The analysis therefore gives x | ARENI Jeanine eda poo Vra yop) Spr gt 53:39. BUDE C aus e EAA t deed det a eae z ... 14:40 Bike urugan bb cbé d s M. o ew iis e vu STI" Tiat- iib varias o eee 3 2 A sie won BOD ! 100-01 The difference between the two analyses is inconsiderable, and shows that the analytic methods agree very nearly : especially if we consider that the sulphur, determined by the same method in . the two experiments, varies in proportion, and appears to indi- cate a difference of composition in the ores. Stillas the arsenic acid.could not be entirely separated from. the peroxide of iron, the result is always subject to uncertainties, with respect to the relative quantities ofthe iron and arsenic. r! Tit (C.). Analysis by Means of... Nitromuriatic Acid. and Acetate. of ` Lead. t duode Hesse This analysis, as well as the following, were made on pieces taken from a specimen coming also from Loos; but as 1 have said above, forming another variety of the nickel ore... ^ . 1822.] Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. ' 441 - a. 15:1 parts of the pulverized ore (deprived of its carbonate of lime) were. dissolved in nitromuriatic acid, which left 0:56 residuum, of which 0*4 were sulphur, and 0:16 silica. . b. The solution, precipitated. by muriate. of barytes, gave 18:18 parts of sulphate of barytes, equivalent to 2:5 parts of- sulphur:.the whole quantity of sulphur was, therefore, 2-9 that is to say, 19:29 hundredths of the weight of the ore. c. The liquid having been filtered, was saturated with am- monia until a precipitate began to appear ; acetate of lead was then poured in as long as a precipitate formed. This precipi- tate was then washed in boiling water, and ‘as after an edul- coration continued for a long time, the washings continued to re-act with nitrate of silver. I dried it, without attempting to deprive it entirely of its muriate of lead. Heated in the fire, it became yellow, and weighed 45:5 parts. | I dissolved 42°53 of this in diluted nitric acid, which left undissolved 0:58 part of red oxide of iron, which gave out the odour of arsenic in a heated tube. The solution, mixed with sulphate of soda, gave 40°73 parts of sulphate of lead, and afterwards, with nitrate of silver, 3:77 parts of chloride of silver. -The liquid. was deprived. of the superfluous. nitrate of silver, by the addition of muriatic acid; and afterwards filtered and evaporated to dryness. “he dried mass dissolved in water left. a. white powder, which weighed 1:25: this was arseniate oflead. The liquid neutralized as nearly as possible by, means of caustic potash, deposited 0:1 part of a light and whitish substance ; this was the neutral arseniate of iron. These quantities were obtained from the 42°53 parts dissolved by. the nitric acid; calculating for the 45:5 parts, the entire weight of the precipitate obtained by means of the acetate of lead, we have the following quantities: | Sulphate of lead .. 49:58 = 32-06 parts of oxide of lead. Chloride of silver.. 4°03 0:77 of muriatic acid. ` Arseniate of lead... 1:34 0°89 of oxide of lead. Arseniate of iron .. O11 0:03 of oxide of iron. "Oxide of iron . .. .. 70:62 | 34°37 This 34:37 must be taken from the 45:5 parts of the above mentioned precipitate, to obtain the weight of the arsenic acid, which is 11-13, and which corresponds to 7:268 parts of ar- senic. l | We must not expect thata result obtained by so, intricate an experiment can be exact; because, if the small errors of each of the determinations, for example, small losses, are added together, the sum will occasion a great error in the. ge- neral result. And this really happens. ` See - d. The liquid: remaining after the separation, of. the arsenic. uy HIHI 442 M. Berzeliuson the = JUNE. acid from the acetate of lead, was deprived of the excess: of lead by means of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and the oxide of nickel by caustic potash. The oxide thus obtained weighed 5:92, which makes 30°8 hundredths of metallic nickel in the ore. The general result of the analysis is, therefore, as follows : ARE LL cuni cube ceoditenh ions 48-06 RTI oo eens eat yupayk moon 19:29 po a Sl arcus asas Evers T2 EA 30°80 i, ` nn cbc bie o9 sce ie p gai 2-99 voor AP pesi aed AANRY PTE 1-00 10215 As the result of so complicated an experiment cannot be sa- tisfactory, I devised another analytical method, as follows: — (D.) . Analysis by: Means of Chlorine. | A portion of the pulverized ore, previously treated with di- lute muriatic acid, to separate the carbonate of lime, was in- troduced mto a bulb, blown in the middle of a piece of baro- meter tube; a current of chlorine gas, dried over E sehi chiari of lime, was made to pass through the tube, and when nearly the whole of the atmospheric air was expelled, the bulb was heated by means of a spirit lamp. The metals and the sulphur com- bined with the chlorine gas; the mixture of the muriatie, arsenic, and hyposulphurous acids formed, distilled in small drops, and were collected in water. The less volatile chlorides remained in the bulb. The operation continued for 12 hours; but the evolution of chlorme gas was always very slow; 45:685 parts of the ore were employed. uL (A.) Examination of the Chlorides remaining in the. Bulb. a. Water was introduced into the bulb ; the yellowish mass did not appear to dissolve at first, and the water dissolved only muriate of iron; but in an hour, muriate of nickel was also dis- solved, and the water left a residuum of 15:12 parts, which were ore unacted upon.* The gas had, therefore, decomposed 30-565 parts. The solution was mixed with nitric acid, and boiled, to convert the iron into peroxide. It was afterwards neutralized by ammonia, and the iron precipitated by succi- nate of ammonia. The succinate of iron, burnt upon a small porcelain capsule, left 1:82 part of peroxide of iron, which, treated with soda by the blowpipe, gave no trace of arsenical odour. This quantity of peroxide is equivalent to 1:26 of me- tallic iron, or 4°11 per cent. of the weight of the ore employed. * To satisfy myself that the portion undissolved by water was not altered, I exa- mined it with a microscope, by which it appeared like small fragments, partially cor- roded. When dissolved in nitromuriatic acid, it gave, with sulphate of bar the same quantity of sulphur as the portion decomposed by chlorine. == 18227] Method of analyzing thie'Ores of Nickel. 443: D. The solution, freed from iron, was mixed with excess of ammonia. It became of a blue' colour, without depositing any thing. |The oxide of nickel was precipitated by caustic potash; it weished 11:725 parts. It was dissolved by muriatic: acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness; the dry matter; treated with water, left 0-1'of siliea, undissolved; the weight of the oxide of nickel, was therefore, only 11:625, equal to 29:95 ér cent. of metallic nickelim the ore. A eurrent of sulphuretted' ydropén gas was passed through the solution of muriate of nickel, which occasioned a small precipitate, that was with difficulty determined by the blowpipe to be copper. : c. The solution precipitated in 6, by caustic potash, had a rose coloured tint. It deposited, by evaporation, 0:37 -of oxide of cobalt, equal to 0:92 per cent. of metallic cobalt in the ore. This cobalt. contained a little copper, which I did not think it worth while to separate.and weigh. d. The solution. which shad deposited the oxide of cobalt, - was supersaturated. with. muriatic acid, and. evaporated to dry- ness. The saline mass, treated with water, left. 0*18 of silica. As I employed caustic potash, which, when treated in the same manner, gave no trace of silica; this silica was derived from the nickel ore; but as chlorine gas does not combine with silica, that is to say, with the oxide. of silicium ready formed,. itis very: probable that this silica existed in the ore as.arse- niuret, or sulphuret of silicium. | (B.) Examination of the Volatile Substances... a. The liquor which: distilled was of a very deep orange ĉo- lour. When:dropped into water, it became milky, and. deposited» sulphur. The excess of chlorine, continually absorbed by the water, gradually acidified the sulphur ; so that towards the end of the operation very little of it remained. The bottle, which: served as a receiver, had. a ground glass stopper, and put in a I the:temperature of which varied between 85° and 140° of Fahrenheit; after some hours' digestion, the, stopper was taken out, and the liquor was heated to ebullition, in order to expel the excess of chlorine. The particles of sulphur which remained unacidified, gradually attracted each other, and at length formed a small globule, which, after the expulsion of the gas, was evaporated : it weighed 0°55 part. wi b. The liquid was neutralized by caustic potash, without being rendered turbid ; proving that no part of the chloride of iron had been volatilized. It was rendered slightly acid, and mixed with muriate ‘of barytes; it gave 38:92 parts of sulphate of barytes, equivalent to 5:37 of sulphur, which, with the 0:55. obtained in a, makes a total of 5:92, or 19:834 per cent. of the wp UP ENE thes sorbose yaaa Wien per c. The best method of obtaining the arsenic acid would undoubtedly have been to precipitate it with peroxide of iron; 444 M. Berzelius onthe - [JuNE, but the bulky state of the subarseniate of iron, and the long washing which it requires, induced me once more to try the acetate of lead, in the hope that the absence of iron would render the composition of the precipitate less complicated. I, nevertheless, deceived myself; and I had afterwards to sepa- rate the lead by sulphuric acid, and the muriatic acid by. nitrate of silver. The acetate of lead gave a; precipitate, bh weighed 85:85 parts. Treated with sipas acid, it gave 63:53 of oxide of lead, and with nitrate of silver 1:06 of muriatic acid, which, both deducted from 85:85, leave 21:26 for the arse-. nic acid, equivalent to 13-88 of metallic arsenic, or 45:37 per cent. of the weight of the ore. TI The analysis therefore gave Arsenic niu ba uoo. sant a hese ABB%0 Tao Sulphur. ..... jo 95s duas bU (Qp. 3084 «dl T: ii Nickel OM NE MOT, Did aes W 29:94. tiny Cobalt, with a trace of copper .....:. 092.1 o Exo y; Wes. Junge OMUU UN LAU Voted 'a AN lp. 212 SAT. A EGENT lesu s uiLago ép 100:58 | I shall not stay to inquire into the causeof the excess of weight given by the analysis ; those who are accustomed to accurate researches, know how easy it is to fall into such an error, when every effort is made to lose nothing. I shall only add; that if the silica of the ore was in the state of silicium, there would scarcely be any excess. | vta Asto the chemical constitution of the ore analyzed, it is evident that it is analogous to that of arsenical iron and. grey cobalt; that is to say, that it contains an atom of quad-: risulphuret: of the metal combined with an atom of biarse- niuret, of the same metal; calculating the composition on this» view, we have the following proportions : | 192 PARENC T NM, PT 4 v. rire 45:17 od: 5 DUMP UE CT TE POL ves ite Re dee. 1999 z Nickel npe nu Puede a een ay whe 9691. This is the composition of a combination containing nei- ther iron nor cobalt. But the three metals in question may, occur, in a similar state of combination, mixed together in dit- ferent proportions, without greatly, influencing the proportions of arsenic or sulphur, because the saturating capacity of nickel. and of cobalt are exactly similar, and that of iron very little. exceeds it. Consequently, when in the ore, which I have ana-. lyzed, the weights of the cobalt and iron are added to that of the. nickel, we have 34:95, which agrees very nearly with the. calculated result. The variety analyzed on the two first expe- riments, and that examined by M. Psaff, were then a nr. of arsenical nickel with. this last combination, which may be. 1822.] Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. 445 called grey nickel, to indicate that its composition is analogous to that of grey cobalt. | It is evident, that the quantity of arsenic found in the mineral is too small to form a biarseniuret with the whole of the nickel ; and the variable quantity of iron indicates that the sulphuret of this metal, or its arsenio-sulphuret, is mixed with it, and not combined in definite proportion, either with the arseniuret of nickel, or the arsenio-sulphuret. IV. Detailed Account of the Method of analyzing the Arseniurets, or the Arsenio-sulphurets of Nickel and Cobalt, by Means of Chlorine Gas. | | It has been seen, by what has been stated, that arsenic and other metals were completely separated, only by the decom- position effected by means of chlorine gas; and notwithstand- ing each of the other methods has given an approximation to the true composition, they cannot be regarded as good; for every experiment which leaves the operator in doubt, must be considered as inconclusive, unless it be confirmed by an- other less questionable process; but then it is better imme- diately to employ the most certain method. I am, therefore, now going to relate more particularly the method of analyzing nickel ores by chlorine gas, and I shall notice the precautions which are requisite to obtain the object. At three inches from one of the ends of a barometer tube, blow a. bulb of such a size that it shall be only one-third filled with the powder of the substance to be examined. On the other 5 446 | (o M. Berzelius on the soia [JuN z, side of the bulb, draw the tube out a little, and blow a. second and smaller bulb, after which, bend the drawn.tube, as. shown by the figure D EF G H. The tube is to be weighed at first empty, and afterwards with the substance. to. be analyzed, in order to determine its weight. 3 | To evolve the chlorine gas, a vessel, A, may. be employed, capable of holding from two to four pints. a mixture of com- mon salt and of oxide of manganese is to be put into it, and it is then to be two-thirds filled with water; the orifice is then to be closed with a cork, through which pass a.long stemmed funnel, B, and a small bent tube, which gives vent, to the gas. Fig. AB D explains this arrangement better than any de- scription. From the bent tube, the gas passes into another tube, C, which contains small fragments of fused chloride of calcium; and from this it passes into the small apparatus, which contains the powder to be analyzed. The joinings are made by small tubes of caoutchouc, firmly tied round the glass tubes. The drawn tube, G H, descends perpendicularly into a bottle, H I, one-third filled with dis- tilled water, G H passes through a cork, which closes the mouth of the bottle, and which contains also another tube, from. 24 to 36 inches song by which the excess of chlorine as escapes, and by which it is conveyed out of the room by the chimney. ‘This jene is represented im the fig. GHIK. The bottle is placed at a convenient height, by means ofthe screw, M. ; Kod When every thing is thus arranged, concentrated sulphuric acid is poured by the funnel B into the vessel, until a disen- gagement of gas begins to take place. Care must be taken that the mixture does not become too hot, as it would occa- sion too rapid an extrication of chlorine gas. The disengage- ment is sufficiently quick wehn four or five bubbles rise every minute out of the bottle H I. As soon as the greater part of the atmospheric air is dis- laced by the chlorine gas, a spirit lamp is placed near the bulb E. A very small flame only is requisite, and too great a degree of heat must be avoided; for it is difficult, especially at the beginning, to expel the atmospheric air perfectly, and this might produce arsenious acid in a small part of the ore, ^which would render the result inaccurate. As the mass becomes hot, an orange coloured fluid distills, which condenses in the little bulb F ; and as this fills, it runs through the tube G H, and falls into the water. = ^. The operation continues in this manner without requirin any attention, unless to add a small quantity of sulphuric aci every 2 or 3 hours, when the disengagement of gas goes on slowly. No artificial heat is employed to assist the extrica- tion ; for in that case it would ^on place too quickly, Each bubble of gas which passes through the water im the bottle 1822.) Method of analyzing the Ores of Nickel. 447 HI, gives a slight vapour, which is owing to a portion of the double acids which the water has not yet dissolved ; but this vapour falls back again upon the surface of the water, and none of it is lost. If, on the other hand, the gas is extricated too quickly, the acid vapours will not have sufficient time to condense, neither in the bottle, nor the long tube IK, and a vapour will be seen to escape from the opening. During the operation, permuriate of iron sublimes in small red transparent flakes, and a small quantity of which is even deposited, E D. On this account, it is proper to have this so long that the portion sublimed does not escape. Another portion of the muriate is carried by the current in the direction E F. When the acids condense with the muriate, there results à white crystalline matter, a small quantity of which even descends into the small bulb F, which 1s made for the purpose of preventing the muriate of iron from descending into the bottle. This white mass is the orange coloured liquid; and when this latter has been poured into the bottle, the white mass is to be decomposed by a slight heat, the double acids are volatilized, and the muriate of iron re-appears with its red colour. The operation may be discontinued when judged convenient ; ] suffered it to contigue 28 hours ; but I foünd that in the last 12 hours that I had gained nothing. The chlorine gas does not produce a partial vir einige ; the whole of the ore com- bines with it, and that which remains after the operation has undergone no alteration ; it is, therefore, not at all necessary to wait until all is decomposed by the operation. At the moment in which the operation is discontinued, a por- tion of the volatilized acids still adheres to the sides of the small apparatus, from the large bulb, to the opening of the tube, H. To get rid of it, both bulbs are heated at the same time; but to such a degree, as not to volatilize the muriate of iron; and whilst the bulbs are cooling, a solution of carbonate of pot- ash is poured through the funnel, B: this occasions a rapid dis- engagement of carbonic acid gas, by which the last vapours of the acids are carried off. When at length D EF GH is removed, CH is washed se- veraltimes in cold water, to remove all traces of acid which may adhere to it, both inside and out, and this water is to be poured into the bottle. Afterwards the metallic chlorides are dissolved in water. The chloride of iron dissolves readily, but the chloride of nickel resists the water at first. A drop of muriatic acid ought to be added to the liquor to prevent its being turbid ; after filtration, the undissolved portion is to be weighed. ` This liquid contains some protomuriate of iron, mixed with permuriate. It is this muriate which is first formed, and which, usually enveloped in muriate of nickel, is prevented 448 ET M. Berzelius on the’ Sa" [Juxg, from combining with a fresh quantity. of chlorine gas. It sis, therefore, necessary to peroxidize the iron, by adding. nitric acid, and heating it to ebullition. Afterwards it is saturated with ammonia, and the iron precipitated with succinate of am- monia; and at last, excess of ammonia is added, to be certain that no substance insoluble in ammonia should remain in the liquid. ; A he ammonical solution is to be much diluted with. water, deprived as much as possible of atmospheric air, and the oxide of nickel is to be precipitated by caustic potash, The oxides of cobalt and copper remaining in the solution, are deposited during the evaporation of the ammonia. The silica is to be looked for in the alkaline solution, by saturating it with muriatic acid, and evaporating it to dryness; water then dis- solves the salts, and leaves the silica. Oxide of nickel, as wellas ‘cobalt, frequently contains silica, which must be separated from it by Solving the oxide in muriatic acid, and by eva- poration to dryness, which renders the silica insoluble. As to the separation of the metallic oxides with which those of nickel and cobalt may be mixed, I refer to what I have already stated. The water in which the acid vapours are condensed, contains arsenic and sulphur; but if the mineral contains at the same time bismuth, zinc, antimony, or tin, the muriates of these me- tals will also be found in the liquid. This last circumstance would render the analysis extremely complicated, and I, there- fore, do not describe it on the present occasion. | The bottle, H 1, ought also to be furnished with a glass stopper. The interior of the tube, LK, is to be washed, the* bottle is to be stopped, and left in a warm place, in order that the greater part of the sulphur precipitated may be acidified. If any portion of it remain, the bottle is to be unstopped and the liquid boiled ; the sulphur agglutinates, and may be then conveniently washed, dried, and weighed. | In order to be certain that the acid liquor contains no iron in consequence of any mistake in the operation, nor any me- tals, the muriates of which are volatile, it is to be saturated as perfectly as possible with caustic potash. If any precipitate is formed, it is to be collected and examined. The solution is to be again rendered acid, and the sulphuric acid is to be pre- cipitated by muriate of barytes.. It is then proper to separate the excess of muriate of barytes by an addis of sulphuric acid; but this is not absolutely necessary. Afterwards a known quantity of iron dissolved in nitric acid is to be poured into the remaining liquid, and the oxide of iron and arsenic acid are to be precipitated by ammonia in excess. If the other ingredients have been determined, the quantity of iron required to preci- pee the arsenic acid, may be estimated with more precision. or one atom of arsenic, two atoms of iron are to be used, which are to each other in weight, as three parts of iron to two 1829.] | Smelting of Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire. 449 parts of arsenic., Notwithstanding that the excess of oxide of iron increases the volume of the precipitate, it contributes to render the subarseniate less gelatinous, and more easy to edulco- . rate. The subarseniate ought to be twice heated, in order to be certain that it ceases to lose weight; for a small quantity of sul- phuric acid often adheres very strongly to this precipitate. " As the arseniate of barytes is also an insoluble compound, I endeavoured to separate the arsenic acid from a neutral solution by muriate of barytes ; but this method is attended with such inconveniences that it cannot be employed. In the first place, the arseniate of barytes which is precipitated is usually a mixture of neutral and subarseniate, and the liquid becomes acid, as ha pens with the phosphates of barytes, lime, &c. When then I wished to. precipitate subarseniate of barytes, by adding excess ` of ammonia, | found that a considerable portion of subarseniate remained. dissolved in the excess of alkali, as it is well known to happen with arseniate of lime. Lastly, I found that when arse- niate of barytes is washed, the water never ceases to give a pres, cipitate, .with sulphuric acid. I relate these circumstances in order to save others from fruitless labours. y Ji ARTICLE XIII. On the Smelting 0 Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire.* . _ By John Taylor, Esq. Treasurer of the Geological Society. As I am not aware that the treatment of tin ores, or the mode of smelting them, has been recently described, and as the prac- tice is confined to a certain district, it may be acceptable to the Society to have some account of the processes now used in Cornwall and Devon. | | Tin ores are found in two kinds of deposits; first in veins accompanied by various other minerals; and, secondly, in allu- vial matter in detached fragments. It is usual in Cornwall not to apply the word. ore to the oxide of tin, but to distinguish it, when in that state, by the term Black Tin, in contradistinction to white tin, which appellation is applied to it when smelted and in the metallic state. - The two kinds of tin ore above mentioned are, therefore, gene- rally known by the names of Mine Tin and Stream Tin; and as they are for the most part smelted separately, and by different. means, and as the metal produced from them is different as to its urity, it may be essential to point out the causes from which this diversity seems to arise. : | | _ * From the Transactions of the Geological Society, = ^^ 15211 sx, New Series, vou. 111. 2 G - of the earthy matrix, is the object of ate py Log dress- the greatest care, and require’ a) ^A 433 my) 10 948i IB Silt an ij TAS reduce the expense of the former, o Be eR fgg E i1 ‘Gon quickly separated by fusion, as in the case of copper ores, which are now always bs. ted with a large mix ire of the different kinds’ property is now made-use of -to-a-certaim-extent in refining tin, and might probably be taken advantage of still further, so as to avoid some of the charges incurred in dressing the ore. The metal produced from Mine Tin is always of inferior quality, owing to the mixture of other metals, and which it is probable could not by any mode be entirely got rid of; it is known in commerce by the name of Common or Block Tin, and'the quan- tity forms a large proportion of the whole that is brought, to market. | " "ibit hostem iem en Stream Tin is found in the lowest stratum of alluvial matter,’ in the bottoms of deep valleys, or places where a considerable. deposit of mud, sand, and gravel, His been made by the action. of water; it is often discovered occupying a thin bed incumbent on the rock, and covered by an overburden, as the streamers call it, which: is sometimes from 20' to 70 feet thick. ' The tin is in rounded fragments, sometimes as large as walnuts, ‘but more omoi in the state of small gravel, and even of fine sand ; it 1s imbedded in loose matter, composed of the detritus of the rocks from which it may be supposed to have been separated. The principal peculiarity of treat Tin is the absence of any other metallic mixtures, except nodules of hematitic iron ore, which sometimes accompany it. This circumstance fits it for producing a very pure metal. This is not the place to speculate on the causes which have so completely freed these ores from substances with which they were in all pon PE ur; combined, or to inquire whether it is to be attributed to mecha- nical action, or whether it has been effected by decomposition ; but it may be remarked ‘that, besides the hematite already men- & " 18227] Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire. 451 tioned, only the indestructible metals, and the oxide of tin, are now discovered existing in deposits of this nature. i ""The'operátions of dressing Stream Tin are simpler than those for Mine Tin. Tt is smelted also in a different manner, and pro- düces'a superior metal known by the name of Grain Tin, which i8 principally used by the dyers, and for the finer purposes. he processes for dressing Mine Tin are in many respécts the same as'are used for all other ores, but are subject to some vatia- tion, which are attributable to the following peculiarities, ' ' 1. Being for the most part found intimately dispersed through- out the matrix, the whole is necessarily pounded down to a very fine state to admit of the perfect separation of the ores." WE -~ 2. That being unalterable by moderate’ degrees of heat, it admits of calcination, by which the specific gravity of the sul- phiirets orarseniats with which it is mixed, may be: lessened, pen mode obtained ofrendering them more separable. anh “8. That the weight of Tin Ore being greater than most others, it is less Tiable to waste in the processes of washing, and, there- fore, may: be dressed so as to be nearly cleat from all substances not actually adhering to it.” gi t 301 In. T9449 "From the first of these peculiarities it follows, thatal tin mines must be furnished with stampine:mills of sufficient power to bruise down the ores raised, which is generally done so as to: produce a minuté division of the whole, dnd on this account, formerly, the quantity and fall'of water that could be applied to this’ purpose usually limited ‘the quantity of ore that could’ be returned from .à mine, or the whole was frequently cartied to some spot favourable tó the erection ‘of water-wheels to be applied: to this purpose: Within a few" years'steam-power lias been applied to stamping-mills, and has tended to increase the supply of tin ores. Engines for this purpose, of considerable power, are working with’ great’ effect at two of the largest tin mines in Cornwall, Wheal Vor' and Great Huas ; from which are now arising abundant returns of tlíe metal, and where formerly it would have been impossible to have produced it. ^ 70° The state of division, or the size; as the tin‘dresstrs call it, is regulated by a plate of iron piérced' with small holes, through which the whole passes from the stampime-mill, béing washed through by á ‘rapid stream*of water conducted’ upon it for the purpose. ‘This is a point of great importance, and is regulated by the state of dissemination in which every ore is feund. ` Itis not the intention of this memoir to detail the processes of dressing which are common to most ores, and, therefore, it may be sufficient to remark that, after being stamped, the tin ores are washed ‘according to the usual mode, so as to separate the earthy mixture and as much of that ofa metallic nature as is possible. All these operations are conducted with more than common care’ and accuracy ; for as tin ore holds such a large: proportion of 262 452 Mr. John Taylor on the Smelting of (June, valuable metal, it is of course treated with every precaution to guard against waste. * . Some metallic substances will be found, however, which, from their specific gravity approaching nearly to that of tin ore, or rather exceeding it, cannot be removed by any process of wash- ing ; these are mostly decomposable by a red heat, which the oxide of tin will bear without alteration. Therefore, after as much has been done as possible to render the ores clean on the dressing-floors, they are taken to the burning-house, which. is furnished with small reverberatory furnaces, on the floor of which the ores are spread and submitted to the action of a moderate ahd regular fire : they are frequently turned over by an iron rake to expose fresh surfaces, and a considerable volatilization of sul- phur and arsenic takes place ; the former seems principally to be consumed, and the latter is condensed by long horizontal flues constructed for this purpose. After the ores come from. the burning-house, the process of dressing 1s completed by further washing, which is rendered easy by the alteration which) has been produced in the relative weight of the substances... Copper ore is not unfrequently present in these cases, and, as ‘itis im part converted into sulphate of copper, the water which is first used is preserved, and a portion of copper obtained. from it. . hy means of iron. The great specific gravity of the tin ore, as I haye before remarked, renders it possible with care to subject it to many, - operations in dressing without much waste ; and they are, there- fore, applied until the whole is generally so clean, as to yield a produce of metal equal to from 50 to 75 per cent. In this state they are sold by the miner to the smelter, who determines their value by assaying a sample, carefully taken from the whole quantity. | arte :: oa T _ The furnaces for smelting Mine Tin are all of the common reverberating kind, and are of sufficient size to hold twelve to. sixteen hundred weight of ore. | wp The charge is prepared by mixing it with a proportion of stone coal, or Welch culm, to which is added a moderate quantity of slaked lime ; these are turned over together and moistened with water, which prevents the too rapid. action of the heated furnace, and which would otherwise volatilize some of the metal before fusion commenced. ! EE aon ‘gabe The heat employed is a very strong one, and such as to bring the whole into perfect. fusion; it is continued seven or eight hours, when the charge is ready to draw, . For this purpose, the furnaceis furnished with a tap-hole leading from the lowest part of the bottom, which, during the process, 1s stopped with clay or mortar, and under which is placed an iron kettle to receive the ' metal. .. The furnace has also a door at the end opposite the fire- »place, through which the slag or scoria may be raked. out from ^ j t : í i+ ow Pal a 1822.] Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire. 453 the surface, while the tin is flowing out by unstopping the tap- hole. | : " They are thus divided, and the tin is laded into moulds, so as to form plates of a moderate size, and put by for a further refin- ing. The slag, which rapidly hardens into a mass, is removed to a dressing-floor, where, being broken up and stamped, it is washed, and a quantity of tin taken from it, which is called Prillion, and which is afterwards smelted again. : No operation in smelting is more easy than that practised for tin ores, nor is there any one in which the reasons for the mode of treatment are so obvious. There are but two things to accom- plish in this first process ; to obtain perfect fusion of the earths so as to suffer the metal to separate easily from them, and to decompose the oxide of which the ore uniformly consists. The addition of lime contributes to effect the former, and that of carbonaceous matter or coal completes the reduction of the ore. ‘The separation of the metal from the earths then takes place in the usual way during fusion, by the difference in their specific gravities, the one precipitating to the bottom of the furnace, from whence it is drawn off by the tap-hole, and the other, floating on the surface, is removed in the manner I have described. ui : The plates of tin, which are the produce of this smelting, are somewhat impure, and are more or less so according to the qua- lity of the ore which has been used; they are reserved until a sufficient quantity of them are obtained to proceed with the refining, which is performed either in the same furnace, after ° ore-smelting is finished, or in a similar one, which may be reserved for the purpose. | All the processes for refining metals in the fire müst be per- formed by taking advantage of some property in which the metal operated on may differ from those with which it is alloyed, and which it is intended to separate from it. These differences may consist in the facility or difficulty of oxidation, in their tendency to volatilize, in the temperature required for fusion, or in their relative specific gravitieg. Upon an attention to the two latter circumstances are founded the operation for refining tin. The substances which are most to be suspected in the produce of the first melting, and which it is desirable to separate, will probably be iron, copper, arsenie, tungsten from the wolfram, which the miners call mock-lead, and a portion of undecomposed oxides, sulphurets, or arseniates, and of some earthy matter or slag. : i The furnace for refining is raised but to a very moderate degree of heat, and the plates of tin being placed in it are suf- fered to melt very gradually, and the metal flows from the fur- nace at once into the kettle, which is now kept hot by a small fire placed beneath it. The more infusible substances will now be left in the furnace, and a further purification of the tin is 454 Mr. John Taylor on the Smelting of [Junn, obtained by agitating it in the kettle for some time by an opera- tion which they call tossing: this is performed by a man with a ladle, who continues for some time to take up some. of the melted metal, and pons it back into the kettle from such a height as to stir up the whole mass and put every part into motion. - When this is discontinued, the surface is carefully skimmed, and the impurities thrown upare removed; these consist of such matters as are lighter than the tin, but which are suspended in it, and, being disengaged by the motion, find their way to the top. In general, the metal is at once laded into the moulds, after the tossing and skimming is completed, but the produce of impure and irony ores may yet require that the tin be divided as much as possible from the mixture which may yet remain. This may be effected in a great degree by keeping the mass in the kettle in a melted state, by which the parts which are heavier than the tin will sink to the bottom, and by leaving a proper portion behind, the tin will be materially improved. | The last operation is that of pouring the metal into moulds, which are usually. formed of granite, and which are of such a size as to make it into pieces of somewhat more than three hundred weight each. These are called blocks, and are sent according to the provisions of the Stannary laws, to be coined by the Duchy Officers, and it then comes to market under the name of Block Tin, or a certain part which has been treated with more than common care, is called Refined Tin. The making of Grain Tin from the ores from stream works is conducted in a manner altogether different, and remains to be described. | I have pointed out the purity of these ores, as regards their freedom from a mixture of other metals, and I do not think it important here to describe the mode of separating them by washing from the sand and gravel in which they are found, because the processes are very similar to those in use for dress- ing other ores. The stream tin is generally made very clean, and is carried in this state to be sold for smelting, to establish- ments which are called Blowing-Houses, being thus distinguished from SmeltingHouses in which Mine Tin is reduced, and the term is also descriptive of the process employed. | The reduction of the ores for Grain Tin is performed by biast furnaces, and the only fuel used is charcoal. This mode of smelt- ing is exceedingly simple, and is probably the most ancient one, as would appear from relics sometimes met with of furnaces of rude construction, and in some of which the wind alone seems to have been depended on for urging the fire. | The furnaces now in use are similar to those met with for smelting iron in foundries where the blast is used, and are formed by a in Bay of iron standing upon one end and lined with clay orloam. The upper end is open for receiving the fuel and. ore which are thrown alternately, and a hole at some distance from 1822.] Tin Ores in. Cornwall.and Devonshire. 455 the bottom at the back of the cylinder is provided to admit the blast, and another, lower down and opposite to it, suffers the metal to flow out regularly as it is reduced. A strong blast is kept up by bellows, or, in more improved works, by pistons’ working in cylinders, and the air is conducted by a proper pipe so as to blow into the orifice in the furnace. The only purification it seems to require is to separate from it such substances as are mechanically suspended in it, and for this urpose it is laded into an iron pan or kettle where the fusion is keptup by dag: fire underneath, and a complete agitation of the mass 1s effected by plunging into the melted metal pieces of charcoal, which have been soaked in water, and by means of an iron tool, keeping them at the bottom of the kettle. The water in the. charcoal is rapidly converted into vapour, which rushing through the metal, gives it the appearance of rapid ebullition. After this is over, and the whole has rested some little time, the scum, which is thrown up to the surface, is taken off, and the tin, which is peculiarly brilliant in appearance, is removed by ladles se proper moulds to form the blocks in which it is generally sold. | Grain Tin is, however, sometimes put into a different form by breaking it: for this purpose the blocks are heated to such a degree as is known to render the metal brittle; they are then raised a considerable height from the ground,'and, being suffered to fall, the whole divides into fragments, which assume a very peculiar appearance. m | The smelting by a strong blast is injurious to metals that are volatilizable by heat, as they have in this mode no protection from the slag, which in reverberatine furnaces floats on their surface, and protects them from oxidation and evaporation. The old practice of melting lead in what are called Ore Earths, is, on this account, giving way, and reverberating furnaces are coming into general use, by which the produce of metal from the ore is considerably increased. Tin, though volatile to a certain degree, is not affected by the process in any important manner, but as some flies off in white fumes, it is usual to construct a long horizontal flue, which is made to. communicate with and pass through a kind of chamber, in which a considerable part of these fumes is condensed and collected. | 456 M: Berthier on Two Varieties of — (June, 91 : kit Loin `) d AnriCcLE XIV. Analysis of Two Varieties of Native Carbonate of Manganese» , By M. Berthier. Tue existence of carbonate of manganese has been long since stated by several chemists ; but as some mineralogists still enter- tain doubts on the subject, I think it may be useful to publish the analyses which I have performed. of two minerals that are essentially composed of carbonate of manganese. One of them is from Nagyac, and was sent to me by M. Cordier; and the other, from Freyberg, was brought by M. de Rivero. — = The carbonate of manganese from Nagyae accompanies the ores of gold, tellurium, &c. ; itis very much mixed with lamellar quartz ; it is of a flesh-red colour, and transparent at the edges ; its powder is white; it becomes brown by calcination; it dis- solves in cold nitric acid, with the evolution of carbonic acid gas. The solution gives a yellow precipitate with the hydrosul- phurets, which shows that no iron is present; it does not con- tain the smallest trace of magnesia. agp nm A portion of this mineral was dissolved in nitric acid, 0:21 of uartz remained unacted upon. The manganese was separated rom solution by an hydrosulphuret, and the lime was afterwards 01773083 by an oxalate, the calcined precipitate gave 0:043 of lime. JU | | hi Another portion was treated with pure sulphuric acid, and the residuum was well dried to expel the excess of acid; this resi- duum weighed 1:245; deducting 0:21 of quartz and 0:103 of sulphate of lime which it must contain, there remain 0:932 of of sulphate of manganese, equivalent to 0*443 of the protoxide of this metal. According to these experiments, and determining the quantity of carbonic acid by the deficiency, this mineral is composed of Quarta 0,0014 7 02007 MS UI pits Protoxide of manganese............ Mibi BEES BS 27 4 12 VU Vs | Carbonic acid ..... MUS AUT Which, deducting the quartz, gives : Protoxide of manganese .. ....... d ad... he ck hee ab Sew as 3.2 ca iH No SAT oo MASA a Coos hens M icd MA * From the Annales des Mines, 1822.] » Native. Carbonate of Manganese. 457. Or, Carbonate of manganese.......... .. 0:905 Carbonate of lime! ...... Aise. » s. 0095 1:000 This result may be considered as correct, because, supposing pure carbonate of manganese to contain one proportion of ċar- Lus acid; it does not differ more than 0:005 from that which it really contains. . li The carbonate of manganese from Freyberg occurs abundantly ina copper and lead mine. -Itis amorphous, lamellar, and the lamine are slightly curved. Its colour is flesh-red, -translucid, brittle, easily scratched and powdered. | Besides oxide of manganese, it contains some oxide of iron, lime, and magnesia. These four substances were separated by the usual means, and the quantities of iron, lime, and magnesia, carefully ascertained. : To determine the quantities of manganese and carbonic acid, a portion of the mineral was exposed to heat and air, in order to peroxidize the metals, and afterwards it was strongly heated to expel all the carbonic acid, and to convert the manganese to the state of red oxide; the residuum weighed 0:655, the loss being consequently 0:345. By deducting from the weight of the resi- duum the sum of the weights of the lime, magnesia, and perox- ide of iron, the weight of the red oxide of manganese is ascer- tained, from which that of the protoxide is deduced. ü On the other hand, by adding to the loss of weight by calcina- tion, the weight of the oxygen absorbed by the protoxides of iron and manganese, the proportion of carbonic acid is deter- mined. The results were: Protoxide of manganese............ 0:510 MIMO RING CF IDOE clio cad VIDERER Lg 0:045 . couv AR aya P o dr H PASS PSAL 0:050 s ssl otra 3 EK COR RO PME POTE: 0:008 " Carbonic acid ....... HOHER CODE 0:887 | 1:000 Or, i "I Carbonate of manganese. ,......... 0:822 Carbonate of iion, LARIT p apaq s 0:078 Carbonate of lime. ........ IER. 0:089 Carbonate of magnesia. ............ 0-016 1-000 This analysis agrees perfectly with the theoretical composition of the carbonates of manganese, iron, lime, and magnesia. . I. is quite evident that these four carbonates are merely mixed, but intimately so, in the minerals from Nagyac and Freyberg. 458 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (JUNE, o ARTICLE: XW! 10 sisnodw 9 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. | | April 25.—On the Mechanism of the Spine, by Mr. Earle... Observations on the Eclipse of August, 1821, by Mr. Dawes: . May 2.—On the Nerves which associate the Muscles of the Chest in the Actions of Breathing, Speaking, and Expression, by Charles Bell, Esq. f | A short Account of some Appearances in the Moon on the 24th of April, by Mr. Lawson. r Te May 9.—Experiments and Observations on the: Newry: Pitch- stone, and on the artificial Formation of Pumice, by the Right Hon. J. Knox. b May 16.—On the Changes which the Egg undergoes during Incubation, by Sir E. Home, Bart. ag May 23.—On the Mathematical Laws of Electromagnetism, by P. Barlow, Esq. i . On the Heights of Places in the Trigonometrical Survey, by B. Bevan, Esq. dM GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Feb. 15.—4A brief notice was read, accompanying specimens of rocks from Bermuda, by Captain Vetch, MGS. &e. Mr. Joseph Wood's paper, on the Rocks of Attica, was read. March 1.— An essay on the Geology of Nice, by M. A. Risso, was read. : ; oon Nice, the capital of the Maritime Alps, is placed at the foot of an almost. insulated rock on the shore of the Mediterranean. The tract around the city; which is described in the present paper, is bounded on the west by the river Var, and on the north and east is protected by some of the last ranges of the Alps, and by the calcareous summits on the shore of the Mediterranean. he rocks within this tract are principally composed of lime- stone; but on the west and north-west of Nice, the surface of a ah district consists of clay abounding in siliceous pebbles. The author describes. these rocks in detail, and states their local situation and boundaries. |... . T P The calcareous, tract is composed of three principal varieties of rock : 1. Fine-grained compact limestone, distinguished in the country by the name of Paglione, which is of a bluish-grey colour, and becomes yellowish, and falls to pieces by ra sae It has in some places a granulated appearance, is of difficult solution in nitric acid, 2 not convertible into lime by calci- nation ; it contains the remains of a number of marine organized 1822.] ..» Geological Society. 459 bodies at present unknown in the Mediterranean Sea. 2. The * Calcaire Subalpine” of Brongniart... This rock is generally greyish-white, of various shades ; it is almost entirely soluble in nitric acid, and affords an excellent lime. Near the city, it is stratified ; the beds are inclined at an angle of about 40? with | the horizon, and contain vast rents, crevices, and grottos. It abounds in petrifactions, which are enumerated by the author. 3. A third kind of limestone, incumbent upon those. first men- tioned, is of a grey colour, almost even fracture, and of consider- able specific gravity and hardness. It exhales, when breathed upon, an earthy smell; is partly soluble in nitric acid, and by cal- cination forms a very strong lime. The author considers it as nearly the same with the calp of Ireland, described by Kirwan, and analyzed by the Hon. Mr. Knox. Clay marl, with chlorite (marne chloritée) is placed above the limestones, and from the variety of its characters, and of the containing fossils, appears to have been formed at different epochs: the most ancient is of an olive-green colour; is mixed with grey limestone and chlorite; and is distinguished by the doi abundance of its fossils, which are altogether different rom those contained in the other varieties of marl. The marl (argile calcifére), which succeeds the last mentioned variety, is considered by the author as similar to that which extends from Piedmont to the Appennines; and from thence, without interruption, to Abruzzo and Puglio; and which in the Maritime Alps, obviously lies over the limestone, and descends from north to south, to form the chain of hills extending from Montcao to the sea. It contains shells in great abundance and variety, some having little or no resemblance to species at present known ; while the types of others are found on the adjoining sea. Many of the more recent species resemble those of Grig- non, and appear to have been deposited at the same era. The author describes. several depots of such shells in the vicinity of Nice, and enumerates the species which they respectively con- tain, amounting to more than 200. _ The pebbles (galets) mixed with, or incumbent on, the marl beds, form an extensive deposit, in layers, which generally range from north to south, and are inclined at a small angle with the horizon. The pebbles are composed of several kinds of lime- stone and sandstones, with petrifactions, quartz, greywacke, and various primitive rocks. Another class of substances, or compounds, comparatively recent, but still of prior forma- tion to the latest catastrophe produced by the sea, consists of marble, breccia, puddingstone, sand, and clay. The marble, to which the title of Mediterranean has been given, from the great number of Mediterranean shells which it contains, is a very hard and compact calcareous breccia, either white or coloured. It contains the remains of various mollusce 460 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JuNE, and zoophytes; the shells being in most cases squeezed toge- ther, but in other respects in perfect preservation. (ay The puddingstone consists of clay and sand, cementing rounded gravel and the remains of shells of existing species, almost all broken down, like those on the sea shore after stormy weather, and mixed with bones of quadrupeds and fish. | Of breccia, several varieties are found in the vicinity of Nice. The most ancient somewhat resembles the nagelflue of Switzer- land, and is found above the Alpine and Subalpine limestones. The most recent breccia has a cement of the Mediterranean limestone, or of reddish clay, and sometimes contains shells and fragments of the bones of various quadrupeds and of birds. A third variety of breccia contains only the remains of land shells; and a fourth, resembling that of Gibraltar, fills a cavern in the compact limestone, and contains the remains of bones, teeth, and horns, much broken down, and so much decomposed as to retain their form and cohesion only by means of the cement which unites them. | A very extensive deposition of whitish sea sand is found on the south side of the Bay of Villa-Franca beneath a reddish soil of several metres in thickness ; and the author enumerates nearly 200 species of shells collected at this place. A deposi- tion still more recent consists of argillo-calcareous earth of various shades of red, grey, and white; and immediately above it is the vegetable soil. The author infers from the facts now stated, that the sea has been the sole agent in producing the various appearances and combinations of mineral substances, which he has described ; and he concludes by stating his opinions as to the nature and progress of the marme agency which has produced or modified the deposition of the several rocks, and of the fossil remains which they contain. March 15.—A notice on the Rocks of Attica, by Joseph Woods, Esq. MGS. was concluded. Attica isa promontory bounded on two sides by the sea, and divided from the remainder of the Grecian continent by a range of mountains, the highest point of which, the ancient Parnes, may be about 4000 feet above the sea. ithin the triangular space thus defined are also numerous mountains very irregularly disposed. The basis of all the coun- try appears to consist of primary rocks, principally of mica slate, with granular limestone of several varieties; these constitute the greater part of many of the mountains, and appear in the plains wherever the rock is exposed to a sufficient depth. ⁄ Above the primary rocks is a conglomerate, consisting of pri- mary substances, imbedded in calcareous paste which contains magnesia. series of calcareous rocks, including a compact limestone 1822.] | Geological Society. 461 of a splintery fracture, of various shades of grey and buff, forms the mass and superior parts of the range of hills which divides the plain of Athens. — | The hills of the Pirceus and Munychia are composed of a soft calcareous stone containing- magnesia, and including organic remains. nf April 19.—A letter. was read from Sir Alexander Crichton, accompanying a specimen of fossil shells from the neighbour- hood of Tunbridge Wells. ) | | - The basis of the country around Tunbridge Wells is well known to be composed of ferruginous sandstone, and it would appear that the remains of organized bodies are very rarely found in it. The specimen presented by Sir Alexander Crichton occurred in a quarry on the side of the Groombridge road, adjoining the property of Mr. Powell. The petrifactions which they contain are described as “ occupying small cavities in the Sandstone róck, which are filled with ovate-shaped masses of ironstone, apparently composed of sand and clay, and the casts of shells." agi ite ( The blocks of stone split easily, and on the surface thus dis- closed exhibit innumerable fine casts of shells, but in no instance have any remains of the shells themselves been found. The author states various considerations to account for the appear- ances and situation of these remains. Sir Alexander Crichton subjoins a statement that in sinking a well recently at Tunbridge Wells, coal was met with at the depth of 50 or 60 feet from the surface; the larger, however, was so thin that it was not expected to be useful. A letter was read from the Rev. John Rogers, of Exeter, con- taining a sketch of the Geology of Haldon Hill. The road from Exeter towards Elphinstone, for the first mile and a half, consists of alluvial soil, containing silicious and argil- laceous.pebbles ; to this, red marl succeeds, which is continued to within a quarter of a mile of the summit of Haldon Hill. The beds dipping NE. and NW. at angles of 5? to 10? with the hori- zon. The construction of the new road between Exeter and Chudleigh has recently afforded a very distinct section of some of the rocks, of which Haldon Hill near its summit is composed. Ascending the hill, the road is cut chiefly through the red marl, which, near the top, contains pieces of rolled granite, and of claystone porphyry of several varieties... These, with other Substances, form a sort of bed, from six to twelve inches thick, in which the porphyry predominates; and about a quarter of à mile from the bi hest point of the hill, the red marl is succeeded by a bed of sello sand; the junction being abrupt, without waving or intermixture. Above this sand, on every part of Haldon examined by the writer, a bed of flints was found. . Above the junction, the sand is traversed by an irregular bed of yellowish-grey sandstone, which, in some places, assumes a 462 Scientific Titelligence. [Jus e, I vitreous quartzose’ aspect, and an olive-green colour, approach- ing that of some varieties of pitchstone ; the sand. contains TUN ments of Hells and corallines in considerable quantity. at ^ arr - i; E PLS O16929 We. defer a further account: of th T dine of this Society fill the appearance of a new Part of their Transactions, which is now in the press, and will be published ` in a few weeks, This part wi Wi comta in addition. to the papers of which an account has been already given in this journal, a memoir, “ On, e Excavation of Valleys by diluvian Action, as illustrare by a ccession. of Valleys. eye intersect the South Coast o rset and Devon,” with a Map. and. Views, by the Rev. W. Buckland, Professor of Geology in: th University of Oxford, &c. Ke. ; pe and 4 "Additio nal Notices. on the Fossil Genera Icthy Osaurus and Plsiosaurs,” with several Plates, by th UIT: : Conybeare, We have gteat pleasure 3 in Pen our ^ Hüdüfs that. the price of the Geological Transactions will in future be NU TM reduced; the Societ ahanné; recently. taken upon itself expense. and risk of the publ ication, and consulted economy by the em of a p a M and the substitution of aede peni r engravinge on copper, d ro ota UE. E) "n I Í ‘ts I $5 ; [ í j TE i " f g Í rs E i ee arar ian 1^5» é > . oe G Í d Ea l p XVI. -SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND. NOTICES or SUBJECTS CONNECTED WIRE, SCIENCE. I. ramet 1 ¿n Dr. ‘Thomson’ $ “Paper «e On certain Sula. Solutions “which : may be ‘cooled, 8c? "d (To the Editor.of the "emi of dici inii DEAR SIR, | In the printing of a paper of mine “On certain Saline Solutions which may be ‘cooled, &c." inserted in the Annals of Philosophy, vol. ili. p. 169, a mistake has been committed of such magnitude. as to render the paper nearly unintelligible. -On that. account, I think it necessary to point itout to the attention of the reader. The error is this :—A pretty long paragraph T ought to have followed. the word water, at the bottom 'of p. 170; has, by some strange mistake, been inserted at the end of the paper. The portion of the paper at present at the end, and beginning with, * It will appear from what fo sil inline 25, p. 174, should be placed at the bottom of p. 170. ~ am, dear Sir, yours truly, | Tuomas Tirossow. ieibh (93 1822.) Scientific Intelligence. 468. dn! It D^ Sb ud Foren a x TNAM Í te} mu : Sou in deci Jos: Composition of Formic Acid... 00005 "Dr. Gobel saturated distilled formic acid with oxide of lead, and. found thát the formate of lead contained 24«5 per cent. of formic acid: In heating 10 grains of formate of lead with black oxide of copper in. a glass tube, he obtained 5*4 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, which,. according to the state of barometer and thermometer; were: equal to- 2922 grains of carbonic acid = 0-792 grains of.carbon. The glass: tube weighed after the experiment 3°55 grains less than before, which. would make the water amount to'0*68 grain — 0:0755 grains of hydio-. Eee c ósition'of 245 grains of formic acid will, therefore, be s. tou? 2103 10 &q01D wolk ñ wiih: rover nli sie. edidi D moBulos 5d: ,ARDGBni sodrai uow dion oiim 10:7 94. tlestog io Jtoqxo zidit o Ely Qgeh now. ios: to pop v» tod ORTA. nisus 10q6q eum) ORNYBOD veh (enm 0 toos ta eli B, uui f — ' 911: .1u0105 aif hagas ni sor hat bim H : anaisrogorg jira wip ru bazim taiba bids giorigi 2:450. 33 w The formate of lead is composed of — . . | | TW BIOS 2129 04048 Ade ef lead. P2099 001. BOMSIO otislon A af Wr * pit 1 atom fortaie acids. 9.1.20 79409005 dis bariz 7003 35505 oat water Eai TRIA 279/02 BAG a Das siestog : QJUJLIZOHA BR 8O Z ° FAG (l: lw 23541 . ! sad lento W085i saok bor nade "SCR eum 4 Non GL TQ lailogle tit 131319 J 38 SbLoeeocd EO? P i One atom of formie acid = 34:9 must, therefore, be composed of ` ` joas vd. beu po giii nisya sw upoIqa sasali | ‘ne i Hydrogen ,..... 72 eee ee ...... 1'06- i ; OURO oben Od 10.910011 961 YO bodobboggug ir 1 bs TIGR OOO I oati eiswiofis auld je yr eor n T TNR UIIOD 10 sai Derrotar Po rMbeBtrscarr Í y Í Which is‘equivaten tte 0 102215 201 10 Tuotosssgaasib sili bey | +. 2 atoms of oxide of carbon...... 264 j 1 atom water ...... E . A na d . Á. V d 8-45- X198 0 SOO THE MEH I 1 } I ! 11 Trà At efer; ' UV Dib I oim jog tstiw Dir sit LE L “4125215 atti A j à * " gh , 5 GLiU i GERA Ga Meteo Lb " j H1 * «= r ñ ^if i " tric | ! ! ‘Q coidipissrim oa 200 sd adogolhaA Saole ‘ain tM ddow c! According to Dr. Thomson’s numbers; formate of lead would be composed ok x qz3.9 í Ha 9191 | | ."" "ratón 6kide»of leado has 01:5 212-112 -! « W atom’ formié acids)... uui np. 1 87 oy, l8tomwater........ e enne 9. VV 2271312 1 IDE «5 . 2 : ^ B 1 1 nonas $ and the formig acid composed of. ' 4 1) A 2 atoms of oxide of carbon,........... 28 katqi. OF WAGE. a) role sui ean commi uo ' ALE: Effects of Boracic Acid. on the Acidulous Fluates of Potash, &e, ^ Dr. Zeise being engaged in some experiments on the fluoboric acid, 2nd on the fluoborates of the alkalies, observed that a solution of fluate 464 Scientific Intelligence. [JuNE, of potash in which the acid was in excess, might be rendered alkaline by the addition of boracic acid. He dissolved carbonate of potash in fluoric acid, and used so much of the acid that the solution reddened litmus paper very sensibly, and the free acid did not disappear even when the. solution had been kept boiling for a quarter of an ex When boracic acid that had been melted, dissolved in water and crystallized again, was added, it easily dissolved. | Now a solution of litmus showed much. less acid thanbefore. After the addition of a new quantity of boracic: acid, no trace of free acid could be found by litmus ; and after a fresh. addition of boracic acid, the solution exhibited the. appearances of alkali; fora solution of litmus reddened by the above-mentioned fluate of potash became blue when mixed with a few drops of this solution, When the quantit of boracic acid was further increased, the solution became again acid. Not a trace of acid-was ‘lost during this experi- ment under the form of vapour or gas; for moistened litmus paper laced above the liquid had not in the least changed its colour. Pure llaoric acid and pure boracic acid, when mixed in different proportions, never showed any similar appearance, nor was it expected. ^ ^ > A solution of litmus reddened by.a solution of boracic acid was mixed with another solution of litmus reddened by acidulous fluate of potash, and a blue colour instantly appeared. The same effect took place when ammonia or soda was substituted for potash. Litmus paper, when reddened by the bifluate of potash, became red when put into a solution of boracic acid, either in alcohol or in water. Litmus paper reddened by boracic acid was turned blue by the acidulous fluate of potash, and the blue colour was again changed to red by another acid. e a aes an ok | vas Syrup of violets reddened by the fluate of potash became, on addi- tion of boracic acid, first blue, afterwards green. Turmeric paper and logwood paper suffered corresponding changes of colour, so that all e proved the disengagement of the alkali by the addition of boracic acid. | Apr io ig This very curious observation of Dr. Zeise seems clearly to prove that the fluoboric acid neutralizes less alkali than any one of its consti- tuent parts would saturate alone. Analogous, but not so remarkable, is the i bedt", aa x acid which neutralizes only as much of a base, as each of its component acids neutralizes separately. TM [Many of the facts here stated may be explained by Mr. Faraday’s discovery, that boracic acid reddens turmeric paper.—£ait. ] (See Institution Journal, vol, 6, p. 152; and vol. 11, p. 403.) IV. Analysis-of Lepidolite. By Dr. C. G. Gmelin and Winz. Gmelin some time since observed, that the lepidolite from Utoén, when treated with carbonate of barytes, had acted upon the platinum of the crucible, he therefore suspected it to contain lithia, and found it in the following way : He boiled finely powdered lepidolite with sul- phuric acid to dryness, and dissolved the residuum in water, By slow evaporation, fine crystals of alum were obtained. "The remaining solu- tion was saturated with carbonate of ammonia, and after the removal of the precipitate, evaporated, and the salt heated to redness. "The sulphate was dissolved, and after having deposited some traces of manganese, it was mixed with hydrosulphuret of ammonia, the excess of which was removed by heating the liquid, The sulphate was then i 1822. — Scientific Intelligence. ! 465 k decomposed by;acetate of barytes, the acetate evaporated, and by heat ¿converted into earbonate. All the lithia and potash were dissolved by repeated, boiling in water, the solutions evaporated to dryness, and the residuum was repeatedly washed with cold water to remove the potash, so that lithia only remained. — _ ! i Dr. Gmelin found that muriate of lithia gives a beautiful purple colour to the flame of burning alcohol. The sulphate does the same when first dissolved in water, and then thrown down by pure alcohol; the alcohol burns with a purple flame, and of course no strontian could be present in this experiment. The flame with lithia from lepidolite from Rozena, in Morayia, had green edges like that of the borates. Lithia of the lepidolite from Utoén exhibited this phenomenon much less distinctly. | ý V. Analysis of the Red Lepidolite from Moravia. It had been. ascertained previously that this mineral, besides lithia 2R potash, contained silica, alumina, oxide of manganese, and fluoric acid. | | In order to determine the quantity of fluoric acid, 30 parts of lepi- dolite were mixed with 100 parts of dry carbonate of soda, and kept red-hot during an hour. The fused mass was repeatedly boiled with water, until the water showed no trace of an alkali, Carbonate of ammonia was now mixed with the solution, and while slowly evaporat- ing, a small quantity of the same salt was occasionally added. Silica and alumina fell down, and were separated by a filter. The liquid, after having been saturated with muriatic acid, was kept warm for some time to expel the carbonic acid, which the water might have dis- solved, and then mixed with pure ammonia and muriate of lime in a well-stopped vial. A white bulky precipitate appeared; it was washed with the same precautions against the influence of carbonic acid, and, when dried, weighed 9:77 parts. Sulphuric acid occasioned the appearance of copious vapours, that had the smell of fluoric acid, and which corroded glass. a | Fluoric and phosphoric acid being so frequently associated in nature, some experiments were made to detect the latter acid. By exposure to heat, the fluoric and free sulphuric acid were expelled, and when the alcohol was poured on the remaining sulphate of lime, and after- ward evaporated, there remained a substance which, after fusion, had a emm appearance, which deliquesced when exposed to the air, and was dissolved with the greatest facility in pure water : in this solu- tion, limewater caused a white precipitate. 1t was, therefore, phos- phoric acid, and» the phosphate of lime weighed 0:06 part, which, deducted from the above quantity, leaves 3°71 of fluate of lime; accord- gin to Berzelius, equal to 0:1033 of fluoric acid, or 3°44 per cent. The phosphate of lime contained 0:00337 of phosphoric acid, or 0:112 per cent. Thirty parts of lepidolite, fused in the usual way with potash, dis- solved in muriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, and washed, gave 14°717 silica, or 49°06 per cent. The liquid that held the soluble parts in solution was mixed with excess of pure potash, and almost the whole of the precipitate, which appeared at first, was redissolved. The alka- line solution, when neutralized with muriatic acid, and precipitated by carbonate of ammonia, gave 10°08 alumina = 33°61 per cent ; and the New Series, vou. 111, 2n 466 Scientific Intelligence. [JuNE, remaining liquid not giving any precipitate by evaporation, there could have been no glucina in the mineral. ‘The powder which remained undissolved by the potash consisted of 0°408 per cent. magnesia, and 1:402 per cent. oxide of manganese, with a trace of oxide of iron. >- These two analyses give, therefore, the following results: ` Silica i. exe ze ow AMNES TE 49:06 Alumina u. d raris dis dno eS 33°61 Magnesia ...... sce eee erre es e. 0408 Oxide of manganese. ............ 4... 1:402 Oxide of iron . z 509 Zes yi did IV ÑAWI Trace Fluoric acid ........ NEUF TUNER 944. . Phosphoric acid. ............ e... 0122 88:042 š Sonnerie in order to ascertain the quantity of the alkaline odies. "puyta Sixty parts of lepidolite, mixed with 240 of carbonate of barytes, were kept red-hot for two hours. . The mass was dissolved in muriatic acid, the barytes thrown down by sulphuric acid, and at last sufficient carbonate of ammonia was added to precipitate all the earths and metallic. oxides which had been dissolved. When the solution was afterwards evaporated, and the salt heated, there remained 12-7 of a sulphate. It still contained some oxide of manganese, and to remove that, it was dissolved in water, and then mixed with hydrosulphuret of ammonia. Now the alkaline sulphate still weighed 12°36 parts, and by muriate of platinum, there was obtained 3°5165 potash = 6:503 sulphate of potash, so that there remained for the sulphate of lithia 5°857 parts. However, after having removed all platinum from the solution, there remained 7*7 parts of pure sulphate of lithia, which Dr. Gmelin considers as the correct quantity, it being difficult to free the triple muriate of potash and platinum by washing, from all muriate of platinum. It is, therefore, probable, that the quantity of sulphate of potash is too great, and that it would only be 0:466 = 0°251965 pot- ash, or 4:1866 per cent. e, Ae Tas Supposing 100 parts of sulphate of lithia to contain. 27:99 lithia, the quantity of lithia would amount to 3:592 per cent.: 100 parts lepi- dolite lost in the fusion, in a yiolent heat, 1:947 per cent. which, besides water, certainly consisted of fluoric acid and silica. The composition of lepidolite is, therefore, | | E BSHIOB VL eu: | fin OR apogr 49*06 Atawhai 33. P14 int ot es 33°61 Magia? P EU EE T cele, 0'408 Oxide of manganese. .......... 1:402 ` Oxide of tron GNA ¿pu llo; QR Trace Fluoric acid). ......... LL... eee 7n Phosphoric acid .......... .... 0:112 Pottok CA apa PPPOE S.L, 20027 EO Lithiai 4/0124 198,2, 00 15 3:599 ` Water and loss... ...... ...... 4:190 15 IE .:1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 467 An analysis was made expressly for the purpose of ascertaining whe- ther lime existed in the mineral, and in that case, the fluoric acid, perhaps, might be combined with it, as Vauquelin supposes ; but not a trace of lime was found. In a comparative analysis of the lepidolite from Utoén, there was found 1:482 per cent. of fluoric acid, and 0°7508 of phosphoric acid, and the mineral appeared to be mixed with quartz, upon which the greater hardness depends. | | Ros had discovered fluoric acid in the white mica, and MM. Gme- lin and Winz found, in mica from Braddbo, near Fahlun, in Sweden, 1:9512 per cent. fluoric acid, but no phosphoric acid. Sulphate of lithia from the lepidolite, according to an analysis by acetate of barytes, consisted of Per cent. Sulphuric acid. ...... idt. ed. v dia 12:59 EUR TI III er rA ILIA 27°48 i 100:00 According to an analysis by means of acetate of lead : Per cent. Sulphuric acid. ................ 71°60 KAME So. VI Les vaa a .. 100:00 It appeared, therefore, highly probable, that Arfwedson and Gmelin had overlooked another substance in the alkali of the petalite. In repeating the analysis of petalite, Dr. Gmelin obtained soda. Arfwedson found sulphate of lithia composed of. Sulpliürié'acidi: 1111.5. 22h as 028865 kW. pn. SOC LER 592 $1*85 VI. Dr. Gmelin on the Tourmaline from Karingsbrakka, in Sweden. When Dr. Gmelin was at Stockholm in 1816, he analyzed the tour- maline from Karingsbrakka, but had a loss of more than 10 per cent. At that time he could not find boracic acid, though he had directed his attention to it. The great loss made him afterwards repeat his analysis; but still he had a considerable deficiency, though not so great as formerly. He heated the powdered tourmaline in the usual way with carbonate of barytes, dissolved in muriatic acid, and obtained silica in the ordinary mode. 5 He threw down all barytes from the solution by sulphuric acid, neu- iralized the excess of acid afterwards with pure ammonia, and precipi- tated the iron and alumina by carbonate of ammonia, and separated these two substances from each other by potash. The magnesia remained as a triple salt in the solution, which now was evaporated.to:dryness, and heated red-hot, dissolved again in water, when a small quantity of silica remained. The liquid was then decomposed by acetate of barytes, filtered, evaporated, and the salt heated, The dry mass was washed with water to dissolve the alkaline | 2n2 -468 Scientific Intelligence. | (June, . bodies, and there remained carbonate of barytes and magnesia, which again were dissolved by muriatic acid, mixed with sulphuric acid, filtered, .evaporated, and heated, and the quantity of magnesia ascertained. | ; The alkaline solution, after having been neutralized with sulphuric acid, was evaporated; during the evaporation, some crystals of boracic acid appeared which were easily dissolved. by alcohol. The solution of the alkaline sulphate showed. by its crystallization .that it contained potash and soda; the presence of the latter was also clearly shown when the sulphate was converted into a carbonate, and neutralized with bitartrate of potash. Beautiful crystals of tripletar- rate of potash and soda appeared. Dr. Gmelin recommends this method to ascertain the presence of soda in the alkalies from minerals. This tourmaline was found to be composed of BUM. co Mie ee ua r AEA a imi 38:92 , oracio Biss uo diii d RN 0:60 nAlugina. . ..4...... bie kie ele os 99:24 Oxide oL irons «us ¿yy nd) kas 1:20 : Maggnesido oi. 14 VUL t 22 9:80 Potash and soda.. .............. 2:53 Lai by héat.. kuus 2e o4 m. «yas. QOS | 92:32 A direct analysis by sulphuric acid gave: filiu. isdt Tolu al 353 04949 Botacic acid); ui doneu zo 1 0:00 Alina; souk c. uds tur ia 209.89 Oxideof ironiuas oldUlio cq. a MEEDENA. 4s $ u. l r T eq. Ka pe SUPR 8:47 Potash and soda . .. ;.:......... 2:42 93:62 - The quantity of boracic acid was not ascertained in thelatter analysis, and the greater quantity of silica may be easily explained; by a ‘small quantity of undecomposed mineral, and partly by the decomposi- tion of a minute portion of glass. 01 n To explain the unusually great loss, Dr. Gmelin tried the tourmaline with oxide of copper,, but no trace of carbonic acid appeared. He ‘thought it possible that some earth in the tourmaline might in this combination contain more oxygen than usual ; therefore, he boiled the powder with concentrated sulphurie acid; but no air, except that of the vessels, appeared. It remains, therefore, still dubious what this sub- istance is which escapes during the analysis, but it may be partly boracic acid, all methods for determining its quantity in minerals being «deficieht.. Dr. Gmelin proposes as the best method, to heat tourma- dine with carbonate of soda, dissolve in water, to precipitate vall.the earths by carbonate of ammonia, to saturate the solution perfectly: by = acid, and then to precipitate the boracic acid: with nitrate o dedui 5:3 e vigetih of istew ctw borlanw ar) eda ae oma AiG 1822.] Scientific: Intelligence. . 469* VII. Lampic Acid. In the 6th vol. of Institution Journal, Mx. Daniell published an account of the acid formed by the slow combustion .of ether, and which, for reasons that are well known, he denominated lampic acid....; The circumstances under which this acid is generated, connected ` with the fact that a given weight of it combined with: barytes, yielded almost precisely the same quantity of sulphate of bary- tes, as would be given by an equal weight of acetate of barytes, induced me to suspect that the acid in question was not a peculiar, but merely acetic acid; the difference depending upon an ad- mixture of ether. Mr. Daniell has since repeated and published the results of his experiments.—(lnstitution Journal, vol. 12, p. 64.) Several of these I had an opportunity of witnessing, and was cer- tainly persuaded that my first impression was erroneous, and that the compound possessed such properties, as entitled it to be considered as a peculiar acid. By continuing aud varying his experiments, Mr. Daniell has, however, arrived at the conclusion, that the acid formed: during the combustion of the ether is, in fact, the acetic; but com-- bined with a substance ofa highly disoxygenizing nature, different from ether, and of a resinous quality, and which Mr. Daniell considers to be acompound of hydrogen, carbon, and azote, and he has named it hydro carburetof azote. It appears to consist nearly of . 4 atoms of carbon. . .... ial aen d fo bs 30:0 . 1 atem of azote)... seoses. oh Piu fs: T3 1latoms of hydrogen................ 145 | ( Edit.) Dr. Macartney, of the Dublin University, has for some time em- ployed a solution of alum and nitre, for the purpose of preserving . anatomical preparations. He finds that it preserves the natural ap- pearances of most parts of the body, more completely than spirits, or any other fluid heretofore used. The proportions of the alum and nitre, and the strength of the solution require to be varied according to circumstances; and in order thoroughly to impregnate the anatomi- cal preparation, the liquor must be for some time occasionally re- newed. The solution possesses such antiseptic powers, that the most putrid and offensive animal substances are rendered perfectly free from foetor by it in a few days.—(Med. Rep. xvii. p. 169.) | 77 1X. Native Nitrate of Soda. M. Mariano de Rivero states that a bed of nitrate of soda, several feet thick, and more than 40 leagues in length, has been discovered in Tarapaca, a district of Peru. In some places, the bed appears at the surface; it is sometimes in a crystalline state, but most frequently mixed’ with clay and sand; it is deliquescent, and suffers the same changes in the fire as nitrate of potash. The place where it occurs 1s- three days' journey from Conception, a port of Chili, and from Iquiqui, another port, situate in the southern part of Peru. More than 60,000 quintals have been already brought there for sale.— (Ann. de Mines.) 470: Scientific Intelligence. [JuN&, X. Quantity of Copper raised in Cornwall. In Six Months, ending June 30, 1821. The produce of 64 mines, of which the following are the six princi- pal ones, viz. Ore. Cops. DOICOREE a's sss de ce "wt; 5679 tons 405 tons United Mines.............. 4199 394 ' Wheal Abraham, &c......... 4592 330 Treskerby eke as tice. Cre o's 2497 258 = Consolidated Mines. ........ 2508 207 Pemprone O et OOS .... 1698 136 21103 1725 58 other mines ......... v.. 294927. 2082 46030 3807 Produce of the ore, 84 per cent. á Price of copper, 1077. 6s. per ton. In Six Months ending Dec. 1821. -The produce of 74 mines, of which the following are the six princi- pal ones, viz. Ore. Copper. Consolidated Mines. ........ 6089 tons 540 tons United: Mimah S yuqa ss 5191 487 Doléolihuci idi ud ibob RR 5557 395 Wheal Abraham............ 4417 342 Pembroke tuy aaa lion 2079 190 Bast Crimes: 664i IPE d 1512 188 24845 21429 68 other mines............ 27553 2565 52398 4707 General Return of Copper raised in Great Britain and Ireland. One Year ending June, 182]. Tons. cwt. qr. lbs. Cornwall. ian saene maisha has 7764 15 1. 11 Anglesea, about. ............ 500 00 O0 Devon. i. Jaladi redi Y els 476 00 O Ireland, Wales, Starehe, i Scotland, NE ERN. a i», 420. |, 81. 2:20 9480 17 3 2T ` For similar statements for panai periods, see Annals te Philoso- phy, vol. i. New Series, p. 394. 19215 New Scientific Books. 47L ArticLe XVII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS JUST PUBLISHED. A. Practical Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron, and its Application in the Construction of Buildings and Machines. "With new Experi- ments, Tables, &c. Illustrated by Four Engravings. By Thomas -Tredgold, Civil Engineer. 8vo. 10s. | ` Lectures on the Elements of Botany. Part I. containing the Ana- tomy and Physiology of those Organs on which the Growth and Pre- servation ofthe Plant depend ; with Explanations of the Terminology connected with these Parts. Illustrated by Marginal Cuts and Copper Plates. By Anthony Todd Thomson, FLS. MRCS. &c. 8vo. A Case of Transverse Section of the Patella, in which perfect Osseous Union was procured; with Observations. By George Field~ ing, MRCS. &c. 1s. | A New and Classical Arrangement of the Bivalve Shells of the Bri- tish Islands. By W. Turton, MD. 4to. Twenty Plates drawn and coloured from Original Specimens in the Author's Cabinet. 4⁄4. - The Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex. By Gideon Mantell, FLS. MGS. FRCS. Royal 4to. With 42 Plates. 3/. 8s. x The Naturalist’s Guide for collecting and preserving all Subjects of Natural History and Botany; intended for the Use of Students and Travellers. By W. Swainson, FRS. & FLS. 12mo. With Two Plates. ` 5s. 6d. % | ARTICLE XVIII. NEW PATENTS. G. H. Palmer, Royal Mint, for improvements in the production of heat, by the application of well-known principles not hitherto made use of in the construction of furnaces of steam-engines and of air-fur- naces in general, whereby a considerable saving of fuel is obtained, and the total consumption of smoke may be effected.—Feb. 12. J.F. Smith, Esq. Dunston-hall, Chesterfield, for improvements in dressing of piece goods made from silk or worsted, or of both these materials.— Feb. 12. | S. Davis, Upper East Smithfield, for an improvement upon the lock for guns, &c, enabling the lock to be used upon the percussion princi- pe or with gunpowder, without charging the lock or hammer.— eb. 12. : T. Brunton, Commercial-road, for improvements upon the anchor. —Feb. 12. E, Peck, Liverpool, for machinery to be worked by water, applica- 472 New Patents. ~ (June, ble to the moving of mills, &c. or for forcing or pumping water. Com- municated to him by R. Bulkley, a foreigner.—Feb. 22. W. E. Cochrane, Esq. Somerset.street, Portman-square, for im- provements in the construction of lamps, whereby they are rendered capable of burning concrete oils, animal fat, and other similar sub- stances.— Feb. 23. W. Prickle, Mark-lane, for improvements in machinery for cutting out irregular forms in wood, &c. Communicated to him by J. P. Boyd, of Boston, in America.—March 2. ; J. Higgins, Esq. Fulham, for improvements upon the construction of carriages.— March 2. ; C. Yardley, Camberwell; for manufacturing glue from bones, by means of steam.—March 2. l J. Thompson, Regent-street, Westminster, for an improvement in the: method of preparing steel for the manufacture of springs for carriages, —March 2. ansa J. Ruthven, Edinburgh, for a new method of procuring mechanical power.—March 2. G. Stratton, Hampstead-road, for an improved process of consuming smoke.—March 2. | J. Gladstone, Liverpool, for a chain of a new and improved con- struction.—March 12. R. B. Bate, Poultry. for improvements upon hydrometers and sac- charometers.—March 21. W. E. E. Conwell, Ratcliff Highway, for an improvement in the preparation of a purgative vegetable oil—March 21. S. Robinson, Leeds, for improvements on a machine for shearing and cropping woollen cloth.— March 21. x . Stephenson, Long Beaton, Northumberland, for improvements in steam-engines.— March 21. _ R. S. Harford, Ebro Vale Ironworks, for an improvement in the heating processes in the manufacture of malleable iron.—March 21. W. Church, Nelson-square, for an improved apparatus in printing. —March 21. | > A. Clarke, Esq. Dron, Louchars, for an improvement in the boilers and condensers of steam engines.—March 21. W. Pride, Uley, Gloucestershire, engineer, for a selfregulating M for spooling and warping woollen, or other warps or chains. . —April. 16. ! ! . Daniell, Abocarne, Monmouthshire, manufacturer of iron, for certain improvements in the rolling of iron into bars, used for manu- facturing tin plates.—4A pril 16. B. Cook, Birmingham, patent tube manufacturer, for a certain mix- ture, or preparation, which may be used with advantage in preventing | the damage of accident from fire.— April 16. | | J. Grimshaw, Bishopwearmouth, Durham, ropemaker, for à method ofstitching, lacing, or manufacturing, flat ropes by means of certain rotative machinery worked by a steam-engine.—A pril 16. 1822.] Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal; ^ 473° ARTICLE XIX. METEOROLOGICAL "TABLE. ip Baromerer,| THERMOMETER, Daniell’s hyg. 1822, Wind. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Evap. |Rain.| at noon. 4th Mon | April 1| N 30:4530:57| 58 37 — |> 16 -> QIN . E|30:43/30:37] 55 33 — yo 20 3N Wj30:4330'29| 55 36 — 12 AN W({30:29/30°17| 56 44 — 5 5|N ^Wij3017|]30'01| 52 41 — GIN W!I30:05380:01 54 35 — 17 7| N |30:1930'05 54 30 50 SIN . E|30:16,30:12| 52 27 e 02 18 9N E/30-15|30°13) 51 28 — |= 15 10N _E/30°15/30°13) 49 33 — | — 15 11| E {30°13/29°87| 50 39 — 06 19| E |29-98/29°86} 55 40 | — 1:55 5' 13/S W|30:12/29:98| 59 39 — 03 9 44/5 X E/30°12/30°08) 65 48 56 | ; 15IN E30:'0830:06 66 48 sae TT 199 9 16N —_E}30°06|30°03} 59 46 — 03 8 17S ` E/30°03/29-78| 58 45 | — |— 9 18 NN 129:81/|9978|. 56 39 m 15 6 19| Var. |29°81/29°81} 58 38 — 18, 9 20S W)j?981|29'72| 59 44, — 08 16 21S. Ej2972|29:49| -62 47 — 18} 29| S |292492944 60 39 — 06 7 23S W|29'70|99:40| 58 Al — 03 4 24,5 WI209:7029:65 60 A7 52 | 10 13 95S W.|29.93/99:65| 62 41 — 02 11 26S W|30:0829'93| 60 45 — 04 97 S 130:31/3008| 63 51 — 08 3 98| S 180-3113030} 68 42 — 01 29| E |3030/3025| 66 40 a 30 E |80°36/30°30} 68 39 35 17 50'45/29-40! 68 27 1°93 | 2°44 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. . the result is included in the next following observation. A..dash denotes that v 474 Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. [Ju Nz, 1822. REMARKS. Fourth Month.—1. Bleak. 2. A very cold wind all day: a lunar halo in the even- ing. 3. Fine: lunar corona. 4. Fine. 5, Fine. 6, Cloudy and fine. 7. Fine. 8. Fine, with occasional clouds: some hail about four, p. m. 9. White frost: fine. 10. Bleak: slight hail showers. 11. Very cold wind: cloudy. 19. Stormy. 13. Cloudy. 14, Fine. 15. Cloudy morning: rainy afternoon and night. 16. Showery and fine at intervals. 17. Cloudy. 18. Rain, 19. Gentle showers =” hail in the evening. 20. Cloudy; fine. 21. Fine. .22. Cloudy morning: fine afternoon, 23, Showery.- 24, Showery. 25. Showery. 26. Fine: windy. 27. Rain. 98, 29, 30. Fine. RESULTS. Winds: N,3; NE, 6; E, 4; SE, 3; $,3; SW, 65 NW, 4; Var. 1. Rennen Mean height For the “775 deacon m os] Appi: ri d AS MR 30-022 inches. For the lunar period, ending the 14th. eren rns. 90:169 For 12 days, ending the Ist (moon north), .......... 30-146 . For 15 days, ending the 16th (moon south) .. ........ 30-190 For 12 days, ending the 28th (moon north) . ......:. 99:822 Thermometer: Mean height For the month... .. 1... .. .... e. d A Wu ANC: 49-1669 For the lunar period. .. .. . . .. ... « eee eese nenne 417183 For 30 days, the sun in Aries... sovecseeceeen cose ATBIO Evaporation. ee eee eee Q eee. o... ..... 1 ke a aY jx FR 1-93 in. MEE n 40 cibittntlas ob abandon inchs sd cadads 2040s aN ENS ATA eeeer eevee 9:44 -ie Laboratory, Stratford, Fifth Month, 95, 1802. ` `R. HOWARD: INDEX. —— À CID, arsenious, specific gravity of, 392. boracic, specific gravity of, 392. —— boracic, effects of, on acidulous . fluates of potash, &c. 463. formic, composition of, 463. lampic, 469, oxalic, composition of, 315. - sulphurie, quantity contained in alum, 163. - Adams, Mr. J. rules and examples for the perpetual renewal of leases, 12— demonstration of a proposition from Simson's Euclid, 105— on right angled triangles, 422. Alderson, Lieut, on Congreve rockets, 138. Alpnach, slide of, Prof. Playfair’s account of, 393. Alum, analysis of, 162, 168. Alumina, on the atomic weight of, 161. — Specific gravity of, 392. Analysis of brass, 325. — of inalacolit, 104. — of steinhetit, 102. — of variegated copper ore, 81. - of ** the use of the blowpipe in chemical analysis, and the examination of minerals." By J. J. Berzelius. Translated with notes and additions, by J. G. Children, FRS. &c. 381. Amon specimens, preservation of, 9. Anemometer, on a new one, 10. Apjohn, Dr. remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying the specific gra- vity of gases, 385. Arrow root, 391. Arseniate of iron, properties of, 209. — nickel, properties of, 209. Arsenious acid, specific gravity of, 392. Arseniuretted hydrogen gas, on the prepa- .ration of, 393. Astronomical observations, 53, 216, 275, -396, 406. ` Atomic weight of alumina, 161. B. Barometer and thermometer, state of, dur- P. the volcanic eruption in Iceland, 05. Bath, vegetable remains found in a quarry near, 35. Beaufoy, Col. astronomical, magnetical, and meteorological observations, 396. astronomical observations, 53, 916, 275, 406. experiments and observa- tions on the resistance of water, &c. 216. — — —--—— experiments and observa- tions on a clock with a wooden pendu- lum, 406. on a new anemometer, 10, meteorological ^ journal, . kept at Bushey Heath for 1821, 91. Berzelius, M. analysis of alum, 162. on the method of analyzing the ores of nickel, and on a new combi- nation of nickel with arsenic and sul- phur, 206, 437. : Bismuth, oxide of, specific gravity of, 392. Blackwall, Mr. John, meteorological ob- servations made at Crumpsall, 8T. Bodies, electrified, their relations to con- ducting power and temperature, !. Bonsdorff, analysis of two Finnish mine- rals, 102, Books, new scientific, notice of, T8, 156, 238, 311, 384, 471. Boracic acid, specific gravity of, 392. B. M. observations on Mr. Murray's paper on the decomposition of metallic salts by the magnet, 39. answer to Mr. Murray's reply, 384. Brande, W. T. Esq. analysis of black and green tea, 152. : i Brass, analysis of, 325. Breakwater, Plymouth, notice of, 76. Brighton, remarks on the geology of the cliffs at, 187. Bristol, list of freshwater and landshells occurring in the environs of, 376. : ” Buckland, Rev. W. account of antedilu- vian den of hyenas discovered in York- shire, 227. Bushey Heath, meteorological journal kept at 91. C. Cadmium, on the presence and proportion of, in the metallic sheet zinc of com- merce, 195. on the ores of, and means of detecting the presence of, in English ores of zinc, 123. 476 Cadmium, on the means of procuring in A ge wy 435. -sinter determined to be i u spar, 154. Calculus, human, large one, 399. pi nies, a University, remarks on Prof. "s statements respecting, 138. Capac, calorific, examination of the hy- esis of, 16. = s = of lime, ipa solutio of, 316 __ —specific gravity of, 392. ge ian of, 170, Carburet of nickel, on the formation of, 201. Ceylon, analysis of Dr. Davy’s account of, 63. . mineral productions of, 66—saline ` production of, 69. Children, J. G. Esq. notice of his paper ` on the alvine concretions found in the colon of a young man, 75. blowpipe experiments on re, 434. Chlorine and hydrogen, spontaneous ex- plosion of, 153. Clarke, Dr. on cadmium, and its ores, 123 —on the presence and proportion of _ cadmium in the metallic sheet zinc of commerce, 195. notice of his death, 314. — method of illuminating with gas, Cala, remarks on a peculiar imperfec- - tion of vision with regard to, 128. r Combustibles, simple non-metallic, their action on peroxide of hydrogen, AM. Comet, in Now Sut WA Wales, appearance of, 16. Composition of oxalic acid, 315. Concretion, alvine, analysis of, 16. Sapper protoxide of, specific gravity of, —— phosphate of, composition of, 182. quantity of, raised in England, quantity of, raised in sg hed ore, vareantel, analysis of, 81, ———— yellow, analysis of, 296. crystalline form. of, . 996. Cornwall, remarks on the temperature of the mines of, 381. poi tiglium, analysis of the seeds of, - meteorological observations ore, Cubebs, chemical examiration of, 202. Cumming, Prof, on a large human calcu- lus, 392. crystalline form of, - Index. D. pyra to C.'s observations on Mr, He- rapath's theory, 291, 357. Dalton, Mr. on the solution of carbonate . of lime, 316, Davy, Sir H. further researches on the magnetic phenomena produced by elec- _ tricity, 1.. his discourse on presentit the Copley medals to Mr. Herschel an Capt. Sabine, 12. on a deposit found in the waters at Lucca, 199, Dr. analysis of his account of the interior of Ceylon, and its inhabitants, with travels in that island, 63. Diaspore, on the, 433. Doors, sluice, on a new method of hang- . ing, 355. i mena x EP oes of, 146. E. Earth, on the mean density of, by Dr. Hutton, 141. Electricity, researches on t magnetic phenomena produced by, Electro-magnetism, histori sketch of, 107. Emmett, Rev. J. B. on the mathematical amc n of Ee an emical philosophy, 425. Euclid, Sim demonstration of a pro- position from, 105. Evaporation, theory of, 16. F, Fatsdsy, N Mr. sketch of his discoveries on electro-magnetism, 117. Feneuille and Capron, analysis of the roots of black hellebore, 393. Fire, method of kindling, in the Sandwich Islands, 155, - Fishes, migra discoveries respecting the o of hearing in, Forchibdsamae, Dr. account of a volcanic eruption in Iceland, 401. Foster, W , Mr. analysis of his treatise on the section of the Strata from Newcastle-upon- Tyne to Cross Fell, in Cumberland, with remarks on mineral veins, &c. Fox, Mr. R. W. remarks on Mr. Moyle's observations on the — of mines in Compile 381. G. Gas, olefiant, on, 87, Index. Gases, specific gravity of, remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying, 381. Gates, flood, on a new method of hanging, 355, Geology of the cliffs at Brighton, remarks on, 187. ` of the eastern part of Yorkshire, 315. — of the Isle of Wight, 329. Giddy, E. C. Esq. table of meteorological results in Cornwall, 175. Granite and syenite, on blocks of, imbed- ded in diluvium, 313. Gunpowder, manufacture of, in Ceylon, 80. H. Hanson, Mr. T. meteorological table kept at Manchester for 1821, 371. Hearing, organ of, in fishes, anatomical discoveries, respecting, 32h. -` ; Heat, latent examination of the hypothesis of, 16. -Heaton, Mr. meteorological journal kept at Lancaster, 289. . -Heavy spar, of Nutfield, analysis o£; 393. Hellebore, black, analysis of the roots of, 393. Herapath, J. Esq. tables of temperature, and a mathematical development of the causes and laws of the phenomena which have been adduced in support of the hypotheses of calorific capacity, latent heat, &c. 16—remarks on Dr. Thomson’s paper on the influence of humidity in modifying the specific gra- vity of g gases, 419, Mr. W. on cadmium, and the means of procuring it in quantity, 435. ‘Herschel, J. F. W. Esq. on the separation of iron from other metals, 95—notice of "his paper on the aberrations of com- pound lenses and object glasses, 146. Historical sketch >of electro-magnetism, EDT Home, Sir E. on the skeleton of the du- , 146. Hot springs of St; Michael; 315. -Howard, Mr. R. meteorological tables, by, 19, 189, 239, 319, 399, 413. -Human calculus, large one, 392. Hutton, Dr. on the mean density of the earth, 147. -Hysmas, account of an antediluvian a | of discovered, in Yorkshire, 221. Hydrogen, peroxide of, properties of, 41, — gas, azseniureited on the M paration of, 393. >g I. Ice, on the foctimtion of, on ein beds of rivers, 187. ) W WS LR 9 a | Marrat, Mr. 477 Ace, specific gravity of, 399. Iceland, account of volcanic eruption ' in, 401, J A Singalese, 71. Influence: of igs in modifying the specific gravity o pe 302. lsnypapto string improvements in, Journal, meteorological, kept at Bushey Heath for 1821, 91. - Lancas- iuter for 1821, 289, s ron, arseniate of, properties of, 209, —— meteoric, analyses of, 77. —— on the separation of, from other metals, 95. Isle of Wight, on the e geology of, 329, K, Keates, Mr. W. M. on the analysis of brass, 325. Fido, Dr. on the properties of napthaline, Kinfauns Castle, meteorological table kept ^ 211. L. poA MÀ ed and ‘splendidula, phosphorescence of, 77. Lead, oxide of, specific gravity of, 392, - — quantity “of, raised in England, 223. — sulphuto-tricarbonate of, 154. Leases, renewal of, rules for, 12, . Lepidolite, analysis of, 464—red, analysis of, 465... a Lime, carbonate, on the solution of, 316. of, specific gravity of, 392, + paratitla —— specific gravity of, 392. — sulphate of, anhydrous, specific gra- vity of, 392, . crystallized, specific gravity of, 392, 1 Lucca, on a deposit found in the waters at, 199. ! I La_unn, Mr. analysis of a native phosphate of copper from the Rhine, 178. M. Magnetism, communication of, to iron in different. positions, 92. Malacolit, analysis of, 104, I Manchester; wsiiypplogioal table. Rept at, 311. W. on a new ‘method of hanging sluice doors and faod gates, 355. j observations on. neutral - Series, AM. 478 Mathematical principles of chemical phi- losophy, on the, 425. M‘Keever, Dr. on the formation of ice in the beds of rivers, 187. Memoires de la Société de: Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genéve, 310. Mercury, peroxide of, specific gravity of, 392. sulphuret of, preparation of, 394. Metals found in Ceylon, 66. on the separation of iron from, 95. which decompose peroxide of hy- drogen, and absorb part of the oxygen, and disengage the remainder, 46. Meteorological journal kept at Piithey Heath, 91. Cornwall, 175. Helston, 190, i w — Kinfauns Castle, 217. LENT Vm di — — 989. - Manchester STI. Mill, Mr. on the formation of firii of nickel, 901. Miller, Mr. list of freshwater and land- shells occurring in the environs of Bris- tol, with observations, 316. Minerals, Finnish, analysis of, 102. Mines in Cori wat; phearvatona? on the temperature of, 308, 415. Moisture, influence of; in reet p tlie ^ specific gravity of gases, 302. remarks on the influence of, in : modifying the "o gravity of- gases, Motions produced by the difference on the specific gravity of bodies, 408. - Moyle, Mr. M. P. meteorological journal kept at Helston, Cornwall, for 1821, 190—on the temperature of mines in Cornwall, 308, 415, Murray, Mr. J. remarks on his on the decomposition of metallic silk ts by the magnet, 39—reply to B. M. Wn —answer to his reply, 384. N. Napthaline, properties of, 144. Nepheline, specific gravity of, 392. Neutral series, observations on, 417. New Malton, meteorological journal kept at, 100. Nicholl, Dr. remarks on a peculiar imper- m of vision with regard to colours, 28. Nickel, arseniate of, properties of, 209. ‘Oxides, . separating, 214. Index. rtm. carburet of, on the formation of, : 0 oxide of, (d salifiable bases, 91 N “ea comparative analysis of" the and excrement of, jm 0. Observations, astronomical. 53 16, 996 406. ri . , 53, 2 275, , meteorological, mad Crumpsall, 87, itr "jk Olefiant gas, on, 37. Ores of cadmium, Ornitho ithorynchus, on the spurs of, 155. Oxalic acid, composition of, 315. Oxide of bismuth, specific gravity of, 392. lead, specific gravity of, 392, metallic, their action on ‘peroxide ofh ydrogen, 48. . of nickel and cobalt, method of separating, 213. method of treating, npe) method of zinc, method of se- Peroxide of hydrogen, Phosphate of copper parating, 215. ` P. Patents, new, 157, 318, 394, 47 '. properties of, Al, mercury, inii gravity. of, 392, : Philips, Mr. R. analysis. of variegated . copper ore, — of yellow cop- per ore, 296. - Mr. W. on the crystalline form ofthe variegated copper ore, 82. ` on the ctystalline form -of yellow copper ore, 296. Philosophy, kamin: on the mathemati- cal principles of, 425. copper, composition of, 182. Phosphorescence of the lampyris hoctiluca and splendidula, notice respecting, 77. Places, mean, of 46 Greenwich stars, re- duced to Jan. 1, 1822, from the cata- logue, published i in the Nautical Alma- nac for 1823, 54. - Playfair, Prof. on his statements ing the University of Cambridge, 138. Plymouth breakwater, notice of, 16. Powell, Baden, Rev. account of some €x- periments on the «communication of nnp APT to iron in different positions, abe ii of copper, ‘apace gravity. of, @ 3 ¿w Quinine, preparation of, 151. Index. R. Register; meteorological, kept at New Malton, 100. Remains, vegetable found ina doomed near Bath, 35. Remarks on Mr. Murray’ 8 ‘paper on the decomposition of metallic salts by the magnet, 39. — on Dr. Thomson’s paper on the influence of humidity in modifying paf specific gravity of gases, 419. ` Reply to X. 29. tesearches on the meque phénomena produced by electricity, 1. Resistance of water, with remarks on the apparatus, 276. Results, meteorological, from diurnal ob- servations kept at the apartments of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall for 1821, 115. i . Rivers, formation of ice in the beds of, 187, Rockets, Congreve, on, 138. Rooms, ventilation of, 76. . Ruby, effect of heat on the colouring imat- ter of, 392.. S. Saltpetre, process of preparing, in Ceylon, 10 Salts, metallic, their decomposition by the magnet, remarks on, 39. Sandwich Islands, method of kindling fire in, 155. Schoolcraft, Mr. observations on his ac- count of the native copper on the south- . em shore of Lake Superior, &c. 56. Sedgwick, Prof. on the geology of the Isle of Wight, 329. Serrulas, M. on the preparation of arse- ‘niuretted hydrogen gas, 393. Shells, freshwater and land, list of, occur- ring in the environs of Bristol, 376. Shuckburgh, Sir G. remeasurement of the cube, cylinder, and sphere, used by him, 149. Silica, specific gravity of, 392. Silver, precipitation of, by chlorine, 314. Slide of Alpnach, account of, 393. Society, Geological, proceedings of, 230. Royal Geological, of Cornwall, proceedings of, 313. — analysis of the Transac- tions of, for 1821, Part II. 60, 143. proceedings of, 72, 151, 221, 312, 391, 458. Soda, carbonate, composition of, 170. nitrate of, native, 469. sulphate, composition of, 172. South, James, Esq. on the mean places of 40 Greenwich stars, reduced to Jan. 1, 479 1892, from the catalogue published in the Nautical Almanac for 1893, 54, Sowerby, Mr. G. B. on diaspore, 433. Specific gravity of bodies, on the motions. produced by the difference in, 408. gases, on the influence of moisture in modifying, 302, | remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying, 385. — s web, chemical examination, of, epi hot, of St. Michael, 315.0 ''' Steinhilit, analysis of, 102... Stockton, Mr. meteorological journal kept at New Malton, 100. Stromeyer, analysis of the heavy spar of Nutfield, 393. St. Michael, hot springs of, 315, Sulphate of. lime, specific gravity of, 392. ———— soda, composition of, 17 2. yore specific gravity of, guo. 8 T huret of mercury, preparation of, 394, Fe. ee metallic, their action on per- oxide of hydrogen, 48. Syenite and granite, on blocks of, imbed- ded in diluvium, 873. Sylvester, Mr. on the motions produced by the difference in the specific gravity of bodies, 408, T. Table, meteorological, kept at Kinfauns ` Castle, 217, Stratford, 19, 159, 239, 319, 399, 473. Taddei, Dr. preparation of sulphuret of mercury, 394. Taylor, John, Esq. observations on Mr. Schoolcraft’s account of the native cop- per on the southern shore of Lake Su- perior, &c. 56. on the smelting of tin ores in Cornwall and Devonshire, 449, | Tea, green, and black, analysis of, 152. _ Temperature of mines in Cornwall, re. marks on, 381. Thenard, M. on the properties of peroxide of hydrogen or oxygenated water, 41. Thomson, Dr. experiments to determine the weight of an atom of alumina, 161 —analysis of alum, 168—on certain saline solutions which may be cooled without depositing crystals, &c. 169— answer to the review of the sixth edition of his System of Chemistry in No. XXI. of the Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts, edited by Mr. Brande, 242—on the influence of humidity in modifying the specific gravity of gases, 3)9— correction of erratum in his paper * on certain Saline Solutions, &c." 462. Tin, quantity of, raised in England, 923, 480 Fannin, from Karingsbrakka, analy- sis of 46 Triangles, right angled, on, 422. i V. Vauquelin,. M. chemical examination of apih 3 Sorti of rooms, notice respecting, Vision, remarks on a peculiar im of, with regard to colours, 12 Volcanic eruption in Ieeland, account. of, ouo, M. ia ippupamton ek asinine, fection š W. Water, siñal, weight of a cubic inch of, — — gena - 4 IDEE MEL 2 mg citm > experiments upon, €. Baldwin, Printer, ——— New Bridge-street, London. ` i Index. Winch, Mr, on blocks of granite, &c. im- bedded in diluvium, 373—on the geo- wa eee ep wak Vena, -< Woods, Mr. H. account of some oo found in a quarry near Bath, d X. reply to, by Mr, Herapath, 29. Y. Yellow copper ore, pp its talline form of, 296, v Zine, sheet sasa on the presence and proportion of cadmium in, 195. t ie 42 ed A s L w REN ANS SEN ANM TOM NEN p MERE CER NN T SENE AREA ec ANS iy Cp CELE GINS ME CR L cen fe a : Fe kat. Y k } A at ida s x 25 8 CAAS A NN ge EE RT te en Spi a NRA aie ate ae ate Reais ihn ë bob An a »